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JOURNAL

OF THE

foval {ostituion of {ornwall

VODUM EXT:

OSHS.

—————

PRINTED BY LAKE AND LAKE, PRINCES STREET,
1895. (VSS 5 (6s po

il

sist af Presidents.

Rr. Hon. Viscount Exmoutnu, G.C.B., &c.

Sir Cuartes Lemon, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.,
M.P. ee se ee

W. Mawset Tweepy, Esq.

Cuartes BarHam, M.D... : we
Sir E. Smirke, Kt., M.A., Vice-Warden.
Auecustus Situ, F.G.S., M.P...

Sir E. Smirke, Kt., V.W.

J. Jore Rocers, M.A., M.P.

W. Jory Henwoop, F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Lorp St. LEvVAN

James Jaco, M.D., F.R.S.

Jowaruan Rasutercn, Esq. 50
W. Coprectanp Bortase, M.A., F.S.A. ..

Lorp Bisuop or Truro (Archb. Benson, D.D.)

Rr. Hon. Eart or Mount EpGcumBE,
isordslbieuta

A. Penparves Vivian, M.P.

Rev. W. Iaco, B.A.

Joun Tremayne, M.P. .. ae

Epwin Dunkin, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Sir Joun Mac ean, Kt., F.S.A., F.R.S.A.
Joun Davies Enys, F.G.S.

Genooor Wedulists:—Rev. W. Jaco, B.A.,

Je He Corrmins, Grose,

1818-30.

1830-57.
1857-59.
1859-61.
1861-63.
1863-65.
1865-67.
1867-69.
1869-71.
1871-73.
1873-75:
1875-77.
1877-79.
1879-81.

1881-83.
1883-85.
1885-87.
1887-89.
1889-91.
1891-93.
1893-95.

1890.
1893.

f “ar

CONTENTS. (Seriatim.)

List of Officers, Proprietors, Life and Subscribing Members
Spring Meeting (1891)

President’s Address (EH. Dunkin, F. R. 8. )

Annual Excursion (1891)

Annual Meeting (1891)

Balance Sheet

Meteorological Tables

Ancient Settlement on Trewortha ies by ‘ihe REy. S. Sete: Gourm
M.A., Part I (see also page 289). :

Sketch Sections of a Pit excavated on hes N.E. eae of Baniéleni,
Falmouth, by H. Fox, F.G.S., and N. WHiTney, F.R.Met.S. ...

Private Trade on the Falmouth Packets, by A. H. Norway
Cornubiana, by the Rev. S. Runpuez, M.A.

Excavations on the site of Launceston meee te OrHo B. PERE BR, Part it

St. Petroc’s Church, ge by the Rigut Rev. EDWARD
TROLLOPE, D. D., F.S.A.

Colour Changes in Gameae Stoats, pe aeeEe ‘Goma, F. R. Mier. S.

Little Petherick, otherwise St. Petroc Minor, by the Rry. the Riaut
Hon. SaMvEL Viscount Mo.Esworrs, M.A.

Origin and Development of Ore Deposits in the West of istneiiral 7
J. H. Contins, F.G.S., Part 2, continued from Vol. X, p. 109...

A Year’s Weather—A series of Monthly Letters to the Newspapers, by
HENRY CROWTHER, F'.R.M.S., Curator of the Museum ..

Obituary Notices of Messrs. WHITLEY, F.R.Met.S. & JeErrery, F. R. s.

Notes and Queries ..

Spring Meeting (1892)

President's Address (Sir John Maciean: FS. a )
Annual Meeting (1892)

Report of the Council

Balance Sheet

Meteorological Tables

Notes on Further Excavations on the Hite of Teneo Priory, by OTHO
. PETER, Part 2, see also p. 91

Historical Notes on the Parish, Manor and aes ee of Chace
Cornwall, by Str JoHN Macuean, F.S.A., &c., President és

ill

103

108

206
214.
219
220
235
235
244
245

249

251

iv CONTENTS.

PaGE

Magnetic Rocks of Cornwall, by T. CLARK ... 600 300 608 280

Ogam Stone* at Lewannick, by A. G. LANGDON a 285

Ancient Settlement, Trewortha, Der 2 (see p. ee Pyatt the Rae ‘s. Bape

GOULD, “MLA. 289

Cornish Landowners, 1256, by the Tes W. erecocn re ; 668 291

Pelagic Life} in and near Falmouth Harbour, by RUPERT TERRI 304
Origin and Development of Ore Deposits in the West of England, by

J. H. Contins, F.G.8., Part 5, see also p. 111.. 327

The Diamond Prospecting Core Drill, by StEPuEN Reveae, F. G. Suns 2s 378
A Year’s Weather (1892)—A series of Monthly Letters to the Newsbenets:

by H. Crowrnuer, F.R.Micr.S., Curator of the Museum 381

Obituary Notice of James Jaco, M.D., F.R.S. on ae ae 407

ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.

* Inscribed Stone at Lewannick :—

The Editors wish to state that the reading of this stone isin dispute. Mr.
Langdon (the discoverer of the Inscriptions) gives, in his illustrated account, the
Roman letters as INCENVI MEMORIA ;—but the Rev. W. Iago, on the
contrary, finds that the 3rd letter is G, the legend being therefore INGENVI
MEMORIA, and consequently commemorative of ‘‘ Ingenuus;’—(not of
“ Cenwus,’’ as the writer of the paper seems to suppose).

Mr. lago’s view has been arrived at, after careful and repeated inspections
of the stone, by Mr. Langdon’s invitation, and is supported by casts, rubbings,
and photographs. The occurrence of G in the Ogham (duplicate) version of the

legend, is also evidence in favour of Mr. Iago’s identification of the true name of
the deceased.

+ Pelagic Life: page 325, line 18, for quadruped, read mammal.

INDEX TO VOL. XI.

Adams, Mr. J. Couch, 23.

An Ancient Settlement on Trewortha
Marsh, by the Rey.S. Baring-CGould,
57, 289.

Annual Excursions, 20th August, 1891,
34; 30th August, 1892, 237.

Annual Meeting (73rd) Nov. 24th,
el 38. (74th) Nov. 29th, 1892,

Associates, List of, 7.

Astronomical Society, Royal, 18, 20.

Australia, 32.

Balance Sheets, 1891, 52; 1892, 244.

Basset, Mrs. and Mr. A. F., Society
entertained by, 238.

Baring-Gould, Rev. 8., An Ancient
Settlement on Trewortha Marsh,
57, 289.

Beche De la, Sir Henry, Geological
Survey, 12.

Bell, Mr., 74.

Bellocampo, Stephanus de, 294.

Bibliotheca Cornubiensis, 11, 223.

Bishops of Truro, 38, 39 ; Nottingham,
35, 97; Fred’ton, 235; Exeter,
94 ; London, 20.

Boase and Courtney, 223.

Boase, G. C., Collectanea Cornubien-
sia, 17.

Books purchased, 1891, 49.

Bosahan, 36.

Bourke, Sub. Dean, 9.

Bouvard, Tables of Uranus, 23.

British Association, Presidents of, 19.

Brixham Cavern, 11.

Bryant, Capt., Specimens of Minerals,
15

Calwoodley, Robert, 101; John, 202.

Carlyon, Mr. Edward Trewbody, 14. -

Carlyon, A. H., Specimens of Minerals,
15

Carmeneu, Robert de, 295.
Cathedral, Truro, 13.
Chaldeans, 33.

Christiana, Fiord, waters of, 27.

Chronogram, 86.

Church, Rev. G. L., Obit. Notice of, 13.

Clark, Thomas, 15, 17; Geological
and Mineralogical Specimens, 42 ;
Cornish Stoat, 104; Paper and
Sketch Map of Cornwall, shewing
locality of Magnetic Rocks, 280.

Classes, Science, 16, 44, 238.

Collectanea Cornubiensia, 17, 223.

Collins, J. R., Mayor of Bodmin, 36.

Collins, J. H., 9 ; On the Origin and
Development of Ore Deposits, 111,
327; Minerals from Mexico, 15,
Mineralized & Geological Memoirs.
17; Gold Medalist, p. ii.

Colour Changes in Cornish Stoats,
Henry Crowther, 103.

Cook, Capt., Transit of Venus in
1769, 25.

Comets, 29.

Core, Rev. J., 37.

Couch, Jonathan, 103.

Cornish, Archdeacon, 39, 219.

Cornish, Thomas, 12.

Cornish Crosses, A. G. Langdon, 214.

Cornish Chough in Heraldry, The, 88.

Cornish Landowners, 1266, William
Sincock, 291.

Cornubiana, No. 1, Rev. 8. Rundle,
84.

Corresponding Members, List of, 7.

Cotehele, 36.

Council, Royal Institution, 1, 44, 238.

Council, Reports of, 24th November,
1891, 39 ; 29th Nov., 1892, 235.

Cragoe, T. A., Obit. Notice, 235.

Crosses, 214 ; Cross, St. Rumon’s, 215.

Crowther, H., Museum,15; Winter
Classes, 16, 238 ; Colour changes in
Cornish Stoats, 103; A Year’s
Weather, 185, 381 ; Arrangements
in Museum, 237 ; Weather Letters,
237 ; List of British Lepidoptera,
Appendix ; Mummies, 217.

Cury Church, Dedication of, 216.

vi

Curgenven, Miss, Gift of Books, 235 ;
Legacy of £50, 236.

Daubuz, Mr. J. Claude, High Sheriff,
Presentation of Carved Oak from
Old St. Mary’s Church, 41, 219.

Deake, Capt., 80.

Dedication of Cury Church, 216.

Diamond Prospecting Core Drill,
Stephen Rogers, F.G.S., 378.

Dolcoath, Visit to, 237,

Donaldson, Canon, 219.

Dones, Henricus de, 302.

Drake, Dr. H. H., 51.

Draenas, Robertus de, 301.

“Duke of York,’ Falmouth Packet,

8l.

Dunkin, Edwin, F.RB.S., 9 ; President’s
Address, Spring Meeting, 1891, 10,
38 ; Obit. Notice of Dr. Jago, by,
407.

“ Harl Gower,” Falmouth Packet, 80.

Edwards, A. J., 15.

Kggecomb, Sir Piers, 224.

Encke, M., Distance of the Sun, 25.

Enodoe, St., Church of, 35.

Enys, John D, F.G.S., Books on
Natural Hist. and Geology of New
Zealand, 15; Reports of British
Association, 41; President, p. il.

Excavations on the site of Launceston
Priory, Otho B. Peter, 91; Note
on further Excavations, 249.

Exchanges with other Societies, 49.

Excursion, Annual 1891, 34.

Extracts from Parish Accounts, 87.

Falmouth Packets, Private Trade of,
73.

Flamane, Mare le, 298.

Fortescue, Col. C. D., Obit. Notice of,
13.

Foster, Dr. C. Le Neve, Royal College
of Science, 19.

Fox, Howard, 9; Specimens of
Minerals, 15; Rocks from the
Lizard, 42 ; Sections of a Pit near
Pendennis, 71, 72.

Frederickton, Bishop of, Obit. Notice,
235.

Geological Society, London, 12.

Gifts to the Library, 1891, 47, 241.

Gold Medal, 16; Award of, in 1890,
19; ditto, 1893, p. ii.

Gotha, 25.

Greenwich, Observations made at, 25.

Grenuile, Richard de, 302.

Gwarthendra, 35.

INDEX.

Hacumb, Jordanus de, 300.

Halley, Dr., 25.

Hall, Asaph, Prof., 28.

Hansen, Prof., Lunar Theory, 25.

Hamilton, Rev. W. A., 15.

Harding, Col., 232.

Harris, Walter H., Models of Dia-
monds, 14.

Harris, W., Specimens of Natural
History 15.

Harvey, Robert, Gift of Portrait of
Henry Rogers,the Helston Pewterer
14; Minerals from Bolivia, 42, 43.

Harvey, Charles, Obit. Notice, 40.

Henderson, Capt., the Rapid Traver-
ser, 239.

Henwood, Gold Medal, 16, 18.

Herodotus, 33.

Hector, Sir James, F.R.S., 15.

Hill, G. W., 25.

Honorary Members, List of, 7.

Hopkyn, William, 95.

Hope, Cape of Good, Telescopes at,
32; Image Linkebrew, 41.

Iago, Rev. W., B.A., Archzological
Discoveries, 16, 18, 35, 38 ; Ancient
Hammer, 51 ; his long membership,
239 ; Gold Medalist, 18. Inser. iv.

Ingenuus, Inscribed Stone, p. iv.

Inscribed Stone, Lewannick, 285, iv.

Jago, James, M.D., F.R.S.,Obit. Notice
407.

.| James, Jno. H., 43.

Jeffery, H. M., M.A., F.R.S., Vice-
President, 18; Obituary Notice of,
39, 208 ; Gift of Books, 236.

Jupiter, 25, 27.

Kensington, South, Royal College of
Science, 19.

Kew Observatory, 237.

King Henry VIII, 239.

Label List of British Lepidoptera,
Henry Crowther, Appendix.

Lat oratory, Chemical, 238.

Lacey, Bishop of Exeter, 94.

Lamorran Church, Plate of, 1579, 239.

Langdon, A. G., Ornaments on Cor-
nish Crosses, 16 ; Cornish Crosses,
214 ; Ogham Stone at Lewannick,
285. iv.

Launceston Priory, Excavations, 91,
249.

Legends in Concrete form, 85.

Lewannick, Inscribed Stone p. iv, 285

Library, Gifts to, 47.

Licinius, Emperor, 35.

INDEX.

Life Members, List of, 2.

Little Petherick,otherwise St. Petrock
Minor, The Rev. the Right Hon.
Samuel Viscount Molesworth, M.A.,
108.

Lockyer, Prof., 29.

London, Bishop of, Temple Observa-
tory, 20.

Lyme Regis, 20.

Maclean, Sir John, F.S.A., 38, 219,
President’s Address, Spring Meet-
ing, 1892, 220, 235; Historical
Notes on the Parish, Manor, and
Advowson of Otterham, Cornwall,
251; died March 5th, 1895.

Mars, 27.

Members, List of, 3.

Mesy, Roger de, 293.

Meteorological ‘Tables,
1892, 245.

Meteors, 29.

Michelson, M., Transits of Venus, 26.

Mitchell, F. W., 219.

Molesworth, the Rev., the Right Hon.

- Samuel Viscount, M.A., 34; Little
Petherick, otherwise St. Petrock,
Minor, 108.

Moor, Canon A. P., 35, 235.

Moor, Mrs. A. P., Eocene Fossils from
New Zealand, 42.

Mount Edgcumbe, Earl of, 36; Im-
provements in Museum, 237.

Museum, Admissions to, 41, 236.

Museum, Presents to,45; Mummies,217.

Nalder, F., 236.

Neptune, Discovery of, 23, 24.

Newcomb, Prof., 25.

Newcombe, William,
Librarian, 14.

New Zealand, 15.

Newton, Sir Isaac, Laws of Gravita-
tion, 24.

Negretti and Zambra, Instruments
from, 237.

“Nine Maidens,’ The Wendron, J.
Wills, 216.

Nix, A. P., Collection of Eggs, 43.

Norway, in 1851, 26.

Norway, Arthur Hamilton, Private
Trade on the Falmouth Packets, 9,
73.

Notes and Queries, 214.

Nottingham, Bishop of, 35, 97.

1891, 53;

Curator and

vil

Obituary Notices, Sir Warrington W.
Smyth, ll; Thomas Cornish, 12 ;
Rev. Canon Phillpotts, 13; Rev. G.
L. Church, 13; W.J. Rawlings, 13 ;
Col. Fortescue, 13 ; Right Hon. Sir
Montague E. Smith, 11,13; N.
Whitley, 39, 206; H. M. Jeffery,
39, 208; W. Sincock, 39 ; George
Williams, 39; Chas Harvey, 39 ;
Dr. Jago, 407; T. Crago and Bp.
Medley, 235.

Observatory, Washington, 25.

Officers, List of, 1, 44, 238.

Ogham Stone at Lewannick, An,
Arthur G. Langdon, 285. iv.

On the Origin and Development of
Ore Deposits in the West of England,
J. H. Collins, F.G.S., 111, 327, ii.

Osborne, James, Mineralogical Speci-
mens from Spain and Portugal, 15 ;
Minerals from Rio Tinto Mines, 42.

Otterham, Notes on the Parish of, Sir
John Maclean, F’.S.A., 251 ; Ancient
Roads and Tracks, 253; Table
showing the Devolution of the
Manor and Advowson, 255.

Paper and Sketch Map of Cornwall,
shewing Locality of Rocks possessing
power to deflect the Magnetic
Needle, Thomas Clark, 280.

Parkyn, Major, 34, 39 ; Minerals from
the Hartz and Italy, 42 ; Report of
Council, 235.

Pascoe, Saml., Specimens of Minerals,
15.

Pearce, Richard, Tin and Copper-ore
from Spain, 42, 43; British Butter-
flies and Birds’ Eggs, 14.

Pedestal found at Carminow, 84

Pelagic Life, Falmouth, Rupert
Vallentin, 304. and p. iv.

Pendennis, Square Pit near, 71.

Penzance, Freedom of, 12.

Penzance Natural History Society, 13.

Peter, Thurstan C., ‘Thesaurus
Ecclesiastus, 15.

Peter, Otho B., Excavations on the
Site of Launceston Priory, 91 ;
Note on further Excavations on
Launceston Priory, 249.

Phillpotts, Rev.Canon, Vice-President,
13.

Pinwill, Capt., Specimens of Minerals,
15.

Vill

Plan of Ancient Settlement, Tre-
wortha (Illustration) 56. ; Plan of
Principal House, Trewortha, 60 ;
Plan of Huts, Trewortha, 64.

Planets, Minor, 29.

Pombre, Henry, son of Henry de la,
295.

Portraits of Presidents, &c., 15.

Portugal, 15.

Presents to the Museum, 45, 239.
President’s Address (Edwin Dunkin,
E.R.S.) Spring Meeting, 1891, 10.
President’s Address(Sir John Maclean,
F.8.A.) Spring Meeting, 1892, 220.

Prehistoric Remains, 84, 253.

Prideaux Castle, 34.

Private Trade on the Falmouth
Packets, Arthur Hamilton Norway
73.

Prideaux, Nicholas, 35.

Prideaux-Brune, Mr., and the Honble.
Mrs., 35.

Proprietors, List of, 2.

Rawlings, W. J., Obituary of, 13.

Roberti, Willi, filius, 296.

Rogers, Stephen, F.G.S., Diamond
Prospecting Core Drill, 239, 378.
Rogers, Ralph Baron, Shells presented

by, 43, 236.

Rogers, Rev. C. F., Roads and Road-
making, 239.

Rousdon Observatory, 20.

Royal Society, 12, 18.

Royal Geological Society of Cornwall,
12.

Royal Institution of Cornwall,1,14,219

Rugby School, Observatory at, 20.

Rundle, Rev. 8 , Cornubiana, 84.

Rundle, Edmund, Electric Fishes, 9;
Indian Butterflies, 15.

Salisbury, Marquis, Chemical Society,
ile

b]

Saturn, 25, 27.

Sharp, Mrs., Shells presented by, 43,
236.

Sketch Section of Pit near Penden-
nis, Howard Fox and Nicholas
Whitley, 71.

Sincock, William, Mediaeval Cornish
History, 17 ; Obituary Notice, 39,
219 ; Cornish Landowners, 291.

Smith, Sir Montague E., 13 ; Obituary
Notice, 39.

INDEX.

Smyth, Sir Warrington W., F.R.S.,
Vice- President, 11, 19.

Spain, 15.

Spring Meetings, May 28th, 1891, 9;
May 31st, 1892, 219.

St. Thomas A. Beckett, 89.

St. Petroc’s Church, Padstow, Bishop
Trollope, 36, 97.

St. Rumon’s Cross, 215.

St. Michael Penkevil, 225.

St. Breock Church, 3+.

St. Petrock Minor Church, 34.

Subscribers to Illustration Fund, List

of, 6.

Sun, Total Eclipse of, 26.

Sudeley, John de, 292.

Sudeley, Ralph de, 292.

Table showing the Devolution of the
Manor and Advowson of Otterham,
255.

Tahiti, Venus Point, 25.

Tehidy, Entertainment at, 237.

Thomas, Capt. Josiah, Entertained by,
237.

Thomas, W.R., specimens of Uranium,
42.

Tomlinson, Rev. A. R., Silver Paten
exhibited by, 239.

Tracey, Thomas de, 292.

Tregellas, W. H., Truro Grammar
School, 17.

Trematon Castle, Shells from, 43, 236.

Tresillan, Ancient Lake at, 57.

Trevail, Silvanus, Presentation by, 51.

Trewortha, 57.

Trollope, Bp. of Nottingham, 35, 97.

Truro Grammar School, 17; Church,41

Tucker, Admiral, Shells from Collec-
tion of, 43.

Tweedy, Robert, 9.

United States Government, 15.

Uranus, Tables of, 23,

Vallentin, Rupert, Pelagic Life, Fal-
mouth, 304.

Valletorta, Philippus de, 301.

Venus, Transit of, 25.

Verrier, M. Le, 23.

Vivian, Pendarves, Society entertained
by, 36.

Waryn, Robert, 94.

Warlewast, William,
Exeter, 91.

Washington Observatory, 28.

Bishop of

INDEX. ix

Wendron, “Nine Maidens,” The, | Williams, George, 13; Obituary
J. Wills, 216. Notice of, 39, 40.

Whitley, Nicholas, Sketch Section of | Wills, J., The Wendron ‘‘ Nine

a Square Pit near the Beach on the
N.E. side of Pendennis Head, Fal-
mouth, 9, 71 ; Obituary Notice of,
11, 39, 206.

Whitley, H. Michell, Truro Grammar
School, 17.

Maidens,” 216.

Winn, Dr., 42.

Wise, Willielmus, 299,

Woodward’s Mollusca, 236.

Year’s Weather, A., Henry Crowther,
185, 381.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plan of Ancient Settlement at Trewortha
Plan of Principal House at Trewortha

Plan of Hut E., with elevation of different walls, and Born of Tee

Seats, &e., at Trewortha Settlement

Sketch Section of Excavations at Pendennis
Prehistoric Remains found at Godolphin, Cornwall
Plan of Foundations of the Ancient Priory at Lauaceston
Sections of Strata ...

Lh) 99 8
Otterham Church ...
Ground Plan and Hlevation of Gitemmann Chur oH
Sketch Map of Cornwall, shewing Magnetic Rocks
Ogam Stone, Lewannick* :
Plan of Huts, &c., at Ancient Seriement of Tees sth
Samples of Or anita on the Pottery found at Trewortha

* Concerning this Inscription, see also p. iv.

280
286
290

JOURNAL

OF THE

Anstitution af ffonwall

VOLUME XI.

Part t —April, 1892.

TRUROS:
PRINTED BY LAKE AND LAKE, PRINCES~ STREET.
1892.

pel
:

Contents.
List of Officers, Proprietors, Life & Subscribing Members
Spring Meeting (1891)
President’s Address
Annual Excursion (1891)
Annual Meeting (1891)
Balance Sheet ..

Meteorological Teraltes

Ancient Settlement on Trewortha Maral: ae the Rev. 8.

Baring Gould, M. A,

Sketch Sections of .a Pit excavated on the N.E. side of
Pendennis, Falmouth, by H. Fox, F. G.S., and N.
Whitley, F.R.Met.s. Se j ae

Private Trade on the Falmouth Packets, : ee Norway
Cornubiana, by the Rev. S. Rundle, M.A. .

Excavations on the site of Launceston Priory mee Otho B.
Peter :

St. Petroc’s Church, Padstow,—Address by the igh Rey.
Edward Trollope, D.D., F.S.A. :

Colour Changes in Cornish Stoats, per Henry Crowther,
.R.M.S. :

Little Petherick otherwise St. ee Minor, a the Rey.
the Right Hon. Samuel Viscount Molesworth, M.A.

Origin and Development of Ore Deposits in the West of
England, by J. H. Collins, F.G.8. ..

A Year’s Weather, a series of monthly letters to the News-
papers, by ae) Crowther, F.R.M.S., Curator of
the Institution . j

Obituary Notices

Notes and Queries

JOURNAL

OF THE

{oval {stitution of {fornwall

TRURO:
PRINTED BY LAKE AND LAKE, PRINCES STREET.
1892.

The Oouncil of the Royal Institution of Cornwall desire
that it should be distinctly understood that the Institution as a
body is not responsible for any statements or opinions expressed in
the Journal ; the Authors of the several communications being alone
answerable for the same.

Ropal Institution of Cornwall.

FOUNDED 1818.

Patron.
THE QUEEN.

Vice=Patron.
H.R.H. THE PRINCE oF WALES, DUKE OF CORNWALL, &ce-, &c.

Trustees.

Lorp ROBARTES.

Sir C. B. Graves-Saw1e, Bart.
Mr. F. G. Enys.
Cou. TREMAYNE.

COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1891-92.
President.
Siz JoHn Macuean, F.S.A.

Vicc=Prestdents.

Dr. Jago, F.R.S. | Ven. ARCHDEACON CornisH, M.A.
Rev.Canon Moor,'M.A., M.R.A.S. | Rev. W. Iago, B.A.
Mr. Epwin Dunkin, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Treasurer.
Mr. A. P. NIX, Truro.

Secretaries.
Mr. H. MicHeLt WHITLEY, F.G.S., Trevella, Eastbourne.

Mason PARKYN, F.G.S., Truro.

Otber Members of Council,

Mr. Joun D. Envs, F.G.S. j Mr.R.M. Pavt, M.A.,

Mr. Howarp Fox, F.G.S. Mr. THURSTAN C. PETER.

Mr. HAMILTON JAMES. Mr. Epmunp Runvziz, F.R.C.S.1.
Rev. A. H. Manan, M.A. Rev. A. R. Tomnrnson, M.A.
Mr. F. W. Micuett, C.H. | Mr. Ropert TwEepy.

Corresponding Secretary for East Cornwall.
Rev. W. [aco, B.A., Westheath, Bodmin.

Lditor of the Fournal.
Mr. H. Micuett Wairttey, F.G.S.

Librarian and Curator of Museum.
Mr. Henry CrowrTHer, F.R.M.S.. Royal Institution, Truro,

2 MEMBERS.

Proprietors.

Lord Churston,
Lord Robartes.
Sir Tf. D. Acland, Bart., M.P.

Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.

Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.

Sir C. B. Graves Sawle, Bart.

Sir R. R. Vyvyan, Bart., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Sir William Williams, Bart.

Sir S. T. Spry.

Baynard, William.

Boase, G. C.

Buller, J. H.

Carlyon, E. T.

Carpenter, John.

Chilcott, J. G.

Clyma, W. J.

Edwards, Miss.

Enys, J.S., F.G.S.

Fox, Charles.

Hox heir BeRsoe

Gregor, F. G.

Hartley, W. H. H.

Hawkins, J. H., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Hawkins, C. H. T.

Hendy, James.

Hogg, John, M.D.

Hogg, Mrs.

Iago, Rev. W., B.A.

Jenkins, Rev. D.

Leverton, Mrs.

Leverton-Spry, E. J.

Michell, Edward.

Michell, W.

Michell, Col.

Milford, J. J.

Nankivell, J. J.

Nankivell, J. T.

Paddon, W. H.

Parkyn, Major, F.G.S.
Potts, Miss.

Rogers, Francis.

Rogers, Rev. H. St. Aubyn.
Rogers, Rev. R. Bassett, B.A.
Rogers, Capt. R.A.
Rogers, Rev. W., M.A.
Rogers, Reginald.

Spry, Mrs.

Stokes, H. S.

Tweedy, Robert.

Tweedy, E. B.

Tweedy, W.

Tweedy, R. M.

Tweedy, Charles.

Tweedy, Miss.

Tweedy, Miss C.

Vivian, John Ennis.
Wightman, Lieut.-Col. George.
Williams, R. H., M.R.C.S.
Williams, B

Willyams, H.

Willyams, A. C.

Viscount Falmouth.

Lord Clinton.

Kite Rembers,

Fredericton, Right Rev. Lord
Bishop of, D.D... .
Parkyn, Major, F.G.S., , Hon. See.
Foster, C. Le Neve, D. Sp... F.G.S.
Fox, Robert i 56

Collins, J. R.

New Brunswick, Canada.
Truro.

Llandudno.

Falmouth.

Bodmin,

MEMBERS. 3
Subscribing Members.
His Royat Hicuness Tue Prince or Watzs ., £20.

SUBSCRIBERS OF TWO GUINEAS.
Falmouth, Col. The Right Hon. Tregothnan, Truro.

Viscount ..
Robartes, The Right Hon. Lord Lanhydrock, Bodmin.
Tremayne, J@aar. : Heligan, St. Austell.
Williams, John (Stewlese. ee Caerhays Castle, St. Austell.

SUBSCRIBERS OF ONE GUINEA.

Truro, the Lord Bishop of.. .. Lis Escop, Truro.

Adams, Josiah O., B.A. .. .. Cornwall Asylum, Bodmin.

Acland ews MIP; jy. ae 92. sprydoncote, Exeter:

BankAtee Ee rancismeey) sess) Prideaux.. Pan Station:

aGhert wIAeMhVays asa) obartes: Merrace, sururo!

Jbarmeie, JOM ~~ 65. so 05 co GhOp Iemaroya Siarseiy, Iabiey

Barrett, William ae ee lapel louse mlenunos

Basset, Arthur F. ee ee elehidy-sCambonne:

Bawden, J. H. .. I, Upper Lemon Villas, Truro.

Beauchamp, E. Beauchamp .. ‘Trevince, Scorrier.

Boase, G. C. 2s) ss 44 30, James Street, Buckingham

Gate, S.W.

Bolitho, Col. ee eee oltaiemrenzance:

Bolitho, W., Jun. -. «+ «. Ponsandane, Penzance.

Bonython, ii Langdon .. .. Adelaide, South Australia.

Bourke, Rev. Sub-Dean, M. Ae. The Rectory, Truro.

Bryant, ames. 7. . .. 6, Parkvedras Terrace, Truro.

Buck, Henry ‘ee Bey ee oman Mateos

Carlyon, F. H., M. Dy .. .. Lemon Street, Truro.

Carter, Rev. Sanem, M.A... .. The Avenue, Truro.

Caries, No Isl, o0 co oo co Jalil INe@aGl, Able INokrel, Ste,
John’s Wood, London,N.W.

@hivell} Wm. .. .: <. «=. Kimberley Villa, Truro

lyn NV em erence GC h Sta Nicholasi Streets diruno:

Collins, Digby .. .- .. .. Newton Ferrers, Callington.

Coode, Edward .. .. Polapit-Tamar, Launceston.

Cornwall, Ven. Archdeacon of, The Vicarage, Kenwyn.
J. R. Cornish, M.A.
Cornwall, Chancellor of Southleigh, Truro.

Diocese of, R. M. Paul, M.A.
Cozens, hyeks a. e . 19, King Street, Truro.

4

Daubuz, J. Claude

Dorrien-Smith, T. A...
Dormugton; Tl: Ey
Dunkin, Edwin, F.R.S.

Enys, F. G..
Enys, John D., raG. a,

Fenwick, Rev. oh, A., M.A.

Fisher, Herbert W.

Flint, Rev. S. R., M.A.
Fortescue, J. B..

Foster, Lewis ce
Foster, R., viene Seeete
Fox, Howard, F.G.S...
Freeman, W. G...
Furniss, Mrs. J. C.
Gilbert, C. Davies
Gill, W. N..

Graves-Sawle, ge (OP B. Bart

Gregory, Charles. .

Griffin, R. Palk, M.R.C.S.
Grylls, W. M. ..

Gould, Rev. S. Baring, Ms A.
Hancock, James

Harris, Walter H. aD
Harvey, Kev. Canon, M. Ac
Harvey, Robert :
Harvey, J. Boyd..
Hawken, Theodore

Heard, E. G. ae

Helm, G. H., M.D.
Hodgkin, Thos.

Hodgkin, Rev. G. cee, M.A.

Hutt, Rev. R. G.

llago) Reve Wi, Baas 7.
Jago, James, M. Dy SE ORY a
James, Hamilton ;
James, John

Johnstone, Capt., R. N., Governor

of H.M. Nawal Beco
King, F., M.R.C.S.
King, T., M.A.

MEMBERS.

Killiow, Truro.

Tresco Abbey, Isles of Scilly.

Colchester Villas, Truro.

Kenwyn, K idbrooke Park Road,
Blackheath, S.E.

Enys, Penryn.

Enys, Penryn.

The Vicarage, Bodmin.

Tower Hill House, Gomshall,
Guildford.

Nansawsan, Ladock.

Boconnoc, Lostwithiel.

The Coombe, Liskeard.

Lanwithan, Lostwithiel.

Falmouth.

Penryn.

Lemon House, Truro.

Trelissick, ‘Truro.

Comprigney, Truro.

Penrice, St. Austell.

Chiswell House, Finsbury
Pavement, London, E.C.

Padstow.

Falmouth.

Lew Trenchard, N. Devon.

Carclew Street, Truro.

12, Kensington Gore, London.

The Sanctuary, Probus.

1, Palace Gate, J.ondon, W.

Iquique, Chile.

4, Paul’s Terrace, Truro.

Boscawen Street, Truro.

Marazion.

Banwell Dene, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

Week St. Mary, Stratton.

Helland, Bodmin.

Westheath, Bodmin.

Robartes Terrace, Truro.

Lemon Street, Truro.

Colchester Villas, Truro.

Bodmin.

75, Lemon Street, Truro.
Falmouth.

MEMBERS. 5

Lach-Szyrma, Rev. W. S., M.A.
Lake, T. H. i setae: :
Laverton, Arthur.
Leverton- SPY. E. Wee
Malan, Rev. A. H.,
Marshall, F..
Martyn, Henry J.
Michell, F. W., C.E.
Moor, Kev. ‘Canton.
M.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
Moore, Rev. Canen M.A. ;
Mount Edgcumbe, The Right
Hon. the Earl of
Nalder, F. ae
Nix, Arthur P. :
Norway, A. Se aeilion

M.A..

ee

Osborne, J., C.E., F.G.S.

Pascoe, Samuel ates

Rashleigh, Jonathan Ss

Paull, Mrs. J. R.

Pearce, R., F.G.5., H. B. M. Wiss.
Genel

Pearce, Gilbert B.

Pease, Wm..

Renda ares, W. Cole

Peter, Thurstan C.

Pinwill, Capt.

Pole-Carew, Col. cea eae

Pooley, W. Mason, M.D. ..

Prideaux- Brune, C. G.

Rodd, Francis R. 5

INO INC, Ravi, WiaAr ate

IMOGerS, Capt. eA s 6 el.

Rogers, Joseph :

Rogers, Ralph Baron ..
Wogets, Nev. Co Ry 7.
Rogers, Stephen, F.G.S. ..
Rundle, Edmund, F.R.C.S.I.

Rundle, Rev. S., M.A.
Salmon, A.G., M.D.

Smith, Col. George J.

St. Levan, The Rt. Hon. Ward)

St. Germans, The Right Hon.

the Earl of

Barking Side Vicarage, Ilford.
Moresk, Truro.

Bella Vista, Truro.

St. Keverne, Helston.
Altarnon Sanctuary, Launceston
6, Strangway’s Terrace, ‘Truro.
Seaward Villa, Newquay.
Redruth.

The Vicarage, St. Clements.

Treneglos, Kenwyn.
Mount Edgcumbe, Devonport.

Falmouth.

Mount Charles, Truro.

16, Somerset Road, Ealing,
London.

5, Clifton Villas, Truro.

Pentreve, Truro.

Menabilly, Par Station.

Bosvige, Truro.

Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.

Marazion.

Lostwithiel.

Pendarves, Camborne.

Redruth.

Trehane, Probus.

Antony House, Devonport.

Falmouth.

Prideaux Place, Padstow.

Trebartha Hall, Launceston.

Lanteglos, Camelford.

Penrose, Helston.

Glenserth, Strangway’s Terrace,
Truro.

Penalverne, Falmouth.

St. Sithney, Helston.

14, Ferristown, Truro.

Royal Cornwall Infirmary,
Truro.

Godolphin Vicarage, Helston.

Bodmin.

Treliske, Truro.

St. Michael’s Mount, Marazion.

Port Eliot, St. Germans.

6 MEMBERS. '
‘

Sharp, Edward, M.R. Case
Smith, Lady Protheroe
Smith, W. Bickford, M.P..
Shamita, Jfe jlo

Stephens, Rev. ite & M. Ny
Swift, W. Mees te ;
Tangye, George ..

Tangye, Richard. .
Thomas, John

Thomas, John

siivomnassy WV.

Tomlinson, Rev. A. R., M.A. ..

Trelawny, Sir W. L. S., Bart. ..
Tremayne, Col.

Tremenheere, H. Seymour, ic! TBs

M.A., F.G.S. mee
Trevail, SAikracnwss. IME Scan
Tripp, C. Upton, M.A.

Tweedy, Robert .. .
Vinter, H.W., M.A., F.G.S.
Vivian, Sir Hussey, Bart., M.P.

Vivian, Arthur Penemess F.G.S.

Vyvyan, Rev. Sir ee Bart.
Wade, W. Cecil .

Whitaker, F. O.

Whitley, H. iversielll E. G. S.
Whitehouse, William ak
Williams, Mrs. ..
Williams, Mrs. M. ial.
Williams, Michael
Williams, S. ;
Wronda, Po oc

Wiinsch, E. A., F. ic S.

Subscribers to Zllustration Fund.

Boase, G. C.
Coode, E. .
Gilbert, C. Dares

18, Lemon Street, Truro.

Tremorvah, Truro.

Trevarno, Helston.

Hillside Villa, Truro.

The Rectory, St. Erme.

23, Lemon Street, Truro.

Birmingham.

Glendorgal. Newquay.

Campfield Villa, Truro.

25, Kensington Palace Man-
sions, London, W.

Uranium Mines, Grampound
Road.

St. Michael Penkivel, Probus.

Trelawne, Duloe, Cornwall.

Carclew, Perran-ar-worthal.

43, Thurloe Square, South
Kensington, London.

80, Lemon Street, Truro.

The Grove, Addlestone, near
Weybridge, Surrey.

Truro.

Truro College, Truro.

Singleton, Swansea.

Bosahan, Helston.

Trelowarren, Helston.

Plymouth.

Strangway’s Terrace, Truro.

Trevella, Eastbourne.

Princes Street, Truro.

Scorrier House, Scorrier.

Pencalenick, Truro.

Gnaton Hall, Yealmpton.

20, Frances Street, Truro.

Lemon Street, Truro.

Carharrack, Scorrier.

London.
Polapit-Tamar, Launceston.
Trelissick, Truro.

MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATIES.

Pole-Carew, Col..

Harvey, Robert .

Jago, James, M.D., F. R. S
Rashleigh, Jonathan wk
St. Levan, Lord .

Tremenheere, H. Seymour, C. B.

Antony, Maker.

1, Palace Gate, London, W.
Robartes Terrace, ‘Truro.
Menabilly, Par Station.

St. Michael’s Mount.

43, Thurloe Square, London.

Honorary Nembers

Babington, Charles Cardale, M.A.,

F.R.S.
Collins, J. H., F.G.S.

Dickenson, Joseph, F.G.S.
Maclean, Sir John, F.S.A.
Rowe, J. Brooking, F.L.S.

Cambridge.

13, Basinghall Street, London,
E.C

Manchester.

Glasbury House, Clifton.
Castle Barbican, Plympton.

Corresyonding Hlembers.

Dunkin, E. H. W.
Pattison. S- Re. EuG.S.

Tregellas, W. H.

5, Lherapia Road, Honor Oak,
S.E

ie Lindhurst Road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.

Morlah Lodge, Tregunter Road,
Brompton, London.

Worth, R. N., F.G.S. Plymouth.
Assorintes,
Cole, Thomas, C.E. Victoria Street, London.
mare Nee Liskeard.
Lobb, Thomas Devoran.
Jamies) |=) Et Truro Vean Terrace, Truro.

Michell, S. H. ..
Pearce, R., F.G.S.
Thomas, Josiah .
Williams, R. H., EGS.

Swansea.

Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.
Tregenna, Camborne.
Cuddra, St. Austell.

The Honorary Secretaries would be pleased if the Members woild notify errors or alterations
in the list.

- The MUSEUM is open to Members and their families every day
except Sundays, between the hours of Ten and Four o’clock during the
winter, and between Ten and Five o’clock in the summer.

The Museum is open to the public, free of charge, on WEDNESDAYS,
from Eleven until Four. On other days, an admission fee of sixpence is
required.

A Subscription of One Guinea entitles the Subscriber to all the
publications issued by the Institution, to admission to the Museum, for
himself and family on every day in the week (except Sundays), and to the
Meetings of the Society ; and to ten transferable Tickets of admission to
the Museum whenever open.

;
f
fh
Me
:
*
he
ig

ees

Koval Institution of Cornwall.

SPRING MEETING.

The Spring Meeting was held on May 28th, 1891, at the
Rooms of the Institution.

The Chair was taken by the President, Mr. E. Dunkin,
F.R.S., who delivered an Address on Mathematical Astronomy.
On the motion of Mr. Tweedy, seconded by Sub-Dean Bourke,
a vote of thanks to the President, for his address, was carried
_ by acclamation.

The following papers were then read :—

“Private Trade on the Falmouth Packets.”—Mr. A. H.
Norway.

‘‘ Electric Fishes.’”-—Mr. E. Rundle, F.R.C.S.I.

“Thirteen Cornish Landowners. Temp. Henry III.”’—Mr.
W. Sincock.

“Origin and Development of Ore deposits.”—Mr. J. H.
Collins, F.G.S.

‘Note on a Sand-pit on the north east side of Pendennis
Head,’”’—by the late Mr. N. Whitley, F.R.Met.8. This paper
was supplemented by a few remarks from Mr. Howard Fox,
F.G.S., who said it was the result of probably the last of the
late Mr. Whitley’s geological excursions.

On the motion of Canon Moore, seconded by Mr. Michell, a
hearty vote of thanks was passed to the Authors of papers, and
to the Donors to the Museum and Library.

10

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT.
EDWIN DUNKIN, F.B.S.,
Past-President of the Royal Astronomical Society.

On the last occasion when I had the pleasure of addressing
you, I selected for our consideration a few of the more important
researches in the physics of astronomy, a subject which has
been cultivated with remarkable success during the last thirty
years or more. At the same time I was able to draw your
attention to some of the marvellous deductions derived from the
spectroscopic analysis of solar and stellar light. I also pointed
out that for this great work we are chiefly indebted to the
energy and perseverance of a few devoted men of science,
whose original and refined investigations in astronomical physics
have assisted to build up the well-considered theories, on which
all our present knowledge of the physical composition and
distribution of the heavenly bodies is based. We also consid-
ered some of the wonderful astronomical discoveries made from
the photographic delineation of the starry heavens by means of
the telescopic camera, and I was able to give you some slight
idea of the illimitable extent of the universe. Although there
is no more interesting section of astronomical research than that
represented by what is frequently referred to as the “new
astronomy ;” it is not my intention to continue the subjects of
spectrum analysis and stellar photography, as, on the present
occasion, I am anxious to offer a few remarks on some of the
principal advances made in the “ old astronomy,” especially in
relation to the physical features and movements of the different
members of the solar system. Before, however, entering on
the consideration of these important subjects, it is only proper
that I should refer briefly to some matters illustrating the
progress of the Institution during the past year, for some of the
details of which I am again indebted to the kindness of my
friend, our excellent Honorary Secretary.

At our Spring Meetings the first duty of the President is
usually a melancholy one, as his thoughts are naturally directed
to the memory of those who until recently were included among

Ae

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 11

our members, but now surviving only in their works. I regret
to notice that the names of several members of long standing
have disappeared, by death, from the roll of the Institution,
most of whom have been much interested in its proceedings, and
in scientific pursuits generally. Many of these losses by death
during the past year have been already recorded by the Council
in their last Annual Report. It is appropriate, however, to
repeat their names here, and to add a few personal remarks to
what has been there given.

By the death of Mr. Nicholas Whitley, C.E., a Member of
of the Council, and a former Honorary Secretary and Vice-
President, the Institution has lost one of its oldest supporters,
who always took a deep and intelligent interest in its affairs.
He was officially connected with the management of the Insti-
tution for the long period of thirty-two years, and from 1859 to
1879 discharged the duties of Honorary Secretary with great
efficiency. Though much occupied with the details of his
profession, Mr. Whitley found time to prepare many interesting
and valuable papers on geological, archeological, meteorological,
and agricultural subjects, the first being a contribution in 1840
to the Reports of this Institution. The titles of about fifty
papers are given in the ‘“ Bibliotheca Cornubiensis.”’ Latterly,
he turned his attention to the critical study of the probable
origin of the flint implements discovered in the Brixham Cavern
and other places, in relation to their evidence of the antiquity
of man. He was also much interested in the enquiry on the
influence of climate on agriculture, as shown by the sensible
remarks contained in his papers published in the Journal of the
Royal Agricultural and other Societies. By the death of Mr.
Whitley, local science generally has been deprived of a most
devoted supporter. Though he had arrived at a good old age,
he was a regular attendant at the meetings of this Institution,
at which his well-known face will be sadly missed during many
years to come. Mr. Whitley was a Fellow of the Royal
Meteorological Society.

Geological and mineralogical science has lost one of its
highest authorities by the death of Sir Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., a Vice-President of the Institution, who suddenly and
peacefully passed away in his study on June 19, 1890, in the

12 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

full plenitude of his powers. In early life, through the
influence of Sir Henry De la Beche, he was attached to the
Geological Survey as Mining Geologist, and in this capacity was
the author of some valuable memoirs, especially on certain
mining districts in Wales and Ireland. In 1851, when the
School of Mines was established in Jermyn Street, he was
appointed lecturer on mining and mineralogy ; and the Professor-
ship of mining in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington,
he retained to the day of his death. Sir Warington Smyth held
for a long period the important office of Inspector of the mineral
property of the Duchy of Cornwall, and also that of Chief
Mineral Inspector to the Crown, through which he became
intimately connected with the mining interest in Cornwall.
During a portion of each year, he usually resided at Marazion,
“where he was much respected, both in that town and at Penzance ;
so much so that he was one of the four gentlemen selected by
the Town Council of Penzance as the first to have their names
inscribed on the roll of Freemen of that borough. He was for
more than thirty years a member of the council of the Geological
Society of London, having filled successively the offices of
Secretary, President, and Foreign Secretary. He also had a
seat on the council of the Royal Society on several occasions,
and was President of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.
He had an intimate acquaintance with the geology and miner-
alogy of the western counties, in which he took much interest,
as shown in his papers on Cornish mining. He also rendered
valuable services to the mining community in connection with
various International Exhibitions, especially those of 1851 and
1862; but his most important labours extraneous to his ordinary
official work, were performed between 1879 and 1886 as Chairman
of the Reyal Commission on Accidents in Mines, and it is
generally understood that he was the principal author of the
report. By the death of this distinguished mineralogist, the
nation has been deprived of one of its most active workers in
science, and it will be difficult to replace him in the particular
branches which he had made especially his own.

Local science has sustained a severe loss by the death of
Mr. Thomas Cornish, of Penzance, a gentleman of considerable
attainments in natural history, and a contributor to our Journal,

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 13

“He was a most active public officer, and at the time of his death
held numerous appointments in Penzance and neighbourhood.
He was formerly President of the Penzance Natural History
and Antiquarian Society, and afterwards a Vice-President, and
his genial presence at the meetings always afforded pleasure to
the members. His death has been much regretted, and by it a
great loss has fallen upon the societies of West Cornwall.

Of the many other members of the Institution who have
passed away during the past year, it is only proper that I should
refer briefly to the great loss the Institution has sustained by
the deaths of so many old and long tried members, such as the
Rey. Canon Philpotts, of Porthgwidden, a former Vice-President,
who will be remembered for the active interest he took in the
building of Truro Cathedral, and also for his personal interest
in the welfare and prosperity of our Institution; the Rev. G. L.
Church, a frequent attendant at our meetings and excursions ;
Mr. W. J. Rawlings, of Hayle, who assisted the Institution in
many ways, particularly at the time when the Mining School
was carried on at Truro; and Col. C. D. Fortescue, of Boconnoe,
late of the Coldstream Guards, who after the hardships and
fatigues endured during the late Egyptian campaign, retired
from the service, and passed the greater part of his time on his
Cornish estate, where he was much esteemed as a good landlord
and a kind friend. The family of Boconnoc have been liberal
benefactors to the Institution for more than half a century.

Another loss to the Institution has been caused by the
recent death of the Right Hon. Sir Montague E. Smith, who
joined us as a subscribing member so long ago as 1849, on his
first visit to Truro as a candidate for parliamentary honours.
Sir Montague was the brother of our late member, Sir Philip
Protheroe Smith, and was thus identified with the interests of
this city to the time of his death. He represented Truro in the
House of Commons from 1859 to 1865, which he vacated on his
elevation to the Bench. Sir Montague was distinguished as a
Judge, first of the Court of Common Pleas, and afterwards of
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. I also regret the
death of Mr. George Williams, of Scorrier, who had only
recently joined the Institution. I have been informed that had
he been spared, it was expected that he would have taken a

14 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

considerable personal interest in its work. The recent death of
Mr. Edward Trewbody Carlyon has removed a prominent member
of a family so well-known in Cornwall, which has been associated
with the Royal Institution from its foundation in 1818.

In addition to the above, the late curator, Mr. William
Newcombe, has also passed away at the ripe age of eighty-five.
He faithfully carried out the wishes of the Council during the
long period of thirty-five years, as the curator in personal charge
of the Library and Museum. I have had, on several occasions,
personal proofs of his kindness and civility, and I am sure that,
on his retirement in 1888, he had earned the highest esteem and
sympathies of those with whom he had so long been connected.
Adopting the expression of the Council in their Annual Report,
I may confidently repeat that ‘to trace the incidents which
have occurred during his term of office, would be to give an
epitome of the progress of the Institution, he and it having
had, as it were, one existence for the third part of a century.”

It is very gratifying to be able again this year to speak of
the continued progress of the Royal Institution. The public
has shown no decrease of interest in the Museum, and the many
valued additions, both to it and the library made since I last
addressed you, show that our friends in almost every part of the
world are still ready to help us. Our member, Mr. Robert
Harvey, has again liberally assisted in carrying out the objects
of the Institution. Besides a donation of ten guineas, he has
presented a rare portrait of the celebrated Henry Rogers, the
Helston Pewterer. Mr. Richard Pearce, of Denver, U.S., has
presented a further donation of five guineas, and also a collection
of British butterflies and bird’s eggs, a most valuable addition
which will materially assist in completing the collections of
objects of this kind already in the Museum. Mr. Walter H.
Harris, late Sheriff of London, is the donor of a beautiful set
of models of diamonds, gems, and crystallographic forms of
minerals, which have been placed in the handsome case presented
by him in the spring of last year.

The Museum has also been enriched by a considerable
number of valuable contributions from various other friends of
the Institution. I have only time to refer to a few of these

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 15

presents, but they will be described in full detail in the next
Annual Report of the Council. Mr. John D. Enys has, through
his influence with Sir James Hector, F.R.S., the Director of the
Colonial Museum, New Zealand, procured for us a most
valuable collection of books dealing with the natural history and
geology of that interesting colony. Mr. James Osborne has
sent us a series of mineralogical specimens, illustrating the
occurrence of ores in the mines of Spain and Portugal. Mr. J.
H. Collins has contributed a small collection of minerals from
the mines of Mexico. Mr. KE. Rundle, a member of Council, has
generously given two cases of Indian butterflies. Interesting
specimens of minerals have been presented by Captain Pinwill,
Mr. 8. Pascoe, Mr. A. H. Carlyon, Captain Bryant, and Mr.
Howard Fox, a member of Council; while specimens in other
sections of natural history have been contributed by the Rev.
W.A. Hamilton, Mr. A. J. Edwards, Mr. W. Harris, Mr. Brown,
Mr. T. Clark, and others. Mr. Thurstan C. Peter has presented
to the library a copy of ‘‘ Thesaurus Kcclesiasticus,”’ or a survey
of the diocese of Exeter, which is now a rare book. The
United States Government has also been very liberal in its gifts
of those valued contributions which are submitted to it by the
superintending officers of its Geological and Geographical
Surveys.

The members will be pleased to know that the series of
portraits of gentlemen who have filled the office of President of
the Royal Institution of Cornwall, some of which have been
wanting, will shortly be completed. In addition to these, several
portraits of members who are taking an active interest in the
progress of the Institution, have also been presented.

The Curator, Mr. Henry Crowther, has continued the good
work referred to in my address this time last year, evidences of
which may be found in all parts of the Museum ; the re-arrange-
ment of the minerals is still occupying his attention, and it is
hoped that, during the present summer, the Cornish section will
be completed. Much of the Curator’s attention will be directed to
the classification of the Indian and British butterflies which the
Institution has recently acquired. This classified arrangement
will be another step towards bringing the zoological collections
together.

16 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

During the winter, classes have been established by Mr.
Crowther, which have been carried on most successfully in the
rooms of the Institution, with the approval of the Council. The
subjects taken were botany, geology, mineralogy, and hygiene.
The Council would be willing to give their countenance to a
further development in this dir ection.

Parts 36 and 37, forming Vol. X, of the Journal, hare both
been issued since the last spring meeting. I must congratulate
the members on the publication of this important volume. The
subject matter contained in it may favourably be compared with
that in former volumes, or in the ‘‘ Proceedings”’ of most of the
London Societies. This general excellence of the papers may
be partly due to the effect of the late award of the Henwood
Gold Medal, and partly to a growing interest in science, and in
the progress of the Institution. Perhaps without the prospect
of an early award, we might not have had some of those
important memoirs which have assisted in giving a high character
to the volume; but there are many other contributions, not
included in the terms of the award, which are also of great local
interest. Without entering into any detailed analysis of the
separate papers—for I have no doubt you have already done
this for yourselves—I cannot refrain from making a special
reference to the memoirs of Mr. A. G. Langdon and the Rev.
W. Iago, and more briefly to one or two others. It gives me
much pleasure in stating, and I do so without any hesitation,
that, in my opinion, Mr. Langdon’s memoir on ‘“‘ The Ornament
on the Early Crosses of Cornwall,” is a most valuable contribu-
tion to Cornish archzeology, not only for its originality, but also
for the careful classification of the various patterns inscribed on
crosses distributed over the county. The subject as treated by
Mr. Langdon possesses a charm which makes the paper exceed-
ingly readable and attractive; while it is clear that its preparation
must have cost the author much original research and personal
application. The memoir on ‘‘Some Recent Archeological
Discoveries in Cornwall,” by the Rev. W. Iago, is also one of
high merit, showing, as we might expect, the author’s acquaint-
ance with Cornish archeology, which probably can hardly be
equalled at the present time. It embodies much new and
valuable information, and exhibits originality and depth of

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 17

research. If we were to obliterate the name of the author from
the title, it would not be difficult to discern that this memoir is
the work of a matured and accomplished archzeologist—one
who has an intimate acquaintance with the antiquities he
describes, and the historical bearing they have on the early
period to which they may be referred. _

Among the other papers contained in Vol X., I ought to
draw your attention briefly to the elaborate and important
mineralogical and geological memoirs by Mr. J. H. Collins and
Mr. Thomas Clark; the three papers on Medizeval Cornish History
by Mr. W. Sincock; and to many of the interesting notes on
Local Topography which have been prepared with considerable
care and attention. Mr. W. H. Tregellas’s paper on ‘The
Truro Grammar School,” illustrated by two excellent sketches of
the exterior and interior of the school by Mr. H. Michell
Whitley, will interest many of our older members.

Most of the members, I am sure, will cordially join me in
congratulating Mr. G. C. Boase on the publication of his
‘“Collectanea Cornubiensia,’’ a comprehensive and valuable
contribution to the personal and topographical history of the
county. The vast number of facts included in the text have
been accumulating in the hands of Mr. Boase during several
years, and the primary object of their publication is the
preservation for the use of future writers on Cornwall of all
this information, most of which might otherwise have been lost
and difficult to ascertain. The numerous items given on matters
relating to the county may be conceived, when we consider that
the index alone consists of 304 columns, with about 14,365
entries. Some of the family pedigrees are worked out with
considerable detail, which must have entailed an enormous
labour on the author. These are very valuable in many ways,
and I have already derived much interesting information concern-
ing many of our old Cornish families. I have also consulted the
topographical section with great advantage, in which a mass of
local facts may be found relating to most of the parishes and
towns in Cornwall. Though ina compilation of such magnitude,
numerous unavoidable errors and many entries of little import-
ance may naturally be found, yet every true Cornishman must hail
the appearance of the ‘‘Collectanea Cornubiensia,” which, taken

18 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

in conjunction with the ‘Bibliotheca Cornubiensis,’’ may be

considered as one of the most important contributions to the
literature of Cornwall published in recent years.

It gave me much pleasure that I was able to preside over
the special meeting of the Council held on June 16, 1890, at
which the award of the first Henwood Gold Medal was made
to the Rev. William Iago, B.A., a Past-President of this
Institution, for his excellent memoir on ‘“‘ Recent Archeological
Discoveries in Cornwall.” I much regret, however, that I was
unable to be present at the annual meeting in November, at
which the formal presentation was made, but it was very
gratifying to me that my esteemed friend, Mr. H. M. Jeffery,
M.A., F.R.S., occupied the chair on that occasion, and that his
graceful and appropriate remarks sufficiently explained the
grounds which guided the Council in selecting the memoir of
Mr. Iago as the most important paper published in the Journal
during the preceding three years.

I have had considerable experience as a member of the
Councils of the Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society,
in assisting in the annual awards of various gold medals for
scientific work, and I can truly say that, on these occasions, the
most careful scrutiny of the claims of the different nominees is
always made before the final decision. Though it is often found
that the discrimination between the respective merits of important
researches is a difficult matter, and sometimes decided only by a
numerical majority, yet I have never known the selection of the
medallist questioned, either by the minority in the Council, or
by the Fellows of the Society, by whom the judgment of the
Council is always received with respect. I can assure you that,
in the case of the award of the Henwood Gold Medal, a similar
careful consideration was given by your Council to the respective
merits of each qualified memoir. I concur most cordially with
all that Mr. Jeffery has said on the subject, and I may with
advantage repeat here his words, that ‘‘the most scrupulous care
was taken on weighing the comparative excellencies of the
authors, who have written with power in the Journal on widely
differing subjects during the preceding three years. In order to
mature their own judgment in the last resort, the Council had
adopted the practice of eminent contemporary societies in

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 19

submitting each remarkable paper to two qualified referees,
eminent in their several departments of study.” In congratulating
our first Henwood Gold Medallist, I am certain that we shall
still find him taking an unceasing interest in his favourite
investigations, and that Cornish archeology will long continue
to receive the benefit of his antiquarian talents, which I have
no doubt in the future will be the means of giving us much
additional information concerning the habits of our forefathers.
Meanwhile, a second gold medal will be awarded in 1893, a
knowledge of which, it is hoped, will again awaken sufficient
interest among authors to contribute a series of papers on the
natural history and antiquities of Cornwall, excelling, if possible,
the first-class memoirs which competed for the medal in 1890.

It is pleasing to mention here that Dr. C. Le Neve Foster,
a former secretary of this Institution, has been appointed to fill
the chair of ‘The Principals of Mining” in the Royal College
of Science, South Kensington, so long and ably occupied by our
late Vice-President, Sir Warington W. Smyth. I feel sure
that the Cornish friends of Dr. Foster and every member of the
Institution are gratified to know that the Government has in this
manner shown its appreciation of the eminent abilities exhibited
by him as one of its Inspectors of metalliferous mines.

In my address at the last spring meeting, I expressed a
desire to deviate, in some measure, from the strictly local
character of the addresses of most of my predecessors in this
chair, and to devote my remarks generally to the science of
astronomy, a subject that has been my daily thought during a
somewhat long professional career. In adopting this course, I
considered that I was only following the custom of most scientific
men, such as the Presidents of the British Association, who
invariably choose the subject of their discourses from their own
special branches of study. I therefore take for granted that,
on occasions like the present, it is far more satisfactory, in a
formal address, that the speaker should devote his attention, for
the most part, to those scientific or literary subjects with which
his usual habits have made him familiar, than to attempt a theme
with which he is only imperfectly acquainted. In a general as
well as in a scientific point of view, the principal interest attached
to a Presidential address consists not to much in the multitude

20 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

of things brought forward, as in the individuality of the mode
by which they are treated. I propose therefore to confine my
remarks to-day, in this the second division of my address, to the
consideration of a few points connected with the mathematical
and observational sections of astronomy, which have attracted
considerable attention during recent years.

The value of a scientific or technical education is gradually
becoming more and more acknowledged in most of our great
public schools, and there are very few of them which have not,
at the present time, some department devoted to the special
instruction of one or more branches of practical science. Even
astronomy, which is not usually considered to be a very
practical science, is now attracting considerable attention, and
I am glad to be able to state that one, at least, of our public
schools has founded an astronomical observatory, furnished with
excellent instruments. The Temple observatory at Rugby
School, built some years ago as a memorial to the present Bishop
of London, a former distinguished head master, has already
done good service towards the promotion of astronomy, and
several valuable contributions from it have been published in
the ‘‘Memoirs”’ of the Royal Astronomical Society, containing
catalogues of double stars and other observations made by some
of the masters and senior scholars, many of whom have taken
a great personal interest in the work. The successful formation
of a new astronomical society, under the name of ‘‘ The British
Astronomical Association” also gives encouraging evidence of
the growiug interest in the science among those who desire some
popular acquaintance with the great truthsin astronomy. One of
its chief objects is the association of amateur observers, especially
the possessors of small telescopes, for mutual help in the
organisation of the work in different sections of astronomica]
observations. I have no doubt that there are many in this
county who sympathize with the objects of this new association
in their endeavour to stimulate the study of the peculiar features
and movements of the heavenly bodies. But this cannot be
efficiently done without steady and continuous telescopic work
with fixed instruments, and I am rather surprised that there is
no public or private astronomical observatory of any pretension
in Devonshire and Cornwall, west of the Rousdon. observatory,
near Lyme Regis.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 21

Although astronomy gives ample opportunities for the
exercise of the imagination when we are dealing with hypotheses
concerning the probable composition and movements of the
heavenly bodies hundreds of billions of miles away, yet in many
of its branches it is very far from being purely a speculative
science; at any rate the assertion of some that it is so is totally
misleading, so far as regards the great fundamental laws of
gravitation which govern the motions of all celestial bodies.
But in comparison with the more practical sciences dealing with
terrestrial elements, such as chemistry, geology, and mineralogy,
astronomy must always appear somewhat dependent on the
imagination of the observer, for the objects of his scrutiny are
usually far too distant to ascertain their true characteristics
without having some recourse to speculative analogy. How
different all this is in chemistry and other experimental sciences.
Here the experimenter has no occasion to go beyond what he
has before him, as he has the advantage of always being certain
of the discoveries that he makes. All that he has to do, if he
is in doubt, is to repeat his experiment, and thus he can make
sure of the effect of hisdiscovery. Many of you probably will
partly agree with the remarks made recently by the Marquis of
Salisbury, when addressing the Chemical Society at their
late Jubilee meeting, ‘‘that of course when a man discovers
what happened fifty millions of years ago, it is not so easy to be
exactly accurate as to the nature of his discovery; and when a
man discovers what is going on fifty billions of miles away,
although the discovery may be probable, it certainly has not the
character of certainty that attaches to the discovery of a man
who can go back to his laboratory and repeat his experiments.
For it must be acknowledged that astronomy is largely composed
of the science of things as they probably are, and that geology
consists mainly of the science of things that probably were a long
time ago, and chemistry is the science of things as they actually
are at the present time.’”?’ Whatever truth there may be in this
comparison, his lordship, who is himself a distinguished practical
chemist, forgets that in the present advanced teachings of chemis-
try, the chemical imagination is essentially mathematical, for the
formule deduced from analysis ordinarily give very little ex-
planation of the reason why the combination of elements hag

92 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

certain properties. Two substances having different properties
not uncommonly give, on analysis, formule almost identical.
Hence chemists endeavour to obtain a correct grouping of the
elements, as well as of their quantitative proportions, and in
this operation the scientific imagination has most arduous work
to perform.

But though imagination must necessarily enter deeply into
some astronomical problems, it is a very different thing from the
faculty that substitutes conjecture or speculation for ascertained
fact. Original scientific research in all its branches could
scarcely be carried on without bringing the imaginative powers
into action, or we could have none of the fruitful yet purely
tentative theories by which the results of research are system-
atized. Sometimes a certain number of facts may be joined
together to form an intellectual frame-work, from which the
scientific imagination may, by analogy, carry it into the
neighhouring region of the unknown. These tentative theories
may sometimes turn out to be wonderfully exact; at other times
they may have to be abandoned, but in either case they offer
most valuable assistance to the inquirer in researches of this
nature. This style of reasoning is particularly noticeable in
astronomy, especially in some deductions derived from spectrum
analysis; in the problem of the motion and direction of the sun
and its system in space; and in such a speculative subject as the
new meteoritic hypothesis. In the consideration of all these
delicate researches, imagination of some form must naturally
enter very fully into combination with much that is derived from
undoubted facts capable of scientific explanation.

Imagination, however, has very little part in our conceptions
of the movements of the sun, moon, and planets in their respec-
tive orbits. These have been determined with an accuracy
almost marvellous, the proof of which is daily presented to our
minds by the never failing recurrence of the various astronomical
phenomena at the predicted times given by calculation. So
_ perfect are the existing theories of the movements of the
different members of the solar system, that the positions of the
sun and moon may be ascertained for any given moment in the
past, present, or future, within a fraction of a second of time,
while those of the planets may also be determined within very

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 23

small limits. The construction or improvement of these theories
from the comparison of the observed and tabular places obtained
over a long series of years, is the highest class of modern
astronomical research, and it is only undertaken by mathema-
ticians specially conversant with gravitational astronomy.

Perhaps I could not illustrate more clearly the perfect
reasoning employed in some of these difficult problems of
mathematical astronomy, than by referring to that great triumph
of human intellect which culminated in the discovery of the —
planet Neptune, the most distant known member of the solar
system. ‘The problem was indeed a difficult one to solve. For
if we wish to determine in what way two known planets of given
distance, mass, and other ascertained elements will affect each
other, the most skilful mathematicians sometimes fail in explain-
ing certain marked peculiarities in their movements, although
they are necessary consequences of the relations already known
to exist between the two bodies. How much more difficult then
it must be to infer from the observed irregularities in the motion
of one planet, the distance, mass, and position of another planet
hitherto unknown. This was, however, the problem that two
mathematicians independently attempted to solve.

Since the publication in 1821 of M. Bouvard’s tables of
Uranus, the apparently great irregularities in the motion of this
planet caused considerable interest, and various explanations
were suggested to account for this irregular motion. About the
year 1843 it occurred to Mr. J. Couch Adams, a name honoured
by all Cornishmen, who had just taken the highest mathematical
honours at Cambridge, and shortly afterwards to M. Le Verrier,
of Paris, that by taking these apparent deviations from the
planet’s true motion as a basis of calculation, they might be
able, on the assumption that the irregularities were produced by
perturbations caused by the attraction of an exterior planet, to
point out, by an inverse process of calculation, the exact position
in the heavens where such an unknown attracting body would
probably be found. Each of the two astronomers was fully ”
convinced in his own mind of the reality of the problem, a belief
afterwards confirmed by the discovery of the suspected planet
very near the identical places in the heavens indicated by them,

24 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

In this marvellous manner, Neptune, the fourth of the major
planets, was added to the known members of the solar system,
and the perturbations observed in the motion of Uranus were
ever after duly accounted for. Thus it was Sir Isaac Newton
who explained the laws of universal gravitation, by which the
heavenly bodies move in space; while it was reserved for Adams
and Le Verrier to interpret these laws, and to indicate where a
hitherto unknown planet could be found. Newton recognised
laws not previously explained, and Adams and Le Verrier, by
the highest mathematical analysis, inferred from them the
existence of a world that had never before been seen as a planet
by the human eye.

From the preceding remarks we may easily conclude that
the science of astronomy must be considered as pre-eminently
one of calculation and prediction—calculation of the past and
prediction of the future. The first object that enters the
astronomer’s mind is therefore to extract laws and numerical
elements from the phenomena that have occurred; while his
second object is to apply these laws on the assumption of their
invariability to the phenomena that will occur. By this means,
any error that may have been committed in these fundamental
assumptions can, by a comparison of the predicted with the
corresponding observed results, be accurately ascertained. If
we examine successive stages in the history of physical astronomy,
we shall find that in all the various forms which the science has
taken at different periods, we have certainly presented to us,
either the struggle of reducing laws and elements to agreement
with new phenomena, or the anxious search for some hitherto
neglected causes of discordance, such as the effect of the
perturbations on the motion of Uranus, produced by the powerful
attraction of Neptune; or finally, the triumph of finding that
assumptions were well founded, and that the agreement between
observation and theory is sufficiently exact. The last of these
conditions has been amply verified by the most recent invest-
igations of the lunar and planetary theories, which now represent
the motions of the sun, moon, and planets, sufficiently near for
all practical purposes.

This intellectual advance in theoretical astronomy is owing,
in a great measure, to the noble work of M. Le Verrier, who

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 95

devoted most of his life to the examination of the theories of
the movements of the earth and the large planets from Mercury
to Neptune. Prof. Newcomb and Mr. G. W. Hill, of Washington,
have also been employed on similar researches. The former has
exhaustively treated the theories of Uranus and Neptune, and
the latter has very recently published an exposition of those of
Jupiter and Saturn. These important investigations are the
results of the most profound mathematical research based on a
comparison of the calculated with the observed places of each
_ planet.

The difficult problem of ascertaining the distance of the
sun from the earth has specially occupied the attention of
astronomers during the last thirty years. Several investigations
by different methods have been undertaken, but the most
popular was the observation of the transits of Venus across the
sun in 1874 and 1882, both of which were utilised for this
purpose. Since Dr. Halley in 1716 drew the attention of the
Royal Society to this question, the transits of Venus have been
generally considered to be one of the best methods for determin-
ing the value of the solar parallax, or the angle produced by
the earth’s semidiameter as viewed from the sun. Perhaps not
many here to-day are aware that the first voyage of the celebrated
Captain Cook was organized principally for obtaining observ-
ations of the transit of Venus in 1769, on which occasion he
was successful on the shore of the island of Tahiti, still known
as Venus Point, When my attention was first directed to
astronomy implicit faith was placed in the distance of the sun
as determined in 1824 by Encke from a discussion of all the
observations made of the transits of 1761 and 1769. Prof.
Hansen, of Gotha, while employed on his investigations on the
lunar theory, found that in order to satisfy the refined observ-
ations of the moon made at Greenwich, it was necessary to make
a considerable increase in Encke’s value of the solar parallax,
and consequently, a corresponding decrease in the distance of
the sun. Le Verrier also found that to reconcile some
discrepancies in his planetary theories, a larger solar parallax
was required. Some recent determinations of the velocity of
light also pointed to the same conclusion. Much was therefore
expected from the two transits of Venus in 18/74 and 1882, both

26 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

of which were observed successfully at the principal stations.
The value of the solar parallax determined from all the observ-
ations is about 8”°80, from which the mean distance of the sun
from the earth is calculated to be about 92,885,000 miles. Prof.
Newcomb and Mr. Michelson have since made independent
determinations of the velocity of light per second, from which
they have deduced a value differing very little from that
determined from the transits of Venus. You may easily imagine
how difficult a problem the astronomers have had to solve, when
it is considered that a second of arc is only equivalent to the
angle subtended by a ring one inch in diameter, when viewed
at a distance of more than three miles, and the correction to the
solar parallax is just one-third of this. Or it is what a human
hair would appear to be if viewed at the distance of 150 feet.
Such are the minute quantities with which -astronomy has to
deal. Ji then a second of arc is so minute a measurement,
what must we say when this second is again divided into a
hundred parts, every one of which represents 100,000 miles in
the distance of the sun. And yet this almost mathematical
accuracy is hoped to be obtained eventually from the combined
series of all the observations of the recent transits of Venus
over the dise of the sun.

A total eclipse of the sun is another phenomenon which
always creates much interest, as on these occasions most valuable
observations are made on the constitution of the chromosphere
and corona, which are usually visible during totality, but at
other times hidden by the glare of sunlight. In England, total
eclipses of the sun seldom occur, and then only at long intervals.
The last occurred in 1724, and the next will not take place until
1927. Before the red solar prominences were found to be
observable in sunlight, by means of the spectroscope, the
expeditions formed for viewing an eclipse were of a more
interesting character than the purely scientific expeditions of the
present day; as now the attention of the observers is usually
confined to spectroscopic and photographic observations of the
corona and prominences, and thus all the sentimental beauty of
the phenomenon is sacrificed to pure science. In 1851, I had the
good fortune of witnessing a total eclipse in Norway, and the
impressions then fixed on my mind of its sublime character, are

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. a7

very vivid even now, after an interval of so many years. The
beauty of the corona on these occasions, especially when the sky
is free from cloud, is always admired for its silvery whiteness ;
while in the telescope rose-coloured solar prominences, consisting
of incandescent hydrogen gas, are usually seen shooting out
from the sun at the edge of the dark body of the moon, to an
occasional height of 100,000 miles ormore. At Christiania, the
dark shadow-path was seen to approach gradually from the
west, and after the few minutes of total darkness, it was noticed
to pass as gradually away towardsthe east. The varying effects
of light and shade on the landscape and on the waters of the
Fiord was a sight worth a long journey to see.

Since the construction of the powerful space-penetrating
telescopes, with which almost every observatory of importance
is now furnished, great attention has been given to the
delineation of the special features observed on the discs of the
planets Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The changes of detail that
are continually visible on the surfaces of these interesting
planets show that they are subject to atmospheric storms of far
greater magnitude than what we experience on the earth. For
example, we see on Jupiter all the signs of great atmospheric
disturbances, produced by forces indicating the existence of very
strong winds, bearing some analogy to our trade winds. The
cloud-like formations are sometimes seen to change so rapidly in
shape, that they can hardly be accounted for except by supposing
that large quantities of rain has fallen, and thus new clouds
would naturally be formed; or else that great cloud-masses have
been driven along with enormous rapidity by immense currents
of air moving with the velocity of a hurricane. It has been
calculated that this velocity of the wind cannot be less than two
hundred miles in an hour. The physical features of Jupiter are
interesting subjects of study to the amateur astronomer, as all
the variations in the form of the belts are easily distinguished
in most ordinary telescopes; and what these features are have
been well shown in most of the beautiful drawings that have
been made of this giant planet in recent years. During the last
twelve years an enormous red spot of an oval form has been
peculiarly attractive. Other spots of a reddish colour, and some
almost a pure white, are occasionally noticed, but these are not

28 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

usually of so permanent a character as the great red spot,
which, however, at the present time appears to be on the wane.
On Saturn also, faint streaks of light and shade have been
observed on the ball, leading us to infer that this planet is
likewise surrounded by an atmosphere of some kind, subject to
all its attendant meteorological phenomena. But these two
distant planets do not exhibit so many permanent markings as
may be observed on the surface of Mars, which of all the planets
has the most terrestrial appearance. The markings on Mars are
very distinctly defined, forming apparent continents, islands,
seas, and inlets. The brightest parts, excepting the white
patches near each pole, have a faint ruddy tint, while over-
spreading the continents networks of fine lines have been
noticed, to which the name of canals have been given.

All the planets from the earth to Neptune are now known
to be attended by one or more satellites. The two moons of
Mars were unknown before 1877, when they were discovered by
Prof. Asaph Hall, at the Washington Observatory. To an
observer on Mars they must present a remarkable appearance in
the heavens, as the nearer of the two revolves around the planet
in less than eight hours, and the more distant satellite in about
thirty hours, at a distance of only 4,000 and 12,000 miles
respectively from the surface of Mars. The telescopic view of
Jupiter and its four attendant moons always affords considerable
interest, especially the continual change in the positions of the
different satellites relatively to themselves and their primary.
If we may be permitted to imagine that there are any intelligent
beings on Jupiter, we may almost picture to ourselves the
very startling nocturnal phenomena presented to their view.
The nights must always be favoured with moonlight, for when
any one of the satellites is absent from the visible firmament,
one at least of the others is almost certain to be present.
Frequently, the surface of Jupiter is enlightened by three moons
at the same time, all exhibiting different phases. The changes
that are continually taking place in the Jovian aspect as the
planet rotates on its axis, taken in combination with the constant
variations in its cloudy envelope, must be singularly impressive
and suggestive to any reasoning creatures, supposing that there
are such on these four attendant worlds circling around Jupiter.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 29

Some recent photographs that I have seen exhibit the peculiar
spots and other features of this planet with a remarkable
clearness of definition.

But perhaps one of the most interesting of all the recent
discoveries, relating to the solar system, is that of the minor
planets, of which up to the present time 309 have been detected.
These minute bodies, supposed to vary in their diameter from
about twenty to two hundred miles, are all included between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The first four of the minor planets
were discovered near the beginning of the present century, and
for sometime were considered to be fragments of a large planet
shattered to pieces by some internal convulsion; but owing to
the great diversity in the observed inclinations and other
elements of their orbits, this hypothesis is hardly tenable. I
remember very distinctly the enthusiasm with which the discovery
of a fifth member of the group in 1845 was received, the first
of the yearly discoveries that have been made to the present
time. While watching one of these minute objects in the
transit-circle at Greenwich, it has always appeared to me that
the general truth of the fundamental laws of astronomy is
made apparent, when the faint point of light representing a
minor planet faithfully enters the field of view at the exact
moment, and in the exact position in the heavens to which the
telescope is directed, as predicted by the computer, with the
same aceuracy as the large planets. The elements of the orbits
of ali these 309 minor planets have been calculated, some of
them with great precision.

Minor planets, however, are not the only minute bodies
circulating in orbits around the sun, for within the confines of
our solar system, swarms of meteors are now known to move in
periodic orbits, accompanied by comets travelling in the midst
of the swarm. Comets and meteors are therefore supposed to
be physically connected. Indeed, the elements of the orbits of
several comets are found to be almost identical with those of
corresponding streams of meteors, and spectrum analysis has
proved that their elementary composition has much in common.
Prof. Lockyer, however, has expresssed an opinion that all self-
luminous bodies in the celestial vault may probably be composed
of meteorites or masses of meteoritic vapour, produced by heat

30 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

brought about by condensation of meteor swarms due to gravity,
so that the existing distinction between stars, comets, and
nebulz, rests on no physical basis—all alike are meteoritic in
origin, the difference between them depending upon differences
of temperature, and in the closeness of the component meteorites
to each other. These suggestive opinions of so distinguished
an astronomer are deserving of every consideration, though
scientific imagination must necesarily have an important influence
in speculative questions of this nature.

I have remarked, on a former occasion, that the romance of
astronomy is always a subject of attraction to early students of
the stars, and that the study of the science is most fascinating
when the object to be obtained is a real scientific acquaintance
with the countless luminaries visible overhead on a clear autumn
or winter night. But what I wish to do now is to pass over the
romantic portions of the science, and to devote a few words on
the connection of astronomy with our daily life. I shall thus
be able to show you that although there may be some imagina-
tion employed in the solution of imperfect or doubtful data,
astronomy is yet a necessary help to us all in our domestic and —
business occupations. Anyone can realize the great advances
made in electrical science, for he is continually reminded of them
by the practical benefits derived from the use of the electric
telegraph and the telephone, but how few there are who connect
astronomy with anything that is practical. And yet it is
employed in various ways unknown to the general public.
The clock-time exhibited by every public clock, by your
household timepieces, and even by the watches in your pockets,
would soon go astray were it not that the astronomer at
Greenwich is ever referring his standard timepiece to the
unerring great star-clock. Daily he is on the watch for an
opportunity to make this necessary comparison, so that he may
be in a position to disseminate true Greenwich time throughout
the country. This is accomplished by means of an elaborate
system of galvanic time-signals, which are transmitted from the
Royal Observatory, at stated times, to all the principal post
offices and railway stations in the kingdom, through the wires
of the Post Office telegraph department. Time-balls, giving the
correct time, are dropped daily at various places by a direct

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. $1

signal from Greenwich; and two under the sole control of
the Astronomer Royal are also dropped daily at 1 p.m., one
at the Royal Observatory and the second at Deal. The
dissemination of Greenwich time-signals has been the means
of adding considerably to the punctuality of railway trains, as
since the adoption of Greenwich time throughout the kingdom,
no excuse can be made on account of the difference of clocks.

But if true Greenwich time is found to be essential in our
home life, how much more necessary it becomes to the seaman
when thousands of miles away from port. Let us see how the
astronomer comes to his assistance. Just look for one moment
into the chronometer room at the Royal Observatory. You
cannot avoid being attracted by a universal buzz, reminding you
of the hum of a beehive, for sometimes more than two hundred
chronometers are stored here at one time, all of which are rated
daily and kept ready for use in Her Majesty’s ships when
required. It is pleasing to know that the commanders of our
noble ships may obtain one of these delicate chronometers,
preserved and rated daily by astronomical observations, by
which they are enabled to ascertain accurate Greenwich time
when at sea. Without this information and the predicted
positions of the sun, moon, and stars, given in the “ Nautical
Almanac,” and derived from the refined theories of the mathe-
matical astronomer, the seaman could never ascertain his true
longitude and latitude at sea, but would have to rely on the
primitive methods of navigation practised by the ancient
mariner.

_ Astronomy is also employed in determining the figure of
our globe, and the relative positions of points on its surface.
By a comparison of the respective local clock-times found
directly from observations of selected stars at two distant
stations, the difference of longitude is at once found, and by
observing on the meridian the altitudes of stars whose declination
is accurately known, the latitude of any station can also be
determined. Longitudes may be obtained by several astron-
omical methods, but the easiest, and at the same the most
satisfactory, is by the observation of galvanic signals transmitted
from one station to the other, the local clock-times and signals
being recorded automatically on a chronograph at both stations.

82 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS,

The differences of longitude between most of the principal
observatories have been determined in this manner.

I trust that I have now made it clear to you that though in
the speculative branches of astronomy imagination may occasion-
ally assist in forming conclusions from probably insufficent data,
there are other and more important branches which rest on a
solid and truthful basis, such as the well-proved theories of the
movements of the sun, moon, and planets, in their respective
orbits, and the numerous facts relating to the physical
constitution of the heavenly bodies, many of which have been
proved over and over again by different observers and methods
of observation. Even an inexperienced star-gazer may soon be
convinced of the reality of what he sees in his telescope as he
scans the varying lights and shadows seen on the faces of the
sun, moon, and planets. Astronomy is indeed a fascinating
science to those who are sufficiently educated to appreciate and
understand the general principles of the construction of the
starry universe, and who are anxious to become interested in the
movements and composition of the heavenly bodies.

And now, ladies and gentlemen, I cannot conclude this
necessarily imperfect astronomical portion of this address,
without impressing upon you the pleasing fact that however
much has been unfolded to our minds by the remarkable activity
of observers in all countries up to the present time, there is a
strong indication that astronomical knowledge is still advancing
from year to year. Most powerful telescopes, the like of which
could hardly have entered into the minds of the astronomers of
the last generation, are now constantly directed to the heavens
in Europe, America, the Cape of Good Hope, and Australia, by
men eager for discovery, and intellectually competent to turn to
the best advantage whatever novelty they may see. As on our
earth it has been proved that nearly every apparently rude element
teems with animal life, so do the regions of infinite space teem
with unexhausted wonders, requiring only the clear and
intelligent mind, and the observant eye of the astronomer to
detect. The works of creation are as boundless in the distant
regions of the universe, as under our own eyes in this compara- |
tively little world which we call the earth. Planets countless

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 30

in numbers probably still roll on in their courses around the sun
unseen by man. We know that more than three hundred of
these little asteroids are revolving in unerring orbits between
Mars and Jupiter, and possibly many hundreds more may be
discovered during the life of the present generation. Stars, the
centres of other systems as boundless as all that we behold on
the most brilliant night in winter, have been proved to possess
the most mysterious peculiarities, some of which we may be able
to explain, while the rest must remain to be deciphered by the
advanced astronomy of the future.

But though astronomy may claim an antiquity reaching, by
tradition, so far back as the time of Abraham, when the
Chaldeans, according to Herodotus, gave the names to thirty-six
of the principal constellations, much that is included in modern
astronomy makes it comparatively a new science, if we consider
the wonderful discoveries made during the last 120 years.
However, astronomy is still advancing with giant strides, in
company with many of the other physical sciences, and we
entertain no fear for the future nor need we envy our descend-
ants the enjoyment of the accumulation of observed facts, or
the comprehensive grasp which they must naturally have of the
science of the visible universe, compared with what we are
enjoying near the end of the nineteenth century. It is sufficient
for us to know that there is still good astronomical work
remaining for us to do, while at the same time we may devoutly
recognise the scantiness of our knowledge compared with the
vast universe of created worlds, and humbly exclaim when we
give an intelligent glance upwards to the starry heavens, ‘ O
Lord, how manifold are Thy works! in wisdom hast Thou made
them all.”

34

ANNUAL EXCURSION, 1891.

The Annual Excursion of the Royal Institution of Cornwall
took place on Aug. 20th, and was as successful as such an enter-
prise could be in a continuous and heavy downpour of rain.

The party, which numtered over fifty, assembled at Wade-
bridge at half-past nine in the morning, took carriage and rode
away for St. Breock Church. Very soon after the start the rain
commenced to fall, and for the remainder of the day never
ceased. The first halting place was St. Breock Church, where
the members, met by the vicar (the Rev. W. P. P. Matthews),
paused for a few moments to inspect an early slab commemor-
ating, in Norman French, ‘‘Tomas le Vicarie de Nansegn,” a
curious armorial tomb of Vyell, and some Tredinnick family
brasses. On through the rain the party then went to St. Petroc
Minor Church, a beautifully decorated fabric, which was re-
opened for services after re-building in 1858. Among the relics
which were inspected with interest was the Norman French slab
of a certain Sir Roger, now lying under a low arch constructed
for its reception on the north side of the sacrarium. It is a flat
stone, with a simple floriated cross cut upon it in low relief, and
surmounted by a tonsured human head. St. Petroc, the patron
saint of the church, is said to have visited Ireland and thence
crossed over to Padstow A.D. 518. He afterwards settled at
Bodmin, where he died. The Rey. Viscount Molesworth, the
vicar, courteously explained to the visitors the features of interest
in the church. From this point, however, a large part of the
programme, including a trip to Trevose Head, was, by common
consent, abandoned, and a rapid drive was made to Padstow.
One waggonette proceeded to St. Merryn, where its church was
inspected. Major Parkyn had remembered his errant brothers
and sisters, and they gladly found at Padstow the refection which
had been reserved forthem. Some of the party then rested, some
walked to the battery, and others strolled about Padstow until
half-past two o’clock, when, by invitation of Mr. Prideaux-Brune,
they visited Prideaux Place, once known as Prideaux Castle, a

THE ANNUAL EXCURSION. 35

name in consonance with its castellated style. And in the old,
old days it was called Gwarthendra. The present building is
Elizabethan, and has not suffered much alteration. Carew
describes it as ‘‘the new and stately house of Mr. Nicholas
Prideaux, who thereby taketh a full and large prospect of the
toune, haven, and country adjoining; to all of which his wisdom
is a stay, his authority a direction,’—a tradition which is
admirably maintained by the present highly esteemed repre-
sentatives of that ancient family, Mr. and the Hon. Mrs.
Prideaux-Brune. The house is believed to occupy the site of
an ancient monastery, which was destroyed by the Danes, when,
according to the Saxon Chronicle, they plundered and set fire to

the town.

The company lunched, through the hospitality of Mr.
Prideaux Brune, in the old oak-pannelled dining hall of the
mansion; and after luncheon, Dr. Trollope, the Bishop of
Nottingham (suffragan of Lincoln), read an interesting paper
on ‘‘the antiquities of the neighbourhood.” He alluded to a
volcanic hill and submarine forest on the other side of the river.
He suggested that the forest was now submarine, by reason of
the sinking of the ground, and not because of the encroachment
of the sea. He mentioned the finding of many remains in that
neighbourhood which he considered pointed unmistakably to
that part of Cornwall, at all events, having been occupied by the
Romans. The Bishop also alluded to the shifting of the sands
on the other side of Padstow harbour, and the discovery of the
remains of the ancient church of St. Enodoc.

There was no time to discuss the Bishop of Nottingham’s
paper; but time was of course found to thank Mr. Prideaux
Brune for his hospitality. Mr. Iago was the first to express the
gratitude of the company for such a haven of rest and refreshment
as Prideaux Place proved to be after the storms of the day. He
observed also that he had long known Bishop Trollope as a
writer on Cornish antiquities, and alluded to the recent discovery
of another distinct trace of Roman remains in North Cornwall
of the time of the Emperor Licinius. Canon A. P. Moor then
proposed a vote of thanks to Mr. Prideaux-Brune for his liberal
and graceful hospitality, and recalled a similar reception the

36 THE ANNUAL EXOURSION.

society had last year at the hands of Mr. Pendarves Vivian at
Bosahan, and looked back also to the generous manner in which
they were once entertained at Cotehele by the Earl of Mount
Edgcumbe. Mr. J. R. Collins, Mayor of Bodmin, seconded the
vote of thanks, and made some humorous observations which
were appreciated. He expressed a hope also that they would
soon be able to come to Padstow by the North Cornwall line.
Mr. Prideaux-Brune, in reply, said it gave him great pleasure to
see them there, and hoped the next time they were able to get
to Padstow they would have better weather.

There was unfortunately no time to view the house (with its
many interesting portraits and its fine library) or the grounds,
in which there are some old crosses and other remains of antiquity.

A brief visit was paid to the fine old church of St. Petroc,
on the way down to the conveyances. ‘There the Bishop
of Nottingham read another interesting paper. Viscount
Molesworth’s church is St. Petroc Minor, or Little Petherick, so
Padstow is Petroc Major or Great Petherick, and there are
dedications to St. Petroc also at Bodmin, Dartmouth, and Exeter.
St. Petroc is believed to have been a British missionary, who
came across to Padstow in 518, and settled and died at Bodmin
in 564. According to the legend, he came across the sea on a
millstone ; but Bishop Trollope thought that might mean that he
came across with a cargo of millstones, or that his ship was said
to be like a millstone.

The site of the church was evidently the very old site of
a sacred building. The remains of an ancient cross near the
entrance to the churchyard he attributed to the Saxon era; and
there was a very beautiful cross of a laterdate. But the present
building was perpendicular, there was no trace of Norman work
in it. The tower was of 14th century style. The kind of
flamboyant tracery in some of the windows of the south chancel
aisle, he thought, did not indicate any different period, but was
merely the fancy of the architect, or of the benefactor for whom
the aisle (as a chantry chapel) was built. The Bishop called
attention also to the pulpit, the new screen, and to two old
bench-ends which have recently been discovered and made into
aseat for the sacrarium. These old bench-ends are very finely

THE ANNUAL EXOURSION. 37

carved, one of them depicting a fox preaching to a congregation
of geese. The Rev. J. Core, the curate-in-charge, was also
present, and pointed out some of the features of interest,
including brasses of some former vicars, one dated 1421, and the
beautiful marble work above the altar, done by Mr. England, a
Padstow workman.

After leaving the church, came the ride back to Wadebridge,
still more or less in the wet, and in due course the train took the
- excursionists to their respective destinations. The company
included the following :—

Mr. and the Hon. Mrs. Prideaux-Brune; the Bishop of
Nottingham ; the Hon. Mrs. Davies-Gilbert, of Trelissick; the
Misses Prideaux-Brune, Rev. E. Prideaux-Brune ; Rev. J. Core,
Padstow, acting for the vicar; Rev. Canon Moor, St. Clements ;
Rey. A. H. Malan, Altarnon; Rev. F. Eld, Worcester; Rev. W.
Iago and Mrs. Iago, Bodmin; Mr. J. R. Collins, Mayor of
Bodmin; Colonel Parkyn,; Major Shanks, R.M., and Dr. and
Mrs. Salmon, Bodmin; Mrs. Paull, and Miss Lillie Paull,
Bosvigo; Mrs. EH. Sidebotham, Misses J. L. Stokes, Ekless,
Smith, Pinkett, Bodmin; Tomn, Ferris, M. Langdon, Truro;
Mrs. Casey, Dublin; Mr. and Mrs. R. Whitworth, Mr. and Mrs.
A. Blenkinsop; Mr. and Mrs. A. Cragoe, Penhellick; Messrs.
Hamilton James, 8. H. James, Mozambique; Henry Barrett,
John Barrett, W. J. Clyma, Samuel Pascoe, Joseph Rogers,
Stephen Rogers, F.G.S., Theodore Hawken, H. Buck, Thomas
Clark, O. I. Blackford, F. E. Sach, Truro; Mr. and Mrs. Hawken,
and Mr. F. Cresswell, Liskeard; Mr. F. W. Michell, C.E.,
Redruth; Mr. R. Palk Griffin, Padstow; Mr. and Mrs. Wilson,
Mr. C. H. Collings, and Mr. H. J. Sanderson, London; Major
Parkyn, F.G.S., Hon. Sec., Mr. H. Crowther, F.R.M.S8., Curator.
To Major Parkyn and to the Rev. W. Iago thanks are particularly
due for directing the expedition, which, but for the weather,
would have been a most successful one.

38

Woval Institution of Cornwall.
72np ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

The Annual Meeting of the members of the Royal Institu-
tion of Cornwall was held on Tuesday afternoon, November 24th,
1891, in the Museum Rooms, thé chair being taken by the Rey.
W. Iago, B.A., Hon. Secretary for Cornwall of the Society of
Antiquaries, London, and Vice-President of the Institution, who
presided in the absence of the retiring President, Mr. Edwin
Dunkin, F.R.S., Past-President of the Royal Astronomical
Society.

The Chairman regretted the absence of their retiring Presi-
dent, who had performed the duties of his office with such
very great success and benefit to the Institution. The Council
recommended the appointment of Sir John Maclean, F.S.A.,—
the well-known antiquary, the author of ‘“‘The History of the
Deanery of Trigg Minor,” and other valuable works,—but he
regretted that the prevailing influenza prevented his attendance
that day. Sir John had written saying, although he had been
elected president of other societies, he felt the greatest pleasure
and honour in being chosen to occupy the presidential chair of this
Royal Institution, Cornwall being his native county. It was
at their suggestion that Sir John Maclean was not among them.
They were not willing to risk the health of so valuable a presi-
dent as Sir John would be, by his taking a journey in the present
weather and coming into a district where influenza prevailed.
Sir John wrote taking their suggestion and thanking them for it.
Since they met last their worthy Bishop had left Truro, and now
anew Bishop had taken his place. The first Bishop of Truro was
one of their very best members. His successor was also a mem-
ber, and, having had the honour and privilege of having the two
Bishops as members, they looked forward to the time when Dr.
Gott would also be enrolled. He (Mr. Iago) had already invited
the Bishop to join them, and he would have been there, had he
not been engaged that day with a confirmation at St. Just.

ANNUAL MEETING. 39

Later on, Archdeacon Cornish announced that the Bishop
would be pleased to become a member.

Major Parkyn, the Hon. Secretary, read the Annual Report.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

The Council of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, in
presenting their 73rd Annual Report, have much pleasure in
congratulating the members on the great advance in all branches
of the Institution since the last annual meeting, for whether
they regard the continued progress made by the Curator in the
better display of the objects in the Museum, the general work
of his classification, the many valuable additions to the collections,
or the numerous gifts to the library, it must be evident
to every one that the Society is passing through a period of
progress and prosperity.

Death, however, has been more than usually busy in the
ranks of the members since the last annual report, and the
Society have to lament the loss of Mr. N. Whitley, F.R.Met.S.,
Mr. H. M. Jeffery, M.A., F.R.S., the Right Hon. Sir Montague
Smith, Mr. W. Sincock, Mr. George Williams, and Mr. Charles
Harvey.

Mr. Whitley’s connection with the Institution dates back
some 40 years, during the whole of which time he took an active
and leading part in the affairs of the Society ; he was a valuable
and voluminous writer for the Journal, for many years he was one
of the Secretaries and filled successively the offices of Member
of Council and Vice-President. It will be unnecessary here to
dwell more at length on his services to the Institution, as an
obituary notice is promised for the next number of the Journal.

Mr. Jeffery joined this Society immediately on returning to
take up his permanent residence in his native county. It may
be said of him that he threw himself heart and soul into the
work of the Institution, and as a Member of Council was
most regular in his attendance at the Meetings; indeed, it
was a very rare thing for him to be absent from them. It ig
somewhat remarkable that so abstruse a mathematician should
in his anxiety to help on the objects of the Society and to assist
in the literary work of the Council, have taken so much interest
in archeological and topographical history, but we have only to

40 ANNUAL MEETING.

refer to his printed contributions in the Journal of the Royal
Institution, to prove that his mathematical mind could be brought
advantageously to bear on the elucidation of local history as
well as on abstract science. As stated just now in reference to
the late Mr. Whitley, so in the case of Mr. Jeffery, an obituary
notice of some length will be written for the Journal.

The Right Hon. Sir Montague Smith, the eminent judge,
was a very old subscriber, and when opportunities were afforded
him to be present at the Spring and Annual Meetings he
generally attended. :

Mr. W. Sincock, of Melbourne, Australia, was introduced
to this Society by Sir John Maclean, the President elect, and
readers of recent numbers of our Journal will have noticed the
valuable series of papers he contributed on the ‘‘ Landlords of
Cornwall in early Medizeval Days.”

Mr. George Williams, of Scorrier, we regret to say, was
very soon removed by death after becoming a member. It is
satisfactory, however, to note that his son has come forward to
fill his father’s place.

The sad list closes with the loss of Mr. Charles Harvey, the
youngest brother of Mr. Robert Harvey, the munificent bene-
factor of this Institution, He was a young medical man of
great promise returning to this country from Chili in search of
health, and died very suddenly at New York on his way home.

It is pleasing now to dwell for a few moments on the great
accession of members. During the past year no fewer than 25
new subscribers have joined, and this has been accomplished
without any pressing solicitation. It is probable that in no
other year in the history of this Institution has there been such a
large increase of members.

The Meteorological observations have been carried on by
the Curator with his usual care, and the results have been
communicated to the public through the press of the two
counties, in a monthly letter, and from the testimony received
from the reading public it is evident these letters have been
much appreciated.

The Annual Autumn Excursion (a detailed account of which
will appear in the Journal) took place in the Wadebridge and
Padstow district. The weather proved most unpropitious, but

ANNUAL MEETING. 41

no ill effects are known to have ensued. The utmost kindness
and hospitality were extended to those who took part in the
expedition, by Mr. and the Hon. Mrs. Prideaux-Brune. The
great Hall at Prideaux Place was an agreeable refuge from the
heavy rain. The large number of our members and friends,
who thronged it, were bountifully entertained by their kind host
and hostess. An additional pleasure was also experienced when
the Bishop of Nottingham, Dr. Trollope, the well-known
antiquary, imparted to the guests much valuable information
relative to Padstow, its Church, and neighbourhood. It was
intended that Pawton Cromlech, Nanscowe Stone, and Trevose
Lighthouse should also be reached, but those points had to be
abandoned. The Rev. Viscount Molesworth and the Rev. W.
P. Pardoe Matthews kindly shewed the interior of their churches,
and gave such particulars as conduced to the purposes of the
visit. Notwithstanding all difficulties caused by exceptionally
severe atmospheric disturbance, good humour and cheerfulness
prevailed.

To Mr. J. Claude Daubuz, High Sheriff of the County, a
highly esteemed member of the Institution, the sincere thanks
of the Society are due for having presented some handsomely
carved oak—formerly the stall or state-chair of the Mayors of
Truro, in old St. Mary’s Church,——in order that it may be used
in the construction of a suitable official seat for our future
Presidents. Such a distinctive chair has long been required.
Mr. Daubuz’s gift will therefore not only prove useful, but will
be the means of preserving in a satisfactory manner an interesting
relic of fine proportions and workmanship, connected with many
associations relating to the past history of the city.

The Council have again to thank Mr. John D. Enys, F.G.S.,
for his presentation of the Report of the British Association
Meeting as soon as issued.

It is gratifying to find that the interest of the public in the
Museum shews no falling off, and that a steady increase in the
number of visitors is maintained. During the past year the
numbers shew :

Admitted Free sid .. 38,894
By Ticket .. O os 239
By Payment ac ar 348

42 ANNUAL MEETING.

Further progress has been made in the Geological room in
forming a collection of typical mineral ores from mining districts.
The sets so far arranged and tabulated are blue grounds and
matrices from the Kimberley Diamond Mines, presented by Dr.
Winn, London. A varied and interesting set of minerals from
the mines of East Germany, the Hartz, and Italy, by Major
Parkyn, F.G.S., one of the Honorary Secretaries. An extensive
collection of copper and other ores from the Bolivian Andes, by
Mr. Robert Harvey, J.P., of Dundridge. Tin and copper ores
from Spain, by Mr. Richard Pearce, F.G.S., H.B.M. Vice-Consul
at Denver, Colorado. A large and valuable set of minerals from
Rio Tinto Mines, Spain, and another from mines in Portugal, by
Mr. James Osborne, C.E., F.G.S., Truro. An interesting series
of specimens also, from the sett of the Uranium mines at
St. Stephens, by the Company, per Capt. W. R. Thomas, F.G.S8.
The arrangement of mine minerals has been devised by the
Curator to meet the wishes of practical miners who desire to
see collective sets of ores from specific mining localities. The
minerals of the various districts are grouped irrespective of
kind, so that by the mixing together of country rocks and their
associated minerals, the miner may more easily recognize the
appearance of certain mineral ores he may meet with abroad. In
the Geological department an alteration has been made for the
better display of the fossils. The specimens are being mounted
on colored tablets and specifically labelled. The flat shelves on
which they rested in the upright cases have been taken out, and
inclined shelves substituted, with narrow strips of wood running
along in front to keep the tablets in place. ‘The cases also have
been divided. so that the fossils in the collection will be placed
in proper geological sequence—a whole case being retained for
Cornish specimens. An excellent collection of Eocene fossils
from New Zealand has been presented by Mrs. A. P. Moor,
St Clements, and arranged in the one of the cases.

A case has been set apart too in the Geological and Miner-
alogical room for the display of a set of Cornish Rocks, and to
this, in addition to the specimens the Institution already
possessed from various parts of the county, others beautifully
polished, have been contributed by Mr. Thomas Clark, Truro ;
whilst Mr. Howard Fox, F.G.8., Falmouth, has presented types
of new kinds of rocks from the Lizard district.

ANNUAL MEETING. 43

Considerable progress has been made in the re-arrangement
of the recently acquired shells, and half our former collection has
been removed from the Geological room to the Zoological room,
and there newly mounted on tablets and labelled in accordance
with the other collections. The shells formerly possessed by the
Institution, to which Mr. B. W. Tucker, of Trematon Castle, and
Mr. John H. James, of Truro, so largely added, have been
supplemented by the more recent gifts of Mrs. Sharp, of
Kensington Gardens, London, and Mr. Ralph Baron Rogers, of
Falmouth ; and those gifts are being incorporated in the collection
as the shells are being laid out.

Most of the upright cases in the Zoological room have been
cleaned and re-painted ; in two of them a special series of egg
cases has been fitted, and doors of an improved make contrived
to close over them to keep out the light. In the cases are to be
placed the collections of eggs given by Mr. Richard Pearce,
F.G.S., and Mr. A. P. Nix.

At the western end of the same room in other upright cases,
protected by similar doors, a set of British Butterflies and a
few Moths, also recently given by Mr. Richard Pearce—have
been arranged, and are much admired by visitors.

Several additions of an educational character have yet to be
made to the Butterfly case to make the collection still more useful
to students. The Curator has compiled a label list for use in
arranging the Rhopalocera, or Butterflies, a copy of which will
be issued in the Journal, and sold in the Museum for the use
of students.

A more extended application has been made of labelling the
Museum specimens since the last report was issued. Variously
coloured tablets have been adopted for several departments, and
their mountings under the heads of Conchology, Geology,
Mineralogy, Petrology, Mining and Archeology, are beginning
to shew in the Museum.

The past year has seen the issuing of three new guides to
the Museum, one on the Pozo Inscribed Stone, the cost of which
has been defrayed by Mr. Robert Harvey, another on Anthony
Payne, and a third on the British Butterflies; as these are issued
as cheaply as the Institution can afford to supply them, it is hoped
they will meet with a ready sale to such as are interested in the

44 ANNUAL MEETING.

Museum, or wish to preserve at home some record of its interest-
ing contents. The Curator will endeavour to issue from time to
time other guides to the various departments.

It is gratifying to learn that the classes formed last winter
for the study of various scientific subjects were very successful ;
the attendances good, and the grants from the Science and Art
Department high. By the 17 students who sat in the examina-
tions no fewer than 27 certificates were obtained. Similar classes
are again this winter in full operation under the County Council,
and Mr. Crowther is engaged in giving in these rooms lectures on
Geology, Mineralogy, Steam, Mechanical Engineering, Botany,
Hygiene, and Shorthand. The classes are well attended, some
70 students availing themselves of this opportunity of acquiring
knowledge.

It is with pleasure that the Council notice the appointment
also of their Curator as Lecturer on Mining, and on the Raising
and Dressing of Ores at the Mining School, established by the
County Council at Chacewater.

The President, Mr. Edwin Dunkin, F.R.S., Past-President
of the Royal Astronomical Society, having filled the office for
two years, the Council have much pleasure in proposing Sir John
Maclean, F.S.A., another Cornishman, as his successor.

They also propose the following as Vice-Presidents for the
ensuing year :—

Dr. Jago, F.R.S. | Ven.Archdeacon Cornish, M.A.
Rev. Canon Moor, M.A. | Rev. W. Iago, B.A.
Mr. Edwin Dunkin, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Other Members of Council :—~
Mr. John D. Enys, F.G.S. Mr. R. M. Paul, M.A.
Mr. Howard Fox, F.G.S. | Mr. Thurstan C. Peter.
Mr. Hamilton James. Mr. EK. Rundle, F.R.C.S.I.
Rev. A. H. Malan, M.A. Rey. A. R. Tomlinson, M.A.
Mr. F. W. Michell, C.E. Mr. Robert Tweedy.
Mr. A. P. Nix, as Treasurer.

Mr. H. Michell Whitley, F.G.S., and Major Parkyn, F.G.S8.,
as Honorary Secretaries.

On the motion of Mr. J. Claude Daubuz, seconded by Col.
George J. Smith, it was resolved that the Report) be received,
adopted, and printed.

ANNUAL MEETING. 45

Mr. Crowther then read the list of presents to the Museum
and Library.
PRESENTS TO THE MUSEUM.

Capt. Bryant, Truro.

Specimen of black Quartz from St. Dennis
A. J. Edwards,

Nest of Longtailed Titmouse, Parus caudatus, L. }

Perranwharf.
American King Crab, Polyph id li William Harris,
g Cra, olyphemus occidentalis New York
Common Mouse, attacked and killed with mouse Babereulmced
flavus guild. y-
Box of Fungi, Lachnea coccinea, Jacq. a ee

acete . Dr. Rundle.

Tears! Sen Beard, nteniadarta, antenna

\
nowet
Two Micro- cee Mouse Flavus and See
Turton, from Falmouth, attached to stone =

Specimen of Common Weasel, Mustela vulgaris, L.
Specimen of Stoat, Mustela erminea, l.. ...
White example of Stoat ... 1. . - Al

Great Black-backed Gull, Larus marinus, oT aaa eos eee

Lizard Minerals, Potstone in mass and in section... “|
Fossils from Bedruthan Steps ... 1. 10. ve |
Specimens of Polished Serpentine ... ... .. Ce,

A very interesting series of Eocene Fossils from }
New Zealand, including the following genera
e Mollusea :—Pleurotoma, von fines,
assidaria, Mitra, Buccinum, Conus, Triton, :
Fusus, Pyrula, Ranella, Trochus, Hulima, age Gun
Natica, Dentalium, Scalaria, Terebra, Margin- : :
ella, Turitella, Cypraea, Solarium, Hmarginula,
Pecten, Pectunculus, Arca, Limopsis, Leda,
Chama tt EO NT Is el a en pak Oe Ne

Scapolite ; Hornblende and Apatite, Sphene and
Horblende, from Monejkjand, Sphene and Sca-
polite,and Sphene, from Bakken, Rutile crystals,
on gossan and quartz, from Vaereland 5

Arthur L. Collins,
London.

Fungus, Dedalia unicolor, from Penmere

Minerals from the Lizard :—Picotite in Serpentine,
Lankidden Cove; Potstone, Polcornick ;
Porphyritic Hornblende Schist, Bass Point ;
Porphyritic Diorite, Cavonga ; Aluminous Ser-
pentine (Pseudophyte), Kynance

Howard Fox ,F.G.S.,
Falmouth.

R. Vallentin,

Lancelot, Amphioxus lanceolatus, dredged in Veryan
: Falmouth.

J

Unique specimens of Minerals from S.H. Norway: _
|

|

J

BAY sec isccrLecsimietea cceeh oo ski= leas) eet sas ay

46 ANNUAL MEETING.

Specimen of Male Ee: eee pee } F. H. Davey,

gilla, L. ... Ponsanooth.
Specimen of Bewick’s Swan Cygne Bewieki F. King, M.B.C.8.,
Weare, 35 00 “0 om Truro.
Framed Portrait of the ie SWflelnciles Whitley, C. E., :
Truro, Honorary Secretary of the Institution, Mrs. Whitley,
1859-79. Vice-President, 1880-84 ... ... ... Penarth, Truro.
raat 7 Thurstan C. Peter
IRENO ANTACID 550 00 6ca con 000 nod 000 000 Redruth. ,

make, about 1350-1400.. Rashleigh, M.A.,
St. Stephens.

The sum of £5 5s. Od. spent in the acquirement) Rich. Pearce, F.G.S.,
of British Lepidoptera and British Birds’ Eggs Denver, Colorado.

Tiles found in Luxulyan Church in ee 3 of Rae | Rev. J. Kendall

Two light-colored varieties of the Black Crow
(COFOMS COROUG Ir ccs 000 600 500 000-0 noe Walter Carnsew.
Crystallized specimens of White Arsenic... .t Stephen H. Davey,
Ponsanooth.
Antique Lamp, dug from beneath a statue fe
Rameses II, at puree Esypt, by eee
Bagnold, R. E. ee John Burton,
Falmouth.

Oyster on Pipe Bowl ...

Specimen of Cassiterite from Godolphin Mine U Rev. S.Rundle,M.A.,

Breage Godolphin.

Large collection of Winall om re Bolivian)
“Andes: Native Copper, Atacamite, Selenite, |
Gypsum, Galena, Azurite, Malachite, Brochan-
tite, Calcite, peear Bornite, aes
Silver Lead, ee aa

| Robert Harvey, Volos
|
od
Minerals from the Rio Tinto Mines iSotine Ghalcons: sb

London.

James Osborne, C.E.,

rite, Galena, Blende, and several eaters TELL. Ulan
.G.S., :

specimens of iridescent Limonites ...

An interesting series of Fossils, fheludiine =a
Beleminites, Spongilla, Ananchytes ovatus, |
Cidaris sceptifera, Terebratula, Rhynchonella, |
Spondylus spinosus, Lamna elegans, Otodus > Samuel B. Rosevear,
obliquus, and Carcharodon, from the all Fareham, Hants.
Chalk, Portsdown Hill; Pectunculus and Pinna
affinis ‘from the London clay, Fareham

Collection of Minerals illustrating the sett of ine
Uranium Mine, St. Stephens—Gossans, Diorite,
Lime and Copper Uranites, Galena, Mispickel,
Hornblende, eee: Cobalt, Nickel, Chal-
copyrite, &e. 6

The Uranium Mine
Co., per Capt. W. R.
Thomas, F'.G.S.

pease ne NE

A collection of noes elaine: Mlvrstacwies

Cassiterite, Quartz crystals, Pyrites, Aurifer- R. H. Williams,
ous Galena, Cuprite, Wolfram, Native Copper, M.R.C.S.,

Chalcocite, Redruthite, Calcites (ine ferme), Lemon Street.
Pseudomorphic Quartz 0

ANNUAL MEETING. 47

GIFTS TO THE LIBRARY.

4 ti f 1 Geological Soci
ae. ae Royal Geological Society of deat Tig, Sacha.

An Index to the Reports of the Meetings of the }
British Association from 1831 to 1860 ... ... |

Report of the British Association at Leeds, 1890..

Catalogue of the Tertiary Mollusca and mene
dermata of New Zealand sag) As

el
Fishes of New Zealand lg ee 4
Echinodermata of New Zealand ... ... ... ||
Studies in Biology :

°° ||

Geological Explorations of Ne Ferilemil, 1870- il g
1871-2; 1877-8; 1878-9... ae
An Essay on Ornithology, by Walter Buller =. «=. ? John D.Enys, F.G)S.,
do. Botany, by William Colenso Enys.
An Address on the Industries of New Zealand

Natural History of New York Zoology (5 vols.)

do. do. Botany (2 vols.)

do. do. Palzontology(5 vols.)
do. do. Geology (4 vols.)

do. do. Agriculture (5 wale )

U.S. Naval Astronomical Expeditions, vols. 3&6..
Mineral Resources of the United States..

do. do. West of ane Rocky |
Mountains Bee ioe ake Seed eft eSATA

Reports of the Mining Industry in New Zealand . eS Government of

New Zealand.
On the Genesis of Binodal Quartic Curves ae H. M. Jeffery,

Conics M.A., F.B.S.

al
=
do. do. Mineralogy (1 vol. )
|
|

U.S. Geol. Survey, Ninth Annual Report, 1887-8...)

do. 1888 wr

do. Bulletins, 58-61, 62-4, and 66... | The peuneean

do. Monograph, Lake Bonneville . a United Sinies of
SmichsoulaneRepOLte mea ces eee) eee een eee .| America.

do. U.S. Natural History Niisenn')
Two Account Books of the Coinage Hall, Truro ... W.J. Clyma, Truro.

Framed Portrait of the late J. Jope Rogers, M.P.,| Capt. Rogers, R.A.,
President of the Institution, 1867-69 ... ... af Penrose, Helston.

48 ANNUAL MEETING.

Report of the Museum of Owens College

Vol. I (N.S.) .

Official List of VE of te Th Beare
Congress of Hygiene

Phaon and Sappho, a play, rath a selentien of
Poems by J. D. Hosken, Helston

List of Abandoned Mines, corrected to December \
Zist, 1890... .. 7

Summaries of the Statistical portion of ae Reports
of H.M. Inspectors of Mines

Journal of the Marine Bioleee Aeode ue “a
l
a)
-
§

Progress of the Art of Mining, Teimoductony
Lecture to the Mining Students of the Royal
College of Science, by Prof. Foster, D.Se.

Time Reckoning for the Twentieth Century ..

Collection of Ancient Marbles at ee ap E.
Hicks cine

matter Se a the tubercle Bacillus and
Tos DIGUS 25 Fo. see ee lve

es

.§

Reprints of three Editorials on the Toxic effect of =

Hazell’s Annual, 1891 ... vo

Portrait of the Right Hon. Lord St. Dee Presi-
dent of the Institution, 1871-73

Carved Oak, belonging to the former Mayor’s chair
which stood in St. Mary’s Church. This oak
is to be used in the making of a Presidential
chair for the Institution

The Wealth and Beers of New South Wales,
1889-90 ;

Year book of New South Wales se
Two old Maps, (1) the S.W. Counties of fTngland
and Wales; (2) Cornwall, 1630 & =

Thesaurus Ecclesiasticus eee or a Survey
of the Diocese of Exeter, 1782 ..

Framed Portrait of Mr. Edwin Dunkin, F.R. s,
F.R.A.S8., President of the Institution, 1889- 91

“The Midnight Sky,”
Dunkin, F.R.S.

Archivos do Museu Nacional do Rio- as Jaa ee
Vol. VII...

Le Muséum National de ce aneiro 3 son Lantelndts sur
les Sciences Naturelles au Brésil

new edition, Beh Edwin

The Curator,
Owens College.

The Association,
Plymouth.

Dr. Rundle.

The Rev. 8. Rundle,
M.A., Godolphin.

ee er ee

Prof. C. Le Neve
Foster, D.Sc., B.A.

The Author.

Sanford Fleming,
LL.D., Washington.

Leeds Philosophical
& Literary Society.

Bacteriological
Laboratory,
Acad. of Sciences,
Philadelphia.
Hazell, Watson, and
Viney, Ltd., London.

The Rt. Hon. Lord
St. Levan. 3

J. Claude Daubuz,
High Sheriff of
Cornwall.

Agent General of
New South Wales.

Thurstan C. Peter,
Redruth.

The President.

By the Author.

The Government
of Brazil.

ANNUAL MEETING.

BOOKS PURCHASED.

Nature.

Zoologist.

Science Gossip.

Knowledge.

Ray Society.

Palzeontographical Society.

Meteorological Magazine.

British Rainfall.

Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society.
The Western Antiquary.

The Life of Sir Humphry Davy.
Agricultural Geology, by Nicholas Whitley, Truro.
The Eagle, Vol. I.

49

Transactions of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, Vol. IV.

EXCHANGES WITH OTHER SOCIETIES.

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia

Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and
Treland

Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club .
Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club.

Birmingham Natural History cna Microscopical
Society

Birmingham Philosophical Society ...

Boston Society of Natural History .. 5
Bristol and Gloucester Archxological sevice,
Bristol Naturalists’ Society

British and American Archeological Sneteren of
Rome

Canadian Institute He
Colorado Scientific Society...

Cumberland and Westmoreland Association for the
Advancement of Literature and Science

DepartmientiofeNlines- css) cas) 2” sen, eel) aes

Der K. Leop-Carol Deutschen Academie du Natur-
forscher

Devonshire Association ° o¢
Eastbourne Natural History eecicey
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society

Philadelphia.
London.

Bath.

Belfast.
Cockburnspath.
Birmingham.

Birmingham.
Boston, U.S.A.
Gloucester.
Bristol.

Rome.

Toronto.
Denver, Colorado,
S.A,

Carlisle.

Sydney, New South
" Wales.

Halle.

Tiverton.
Eastbourne.
Chapel Hill, U.S.A.

50 ANNUAL MEETING.

Essex Field Club .

Geologists’ eaten

Geological Society of aietbmeh ‘i
Geological Society of Glasgow ... 1... 14. ve
Geological Society of London

Greenwich Royal Observatory .. 6° Une
Leeds Philosophical and ‘ikea seciety

Le Museu Nacional do Rio-de-Janeiro ae
Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society
Liverpool Engineering Society ... ... 20. .0
Liverpool Naturalists’ Field Club ... ... ...
Liverpool Polytechnic Society ... ...

London and Middlesex Archeological Beciecy
Manchester Geological Society ... ... ...
Meriden Scientific Association ...

Mining Association and Institute of Cornwall
Mineralogical Society of Great Britain ...
Missouri Botanical Garden .. alt
Natural History Society of @hawor

New York Academy of Sciences

North of England Institute of Meine al
Mechanical Engineers

Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science

Patent Office . Bei iets
Penzance Nivel TEdetorsy al Atimacian Society
Philosophical Society of Glasgow

Plymouth Institution ..

Powys-land Club ... 1...

Quekett meee csoonical Club

Rochester Academy of Science ...

Royal Astronomical Society

Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society

Royal Dublin Society ., ae

Royal Geological Seat of i

Royal Geological Society of Ireland..

Royal Historical and pension douistey of
Ireland

Royal Institution of Great Britain ...
Royal Irish Academy ..
Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh

Buckhurst Hill.
London.
Edinburgh.
Glasgow.
London.
Greenwich.
Leeds.
Rio-de-Janeiro.
Liverpool.
Liverpool.
Liverpool.
Liverpool.
London.
Manchester.

Meriden, Conn.,
U.S.A.

Camborne.
London.
Missouri, U.S.A.
Glasgow.

New York.

Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

Halifax, Nova Scotia.

London.
Penzance.
Glasgow.
Plymouth.
Welshpool.
London.

Rochester, New York. .

London.
Falmouth.
Dublin.
Penzance.
Dublin.
Dublin.

London.
Dublin.
Edinburgh.

ANNUAL MEETING. ol

Royal Society of Edinburgh ... 1 «2 .. -- Edinburgh.
Seismological Society of Japan... .. ... «. «| Yokohama.
Smithsonian Institution ... ... ss. ss ee «| Washington.
Society of Antiquaries of London .., ... ... ...| London.
SOCIE DY AOMPATUS MP AER fis, cs Jones ere). eee, Demely Wuondon,
Société Mineralogique de France ... .. ..| Paris.
Somersetshire Archzological and eae Eivtoss Taunton.
Society
itherWolliery;sHmeineers., <0 s-1 sco se. se =e) eranton, U-S.A°
The Antiquary ... .. een ce. Seis level alton:
Wagner Free Institute of Scisnee Pe neers pe niladel pia
Y Cymmrodorion Society ... ... ...| London.
Yorkshire Geological and iduibesetats Sac ...| Halifax.
Zoological Society of London ... ... .| London.

The following papers were hen read

“An Ancient Settlement on Trewortha Marsh.”—Rey. 8.
Baring Gould, M.A.

‘“‘A Tin Hebrew Image found in Bodwen Moor.”—Rey. W.
Iago, B.A.

“¢ Cornubiana.’’—Rev. S. Rundle, M.A.

‘Magnetic Rocks of Cornwall.” —Mr. T. Clark.

The Rev. W. Iago described the Hammer used formerly
by the Duchy to mark blocks of tin; gave a new reading of the
St. Hilary Stone; shewed rubbings and casts illustrating the
inscriptions on other stones in Cornwall :—viz., those at Liskeard
Castle, South-hill, Boslow, St. Hilary, St. Clements, Cardinham,
Endellion, Carnsew (Hayle), Sancreed, Minster, &c., several of
which had not hitherto been deciphered; and shewed the inter-
esting Chalice and Paten from Kea, of French workmanship,
lent by Mr. Daubuz.

“Colour Changes in Cornish Stoats.””—Mr. H. Crowther,
F.R.M.S.
‘“‘Oyster Spat on a pipe bowl.”—Mr. HE. Rundle, F.R.C.S.I.

A very handsome volume, the History of the Hundred of
Blackheath, Kent, was presented to the Society by Dr. H. H.
Drake, formerly of St. Austell, but now resident in London.
It is a large folio volume, richly illustrated, and showing great
research and much painstaking,—the presentatation was made
through Mr. Silvanus Trevail.

The proceedings terminated with votes of thanks to the
Officers of the Society, the readers and contributors of papers,
the Chairman, and the Secretary.

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“T68T

METEOROLOGY.

54

TABLE No. 2.

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“T1681.

METEOROLOGY.

TABLE No. 3.

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VoL. XI.

PLAN OF ANCIENT SETTLEMENT, TREWORTHA.
Planned October, 1891; Rev. S. BARING GOULD.

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SCALE— 26 INCHES TO A MILE.

VoL. XI. PLATE |.

-

PLAN OF ANCIENT SETTLEMENT, TREWORTHA.
Planned October, 1891; Rev. S. BARING GOULD.

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é = = = =

57

AN ANCIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH.
By tHE Rey. S. BARING-GOULD.

Trewortha marsh occupies the bed of an ancient lake that
has been silted up by the granite rubble brought down by
several streams that flow into the basin. ‘This rubble has
attracted the attention of tin miners from an early period,
certainly from prehistoric times, and those who searched for tin
have left their traces on the margin of the marsh. Indeed, the
banks that slope into Trewortha bottom are everywhere covered
with remains, that show that in a former age there must have
been a considerable population settled on this desolate and lone-
some spot.

At Tresillan, where an inlet of the ancient lake formed an
arm, were ruins that have been recently destroyed, and these
were of honses of the date of Edward VI and Queen Mary, if
one may judge from the coins found there during the process of
demolition. An octagonal cheese-form or press was also there
discovered, cut in granite, that belongsto about the same date ;
this, as well as the coins, is now in the possession of Francis R.
Rodd, Esq., of Trebartha Hall. These houses had “cloam”
ovens, fire-places, and chimneys.

Quite other is the settlement further up the valley, to the
south, at the head of the marsh. Here the whole moor-side is
cut up with lines of demarcation forming paddocks and fields,
running down to the water’s edge, and with the remains of
circular huts in most of these paddocks.

Different again is a settlement that lies between Rushleford
Gate and this colony of hut-circle-dwellers. Here also the moor
slope is lined with upright stones that formed the bases of field
and paddock walls, but these are in connexion with a cluster of
dwellings that are oblong.

Through the kindness of Mr. T. R. Bolitho, the owner of
the land, and of Mr. F. R. Rodd, who placed his workmen at
my disposal, I have been able, assisted by the Rev. A. H. Malan,
of Altarnon, to thoroughly explore two of these habitations, and
to partially excavate two or three more.

58 ANOIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH.

The name Trewortha means in Cornish, the upper settle-
ment, and it may have been given to that cluster of oblong
habitations now under consideration. Tresillan, the other settle-
ment, is, perhaps, Tre-sulien, that of one named Sulien.

The cluster of oblong houses lies on the slope facing east,
in a tongue of land formed by Smallacomhe Down between the
Withy-brook from the south, and a stream from Goodaver
Downs that flows into Trewortha Marsh from the west. To the
east is a dip in the moor, between Trewortha Tor and Ridge,
through which the distant chain of Dartmoor Tors from Sourton
to Mistor can be seen. The space occupied by the settlement is
500 feet by 300 feet, and consists of nine rectangular huts,—
ten, if we include one on a mound in the marsh, and there are
some two or three hut-circles as well.

Of these oblong huts all point east and west, and have their
doors to the south. A peculiar feature is that they have a high
bank thrown up to the west, above them, to give shelter against
wind and rain, and in some cases there isa passage between this
sheiter bank and the head of the house.

Another peculiar feature is the approach to this colony from
the north by Rushleford-gate. It is along a broad road, sixty
feet across, enclosed within track lines of upright stones, but
on approaching the settlement the road is partly blocked by a
line of upright large stones drawn across it, having in the midst
a gateway ten feet wide. At the south end of the village, the
road again contracts to 30 ft., and there are some large stones in
the middle that may have belonged to a cross-wall. They are
not earth-fast, and have at one time been upright.

We will now take each hut by itself; and begin with one
that lies apart from the rest, it is marked A on the plan. This
has not as yet been completely excavated. It consists of two
chambers that never communicated with each other. That tothe
east is lined throughout with upright slabs of stones, and
measures 7-ft. 6-in. by 6-ft. 3-in. The doorway, exceptionally,
faces the east. One of the jambs alone is im situ; the other lies
outside, as doesalso the lintel. The western-most chamber, 9-ft.
by 7-ft. 6-in., has the walls built for the most part in rude courses,
but two upright slabs have been utilised, The door is to the

ANCIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH. 59

south, and is not constructed of uprights. About 8 feet to the
south, is a large upright stone, 3 feet high. There are traces of
boundary stones round the mass that represent the walls, but
whether originally set on edge as about a cairn, or that they are
merely stones fallen from the walls, has not been decided as yet
by the spade.

Hut B. The interior length of this hut is 50-ft. It con-
tains three compartments, all entered from that in the centre,
which alone has a door for egress. This central chamber has not
been excavated. It measures 12-ft. 6-in. by 10-ft. 6-in. The
doorway is not in the middle. Both jambs are standing, they
are stones 3-ft. high, and the lintel is just without, a slab
measuring 4-ft. by 2-ft. 8-in. The opening between the jambs
is 2-ft. 6-in.

Turning to the right is a door in the party wall leading into
the largest apartment, measuring 24-ft. long, by about 10-ft.
wide. The jambs remainin place. This chamber seems to have
been lined with upright slabs of granite. It has not yet been
excavated.

Turning from the vestibule to the left, a doorway of which
one of the jambs is gone, gives admission to a small chamber,
measuring 9-ft. 6-in. by 12-ft. The walls of this house are 3-ft,
thick, but the western wall is four times the width of the east,
and the object for this width was to allow of the construction in
its thickness of both an oven and a locker, each to the depth of
5-ft. The oven was never of ‘‘cloam,” but was constructed of
granite, and precisely like a beehive hut in structure. It was
3-ft. in diameter, built of granite-stones gathered together so as
to overlap and form adome. Fires have turned the stones red,
and have so injured them that the top of the oven has fallen in.
The bottom of the oven was but 6 inches above the level of the
floor. Close to the oven, in the depth of the wall is a locker, the
opening to which is 1-ft. 4-in. wide, and 1-ft. 7-in. high, running
five feet into the depth of the wall, and covered over with four
or five slabs of granite. It was no doubt placed close to the
oven that its contents might be kept dry; those in the furthest
depth could only be extracted by means of a crooked stick. We
removed the coverers, but found nothing in the locker, and then

60 ANCIENT SETTLEMENT ON. TREWORTHA MARSH.

replaced the slabs as found. The south wall of this chamber is
constructed of upright slabs. The chamber has not yet been
fully excavated.

Hut c. This hut is about 60-ft. long internally, and about
12-ft. wide. It has not yet been examined with the spade. It.
apparently consisted of a long hall and of two small chambers,
one of which is an excrescence to the side of the oblong dwelling.
A passage passes between the shelter bank and the west wall of
this house.

Hut D, about 28-ft. long by 8-ft. 6-in. wide, consists of a
single chamber. The door-jambs and lintel remain. This hut
has not as yet been excavated.

Hut £. This is the longest of all the habitations, and has
been pretty thoroughly explored.

It consists of an oblong building, measuring externally 80-ft.
by 20-ft. It comprises four chambers, but that to the east is
much more modern than the rest, and the original length of this
house was 70-ft. Admission was obtained through a doorway
3-ft. 3-in. wide, the bottom of which was paved. The lintel was
fallen, but has been re-placed by us. It was not supported by
upright jambs, but rested on walls. A screen of granite was
erected on the west side of the door, probably to keep the rain
and wind from driving in at so exceptionally large an entrance.
The height of the lintel from the floor is 3-ft. Although not in
place, its position and height could be approximately determined
by the screen within, that stood 3-ft. above the floor. It may
not have been so high, but it probably was. A doorway so wide
was also, in all likelihood, unusually high ; and 8-ft. is the height
of the jambs to Hut B.

On passing through this door we enter a hall, 44-ft.
long, by 14-ft. wide, divided into two by a screen of upright
slabs of granite, standing about 3-ft. above the soil. If we
turn to the left, we find ourselves in a hall divided again
into two portions by stone screens, that to the east is one slab
standing forward 2-ft. 3-in. at right angles with the main wall,
serving to give those in the chamber some shelter from the
draught from the door. Seven feet six inches to the west is

VoL. Xi.

VO SrF™7M000 >

PLAN OF PRINCIPAL HOUSER
Planned October, 1891; Rev. S. BARING GOL

SCALE IN FEET
if 8 64 2 q ue ze
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NUTT i!
Later additions, Two of the Cushion-stones from the Hail set up at G. wt Nott Natta

Main Hall with Stone Benches down the sitles. “ Judges” seat at H.
Duelling Hall divided into two stalls on the South side, Hearth back at \.
Chamber uith Locker in the North walt,

Paddock. Stile at K,

Main Entrance, paved. Lintel re-placed.

Wind-hole, diameter of opening, 1-ft. 6-in.

Buttress against N. wall. Probably stack of Peat between the Buttress
and the stone screen N,

Entrance to the village, from the West.,
Shelter Bank.

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PLATE II.

{

SS. - FEED Ghill F

PLAN Oe PRINCIPAL HOUSE UTE a
: at | ie CNTs fant al cm
Planned October, 1891; Rev. S. BARING “| ve NR rt 2 yy UL
D. 0

SCALE IN FEET g
G

1 $864 2 \
2
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——

stones from the Hail set up at G. (itn

LAUTAN,
MEE TE yan
NS a(onntill AZ
= S “iz

A Later additions. Two of the Cushion-
B Main Hall with Stone Benches down the sides. “ Judges” seat at H. = ant N x \
C Duelling Hall divided into two stalls on the South side, Hearth back at \. = 3 I NN Me e
D Chamber with Locker in the North wall, z AAU) B “%
E Paddock. Stile at K. Z =
F Main Entrance, paved. Tintel replaced. 2 Z
L Wind-hole, diameter of opening, 1-ft. 6-in. N Z
M Buttress against N. wall. Probably stack of Peat between the Buttress z j E
and the stone screen N, u Z
O Fntrance to the village, from the West., G
P Shelter Bank. ° i 4,
ATP RNOSTUTTDON POET TOOL Tg lies
Se A a exe eB MATT ee)
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FLOOR OF GRAVEL AND [= S z
SMALL STONES S 8
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4

;
‘HEARTH :

VLA big dtd tba othe

fon f ;
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ie S scow
KSI NTCMMN CTT DE COLELLO NLL ungti’ran, Mma r fea Ly
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WMH My py WIM

ek ae Wh lye oe a ee
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Yi Mr z

SECTION LOGKING Sout.

ANCIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH. 61

another similar screen of granite, standing out 2-ft. 9-in. from
the wall and dividing off a portion of the hall that is 12-ft. 9-in.
long. Not only so, but in the midst of the hall is an upright
slab of granite, 2-ft. 3-in. high, with a paved hearth to the west
of it which, as well asthisslab, bears tokens of fire. This, then,
was the fire-hearth and] fire-back for the dwellers in the upper
compartment of the hall. Those in the lower had also their
hearth, but it was on the unpaved floor, and it was without a
fire-back. The soil was burnt brick-red where it had stood.
Apparently two families had occupied this hall, their sleeping
portions separated by a stone screen, and each had its own fire.
This is very much the arrangement of an Esquimo house at the
present day. The south wall is entirely composed of upright
slabs of granite. The wall on the opposite side is in a ruinons
condition, and never had a range of upright stones to constitute
or to line it.

Passing through a narrow door, 2-ft. wide, partly of stones
set upright as jambs, and partly of stones in courses, we reach
a small chamber measuring 18-ft. 4-in. by 14-ft., the floor
of which was very hard, and made of granite sand, and pebble,
beaten down into a sort of compost with clay. In the north wall
of this apartment is a stone locker, the floor of which is 15
inches above the floor of the chamber. It is 18 inches high and
as many deep. It is covered by two slabs of granite, still in
place. In this easternmost chamber were found some fragments
of pottery.

If we return to the dwelling-hall, where were the two fires,
we find a curious feature in the north wall, opposite the entrance.
This is a narrow opeuing, 1-ft. 6-in. in diameter, on the floor-
level. Of its original height there are no means of judging,
outside this is a granite screen, 3-ft. 3-in., at right angles to the
wall, and rising to the same height from the ground. This is to
the east of the opening. The similar screens outside the main
doorway are to the east and west of that door. The only possible
explanation of this hole with its screen is, that it was a draught-
opening in the wall, either for clearing the house of smoke, or
for helping the firesto draw. Possibly, when the fires would not
burn with the wind in one quarter, the opening in the wall was

62 ANOIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH.

employed to create a suitable current of air. If now we turn to
the right at the great entrance, we find ourselves in a hall 20-ft.
long, with a row of benches of stone down each side, and on
the north side the uppermost seat has granite arms. The seats

UAZZZ2
,
if “0h “
wi y
Mf AS :
Me
TK, Mn,

at

I (hk Fa cee
ip
(7)
POOR

TO SHOW THE SEATS ON N. SIDE
(By kind permission of the “ Daily Graphic.”)

PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE ‘‘COUNCIL HALL” LOOKING N.E., THE SCREEN REMOVED

are formed of upright slabs, eighteen inches high, erected so
that their faces shall run parallel with the side-walls, 1-ft. 8-in.

ANCIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH 63

from them. On the north side there is a double such line, one
being erected against the wall. The space between is filled in
with small pieces of granite and sand, wedged together very
compactly, and then a slab of granite with a straight edge was
placed on this shelf thus constructed. The only seat that is
different in construction is that with the elbows. It is built up
of stones and turf, and has no face of stone to support the
cushion stones. This elbowed-seat is four feet between the
elbows. The side to the west is formed of two upright slabs,
that to the east of one alone. The elbows rise 1-ft. 4-in. above
the seat. There are two cushion-stones to this seat, which would
very well accommodate two persons. The rest of the bench
would hold about 8 persons, and ten persons might sit on the
opposite side. The cushion-stones are very distinct, and seem to
have had a straight edge put tothem. They are not all in place,
but some dozen are. Theseats on the south side are at a slightly
lower level than those on the north side. No fire seems ever to
have been kindled in this hall ; we could discover no trace of
fire on the floor. Close to the entrance was found a granite
handquern, the internal concave portion polished with friction.
At the lower end of this hall with benches is a doorway com-
municating with the easternmost chamber. This doorway did
not exist originally, and has been knocked through the end
wall diagonally. It could not be driven straight through owing
to a large stone that formerly formed part of the foundation of
the outside wall. Moreover, the junction of more recent structure
is observable outside, the walls returning at right angles, and
not being dovetailed into those in the same line of this eastern-
most apartment. In this room or linney that measures 7-ft. by
14-ft., were two of the cushion stones that had been removed
from the seats in the hall, and set up on their sides in the ground,
to form what appeared to have been a manger for yearlings, but
which had no stone to close the end. These slabs were so
slightly sunk in the floor, that they fell when exposed, and we
replaced them on the seats in the hall, where they fit exactly.

The floor of the long hall, between the rows of benches, is
very much sunk in the middle. Possibly sheep or bullocks may
have been driven through it to this chamber at the end, and
have worn the depression. It is, however, difficult to understand

64 ANOIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH.

how a bullock could have been got through the door at the east
end, for it is only 2-ft. wide, and if we may judge from the
jambs found in place, it cannot have been above 2-ft. 6-in. high.

The ‘Council Hall’? may, however, have been utilized in
later times for bullocks, and the cushion-stones removed to make
mangers for the cattle. If this were so, then perhaps the traces
of a central hearth were destroyed.

To return to the hall of seats. The stone-slabs that formed
a screen between it and the upper hall, where were the hearths
were five in number. Two formed the elbow to the upper seat
on the north side. In a line with this, were three more. All
were lying on their faces down hill, but of their position there
could be no doubt, as the groove in the soil remained, showing
where they had been sunk into the floor. The floor of the room
above is a few inches higher than that of the lower hall. Out-
side this lower hall, on the north side, is a sort of buttress built
against the wall, consisting of large stones laid one on the other. I
thinkit not improbable that the supply of peat for fuel in the house
was stacked between this buttress and the stone screen already
referred to, near the narrow opening in the north wall, into the
upper hall. It is possible, were this the case, that the fuel was
thrown in through thishole. The north side would be that least
exposed to driving rain, and it would have been a convenience
to thrust the fuel in on the same side as the stack, instead of
having to carry it all round the house. Outside the opening,
west of the stone-screen, were slabs of stone, either pavement,
or lintels of the opening that had been cast down.

To return to the main entrance on the south side. West of
the screen that sheltered the door, at the distance of 6-it. 6-in.,
is a stone stile into the little paddock that adjoins the house on
the south. It is 38-ft. wide, and the stile slab is 2-ft. 5-in. above
the ground. It is held in place by a stone jamb, a slab stand-
ing 3-ft. 6-in. from the ground, and 2-ft. 6-in. wide. On the
west side of this stile we found the kitchen midden of the
house, a stratum of peat-ashes and broken crockery lying on the
virgin soil, about an inch thick. Here we found three broken
hones, a slate spindle-whorl, two flint chips, and a broken
polished flint celt-head. I may add that we found two more
hones in the hall with the benches.

ak.

VoL. XI.

lw WAI Meat Me Mr Mey te ag
MLL ae ee

yh tn, 1, F
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STONE SEAT fy UE y 7 Ni fi
MO

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‘ STONE OF SCREEN. SECTION OF LOCKER, CHAMBER D,

ELEVATION OF 500 FROM WITHIN

SECTION OF SEAT, N. SIDE, BELOW JUDGE'S”
CHAIR.

Yesesd he orpeseathOn asa aoe ano ae eae sess

f 1
Ab -7-© == =11.8=

emma

PLATE III

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ELEVATION OF EAST WALL | SHOWING OVEN ANO BE (2)

What ostli/ae

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ELEVATION. OF LOCKER /N N.WALL,

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\

SUNKEN WAY TO THE 'WATER

zzz Ullzzerzmalzzzm ;

1p a 3 se Ba 9 SCALE OF FEET. 10 19
| = ———————
|

Z PLAN OF HUT E Explored amd planned Oct., 1891.
Rev. S. BARING GouLD.

ANOIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH. 65

On the west end of this house is a passage between its wall
and the shelter-bank. This bank slopes down to the moor sur-
face rapidly on the west, but was walled towards the east. The
passage is 3-ft. 3-in. wide, and was provided at the north end
with granite jambs, to serve as doorway. The lintel, if there
was one, is gone.

We come now to Hut F. This has been pretty thoroughly
explored. It consists of a single chamber, measuring 11-ft. by
10-ft. It lies to the east of the other habitations, and has the
peculiarity of possessing enormously thick walls to the east and
west, seven and ten feet in diameter. Onthe south was a paved
entrance from what may be called the village green, that led to
a sunken way continued about 250-ft. to the marsh, protected on
each side by a wall of upright stones. After entering this
sunken way, a door opens on the left, 10-ft. down ; it is some-
what askew, and the floor is paved. The jambs are 2-ft. 6-in.
apart, and rise but 1-ft. 8-in. from the threshold stones. The
lintel is 4-ft. 6-in. long. It was lying with the jambs, fallen,
but we have set them up. The door is unusually low, and the
hut must have been entered not crawling on all fours—that
would be impossible, but wriggling in sideways. In the western
wall which is 7-ft. thick is a locker, the floor of which is but a
couple or three inches above the floor .of the chamber. The
locker is four feet deep, and is in two stages, rising a step half
way in. The height is 2-ft. 3-in. at the mouth. It has two
granite coverers im situ, never displaced.

The wall to the north of this locker is very ruinous, as is
also a portion of that at right angles to it. In the floor were
two stones set up on their edge, rising about 1-ft. 3-in. above the
floor, and enclosing a portion of the area, very much in the same
manner as in the Hebrides to this day, in some of the turf and
stone hovels, curbstones are set up in the floor to serve as seats
by day, and to form the bounds of a bed at night.

The east wall contains an oven built in the same fashion as
that in Hut Bp. The floor is level with the floor of the hut. The
dome has been burnt and has crumbled in. There can be no ques-
tion as to the purpose of this construction, the stones reveal the
action of fire. Close to the oven, separated from it by a narrow
wall, is a singular long hole, running 7-ft. 6-in. into the depth of

66 ANCIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH.

the wall. It has as its floor a huge earthfast granite block with
smooth upper surface, rising 8 inches above the level of the
chamber-floor, and extending nearly, not quite, to the extremity
of the locker. ‘This locker differs from the others, in that it is

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2-ft. 9-in. wide at the entrance, and it apparently widens in the
middle to 3-ft., but the wall on the south side is in too ruinous

ANOIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH. 67

a condition for an exact measure to be taken. Was this a bed
recess! or was it a warm store place near the oven?

The kitchen midden to this hut was found at the east end,
where were much peat-ash and many fragments of pottery, at a
depth of about 3-ft. 6-in. from the present surface.

Hut G has been but partially explored. On the north side
is a structure like a goose or goat house, but very small, and in
this fragments of pottery were found. Large upright slabs of
stone have been employed in places to form the walls. There
seems to have been no division into chambers. The door was
near the west end in the south wall, and hasitsjambs. Whether
there was another door further down, or whether a fallen upright
slab has formed a gap in the wall, can not be determined with-
out further spade work.

Hut H consists of a single chamber. It hasnotas yet been
searched. Nor has Hut |, that consists of two chambers. A
remarkable feature of Hut | is that a trench was carried round
the head and north side to convey away any water that ran down
the hill-slope towards it.

There are further structures deserving examination and
notice. One of these is a circle of stones to the south of Hut B.
There are, showing, about 16 stones, and all seem at one time to
have been upright. Whether they were ranged in two concen-
tric rings, and formed the base of a hut-circle is not certain.
The diameter is 12 feet.

Another circle is very much more distinctly a habitation.
The hearth-stones show above the moss. This will have to be
explored. Near it is what is probably another hut-circle, but so
defaced and pillaged for stones, that its character has been
almost destroyed.

To the south of the settlement is a large circle about 100-ft.
in diameter, a pound, with a division running down the centre
from east to west, and adjoining it are the remains of two hut-
circles. East of the settlement and north-east, are two cairns of
small stones, apparently burnt. One, the larger, was constructed
over five huge fallen stones, that I at first supposed to be a ruined
cromlech. But pick and spade showed that the bases of these
stones had never been moved by man. Among the stones and

68 ANOIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH.

peat that covered them were found fragments of pottery similar
in kind to that strewn in the kitchen middens of the settlement.

Numerous barrows or cairns spot the surface of the hill-
shoulders all round Trewortha. We have explored but one
systematically. It contained a kistvaen, which was empty.
Beneath the kistvaen was a slab of stone embedded under a layer
of clay. Under the slab was the virgin soil, locally called ‘‘ the
country,” in which a hollow had been scooped, and there some
ashes were laid. No pottery, no flint, nor bronze were found.

If we come now to the question as to the date of this settle-
ment, the question remains unsolved. The presence of hones
shews that iron was in use. The pottery is wheel-turned. The
discovery of flint proves nothing. A small fragment of iron,
apparently of an iron pot, hasa much more recent look than
pre-historic times.

It would be rash to speculate as to the date of these re-
mains till some further evidence has turned up for fixing it. So far
not a particle of glass, not a coin, not a scrap of anything but
the coarsest local pottery have been found, the latter wheel-
turned indeed, but badly burnt; and composed of clay with
granite-sand in it. Ofornament there isvery little. Ifwe may
judge from the fragments of the mouths of the vessels, they
had very wide mouths, some 14 inches in diameter, and all
were of bulging shape. No glazing exists on any of them.
What we do learn from the remains is that they were inhabited
by people who lived very much the lives of Eskimo. Here is
Dr. Nansen’s account of an Eskimo house :—‘‘In winter they
live in regular houses built of stone and turf, and with the floor ~
generally below the surface of the ground. These houses or huts
contain but one room, which serves as the abode of the whole
family, or generally of an aggregation of families, men and
women, young and old, being more or less promiscuously mixed
up together. Theroom is of an oblong shape, and is commonly
so low that it is all but impossible to stand upright init. Along
the whole back wall goes the principal bench, which was 5-ft. to
6-ft.deep. On this sleep the whole family, or rather the married
members and the unmarried daughters, lying side by side, with
their feet towards the back, and their heads pointing into the room

ANCIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH. 69

....If there are several families in occupation of the same house,
which is the rule, the main bench is divided by low partition-
boards into separate stalls for each family.” ‘‘ Hach of the
families,” he says elsewhere, ‘‘had its own partition marked off
from the common couch, and in each stall so formed, man, wife,
and children would be closely packed, a four-foot space thus
having to accommodate husband, two wives, and six or more
children,” (F. Nansen, ‘‘ Across Greenland,” 1890).

We have in the largest hut precisely this arrangement,—it
is divided into two stalls for two families, each with its own
hearth.

The houses must have been low, roofed with rafters brought
together in the middle, and covered with thatching of rushes
and turf. The smoke escaped through the roof. There is not a
trace of chimney or of window in any one of the huts.

The upright slabs of granite pretty well mark the height of
the walls, they are usually thin and pointed at the top, and could
hardly support walling laid above them in courses. Moreover,
the fact of the locker and ovens being either on the floor-level
or raised but a very few inches above it show that the inmates
worked in a crouching position. The doors were generally never
higher than 3 feet. Ido not lay much stress on the low door
in Hut F, as that was fallen, and we may possibly have made
some mistake in re-erecting the stones, but other huts have the
jambs unfallen.

That the huts were not in continous occupation through a
long tract of time I think certain, from the condition of the
kitchen middens. Of these we explored two, and both showed
no traces of sequence of deposits. Moreover, it was evident
that the surface of turf and peaty soil had been removed round
the houses, for the layer of ash and pottery lay on that; and
there was growth of peat and turf above it to the height of from
2-ft. 6-in. to 3-ft. 6.in.

We found no evidence that the inmates of these huts were
engaged in tin mining. No moulds, nodross. On the contrary,
there was every appearance that they had been a pastoral people.
The hones found were all small, far too small to have served for
sharpening sickle or scythe,

70 ANOIENT SETTLEMENT ON TREWORTHA MARSH.

But what is the significance of the hall with its benches and
its elbow chair at the head ? It has the appearance of having
been the place of meeting of a Stannary Court. A place of
gathering of some solemn character it must have been.

So far the explorations of the ancient settlement on
Trewortha has yielded nothing that can fix its date even
approximately. But if the fates do not oppose, it is my inten-
tion in the spring of 1892 to continue the excavations, in the
hope that at length some clearer light may fall on these very
remarkable remains, and enable us to determine to what epoch
they belong.

I will reserve, till I am able to report on these further
researches, what I have to say relative to the tools and pottery
found at Trewortha.

With reference to the plan of the settlement, I may add
that I have omitted the unfinished cutting and embankment of
an abandoned mineral railway that runs to the west. The track
lines have been cut through or buried, but can be traced where
they emerge west of the bank or cutting. The visitor to the
settlement will have no difficulty in finding it. Hut A is just
below the last archway in the line.

7A

SKETCH SECTIONS OF TWO SIDES OF A SQUARE PIT NEAR
THE BEACH, ON THE NORTH-EAST SIDE OF PENDENNIS
HEAD, FALMOUTH.

Examined by Mr. HOWARD FOX, F.G.S., and Mr. NICHOLAS WHITLEY, F.Met.s.
Sept. 18th, 1890,

Note sy Mr. WHITLEY.

These deposits, recently exposed in an excavation above the
base of the cliff, appear to me to call for special examination, as
being marked on the Ordnance Geological Map as the site of a
‘‘ Raised-beach,” and so described by Sir Henry De-la-Beche in
his report on the Geology of Devon and Cornwall, as a “‘ Raised
Beach,” p. 428. A detailed consideration of the beds exposed,
leads to the conclusion that the mass of the materials have been
washed down from the hills above, and not washed up by the
sea. The base of the sections, however, does not reach the level
of the sea, where it is more than probable that other deposits
may be found at a lower level.

The inclined bed of very fine silicious sand is of great interest.
The particles are so fine as to form an impalpable powder when
touched by the finger. Under the microscope they are all
angular and rugged, and of a uniform size, nearly all silicious,
except a few plates of mica may be seen, and some black grains
of hornblende or schorl. When tested by muriatic acid there
is no indication of lime, shells, or coral, so abundant in the
harbour sand. On the whole, I am of opinion that the whole
mass exposed in the section must be described as the ‘‘ Head,”
so named by the late Godwin-Austin, and thus described by Dr.
James Geike. ‘‘ The only accumulations in Cornwall which can
be recognised as pertaining to the Ice Age, are certain raised-
beaches, and the peculiar earthy and stony debris (‘‘head’’)
which caps them. -These as we have seen, belong probably
to the last inter-glacial epoch and the final cold stage of the
glacial period.” —Prehustoric Europe, p. 437,

ae ‘CRAISED BEACH.”’

Nore spy Mr. H. Fox.

When the Sub-marine Mining Corps were excavating a
a pit south of the Falmouth Docks property, in which to build
the foundations of their test-house, last autumn, I asked my late
much valued friend, Mr. Whitley, to inspect it. He did so, and
subsequently sent me the enclosed sketches and description,
inviting me to add any further observations. As this was prob-
ably his last geological excursion, this paper possesses a peculiar
interest and value, and brings to my family and myself the
remembrance of a delightful visit, in which his poetical and
literary lore illumined the drier geological questions under
discussion.

In comparing Mr. Whitley’s excellent sketch and notes with
those made by myself, I find that the bands of sand appeared
to me to have straighter outlines than those given in his drawing,
and amongst the ‘‘ Head” of rubble I observed in addition
to bands of clay a good deal of finely crushed rock, free from
any admixture of soil.

A somewhat similar exposure of sand may now be studied
in the excavation behind No. 1 store at the Falmouth Docks.

VoL. XI. = PLATE IV.

SIGE CL SE Gillon Ss

Exposed in a newly-excavated square Pit near the base of
the cliff on the N.E. side of Pendennis-head, Falmouth
Harbour.

No. 1. Section of the North side of the Pit, about 30 feet long at the base.

UA euarace (or ane GROUND po au tii ea

_——<<—$—_——=

SOIL
BROWN LOAMY SOIL,
STONES = 3 ao ele,
WaSUBSOIL >WITH , ANGULAR a ale
0 SN OED 9 9,9 EHP I SLOSO LOT OS
= ooo fa Po 7 oO

Gu =

o 2 we ai ae
a © ‘HEAD® OF RUBBLE FROM THE HILL
© @__< ABOVE, WITH ANGULAR STONES

*2) PITCHED AT ALL ANGLES,

= _ SOME AT THE BASE VERY
@ & <= © LARGE. ee)
) g 2) ei

Le ye

No. 2. Section of the- South side of the Pit, being about 39 feet long at the
base. The pit is square, and the base may be about 12 feet above

high water mark.
| __ |

73

PRIVATE TRADE ON THE FALMOUTH PACKETS.
BY ARTHUR HAMILTON NORWAY.

In tracing the history of the Falmouth Packets from 1793
to 1815, a period which includes two wars, separated by the
short peace of 1802, it is impossible to avoid the observation
that the peace divides the story not only chronologically, but
also in other ways of more importance. The conduct of the
officers and crews of the packets was creditable in almost every
instance in the later war, but in the earlier one it was by no
means so distinguished. In fact, so far as can be gathered from
the meagre records which still exist, the Falmouth men were
far from shewing any readiness to risk their lives between the
years 1793 and 1802; and by their conduct they gave some
colour to certain grave charges which were brought against
them.

_ Inthe year 17938 a very loose discipline prevailed at Falmouth.
It was not a recent growth. On the contrary, there is reason
to believe that the officers of the General Post Office, whose
duty it was to regulate the service in the public interest, had
long been unfit to exercise control. It was an age of corruption
in every department of Government, and the Packet Establish-
ment being located in a distant corner of the country, offered
opportunities for peculation which were not likely to be over-
looked, and which it was most difficult to check. Many of the
packets in those days were owned by officials of the Post Office,
from messengers and porters up to the Secretary himself, who
indeed received tolerably large sums as fees from the commanders
upon their appointment, and whenever fresh commissions were
issued to them. It is obvious that this practice, which left
persons who were pecuniarily interested in the movements of the
packets to direct their voyages, was open to very serious
objection; and as a matter of fact nobody believed that the
officers in question performed their public duties without some-
times modifying them to serve their private interests.

74 PRIVATE TRADE ON THE FALMOUTH PACKETS.

When this state of things existed at head quarters, it was
not to be expected that strict views of duty would be found at
Falmouth. The captains were subjected to heavy extortions by
the agents, who moreover dealt in every kind of naval stores,
and compelled the captains to purchase such articles from them.
In return for the complaisance of the captains in this respect,
the agents relaxed discipline in any way which the captains
might desire. If, for instance, it had occurred to any commander
that by sailing with a few men short of his muster he could
make an increased profit by saving their victualling allowance,
the agent would be careful not to observe what was going on.
If the captain wished to stay on shore, and send his packet to
sea under charge of one of his officers, the agent would accept
and forward to London a certificate that he was ill, without
asking any questions either as to the nature of the illness or the
qualifications of the person appointed to command the packet,
who was not infrequently a common seamen. If the captain
had received from some Bristol merchant a larger consignment
of goods to sell on commission than the packet ought to carry,
the agent would still certify that the vessel was in trim when she
left Falmouth Harbour, and had nothing on board which could
impede her sailing. In smuggling, which was a tolerably
common practice on the packets, the agent could be still more
useful; and in fact the opportunities which he had of rendering
little services to the captains were so numerous, that it can easily
be believed that the post of agent at Falmouth was very lucrative
and much coveted.

It was inevitable that investigation should come at last. In
the year 1785 a Mr. Bell was agent. Perhaps he extorted from
the captains more than they could pay, or, which is on the whole
more probable, a stricter view of duty was beginning to be held
at the General Post Office. In any case, enquiry was made into
Mr. Bell’s proceedings, and before it was concluded, he shot
himself dead.

This tragical event, coupled with the recommendations of a
Committee of the House of Commons, which was appointed
shortly afterwards, seems to have led to the establishment of
many reforms; and in 17938 entirely new arrangements were
made at Falmouth, The agent was forbidden to hold shares in

PRIVATE TRADE ON THE FALMOUTH PACKETS. 75

any of the packets, or to deal in naval stores, or to have
pecuniary relations of any sort with the commanders. He was
forbidden to accept fees from them, and he was made aware that
his authority over them having now being disentangled from the
mesh of conflicting interests which had strangled it during past
years, was to be exerted in future in the public interest alone.
Similarly the clerks at the head office were compelled to dispose
of any shares in the packets which they might possess, and the
healthy principle that no person ought to direct in matters in
which he has a pecuniary concern, was established once for all as
the rule of the service. Other reforms were initiated, into which
it is not now necessary to enter.

Enough has been said to shew that the Packet service at
Falmouth had been in a highly unsatisfactory condition for a
long time previous to1793. Itis therefore not surprising to find
that a certain amount of demoralisation existed, and that the
officers as a body had a low standard of duty. The official
records at this period are full of caustic references to this laxity,
noted down evidently verbatim from observations made by the
Postmaster General.* The following, taken at random from
among several others, will shew the general tendency. ‘The
Postmaster General cannot but lament when they look at the
absentee list of their captains in time of war to see how many
reasons they are constantly urging to stay at home, and of how
little use they must consider their own presence at sea. There
are now twelve packets at sea, and no less than ten of the
captains of them ashore.” This was in August, 1793, and the
twelve packets referred to were all upon the Falmouth station.
But sarcastic appeals such as this produced very little effect, for
in 1798 the captains appear to have been scarcely fonder of
going to sea than in 1793. By this time, however, a keen
intelligence was at work in the General Post Office, and in the
following year the absenteeism of the captains was cured by the
establishment of the system of mulcts, under which a large
tax was levied on the profits of the voyage whenever the captain
did not sail in person, the proceeds of the tax being carried toa
fund for pensioning the widows of captains and masters in the
service.

" * At this time the ancient practice was still in force, whereby the office of
Postmaster General was held jointly by two persons,

76 PRIVATE TRADE ON THE FALMOUTH PACKETS.

Irregularities such as these are serious enough when found
in connection with a service so vital to the interests of the
country, as was the safe carriage of the foreign mails and
despatches in time of war. Indolence and want of zeal were
however to be expected among a body of men who perceived
that the actions of their superior officers were governed by self
interest; and it is not surprising that the Falmouth captains as
a body did not at once respond to the changed tone at head-
quarters, and exert themselves to promote the reforms conceived
in London. One thing might have been expected from them—
that they should fight when they could not otherwise save the
mails. Let us now see what actually happened.

Between the outbreak of war in February, i793, and the
peace of 1802, thirty-two Falmouth packets were captured by
the enemy. I cannot find that any one of them made a good
fight before she struck her flag.

Ido not of course charge cowardice against the officers of
all or any of these packets. Some were captured by squadrons
of frigates, which could have blown them out of the water
with ease had they dared to resist. Some were lost under
circumstances which shew clearly that their officers were not to
blame. By far the larger part of them were captured among
the West Indian Islands, in seas where French privateers were
found in almost countless numbers. In many cases, only the
bare circumstance that the ship was captured is recorded; but
after every allowance has been made, the broad fact remains
that in the nine years mentioned thirty-two packets were lost,
and that not one of them made a really gallant resistance.

That there was no serious fighting in any of these cases is
not an unwarranted assumption. It was usual whenever a
packet distinguished itself in action to distribute rewards among
the officers and crew, proportionate to the bravery displayed.
These rewards were not granted for a running fight, but for an
action fought close alongside, whether successful or unsuccessful.
They were granted in only three cases between 1793 and 1802,
and in each of those cases for a successful action.

It will perhaps be said that though it was unfortunate that
so many packets were captured, no ground has been alleged for

PRIVATE TRADE ON THE FALMOUTH PACKETS. 77

supposing that there was any want of courage or skill on the
part of the officers, and that the packets being lightly armed
were no match for the enemy’s privateers. There is force in
this, yet in the three cases mentioned above these lightly armed
packets succeeded in beating off privateers of force far superior
to their own, and quite equal to that by which other packets
were captured.

The fairest means of judging the conduct of these captains,
however, will be to count the number of captures in an equal
number of years when the war broke out again. Between July,
1803, and July, 1812, I find that ten packets only were captured,
and that five of those hauled down their colours after actions
which may fairly be described as desperate, and which reflect
the greatest credit on those concerned. Ten captures against
thirty-two. How isthe difference to be explained? The packets
were the same, that is they were built in the same place; the
officers and crews of many served in both wars. It cannot be
supposed that the French privateers were less active in the one
war than in the other. The periods chosen for comparison are
long enough to allow for chance circumstances favourable or
unfavourable to both alike. What then caused the enormous
preponderance of losses in the former war? and how did it
happen that the men who fought so well in the later war did
not fight in the earlier one?

There were persons who professed to be able to answer this
question. In the year 1800, the capture of several West India
packets in quick succession provoked very strong remonstrances
from the merchants of London, and rumours began to be
circulated of large profits made by the officers of the packets
out of being captured and losing their ships. No specific charge
seems to have been made against any individual, but it was
freely asserted that the goods which old custom allowed to be
carried on the packets, though the law forbade them, were often
insured for the homeward as well as the outward passage before
the ship left Falmouth. If then all the goods were sold in the
West Indies, it would be a possible thing for the crew to remit
the purchase money by a subsequent packet, or even by an
armed merchant vessel, and to surrender themselves quietly to

78 PRIVATE TRADE ON THE FALMOUTH PACKETS.

the first privateer they met. They ran the risk of spending
some years in a French prison; but on the other hand there was
a good chance that the privateer wonld put them on shore in
their own boat rather than accept the burden of keeping them
on board as prisoners. When they once reached England again
they were secure from detection. Nobody could contradict them
when they affirmed that the privateer had taken away large
quantities of goods which they had not succeeded in selling.
Their own assertion was the only evidence of what had occurred
which it was possible to procure, and, there was thus no difficulty
in obtaining the full value of the insurance upon goods of which
the purchase money was already in their pockets.

This was the charge against the Falmouth captains, one
involving so much base dishonesty that it is natural to hesitate
before accepting it.

As soon as it reached the ears of the Postmaster General,
they directed the Inspector of packets to proceed to Falmouth,
and to make strict enquiry as to whether what they called ‘so
black and desperate a fraud” was possible. The Inspector’s
report states somewhat boldly that he believed it was not. He
gave no other reason for his belief than that no Insurance
Company would pay the value of its policy in the absence of an
affidavit declaring precisely the quantity and quality of the
goods on board the packet at the time of the capture,—overlook-
ing it would seem, that the very nature of the charge involved
treachery and lying, and that men who could be supposed guilty
of those basenesses would not be likely to hesitate at a perfectly
safe perjury.

The Postmaster General adopted the Inspector’s conclusion,
yet it would seem that some doubt remained in their minds, for
they used the occasion to enforce a suggestion which they had
before propounded, to the effect that Courts of Enquiry, analogous
to Courts Martial, should be held at Falmouth to investigate the
circumstances thoroughly, whenever a packet was captured. It
was the custom at this time to require from the captain of a
captured packet a sworn declaration of the circumstances,
attested by himself and one or two of his chief officers. Beyond
this declaration no enquiry was made. ‘Thus everything

PRIVATE TRADE OF THE FALMOUTH PACKETS. 79

depended on the bare oath of the persons concerned, unsupported
by any systematic questioning of the crew.

At the end of 1799, or in the first weeks of 1800, an order
was issued prohibiting the private trade upon the West Indian
and American packets. The officers and sailors of those packets
were forbidden, under pain of dismissal, to carry goods of any
kind upon their vessel in future; and an officer was appointed
at Falmouth for the express purpose of searching every packet
before she sailed, with full authority to turn out any goods which
he might find in any part of the ship, to whomsoever they might
belong. The Lisbon packets were allowed to continue the trade,
on account of the great importance to merchants of free com-
munication with Lisbon at that time.

The question naturally arises, what induced the Government
to take this step? Some strong motive must have prompted it,
for the system of private trade upon the packets was so ancient
that the Secretary of the Post Office admitted that he could not
trace its origin, and thought it might be ‘‘coeval with the service
itself.”” That it was extremely profitable to the persons engaged
in it cannot be doubted. It was sufficient to attract sailors to
the Post Office service, where they worked contentedly for wages
far inferior to those paid by the customs or the Hast India
Company; for they knew that by their own small ventures of
potatoes or any goods for sale at Jamaica or Barbadoes, they
could regain much more than they lost in pay. It is true that
the trade was contrary to the law. But the statute condemning
it was of the reign of Charles II, and had never been enforced.
Indeed so recently asin 1798 the private trade had been explicitly
sanctioned in new regulations then drawn up for the guidance
of the agent at Falmouth; and it was distinctly stated that his
only duty in connection with the private trade was to assure
himself that the quantity of goods carried was not enough to
throw the vessel out of trim or to impede her sailing.

Here then was an ancient and very highly valued privilege,
to attack which was to cause certain disaffection among the
seamen, and that moreover in time of war, when it was already
sufficiently difficult to provide for the regular despatch of the
mails. There had been no long growing dissatisfaction with the

80 PRIVATE TRADE ON THE FALMOUTH PACKETS.

system. What was recognized and approved in 1798 was
abolished hardly more than a year later, and immediately, as
must have been anticipated, difficulties began at Falmouth.
The crews of several vessels refused to proceed to sea, many
captains reported that they could not obtain sailors unless the
trade was restored; the seamen petitioned the Postmaster
General for its restoration, pointing out that their wages, if they
must rely on them solely, were not sufficient for their main-
tenance. This was perfectly true, and the sanction of the
Government had to be obtained for increasing the wages. It is
not possible that these consequences of the abolition of the trade
were not forscen. What induced the Government to draw these
difficulties down upon itself in the midst of a dangerous and
exhausting war? ‘To deprive the Falmouth sailors of their
profits from trade was to render them more than half mutinous.
What advantage did the Government anticipate which was to
compensate them for disaffection spread among the men to whom
the mails and despatches in war time were entrusted ?

It is clear that the Government had convinced themselves
that the retention of the private trade involved more danger
than abolishing it. The danger they had in view may of course
have been simply that the presence of goods on board the packets
rendered them more valuable prizes than if they carried nothing
more than the mails. This does not seem however to account
very satisfactorily for the suddenness with which the trade was
abolished at an inconvenient time. Ifthe Government believed,
or suspected, that the system of insuring goods was connected
with the frequent loss of packets, the promptness of their action,
and the tenacity with which they adhered to it when confronted
with great difficulties, need no further explanation.

Some light may be thrown upon the matter by glancing at
the circumstances connected with the capture of two packets on
the Lisbon station shortly after this time.

The ‘‘ Karl Gower,” Captain Deake, was on her way home
from Lisbon in June, 1801, when she encountered the
‘“‘Telegraphe” privateer cutter of fourteen guns and seventy
men, a force considerably superior to his own. Captain Deake
however, was not daunted, but made good use of his guns while

PRIVATE TRADE ON THE FALMOUTH PACKETS. 81

endeavouring to escape, and might possibly have got clear off
had not fully half his crew refused either to work the vessel or
to fight her, and gone below in a body. ‘Their action is scarcely
comprehensible on any other ground than that they wished to be
captured. Cowardice would have impelled them to do their
utmost to escape, but these men refused to work the vessel,
which was of course captured, through no fault of Capt. Deake
or of his officers.

The second case is that of the ‘‘ Duke of York,” captured
on the 18th September, 1803, while on her homeward voyage
from Lisbon. The undisputed facts are these. The packet was
chased throughout the day by a French privateer of scarcely
more than half her size, though more heavily manned. Towards
evening the master, who was acting commander at the time,
consulted with the surgeon as to the course proper for them to
take in view of the fact that the enemy was gaining on them.
The surgeon advised surrender, and the master adopted his
suggestion. They came to this resolution while the enemy’s
vessel was still a mile distant from them, and before she had
even fired a summoning gun, they hauled their colours down.
It was then seven o’clock, and the night was falling rapidly.
This circumstance, however, did not suggest to them the chance
of escaping under cover of the darkness, it brought to their
minds only the possibility that the enemy might not have seen
their flag pulled down. To avoid any misapprehension on this
subject they sent a boat on board the privateer, and so, without
attempting the slightest defence, they gave away their ship.

A committee of enquiry was held at Falmouth, but the
captains who composed it put their questions in such a manner
as to shield the culprits so far as possible, and finally stultified
themselves by finding that all the officers did everything possible
to save their ship. This was simply untrue.

The Inspector of Packets thereupon set himself to work to
investigate the matter. He traced, so far as possible, the value
of the goods which each sailor had on board, what insurances
he had effected on the outward voyage, and what on the home-
ward, and finally what sum he had gained by the capture. One
man, he found, admitted that he had made £300 by this event ;

82 PRIVATE TRADE ON THE FALMOUTH PACKETS.

the surgeon, who had advised the surrender, had certainly gained
£250, but, by aremarkable lapse of memory, he was quite unable
to recollect what sum he had received in Lisbon for goods sold
there, so that it was impossible to arrive at the full amount of
his profit. The steward’s mate was richer by £250, one of the
seamen by £200, and most of the crew had pocketed substantial
sums.

The next step was to ascertain whether any of these men,
and especially those who had made large profits on this occasion,
had been captured before.

The surgeon, who had been foremost in advising surrender,
and who was also (probably) the largest gainer in the affair,
had also been captured more frequently than any other of the
crew, except three men. He had been taken no less than three
times before. How much money he made on those three
occasions is not stated. ‘Three of the crew had been equally
unfortunate. Four other men had been captured twice before,
most of the rest once, and eight of the crew had been on board
the ‘‘Gower’’ at the time of the disgraceful circumstance related
above.

The captains who composed the court of enquiry are not
perhaps to be very severely blamed if they did not choose to draw
the legitimate inference from these facts. The influence of local
associations was strong upon them, but the Secretary of the
Post Office was controlled by no such ties, and the following
extracts from his report shew clearly the conclusion which he
formed, very reluctantly, and after long investigation :-—

‘«,,.. These papers prove beyond a doubt that His Majesty’s
packet could not have been captured if the skill and courage of
her crew had been properly exerted. Their Lordships even
incline to think that the French privateer might have been
captured if our vessel had been carried into action with the
spirit which characterizes British seamen in general. No
resistance was made. It was not even seen what was the force
of the privateer. The packet was not even hailed or fired at by
the enemy, and a boat was sent off to meet the privateer, and to
accelerate a surrender of which the seamen themselves speak as
dishonourable and dishonest....Under these circumstances my

PRIVATE TRADE ON THE FALMOUTH PACKETS. 83

- Lords the Postmaster General. .never will consent that Mr.....
the commander, or Mr..... the surgeon, shall again be
employed in their service. The utmost their Lordships can do
in regard to the other individuals, after confirming their original
dismission from the Lisbon station, is to consent, and that they
do with hesitation, to their being permitted to serve with any of
the commanders who may choose to employ them on the West
Indian and American packets.”

The point of this last sentence was plain enough. On the
West India packets the private trade was already abolished, so
that fraud was no longer possible.

The Inspector of Packets stated his opinion in the following
terms :—‘‘I cannot help being of opinion that if during the
war officers and seamen are permitted to carry out merchandize
on commission or otherwise, there is reason to fear that the loss
of the packets on the Lisbon station may be very considerable,
unless indeed under disinterested or high-spirited commanders.”

In the light of these facts it is very difficult to avoid the
conclusion that some at least of the thirty-two packets captured
between 1793 and 1815 had been given away in the same
treacherous manner as the ‘“‘ Duke of York.” Of the thirty-two
packets captured, twenty-one were taken on the homeward
voyage.

In conclusion, I would seek to guard myself from appearing
to bring this grave charge against the whole body of Falmouth
commanders. JI know of no evidence in existence which
implicates any individual except in the case just described. It
is beyond doubt that there were among the commanders men
whose reputation was above question, and of whom, if their
ships were captured, it would at once be said that they had done
all that courage and seamanship could do to save them. I do
not think the materials exist for pursuing the enquiry beyond
the point to which I have carried it.

I should add, that an officer of the same name as the acting
commander of the ‘‘Duke of York,” distinguished himself
greatly in an action during the American war, in which he was
severely wounded.

84

CORNUBIANA No. 1.

1. PREHISTORIC REMAINS. 4, ExTRACTS FROM PARISH REGISTERS.
2. CONCRETE LEGENDS. 5. CorNIsH CHouGH IN HERALDRY.
3. CHRONOGRAM. 6. St. THomas A BECKET & CORNWALL

By Rev. S. RUNDLE, M.A.

I. PreEuistoric REMAINS.

The first article that I describe is a small oblong piece of
bronze, the edges of which have been greatly worn away. ‘The
size is $ of an inch long by 3 inch wide. At each end is a hole,
one circular, the other irregular in shape. To the first a pin
may have been attached, which was fastened through the second.
An intricate pattern—perhaps best described as Arabesque—has
been engraved on one side. Below the irregular aperture, a flower
is clearly visible. This was found in the stream works below
Godolphin Bridge. The next (fig. 3) is a stone semi-oval, so to
speak, one portion of the circumference being considerably wider
than the other. There isa holein the centre. The article is
roughly and rudely fashioned of a grey moor-stone, and was
probably used as a sinker in fishing. One field in Pengwedna,
on which it was found, is still known as the swan-pool, though
now perfectly dry. In this pool it was most likely used. The two
following articles (figs. 1 and 2) agree very much in shape, but
differ considerably in size. They are both broken in half, the
fracture in each case occurring at the middle of the hole driven
through each implement. The holes are very artistic in appear-
ance, seemingly formed by some kind of file. They are wide at
the mouth and lessen towards the converging point of the hole
from the other face. The faces on both sides seem water-worn,
and were probably chosen on this account to save the trouble of
fashioning. ‘The largest is about 3 inches long, and the other
side about 24. They belong to the species known as stone
hammers, of the neolithic age, and are formed of greenstone.
These three last were all found at Pengwedna in Godolphin.

PEDESTAL FOUND AT CARMINOW.

This was met with in the foundations of the old church at
Carminow, and is formed of a peculiarly heavy stone, viz:

VoL. Xl. PLATE V.

3 °
abwost ress Se

VOL.

PLATE VI

CORNUBIANA. 85

sulphate of barium. Its construction is as follows. The shaft
bends away from the top to the bottom, being smaller at the top
than the bottom. It is perfectly smooth, the obverse being
convex, and the reverse concave. Two handles, rudely carved,
connect the upper face of the pedestal, which is 3 inches by 23,
forming an irregular triangle with the bottom. The upper
portion is perfectly plain, with two holes probably intended for
the retention of animage. The foot is hollowed, and is 82 in.
by 22 in., for here the pedestai expands. It weighs 102 ounces-
This was probably the pedestal for an image, and has been
stained with some black material. (Fig. 5).

LEGENDS WHICH HAVE TAKEN A ConcrETE Form.

Legends may be divided into two classes, those that exist
merely in oral tradition, and those that apply to some existing
memorial as a proof of their truth. It need hardly be said that
those of the latter class are quite as devoid of any real basis of
fact as the first. I subjoin three instances of legends which
have taken a concrete form (1). The St. Breage Churchyard
Cross. (2). Dane-wort. (3). The Mill-proo. 1.—S8t. Breage
Churchyard Cross is simply the rounded portion of a cross, from
which the shaft has been removed. It stands outside the south
porch of the church on a portion of slightly elevated ground.
Most of the Cornish crosses are formed of granite: this one is of
a kind of yellow sand-stone, and the legend runs that a great
battle took place by the barrow of sand near Great Work Mine,
between the Cornu-Celts and Saxons, and that so much blood
was shed that, when mixed with sand it coagulated into stone,
whence the cross was carved to commemorate the event. The
material of which the cross is composed certainly corresponds
with indurated sand-stone from the above sand-barrow, which is
locally known as “‘Sandy-Burrow.” (2). The next legend is
that of Dane-wort, Wall-wort, or, as itis more commonly known,
dwart-elder, the scientific name of which is Kbulus Sambucus.
It seems rare, as but three localities for it are given in Wuther-
ing’s Botany, viz: Tutbury Castle, Staffordshire; Goosegreen,
near Dalton, and Tamworth Castle Hill. To these a fourth may
be added, the Glebe, St. Erth, where it flourishes in great luxur-
jance. ‘Tradition relates that close at hand, by the site of the

86 CORNUBIANA.

present bridge, a deadly battle took place between the Danes
and the Cornu-Celts. The wounded Danes were carried on litters
made of the handles of spears, to the present glebe, and from
these spear handles the Dane-wort spring. The third legend of
the kind is that of the Mill-proo, which always seems to me to be
one of the most extraordinary on record. The Mill-proo (fig.
4) is a dwarf cylinder of stone, pierced throughout by a circular
hole, and its origin is said to be this. At certain times of the
year, an adder may be found asleep in such a position as to form
a complete circle. If a hazel wand of twelve month’s growth be
placed in the centre of the ring formed by the adder, it is
unable to extricate itself. By its hissing, it attracts all the adders
in the neighbourhood, which come to the succour of their dis-
tressed friend. Slaver is emitted by all of them around the
bewitching hazel. As soon as a complete circle is made, the
adder is freed. The slaver congeals into stone, and is known as
the mill-proo, a fine specimen of which was found some time
ago in the stream-works below Godolphin Bridge. It is
composed of porcelain stone, is an ounce in weight, an inch in
diameter on the flat part, on the cylindrical part ;® long in
inches, 3 inches in circumference, and has three small punctures
on the flat surface, nearly equi-distant from one another.
These, however, may have been the result of accident. In
connection with this class of legend I may now allude to
another, though of a different cast. | Whence the Cornish
obtained the legend I know not, unless it be taken as a
slight evidence in favour of a Jewish settlement here. The
curlews are said to have assisted the Israelites to escape from
Pharaoh by going behind them and obliterating their track.

CHRONOGRAM.

A Chronogram consists of a sentence in which a date or
number is expressed by Roman capitals forming parts of words,
which, with this exception, are written in ordinary type. Mr.
Hilton, in his standard work on Chronograms (Vol. 1, pp. 27, 29,)
quotes two Cornish chronograms, whence they would seem to be
rare in this county. A third is given in regelles’ Cornish
Worthies, p. 3861, from the pen of Sydney Godolphin. A fourth,
and fifth of a peculiarly interesting type, have recently been

CORNUBIANA. 87

found by me. The fifth is on a chalice at St. Ruan Major
church, and indicates that the chalice was a votive offering to
almighty God for mercies received, and runs as follows—
Votivum Eucharisticum
d.d.d.
in usum HKecle Ruan Majoris E. F. 25 Martis 1674.
Cla Ma VI. et Icho Vah aVDIVIt me 1676.
Ergoque Ps cxv1.
By selecting the letters in Roman Capitals, viz: M. D. ©.
L. V. V. V. V. IIIT, we arrive at the date indicated in the
ordinary type, viz: 1676. Nothing can be much more touching
than the thought of this unknown E. F., more than two hundred
years ago, in sad distress, making a vow to Almighty God in
1674, and then two years after, 1676, paying his vows to Him.
The inscription is eloquent with distress chequered by hope,
which distress at last disappears in the fulfilment of his heart’s
desire. I am much inclined to think this chronogram, occurring
on old Cornish ecclesiastical plate, is unique.

Extracts FRoM ParisH Accounts.

Tne first is an extract from the churchwardens’ accounts of
the parish of St. Martin in Meneage, from Easter, 1776, to
Easter, 1777, and contain the amounts paid by the parish for
the marriage of a certain Walter Johns. Apparently this Walter
Johns had fled to Breage, to escape fulfilling his promise of
marriage, there he was arrested—it seems a bad augury for the
happiness of his intended marriage that ‘“ arrest’”’ was a neces-
sary preliminary to it— he was brought back in triumph by two
horses, and was married by “‘licens” under a salvo of gun.
powder, with a banquet of ‘‘ meat and drink.”

£
_ To arresting, marreing Walter Johns ..

To three days under arrest .. .. .. ..$1 10 11
To licians (now £2 s2 d6).. .. 116 0
To expenses, and one fatching Theta of

Breag Bo O20
To 2 horses : So loess sauiee OMe Oman)
To the Minister for apni Wem eee weesseer Dell) ats
To the Clerk (now 5 shillings) .. OO
To meat, drink and firing to the radian 113 0

88 CORNUBIANA.

The following are the expenses of the Easter Meeting, 1792,
at St. Anthony in Meneage, as given in the churchwarden’s
accounts.

1792.

Expenses at Haster meeting Sa Gs
One gallon of oe eng ae Suan). (0)
emon ieee: Se Leo, Seon chaae be.)
2 lbs. of sugar, ype Ib. ary cates cement
JH ney IBLOMSGan bo pO dG Ga, loo Go. 2. 0)

13 3

The same accounts bear testimony to the destruction of
foxes, ete.
1783-84. To cash for an ould fox 2/6
1786. To two half-grown foxes 4/-
1788. To 3 polecats. . se 1/-

Various similar entries are found in the registers of the
Meneage parishes: E. 9. *At Gunwalloe are these entries—

Killing 3 Foxes Seis. ciple RCS) NOs
TeGilbraver IMO 36 oa bo 60 76a) A Oth
From the foregoing extracts, it seems that half-a-crown was
the price fixed on a fox’s head.

Tue Cornish CHouGH In HERALDRY.

The Cornish Chough is by no means confined in Heraldry
to Cornish families, though of course it occurs more frequently
in their emblazonments than in those of other countries. In
these latter, the Cornish chough may be used as an indication of
their Cornish descent ; by way of difference ; or it may be simply
a “canting” usage, as is plain from the arms of Cornwallis, Co.
Worcester, which were ‘‘sable, guttée on a fess argent, three
Cornish choughs argent.”’ Sometimes no reason is now assign-
able

Though the emblem is by no means exclusively Cornish,
yet a glance at the armouries of Cornish families will show how

* Cumming’s Cury and Gunwalloe, pp. 122-130,

CORNUBIANA. 89

greatly the bird was held in esteem as a device, for it is, or was,
displayed by no less than thirty-five Cornish families.

The chough is found as a crest, and in the shield, but not
asa supporter of the shield. The Cornish chough generally
occurs ‘‘proper,” @.¢., in its natural colours, and as a complete bird,
though in some cases it occurs with ‘‘ head erased,” 7.e. cut off,
as in the family of Tregonwell. Oftentimes appendages are
added to the bill, as in the family of Tom of St. Petroe Minor,
where the crest is a Cornish chough ppr., holding in its bill an
escallop. The Cornish chough is generally depicted standing,
though we have an instance to the contrary in the case of St.
Aubyn of the Mount, where it is represented “rising,” or ‘‘ with
wings expanded,”’ as was borne by Humphrey of Truro; or, as
Trewinnard, ‘‘ 3 Cornish choughs ppr., two in chief pecking and
one rising.” I have said that the choughs were generally borne
‘“‘proper.’’ There are some remarkable instances to the contrary.
Rashleigh of Menabilly has a Cornish chough argent: 7 ¢. white,
almost a contradiction in terms, though not in Heraldry. It is
also ‘‘legged and beaked gules,” which would be “‘ proper.”
The Cornish choughs of Stone are ‘‘or”’ (gold), and “vert”
(green), and Tolcarne of Tolcarne, uses ‘‘3 Cornish choughs
reguard, Az,” (blue). It would be very difficult to give a
description of the bird in Mayow’s arms, which is described
as ‘‘Hrm” (Ermine), if it were not for the written account
which tells us that it is a Cornish chough.

Sr. Tuomas A BrEcKeETT.

It is now confidently asserted that St. Thomas a Becket was

a Cornishman. This we distinctly know, that he was not, for he
was born in London, the offspring of a Londoner, and a Saracenic
woman,an account of whose romantic union is given by Johannes
Brompton. Gilbert Beck, as his father was really called, was born
in London in the reign of Henry I, and his master changed his
name into Becket, and the commonality into Beckie. There
seems to be nothing to connect St. Thomas in his life-time with
Cornwall; the fact that a Cornish Becket bore the same arms as
the Archbishop is not at all, I submit, substantial evidence.
After his death, however, a child of Minster was raised to life by
the father interceding to the saint, according to the account

90 CORNUBIANA.

given by William of Canterbury in his Miracula 8. Thomee
(137),” who says ‘‘ Filium suum nobis Henricus exhibuit, quem
indubitantes mortuum fuisse perhibuit, Cumque morbi mortesque
genus exhibuisset, quibus presentibus vita excessisset, quomodo
per Martyrem vite restitu eretur, dixi non simplici verbo fidem
posse fieri ‘‘ Si” inquit ministra, que est villa territor1i (diocese)
exoniensis mecum tibi satis facere non protest, testi est mitt
veritas quia mortuum credidi, quem vivum exhibeo. Sed et hoc
subjacio quia per triduum post restitutionem spirituum solo
spiritu palpitaret, non mamillarn maternam biberet, aut aliud
aliquid, ut diceretur ad horam vivificatum propter consolationem
parentum.

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91

EXCAVATIONS ON THE SITE OF LAUNCESTON PRIORY,

(Abstracted by permission from a paper read before the Launceston Scientific
and Historical Society.)
By OTHO B. PETER.

The Priory of Launceston was founded by William
Warlewast, Bishop of Exeter, in 1126.

After the dissolution in 1536-9, the Priory buildings were
levelled to the ground, and the site was subsequently used as a
place for throwing refuse of every description. Thus all vestige
of the once princely buildings became lost to view, and then to
memory. Only the musty records of the methodical monks
remained, and these being translated, fixed the site of the Priory
again, but doubtfully, until the North Cornwall Railway Engin-
eers in their excavations in 1886 unearthed the foundations of
walls, which later excavations proved to have stood on the east
and south of the CloisterSquare. ‘These foundations marked the
site of the Day Room, the lavatory, cellarer’s crypt, and other
adjacent rooms. In the Day Room, which stood east of the
Cloister, and ran north and south, was found the base of an
octagonal column im situ; this column, which is now in St.
Thomas Churchyard, was one of two, or three, which supported
the stone groined floor of the Dormitory which was over it,
Many of the simply chamfered groin stones were within the
foundations. The Lavatory, and cellarer’s crypt, &c., were
situated under the Refectory, and ran west, at right angles
to the Day Room; on their sites were found many more groin
stones, an ancient candlestick, a silver (?) horse harness buckle,
the upper portion of a stone hand-cornmill, and under the floor,
long lengths of lead piping for the water supply; this pipe had,
at one point, a very primitive junction where a branch pipe
united with it. Jam of opinion that it was supplied with water
from an adit (the arch over which has lately been destroyed)
close to the western entrance to St. Thomas Churchyard.

The Priory meadow has recently been offered for sale, and
the Launceston Gas Co. having purchased a portion of it for the

92 EXCAVATIONS ON THE SITE ON LAUNCESTON PRIORY.

erection of a gasometer, they commenced in May, 1888, to build
a boundary wall around their plot. Unfortunately this plot
proved, as we shall see, to contain the most sanetified portions
of the Priory site. On the 29th May it came to my knowledge
that in making excavations for the foundations of this boundary
wall, a piece of carved stone had been found. I at once asked
for, and obtained permission of the directors of the Gas
Company, to make deeper excavations, and in the course of a
few days a great number of similarly carved stones, and portions
of coloured floor tiles were discovered. ‘The carved stones most
probably formed portions of the Choir Screen, and canopied
tombs in the Priory Church.

During the month of June, the Chairman of the Gas Co.,
(Dr. Thompson), caused further excavations to be made, disclos-
ing the bases of two beautiful Harly English trefoil respond
columns, from which the north and south aisle arcade arches
sprang (the column on the south has since been erected in the
St. Thomas Churchyard adjoining, and that on the north remains
buried); and also the foundations of the south Chancel Chapel
(which I suggest was dedicated to the Virgin) with its altar i
situ; and the wall which carried the Choir Screen, two large
fragments of which Screen were found.

In July the Gas Company commenced their deep excavations
for the gasholder, and uncovered the whole of the foundations
of the Presbytery, or Chancel, and the north Chancel Chapel,
which I suggest was dedicated to St. Gabriel. These side Chapels
had stone groined roofs, a great number of the groin stones
covered with coloured plastering, being discovered within their
walls; but judging from the mass of deeayed roofing-slates found
on the Presbytery site, I think it probable that its roof was of
timber.

To the north, outside the Presbytery wall, were numerous
graves, about 5 feet below the original, or old ground line.
This was the Sextonshay, or Cemetery of the laity, the monks
being buried in the Cloister Square A walled tomb and other
graves, were also found within the walls. The walls of both
the Chapels and the Presbytery were of great thickness, and
supported by flat buttresses externally, the quoins and plinths

EXCAVATIONS ON THE SITE OF LAUNCESTON PRIORY. 93

being of syuared local free-stone. Internally the faces of the
walls were plastered, the plastering in many places still retaining
coloured designs in vermilion, yellow, and black. The site being
a marshy one, the foundations were carried down toa great depth,
the floor line being 5 feet, and the bottom of foundations from
10 to 11 feet, below the present ground line. The footings, or
bottoms of the walls were built with courses of stone set on
edge, each course sloping in a contrary direction to the one
above it, just like one sees herring-bone hedging built in the
moor districts now. These courses of stone were not set in
mortar, thus the moisture drained through them, and left the
superstructures dry. I only noticed one instance of wooden
piles having been used, and that was under the foundation of
the eastern wall of St. Gabriel’s Chapel, where a few blackened
posts were excavated.

The floors of the Church throughout the excavations were
formed as follows:—A layer of stones was set on edge, earth
thrown over them, and then rammed down level, on this, thin
slates were laid, and on the slates, encaustic tiles. In addition
to the great number of loose fragments of these tiles, I happily
discovered one small portion entire, and also some full sized ones
bearing capital letters, &. The entire piece was in St.
Gabriel’s Chapel, close to its eastern wall, and it is singular that
all the heraldic tiles, and most of those with capital letters on
them, came from that site. The arms depicted are those of
Royal personages, that of Richard, Earl of Cornwall, being the
most conspicuous. The tiles found within the walls of the
Presbytery were almost all of geometrical patterns. Some few
with capital letters came out of the south Chapel. All the entire
tiles, and all the fragments that could be saved, are now in the
Launceston Museum. At Cleeve, Glastonbury, and Wells, are
ancient tiles very similar to those found at Launceston.

There were signs of a step from the Nave floor to the
Chapels, and the Presbytery, and projecting from the north wall
of the latter, I found the foundation of the stall seats.

Numerous pieces of beautifully moulded arch stones, small
circular shafts, window tracery, red ridge tiles, lead dowels

94 EXCAVATIONS ON THE SITE OF LAUNCESTON PRIORY.

for securing stonework, and a few scraps of opaque glass, were
turned out from day to day.

It was found impossible to save the ruins, but permission to
remove the relics found was obtained. So the old walls speedily
vanished under the pickaxe, and the stones which composed them
were used to build a wall around the gasholder which now stands
on the site of the Chancel of Launceston Priory.

Lacy, Bishop of Exeter, granted an indulgence in favour of
the Chapel of St. Catherine, which was affiliated to the Priory,
and had probably suffered during the then late riots. Where
this Chapel stood is a disputed question, some assuming that it
was built on the site of what we now know as the Alexandra, or
Tresmarrow Slate Quarry, and others that it stood near the
western entrance to St. Thomas Churchyard. A lane known as
St. Catherine’s lane ascends directly from the Priory to the
former site, and the quarry itself has, for centuries, been known
as ‘“‘Catherine’” or ‘‘Kattern Walls.” Sculptured stones have
been found there, and the shrubs and plants, still growing on
the spot, indicate itsformer use. The latter site was occupied by
the ruins of a building in the form of a Chapel until a few
years ago, when the old walls were pulled down, the stones from
them being used in building the adjoining bone mill. Leland
points to the locality of this Chapel as being ‘“‘by the west north-
west, a little without Launstowne,” and he adds ‘‘It is now
prophanid.”

During the priorate of Robert Waryn, viz. in 1478, a pay-
ment was made, to the receiver of the son of the reigning King,
at the Chapel of St. Gabriel, in the Priory. J think this Chapel
was that on the north of the Chancel. [See Plan. ]

A Chapel of St. James is mentioned in the Charter of
Philip and Mary to Dunheved, as occuping a site near the
present St. Thomas Bridge, on the left hand as we descend from
the Town.

I will here say a few words on the human remains recently
exhumed inside and outside the walls of the Priory Chancel.
The graves were formed as follows. Within vertical slabs of
roughly trimmed stone, the bodies were laid horizontally with

EXCAVATIONS ON THE SITE OF LAUNCESTON PRIORY. 95

the feet towards the east. No coffins were used. This was
evident in all instances from the fact that the shoulder blades. of
the skeletons were quite close to the stones, leaving no room for
intervening wood. ‘The head stones were chiefly rough blocks
of freestone, with places hollowed out to receive the skulls.
Over the graves, three or four flat stones were laid, and then
they were covered with earth. One or two of the skeletons were
perfect, the teeth remaining in the jaws. Some members of the
British Archeological Association state the above is the most
primitive known manner of burying the dead, that the custom
was derived from Pagan times, and that it was subsequently
adopted by the Christians. All the human bones were reverently
collected and, by the kindness of Mr. Cowlard, buried in St.
Thomas’ Churchyard.

Whilst William Hopkyn was Prior [1483 to 1507] the
duties and rights of the worshippers in the adjacent Parish
Church of St. Thomas were defined by Hugh Oldham, Bishop of
Exeter, who was asked to settle disputes, which had arisen
between the Prior and the neighbouring laymen. Amongst
other things the worshippers at St. Thomas Church were to offer
yearly a wax candle weighing one pound at the High Altar of
the Priory Church, and give two shillings yearly to the Priest
whom the Prior appointed to officiate in St. Thomas Church, and
and it was also agreed that a Clerk should sleep in a certain
chamber of the tower of the Convent Church, so that such Clerk
might arouse the Curate of St. Thomas when it was necessary
for him to rise to administer the sacraments. This Tower was
probably at the western end of the nave; its position can easily
be discerned by visiting the site and noting the outline of the
present Churchyard hedge, which is over the site of the northern
wall of the Priory Church.

Before I conclude, I should like to say a few words on the
immediate precincts of the Priory. It was the rule to build
boundary walls around the gardens, &c., which were attached to
Monasteries. Traces of such boundary walls around Launceston
Priory can still be seen. One started from the north-eastern
corner of the Presbytery, where I found foundations, and a door-
way leading to the Sextonshay, from that point it probably ran

96 EXCAVATIONS ON THE SITE OF LAUNCESTON PRIORY.

straight to the present St. Thomas Street, and then at right angles
to the southern side of the newly cut road to Wooda Lane at
the foot of the Old Hill, where I think a portion of the wall still
forms the lane boundary as far as Harper’s Lake. From this
point the stream ‘may have formed a sufficient fence around the
Convent Garden, which garden extended to the new cottages in
Wooda Lane, and was bounded on the west by the present lane
leat. I think it probable that the present existing mill pond
was the site of an ancient fish pond attached to the Priory; and
that the Priory barn and stables stood in the orchard on the
north of the pond, old foundations having been found in this
orchard in former years. The Priory Mill stood near the site of
the present Town Mills. The railway cutting through the
Priory meadow was again extended in 1891, but no further
discoveries of interest were made.

‘
‘

97

ST. PETROC’S CHURCH, PADSTOW.

(Notes of an Address delivered in Padstow Church, August 20. 1891, to the Members of
the Royal Institution of Cornwall, by the Right Reverend Epwarp TROLLOPE,
D.D., F.S.A., Lord Bishop, Suffragan, of Nottingham,)

In Cornwall, four Churches dedicated to St. Petroc still
remain, viz.: those of Padstow, Bodmin, Little Petherick, and
Trevalga; and there are many others named after him in Devon
and in Wales. He is said to have proceeded from Wales or
from Cornwall to Ireland, and thence returned south (on a mill-
stone across the sea) to Padstow (Petroc’s-stow) in Cornwall,
eventually settling, with three Welsh disciples, in Bodmin (also
called Petroc’s-stow,) where his relics* were long enshrined in
his conventional church (since destroyed), the patron saints of
which were St. Mary (the Blessed Virgin) and St. Petroe.

The site of Padstow Church marks that of a sacred edifice
of extreme antiquity, and the Chapel of St. Sampson was not
far from it. There are ancient crosses around. A very large
base, from which rises part of a massive cross-shaft, is in the
church-yard ; another cross is in the Vicarage Garden ; and a
third is in the grounds of Prideaux Place.t

The Tower of the church does not appear to be Norman,
It is Early English in style, with 14th century additions, and
contains 6 bells which, according to the churchwardens’ book,
were rung in honour of Charles, Prince of Wales, afterwards
King Charles II, when he entered Padstow (as the guest of
John, son of Sir Nicholas Prideaux, then owner of Prideaux
Place), on his way from Launceston to Pendennis Castle, after
the disastrous battle of Naseby, fought June 14th, 1645. The

* A reliquary, which probably at one time contained them, still exists at
Bodmin.

+ All these Crosses have been accurately figured und described in the
Journal of the British Archzol : Association (vol. 47, part 4, 1891) ; and in “‘ The
Builder,” (June 6, 1891, vol. lx, p. 449), by Mr. Arthur G. Langdon, Architect,
17, Craven-street, Strand, London.

98 ST. PETROC’S CHURCH, PADSTOW.

references are to payments made to ‘‘ Nicholas Hutchinges for
ordering the Prince’s state, to the Ringers at the Prince’s
cominge, and to the Prince’s Highness’s servants.”

The exterior of the church displays fine old roofs, and
handsome windows, which last are uniformly constructed of Cata-
cleugh-trap. The only difference being in those of the chantry
forming the south chancel-aisle, these two being flamboyant,
whilst between them outside is a figure holding a shield of lions,
impaling the arms of Nanfan (3 wings), on the central buttress.
On the buttress at each side, are mutilated quadrupeds, as sup-
porters ; apparently a lion and a chained unicorn.

The whole interior of the church is in the style of the
perpendicular period, so general in Cornwall.

The Nave consists of five bays, its pillars and arches being
of Caen stone. It is surmounted by a plaster roof, above which,
the original timbers remain.

The Aisles, happily, retain their very pleasing timber roofs
still open, —that is, free from plaster.

There is no Chancel Arch, but originally there were
undoubtedly Screens between the chancel and nave and the
chancel aisles, and, as certainly, lofts, above those of the
north aisle and the nave; from the evidence of the position of the
rood-loft Stair-case in the northern wall of the church. Perhaps
the loft extended over the southern aisle screen too, for both
aisles of the chancel were certainly chantry Chapels.

In the Sacrarium, on the south side, is a piscina surmounted
by a canopy terminating in a figure of a saint, clad in gown and
hood, holding a book in one hand and a staff in the other ;
according to some writers, erroneously stated to represent St.
Petroc.*

In the richly carved soffit over the east window are introduced
two shields ; one bearing [azure] 3 salmon fess-ways [or], for

* Rey. W. Iago has identified this figure as that of St. Anthony of Egypt
Patriarch of Monks. He holds the Tau-cross (St. Anthony’s) as a crutch-stick,
also a book, and below isa hog. ‘These are the usual emblems of St. Anthony,
who overcame the swinish demon of sensuality and gluttony typified by the
animal at his feet. (St. Petroc’s effigies shew him as an ecclesiastic, holding in
his left hand the pastoral crook of a Prior, his right hand being raised in
benediction). ;

ST. PETROC’S CHURCH, PADSTOW. 99

Bodmin Priory ; in reference to a grant made to its Priors (by
Algar) of the whole fishery of the Alan or Camel; the other
shield charged with a sword in pale between two letters P, each
letter crowned,—a device to signify St. Petroc, probably.*

The Chancel Arcades are of two bays each; the arches and
pillars of the northern being of granite, and in this respect
differing from all the other arcades in the church. The closed
roof of the chancel is of oak, with a prettily carved little cornice,
from which rise at intervals figures of angels holding blank
shields.

The following shields of arms formerly existed in the windows
of this church, viz.: those of John, Karl of Cornwall, subse-
quently King of England; Edward, Earl of Cornwall, son of
Edward I; Piers Gaveston, Earl of Cornwall, 1308; and John
of Eltham, the last Earl of Cornwall, 1328. No old glass,
however, now remains, except one small piece, in the head of one
of the south windows, representing the emblem of St. Mark.

Through the generosity of the late Miss Mary Prideaux-
Brune, the munificent restorer of the whole church, the windows
were enlivened by modern painted glass, and a series of scrip-
tural texts remarkably well chosen.

The font, composed of Catacleugh-trap, is interesting from
its general design and its carving. It consists of a square base,
a circular central pillar, and slender octagonal smaller pillars,
supporting a circular basin,—on the sides of which are carved
small figures of the Apostles and four angle angels as capitals
of the smaller pillars, whilst two rows of pattrasses, on the lower
portion of the basin, indicate the late or perpendicular character
of the fount.

The pulpit is for the most part modern, but incorporated in
it are five panels, of the time of Henry VII, representing the
instruments of our Lord’s Passion, with a modern panel to com-
plete the series. Commencing behind, on the north side, the

* A somewhat similar shield, viz.: one charged with a sword erect, crowned,
and debruised by a bugle horn, between a hound and a hart lodged, occurs in
the stone carving at Rialton in St. Columb Minor. It is labelled ‘°S. Petrocus.”’
This is shown in Rev. W. Iago’s plate of Vivian sculptures, in the R.1.C.
Journal, Vol. 5, p. 345,

100 ST. PETROC’S CHURCH, PADSTOW.

subjects are the following, each panel having also a shell above ;

and a shield, of varying form, below.

1. Two halberts crossed ; the lantern and two torches; together
with St. Peter’s sword, the ear of Malchus being upon
its blade.

2. A helm surmounted by a crown of thorns; and, on the
shield below, our Lord’s pierced hands and feet, with his
pierced heart between them.

3. The spear, with the sponge on hyssop, crossed, above; on
the shield below, the pillar of flagellation surmounted by
the cock ; and scourges.

4. The cross, the crown of thorns, and the sponge on hyssop
again. (This panel is the modern addition).

5. Orossed halberts, above; on the shield below, the three
large nails ; Judas’s hand holding the bag of money ; and
the vessel of vinegar on round dish. (The two last* may,
however, be otherwise explained).

6. The spear with the sponge on hyssop ; and, below, a ladder
between two scourges.

In the chancel is a seat, with two old bench-ends (15th cen-
tury), which have been adapted recently to their present use.
On the outer face of one is carved a fox in a cowled habit,
preaching from a pulpit to some geese. On its inner side is
inserted a carving of the cross and the crown of thorns. The
other bench end has, on the outside, three hands holding as
many dice; also the seamless coat ; within, a hand grasping a
spear.

The monuments in the church are of various kinds, and
include the following :—

A memorial brass consisting of an inscribed plate,{ lately
renovated and inserted in the stone-step of the sanctuary. It
commemorates Laurence Merther, who was Vicar of Padstow

* Possibly a hand gripping a torn-out beard; and the ewer and basin used
by Pilate for washing his hands.

+A fragment of the brass effigy of a priest, in alb, with wrist apparels,
amice, maniple, and chesuble, has more recently been found, and seems to form
(with the exception of the head, which is lost) the remainder of Merther’s brass:
It so, his monument was semi-effigial with inscription plate.

ST. PETROC’S CHURCH, PADSTOW. 101

from 1400 to 1421, on the presentation of the Prior and Convent
of Bodmin. He was subsequently licensed to celebrate in the
Chapels of Holy Trinity, St. Michael, St. Petrock, St. Gorman,
and St. Wethlege.

One of the steps of the north doorway is a portion of a
sepulchral slab. On it, part of the matrix of a brass may be
detected, representing a female kneeling.

The fine monument of Sir Nicholas Prideaux, of Soldon, at
the west end of the south aisle, was originally erected in the
chancel of West Putford Church, Devon ; and thence brought
here in 1782. It exhibits painted effigies of Sir Nicholas, with
his two sons below him, one by his first wife, the other by his
second ; opposite to him, his third wife, with her two sons below
her by her former husband, Dr. Evan Morice, Chancellor of
Exeter, viz. : Sir William Morice, Secretary of State to Charles
II, and Laurence, who died young. All are shewn reverentially
kneeling in prayer. There are two long iuscriptions, and
emblems of mortality, constituting adjuncts of this valuable
memorial which so distinctly portrays the dress of Sir Nicholas
Prideaux’s period.

On the base is carved, in low relief, a figure of St.
Christopher bearing the infant Saviour on his shoulders.

The next principal monument is at the west end of the north
aisle. This is of marble and commemorates Edmund Prideaux,
the father of Humphrey Prideaux, the famous Dean of Norwich.
The latter, though born at Padstow, was buried in Norwich
Cathedral, consequently there is no monument of him here.

Outside the church, within a covered recess on the north
side of the tower, is the greater part of an incised slate sepul-
chral slab, commemorating Honor, wife of Robert Calwoodley,
who died April 9th, 152), as set forth on a border legend around
a cross; I am therefore happy to be able to state that she was
not the member of her family who was charged, before the Star
Chamber Bench, in 1592, with having committed a serious act of
violence within this church, by the then mayor of Padstow,
John Prideaux. Thatlady was Anne Calwoodley, who disputing
the right of the mayor and others to the new seat they occupied,
locked herself up in the church, and with a great axe began to

102 ST. PETROO’S OHUROH, PADSTOW.

hew the seat down, and would not stop, when the mayor came
in a hurry and begged her to do so. Subsequently, by might
and force, she, in the time of divine service, with others, pre-
vented him from taking his lawful place therein.*

Another of this family, viz.: John Calwoodley, mayor of
Padstow, on the part of himself, the Corporation, and inhabi-
tants of Padstow, made a series of complaints, in the 26th year
of Elizabeth, against William Roche, a merchant of the same
place; in that he, with other lewd fellows, about the feast of
Easter last, had partaken of the Holy Communion in a common
alehouse ; and then entered the church, contemptuously looking
upon those assembled there; he had also, it was alleged, during
the last three years consigned to Spain corn and victuals, con-
trary to Her Majesty’s prohibition ; and abouta year before, had
beaten and wounded Margaret, the wife of Mr. Talbot, which
was thought to have caused her death; and also another woman,
to the danger of her life. It was stated likewise that he had
defended certain robbers against the constable, had promoted
certain broils and tumults in the town ; that he had published
and circulated divers slanderous and contentious ‘‘rymes and
balletts”’? against divers of the honest people of Padstow ; and
spoken contemptuously of Her Majesty’s Great Seal. Saying
that he could make as good a one for two-pence! whence he
(the Mayor) begged that the said Wm. Roche might be
sub-poenaed to answer for these offences before the Court of
of the Star Chamber. It is further recorded that, after the
hearing of this case, Wm. Roche so well defended himself and
rebutted the charges, that the case was dismissed ‘‘ with no great
worship to them who bound him.’’}

* This account is taken from the Star Chamber proceedings at the Record
Office, by Charles G. Prideaux-Brune, Esq.

+ Star Chamber proceedings, 26 Eliz., Bundle 5, No. 30, Letter C.

103

COLOUR CHANGES IN CORNISH STOATS.
By HENRY CROWTHER, F.R.M.S., Curator of the Truro Museum.

In the Truro Museum are many types of more or less
lighter coloured and white vertebrate quadrupeds. I cannot
ascertain the precise dates of their capture, as the entry in our
Journal of their gift to the Museum, does not of course include
facts relating to the field. Most of them were given years
ago, and several are in a case of Cornish mammals, presented
by the late Mr. Clem. Jackson, of Port Loe. The animals
grouped in this case must have taken the best part of a
life-time to acquire, and include undoubted summer and winter
forms. It would have been interesting to know, at first hand,
under what conditions the country lay, when these lighter
coloured and white mammals were caught.

I purpose here only to touch on the colour changes in the
weasel family, of which the examples on the table are members.
Mr. Jonathan Couch in his ‘‘ Cornish Fauna’’ says of the weasel,
‘it is not common for this animal to assume a pied appearance
in Cornwall, but it has done so in a not very cold season.”” In
the second edition of this work published by our society this
remark is deleted. In Bell’s ‘‘ British Quadrupeds,” it is stated
that Mr. Couch has seen a white form of stoat more than once
in Cornwall. So far as I can learn from personal enquiries, the
weasel is rarely seen white in Cornwall, and we have it on the
authority of Mr. Bell, one of the most eminent writers on
British Mammals, that ‘‘sometimes, though rarely, the weasel
becomes white in winter.”* The Rev. Mr. Jenyns in his
‘‘Manual of the British Vertebrate Animals”? makes of the
Weasel a ‘‘ Var. 8. White, with a few black hairs at the extremity
of the tail,’”’ and of the Stoat ‘‘( Swmmer dress)’ which is the brown
form, and ‘‘( Winter dress) Wholly white, or white with a slight
tinge of yellow, the extremity of the tail excepted, which
remains black. Os. In spring and autumn these two liveries
are found intermixed.”’

*History of British Quadrupeds, 2nd ed., p. 188

104 COLOUR CHANGES IN CORNISH STOATS.

Mr. Bellamy in his ‘‘ Natural History of South Devon”
says of the weasel, ‘‘ White specimens and others in progress of
change to the white garb are occasionally found;” and of the
Stoat, ‘“‘occasionally found white, or pied, or blotched with white.”
We may take it I think that whilst colour changes do occur
amongst the weasels, white forms are only occasionally met with
in the south-west of England.

Both red and white types of the Common Weasel, Mustela
vulgaris, L.,and of the Stoat, Mustela erminea, L.,are well represented
in our Museum, the lighter ones in a larger proportion, as their
greater rarity made them more curious to their collectors and
donors. Amongst them we have illustrations of the various
changes from ruddy red through buff and yellow to white.
The collection bears out, too, common observation, that colour
changes in Stoats are more frequent than in the Common Weasels.
Recently Mr. Thomas Clark, of Truro, procured for us from one
of the game-keepers of Mr. Claude Daubuz at Killiow, a stoat
caught during the blizzard of last March, and from another
game-keeper at St. Allen, another example of the same species
caught immediately after the blizzard. The two examples were
equally fine animals when living, but in colour are very
dissimilar. The example, caught when Cornwall was under a
mantle of snow, which fell as winter was almost over, when we
had passed through a summer-like February, probably one of
the finest on record, is, except a triangular spreckled patch of
brown and white between the ears and nose, and the black tip
at the tail end—which is never changed—beautifully white.
The second example caught after the blizzard is brown.

In northern latitudes where the rigour of winter comes round
with severe regularity, the stoat changes its dress with the season.
Even in Britain, in the mountainous parts of the north of
Scotland, this change is well marked, but further south it
becomes rarer, and in many museums throughout the middle and
south of England the white stoat is considered a curiosity.

The photographs which are thrown upon the screen are
from lantern slides prepared by my friend, Mr. George Parkin,
of Wakefield, from his collection of Stoats, and illustrate more
effectively than words the colour changes of these animals in
the north of England.

COLOUR CHANGES IN CORNISH STOATS. 105

Some suggest this colour change has to do with mimicry.
In biology this term has a pretty definite meaning, it was first
used by the late Mr. W. H. Bates, and is the term given to the
“advantageous resemblance (usually protective) which one species
of animal or plant often shews to another.’”’ Mimicry is rather
the adoption amongst animals and plants of deceptive resem-
blances. In the Weasel family the resemblance is not to living
forms but to the ground, and this is usual with the higher
animals, their colours generally matching their surroundings.
Mimicry, though almost unknown amongst mammals, is common
with birds and insects. An interesting case given by Mr. A. R.
Wallace will perhaps make this difference clearer. In the Malay
region he came across an insectivorous mammal (Cladobates)
which closely resembled (mimicked) a squirrel in colour and
bushiness of tail, but fed on young birds and insects, and not on
fruit. The colour changes in the Stoats are in all probability
secretive and not protective, as these animals can take care of
themselves. The ordinary dress of the stoat is bicolored, white
beneath, which never changes, and is hidden as the animal runs,
and a visible dorsal brown which, as we have instanced above,
may alter in tint.

I have seen several times, in the field, the use of the light
coloured strip beneath the body of the Weasel family. I
remember once when walking over Middleham Moor, Yorkshire,
seeing two of these animals, which were crossing a ridge of
ground and coming towards me. Suspecting danger they raised
themselves on their hinder quarters until they stood full height,
the white ventral strip, now fully visible, blended with the
sky glare behind them which I was facing, and gave to each
stoat the appearance of two narrow dark lines, totally unlike
any living animal.

The following facts point to the variations in colour depend-
ing on coldness and snow: in our ordinary Cornish winters these
vermiform mammals do not change their colour; the stoat caught
in the blizzard was white; the specimen sent soon afterwards,
when the weather was warmer and no snow upon the ground
was again brown, as was a small example of a weasel sent a
little later by Mr. Richards, the game-keeper at Killiow.

106 COLOUR CHANGES IN CORNISH STOATS.

A few words on the effect of cold and snow on animals in
boreal regions may not be out of place here, as the stoats are
generally distributed throughout Arctic Europe, Asia, and
America. In Arctic areas many animals remain white through-
out the year, such as the Polar bear, American polar hare;
others turn white in winter as the Arctic hare, Arctic fox, and
Ermine. The permanently white forms live amongst the constant
snows, the others in summer live in regions which are free from
snow. Here colour is seen to be secretive. Records are
plentiful of brown coloured stoats in our Cornish winters, and I
have seen both weasels and stoats in their summer dress in
mid-winter in Swaledale and other exposed localities.

Mr. Wallace in his delightful work on ‘‘ Darwinism,” says
‘whenever we find Arctic animals which, from whatever cause,
do not require protection by the white colour, then neither the
cold nor the snow-glare has any effect upon their colouration.”
In spite of odd exceptions snow and coldness have an effect on
our Cornish stoats. With us, in all probability, the white
specimens occur only when heavy snows are on the ground, a
time of snow and coldness. Mr. Elliott Coues in his‘monograph
on ‘‘ Fur-bearing Animals,” says ‘‘if the requisite temperature
be experienced at the periods of renewal of the coat, the new
hairs will come out of the opposite colour, that is the change
may or may not be coincident with shedding.” It is clear then
that in snowy regions, should the cold persist, a prolongation
of winter seem imminent, the white coat and not the brown is
renewed.

A glance at our Museum specimens shews that the alter-
ations in colour may be due to a change of the hair from brown
to white, or a renewal of the brown hairs by white ones.

When we come to think these facts over, we shall see, I feel
certain, that the colour variations in our Cornish stoats are more
than commonplace. Remembering that the stoats universally
and regularly change their coats in Arctic regions, in less colder
areas only at certain odd times, and in still warmer places never
changing them at all, it would seem that this odd and uncertain
colour display points to ancestral characters. The varying
dress refers us back to a time when the Stoats were more closely

COLOUR CHANGES IN CORNISH STOATS. 107

restricted to Arctic tracts, where short summers were followed by
rigorous winters, in the extended peregrinations of these
animals they settled in warmer and still warmer areas till they
overran Kurope and found a home in Northern India. In some
of these regions the colour change is useless, but though
apparently forgotten, the power to alter the dressis not lost, but
latent, two conditions—coldness and snow—being requisite to
induce its display.

In the blizzard of March, 1891, we had in Cornwall the
essentials necessary to influence this power, intense cold and an
Arctic outlook. Hence, probably, in the Stoat before us, dormant
ancestral characters pointing to the derivation of the animal
from northern forms, are made visible, in a fur of singular
whiteness and beauty.

108

LITTLE PETHERICK, OTHERWISE Sr. PETROCK MINOR.

BY THE

Reverend the Right Honorable SAMUEL VISCOUNT MOLESWORTH, M.A., Rector.

The church of St. Petroc in this Parish was re-opened for
Divine Service on Wednesday, 6th October, 1858.

The church has been almost rebuilt. The general character
of the old building has been preserved, the walls being built
upon the line of the old foundation with the exception of an
additional bay at the end of the north aisle to the westward.

The old church was much after the usual type of Cornish
churches, consisting, in this instance, of only two long ridges,
with a south porch and western tower, all unbuttressed and
built of rubble slate stone with granite quoins.

The old north aisle was curiously cut out of the native
schist rock, which was left to form the external wall, with the
exception of a foot or two of walling work immediately under
the roof. This primitive feature it was found necessary’ to
sacrifice. The trickling in of water, from the wet earth, caused
constant damp and unwholesomeness even in the summer months.
This has been all now remedied, and the walls are built of slate
stone and other stone of the neighbourhood in random courses.

The gables are finished with water-tablings and saddle-
stones with bold granite finial crosses. The division of the nave
and chancel is externally marked by a slight break in the roof
and an ornamental metal cross.

The east window of the chancel is of stained glass, the
design of Alfred Bere, of Exeter. The rest of the windows are
filed with quarry-glass shghtly tinted. The new windows in
their treatment follow the style of the tracery of the old east
windows, whose date was about the middle of the 14th century.

The new roofs are framed of Baltic fir, of strong, though
light, construction.

LITTLE PETHERIOK, OTHERWISE ST. PETROOK MINOR. 109

Some of the new dressed and cut stone-work is of the deep
grey close-grained stone called Kattaclugh or carracluse, which
is always found, more or less, in old Cornish churches.

The outer doorway of the porch, presented by Mrs. Mary
Prideaux-Brune, gives a good specimen of this fine stone; as
does also the new arch, with its pillar, cap and base,—separating
the chancel from the north aisle,—presented by Thomas Henry
Peter, Esq., which once formed part of the now ruined church
of St. Constantine in St. Merryn Parish.

Two small semi-detached capitals of the best middle-pointed
period of architecture were discovered in the old walls of the
tower. ‘These are apparently of the Pentuan stone, which was
much used in the best works of that age in Cornwall.

Amongst other reliques of past ages, a tombstone, thought
by some,* who read it ‘“‘Sire Roger Leinho,”’ to be that of the
founder, was turned up, and has been laid under a low arch
purposely constructed for its reception on the north side of the
Sacrarium. It isa flat stone with a simple floriated cross cut
upon it in low relief, surmounted by a human head.

The church is filled with open benches of stained and
varnished deal arranged on new floors.

The tower has been rebuilt from the foundations.

The situation of the church is unusually picturesque, at the
bottom of a wooded slope rising almost abruptly from the banks
of a pebbly brook; and is just such as to suggest to a writer of
romance what a quiet, peaceful, rural churchyard ought to be;
and, to many concerned in the present restoration, it is full of
early recollections as well as hallowed by old associations.

*The Rey. W. Iago (Hon. See.. for Cornwall, of the Society of Antiquaries)
writes :—‘‘ By permission of the Rector and with the kind assistance of Mr. J.
D. Enys, I have examined the slab in its very dark situation, and have taken
several rubbings of it. The head, in relief above the cross, is that of an
ecclesiastic,—the tonsure being very apparent. The name in the Norman-French
legend is not Leinho. The words, as faras they can be traced, are:— + SIRE
ROGER LEMPRV GIST ICI.—(M and P being conjoined). Sir was a title
pertaining to many of the clergy. The name Lempru, Lemprew, Lempreur,
Lempriere, occurs elsewhere. The slab is much like those at St. Breoke, Bodmin,
St. Merryn, St. Burian, Tintagel, &c.’’

110 LITTLE PETHERICK, OTHERWISE ST. PETROCK MINOR.

On the floor of the nave are the arms of Henry V (14138-
1422) in modern tiles.

The chancel has a handsome reredos of tile-work, presented
by Beatrice Lady Molesworth, widow of the late rector.

A lancet-window of stained glass is inscribed :—‘‘ In mem:
Hugonis Henrici Molesworth, Bart., Rectoris; qui hanc ecclesiam
restauravit. Obiit in fest: Epiph: 1862. Hanc fenestram
posuit Georgius Gulielmus, Rector, 1867.”

Another chancel-window of stained glass is inscribed : —‘‘In
mem: Catharine, conjugis carissimee Georg: Gulielm: Manning,
hujus Eccl. Rectoris. Obiit 13 Octr., 1864.

On the keystone of the tower arch is the Molesworth crest,
the coat of arms, is displayed on a shield, supported by an
angel, on an external bracket in the first stage of the tower.

St. Petroc is said by some to have been a native of Wales,
—by others, of Cornwall,—who crossed over to Padstow, A.D.
518, and afterwards settled at Bodmin, where he died, A.D. 564.
He had previously spent 20 years in Ireland, chiefly in studying
the bible. His feast day was 4th June.

Inscription on a monument under the east window :—

‘‘Heare under lyeth the body of John Bettye, the sonne of
Humfrye Bettye, Clerke, who was buried the xxvit day of June,
Anno Dom. 1634.

Si Christum discis satis est si cetera nescis,
Si Christum nescis nihil est si cetera discis.”

[The preceding description of the church of St. Petroc Minor
was read by Lord Molesworth, the Rector, to the members
of the Royal Institution of Cornwall on the occasion of their
visit, August 20th, 1891. An account of St. Petroc, the
patron saint of Padstow, Little Petherick, Bodmin, &c.,
appears in the 38rd Vol. of this R.I.C. Journal, written by
the late Rev. J. Adams, M.A., of Stockcross. See also Sir
J. Maclean’s ‘‘ Trigg Minor Deanery,” Vol. 1, p. 121. The
Medizeval Bells in Little Petherick Tower are noted by Mr.
Dunkin in his ‘‘ Church Bells of Cornwall,” pp. 46-51].

111

ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE DEPOSITS IN

THE WEST OF ENGLAND.
By J. H. COLLINS, F.G.S. *

CHap. IIT.—Rock CHANGE AS CONCERNED IN THE FoRMATION

oF Ore Deposits.
Src. 1.—General Characters of the Ore-Deposits.

In presenting the following brief outline of the general
characters of the West of England ore-deposits, I must assume
that the main stratigraphical features of the district, and in
particular the relations of the granite and elvan to the stratified
rocks, are known to the reader.}

Ore-deposits are frequently and conveniently classed as
contemporaneous (ore-beds, &c.), secondary or derivative (lodes,
&c.), and detrital (placers, &c.) A more detailed, and at the same
time more accurate classification is that given below, which is
substantially the same as that adopted by Mr. J. A. Phillips
in 1884.t

1

Superficial. a.—Deposits formed by the mechanical
action of water, air, &c., in the denudation of mineral
regions.

b.—Deposits of chemical origin formed at the
earth’s surface by precipitation in lakes and back
waters, by organic agencies, or by the issue of mineral
springs or metalliferous vapours.
Stratified. ¢c.—Deposits of ore-substance constituting
the bulk of metalliferous beds, which have been formed
in situ by precipitation from aqueous solutions, and
subsequently but little altered.

d.—Beds in which the ore-substance originally
deposited from solution has been subsequently altered,

* Continued from the Journal, No. 36, p. 149.

+ For convenient summaries of this part of the subject see Mr. Henwood’s
‘Address’ Journ. Roy. Inst. Corn., x111., 1871, andthe present author’s “‘Sketch
of the Geology of Central and West Cornwall,’’ Proc. Geol, Assoc., x, 3, 1887.

ft ‘‘ Ore-deposits,” p. 3.

112 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

variously re-arranged, and sometimes locally concen-
trated by metamorphic action.

e.—Ores disseminated through sedimentary beds,
in which they have been chemically deposited after the
consolidation of the beds.

3. Unstratified. f.—Stockworks.

g-—Impregnations.
h.—Segregated veins.
?.—Pipe veins.
7.—Pockets.
k.—Bedded veins or floors.
/.—Gash veins.
m.—Contact deposits.
n.—Rake veins or lodes.

Of course, it must not be forgotten that in nature there is
no such hard and fast separation into groups as our classification
would indicate—such grouping is merely adopted for convenience
of study. The practical miner, and the observant mining stud-
ent, will be constantly meeting with phenomena which in some
respects would be best referred to one class—in others to

another.
Of these various kinds of ore-deposits those classed as

superficial are, in the West of England, for the most part of the
(a) class. As they are to be separately dealt with in Chap. IV,
they need not be further alluded to here.

Stratified deposits in the West of England are rarely, if
ever, of the (c) class, the rocks being too ancient. Some examples
of those referred to, classes (@) and (e), will be given in the next
section of the present chapter.

Fahlbands may be defined as slightly impregnated or
mineralized belts of stratified rocks, coincident in strike and
dip with the general country rock. They are often traversed by
fissure lodes which extend beyond the limits of the fahlbands.
While the lodes are in the unimpregnated country they are
barren and valueless, but where they traverse the fahlbands they
are notably metalliferous. These phenomena are particularly
noticeable in the Kongsberg silver district in South Norway
and in the Gympie gold district in Queensland. They are not
exactly paralleled by any of the mineral phenomena of the West

VoL. XI. PLATE VIII.

Wocle

dara

Stare

Stives Consols.
I inch= 60 fathoms.

DEA reve MAY EAD Bo ob
a A OF je “4s es Sain,
Fig.5. Retest,

‘So

LGAs.

A.A. Granite; B.B.Cab;

CC. The Lode, 4x10 fece wide. ace.
A Slide ;B.Searniferous Rock ;G.Granite. oe eUEEOS.

ane a? , Blas Zs
outh Wendron , Pla.
G. Granite; T.Stanniferous Tock, about 40 x 50f* at this section .

Duchy Peru Lode te igs Lode. , Wheal Un: b,
Shewing bending of strata . athomlevel. iéinch=] foot.
A.Leader ; B.Lode;).Greyback; E.Capel ; F-Killas ; G. Granite -

a

SPRAGUE & CO,, LITHO., LONDON.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 113

of England ; yet in a certain sense the belt of killas country near
the granite junctions may be regarded as analogous.

Unstratified deposits will be considered in this chapter in a
slightly different order to that set down above, and, of course,
omitting those which are not clearly represented in our mining
region. Thus we have no really characteristic pipe-veins,
gash-veins, or contact deposits, although some of the ore-masses
present notable analogies to these.

True segregated veins of metalliferous mineral are also
somewhat rare in the West of England, although there are
numerous examples of segregated non-metalliferous veins, of
hornblende, axinite, garnet, and especially of quartz.

Well-marked pipe-veins—such as are common in the North
of England, are also unrepresented, though some of the pockets
and carbonas to be hereafter described present close analogies ;
typical gash-veins, such as those of the Mississipi valley, are
also rare,* but the tin-deposits at the Parka mines near St. Columb
are in many respects similar.

Again, I do not know of any typical contact-deposits—
although it will be seen hereafter that many of the lodes are in
fact contact-deposits, lying between granite and killas or killas
and elvan for considerable distances, both in strike and underlie.
In a certain sense, too, the stockworks at Carclaze and Cariggan
may be looked upon as owing their mineralization to their
position of contact.

Of stockworks, impregnations, chambers or pockets, and
bedded veins or floors, the West of England presents excellent
and very instructive examples, and of rake-veins or lodes
proper, probably some of the best and most characteristic
examples to be found in the world. Examples of each of these
will be given in some detail in the following sections.

Sxc. 2.— Examples of Stratified Ore- Deposits.

Mineral deposits formed én situ (c) and practically unaltered
since their first formation are, as already stated, not known in
the West of England—the stratified ore-beds which exist do in
fact invariably afford evidence of much re-arrangement, or local

* Phillips’ Ore-deposits, p. 98.

114 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

concentration of the ore-matter (group d), if not of actual
impregnation from without since their first formation (group e),
so that they can hardly be described as truly contemporaneous.
Excluding some of the tin stockworks, which as will be seen
hereafter have in a certain sense a claim to be considered as
contemporaneous ore-beds; excluding too the beds of pyritous
shale which exist in many parts of the district but which, hitherto
have not been proved to be of economic importance,* we have

only to consider in this place such interbedded ore-deposits as _

the magnetite of Haytor, the cupriferous beds of Belstone Consols
and its neighbourhood, and the altered dolomite beds of
Ashburton and Veryan, with their manganese concentrations ;
together with the manganiferous slates of South Sydenham and
other places in Devonshire.

Perhaps the most definite examples of bedded-ores existing
in the West of England are those situated at the foot of Haytor,
in Devonshire, and the adjoining deposits at Smallacombe—the
former described in 1875 by Dr. C. Le Neve Foster,} and the
latter some years earlier by myself.

At the Haytor mine are four beds of magnetite, varying
from 8 to 14 feet in thickness, with a total of 26 feet or more.
These are interstratified with highly silicified slates and sand-
stones of carboniferous age—the whole series dipping pretty
steeply to the north-north-east, and abutting against the granite,
the bounding line of which runs here nearly north and south.
An intrusive sheet of granite is partly interbedded with and
breaks across the altered carboniferous strata, but the actual
‘‘junction’’ here as in so many other places seems to be a fault
of a date much subsequent to the intrusion. With the magne-
tite, and especially near its planes of contact with the enclosing
slates, there is much hornblende, garnet, and axinite; and a little
to the westward, at Smallacombe, the whole series is very much

* See Boase, Trans. Roy. Geo. Soc. Corn. rv, p.p.176—191. Mr. Boase says
‘at Tresuck iron pyrites enters so abundantly into the composition of these rocks
that it is entitled to be considered as a constituent, and not as an adventitious
mineral.” (p. 191).

+ Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1875, p. 628 (with references to earlier descriptions
in the Phil. Mag., 1827 to 1831).

{ Report Miners’ Assoc., 1872, p. 71,

a

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 115

decomposed—the slates here forming a kind of clay, and the
sandstones being largely disintegrated into sand. In these soft
beds are to be seen irregular layers of nodular limonite, while
certain less decomposed beds still contain much magnetite and
hornblende in an almost unaltered condition. Here, and also
at several points along the outcrop—which may be traced for
about a mile to the eastward—quantities of ochre and umber are
met with irregularly disposed in the decomposed mass, and
evidently themselves decomposition products.*

As to the origin of these beds, Dr. Foster, in the paper already
referred to, remarks that ‘‘beds of iron-ore deposited contem-
poraneously with shales and sandstones seem to have been sub-
jected to a metamorphic action—probably due to the proximity
of the granite. The iron-ore—perhaps originally in the form of
beds like the Cleveland ore—has been altered into magnetite,
whilst the change undergone by the shales and sandstones con-
sists in an extreme silicification.”’+ I quite believe that this is
the true explanation after a careful microscopic and partial
chemical examination of the rocks and associated minerals; and
I see no ground for the second supposition put forward by Dr.
Foster (though hesitatingly) ‘‘that the apparently stratified
magnetite may have been formed by ferruginous emanations
which accompanied or followed the granitic intrusion, and spread
out between the planes of bedding.”{ ‘There is no evidence
whatever of the existence of an actual “ fissure” or “‘junction”’
vein which has served for the channel for ‘‘ ferruginous solutions
or emanations.” [I have little doubt that the original ferruginous
beds consisted of carbonate of iron, that the heat from the
proximity of the granite, aided by water circulating through the
beds, has converted it into magnetite, and has also produced
and developed the hornblende, axinite, garnet, &c. The general
silicification of the fine-grained shales and sandstones seems to
me to have been a subsequent process. It has produced in some
places a kind of quartzite and in others a fine-grained banded

* In these beds large masses of gramenite were visible at the time of my visit
in 1871. See Min. Mazg., vol. 1, p. 67.

+ Q. J. G.S., 1875, 629.
ft p. 630,

116 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

cherty-looking rock—shewing its origin plainly under the micros-
cope, and containing in one instance over 95 per cent. of silica.*

The silica of these rocks has something of a chalcedonic
character, shewing very few traces of crystallization. The same
period and mode of silicification is perhaps indicated by the
occurrence in the neighbourhood of the rare mineral Haytorite
—which is a cchalcedonic pseudomorph after Datholite.

A somewhat similar association of bedded magnetite with
hornblende, axinite, and apatite interstratified with ‘‘greenstone
slate” or ‘‘hornblendie slate’’ occurs at the Crown’s Mine, Botal-
lack, and was briefly described and compared with the well-known
Perseberg deposit in Sweden by Dr. Foster, in 1867. Similar
beds of magnetite have been worked toa small extent at Trelus-
well, near Penryn, and at Brent, in Devon.

The nodules of argillaceous iron-stone associated with the
bands of sandstone, shale, and anthracite, of the ‘‘ carbon series
near Bideford, reminding us of the intermixture of iron-ore and
vegetable matter in the bogs and morasses of the present day,”
were referred to by Sir H. Delabeche many years since,t but
they have never, I think, been worked.

The red hematite of the Permian rocks in the neighbourhood
of Luckham and Wotton Courtney, in West Somerset, has been
‘in some localities worked in the manner of a quarry for that
ore, and profitably exported in the state in which it is thus roughly
obtained... .the hematite constituting as much a part of the beds
as the sandstone and conglomerates with which it is associated.’”’§

Another series of metalliferous beds, of considerable geolo-
gical if not economical importance, occurs on the north side of
Dartmoor, and extends from Sourton to South Zeal—a distance

* The practical importance of this silicification to the miner was shewn by
the fact that the adit driven from the Smallacombe side for the purpose of opening
up the magnetite beds in depth cost in some parts over £50 per fathom in driving,
This however was before the use of boring machinery and of dynamite had
become at all general in the West of England.

+ Report Miners’ Association, 1867, p. 46.

{ Report on Cornwall, &c., p. 125. At page 143 he says on the same series of
deposits ‘‘ The general character of the great carbonaceous deposit of Devon......
......18 that of drifted matter, vegetable remains included............m this respect
it appears unlike the coal deposits of Northumberland and Durham ” (p. 148),

§ Ibid, p. 197,

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 117

of seven or eight miles. The beds of ore, locally termed lodes,
consist of garnet rock, mostly crystalline, containing large quan-
tities of iron-pyrites and mispickel, with some disseminated
copper-pyrites. These beds are interstratified with ‘“‘ perfectly
conformable” dark siliceous slates, and the whole series dips
pretty regularly away from the granite * The economic import-
ance of these beds might, I think, be greatly enhanced by a
system of raw-smelting before export, so producing a matte which
would better bear the cost of carriage, and which would be more
readily saleable than such low-grade ores as are usually met
with in this district.

The dark slates extending from Launceston to Lew Trench-
ard are everywhere permeated with manganese, which at many
points seems to be gathered into lenticular or irregular masses
having their greatest extensions mainly conforming to the strike
aud dip of the beds, so forming what have been termed ‘‘ bedded
veins,” but sometimes so regular in form as to appear true beds
—at others expanding into irregular masses or “‘pockets.” Many
of these have been worked very extensively and have in former
times, when manganese was high in price, yielded large profits
to their owners.

That the Haytor, Bideford, Luckham, Treluswell, and
Botallack iron-ores, the copper-ores of Belstone and Sourton,
and the manganese ores of Launceston, Lifton, and Lew
Trenchard, are truly contemporaneous in their first origin,
there is, I think, no reason to doubt; of mineral infiltration into
the rock substance since its consolidation, other than in some
instances an infiltration of silica, there seems to be no evidence
whatever. It is equally certain however, that the ore-matter in
them has been re-arranged and concentrated since the beds were
first formed. This is in fact usually the case with contemporaneous
ore-beds whenever their age is considerable—as for instance the
concretionary iron-ores of the English coal measures, and
notably the well-known bituminous copper-schists of Mansfeld ;t

* The workings on these cupriferous beds at Belstone, which seem to greatly
resemble many metalliferous deposits in South Norway were described by Sir
W. W. Smyth, in the year 1868. See Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc., Corn., 1X, p. 38.

+ For a clear though condensed account of the deposits, see the admirable
treatise on “ Ore-deposits,” by the late Mr. J. A. Phillips, F.R.S.

118 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

and sometimes this concentration has been so extreme as to bring
the deposits into a condition resembling ‘‘ bedded veins” (4).

The transference and re-arrangement of pre-existing mineral
matter is still more marked in the case of the altered dolomites
at one time largely worked for manganese in the neighbourhood
of Ashburton, and described by Mr. R. J. Frecheville in 1884*
as examples of local concentration and re-arrangement of origin-
ally manganiferous beds. From the analyses presented by Mr.
Frecheville, it seems that the concentration has been of a chemical
and residual nature—carbonates of lime and magnesia have been
carried off in solution, while the carbonates of iron and mangan-
ese present have been converted into peroxides.{ The deposits
of manganese at Combemartin, Newton Abbott, and Veryan have
probably had a similar origin.

In other mining regions such ‘‘ contemporaneous ore-beds”
are extremely common; reference has already been made to the
copper schists of Mansfeld—I may also refer to the copper slates
of Wicklow, where the ‘sulphur course” displays the same
schistosity with the ‘‘country rock,” and to the cupriferous shales
of Hon-peh, in China.}

The ‘‘segregated veins” of Phillips (Ore Deposits, p. 90)
seem to have much affinity with the ore-beds above described,
but they are usually much less regular in thickness. I do not
know of any well-characterised example in the West of England,
unless the H.W. ‘‘lodes” at the Parka mines near St. Columb,
hereafter to be described, are such.

Examples of impregnated stratified deposits (group e) are
not very numerous in our mining region, but they are not
altogether wanting. The evidence of cupreous impregnation in

* Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc., Corn., x, 217.

+ These and some associated derivation beds have been worked for many years
for wmber, of which 2,766 tons were produced in 1883.

{ These consist of soft argillaceous rock filled with “light-green films and
specks of malachite and chrysocolla in the cracks of cleavage and stratification” —
or else siliceous bands “‘ containing specks of cuprite with the green oxidized
minerals also conformable—and occasional pockets of ‘‘ pure copper-ore”’ (impure
oxides with a little unchanged sulphide permeated by streaks of carbonate, and
assaying up to 70 per cent). There are nomineral veins—the primary sources of
the mineral are sedimentary, and the patches must be ascribed to the redeposition
of the metal by infiltrations of solutions derived from other sources of unoxidized
minerals in the adjacent rocks.” See Becher, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 168, p. 494.

:

GR a ite

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 119

the red sandstone conglomerates resting on the lode at West
Doddington in W. Somerset is perfectly conclusive; here the lode-
fissure itself may have been the channel through which the
cupriferous solutions were introduced subsequent to the consoli-
dation of the rock. The copper in the sandstones consists of
impregnations and concretions of blue and green carbonate—
similar to those of the Alderley Edge sandstones in Cheshire;
it was formerly worked on a considerable scale.*

Src 3.—Hzamples of Stockworks.

In many mining regions, bands or belts of ‘“‘ country-rock ”
are found which are traversed by numerous thin veins—or their
numerous joints are thinly lined—or they are sprinkled through-
out with small spots of metalliferous substance ; the whole mass
being thus rendered of considerable value. An ore-mass of this
character is called by the Germans—from whom we have derived
many of our mining terms—a ‘stock,’ and a working upon
such a mass a ‘“stock-werk” or—as the term has been adopted
in England—a “ stock-work.”’

Since the individual strings or nests of mineral are usually
insignificant, it is necessary in stock-work mining to remove the
whole mass of impregnated rock and to treat at any rate the
greater portion in order to concentrate and separate its valuable
contents. As the ores so distributed are often very small in
quantity compared with the whole mass of the rock, ¢.g. with
copper ores 1 per cent. or less and with tin ores from 3 to 10 lbs.
of tin oxide to the ton, a concurrence of favourable circumstances
is necessary to enable them to be worked with profit - such as
cheap labour, land of little agricultural value on which to
deposit the refuse, a good outlet for the said refuse so as to keep
the workings clear, a good supply of water for concentration
purposes, and, if possible, water-power for crushing, a body of
the impregnated rock so large as to permit of working on a
considerable scale, a genial climate allowing work to be carried
on without serious interruption, &c. Hven with all these advan-
tages many are so poor that they remain unworked, and very few
will pay to work except as open quarries.

* Delabeche, Report, &c., 609, and Leonard Horner, Trans. Geol. Soc., Lond.,
III, pp. 302, 363.

120 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

Stockworks in the West of England have I believe only
been worked for tin and for copper. ‘Tin stockworks have been
worked in ordinary ‘‘ killas,” and in that modification of it known
as tourmaline schist; also in granite and several of its modifica-
tions, as greisen and schorlyte; and in several kinds of felspar-
porphyry (elvan). Copper stockworks have been worked in
killas and in granite.

Some of the larger tin stockworks in killas, as for example
Mulberry and Minear Downs, seem to be very nearly related to
the contemporary ore-beds already described, since they are often
entirely unconnected with anything like a definite workable lode,
and only very rarely with one that will pay of itself for working.
But the strike of the belt of the impregnated ground is not
necessarily or usually that of the general country rock, while its
dip is usually much steeper than that of the beds. The chief
individual strings are usually still more steeply inclined or even
vertical, and, as will be shewn hereafter, these strings contain a
notable proportion of the whole mineral contents of the belt,
and nearly the whole of that which is extracted or extractable by
the simple methods in use, and which are nevertheless in most
cases the only ones economically possible.

The tin stockworks in altered granite usually conform in
strike to the direction of the nearest junction with killas, but
these also seem to be often unconnected with definite lodes.

Examples illustrating each of these varieties of ‘‘stockwork”’
will be described in the following order :—

1. Tin stockworks in killas apparently unconnected with
any workable lode. Hwamples, Mulberry, Wheal Pros-
per, Minear Downs.

iS)

Tin stockworks in killas plainly connected with workable

lodes. Hxamples, Great Wheal Fortune, Pednandrea.

3. Tin stockworks in ‘ granite’’ unconnected with lodes.
Examples, Carrigan, Cligga.

4. Tin stockworks in granite connected with lodes. Hxam-

ples, Beam, Balleswidden.

5. Tin stockworksin ‘‘elvan.” Hxamples, Wheal Jennings,
Terras.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. Ail

6. Copper stockworks in killas. Hzample, Wheal Music.
7. Copper stockworks in granite. Hxample, Wheal
Vyvyan.

1.—TIN STOCKWORKS IN KILLAS UNCONNECTED WITH LODES.

Mulberry. This is one of the most ancient open tin workings
in Cornwall. It is situated on an elevated ‘‘down” (Mulberry
Down) about 2 miles to the N.W. of Lanivet Church. The
excavation is at the bottom about 400 yards long and 30 wide,
with a depth varying from 80 to 120 ft., but more tinny ground
still stands on the east side of the pit. The then condition of the
workings was described by Dr. C. Le Neve Foster in 1876 as
follows :—‘‘ The killas, which is of an ash-grey colour, dips at an
angle of about 45° in a direction N. 22° W. (érue). It is tra-
versed by numerous branches or veins running N.7° W., dipping
about from 80° W. to 90° (vertical), and varying from mere joints
to veins 4 or 5 inches in width, rarely more than a foot apart—in
fact generally only a few inches (fig. 1., plate vir). Many of the
veins preserve their independence for a considerable distance
without intersecting other branches; but at the same time it is
easy to find junctions both in the dip and in strike; sometimes
also two adjacent strings may be connected by a “ floor” or vein
of tin following the stratification. In addition to tin the veins
contain quartz and a little arsenical pyrites and wolfram.’’*

The average result of the operations is stated at that time
to have been 7 lbs. of tin-oxide to the ton of stuff, which at the
then prevailing low price paid expenses and a little more.

Wheal Prosper and Michell is half-a-mile westward of Lanivet
Church,. and was also described by Dr. Foster in 1876. The
workings here are also in killas. The pit is 800 yards long, 30
yards wide at the bottom, and averages 90 ft. deep. The killas
is soft and light-coloured (white, grey, yellow, brown), and is
full of little veins running E. 7° N., and containing quartz,
gilbertite and cassiterite, the impregnated mass being wider and
the veins somewhat more productive where certain stanniferous
caunters cross the pit (or rather, as I think, certain non-stannif-
erous caunter veins become stanniferous in crossing the pit).

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1876, p. 655.

122 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

The produce here did not exceed 3 lbs. to the ton in 1876, which
then paid expenses.*

At Minear Downs, a little to the N.H. of St. Austell, is another
of these stanniferous channels of killas, lying between the famous
Charlestown mines and the granite. The works were visited by
the Miners’ Association in 1870, and a short account was given
in the report of proceedings of that year.t| Dr. Foster described
it six years later as follows—‘‘The great open quarry....is
about 200 yards long at the top and 60 or 70 yards wide, but only
90 yards long and 20 or 80 yards wide at the bottom. The
greatest depth can scarcely be less than 120 feet. ..... The
tin-ore occurs in a seriesof more or less parallel veins in the
killas, striking about EH. 7° 8. and dipping N. at an angle of
about 70°; the strings are often mere cracks but occasionally 7 to 8
inches wide, and lie from 2 inches to 12 inches apart....ten
strings in one place in a width of 6 feet. They generally keep
their own course without much interlacing in dip and strike.
The killas itself dips 8.S.E. at an angle of 20° to 25°, so that
the strings intersect it almost at right angles. At the sides of the
strings the killas is often stained red and yellow, and is occasion-
ally altered into tourmaline schist. On the 8.W. side of the pit
is a so-called lode which is merely a mass of tourmaline schist 6
or 8 inches wide between two tin branches.”’}

These works are still being profitably carried on, but the
pit is very much larger than at the time of Dr. Foster’s visit.
It must now be at least 500 yards long and 150 feet deep. I
visited it in the present year (1892), and found over sixty heads
of stamps at work. The stuff is said to yield about 4 lbs. of
tin to the ton.

* On this point Dr. Foster remarks as follows :—

“¢ Some of the reasons why the stuff can be treated so cheaply are :—

1. The rock is soft and friable and easily stamped.

2. The tin-ore is in large grains (crystals), consequently the rock need not
be stamped fine, and the subsequent washing operations are greatly
facilitated. si

3. The substances mixed with the tin-ore are specifically very much lighter
and easily separated by washing. There is no pyrites to necessitate cal-

cination.
4, There is water power at command.
+p. 39.

{ Ibid, p. 656.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 123

Other large tin stockworks, differing little in essential char-
acter from those just described, exist at Gover, near Burngullow;
at Tolldish, on Tregoss Moor; at Fatwork,* near St. Columb (in
well-defined tourmaline schist); at Wheal Whisper, in Warleggan;
and many other places, but never far from the granite, and often
directly at the contact with it, or with elvan courses. There are
probably many others which might be worked, but that they do
not unite a sufficient number of the favourable conditions indi-
cated above.

9.—TIN STOCKWORKS IN KILLAS CONNECTED OR ASSOCIATED WITH
LODES.

Great Wheal Fortune. This mine is on the eastern border of
the parish of Breage, a little to the south of Great Wheal Vor.
Two well-known east and west tin and copper lodes traverse the
sett and dip to the southward at angles near 45°. One of these
has been worked to a depth of 80 fathoms or more with consider-
able advantage, but has been idle for many years. Two series of
nearly vertical tin veins known as the ‘‘ Conqueror” and ‘‘ Hliza-
beth” branches appear at surface at about a furlong’s distance to
the south of the outcrop of the main lodes, and have been worked
upon at intervals for many years in an excavation as a stockwork.
These branches probably are connected with the main lode at
a depth of 100 fathoms or a little more. The principal
excavation runs nearly S. W., is about 400 feet long, 50 feet wide,
and 60 feet deep. It is crossed by an elvan course which plainly
heaves the branches to the left, and seems to enrich them.
The average produce of the stuff stamped during the past few
years has been 12 lbs. of tin to the ton. As the scale of working
has been small, and steam power has been necessary for pumping
and for hauling the stuff from below the adit, this has scarcely
paid expenses, although on a sufficiently large scale it would
certainly have been profitable, since the tin is of high quality,
and the ground easy.

The great open-work on the back of the ‘‘south lode” at
Drakewalls, was a kind of stockwork. The killas stockwork at
Polberrow in St. Agnes is well-known. Another stockwork in

* Boase, Trans. Rog. Geol. Soc., Corn., Iv., p. 250; Henwood, ibid v., p. 120.
According to Boase much of the rock at Fatwork has a brecciated appearance
“like a lime-ash floor,” yet there is no well-defined lode known there.

124 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

killas in connexion with a lode exists at Wheal Coates, on the
hanging-wall side of the Towan-rath lode, and, when worked
some years since yielded about 25 Ibs. of tin to the ton of stuff.*

Pednandrea. The underground stockwork here was worked
to a very considerable extent, about a quarter of a century ago,
It was thus described by Mr. H. C. Salmon, in 1862 :—-‘‘ This
great deposit, which in the old working was, I believe, called the
Great Carbona, is what the Germans would call a Stockwerk.
For a length of 25 fathoms at the 68 fathoms level, the tin made
in branches in the killas ‘‘ country,” by the side of the lode for
11 fathoms wide, the lode itself being only 4 feet wide.” }

I have been informed that the average produce of this belt
of tin-ground was about 25 lbs. of tin to the ton, which was
scarcely enough to cover the expenses of excavation, hauling,
crushing, and dressing, with the additional cost of pumping and
timbering at that depth. Had it been at the surface it would
of course have paid handsomely.

The aggregate of tin-ground removed and treated in the
killas stockworks just described cannot be less than 375,000 cubie
fathoms, or say 6 million tons, andis probably much more. The
average tin produce has been about 6 lbs. to the ton in those
works which are unconnected with definite lodes, and 18 lbs. to
the ton in the others. At least 20,000 tons of black tin must
have been obtained from them in the aggregate, besides that
lost in the tailings, to which reference will be made later on.

3.—TIN STOCKWORKS IN GRANITE UNCONNECTED WITH LODES.

The granite in which disseminated tin-ore occurs is almost
invariably altered into greisen, schorlyte, or zwitter. I proceed
to give examples of each.

Carrigan. 'This mine is on the left side of the turnpike road,
going from Bugle to Lanivet. The open-work here is in a
mass of greisen (essentially quartz and white mica), and is 100
yards long, 50 yards wide, and 20 deep. ‘‘On the S.E side it is
hounded by a Jarge clay vein or flucan, and on the north it dis-
appears under the alluvium of the neighbouring valley. The

*Foster, Trans. R. G. 8. C., 1x., p. 212.
+Mining and Smelting Magazine, 1862, pp. 143-4.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 125

rock is a mixture of quartz and (white) mica with a good deal of
schorl, some gilbertite, and a little iron-pyrites, fluor, and
eassiterite. The mass is traversed by a number of so-called
leaders, which are quartz veins with tin-ore, schorl, gilbertite, and
clay, dipping 85° N., andrunning E.7°N. Very often they are
an inch or two inches wide, and from 1 foot to 6 feet apart.
Occasionally the leader adheres to the enclosing rock by one side
only, and has a clay vein on the other. On washing the clay
broken crystals of cassiterite are generally found, proving, I
think, that since the deposition of tin-ore in the fissures there
has been a movement of the walls. 27,500 tons of rock were
stamped (7.¢. a few years before 1876), and yielded 64 tons of
tin-ore, or 5:2 lbs. of tin per ton, say } per cent. It was expected
that the wholly virgin ground would produce 8 lbs. of tin-ore
per ton.’’*

Cligga. The interesting tin deposits at Cligga have long
yielded a little tin to men washing the beach-sands, and picking
a little here and there on the cliff face, but have never been
systematically worked on a large scale. The remarkable alter-
ation of the granite into parallel bands of quartz, stanniferous
and schorlaceous greisen, and kaolinized granite with unaltered
or little altered granite between, was well described and illustrated
by Dr. Foster, in 1876. ‘‘The cliff section exhibits a countless
number of these veins, varying from 3 inch to 6 inches in width,
and from a few inches to a few feet apart.’”? There are some
pseudomorphs of chlorite or schorl after orthoclase, and the killas
a little inland is converted into tourmaline schist at its contact
with the granite. Dr. Foster suggests that the original fissures
here were ‘‘contraction fissures,” and that subsequently these
were ‘‘penetrated and altered by metalliferous solutions arising
from below,’’} and it would seem that the direction of these
fissures was determined by the foliation previously produced by
the lateral pressure which has contorted the neighbouring killas.
The more extensive conversion of the granite into greisen, at
Carrigan, just referred to, is a change of the same character.

* Foster, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1876, p. 657.

+See “ Tin lodes of the St. Agnes district.”’ Trans, Roy. Geol. Soc., 1x, pp.
213, 219,

126 ORIGIN AND DHVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

Carclaze. This famous open-work is two miles northward
from St. Austell. It is now worked almost exclusively for china
clay, but was formerly worked for tin only; its records, it is said,
date from the time of Henry VII. The most recent published
description of Carclazo is that given by Mr. R. Symons in our
Journal. Mr. Symons found the area to be, by actual survey, 138
acres, and the greatest depth 132 feet.* This shows a very great
increase from the 6 acres surveyed by Mr. Thomas, previous to
1846,+ but the extension has been almost entirely in the ‘“clay-
beds”’ to the northward, and scarcely at all on the schorlaceous
and stanniferous branches. At the time of Mr. Thomas’s visit in
Jan., 1830, there were 8 stamping mills at work, shafts had been
sunk 10 fathoms deeper than the bottom of the pit, and the mine
was said to be rich in the bottom. The clay was merely refuse,
to be washed out through the adit as speedily as possible. He
calculated that one million tons of stuff had been thus removed.

The schorlaceous tin branches run nearly E.W. and parallel
to the junction with the killas (tourmaline schist); they vary from
a fraction of an inch up to 2 feet in thickness, the thicker ones
being almost devoid of tin. The greatest length of the workings,
including the eastern part known as Little Carclaze, is nearly
half-a-mile, and the total quantity of tin- bearing ground removed
must be at least one million tons, besides several million tons
of non-stanniferous clay ground. The pit must now (1892) be
at least 18 acres in extent at the top.

Rock Hill. The abundance of schorl in connexion with the |
tin at Carclaze, is still more noticeable at Rock Hill. This hill
is situated to the left of the turnpike road from St. Austell, and
about half-a-mile short of the village of Bugle. A number of
tin lodes formerly worked with considerable advantage in the
Rocks mine, just under the turnpike road, converge at Rock
Hill, where they have been worked at intervals for generations
in an open quarry. Very little has been done there for the past
few years, so that my description of the place, published with
sketches, in 1873, needs but little alteration now. It runs as
follows: —‘‘The main excavation is of a nearly circular form,
not much less than 150 feet diameter, and about 40 feet deep.

* Journ. Roy. Inst. Corn., rx, p. 140, 1877.
+ Henwood, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc., Corn., v, p. 120.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OE ORE-DEPOSITS. 127

Opening from this on the east side is another excavation, about
100 feet long, 80 wide, and 20 deep. The hill consists of
granite, the felspar of which is in parts completely decomposed,
forming masses of china clay, interspersed with grains of quartz
and flakes of mica” (carclazyte). The main pit is crossed by a
large caunter tin lode, or rather a tin-bearing belt of ground
having no distinct walls. This runs nearly N.E., and dips steeply
N.W., it consists chiefly of schorl and quartz, but contains on an
average from 6 to 8 lbs. of tin to the ton of stuff. It is crossed
by another belt of very similar character, running nearly N.S.;
this is known as the cross-course, although it in no way resembles
the ordinary cross-courses of the West of England; it appears
slightly to heave the ‘‘lode”’ however, and itself contains tin
(especially) near the intersection, sometimes as much as 20 lbs.
to the ton.

Besides the ‘‘ lode” and the ‘‘ cross-course,”’ a great number
of smaller lodes and branches traverse the pit in almost every
direction, many of them coming together about the centre of the
pit, a little to the east of the point of intersection of the two
greater masses. Atsome of the intersections rich bunches occur,
some yielding 50 or even 60 per cent. of oxide of tin, and from
one such bunch 17 tons of tin were got out about the year 1870.*
From 1872 to 1874 the average produce of the stuff treated was
about 10 lbs. of tin per ton of stuff crushed, or about 7 lbs. per
ton of stuff broken. A very careful and economical mode of
working was adopted, but it was on too small a scale, rarely
exceeding 150 tons per week, and as the stuff was extremely hard,
the stamps were worked by steam, and even the water for dressing
had to be pumped by steam power, the mine barely “ paid cost,”
even when black tin was selling at £90 per ton, and when the
price fell to a little over £60, the works were abandoned. Still,
taking into account the chances of meeting with occasional rich
bunches, I think the abandonment was certainly premature.

* Report, Miners’ Assoc., 1872, p. 67, published 1873. See also ‘‘ The Hens-
barrow Granite District, pp. 40-47.

+ The interesting occurrence at this mine of porphyritically embedded pseudo-
morphous crystals of schorl, quartz, oxide of tin, and of mixtures of two or three
of these together, in the form of felspars, and also the occurrence in cavities of the
rare mineral achroite was described by the writer in the year 1876, in the Mineral-
ogical Magazine, Vol. 1, 1876, p. 55,

128 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

Other stanniferous masses of schorl-rock occur at Boscaswell
Downs in St. Just, while the famous Roche Rock itself contains
small quantities of tin.

Gonamena. A most remarkable mass of stanniferous granite
was formerly worked at Gonamena, at the foot of Caradon
Hill; the excavation is stated by Mr. Henwood to be 11 acres
in extent, and 8 fathomsdeep.* He also mentions a similar but
smaller excavation near the Cheesewring. These have not, I
think, ever been worked for china clay, but the working of the tin
has certainly been facilitated by the partial kaolinization of the
felspar. The same may be said of the rather extensive excava-
tions at Kit Hill, and at Two Bridges on Dartmoor.t Others
occur at Raggy Rowel, on the east side of Tregoning Hill, in

Breage, and many other places; want of water alone prevents

very many of these from being profitably worked.

oP)

The aggregate area of these “granite” stockworks can

hardly be less than 250,000 cubic fathoms, or, considering the ©

abundance of schorl which increases the specific gravity of the
rock, over 4 million tons—averaging little, if at all, less than 8
lbs. of tin to the ton, or, say 14,000 tons of black tin.

4.—TIN STOCK WORKS IN GRANITE CONNECTED WITH DEFINITE LODES.

These have been very much richer than the deposits just
described. A very common mode of occurrence is as a pair of
well-defined lodes, enclosing a belt of highly stanniferous country
between them. ‘The famous deposits at Balleswidden, Beam,
Bunny, and Birch Tor, are of this character.

Balleswidden, Parish of St. Just. At this mine Awboys lode
and the south lode ran parallel, about 20 fathoms apart, for a
distance of nearly amile. There were other lodes crossing these
obliquely at various points, the situations of all of them being
clearly explained in the paper of Messrs. Rowe and Foster, in
1878.{ It must not be supposed, hewever, that these lodes were
at all like the great master lodes of the Carn Brea district; they

*Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc., Corn., Vol. VIII, p. 665.

+Ibid, v, p. 182.

Rowe and Foster, ‘‘Observations on Balleswidden Mine.” Trans. Roy. Geol.
Soc., Corn., x, pp. 10 and 17, A very well illustrated and valuable paper through-
out,

&

i Tae ne ,
ry Ne

mi) tt ri

VoL. XI.
Ol a PLATE IX,

SPRAGUE &CO., LITHO., LONDON -

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 129

were always far more complex in character. ‘‘The dip is S.W.,
varying from 75° at the 8 E. part, to 60° at the N.W. extremity
of the workings. ‘The structure of this lode deserves particular
attention ; the so-called lode consists of four or five small parallel
tin veins, bounded on each side by a hard rock locally known as
hardwork, which merges into granite. The total width of the
lode varied from 10 to 20 feet, and averaged about 12 feet.
Hach little vein or Jeader, known at Balleswidden as a gry, was
generally about a half-inch thick and rarely widened out to more
than 4 inches. The gries rarely united with one another along
the dip or the strike, but often dwindled away to a mere string
orjoint. The filling up of these little veins consisted of coarsely
erystallized tin stone, with schorl, quartz, gilbertite and kaolin
(prian); alittle wolfram, fluor-spar, bismuthine, and native copper
were also sometimes met with. The little veins or gries were
continually varying in productiveness ; as a rule only one of them
was rich in any given section, and as soon as it began to dwindle
away one of the neighbouring ones began to improve. There
was always a sharp and well-defined wall between the gry and the
adjoining hard-work, and this was of importance to the miner as
it enabled him to separate the rich gry from the poorer rock
adjoining it, and make a little parcel of best work.” The greater
part of the tin was contained in the “gries,” but the hard-work
also contained a little tin. Associated with the so-called lodes
were certain off-shoots or ‘“‘ pie-lodes,’”’ which much resembled
the carbonas of the St. Ives district, yet to be referred to, but
differed from them in containing less schorl and more gilbertite
when really productive. The mine was worked to a depth of
about 150 fathoms. During the 36 years that the adventure
lasted, from February, 1837 to April, 1873, more than 12,000
tons of black tin were sold, of a value of £694,094, besides
certain small quantities raised and sold before and since.*

Beam. This mine is about four miles north of St. Austell,
on the north side of the Hensbarrow granite. It is many years
since it was worked, and the latest published description is that
given with plan and sections in my ‘‘Hensbarrow granite district,”’
in 1878. Itissaid to have been first worked as an open cutting in

* Ibid, p. 17.

130 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

the time of Henry VII, for the sake of the two chief ‘lodes’’
and the impregnated “country” between. arly in the
present century regular mining operations were commenced on
these two lodes, which were only 5 or 6 fathoms apart, but
diverged somewhat in depth. The lodes bear from 16° to 18° N.
of E., and vary from a few inches to 6 feet in width, dipping
steeply to the northward. They are composed of quartz, schorl,
and tin-ore, with a little wolfram and black copper-ore, and much
clay and gilbertite; they have also yielded small quantities of
iron-ore at certain points. The mine was worked to the 82
fathom level, by Messrs. Williams of Scorrier, until about 1830,
when it was abandoned ‘‘on account of its poverty,” accord-
ing to Mr. Hawkins,* having yielded about £30,000 profit
to its owners. Subsequent workings carried the mine a few
fathoms deeper, but no large amount of work was ever done
below the 92 fathom level.

The lodes were always richer where the country was soft.
When the lodes were small they often consisted of almost solid
tin ore, but if large, a central ‘‘ pith” or ‘‘ leader” of tin occurred
as a double crystallized coating upon crystallized quartz.

A very similar association of “‘lodes” with tin impregnated

country was also worked on a considerable scale at the Bunny
Mine, about half-way between Beam and St. Austell, but no
record of the results is obtainable, and the ‘‘lodes”’ seemed to
die out at a moderate depth.

Birch Tor. The deposits of this mine seem to have been
pretty much of the character just described. Mr. Henwood says
that the veins united in depth, that the works were very ancient,
and that specular iron-ore occurred with the tin.

Two things have been especially noted in connexion with
these deposits, first, that the stanniferous belts of the surface
became more concentrated into definite ‘‘lodes” in depth, and
second, that as a whole the deposits were, as in the corresponding
eases of killas stockworks, much richer than the stockworks
properly so-called, which are not connected with definite lodes.

*Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc., Corn., Iv, p. 477.
+ “The Hensbarrow granite district.” —Truro, Lake and Lake, 1878,
{Trans, Roy. Geol. Soe., Corn., v, p. 132.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 131

Thus, we have seen that the average produce of the granite
stockworks proper has been about 8 lbs. to the ton of stuff
removed. Only a very rough approximation can be made to the
mass value of the Balleswidden stuff, but it certainly seems to
have been much richer than this. If we estimate the ground
removed at 300 fathoms long, 4 fathoms wide, and 40 fathoms
deep; and few would be disposed to reckon anything like so
much, who have seen the workings and studied the plans; then
the ground removed, a!lowing for that left for pillars, could not
exceed 500,000 tons, and this would require to yield about 50 lbs,
of tin to the ton to account for the 12,000 tons sold. The current
statements as to the riches of Beam and Bunny would certainly
indicate a somewhat similar state of concentration for the tin of
these mines.

Of course this greater concentration is to some extent
apparent only, since the greater expense of working under-
ground, and at a considerable depth, would compel the miners to
leave much of the poorer ground below, and untouched, which if
raised and treated would materially lower the average produce.
But after making due allowance for this consideration, it yet
appears that when the main-joints in a stockwork are so well-
defined as to appear more or less lke distinct lodes, an enrichment
is the result, in other words the riches bear some direct relation,
speaking generally, to the ‘‘strength”’ of the strings, veins, or
lodes.

The total ground excavated for this class of stockworks can
hardly be less in all than four times that worked out at Balles-
widden, and the tin thus obtained must have been from 40,000
to 50,000 tons .

5 —TIN STOCKWORKS IN ELVAN.

Many elvans have been worked as tin stockworks to a small -
extent, as for instance Polgooth, near St. Austell; Terras, in St.
Stephens; Budnick and Wheal Coates, in St. Agnes; Castle-an-
-dinas and Belowda, near Roche; Poldory, in Gwennap ; Wheal
Unity Wood, and Bissoe Bridge.* Very rich tin-ores were also
obtained by under-ground mining at the Wherry Mine near
Penzance, in an elvan course 18 feet wide. ‘‘Ona close inspection

* Henwood, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc., Corn., v, 82, 87.

132 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

of the mass in which the tin is thus abundantly dispersed (over
1 per cent. as it appears), the grains appear of a crystalline
transparency, and so equal in size and regularly distributed as
to form as it were one of the constituent parts of the porphyry,’’*

Wheal Jennings. This mine is situated in the parish of
Gwinear, and was formerly worked under the name of Parbola.
Mr. Seymour, who gavea very good illustrated description of the
mine in the year 1876, does not regard it as a true stockwork
‘“ because the tin-bearing branches follow (mainly) one direction,”
but as we have seen this is the case at Mulberry and many other
recognized stockworks. The elvan traverses a somewhat soft
killas, and contains many small veins of tin which mostly pass
across it from killas to killas, others falling into them in their
course. Some pass into the killas after traversing the elvan.
The elvan itself contains disseminated grains of tin, forming
masses known as ‘‘ grey-tin,” also angular masses of ‘‘ granite.”
Mr. Seymour regards the tin veins as shrinkage-fissures sub-
sequently filled by means of stanniferous solutions which arose
through the fissured mass, ‘‘ where the mass of rock was ina
greater degree porous, the emanations penetrated into and
impregnated the adjacent elvan, thus forming the deposits of
so-called ‘“‘ grey-tin.’’f

Belowda Hill. A large elvan cuts through the granite at
Belowda Hill, and both rocks are found to be stanniferous in an
open-cutting which has been worked at intervals on a considerable
scale. Dr. Foster wrote a short note on the works here, which
appeared, in the year 1875, in our Journal. He stated that the
“lode’’ was 40 feet wide at the time he saw it, and that the stannif-
erous belt so-called was traversed by numerous tin branches from
2 inches to 6 inches wide, which carried quartz, schorl and tin—
some tin being found in the intermediate masses of rock also,
in some cases as pseudomorphs after felspar. He states that
the general produce of the stuff was one-half per cent. In
1880 I superintended the works here for a short time, during
which a battery of stamps was set up and several hundred tons

* John Hawkins, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc., Corn., Vol. 1, p. 140.
+ Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc., Corn., Ix, p.p. 185, 195,

{ Ibid.

§ Journ. R.1.C., v, p. 2138.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 1338

of stuff were stamped. The “overburden” gave 5 lbs. to the
ton, the granite about as much, and the elvan 12 lbs. during
these trials, which just paid expenses but no more, on a scale of
20 to 30 tons per day.

The total quantity of elvan removed in this class of stock-
work may perhaps be reasonably estimated at one million tons,
and the average produce at one-half per cent., or say 4,500
tons in all.

6.— COPPER STOCKWORKS IN KILLAS.

These are rare in Cornwall, but there are the remains of
several to be seen along the north coast to the west of St. Agnes,

Wheal Wusic. This mine is situated about 2 miles to the
north of Scorrier station, and it has not, I believe, been worked
for about 60 years. Mr. Henwood states that it was worked on
well-known lodes for many years, and that at length these were
up split into minute strings and branches, none of which were
singly worth pursuit. The whole rock was then removed and the
copper ores extracted. An excavation of an elliptical form of
about an acre in area, and 25 fathoms in depth, yet stands open to
the day. About four millions of cubic feet must have been
removed. It closely resembles the net-work of the tin veins in
granite at Carclaze.’* The copper it appears was mainly in
the form of copper-pyrites, but this was often converted
superficially into malachite; the country rock was tourmaline-
schist of a bluish grey tinge.

Copper disseminated in an ancient conglomerate occurs in the
form of copper-pyrites, at Bellurian Cove,{ and native copper
was found disseminated in the serpentine at Wheal Trenance, in
the same parish of Mullion; a fine mass from this place may
now be seen in the Museum of Practical Geology in London.
Writing of this place in 1818, Mr. Ashurst Majendie says ‘‘ The
mines of copper have been discontinued. I was informed that
at low water in spring tides, narrow veins of native copper may
be observed in the serpentine, where it is covered by the sea.§

* Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc., Corn., v, 98, note.
+ Ibid, p. 98 and 235.

{ Delabeche, Report, &c.. p. 31, note.

§ Trans. Roy. Geol Soc, Corn., I, p. 33.

134 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

7.—COPPER STOCKWORKS IN GRANITE.

Wheal Vyvyan. This ancient mine is in the Parish of Con-
stantine. A belt of the granite, some 5 to 10 fathoms in width,
was found to contain disseminated copper-pyrites, iron-pyrites, a
little grey-ore, and a little tin. This belt was traversed by
numerous veins or strings, which consisted of minute crevices
lined with tin-ore. Certain veins of granite in the “lode” —
heaved or displaced these strings, as did also a series of cross-
courses.*

A somewhat similar mass was formerly worked at Trumpet
Consols, in Wendron. In this instance the copper was argentifer-
ous, each per cent. of copper carrying from 2 to 4 ounces of silver
per ton.t

Src. 4.—Impregnations, &c.

Wnder this head it will be convenient to refer to certain
deposits, known as Carbonas, pockets, floors, bedded veins, and
gash-veins which differ decidedly on the one hand from true
metalliferous beds, and on the other from true fissure lodes—
and which are usually much more concentrated and defined
than stockworks, and also in general much smaller. Like
stockworks they are often though not invariably connected with
definite lodes.

Carbonas. These have so far only been found in West
Cornwall, and in granite. The great carbona at St. Ives Consols
was connected with the standard lode at the 78 fathom level by
a kind of pipe only a few inches in width and height.—(See fig.
2, Plate 11). ‘It has been traced about 120 fathoms in length,
and in that distance dips 40 fathoms, but it is nowhere more
than 10 fathoms either in vertical thickness or in breadth, and
is generally much smaller. It sends off lode-like shoots or
branches laterally, and terminates in the standard lode.” { Very
similar bodies have been worked at Rosewall Hill Mine, at
Wheal Speed, Balnoon, and many other places. The chief lodes

*See Henwood, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc., Corn., v, 73.

+It is worthy of note that most of the copper of this side of the Stithians
granite mass is argentiferous. Thus some grey-ore found at Trumpet Consols in
1885, contained at least 3 ounces of silver per ton for each per cent. of copper.

+ Henwood, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. of Corn., V, p. 237.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 135

at Balnoon were known as the Garth and the North Vervis
Veins; but ‘‘ besides occasional enlargements of the lodes from a
few inches to 30 or 40 feet in breadth, there are still larger
masses of tin ore wholly unconnected with any vein, and
surrounded on all sides by an extremely hard and very coarse-
grained granite. These are discovered almost by accident, for
I have known more than one of them found by extending the
excavation where there existed no other indication than a mere
joint in the rocks, which contained no mineral, and was perceptible
only from the slow oozing of a minute quantity of water between
its faces.’’*

East Wheal Lovell. This mine is in the parish of Wendron,
and the remarkable tin deposits discovered in 1875 were thus
described by Dr. Foster. ‘‘ The lodes are usually very narrow,
sometimes a mere joint or line of division in the rocks—but
occasionally a couple of inches thick; they consist of quartz, a
little clay, and red oxide of iron, and per se are utterly valueless.
In some places however you get curious deposits of tin on both
sides of the vein (fig. 3, Plate 111), occupying very little space but
extremely rich, consisting of kaolinized granite containing much
gilbertite and schorl.”{ The importance of these deposits is
indicated by the fact that from very small workings, tin to the
value of £39,000 was sold in a period of 20 months from
October, 1869, to May, 1871, yielding a profit of £27,000. At
one time the end of a drift in one of these bodies was valued at
£1,000 per fathom.

The Lovell, Wendron. <A very similar deposit, also in
altered granite, occurs here—the lode itself being somewhat more
defined (fig. 4, Plate 111) and very productive in certain shoots or
‘‘pipes.” ‘The tin in the ‘‘lode”’ C.C. was accompanied by
blende and chalcopyrite, as well as by schorl, gilbertite,
kaolin and quartz.{ The ‘‘cab.” B.B, was composed of quartz,
mica, gilbertite, chlorite, pyrites, chalcopyrite, and schorl; and
like the “‘lode” was traversed by joints containing nothing but
a little schorl, gilbertite, and kaolin. In fact if it had contained

* Henwood, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., V, p. 20.
+Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., 1x, p. 167. The paper is well illustrated.
{ Foster, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1878, p. 649.

136 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

a little more cassiterite it would have been reckoned as a part of
the lode.

Balmynheer. This is another mine in Wendron where the
granite is impregnated with tin under but not over a “slide”
composed of clay, with a little quartz and mica, and about 6”
thick. ‘‘The tin-rock is a mixture of quartz, chlorite, gilbertite,
iron-pyrites, zinc-blende, tin ore, and a little wolfram.” It is
from 20 to 30 feet thick, and has been worked to a depth of 30
fathoms from surface.* (fig. 5, Plate 111).

South Wendron Mine adjoins the Lovell. The tin-ground here
(fig. 6, Plate 11) is a very regular cylindroid of stanniferous rock
merging gradually on all sides into granite, with its axis dipping
at an angle of 49° from the horizon in a direction N. 25 W.
(true). The longer axis of the oval section of the pipe varies
from 20 to 60 feet, whilst the shorter is about 10 feet. The
mass consists of quartz, mica, gilbertite, a little iron pyrites, and
tin stone. The workings extend to a depth of 46 fathoms from
the surface, and consist of a shaft and a few short levels or
lateral excavations. ‘‘ The characteristics of these three
deposits may be summed up in a very few words, they are
masses of stanniferous rock passing gradually into the surround-
ing granite.”’}

The deposits just referred to afford illustrations of a regular
series of impregnations and accompanying alterations of granite
rocks—commencing with a notable impregnation connected with
and starting from a master lode of considerable value (St. Ives
Consols), followed by examples related indeed to veins or joints
—at first stanniferous (Hast Wheal Lovell), then altogether
barren (Balmynheer), and finally reaching an example which
seems to be altogether unconnected with anything that can be
called a vein fissure. These modes of occurrence are illustrated
in plate 11, figs. 2 to 6.

In other districts these irregular tin deposits would be
spoken of as pockets, although they one and all lack one
character of a true pocket, since they do not appear to be
deposits in pre-existing cavities.

*Ibid p. 648.
+ Ibid p. 651.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 137

Floors. These have relations on the one hand with the
impregnations just described, and on the other with the ‘‘ gash-
veins”’ and ‘‘ bedded-veins,’”’ which are so characteristic of many
limestone districts. Tin-floors in granite or other eruptive rock
seem to be mere local expansions of the lode passing between
approximately horizontal joint-planes for a certain distance.

In stratified rocks aggregations of ore lying between bed-
planes are often known as ‘‘ bedded-veins ” or floors—of course
such aggregations coincide in position with the beds, lying
horizontal or standing highly inclined as the case may be, though
they would only be called floors by the miner when horizontal
or nearly so. At Botallack tin-floors occurred in the kilas—
at the junction of the killas and granite—and in the granite.
In one instance seven successive tin-floors were noticed, separated
by beds or layers of ferruginous slate and schorl, and they yielded
according to Mr. Hawkins about 1 per cent. of black tin.*
Similar floors occurred formerly at Wheal Reeth and at Wheal
Vor.

The most interesting examples of this kind of formation
of recent working occurred at the Parka Mines in St. Columb,
and were described by Dr. Foster in 1874. The lodes here were
of very little importance, but certain lateral off-shoots from them
lying between the bedding planes of the killas (fig. 7 and 8, Plate
lit) were extremely rich. If the killas had been here
approximately horizontal, these interposed off-shoots would have
been called floors by the miners.{ The average produce of the
tin stuff treated was in 1874 more than 5 per cent., and in that

year the mine yielded 231 tons of black tin—a remarkable yield
from a mine not more than 43 fathoms deep.

Sec. 5.—zamples of true fissure Lodes.

(a) General characters of lodes. Lodes are, as Mr. Henwood has
very truly observed, ‘‘the principal repositories of metals and

*See description by Hawkins, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. of Corn., vol. 11, p. 31.
Carne ibid pp. 326-3381. Henwood, ibid v, p. 13. note. It is much to be
regretted that neither of these authors has given a sketch section.

+ Henwood, ibid, p. 328.

t Report Miners Association of Cornwall and Devon, 1875.

138 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

ores in the West in England.”* Mr. Henwood uses the word
‘‘lode”’ in the practical miner’s sense, that is, he includes the
whole of the workable band of mineralized country by the side
of the fissure as well as the actual fissure-filling, whatever may
be its nature, whether ore-leader, flucan, vein-stone, breccia, or
capel. In this sense a lode may be defined as a metalliferous
band or deposit occupying or bounding a fissure of inconsiderable
thickness as compared with its length (rarely more than ;>4,th
and often less than —,35;5th) and extending to a great or unknown
depth. Using the term then in this sense, Mr. Henwood gives
in a number of useful tables the results of his very numerous
observations on the lodes of Cornwall and Devon as regards
direction, inclination, width, and principal contents. Referring
my readers to the original ‘‘address” for numerous and
important details, I merely extract for use in this enquiry the
following particulars.
1. The mean directions of the lodes in the different

‘¢ districts’ of the West of England are:

Sta dst inno Omo sO teb)s Redruth, &c., 22° N. of E.

Sia lives ~ oo 4 Oo Se Ge 1a, St. Agnes .. 22° N. of E.

Marazion .. 1° N. of E. St. Austell .. 13° N. of E.

Gwinear, &c. Ho (Sis ie Jay Caradon .. 18° N. of E

inlelston) se Om Ne loin: Tavistock .. 9° N. of E.

Camborne, &c., 20° N. of E.

The average bearing throughout being about 5° N. of E., “a

range not materially different from that of the granite which
appears at intervals between Dartmoor and the Lands End.” +

*Presidential Address, 1871, Jowrnal Royal Institution of Cornwall, XIII.
Ina practical sense this dictum is unquestionable, although the present essay will
shew that even from this point of view the stockworks, and other “irregular
deposits” are worthy of somewhat more consideration than was given to them by our
excellent President, while from the theoretical and scientific side they are of the
highest possible importance.

+lbid, p. XVI. This generalization is no doubt an important one—yet it may
probably lead to serious misconceptions, for, lst as to the mean bearing for the
whole county, it is manifestly of little use to make up an average from such
incongruous elements as appear in the table given. 2nd, an equally important
criticism of Mr. Henwood’s mean directions for individual lodes, from which his
mean directions for the different ‘‘districts’’ were derived, was made many years
since by Captain Charles Thomas in the following words—‘ Mr. W. Jory
Henwood in his report of the two hundred mines in Cornwall and Devon has

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 139

2. ‘The mean directions of cross-veins(cruss-courses, flucans,
guides, traverses, &c., mostly non-metalliferous) is in the

St Just district,* 26° N. of E. Redruth, &c., 35° S. of E.
Stu lvest™" ;; 38° S. of E. St. Agnes .. 51° 8. of E.
Marazion ,, 41°S. of E. St. Austell... 21 S. of E.
Gwinear, &c. ,, 47°S. of E. Menheniot.. 3° N. of E.
Helston so ales. Or 10, Caradon) 3) 7? Sa or Bs
Camborne, &. 56°S. of E. Callington.. 43° S. of E.

Most of these directions correspond to notable joint systems
in their respective districts, and many are at right angles or
nearly so to other notable joint or vein-systems. Although they
rarely contain ores of tin and copper, many have yielded
considerable quantities of iron ores, and in many more, valuable
local deposits of silver, cobalt, nickel, bismuth, uranium, and
other rare ores have occurred. In a few instances—as at N.
Poltimore in Devon, Wheal Sparnon near Redruth, and Woolf’s
eross-course in Breage, spangles of gold have been met with.

3. All the veins, whether metalliferous or not are apt to
vary considerably in inclination (underlie), yet it may be stated
in general terms that the cross-courses whether quartzose or
yielding ores of iron or lead are steeper than the copper-veins,

given the bearing of nearly all the lodes which he inspected. He however took
only the general bearing of the lode from one end of the mine to the other,
overlooking the variations between the productive and unproductive parts. By
this omission he not only lost a fine opportunity of accumulating many important
facts, but the whole subject of bearings by his mode of statement has a direct
tendency to mislead. Taking his report as a guide, the bearings would be no
indication whatever of productiveness or otherwise; his rich lodes as well as poor
being found under almost every variation of direction. In reference to the
productive parts of lodes there is no such confusion,—order is all but universal—
exceptions if any, are rare indeed, and then of limited extent.’ (Chas. Thomas,
Remarks on the Geology of Cornwall, &c. Lecture 2, 1859).

It is I hope needless for me to say that I do not call attention to this
criticism by a very eminent practical authority with any idea of diminishing
the lustre of our former President’s labours—and after all the mean direction of
a lode as a whole is a matter of scientific importance; but I would take this
opportunity to point out how very important is this question of the bearing of
“rich parts” in a lode, and to urge practical men who alone can make the
numerous necessary observations to do so on all possible occasions.

*Ibid, XXVIII.

140 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

the copper-veins steeper than the tin-veins, and all the
metalliferous veins steeper than the clayey slides. Perhaps the
averages may be stated as under:

Cross-courses, &c., 80° from the horizontal.

Copper-veins, 70° ” »
Tin-veins, 60° ” ”
Slides, 45° ” ”

In the case of the tin-lodes there are, however, many very
notable exceptions to the average stated above. Thus, the great
Flat lode to the south of Carn Brea Hill, the lode at Wheal
Kitty, Wheal Jane pyritous lodes, and many others have
inclinations of less than 40° from the horizontal.

4. Of the mean width of the lodes, Mr. Henwood says :*

Those which yield (or have yielded) the ores of ek 4-7 feet
and copper, average
Those which yield tin ore only .. ae sa) VSO
Those which yield copper ore only sr cat ee onaee
Lodes generally in granite ee ae ser MeO ae
5 in slate .. d oh es
m at less than 100 anor) fano.. BR ae
sf at more than as Bs SE
Cross-courses in granite .. ws a x int RAO RTS
aN slate en <a loo ae
5 at less than 100. Anfang vray by AGO
;, at more ys 4.4

It thus appears (a) that tin lodes are a dee than copper
lodes, which is what we might expect from the common occurrence
of workable tin capel and the rarity of copper capel.

(6). Lodes of tin and copper are wider than those of either
separately, which also we might expect, because it would appear
in many cases at least that the copper has been deposited in a
re-opened fissure previously containing tin.

(c) The lodes are narrower than the cross-courses: a reason
for this may be suggested hereafter.

As to the mean width of lodes in depth-—as compared with
their shallower portions—I would observe that the figures which
might now be obtained would probably differ considerably from

* Ibid, pp. XV, XXVIII.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 141

those given by Henwood. If we were to limit our measurements
to what are known as lodes in the old scientific sense, vz., the
actual fissure filling, the mean width would probably be much
less for tin than for copper, since in general fissures are apt to
become narrower in depth for mechanical reasons, and most of
our deepest lodes now yield tin only, while nearer the surface
they yielded copper. On the other hand if we were to include
the workable portion of a vein whether it be lode-filling or
impregnated and mineralized wall, the mean width of tin veins
would come out much greater because, 1st, copper ores are rarely
so much disseminated as tin ores, and 2nd, if they were so, they
would not be workable lodes since they would not pay for
working.

For other important general characters of lodes given by
Mr. Henwood, I must refer to his published works, those cited
above will suffice for my present purpose.

SPECIAL EXAMPLES OF ‘‘LODES.”

I now proceed to describe two of the more notable lodes in
the West of England, wzz., the great Doleoath main lode yielding
ores of copper and tin, and situated in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the junction of granite and killas on the north side of
Carn Brea, and the still larger, though hitherto far less
valuable Perran main lode situated at a considerable distance
from the granite, and yielding chiefly iron and blende with a
little copper and lead. In these two lodes we shall find
illustrations of nearly all the phenomena of the lodes of the
West of England—the ‘gozzans,” ‘leaders,’ and ‘ capels;”
the ‘‘combed” and brecciated structures; concretions; ‘‘vughs ;”
mineral springs and recent chemical deposits.

(6) Dolcoath Main Lode. I select this lode partly for its great
importance and partly because its history is better known than
that of any other important lode in the West of England. It is
a great copper and tin lode, which has its outcrop in the slate
on the north side of Carn Brea Hill and passes downwards into
the granite, which rock is entered at depths varying from 80 to
120 fathoms from surface. It has been worked on at intervals
for a total length of 23 miles, the greatest depth of the workings
is little short of 3000 feet, and it now yields nearly one-third
of the total tin raised in the West of England.

142 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

The most westerly workings are at Camborne Vean, where
the lode still proceeding to the westward enters hard ground
and is lost in a series of strings. Proceeding towards the east
the next workings are at Stray Park (now part of Dolcoath),
then the workings of Dolcoath proper, followed successively by
Cook’s Kitchen, Tincroft (where it is known as Highburrow
lode), and Carn Brea, which is the most easterly mine on the
lode.

My sketch of the leading characters of this great lode must
be merely a summary—the details of which must be filled in by
those who wish to pursue the subject by reference to the works
of Pryce,* Henwood,t Delabeche,{ Capt. Charles Thomas, ||
Capt. Josiah Thomas.§ R. J. Frecheville§—and above all by a
careful study of the reports and plans issued from time to the
shareholders of the respective mines. In what follows reference
is principally made to that part of the lode which is situated ©
within the Dolcoath sett—only specially referring to the other
mines as occasion may arise.

The bearing of the lode as a whole is not far from N.E.,
that of the rich parts for copper above the 160 fathom level
between E.N.E. and East. The dip or underlie is southward,
in the upper part of the mine about 2 feet and in the lower part
4 feet in the fathom. At the surface was a fine gozzan from 3
to 6 feet wide, extending down to the adit level, which is
about 28 fathoms below the surface; this gozzan in places
contained a good deal of tin. From the adit to the 100 fathom level
it was moderately, and tothe 160 very rich, for copper. Between
the 160 and 190 copper and tin occurred together. From the
190 fathom level to the present bottom of the mine, 410 fathoms
below adit, the mine has yielded tin only—the lower levels in the
tinny portions being on the whole much richer than those
yielding ores of copper. The productive portions of the lode
have been usually from 10 to 20 feet wide in the tinny parts,
and from 8 to 18 feet in the coppery parts.

* Pryce, Mineralogia Cornubiensis, Bullen Garden, &c.
+Henwood, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., V.

{Report on the Geology of Cornwall and Devon.

||Remarks on the Geology of Cornwall and Devon, 1859.
§Journ. Roy. Inst. of Corn., 1870. Report Min. Assoc., 1882.
@ Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., x, p. 146.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 1438

The passage of the lode from the killas to the granite
occurred between the 80 and 120 fathom levels, and the lode
became more horizontal and thinner. Its dip lessened successively
to 68°, 57°, and 50°, and its size was reduced to 24 inches; and
finally, in the hard granite between the 170 and 190 fathom
levels to 12 inches.* This poor zone discouraged the owners,
and, together with the low price of copper occasioned by the
great discovery of copper ores at Parys Mountain in Anglesea,
led to the abandonment of the deepest workings, and finally of
the mine itself, which up to that time had yielded copper ores to
the value of 2 millions, a large part of which was profit. At
length, through the energy of Capt. Chas. Thomas, the father
of the present manager, the mine was re-opened about the year
1846, a sum of £3,084 being locally subscribed for that purpose.
The pumps which had been drawn up from the 210 to the 160
were dropped again, and the mine was drained to the bottom
by the end of 1849. Sinking was resumed,} the junction of
Harriett’s lode with the main lode at the 180 was explored,
dividends were resumed in 18538, the south lode fell in at the
364, and that which had been one of the richest copper mines
became the most productive tin mine in Cornwall, so beginning
a new era for tin mining in the West of England.

From the 190 downwards the size of the lode increased, and
at 220 it was at least 10 feet thick. In 1858 the tin began to
‘‘make”’ in the granite, the lode being from 20 to 26 feet wide.
In January, 1873 they began to drive the 314 fathom level; in
1874 the lode had ‘‘a very fine appearance ;”’ in 1882 a depth
of 376 was reached, and the present depth of the sump (March,
1892) is 422 fathoms.

The total length of shafts and levels on the lode had in
1882 reached 188 miles, of which one half were in Dolcoath
alone. At the present time the total cannot be less than 160
miles.

* The corresponding poor zone in Carn Brea Mine extended downwards to
the 238 fathom level.

+ From 1800 to 1849 only 55 fathoms had been sunk, or but little over one
fathom a year. From 1849 to 1892 over 200 futhoms have been sunk, or about
5 fathoms per year.

144 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

The other mines on this great lode now reached depths as
follows :—Cook’s Kitchen, 400 fathoms; Tincroft, 300 fathoms ;
Carn Brea, 312* fathoms.

The mining cost which includes cost of management, water
charges (pumping), winding, dead-work, development, supplies,
new erections and wear and tear, amounts to about 15/6 per
ton, the dressing cost is about 4/-, or together about 19/6.
The actual cost of breaking the ore in 1870 was, in Dolcoath
5/6 per ton, which sum included winding and tramming. The
cost of driving a level 6 feet wide and 8 feet high was £20 per
fathom.

The production of the four mines for the 10 years from
1872-81 was 32,430 tons of tin ore, 6,692 of copper ore (nearly
all of this from Carn Brea Mine), and 1,901 tons of arsenic. This
production has been largely increased during the succeeding
decade, Carn Brea having especially improved. In 1890 the
produce of tin ore was as follows:

Doleoath 40 3 2028 tons.

Cook’s Kitchen Se 206
Tincroft 90 6. 894
Carnp Dreamer. 56 1671

Total 4794 ,,
or considerably over ;8;ths of the total production of the West of
England.t
The total value of the produce of Dolcoath Mine alone has
probably been not less than ten millions sterling, the details of
the estimates being as follows:

* The following particulars of the working cost on these four mines as given
by Mr. R. J. Frecheville (Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn.. X, 146, 1882) will be
read with interest. There is probably but little difference since the date of the
paper except that the yield at Carn Brea has greatly improved.

1872-81. Average yield. Mining cost. Dressing cost. Total cost.
lbs. per ton. per ton.
Dolcoath soo) ae 16 11 a 3 103 ae i @
Cook’s Kitchen 43 res 16 45 ~—(w. 4 5% us 1 010
Tincroft SOS Pe 13 9 a 4 8 ane 018 5
Carn Brea ... 35 a 14 3 a6 3 9 ma 018 0

+The “calls”? from the three eastern mines—no calls having been made at
Doleoath—amounted to £56,950 during the period 1872-81, the produce of the
four mines realized about £1,750,000, and the dividends amounted to £277,226.
From 1882 to 1891 the dividends have been nearly £400,000 and the calls less
than £100,000, Doleoath having made no call during the entire period.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 145

Karly workings on the various lodes, t £500,000
estimated at is .

Produce of first great working previous ra
letting in the water in 1778, estimated i £2,000,000
by Capt. Chas. Thomas

Produce from re-opening in 1800 to 1870
according to Capt. Josiah Thomas .. iE 1DS00D
Produce 1870 to 1890, estimated at .. £2,000,000
£10,000,000

Of course this 10 millions has not all come from the great
lode,—a considerable portion was yielded by the caunter lode,
Harriett’s lode, and others; but if we allow the liberal amount
of two millions for these there still remain 8 millions as the
produce of a length of 550 fathoms on the main lode,—with
perhaps an average depth of 3850 fathoms,—or say £40 per square
fathom of lode (one fathom in height and length and the width
of the lode).

The lode however has been worked on more or less for a
total length of at least 1800 fathoms, and, excluding the 550
fathoms in Dolcoath, to an average depth of perhaps 250 fathoms;
we have therefore about 312,500 square fathoms of lode worked
or explored in the other mines for which we can hardly assume
the produce in tin and copper at a less value than 5 millions
sterling, giving for the whole lode to the present average depth
of less than 300 fathoms, a produce of 13 millions sterling, or
over £25 per square fathom of lode.*

The average width of the lode is certainly much greater
than the average of the lodes of tin and copper in the West of
England as given by Mr. Henwood. From the 66 to the 197 in
Dolcoath it was about 6 feet, but narrowing in places to 1 foot
and widening in others to 16 feet. At the present bottom of the
mine it varies between 2 to 4 fathoms, with perhaps 16 feet for
an average; the tinny portions being mostly wider than those
containing only copper as already stated. In Cook’s Kitchen,
Tincroft, and Carn Brea mines the present average is somewhat

*Of this large amount perhaps about 4 millions have been yielded by copper
ores and 9 millions by tin ores, equal to 570,000 tons of copper ores at £7, and
170,000 tons of black tin at £53, which are pretty near the average prices
realized.

146 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE DEPOSITS.

less. On the whole I think we may safely take the mean width
of the whole lode at 6 feet for the coppery portions and 10 feet
for those yielding tin (of which the leader or actual fissure
filling will not average more than one foot) for the whole period
since the mines have yielded tin, but occasionally running up to
6 feet as in the great bunch recently worked at the 280 in
Carn Brea.

The walls in the great lode are generally fairly distinct, but
less so in depth than nearer ‘grass.’ The hanging wall is
generally better defined than the footwall—especially in the
deeper workings. Vughs and cavities were much more common
in the lode in the shallower than they are in the deeper workings,

but they are still occasionally met with in all the mines on the
lode.*

The contents of the lode have as already stated varied at
different depths. In the shallower portions above adit there
was much gozzan, consisting of earthy brown iron ore with iron
pyrites and spongy quartz, and in places earthy black copper ore,
with various rare crystallized arseniates and phosphates of iron
and copper, also much chalcopyrite and chalcocite. In the
eastern part of the mine a good deal of tin was raised from
the shallower workings. Some of the earthy brown iron ore
was found as far down as the 197 fathom level. The rich parts
while yielding copper usually gave it as chalcopyrite with few
erystals. Soon after reaching the granite most of the copper
gave out and the mine changed to a tin mine. The richest ores
of tin are of a bluish colour, not very hard but quite compact,
and permeated in all directions by strings of rather light-coloured
oxide of tin. Often this bluish rock passes into a dark red
ferruginous mass without becoming poorer in tin. Careful micro-
scopic examination shows that the blue tin-stone, apart from the
tin, consists of quartz, chlorite, and schorl-—the latter mostly in
minute needles; and the change from blue to red seems to be a

*In November, 1814, a cavern was discovered in the main lode at a depth of
170 fathoms. It was from 18 to 20 fathoms long, 3 fathoms high, and from 4 to
9 fathoms wide. It vontained much loose material which had fallen from the
sides and communicated by narrow channels with many subsidiary cavities.—See
Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., Vol. 1. Similar vughs have been found in nearly
all the master lodes of the West of Hngland.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 147

subsequent oxidation change of the chloritic portion of the mass.*
The poorer parts of the lode are very similar, except that they
are very much harder and more siliceous, and with a tendency to
a black colour.

The country rock changes noticeably with the lode matter.
The killas is fairly soft near the surface; it generally becomes
harder as it approaches the granite, but is always soft near the
rich parts of the lode; above it is often yellow or buff in colour,
below mostly deep blue. While the granite remained very hard
the lode was not productive either for tin or copper—it is now
in general fairly soft and moist, the felspar much kaolinized and
often accompanied with pyrites and red oxide of iron.

The curious alternations of killas and granite which this
great lode cuts through have been noticed by many writers.
In 1882 ‘‘a large mass of hard slaty rock was met with in the

352 fathom level east of the new eastern shaft... .included in
the granite 240 fathoms below the point where that rock was
first cut into by the workings....this resembles the ordinary

killas of the district, and on comparing thin sections of the two
under the microscope their identity becomes at once apparent.’’}

The imagination is struck with the figures expressing the
extent and the produce of this great lode. But if we look at
the facts in another way, as suggested by M. Moissenet, we shall
see how insignificant a feature it forms in the earth’s crust.
Let us suppose a model of the lode made to a scale of one
thousandth the real size—it could he easily made from a sheet
of lead 12-feet long and 3-feet wide. In many places the
thickness would have to be reduced to a mere film, but in some
it would require to be thickened up to a quarter of an inch or a
little more. The sheet might be placed on edge—its length in
a direction nearly N.E., 8.W., and with a considerable dip to the
southward. If now it were bent lengthwise in such a way that
the thicker portions were more nearly H.W. and the thinner
more N.EK., S.W., and also bent in width so that the thicker
portions stand more nearly vertical than the thinner, and the
lower portions more nearly horizontal than the upper; it would
very fairly represent the relative proportions of the lode and

*See Cornish Tin-stones and Tin-Capels, pl. rv, figs. 3-4.
+ Phillips, Ove deposits, pp. 131-2.

148 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

also its position in the ground.t| Viewed in this manner the
vast and richly-filled subterranean channels, which by the
implements of the miner are transformed into caverns of imposing
extent, appear what they are—as thin veins in the ground.

(c) The Perran iron lode. This great lode is referred to by
Borlase, who wrote in 1758, and was briefly noticed by Sir H.
Delabeche in 1839,* and by Mr. Henwood in 1843.+ Later it
has been described in more or less detail by Smyth,{ Bryant,§
and myself ||

The Perran lode bears about 35° S. of E., and underlies
from 3 to 4 feet in a fathom to the south-west; and is altogether
in killas except where it crosses an elvan. Its western exposure
in the cliff at Gravel Hill, at the northern extremity of Perran
Bay, is very wide, consisting of two branches divided by
a horse of killas. It consists here principally of somewhat
siliceous brown hematite, earthy carbonate of iron with traces
of lead, and blende associated with garnet; and was a few years
ago worked rather extensively above the adit level by a long
adit and by two shafts from above, besides some extensive surface
pits. From here it may be traced inland for a distance of four
miles to Deerpark, where it takes a turn—at first directly east,
afterwards some degrees N. of Hast, and so proceeding in a
curve for several miles more. It is however of little value so
far as is yet known after the first four miles, and the following
remarks will relate solely to this portion. :

To the eastward of the Gravel Hill Mine, formerly known
as Penhale Iron Mine, is the Halwyn Sett, where also a shaft
has proved the lode a good many fathoms down—20 or more.
Next come the rather extensive and irregular open works on the
brown hematite and carbonate of iron of the Mount Mine,—then
the great open works at Treamble,—atfter that the extensive and

+The actual fissure or leader, apart from its metalliferous capels might be
represented on the above mentioned scale by a sheet of paper thickly or thinly
coated with lead on each side in accordance with the dimensions given above.

* Report on Cornwall, &c., p. 618.

+ Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., V, p. 108.

t Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., VII, p. 382 (1858), and x, p. 120 (1882).

§ Rep. Roy. Corn. Polytech. Soc., 1871, p. 98.

|| Rep. Miners Assoc. 1873.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 1-19

irregular works at Great Retallack—followed by the Duchy
Peru Mine with its several shafts—and still further east by the
trial pits at Deerpark and Penhallow Moor.

Hach of the great Treamble excavations is crossed by a
very promising lode of ‘“‘silver lead,’’—the lodes No. 1 and 2
of the Great Retallack Mine adjoining to the north and east.
Nothing has been done to develop these lodes for many years,
but in working the iron ore of the outcrop some 60 or 70 tons of
lead ore were obtained which contained from 15 to 30 ounces
of silver per ton as sold without dressing. The iron lode in
the lower or western quarry was in 1873 proved to a depth of
17 fathoms by an underlie shaft, and found to improve in quality
as it went down. In the upper quarry the lode splits into
several branches, the largest going away to the north of east
towards the old workings in Great Retallack, the others pro-
ceeding south of east to Berriman’s shaft, which was also sunk
to a depth of 17 fathoms. Somewhat later other shafts were
commenced in each of the quarries, also a vertical shaft at a
point between the quarries, but about 40 fathoms to the
southward ; but this intended ‘‘main shaft” was, I believe,
abandoned before it reached the lode.

A little west of the No. 1 lead lode just mentioned is a
deposit of unctuous black flucan— much resembling graphite—
which in 18738 I found to contain from 3 to 5 per cent. of free
carbon.

At Great Retallack the lode is several fathoms wide, yielding
near the surface brown hematite and blende, the blende
increasing ou the whole in depth; in some months 500 tons of
blende have been raised and sold, and the total output must have
been many thousands of tons. Many concretionary masses of iron
ore were found, some hollow and full of water. Some lead ore,
very rich in silver, has also been raised from this mine at the
intersection of the Peru lode, and spots of copper have been seen
at times.* In 1860-61, large quantities of blende were raised
and sold, but at very low prices, from October to June in the
latter year the sales where nearly 5,000 tons. Considerable
quantities were raised for the next few years, and the shaft was

*Mining Journal. The Perranzabuloe districts, July 27, 1861.

150 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

sunk below the 60 where good yellow copper ore made its
appearance; but discouraged by the low prevailing prices, the
water being “‘very quick’’ was let in, and work was for the
time confined to the adit level, and subsequently to sinking in
other places where there was not much water to contend with.
The lode was said to be “‘ 240-feet wide.”* It was undoubtedly
very wide as I can testify, but this great apparent width was no
doubt due to its lying very “‘ flat”’ in that part.

At Duchy Peru, just east of Great Retallack, the “old
workings” have been carried to a depth of 50 fathoms on the
N.S. lead-copper Jode—the ‘‘ Peru lode,” celebrated for the
richness of the silver specimens it has yielded.| The workings
on the iron lode before the mines were re-opened{ about 1871,
had been carried down between 20 and 30 fathoms, and this
depth was increased to 40 fathoms by March, 18738.

Roebuck’s shaft is vertical, 12-ft. by 7-ft., fitted with ladder-
ways and containing a column of 18” pumps.§ By the year
1881, it had been carried down to the 70 fathom level; since
then, I believe, no further sinking has been done, and at the
present time not only Duchy Peru but practically all the mines
on the great lode are idle.

The killas country about the great lode at Duchy Peru
seems to be much disturbed. South of the lode it is hard and
appears to dip towards it, but near the lode it is soft and dips
with it, as shewn in the sketch (fig. 9, Plate vr1), just as is common
in the case of taults in yielding strata. Eastward from Duchy
Peru is Deerpark mine, from which considerable quantities of iron

* Toid.
+It was only a few inches wide, but it yielded silver-lead of great richness,

some parcels containing as much as 2000 ounces to the ton of ore, a part of the
silver being “‘ native.”

{By the Cornish Consolidated Iron Mines Corporation.

§The condition of the mine in the middle of 1873 was described in detail in
the paper by the present writer already referred to, as also the condition of the
remarkable hot ‘‘end”’ at the 20 fathom level east of Vallance’s shaft. The
temperature in October, 1873, was 124° F., at surface 64° F. This high temper-
ature was attributed to the oxidation of pyrites—and the same cause was in 1881
assigned for the high temperature in the 60 fathom cross-cut north—which
however was only 82° F. against a surface temperature of 52° on the 26th October,
1881.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF QORE-DEPOSITS. Wail

ore have been raised. Beyond Deerpark the outcrop is seen in
Penhallow Moor and apparently much farther, but no important
openings have been made upon it.

The general characteristics of the great lode appear to be
somewhat as follows. It occupies a very distinct and unusually
wide fissure which cuts through the stratified rocks, and
also through several intrusive dykes of elvan. The upper
portion underlies somewhat more—the deeper workings, so far
as yet seen, somewhat less than 45° to the southward. The
width of the fissure and of its contents varies greatly, occasionally
a few inches, or even less, very frequently from 3 or 4 up to 20
feet, occasionally as much as 40 or 50 feet, and perhaps more.*
The upper portion is essentially a ‘ gozzan”’ of compact or
cellular brown hematite, sometimes containing kernels of
chalybite,—at times there is very little quartz, at others the
whole mass is highly siliceous. Beneath the brown hematite—
sometimes only a few fathoms from surface—and always before
tne sea level is reached, the lode appears to be largely composed
of spathose carbonate of iron (with occasional broad belts of
dark compact blende, and much more rarely veinlets of yellow
copper ore) or of galena. On the whole the carbonate of iron
is most abundant in the foot-wall, the blende in the central
or upper parts.

In the wider portions of the lode the filling is a mass of
breccia, enclosing large masses of carbonate of iron and of blende,
and Mr. Smyth in 1881 gave sketches of two of the deeper
workings shewing this mode of occurrence. Thus near the hot
cross-cut at the 60 referred to in the foregoing note, the lode lies
very flat, and consists of (a) a broad band of white clayey
carbonate of iron cn the foot-wall, this is succeeded by (6) a
mass of mixed iron pyrites and flucan, (¢) a thick mass of the
breccia referred to, containing especially in its upper portions
large lumps of dark blende. In other parts bands of red and
brown or black iron oxides and of quartz vein-stone are frequent,
—the black oxide containing zinc and manganese with some-
times copper,—in tact manganese is present almost everywhere.

*The widths sometimes stated of 100 feet or even more are horizontal sections
across an inclined lode, and therefore misleading.

152 ORIGIN, AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

A marked feature of this lode is the fact that numerous
quite narrow cross-veins cut across the ore-shoots and heave
them, or even abruptly terminate them. as, in the absence of
extensive explorations, would seem to be the case. This lode
has evidently been most imperfectly opened up, partly on account
of its very size—necessitating large capital to properly work
it—partly because of the very fluctuating character of the
demand for iron ore. Mr. Smyth’s estimate of the total output
of iron ore up to 1880 was ‘‘something more than 150,000 tons,”
but this is based (a) on his estimate of the extent of the workings
in 1858, and (d) on the quantities recorded in Mr. Hunt’s
Mineral Statistics. As to the first part I can say nothing, but
as to the second, it must be remembered that Mr. Hunt’s figures
were obtained by voluntary assistance only, and in the case of
iron ore were always known to be defective. My own estimate*
was that 200,000 tons had been extracted up to that period.
Since then the output has been small, probably not more in all .
than 10,000 tons.

Of blende it is hard to say how much has been raised,
though the output in the case of Great Retallack has been
occasionally as much as 500, and in Duchy Peru 900 tons per
month ; on the whole it is not likely that the lode has yielded
in all less than 20,000 tons of blende, besides small quantities
of rich silver-lead and copper. These are small quantities for
so large a lode, and in fact great as the lode is, most miners
would rather look upon it as the great gozzan indicator of some
exceedingly rich copper vein existing at a greater depth than
as alode valuable in itself for either iron or blende.

(d) Special characters of lodes. The Dolcoath main lode and the
Perran iron lode afford illustrations of most of the characteristic
phenomena of the West of England fissure-veins, such as fissures
traversing indiscriminately or passing at times between different
kinds of rock, with their intersections and heaves by caunters
or cross-courses ; good and bad directions; rich and poor parts ;
contact deposits; gozzans and pseudomorphs; capels and flucans ;
breccias and coneretionary structures; combed structures and

*Made in 1873, when I was consulting engineer to the company then working,
and so had opportunities of knowing the extent of the excavations,

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT CF ORE-DEPOSITS. 153

vughs; mineral springs; local chemical action; extensive local
alterations of lode-substance and country rock and the like.
Some of these phenomena have been already referred to with
sufficient detail, of others which have been developed in a more
marked manner in other localities, it may be well here to give
references to some select examples.

“Contact deposits,” that is rich parts of the lode bounded by
different rocks on the hanging and foot-walls, though existing
in places, are not particularly noticeable either in Dolcoath or
Perran lodes. The great flat lode however on the other side of
the Carn Brea range affords notable examples in most of the
mines (see fig. 10, Plate 111), so also many of the copper-lodes in
the Gwennap district which frequently had their rich parts
bounded on one side by killas and on the other by elvan.
Similar contact deposits having slate on the hanging wall and
granite on the foot-wall are common in the copper lodes of the
Caradon district.*

“Intersections” and their remarkable effects on the lode are
particularly noticeable in the Perran lode, as already mentioned ;
there are many too of much importance in connexion with the
Doleoath lode, while many of them are accompanied by notable
heaves—as in the case of the great cross-course between Dolcoath
and Cook’s Kitchen, which heaves the lode many fathoms to the
right. The most remarkable, if not individually the most
extensive examples of heaves, however, are perhaps those of the
St. Agnes district, where they have been most carefully and
accurately described by several observers—and notably by
Mr. A. T. Davies in 1879.f Further reference to this part of
the subject will be made in the fifth chapter.

The ‘‘good and bad directions” of the rich and poor parts of
the copper-bearing parts of Dolcoath have been already referred
to in quotations from lectures by Capt. Chas. Thomas. Similar
phenomena were very marked in most of the Gwennap copper
mines—they are traceable but not so marked in many of the tin
mines.

*See Foster, Great Flat Lode, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., XXXIV, p’ 640,
1878, and Henwood, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., VIII.
+On heaves and faults. Rep. Miners Assoc. 1879.

154 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

‘“Gozzans” occur in connexion with a majority of the main
lodes in the killas, and in some of the lodes in granite. The
finest examples known have been on the ‘‘backs’’ of copper
lodes, extending in some instances—as at the United Mines in
Gwennap, and Wheal Friendship near Tavistock—to a depth of 90
fathoms or even more, if the permanent water-level of the
country is so far beneath the surface. Many of the rarer forms
of phosphate and arseniate of copper, and an immense number
of other rare minerals, have only been found in the gozzany
parts of copper lodes. The changes of iron pyrites and of
carbonate of iron into gozzan are obvious in innumerable
instances. The manner in which these changes have been
brought about will be considered hereafter in a future section.

‘‘Pseudomorphs” of one mineral in the form of another have
been frequent in both the lodes while shallow. Such pseudo-
morphs are very rare in the deeper parts of the Dolcoath lode,
though they have often been found at depths of 200 fathoms and
upwards in East Pool, the Gwennap mines, South Caradon, &e.
Still, speaking generally, it may be said that they are far rarer in
deep than in shallow mines.

“Capels” are the silicified walls of the fissures, they occur
more especially in tin mines and often indeed contain enough
tin to pay for working, but they are known also in lodes yielding
copper, lead, zinc, and iron. © Besides those characteristic of the
Dolcoath lode, very fine examples occur at Wheal Uny and
other mines on the great flat lode.* Their peculiarities will
be described in some detail hereafter, when the method of their
formation comes to be discussed.

The ‘‘combed structure” frequently exhibited by the lead,
copper, zine, and iron lodes of the West of England, and toa less
extent by the tin lodes, is a development of successive plates of
vein-stone,—or in the rich parts of mixed ore and vein-stone,—
the latter being usually highly crystalline. In its simplest form
this structure consists of a fissure lined with crystals on each side,
having their bases on the walls and their apices directed towards
the centre. In some cases the fissure is thus altogether filled up
with two sets of crystals meeting in the centre—in others there

*See Foster. ‘‘ Great Flat Lode,”’ loc, cit.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 155

are many such layers, some being less distinctly crystalline than
others—or even apparently compact until examined microscopic-
ally. Such examples are very common in copper veins in the
Gwennap district. Many have been cited by Delabeche and
Henwood, and a very remarkable case was figured by me in
1873.*

In lead veins fine examples have occurred at Wheal Rose
and Wheal Penrose near Helston, and in iron lodes at Restormel
near Lostwithiel,t and at Pawton near St. Columb.{ The
evidence afforded by combed structure as to the successive
re-openings of fissures, and as to changes in the character of the
underground circulation, will be discussed in a future chapter.

‘“‘Vughs’ are incompletely filled spaces in fissure lodes, usually
lined with well crystallized vein-stones, and commonly associated
with combed structure in the vein. Both the lodes described
have afforded fine examples; in the case of Dolcoath an unusually
_ large one was described by Mr. John Rule in 1818.§

‘“‘Flucan”’ seems to be partly a result of chemical changes in
the lode-filling or in the adjacent country rock, partly a
deposit from circulating water, and partly the result of a
grinding produced by the motion of the walls of the fissure on
each other. It is abundant in certain parts of both the Dolcoath
and Perran lodes.

“‘Brecciated structure’ is comparatively rare at Doleoath—
extremely common at Perran. A fine example of this structure
in a lead lode is that at Wheal Mary Ann, described by Dr. C.
Le Neve Foster.||

‘“‘Concretionary structure’’ is also very common in the Perran
lode—notably in the Great Retallack portion. Fine examples at
Relistian and at New Rosewarne are described by Mr. Henwood]
and Dr. Foster.*

*Proc. Inst. Mech. Eing., Cornwall Meeting, 1873, pl. 36.
+See Moissenet Lodes of Cornwall, p. 85, note.

{Report Miners Assoc., 1875, p. 26.

§ Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., 1, p. 225.

\|Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., 1X, p. 155.

q Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., v.

*Rep. Miners Assoc., 1866,

156 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

‘Mineral Springs” have been observed in the Dolcoath lode,
but their characters have not been of any specially interesting
nature. The remarkable springs in the lode at Wheal
Seton a little to the north of the Dolcoath lode, and at Wheal
Clifford a few miles to the east, have been noted and described
by several writers, and particularly by Mr. J. A. Phillips.
These will be further referred to in a future chapter.

‘“Tiocal Chemical action,”’ as occurring in the Perran lode,
has been already referred to. Similar action was formerly very
evident in maay parts of Wheal Clifford in Gwennap. Further
reference will be made to this subject hereafter in connexion
with the theories of lode formation and of local metamorphism.

Seo. 6.—TZhe mutual relations of ore deposits and of country rocks.

Many observations on this subject have been made by
previous writers on the phenomena of the West of England
ore-deposits In summarizing them in the present section, I
shall endeavour to add illustrations as may be necessary by
reference to specific examples.

The following generalizations are almost universally
accepted.

1.—Junctions of unlike rocks, and especially of eruptive
with stratified rocks (or proximity to such junctions) are regarded
as favourable conditions, the reverse as unfavourable.* Notable
illustrations of this statement are afforded by the Great Flat
Lode and the Caradon lodes, which are frequently bounded on
one side by granite and on the other by killas. A great many
examples of copper lodes locally enriched by proximity to elvan
courses are mentioned by Mr. Henwood, and also by Messrs.
Barnett and Argall.

2.—Valuable deposits of tin and copper occur in both
eruptive and stratified rocks, but only in or near eruptive rocks
of the acidic type; while valuable ores of lead, antimony, and
manganese only occur in stratified rocks, though usually in
proximity to basic eruptive rocks.

*Mr. Chas. Thomas has recently stated this in axiomatic form for a certain
class of junctions :—‘‘ The junctions of granite and killas invariably (@.e. in the
West of England) exert a powerful influence for good on all metalliferous lodes.”
-—(Proe. Mining Assoc. and Inst. Corn.. 1883. p. 394.

+ On the Elvan Courses of Cornwall.—Report Miners Association, 1874,

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 157

3.—The character of the vein filling varies notably with
the nature of the country, as may be seen in the case of fissures
which pass through two or more kinds of rock. At Dolcoath
the lode was good for copper while in the soft killas of moderate
depths, but when it got into the harder killas near the granite
it was much poorer. At the 110 fathom level below the adit it
struck a trough of granite and began to yield tin, but was not
rich until Harriett’s and the south lode fell in, the granite then
got softer and the lode wider and richer.*

The Wheal Vor tin lodes are rich only while in the killas,
but die away or are entirely barren on entering the granite on
either side of the killas ‘trough.’ On the other hand the tin
lodes at Great Work, only a couple of miles away, are rich only
while in the granite and of very little value after entering the
killas.

Similar examples in connexion with copper are afforded by
the Gwennap district. At Tresavean the lodes, and especially
the great lode, were worthless in the killas and of enormous
value in the granite. On the other hand the nearly parallel
lodes of the Consolidated and the United Mines in the same
parish were rich only in the killas and became worthless in the
granite. Kast Pool in the Camborne district was a notable
example of such change, for the main lode changed from rich
copper to rich tin in five fathoms, in passing from killas to
granite.

Another very striking example is afforded by ‘‘ Woolf’s
cross-course in the Breage district. In the southern part of its
course near Porthleven, it yields lead at Wheal Rose—going
northward it is barren, containing only quartz and clay, in
passing through the Wheal Vor district which consists of a
different kind of killas—but still farther to the north in the
Godolphin mines, where the rock changes again, it yielded very
large quantities of grey and yellow copper ores. Still another
example is afforded by the main tin lode of the Charlestown
mines near St. Austell, which in its western extension in the
granite and in the much altered ‘‘killas”’ yields only iron, while
farther east where it enters the fossiliferous Crinnis shales it
yields copper.

* Josiah Thomas’ Report Miners Association, 1882.

158 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

This generalization is accepted in other countries, thus in
Norway the Kongsberg silver lodes are only valuable where they
traverse the fahlbands, and in Australia the auriferous quartz
lodes of the Gympie district are only of value while passing
through the black slate.

This relation of mineral contents to enclosing rock is even
observable on a microscopic scale, thus Dr. Wadsworth says
“‘Tt is not uncommon to find minute veins in rocks, which under
the microscope shew variations in their filling material as they
pass through different minerals.* The bearing of these observa-
tions on the theory of lateral secretion will be considered here-
after.

4.—Lodes of tin or copper in killas dipping towards or into
a great mass of granite or elvan are usually richer than similar
lodes dipping away from such masses. The Dolcoath main lode
and the lode at Wheal Eliza are good examples of the value of
this character.

5.—Lodes, and especially the rich parts of lodes, are usually
bounded by rocks exhibiting notable alteration phenomena, in
other words, valuable metalliferous deposits are rarely if ever
found in highly crystalline rocks, whether stratified or eruptive,
which present little or no evidence of secondary change. The
changes are, in some instances, merely alterations of structure,
but in most cases there are also extensive chemical alterations.

The most notable structural alteration is the development
of a tabular or ‘‘sheeted”’ structure in the country rock by
means of a series of joint-planes parallel to the walls of the
vein. Similar planes are sometimes also observable in the vein
substance. This sheeted structure must not be confounded with
foliation, lamination, quarry cleavage, or slaty cleavage (strain-
slip-cleavage), all of which aid in the division of rock masses
into tabular fragments, that is into fragments having two
dimensions much greater than the third. These are due to
causes which are essentially independent of the metalliferous
deposits with which they are associated, although their pre-
existence may have acted favourably by facilitating the produc-

* Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. His., May, 1884.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 159

tion of useful cavities to be subsequently filled with metalliferous
matter.* Sheeted structure in veins must also be distinguished
from combed structure, which is altogether a phenomenon of
deposit. In connexion with true sheeted structure there may be
traced the following gradation.

(a). An ordinary fissure vein-filling in a fairly compact
rock. Of this condition nearly all the lodes afford examples in
some part of their course.

(6). The same in a ‘‘sheeted” country rock. The following
examples will serve as illustrations. At Wheal Metal in Breage,
the principal (metal) lode runs a few degrees north of east (mag. )
and underlies to the northward about two feet ina fathom. The
killas is for the most part permeated with tourmaline (tourmaline-
schist), and in some places highly silicified—and is almost
horizontal—yet in very many places a kind of jointing exists
by the side of the lode parallel to it, and therefore directly
across the bedding, so forming a succession of false walls. Similar
phenomena are common in a great many other veins traversing
killas, both of tin and copper.

At the Ruby Iron Mine near St. Austell, a compact vein of
red hematite traverses more or less altered granite, which
frequently exhibits this sheeted structure for many feet on each
side of the lode.

(c). A sheeted mineralized belt associated with one or
more main veins.

Pednandrea and Great Wheal Fortune afford examples of
this stage.

(d). A “sheeted” earthy or clayey vein-filling in a
‘‘sheeted’”’ country rock.

Examples of this stage are also common in the tin and
copper mines. In many instances it is quite impossible to say
where the ‘‘lode”’ ends and the ‘‘country”’ begins, all being
sheeted together, although no part of the lode is highly
crystalline.

(e). A ‘sheeted’ mineralized belt not associated with any
main vein.

* The origin of these four forms of tabular jointing has been dealt with
sufficiently in Chap. 1, Sec. 2.

160 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

This last stage is illustrated by the phenomena of Minear
Downs and Cligga, already described.

It will be seen hereafter that Mr. Fox’s theory of the
electrical origin of many ore-deposits has a direct bearing upon
this question of sheeting.

In most cases, whether the sheeted structure be observable
or not, there are other notable alteration phenomena of more
distinct chemical origin—such as discoloration by oxidation or
hydration ; or bleaching by lixiviation ; or softening by incipient
decomposition; or hardening by infiltration of siliceous or
schorlaceous matter; or general‘‘mineralization”’ by the infiltration
of pyrites or other metalliferous substance; so that in some way
or other the approach to a good mineral deposit is always
heralded by signs unmistakeable to eyes which are familiar with
the mineral phenomena of that particular district. Unfortun-
ately the indications vary to some extent in different districts,
and often they extend to but very small distances from the
ore-deposits sought; frequently they are disguised by more
general surface decomposition, or buried beneath more recent
and barren strata, or under surface accumulations of detritus or
of vegetable soil; so that it needs in most cases not only great
knowledge and experience, but also a large expenditure of time
and money in prospecting and in exploration work before the
valuable existent deposits are hit upon, unless some lucky
accident comes to the aid of the miner.

The chemical changes in granites associated with metalli-
ferous deposits are so very marked, that Capt. Chas. Thomas
was in the habit of speaking of the unchanged granite (quarry
granite as it is often called) as primary granite, while the changed
rock looked upon as favourable by the miner he spoke of as
secondary granite. Again our corresponding member, Mr. R.
Pearce, writing on the metalliferous granites* of Carn Marth,
remarked that the whole rock is commonly discoloured with
peroxide of iron; and the felspar kaolinized, or else replaced by
chlorite, fluor, schorl, or oxide of tin; while a tabular structure is
often set up in the neighbourhood of ore-veins. In 1863 some

*Report Miners Association, 1862.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 161

of his pupils, after a number of excursions to Carn Marth and
other mining localities, wrote as follows :—

‘‘The general character of the granite of the hill (Carn
Marth) was ‘primary,’ or composed simply of quartz, felspar,
and mica, but where a vein of quartz or veins of other characters
were discovered, the felspar for 2 or 3 inches on each side was of
a pinkish colour, and it sometimes contained chlorite; where
the vein was larger the granite was altered for a still greater
space on each side of it, apparently as if by the influence of the
vein.”

“This alteration of the granite was more plainly shewn at
West Wheal Damsel. Here we found all the granite near the
lode to be very much altered, more or less according to its
PLOXIMUMLYis. «6 the change being greatest near the lode; the
felspar was sometimes entirely absent, chlorite occupying its
place, sometimes only partially ; and that broken at a still greater
distance from the lode was merely of a flesh colour. In all our
excursions we have noticed this alteration of the granite by the
influence of lodes and veins, and in some cases a still further
change from these influences was observed. At a burrow at old
Wheal Jewell there are stones of granite to be found where the
felspar has been replaced by tin and schorl (as at Dolcoath, &c.)
In a cross-cut at East Wheai Damsel, at a distance of five or
six fathoms from the lode, the granite contained cuprite.”’

A similar change occurred at the junction of the lode and
elvan at the United Mines.* Mr. Pearce further observes that
primary and secondary granite were not formed at different times
or under different circumstances, but that the original granite
was merely changed ‘‘ by the influence of the lodes which pass
through or near it, these various alterations being effected by
the decomposition of the mineral constituents of the lodes and
the solvent action of water.t}

6.—It is sometimes said that very hard ground is unfavour-

able. In one sense this is always so, since it increases the cost of
the underground operations, but in this sense very soft ground

*Tbid, Notes of Excursions, read September 8, 1864,
+Ibid, Report for 1863,

162 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

is also unfavourable. The statement is however true apart from
this consideration, except when the hardness is due to silicification
and the production of schorl by the actual mineralizing circula-
tion, as is often the case with tin deposits.

Since more or less of decomposition is a general phenomenon
in the rocks adjoining important ore-deposits, while silicification
or other impregnation-hardening apart from a definite deposit
of vein-quartz is only occasional, and in fact limited practically
in the West of England to tin deposits in killas,* it follows that
lead, copper, manganese, antimony, &c. are rarcly found in
quantity in really hard strata, while even tin is often good where
the rocks have not been hardened locally. I proceed to give
some further specific illustrations of these statements.

Tin in killas stockworks is wostly in a killas which is not
materially altered except by the production of white mica (Gilbert-
ite), which accompanies the tin erystals occupying the joints.
Occasionally there is a little blackening due to the production of
schorl, and in a few instances crystals of quartz also occur. Of
course the stanniferous killas as a whole is a greatly changed
rock, but the final local change in the immediate neighbourhood
of the little veins is usually not at all strongly marked. It is
the stockwork as a whole which must be looked upon as the ore
body, and the contact metamorphism in connexion with it is
perhaps less than in any other instance known to the writer.

At Old Wheal Vor, at Wheal Metal, and generally in the
Wheal Vor district, ‘‘when the rock is hard the lode produces
well, while soft strata are not congenial for that mineral (ve.
tin ore) but often produce copper.’’t

The hardening in this neighbourhood is mosily silicification,
a great deal of very fine (microscopic) schorl exists in the rocks,
but not specially in immediate contact with the lodes.

In granite, tin is usually accompanied by a local softening,
owing to the kaolinization of the felspar, although there is often
too a still more local hardening by the production of quartz or
schorl.

* Siliceous infiltrations of the Silurian Strata in the Clogau district of N.
Wales are always thought to be favourable for gold, while the soft beds are
unfavourable. See A. Dean, Report Miners Association, 1865. Of course the
association of gold with quartz is universally recognized.

+R. Hancock. Report M.A., 1870, p. 39,

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 163

At Trevenen Mine in the Carn Marth district, the lode is
separated from the compact granite by pot granite (7.e. granite
of which the felspar is changed to kaolin). At Wheal Dream
in the Helston district, a shaft was put down, through hard
ground to cut a shoot of tin which dipped away west from the
old Trumpet Mine. On reaching the ‘‘lode”’ it was found to be
barren until about the 60 fathom level, when the tin was reached
‘“‘in a softer channel of ground.” From this point to the 180
fathom level the mine was productive.* It would be easy to
multiply instances of this general softening. In elvans the rock
is often softened from the kaolinization of the felspar but
hardened by silicification.

Copper. In slate, softish strata are considered favourable,
especially if light yellow, brown or red. MHard dark blue slate
is always regarded as an unfavourable sign, so too is a hard
siliceous elvan or hard granite. In fact silicification cannot be
regared as favourable to the production of deposits of copper,
except very locally and in very special cases.}

The special relations of gozzans to deposits of copper ore
will be dealt with hereafter.

Lead. At West Chiverton the ‘‘ productive rock ”’ is of a
light greyish yellow colour near the surface, and of a greyish
blue a few fathoms down—fine grained and smooth to the touch.
The unproductive rock on the contrary is dark blue—very hard
and coarse-grained—passing into a sandstone or conglomerate.
Similar observations apply to the rocks at East Wheal Rose,
Wheal Shepherds and South Cargoll; also to Wheal Rose and
Wheal Penrose near Helston.{ On the whole however it would
appear that witn lead—as in a less degree with copper—the
infiltrations which have brought the minerals into the fissures
have been more modified by the character of the original rock
than seems to be the case with tin deposits.

*See Notes of Excursions, Report of the Miners Association, 1864.

+See Henwood, Trans. V, and M.A. Reports of Excursion, 1864, &c.

{See T. Clark, Report M.A., 1875, in which he gives good sections of these
two districts. I know of no instance where any of the lead veins passing into
what I have elsewhere called the Ladock sandstones, have continued to be pro-
ductive,

164 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

Manganese is often found in connexion with very dark-
coloured and somewhat hard slates in East Cornwall and West
and North Devon. In such cases the slates are commonly found
to be bleached where they are in contact with the deposits, as at
Lew Trenchard and many other places.

Tron deposits in the West of England when non-siliceous
are commonly associated with killas of very moderate hardness,
or with greatly softened and kaolinized granite. When the iron
ore is siliceous, the country rock is also hardened by infiltration
of silica, and the deposit becomes consequently worthiess.

From what has here been said, it is sufficiently obvious that
the Cornish miner’s dislike of firm highly fissile slate, such as is
suitable for roofing, of highly crystalline and sound granite or
elvan such as would be valued for building, of clean and solid
looking limestone or sandstone—and generally of fresh looking
rocks containing pure transparent quartz, little altered felspar
or other unchanged minerals; or free from cracks, spots, or stains
is well-founded; while the opposite signs are rightly looked
upon with favour. Thus we may say in regard to ore-deposits
generally that ‘‘contact metamorphism” is universal; or at least
the exceptions, if any, are extremely few.

7. Ore-shoots occurring in lodes which traverse stratified
rocks have usually a pretty definite dip, the direction of which
is determined by the relations existing between the bearing
and underlie of the lodes, and the strike and dip of the beds, as
shewn by M. Leon Moissenet.* In cases where the strata are
horizontal, or where the bearing of the lode coincides with the
strike of the beds, no such definite dip of the ore-shoots is of
course to be expected.

A deep valley, the lower slope of a hill, or at any rate a
moderately diversified surface contour, is regarded as more
favourable than a table land or the crest of a hill. It would
lead us too far to discuss here the reasons for these very obvious
facts, they however may be readily inferred from what has been
stated above.

* See Moissenet’s ‘‘ Observations on the rich parts of the lodes of Cornwall.”
Translated by the present author, 1877.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS, 165°

Many other specific characters in the country rocks have
been from time to time regarded as unfavourable, such as a
harsh texture, and an absence of moisture, especially if porous.

It will be readily seen from what has been stated above
that all these characters have a sound scientific basis, while
others not so generally recognized will be noted hereafter.

Src. 7.—Subterranean Circulation.

It is a matter of common observation that, subject to small
changes such as are due to variations of rainfall, evaporation, or
drainage, the water standing in wells and artificial excavations,
or fowing from natural springs, maintains a pretty constant
level, which is known as the natural water level of that particular
spot; or less accurately by some writers, the natural water-
plane. In elevated regions of porous rocks and intermittent rain-
fall, this water level is often far below the surface of the ground,
and very important results, economical as well as geological,
depend upon this fact, as will be seen hereafter. It may be
locally altered by pumping or tunnelling; or equalized over
larger areas by opening subterranean communications; but subject
to minor or local variations it is practically invariable over
large areas and for long periods of time.

For our present purpose we may divide the waters circulat-
ing within the earth’s crust into what may be called surface
waters, which do not descend beneath the (natural or artificial)
water-level, and those which, descending below that level, are
again brought up by ascending currents. The former—the
phreatic waters of Daubrée will in general have temperatures
differing but little from the mean temperature of the region in
which they occur,* the latter which may be called crenie or crenitic
after Sterry Hunt,} are the thermals of Daubrée. As by hypo-
thesis they come from deep-seated regions they will in general
have higher temperatures than the phreatic-waters; bearing, too,
some direct relation in ordinary cases to the depths from which
they have arisen. As the temperatures are higher, so the solid

* Unless of course they happen to pass through or over locally heated rocks
in which case they may be mistaken for true thermals.

+ Mineral Physiography, p. 132 (from Kpjvy Gr. a fountain or spring.)

166 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

contents will in general be greater than in the case of the
phreatic-waters. The incessant transfer of mineral matter from
below, through the constantly flowing action of deep-seated
springs is thus accounted for by Hunt. ‘The cooling of the
surface of the earth by radiation, and the heating (of waters
already there) from below, would establish a system of aqueous
circulation by which the waters penetrating this permeable
layer (the upper portion of the earth’s crust) would be returned
again to the surface as the usual springs charged with various
matters there to be deposited.”** Hunt applies the crenctic hypo-
thesis principally to explain the origin of the crystalline rocks—
including even granite. But as he saw quite well it is equally
applicable to the origin of ore-deposits, if not more so. But
the rationale of the process seems here to need some illustration,
which I will endeavour to supply.

In the first place, it is evident that the constant flow from each
particular source needs a constant supply. Considering that such
outflows have been going on all over the world for ages, we may
assume that the supply now comes from the surface. It may be
derived directly from rain; except, indeed,in countries where rains
are altogether unknown; or indirectly from bodies of water sup-
plied by the rains; or from the sea. There are but two ways in
which this water can reach the subterranean sources of the ascend-
ing thermals, (1) by flowing through fissures (actwal divisional
planes in the rocks which are in direct communication with those
deep-seated sources, from which currents of water are made to
ascend by heat—and (2) by percolating through the rock-substance
(ordinarily though potential divisional planes, but often between
the separate crystals and particles of which nearly all rocks are
composed). The first we may call canalicular, the second
interstitial circulation. At moderate depths the former will
predominate—at greater depths the latter—because open fissures
will be far fewer, and those which actually exist much narrower
in proportion as greater depth is attained: still, it is likely that
some fissures and actual openings may exist at all depths. The
question then naturally arises ‘‘ How can surface water make its
way down below the natural water-level in any given distzict ?”

* Op. cit., p 131.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 167

The force of gravity is plainly insufficient even in the case of
open fissures, since any of these which may exist are already
full—and under pressures coresponding with their depths. Still
less can gravity account for interstitial circulation, which appears
to be altogether independent of pressure.* It would appear
_ that canalicular circulation can only be set up by a local lessening
of pressure such as would be produced by an ascending con-
vection current—and the very same hypothesis combined with
what we know of capillarity and surface tension will account for
the interstitial circulation. Thus then, given a permeable rock—
whether the permeability be due to minute capillary fissures, or
to the cleavage planes of its constituent minerals, or to the
boundaries of its separate particles—given on one side a supply
of fluid, and on the other a withdrawal of the fluid, and there
must be interstitial cireulation.| It is this interstitial water in
rocks which is called ‘‘ quarry water” by Daubrée.

Let us now trace a little in detail the progress of this inter-
stitial circulation on the large scale—and with this object in
view, we may disregard secondary fissures, anticlines and
synclines, variations of porosity and permeability in the beds,
and similar irregularities. These would give rise to local
irregularities in the rate of the circulation and in the courses of
particular streams of particles, but would not otherwise affect
it—so that for the purposes of this enquiry we may regard the
“country-rock”’ asa homogeneous and porous mass. Bearing this
in mind, we will try to picture the course of the water particles
through the rocks under ordinary conditions.

* The tendency of water to pass through very narrow channels in all
directions increases as the channels are narrowed—while the tendency of one wet
particle of rock to wet another lying next to itis so great as to be practically
irresistible. M.M. Jamin and Daubrée have shewn that moisture travels—e.g.
through a block of sandstone in spite of an opposing gaseous pressure equal to
that of many atmospheres, thus answering Gay Lussac’s difficult question ‘‘ How
does water find its way to the volcanic focus without being forced back by a
tension of vapour below that is capable of sustaining columns of thousands of
feet of lavas?” See Phil. Mag. 1861, and Daubrée’s Geologie Experimentale.

+ Daubrée classes rocks as “‘ permeable’? and impermeable but not in a
strictly accurate sense, since all rocks are to some extent permeable. The rate
of permeability as well as the capacity to hold and retain water varies enormously.
Thus, while eurite only holds of ‘‘ quarry water” 0:07 per cent., the clay of Meu-
don holds between 24 and 25 per cent.—-Daubree, Les eaux......actuelles, p. 6.

168 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

Let a.4. (fig. 11. Plate 1x.) be a lode-fissure dipping south,
and passing through the killas, and down into the granite.
Now, assuming the rocks to be everywhere pervious as we know
in fact they are, and assuming that there is no deep-seated
spring issuing at 4, then the waters percolating through the rock
from the surface down to the water level e.é., which in this case
is also the sea level, will make their escape at é; so giving rise
to a phreatic spring on the sea-shore; while in any wells sunk
through the rock, or in the shaft 6 the water will stand per-
mantly at that level, all the rock below remaining saturated
with practically stagnant water. If now, by sinking the shaft d
and pumping, the water be lowered to ¢ that will be for the time
the artificial water level, water will circulate through the rock
above that level, and all below c¢ will in this case be stagnant.

The same figure 11 will serve to illustrate the more ancient
circulation which has often filled such fissures with ore and
veinstone. Suppose hy the action of subterranean heat a
constantly issuing deep-seated upward current or spring at a. In
this case there will be a constant circulation through the mass
of the rock down as far the deep-seated source, wherever that
may be. The condition of the water below e.é. or c.c., is no
longer static but dynamic. The waters ‘‘seeping”’ through the
mass of the rock will be constantly making their way into the
fissure at all depths, and joining the outward current at nearly the
temperature of the rock itself at those various depths. The
water circulation may be considered as an infinite assemblage of
molecules moving in files, and their normal courses will ke
indicated hereafter.

The mean temperature of the issuing water will of course
be less than if it had all travelled to, and come from the greatest
depth, so that in the absence of strictly local sources of heat we
may fairly assume that thermal springs always come from
greater depths than would be indicated by their temperatures.
For it will be seen at once that different portions of the
very same circulating water will reach the ascending stream
after passing through rocks at different depths. Hence taking
any particular point in the vein, say z, the water which reaches
the vein above that point has only percolated through the rocks

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 169

situated above ; we may speak of it as ‘infiltration from above,”’
and if it deposits anything in the fissure, it can only be material
derived from the superficial strata, such as could be dissolved
without any particular elevation of temperature or pressure.
In the same way waters coming in at deeper points and having
higher temperatures due to their greater depths of origin may
be expected to dissolve, and afterwards to deposit in the fissure
some additional material, and such deposits may fairly be calied
“lateral secretions.” Similarly the waters reaching the fissure
at still greater depths, having traversed greatly heated rocks,
and having had greater opportunities of meeting with active re-
agents will be still better solvents, and may therefore be expected
to deposit in the fissure, as they rise up through it, still other
and different constituents, affording thus examples of deposit
by ‘‘ascension.” This part of the subject will be more fully
dealt with in Sec. 10.

The solvent powers of water, especially when heated and
under pressure, are so great and general that it has been called
with almost literal exactness, the universal solvent. And the
springs however charged rarely deposit the whole of their
dissolved contents on the sides of their channels, consequently
natural springs afford on analysis a great variety of chemical
substances. Itisindeed remarkable how many of the substances
known to us as components of the air or of the solid earth are
found to exist in greater or lesser proportions in natural thermal
waters. Thanks to the labours of Forchhammer, Bischoff,
Daubrée, and a host of other writers, the fifth axiom of my
introduction* may be regarded as fully established.

Daubréet gives the following list of substances that have
been found by analysis in such waters.

Gases. Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, car-
buretted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen.

Metalloids. Sulphur, selenium, phosphorus, carbon.

* “All rocks and mineral substances are more or less soluble in pure water,
and still more so in water containing carbonic acid, or other active chemical
substances in solution ; such waters in fact as are found to circulate in sub-
terranean channels and fissures.”

+ Les eaux souterraines.

170 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

Acids. Sulphuric, nitric, silicic, hydrochloric.

Semi-metals. Arsenic, antimony.

Haloids. Chlorine, bromine, iodine, fluorine.

Alkaline-metals. Potassium, sodium, lithium (ammonium),
rubidium, czesium.

Alkaline Earths (metals of). Calcium, magnesium, barium,
strontium, aluminium, cerium, beryllium, yttrium, zirconium,
didymium.t

Heavy Metals. Iron, cobalt, nickel, chromium, uranium,
vanadium, copper, lead, zine, tin,* titanium, tantalum, molybdenum,
wolframium, bismuth.

Noble Metals. Gold, silver, mercury.

The well-known examples of metallic and other minerals
formed since the time of the Roman occupation by the thermal
waters of Bourbonne les Bains, originally studied and reported
on by Daubrée,{ are particularly instructive.

No fewer than 24 species of minerals were formed by the
issuing waters, among which were such well-known Cornish
species as iron pyrites, vivianite, anglesite, cerussite, galena,
chalcocite, covellite, chalcopyrite, erubescite, fahlerz, and cassiter-
ite, besides phosgenite and a number of zeolites—some deposited
by the waters itself and others formed by its action on bronzes and
works of art. The late Sir Warington Smyth, formerly one
of our Vice-Presidents, referring to this wonderful collection of
minerals of modern formation, said in his graphic way,
‘“‘ Here we have—within a few yards of the surface and under a
very moderate temperature, the metals and alloys which had
been produced by human industry; which had been raised by
the miner and altered by the hand of the metallurgist, brought
again to the identical compounds which we are accustomed to see
side by side in their original repositories,—fathoms and fathoms
deep underground.§

* Tin has only been found in a few instances, the proportion being from
“0000015 to 00000008 per cent. of the water. In Cornwall however the waters
flowing through the valley gravels must have contained tin in solution in compar-
atively recent times, if indeed they do not still; since deer’s antlers have been
found permeated with that metal. See Trans. R.G.S.C., Vol. x, and ‘‘ Cornish
Tinstones,” p. 33.

+ The metals in italics are perhaps doubtful.

[Formation contemporaine de diverses espéces Minerales, Paris, 1876.

§ Smyth, Presidential Address, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., 1876.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 171

There are few mining regions in which thermal springs are
not known—although there is some reason to believe that ceteris
paribus they are less numerous, and their temperatures are lower,
in proportion to the antiquity of the deposits ;—and even when
they occur in non-mining regions they are rarely devoid of
metallic constituents.

It has been well said, that while mineral springs and solfa-
tara action are the remnants of volcanic disturbances, an ancient
mining region may be looked upon as exhibiting the roots of
such a region laid bare by denudation.*

Thermal springs are not unknown in the West of England,
although the denudation has been so great and the mineral
deposits are so ancient that their action may now be regarded as
almost extinct.

Mr. J. A. Phillips, who had made a special study of the
relations of thermal springs to ore-deposits, stated some of his
conclusions thereon, in 1871, as follows,—maintaining the same
position also in his work on ore-deposits, published in 1884.

1. Metalliferous lodes are more numerous and more pro-

ductive near igneous rocks than elsewhere.

2. There have been volcanic eruptions at all periods of the
earth’s history (so far as we can read that history in
the stratified rocks).

8. Solfatara action and thermal springs are often the latest
active evidences of volcanic disturbance.

4. Crystalline quartz, iron pyrites, and other minerals are
now being deposited in veins having many of the
characters of ordinary lodes, by solfatara action (as at
the Steamboat Springs in Nevada).}

The connexion between thermal springs and metalliferous
veins is discussed in considerable detail by Mr. Phillips in
subsequent papers to that before quoted—and he also refers to
a recently formed quartz deposit containing silver. which had
been previously described by my friend Dr. Oxland of Plymouth.{

*“ Mineral veins seem to be the roots of mineral springs”’ Sollas, discussion
on Foster’s paper on the great flat lode, Q. J. G. Soe.

+See Phil. Mag., Dec. 1871, Origin of Mineral Veins. }

{See J. A. Phillips, Phil. Mag., Nov., 1878.

In the following table, which is based

f the West of England are connected with its ore-
upon one which Mr. H. Tilly presented to the Miners Associa-

deposits, and in doing this I must still largely rely upon the

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.
I must now proceed to shew how the mineral and thermal

springs o
tion in 1872, with subsequent additions, I have brought together

such particulars of the Thermal and Phreatic springs occurring
in the mines of Cornwall as I have been able to gather.

work of Mr. Phillips.

172

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ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 17/3

In the thermal springs, although the solid contents vary
very greatly, the lowest amount is 84 grains per gallon, while
the average is 685 grains. In the phreatic springs the lowest
amount was 13°59 grains, the highest 46°97 grains or not much
more than half the lowest of the thermals, while the average was
only 29°44 grains.

Tho following substances were found in greater or less pro-
portion in the thermals, viz.—the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and
carbonic acid; sulphuric, nitric, carbonic and silicic acids,
chlorine, bromine, and iodine, in combination with the following
bases, viz.—ammonia, soda, potassa, lithia, ceesia, rubidia, lime,
magnesia, alumina, iron, manganese, copper All the above,
except bromine, iodine, ceesia and rubidia, were also found in
the phreatic waters; and in the greatly modified phreatic water
of Dolcoath arsenic was also found.*

The analyses of thermal waters by Dr. Miller and Mr.
Phillips, which are quoted above, shew that the first four of
those included in Table 1 are essentially diluted sea water,
somewhat modified in passing through the rocks,} the dilution
of course being occasioned by access of surface waters.

Fig. 12, Plate 1x, taken from Mr. Phillips’s paper already
quoted, illustrates one of the many modes by which sea water
after penetrating to great depths through fissures, can make its
way into the workings of amine asaspring. This may be regarded
as an example of ‘‘canalicular” circulation. Other springs
have been noticed in North Roskear, North Crofty, and many

*Further particulars of these springs with full analyses will be found as
follows.

W. W. Smyth (for W. A. Miller, M.D.) British Assoc. Bath Meeting, 1864.

H. Tilly. Particulars of a thermal spring at Wheal Seton. Report M. A.
for 1872, p. 53.

J. A. Phillips. Phil. Mag. July, 1873, and March, 1874.

+The most notable modification seems to be that both at Wheal Seton and
Wheal Clifford lithia had been taken up from the granite through which the
water must have made its way (und in the case of Wheal Clifford cesia and
rubidia also) ; and at Wheal Seton and Botallack the water besides being diluted—
presumably with fresh water percolating trom the surface—has lost its magnesia
to a great extent, while the rocks passed through are more highly magnesian than
usual—facts bearing very materially upon the theory of serpentinization. See
Phillips, Q.J.G. Soc., 123, p. 319, and T. Sterry Hunt, Origin of Serpentine.

Phil. Mag., July, 1873,

174 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

other mines in Oornwall as well as in some of the Devonshire
mines, but have not been analysed; the last four in Table 1
seem to be merely surface waters—somewhat raised in temper-
ature and otherwise modified slightly in passing through the
veins or through old and abandoned workings—so as to partake
in some degree of the characters of true thermal waters. All
were taken from points above the (artificially lowered by
pumping) drainage level of the country, but below the natural
drainage level.

The phenomena of ore-deposits throughout the world are
only known to us from the surface downwards to at most 5,500
feet, since our deepest shafts and boreholes have not yet
exceeded that depth; in fact we have very few workings at
present more than 2,500 to 3,000 feet from the surface. But in
our deepest workings streams issue whose temperature (and
other indications also to which reference will be made hereafter)
lead to the conclusion that they arise from greater depths than
4,000 feet. At that depth it does not seem likely—from the
most recent observations that the normal temperature of the
rocks—apart, that is from strictly local causes, would be much
greter than 100° F., yet in some regions temperatures of 200° or
more are known. The high temperature of the Wheal Clifford
spring does indeed seem to be due to some local cause ot heating
which is not very deep seated—the far more gradual increase at
Dolcoath would seem to come much nearer to normal conditions.
In any case we may safely say that in the West of England we
have no present information of subterranean temperature by
means of springs which have come from a greater depth than
5,000 feet.

This universal subterranean circulation, whether canalicular
or interstitial, cannot fail to produce the most extensive changes
in the rocks, and especially in a region of ancient fissures such
as we have in the West of England. It is therefore of great
importance to the geologist and still more so to the miner.

Briefly stated, its work will be :—

1.—-To dissolve what can be dissolved.

2.—To transfer material from one place to another, so facili-
tating mutual reactions and leading to the formation of
new deposits,

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 175

By dissolving away rock-substance from below by waters
subsequently rising to the surface, it has not only brought up
large quantities of mineral matter, and deposited it more within
the reach of man; but is must have produced chambers within
the earth’s crust, some of which have subsequently served as
depositing chambers to be filled with mineral substances of value;
while others, by collapse have occasioned many of the minor
irregularities of the strata, and, subsequently thereby, many of
the minor surface sculpturings. Such effects are well-known in
regions where the strata contain beds of rock-salt and gypsum,
and the same must be the case with beds of limestone and
dolomite, though the action will of course be much slower.*

We have seen that to some extent all strata may be regarded
as soluble, especially in waters which are heated and already
charged with active reagents of various kinds; but, except in
such cases as those cited above violent deformation is not likely
to result from the solvent action of the circulating waters—since it
is so very slow—and when even large masses have been removed
there has been usually plenty of time for the cavities so
produced to become refilled with material brought from a
distance.

The great local abundance of certain veinstones as will be
seen hereafter is apparently connected with original differences of
composition of the parent rocks situated comparatively near the
earth’s surface. But the occasional local abundance alone or in
combination with metals of such metalloids as arsenic, sulphur,
and tellurium has probably more connexion with deeper seated
sources. The same may be said of the locally abundant fluor
spar of many copper, lead, and zinc mines, and of the still more
locally abundant boron and fluorine-bearing silicates, schorl,
topaz, &c., so generally associated with deposits of tin and
kaolin.

The waters circulating in canals and open fissures seem also
in some instances to carry matters which are not dissulved but
in a finely divided state of suspension ; and the deposition of such

*The altered coral reef at Newham, near Truro, now only containing traces
of lime, must once have been mainly carbonate of lime, and was probably as
many fathoms thick as it is now inches, See “‘Recent Analyses,’ Journ, R.I.0,

XXIII,

176 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

substances, mainly kaolin, owing to its remarkable insolubility

and to its finely divided physical condition, has given rise to the

‘“‘flucan’’ and ‘‘prian”’ so characteristic of many metalliferous

veins.

Src. 8.—Subterranean ore-concentration by heat, pressure, and the
crystallizing forces.

The whole course of modern investigation as to the origin
of valuable metalliferous deposits goes to show (1) that the
metals sought are very widely distributed through the rocks
forming the earth’s crust, and (2) that only those deposits are
worth working which represent notable concentrations of the
said metals. We have now to consider the nature and mode of
operation of the forces, or forms of force, concerned in this
natural subterranean concentration.

Sir Geo. Groves’ study of the correlation of the physical
forces has been one of the most profitable labours of modern
times. So much, and so intimately are they related that it is
impossible properly to appreciate the effects of one without being
continually led to consider others. ‘‘ Light runs into heat ; heat
into electricity, electricity into magnetism, magnetism into
mechanical force, mechanical force into light and heat ; the pro-
teus changes, but he is ever the same.’* I will, however,
endeavour to discuss their actions separately in connexion with
rock-change and the formation of ore-deposits, as far as may be
possible or convenient.

1.— Action of heat and pressure. The simple action of heat
on rocks is observable when a lava-stream flows over their surface.
Clays are locally converted into porcellanite or ferruginous
jasper,—as, for instance, at Portrush, where certain beds of
lias-clay have been converted into a hard brittle splintery rock,
when in contact with a large body of trap-rock.| Hqually
marked changes have frequently been noticed in connexion with
beds of sandstone.

But heat alone, without accompanying and considerable
pressure, can only act on rocks at the earth’s surface, and with
little intensity even then, except locally. But the rocks and ore-

* Tyndall, quoted by Chas. Fox, Address Miners Assoc., 1862.
+ Jukes and Geikie, Manual of Geology, 1872, p. 140.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 177

deposits with which we are particularly concerned were penetrated
by eruptive rocks while still far below the surface, and conse-
quently subject to heat and pressure corresponding to many
thousands of feet of overlying rock. It is not surprising, there-
fore, that effects have been produced entirely different. For
example, when chalk is heated by a lava-stream in such a
way that the carbonic acid can escape, it is merely converted
into quicklime. But if it be similarly heated in the depths of
the earth under great pressure, it is converted into granular
limestone or crystalline marble.

In the changes just referred to moisture does not seem to
have played any important part. But, as we have already seen
in the preceding section, the solvent powers of the fluids circulat-
ing through the rocks are greatly increased and extended
by increase of heat and pressure, so that substances ordinarily
regarded as insoluble have been brought into solution, transferred
to other points, and finally re-deposited in suitable gites. Thus
silicates have been decomposed and dissolved—new silicates have
been formed—free silica has been deposited—and the separated
bases have been converted into sulphides, sulphates, and other
comparatively stable compounds; while the haloid salts of
alkalies, derived in all probability from pre-existing complex
silicates, have gradually accumulated in the waters at the earth’s
surface.

In the West of England, it is doubtful whether effects of
heat and pressure can be anywhere seen without the superadded
effects of other changing agencies yet to be described. It seems
certain, for instance, that such flinty slates and sandstones as
those of Haytor, described in Sec. 2, have not only been consol-
idated by pressure and baked by heat, but also infiltrated with
silica ; while the crystallizing forces have developed within them
new minerals, such as magnetite, garnet, and hornblende; the
materials of which were in all probability already present in the
rock.

{ The result of such heating may be seen in many places in the North of
Ireland, where the chalk, being penetrated by dykes of basalt. is altered into a
hard grey semi-crystalline limestone, or into a coarsely crystalline white marble.
The well-known experiment of heating chalk in a closed gunbariel has a similar
result.

178 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

2.—Action of molecular affinity and of the crystallizing forces.
The tendency, everywhere observable in mineral substances, of
like particles to approach each other whenever freedom of motion
is permitted. seems to depend upon an affinity of the molecules
which is quite distinct from what is known as chemical affinity—
this latter being strongest between unlike molecules.

Molecular affinity seems to be the originating agent in the
production of concretionary structure in colloids, and of sporadic
crystallization, the devitrification of glassy rocks, and erystalliza-
tion generally in crystalloids. The subsequent development of
crystalline structure in colloid aggregations is a related but
distinct phenomenon which is also frequent.

To enable this molecular affinity to operate, freedom of
motion of the particles is, of course, necessary. This exists
originally in both eruptive and sedimentary rocks to a very
considerable extent. In eruptive rocks fusion, or the pseudo-fusion
due to the presence of moisture at a very high temperature,
facilitates the formation of such concretionary aggregates,
mostly more or less crystalline,as occur in the granites of the West
of England,* and also of the sporadic crystallization generally,
which results in what is called ‘‘ porphyritic” structure. This
may be on a large or small scale—‘‘macro”’- or ‘‘ micro’-
porphyritic. The separate crystals or crystal-groups are in some
cases developed in a glass in a cryptocrystalline base, as in the
case of most of the ‘‘ elvans ;” or else in a well crystallized granitic
base, as may be seen in much of the granite in all parts of the
two western counties.

In stratified rocks such as clays, mudstones, sandstones and
limestones, concretions of ferruginous, phosphatic, or siliceous
(cherty) matter of a colloid character ; cubes of pyrites ; crystals
and crystal-groups of gypsum and other erystalline minerals
are often thus formed before complete consolidation. Such are
good examples of the action of ‘‘ molecular affinity ” in bringing
together like particles of matter already existing in a diffused
condition throughout the mass. JI proceed to refer to a few
examples in detail.

*Phillips, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., xxxvi, p. 1 and xxxvii, p. 216.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 179

At Lyme Regis the lias-clay, as is well known, contains
numerous calcareous concretions.* Concretionary beds of
earthy carbonate of iron (clay iron ore) have been met with
associated with the anthracite beds of North Devon, at Bideford,
and Chittlehampton, although not, I believe, to a sufficient
extent to be of economic importance;+ such beds in the
carboniferous rocks of Staffordshire and Wales are, however, of
the highest importance.

The same may be said of the concretionary and nodular
iron pyrites which has been met with ia the “killas” in many
parts of the West of England. These are of economic impor-
tance in the chalk of Kent and Sussex, and in the London clay
at Sheppey and elsewhere. Concretionary patches of peroxide
of iron occur on a small scale in some of the sandstones of the
Ladock district, as also in some of the elvans. These also are
too small to be of economic value.

A singular specimen, ‘‘ resembling a chalk flint,” which was
found in tho lode at Balleswidden, was described in 18*5, by
Mr. S. Higgs. It occurred in a vugh at the 180 fathom level,
and was surrounded by decomposed felspar and quartz granules.
Mr. Higgs thought it had fallen in from the surface, but its
mode of occurrence and surroundings rather suggest that it was
a concretion of siliceous matter.§

Mr. Henwood mentions some ‘‘ globular concretions” in the
lodes at Wheal Duffield, Relistian, Trevaskus, and Wheal
Herland, containing kernels of slate, granite, elvan, and copper-
pyrites, and says similar concretions exist in the country rocks. ||

Dr. Le Neve Foster,— who saw similar masses in the lode at

* Tn these a lamellar structure is often developed, parallel to the bedding and
lamination of the containing rock. This is doubtless a subsequent development,
arising either from pressure, or perhaps from transverse electric currents as will be
shewn hereafter.

+ Delabeche, Report on Cornwall, &c., p. 125.

{ The concretionary aggregations of peroxide of iron in the sands of Sussex
were formerly the source of all the iron used in the South of England—and this
for a long series of years.

§ Trans. R.G.S.C., 1x, 1865, p. 1.
Trans, R.G.S.C., v, p. 39,

180 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

New Rosewarne, on a continuation of the Relistian lode—
considers them—though with some hesitation—to be true pebbles,
fallen in from above.*

Many concretions occurred formerly in the lode at Wheal
Trelawney. One, consisting of a kernel of galena succeeded by
four layers of quartz, the fourth containing fragments of the
third, and coated over all with galena, is described and figured
by Mr Henwood.t ‘The concretions remind one of the well-
known ‘“‘ring-erz”’ of the Hartz.

The concretionary form of tin-oxide, known as wood-tin, has
often a concentric, and frequently also a radiate structure, as at
the Garth Mine near Penzance, Wheal Metal in Breage, Penhalls
in St. Agnes, Prideaux Wood near Par, &c.t The former is
probably an original concretionary colloid structure, the latter
more probably a superinduced crystallization. Many of the
distinctly crystalline tin-stones have also a somewhat radiate
structure, § as in the case of the toad’s eye tin from Penhalls, this
therefore is rather to be described as an example of the sporadic
erystallization to be adverted to presently.

In all cases of concretions in sedimentary rocks it seems
likely that the determination of the position of any particular
concretionary aggregation depends upon the presence of some
fragment of organic substance which has served as a nucleus.
We can hardly suppose a similar determining cause in the case
of concretions in eruptive rocks or in veinstones, although
Mr. Moore long ago proved the existence of numerous organisms
in the flucans of the lead veins in the Mendips.||

Spheroidal structure is really a form of jointing, but it often
occurs with concretionary structure, and is often confounded with
it. This structure is most common in eruptive rocks, although
it also occurs in sedimentary rocks.

* Report M.A., 1866.

+ Trans. R.G.S.C., viii, p. 703.

{See Plates vit1, 1x, x, x11, Cornish Tinstones and Tin Capels.
§ Ibid, Plate v, figs. 1 and 3.

|| C. Moore ‘‘ On the organic contents of mineral veins.’’—Brit. Assoc. Rep.,
1869. A list of nodular concretionary bodies surrounding organic bodies
is given by Mr. M. H. Johnson. Jour. Quekett Microscop. Soc., May, 1875.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 181

Usually in the granites and elvans of Cornwall the material
of the spheroids differs but little from the surrounding rock-
substance. In crystalline rocks the crystals may be a little
larger,—or occasionally a little smaller—the rock may be, and
usually is more compact in the spheroid, and there may be, and
often is, a greater proportion of some one mineral component
present. These two latter causes are probably the reason of the
curved‘‘ joint ’’ which separates the spheroid from the matrix.

The structure is so common in the eruptive rocks of the
West of England that scarcely any quarry or road-cutting can
be examined which does not afford examples more or less perfect.
The best examples are afforded by the mica-traps near Falmouth.
That which is seen near the Penryn saw mills, where the dyke
is only 3 or 4 ft. wide, is almost entirely composed of spheroids—
many of which shew, by weathering, three or four concentric
lamine, although in the fresh state the joints only appear when
the rock is struck with a hammer.* Some spheroids in the dyke
of this rock which appears in the cliffs below Mawnan Church,
are not less than 8 ft. in diameter.

Spheroidal structure is often visible in the sandstones
and grits of the neighbourhood of Ladock—this too is accom-
panied by a concretionary accumulation of phosphate of lime,
but only to a very small extent.

The structures known as spherulitic and perlitic are related
to the spheroidal structure, being curved joint structures—but
they do not appear to be in any way associated with concretions.
On the whcle we may say that concretions are of little economic
importance in unstratified mineral deposits, and especially in
such as are most usually found in the West of England—though
they are often of vital importance in bedded deposits—as for
instance in the clay ironstones of the Coal Measures, the phos-
phatic deposits of the chalk, and the galena of the Mechernich
sandstones.

Sporadic crystallization and crystal aggregates. (n an incipient
state, sporadic crystallization shews itself in the spotted schists
which are so common on the borders of the various granitic

* See R. N. Worth, Rep. M.A., 1883. See also Geol. Age of Cornwall and
W. Devon, Journ. R.1.C., 1884, p. 39,

182 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

masses of the West of England. The study of these belongs to
contact metamorphism generally, and has no particular relation
to the phenomena of ore-deposits. The same may be said of the
crystalline concretionary patches in the granite already referred
to, which consist of ‘‘an abnormal arrangement of the crystalline
minerals of the granite itself, found by microscopic examination
to be practically of the same composition, but usually containing
more mica.”’*

The most noticeable sporadic crystallizations on a large scale
(macro-porphyritic) to be seen in the West of England are, no
doubt, the ‘‘ horse-tooth”’ erystals of orthoclase, and the cross-
macles of the same mineral in the granite of Tol-Pedn-Penwith,
and elsewhere. The separately developed crystals of orthoclase
in the elvans are often very striking. But next to orthoclase,
black tourmaline or schorl is the most striking mineral thus
developed, and there is good reason, too, to regard it as a
secondary mineral in all cases, 7.¢. it has been formed after the
original consolidation of the rock.

Schorl occurs almost invariably in acicular crystals, and
often with radiate arrangement; the occurrence of independent
prisms more than 53; of an inch in thickness being rare, although
Bovey Tracey, Stenna Gwyn, St. Agnes, and Tremearne may be
mentioned as localities for such larger prisms.

As was pointed out long ago by Delabeche, schorl seems to
be limited to the neighbourhood of the granite junctions, whether
it occurs in the granite or in the killas. It is abundant under
the following conditions.

1. As schorl-rock, which appears to be merely an altered
granite, and is, I think, always near killas—as at
Roche Rock, St. Mewan Beacon, &c. It is sometimes
notably stanniferous, as at Rock Hill near St. Austell.
Other modifications of granite containing schorl are the
varieties known as Luxullyanite and Trowlesworthite.

2. As tourmaline schist, which is merely an altered killas,
as at the Gwennap Mines, Wheal Vor, the south side of
Carclaze pit, &e.

* Phillips Q.J.G.S., XXxxI, p. 1, and XXXVIII, p. 216,

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 183

3. Asa constituent of many elvans, as at Seveock and
Terras.

4. As distinct veins in kaolinized granite (Petuntzyte and
Carclazyte) often associated with quartz, and sometimes
with tin. It is in such veins that the separate and
well-defined prisms already referred to usually occur.

5. As globular radiate crystalline masses, in similar situa-
tions. Some of these are so regular in form as to be
mistaken for pebbles.*

6. As an important constituent of tin-capels, both in
granite and killas—as at Wheal Uny, Dolcoath, and
other mines.t

7. As fine green, brown, gray, or silver-white hair-like
crystals (achroite) as a secondary deposit in schorl-rock}
or imbedded in quartz crystals.§

The crystals of tin-stone lining minute fissures, joints, and
cavities ; which are of such importance in the numerous stock-
works in Cornwall, appear to be examples of local concentration
of previously existing material widely diffused in minute
particles throughout the rock-mass, produced by the operation of
the crystallizing forces. It has already been stated that the tin-
oxide present in the killas at Mulberry is little over one quarter
of one per cent. Were this distributed through the rock-mass
in particles as minute as those of the workabie tin capels of the
Camborne district, it would be quite impossible to work it at a
profit. It is only because the crystals are comparatively large,
so allowing of much coarser stamping and much cheaper dressing,
that such poor deposits can be worked at all.

* Dr. C. Le Neve Foster describes such masses as occurring, from one to five
inches diameter, in the decomposed granite of Ding Dong near Penzance. Trans.
R.G.S8.C., 1x, p. 9. See also Delabeche, Report, &c., p. 158.

+ See Cornish Tin-stones and Tin Capels. Plate rv and p. 11.
I See Min. Mag., Vol. 1, 1876, on the Achroite of Rock Hill, p. 55.

§ The secondary development of schorl has been illustrated by Prof. Bonney
in the cases of Luxullianite and Trowlesworthite, (Min. Mag. 1, p. 15, and Trans.
R.G.S.C., x, 185), and its origin and general associations with Cassiterite, as well
as with Topaz and other fluorine bearing minerals, has been fully dealt with in
connexion with the hypothesis of Von Buch, Daubrée, and others, by the writer
(Tin Stones and Tin Capels, p. 136 et seq.).

184 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

In many cases, where original components of the rocks are
in question, the freedom of motion existing in the rock-masses
before complete consolidation would be sufficient to allow of the
formation of crystal aggregates of considerable size. In other
cases, so evenly balanced are the aggregating and retaining
forces that the presence or absence of actual cavities is sufficient
to determine whether there shall be such aggregations or not.
But we know that mineral growth is possible, and indeed is
often effected in rock-masses after complete solidification. The
necessary freedom of motion, and the spaces for the new aggre-
gations are provided slowly but simultaneously,—the solvent
powers of the circulating solutions being aided by heat and
pressure, and the aggregating tendencies by electricity, surface-
tension, and, sometimes, by direct chemical reactions. So
continuously, though slowly, do these changes go on, that, in
some instances, well-formed crystals of large size have been
formed around suitable nuclei in already solidified rock-masses,
as shewn by Judd, and others.* Even the pressures resulting
from rock-movements may be thus effective, by controlling the
chemical affinities and crystallizing forces.

* Q.J.G.S., 1889, p. 175. Mr. Judd found that detrital fragments of quartz,
felspar, hornblende, and mica had become enlarged under these conditions, and
that crystals of many kinds had also been enlarged, those of felspar even after
partial kaolinization.

[Zo be continued. |

185

A Wears GAeather.

In looking over the weather chart for January, i891, the
coldness of the days and nights and occasional heavy rains are its
prominent features. During the month the barometer stood very
high, its mean height being 30°15-inches; its highest registration
being 30°70-inches, on the 14th; its lowest, 29°57-inches, on the
24th.

With the barometer standing close on thirty inches (29°87) on
the 8th, we had over one inch of rain (1°01). Unlike some places,
we had not to complain of absence of sunshine during the month,
for the sun shewed itself on twenty-four days. As our average
January rainfall is 4°85-inches, we must look upon the rainfall of
the month, 3°40-inches, as very favourable; and as 2°43-inches of
this rain fell on the 8th, 23rd, 28th, 30th, and 31st, the month
was somewhat dry.

The Truro rainfall in January 1890, was 5°62-inches, which
fell on twenty-eight days—a very wet month.

It is singular that the average rainfall throughout Britain for the
same month was only 2°07-inches, which fell on nineteen days.
The 8th was a phenomenal day. We had nearly one inch of rain
from 5 p.m. to 8 p.m.—three hours—then a thick mist, which
cleared, permitting showers of meteorites to be seen falling from the
N. and N.N.W. direction ; during the same night the thermometer
registered seventeen degrees of frost.

Our coldest night was on the 11th, when twenty-one degrees
of frost were registered out of doors, our next coldest was on the
18th, with twenty degrees of frost.

Our monthly mean of greatest cold in night taken from ther-
mometers which are in a louvred weather-house was 33°6 degrees.
We have had, during the last fifty years, only two averages so low—
January, 1855, 32°9 degrees, with only °65-inches of rain on eight
days; and 1881 (the year of the great storm), 28:0 degrees ;
probably the coldest January Cornwall has ever known. We had
snow on the 17th.

February 16th, 1891.

186 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

In my last letter I drew attention to the great height of the
barometer in January, the occasional heavy showers, and the cold-
ness of the nights. The old distich says: “‘ February fill dyke,
either black or white,’ but February this year was one of the
most delightful probably on record. Except for the general absence
of flowers, kept back by an unusually cold season of three months’
duration, one could not, during the greater part of February, have
had any idea from casual observation that it was winter. The
blueness of the sky day after day, relieved by cirrus clouds—frozen
mistiness, ice crystals—the genial glow of the sun, unchecked from
earliest morn until it dipped—as I saw it several times during
the month—in a setting of resplendent purples, greens, and yellows
right over St. Ives Bay, beyond Cape Cornwall, its glorious disap-
pearance bringing out the moon which reflected from a sky cf
continued clearness its silvery rays. Towards midnight, chiefly from
the region of the Great Bear, brilliant meteors shot out, falling into
the illuminated arena beneath. ‘The mean height of the barometer,
30°42, was higher even than January—3o'15-inches. Our mean
of heat in shade during the month was 54°3 degrees, the mean of
cold in night 34°9 degrees; we had fourteen nights on which it
registered frost ; our coldest night was on the roth, with 8 degrees
of frost. We had hoar frost, a heavy dew, and mist on three
occasions; this latter represents, of course, the fog of densely
populated towns, fog being mist (water) particles, enwrapped in
smoke (carbon).

Beyond doubt February, 1891, will be best remembered for its
dryness. Rain fell here only five times during the whole month,
the total fall being ‘22—under one quarter of an inch. February
last year it rained 1°84-inch on 12 days, and wehadhail. For easy
reference I append the mean of 40 years’ rainfall, and the rainfalls
of last year and this, which I hope to continue from month to
month :—

40 years’ mean. 1890. 1891.
January...... 4°85-ins. ...... 5°62-ins. ..... 3°40-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 1°84-ins. ..., 0°22-ins.

Totals... 8:23-ins. ...... 7°46-ins....... 3°62-ins.

I cannot find any record these last fifty years of so dry a February
as 1891, the nearest being those of 1887 (77-inch) and 1888 (:85-
inch). These were unusually dry, but the driest of them was three

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 187

times as wetasthat of the present year. During the same long period
I find the following months only were as dry or drier than February
this year :—April, 1854 and 1870; May, 1876; August, 1880; and
June, 1887. To peep back into Cornish weather phenomena
through Mr. Francis Gregor’s observations, made at Trewarthenick
over one hundred years ago, which this Institution possesses, is very
interesting. ‘The varying aspects are made indiagrams. February,
1771 (120 years ago), snow fell on the morning of the roth, and
remained on the ground till the evening of the rith, and finally ~
disappeared on the afternoon of the 13th. On eight days it was
frosty. It rained on eleven days, but only heavily during the night
of the 24th. In February, 1791 (100 years ago), were fifteen
fine, six cloudy, and seven rainy days; so we may safely infer that
our ancestors of that time enjoyed a bright February.
March 3rd, 1891.

The exceedingly dry February has been followed by one of the
most remarkable March months on record here. Instead of drawing
comparisons of dryness or wetness, one is lost for want of a parallel
to compare, not rainfalls but snowfalls. It would be hard to
describe briefly the unique appearance West Cornwall presented in
the middle of the month. It will be long remembered in this part
for its damage to trees, its fatality to sheep—one gentleman alone
lost nearly 200 of these valuable animals; and its stagnation of
trade, yet even now, it is hard to realize that snow fell so heavily for
three days in March, and was so drifted by the wind that for several
days this city lapsed into more than primitive isolation, for it ceased
to do business by road or rail; did not read a newspaper, nor heard
the postsman’s knock.

Cornish people remember nothing like it, except the proverbial
oldest inhabitant, whose memory recalled to mea violent snowstorm
some fifty years ago, when the snow buried the hedges, hid the
gates, caused the waggoners to leave their waggons ladened with
timber for the mines for days by the roadside, and prevented all the
usual occupations of every-day life being carried on. On referring
to the earlier journals of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, I find
this very violent snowstorm recorded as occurring from the evening
of the 14th February to the morning of the 16th, in the year 1838,

188 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

But just as the rainfall in February varied in different parts of
Britain, so did the downfall of snow. In the North of England,
they did not venture to name the snowstorm they had, a blizzard.
Our heaviest fall was on Tuesday, March 1oth, and on the same
day of the month, but twenty-eight years ago—on the wedding-day
of the Prince and Princess of Wales—a snowstorm exactly like
that we had swept all over the North of England and Scotland.

The snow fell chiefly on the gth, roth, and 12th; the heaviest
and longest fall being from noon on the gth until nine o’clock on
the morning of the roth. The snow was so drifted that it was
hard to measure, but a series of averages gave on the gth, 12-inches ;
roth, 1°5-inches; 12th, 8-inches; ora total of 21°5-inches. Owing
to the cold wind the snow remained on the ground in many places
for the rest of the month.

Taking all downfalls (snow, hail, and rain), as rainfalls, we had
in March 3.90-inches, which is above our mean average for this
month as shewn below :—

40 years’ mean. 1890. 1891.
January ... 4°85-ins. 5°62-ins. 3°40-ins.
February ,.. 3°38-ins. 1:84-ins. 0-22-ins.
March ...... 2°91-ins. 1-87-ins. 3°90-ins.
Total,,, 11°14-ins. 9.33-ins. 7°52-ins.

The rainfall for March, 1889, was 4°74, March, 1888, 4°70, and
March, 1851, 7°11-inches.

It is asserted that if the barometer stands high in the winter it
will, in all probability, be low in the summer—.e , a cold winter
with a high barometer, means a low barometer in the summer, with
accompanying dulness and coolness. I append the mean baromet-
rical heights for the last few months at Truro, as such observations
may be useful to many :—

1890, October, 30°149-ins. 1891, January, 30°197-ins.
1890, November, 29-927-ins. 1891, February, 30°419-ins.
1890, December, 29:960-ins. 1891, March, 29°855-ins.

The mean of these means is 30'084-inches.

Our mean of greatest cold for the month was 35 degrees.

In March, 1791, one hundred years ago, there were 23 fair, 5
cloudy, and 3 rainy days.

April 8th, 1891.

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 189

It is many long years since Cornwall so much needed “the
April showers to bring forth the May flowers.’’ The chief rainfalls
were, with the exception of a little in the middle of the month, at
the very entrance and exit of April. The few true April showers
—mixed rain and sunshine—which fell, were chilled by cold winds,
which prevented much of the good the warm spring rain does.
They came easterly with surprising continuance.

It was interesting at times to notice how floral nature struggled
to get out of the bondage. Here one saw a little beech under the
shelter of some bigger tree, shoot forth its whole array of yellow-
green leaves, whilst a sister tree on the edge of the self-same coppice
awaited sullenly the advent of the warmer weather. The primroses
felt this struggle keenly, yet under the meanest protection they
overran the walls and meadows. ‘This year this pretty plant will
be at its best in May. In early April I botanised in a sheltered
nook, where the lesser celandine, primrose, violet, ground-ivy, and
others were in flower, and the bees were almost as plentiful as
blossoms ; and the worker bees were savage with the ritled flowers
they visited. April must have been bad for bees, Apis and Bombus.

The barometer stood nearly 30-inches (29'926), but the ther-
mometers, on some days, indicated great ranges of heat and cold.
The average greatest heat was 56°4, the average greatest cold 39°4
degrees, an average difference between hottest and coldest aspects
of 17 degrees. It wasadry April, its rainfall of 2'48-inches on
thirteen days compares favourably with the 4-inches of rain last
April, and the forty years’ average of 2°61-inches. We hada little
hail on the 3rd, frost one night.

The apple, cherry, and plum trees came into flower in sheltered
places, the hawthorn, sycamore, and horse-chestnut came into leaf.
On the 14th the swallow was seen in Ladock valley. The cuckoo
was heard at Trenowth, Grampound road, on the 21st, at Cuckoo
Bottom, Besore, Truro, on the 24th (a day late). Evidence here
too, of the westerly distribution of ‘the harbinger of spring. ’

The average rainfalls to date are as below :—

40 years’ mean. 1890. 1891.
January ...... 4-85-ins. ...... 5'62-ins. ...... 3°40-ins.
Hebruanye--4 sio8-10S-5 -e4) IGS4-insye) fee. 0:22-ins.
March ...... 2;91-ims. 2... 1-87-ins. ...... 3°90-ins.
AND — casoae 2°6l-ins. ...... 4Ol-ins. ...... 2°48-ins.

Total ... I3754ns. ...... TEFL, os coe 10-00-ins,

190 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

From the table we learn that the Truro rainfall for the first four
months of this year is less by 3#-inches than the average mean
rainfall for forty years, 7.e., the land has received this year, 84,750
gallons of rain water less per acre than usual.

May gth, 1891.

I have to record a cold and somewhat dry May month, the
rainfall being nearly a quarter of an inch below a forty years’
average. As will be seen from the table appended, we are still in
the enjoyment of much drier weather than last year. The regis-
tration of the rainfall of this May and last shews that we have had
less than half the rain this May month than last. The rainfall for
the first five months in 1890 and 1891 show a difference of nearly
six inches and a quarter.

40 years’ mean. 1890. 1891.
January ...... 4-52-ins. ...... 5°62-ins....... 3'40-ins
February .. 3°38-ins. ...... 184-ins. ...... 0:22-ins
March ...... 279) [1S See eleen US I=MAS, coo sac 3°90-ins
ANWR sognocon | AON scocne 4O0l-ins. ...... 2°48-ins.
MIEN poanaoese 2°45-ins. ...... 5:06-ins....... 2:26-ins.

Total ... 16:20-ins. ... .. 18°40-ins. ...... 12°26-ins.

The rainfall at Truro for May was 2°26-inches, which fell on
eighteen days.

Perhaps no month in recent years has been so disappointing
as May, 1891; and yet, judged from a weather chart, it seems hard
to say why. The mean here of the maximum heat for May, is
61°10, we had this year 61°60 degrees. The mean of the minimum
Is 44°94, we had 42°50 degrees, or 24 degrees colder than usual.
Last year our hottest May day registered 77 degrees; our hottest
this year 73 degrees, or 4 degrees colder. Our coldest night in May,
1890, was 39; this May, 30 degrees, or 9 degrees colder.

Even natural observations gave no direct clue to the cause of
this disappointment. Oak should be in leaf on May 13th, was in
leaf on the 5th. The ash came into leaf on the toth. The horse
chestnut should be in flower about May 6th, was, with us, on May
8th ; the lilac on the 5th, was in flower on the 6th; the laburnum on
the 14th, was in flower on the gth. The swift and the corncrake
were a few days late.

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 191

Perhaps the best explanation of the discomfiture so much
complained of in May, was in the sudden change of the weather.
We were unusually buoyed up by the fine hot week preceding
Whitsuntide. The hottest day of the month was then, when the
heat in the shade was 73 degrees, and the night temperature was
50; a week afterwards (Whitsuntide) the highest day temperature
was 50 degrees in shade, the minimum temperature of the previous
week, and the night thermometers registered 2 degrees of frost, a fall
of 20 degrees of heat, accompanied by northerly winds, heavy rains,
and a little hail. In many parts there were heavy falls of snow ;
Rugby 7-inches, in London blinding showers of sleet and snow,
accompanied by thunder.

On the 1st of May, 1791 (100 years ago) grass was so luxuriant
that many people had their cattle out a fortnight earlier than usual.
A week afterwards, on the 8th, wheat changed colour and appeared
yellow, and potatoes above ground were nipped by the frost and
their branches turned black ; grass was making no progress. About
the date of our Whitsuntide this year there were cold, raw, gusty
winds, and eventually a piercing gale. In that year (1791) the
hawthorn blossomed, and the corncrake was heard on the 25th ;
this year (1891) we saw and heard the same on the 18th.

After all, in the matter of weather, we are living under very
much the same conditions as in the “good old times.”

June 8th, 1891.

“Leafy June!’ Perhaps the ordinary mind cannot recall a
June so leafy as the lastone. The cold weather, prolonged into the
lap of May, relaxed its severity when plant life could scarcely tolerate
the bondage longer. And then we saw nature robed in primary
and secondary growths, untouched by insect or fungoid parasites.
Throughout Cornwall the heavy foliage, casting a deep shade
beneath the trees, was marvellously developed and wonderfully free
from ravage. As the trees clothed some of the valleys, where one
got an extended sight of them, they presented, perhaps a more
sombre picture than usual with June leaves, but this sombreness
disappeared on nearer approach, and the newer growth was seen to
overtop, to cover up, and to merge into the older tree growth. This-
new growth was a revelation to the observer ; a holly bush over which
he may run his hand at will and touch or grasp nothing but soft
non-pricking leaves, is what June does not always bring to us.

192 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

Cornish hedgerows! No words can fully describe them.
The rank verdure on them defies description. A strip of bordering
ground carpeted with buttercups, or silver-spread with daisies—
the common and the dog kinds—helps one better to see them. It
gives the distance. But who can describe the blending of flower
colours, or the struggle for existence? The picture was made by
most favourable June weather, which intensified a struggle keen
at all times. How pretty the flowers were! The blue-buttoned
sheep's-bit; the deep yellow bird’s-foot; red campions, white
umbels, o’erhung with scented honeysuckle, wild rose, and elder.

It was not an exceptionally dry June. Our average rainfall at
Truro is 2°39-inches, and this month we had 2°86-inches, which was
over the average of the last ten years, and below the average of the
preceding thirty years There was this peculiarity about the month,
that it followed a very cold May month; it opened with warm rain,
and then we had nearly three weeks of dry weather, which got
hotter and hotter until it reached with us, 82 degrees in the shade
and 112 in the sun. Plant life received an impetus, rarely equalled,
in this brief period. Although we had rain—in some cases scarcely
measurable—on thirteen days, the bulk of the rain fell on four days,
on the first, 1:0; on the third, -54; sixth, -59; and 3oth, -38-inch,
or 2°51-inches out of the total month’s rainfall of 2°86-inches. The
driest June for forty years here is June, 1887, 05-inch; the
wettest June, 1861, when 6°71-inches of rain fell.

We can now get our average half-yearly rainfall, and can see
at a glance how much drier this year has kept than last. ‘The table
which shows the comparisons clearly, gives about 73-inches less for
the first six months of 1891 than the same period in 1890.

40 years’ mean. 1890. 1891.
January ..... 4°85-ins. ...... 5°62-ins. ...... 3°40-ins
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 1°84-ins. ...... 0-22-ins.
March ...... 2,9) Sse 1°87-ins _ 390-ins
ANNA cogncceo 2‘6l-ins. ...... 4Ol-ins. ...... 2°48-ins.
IMiayennccesccce 2°45-ins. ...... 5'06-ins....... 2°26-ins.
VIN Senc00 PPEOANNS, Goon 4:17-ins. ...... 2°86-ins.

Total ... 18°59-ins.

200 00 22'57-ins. ,..... 15°12-ins.
Finding that the observations of the weather, 1oo years ago,

excite much interest, I may say of June, 1791. that on the rst the

grass was at a standstill for want of rain; a few days afterwards

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 1938

green peas were in the market, and new potatoes were 13d. a pound.
Clover hay was cut on the 7th, and on the 1 Ith it came in seriously
cold, hail storms, ice upon the pools, the grass began to decay in
the pastures and meadows, apples dropped off the trees ; the straw-
berries were very poor, as the leaves and stems were shrivelled up
by the storms. They had 17 days of wet, and one day, the 3rd,
when it was 120 degrees in the sun.

1 have dwelt at some length on the natural aspects of June, as
the reader would do well to note and make for himself observa-
tions which may not be presented so favourably again for years.

July 8th, 1891.

Although rain fell here on seventeen days, the amounts were
so small that the monthly total of 1°62-inches shows the same
general tendency to dryness which has characterised every month
except March this year. The mean of the rainfall of July during
the last ten years is 3°06-inches, of the previous forty years 2°60
inches. The rainfall this month is one inch below the most favour-
able of these averages. During these ten years we have had the
second driest July for the last fifty years—1885, o-40-inch; 1869,
0°35-inch; and the second wettest July for the same period, 1888,
6°45-inch ; 1867, 6°71-inches of rain. In 1888 it rained 1°30-inches
on the 15th, and in 1880 1°46-inches on the 16th; these are the
heaviest day’s rainfall in July on our registers.

Though the month’s rainfall was so little the total number of days
on which rain fell was quite up to the average of a wet July, and
even on some of the rainless days nimbus (rain) clouds gathered and
absorbed in their watery curtain the heat the earth would gladly
have had, hence the month was not so sunshiny and hot as one
would have expected, the daily and nightly temperatures being a
little below the average. The prevailing winds, too, were northerly.
The highest reading of the thermometer was on the 15th, 79
degrees ; the lowest, 40 degrees, on the night of the 13th; this differ-
ence of 39 degrees strikingly shows how the temperature ranged
during the month. The mean temperature of air for the month, got
by taking the means of the maximum, minimum, and dry-bulb
- thermometers, was 63°3 degrees. ‘The range of the barometer was
a little over half-an-inch (°56), the highest reading being on the

194 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

r4th, 30-29; the lowest reading on the rst, 29°73-inches. We had
thunder on the 20th, and thunder and lightning on the 26th, which
ushered in a week marked by driving showers of sleet-like rain.

If the average rainfalls are tabulated, we can see how much
drier the year keeps than 1890 :—

40 years’ mean. 1890. 1891.

January ...... 4°85-ins. .. ... 5°62-ins....... 3°40-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 1°84-ins. ... . 0°22-ins.
March ...... 2‘9l-ins. ...... 1‘87-ins. ...... 3'90-ins.
April ......... 2°6l-ins. ...... 4Ol-ins....... 2°48-ins.
Miaivyaraacccaer: DANS TNS soooan 5:06-ins. ...... 2°26-ins.
VEWAE sooo0n000 2.39-ins. ...... 4°17-ins. 2... 2°86-ins.
Ajuliby/, “Soeeconns 2°60-ins. ...... 3°67-ins. ...... 1-62-ins.

Motalleeeen2 lel Osiris seeps 26. 24-1 sear 16:74-ins.

A total of 9}-inches less of rain for the seven months of this
year than in the same period of last year, or nearly 43-inches less
than the 40 years’ average of the same months.

In July, 1791 (100 years ago), the people complained of wind
and rain. ‘There was a general want of grass at the beginning of
the month, but this improved, and when about the 28th the hay
harvest finished, the crops, though not heavy, were superior in
quality to the long coarse grass of the previous year, and well got.
Gooseberries were ripe on the 13th, and on the 16th the blackberries
were in bloom, and the wheat, too. The monthly rainfall was 2°50-
inches, and on the 25th thunder was heard, and in some places hail
fell.

August 11th, 1891.

It is extremely gratifying to receive the expressions of great
pleasure the perusal of this course of weather letters has given rise
to, and to learn, that not only is their appearance looked forward to
with interest, but many trust they will be continued beyond the year.

August, 1891, will be long remembered as one of the wettest
Augusts on record. There have been many attempts during those
of the past forty years to be wet, but none so successful as the last.
We read of meadows being submerged, of ripened wheat and barley
being uncut, of good crops of cereals in which the grains had begun
at once their new growth. It was a month of feeble sunshine,
struggling between filmy mists or extinguished by down-pouring

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 195

rain. Recollections of weather changes touch the general mind but
lightly, unless, like this month, they are struck deeply by some
phenomenal display. What was seemingly going to be so dry a
year, broke its bondage when one of the most bountiful harvests for
twenty years touched with golden gladness hill and dale. The
abnormally swollen little streams and rivers about us, told a tale of
soddened land, and the heart felt grieved on reflecting at the sad
havoc wrought by the untoward rain.

August is not the driest of months, nor is it the least free from
heavy downfalls of rain, an average of many years shews it to be
little drier than February, and wetter than March, April, May, June,
and July, The average August rainfall here is about 3-inches, this
month it rained at Truro 6°48-inches, over twice as much as the
average, and my friend, Mr. F. H. Davey, of Ponsanooth, who has
taken charge of a rain-guage forus for nearly two years, recorded 7:3 1-
inches. During the month it rained on 25 days, on one day nearly
14-inches, on another over 2 of an inch, on three $ an inch, and on
six over + of an inch. This heaviest day’s rainfall in August was on
the day set apart for the excursion of the Royal Institution of
Cornwall. The representatives of the press of the two counties,
who were in the waggonette in which we rode, will bear me out in
saying that a merrier party never rode together than ourselves ; while
that 1°48-inches of August rain poured on us. We rode through
miles of it, the roads had all the appearance of shallow muddy
rivers, the wheels of the vehicle cleaved the water just as they do in
running across some shallow ford. We were merry about the rain,
but a word of sympathy ever ran in the conversation for the suffering
farmer. It is beyond my province here to calculate the miles we
went, but every acre we saw of ripening grain had not one ounce less
than 150 tons of water poured upon it that day.

There have been some inquiries as to whether we have had
any very heavy daily rainfalls in August. We have! It is a month
noted for what the meteorologist calls “‘remarkable rains.’ The
one quoted is an example. I add a few other daily August rainfalls
for reference :—1891, 20th, 1°48-inches ; 1890, gth, ‘92-inch; 1885,
5th, 1:06-inches ; 1875, 1ith, 1°36-inches ; 1874, 31st, 1-06-inches ;
1866, 28th, 1’05-inches. The following are a few monthly August
rainfalls :—1891, 6°48; 1890, 3°79; 1885, 3°16; 1881, 3°55; 1879,
5°33 5 1878, 4°49; 1877, 5°84; 1876, 4°37; 1873, 4°81; 1866, 4°69;

196 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

1865, 5°33; 1863, 4°01; 1860, 5:78; 1850, 4°35; 1857, 3°02: and
1852, 4°57-inches. The frequency of the wet August months shews
the farmer has good cause to grumble, and probably within recent
times he had never greater justification than this month.

A glance at the tabulated average rainfalls for 1890 and 1891
shews that we had about 73-inches less of rain for the first half of
this year than we had during the same period last year. The table
shews, too, that though July, of 1891, was drier than that of 1890,
yet the excess of rainfall for August this year, 2°69-inches over
August last year, was so great that the second half of 1891 is, so far,
wetter than 1890. During July and August, 1890, we received
7-46-inches ; the same two months of 1891, 8-1o0-inches of rain.
We learn, too, that the crops hereabouts have had poured upon them
60°79 gallons of rain per acre more this August than in August,
1890. We cease to wonder at swollen streams, flooded meadows,
soddened fields, and sprouted corn with excess of rain. Below is
appended table of average rainfalls :—

40 years’ mean. 1890 1891.

January ... 4°85-ins. ....... 5°62-ins. ...... 3'40-ins.
February ... 3'38-ins. . ... 184-ins. ...... 0:22-ins.
WIEWREM — sog00e 291-ins. ...... IS/eriNE, — Goooor 3°90-ins.
April ....-.... 261-ins: ...... 4:0l-ins. ...... 2:48-ins.
WER neoocd on LEHI Sage 5'06-ins. ...... 2°26-ins.
June! aceeerece BEANS soo00c 4-l7-ins. ....., 2°86-ins.
diy soscsooa, ZHUANG Goaace 3'67-ins. ...... 1:62-ins.
August ...... 3-Ol-ins. ...... 379-18. <0... 6°48-ins.

Total ,.. 24:20-ins. ...... 30°03-ins. ...... 23°22-ins.

The monthly mean height of the barometer was 29°83-inches ;
the mean of the greatest heat in shade during the day, 65°3 degrees ;
mean of night temperatures, 52°0 degrees. The warmest
day was on the I 5th, 74 degrees, the coldest night 37 degrees, on
the 28th. It is singular that the district, in which the cuckoo is first
heard recorded the first frost on the morning of the z3oth, when the
dahlias and other plants were frost-bitten.

In August, 1791—a hundred years ago—the register bristles
with this remark, ‘‘ good harvest day.’’ Would that I could have
truthfully written the same this year. On the 8th early oats were
reaped, I 5th wheat cut, 22nd corn housed. Pastures were bare, no
after grass this season, and the want of grass general. Mushrooms

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 197

were very numerous, 1761, 1778, and 1791, were remarkable mush-
room years, on the 31st it rained 2°0-inches, and during the whole
month 5°3-inches.

September 4th, 1891.

The marked increase of wet which set in during the month of
August has been partly maintained this month. ‘True, there were
some very hot days, but so soaked were the corn crops that during
the cessation of rain they did not dry in some cases sufficiently in
the judgment of the farmer to warrant his safely stacking them.
And so the harvest time came and went, and even the festivals
celebrating the ingathering were held. Yet over many acres, as I
saw at the end of the month, the cereals were in arish mows, black
and grim, useless, one feared, for food. Oats suffered most, but
root crops gained at the expense of the grain crops; yet wheat,
taking the country through, thanks to the hot sunshine, yielded fairly,
but of inferior quality. It is pitiful that the splendid promises of
June and July should have been turned into the comparatively
disappointing realizations of August and September. The few fine
days of September which wrought such a salvation in the prospects
of the agriculturist deserve recording, as meteorological changes
soon fade in the memory. ‘The first five days of the month were
dry, on the 6th and 7th over half-an-inch of rain fell, followed by
a dull day, on which we hada little rain. Then camea real touch
of summer! It lasted five days, and closed with a heavy mist on
the evening of the 13th, from which it never recovered, though the
struggle to be fine continued to the 16th, when it fell away, and
soaking rains came on for a week, again followed by another period
of five dry days, which were much colder. With a repetition of
rain the month went out; 16 days of rain, during which the fall
was 3°03-inches; less than an average September rainfall by half-
an-inch, but nearly half-an-inch heavier than the rainfall for the same
month last year. :

Hence the month had three periods of five dry days. The
average maximum temperature—greatest heat in shade—was for the
Ist period 56 degrees; 2nd, 79 degrees; and grd, 66 degrees.
That short summer of deep blue sky, 79 degrees in the shade, on
one day 101 degrees, and on another 103 degrees in the mid-day
sunshine, disturbed by cirrus clouds only in the earlier part of the

198 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

day, leave a pleasant recollection, as I spent part of it at sea, when
even the porpoises sprang out of the ocean blue enjoying its good-
ness.

The average monthly maximum heat in shade was 67°2, and
the average minimum heat was 51°2 degrees. The mean height of
the barometer was 30’0-inches. An exposed minimum thermo-
meter on the 23rd registered 39 degrees. The nights of the 18th,
19th, and 20th, were very stormy and wild. ‘The heaviest daily
rainfall was *49-inch on the 20th. ‘The following are a few heavy
September rainfalls :—1885, 6°58; 1883, 5°73; 1882, 4°52; 1876,
5°57; 1875, 5°533 1874, 5°90; 1871, 8°50; and 1866, 7°88-inches.
The rainfall of September, 1891, 3°03-inches, is the heaviest for the
same month since 1887, when the rainfall was 3°87-inches.

For reference I append average rainfalls :—

40 years’ mean. 1890. 1891.
January ... 4°85-ins. .... 5°62-ins. ...... 3°40-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 1°84-ins....... 0:22-ins.
March ...... PHOT soo one 1:87-ins...... 3°90-ins.
ASDA sconces PABA, 35 noe 4Ol-ins. ...... 2°48-ins.
May, “ese MoaD-Ins: | Weal 5:06-ins. ...... 2:26-ins.
VYWNE cogaoe oo 2°39-ins. ...... 417-ins. ...... 2°86-ins.
UwAY “Godacoaoe 2:60-ins. ...... BHOUAMMEL — 00 oo 1:62-ins.
August ...... 3Ol-ins. ...... BPO AA, son soe 6°48-ins.
September... 3°49-ins. ...... 2i65-10S eee 3:03-ins.

Motaly = 27 69-is= 22... 32°66-ins....... 26°25-ins.

We are gradually gaining on the wet year of 1890.

The weather and prospects of 179I—100 years ago—show
several coincidences. 11th, thermometer 108 degrees in sun; nuts
very scarce. 12th, most of wheat got in in high condition ; crops
good ; barley but slight; oats tolerable. 13th, red after sunset: a
mist arises. Not a cloud has appeared upon the sky from the roth
to the 15th. Apples few but fine. 22nd, harvest finished ; weather
delightfully pleasant to end of the month. A Michaelmas summer.
Rainfall for month, 2°40-inches.

October 12th, 1891.

There has been a general desire to know how much rain we have
had this month. As I had to lecture at several of the large towns in
the North of England during the end of October and first ten days
of November, I must ask my readers to forgive the delay of this
communication on the subject.

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 199

If comparisons were a relief we have had during the last
half-century three Octobers on which the rainfall was heavier than
October this year—1891, 8°55; 1885, 8°82; 1880, 9'23 ; 1865, 9:09-
inches. But the fact of this month’s downfall being classed as one
of these exceptionally heavy rainfalls gives it a distinction worth
noticing. Perhaps the greatest peculiarity in the rainfall was its
cyclonic character—a rush of wind terrific in force accompanied by
blinding rain, which descended in parallel sheets. This was the
experience in several of the south-westerly counties, and caused an
overflowing of streams, flooding of fields, and isolation of houses.
In going north I saw several isolations of this character, and, in
addition, great inland lakes with timber trees standing in the watery
waste. ‘These’ heavy falls of rain gave a registration in the gauges
which is happily not often experienced. On the morning of the 5th
we registered i$-inches of rain in one hour; but Mr. F. H.
Davey, in a rain guage at Ponsanooth, registered 2*41-inches
during the same time. His rainfall for October is 10°26-
inches, nearly 13-inches more than at Truro, due probably to the
better wooded grounds about, and in some measure to the soil. On
October 6th we had nearly two inches, and on the 18th over an inch
of rain; from the roth to the 18th the average daily rainfall was
nearly half-an-inch. But none of these records show so high a
daily fall of rain as in 1880, when on October the 16th the
rainfall in Truro was 3'0-inches.

During the month the rain fell on 25 days, and for 2 3 of these
days it rained consecutively; it was a month, however, of many
peeps of sunshine, and the high registration of rain was due rather
to intensity of fall than continuous wet. During the month the
winds were terrific at times, gales were common, and loss of life
saddening. Inthe last week of the month the barometer had a
range of nearly 14-inches.

The following summary shews our average and that of last
year and this :—

40 years’ mean. 1890. 1891.
January ... 4°85-ins. ....., 5 62-ins. ...... 3°40-ins,
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 1:84-ins. ...... 0:22-ins.
Marehy > esse: 2‘9l-ins. ...... 1‘87-ins. ...... 3 90-ins.
April ......... 26l-ins. ...... 4-Ol-ins. ...... 2°48-ins
NERY | Goeencson 2:45-ins. ...... 5'06-ins. ...... 2:26-ins

ATEN} Sogccaesn FRSA anda, 4:17-ins, ...... 2°86-ins.

200 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

UWSY ~ cooonn000 2°60-ins. ...... 3°67-ins. 4... . 1°62-ins.
August ...... 3'Ol-ins. ...... 3°79-ins. ...... 6°48-ins.
September... 3°49-ins. ...... 2'63-ins. ...... 3'03-ins.
October ...... 4°8l-ins. ...... 3°02-ins. ...... 8'55-ins.

Total .., 32°50-in. ..... 35°68-ins. ..... 34°80-ins.

Five and a half inches more rain this October than last;
three and three-quarters inches more than the average, and a gradual
overtaking of the wet year 1890. The gales were in many cases
accompanied by storms of hail, and thunder was not uncommon.
On one such night, October 5th, I went down Malpas Road, ‘Truro,
when we had a high tide in the river, and the whole of the water
was overspread with a phosphorescent light. As the gusty wind
caught the water and blew it on as an ever-increasing wave, a fire
roll started where the first puff caught the surface, and registered
the growing waveinfire. It was a magnificent sight, for the waves
broke on the shore in fire flashes, and the spray, seized at times by
the fiercer gusts, was blown into the adjoining fields as fire dust.
This phosphorescence was due to animal organisms, Nociiluca, and
other lowly forms of life, and was emitted from the outer layer of the
protoplasmic contents of the body; and as we witnessed the vital
energy of the organisms transformed into a radiant form, we seemed
to be in touch with the latest ideas in light studies, that light is an
electric phenomenon, and that vibrations of light are electric vibra-
tions. Probably each of those countless millions of organisms was a
battery evolving light, and not chemically working in oxidising tissue.

There has been a general complaint that the wet weather has
robbed us of our autumnal glow. My experience has been a
generally noticeable greenness on the leaves to the end of the month,
and a magnificent display in our southern Cornish woods of soft
greens, yellows, and ruddy tints. In travelling one noticed this as
particularly intense about Truro, Liskeard, and in the coombes
eastward, in South Devon a loss of this effectiveness, and then a
re-growth in beauty in North Devon and Somerset, especially in the
Vale of Avon. Of course, where frost catches the wet leaves there
is little chance of that persistency necessary for the plant contents
to change in the leaves, as the frost sheds them in showers of gold.
In one short stroll of about two miles out of ‘Truro, I noticed in the
last week in October over forty kinds of plants in flower, and we
had in our hedgerows many more blooms than we had in

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 201

October last year. The starlings, too, were commoner, and on the
26th I saw several swallows. Mr. Matthias Dunn tells me he has
never seen so many Northern forms of birds, especially skuas,
seeking shelter at Mevagissey as this year.

November 13th, 1891.

The rainfall during the month was a little over half an inch
more than the average, the total fall being 5-03; average, Truro,
November rainfall, 4:37-inches. We have not to go far back to
find wetter Novembers than this one, in 1888 the monthly rainfall
was 8°89; in 18838, 6°15; 1882, 5°57; 1881, 5°39 (three years in
succession); 1878, 5°78; 1877, 7:09; 1876, 5°47; 1875, 5-80
(four years in succession); 1852, 10°5l-inches. Although we
have been sensibly overtaking the rainfall of last year during
the last three or four months, yet our total registration of wet
still leaves 1891 somewhat drier than 1890, though this
month has witnessed a rainfall exceeding that of November last
year by nearly three-quarters of an inch. Mr. F. H. Davey, in
a rain guage at Ponsanooth, has registered 615 for
the month, as against 5°54-inches last year; this shews a difference
this November of 0°61-inch of rain, and nearly agrees with our
excess at Truro. The rain fell on twenty days, the heaviest
day’s fall being on the 10th, 1:19-inches, the barometer being a
little over 29-inches, and falling to 28°75 the next morning, when
it began again to recover itself. During this fall and rise, three
days, we had nearly two inches of rain, heavy hailstorms, and
strong winds.

The following is a summary of the rainfall of the last eleven
months and those of last year, and an average 40 years’ mean
for comparison :—

40 years’ mean. 1890. 1891.
January ...... 4:85-ins. ...... 5:62-ins. ... .. 3°40-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 1°84-ins. ...... 0:22-ins.
Miarche ses 29l-ins. ...... WSTCMAS, — opo000 3°90-ins.
NOE ecoaaccee 2°6l-ins. ...... 4:01-ins. 2°48-ins.
WIEN?” “sha0ccsb0 2°45-ins. 5:06-ins....... 2°26-ins.
JUNE soo acnees 2-39-ins. 4:17-ins. 2°86-ins.
July .. 2°60-ins. ...... 3°67-ins. ...... 1-62-ins.
August 3Ol-ins. ..... «Oi (O=1Se casees 6°48-ins.

202 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

September... 3°49-ins. ....... 2°63-ins. ...... 3'03-ins.
October ...... 4'8l-ins. ...... 3:02-ins. ...... 8:55-ins.
November... 4°37-ins. ...... 4°35-1NS. ...+0: 5:03-ins.

Total ... 36°87-ins. ..... 40°03-ins. ...... 39.83-ins.

The mean of the maxima—greatest heat in shade in day-time
—was 51'7; of the minima—greatest cold under cover at night
—39-3 degrees; we had frost on six nights; an exposed thermo-
meter registered 12 degrees of frost on the 25th, and there was
hoar frost on the same date; we had mist on three days; on the
22nd a slight, and on the 30th a heavy, fog. How little this was
in comparison with other places I have had several opportunities
of learning.

There is one aspect of the month, I think, rightly follows
the above paragraph—the floral aspect. Mr. Davey says on the
24th of November, in a walk through Kennal Vale, he saw 44
plants in bloom; in a short walk near Truro, and not in the most
sheltered situation, I saw, at the very end of the month, nearly
40 flowers in bloom. They were surrounded in many cases with
spring-like grass, so favourable had the weather apparently been.
Some of the peltate or shield-like leaves of the common penny-
wort were two and ahalf inchesacross. Three kinds of coloured
flowers were common; I trust to be forgiven for calling white a
colour, but it expresses here a distinction. White starworts,
pepperworts, wild strawberries, and others; yellow dandelions,
potentillas, hawkweeds, ete., and blue and purple blossoms.
Now the latter colours are the highest and brightest attractions
plants can offer to their insect friends, and hence a ramble which
presented red deadnettle, red campion, heather, dove’s-foot ger-
anium, herb-Robert, sheep’s bit, knapweed, ivy-leaved toadflax,
and blue veronica, seemed a time of sunshine and heat rather
than, as the calendar says, November, fog common.

A peep backwards; November, 1791, 100 years ago. 2nd
—Many flocks of thrushes seen. 6th—Frost powerful. A great
many hips and haws. Daisies, and many flowers in bloom.
The season mild in general until end of month, when stormy.
Fall of rain, 4°2-inches.

December 14th, 1891.

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 2038

The rainfall at Truro for the year 1891 was less than 1890!
Its registration during the month was most exciting, as one felt
that every shower might carry over the balance, and stamp a year
which had nad a February of the very driest kind as wetter than
the wet year of 1890. How closely the registration ran may
be seen in the total rainfal! for 1890, being 45°10; of 1891, 45:05
—a remarkable closeness. Generally, too, 1891 was drier than
the previous year: the nearness of the total rainfall was caused
by the excessive rains of August and October, which were over
8-inches in excess of the same months of 1890.

In 1890 the rain fell on 226 days, in 1891 on 208 days.
With the exception of February we have had a wet day on the
8th of every month, and only four times wet on the 5th. The
heaviest day’s rainfall during the year was on October 5th, 1:93-
inches; 12-inches of this fell in one hour. The rainfall for the
month was 5:22-inches, which fell on 25 days; of December,
1890, 5:07; 1886, 7:02; and 1876, 10°59-inches. We have no
record heavier than the latter for Truro. Our average December
rainfall is 4°65-inches on 20 days.

The warmest day was the 5th, 57; the coldest night was on
the 23rd, 1i degrees of frost; on Christmas-eve 10 degrees of
frost were registered. The two latter readings were taken from
an exposed thermometer. The mean of the monthly maxima,
greatest heat in shade, was 51°3; of the minima, the greatest
cold in shade, was 399-degrees. We had frost on 8 nights.
Whilst so many places were in a most lamentable state from the
blackest of fog, which hung for days, during which persons
walked blindly into rivers and canals and were drowned, and the
congested traffic of the railways and streets caused countless
accidents, we had a singular freedom, as our only experiences
were two slight touches on the 22nd and 25th, which caused but
little inconvenience to any one.

We had sunshine on 24 days, gleam—z.e.,the sun’s disc being
visible behind a film of cloud—-on 3 other days, sunless days 4.

From the 6th to the 14th the barometer fell and rose nearly
one inch, the greatest depression being on the 10th; the weather
became wild, thunder, lightning, hail, and heavy rains were
experienced, then strong winds and a cloudless sky. We had
hoar frost on 3 days.

204 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

We notice that the London Correspondent of the Manchester
Courier asserts that Truro was the wettest place in England in
1890. His idea, apparently, is that wetness is reckoned by the
number of days on which rain falls, whilst to meteorologists the
quantity measured is the guide, as it is to every civil engineer and
farmer. To him Truro was the wettest place in 1890, because
rain fell on 226 days. We agree in number, but taking this
elementary way of calculating wetness, the following places were
surely wetter in 1890. It is not a complete list, but is somewhat
distributive :—

Cornwall—Penzance (St. Clare), 263 days; Redruth, 2386.
Devonshire—Trusham, 256; Chagford, 233; Princetown, 245.
Stafford—Uttoxeter, 236. Somerset—Exford Rectory, 263.
Lancashire—Bolton, 259. Yorks—-Bradford (Stubden), 270;
(Doe Park), 269; Settle, 238. Cumberland—Keswick, 251.
Westmoreland (Shap), 258; Grasmere, 243. Derbyshire—Wood-
head Station, 232. Sussex—Mares Field, 232. Wetter places
reckoned by measurement of rain, taking Truro at 45:10-inches ;
Altarnon, 56°17; Princetown, Devon, 102°07; Duddon Valley,
Lancashire, 85 65; Little Langdale, Westmoreland, 115:10; and
The Stye, Cumberland, 202°05-inches. The latter is the wettest
place in England of which we have any record, and is four and a
half times as wet as Truro! The following is a summary of the
year’s rainfall, of that of 1890, and 40 years’ mean for comparison.

4) years’ mean. 1890. 1891.

January ... 485-ins. ...... 5°62-ins. .. ... 3'40-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 1°84-ins. ... . 0:22-ins.
March ...... DOMAINS, — noosec 1S7-imss) sere 3'90-ins.
Avorilicdnessoc seme Ol TES sincera 4-Ol-ins. ...... 2°48-ins.
May “eee « 2°45-ins. ...... 5 06-ins. ...... 2°26-ins.
VIE gos000000 2°39-ins. ...... 4:l7-ins. ...... 2'86-ins.
iullyaaeeeeee 2°60-ins. .. ... 3'67-ins. ...... 1°62-ins.
August ...... 3Ol-ins. ...... SHOSHONE — ponsno 6'48-ins.
September... 3°49-ins. ...... 2°63-ins. ...... 3°03-ins.
October ..... 48l-ims. ...... 3'02-ins. ...... 8'55-ins.
November... 4°37-ins. ...... 435-ins....... 5:03-ins.
December ... 4°65-ins. ...... 5'07-ins. ...... 5°22-ins.

Total ... 41°52-ins, ...,. 45:10-ins. ...... 45:05-ins.

For 1891 we are three and a half inches above the average.

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 205

The rainfalls of 1890 and 1891, taken in Kennal Vale by
Mr. Fk. H. Davey, of Ponsanooth, and of St. Agnes for 1891,
taken by Mr. Opie, are appended :—

Kennal Vale. St. Agnes.
1890. 1891. 1891.

January ... 7°37-ins. ...... 3'23-ins. ...... 2°37-ins.
February ... 1°67-ins. ...... 10-ins. ... .. *14-ins.
March ...... 1-90-ins. ..... 3°25-ins. ...... 2°47-ins.
April ......... 3°23-ins. ...... 2°35-ins. ...... 2°22-ins.
INIERY —coonco ces PII, Gco.060 STEN, — coccoe 2:15-ins.
June ......... 4:02-ins. ...... 2‘98-ins. ..... 2°58-ins.
Vw csc _.. 446-ins. ...... 1°89-ins. ...... 1:95-ins.
August ..... 4-72-ins. ...... 7°34-ins. ...... 6:04-ins.
September... 2°70-ins. ...... 3°22-ins. ...... 3°95-ins.
October ...... IGBTS, oo 000 10°26-ins. ...... 8:4]-ins.
November ... 5°54-ins. ...... 6:15-ins. ...... 4-51-ins.
December ... 4°87-ins. ...... 6°70-ins. ...... 4°74-ins.
Total ... 47°53-ins. ...... 50°84-ins. ...... 41°53-ins.

The three chief points of retrospective interest about 1891
are a February summer, a March blizzard, and a drenching wet
harvest.

December, 1791—one hundred years ago—7th, violent
storms and lightning ; 9th, snow, three inches deep, ; 12th, snow,
eight inches deep; 22nd, surface of ground a continued piece of
ice, wind very high; 24th, thunder and lightning. Rainfall for
month 4:20-inches.

Our ancestors had an old-fashioned winter. We had in
December warmth, sunshine, and many flowers brightening the
hedgerows, even the primroses anticipating Spring.

January 4th, 1892.

206

@bituary Wotices.

Nicnonas WHITLEY was born at Tregony, on March 10th,
1810, and was the eldest son of Mr. Daniel Whitley.

About 1830 he removed to Truro, where he practised as a
Civil Engineer, Land Agent, and Surveyor for many years, and
in these capacities was well known throughout the West of
England.

In 1845 he was appointed Surveyor to the Cornwall Railway,
and purchased the whole of the land required for the construc-
tion of the main line, as well as that for the St. Ives branch.

He was land agent to Sir William Williams, Bart., for his
North Devon Estates, and constructed for him the Heanton
Embankments, which enclosed a large quantity of rich marsh
lands in the estuary of the river Taw.

He was also land agent for the Hope estates in Cornwall,
and land agent and surveyor for the Gilbert estates in Cornwall
and Sussex. In the latter capacity he designed and laid out for
building purposes a large portion of the town of Eastbourne,
and also constructed the necessary roads and sewers.

He was employed by Lord Clinton with regard to Trefusis
and other property ; Kimberley Park, at Falmouth, was laid out
from Mr. Whitley’s designs, as also were Arwenack Manor at
Falmouth, and Alverton at Penzance. As engineer, he carried
out the improvement of the river Camel from Wadebridge to
Padstow, and other works in the West of England.

In all matters of business Mr. Whitley was trusted alike for
his soundness of judgment, and his strict integrity.

In scientific matters, more particularly geology and meteor-
ology, Mr. Whitley took a deep interest, and by his death the
Royal Institution of Cornwail has lost a most useful and valued
member, who for more than half a century contributed papers
to its transactions, which are comprised in the following list :—

1840. The Cromlech near Pawton.
,, Note on an Elvan Course near Malpas.

1841.

1842.

1843.

1848.

1850.

1851.

1855,
1856.
1858.

»?

1862.

1864.
1866.
1867.
1869.
1875.
1885.
1889.

1891.

OBITUARY NOTICES. 207

Notes on the Geology of part of the Parish of
Veryan, Cornwall.
The Agricultural Character of the soils of the Lizard.

Notes on the Geology of the neighbourhood of
Perranporth.

On the Remains of ancient Volcanoes on the North
Coast of Cornwall.

On some Polished and Grooved Rocks found in
Cornwall.

On the Temperature of Rivers.
On the Distribution of Rain in the 8. W. of England.
An Inscribed Stone at Nanscowe, St. Breock.

Note on the Braunton Fossils presented to the
Museum.

The Undeveloped Natural Resources of Cornwall.

Flint Flakes in the drift beds near Baggy Point,
Devon.

Flint Implements from Drift.

Recent Flint Finds in the 8.W. of England.
Twin Storms of January.

Glacial Action in Cornwall.

Roman Occupation of Cornwall.

Traces of a Great Post-glacial Flood in Cornwall.

The Cliff Boulders of Falmouth Bay, and the Drift
Beds on Plymouth Hoe.

Note on the Raised Beach at Pendennis.

He was elected a Secretary in 1859, and served the Institu_
tion in that capacity for twenty years ; and, after his resignation,
he was elected a Vice-President. Mr. Whitley was an Honorary
Member of the Geological Society of Cornwall, of the Edinburgh
Geological Society, and a Fellow of the Royal Meteorological
Society, contributing papers to their Transactions.

In 18438 he published a work on the Application of Geology
to Agriculture, and in 1850 his paper on the Climate of the
British Islands and its effects on Cultivation, won the prize of
£50 offered by the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Of

208 OBITUARY NOTICES.

this paper Professor Pusey remarked in a note appended to it:
‘‘This paper appears to me one of the most valuable contribu-
tions yet made by science to practical agriculture.”

The pages of the Bath and West of England Agricultural
Journal contain several papers from his pen, amongst them, is one
‘‘On the Temperature of the Sea and its Influence on the Climate
and the Agriculture of the British Islands,” and another on
the ‘‘ Development of the Agricultural Resources of Cornwall.”

In his later years Mr. Whitley turned his attention to the
Antiquity of Man and the Paleolithic Age, and wrote several
papers on this subject, in which he criticised modern views with
much independence of thought and vigour of language.

He died suddenly at his residence, Penarth, Truro, on his
eighty-first birthday, March 10th, 1891.

By the unexpected and lamented death of Mr. Henry
Martyn Jerrery, M.A., F.R.S., abstract mathematical science
has lost one of its ablest exponents, whose long devotion to the
special study of the higher branches of pure mathematics has
been fully appreciated and honoured by his fellow mathema-
ticians. The loss to local science will, I am convinced, be
specially felt by the members of the Royal Institution of
Cornwall, who will naturally regret the death of an esteemed
Vice-President, whose regular attendance at our annual meetings
could generally be relied upon; for in all Mr. Jeffery’s intimate
relations with the affairs of the Institution, he was ever ready to
devote his time, attention, and abilities to its service. He will
be sadly missed by us all, especially by those who were attached
to him by private friendship.

Mr. Jeffery was the only son of Mr. John Jeffery, of
Gwennap. He was born on January 5th, 1826, at the house of
his grandfather, the Rev. W. Curgenven, rector of Lamorran,
who married the sister of the distinguished mathematician,
orientalist, and missionary, the Rev Henry Martyn, B.D., of
Truro, the senior wrangler at Cambridge, in 1801. He was also
related to the family of the Rev. Malachy Hitchins, Vicar of
St. Hilary, who for more than forty years was the able coadjutor
with Dr. Nevil Maskelyne, Astronomer Royal, in the compilation

OBITUARY NOTICES. 209

of the ‘‘ Nautical Almanac,’”’ and one of the observers of the
transit of Venus in 1769 at the Royal Observatory. Mr. Jeffery
always referred with enthusiastic respect to these well-known
mathematical members of his family.

The early years of Mr. Jeffery were, for the most part,
passed at his father’s home at Gwennap. At the age of seven
he was sent to the Falmouth grammar school, where he remained
as a pupil during the following seven years. On leaving this
school at the age of fourteen, young Jeffery exhibited signs of
considerable mathematical and classical ability ; so much so, that
he considered himself qualified to offer himself as a tutor in
elementary mathematics and classics. There is no doubt that he
was, at this time, a most intelligent youth of more than usual
precocity. By the advice of some friends, it was, however,
resolved to continue his education, and he was sent in 1841 to
the Grammar School at Sedbergh, Yorkshire, then under the
control of the Rev. J. H. Evans, a Fellow of St. John’s College,
Cambridge; here he remained till 1845. In October of that
year he became an undergraduate at St. John’s College,
Cambridge ; but he migrated in the following year to St.
Catherine’s College. In 1849, he graduated as B.A. in the high
position of sixth wrangler in the mathematical tripos, and in the
second class of the classical tripos. His private tutor, the late
Dr. Harvey Goodwin, Bishop of Carlisle, thought highly of his
mathematical ability. He remarked that Jeffery was one of the
hardest headed mathematicians with whom he had any dealings
in Cambridge, and it has been recently stated to the writer by
one who is acquainted with his university career, that his position
in the tripos, high as it was, scarcely represented his great
original mathematical attainments. In 1852, he proceeded to the
degree of M.A., and in the same year was adjudged the dis-
tinction of first Tyrwhitt Hebrew scholar, which ‘he gained
mainly by his skill in composition, to which his previous classical
training (entirely abandoned after his first year of residence)
had adapted him.”

Soon atter taking his degree, Mr. Jeffery accepted in 1850
the post of lecturer at the College of Civil Engineers, Putney,
of which the present Dean of Exeter, Dr. B. M. Cowie, was the
Principal. In October, 1851, he received the appointment of

210 OBITUARY NOTICES.

second master in Salisbury House School, Edinburgh, under Dr.
EK. R. Humphreys. Here he remained only a few months, in
order that he might have sufficient leisure to prepare for the
Tyrwhitt Scholarship examination. Dr. Humphreys, who in
1852 became Head Master of Pate’s Grammar School at
Cheltenham, was so favourably impressed by the scholarly ability
of Mr. Jeffery, that, on his recommendation, his former colleague
was selected by the President and Fellows of Corpus Christi
College, Oxford, to be the second master in the school. Sixteen
years afterwards, on the resignation of the Rev. Dr. Hayman in
1868, Mr. Jeffery was appointed to succeed to the vacant Head
Mastership, a position he retained with success until his retire-
ment on a pension in 1882. On leaving Cheltenham he took up
his residence at Falmouth, so that he might be able to have the
personal management of a considerable freehold property in that
town and neighbourhood, which he had inherited from his father.
Many of his pupils educated at Cheltenham, have expressed
their indebtedness to his careful teaching for their after success
in life, some of them having obtained high distinction at the
Universities, and in various competitive examinations for
admissions into the public service.

It is, however, as a pure mathematician that Mr. Jeffery’s
name will be remembered in English science. At the meeting
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, held
at Cheltenham in 1856, Mr. Jeffery acted as one of the local
secretaries, and it has been truly said that the public discussions
on this occasion first developed his latent energies, and created
in his mind a strong inclination to enter into original mathema-
tical research. At this meeting he contributed two important
papers ‘‘On a Theorem in Combinations,” and ‘‘On a Particular
Class of Congruences.” With these papers he commenced the
long and continuous series of investigations in pure mathematics,
which have enriched the pages of the principal mathematical
journals from that year to the present time. His most important
memoirs have been on pure analysis and analytical geometry,
especially the classification of class-cubics, both in plane and
spherical geometry. A similar classification for class-quartics
have also occupied his attention. The following titles of a few
of his researches will give some idea of the general character of

OBITUARY NOTICES. 211

the abstruse investigations in which he took so much interest :—
‘‘The Spherical Ellipse referred to Trilinear Co-ordinates ;”
‘‘Cubics of the Third Class with Triple Foci, both Plane and
Spherical ;” ‘‘Spherical Class Cubics with Double Foci and
Double Cyclic Arcs;” ‘‘On Sphero-Cyclides;” ‘On the
Generalised Problem of Contacts;’”? ‘‘On the Converse of
Stereographic Projection, and on Contangential and Coaxal
Spherical Circles;’? and ‘‘On the Genesis of Binodal Quartic
Curves from Conics.” To the investigation of class-cubics, both
plane and spherical, Mr. Jeffery devoted his intervals of leisure
for four years (1876-1880), and published the instalments, as
they were completed, in the ‘‘Quarterly Journal of Mathematies.”
Mr. Jeffery had a strong desire to prepare a text-book on his
favourite subjects, and he had made some progress in the work ;
but alas! the copy is far too incomplete to be of use, excepting
as a record of the studious activity of his life to the end, and
of his great mathematical talents. As a proof that his mental
powers were as active as ever, I have been informed that only a
few weeks before his illness, he forwarded to the London
Mathematical Society an important paper on the classification of
binodal quartics, which was read at the monthly meeting of that
Society, on November 12th, nine days after his death. This
communication closes the long line of Mr. Jeffery’s papers, most
of which have appeared in the ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Pure and
Applied Mathematics,” the ‘‘ Proceedings of the London Math-
ematical Society,” the ‘‘ Reports of the British Association,”
the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,” and other Scientific
Journals.

In addition to the non-mathematical writings of Mr. Jeffery
contained in the ‘‘Journal”’ of the Royal Institution of Cornwall,
he contributed to three classical works of Dr. Humphreys;
(1) sixty short introductory exercises to ‘‘ Exercitationes
Iambice, or progressive exercises in Greek Iambic verse; and
(2) Appendixes to ‘‘ Lyra Hellenica, or translations in Greek,”’
and ‘‘ Manual of Greek and Latin prose composition.” At the
Social Science Congress held at Cheltenham in 1878, Mr. Jeffery
read a paper ‘‘On the best means of connecting Primary and
Intermediate Education ;” and in 1890 he privately printed
‘‘ Extracts from the Religious Diary of Miss Lydia Grenfell,” in

212 OBITUARY NOTICES.

which he has extracted all the references in the diary relating to
the Rev. Henry Martyn, and also those giving indications of
Miss Grenfell’s life and conversation. A verbatim copy of the
complete diary was presented by Mr. Jeffery to the Library of
the Royal Institution of Cornwall.

Since Mr. Jeffery has been residing at Falmouth, he has
taken a great interest in the management of the Royal Institu-
tion of Cornwall, and of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic
Society, in both of which he has served as an honoured Vice-
President. He was also a valued contributor to their Journals.
It is somewhat remarkable that so abstruse a mathematician
should take so much interest in archeological and topographical
history, but we have only to refer to his printed contributions in
the Journal of the Institution to prove that his mathematical
mind could be brought advantageously to bear on the elucidation
of local history, as well as on abstract science. Mr. Jeffery was
one of the Secretaries of the Meteorological Committee of the
Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, and of the Falmouth
Observatory, in the success of which he has taken a great
interest since its erection in its present position. He was always
ready to give most valuable assistance to the superintendent in
the initial difficulties of the magnetograph work, a department
of the Observatory to which he paid a constant personal attention.
Mr. Jeffery also took a considerable interest in the management
of the Falmouth Grammar School.

Mr. Jeffery was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on
June 3rd, 1880. He was also a member of the British Associa-
tion, and of the London Mathematical Society. It was a great
delight to him to spend a few weeks in London each year, and
he usually chose the months of May or June, so that he might
enjoy the pleasure of meeting with his scientific friends at one
of the two annual soirées of the Royal Society.

During the last three or four years, Mr. Jeffery has occasion-
ally complained to me, as his intimate private friend, of being
subject to much uneasiness, caused by some internal complica-
tion, from the effects of which he was frequently troubled with
insomnia. But still he remained active and apparently well to
the last, often walking from Falmouth to Truro, and even greater

OBITUARY NOTICES. 213

distances, without much fatigue. When I was his guest in June
last, he appeared to be in a better state of health than usual, but
a few weeks before his death his complaint became much
exaggerated, necessitating one or more surgical operations. He
thoroughly broke down on October 20, when he had to take to
his bed, and after much suffering he sank gradually. On the
day preceding his death he became unconscious, and in this con-
dition passed away peaceably at 9.30 a.m., on Tuesday, Nov.
3rd, 1891, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. Three days after-
wards, his remains were interred in the family vault, with his
father and mother, at Gwennap.

It is very gratifying to the friends of Mr. Jeffery that his
well-known features will be preserved to us in a fine enlarged
photograph, which has been kindly presented to the Institution
by his aunt, Miss Curgenven, of Falmouth. This portrait, by
Maull and Co., of London, is a beautiful work of art, and will
be an interesting addition to the valuable collection of portraits
of the Presidents and other officers and friends of the Institution,
which now adorn the walls of the hbrary and museum. Miss
Curgenveu has also presented to the library of the Institution
an important series of scientific works, formerly belonging to
Mr. Jeffery, including a number of volumes of the ‘‘ Philosoph-
ical Transactions’’ and ‘“‘ Proceedings”’ of the Royal Society,
‘‘Reports of the British Association,” ‘‘ Proceedings of the
London Mathematical Society,” the ‘Collected Mathematical
Papers of Professor Cayley,” and many other valuable works,
a list of which will be given in a future number of the Journal.
Such an important collection of standard works cannot fail to
add greatly to the scientific value and general usefulness of the
library of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, and this handsome
present from Miss Curgenven will doubtless be highly appreciated
by the members.

Epwin Dunxtn, F.R.S.

214

NOTES AND QUERIES.
—_——_@_-—__—__

The Editor will be glad to receive short Notes on Discoveries, and
occurrences of anterest, relating to the Antiquities, Geology, and
Natural History, &¢., of the County, for insertion in this portion of
the Journal.

Cornish Crosses.

From time to time some of these monuments disappear, and
the task of tracing them is very often a difficult one. It is also
equally difficult at times, to find out from whence a cross came,
which one sees displayed in a private garden. Having been
unable to ascertain particulars about some of them, I should be
grateful to the readers of this Journal if they could give me
any information respecting the crosses given below.

Is it known what has become of the following crosses ?

Camborne. Formerly on the top of a wall at Treslothan.
It has the figure on the front and a cross on the back.

Cardinham. Blight, p. 84. ‘A cross about 6-ft. long,
forms part of the bridge over a small stream between the well
and the present church.”

Cury. I was once shewn a sketch of a short round headed
cross set in a circular base and was told, ‘“‘it was three miles
from Cury.”

Laneast. Formerly in the churchyard, but removed within
the last few years.

S. Keverne. Blight, p. 58. ‘A mutilated cross at S.
Keverne church town, &c.”

S. Columb. Blight, p. 66. ‘‘A cross by the road side
between Higher and Lower St. Columb.” Would this road be
Treskey’s Hill? The stone is also mentioned in the Parochial
History of Cornwall.

S. Cleer. Blight, p. 67. ‘A cross between Redgate and
S. Cleer (see Report of Roy. Inst. Cornwall, 1851).” Blight
illustrates the Longstone near the Hurlers, so these cannot be
the same crosses, though they are similar in type.

NOTES AND QUERIES. 215

Southill. Blight, p. 66. ‘‘In the grounds of the Rectory,
Southill, (a cross) similar to that at Higher Drift. This stone is
illustrated by Kingston.

Broadoak. Britton mentions a cross at ‘‘Broadoak or
Bradock, near the Church called Killboy Cross.” It is illustrated
in Gentlemens’ Magazine, 1805, and Catholic Miscellany, 1827.

Lanivet. A note and illustration in the last named Journals
says, ‘‘ Called Re Perry cross, stands by the road side between
Lanhydrock and Lanhivet, (sic) height 3-ft. 11-in.

Is it known where these crosses came from ?

S. Day. Two crosses in the grounds at Tregullow. Also
one at Scorrier, which has the figure upon it.

Mawgan in Meneage. A round headed cross over a gateway
at Trelowarren.

A. G. LANGDON,
Craven Street, London, E.C.

St. Rumon’s Cross.

Not far from the ancient site of St. Grade church, is the
old-fashioned village of St. Rumon. Here, early in the sixth
century, dwelt St. Rumon, one of the many Irish Saints who
came into Cornwall, having a cell for his habitation, and a
chapel for his devotions.

Of the hermitage and the oratory, no remains can now be
traced, but the site of the latter can be identified. There is on
St. Rumon estate, a field still called Chapel Field. Through it
the old church path from Kuggar to St. Grade church formerly
passed; and in the south-western corner close to a little tricking
stream, the chapel of St. Rumon undoubtedly stood. Not
marking the site of the chapel—yet in the same field, is the
ancient Cross of St. Rumon—a rude pillar of serpentine, on
which a simple cross is still faintly visible. Its southern
face is 2-ft. 10-in. high; the shaft is 10-in. wide at the base,
and 11}-in. at its junction with the disk, the latter being
1-ft. 4-in. in diameter. The cross is evidently of the Latin type,
the limbs being raised from the surface and extending in each

216 NOTES AND QUERIES.

direction about 4-inches. Its outline has been so much altered
by exposure to the atmosphere, as to be barely discernable,
but its situation, coupled with the tradition of the villagers and
the statement of an old man who remembered that it was known
as St. Rumon’s Cross more than sixty years ago, gives it an im-
portance that it would not otherwise claim. Search was made
for its base quite recently, but without success.

Dedication of Cury Church.

No record which refers to the dedication of the parish
church of Cury has been found. It is true that the Parochial
History of Cornwall, Lakes guide to Helston and the Inzard
District, and the Churches of Cury and Gunwalloe, alike men-
tion as a fact that Walter Bronescombe, Bishop of Exeter,
dedicated the church to St. Corantyn, on Sept. Ist, 1261. But
this is obviously a mistake, for on referring to Bronescombe’s
Episcopal Register, edited by Prebendary Hingeston-Randolph,
it will be seen that the Devonshire church of Coryton was dedi-
cated on that date. Moreover on the following day, Sept. 2nd,
1261, the Bishop dedicated the church of Bradestone, which
would have been impossible, had he been as far west as Oury
on the previous day. The mistake must be attributed to the
late Dr. Oliver, who was not unfrequently inexact in his reading
of the contracted engrossing hand in which the earlier Episco-
pal Registers are written.

The Wendron ‘Nine Maidens.”

The Schedule of Prehistoric Monuments, prepared in 1879 for
the Society of Antiquaries, is not quite accurate, in reference
to the Wendron Circles. The Plan drawn to scale, shews
five stones standing erect, and a displaced stone at the edge,
whereas there are six erect stones still 7 sctu. ‘The monolith
not included in the plan, is partially enclosed within a hedge. It
is 8-ft. 6-in. east of the displaced stone, and 20-ft. north-west of
the upright stone nearest the hedge as shewn in the plan. Like
the other stones, it is a single block of unhewn granite; it

NOTES AND QUERIES. Olen

measures 4.ft. 4-in. in height, and 11-in. in width at the top.
The enclosure, in which the Circle now stands, formed a part of
the well-known Nine Maiden Downs till about the year 1865,
when the hedge which now partially hides from view the stone
which has escaped the notice of Mr. Lukis, was erected. Hals
speaks of nine stones as ‘‘still to be seen” in his time; Dr.
Borlase mentions eight stones as ‘‘ still standing,” cerca 1760;
and the Rev. C. Lukis tells us that in 1879 there were ‘five
standing stones and a displaced stone,” 7.¢. six altogether. It
will be interesting, however, to know that only one stone has
actually disappeared ; the remaining eight being “ still extant.”
J. WILLS.

Mr. Haverfield, of Oxford University, who during a visit
to the Museum last summer was much struck with the inscription
on the Pozo Stone being in full marked figures, writes me saying
that he ‘‘saw lately in the Rotunda in Vienna, some rock mark-
ings brought by Dr. Holub-from Central Africa, which were
similarly inscribed. The whole surface of each animal or figure
being picked out with small chippings; the places are so far
apart that there is probably no connexion, but the coincidence
of method is very curious.”

Last March, Mr. F. H. Davey, of Ponsanooth, sent to the
Museum a beautiful specimen of a Male Brambling, Fringilla
montifringilla, L. We have in Cornwall good reason to remem-
ber that month and its blizzard, and this little record bears on
the latter. This bird and others in hundreds, came round Mankey
Farm, Ponsanooth, with the commencement of the storm, they
swarmed in the farm buildings, tearing the straw abroad in
search after grain, and were so tame as to be knocked over with
sticks. As the snow disappeared, most of them went away, but
scores were content to stay a week or two longer.

Recently, when remounting in the Museum a mummy
Ibis—Jbis religiosa, Cuv.—given in 1870 by Mr. G. F. Remfry,
the head of a young Crocodile dropped from inside the bird. The

218 NOTES AND QUERIES.

specimen illustrates a time when the Ibis was held in the great-
est veneration, when a pyramid, Sakkara, was dedicated to it, and
when these birds were embalmed in the same spices as the
Egyptian kings; a period over two thousand years ago. The
incident is of interest, since it shews amidst the sacred regard
which enshrouded it, that the food of these birds was the same
as it still sometimes procures in the upper reaches of the Nile.

It is now very rarely seen in Egypt.
H. CROWTHER.

Roval AInstitution of Cornwall,

FOUNDED 1818.

Patron.
THE QUEEN.

Vice=Patron.
’-H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, DUKE OF CORNWALL, &c,

Trustees.

Lorp ROBARTES.

Sir C. B. GRAvES-SAWLE, Bart.
Mr. F. G. Enys.
Con. TREMAYNE.

COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1891-92.
President.
Sir Joun Macuean, F.S,A.

Vice=Presidents.

Dr. Jago, F.R.S. | Ven. ARCHDEACON CoRNISH, M.A. |
Rey.Canon Moor,M.A., M.R.A.S. | Rev. W. aco, B.A

Mr.\Epwin Dunkin, F.RB.S., F.B.AS.

Ureasurer.
Mr. A. P. NIX, Truro.

Secretaries.
Mr, H. MicHELL WHITLEY, F.G.S., Trevella, Hastbourne.

Mason PARKYN, F.G.S., Truro.

Other Members of Council,

Mr. Joun D. Enys, F.G.S. ) Mer.R.M. Paut, M.A.,
Mr. Howarp Fox, F.G.S. | Mr. THursran C, PETER.

Mr. HAMILTON JAMES. Mr. EpmMunp RuNDiLE, F.R.C.S.L1.
Rev. A. H. Manan, M.A. Rey. A. R. Tomurnson, M.A.
Mr. F. W. MicuHext, C.H. | Me. RoperT Tweepy.

Corresponding Secretary for East Cornwall,
Rev. W. Iago, B.A., Westheath, Bodnvin.

BLditor of the Fournal.
Mr, H, Micuert Wuirtey, F.G.S.

Librarian and Curator of Museum,
Mr. Henry CrowTHer, F.R.M\S., Royal Institution, Truro.

THE FOLLOWING WORKS ARE

PUBLISHED BY THE SO@IEV a

THEY MAY BE OBTAINED FROM THE CURATOR,
Mr. H. CROWTHER, AT THE MUSEUM.

HE CORNISH FAUNA: A Compendium of the Natural History of
the County.

PART I.—Containine the Vertebrate Animals and Crustaceans,
by JONATHAN COUCH, J. BROOKING ROWE, THOMAS
CORNISH, E. H. RODD, and C. SPENCE BATE, F.R.S.
Price 3s.

PART II. — Containing the Testaceous Mollusks, by
JONATHAN COUCH, F.L.S., &c. Price 3s.

PART III.—Containing the Zoophytes and Calcareous Corallines,
by RICHARD Q. COUCH, M.R.C.S., &c. Price 3s.

HE SERIES OF REPORTS of the Proceedings of the Society, with
numerous [llustrations. (Some only in print).

IST OF ANTIQUITIES in the West of Cornwall, with References and
Illustrations. By J. T. BLIGHT, F.S.A.

Meer TO BORLASE’S NATURAL HISTORY OF CORN-
WALL. From MS. Annotations by the Author. Price 2s. 6d.

OURNAL OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF CORNWALL
Nos.V to XX XVIII are on Sale, price 4s. each. No. XXXVI, price 7/6.

USEUM GUIDES.

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NOTICE TO MEMBERS.

All Subscriptions become due in advance on the Ist of August in each year.
Members whose Subscriptions are not paid before the 31st of December, will not
be supplied with the ‘‘ Journal’’ after that date.

Members wishing to withdraw, must pay their Subscriptions for the current
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OF THE

P

JOURNAL.
|
|

{opal Anstitution of {ornwall

VeOd UM EY XT .

Part tt —May, 1893.

————_—_+$+—>—_ —

TRURO:
PRINTED BY LAKE AND LAKE, PRINCES STREET
1893.

Contents.

. ee
Spring Meeting (1892)
President’s Address
Annual Meeting (1892)
Report of the Council ws ae SA Si
Balance Sheet ..
Meteorological Tables. .

Notes on Further Excavations on the Site of Lathagesiom
Priory, by Otho B. Peter

Historical Notes on the Parish, Manor, and Advowson of
Otterham, Cornwall, by Sir John Maclean, F.8.A.,
&c., President (illustrated )

Magnetic Rocks of Cornwall, with Sketch Map. by T.
Clark

Ogam Stone at Lewannick, ane jes A. G. fore

Ancient Settlement at Trewortha eee ie the Rey.
8. Baring-Gould as

Cornish Landowners, 1256, by the late Wm. Sincock

Pelagic Life in and near Falmouth Harbour, oe ee
Vallentin : ab

Origin and Development of apes in the West of
England, by J. H. Collins, ¥.G.8. es

The Diamond Prospecting Core Drill, by Stephen Rogers,

A Year’s Weather (1892), a series of monthly letters to the
Newspapers, by H. Crowther, F.R.M.S., Curator
of the Museum : a EN e ay

Obituary Notice

im
oy
a
i
»
&

a
\

JOURNAL

OF THE

Roval {ostiteion of {ornwall

VOLUME XI.

Wart tit—May, 1593.

————— —— —

TRURO:
PRINTED BY LAKE AND LAKE, PRINCES STREET.
1893-

The Council of the Royal Institution of Cornwall desire
that tt should be distinctly understood that the Institution as a
body is not responsible for any statements or opinions expressed in
the Journal ; the Authors of the several communications being alone
answerable for the same.

219

oval Fustitution of Cornwall.

SPRING MEETING.

eee!

The Spring Meeting was held on Tuesday, May 31st, at the
rooms of the Institution.

The chair was taken by the President, Sir John Maclean,
F.S.A., who delivered his address.

Archdeacon Cornish proposed a vote of thanks to the
President, and also moved a resolution ‘‘ That it is desirable, in
the opinion of this meeting, that a Record Society for Cornwall
be formed for the printing of historical documents relating to
the county, and that the Council of the Institution be desired to
consider what steps should be taken to establish and maintain
it.”

This was seconded by Mr. J. C. Daubuz, and carried.

A paper was then read on ‘Cornish landowners, temp.
Edward I,” by the late W. Sincock.

On the motion of Canon Donaldson, seconded by Mr. Michell,
a hearty vote of thanks was passed to the authors of papers, and
donors to the museum and library.

220

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT,
Srz JOHN MACLEAN, F-.S.A., F.R.S.A. (I7l.)
V.P. Royal Archeological Inst. Great Britain and Ireland, &c.

The subject I have selected upon which to address you this
afternoon as President, will not, I fear, afford scope for such
scientific and brilliant effusious as you have been accustomed to
hear delivered from this chair by my predecessors; nevertheless,
the subject, though modest in its character, is one of very great
importance. It is ‘‘The sources from which materials may be
drawn, and evidence obtained, for writing a New History of
Cornwall upon a wider and more accurate basis than that which
is afforded by what are now considered the standard histories of
the county.” This New History is a work greatly needed. My
address will be a sort of sequel to one I delivered, close upon
20 years ago, at Exeter, from the Presidential chair of the
‘‘ Historical Section of the Royal Archeological Institute.” But,
as D’Israeli once said, ‘‘ many things have happened since then,”
and in nothing, surely, have greater changes appeared than in
the opening out of archives, both public and private, for the
study of history both general and local.

The writer of history should approach the subject with an
open mind, repressing all temptation to prejudice. An author
who writes to support preconceived notions does not write history.
This was the case with Macauley. His style was beautiful, clear,
charming, and carried the reader along with him, but, unfortu-
nately, his works cannot be relied upon as history. Such, also,
was the case witn an eminent friend of my own, now alas!
departed. There is also one other caution I would venture to
mention. We should not, either in reading or writing, look at
circumstances, or the feelings and actions of persons in the
12th or 18th centuries through our spectacles of the 19th, but
endeavour to place ourselves in their positions as regards their
feelings, religions—prejudices, if you like, and degree of culture.
Unless we do this we can scarcely be impartial.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 221

A writer of history should quote, very specifically, his
authority for every statement of fact he makes, and verify every
quotation of others before he uses it. This will enable him to
avoid many pitfalls which a too careless following of others
might lead him into. Many, so-called, authorities which you
see cited in foot notes often fail to support the statement in the
text. If this be the case unhesitatingly reject the statement.
Writers of history, so-called, are very prone to follow each
other like a flock of geese. This is the way in which many
egregious historical errors are perpetuated.

We have adverted above to the great advantages which, of
late years, have been afforded to historical students. It must not,
however, be supposed that this lightens their labours. On the
contrary, it has greatly increased the responsibility of a con-
scientious writer. It gives him a wider field for research—
History is a coy damsel, and to be won must be wooed patiently
and persistently.

With your permission, I will now proceed to offer a few
observations as to the sources from which a student of the
history of Cornwall should seek accurate material for his
purpose, and I shall not lead you back to pre-historic times.
Much has been said for antiquities of those times by my friend
Mr. Iago. Domesday book is early enough for local modern
history. And in offering these remarks I must beg it to be
understood that I by no means put myself forward as a teacher.
There are many among you, I doubt not, better acquainted with
the subject than myself. I am but a humble student like your-
selves seeking after truth.

The sources of local history are innumerable, but for the
present purpose they may be roughly divided into two classes ;
Local and External.—By Local, of course, is meant documents,
both in print and in manuscript, existing in the county; and
by External similar documents to be found elsewhere.

As to the former class I should, of course, first mention the
County Histories, and what can we say of these except that they
are woefully deficient in exact historical knowledge, and that
steps should be immediately taken to prepare a history worthy

2292 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

of the county; and the first step should be the preparation of
a scheme, and the collection of materials for carrying it out.

For me to comment in detail upon the various Histories of
Cornwall would be presumptuous and unnecessary. It has been
done by a gentleman far better qualified than I am for the task.
The late Mr. Davies-Gilbert, in the preface to his ‘‘ Parochial
History of Cornwall,’ published in 1837 in 4 vols. 8vo, gives a
brief bibliographical description of each of the then existing
Histories of the County. I must, however, crave permission to
call attention to an incident in illustration of the admonition,
which I ventured to give above, as to the necessity for an author
before using extracts made by a preceding writer, however
illustrious he may have been, to verify them. I conclude that
all here are acquainted, more or less, with that quaint, interest-
ing and most charming work, Carew’s ‘‘Survey of Cornwall,”
and they will probably recollect that the author has printed
pp. 39-53 (Ed. 1769) from the well-known ‘‘ Red Book of the
Exchequer,’’ and other documents of the same character but of
later dates, the Returns of Knights’ Fees in Cornwall down to
the 8rd Henry [V. Many years ago, however, when engaged
in a work on Cornwall, I referred to these Returns in Carew’s
Survey; I found them unintelligible, and on collating my copy
of Carew of 1769 with the originals in the Record Office, I found
the printed book grossly inaccurate. The question then arose
as to the accuracy of the first edition of the Survey of 1602, and
upon examination I found that it agreed literally with that of
1769, and, moreover, that the last edition hy Lord DeDunstanvill,
1811, possessed the same faults. I do not presume to say from
what cause this accident occurred. We all know that Carew
was an accomplished scholar, and I can only suppose that he
entrusted someone to make the transcripts for him who was
unable to read the documents, for it is inconceivable that they are
undetected printer’s errors. But the still more remarkable fact is
that, in the various editions through which the work has passed
during close upon 800 years, the errors have been printed
literally as they stood in the Survey of 1602. We can only
conclude that Mr. Carew, being known to be a well qualified
author, subsequent writers trusted him and followed him into
the mire. This is a caution which all authors, if they regard
their own credit, would do well to observe,

PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS. 923

A new History of Cornwall by an anonymous author has
been published, since Mr. Davies-Gilbert wrote in 1887, entitled
‘The Complete Parochial History of the County of Cornwall.”
It is known as Lake’s History, from Mr. Lake, of Truro, the
publisher. It is stated on the title page to have been compiled
from the best authorities, and Lysons and other authors, with
all their errors, have been faithfully followed. No attempt has
been made, so far as appears, at independent research. Never-
theless it is a useful work, as the compiler has printed the
monumental inscriptions existing in the various churches, but,
like every other record, they, of course, require verification.

I must not forget to mention the excellent work done by
this Institution from the date of its foundation in 1818, as well
in Science as in Local History. It is equalled by few and
surpassed by none. Its Annual Reports for the first 40 years of
its labours, and its Journal since 1864, contain matter of the
highest value to historical students—but its usefulness is greatly
marred through the want of a good general index, which ought
to be supplied without delay. This, I think, is one of the first
works to be taken in hand.

Cornwall, fortunately for her, through the labours of two
of her gifted sons, Messrs. Boase and Courtney, possesses in
the ‘‘ Bibliotheca Cornubiensis”’ an admirable guide to all the
printed historical literature of the county, and by reference to
this valuable work, a fellow to which I believe is not to be
found in any other county, together with the ‘‘Collectanea
Cornubiensia”’ of Mr. G. C. Boase, will suffice I think for all
practical purposes, as far as printed books are concerned. I
will, therefore, turn to the consideration of some of the manu-
script materials to be found in the county.

First in importance among those manuscript records we
must place the Parish Registers of baptisms, weddings and
burials. These registers are of the highest value to all classes
of the community, especially to the middle and lower classes,
though the succession to many peerages have been proved by
them, yet have these records from the day of their institution in
1538 to almost our own time, been treated with the greatest
carelessness and neglect.

994 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

The first official order for the institution of Parish Registers
was in the injunctions of Thomas Lord Cromwell, dated 29th
Sept. 1538. This person had been appointed by the king in
July, 1535, his vice-gerent in all affairs ecclesiastical, and created
Baron Cromwell 9th July, 1536. He was further advanced to
the Earldom of Essex, 10th April, 1540, and attainted and
executed the same year. There must, however, have been some
rumour, suggestion, or intimation of what was intended in the
earlier part of Cromwell’s authority, for great apprehension and
discontent prevailed throughout the country from Yorkshire to
Devon and Cornwall, prior to the issue of the formal order.
This was manifested by the fact that the leaders of the northern
rebellion, called the ‘‘ Pilgrims of Grace,” in 15386 placed in the
forefront of their grievances that some new tax was intended in
addition to those by which they were already oppressed: ‘‘ that
infants should not receive the blessed sacrament of baptism
onlesse an trybitte be payd to the kyng.” Cromwell was too
cautious and prudent a man to increase the king’s difficulties by
an act which would strengthen the hands of the rebels,then
numbering 40,000 well-armed men in the field, which already
alarmed the stout heart of the king. Consequently the injunc-
tions issued in 1586 did not contain any order ‘on the subject
of the Parish Registers. That was shelved for the moment.

The excited condition of the people of Devon and Cornwall
is shewn by the following holograph letter of Sir Piers
Eggecombe addressed to Cromwell, to whom Sir Piers says it was
specially sent by his own trusty servant: Sir Piers was sheriff
of Cornwall in 1535.

‘*Plesse it your goode Lordeshyp to be advertyssd that the
kynggs majesty hath commandyd me, at my beynge in hys
gracius presens, that in casse I parceyvyd any grugge, or mys-
contentacyon a mooge hys sojectes, I shulde ther off advertysse
your Lordeshyp by my wrytynge. Hyt ys now comme to my
knolegge, this 20 daye of Apryll, by a ryght trew honest man,
a servant off myn; that ther ys muche secrett, and severall
communycacyous amongges the kynge’s sujettes; and that off
them, in sundry places with in the scheres off Cornwall and
Devonsher, be in great feer and mystrust, what the kyngges

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 225

hyghnes and hys conseyll schulde meane, to geve in commaunde-
ment to the parsons and vycars off every parisse, that they
schulde make a booke and surely to be kept, and wher in to be
specyffyyd the namys of as many as bee weddyd, and the namys
of them that be buryyd, and of all those that be crystynyd.
Now ye maye perceyve the myndes of many, what ys to be don
to avoyde ther uncerteyn conjecturys, and to contynue and
stablysse ther hartes in trew naturell loff, accordynge ther dewties,
I referre to your wyssdom. Ther mystrust ys, that somme
charges, more than hath byn in tymys past, schall growe to
theym by this occasyon of regestrynge off thes thyngges; wher
in yff hyt schall please the Kyngg’s Majeste to put them yowte
off dowte in my poar mynde schall encresse moche harty loff.
And I besseche our Lord preserve you ever, to hys pleasser, 20th,
day of Apryll. Scrybelyd in hast.”

‘‘To my Lorde Privy Sealeys Lordesshyp, be this gevyn.”

(Signed) P. EGGEHCOMB.

(Cromwell’s Correspondence in Chapter House, Bundle KE).

The letter wholly in Sir Pier’s handwriting.

Irrespective of this open expression of discontent, a passive
resistance was offered to the acceptance of Cromwell’s injunction.
The order was only very partially obeyed, and it had to be
repeated from time to time for many years; ¢.g., in 1547, in 1557,
and again in 1559, in more stringent terms. Probably this last
was more effective, for we find that a great many registers
commence about the date of the accession of Queen Elizabeth.
In Cornwall the registers of one parish commence as early as
1516. This was St. Michael Penkivell, and it may be accounted
for by supposing that the great family of Carminow, which
then dominated the parish, possessed some notes of baptisms,
marriages, or burials, which, when the new registers were
introduced, were transferred to them. Twelve other registers in
the County commence between 1538 and 1541; 82 others begin
between 1542 and 1560, of which 16 were introduced in the first
three years of Elizabeth’s reign. Of the remaining forty years
of her reign an addition of 33 more was made; but it must be
borne in mind that we are dealing with the existing registers
only. Some of them probably are imperfect. There may have

226 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

been an earlier volume in some of the sets which may have been
lost, but it is unlikely that many have been lost earlier than the
time of Queen Elizabeth.

Nothing further of any consequence took place with reference
to parish registers until 1597. On the 25th Oct. in that year
the clergy in convocation made a new ordinance respecting the
registers, which was formally approved by the Queen under the
great Seal. This was afterwards embodied in the 70th canon of
1603, which canon has not been repealed, and is still in force.
This ordinance directed that every minister at his institution
should subscribe this declaration :—‘‘ I shall keep the register
books according to the Queen’s Majesty’s injunctions ;” and
further it was ordained that every parish should provide itself
with a parchment book, in which the entries from the old Paper
Books should be fairly and legibly transcribed, each page being
authenticated by the signatures of the minister and church-
wardens. Moreover, very particular directions were given for the
safe custody of the Register Books, and for further security
against loss it was ordered that a transcript should be made of all
the entries in each year, and be transmitted to the Bishop within
a month after Haster, to be preserved in the Episcopal Archives ;
and for still further security the Canon provided that if the minister
or the churchwardens shall be negligent in the performance of
any thing herein, it shall be lawful for the Bishop, or his
chancellor, to convent them as contemners of this constitution.
Alas! where are transcripts now. Whether this Canon may be
binding or otherwise on the laity, I say not, but that it is binding
on the bishops and clergy is unquestionable. These transcripts,
if carefully preserved, would be of inestimable value. They
have proved so in many instances. ‘They have prevented the
most glaring attempts at fraud, and have turned the scale in
many peerage cases. May I be permitted to mention two or
three examples? In the claim of Charlotte Gertrude M’Carthy,
in 1825, to the Stafford Peerage, an attempt at fraud was
suspected, the Bishop’s transcripts were called for, and a forgery

n the original discovered. In the Angell case, where an agri-
cultural labourer established a claim to property valued at a
million sterling, the Attorney General obtained a rule nisi for a
new trial on the ground that the registers produced in court had

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. DT

been tampered with, as was proved to be the case by comparing
them with the transcripts. The original entry of the burial of
“Margaret Ange”’ had been altered to ‘‘ Marriott Angell.” In
the Leigh Peerage case, the agent opposing the claim had
searched the original registers at Wigan for a certain baptism,
without success, there being a general chasm at the period, 1658.
When the House of Lords had nearly concluded the hearing,
the agent wrote to the Bishop’s Registrar at Chester. The letter
arrived at a little after eight o’clock in the evening of the 4th
June, 1829. The search was made, the baptism found and
communicated, and the case concluded against the claimant.

The regulation made in 1597 and 1603, was as far as human
foresight could devise, all that was needed for the safety of these
invaluable records, and to supply, as far as practicable, a substi-
tute for the original registers in the event of their loss by fire or
any other unavoidable accident. But what was the result of
this excellent ordinance? Did the ministers and churchwardens
contemn the Canon? I think not. In answer to my own
question, I must ask your permission to say a few words based
on my own experience of this deplorable matter. Some 25 years
ago I was desirous of completing, as far as practicable, my
extracts from Cornish Parish Registers, and went to Exeter for
that purpose. I found then, from Mr. Burch, the Deputy
Registrar, and the gentlemen serving under him, the greatest
courtesy and assistance, for which I shall always feel most
grateful, but the result of my visit will be best shewn by an
extract from my note book made on the spot on 12th Sept., 1868.

‘These transcripts extend from the year 1597, but I found
them in the worst possible condition. The greater portion prior
to the year 1700 are completely lost. They were, apparently,
returned in Deaneries and filed on common cord, by which they
were suspended on pegs. The cords became rotten in the damp
tower in which they were placed, and the transcripts fell down
on the floor and got mixed together; many, as stated above,
were entirely lost, and of those that remain many are so rotten
that the writing is illegible, and they will scarcely bear a touch.
Of a large number the head is rotted off so that the name of the
parish and date are gone, and the only means of identifying the

228 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

parish to which they belong is by ascertaining of what parish
the subscribing clergyman was incumbent; and moreover they
are all mixed together for all parishes in the diocese. They
appeared to me to have fallen down promiscuously on the stone
floor, and had lain there for a considerable time, and been
walked over by persons whose business took them into the room,
until some one, of 4 somewhat greater spirit of tidyness than his
predecessors, gathered up and tied them in crumpled bundles,
like bundles of hay. I spent several days in smoothing them
out and tying them up in bundles in some measure flattened, but
not having a press I was not very successful. JI did not make
any attempt at a classification, except that during the last few
days I endeavoured to separate them under the two counties of
of Devon and Cornwall.”

I am very sorry to add that this is not an isolated case.
The transcripts in the other Episcopal Registries in the West of
England, e¢.g., Hereford, Worcestor, and Gloucester, are com-
paratively few. Bristol has escaped the shame, because all her
Episcopal Archives were burnt, together with the Bishop’s
Palace, in the riots in 1832. What has been the cause of this
neglect of the Registers? Did the ministers and churchwardens
contemn the Canon. I do not think so, for I have noticed in the
churchwarden’s accounts from time to time, trifling charges for
writing the transcripts. JI am afraid we must come to the
conclusion that the blame must rest upon the carelessness and
neglect of the Bishops and their chief officers.

I afterwards discovered that a great many of the transcripts
relating to the Cornish parishes exist in the Archdeaconry Court
at Bodmin, which, in some measure accounts, for the paucity of
the returns in the Bishop’s registry, where, under the Act of
Parliament, they ought all to have been deposited. They had
probably been delivered in at the Archdeacon’s Visitation, and
had not reached any further. These also, I am sorry to say, are
in a very bad condition, though they have not been treated with
such gross neglect as have those in the Episcopal registry. As
regards the records in the Archdeaconry Court, I would refer to
the excellent description of them by the Rev. W. Iago, printed
in the Truro Diocesan Kalendar for 1882, p. 69. From this
description all necessary information may be readily obtained.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 229

I would next refer to the Parish Accounts, both of the
churchwardens and the overseers of the poor, and likewise to
the Vestry Books. The accounts here mentioned have been
treated even worse than the parish registers, for, in many
instances, they have been regarded simply as waste paper.
Where they exist, however, of early date, they contain much
valuable and interesting information upon parochial polity, and
are illustrative of the social condition, manners and customs of
our forefathers in not very distant times.

Then as concerning Wills. You are aware that consider-
able alterations have been made, as in many other things, with
regard to the Probate of Wills within the last 60 years. All
jurisdiction respecting wills before that time was vested in the
church, and in addition to the Provincial Court of Canterbury
and the Diocesan Court of Exeter (I shall confine my remarks
to Cornwall), there were divers other local jurisdictions in this
matter. In Cornwall there were 206 Old Parishes which fell
into the following jurisdictions respectively, viz: 1763 belonging
to the Archdeacon, 264 (Padstow was the divided parish. The
urban. portion of the parish belonged to the Archdeacon, and the
rural to the Bishop) Peculiars vested in the personal jurisdiction
of the Bishop and in certain Deans and Chapters, and three
parishes in the Deanery of St. Burian, viz: St. Burian, St. Levan,
and Sennan, which were under the jurisdiction of the Dean of
that collegiate church which had existed from a period prior to
the conquest, and that jurisdiction, as regards the proof of wills,
continued until quite recently. The Wills proved in this
Deanery are now deposited with the Archdeaconry Wills at
Bodmin. It should be observed, however, that in all cases in
which the testator bequeaths money or goods of the value of £5
or over in another diocese, the Will must be proved in the court
of the Province, and that during the Bishop’s Visitation the
Wills of all persons dying within the Archdeacon’s jurisdiction
must be proved in the Diocesan Court; and the Wills of all
beneficed clergymen, not having bona notabilia, must be proved
in the same court. The Rev. John Wallis, Vicar of Bodmin,
whose father was registrar of the Archdeacon’s Court, writing
in 1838, states that there were then 70,000 Wills carefully
preserved in the Registry.

230 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Among the records of the Archdeaconry Coutt there exists
documents reaching down, I think, to the present century, shew-
ing that the church still exercised discipline for the correction of
morals by public penance and absolution.

Before I leave spiritual questions, there is one other matter
of a spiritual nature about which I must not omit to say a few
words. I allude to the collation and institution of Clerks to
benefices. When I commenced the study of local history in this
county, some 30 years ago, the succession of the Incumbents of
Parishes was one of the first matters that attracted my attention.
I found there were few advowsons of Parish Churches that were
held in what is called i gross, that is independent of the manors
in which they were situated, but that, generally, the advowson
was appurtenant to the manor, so that the lord of the manor
possessed also the patronage, and presented to the church. This
gave mea Clue to the devolution of the manor also. But the
task of obtaining information upon this subject at that time was
a work of great drudgery. The Bishop’s Registers, in which
admissions to benefices were recorded, consist of many great
Leger Books, of considerable weight, extending from 1257 down
to the time of Henry viij. Besides the institutions, &c., of Clerks,
there are many other things recorded in these volumes, ¢.g.,
many original charters, some of them pre-Norman, copies of Bulls,
Inquisitions, Interdictions, Sequestrations, Licenses for Chapels
or Oratories in manor houses, Marriage Licenses, Dispensations
of various kinds, &c., &c., and not a few ancient Wills. But after
the time of Henry viij these registers were limited to admissions
to benefices. The drudgery of wading through these enormous
volumes, page by page, some parts written in a small cursive
hand, much and variously contracted, some badly indexed and
some not indexed at all, may be conceived. A flood of light,
however, within a few years past, has been thrown upon this
apparent chaos by my learned and esteemed friend the Rev.
Prebendary Hingeston-Randolph. He has commenced the
gigantic task of making an analytical index to each of these
stupendous volumes, and has completed the registers of Bishop
Bronescombe, from 1257, and Bishops Britton, Quivil, and
Stapledon, and also of Bishop Stafford, so that all the information
contained in those bulky volumes is ready at the student’s hand,

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 231

without lifting a cover. All students owe a debt of gratitude to
Mr. Randolph greater than I can express. No such work has
been undertaken, so far as I know, or is likely to be undertaken
in any other diocese in the kingdom.

In 1558, another series of registers was established called
‘Act Books,” containing a variety of information excluded from
the registers proper. They contain licenses to marry, to practice
medicine and surgery, to keep school, and a variety of other
matter of more or less interest.

There are also deposited in this office Perambulations, and
Terriers of ecclesiastical lands, and Inventories of church goods,
&c. Among the archives of some of the ancient Cornish boroughs
may be found many medizeval documents of considerable interest
and historic value.

There is another class of records, of vast importance as regards
the devolution of lands and manors, and the descent of families,
which I have omitted to notice. I allude to Charters, Deeds,
Manor rolls, and other classes of records connected with matters
territorial: I do not know what repositories there may be of
such archives in the county of Cornwall, nor do I know if any
agent of the Historical Commission has visited and reported
upon private collections in the county. But I chance to know
that there is a large and very valuable collection of ancient
Charters at Tregothnan, and doubtless in other similar houses in
the county, to which a gentleman writing a history of the county
on a large scale it is hoped would not be refused access, for in
such houses much valuable material, unknown to the owners,
might be found by an expert. Manor rolls, also, are most
invaluable as aids to a local knowledge of the social and econ-
omical condition of the rural population in medieval times.
They throw great light on the tenure of land, the customs of
manors, which were very various, the systems of agriculture
practised, and the gradual abolition of servile tenures. By the
enfranchisement of copy-holds, manors are rapidly becoming
extinguished, for without copy-holders to form the ‘‘ homage”
the memorial system cannot be carried out.

The great and valuable works of the late Dr. Oliver are
doubtless familiar to most persons here, but perhaps some may

232 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

not be so well acquainted with his letters under the pseudonyms
of ‘‘ Curiosis”’ and ‘‘ Historicus,”’ addressed, from time to time,
some years ago, to the ‘‘ Exeter Flying Post,” some of which
were afterwards collected and published in three thin 8vo
volumes under the title of ‘‘ Weclesiastical Antiquities of Devon,
and some Memoranda of the History of Cornwall.” There is,
however, not much in these volumes relating to Cornwall, and
the work has become very scarce. Dr. Oliver’s papers after his
his death passed to Colonel Harding, then of Exeter, afterwards
of Upcott near Barnstaple, who, jointly with Mr. Gould, of the
Probate Court at Exeter, issued a prospectus for publishing a
new and enlarged edition of the Antiquities of Devon in two
vols. 8vo. This new work was commenced, and 208 pages were
worked off, when the issue ceased, for what reason I have not
heard satisfactorily explained.

Colonel Harding, on his death at Upcott in 1886, aged 93,
bequeathed the whole of this valuable collection and a vast
number of MS. drawings, and other documents, &c., of great
interest and value, many of them collected by himself with a
view to a new ‘‘ History of Cornwall and its Churches,” which,
at one time, he contemplated, to the ‘‘ North Devon Atheneum
and- Barnstaple Free Library.”” It is only natural to expect
that these newspaper letters would fall into many hands, and
would be preserved by gentlemen of antiquarian tastes. The
late Mr. Robert Dymond, of Exeter, had a good many, which are
now in the possession of his family. Mr. James Dallas, (one of
the Editors of that useful little monthly periodical, published
by Pollard, of Exeter, called ‘‘ Notes and Gleanings,”’) has many,
which are being printed from time to time in that publication.
Doubtless, not only the Harding-Oliver collection, but other
dispersed slips would be accessible to any antiquary engaged in
compiling a new History of Cornwall.

In conclusion, I must say a few words with respect to the
great Repository of Historical evidence, The Record Office, in
Fetter Lane (London). It is too vast, and its contents too
manifold, to admit of my attempting any description of them.
I could scarcely touch the fringe of the subject. Here is collected
the chief of the treasures which England possesses as the

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 238

vouchers of her great history—A collection which, notwithstand-
ing our culpable losses, no nation in Europe can equal. For the
purposes of local history, genealogy, &c., important evidence
may be found in every class of its documents. But, as regards
devolution of manors and lands, and the descent of families, I
may mention as the most generally useful the ‘‘ Plea Rolls of
the various courts; The Testa de Nevil; Kirby’s Quest; The
Returns of Aids and Subsidies; The Inquisitions post Mortem ;
the Patent, Close and Fine Rolls; The Feet of Fines, Proceedings
in Chancery, &c. But I may observe there is no royal road.
One document leads to another, and as a student gains experience
the more will he become interested in his work, and the greater
the pleasure he will take in it.

I had almost forgotten to mention one other depository in
which is a vast accumulation of papers of greater or less value,
with which literary men generally are not very well acquainted.
I allude to the vaults and garrets of the House of Lords. These
documents are very various in character. Amongst them is a
large number of Private Acts of Parliament authorising various
objects—diverting roads and constructing new ones, enclosing
commons—the partition of estates among coheirs—dissolving
marriages, peerage claims, and other historical materials too
numerous to mention, but invaluable to the general and local
historian and genealogist. I am glad to be able to add that the
Historical Commission is getting these documents calendared as
fast as possible, two or three volumes have been already issued,
and what is more they are well indexed.

Since writing the above I have received Part I of Vol. XI of
the Journal of the Institution, and am very glad to see that the
Institution is in a very flourishing condition, both in respect of
increase of numbers and literary matter. There are some
excellent papers. It would perhaps be invidious to mention
names, though it would seem unfair to pass by that of Mr. J. H.
Collins, F.G.S., On the origin and development of ore deposits in the
West of England. This paper is continued from the last volume,
and is announced to be further continued. It is a very interest-
ing and valuable paper, though I fear it will be found somewhat
over the heads of ordinary lay members of the Institute. As

234 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

regards historical and typographical matters, the Journal is not
so rich as I should like to see it.

Now ladies and gentlemen, if you agree with me in thinking
that a new, enlarged, and authentic ‘‘ History of Cornwall’”’
commensurate with the importance of the county be desirable,
let us consider what practical steps can be taken towards the
attainment of that object. You know it cannot be done at once,
for there is much preliminary labour to be undergone, and being
conscious of this it will be of no use to sit down and contemplate
the difficulties. It may be difficult, probably it will, but my
maxim has always been that difficulties are made to be overcome.
The more you contemplate difficulties the bigger they grow.
‘‘ Put the shoulder to the wheel.’’ Resolution and perseverance
will overcome all difficulties. But we must take a first step.
We must make a beginning. If I may venture, as your President
to offer a suggestion, I would say form a ‘‘ Record Society” to
collect and print historical materials of record relating to the
County. In offering this suggestion I do not intend that a single
shilling should be withdrawn from the invested capital of the
Institution. A separate subscription should be entered into for
this purpose. This has been done, with success, in Somersetshire
and in other counties, and I am glad to say that a preliminary
step has been taken, within the present month, in the county
in which I now reside (Gloucestershire), and I am glad to hear
that a suggestion has already been made in Cornwall in the
same direction. Good! Let us be courageous and follow it up.
Let us, remembering the old Cornish motto: One and All,
which has done so much for the County, come to a resolution
here, and now, to do so. I shall be pleased myself to become a
subscriber to such a scheme.

235

tropal Institution of Mornwall.

SEs

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

The Annual meeting was held on November 29th, at the
rooms of the Institution, wheu the chair was taken by the Rev.
Canon A. P. Moor, V.P., in the absence of the President, Sir
John Maclean. Major Parkyn, Hon. Sec., read the report of
the Council as follows :—

‘The Council can look back upon a year of great prosperity.
There has been a steady advance in the arrangements of the
museum, which has been enriched by many interesting gifts,
some from the most distant parts. The library also has had
many valuable additions, and on its shelves are important works
for the student and scholar. The Council are pleased to find
that the number of subscribers shews no signs of falling off, and
the numerical losses have been more than compensated by the
accession of new members. Still, in order to carry out further
desirable changes in the arrangement of the museum, the
subscribers are asked to use their influence to induce their
friends to join. Happily, our obituary notices are on this
occasion few. We have had to record the death of the Lord
Bishop of Frederickton, better known to Truro people as
Bishop Medley, a former incumbent of St. John’s in this city,
whose connection with the Institution embraces a period of 50
years, during the whole of which he was a diligent reader of the
journal of this society. In Mr. T. A. Cragoe, the society has
lost one who for many years took a great interest in its work,
and in many of our journals will be found contributions of
value, especially those illustrating local scenery and horticulture.

We cannot close these notices without referring to the recent
death of Miss Curgenven, of Falmouth, who, though not actually
a member, yet as the representative of the late Mr. H. M.
Jeffery, F.R.S., was continually shewing her interest in the

236 ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

welfare of the society. The very valuable collection of books,
including the publications of the Royal Society, the Mathematical
Society, and other costly works, were presented by her from the
late Mr. Jeffery’s library. She has further shewn her interest
in this association by a legacy of £50, the knowledge of which
has been communicated to us by her solicitor, Mr. Nalder.

The interest in the museum is well sustained, the number
of visitors to all departments shewing an increase during the
past year over previous years :—

Admitted free .. 56 .. 3955
By ticket oa cb we | ad
By payment 65 56 Sooo

Total number .. 4,558

Considerable progress has been made in structural improve-
ments in the rooms of the institution. In the library two large
bookcases have been provided for the reception of the many new
books received. In each room of the museum two upright cases
have been erected to receive specimens. Another structural
improvement of considerable cost has been made on the spacious
roof of the Institution; two of the gutters have been entirely
relaid with lead.

The chief attention of the Curator this year has been given
to the classification of the mollusca, and the blending together
of the various magnificent gifts of shells from the late Admira]
Tucker, Trematon Castle, Mrs. Sharp, Kensington, and Mr. R.
Baron Rogers, of Falmouth. These occupy seventeen half cases
in the zoological room. Each species is mounted on a millboard
tablet labelled with its name and that of the donor, pink tablets
being used for Cornish specimens, and white for those from’
beyond the county. The collection is arranged under two
headings made according to Woodward’s Mollusca, the other,
excluding all foreign molluscs, deals with British shells only.
An attempt has been made in the british collection to represent
every possible British type by a Cornish specimen if possible.
The substitution of sloping shelves in the place of flat ones in
the upright cases in the geological and mineralogical room in
the museum has effected a great improvement in the display of
the objects therein. On walking through the various rooms of

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. 237

the museum one is struck with their greatly improved appearance,
and also with the cases, and the objects in them, added since
the last annual meeting. The whole of this reflects the greatest
eredit upon the Curator, Mr. H. Crowther, who notwithstanding
the teaching of the many classes which has necessarily occupied
a great deal of his time, shews that one of the chief interests
of the Society has not been neglected, and that much care and
many long hours of labour have been devoted to this work.

It was very gratifying to the Council to find that on a recent
visit to the museum, the Earl of Mount Edgcumbe, a former
valued president, expressed his pleasure at the great improve-
ment in all the arrangements. The weather letters have been
continued, and contributed to the newspapers, and have aroused
the same keen interest as before. It is noticeable that most of
the comments in response to those letters are sent on natural
phenomena connected with animal life. The letters received on
the disappearance of the swallow and martin and the distribution
of the clouded yellow butterfly colvas edusa—have been numerous
and interesting. The usual observations have been sent to the
Registrar-General, and replies and help given to many corres-
pondents. The minimum wet and dry bulb thermometers, used
for many years in the weather screen on the roof of the Institution,
which were mounted on brass, have been replaced by the highest
class instruments made by Negretti and Zambra, with corrections
made at Kew Observatory.

The journal of the Institution was issued in May. It was
full of most interesting matter relating to the archeology,
medieval history, and mineralogy of the county, and bears
favourable comparison with many of the issues of former years.

The Annual Excursion took place in August, when Dolcoath
Mine and Tehidy were the chief places visited. On the mine all
the various operations of tin dressing were explained by Captain
Josiah Thomas to a large company of ladies and gentlemen,
for whom he had also kindly provided a most excellent luncheon.
On the party leaving Dolcoath, cheers were given for the worthy
manager and Mrs. Thomas for the hospitable manner in which
they had entertained their guests. Owing to the heavy showers,
the full programme of the day could not be carried out. Tehidy

238 ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

was the next place visited, where Mrs. Basset and her son, Mr.
Arthur Francis Basset, most cordially received the company.
A sumptuous tea was served in the handsome dining hall, and
after this the artistic beauties were viewed. Notwithstanding the
inclemency of the weather, the excursion was one of the most
enjoyable the Institution has ever had, due largely to the courtesy
and hospitality of Captain and Mrs. Josiah Thomas, Mrs. Basset
and her son.

The disused Theatre, formerly used for lectures in the
Institution, has been placed at the disposal of the County
Council; a Chemical Laboratory has been erected in it, partly at
the cost of the County Council, partly from grants earned in the
Science Classes in the rooms last winter, a substantial donation
of ten guineas from an old friend of the Institution, and other
local help. Accommodation is provided for 24 students to work in
at one time, and all the available spaces were applied for before
the Laboratory was opened. The formal opening of the
Laboratory was made by Major Parkyn on October 31st, and
short addresses were delivered to the students by Messrs. J.
Thomas, OC. Barrett, and Hamilton James, on the practical
advantages of the study of chemistry. Classes were held last
winter, but were not so well attended as might be desired; 19
certificates under the Science and Art Department were earned,
for which Government grants were made. ‘The grants and fees
amounted to £28 7s. 6d. Classes are again being held under
the County Council, Mr. Crowther being the teacher.

The President (Sir John Maclean) having been elected for
two years, has still one year to serve. The following are nomi-
nated as Vice-Presidents :—the Rev. Canon A. P. Moor, the Ven.
Archdeacon Cornish, Dr. Jago, F.R.S., Rev. W. Iago, Mr. John
Tremayne, and Mr. Edwin Dunkin, F.R.S. Other members of
the Council—Messrs. J. D. Enys, F.G.S., Howard Fox, F.G.S8.,
Hamilton James, F. W. Michell, C.E., Chancellor Paul, Thurstan
CO. Peter, R. Tweedy, and Revs. A. R. Tomlinson, and A. H.
Malan; Mr. A.P. Nix, treasurer, Mr. H. Michell Whitley, F.G.S.,
and Major Parkyn, F.G.S., hon secretaries.

Since the last annual meeting efforts have been made to
draw the various scientific and literary societies in the county
more closely together, and a meeting for this purpose was held

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. 239

on September 30th, when it was resolved that another should
take place after the holding of the annual gatherings of the
societies interested in the federation. Such a meeting is fixed
for Friday, December 2nd, when the whole question will be
reviewed, and it is hoped that some satisfactory arrangement
will be arrived at. The Council regret the absence of the Rev.
W. Iago from its annual meeting, and deeply sympathise with
him in the cause of that absence. They always look forward
to some paper on local objects, or history of the antiquities of
the county from his versatile mind (and are never disappointed).
Mr. Iago is now one of the oldest members of the society, and
one of the most prolific contributors of papers to its journal.”

It was resolved that the report be received, adopted and
printed.

The following papers were read :—

‘Roads and Road Making,” Rev. C. F. Rogers.

““The Rapid Traverser,’—Capt. Henderson.

‘“«The Diamond Prospecting Core Drill,’—S. Rogers, F.G.S.

The Rev. A. R. Tomlinson, rector of St. Michael Penkivel,
produced the old register of his parish. [It was in a good state
of preservation, and the writing remarkably clear. The first
entry bears date in the thirty-eighth year of King Henry VIII,
three years after his order for the keeping of parochial registers.
Mr. Tomlinson also exhibited a curious silver paten used in
Lamorran church. The Truro district is very rich in Elizabethan
associations, particularly in the form of church plate, and the
paten in question bears the date 1579.

The following list of presents to the museum and library
was announced.

PRESENTS TO THE MUSEUM.

A large quantity of Physical and Electrical Appa- 2)
ratus, including Cylindrical Electric Machines,
Leyden Jars, Electroscopes, Luminous Globes,
Discharging Rods, se ae Electric

CREO Ry (CMEEGR, Ge, Ruanlanyhorne.

Air Pump and Globes, Orrery, and other Pneumatic
Instruments o0. 000 aad

|
Mrs. Hyde,
1 | Mrs. Hy
|
|

SkuUlOramlivere teh, ss sesh wok aah eek aa he)

240 ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

An exceedingly fine specimen of a Peacock, Pavo ; Rev. Canon Moor,
cristatus ... e, al Neate St. Clements.

A set of Fossils, Coals, &c., illustrating a Coal-
seam formation; Baggs, Top-softs, Clay- |
seam, Best Hards, Bottom Softs. and Iron Stone
from Barnsley Bed Bae cai eerolam acowsll |

House Coal and Ferns, from Meltom Field Seam, ca Ce
|
|

Darfield Main Colliery, Barnsley, Wakefield ..

Fish Remains, Lepidodendian, Calamites, Anthra-
cosia, Encrinital, Limestones, &c., from York-
shire Coalfield and Derbyshire Limestone _... J

Specimen in spirit of Alligator, Nereis, Barnacles, Rev. A. M. Cazalet,
Truro.

A very fine selection of Copper Ores from the Burra
Burra Mine, Australia, including native copper,
Cuprite, Chessylite, Malachite, specimens of
Sanidine and Nepheline rock from ieee
New Zealand :

Flints from the Isles of Scilly

A large Monocular Microscope, with mechauical
stage, eye-piece, one-inch and quarter-inch
objectives, spot lense, diaphragm, polariscope,

=
bull’s-eye condenser on stand, frog-plate, live
box, and stage forceps .. poo
Specimens of Orthoclase from the summit of Corco-
vada Mountain, Rio de Janeiro. |
| John D. Enys, F.G.S.
Some Bones of the foot of the Moa (Dinornis | Enys.
crassus) an extinct gigantic bird, once common
in New Zealand Sethe eres eh eas |
Collection of Stone Implements, from Chatham
Island and a sample from New Zealand ... ...
Specimen of the Sheep Plant
Specimen of Black Coral, from the Sandwich
Islands Lip iass
War Clubs from Fiji, & a Boomerang from Australia. |
Cast of the Foot-print of a pers found in North |
Island, New Zealand Sue eo
Specimen of Iridescent Galena from the Isle of Man i)
Pliocene Shells from St. Erth ... ... .. .. «. Rev. S. Rundle.

Specimens of Tin-stone from Dolcoath, anda Fine | Capt. W. Provis,
Crystalline mass of quartz from Dolcoath neal Camborne.

Bronze Tokens Beh aoe lioSeP icon | pax USoe duoc . J. Knuckey, Truro.

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. 241

Quern, from Trevornick, Cubert ... ... ... .. . Bo Gs ae

Oyster Shells, one on Pipe-bowl, from Truro River Mark Ball, Truro.
Large Centipede, from Trincomalee, Ceylon ... A. Coode, Truro.

Spirit specimens of Lizards, Fish, Chameleons, and } Miss Holland,

Skeleton of Head of Dolphin ... ... .., Truro.
Horned Toad, from Texas .., ... -.. «=. ee ... 9. Crowle, Devoran.
Token of Exeter Wooden Mill ... ... ... ... «. ##$Lhos. Worth, Truro.
Radiolarian Chert, from Mullion ... ...... ... Howard Fox,F.G.S.

Rev. F. A. Allen,
Meadow House,
Fareham, Hants.

8 Roman Coins (8rd Brass), found about 50 Miea
ago near Lanhydrock, Cornwall...

Specimens of the rarer British land and fresh-water m)
SHEL semen vee ose cng weecwin aety Socal Musee 2
r
"el
|

Copper Ore from New Red Sandstone, ees Henry Crowther,
Edge, Cheshire 63 F.R.M.S.
Cast of Pterodactylus crassirostris, a yng Benue
of the Oolitic period Bae 500
Cast of Trilobites, including homolonotus, Mao a
cepahalus, Dudley... <A ve cee ee |
Paradoxides Boltoni, New York _... i G. M. Campbell
Isotelus gigas, Ohio 009 one BOC eal Waseiieldl
Tooth of Ctenodus, United States Tae i)
Collection of British Birds’'Eggs ... ... ... .. A. P. Nix.
Collection of RomanCoins... ... .. 0 .. .. «. J.C. Daubuz.
Ancient Cannon found in Padstow Harbour... ... ©.G.Prideaux-Brune

Scrolls of the Law soE ney used in the Jews’
Synagogue, Falmouth . cenccodlnase Br e > acol Woudon:
Specimens of Cinnabar, Sulphide of ce from : Luke Aver,
the Guadaloupe Mines, California setae Chacewater.
Specimens of Cores, or Mineral Samples... KA } Sees e ee cae

GIFTS TO THE LIBRARY.
A legacyof £50 treeof duty .. 3. .. «.. .. ae a Pee
Report of Mines in North Wale: and the Isle of } Dr. Le deve Foster,
Mang: F.R.S

An Appeal 6 the Canadian Teens, on ay J ustif- Seudiord a Fleming,
cation of Parliament ob sitiar hs on: M.G.

242 ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.

Notes relating to the family surnames Randall, Ue W. Rundell,
Rendell, and Rundall... ... 1. 1. 1. oe Dulwich.

The Lost Laremic Beds of Middle Park, Colorado Wailman Cross.

On the presence of Magnetite in certain Minerals

and Rocks, and_on Iron Rust poems react Prof. eee idee

|
netic properties .. ... ... 800) |) 660 \
|
Notes on some Bismuth Minerals, Pelee: and | Sydney
Enhydros Sass, Geers aah Ussem mires i)
Miss Emily Malone,
Indices to the Aeneidea, by James Henry _... at Gees ma
Seven Centuries of Tin Production in the West of aa saan
Hing lanceirets. sca waean oho cack coo Mech, tes J. H. Collins, F.G.S. .

The Succession of the Plymouth Devonian Strata... ‘
Fourteenth Report of the Barrow Committee
Notes on Roman Devon

Materials for a Census of Devonian Granites, and
HelSPAarsh ica vases: Mahe es eae een eee |

’ LR. N. Worth, F.G.S.
The Batten Skull in the Plymouth Museum... Ply mouth.

Suggested Identification of the ania ces Manors
of Devon.. :

Technical Education from a Polytechnic ce
The Stone Rows of Dartmoor ... ... ... ws J
Episcopal Reeiaers, Diocese of mee A.D. oe es Prebendary F.

to 1326 Hingeston-Randolph
‘ mate ee Hext
Memorials of Lostwithiel and Restormel “s Las iwithiol

Agent General for
Victoria, London.

VWidtenten Year Books, 1880—1890, ten vols. ... :
Portrait of the late Henry M. Jeffery, F.R.S...
Transactions of the Royal Society ..._ ... 5

Proceedings of the Royal Society Miss Curgenven,

Falmouth.
Proceedings of the London Mathematical set, ;
Penny Cyclopedia, and other Volumes ... . mes)
Picture of Glasney College BOCEPOEEE) varia esoc ore dcha Barton ee
On the Modification of Organisms ... ... .. .... David Lyme.

Portrait of Mr. John Tremayne (Past President) ... ! i Bee

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. 243

British Association Report, 1891 & 1892... 2

Portrait of Mr. J. S. Enys, F.G.S. meal

North American Birds by Capt. Bendire, U.S. Army |

Report of the Mississipi River ... peo Srna ae

Geology of Iowa, Vols. 1&2 ... ... _ J.D. a a
Survey of Winconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, U.S.

Astronomical Expedition, Vol. 2

Commerce and Navigation U.S., 1854 & 1855

Mineral Resources of the U.S., 1868

Et tats Commi of Fh 6 Pah 3 J. 6, Wiliams, MP.

The Mathematical Library, comprising some 200 G ‘Boal
Vols. of valuable and coe ores of the es COS S a
H. M. Jeffery, F.R.S. se on almouth.

L ¥1 6haF

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249

NOTE OF FURTHER EXCAVATIONS ON THE SITE OF
LAUNCESTON PRIORY.
By OTHO B. PETER.

Since the discoveries on the site of this Priory, of which a
description appeared in the number of the J urnal for April,
1892, I have further explored the land. The opportunity thus
arose: Mr. Trood, a local merchant, having purchased the
portion of the Priory meadow which is on the north of the
Railway cutting for the purpose of building stores thereon with
railway access by a siding, I, on behalf of the Launceston
Scientific and Historical Society, asked his permission to sink
some trial pits within his purchase. He kindly consented, and
the result so far as we have gone entirely confirms the suggested
outline of the Priory Buildings indicated by my conjectural plan
published with the earlier paper.

I have uncovered walls at several points. On the first day
I struck the base of a trefoil respond-column on my supposed
line of the North Arcade. All the remains discovered are of the
purest 12th century moulded type of architecture. Enough of
the foundations of the walls exist to indicate the princely
proportions of the original structure. Instead of columns
forming the arcade walls, which walls are 3 ft. 6 ins. thick, I
found semi-columns and then a stretch of wall; indicating
arched openings at irregular distances. The semi-columns of
the first opening were trefoil shaped, those of the second were a
flowing combination of mouldings, and those of the third bowtell
moulded. Attached to the Arcade wall foundations in the spaces
between the semi-columns are delicate shafts of trefoil form,
from whose summits the stone groined roofs once sprang.
North of the N. Arcade wall I have laid open the foundations
of the outer wall of the north aisle and another wall indicating
a north Transept. These walls still retain patches of plaster on
them, on the sides which were within the building. I have traced
the foundations of the north arcade itself up to 200 ft. from
east to west, but the wall is almost totally destroyed beyond
the third opening. A finely carved arch key-stone was dug out

250 LAUNCESTON PRIORY.

lying upside down on the foundation of this wall, about half
way between the east and west ends. Some pieces of coloured
glass still in the groove of a window mullion were unearthed on
the north of the arcade, and several moulded stones. I have
also opened upon the line of the South Arcade. This appears to
have been similarly constructed to the north arcade, with
openings in the wall at intervals to the South Aisle, but
unfortunately very little of this arcade apparently remains. In
the ventre of the Nave at its eastern end evidently stood an altar
(probably the High Altar) whose base is about 3 ft. 6 ins. above
the floor of the Nave. It was approached by tiled steps from
the west. I have found tiles 7m sztu at two step levels. On the
landing in front of the altar is a grave below the floor line, the
sides of which grave are formed with upright slabs of slate.
There are probably many more graves near it. Numerous
fragments of beautifully carved Bere stone have been discovered
around the site of the altar. These may have formed a portion
of a screen behind it.

The railway contractor has just commenced cutting the
railway siding into the field. The navvies have uncovered the
foundations of thick walls, and a portion of a tiled floor 5 ft.
below the present surface. This find is on the site which I
mark on my plan as that of the Cellarers buildings. The tiles
were quite plain and 10 ins. square. The ground around this
site is stained as if much good old red wine had been wasted.
Foundations have also been struck of the return block of
buildings on the West of the cloister, which I mark as the
Prior’s Lodge, &c. The outer wall of this block is 243 feet
from the Eastern wall of the Presbytery.

261

HISTORICAL NOTES ON THE PARISH, MANOR, AND
ADVOWSON OF OTTERHAM, CORNWALL.

By SIR JOHN MACLEAN, F.S.A., F.R.S.A., Ete., President,

This does not pretend to be an exhaustive history of the
Parish of Otterham. When we commenced the collection of
materials for the history of the Deanery of Trigg Minor, which
has now for some years been before the public, it seemed to be
uncertain whether the Parish of Otterham were really in that
deanery or in the Deanery of Trigg Major. In the Taxatio
Eeclesiastica of 1291, it is entered in the latter, but in the Valor
Keclesiasticus it is taxed under Trigg Minor. Atall eventsit was
considered to be in Trigg Major when we wrote, and the memoir
is based thereon. In the recent alterations of the limits of the
Deaneries in Cornwall it is placed in Trigg Minor.

The Parish of Otterham is situated in the Hundred of
Lesnewth, and contains 3,263 acres. It is bounded on the west
by the Parishes of Lesnewth and St. Juliet; on the north by
Jacobstow ; on the east by Warbstow; and on the south by
Davidstow, and lies at a considerable elevation. ‘‘ Cross roads,”
on Otterham Down, about a mile west of the church, is 758
feet above the sea level.

InpustriaL Pursuits, WacEss, &c.

The geology of the parish differs considerably from that of
the parishes contiguous to it. It consists of a sort of schist,
and the soil is very stony, harren, and unprofitable, and becomes
quickly overgrown with furze. Laborers’ wages vary from 12s.
a week to 15s. (with or without a cottage and garden, the value of
which is estimated at 1s. a week). Occasional labourers receive
halt-a-crown a day. Laborers are very well off except for the
miserable cottages in which they live. Land being very cheap,
most of them have a few acres and keep a cow or two. They
are industrious, frugal, temperate, and thrifty. It is very usual
for them to become small farmers themselves. Most of them
have money in the bank. In some cases they have enclosed land
worth 2/6 an acre a year, which ina few years they make worth
20/- an acre. There are no paupers.

252 PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

PoPruLATION.

The following table will shew the population of the parish
and the number of houses therein according to the census
returns at the several decennia within the present century.

180111811/18211193111844]1851\1861 1871|1881|1891

Population ... —... ~_—... | 141] 176 | 212 227*| 234] 198/160 156| 163 | 154

hei ..- . | Ql Gri Srl ssl Zell all ao) oR! 27] ay

Housss | ini edt 25 Peso lle ole pe ieee |e

Building... soo | = eS HS se aH J KH J HS HK J KH LL
TITHES.

The tithes were commuted on the 8th September, 1841, at
£174. The total area of the parish consisted of the glebe lands,
68a. Or. Ip. statute measure. The estimated quantity in statute
measure of all the lands in the parish, exclusive of the glebe,
is 3124a. 8r. 2p., which are cultivated as follows :

Asarableland .. ae es pepe SS leas
As meadow ke wes a re Te WBS
As coarse pasture.. a ce i 680 2 9
As Orchards sie * ae sha Gil 2)
As roads and waters jis a ie 40 0 0
As church and churchyard Sic are 9) Se
VALUES AND ASSESSMENTS.
Annual value of real property as assess- 1186 0 0
ed upon the parish in 1815
Gross estimated rental in 1866 .. sre 1204 9 5
Rateable value in 1866 .. a Be: 1088 0 0
Gross estimated rental, 1884 .. oe WAN) 4b &
Ratable value in 1884 .. is Be 10938 15 0

* Of the 43 families composing this population, 34 were chiefly employed in
agriculture, 5 in trades and handicrafts, and 4 not comprised in these classes.

According to the Poll-tax levied in 1377 (51 Edward III) the population of
Otterham at that date was 60 (see Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall,
1871, p. 37).

bo
on
co

PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

Parochial assessment in 1884—

Sanitary rate .. Seal a. On)
Highway rate .. en ott 10) 770

County rate
Police rate 94 0 O
Poor rate ——————— 145 0 O
Redeemed er enna
seme tax | Payable .. vi ee lb 18
——- 47 14 8

Assessed taxes, 1884—
Inhabited house duty assessed ;
enn
upon the annual value

Property and Income tax
assessed upon Schedule A eee
Pe) ? ee) B 15 0 0
? 1) t)

eb) | Nil.

7) at)
9 99

It will be observed that there was very little difference in
the value of real property in 1815 and in 1884.

PRE-HIsTORIC REMAINS.

There are no pre-historic remains in this parish except a few
small circular tumuli which abound on this and the neighbouring
hills. They vary from ten to fifteen feet high, and from ten to
twenty-five yards in diameter. They all have a small depression
in the centre. One in the adjoining parish of Lesnewith was
opened some twenty years ago by the late Mr. Cook of the
Saturday Review. In the centre was discovered a rude cist built
of stone, in which was found human remains, but no weapon
or ornament of any kind. A large heap of stones covered the cist.
There are not now any ancient christian monuments in the parish.

Ancient Roaps anp TRAcKs.

The great road leading from Stratton and the north to the
south through Camelford, enters this parish from Poundstock at
Sandhill Barrow, and traverses it to within a mile of Titchbarrow
when it enters the parish of Davidstow. At ‘‘ Cross Roads,”
this road is intersected by a road leading from Warbstow Beacon
to the road on Tresparret Down leading from Stratton coastwise
through Boscastle and Trevalga to Tintagel, always a place of
vast importance. There are various other roads and tracks of
minor importance which cross the parish in various directions,

284 PARISH OF OTTERIAM.
TABLE SHEWING THE DEVOLUTION OF THE

WILLIAM CARBONELL=
eal
William Carbonell—
| |
Galpide de Albemarle—Mabill Carbonell
|
Reginald de Albemarle—

|
Geoffry Daumarle=
|
|

Nicholas— Hawis, dau. Henry =Johanna William —Matilda
Bonville | of Thomas Champernon | Bodrigan Daumarle,
Pyne. s. & h.
eae fal | aly
Sir Rich.—Alice, d. &h. Nicholas—Johanna, William —Ellen
Hiwis of Sir Ralph Bonville | d. &h. Daumarle,
Blanchmin- son & h.,
ster. b. Easter,
1323.

| |
Sir Robert —Emiline,d.&h.of Sir Wm. Bonville,—Margaret

Tresillian, C.J. | Sir Rich. Hiwis. had livery of | Daumarle, dau. &
King’s Bench, seizin, 1265, died | heir, and heir of
ob. 1388. 14th Feb., 1407-8, | her great grand-

Ing. 9 & 10 Hen. | father, Geoffry
KRESS IV, No. 1 Exch. | Daumarle, Ing.
John Hawley,—Emily, dau. and Pro. of Will, 24 | p.m. 47, Ed. ITI,

of Dartmouth, | h. of Sir Robert Mar., 1408-9. No. 66.
died 8th May, | Tresillian.
1436, Inq. p. m. |
Hen. vj, No. 25 John Bonville —Elizabeth, d. and
Ing. p.m., 20, | heir of John Fitz
A Rich. II, No. 11. | Roger.
a
b

Johanna, d. and=Thos. Bonville,— Leva Gorges, —Jobhn | Wibbery,
co-h of Hugh de presented to a. & h., married presented to

St John, s. & h.| Otterham, 1454- Sundaynextafter | Otterham, 1422,
of Thos. Poynings | 1463, aged 5yrs., Invention Holy | died Sunday next
Lord St. John of | on his father’s Cross, 1425, Inq. | after the feast of

Basing, by Eliza- | death. p-m., 18 Hen. vi, | the Purification

beth, dau. & h. of No. 15. B.V.M., 1432-3,

Martin Ferrers Ing. p.m., 1 Hen.
vj, No. 42.

| |
John Bonville, of Shute, d. August,—Johanna Wibbery da. & heir, born on
1494, Ing. p. m., 9 & 10 Hen. vii. the feast of St. Laurance, 1424, Prob.
Etat 18, Hen. vi, No. 15.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 255

MANOR AND ADVOWSON OF OTTERHAM.
=—JOHANNA BLoyov.

|
—Margery.
: |
Sir Simon Berkeley—Margery, daughter

of Sir Oliver
Carminow.

| |
Roger Fleming—Hester Berkeley. John Berkeley
dau. & heir. ob. s.p.
Ivo DE GoRGES=
6th in descent
from Sir Ralph
de Gorges from
Normandy.

Robert —Jane Fleming,
Fitzwater | dau. & heir.

Ellen, d. & h. of=Sir Ralph de—Eleanor de |
Robert Foliot, of | Gorges. Morville.
Tamerton Foliot.
From whom the Russels

| descend.
Sir Thomas—= ema ee
Gorges | |

Sir William —Joan, daughter of
| Fitzwater, ob. | Nicholas Burden.

John Gorges= Elizabeth, d. and 21 Rich. II, Ing

co-h. of John de p.m. Exch.

Doddiscombe.

Oliver Wibbery— |

ag eh ee
| | |
John a = Gilbert Wibbery= Margaret Thomas—Margery

|
Ralph Gorges—Elizabeth.
|

of Nearlegh. | Fitzwater, s. & h.
h. of her ob. 1893
uy nephew.
Nicholas,

) a b. Jan., 1389.

256

| |

RICHARD
CoPpLEsTON |

PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

|
Adam =Alice.
Coplestone |

John Coplestone—Catherine, dau. and h. of
John Graas, of Tingraas.

|
—Hliz. Hawley, sis. & heir of Nich.

|
Nich. Hawley, died 7th

John
Coplestone | Hawley, aged 30 years, on her Sept., 1442, Ing. p. m.
brother’s death, 1442 21 Hen. vi, No.
| ; ae ROAE,
John Walter = Elizabeth, Philip Coplestone,—Ann Bonville,
Copleston, Copleston, | da: & sole s. & heir, died 16th | da. and heir.
of Exeter. of Bowden. | h. of Thos. Oct., 1472, Inq. p.
Stone. m.13 Edw. IV,
No. |
3 | |
Thomas Katherine, d. Edward Ralph =Ellen, dau.
Copleston, of | of Wm.Fowell purchased Coplestone, | of Sir John
Bowden in|of Fowels- Instow and _ presented to | Arundell of
Yanton. combe. settled Otterham Lanherne.
there. 1487, aged 17
on his father’s
| death, 66. |
| a |
John Isabell, da. of Nicholas of Nash John = Catherine,

His grandson,

Copleston Hy. Fortescue
John, sold it to

of Prateston.

Coplestone, | dau. of Ralph
ob. 29 Aug. | Bridges, gent.

Sir W. Pole.— 1550, Ing. | living 1549.
Pole’s Devon, p. p.m. 4, Ed.
Wie Walk
| rl i!
George. Richard —Thomasine, Mary, da.—Christopher—Jone, d. of
of Woodland, da.of Thos. ofSirWm. Coplestone, | Sir Hugh
3rd son. Floyer, of Courtenay of Copleston | Pawlet, of
Floyers, of Powder- son & heir of | Henton,S.
Hayes. ham, Ist John, ob. | George, c.
wife s.p. 1589. Somerset,
2 wite.
| | |
Christopher. Mark. Robert. Hugh Copleston, son

and heir, ob. s.p.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 957

Adam de Bosco=Alice, dau. of David Servington.

|
Richard, at Wood—Jone, d. Engelina, dau. of Sir Richard
| Champernon, of Modbury.

|
John Wood—Alice, daughter and co-heir of Matt.
| Newland,

|
Richard Wood—Jane, daughter and co-heir of Oliver
| Carminow.

|
William Wood=Emma, dau. and co-heir of William
White of Holcombe, Peramdre.
|
John Wood=Margery, dau. of Oliver Huish.
eine :
|
John Wood=Anne or Agnes da. of Wm. Pollard of
| Horwood.
|
John Wood—Thomasin, d. and heir of Wm. Crase,

| of Launceston.

|
Richard Wood—Grace, d. of John Bere, of Huntsham.

|
Alex. Wood, presented to Otterham—Anne, da. & heir of Barth. St. Leger,
in 1524 | 4th son of John of Holcomb, co. Kent.
ea aaa
Richard Copleston, of Otterham,=
presented to Otterham, 1549. |

| |

| |
Isolda, daughter & heir—Richard Wood, of North Tawton,
| Devon, presented to Otterham, in 1557

and 1558.
mre | |
John Copleston—Susan, dau. of John Christopher—...... dau. of Sir
of Copleston, h. | Lewis Pollard of Wood, Wood. John Windham,
to his brother. | Kimpton Bishop. 2son. of Orchard.

|
Amyas Copleston, of Copleston,—Gertrude, da. of Sir John Chichester,
aged 39, in 1620. son of Sir Robert Chichester.

|
John Copleston, Oct. 12th, 1620, of Copleston, son and heir, sold Chagford
to Sir John Whidden, Justice of the King’s Bench.

258 PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

THe FEr.

It appears that at the time of the Great Domesday Inquest,
the Manor of Otterham was one of the numerous (288) Manors in
Cornwall which William the Conqueror bestowed upon his halt
brother Robert, whom he created Earl of Cornwall. It is
recorded ‘‘The Earl has one mansion (manor) which is called
Otterham, which was held by Edwi on the day on which King
Edward was alive and dead. In the same is one hide of land
and it paid gild for half a hide. There are six ploughs. This
is held by Richard of the Earl. There Richard has in demesne
one virgate and one plough, and the villans have the rest of the
land and three ploughs. There are six villans and four bordars,
and six bondmen and five animals and forty sheep. There is
pasture a league long and league broad, and the value per
annum is 20 shillings, and when the Earl received it it was thirty
shillings.’’”*

Lysons} states that the manor appears to have belonged in
the reign of Edward III to the Champernouns, and in this he
has been followed, without investigation, by all subsequent
writers on the county. The statement can only be received as
partially accurate for it must be limited to the Fee in chief. The
manor itself, with the advowson of the church annexed thereto,
was held by others in sub-infeudation, as we shall presently see.
Moreover, the record upon which Lysons’ statement is based
carried the possession of the fee up some 60 years higher.

In the 18th year of King Edward I (1289), when an Aid
was levied for the marriage of the King’s eldest daughter,
William de Campo Arnulphi (Champernon) was returned as
holding, inter alia, one knight’s fee in Oterham, and in 20th
Edward IIT (1846), William de Campo Arnulphi paid the aid on
the same fee which his grandfather William formerly held on
the King’s eldest son (the famous Black Prince) being made a
knight.{ We do not know precisely the date of the death of
William Champernon the younger, but many circumstances
lead to the conclusion that he was already dead in 1346, and had

*Domesday Survey, Exeter.
+Magna Britannia, Vol. III, p. 251.
{ Book of Aids. Excheq., Queen’s Remembrancer’s Office, Vol. III.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 259

died probably several years previously. He left two daughters
coheirs,* Elizabeth and Katherine, both minors in 1354, though
they were probably then both married. Elizabeth married
William Polglas on 23rd March 1552-3, as her first husband, by
whom she had issue two children, Richard, an idiot, and
Margaret, who became the wife of John Hearle. Secondly she -
married John Sergeaux of Colquite, by whom she had no issue.
She survived both her husbands. John died 1387-8, and she
in 1395. Katherine also was twice married, first, to Sir Walter
Woodehouse, secondly, to Ralph Carminow of Boconnoc, but
had no issue.

On the 10th February, 1354-5 a mandate was issued} by the
Duke of Cornwall to John Dabernoun, his sheriff and steward
for Cornwall, to restore the said manors to Elizabeth and
Katherine, daughters of William de Champernon on their
attaining full age.

This statement is supported by the following petition of
Ralph Carmenowe, Chr., and William Carmenowe his brother,
addressed to the King in Council (C. 1562, 1563). Writ dated
10th December, 1** Richard I1(1377). They complain that whereas
William Chambernon was seized of certain manors and
tenements in Devon and Cornwall, and had issue two daughters,
which William died, after whose death the two daughters
entered into the said manors, &c. as the said William’s daughters
and heirs, and that they made partition betweem them. One
daughter was married to the said Ralph and the other to John
Siregeux, which John, covetous to have the entire inheritance,
sent divers persons to the manor of the said Ralph of Bockonnoc,
and there beat and illtreated the said Ralph and his wife, and
took and carried away their goods and chattels to the value of
£200, and left the said Ralph for dead; then Ralph gave this
manor, which had been allotted to his wife, to divers persons for
the term of his life at a certain rent, who left their estate to the
said William Carminow, who iet the same to Ralph for a term
of years yet unexpired. Whereupon the said John Sergeaux,
being Sheriff of Cornwall,{ with a great number of persons,

* Hist. Trigg Minor, Vol. 1, p. 554.
+ Council Book of the Black Prince, Duchy Office.
{We do not trace that he was ever Sheriff of Cornwall.

260 PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

armed, under the colour of his office, entered into the manors of
the said William which he had of the portion of Ralph’s wife
as above said, and other lands and tenements of Ralph and took
goods and chattels of the value of £1,000, and they pray for a
remedy.

John Sergeaux died 16th January, 1387-8.* His wife
survived him several years. In 1393 she brought a suit against
Sir John Rodeney, knight, and Alice, his wife, for the recovery of
a certain chest with writings and muniments therein contained.t
Sir John died in 1400, and his relict became the second wife of
Sir William Bonville, whom she survived many years.

Elizabeth Sergeaux died at the Priory of Halewell,
Islington, London, 11th May, 1398,{ and was there buried.

There would seem to have been much confusion regarding
the fee of the manor of Otterham during the 14th century. As
early as 1331, the fees of Penrose Burden and Otterham were
vested in John de Dinan or Dynham, who died seized in that
year, leaving by his wife Margaret, daughter of Guy de Brian,
a son of his own name. He was the eldest son of Joceus de
Dinan or Dinham, and he had a younger brother named Oliver.
On the inquisition taken at Lostwithiel after his death it was
found that he died seized of the Manor of Bodardel, and divers
other lands and manors, fees and advowsons in Cornwall.
Among the knight’s fees he held as many in the county as 274,
one of which was the fee in Oterham, which was held of him by
Elias Cotel, and the heir or heirs of Hugh Peverel, and it was
worth, asin service, 12° per annum, and John de Dynham, his
son and heir, was found to be of the age of 14 years and more.§

On the 20th September in the same year, an assignment of
dower was made to Margaret, his relict. She received the
Manors of Harpfield in Devon, Bocland in Somerset, and
Bodardel, with diver’s lands and 10 knight’s fees in Cornwall,
one of which was Oterham.||

* His writ diem Clausit Extremum was dated 10th May, 11 Rich. IT (1388).
+ De Banco Rolls, 17 Rich. II, Michs. m. 240.

tIng. p.m., 21 Edw. IT, No. 135.

§ Ing. p.m. 6 Edw. III, 1st No., No. 59.

|| Escheats, 6 Edw. ITI, 1st No,, No. 82.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 261

Margaret survived until 15 May, 1357, and on the
Inquisition taken at Exeter on the 8th June following, it was
found that she held on the day of her death the Manor of
Hemyock in Devon together with the Hundred, for the term of
her life of the heirs of Oliver de Dynham, knight, who were in
the king’s wardship by reason of one messuage and 12 acres of
land in Iryshland, which the said Olyver held of the king in
capite. She also held of the same heirs the Manor of Hydon,
and also the Manor of Morlegh in Devon. The heirs were the
daughters of the said Oliver, viz.: Margaret, aged 9, Ellene,
aged 7, and Mabel, aged 6 years. They were the children of
Oliver Dynham, the nephew of the aforesaid John, the husband
of Margaret. He died 25 Edw. III (1551). She also held a
third part of the Manor of Hartland in dower of the inheritance
of her son and-heir, John Dynham, then aged 30 years.

Margaret de Brian, on her marriage with John de Dynham,
appears to have been the relict of Sir Gilbert de Knovill, and
had dower in Batesthorn, Lyddeford, of the Manor of Lodeswille,
of the inheritance of the heirs of the aforesaid Sir Gilbert, viz. :
John Dun, aged 24 years, Thomas Archard, aged 21 years, and
Mabel, daughter of William Luscote, aged 6 years. It may be
remarked that in this Inquisition, Margaret is described as
Margaret Donnedale.* Polo tells us (Devon Collections, p. 302)
that in the 24 Edw. I, Sir Gilbert de Knovill, knight, in the 24
Edward I, held Lodeswell of Lady Milisent de Monte Alto
(Montalt) by the payment of 40s. yearly rent. The heirs were
his grandchildren.

In 29th Edward I, Sir Gilbert founded a chantry in the
Church of Bukynton, Devon, for his own soul and the soul of
Hawisia, his wife. Ing. ad quod. damnum, No. 134, Idem.

Margaret, the elder daughter and co-heir of Oliver de
Dynham by Margaret, daughter of Richard Hydon, married Sir
Wiliam de Asthorp.} but we do not find that she carried to him
the fee of Oterham or any other of the Champernou possessions.

* Inq. p.m., 31 Hdw. III, 1st No., No. 43.

+ In 1379, Sir William de Asthorp, knight, and Margaret, his wife, enfeoffed
John Copleston and others in the manor and advowson of Sampford Peverell and
Allere Peverell, Devon. Escheats 3 Ric. II, No. 105.

262 PARISH OF OTTERHAM,

Her two younger sisters became Nuns, one at Bocland, and the
other at Walton.*

This would seem to exhaust all the heirs of John Sergeaux,
and probably the fee of Oterham again reverted to the family
of Champernon, for in the 3rd Henry IV, (1402) when the
king levied a similar aid, now called a subsidy, for the marriage
of Blanche, his eldest daughter, William de Campo Arnulphi
was returned as holding, inter alia, one knight’s fee in
Oterham.t In 6th Henry VI, this fee had become much sub-
divided as indeed had most other fees. Thomas Bonvyle
and Leva his wife held a quarter part, whereon they paid a
subsidy of 20° Thomas Carwytham, Thomas Oterham, William
Chambernon, John Mayow,{ John Walke, Robert Trecarell,
Roger Langdon, Richard Dunecombe, Robert Chamberleyne,
Stephen Doyngnell, John Pereu, John Boson, William Wilhouse,
Thomas Pruwet, and Robert Calwe, held separately between
them three parts of the fee, but because no one of them held a
quarter part it was not assessed to the subsidy.§

We next find that upon the Inquisition taken after the
death of Leva Bonvill, that Oterham was held by her husband
and herself of the heirs of Sir William Bonvill, but how he
acquired the fee we know not. See post p. 265.

And the Prior of Tywardreath is returned as holding this
fee, and that of Penrose Burden, (see post, p. 266), but we know
not how these fees were thus acquired by the Prior.

So much for the fee. We must now advert to

THE Manor AND THE ADvowson.

The latter has been annexed to the former so far back as
history reaches, but being held by sub-infeudation it is difficult
to bridge over the chasm between the time of the Domesday

* Banks’s Baronage.

+Subsidy Rolls, 3 Henry IV. We have seen that William Champernon was
dead long before this date. It was not unusal for the names of tenants being
retained on the Exchequer Book long after their death, nevertheless this may
have been another William Champernon.

{John Mayowe of Smallhill is returned in the same document as holding
with several others, the third part of a knight’s fee in Treworgye in the Hundred
of Lesnewth. Treworgye is, we believe, in the parish of St. Gennis.

§ Subsidy Rolls.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 263

Survey and the date at which our public records commence.
The earliest holder of the manor of which we have any note is
described as ‘‘ Matilda, the Lady of Oterham,” but what her
estate in it was, whether in fee of her own right or in dower,
does not appear, nor is her family name stated. She presented
to the benefice in 1278, and was probably the ancestress, perhaps
the mother of Robert the son of William who presented Robert
de St. Genesio (St. Gennis) in 1309,* (see post, p. 269) and
Simon, the son of John de Genesio in 13811. It is, we think,
not unlikely from the fact of two clerks of the name of St.
Gennis having been presented in succession, that the patron was
also of that family.

The Manor of Otterham, however, not long after the date
mentioned above, had became vested in the family of Burdon,
by whom it was held together with the Manor of Penros-Burdon,
in the parish of St. Breward, which had been granted to Robert
Burdon by Reginald, Harl of Cornwall, who died in 1175, hence
the grant must have been made before that year, and this grant
was confirmed to Peter Burdon, son and heir of the said Robert,
by King John, on 5th January, 12U0-1, for which confirmation
the said Peter gave the king 60 marksanda paltrey. The Manor
of Otterham, however, is not mentioned in this confirmation, and
we conclude the Burdons must have acquired it by marriage, and
by marriage it was carried by Johanna, daughter and heir of
Nicholas Burdon, to William Tremblethou, alias William Fitz
Wauter or Fitz Walter, who died on the 10th May, 13885,
seized, inter alia, of the two said manors, the former being
held of the King in capite by the 8th part of one knight’s fee
of the Castle of Launceston, and the latter of John Serjeaux
by knight’s service, and the jurors add that it is of the value
per annum of five marks. They also found that the nearest
heir of the said Sir William was his son Thomas, then aged
11 years and more, and they add that John Sergeaux had
occupied the Manor of Oterham with the custody and marriage
of the heir from the time of the death of the said William to

* Robert, son of William, was one of those returned as holding lands or rents
in Cornwall of the value of £20 a year or upwards. 24 May, 24 Hdw. I (1296),
Harl MS., 1192, fo. 50,

264 PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

the taking of the inquisition, which was on Saturday next after
the feast of St. Gregory (12th March) 9th Richard If (1885-6).*

Sohn Sergeaux acquired the fee in chief of this manor by
his marriage with Elizabeth, one of the daughters and coheirs
of William Champernon.

A further inquisition was taken at Merwen Church (Marham
Church) some dozen years later, viz.: on the Monday next before
the Feast of the Conversion of St. Paul, 1397-8, more especially
with reference to the Manor of Penrose Burdon, which, there
being now no Duke of Cornwall, was held of the King in
capite. There is not anything in it concerning the Manor of
Otterham, but inasmuch as it gives us some information relative
to the issue of Sir William Fitz Wauter, it will be well to cite a
few passages. The jurors find that the said Sir William died
seized of the Manor of Penrose Burden as of right, which upon
his death was seized into the hands of the king, who held it for
two years, when he, by Letters Patent, granted to one William
Corby all the lands of the said Sir William within the County
of Cornwall, together with the marriage of Thomas, son and
heir of the said Sir William, to receive annually to the use
of the said William Corby £20, and to account for the surplus
into the Exchequer. And they jurors say further that in the
12th year of the said king, Kdward Karl of Devon entered into
the said manor and expelled all who claimed right of the king,
and occupied the said manor for five years following and received
the profits, and that afterwards the said Karl for the following
four years received two parts of the profits and no more,
because Margery, who was wife of Thomas Fitz Wauter,
received the third part as her dower, and the jurors say that the
two parts of the said manor of right pertained to the king until
the full age of Nicholas, son and heir of Thomas Fitz Wauter,
who was then of the age of four years and more, and was under
the guardianship of William Drayton, knight, his uncle, by
- grant of the king +

From this we learn that Thomas, son and heir of Sir
William Fitz Wauter, married Margery, sister of Sir William
Drayton, and died circa 1392-3, leaving Nicholas, his son and heir,

* Ing. p.m. 8 Rich. IT, No. 16.
+Inq. p.m., 21 Rich. II, Exch.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 265

an infant, for four years later, we find he was only four years
of age. Of this Nicholas we have no further information. He
must have died s.p. and Margaret Fitz Wauter, his aunt, who
married John Wibbery, became his heir, and John Wibbery,
her grandson, as Lord of the Manor, presented to the church of
Otterham in 1422. He married Leva, daughter and heir of
John Gorges, who married first John Wibbery of Dartmouth,
and died on sunday next after the feast of the Purification of
the Blessed Virgin Mary (2 Feb.), 1422-3, leaving his wife great
with child. She was afterwards, viz.: on the feast of St.
Lawrence, 1424, delivered of a daughter named Johanna.
Previously to his death, John Wibbery had conveyed the Manors
of Northlegh, Oterham, Penros Burden, Cranysworth, Crock-
major, and Portyllegres to certain trustees. Leva, his relict, on
monday next after the feast of the Invention of Holy Cross,
1425, married Thomas Bonville, son and heir of John Bonville
by Elizabeth, daughter and heir of John Fitz Roger, and by -
charter dated 37 Henry VI, granted all the said manors to the
said ‘Thomas Bonyille, and Leva, his wife, to hold jointly for the
term of their lives, and after their deaths remainder to Philip
Copleston and Ann, his wife, which Ann was the grand daughter
of the said Leva, and the heirs of their bodies, and in default of
such issue remainder to the right heirs of the aforesaid John
Wibbery. The said Thomas Bonville and Leva were thereupon
seized of the said manors for the term of their lives, and the
said Leva on the 16th December following died, and the said
Thomas Bonville survived and held the said manors solely, and
the jurors say that the Manor of Oterham with its appurtenances
is held of the heirs of Sir William Bonville, knight, and that its
value per annum, beyond reprises, is £10, and they say further
that the aforesaid Ann, daughter of Johanna Bonville, deccased,
late wife of John Bonville, Esq., and daughter of the said Leva
is the nearest heir of the said Leva, and is aged 23 years and
more.*

As we have seen above, Anne, daughter and heir of John
Bonville by his wife Johanna, daughter and heir of John
Wibbery, married Philip Copleston of Copleston, and conveyed

* Inq. p.m., 1 Edward IV, No. 24,

266 PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

to him the Manors of Penrose Burden and Otterham, of which,
inter alia, he died seized 16 October, 1472, and upon the
inquisition taken thereupon Ralph Copleston, his son, was found
to be his nearest heir, and to be aged 17 years and more.*

Ralph Copleston presented to the church of Otterham on 20
August, 1487, an intermediate presentation having been made
in 1474 by George, Duke of Clarence and Earl of Warwick,
during the minority of the said Ralph, to whom probably the
wardship of the minor had been granted. Ralph married Ellen,
daughter of Sir John Arundell of Lanherne, and being seized,
inter alia, of the Manors of Penrose Burden and Otterham, he
demised the same to Sir William Courtenay and others in trust
to the use of himself and his wife for the term of their lives
respectively with remainder over to his sons Nicholas, Thomas,
Richard, and John the younger in successive tail male. He
died on 3rd September, 8 Henry vij (1492), and John Copleston,
his son, was found to be his nearest heir and to be of the age
of 16 years and more. ‘The jurors found that the manor of
Penrose Burden was held by knight’s service of the Castle of
Launceston, and that the Manor of Oterham was held of the
Prior of Tywardreath by fealty, and was worth per annum four
marks.

We have not succeeded in finding the inquisition post
mortem of John Copleston, and we do not know the date of his
death, but he would appear to have settled the Manor of
- Otterham upon his younger son Richard, who, as the true patron,
presented to the church in 1549, and in the Herald’s Visitation
of 1564, he is described as of ‘‘Otterham.” As early as 23
Henry viij (1531), he suffered a fine, enter alia, in this and
several other Manors to Humphry Collys, Esq., Humphry
Keynes, Esq., Humphry Prideaux, Esq., Thomas Gifford of
Halsbury, Esq., John Kelly of Kelly, Esq., and John Pers of
Launceston for the nominal sum of 500 marks.{ This was of
course for purposes of settlement probably upon the marriage
of his daughter and heir Isota or Isolda with Richard Wood,
son of Alexander Wood, who, probably as a trustee, presented

* Inq. p.m., 138 Edw. IV, No. 66
+ Ing. p.m., 8 Henry, vij., No. 7.
{ Ped. Fin. 23 Hen. viij., Mich,

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 267

to the church in 1524. Richard Wood and Isotta his wife of
course under settlements were joint lords of the manor, and as
joint patrons of the benefice presented to the church in 1557.
In 1568, by fine they quit-claimed the manor with appurtenances
to one Francis Whyddon, who by the same fine re-conveyed it
to the said Richard and Isotta for the term of their lives, and
after their decease, remainder to John Wood and the heirs males
of his body, and in default of such issue remainder to the heirs
males of the body of the said Richard, and in default remainder
to his right heirs.* Two years afterwards the advowson of the
church was vested in the aforesaid John Wood, who suffered a fine
therein to one John Carswell, gent.,| who thereupon re-granted
the same to the said John for the term of one week with
remainder after the expiration of that term to the aforesaid
Richard and Isotta, his wife, and the heirs males of their bodies
for ever, and after their deaths, in default of such issue, remainder
to the right heirs of the said Richard. In 1588, Thomas 'Torway
Yeoman presented to the church for that town by reason o a
grant of Richard Wood and Isotta his wife.

Richard Wood and Isotta, his wife, died not long afterwards,
and John Wood, their son before mentioned, also died s.p., and
the manor and Advowson devolved upon Christopher Wood of
North Tawton, who granted the next presentation to Walter
Harte and Charles Harte, sons of Edward Harte, of the City of
Exeter, who presented in 1603. In 1615, John Wood, supposed
to have been the son and successor of Christopher, presented to
the benefice, and in 1619, Charles Harte, son of Edward
aforesaid, again presented for that turn one William Sheeres,
and upon his eviction in 1621, John Wood of North Tawton, in
his own right, presented one John Braddon, Clerk. In 1626,
John Wood, Esq. and Christopher Wood, his son, suffered a
fine in the Manor of Otterham to John Saltren, gent., in which
it is described as containing twelve messuages, three cottages,
one mill, fifteen gardens, two hundred acres of pasture, two acres
of wood, four hundred acres of furze and heath, and thirty-nine
shillings rent with appurtenances in Otterham and Jacobstow,

* Ped. Fin. 10 Elizabeth, Hil.
+ Ped. Flin. 12 Elizabeth, Hil,

268 PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

and also the advowson of the church of Otterham, for which
remise, quitclaim, and warrant the said John Saltren gave the
said John and Christopher Wood the sum of £500.

John Braddon held the Rectory fifty-four years, and dying
in 1675, the vacancy was filled upon the presentation of John
Saltrer, as were all subsequent institutions upon the presentation |
of members of this family down to the year 1737 inclusive, but
the next presentation in the following year was made by William
Betenson of Grylls, in the parish of Lesnewth, gent., and the
following one in 1779 by John Betenson of Tiverton, in the
County of Devon, gent. From this it would appear that as
early as 1737 the advowson of the church had been alienated
from the manor to which it had always pertained, and was at
this time held by the Betenson family im gross. The manor
itself still continued vested in the Saltren family down to 1757,*
when John Saltren and Mary, his wife, suffered a fine therein to
Richard Welch, Joshua Thomas, and John Teage, in which it is
descriked as containing fifteen messuages, ten tofts, one mill,
thirty gardens, two hundred acres of land, one hundred acres of
meadow, twenty acres of pasture, five hundred acres of furze
and heath, two hundred acres of moor, and an annual rent
of 30/-; and also seven-twelvths parts of one messuage, two
acres of land, and two acres of furze and heath, and moreover,
of common of pasture for all manner of cattle, with app°® in
Otterham, and divers messuages in that parish and in the
parishes of Egloskerry, Alternun, Laneast, Davidstow, and St.
Ive, from which it would appear that divers tenements in those
parishes, in which the Saltern family had property, had by them
been annexed to this manor. ‘This fine remise and quitclaim
was made by the said John Saltren and Mary, his wife, to the
aforesaid Richard Welch, Joshua Thomas, and John Teage to
hold to the use of the said Richard and his heirs for ever, and
for this remise and quit-claim, the said Richard Welch and the
others gave the same John Saltren and Mary the sum of £700.}

The manor thus vested in Richard Welch still continues in
his descendants.

* King’s Silver Book, 31 Geo. II, Mich.
—+Ped. Fin. 31 Geo, II, Michs,

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 269

THE ADVOWSON.

A reference to the Table of Institutions will shew that the
advowson of the church since it was severed from the manor has
passed through the hands of several parties. The right of
presentation continued vested in the Betenson family from 17388
to1779. In 1810, William Chilcott, of Tiverton, gent., presented
as true patron. The following institution in 1850 was made
upon the presentation of Charles Henry Daw, of Tavistock,
gentleman, and the institution upon the last vacancy in 1887
was made upon the presentation of the Rev. H. T. W. Daw,
clerk.

INSTITUTIONS.

1278. September 27. Master Nicholas Leghe,* Deacon, was
instituted to the church of Otterham upon the present-
ation of Matilda, Lady of Otterham.

1309. April 11. Robert de St. Gennis} (Genesio), Sub-deacon,
was instituted to the church of Otterham vacant by the
resignation of Simon de St. Gennis{ (Genesio) who
resigned in 1309 upon the presentation of Robert, the
son of William (Fitz William ?)

1311. January 16. Sir Simon, the son of John de St. Gennis,§
Deacon, was instituted to the church of Otterham
vacant upon the presentation of Robert the son of
William.

1362. April 26. Richard Kerwytha, Clerk,|| was coliated to
the church of Otterham vacant and in the collation of
the Bishop by lapse of time.

Unknown. John Mayow resigned for Lesnewth, 6th January,
1421.

* Bp. Bronescomb’s Reg., fo. 89.

+Bp. Stapeldon’s Reg., fo. 55.

{The Institution of Simon de St. Gennis is doubtless recorded in the
Register from 1293-1307, which is missing. His name occurs as Rector, 21st

Dec., 1808. Robert de St. Gennis, Rector, had dispensation for non residence for
a year from Michaelmas, 1309, renewed 10th Sept., 1310 (Reg. 556 ),

§ Bp. Stapeldon’s Reg., fo. 67.
|| Bp. Grandisson’s Reg., fol. 142,

270 PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

1422. November 10. Richard Walys,* Chaplain, was admitted
to the parish church of Otterham, vacant by the
resignation of John Mayow, last rector, at the present-
ation of John Wybbury, Esq.

An Inquisition having been taken the same day as to the vacancy
and right of presentation, it was found that the church was vacant by
reason of the resignation of Richard Walys, and that Thomas Bonvill was
the true patron, and that he was entitled to present for that turn in right
of Leva, his wife, who had been previously the wife of John Wybbury, who
was the owner of the manor to which the advowson and right of patronage
was appendant.

1454. January 14. John Gunne,} Chaplain, was instituted to
the church of Otterham, vacant by the resignation of
Richard Walys upon the presentation of Thomas
Bonville, Esq., for this turn the true patron.

1463. May 25. John Hoper,} Chaplain, was instituted to the
church of Otterham, vacant by the resignation of John
Gune, last rector, upon the presentation of Thomas
Bonville, the true patron.

1474. January 20. John Ewen,|| Vicar of the Parish of
Colbrook, exchanged his benefice with John Hoper,
Rector of the Parish of Otterham.

Unknown. Louis Pollard.

1487. August 20. John Perie,§ Chaplain, instituted to the
church of Otterham, upon the presentation of Ralph
Copleston, Esq., vacant by the resignation of Louis
Pollard, the last rector.

1506. October 5. John Trowte.

1524. March 24. John Trehane,§/ Chaplain, was instituted to
the parish church of Otterham, vacant by the resignation

of John Trowte, last rector, upon the presentation of
Alexander Woode, Esq.

* Bp. Lacy’s Reg., fo. 41.

+ Bp. Lacy’s Reg., fo. 286.

{ Bp. Nevill’s Reg., fo. 19.

|| Bp. Booth’s Reg., fo. 34.

§ Bp. Courtenay or Tor’s Reg., fo. 99.
@ Bp. Vesey’s Reg., fo. 24,

1549.

1557.

1588.

1603.

1615.

1619.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 271

June 8. John Stone, Priest,* was instituted to the church
of Otterham, vacant by the death of John Trehane, the
last rector, upon the presentation of Richard Copleston,
the true patron.

April 30. Henry Torway,} Clerk, was instituted to the
Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the resignation of the
last Rector, upon the presentation of Richard Woode,
gent., and Isotte, his wife, the true patrons.

May 8. Robert Torway,{ Clerk, was instituted to the
parish church of Otterham, vacant by the death of
Henry Torway, last incumbent, upon the presentation
of Thomas Torway, Yeoman, by the grant of Richard
Wood and Isolda, his wife, for this turn the true patron.

October 6. Thomas Bettenson, Clerk, B.A..|| was instituted
to the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of
Robert Torwaye, upon the presentation of Walter Harte
and Charles Harte, sons of Edward Harte, of the City
of Exeter, gent., the true patron by the grant of
Christopher Wood of North Tawton, Hsq., the original
true patron.

October 27. Robert Langeston,§ Clerk, was admitted to
the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the resignation of
Thomas Bettyson, last Rector, upon the presentation of
John Wood of North Tawton, lisq., the true patron,

January 15. William Sheeres,§/ Clerk, was admitted to
the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of the
last incumbent upon the presentation of Charles Herte,
son of Edward Herte, of the City of Exeter, the true
patron.

* Bp. Veysey’s Reg., fo. 182.

+ Bp. Turberville’s Reg., fo. 19.

{ Bp. Woolton’s Reg., fo. 37.

|| Bp. Cotton’s Reg., fol. 78. Thomas Bettenson matriculated as from Exeter
College, Oxford, 5th May, 1598. His father is described as ‘‘ Pleb.”’

§Id. fo. 105. Benefice sequestrated on the death of Robert Langeston,
24 Sept., 1619. Act Book A.

@ Id. fo. 112.

272

1621.

1675.

1681.

1684.

1706.

1707.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

August 11. John Braddon, Clerk, was admitted to the
Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of Robert
Langeston, Clerk, late incumbent of the same,* and by
the eviction of William Sheeres last incumbent, upon
the presentation of John Wood of North Tawton, the
true patron.

May 11. George Wakeham,} Clerk, B.A., was admitted
to the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of
John Braddon, Clerk, last incumbent, upon the present-
ation of John Saltren, gent., the true patron.

March 1. Hugh Warren.{ Clerk, was instituted to the
Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the resignation of
George Wakeham, last Rector, upon the presentation
of John Saltren of Slade, in the parish of St. Ive, Co.
Cornwall, the true patron.

August 7. Samuel Northcote,|| Clerk, was admitted to
the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of Hugh
Warren, last Rector, upon the presentation of John
Saltren, gent., the true patron.

October 8. Thomas Sargeant§ was admitted to the
Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of Samuel
Northcote, last Rector, upon the presentation of
William Saltren, Esq., the true patron.

August 1. John Vivian was instituted to the Rectory of
Otterham, upon the presentation of William Saltren,
Esq.

John Vivian, B.A., was admitted to the Rectory of Otterham 1st

August, 1707, by Dr. Tenison, Archbishop of Canterbury, sede vacante,
(Reg. II, 2383), in the interval between the translation of Bishop Sir Jonathan
Trelawny, Bart., to the See of Winchester, 14 June, 1707, and the conse-
cration of Bishop Blackhall, 8 February following. Bp. Blackhall died
from a fall from his horse 29th November, 1716, aged 66.

* Bur. at Otterham, 24 Feb., 1674-5.

+Bp’s. Reg. New Series, Vol. IT, fo. 37.

{I1d. vol. III, fo. 20.

|| Id. fo. 47. Samuel Northcott, Clerk, Rector, bur. 24 Aug., 1706.
§Id. Vol. IV, fo. 149.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 273

1708. July 3. James Avent, B.A.* was instituted to the
Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the resignation of John
Vivian, upon the presentation of William Saltren,
gent.

1724. May 25. William Cruwys, B.A.} was instituted to the
Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of James
Avent, last Rector, upon the presentation of John
Saltren of Treludick, Esq.

1737. April 30. Joseph Silly{ was instituted to the Rectory of
Otterham, vacant by the death of William Cruwys,
last Rector, upon the presentation of William Saltren,
Esq.

1738. September 6. William Snawdon, B.A.,|| was instituted
to the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the resignation
of Joseph Silly,§ last Rector, upon the presentation of
William Betenson of Grylls, gent.

1779. August 12. Digory Joce, Clerk, was instituted to the
Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of William
Snawdon, upon the presentation of John Betenson of
Tiverton, Devon, gent.

1810. August 19. Samuel Chilcott, B.D.,** was instituted to
the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of Digory
Jose, last Rector, upon the presentation of William
Chilcott of Tiverton, gent., true patron.

*Td. Vol. V, fo. 5. 1724, James Avent, Clerk, Rector, bur. 9 Mar. 1724.
+Id. Vol. VI, fo. 16.
{Id. Vol. VII, fo. 8.
|| Reg. New Series, Vol. VII, fo. 26.
1741. Haster, dau. of William Snawdon, Rector, and Mary his wife, bap. 24 May.

1748. John, son of Do. Do. Do. bap. 6 Dec.
1745. William Do. Do. Do. bap. 22 ,,
1747. Elizabeth, dau. of Do. Do. Do. bap. 21 Feb.

§ He was son of John Silly of Kernick, in the parish of Helland, was
instituted to the Rectory of Lanivet, 1738, and was buried there 16 April, 1739.
s.p. see. Hist. of Trigg Minor, Vol. II, p. 521.

@ Id. Vol. IX, fo. 159. Son of John Joce, and Anne his wife, bap. at
Lesnewth, 12 April, 1732. Rev. William Snawdon bur. at Otterham, 2 March,

1779.
** Td, Vol. XI, fo. 33.

274:

1850.

1861.

1873.

1875.

1883.

1887.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

July 30. Glanville Martin, B.A.,* was instituted to the
Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of Samuel
Chilcott, last Rector, upon the presentation of Charles
Henry Daw of Tavistock, Devon, merchant.

September 5. Charles Henry Thomas Wyse Daw, M.A.+
was instituted to the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by
the resignation of Glanville Martin, last Rector, upon
the presentation of Charles Henry Daw of Tavistock,
merchant.

March 4. John Gillard, B.A.{ was instituted to the
Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the resignation of
Charles Henry Wyse Daw, M.A., last Rector, upon the
presentation of the crown for this turn by reason of
the lunacy of the true patron.

October 5. Robert Martin Smith, B.A.|| was instituted
to the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of
John Gillard, last Rector, upon the presentation of the
crown as before.

May 29. William Dunstan Rundle, M.A.§ was instituted
to the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the death of
Robert Martin Smith, last Rector, upon the presentation
of the crown as before.

Edward Henry Archer Shepherd was instituted
to the Rectory of Otterham, vacant by the resignation
of William Dunstan Rundle, upon the presentation of
the Rev. C. H. T. Wyse Daw, Clerk.

Tue ParisH Cuvurcn.

The Parish Church of Otterham is dedicated to St. Denys,

and consists of chancel, nave, and south aisle, west tower and
south porch. Formerly it had a transept on the north side, but
some forty years ago this was removed and the arch walled up.
The arcade between the nave and south aisle is of four bays, the

*Id. Vol. XIII, fo. 71.

+Id. fo. 161.

{I1d. Vol. XIV, fo. 80.

|| Id. fo. 105.

§ Truro Register, Vol. 1, fo. 49.

VoL. Xl.

PLATE X.

*HOUNHO WVHYSLLO

ae x
YT E GUISE, Ao

VoL. XI. PLATE Xl.

ST, IDSINIS, QWs IR alent

As EXISTING IN 1884.

bi!

_ WT
=(:

GROUND PLAN.

| | t=

HW
it
i

l
iH

SOUTH ELEVATION.

SCALE:—16 FEET TO | INCH.
FEET 10 5 8 19 20 3 40 50 FEET

UE a

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. Die

arches being supported by monolith granite columns. The tower
is of two stages with a crenellated parapet and four small
pinacles. The doorway of the south porch is square-headed
with four-centered arch, and the western or tower door is the
same and of good granite work. The east window in the
chancel is of three lights with tracery in the head. There is a
somewhat similar window without tracery at the east end of the
aisle and three others of a like character in the south wall, and
one in the north wall of the nave, all of the same type. The
tower was built in 1702, and is about 45 feet in height, the
tower arch being round and not centrally placed. In the tower
are three bells, all medizeval. The first and third have legends
on them, but the second is quite plain. The legends are:

I. o& Woce mea vina De pello cuntanoctna. Diameter at the
mouth, 274-ins.

II. This bell has no legend. Diameter at the mouth, 293
inches.

TIT. of Est micht collatum ihe tstud nomen amatum. Diameter
at the mouth, 323-ins.

Both the legends are in Old English characters.

The interior of the church is in a very dilapidated and bad
condition. The old oak seats remain in the church, but they are
not carved nor have they ever been, but they appear to have
been planed, though they shew some traces of colouring. The
tie-beams of the roof and the wall plates are carved, but were
very thickiy coated with lime-wash, which has been removed by
the rector, the Rev. W. Dunstan Rundle. Parts of the base of
the screen remain 7m situ and shew traces of colouring. The
font is octagonal and of granite.

The only piece of altar plate now remaining is an Elizabethan
Communion Cup with a paten cover, of the usual type, and a
pewter paten.

THe MonuMENTS IN THE CHURCH, ETC.

There are few monuments, the earliest is of the date 1652.
It consists of a ledger stone circumscribed with the following
words: Mary y° wife of Abel French, gent., and daughter of
George Hele, of Whitstone, Esq., who departed this life on y°
vj of October, Anno Domini, 1652, et sue, 35.

276 PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

In the centre at the head, is a shield with elaborate
mantling, helmet, and wreath, but without a crest. The arms
are a bend, or bendlet, between two dolphins naiant. impaling,
five lozenges iu bend, each charged with an ermine spot (see
below).

Ss

Underneath the shield are the following lines:

Faith, virtue, patience, love, and all in all,

This Godly Matron had ever at her call,

Whose lyfe, whose death, whose charitie, whose fame,
Lyeth still recorded in the book of fame,

And though this wall doth parte her love and shee
Their souls are coheirs of felicitie.

See here shee lyes

who did alwaies Feare God her neighbour love
walk by ye lyffe And thou shalt live above.

of this good wife.

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. ila

A large stone was found under a seat circumscribed as
under :

Here lyeth ye body of Alice, ye wife of William Grigg, deceased, who was
buried the 24th of January, 1684.

In the middle of the stone the following :

Here Alice Grigg doth intombed lie,
Whose spirit mounteth to the starrye skie,
Unto the poor she had a good regarde,
Which daily cry heaven be thy rewarde.

On a stone affixed to the wall is the following inscription :

In Memory of Johan, the wife of William Moyse, and daughter of Johan
Avery of Kernick, gent., who was buried here underneath, March 14th, in ye
year of our Lord 1720-1. Htatis sue, 48.

Then below the burials of :

Henry the son of William Moyse and Johanna his wife, Feb. 9, in the y* 1700.
Another Henry do. do. June 18, do. 1702.
Thomazine, dau. do. do. Mar. 26, do. 1709.
Behold the husband and the wife,
Three children also here do lie.
Soon young as old depart this life,
Lord make us all prepare to die.

In THE CHURCHYARD.

Just outside the church and now clamped against the wall
is the following:

Abel French, of Smallhill, gent., who departed this mortal life on the fourth
day of May, in the year of our Lord God, 1660. Aitatis (?)*

On the middle of the stone is the following :

To truth, to prince, to rich, to poor, to all,

Steadfast, faithfull, kindly, good, and liberal ;

Hee always was, and tho his bones here lye,

His works shall prayse him still his fame ne’er dye,

Happy the dead tha’ live and happy they

Whome death will not have live, Life not have dye, [sic but query ].
Lett my posteryty forbear to take

My bed of rest their sepulchere to make.

* This stone is much mutilated, in fact broken into two pieces, itis gratifying
however to know that it has received every care from the Architect, under whose
direction the church was rebuilt.

278 PARISH OF OTTERHAM.

Famity History.

So far as we know, the only family of gentry ever
permanently resident in the parish, was that of French, which was
settled at Smallhill as early as the beginning of the 17th
century. Unfortunately the Parish Registers only commence in
1687, and they do not aid us much in the compiling a pedigree
of that family. We find, however, that in the 14th of Elizabeth,
William ffrench paid the lay subsidy, on goods in Otterham on
£9, being the highest lay subsidy in the parish. In the 22
James John ffrench paid on goods £11, Roll .88;. John ffrench
22 James 88,, andin 17 Charles, William ffrench, gent., paid £2
on lands Id. $2;. There are numerous entries of the name.
Among them the prevailing christian name is Abel, which
renders the descent very confusing without the aid of deeds and
wills, which are not at present accessible to us.

Over the principal entrance to the house there is an
escutcheon of arms, but it is so thickly covered with lime-wash
that the charges cannot be very clearly defined, but see post
page 276.

In the early part of the present century, the heiress of the
family of French married ...... Chichester, and in 1841, when
the tithes were commuted, Robert Chichester, Esq., is stated to
be the owner of Smallhill, and it still remains vested in that
family.

At the end of the 17th century and beginning of the 18th,
another family of some local repute resided at Kernick in this
parish. Peter Prest was buried in 1710, and the name continued
on the registers until close upon the end of the century.

At the time the foregoing notes were taken, an effort was
being made by the Rector to raise funds for the purpose of
putting the ancient church into thorough repair for divine
worship, for which plans and estimate had been obtained from
the well-known architect, Mr. J. P. St. Aubyn, of London, for
the purpose of executing the work. To Mr. St. Aubyn’s courtesy
we are much indebted, as we have been on many former occasions
in like circumstances, for the plan and elevation of the then church
prepared for this work. At this juncture, however, Mr. Rundle

PARISH OF OTTERHAM. 279
received preferment in Devonshire, and his connection with
Otterham consequently ceased. Mr. Shepherd, however, his
successor, entered with great zeal upon the work of rendering
the parish church suitable for divine service. This has caused
many inevitable changes, but we are informed that the church
has been rebuilt upon the old foundations, and that much of the
old granite work has been re-used in the new building.

ScHoo..

There is no school in the Parish of Otterham. The children,
together with those of the Parish of Lesnewth, attend the
National School at St. Juliet, and representatives from Otterham
and Lesnewth are on the Board of Management, the Rector of
St. Juliet being the chairman.

THe Parsonace House.

The present parsonage house was built about 40 years ago,
during the incumbency of the Rey. Glanvill Martin now (1893),
Vicar of Halwell, near Totnes. It is within a few yards of the
site of the old parsonage, which was then taken down. It is a
well-built and convenient residence, surrounded by trees with a
pretty lawn sloping down to a large sheet of water, ornamented
by some of the finest beeches in the neighbourhood, and by a
pair of swans and other water fowl, and stocked with gold fish
and carp. The house is within two minutes walk of the church.

We must not conclude these remarks without tendering our
warm thanks to the Rev. W. Dunstan Rundle, the late, and to
the Rev. E. H. A. Shepherd, the present, Rector, for much
assistance very kindly given in their preparation.

280

PAPER AND SKETCH MAP OF CORNWALL, SHEWING THE
LOCALITY OF VARIOUS ROCKS POSSESSING POWER
TO DEFLECT THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE.

By THOMAS CLARK, Truro.

During the past summer I have devoted my spare time to
testing and mapping the basic rocks of Cornwall, believing this
subject to be worthy the attention of the miner, surveyor, and
mariner.

I am not aware that anyone, up to the present time, has
ever attempted tu ascertain the percentage of affinity or power
of such rocks over the bar magnet or needle, by scales and
weights.

The short notes I made for a former Journal respecting the
magnetic power of the Lizard rocks, has called for a far more
extensive research of our coast line, which is about 180 miles in
extent, and jutting far out into the great marine highway of
nations. This work I commenced in earnest, and obtained
materials from almost every available point, not being desirous
of pursuing the course of the mistletoe for either matter or
shelter, but with a full intent to record faithfully my own work
on the subject.

I am indebted to Mr. Howard Fox, of Falmouth, for the
sample of Canna basalt, the high power of which I have used asa
standard for other rocks. This sample was a portion of the
rock known as Compass rock, situated on the apex of the Island
of Canna in the Hebrides. It acquired its name from the fact
that when a mariner’s compass was taken round it, the end of
the needle mark N. would point to the rock, whether the observer
placed the compass E., W., N., orS., of it. This extreme power
of the rock over the needle only extended a short distance, for
at 80 yards the needle is recorded to nearly assume its normal
position, only deflecting | deg. <6; but I have found for this
hitherto basic champion of the British Isles, rivals in Cornwall,

——$—$—$—$—$—$—$————————————————

= ———— ee
a a

FU20g PLZYT

ey
"S'W'W HYV10 "SOHL Pep,

‘ADAYNOS ANVS AHL WOT GANIV.LAO ANIM SHHOLVd SISVG
HHL AO LSOW ANv ‘AVN HINVNGYOC AHI WOUNA Gadndga SI dVJ SIH.

PLATE XII.

jupod sajvunyy

“ALINIAAY O1LANDVI
ONIAMVA JO SHDOY JISV

pval uvnoy

N
‘S1083N OLLSNDVIW 3HL
1057430 OL YAMOd ONISSASSOd SHOOY SNOINVA JO ALIMVOO7 SHL ONIMOHS

ato “‘TIVMNUOO AO dVN HOLAMS

ae

uonogy
OH vopbuLtsoyy

VoL. Xl

MAGNETIC ROCKS OF CORNWALL. 281

both from St. Just in the west, and Polyphant in the east,
whose magnetic powers far surpass that of the Canna stone, as
will be seen by the following table: —

Percentage

Full weight | Reduced by| Affinity for | of Affinity

in grains. Magnet. Magnet. for Magnet.
Botallack Vag eer sein 209k 250°9 38°8 13-4
Polyphant 6.0) ce BGs] eR eee 218 9 27°6 11-4
Canna eee ete 28.8 257°5 21°3 76
Catacleus St re ease DON a7 216-0 15-7 6-7
Blackhead, Lizard .. ..| 286-9 222-6 14°3 a9

I selected from my collection of Cornish rocks 4 samples
(from which I cut 4 slices of each) and tested their various
affinities, the results of which is appended.

The St. Just sample I obtained from Capt. James Bryant;
it is from the celebrated Botallack mine, and was raised from 112
fathoms below the sea. This class of rock passes down obliquely
from the lichen-covered ridges of the hillside, far out beneath
the sea, and its magnetic power has hitherto baffled all attempts
of the engineer to work out his explorations by the aid of the
compass only.*

The sample of Polyphant stone was obtained from one of
the quarries, near Launceston, about 20 ft. from the surface. The
magnetic affinity of the rock has, I believe, been hitherto
unknown, the quarries being situated several miles inland, far
away from the mariner’s course, and in a part where mining
operations are very rarely conducted. In connection with this
rock, I found that in the shallower parts of the quarry much of the
magnetites, through atmospheric influence, were changed into
amatite, therefore in many cases it had lost much of its influence
on the magnet.

Fresh samples of the Catacleus stone (from the neighbour-
hood of Padstow) are very difficult to obtain, it being a long
time since any of it has been quarried for building purposes (that
used for road-metalling is a different material); I was therefore
compelled to fall back for my test sample on fragments of the

* A sad catastrophe has recently occurred at Wheal Owles Mine, St. Just, by
the tapping, at a great depth, of an old mine adjoining, thereby flooding Wheal
Owles and drowning 20 of the miners. I have but little doubt that this sad mishap
will some day be traced to the miner having been misled in his explorations by
the deflection of the Magnetic Needle. ‘

282 MAGNETIC ROCKS OF CORNWALL.

rock that had been in the walls of Colan church since the year
1336, and it yet retains noteworthy affinity for the magnet, which
the humid atmosphere of Cornwall has failed to destroy.

The next sample was obtained from the Blackhead, Lizard.
The rocks of this district I very briefly referred to in a former
Journal, but since then I have gleaned much fresh information
respecting them and the district in general. I find that the
Porthallow banded gneisses and serpentines N. of the Manacles
Point are more highly impregnated with magnetic fluid than I
had evidence of 12 months since, a condition I find also in
the dark serpentines and steatites a little west of the Black-
head; and fresh samples from the Manacles Point have also
revealed a higher percentage of power than the former ones.

In preparing my slices of rocks for the magnet, a difficulty
presented itself which had not previously occurred to such an
extent, viz.: the great rise in the percentage of power caused
by the friction of the saw; in some cases it raised to 25 per
cent. above its normal strength, and after a repose of a day or
two, the power would be found to have considerably relapsed,
but would again, after a more extended period, regain their
normal strength; this is undoubtedly throwing a new light on
the subject. The slices of Polyphant stone were cut off with a
tooth-saw, which did not produce such an amount of friction as
would occur in a harder stone cut with a toothless saw and emery,
therefore I did not test for a rise or fall as in the other samples.

The following table shows the rise and fall in the Magnetic
affinity, by friction in sawing, of the St. Just Hypersthene rock.

AFTER 8 HOURS REPOSE. FRESH CUT AND AFTER 28 DAYS
REPOSE.

weight | Under |y. tage’ weight Under Aint rage

grains.| Mas. ee pees . grains.) Mag | Mag. eee
No. 1 | 62°7| 50-0] 12-7| 20-2 No. 1 | 62°6) 49:0] 13-6) 21-7
No. 2 | 98:6] 92:5] 6-1| 6:3 No. 2 | 86°3) 75-0| 11-3] 13-0
No. 3 |124:5111-0) 13-5) 10:8 No. 3 | 72°3| 64:5] 7:8] 10-7
No. 4 | 68-5| 65-0) 3°5| 5-1 No. 4 | 68°5| 62:4) 61| 8-9
Totals |354-3|318-5| 35-8) 10-1 Totals |289-7250-9| 38 6| 13-4

After a further repose of 12 months the average affinities
were the same,

MAGNETIC ROCKS OF CORNWALL. 2838

No. 2 slice, immediately after being sawed, acquired the
intense affinity for the magnet of 45°6 per cent. of its weight,
and 48 hours later it relapsed to 6°3 per cent. ; in 28 days after,
being reduced in size, it acquired the power of 13 per cent.,
which I take to be its normal affinity.

These figures show how much the magnetic powers of such
rocks may be intensified by friction ; such being the case in a small
portion, I consider in the case of miles of basic beach and cliffs,
with its thousands of tons of boulders and shingles of the same
nature brought into motion by such storms as oftentimes visit our
coast, that the magnetic power would be increased to an almost
incalculable degree, to which water would be no barrier, for we
all know its conducting properties for magnetism. This power
itis dangerous to despise, as it may greatly imperil any misguided
ship that unfortunately drift within its influence.

From the observations of Messrs. Riker and Thorp, the
influence on the magnet of the Canna basalt cap scarcely reaches
down to the sea, but such is not the case with some of the
Cornish rocks, for they extend far beneath the sea, viz.: at
Botallack, St. Just, and inthe Lizard district.

POLYPHANT STONE, NEAR

LAUNCESTON, AFTER REPOSE. CANNA BASALT AFTER REPOSE.
Full | Re- Percen- Full Re- Percen-

weight) duced | . tage weight| duced 5 tage
in by Bony oe afin in by atiiniby of affin-

grains. |affinity ity. grains, jaffinity. ity.

1 | 52-2) 46-0) 6:2) 11.8 INO, I |) Wise) 7S) 43) Gell
2a Goll ovea| © 76), 11-6 No. 2 | 68-9) 64:5) 4:4) 6:5
IN@, B |) G2ea| SHO) 7/8) shale 7 No. 3 | 49°5) 45:5, 4:0) 8:0
No. 4 | 61-9] 55:4] 6-5} 10-4 No. 4 | 82:1) 74:0) 8:1) 9°8

Totals !241-5/213-9| 27-61 11-4 | Totals |278-81257-5| 21-3! 7.6

CATACLEUS STONE AFTER LONG BLACK HEAD SERPENTINE, AFTER
REPOSE. REPOSE.

1 | 21-5) 19:5] 2-01 9-3 | No. 1 | 57-1] 53-21 3-9] 7-0
. 2 | 70-5] 65-1) 5-4) 7:6 | No. 2 | 52-8] 49-5) 3-31 6-2
No. 3 | 70-4] 66-8) 3-6 5:1 | No. 3 | 53-2| 49-9] 3-3| 6-2
No. 4 | 69:3] 64-6] 47| 6:7 No. 4 | 73°8| 70:0] 3:8] 5:1

Totals |231-7/216-0| 15-7| 6-7 | Totals.|236-91222-6| 14-3 5-9

284 MAGNETIC ROCKS OF CORNWALL.

The average affinity of each sample of rock after 12 months
repose was very similar.

The bar magnet employed was 1 foot long, 14 inch wide,
and 2 inch thick.

A slice of rock with an affinity of 53 grs., was sufficient to
hold this bar magnet at right angles, either east or west of the
magnetic poles of the earth.

285

AN OGAM STONE AT LEWANNICK, CORNWALL.
BY ARTHUR G. LANGDON.

(Reprinted by permission from the Journal of the British Archeological
Association. Vol. 48, 1892).

It has always been a matter of some surprise that no
monument bearing an Ogam inscription has hitherto been found
in Cornwall, as in the adjoining county of Devon two have been
discovered: viz., one from Fardel, now in the British Museum ;
and another from Buckland Monachorum, now at Tavistock.*
I am, therefore, extremely glad to be able to report the discovery
of such a stone on 7th June last in the churchyard of Lewannick,
This place is situated about five miles south-west of Launceston.
The stone stands on the south side of the churchyard, near a.
large tree. No doubt the readers of this Journal will recollect
that the church was destroyed by fire on 11th January, 1890,
and although, since its rebuilding, it has been visited by
numbers of people, it is remarkable that no person has observed
the characters on this stone. Even the old sexton informed me
that he had never heard that it had attracted the notice of any
one.

The stone is a rectangular block of granite, apparently
deeply buried. The front is curved slightly inwards from top
to bottom, and a portion of the back is split off in a similar
manner to the ‘‘ Other Half Stone” at St. Cleer.{ There is also
a vertical fracture at the top.

With the assistance of the sexton and a friend who
accompanied me, I dug out the earth to a depth of 18 in. (a
matter of some difficulty, owing to the roots of the tree), but
no further traces of Ogams were found lower than about 9 in.
beneath the surface. The height of the stone above the ground
is 4 ft.; the width varies from 1 ft. 3 in to 1 ft. 5 in, the
greatest width being in the middle. Where the size of the
upper portion of the stone is reduced by the piece being broken
off, it is 54 in. thick; the remainder is 9 in thick.

* Hub ier’s Inscriptiones Britannie Christiane, Nos. 24 and 25.
+ Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc., vol. xlvi, p. 325.

286 OGAM STONE AT LEWANNIOK.

In addition to the Ogams there is an inscription in Latin
capitals, which is quite distinct.

It is cut in four horizontal
lines, and reads thus:

Gum

OGAM STONE AT LEWANNICK. 287

The Ogams are cut on the right hand angle of the stone,

and read from the bottom upwards, as follows:

Lit LI ST

| | TAPE EU eae ait 0
| GE N AV | ME MOR

This is merely a repetition of the Latin legend.* There is
no difficulty about the reading as far as avi, but after this it
becomes somewhat obscure. The unusual position of the first
two strokes of the final R may be explained by the necessity of
avoiding cutting the initial 1 of the Latin inscription. The
remaining strokes slope the right way after this difficulty had
been got over. It is to be hoped that Prof. Rhys will give
some notes on the inscriptions at an early opportunity.

The foregoing report appeared this year in the July
number of the Arch@ologia Cambrensis, accompanied by this
plate, for permission to use which I am indebted to the courtesy
of the Committee of the Cambrian Archeological Association.
Since the account was written I have again visited the stone,
and have discovered that a slight error has been made in my
reproduction of the Oygam inscription. In the last name the
upright letter on the narrow face of the stone, ou the right side
of the Latin inscription, should have been drawn as a notch on
the angle only; thus making four notches in all, equivalent to
the letter ¢, as shewn in the diagram given in the letterpress,
I also omitted to point out that Mr. J. Romilly Allen, F.S.A.
Scot., to whom I sent the rubbings immediately after discovering
the stone, must be credited for deciphering the inscription, and
for observing the remarkable form of the 7 at the end of it,
wherein the first two strokes of the letter slope the wrong way,
for the reason already given.

The word Memoria in the Latin inscription is curious, and
there is a great temptation to read the legend as To THE MEMORY
or INcENVvs. If this translation were correct, the Latin to
correspond should be IncENVI MEMORIAE; but as there have
obviously never been any letters beyond the side of the stone,
such a reading as suggested is, therefore, quite inadmissible.

* The only differences being that the Ogam inscription begins I@ instead
of inc, the A of AVi is missing in the Latin version, and the final 14 in the
Ogams,

288 OGAM STONE AT LEWANNICK.

Prof. Rhys, to whom I afterwards sent the rubbings, very
kindly wrote to me on the subject, and as his opinion is of so
much value, I have taken the liberty of inserting some of his
remarks in connection with the word Mrmorta, especially that
portion regarding the absence of the e.

It is in my opinion far better not to read a word at all, than
to read it incorrectly, simply for the sake of making a translation
of the whole legend, for which there is no justification. For
the present, then, I at least must be content to let MEmoRIA
remain MEMORIA, without offering any solution as to the meaning
of the word.

289

ANCIENT SETTLEMENT AT TREWORTHA.
By tHE Rey. 8S. BARING-GOULD.

In the Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall for
April, 1892, were published a notice and plans of some excavations
made in 1891 on the site of an ancient settlement at the edge of
Trewortha Marsh, on the Bodmin Moors.

A couple of days were spent in making further researches,
in the spring of 1892, and one additional hut was in part cleared
out. This is the hut marked B on the plan. It consists
of a long chamber, measuring 29-ft. by 12-ft. 6-in., the walls
composed partly of upright blocks, partly of stones laid in rude
courses. It has its entrance on the west from a sort of vestibule
to which admittance was obtained from the south. To the north
this vestibule was probably closed by a wall, but no traces of its
foundations could be discovered. On the west of this vestibule
is a bakehouse, something like that already explored and
described, Hut EK. It consists of a chamber measuring 9-ft.
10-in. by 12-ft. 6-in. Entrance was obtained from the east by
a doorway, of which one of the uprights alone remains. The
disappearance of this upright and of the wall of the vestibule
adjoining may point to removal at a later period for the con-
struction of a hedge or shed.

In the west wall of this chamber is a domed oven, the floor
composed of a slab of granite. It was of bee-hive shape and
constructed by the gradual contraction of the courses of stone.
The top has fallen in, Adjoining it is a curious locker
constructed in a curve, so that it might derive some of the
heat from the oven. It is roofed over with four granite blocks.

A second hut, A, was but partially explored. It consists of
two chambers that do not communicate with each other, that to
the east has its walls lined with upright blocks, and has its door
to the east, the western chamber has the door to the south, and
its walls are in part laid in coursés.

290 ANCIENT SETTLEMENT AT TREWORTHA.

With regard to the relics found in this settlement, it is not
possible from them to determine its age, further than that it
dates from after the Roman Conquest. The pottery is rude, all
of one type, and bears no trace of glaze. The fragments
discovered point to wide-mouthed vessels, some of them with
handles, but no spouts, so badly baked that some of the clay can
be washed away as though it had never been subjected to the
fire. Of ornament there is very little, what little there is was
made with the finger or a bit of stick.

The discovery of several small hones shows that there were
in use at the time iron tools; three or four flint flakes, and a
scraper were found, also a circular button of slate, and a small
granite quern.

A large quantity of the pottery, and the flakes and scraper
ot flint have been given by Mr. Robins Bolitho, the proprietor
of the land, tothe Penzance Museum.

In the Journal of the Institution for 1868-70, is published
a ‘‘ Notice of enclosures at Smallacombe, near the Cheesewring,”’
by Mr. J. T. Blight. These enclosures are situated about a mile
further up the valley of the Withy Brook. They are of precisely
the same character as those at Trewortha, and Mr. Bolitho is
desirous that I should explore these, so as to arrive at some more
definite conclusions as to the date of these perplexing remains.

On the hill slopes and tops around Trewortha are numerous
cairns. Of these we have explored three. One was sliced
through by the railway cutting, we found it contained a kistvaen,
and under this a cup-like depression in clay containing ashes.
A second, explored on a spur of hill dividing Tresillern Marsh
from Trewortha, yielded nothing. A third, on the slope above
Rushelford Gate, contained a granite cist enclosing ashes and
burnt bone, but nothing further.

VoL XI. PLATE XIII.

ti;
\ Ns
\ Witt « an! wn
Zi My

i
ee oS) Wy Wi; ths, Wu yin Mas
iy

(het Vil (61 Vit as ca “Hb
Mea,
be swe AE
3 - Vn Nea Wha Whey, ~~
, tyb ee iS an ao W : Ve
/ “5 > : es

i jh mney Ye,

LOCKER AND OVEN IN HUT B LOOKING Ww. —

SCALE. OF ‘FEET.

3 Pottery 4
Stour here =

a OEM ify ASV UMN pope itn tbs gy ALU eta ge
ALLLLL LEE, DLL,

= >X4 Origimal jilace of Ae
a tallery Stab (nS ot

eau vabviadnitien Kul 2 § N
pty SWS

HM cm Minit \S

HNVA Y¢IHLVIM

% ners ,
Mp!

PLAN OF HUT G.

q S57)! p af ( i

Rn iif me OE ily ayaa, RH Mig ul fil fill fi He aglilith ihiliff i LL il Miso

: : Wate z |
ae ALN att ornfiletely Z PAP aK LLL a
= eee Aya lata) 2, ‘ SKesesesss MN Me
= = ZY
= ssaiuds BY
= ‘

SM

eNOS paca

“gh
= ae b.
3 Zi TINS N28 TN ISSR Rosse UTM NU
GD uy ni « Sirona Ne
fee Lyin, ie {| I Mil ih ts i rity Tain i Paes ie «
bls eV NEN GLE TNA ; Hyg iin ii il ‘ine SS)

ug, \Door Cover
Rasplaeed,
PLAN OF HUT B.

SCALE OF FEET.

VoL. XI PLATE XIV.

QUERN, TREWORTHA:

Rac nnn nee A= = >

SAMPLES OF ORNAMENT ON THE POTTERY:

1. Border, made by twisted rope. 2. Border, ornament made with fingers and nail.
3. Handle fragment. 4. Section of fragment of lip of Pitcher.

5. Conjectural restoration of the pitchers, of which numerous fragments found,
diameters of mouths usnally 1-ft. 1-in. to 514-in.

6. Fragment, uncertain to what sort of vessel it belonged. |

291

CORNISH LANDOWNERS WHO HELD 15 LIBRATES OF LAND
OR MORE BY MILITARY SERVICE, AND WERE NOT KNIGHTS,
HENRY III, 1256.

By tHE Late WILLIAM SINCOCK.

INTRODUCTION.

Lysons, in his account of the principal Cornish landowners,
says of this record (1255): ‘It includes ali those who were
possessed of fifteen librates of land, or more, and held by knight
service.” This is clearly erroneous, for the list of 13 names, is
only of those qualified to take up knighthood, who had neglected
to do so. Nor can they be rightly described zllustriows men, as
Sir John Maclean designates them in his history of the Manor of
Hamatethy. Witte filius Robert: is supposed by him to be William
Peverel, who gave the church of St. Brewerd to the Priory of
Tywardreath. Apart from other considerations, showing the im-
probability of such being the case, it is notorious that the Peverel
family were proud of their surname, and always used it.

The record is addressed to the king—‘‘ /dlustria viro, Domino
Henrico, &¢.,” (vide Carew’s Survey of Cornwall,) and was a
return made by the Sheriff of those who held in Cornwall fifteen
librates of land or more by military service, and were not
knights.

The possession of a stated income from land at this time
entitled to knighthood, and freeholders so qualified were com-
pelled to become knights under penalty ofa fine. A proclamation
was issued that whoever had £15 and above in land, “should
be dight in his armes”’ and endowed with knighthood, or be
fined, ‘‘to the end that England, as well as Italie, might be
strengthened with chivalry.” Those knights in virtue of pro-
perty, simply called melites, held a very different position from the
milites gladio evnest or knights whom the king had created by
cincture of sword and belt.

Although only 13 names of the gentry of the county appear
in this record, it is of great interest, as most of them can be
distinctly traced to their respective families ; and their descendants,
in some cases, are still to be found among us.

292 CORNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256.

1. Thomas de Tracy heads the list, whose lands in Cornwall
are set down as worth 40 librates and more. The ancient family
of Tracy can boast of descent from Saxon ancestors, being
descended from the blood-royal of the Sazon kings of England, ~
and possessing at the present day the same property as their
Saxon ancestors did before the Conquest, viz.: Toddington, in
the county of Gloucester,—a rare instance of William the
Conqueror’s forbearance.

LineaceE oF TRAcY.

King Edgar, by his second wife, Elfrida, dau. of Ordgar,
Earl of Devonshire, was father of

Ethelred IT, surnamed The Un-ready, who, by his first wife,
Elgifa, dau. of the Ealdorman Thored, had six sons and four
daughters. The youngest daughter, Goda, married Dreux,
Count of the Vexin, a nobleman descended from Charlemagne,
by his mother, Alice or Adele, daughter of Herbert, Comte de
Senlis. By this marriage with Goda, the Count became Lord of
Sudeley and Toddington, county of Gloucester, and left issue

Ralph, created Earl of Hereford, whose son,

Harold, possessed at the General Survey, numerous lordships
in England, amongst which were Sudeley and Toddington, with
the Castle of Ewyas and other lands in Herefordshire, secured,
doubtless, by his intermarriage with Maud, daughter of Hugh
Lupus, Earl of Chester. This Harold had two sons, John, his
heir, and Robert, who had the castle of Ewyas, and assumed
therefrom the surname of Ewyas. The elder son, assuming his
surname from Sudeley, the chief seat which he inherited,
became

John de Sudeley, and Lord of Sudeley and Toddington, A.D.
1140. He married Grace, daughter and heir of Henry de Traci,
feudal lord of Barnstaple, and had issue

Ralph de Sudeley, founder of the priory of Erdburie.

William, who adopted his mother’s name of De Traci. This
William is (almost beyond doubt) the same Sir William Tracy
who was concerned in the assassination of Thomas a Becket. He
died circa 1224. By Hawise de Born, his wife, he left a son and
successor.

CORNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256. 293

Henry de Tracy, of Toddington, who died about the year
1246, leaving a daughter, Margery, wife ot Maurice de Stanlich,
and two sons, Henry, his heir, and Thomas, who became ‘* jure
uxorus Isolde de Cardinan,” of Restormel Castle, Cornwall.

This Zhomas de Tracy is the one named in our record. He
“married Jsolda the heiress of the ancient baronial family of
Cardinan. In 1256, certain proceedings were taken in the king’s
court respecting the dower of Ela, relict of Andrew de Cardinan,
when Thomas de Pridias (Prideaux) was appointed attorney for
Isolda, wife of Thomas de Tracy Andrew de Cardinan, the
father of Isolda, was the son and heir of Robert de Cardinan,
who held the baronies of Cardinan and Botardel, consisting of
71 knight’s fees. In 1264, Thomas de Tracy surrendered the
castle of Restormel, and the barony of Cardinan, to Ralph
Arundell, to be held on behalf of Simon de Monfort, as a security
against his enemies who had threatened him with destruction.
In 1266, Thomas de Tracy witnessed a grant of Lanesley, in
Gulval, by Simon de Als to the Prior of S. Germans. He died
before 1269, for in that year, Isolda de Cardinan, as she styled
herself, who had been the wife of Thomas de Tracy, conveyed the
manors of Cardinan and Botardel to Oliver de Dinaunt ; and
also in the 54th Henry III (1269) Hugo de Treverbyn, quit-
claimed the said manors to Oliver de Dinaunt for one sore hawk
—unum austurcum sorum: a hawk of the first year. It is evident
that Thomas de Tracy left no descendants. Lysons gives an
ancient seal, appendant to a grant, without date, from Isolda de
Cardinan to Henry de campo Arnulphi(Champernowne) of her
manors of Tywardreath and Ludwon. On the seal is a coat of
arms, three bendlets, with this inscription ‘‘S. Isonte de
Cardinan.” It is probable that the coat of arms on this seal was
that of Tracy, the husband of Isolda de Cardinan, one of the
coats commonly ascribed to the family of Tracy, being 2 bendlets.

2. Roger de Mesy—16 librates.

De Mesy is a name not known in Cornish history. The
nearest approach to it is De Meules or Moels. oger de Meules
was returned, in 1297, as holding lands in Cornwall of £20 a
year and upwards, but as he is stated to have died in 1294, his
name must have been still retained in the king’s books. This

294 CORNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256.

Roger de Moels served in the Welsh wars, and in the beginning
of Edward I’s reign had the honour and castle of Liampadervaur,
in Cardiganshire, committed to his custody. He married Alice,
dau. and heir of William de Preux, and dying in 1294, was
succeeded by his son, John de Moels, who, doing his homage in
the same year, had livery of his lands. This feudal lord having
distinguished himself in the Scottish wars of Edward I, was
summoned to Parliament as a Baron, from 6th February, 1299,
to 16th June, 1311. His lordship married a daughter of the
noble family of Grey, and dying in 1311, was succeeded by his
son, Micholas de Moels, second baron. This nobleman also dis-
tinguished himself in arms. He married Margaret, daughter of
Sir Hugh Courtenay, Knight, and sister of Hugh, Earl of Devon.
His lordship died in 1816, and was succeeded by his brother,
Roger de Moels, third baron, who died s.p., and was succeeded by
his brother, John de Jloels, fourth baron, whose daughter Muriel
married Sir Thomas Courtenay, Knight, and Isabella, his
sister and co-heir, married William (VII) de Botreaux, Lord
Botreaux.

3. Stephanus de Bellocampo, 15 librates.

The Beauchams of Cornwall are considered to be of the same
stock as those of Hache, in the county of Somerset; they bore
the same arms—‘‘ Vairé az. and arg.”’

The first of this Somersetshire family of whom mention is
made by Dugdale, is Hobert de Beauchamp, who in 1162. 9th of
Henry II, was sheriff of the counties of Somerset and Dorset.
This feudal lord, died in 1228, leaving in minority his son and
heir, Robert de Beauchamp, who died betore 1251, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, Hobert de Beauchamp. Of this feudal baron
nothing is known beyond his being engaged against the Welsh
with Henry III, and his founding the priory of Frithelstoke, in
the county of Devon. He was yet living in 1257, and was
ancestor of the Barons Beauchamp.

In Devonshire, we find in the 12th of John, that Guy de
Beauchamp was sheriff. In Cornwall, the earliest known of this
family is Stephen de Bellocampo (Beauchamp. )

In 47th Henry III (1263) a fine was levied in which John le
Petit and Alice his wife were plaintiffs, and Stephen de Bello-
campo, defendant, wherein Stephen granted to John and Alice,

CORNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256. 295

Benherton (Binnerton in Orowan) and lands held of Robert
Carminow. Alice, wife of Le Petit, with her sister, Emma, were
coheirs of Mirabell (née Beauchamp?) once wife of Roger
Durhull. Ped. fin. 833 Henry III. (1249).

The manor of Binnerton, the Bennartone of Domesday,
belonged in the reign of Richard II to the Beauchamps ; after-
wards to the De Spencers. There was formerly a chapel at
Binnerton dedicated to 8. Augustine. One of the enclosures on
the estate still bears the name of the chapel field.

(4.) Henry, son of Henry de la Pombre—30 librates.

We find the name of Henry de Pomerai or Pomeroy, in the
records of 1165, and 1213-20, of which we have given an account.
This is an instance of the transmission of the same christian
name through several generations of the same family ;—a com-
mon practice in many Norman families, notably in that of the
Grenvilles, all the heirs-male of which, until 1295, bore the
christian name of Richard.

It was to the Henry de Pomeroy, mentioned above, that Henry
III, in 1266, granted a fair at Tregony on the festival of St.
Leonard, (Nov. 6) which is still held.

According to tradition, Tregony Castle, of which there are
now no remains, is said to have been built by Henry de Pomeroy
(father or grandfather of Henry, of this record,) on behalf of
John, Earl of Cornwall, at the time that king Richard I was in
the Holy Land; it was standing, and was the seat of the
Pomeroys, in 1478, when William of Worcester thus describes
it—‘‘ Castellum Tregheny stat, pertinet Pomereys, in Tregeny burgagio
super le south.”

(5.) Robert de Carmeneu—16 librates.

This Robert was, possibly, a son of that Roger de Carminow,
who, about 1220, was witness to an undated charter relating to
Trenant, and another charter, dated 1235, was witnessed by
Robert de Carminow himself.

There is also in the muniment room at Coker Court, county
Somerset, an undated deed, which, from internal evidence, would
seem to have been made between the 20th and 30th Henry III,
(1285 to 1245.) By this deed, Robert de Kayrminou gives
and grants all his lands of Trewynian and of Bodanan which he

296 CORNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256.

had of the gift of Luke de Kayrminou, to Thomas Peticru and his
heirs, to be held of the said Robert and his heirs for homage
and service.

According to ‘‘ Testa de Nevil,” in 1235, Roger de Kayrminou
held one acre of land in Dobelboys, containing one carucate
Cornish. He also was witness to an undated charter relating to
Trenant, circa 1220, which is still in the muniment room at
Tregothnan. Robert de Carmeneu, who held the 16 librates, was,
perhaps, the father of Sir Roger de Carminow, who married
Sara, daughter and co-heir of Gervas de Hornicote alias Tintaioel,
and heir of her niece, Margery.

In 1268, Stephen Beauchamp assigns to Jno. Le Petit and
Alice his wife, inter alva all the services of Robert Carmynow ( Vide
No. 3 De Bellocampo.)

‘“The Carminows, whose property, as well as the family,
spread far and wide, both continuing to be esteemed among the
first in the county, till the reign of Queen Elizabeth, appear on
record here for the first time.’”—Lysons.

(6.) Walls. filius Roberti—15 librates.

In the Scutage-Roll, No. 2, /obert Fitz-Walter held 11
knights’ fees of the fee of Richard de Lucy, his maternal grand-
father, who died 1179, and it is owing to his marriage with
Maud, eldest daughter of the Justician, that Walter Fitz-Robert,
father of Robert, acquired his Cornish property. Walter died
in 1198, and Robert, his son and successor, died at the siege of
Damietta, in 1284.

We now, in 1256, find Wiliam Fitz- Robert holding 15 librates
of land; and in 1261, Robert Fitz-Robert, probably a younger
brother, was admitted, by Bishop Bronescombe, to the rectorv of
Gwinear, on the presentation of the Lady Jane Champernown,
daughter of Thomas Champernown.

It was not until the reign of Richard II that the name of
Fitzwalter appears among the Sheriffs of Cornwall, and then, in
1384, Sir William Fitzwalter, Knt., fills that office, and dies in
the following year. His father, Robert Fitzwalter, married
Jane, daughter and heir of Robert Fleming, by Hester, daughter
and heir of John Berkeley, son of Sir Simon Berkeley, Sheriff
of Cornwall 1287 and 1288.

CORNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256. 297

Robert Fitz-Walter, in 30th Edward I, (1802) brought his
Writ of Ael against Margery, ‘‘ que fut la feme de Richard le
Flemeng,” at Launceston. The tenements were formerly in the
seisin of one Robert de Hokyssahm (Hokisham) who died seised
of the said tenements, after whose death, the said tenements
with others descended to this Margery and one Maud as daughters
and one heir; from Maud descended the right of her purparty
to one Gilda as daughter ; and from Gilda to one William as
son, who is under age; and we pray aid of him. (Year Book
30 and 31 Kdward I, p. 230.)

From the above we learn that Robert de Hokisham had two
daughters— Margery, who married Richard le Flemeng, and
Maud, who married * * * * and hada daughter Gilda, who
married * * * * and had ason, William, then under age, on
whose behalf Robert Fitz-Walter brought his writ.

In 1338, when an account was taken of the knights’ fees
belonging to the Honour of the Castle of Launceston in the
hands of the Duke,—‘“ Johanna, who was the wife of William,
son of Robert, holds half of one fee in Penros.” This entry
refers to Johanna, wife of William Fitz-Walter, son of Robert
Fitz-Walter, holding half a fee in Penrose-Burdon. By
Margaret, daughter and eventual heir of William Fitz-Walter,
the manor of Penrose-Burdon was conveyed in marriage to the
family of Wibbery, from whom it passed through the Bonvilles
to the Coplestones ; by the latter it was alienated, in 1592, to
Billing, alias Trelawder, of Hengar. It remained in the name
of Billing until the death of John Billing of Hengar, in 1688.
His daughter and heir carried it in marriage to the family of
Lower, from which family through the Michells, it passed to the
Onslows, the present possessors.

Early notices of Fitz-Robert occur in the time of Henry II,
John, and Henry III, in charters undated and dated, relating to
Cornwall. (1) Inthe grant by William Peverel of the church of
St. Breward to the church of St. Andrew, Tywardreath, and the
monks there serving God, five sons of Robert are among the
witnesses— William, Walter, John, Stephen, and Richard. In
the same charter, Andrew, the Prior, concedes to William
Peyerel and his heirs to have divine service performed three times

298 CORNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256.

a week in his chapel at Hamatethy by the mother church, when-
ever William or his wife should be present. This is also
witnessed by William and Walter, fili’s Kobert:. Probable date,
1170.

(2) The next charter is a confirmation of the church of Minster
by William de Botreaux, of the gift of his ancestors—witnessed
by William and Walter, sons of Robert, undated, probably circa
1205. (8) Iuthe charter of Henry III, dated May 6th, 1234,
ratifying the grant of Robert de Cardinham to Tywardreath —
Priory, the parish of Lelant, with the villages of Lelant town
and Tredreath, and half-an-acre of land, isincluded. This grant
is recognized by Geoffry Fitz-Robert of Trembethow, in Lelant—
“ Gaufridus filius Roberti de Trembedhov.”

This throws light upon an entry in the Book of Aids, 20th
Edward III, when the aid was levied for knighting the king’s
eldest son, in which Johanna, wife of William 7Zremblethou is
mentioned, which William, in right of his wife, held a half fee
in Penrosburden. We know the husband of Johanna was
William Fitz-Robert, and consider that Trembethow, in Lelant,
was their seat, giving name to the Fitz-Roberts at this early
period.

(7.) Mare le Flamane—16 librates.

In 1165, Erkenbald fil. S— (Stephani) is mentioned in the
Public Records relating to Cornwall. In 1196, Stephanus
Flandrensis : and in 1218, Archemaund Flandrensis are in the
Scutage-Rolls. Archenbald le Fleming is also recorded in Testa
de Nevil, p. 201, as holding, in 1235, several small fees
in Bray, county of Cornwall, with appurtenances in Devon.
In 1256, Arckenbald was probably dead, and was succeeded
by Ware le Flamane. This Mare was perhaps the immediate
predecessor of Sir Robert (? Roger) le Flamanc, Knt., who
was Lord of Nantalan in 1294. This manor has recently been
called Nanstallen, and has, for six centuries, been vested in the
Flamank family. There are several ancient court rolls of this
manor in the possession of the family. In the reign of Edward
II, Mark Flamank, son of Sir Roger, was seized of a tenement
in Boscarne bighan, Little Boscarne, near Bodmin, as appears
from the Assize Rolls of 40th Edw. III (1367).

COBNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256. 299

Lysons says, in his remarks on this record, that ‘‘ the name
of the Flamanks still continues, although most of the landed
property has passed to the heiresses of elder branches.” The
manor of Bray, in Morval, is said to have been sold before 1564,
by Christopher Coplestone, who was Sheriff of Devon in 1560.
He was descended, through females, by 10 generations from
Robert Fleming, who married Hester, daughter and heir of Jno.
Berkeley. Their daughter and heir, Jane, married Robert Fitz-
Water, father of William Fitz-Water, Sheriff of Cornwall, 7th
Richard II.

(8.) Wilh. Wise—16 librates.

Greaston or Greston, in Lezant, was the ancient seat of the
Wysea or Wise family, afterwards of Sydenham, in Marystow,
Devon.

William Wysa was one of the witnesses to a deed made by
Richard de Landu, of Lezant, without date, but evidently of the
period of this record, as the custom of affixing dates to deeds
was not become general in the reign of Henry III. Another
deed, without date, but somewhat later, as Thomas, son of
Richard de Landu, is named, was executed by Sir William Wysa,
of Greyston, probably circa 1270. Init he granted to William,
son of Warine de Landu, “ all my right that I had, or could have,
to one pair of white gloves, with homage & service, which
Thomas, son of Richd. de Landu, & his heirs or assigns, were
wont to pay & to do yearly, unto me & my heirs & assigns at the
Feast of St. Michael, for that half acre of land which Willm.
Fridey formerly held in the vill of Landu.”’

Constance, daughter of William Wise, of Grayston, married
William Godolphin (Visitation of Cornwall, 1620, Godolphin
Ped.).

After leaving Greston, the Wise family removed to Syden-
ham, near Tavistock, where they resided until the reign of James
I, at whose coronation, in 16038, Sir Thomas Wise received the
honour of knighthood. His only son, Edward, dying unmarried,
‘‘his grand-daughter in the female line, Mrs. Bridget Hather-
leigh,”’ by her marriage with the gallant royalist, Col. Arthur
Tremayne, carried the house and lands of Sydenham to the
family of Tremayne.

300 CORNISH LANDOWNERS 1256.

(9.) Jordanus de Hacumb—14 librates.

Haccombe is two miles east of Newton Abbot, in Devon, and
gave name to a family which, at a very early period, possessed
this property. It is a question whether the original name of the
family was /itz-Stephen, or De Haccombe. In 35th Edw. I (1806)
at the Assizes then held at Launceston, William (VI) de
Botereus (Botreaux) recovered from Cecelia de Haccombe, Stephen
de Haccombe, and others, ove water-mill, &c., in Castelboterel,
which Cecilia claimed as a part of Worthefala (Worthevale),
which she held in dower of the inheritance of the said William
de Botereus, and by his assignment. John Lerchedekne, 2nd
baron Archdekne, who was born in 1306, married Cecilia, daugh-
ter of Jordan Fitz-Stephen de Haccombe. This Cecilia, it is evident,
could not have been the claimant of dower in 1306, mentioned
above. By this lady, his lordship had nine sons, of whom
Warine succeeded him as 3rd baron. Dying in 1400-1, his
second daughter and coheir, Philippa, born 1386, in 1407 was
second wife of Sir Hugh, second son of Kdward Courtenay, of
Godlington, who was second son of Hugh Courtenay, second
Earl of Devon. By Philippa, Sir Hugh Courtnay had an only
daughter, Joane, whose first husband was Nicholas, Lord Carew,
of Mohuns Ottery, and thus Haccombe became the property of
the Carews, resident there for the last 450 years. Sir Nicholas
Carew, Knight, commonly called Lord Carew, died in 1449.

Returning to Sir John Lercedekne, Knight, husband of
Cecilia de Haccombe, we learn that in 1341, he endowed the
chantry of Haccombe with the great tithes of S. Hugh de
Quedyock, in conformity to the wishes of Sir Stephen de Haccombe,
Knight, who had applied to Bishop Grandison (cons. 13527, ob.
1368.) to erect the parish church of St. Blaize at Haccombe, the
burial place of his ancestors, into an Archpresbytery, but, before
his request could be complied with, the good knight died. In
Oliver’s Historic Collections is printed the foundation deed of
this college. The community, besides the Archpriest, consisted
of 5 clergymen, called Socw. They were bound to sing the
canonical office, and to celebrate obits. All dwelt under the same
roof, and lived in common. ‘The archpriest had to pay annually
six marks to the treasurer of the cathedral of Exeter. The
living of Quethiock is a vicarage ; the tithes were commuted

CORNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256. 301

in 1842, at £686 1s.—viz. to the Vicar, £342 9s., and to the
rector or chantor of Haccombe, £343 12s. The church at
Haccombe, dedicated to 8S. Blaise, contains, in fine preservation,
many interesting monuments of the Haccombes and Carews.

(10.) Robertus de Draenas—15 librates.

No family of this name isto be found in any Cornish record,
and bearing in mind the fact that the spelling of names in these
ancient records is very erroneous, we must have recourse to
probabilities, and find some family of importance, at this period,
with the christian name of Robert. De Draenas we take to be
De Pridias. Draenas has the same number of letters as Pridias :
the initial letter D may be a mistake for P, the second, sixth,
and seventh letters are identical.

Robert de Pridias was the son of Sir Thomas de Pridias,
Knt., who, in 3rd Henry III (1218) was placed in remainder in
default of issue of John Bevill and Agnes his wife, enter alia, in
the manor of Wolfyston, county Cornwall. His mother was
Jane, daughter of Philip Brodrygan (Bodrigan). This Philip
had a brother Reginald, who was attorney for him in 1253.

Robert de Pridias granted tothe monastery of Tywardreth
certain lands in Frank Almoigne.

The family of De Pridias (Prideaux) held the manor of
Predeaux of the Priory of Tywardreth. Baldwin de Pridias,
who died 1165, had a grant in fee of the manor of Prideaux from
Osbert, Prior of Tywardreth. The last heir-male of the elder
branch of this ancient family died 11th Richard II (1388) ; his
daughter and heir, Jane, married Philip Arvas, whose grand-
daughter, Johanna, brought the manor of Prideaux to the
Hearles of West Hearle, in Northumberland, a branch of which
family resided in Cornwall. At the death of Northmore Herle,
Hsq., of Landew, in 1737, he bequeathed this manor with other
property to his six half-sisters. Eventually Prideaux was sold
in 1806, to the Rashleigh family, who are the present pro-
prietors.

(11.) Philippus de Valletorta—40 librates.

This ancient baronial family became extinct in 1289, when
Roger de Valletort died, bequeathing his large landed property
to his two sisters. One, Isabel, married first Alan de Dunstan-

302 CORNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256.

ville, second Thomas Corbet, Sheriff of Shropshire, in 1249; the
other sister married Pomeroy of Berry-Pomeroy, county Devon,
and Tregony Castle. Roger had, 14 years before his death,
resigned his right and interest in the manor and castle of
Trematon to Richard, Earl of Cornwall, after Corbet and
Pomeroy, descendants of the two sisters, had petitioned for the
recovery of the manor and honor of ‘Trematon, alleging
that Roger when he made the deed of gift in favour of the Earl,
was not compos mentis; their suit was without success in 1315,
and renewed in 1327 with like result. Finally, in 1889, Henry
de Pomeroy, in consideration of an annuity of £40, released to
Edward the Black Prince, all right and title as heir of Roger de
Valletort to the honor and castle of Trematon.

(12.) Richard de Grenuile—s50 librates.

The largest landowner named in this record, which, it must
be remembered, is only a list of 18 persons of full age who were
required to take up knighthood, is Zchard de Grenville. His
mother, it is reasonably supposed, was the heiress of Thomas
Fitz-Nicholas de Middleton. Although long settled in Devon,
this is the first time that the name of Grenville appears in Cornish
records. Until 1295, all the heirs male of the Grenville family
bore the christian name of Richard. The owner of 50 librates,
succeeded his father, e’rca 1217, and is supposed to have married
Jane, daughter of William Trewynt. In consideration of a fine,
levied 22 Henry III, 1287, he conveyed the advowson of the
church of Kilkhampton, and the advowson of the church of
Bideford, in Devon, to Ralph, abbot of Tewkesbury. Notwith-
standing, he, on April 26, 1261, presented Henry de Bratton to
the rectory of Bideford. At his death he left two sons, both in
their minority, Richard and Bartholomew.

(13.) Henricus de Dones—15 librates.

Tonkin takes this Henry de Dones ‘‘to be the same with
Dawney.” We are disposed to consider le Daneys the family
named, and that Dones should be Danes.

The manor of Lesnewith, together with the advowson of the
church thereto annexed, was, in the 13th century, in the
possession of the family of Denys, then styled Ze Daneys, who
held of the family of Pomeroy as of their manor of Tregony.

CORNISH LANDOWNERS, 1256. 303

In the 22nd Henry III (1294) Fulco, Abbot of Valle, suffered
a fine for himself and his church of Valle, to Henry le Daneys, in
the advowson of the church of Lysnewyth, reserving to himself
and his successors, and the church of Valle, the ancient pension
by custom payable out of the same, and from that time the
rectory has been appurtenant to the manor of Lesnewith. Henry
le Deneys was rector in 1297, and was one of those clergy who, in
that year, in obedience to the Pope, Boniface VIII, refused to
pay the subsidy levied by the king. Benedict Reynward, a
large dealer in tin about this time, became surety for the pay-
ment of the fine which the rector was compelled to pay for
obeying the Pope’s bull. This important manor continued
vested in the family of Denys until the death of Anthony Denys
of Orleigh in 1641, leaving by Gertrude, his wife, daughter of
Sir Bernard Grenville, three daughters.

304

SOME REMARKS ON THE PELAGIC LIFE OCCURRING IN AND
NEAR FALMOUTH HARBOUR, WITH ADDITIONS TO THE
FAUNA OF THE DISTRICT.

From August, 1891, to December, 1892.
By RUPERT VALLENTIN.

1. Pevacic Lire.

Since my last report (10)* my attention has been mainly
directed to the study of the pelagic life occurring in and near
Falmouth harbour.

When commencing my investigations in 1890, I saw that the
direction of the wind and strength of the tide played most impor-
tant parts in my surface collections ; and that in order to make
the best surface-net gatherings, information relating to the tidal
currents in the harbour and on the coast outside would have to
be obtained. Since that time I have consulted pilots, fishermen,
and others on the tidal currents both in the bay and harbour,
but have experienced the greatest difficulty in sifting the
evidence ; for in the majority of instances my informants flatly
contradicted each other. I am in hopes however that within
another year, I shall be in possession of sufficient reliable
information to enable me to construct a series of charts, shewing
the principal changes of the currents in and near Falmouth
harbour. Speaking generally, given a south-westerly wind and
a rising tide, a strong current from the Lizard sweeps into
Falmouth bay round the Manacle rocks, and from thence into
the harbour ; the main body of water flowing into the latter
between the Black rock and St. Anthony point. On the other
hand during an ebb tide, pilots when sailing a vessel into the
harbour, particularly if the wiud is at all light, never allow the
vessel to occupy a position south of the Zoze point ; as the tide
at this stage would sweep the ship into Gerrans bay. This
statement receives confirmation from personal observation.
During the summer, when the wind is blowing from the north to

* See references at the close of paper.

PELAGIO LIFE, FALMOUTH. 305

north-west, I have frequently seen Gerrans bay swarming with
specimens of Aurelia aurita. On these occasions one may hunt
in vain in Falmouth harbour for specimens of this species.

Up to the spring of the current year my only craft for
collecting purposes was a small open eleven-foot sail and rowing
boat, in which it was not prudent to venture more than a few
miles from shore. On discussing this matter with my friend,
Mr. A. Ingram, last winter, he strongly advised me to obtain a
double centre-board canoe, and on his return to London kindly
sent me designs and full instructions for building a canoe
according to his ideas. During the early part of the present
summer the boat was launched. I think it would be difficult to
find her equal, not only for sea-going qualities, but also for
sailing capabilities; and I gladly take the present opportunity
of thanking him for the trouble he has taken.

T also have to thank my friends Mr. J. T. Cunningham and
Mr. Walter Garstang, both on the staff of the Marine Biological
Association of the United Kingdom, for their valuable assistance
to me on occasions too numerous to mention.

As I have already published a list of the various species of
copepods and other forms usually to be found in the sea near
Falmouth, I propose in my present communication to make some
extracts from my note-book; recording the variations in the
temperatures of the sea, and forms of interest captured from time
to time in my tow-net.

August, 1891. During this month the surface temperature
of the sea was very low, and ranged from 58°F on the first of
the month to 57°6° F on the 29th.

On the first of the month after a considerable interval, a few
specimens of Corycceus anglicus occurred in the surface-net
gathering made on that day. Actinotrocha, the beautiful larva
of Phoronis, was fairly abundant in surface-gatherings through-
out the month. Noctiluca miliaris had been fairly abundant in
the sea since the beginning of the year up to the present time.
On the 6th of the month /northerly winds set in, which swept
these surface forms out to sea, and by the 17th, this species
vanished from the neighbourhood for a considerable time. On

306 PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

the 8th, a few specimens of Sarsia prolifera were captured. So
far as I am able to discover, this species has hitherto escaped
the notice of local naturalists. On the 15th, a few Tornaria in
an advanced stage of development were captured in the surface-
net. On the 26th, a single specimen of the interesting Pteropod,
noticed in my previous report, was secured, the wind on that
occasion being from the westward.

September. There was not much variation in the surface
temperature of the sea during this month. On the first, the
surface temperature was 56°9°F, and on the 30th, 57°6° F. On
the 2nd, a single male specimen of Centropages typicus, and
one small specimen of Monstrilla rigida were secured. ‘The most
interesting specimen obtained on that occasion was one Campontia
eruciformis figured and described by Dr. Johnston (7}. Since
then I have caught not only in my surface-net, but also during
shore collecting, four more specimens of this interesting animal.
The reason it is found in surface-net gatherings is, I imagine,
that during gales of wind it is dislodged by the force of the
waves from its usual habitat at the roots of sea-weeds; and on
finding itself at the mercy of the currents, clings to the nearest
fragment of weed till left stranded again by the tide. Dr.
Johnston, Joc. cit, is of the opinion that this animal is not the
larva of a dipterous insect. Mr. Gosse (6) in his excellent manual
writes concerning it as follows :—‘‘ There is, however...... the
larva of some two-winged fly, which is marine. I kave
repeatedly taken it on our southern shores, quite out of the
influence of fresh water. That my specimens are those of a
Dipterous larva, I have the high authority of Mr. Francis
Walker, who has examined one.”’ After careful examination of
the few specimens I have captured of this species, I have no
hesitation in stating that Mr. Gosse’s remarks are correct. I
have invariably seen in my specimens a distinctly paired longi-
tudinal tracheal vessel, which is placed in the lateral body wall,
and which appears to open to the exterior by a paired opening
on either side of the anus. The attempts I have made by
means of serial sections to determine this point, have so far
been failures, owing to the thickness of the cuticle of the
animal; but I am in hopes at some future date of making some
further study of this animal.

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH. 307

During the calm summer evenings this year, I have
frequently observed two species of dipterous insects flying just
on the surface of the sea, and also hovering on the rocks forming
the Black rock, when left exposed by the tide. After some
considerable difficulty I captured a few specimens of both
species, but so far I have been unable to identify either.

Mr. Julien Deby (3) has recorded the capture of a marine
dipterous insect at Biarritz, and has named it Psamathiomya
pectinata.

On the 4th of this month one female Monstrilla rigida with
ova attached was secured in the tow-net ; and in the same gather-
ing specimens of Evadne nordmanii and Podon intermedius
occurred in abundance. On the 9th there was a light easterly
wind blowing, the surface temperature being 57°9°F, and the
tide one hour on ebb. On that morning I worked the surface-
net in two places with a view to study what effect the wind had
on surface forms. The net on the first occasion was worked
across the tide from half way between the Black rock to St.
Anthony’s point. There was in this gathering a fair quantity
of the following forms :—Larvee of Decapod crustacea, Cypho-
nautes, medusiform stage of Obelia gelatinosa, and some common
species of various copepods. The net was then worked along
the southern edge of the Eastern breakwater, amid the debris
blown thither by the wind. In this locality, in addition to the
forms above mentioned, I noticed in the gathering a single
specimen of Monstrilla and several specimens of the Pteropod.
On the 11th, the only interesting specimen noticed in the
gathering was a single larval form of Kucratea chelata. From
the 12th to the 17th, the species of Peridinium, recorded in my
last report, literally swarmed in the upper portions of Penryn
ereek. About the 20th, a very interesting species of Infusorian,
new to me, was very abundant in the sea in the neighbourhood
of Flushing. After a careful examination of several specimens,
I have identified it as Prorocentrum micans figured and des-
eribed by S. Kent (8.) At this time I had occasion to examine
the crystalline style of several specimens of Ostrea edulis from
that locality. I was astonished to find imbedded in the
erystalline style quantities of Prorocentrum micans; but I
hunted in vain to find asingle specimen of Peridinium in that

308 PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

structure. On the 25th, the only form of interest taken was a
single male of Pontellia wollastonii. On the 26th, after strong
winds from the west south-west, the tide being three-quarters
flood, and surface temperature 57°9 F, I collected a fair quantity
of a species of Siphonophore quite new to me. On the 17th of
October following, my friend Mr. Cunningham wrote to me as
follows:—‘‘ Do you know I have been taking immense numbers
of Siphonophores in the tow-net for the last month or so?
They have only one swimming bell or nectocalyx, and belong to
the genus Muggiacea.” Later, Mr. Cunningham published (2)
a short paper with two figures of this Siphonophore, and named
it Muggicea atlantica. On comparing my sketches with his
illustrations, I have no hesitation in stating that our specimens
are identical.

October. The surface temperature of the sea on the 2nd
was 57°6F, and on the 21st 58°F. On the &th numerous speci-
mens of the Pteropod were again secured in the surface-net, and
with them a fair quantity of Tintinnus ampulla occurred. On
the 20th, the wind was fresh from the south-west, and tide one
hour on ebb, when the surface-net was worked, the temperature
being on that occasion 55°F. I found in the collection, in
addition to the usual forms, a number of Ceratium tripos, and
with them a single specimen of a species of Radiolarian. I have
tried to name this single specimen, but my attempts have so far
been unsuccessful. This is the only occasion I have ever
secured a specimen of Radiolarian in my tow-net during my
residence in Cornwall.

November. During the early part of this month we had
gales of wind from the south-east and east, and it was not until
the 5th that I was able to venture out in my boat surface-
netting. The surface temperature on that day was 50° F. The
only forms of interest captured on that occasion were quantities
of Sagitta and Corycceus anglicus. From the 6th to nearly the
end of the month, I was unable to do any surface-netting, owing
to an attack of Influenza. On the 30th, when I resumed my
investigations, I found the surface temperature had fallen to
46°F. An examination of the gathering made on that day,
shewed that Evadne and Podon had vanished from the surface
for a time. On the other hand, Sagitta occurred in profusion.

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH. 309

December. On the 4th of the month, surface-temperature was
51°6F. I took this temperature twice, for it occurred to me at the
time, what a great rise there was in the surface temperature, but
with the same results in both cases. On the 16th, the wind was
from the south-east, surface temperature at 11 a.m. being 51°F.
The tide was three-quarters ebb when the surface-net was worked
off the Zoze point. The most interesting forms secured were two
specimens of Calanus finmarchius, and what I at first imagined to
be a single specimen of Mysis. On returning to my hut, a close
examination of this specimen shewed me that I had caught a
species of shrimp with luminous organs, called Nyctiphanes
couchii. This solitary specimen measured 11 m.m. in length,
and seemed to be in the same stage as those captured in
abundance off St. Abbs Head by Mr. Cunningham and myself
in a tow-net during June, 1887. On the 21st, the only form of
interest obtained was one specimen of Anomalocera patersonii.
The surface temperature on that occasion was 46°F.

January, 1892. The wind during the greater part of this
month was from the north, and as a natural consequence, the
surface-net gatherings were neither rich nor varied. The surface
temperature on the Ist was 49°3F. On the 18th, surface tem-
perature being 47° F, a fair quantity of the free swimming larvee
of Chiton were captured in my tow-net. A few days later, when
collecting at low water under the Hastern breakwater, I found
attached to the balks of timber innumerable quantities of
capsules deposited by these mollusks. Towards the end of the
month Oithonia spinifrons occurred in profusion in tow-net
gatherings.

February. Surface temperature on the Ist was 46°F. On
the 5th, I noticed in my tow-net gathering made on that morning
the first trace of the gelatinous alga recorded in my previous
report. On the 15th, the surface temperature had risen to 48°F.
During this month specimens of the ephyra stage of Aurelia
occurred very sparingly in tow-net gatherings, and as a natural
consequence, Aurelia aurita, the adult animal, has been quite
searce in the harbour this summer. On the 28rd, I noticed
that several females of Oithonia spinifrons had ova attached.
Towards the end of the month the surface temperature of the
sea had fallen to 44°6 F, the weather at that time being very
cold and stormy.

310 PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

March. Cold, wild weather prevented my getting afloat till
the 8th. The surface temperature on that day was 40°°6 F. The
only forms of interest secured on that occasion were large
quantities of Sagitta, averaging three-quarters of an inch in
length.

Since the 15th of last month the gelatinous alga had been
slowly increasing in quantity in the sea up tothistime. On the
17th, however, a rapid increase set in, and by the 21st, the
gelatinous alga was plainly visible in the sea, even to the most
casual observer. On that day a rise took place in the surface
temperature, 45°F being the temperature recorded. During
this time the zoaea stage of various species of decapod crustacea
was very abundant in the sea. On several occasions I have
purchased from men catching smelts near my hut a few of their
fish in a living condition. In addition to the fragments of
potato, by means of which the men capture them, I have been
able to recognize partially digested specimens of Sagitta, and
zoaea stage of decapod larve in their stomachs.

On the 21st, I secured a single specimen of Arachnactis
albida. The surface temperature on that day being 45°F. On
the 24th the larvee of Balanus abounded in the tow-net. From
that day till the beginning of June surface-netting was impossible,
owing to the abundance of the gelatinous alga in the sea The
surface temperature varying during this time from 50°F to 53°F.

In my previous report, I directed attention to the fact that,
so far as my experience had gone, when these gelatinous bodies
were most abundant in the sea, Noctiluca miliaris also
abounded. My observations this year showed that this state-
ment is not correct. This year, during the time the alga was so
very abundant, specimens of Noctiluca were never seen. Indeed,
it was not till the 15th of November that any specimens of this
species of Infusoria were seen in tow-net gatherings; and even
then they were but sparingly present.

June. It was not till the 2nd of this month that I was able
to resume my surface-net investigations. ‘The surface tempera-
ture of the sea on that day was 53°F. On examining the
contents of my surface-net gathering made on that morning, I
found that Evadne nordmanii and Podon intermedius were fairly

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH. oll

abundant, and with them specimens of various common species
of copepods, the only interesting form among them being one
Monstrilla rigida. On the 7th, a few specimens of Cyphonautes
were noticed. On the 13th, while sailing in my canoe to St.
Mawes on a shore hunting expedition, I noticed in the sea some
beautiful specimens of a species of Ctenophore new to me,
swimming just beneath the surface of the water. I managed
with a hand-net to capture some specimens of this species, as all
those collected with a surface-net were invariably damaged. A
short time later, as I was unable to identify this Ctenophore, I
sent some rough sketches to Mr. Garstang, who kindly replied to
my queries as follows:—...... ‘‘T was much interested in your
queries after my paper read at the Devon Association, because
your ‘‘ Fig. 1” is certainly one of those which I described to them
—a Ctenophore of the Lubate Order, Genus Bolina. The species
is not quite certain, but it is probably hydatina of Ohun, and
also probably alata of L. Agassiz..... They appeared in the
Sound in great numbers on May the 28th, and a few were seen
on the 27th and 29th.”

Although I was not using the surface-net on the dates
mentioned by Mr. Garstang, owing to the presence of the gela-
tinous bodies in the sea, I feel fairly confident that these
Ctenophores did not then occur in Falmouth harbour in any
quantity. All that time I was industriously engaged shore-
hunting in various parts of the harbour, and I feel confident that
so prominent an object as this Ctenophore would not have escaped
my notice. Be that as it may, after the 15th of this month I
was unable to secure any more specimens of this beautiful
species.

On the 16th and two following days, I captured in the
surface-net a few specimens of the free larval form of a species
of Synapta. The only description I have been able to discover
relating to the later stages of this species is by Mr. W. Thomson
(9). I made some drawings of my specimens, and also placed
about a dozen of these larval forms in a jar with a slow current
of water always passing through it. In spite of all my care, in
a few days all these specimens died. During this month
specimens of Thaumentias pilosella, already recorded by Dr.
Cocks, were very abundant in tow-net gatherings, made not only

312 PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

in the harbour but also in the open sea. Owing to the fragile
nature of this species, it is difficult to collect perfect specimens
in the harbour. On several occasions I was able during this
time to capture perfect specimens of this species about three
miles south of the Zoze point. On the 27th, a few Auricularia
larvee were obtained. On the 30th the surface temperature was
56°3°R. On that day, specimens of Appendicularia were
exceedingly abundant in the tow-net.

July. On the 4th the surface temperature was 56°3° F.
During this month Appendicularia continued to be very
abundant in my tow-net gatherings. On the 7th, the following
species of naked-eyed medusze were to be found in large
quantities: Sarsa tubulosa and Thaumentias hemispherica, both
recorded by Dr. Cocks; Lizzia octopunctata, which at times was
swarming in the sea, appears to be new to the district. In the
same gathering occurred two specimens of Monstrilla rigidia, to
one of which ova were attached. On the 11th I took several
Lizzia blondina. In the same gathering a single specimen of
Campontia eruciformis was observed. On the 13th the surface
temperature was 59:9°F. On that day I got several specimens
of a species of medusa, quite new to me. I made some careful
drawings of one or two, and finally sent some of the sketches to
Mr. Garstang; but he was unable to identify the specimens.
Examples of this species continued to be fairly numerous in
surface-net gatherings from that date till the close of the month,
when they suddenly vanished. On the 16th several larve of
EKucratea chelata were again secured. On the 21sta few Sagitte
were captured in the tow-net, the gonads of all the specimens
examined being empty. On the 28th we had easterly winds in
the morning, surface temperature being 60° F. The gathering
made with the surface-net across the rising tide on that morning
was very rich in results. Zoza and megalope stages of species of
crustacea, Centropages typicus, males only, various species of
Plutei, Oithonia spinifrons, Evadne, Podon, Cyphonautes, and
various species of spinid larvee were all abundant. In this
gathering I observed a single specimen of Tornaria in a very
early stage of development. On the 30th, Pilidium began to
appear in tow-net gatherings, surface temperature on that day
being 61-9°F,

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH. 313

August. During this month the surface temperature of the
sea varied but little. On the 6th, surface temperature being
61:9°F, Pilidium and Auricularia larvee were very abundant in
the tow-net. In the same gathering I secured a single specimen
of what I imagine to be an advanced larval form of a species of
Holothurian. I made two drawings, and later cut some serial
sections of this specimen, but in spite of all my efforts I was
unable to identify the animal. On the 8th, the wind blowing
fresh from the south-south-east, surface temperature 61° F, and
tide three-quarters ebb, two specimens of Muggicea atlantica
were found for the first time this year in the tow-net gathering.
I also noticed that Oithonia spinifrons was very abundant.
During this time some very large specimens of Chrysaora
mediterranea were seen just under the surface of the sea in
various parts of the harbour, and also in the bay. I have
several years ago seen this species very abundant in the sea near
Newquay. On the 11th the surface temperature was 60:9° F.
A single specimen of Coryczeeus anglicus and one very early
stage of Actinotrocha were the only interesting forms captured
on that day. During the rising tide on the 15th, the wind
being fresh from the south-west, and surface temperature 61°3°
F, a very rich gathering was made with the tow-net. Muggiwa
atlantica occurred in profusion, and continued very plentiful in
surface-net gatherings for some time later. During this time
cypris stage of Balanus, Lizzia octopunctata, Sarsia tubulosa,
and 8S. prolifera were very abundant in the tow-net. The latter
portion of this month was very wild and quantities of rain fell.

September. On the lst, the wind being from the south-
west and blowing fresh, a considerable fall in the surface
temperature was noticed, 57°3° F being surface temperature on
that morning. On this occasion Coryczeus anglicus occurred in
abundance; a single female of the same species with ova
attached being noticed. In the same gathering large numbers
of Sarsia gemmifera occurred. On the dth the wind was light
and variable, surface temperature being 57° F. In the gathering
made on this morning, only one specimen of Coryceus anglicus
was seen. I also noticed in that gathering a few specimens of
a species of Lizzia which I have been unable so far to identify.

314 PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

On the 10th the wind had changed to the north-west, and as a
natural consequence the surface-net gathering was not very rich
in species. A few specimens of Oithonia spinifrons and Sagitta
were the only forms whose presence called for any notice, surface
temperature on that morning being 56° F. On the 15th a
favorable opportunity occurred for a surface net trip seven miles
from land. Hitherto three or four miles from shore was the
greatest distance I deemed it prudent to venture in my canoe.
During the two or three previous days the wind had been
blowing steadily from the south to south-west, and it seemed to
me most probable that if the surface-net were worked in
localities removed from shore currents, some interesting, and
perhaps new forms might be secured. My trip was a failure.
At the point most distant from land, specimens of Sagitta
occurred in abundance. On all the other occasions this form
was absent from the tow-net gatherings. All the other forms
captured were familiar to me, and in reality were not so varied
as those caught nearer the shore. Surface temperature was
57° F. On the morning of the 19th the surface temperature
was 57'9°F. In my tow-net gathering made on that morning a
quantity of Tornaria and Pilidium were secured. In the same
gathering two specimens of Actinotrocha were noticed. Oithonia
spinifrons and Centropages typicus were also fairly numerous.
On the 22nd the wind was easterly and surface temperature
57°6°F. Evadne, Podon, Sagitta, and Auricularia were all
abundant in the tow-net gathering. About this time I secured
several specimens of the larval form of a species of Nemertine,
which I have been unable to identify so far. I have some of
these specimens preserved, and have also studied their internal
anatomy by means of serial sections.

The interesting Siphonophore Muggioa atlantica continued
to be very abundant in surface-net gatherings during the month.

October. On the Ist, surface temperature at 11.30 a.m. was
57°9°F. The following forms were noticed in the gathering
made at that time: Sagitta, Evadne, Podon, Muggica, females of
Coryceeus anglicus with ova attached, and Calanus finmarchius.
A few small Monstrilla rigida were also detected. From that
date till the 8th the tides were very strong, and my attention

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH. 315

was directed to shore hunting in various parts of the harbour.
On the 10th the surface temperature was 54:°6°F. The most
interesting forms observed in the gathering were Muggicea
atlantica and various species of spinid larve. At this time
when Coryceus anglicus began to abound in the surface net, I
noticed that in numerous instances these individuals were
covered with the frustules of a species of diatom. These
diatoms did not appear to hinder in any way the progress of the
individuals through the water. On the 15th the surface
temperature was 52°6 F. The only forms in the tow-net on this
occasion were some very large examples of Calanus finmarchius
and Sagitta. During the remaining portion of this month the
tides were again strong, but the wind being nearly all that time
from the north, made surface gatherings very poor.

November. On the 2nd of this month the wind was from the
south-west, and surface temperature in the morning 52:°3°F,
Kuterpe gracilis occurred in the gathering in great profusion. In
several instances the females of this species had ova attached.
On the 10th the surface temperature of the sea was 52° F. A few
specimens of Podon were observed, and Coryceus anglicus
occurred in profusion in the gathering. All the females of the
last named species were carrying ova.

During this month-the interesting Siphonophore Muggicea
atlantica steadily decreased in numbers in the surface net. On
the 15th the surface temperature was 52°9 F at 2°20 p.m. when
the net was worked, the wind for the two previous days having
been from the south to south-west. In this gathering I noticed
several specimens of Ceratium tripos and a small number of
Noctiluca miliaris. It will be noticed that this last named
species of Infusorian, for some reason which I am unable to
explain, has been very scarce this year in the sea near Falmouth.

On the 21st, surface temperature being 51-9°F, the only
specimens of interest on that day were a fair quantity of
Tintinnus ampulla in the surface net.

On the 23rd, the wind being south-east and surface
temperature 51°3°F, a very few specimens of Muggiea atlantica
were secured in the tow-net. On the 26th only two specimens of

316 PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

this Siphonophore were secured. Since that date this interesting
species has disappeared from surface-net gatherings. It is
worthy of note that Muggicea atlantica has always been present
in greater or less abundance in surface-net gatherings from
August 8th to November 26th in the sea near Falmouth. I
may here also direct attention to the fact that Evadne and Podon
also vanished from surface-net gatherings after the 23rd of that
month. On the 30th the surface temperature of the sea was
52° FB.

December. Gales of wind from various quarters prevented
my getting afloat till the 6th of this month. On that day the
surface temperature of the sea was 50° F. In my surface-net
gathering I found Coryceus anglicus fairly abundant, six
females of that species having ova attached. In the same
gathering a few small specimens of Oithonia spinifrons were
noticed, and also six small Sagitta. On the 10th the surface
temperature was 49° F, and the tide high-water when the net
was worked. In this gathering Eurtepe gracilis were noticed
in abundance. In the same gathering were large numbers of
Coryezus anglicus with quantities of a species of diatom
attached to various parts of the cuticle. At this time I also
noticed numerous specimens of Clausia elongata covered with
diatoms.

On the 16th of this month, last year, I captured while
working my tow-net in the harbour a single specimen of
Nyctiphanes couchii. Since that date up to the present time
I have not captured another of that species.

On the 14th of the current month it was high water at
noon, the wind having been blowing steadily from the westward
for some days previously. On that morning I made a surface-
net trip, and worked my net across the tide about two miles
south-east of the Manacle rocks. The surface temperature at
this point at 12°30 being 51:9°F. On making a hurried
examination in the boat of the contents of the tow-net, I was
pleased to observe several specimens of Nyctiphanes couchii.
The wind had been steadily increasing in force ever since I had
left Falmouth, and when the first gathering had been made the
tide had begun to ebb. As a natural consequence there was a

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH. 317

good sea running, and we had to abandon our position for a
more sheltered locality inside the Manacle rocks. Had the
weather been more favourable, I would gladly have remained in
this locality for some hours, and have worked the net at various
depths, with a view to discover whether or not this species of
crustacean abounded in the locality. After working the
surface-net in several places in the bay, I returned with my
captures to my hut. In the collection made at the greatest
distance from land [ found the following specimens: Sagitta,
Coryczeus anglicus, Calanus finmarchius, all very abundant; a
few specimens of each of the following: Cyphonantes,
Centropages typicus, and Oithonia spinifrons ; six specimens of
Nyctiphanes couchii, 7 to 9 m.m. in length; and two specimens
of a species of Hyperia, which so far I have failed to identity.
In the remaining gatherings I did not find any specimens of
interest.

On the 27th, after easterly gales, Oithonia spinifrons was
very abundant in the tow-net gatherings, and although the
weather was very cold at the time, surface temperature being
46°3°F, I found in the gathering a few Thaumentias hemispherica.
These specimens varied considerably in size, measuring from 5-2
m.m. in diameter.

On the morning of the 28th the surface temperature was
46:9°F. The most interesting form secured was a single Solen
measuring 1 m.m. in length. I have made some drawings of
this mollusk, and have it living ina healthy condition in my hut
in a small pan of sea water. In this gathering I also observed
several specimens of Ooryceeus anglicus with quantities of
diatoms attached to various parts of the cuticle.

From that day to the end of the year the weather was very
unsettled, and I was unable to venture out surface netting.

It is my custom to arrive at the locality where I intend to
work my surface-net at 10 am. At this hour the surface
temperature of the sea is taken, and the tow-net worked just
under the surface of the sea, and kept in that position for twenty
minutes, when it is hauled on board, and the contents carefully
emptied into a large collecting bottle, and examined on my
return to my hut.

318 PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

II. Appirions To THE Fauna.
Before recording the interesting marine forms captured
since my last report, I should like to direct attention to a fact
which, so far as I know, has not been recorded.

Before the memorable blizzard of March, 1891, the main
channel of Falmouth harbour was throughout its course almost
lined with Ascidians; the majority of the specimens being
Ascidia mentula and A. tuberculata. On the 6th of February of
that year, I spent the day dredging in the main channel of the
harbour. It is recorded in my note book that these Ascidians
occurred in such abundance that the dredge had to be hauled
more frequently than usual, and when it reached the surface, the
bag was found almost filled: with these animals. . Naturally
these Ascidians afforded a fine hold for Comatula and various
species of Hydroids and Polyzoa.

On the 5th of May following I spent the day dredging in
the same locality, and, curious to relate, the Ascidians and
Comatula had vanished from the ground, and for a full year few
specimens were found. Since then, to the close of my report, I
have spent many days dredging in various parts of the harbour,
and have never secured more than a few isolated specimens of
Ascidia mentula and A. tuberculata.—VeERMES.

Although fresh-water rotifers were the earliest, or one of
the first living forms to which the microscope was directed
shortly after its invention, it is curious to notice that in the
various reports published by previous Cornish naturalists, I have
been unable to discover a single record of either a fresh or salt
water rotifer.

There is an exceedingly interesting species of parasitic
rotifer, Seizon annulatus, to be found in small numbers attached
to various parts of the cuticle of Nebalia bipes. This Phyllopod
occurs in abundance in certain localities in Falmouth harbour.

During the past autumn I have found in the reservoir near
Peuryn, Melicerta ringens in large quantities, and small numbers
of Limnias ceratophylli.

In a marsh pool this autumn near Chyoon granite quarry,
I secured a single colony of that interesting social rotifer
Conochilus volvox.

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH. 319

Mo.u.usca.

During the morning of the 10th of August, 1891, the
steam dredger ‘‘ Briton”? which for some time previously had
been moored over a large bed of Zostera, was beached at
high water to have her sides scraped and cleaned. As soon as
the tide had left her dry, I went and examined her sides for
interesting specimens. Without any difficulty I found eight
specimens of Dendronotus arborescens, the largest measuring
28 m.m. in length when crawling. This mollusk appears to be
very rare in the south-west portion of England, since Dr. Cocks
does not record its capture in any of his lists, and my friend
Mr. Garstang (5) has only captured two specimens of this
nudibranch during his residence in Plymouth.

On the 23rd of September of the same year, on hauling in
my dredge off St. Mawes castle from the deep water, I found
therein a large stone covered with various species of Hydroids
and Polyzoa. When I returned to my hut, I placed this stone
in a large glass vessel of sea water, and shortly after was
pleased to see several specimens /Molis landsburgii swimming in
an inverted position just under the surface of the water. This
species also appears new to the district. I had intended
measuring and making additional observations on these
mollusks, but as the day was drawing to a close, I had to
postpone my investigations till the following day. Before
closing my hut, I placed the jar containing these nudibranchs in
large tray, from whence an overflow pipe conveys the waste
water from my aquaria into the sea. These mollusks must be
very active, for on the following morning they were all gone,
having escaped I imagine by the waste pipe into the sea. Since
that date I have not seen any more specimens of this nudibranch.

On further examination of the material brought to my hut
on that day, I found on an old oyster valve, a single specimen
of Polycera quadrilineata, measuring only 3 m.m. in length.
On the 8rd of October following, I secured under the Hastern
breakwater another specimen of the same species, measuring 16
m.m. in length, and on the 18th of January of the current year,
I secured another under a stone at low water in St. Just creek.
Dr. Cocks records the capture of two specimens of this species
by Dr. Vigurs in Gerrans bay. In connection with this

320 PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

nudibranch, I think it will be necessary to introduce here the
following facts. There are usually moored about 100 yards
north of the Foundry seven coal hulks. The sea-bottom
in this region is composed mostly of mud, from which a
fine growth of Zostera springs. Indeed the growth is so
luxuriant, that one experiences the greatest difficulty in dredging
anything from this locality. During extreme low water at
spring tides, the keels of the vessels are within a few feet of
the sea bottom, but never actually rest thereon. About every
twelve months or so, the owners find it necessary to beach,
scrape, and finally tar these hulks, in order to keep them in
good order. It is my custom to watch when these hulks are
beached, for one finds various species of Ascidians, Hydroids,
and Polyzoa on their sides, and often interesting and at times
rare specimens are secured by these means. In addition to
examining these hulks when beached, on calm mornings once a
fortnight or more frequently, I make an examination of the
sides of these vessels when at their moorings, to see if any new
forms have appeared since I last examined them.

On the 9th of October of the present year, I found on one
coal hulk while at her moorings, quantities of Polycera
quadrilineata. Indeed, these mollusks were so numerous on the
sides of this vessel, about three inches below the water-line, that
without shifting my boat, I collected two dozen specimens. On
the 12th of December, 1891, [found near Trefusis point a single
specimen of Polycera ocellata 6 m.m. in length. On the 25th of
January, near the same place, I found one Doris coccinea, and
on the 28th of March following, another specimen of that
species near the same locality.

On the 31st of the same month, during a ramble round
Helford at low water, I found /Holis papillosa literally swarming
on the bar. In places these mollusks were so numerous that I
had to pick my way in order to avoid crushing them. Goniodoris
nodosa was also abundant under the clumps of Fuci left
exposed by the tide. Some large specimens of Doris tuberculata
were also noticed in the same locality.

On the 12th of February I captured while dredging, one
/igirus punctillucens 1 c.m. in length.

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH. 321

On the 28th of March, during spring tide, I found under
some stones exposed at extreme low water at Trefusis point, four
beautiful specimens of Aucula cristata. On the following day
I secured several more specimens of the same species close to
the same place. Four of these mollusks when crawling in a
glass dish, measured respectively 11, 10, 9, and 11 m.m. in
length. :

Mr. Garstang found a single specimen of AXolis picta on a
floating raft belonging to the Dock company on the 27th of May.
Just as I was closing this report, I found another specimen of
this mollusk on a moored coal hulk. This nudibranch is new to
the district and is rare.

On the 24th of June I dredged a single individual of
Trioper claviger, 21 m.m. in length.

The beautiful nudibranch Antiopa cristata has hitherto been
considered a rare specimen in Cornwall. Dr. Cocks in his
various reports has recorded from time to time the capture of
single specimens of this mollusk. Mr. Garstang (5) in his
report records the capture of four specimens only of this species.
On the morning of the 6th of October I made one of my
periodical examinations of the sides of the coal hulks. Asthere
was but little wind, I was able to view from my boat the sides
of these vessels for a considerable depth. I was delighted to
find that in several instances there were several specimens of
A. cristata crawling on the sides of the hulks. I got a dozen at
once, and in a few days later, I had no difficulty in securing
three dozen and sending them to Mr. Garstang. A short time
later, this species literally swarmed on the sides of the hulks,
and presented during calm weather a beautiful sight to the
observer. Three specimens of this mollusk taken at random
measured 49, 32, and 34 m.m. respectively in length. On one
occasion while collecting specimens of A. cristata to send to
Plymouth, I noticed a good number of what I imagined to be
Thecacera pennigera a few feet under water, crawling up the
side of one of the hulks. As these were too far down for me
to fish up with a landing net, I took no further trouble in the
matter, and naturally imagined that in a few days they would
crawl higher up, and then I could easily secure some. Unfor-
tunately the next few days were very stormy and cold, and the

322 PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

coal hulk on which I observed these specimens was taken into
the roadstead to supply a steamer with coal. When the weather
moderated and I was again able to visit this hulk in my boat, I
was sorry to find that all the supposed specimens of Thecacera
had vanished, and only a few Antiopa remained in places where
they had been so very abundant. On the 16th of October I
secured from the hulks the following nudibranchs: large
quantities of ANolis coronata, several Al. alba, one specimen of
ffiolis olivacea, and one Aj. farrani.

On the next calm day I went and examined all the moored
buoys in the harbour to see if I could find any nudibranchs on
them. From the Vilt buoy I secured a single /Molis coronata,
the rest of the buoys not having any nudibranchs on them.

On the 5th of December, while collecting at low water
spring tides on the southern shore of Pendennis point, I found
under a stone one Goniodoris castanea. Dr. Cocks records this
Species as not uncommon. A few days later I went and
examined the sides of the coal hulks, and was pleased to find
on them immense quantities of this mollusk. In the majority
of instances the nudibranchs had congregated amid-ships, and
being mostly of a rich dark red colour, were hardly distinguish-
able from that Tunicate on which they were feeding. I sent a
large number of the mollusks to Mr. Garstang, and with them
some specimens of the Tunicate for identification. A few days
later Mr. Garstang informed me that the Tunicate was probably
Leptoclinum gelatinosum. These mollusks had in many cases
taken up their abode on the vessels sides about three inches
under water-line, and had deposited numerous coils of spawn in
this region. On the 12th of that month a quantity of coal was
removed from one of the hulks to supply a steamer, which was
taken along side. This had the effect of raising the hulk about
twelve inches out of the water, and as a natural consequence the
mollusks were in numerous instances left some distance from the
water. I naturally imagined that the mollusks would possess
sufficient intelligence to find their way lower down, but this did
not seem to be so, for I marked some specimens, and in two days
they were all dead, having died I imagine for want of sea water.
Mr. Garstang, Joc. cit. records the capture of several specimens
of this nudibranch at Plymouth.

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH. 323

On the 17th, one of the men employed by the Dock company,
brought me two large specimens of Pleurobranchus mem-
branaceus, the largest measuring two and three quarter inches
in length. These mollusks were found exposed at low water on |
some stones which form a ground work for the Western
breakwater. Curiously enough, Mr. J. B. Tilly while standing
at the extremity of the Eastern breakwater two days previously,
observed a single individual of this mollusk being swept past by
the flowing tide. Many years ago he informs me, he captured a
single specimen of this mollusk, and submitted it to the
inspection of the late Miss Vigurs, who immediately identified
it. Dr. Cocks records this mollusk as rare at Gylling-Vase,
Helford river, not uncommon. Just as I was closing my last
report | dredged a single Pleurobranchus near the Vilt buoy.
The following morning I throughly hunted over the tidal docks
below high water mark for individuals of this species.
Fortunately there was a fair tide, and almost a complete calm,
and so I was able to see for a considerable distance beyond low
water limit. Along the inner edge of the Hastern breakwater on
the balks of timber forming that structure, were quantities of
these mollusks left by the tide. At low water in this locality,
the sea bottom was fairly sprinkled with specimens of that
species, most of which were industriously engaged in depositing
their ova. On returning later to my moorings, I noticed this
mollusk almost as abundant in that locality as elsewhere ; in fact,
I observed some coils of their spawn close to the ladder in front
of my hut. On the following morning I made an examination
of the shore along Trefusis point to see if individuals of this
mollusk were also there, but I was unable to find a single
specimen there or elsewhere in the outer harbour.

On the 24th of July of the current year, Mr. C. Phillips, of
Penryn, very kindly gave me some capsules, each of which
contained several young Cephalopods in a living condition.
These capsules were obtained from some fishermen, and were
doubtless dragged from their position in the sand by the rope
attached to the outer edge of the pilchard nets. An individual
capsule measured 3 ¢.m. in length and 1 cm. in greater
diameter. On dissecting a specimen from the gelatinous
envelope, and freeing it from its chorion, circulation was plainly

324 PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

visible in every instance when viewed under the microscope. The
weather at the time was very hot, and the temperature inside
my hut, in spite of all my efforts, frequently registered 80° F. As
a natural consequence quantities of the specimens in my aquaria,
died, and with them these Cephalopods. So far as Iam able to
determine these capsules were deposited by Sepiola atlantica.

Ou several occasions since my last report, I have found
specimens of this mollusk left on the shore by the retreating
tide. At Plymouth this Cephalopod is secured in abundance.
Curiously enough, Sepiola atlantica is not mentioned by Dr.
Cocks in any of his reports, although 8. rondeletii is recorded,
That last named species I have never yet met with. Sepiola
atlantica is abundant in the summer time at Helford, Mullion
cove, and also in Watergate bay near Newquay.

Hyprorps.

On the 9th of August of this year, the weather not
appearing very favorable for a long collecting trip, I spent
the morning collecting in the tidal harbour. While drifting in
my praam that morning, over some shallow ground close to No.
1 dry dock, waiting for the tide to fall, I noticed swimming in
the water a most beautiful gonozooid. On placing it in a
collecting bottle and studying its movements for a short time, 1
at once saw that the specimen had come from no great distance,
and when the tide had sufficiently receeded, I carefully examined
the under surfaces of the stones in that locality. Without much
difficulty I secured a dozen specimens. On the 7th of September
following, the tide being sufficiently low, I collected on the
same ground upwards of thirty more individuals, and sent some
of them to Mr. Garstang at Plymouth. These specimens seem
to be confined to a small patch of ground about four yards in
diameter, and only exposed during good spring tides. As there
is a full historical account of this gonozooid in Hinks’ British
Hydroid Zoophites it is needless for me to repeat what is
already published in that monograph. After having made some
camera drawings of these individuals, I placed them in a glass
jar with a current of sea water continually passing through.
Within a few days a great number of them died, for I was at a
loss to discover what to feed these animals on. I then emptied

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH. 325

the contents of a jar containing a tow-net gathering in the
vessel containing the gonozooids, and soon observed that they
eagerly seized the copepods. By these means I managed to keep
them in a healthy condition, and under constant observation till
the 15th of October following. During this long time the only
important changes observed was a shrinking of the walls of the
nectocalyx, and a thickening of the manubrium. Cold weather
setting in at this time killed my specimens and stopped my
observations. It is curious to note that in spite of all my
attempts, I was unable to find attached to the stones where the
gonozooids occurred a single specimen of Cladonema radiatum
the adult animal of this larval form, which I feel sure must have
occurred in some abundance near that locality.

MAMMALIA.

On Sunday afternoon the 11th of October, 1891, a fine
specimen of Delphinus delphis, about six feet long, was
washed ashore in a dying condition near the Falmouth hotel.
The unfortunate quadruped as it lay stranded on the shore soon
attracted attention, and in a short time was surrounded by a
small crowd, who attacking it with knives and sticks soon
reduced an interesting specimen to a nearly shapless mass. My
friend, Mr. J. B. Tilly, who happened to pass the spot shortly
after the occurrence, picked up a single foetus, which he kindly
gave to me on the following morning. On measuring this foetus
I found it 13°8 c.m. in length and 3 ¢.m. in great diameter. On
further examination I found it had been subjected to the
roughest treatment. The brain was completely gone, the
hyoid and sternum considerably damaged. In spite however of
these drawbacks, I was able to make a fair dissection of this
foetus, and to make out some points of extreme interest to me.

—<___—_—>—_—

REFERENCES.

1. Cocks, W. P. Contributions to the Fauna of Falmouth. Report of
the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, 1849.

2. CUNNINGHAM, J. T. On a species of Siphonophore observed at Plymouth.
Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the
United Kingdom, Vol. II, No. 3, 1892,

326

3

A

. DEBY, J. -

. GARSTANG, W.

. Gosse, P. H.

. JOHNSTON, G.

. Kenzt, S.
. THomson, W.

. VALLENTIN, R.

PELAGIC LIFE, FALMOUTH.

Description of a New Diptherous Insect, Psamath-
iomya pectinata. Journal of the Royal
Microscopical Society. Part II, 1889.

Report on the Nudibranchiate Mollusca of Plymouth
Sound. Journal of the Marine Biological Assoc-
iation of the United Kingdom. New series, Vol.
1, No. 2.

A complete list of the Opisthobranchiate Mollusca
found at Plymouth, with further observations on
their morphology, colours, and natural history.
Journal of the Marine Biological Association of
United Kingdom. New series, Vol. 1, No. 4.

A Manual of Marine Zoology for the British Islands.
Part I, 1855.

A Catalogue of the British Nonparasitical Worms in
the collection of the British Museum, 1865.

A Manual of the Infusoria, 1880-1881.

On the Development of Synapta Inherens. Quarterly
Journal of Microscopical Science. New series,
1862.

Additions to the Fauna of Falmouth. Report of the
Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, 1891.

327

ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE DEPOSITS IN
THE WEST OF ENGLAND.
By J. H. COLLINS, F.G.S.

Cuar. I1].—Rock CHANGE AS CONCERNED IN THE FORMATION
oF Ore Depostts.*

Src. 9.—Surface tension and electricity.

The effects of surface tension in assisting the underground
circulation, and, aided by outwardly impelled currents, in making
it universal, have already been considered. Its influence as a
depositing agent has also been touched upon—we have now to
consider it a little more in detail.

That the actual circulation through fissures will be greatly
affected by the size of such fissures is obvious, for very narrow
openings will be liable to speedy closure from the deposition of
suspended matters, and very wide ones will favour deposition
owing to the check of the current, while those of intermediate
size will often be kept open by its flow. But in very narrow
openings the chemical precipitation will often be very different,
owing to the existence of what is known as capillarity, due to
surface tension. Mr. R. Hunt, while not doubting the existence
and potency of electric currents in veins, yet considered that
surface tension was often the immediately effective agent in the
formation of ore deposits; and M. Becquerel was of the same
opinion.t

The mechanical effects of surface tension under ordinary
circumstances are marked when considerable masses of matter
are concerned. But as the masses are reduced, the acting
surfaces are not reduced in equal proportion, so that finally
phenomena which are apparently inconsistent with the action
of gravity, and which are really independent of it, become
evident. Thus a very small quantity of water when poured out
on a flat surface forms itself into a sphere under the influence of

* Continued from the Journal R.I.C., No. 38, p. 184.
+ See ‘‘ a contribution to the history of Mineral Veins,’ Trans. Roy. Geol.
Soc. Corn., IX, 23.

328 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOsITS.

this surface tension, while a larger quantity spreads itself out
under the influence of gravity until it appears to be a perfect
plane. The gravity is acting all the time, but in the case of the
small mass with the comparatively large surface the surface
tension to all appearance overcomes the action of gravity.

A closely related case is that of liquids in communicating
vessels, or in two fissures connected by a transverse fissure,
when under ordinary circumstances the water will stand at the
same level in both. If, however, one of the vessels or fissures
is very narrow, say ;t,5th of an inch or less, the liquid will stand
very notably higher in this than in the wider one, thus apparently
setting the force of gravity at defiance; so that, given sufficiently
small or narrow apertures, the tension becomes so great that
solutions have power to penetrate porous substances against
strong positive steam or air pressures, equal to many pounds on
the square inch, as shown by Daubrée and others.

Such are what may be called the mechanical effects of surface
tension ; there are equally remarkable chemical effects. Many
decompositions are effected, and many precipitations are induced
by it, as was long ago demonstrated by Becquerel, Hunt, and
others.* Among natural examples of the operations of this force,
I may refer to the thin plates of native copper found in the
joints of elvan and killas at the Gwennap Mines and many other
places, and the arboreal markings of manganese which are so
common in the finer joints of rocks almost everywhere.

One of the effects of this penetration of solutions through
narrow fissures, and of the deposition of foreign matter within
them must be to widen them, so that there is a constant tendency
for potential structural planes to be converted into actual, and
for actual divisional planes to become wider. Of course this

* See experimeuts of Becquerel quoted by Hunt, and also his own, in his
“ Contribution, &c.,” Trans. R.G.S.C., 1X, 23.

+ It has been shown by the experiments of Dr. Hofmann and Mr. Witt that
a certain portion of the salts dissolved in water are separated by passing through
the filter-beds of the London Water Companies. Mr. R. Hunt, in his Economic
Geology of Devon and Cornwall (Bath and West of England Agric. Jowrn., XVI,
1868) quotes this, and also refers to certain experiments of Spencer, Normanby,
and Graham ; and adds ‘‘ The papers referred to clearly indicate the operation of
a force which is most active in all the works of nature.”

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 329

widening of fissures and successive deposition can only go on
(@) when the rock is shrinking, or (6) where there is room for
the rock’s expansion in some other direction, or (¢) when some
constituent is progressively dissolved and carried off by the
circulating fluid, or (d) where colloid is being transformed into
crystallized matter. Asa matter of fact, evidences of all these
modes of action are exceedingly common in all ancient rock
masses.

It will be seen, therefore, that the very same portions of
fluid may at one time circulate through open fissures of consider-
able dimensions (canalicular circulation), at another through very
narrow or capillary channels(capillary circulation), at still another
through the potential divisional planes, or between the separate
rock constituents (interstitiary circulation); the results being
different in each case, although there may be no absolute line of
demarcation between one form of this circulation and the others.

The important changes in rocks, known as kaolinization,
uralization, serpentinization, schillerization, alunation, &c., and
mineralization generally, seem to be due directly and mainly to
the interstitiary circulation—all the modifications of force just
referred to taking part in the action in turn or together ; some
of the combined results of these complex operations must be
dealt with in the next section.

Electricity. The phenomena of the earth’s magnetism were
referred 10 the action of electric currents circulating around it
by Ampére more than 60 years ago. In 1832 Mr. Robert Were
Fox, who had been experimenting for several years in the copper
and lead mines of Cornwall, Devon, and Derbyshire, wrote
that this hypothesis seemed to him ‘‘to derive strong confirma-
tion from the stratification of rocks, the arrangement of metallic
and other veins, the high temperature which, ina greater or less
degree prevails under the surface of the earth, and its rotation
on its axis....I was consequently led to suspect the existence of
free electricity in metallic veins, and I was not disappointed.”*
The experiments he had undertaken in 1829 at Wheal Jewel and
other mines, and reported in a paper read to the Royal Society

* Proc. Roy. Soc., 111, 1832, pp. 123-125. Phil. Mag., 1, 1832, pp. 311-314.

330 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

in 1830, were continued at intervals by himself and his assistants*
until the year 1842, in the following mines among others, Wheal
Rose (lead), Wheal Friendship (copper), Wheal Betsy (copper),
Pennance (lead), Lagylass (lead), Frongoch (lead), South Mold
(lead), Miller (lead),—the last our in Flintshire,—Coldberry
and Skeers (lead), Durham, &e. At Pennance Mine, near
Falmouth, in 1842, he found the natural currents were suffi-
ciently strong to magnetise iron, decompose iodide of potassium,
force sulphate of copper through clay in a U tube, change
yellow copper ore to gray ore and oxide of iron, and deposit
copper on an electrotype plate. In these experiments the
deflection of the needles were observed to continue steadily
in the same direction for eight months, from the south vein
towards the north, even when the mine was full of water.t}

By the continous action of a weak voltaic current, Mr. Fox
produced a little later a well-defined lamination structure in a
mass of well-kneaded clay placed between two metallic plates,
one of copper, the other of zinc, the plates being connected by
a wire, and electrically excited by a solution of common salt.

He also produced in the clay by this method a veritable series
of mineral veins, containing veinlets and pockets of red oxide
and green carbonate of copper, and brown oxide of iron,
and also a distinct vein of oxide of zine. Some of these
metalliferous deposits were ‘‘so hard and firm as to admit
of being taken out of the clay in plates the size of a shilling.

*One of these was Mr. W.Jory Henwood,F.R.S.,the President of this Institution
in the year 1871. Mr. Henwood in subsequent independent experiments came to
conclusions differing considerably from those of Mr. Fox, but his experiments
were vitiated by a disregard of some essential precautions, as Mr. Fox did not
fail to point out.

+These experiments on the electric currents in metalliferous veins were
afterwards repeated by Prof. Reich of Freiberg, at the famous Himmelfahrt
Mine, and confirmed in all essentials, although his interpretation of the results
led him to attribute the phenomena altogether to the hydrothermal action within
the veins, and not at all to the general earth-currents, which were considered as
largely effective by Mr. Fox.

{These experiments on the production of schistosity by electrical means were
afterwards repeated by Mr. Robert Hunt, with pretty similar results (See Mem.
Geol. Survey, 1, 483, 1846.) Mr. Henwood remarks (Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc.,
Corn., V) that he and Mr. Sturgeon had failed in the experiment and suggests that
the clay was not well-kneaded. But Mr. Fox was far too careful an experimenter
to be so misled.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. ool

Mr. Fox’s observations and experiments were fully described
in the scientific journals of the day, and attracted a great
deal of attention among all students of mineral phenomena,
since they assisted greatly in upsetting the Huttonian hypothesis
that such veins were igneous injections.*

As the part played by electric currents in the formation of
ore deposits has not received very much attention now for many
years, it may be well to give herea short recapitulation of a very
important paper which Mr. Fox prepared in 18386.

1. That admitting the origin of mineral veins to have been
derived from fissures in the earth, there is reason to believe that
the latter may have been produced by different causes, and at
various intervals ; also that many of them have been enlarged
from time to time.

2. That the accumulation of mineral deposits in such
fissures has been likewise progressive ; and that the evidences
afforded by the resemblance of the vein stones to the several
enclosing rocks, and the arrangements and subdivisions of the
contents of the veins, are decidedly in favour of both these
conclusions; independently of other arguments, based on
mechanical principles.

3. That the phenomena of veins seem to indicate that many
ot the fissures penetrated to a great depth, and into regions of
a very high temperature ; and that, consequently,the water which
they contained must have circulated upwards and downwards
with greater or less rapidity.

4, That since the solvent power of water seems to increase
in some ratio to the augmention of its temperature, it is obvious
that it would tend to dissolve some substances at a great depth,
which it would deposit, more or less, in the course of its ascent
through cooler portions of water; and also in consequence of its
partial evaporation on reaching the surface.

* For a fairly complete account of Mr. Fox’s scientific work with references
to his published papers, see ‘‘ A Catalogue of the Works of Robert Were Fox,
F.R.S., with Notes and Extracts’ by J. H. Collins, F.G.S., Truro, Lake & Lake,
1878, where will be found plates illustrating the above-described experiment with
others bearing on the origin of metalliferous veins.

7It appeared in the Report Roy. Corn. Pol. Soc. for that year, and was sub-
sequently reprinted in a separate form, but is now very scarce,

302 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

5. That a part of the earthy contents of veins, and more
especially silica or quartz, was apparently accumulated in this
manner, and usually combined, more or less, with matter other-
wise deposited.

6. That rocks, clay, &c., containing different saline solutions
and metalliferous substances, in contact with water charged in
many instances with other salts, were calculated to produce
electrical action ; and this action was probably much increased by
the circulation of the water, and differences of temperature ; but
more particularly by the existence of compressed and heated
water, metallic bodies, &c., at or near the bottom of the fissures.

7. That since the water in the fissures containing metallic
or earthy salts was a conductor of electricity, especially when
heated, and in a very superior degree to the rocks themselves, it
is evident that in conformity with the laws of electro-magnetism,
the currents of (positive) electricity would, if not otherwise
controlled, pass towards the west, through such fissures as were
most nearly at right angles to the magnetic meridian at the time.

8. That the more soluble metallic and earthy salts may
have been decomposed by the agency of such electric currents,
and the bases been thereby determined in most instances towards
the electro-negative pole or rock ; that tin, however, under these
circumstances, is only partly deposited at the electro-negative
and partly at the electric-positive pole, in the state of a peroxide ;
and that these properties of this metal seem to bear on its
positions in the lodes with regard to copper, being sometimes
found with it and sometimes distinctly separated from it.

9. That the position of one rock with respect to another or
to a series of other rocks may, as well as their relative saline or
metallic contents, temperature, &c., have had a decided influence
on the deposition of minerals on them by electrical agency, so
that a given rock may have been electro-positive in one situation,
and electro-negative in another, in regard to other neighbouring
rocks, as this is quite consistent with voltaic phenomena.

10. That the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen, and the
tendency of some metals, when in solution, to absorb oxygen and
become insoluble, may in some instances have interfered with
the regular arrangement of the metals, such as electricity would

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 300

have effected ; and that hence, many anomalies may have arisen,
especially in relation to tin.

11. That the electrical re-action of the different metalliferous
bodies, and of masses of ore on each other after their deposition
in the fissures, may have corrected such anomalies in some
instances, and that they may have given rise to them in others,
by changing the direction of the electric currents and modifying
the relative positions of the deposits; and that the pseudo-
morphous crystals of various descriptions, as well as other
phenomena observable in mines, fully prove that some such
secondary action must have taken place.

12. ‘That cross-veins may have been filled mechanically, or
by the deposition of silica from a state of solution, or by both
these means; and that the striated and radiated structure
of the quartz, may be owing to the tendency of electricity, under
ordinary circumstances to pass transversely rather than longi-
tudinally through north and south veins.

13. That assuming the proofs of the progressive opening
and filling ot lodes and cross-veins to be admitted, it seems to
follow that many intersections may have been caused by the more
ready accumulation of clay and other mechanical matter, and
even of silica from its solution, than of the more slowly-formed
metalliferous or crystalline deposits.

14. That the frequent occurrence of a mass of ore in that
part of a lode which is intersected by a cross-vein ; and also of
small branches of ore, from a dislocated part of a lode on one
side of a cross-vein without there being corresponding veins near
the other part of the lode on the opposite side of the cross-vein,
afford strong evidence of the deposition of the ore in such cases
after the intersection took place, and that it was accumulated in
the E.W. vein, rather than the N.S. one, by the influence of
electro-magnetism.

15. That the small veins of copper and tin ore which are
often found in cross-veins between the dislocated parts of lodes,
and the frequent occurrence of more considerable, and yet for the
most part very limited, quantities of these ores in the former
in the immediate vicinity of intersections, are additional argu-
ments in favour of the operations of the same definite agency.

304 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

16. That the secondary fissures resulting from the cracking
off of larger or smaller masses of the hanging sides of veins
may have been partly filled, in many instances, by the electric
action of different portions of ore on each other; and that
secondary lodes may have been formed at right angles to parallel
E.W. lodes, in consequence of the reciprocal action of the latter.

17. That many other phenomena of mineral veins, includ-
ing those of a mechanical character, such as the occurrence of
“horses,” ‘‘ heaves,” &c., appear to be capable of satisfactory
explanation on the principles which have been (here) laid down.*

Mr. Henwood, who at first did not agree with Mr. Fox’s
conclusions, and who, to the last day of his life, declined to
theorise on his facts, remarks that Mr. Fox had only detected
electric currents in connection with copper and lead lodes, and
not in tin lodes, veinstones, or rocks. Von Strombech, too,
failed to get current indication at St. Goar on the Rhine, 1833.
In 1838, Mr. Pattison reported certain somewhat doubtful results
which he had obtained in the sandstones and limestones of Alston
Moor,} and in 1839 Reich got good results between veinstones
and ores, while Henwood got distinct evidence of current by
connecting oxide of tin and iron pyrites at the 106 fathom level
in Rosewall Hill Mine, and in all cases, when he used a delicate
galvanometer (Watkins and Hill’s) he got results even with
rocks.

These various experiments and results point perhaps to a
more general cause than the local electrical currents passing along
the veins, from rich part to rich part, or from one ore to another,
which was the only cause admitted by Reich, though they do not
seem to be very closely connected with Amperé’s general earth
currents occasioned by the rotation of the globe, as held by Fox.
The local currents are, indeed, effective in distributing, or in
concentrating the ores in the rich parts, but there is certainly
more than this to be seen. It is hardly possible to conceive that
that two rocks, of dissimilar nature, or even only under dis-
similar conditions, can exist side by side, both subject to chemical

* Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, v, 1843.
+ Brit. Assoc. Report for 1838,

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS, 300

changes, without being in somewhat different electrical states.
This being so, there must be constantly in action direct currents
from one to the other, across the run of their junctions. Some
of the effects of such transverse continuous currents are illus-
trated by Mr. Fox’s experiment with the clay enclosed between
metal plates already alluded to. Does not this mode of viewing
the subject explain in some degree the frequent occurrence of rich
partsin or near contact zones,and the reasonableness of the miner’s
universal belief in the beneficial effect of a juxtaposition of dis-
similar rocks in a mining district? It isin fact the great constantly
acting deposition battery. Of course it cannot make metallifer-
ous deposits if the region contains no soluble metal, any more
than the battery of the electro-plates can go on depositing after
its solutions are exhausted; but given suitable solutions, and
every mineralized region supplies such; suitable places for
deposit, and these we get in disturbed and fissured country; and
a sufficient battery, which is suppled by the juxtaposition of
dissimilar rocks; and we have all the favourable elements for the
formation of rich parts. It seems to me that, from the electrical
point of view more than any other, it may be possible to study
the mutual relations of ore deposits and country rock with
advantage.

An interesting illustration of what is apparently the directive
force of electricity is afforded by another phenomenon. It is a
matter of the commonest observation that certain minerals are
often deposited in joints of definite direction, and not in others
having different directions, or on certain planes of a crystal in a
vein, and not on other planes differently oriented. Thus, at the
Treskerby Quarry, in so-called “primary granite,” schorl and
chlorite are deposited in H.W. joints, but not in those running
N.S.* Similarly at Carn Marth, joints running 25°S of W. have
amethyst, fluor, and chlorite, while those running 10° W. of N.
carry schorl and oxide of iron; and in the Trelubbus Quarry
joints 20° 8. of W. have chlorite, chalcopyrite, mispickel, and
blende, while the approximate N.S. joints contain schorl and oxide
of iron as at Carn Marth.{ The parallelism of such phenomena

* Notes of Excursions, Rep. M.A., 1864.
+ Ibid.

306 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

on a small scale with the larger observed association of tin with
E.W. veins, and of iron and the rarer metals, such as uranium,
cobalt, nickel, &c. with N.S. veins, is obvious, and the causes are
probably similar if not identical in character. These electrical
experiments of Fox and others, though arising from Mr. Fox’s
acquaintance with Amperé’s hypothesis, have not shown any
particular connexion of the veins and rocks and their local
currents with Amperé’s general currents;* and Mr. Fox’s first
idea, that the stratification of rocks, &c., were connected with or
due to such general currents was soon given up by him, as well
as by others. Although he was able to produce schistosity in
well-kneaded clay by electrical means, yet except perhaps for
such local phenomena as the sheeting already mentioned and the
local laminations of clays, we must look to mechanical causes for
large scale stratification, lamination, and schistosity. And further,
although given such longitudinal structure, and its accompanying
longitudinal jointing, electricity might convert some of these
joints into lodes, yet the proof of an absolute fissure in a great
majority of cases was soon admitted by him.

Another of Mr. Fox’s anticipations has also not been realized
up to the present. He hoped to discover great bodies of
ore by means of their electrical indications; but although the
existence of masses of magnetic iron-ore has been ascertained in
Sweden, Canada, and the United States, by the somewhat
analagous use of his dipping needle, I believe no such practical
applications have hitherto been made of the galvanometer,
and bearing in mind the difficulties of the probiem, it is hard to
have hope of ultimate success in this direction.

* It may, however, be remarked that Mr. Henwood’s experiments, and his
conclusions recorded in 1848 (Trans. R.G.S.C.,vV.) inno way negative the existence
of such general currents, it is merely that the far stronger currents were not
eliminated. To detect general currents in the neighbourhood of metalliferous
deposits must be as difficult as to ascertain the directive effect of the earth on a
magnet in the immediate neighbourhood of masses of magnetite. It may
perhaps be granted that the influence of general currents in forming valuable
metalliferous deposits is small, perhaps even insignificant except as a start, and
this, I believe, was pretty much Mr. Fox’s final conclusion. A similar difficulty
exists in determining the normal increase of subterranean temperature, since
hitherto all observations have been made in places where abnormal conditions
exist ; yet few will doubt that there is such a normal increase.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 3807

The essential difficulty in all such cases is the same, viz. :
that small, and even insignificant bodies, if very near, act as
energetically on the dipping needle or the galvanometer as large
and valuable bodies at a greater distance, and also that, owing
to the action being inversely as the square of the distance, it is
too feeble in most cases to make itself evident at all, even at
very moderate distances.

Mr. Fox’s experiments on the influence of electricity on
sulphide ores as bearing on the origin of gozzans will be referred
to in the next section.

Sec. 10.—Some specific effects of the underground circulation.

The physical forces referred to in Sec. 8, acting by means
of the circulating waters (Sec. 7) produce certain remarkable
and wide-spread changes in the country rocks, as well as on
already existing metalliferous deposits. Some of the most
important of these will be here dealt with.

Hydration. This is seen in the occasional conversion of
masses of hematite into limonite, and of anhydrite into gypsum,
the original structure and texture being often perfectly preserved.
Micaceous rocks are often found with the mica more or less
changed by hydration: in this way Damourite, Margarodite, and
some other minerals appear to have been formed. Pure water is
able to effect many such changes, but water charged with
carbonic acid, as is the case with all natural waters falling
through the atmosphere, acts much more thoroughly and
rapidly.*

The hydrated micaceous mineral Sericite seems to have been
formed by circulating waters; not however by the hydration of
pre-existing micas, but as a decomposition and re-composition
product of other non-micaceous silicates.

Formation of Gozzan. This is essentially a process of oxida-
tion, accompanied in most instances by hydration. In the West
of England, gozzan consists mainly of hydrated peroxide of iron,

* A. Johnstone in experimenting on Muscovite found that pure water had the
same effect as water charged with carbonic acid, viz., the mica was simply
hydrated ; but with biotite, iron and some other components were carried off when
carbonated water was used, while it was simply hydrated by pure water. All,
however, increased in bulk. @. J. G. Soc., No. 178, p. 363.

308 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

mingled in most cases with more or less of siliceous substance,
this latter being frequently in the brittle form of quartz, known
as ‘‘sugary-spar,”’ or of the highly cavernous form known as
‘‘ floatstone.”’? Sometimes there is also a whitish or reddish clay
present (prian), also partially oxidised masses of pyrites, marca-
site, and other sulphides, with in many cases crystals of oxide of
tin.

Gozzan is peculiarly characteristic of copper-lodes, as was
long ago observed by Pryce, often extending to great depths,
and even below the sea-level, as at the United Mines in Gwennap,
North Grambler near Redruth (85 fathoms), Fowey Consols (100
fathoms below adit), the Phoenix Mines, Devon Great Consols,
and Wheal Friendship. Many of these gozzans contained
occasional sprigs of native copper ; more frequently considerable
quantities of the black and red oxides and blue and green
carbonates of copper, together with smaller quantities of the
various phosphates, arseniates, uranates, and other rare mineral
compounds.

A good gozzan even in Cornwall does not of course neces-
sarily imply the existence of a valuable copper deposit beneath,
since it may be merely the result of an oxidation and hydration
of ordinary iron pyrites of little or no commercial value ; yet so
generally is it the case that rich deposits are thus indicated, that
no miner would hesitate to follow a really good gozzan, especially
if it contained mere traces of copper; on the other hand, no
miner would be disposed to place much confidence in any copper
lode, unless it had a ‘‘ good gozzan”’ in some part of its course.

Iron ore has been obtained, not only from iron lodes proper
such as those of Restormel, Pawton, and Brixham, but also from
the ‘‘backs”’ of very many copper, lead, and tin lodes: indeed
the great Perran lode itself is thought by many to be merely the
upper portion of an immense copper lode

Some lode-gozzans have for many years yielded quantities
of ochre, either by simple stamping and washing, or, in some
instances by merely settling the outflowing waters. It is worthy
of note that the ochre thus obtained usually contains some notable
proportion of sub-sulphate of iron, indicating clearly its origin

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 339

from an alteration of pyritous substance. At Wheal Jane and
Virtuous Lady such gozzans may be traced directly down to
unaltered pyrites.

The gozzans at Levant, Carn Brea, Dolcoath, and many
other mines, have yielded considerable quantities of tin, which
occurred for the most part in brilliant dark-coloured and greatly
modified crystals. At North Grambler the gozzan was so rich
for tin at the 85 fathom level that it was worked for this metal
at a tribute of six shillings in the pound.

Blende has been obtained in large quantities at Great
Retallack, Duchy Peru, Burrow and Butson, Wheal Busy, and
many other mines.

Many gozzans have yielded notable quantities of chloride
and other silver ores, as for instance those of North Dolcoath
and Herland; while gold has been found in minute particles in
a great many instances, though nowhere in paying quantities.
Nevertheless it must be admitted that in the west of England
gozzans are to be looked upon rather as indicators of underlying
deposits of value than as being themselves of economic value.

Although the gozzan occasionally extends far below the per-
manent water-level of the country, yet in general this is not the
case. Ordinarily as soon as this water-level is reached, or very
soon after, the ores present (except in the case of tin, which is
not known as a true sulphide) are found to be almost exclusively
‘‘pyritoids ’’ (sulphides, arsenides, and the like); and this fact,
taken in conjunction with the occurrence of partially altered
sulphides present in the gozzan, leaves no room for doubt that
originally all the oxides of the gozzan—tin and some iron and
manganese excepted—have been derived from pre-existing
sulphides.

The change of carbonate of iron into peroxide was very
plainly observable in the bottom of the Pawton mine near St.
Columb in 1874. In this case as in many others, the anhydrous
peroxide was formed from the carbonate notwithstanding the
enormous quantities of moisture present. I saw the same thing
in the Brendon Hills Mine, in Somersetshire, about the same time.
In each of these cases, too, it was plainly seen how cellular
quartz had been formed by the oxidation and removal of crys-

340 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

talline aggregates of chalybite, which had been subsequently
permeated by siliceous solutions, and so coated with quartz. A
similar oxidation of sulphides and removal or alteration of
carhonates has been observed in all mining countries, and to
this is due the greater part of the difference between ‘“ free-
milling’ and ‘‘ refractory’ gold and silver ores in the Rocky
Mountains.

The production of gozzan seems in most cases to be due to
the action of surface-waters percolating through the fissures or
their mineral contents. Hence it is, that when once the water-
level is reached, or where the lode is so solid as not to admit of
any considerable circulation, there is little or no oxidation:
When, however, the gozzan extends below the water-level, it is
more likely to have been produced by thermal springs since
exhausted, and the large quantities of gozzan material spread
over the surface in some situations supports this view, and
evidences the recent character of the extinction.

The experiments of Fox, Becquerel, and Hunt, show that
electrically-excited salt water acts powerfully on chalcopyrite,
converting it into erubescite and setting free peroxide of
iron. Supposing this process to take place in the depths of the
earth in connexion with an upward current, the iron oxide would
be deposited at or near the surface as gozzan. In this case, the
gozzan would be an indication not of bodies of iron-ore but of
chalcopyrite and erubescite, and traces of copper would be more
or less abundant in it.* Some further characters of gozzans
and of their relations in their underlying mineral deposits, as
well as to the surface contours of the regions in which they
occur, will be dealt with in the fourth chapter.t

* In this connexion some recent experiments of Mr. W. N. Steernwitz are of
interest. He placed crystals of ferrous sulphate in a cold solution of an alkaline
silicate. After a time, thin nearly colourless threads began to rise from the
crystal through the solution to the surface, where they became oxidised, spread
about, and finally were deposited as a brown ferruginous silicate ‘‘ resembling
that of the iron outcrops which indicate ore-veins.”’ When salts of other metals
were present, traces of them were found in the ferruginous deposit. (See School
Mines Quarterly, U.S.A., 12, 181-186.)

+For interesting particulars relating to gozzans, see Henwood, Trans.
R.G.S.C., v.; Argall, Rep. M.A., 1864and 1872; Phipson, Mining Jowrn., 1864;
Collins, Journ. R.I.C., 1888.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. o41

Kaolinization isa peculiar change to which many aluminous-
alkaline silicates are liable, and especially the various forms of
felspar. It seems to be effected by the underground circulation,
which, decomposing the original silicates, carries off the alkalies,
leaving a hydrated silicate of alumina behind, free quartz being
at the same time deposited whenever there are cavities. This
change is effected gradually, so that in many instances the form
of the original felspar is perfectly retained. Few felspars are
altogether without indications of, at least, incipient kaolinization ;
and the china-stone (Petuntzyte) and china-clay rock (Carclazyte)
so abundant in the West of England are important results of
this change operating on an extensive scale.

It seems likely that, generally speaking, felspathic rocks may
have been kaolinized by the action of percolating atmospheric
waters charged with carbonic acid, and at ordinary temperatures
and pressure; but it is very unlikely that any kaolin of economic
importance has been thus produced. Rather, in such instances,
the change seems to have been effected by the action of solutions
containing fluorine (with sometimes at least chlorine and boron)
arising from considerable depths through fissures, as was long
ago suggested by Von Buch, Daubrée, and others. All forms of
circulation could aid effectively in this; the canalicular to bring
up the active solvent from below, as well as to carry off the
dissolved alkalies, and the capillary and interstitial to permeate
add change the interior of the rock-substance.

The enormous economic importance of this form of change
in the felspathic rocks of the West of England is indicated by
the fact that the yearly exports of china-clay and china-stone
from the two counties now amount to over 400,000 tons, necessi-
tating the removal of probably 6 million tons of rock and
overburden. ‘The softening of aluminous killas near many lodes
and the production of prian are direct results of this kaoliniza-
tion process; while the production of schorl-rock, gilbertite
quartz, and capel, are intimately connected with it.*

*For a fuller discussion of this subject, see the following works by the present
author :—1, “‘The Hensbarrow Granite District,’ Truro, 1878. 2, “‘On Cornish
Tin Stones and Tin Capels,”’ Truro, 1883. 3, ‘‘On the Nature and Origin of
Clays,” Min. Mag., 1888.

342 ORIGIN AND DENELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

Serpentinization. This isa change somewhat analagous to
the last, to which olivine, and in a less degree most forms of
pyroxene and amphibole, as well as some other minerals, are
subject. Full and free circulation of the solvent seems to be
necessary, and probably also both heat and pressure. I endea-
voured to show some years since that ‘‘ serpentinous change is
scarcely less common, though of course much less extensive in
the West of England, than kaolinization, and that in some
instances the same rock-mass affords evidence of both kinds of
change,” and after quoting from Dr. Sterry Hunt, I went on to
say ‘‘ The change has probably required a circulation of waters
containing magnesian chloride in solution, and aided by heat and
pressure ; submergence in the waters of the sea to a considerable
depth would suffice to give all these conditions.’’*

Uralization and amphibolization. The changes of augite into
uralite, and of uralite and diallage into hornblende are so-called.
They are almost as universal in the West of England as kaolini-
zation, although their field of operation is far less extensive.
The changes, too, are very analagous, except that there is no
evidence of the presence of fluorine, while considerable heat and
pressure were probably essential in addition to the circulating
solutions. Most of the intrusive ‘‘ greenstones’”’ and ‘‘ gabbros”’
afford evidence of this kind of change.}

Schillerization or the alteration of augite, enstatite, &c., into
diallage and bronzite, consists (according to Prof. Judd, who has
made a special study of the subject), in the development of
minute enclosures in the form of thin plates or delicate rods
along one or more sets of parallel planes in the minerals so
altered. This development, which is very common in the Lizard
district, always seems to take place along definite cleavage planes,
but the largest development is not always in the freest cleavages.
These plates, rods, &c., are considered by Prof. Judd to be
‘‘negative crystals filled with products of decomposition.’’ The
development seems to be proportionate to the depth of the rock
from surface at the time of the change, and consequently may

*Geological Magazine, July, 1885, August, 1886, and May, 1887. ‘“ The Geo-
logical History of the Cornish Serpentinous Rocks.”

+ See Allport, ‘‘ Rocks of Land’s End District,’ Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. 1876,
pp. 15-29. Phillips, Quar. Jowr. Geol. Soc., May, 1876.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORWU-DEPOSITS. 343

be regarded as the result of what I have called capillary circu-
lation, aided by heat and pressure. It is probable that some
special solvent is necessary, since schillerization is local and not
general, and also because the secondary deposits in the negative
crystals seem to be in some instances derived from without. This
schillerization is common in many of the Lizard rocks, but I am
not aware it has been observed in the mining districts of the
West of England. The conversion of orthoclase into murchi-
sonite, as observed near Dawlish, seems to be a combination of
kaolinization and schillerization, and the peculiar chatoyant lustre
of labradorite is, according to Judd, due to a similar development
of ultra-microscopic plates.*

Alunation. This consists in a decomposition of alkaline
aluminous silicates by the aid of sulphuric acid. The acid usually
results from the atmospheric oxidation of iron pyrites, as may be
seen in the shallower parts of many of our mines, and in some
places on the coast, in which case it may be regarded as a form
of weathering,} or it may be supplied by volcanic fumeroles, or
by thermal springs. Alunation may be seen in operation on
many mine-burrows where pyrites occurs associated with
aluminous veinstones.{

Calcification. Where calcareous matter is contained in the
rocks, the waters flowing over or issuing from them are always
“hard,” that is, they contain carbonate of lime in solution.
When such waters flow over loose sands or porous strata as met
with along the north coast of Cornwall, the interstices become
filled with carbonate of lime in amore or less crystalline condition.
This may be seen in the calcareous amygdaloids near Port Isaac,
on the north coast ; in the slates underlying limestones in many

* For a fall discussion of schillerization, see Judd, Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc.
163, pp. 377, 383, 387, 408; and 165, p. 82.

+ See the account of the hot chamber in the author’s description of the
Perran Iron Lode already referred to.

{ An interesting example of alunation on a large scale is afforded by the
Yorkshire cliffs near Whitby, and by the ciiffs of London Clay at Sheppey.
Daubreé, in his Les eaux anciennes, also refers to an instructive example at
Tokay, in Hungary, where certain trachytic tuffs have been converted by the
agency of thermal springs containing sulphuric acid into alunite. This material
forms extensive fossiliferous beds at the foot of the eruptive masses, while the
silica set free has super-silicated the tuffsin question so that they become suitable
for millstones,

344 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

parts of Devonshire ; a similar phenomenon is observable in the
Perran and Mithian sands, and especially in the sands near
Crantock and St. Enodock. The extensive dunes of blown sand
along the north coast contain a large proportion of carbonate of
lime in the form of comminuted shells. The rain-water in
sinking through the upper layers of the sand dissolves out part
of the carbonate of lime, and in favourable circumstances, where
there is an underlying stratum of comparatively impermeable
ground, this is re-deposited in such a way as to convert the
lower layers of the sand into a fairly compact and durable sand-
stone of great value for (local) building purposes.

On the other hand, the withdrawal of carbonate of lime in
solution has frequently altogether removed or extensively
changed beds of calcareous rock, as in the case of the coral-
bearing shale at Newham alluded to. Here the forms of the
corals and even their minute structure are still perfectly distinct,
yet the rock now contains a mere trace of lime.* There is no
means of knowing where the lime has gone in this instance, but
in general the lime must have been removed before the principal
lodes of the West of Cornwall were formed for it is an undoubted
fact that with a few local exceptions the lodes in this part of
the county, where limestones are almost unknown, contain very
little calcite as a veinstone.

Silicification. 1. am not aware of any notable siliceous
springs in Cornwall or Devon, but the mine waters analysed
have contained on an average nearly two grains of silica per
gallon, whether thermal or phreatic. Water containing this
comparatively small quantity of silica would still be capable of
silicifying shales and sandstones (as at the Haytor Mines), of
depositing cross-course spar (as in the numerous cross- courses), of
filling cracks in the rock (as seen in the killas of so many places),
of indurating sandstones and conglomerates (as at Ladock and
the Nare Point), or of forming siliceous bands in the granite or
siliceous capels in the killas. The process of kaolinization
liberates a considerable proportion of uncombined silica, and
this we constantly see in bands traversing the carclazyte, accom-
panied in some instances by schorl and cassiterite.

*Recent Mineralogical Analyses, by J. H. Collins, Jowr, RI. (Of) 2e-cn

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 340

The economic importance of silicification to the miner is in
two directions,—the one favourable, the other unfavourable. By
its influence in strengthening the walls of fissures, otherwise
much weakened by kaolinization and other changes, it is
favourable; but when, as in many instances, the ore present is, so
to speak, buried in large quantities of hard siliceous capel, the
cost of excavation and of subsequent treatment is largely
increased, and its effect is decidedly unfavourable.

The cross-courses of the mining regions of the West of
England are to a large extent composed of a peculiarly crystall-
ized quartz known as cross-course spar, the silica of which has
been derived from some unknown source, and when these cross-
courses contain oxide of iron this also is often highly siliceous.
Mr. Fox has suggested that the different character of the
erystallized quartz veinstones in cross-courses as compared with
that in lodes has some relation to the different action of local

electrical currents in latitudinal and longitudinal fissures. This
is certainly so in the West of England, but the same can hardly
be said of mining regions generally.

The thick beds of sandstone which are so frequent and so
characteristic of that part of Cornwall which lies immediately to
the north and east of Truro, are often little consolidated, and
consequently weathered into loose and incoherent sands to a
considerable depth. So also the mica traps, which run from
Roscreage beacon to Watergate Bay. But where these sand-
stones and traps are crossed by cross-courses, they are mostly
found to be indurated and infiltrated with silica, not only in
cracks, but throughout their mass. ‘Thus they are able to resist
denudation, and the sandstones in such cases stand up above the
general level of the country, almost like dykes. This kind of
local silicification is common, not only in connexion with rich
mineral deposits, but also in situations where valuable minerals
are not known or believed to exist.

The great cairns of quartz found at intervals from the
Dodman to Mawgan-in-Meneage seem to be local supersilicifica-
tions of fossiliferous sandstones of Lower Silurian Age.

On the north coast, between Padstow and St. Ives, and also
at Wheal Friendship, near Tavistock, in Devon, certain soft and
and fine-grained sandstones and mudstones are found to be

346 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

locally silicified so as to furnish very fair oil-stones, hone-
stones, scythe-stones.*

The siliceous alteration of limestones is a not uncommon
occurrence in Kast Cornwall and West Devon, but in these cases
the cherty bands and the silicified fossils have more of a
non-crystalline or flinty character than is observable in the quartz
veins and siliceous capels of the West of Cornwall. It should
be remarked, however, that the quartz in the north and south
lead-bearing lodes of Menheniot and St. Pinnock (Wheal Tre-
lawney, Wheal Mary, Wheal Ludcott) is largely of a chalcedonic
character, and so also is that of certain north and south veins
near Withiel. This infiltration, with chaleedonic rather than
crystalline quartz, is also met with in some of the fine-grained
elvans such as those of Trelaver Downs in St. Dennis and
Foxhole in St. Stephens.t

Chalcedonic quartz is not, however, limited to Devon and
East Cornwall, since much chalcedony has been found in the lodes
at Trevascus, Pednandrea, and many other mines between
Redruth and Marazion, and also at Wheal Rose and Wheal
Penrose, near Helston.

At St. Just opaline silica has occurred in many different
forms and in considerable abundance at Botallack, Wheal Cock,
and other mines.

The silicified sandstones of the greensand beds at Blackdown
are often more or less concretionary and chalcedonic, while at
Lyme Regis beds of sand have been extensively infiltrated with
chalcedonic quartz.

Thus then, in the West of England, we have silica existing
in secondary deposits in at least three distinct forms ; each
exhibiting marked modifications, as follows :—

(a.) Crystalline, as clear or tinted rock-crystal, as variously
coloured and ordinary vein-quartz, as ‘fibrous’ cross-course
spar, as ‘‘sugary spar,’ ‘‘floatstone,” &c., all practically
anhydrous, and with specific gravity of 2°6 and upwards.

* The famous Water of Ayr Stone is a silicified rock of this character.

+ The supersilication of felsites and felspar porphyrys is very general in the
Rio Tinto District (Q. J.G.S., 1885), and also in the rocks of Seville (Macpher-
son, Bol, de la. Com. del Mapa. Geol., Tomo V1.)

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 347

(6.) Chalcedonic, in concretionary or stalactitic forms, as
red or brown jasper, aS an opaque milk-white mass, as chert,
&c., all anhydrous, and with specific gravity over 2°6.

(c.) Opaline, as pure opal, semi-opal, mangan-opal, ferrugi-
nous opal, &c., all hydrous, and with specific gravities varying
from 2:2 upwards.

As to the origin of the different modifications of the first
group, it would appear that they have been formed almost
everywhere in the West of England and at all periods, from the
very earliest down to or near to the present time. Except
perhaps in the case of the cross-course spar, 1t is likely that
these forms of quartz have been produced very slowly. The
second group is much more local, but it occurs in many situations
under conditions which suggest a rather rapid deposition. Prob-
ably its origin is directly connected with thermal springs.

The third group or opaline variety was also no doubt
deposited by thermal springs and probably at a very high tem-
perature. It is scarcely too much to say that in the whole of the
West of England mining: region, a rock which has not been
infiltrated with some form of silica, since its first consolidation, or
a fissure in which silica has not been deposited at more than one
epoch, is a very rare exception. This being the case, we can
hardly expect any direct connexion of origia to be traceable
between the silica and the associated ore. There is quartz with
the tin veins in the granite, but there is precisely similar quartz
without tin ; siliceous tin and copper capels abound, but there are
very similar capels without tin or copper. Iron is found with the
silica in some cross-courses, but in others it is absolutely free
from iron.

Even the frequently observed connexion of silica with gold*
is little noticeable in Cornwall, although that metal has been
found in cross-courses in Breage, near Redruth, and at Poltimore
in Devon.

* Tnteresting examples of recently-formed siliceous deposits containing gold,
silver, cinnabar, and other metallic minerals, are described by Dr. Robert
Oxland and Mr. J. A. Phillips (Phil. Mag., Nov. 1868).

Mr. Dean remarks, ‘“‘ The silurian beds traversed by the gold lodes (in the
Clogau district, where some very profitable mines were formerly worked) when
hard and sharp and well silicified are the best for gold, the soft beds are wnfavour-
able (‘‘ Notes on Gold Mining in Wales,” Rep. U.A., 1865.)

348 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

It is often supposed that silica has been deposited from acid
solutions. It is probable, however, that this is not the case in »
general. The waters flowing from kaolin are alwaysa little alka-
lien, while quartz-crystals are often found deposited on crystals of
calcite or chalybite, whose form and even whose lustre has not
been affected in any way.*

Mineralization. This isa term used by miners in a some-
what arbitrary sense, to denote an impregnation of a rock with
iron-pyrites, copper-pyrites, blende, galena, or other sulphide
ore-—or by the oxidized or decomposed indications of such. It
often happens that such mineralization, especially with the first-
named substance, exists over large areas, in regions where no
valuable deposits have been discovered. But the converse is
scarcely the case, since there are very few mineral deposits of
value known other than detrital deposits, which are not associ-
ated with rocks more or less mineralized. As in the cases of
calcification and silicification there may be, and often is, evidence
of the direct introduction of the mineralizating substance from
without, while at other times there seems to have been a mere
re-arrangement of an original or pre-existing constituent.

Pseudomorphism. In a large sense all such changes as
kaolinization, serpentinization, and the like are examples of
pseudomorphism. Technically, however, the term is limited to
chemical changes in minerals of definite form, either distinctly
crystalline, or at least exhibiting definite and recognizable
‘(imitative ”’ forms. For instance, when crystals of pyrites are
found converted into limonite, calcite into cerussite, pyromorph-
ite into galena, or felspar into kaolin, these would be at once
recognized as pseudomorphic. It is evident, however, that the
process is similar when extensive amorphous masses or dissemi-
nated grains are similarly changed.

The gozzans and the china-clay and china-stone “‘ deposits ”
already mentioned are such examples, as much so as the altered
veins of iron carbonate at Pawton, the altered beds of iron

* For some interesting experiments and instructive remarks on the decom-
position and re-construction of rocks by siliceous infiltrations, see a paper by
Alphonse Gages, read at the Geol. Soc. of Dublin, Nov. 18, 1858. (Dub. Nat.
Hist. Rev., Vol. V1.)

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 349

carbonate in Northamptonshire, or those of the north of Spain
near Bilbao.

Pseudomorphic changes, using the term in its more limited
sense, may be conveniently classed as follows :—
A. Gain of components.

1. Simple hydration, as when anhydrite is converted
into gypsum, or muscovite into damourite.

2. Simple oxidation, as when magnetite is converted
into hematite, or native copper into cuprite.

3. Addition of a compound radule, as when cuprite is
converted into malachite.

B. Loss of components.

4. Simple loss of a constituent, volatile or soluble, as
when cuprite occurs as metallic copper, or argentite
as metallic silver.

c. Substitution. As when galena is converted into cerussite,
or pyromorphite into galena, or chalybite into hematite.
The next three are pseudomorphs in quite a different sense.

Dd. Infiltration into a cavity formerly occupied by another
substance. In this case, the form but not the structure
will be preserved, as in the case of the Wheal Coates
pseudomorphs of tin after orthoclase.*

E. Infiltration of organic forms, as the cassiterite in form of
cancellated horn structure of the chalcedonic “‘ Beekites ”
of Torquay.

Fr. Pseudomorphism ef dimorphous substances. This is merely
a molecular re-arrangement, as when calcite with its
characteristic cleavage appears in form of aragonite or of
stalactites. :

All or nearly all of these modes of pseudomorphism are met
with in the mining region of the West of England.

* See the author’s ‘‘ Handbook to the Mineralogy of Cornwall and Devon,”
article Pseudomorphs, Truro, 1876.

+At Wheal Coates, in St. Agnes, fine crystals of oxide of tin replacing
felspar were found many years since in great quantities, in all stages from nearly
pure felspar to nearly pure peroxide of tin. They were not, therefore, casts of tin
in shape of felspar, but true replacements. See Tweedy, R.I.C. Similar
occurrences, abundant, but owing to conditions of main mass of elvan, not
isolated, were found at Terras, Belowda, Castle-an-Dinas, &c.

300 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

Src. 11.—Theories of Mineral Deposition with reference to Lode
phenomena.

The formation of our fissure-lodes (vein deposits, fissure
fillings and capels) throws very much light on the origin of
ore-deposits generally, and—thanks to the labours of a host of
careful observers, among whom our former colleagues, W. Jory
Henwood, Warington Smyth, and C. Le Neve Foster, deserve
special mention—the leading phenomena of our lodes are very
well known. It is generally admitted that the lodes themselves
have originated either in actual fissures or in enlarged joints;
that the lode-fillings are sometimes mechanical, but more usually
chemical; that the mechanical filling was mainly derived from
the sides (though perhaps in rare instances partly from the
surface) ; that the chemical filling has always been effected by
infiltrating and circulating solutions ; and that it has taken place
at various times, yet usually with a definite order of succession.

Having already given (Sec. 4) specific examples of several
lodes, and of the characteristic phenomena of lodes in general
in the West of England, we may now proceed to consider the
more important theories of mineral deposits which have been
adopted by various writers and at different times.

Confining the enquiry for the present to fissure-lodes, and
to the metalliferous minerals, capels, and vein-stones occurring
therein with which we are familiar in the west, we have to
consider the following theories :*

a.—That the fissures have been filled by injection. So far as

lodes proper are concerned, this theory may be at once
dismissed, though it was formerly held as an axiom by
many followers of Hutton, (not I think by Hutton
himself) who were impressed by the phenomena of
injected dikes, but who had little or no acquaintance
with lode-phenomena. There are very few now who
believe that metallic ores and veinstones have been
injected into open fissures,t yet in another and more

* The history of opinion on this subject of the genesis of mineral veins has
been very well dealt with by Mr. J. A. Phillips in his work on Ore-deposits, pub.
in 1884, p.p. 73-100.

+ There are still some geological writers, however, who still maintain the
igneous origin even of masses of vein quartz, See Sterry Hunt, Mineral
Physiography, p. 94 et seq.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 30l

limited sense the injection theory has a very important
bearing upon the origin of ore-deposits, since the
injections of elvan and other eruptive rocks appear to
have been of vital effect in innumerable instances,
especially as regards ores of copper and tin.

b.—That the fissures have been filled by vapours arising

from below.

There are cases in which this process has undoubtedly been
effective—as for instance in the deposition of sulphur,
chlorides of iron and copper, specular-iron, and many
other minerals in volcanic districts. These deposits,
however, are not of the nature of true lodes. Indeed
it is hard to see how fissures could remain open for the
passage of vapours below the permanent water-level of
a county, except very locally and under very exceptional
circumstances. If there are in the depths of the earth
open spaces in which vapours exist, these could not fail
to be absorbed by the waters occupying the fisstires
nearer to the earth’s surface, thus forming solutions
which would come under the next head.

c.—That the matters in question have been brought into
the fissures in a state of solution.

There are three modifications of this theory, one or more of
which are now beld, I believe, by almost all who have
studied the phenomena of lode-fissures. They may be
defined as

(1). —Infiltration from above (descension theory).

(2).—Infiltration from the sides (lateral secretion theory).

(3).—Solutions coming from below (ascension theory).

All of these modes seem to have been effective, and neither
of them in any way excludes either of the others, while the
subterranean circulation already discussed and illustrated would
supply the necessary active agency for all. Let us examine the
question a little more closely by the aid of the following
propositions.

1. All the branches of the ‘solution and circulation
theory,” as it may be called, assume the pre-existence somewhere
in the path of the circulating waters, of the veinstones and ores
now found in the lode-fissures.

302 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

2. The veinstones and ores of the West of England may be
conveniently considered as to their origin under five heads, of
which examples are given in the following groups:

Group 1.—‘‘Soluble” veinstones, as calcite.

», 2.—‘‘ Insoluble” veinstones, as quartz.

» 3.—‘ Soluble” oxidized metallic salts, as cuprite,
malachite and chalybite.

,, 4.—* Insoluble” metallic sulphides, as pyrites,
chalcopyrite, galena, and blende.

», 5.—Schorl and other fluorine-bearing minerals with
oxide of tin.*

3. All the elements contained in the substances mentioned
above are known to occur as rock constituents, either as oxides,
carbonates, sulphides, or silicates, and at such considerable
distances from the lode-fissures as to lead to the conclusion that
they existed there before the nearest lode-fissures were formed.

4. Forchhammer, Bischoff, Dieulefait, and others have
shown that the waters of the sea, in which most stratified rocks
have been laid down, also contain notable proportions of many
of the metallic and other constituents found in lodes,{ and as
already stated, Bischoff, Daubree, and others have shewn the
existence in nautical waters of every one of the substances in
question.

5. The original sources of the circulating solutions cannot
perhaps be determined, but as they must be constantly replenished
by rain water falling on the earth’s surface, which is practically
pure (except for the presence of carbonic acid) and free from
all the substances referred to, we may consider the cycle of
changes to begin with the action of pure water on rocks
containing all the said substances.

* The expressions “soluble”? and “‘insoluble’’ here refer to the actions of

ordinary surface waters which are slightly acid. Butthey must not be understood
too literally, since even silica is found in many natural “acid” waters, though it
is more readily soluble in those which are alkaline.

+ This has been particularly shewn by the investigations of Sandberger, and
confirmed by Credner, Frick and others, although Sandberger’s contention that all
the metalliferous contents of the veins have been derived from pre-existing
silicates is by no means generally admitted.

} Revue Universelle des Mines, 1880, p. 425,

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEEFOSITS. 3538

Deposition of such substances as calcite in lode-fissures and
cavities is easy to understand, since waters charged with carbonic
acid will readily dissolve them out from rock masses when
present, and a slight lowering of temperature or pressure will
cause them to be re-deposited wherever a suitable cavity exists.
Tlie solution and redeposition of quartz and of many silicates
can be and no doubt often is effected in a precisely similar
manner, and the same may be said of such substances as cuprite,
malachite, and chalybite, except that the solution will be
sometimes preceded by the oxidation of pre-existing sulphides.
These solutions and re-depositions will no doubt be more rapidly
effected in proportion as the differences of temperature and
pressure are greater, but ordinary temperatures and pressures
will suffice, given sufficient time.

The relative depths to which the waters will penetrate before
finding their way into fissures, and the particular parts of the
fissures in which deposit takes place, will determine whether
such deposits should be regarded as the results of infiltration
from above or of lateral secretion, but it is quite evident that
the transference of substances of groups 1 to 3 may take place
without the solutions making their way to any great depths, and
consequently without any notable elevation of temperature or
considerable pressure.

More than 20 years ago Mr. Robert Hunt wrote as follows with
regard to infiltration from above. ‘‘ The view supposes waters to
have penetrated from above, and that, in passing through the
rock-fissures which were the natural channels of aqueous circu-
lation these waters deposited, under the influence of what Sir
Henry De la Beche called ‘rock conditions,’ and which Mr. Robert
Were Fox and M. Becquerel referred to electrical action, their
metallic and earthy salts forming the lodes as we find them......
my leaning is towards this hypothesis.”* In expressing this
opinion, Mr. Hunt does not specially indicate the sources of the
“metallic and earthy salts” which are conveyed by the circulating
waters, but as he speaks of water “‘ penetrating from above,’ we
may fairly assume that they would be free from metallic salts, at
least at the start, and that they would acquire their solid contents

* Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., 1X, p 22.

3804 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

from the rocks in percolating through them. Mr. Hunt appears
to have been considering particularly the veins of copper, but
not at all to the exclusion of other veins.

Professor Ramsay suggested a similar origin for certain
lead-veins in the following terms. ‘‘ It had long been shewn that
in Derbyshire fissures in anticlinals were unproductive, but
those in synclinals productive of lead-ore, and this was explained
by the lead (of the rocks) being dissolved by the water falling
at the surface, which, travelling along the planes of stratification
conveyed it from the convexities and towards the hollow folds of
the beds.”* Mr. De Rance said the same explanation applied to
the lead veins of Alston Moor, which Mr. Wallace had described
in 1861, and at the same time had suggested a similar leaching-
out process. f

Each of these writers, it will be observed, assumes the
previous existence of the copper and lead in the rocks at or
above the level of the deposits referred to, and in such a state as
to be leached out by percolating waters. This assumption may be
readily admitted in the case of carbonate of ime and other
veinstones of group 1, also perhaps in the case of the quartz
and other veinstones of group 2. There is also no difficulty in
applying it to the vein and joint segregations of oxidized
metallic salts, chiefly carbonates, which are seen in the cupriferous
sandstones of Alderley Edge, or to the carbonate of lead
“pockets”? so abundantly found at Leadville in Colorado.
Doubtless, the wide-spread existence of such oxidized substances
indicates an antecedent probability for the views expressed by
Hunt and Wallace. If we could account for the sulphur of the
metallic sulphides (group 4), the descension hypothesis would
be still more widely applicable, but for this, and perhaps for the
metals in combination with it, more deep seated sources or
agencies would seem to be necessary. Metallic sulphides as
such could hardly be transferred from the parent rock to the lode-
fissure by circulating waters under ordinary temperature and
pressure, and especially if the waters were neutral or acid, since
sulphides under such conditions are either insoluble or are

* Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 135, p. 659,
+ Ibid.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-REPOSITS. 305

subject to decomposition, with the production of sulphuretted
hydrogen. It may indeed happen in rare cases that the
sulphuretted hydrogen thus produced will subsequently by a
reverse process give rise to sulphides in the upper parts of
fissures, but this can hardly account for the immense deposits of
sulphides met with in some lodes; as for instance the great
copper deposits of Clifford Amalgamated and Devon Great
Consols, and the large pyrites lodes at Wheal Jane.

The well-known mutual relations of ore-deposits and
country rocks referred to in a previous section, certain rocks
being ‘‘congenial” and others ‘‘uncongenial,” lend great
support to the hypothesis of lateral secretion, which is so closely
connected with the descension hypothesis as to be hardly
distinguishable from it.

If however the percolating solutions were alkaline, as from
the kaolinization of felspathic rocks, and especially if these
waters had been circulating through deep-seated rocks where
the temperature was high and the pressure great, sulphides
might no doubt be dissolved, transferred, and re-deposited
without change, thus forming an example of ascension deposits.
And in fact, deep-seated sources do seem to be required for the
vein substances of group 4 in very many cases, and for groups
5 and 6 in all cases, either to give sufficient dissolving power to
the solutions, or to supply the characteristic non-metallic
components, or in some cases probably to supply the metallic
components.

Let us consider these three cases separately. Suppose the
surface waters to reach far down into the interior of the earth
before making their way into a fissure and upward current.
They will become hot, they will be subject to great pressure,
and we may fairly suppose that they will in most cases become
alkaline from the decomposition of silicates. If as Sandberger
supposes, many of the silicates thus decomposed contain such
metals as tin and copper, the solution will be charged with these
metals. If sulphides are present in the rock, these will probably
be dissolved unchanged and without decomposition ; if chlorine or
fluorine is present, and also oxide of tin (as a rock-component),
fluoride or chloride of tin will be formed in the solution, and
when it makes its way into the fissures or cavities, metallic

356 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

sulphides, cassiterite, and such fluor-bearing silicates as topaz
will be deposited. Furthermore, if boron and oxide of iron are
also present, as is almost universally the case, we shall have
schorl in addition.*

It may, however, be remarked here that neither high
temperatures nor great pressure seem to be absolutely necessary
in all cases for the solution, transference, and re-deposition of
tin oxide, for there is reason to believe that slightly alkaline
waters under ordinary conditions of temperature and pressure
are capable of slowly dissolving oxide of tin. In this way in
recent times deer’s horns appear to have been impregnated
by circulating stanniferous solutions with oxide of tin.{
Again, admitting the necessary dissolving power in the
circulating solutions, we are still confronted with a difficulty in
the existence of immense masses of sulphide ores, so characteristic
of several of our mining districts, as was recently pointed out
by Sir Warington Smyth. The solutions would by hypothesis
dissolve such sulphides as actually existed in the country rock
at the sides of the deposits. But this does not meet all the
conditions. Sandberger urges that the ores are derived from
original silicates contained in the country rocks,{ and especially
in granite, gneiss, and eruptive rocks generally.§ Granting all
that he says for this wide-spread source of the metallic
components, the question very naturally arises ‘‘ whence comes
the sulphur if not from deep-seated sources or (deep-seated)
thermal waters?’ Von Sandberger appears to admit, at least
tacitly, a deep-seated source for sulphur, arsenic, &c , and if
so, there seems no reason to deny a similar possible origin for
much of the metallic substance found in the veins, even
though portions of similar substance may have been derived
from the country rocks. Our former Vice-president goes

* The part played by fluorine in kaolinization and in the formation of tin
deposits have been particularly studied by Yon Buch (Min. Tasch., 1824), Daubrée
(Ann. des Mines, 1811), Collins (Cornish Tinstones, ¥c, Min. Mag., 1878).

+See Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., x, p. 98, Cornish Tin-stones and Tin
Capels, Pl. xii, fig. 4.

{Stelzner’s contention that the silver, &c. found by Sandberger did not really
exist in the silicates, but in disseminated pyrites, has been met by Sandberger in
his later essays. But this does not affect our present discussion.

§ In Cornwall, generally, only in acidic rocks of the granite type, scarcely at
all in the basic eruptive rocks.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 857

on to speak of ‘‘the over-powering contrast between the
vast masses of mineral stored in the lodes and the puny
sources of the theoretical supply. See a lode like that of
Clifford Amalgamated, sixteen or eighteen feet wide, of cindery
copper pyrites from wall to wall, or the thirty or forty feet of
dredgy copper ore in the best parts of Devon Consols, or the
massive dimensions of the lode at Dolcoath now, at four hundred
fathoms deep, larger than ever; or again the courses of solid
erystalline galena which have occurred in several of our more
notable lead mines, yielding from five to ten tons to the running
fathom, and,such occurrences seem to be inexplicable by the
process alleged.” *

Certainly there is no indication that the country rocks ever
contained these large quantities of sulphide ores: and for the
sulphur at least we seem driven to suppose a deep-seated origin.
Sir Warington goes on to our third case, and thus urges the
necessity for a similar source for the metallic components.
‘“‘Again, look ata rich part of one mining field, at a belt of killas
rock extending over eight miles from Cligga Head to the south of
Gwennap parish. In that space there are about a hundred
parallel lodes, at one time a hundred more or less gaping fissures, |
and if these are to be filled up by lateral segregation from the
silicate minerals in the country rock, it will go very hard with
the long narrow slices of the rock between the successive east
and west veins to make up a sufficient quantity.” | He then goes
on to consider the different contents of the parallel lodes
underlying north and those underlying south, which traverse the
very same rocks in the St. Agnes and Perran districts, and also
to the different contents of right-running and of cross-veins in
general, and observes ‘‘we should expect that if the sources were
the same (viz.: the country rocks immediately contiguous to the
deposits) the minerals would he of the same character, and
could never exhibit so decided a contrast.” He then refers to

* Smyth’s Presidential Address, 1889, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., Vol. Xt,
Part Iv.

+ This expression should not be misunderstood, for in the first place the
hundred fissures referred to are obviously of three or four widely different ages,
and in each “‘age”’ it is likely that only a very few of the fissures were even in
any sense “‘ gaping’ simultaneously.

{ Ibid,

308 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

the alternate ‘‘zones’’ of tin and copper ores in the mines of
Cornwall, and concludes his remarks on this subject by saying
‘it seems to me that no leaching out of metallic mineral from
the country walls will elucidate the problem.”*

Tf a deep-seated origin is thus indicated for sulphur and
for most of the metals occurring as sulphides, still more is it
called for in the case of tin which is so very local in its occurrence
yet so locally abundaut ; so rare as a component of true stratified
rocks, so generally associated with eruptive rocks of the acidic
type, which have evidently been formed in the depths, and so
frequently an essential and in some cases apparently an original
component of such rocks. There are indeed cases where tin-
oxide exists disseminated in undoubtedly stratified rocks and in
large quantities, and not associated with any fissure-lode which
could be supposed to have been the channel of transmission
from the depth below, as for instance the tin stockwork at
Mulberry Hill already described. In these cases, however, it is
certain that the rock has been very far below the earth’s surface
since its first formation and consolidation, and it seems probable
that the tin in such cases was an original constituent, deposited
from the waters with the rock material itself, and subsequently
concentrated for the most part, though not entirely, into the minor
fissures and shrinkage cracks as we see it. Had there been at
the proper time a fissure in this rock, z.e. while it was still

* Ibid. It should perhaps be remarked here that though the succession of
zones of different minerals at different depth is notable enough, so that ‘‘the
richest copper lode (Dolcoath) in the county in 1840 is now the richest tin lode,”
yet this alternation is often far too broadly stated, and in fact it cannot be said
to be established anywhere in the West of Hngland except in the neighbourhood
of Carn Brea, and perhaps at the Phoenix Mines near Liskeard. In these
localities it is true to this extent. (1) The upper portions of the lodes were
worked for tin, little or no copper being present. But the gozzany character of
these portions plainly indicates the former existence of sulphides now removed,
and there is great reason to suppose that these sulphides were cupreous. (2)
Several of these lodes subsequently proved to be rich in copper and ceased to be
worked for tin. But there is reason to believe that notable quantities of tin were
still present, though lost in the abundance of sulphuretted minerals. An
examination of the burrows at Clifford Amalgamated shows that even there tin
occurred with the copper. (8) It is certain that in the notable instances referred
to above the (probably) once mixed tin and copper ores have given place to tin
alone, the copper having altogether disappeared and the tin greatly increased in
quantity.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 309

deep-seated and while a circulating solution of sufficient
temperature and pressure was still making its way through
it, we might have had here a lode far richer than Dolcoath
resulting strictly from lateral (though deep-seated) secretion.
It may be that some of our lodes have been thus formed,
and even some of the rich Camborne lodes; given then a
sufficient cavity, a sufficiently powerful and abundant solvent
and ‘‘rock-conditions,” capable of causing deposit, and in a belt
of country rock charged as that at Mulberry is, and the size of
the largest ‘‘rich part” in a lode presents no difficulty that
cannot be readily met. For we must remember that the most
rigid application of the theory of lateral segregation does not
forbid us to suppose that the large courses of ore referred to
were the results of a local concentration of ore in the fissure
itself, while the exhaustion of the country rock would only be
proportionate to the average contents of rich and poor parts
together.

The average width of the workable ore of the Great
Dolcoath lode would probably not exceed 4 feet for the coppery
and 8 feet for the tinny portions, with a general average of
perhaps 6 feet. We have not the means of knowing with any
degree of accuracy the yield per cubic fathom of the coppery
portion of the lode, but we shall probably not be far wrong in
taking it at 4 per cent. of copper, while the tinny portions may
be taken at 2 per cent. with an equal degree of probability.
The values, taking into account differences in the cost of
(dressing) preparing for market, would be much the same, so that
we may follow out our comparison on the tinny portion alone.

The 30 fathom belt of tin ground at Mulberry will thus be
seen to have yielded, per linear fathom, nearly twice as much tin
as the Dolcoath lode, or in other words, if concentrated into a
suitable fissure it would have made a lode either twice as large
or twice as rich. The similar belt at Great Wheal Fortune in
Breage would have supplied a lode four times more productive
than that at Doleoath. The great value of the Dolcoath lode
(and equally of the other instances cited by Smyth) consists
therefore not so much in the absolute quantity of its metallic
contents as in the natural concentration which has brought it into,
or into the immediate neighbourhood of, a narrow fissure.

360 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

Origin of metallic deposits apart from metallic silicate rock
crumblings.

Still another argument for the efficacy of thermal waters in
bringing up lead and silver from the depths, in regions where
there are no eruptive rocks, is thus stated by Prof. Smyth.
‘“‘ Finally, how are we to cope with those districts in which we
find little or no mica, no augites or hornblendes, the large areas
for instance of clay slates in central Wales, where we have no
granite contacts and no intrusions of igneous dykes, and yet
scores of well-developed lodes, many of them exceedingly
productive of lead ores and often rich in silver?....It seems to
me that no leaching out of metallic mineral from the country
walls will elucidate the problem, but that we are nearer its
solution by invoking the aid of thermal waters.’’*

The absolute necessity of such chemically charged thermal
waters seems to be admitted by all who have made a special
study of the lodes in the West of England, and by most of
those who have recently studied lodes in other countries.t

We thus reach the conclusion that in most cases sulphur,
part at least of the metallic bases of such sulphides as pyrites,
chalcopyrite, galena, and blende, oxide of tin, and the various
fluo-silicates and fluo-boro-silicates have a ‘‘deep-seated”’ origin,
and that they have for the most part been brought into their
present positions either directly by the agency of ascending
thermals, or indirectly by the elevation and intrusion of eruptive

* Smyth, Pres. Address, op. cit. p. 195.

+ Lindgren, in referring to the silver deposits of the Carlico district in
California, says: ‘“‘on the whole it seems to me most probable that ascending
thermals have extracted ore and gangue from the eruptive rocks at a certain
although not exceedingly great depth, and that for chemical and physical reasons
the principal precipitation took place (in complex fissures) near the surface.........
Most of the ore-deposits occur in liparite or in its tufas, as veins along fractures
and dislocations of a more or less regular character; as simple, once open and
subsequently filled fissure-veins ; as impregnations along complex fissure-systems
(gangziige) or fillimg and cementing more or less extensively fractured zones
(Triimmerztige). The gangue is predominantly barite with jasper ; the present
ores are haloid salts of silver, hydrosilicate and carbonate of copper resulting
from primary rich silver sulphides and copper pyrites.”” Trans. Am. Inst. VV.
Eng. Except for small differences in the character of the ores and rocks this
description would apply well to the Torreon Mine in Chihuahua. See Jowrn.
R.1.C.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 361

rocks such as granite, felsite, and diabase, containing (a)
metalliferous silicates or (4) metalliferous sulphides, which
subsequently are carried off by percolating waters and deposited
where we find them.t It seems to me this hypothesis will
meet all the facts as we know them.

Thus the phenomena of “congenial” and ‘‘uncongenial ”’
strata as observed by the miners in the West of England, and
the different enrichment of the lead veins in the North of
England as they cut through successive and alternating strata of
limestone grit and shale, as set forth by Wallace in 1861,
agreeing as they do with the most literal interpretation of the
lateral secretion hypothesis, agree equally weli with the idea that
the fissures are fed by ascending metalliferous thermals. For,
we may readily and fairly suppose that, the circulating solution
being the same and complex, certain rocks have greater, or at
least different, precipitating capacities than others, or that some
supply better cavities than others.

The following conclusions seem fairly deducible from what
has been here put forward.

1. That as a rational “lateral segregation” hypothesis
accepts and includes ‘“‘ descension,” so a rational ‘‘ ascension
hypothesis” must accept and include both lateral segregation
and descension, and that all three have operated powerfully and
and extensively in the production of the ore-deposits of the
West of England.

2. That sublimation has acted effectively in ore-deposition,
and especially as regards the elements sulphur and arsenic.

3. That injection has also heen powerfully effective, but
chiefly by bringing up ore-charged rocks from what may be
called the zone of vapour to the zone of subterranean circulation.

+ It is of course admitted that many comparatively modern stratified rocks
contain metallic compounds, and there is great reason to believe these in many
instances to have been present in some form when the strata were first laid
down, the substances in question having been present in the waters. But these
waters must have received such components in the first instance from mineral
springs rising from the earth, except such portions as, it may be argued, were
originally condensed into the first waters from the first atmosphere.

362 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

4, That the subterranean circulation which I have
endeavoured to illustrate, aided and supplemented by electrical
transference and re-arrangement, by chemical re-actions going
on within the deposits and by the forces of crystallization and
its allies, will account for all the phenomena of lode filling.

Suc. 12.—TZheories of Impregnation.

In the Presidential address of Prof. Smyth quoted in the
last section, reference is made to the ‘‘feeders’’? observed in
connection with many lodes, and to the frequently associated
mineralized ‘‘country’’ rocks, in the following terms :—‘‘ When
in the neighbourhood of a vein you find strings and specks of
some of the ores which it contains in bulk, some miners will not
hesitate to look upon them as ‘“‘ feeders”’ or contributories to the
vein which come in from the ‘‘country.”’ Others will rather
look upon them as impregnations from the lode.”’*

It might seem at first a mere problem of chemical analysis
to settle this point, but a little consideration will show that this
is not the case. I cannot do better than quote here the words
of Dr. Henry Wadsworth of Massachusetts, who observes
‘‘since ore-deposits are generally associated with altered or
metamorphosed rocks, and occur in regions in which thermal
waters have been active, the country rock would naturally be
more or less charged, and sometimes completely decomposed.
In the process of the formation of the ore-deposit it may
happen that the ore-material will be entirely removed from the
adjacent rocks (7.e. to form the deposit in question), or this rock
may have deposited in it ores which never existed there before,
or, again, the ore-material may have been brought from a
distance by the percolating waters. From the above it follows
that chemical analyses alone, either of the country rock or of
its enclosed minerals, lead to unreliable conclusions as to the
source of the ores, and hence it is unphilosophical to build any
general theory upon such analyses.’’}

Clearly then it is not always easy—or even possible—to
decide even in the -simplest case whether the country rock

* Op. cit., p. 90.

+ Wadsworth. ‘‘ Theories of Ore Deposit.’ Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.,
May, 1884, p. 201.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 363

has been impregnated from the fissure or the fissure filled from
the country. The opposing views may be illustrated as follows:—
Let fig. 13, pl. rx, represent a portion of a rock mass containing
stanniferous silicates regularly disseminated through it. The
rock is permeable to a solution which is capable of decomposing
the silicates in question. Now we may suppose that the solution
circulates through the mass of the rock, and (1) merely changes
the silicate into oxide of tin, wm s¢tu, carrying off the silica, or
perhaps depositing it in the vicinity of the oxide particles. But
(2) if the rocks be fissured, as in fig. 14, and the circulating
solution is flowing towards the fissure from each side, it may
decompose the silicates as before into oxides, but at the same
time transfer some of the particles towards the fissure, so forming
an accumulation of tin oxide near its walls at the expense of
the general mass of the rock. And in proportion to the length
of the process, and to the extent of the mass of rock thus
subject to the transferring solution, may we expect will be the
width and richness of the enriched bands. As in the former
ease the silica may either be deposited with the tin oxide or
carried farther by the issuing solution. A further development
of the very same process may lead to a deposition of tin oxide,
or of quartz, or both, with varying mutual relations, in the
fissure itself as a “leader.” Let us speak of this hypothesis,
which assumes a‘dow and transference from the mass of the rock
towards the fissure, as (x). The same phenomena of leader and
of enriched band may be equally well explained by another and
opposite hypothesis (y), which supposes a stanniferous solution
flowing along the fissure, which may or may not deposit ore
material or veinstone in the fissure itself, but which permeates
the rock to a certain distance on either side of the fissure,
depositing ore material or veinstone in that bordering belt,
any stanniferous particles already in the rock being thus
practically unaltered. JI doubt not that hypothesis (y) applies
in some cases—where definite lodes exist—even though the
whole mass of country rock may have been originally impregnated
with ore material, but it appears to me that the former hypothesis
is far more able to account for such phenomena as are seen at
Mulberry and other similar stock-works (fig. 1 Pl. vit); in fact
that the fissure when very small forms rather the exit for the
spent liquors, and not the entrance for the charged solutions.

364 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

Let us take another illustration. In fig. 15, Pl. rx, which
represents the case of many small and rich tin-lodes in granite,
the tin might be supposed to have come up or along the fissure
until it was quite full, the stanniferous solutions meanwhile
acting upon the solid granite, converting it into kaclin, depositing
quartz and carrying off alkali at the same time. But we may
equally well suppose, in accordance with the circulating theory,
that the solvent percolating through the mass of the granite
dissolves out the tin from the original stanniferous silicates, or
from any other combination in which it may exist, and on
reaching the fissure deposits it there; only kaolinizing the granite
in the neighbourhood of the fissure and not throughout the mass
of the rock, because there only was it possible for the alkalies
to be freely carried off and for the liberated silica to be deposited.
It seems to me that this view is strongly supported by the
phenomena of the carbonas, stock-works, and capels, and by
what are called impregnations generally.

The great carbona in St. Ives Consols (fig. 2, pl. v1) was
720 feet long, and though very variable in width and height,
averaged perhaps 30 feet. At a moderate computation 60,000
tons of tin-impregnated granite must have been extracted from
this carbona, yet its only communication with the standard lode
was but a few inches in width and height, and those with other
lodes much smaller still. Such small channels might very well
serve for the continuous discharge of what may be called spent
liquors coming from all sides, but could hardly serve for the
entry of enriching solutions from the lode fissures to what was
really a kind of blind alley.

The argument is still still stronger in the case of impregnation
at the South Wendron Mine, (fig. 6, pl. vitr) for here the
traversing fissure is a mere crack which rarely contains tin at all.
The wide, even, and sparing distribution of the tin in the killas
stockworks, which are not associated with definite lodes, seems
to afford strong reasons for regarding them as originally
stanniferous beds, as already indicated. This hypothesis helps
us to understand how it is that so large a quantity of tin could
be localized without the aid of any lode sufficiently large or
continuous to serve as a channel from considerable depths. It

> Auld, res

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 360

also agrees with the fact that, however numerous the individual _
tin ‘‘strings”’ may be, and they are sometimes a score or more
to the yard (fig. 1, pl. virr), yet that the killas between always
contains traces at least of tin, and sometimes actually more than
the aggregrate of the “strings,” which alone it is possible to
save by economic treatment of the whole mass owing to the
extreme fineness of the tin in the rock between the strings.

These strings appear to be no more than filled shrinkage
cracks, those which are now more than capillary in size having
been enlarged by the crystallizing forces. It does not seem
likely that any of them were ever really open fissures in the
ordinary sense of the term.

The minerals associated with the tin in these stock-works
are precisely what they are in so many other situations, viz. :
gilbertite, schorl and quartz; with, rarely, topaz and wolfram.
Fluor and apatite are either very rare, or altogether absent.
Usually in these little “‘ strings” the cassiterite is more abundant
than all the rest of the components taken together, so that as
- the term is usually applied there is no veinstone. It seems
impossible to believe that a band of rock 20 or 30 fathoms wide
can have been impregnated with so large a quantity of tin,
brought from so far by solutions flowing through these compara-
tively trivial channels. Can we imagine that such a solution
passing through a veinlet, often less than one sixteenth of an
inch in thickness and only extending a few yards in length or
depth, has impregnated the country rock for a foot or more in
some instances on either side? Rather it would appear that a
sufficient solvent power had existed in the interstitial fluid
soaking through rocks already saturated with tin particles; in
fact that in these instances at least the old sediments which now
form the bulk of Cornwall were, in their deeper portions (which
are now uplifted on the flanks of the granite) ,already stanniferous
before the granite began to be uplifted. ‘Thus as regards these
stockworks in killas which are unconnected with distinct fissure
veins, it seems that we must look to what has been called lateral
segregation for the concentration in the strings; and as to the
tin itself, although it may originally have been brought to the
surface and poured into the ancient seas or lakes by means of
thermal springs, yet that the springs were not less ancient than

366 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

the beds in question. We can therefore easily understand why
these tin-bearing rocks have yielded no fossils, since no higher
forms of life at any rate could exist in a sea charged with
highly poisonous soluble compounds of tin-fluorides, fluo-
chlorides, fluo-borates, and fluo-silicates.*

As for the tin stockworks in killas which are associated with
definite lodes, such as Great Wheal Fortune and Pednandrea,
Von Cotta’s hypothesis as applied by H. C. Salmon to the great
‘‘underground stockwork” at the latter mine in 1862 is as
follows: ‘‘I consider this great deposit as eminently characteristic
of a class of stanniferous formations common enough in Cornwall,
but which are usually classed as lodes...... The real fact is that
there was a fissure, but often only a very small one, from which
a metamorphosing and replacing action appears to have
emanated, extending to a greater or less distance, metamorphos-
ing the neighbouring rock into a capel and impregnating it by
replacement with oxide of tia. When this is confined to a
moderate width, and where the tin does not extend away in veins
at right angles to the lode, the miner classes it all as a ‘‘ lode,”
and properly so. As to ‘‘walls’? which some appear to consider
the criterion of a true lode, they may in these highly dislocated
districts be frequently met with ad infinitum ; and in such deposits
as those referred to it is not unusual to find that half-a-dozen
‘walls? have been adopted in succession as the true wall of the
lode and abandoned. ..... I do not of course mean to imply by
this that there are not many lodes wholly confined within the
walls of an original fissure—lodes in the popular geological sense.
I only wish to point out that there are many lodes of a different
character, and this Pednandrea deposit is characteristic and
worthy of study as forming a link between lodes of this class
and those still more irregular deposits called carbonas in the
extreme western districts of Cornwall.’’t

* On this subject the following suggestion was made by my son H. F.
Collins and myself in the year 1884. ‘‘ The waters were so strongly impregnated
with chemical solutions—from mineral springs rreceding the granite irruptions—
that nothing could live. If this were the case the sediments would also be highly
charged with chemical substances, and the subsequent segregation of these
substances into fissures formed at a later date has given us the lodes of Cornwall.”
Journ. R.I.C., Vol. vir, part 2, p. 166.

+ Mining and Smelting Magazine, Sept., 1862, pp. 143-4,

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 367

With all that is here said I entirely agree, but it seems to
me that several of the phenomena of such stockwork deposits
become clearer and easier to understand, if we suppose that the
rocks in which the fissure has been opened was already charged
with tin in some form, disseminated through the mass, and
perhaps even concentrated into shrinkage cracks before the
opening of the fissure.

If there is reason to believe that the killas stockworks
represent rock masses permeated with tin, and that at Wheal
Music with copper, before fissuring, much more is this the case
with such granite stockworks as those at Carrigan and Rock
Hill, and with such stanniferous elvans as that at Wheal
Jennings. The same may be said of the copper stockworks at
Wheal Vyvyan. But these of course are known to be of much
more recent origin.

Capels. The substances known in Cornwall and Devon as
capels may be described as highly altered and usually silicified
bands of country rock, bordering a more or less distinct fissure
or fissure-filling. The term is sometimes applied to a silicified
or mineralized band at the side of a fissure traversing granite
or even elvan, but most well-marked capels occur in killas.*
Fig. 16, plate 1x, illustrates one form of capel in killas.

Tin capels contain particles of tin-oxide in notable propor-
tions, though not always in quantities sufficient to pay for
working. The contents of the actual fissures (the leaders) in
these cases are often quite unimportant from the miner’s point of
view, as in the case of the greater portions of the tin lodes on
each side of Carn Brea Hill. In all the mines of this district
the chief part of the tin is obtained from the capel, which
extends sometimes for several fathoms on each side of the
fissure or lode proper, which is sometimes a mere joint in the
rock,

* The word capel (at Penhalls) is applied to a rock which appears to me to be
simply an altered killas, a killas which has been greatly acted on by mineral
solutions and changed from a soft slaty rock into a hard dark-coloured compact
mass of quartz and schorl: these minerals being arranged in streaks following
the original lines of stratification of the killas. Im addition the capel is generally
full of short lenticular veins of quartz, and is intersected by numerous little
strings of cassiterite and chlorite. Foster, Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Corn., 1x,
207.

368 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

The mineralized bands are worked away as far as they are
found to yield mineral enough to pay the cost of working.
Consequently, as the price of tin varies within wide limits, the
estimated or stated width of the paying ground known as ‘the
lode,” may also vary at different times, but in the Camborne and
Illogan districts the average width may be taken at from 4 to 8
feet.*

Since in all cases it is the workable part of the capel
(including the ‘‘leader’”? when present) which is described as
the lode by the miners, many wrong impressions have resulted
as to the width of the ore-bearing fissures in the West of
England. Thus the table of lode-widths already given from
Mr. Henwood’s ‘‘ Address,” though fairly accurate as regards
copper lodes, where workable capels have always been either
very rare or altogether absent, is to a considerable extent
misleading as regards tin lodes or lodes containing both tin and
copper, unless the distinction pointed out be borne in mind.

The most noteworthy point in connection with these capels
is the enormous amount of silica present. Doubtless we might
suppose the interior of the earth—whatever that phrase may be
taken to mean—quite capable of yielding this silica, but the
circulating waters of these fissures could hardly bring up so
much. The first effort would probably be to coat the wall with
an almost impermeable layer, after which the silicia would make
its way outwards still in solution. If we suppose the silica
to be derived from the county rock, our difficulty is lessened
if not altogether vanishing.

There is much reason to believe that the quartz of capels
and of quartz veins is, as already indicated, the result of solution
in and deposition from alkaline solutions.t

*In this width, however, the tin is still disseminated somewhat irregularly,
so that it is often necessary to break a great deal of ground that will not pay for
subsequent treatment, and even to raise such “‘deads’”’ to surface. Of the whole
bulk of the lode-stuff broken in the Camborne district, probably not more than
one half is actuaily treated in the stamps, and the average produce of this
portion in ‘“‘ black tin,” as finally ‘‘cleaned”’ and sold to the smelter, does not
exceed 2 per cent.

+ At New Rosewarne and other mines in Cornwall quartz has been frequently
found deposited on chalybite, dolomite, and ever on calcite crystals, the surfaces
of which are entirely uninjured fromcorrosion. This could hardly be the case if
the quartz were deposited from acid solutions.

Nae

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 369

The Great Flat Lode described by Dr. Foster in 1878, is a
fine example of a capel tin lode.* The microscopical structure
of certain tin capels was fully described and illustrated in the
author’s papers published in 1880-82.

The constant association of schorl and tin has been already
referred to. Indeed tin is scarcely ever present without schorl,
although schorl very often occurs where there is no tin.

Tourmaline schist is rarely quite free from tin, but many of
the thin films of schorl between the beds at the Parka mines
appear to be absolutely devoid of tin. Here the schorl occurs
in thin knife-blade films, absolutely black, but fading gradually
away to red yellow or white at a short distance from the fissure.
In other places quite near ‘‘floors” of tin occur in great
abundance.

Sec. 13.—On the localization of Mineral Substances in the West of
England Mining District.

The contrast between the vast quantities of alkalies present
in the constituent minerals of the crystalline rocks, (and in the
eruptive rocks which appear to have been derived from the
erystallines by more or less complete fusion), and the small
proportions existing in the rocks of the sedimentary series, is one
of the most noteworthy in the whole range of chemical geology. .
A similar rarity of alkaline constituents characterizes the great
bulk of our mineral deposits, whether stratified beds, segrega-
tions or fissure-veins.

The alkaline constituents now so abundant in the seas and
in vegetation have probably been derived in great part from the
crystalline and eruptive rocks by the agency of ascending
thermal currents (springs), as suggested by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt
in his crenitic hypothesis,{ and there is great reason to believe
that the mineral deposits themselves have been derived from the
same primary source, as we have endeavoured to show in the
foregoing sections.

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
+ On Cornish Tin Stones and Tin Capels, Min. Magq., Vol. 4 and 5.
{ Mineral Physiology, &c., 1886, p. 132, et. seq.

370 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

If this primary origin of mineral substances be admitted, it
might at first seem that the elements referred to would be found
everywhere, though differing somewhat in the proportions
present. In the strictest sense this may be so, but it is not so in

any practical sense. There are indeed certain elements, such as
silica and alumina, which are scarcely ever absent, even in
notable proportions, over any considerable area.* Similar
proportions of oxides of iron also are not often absent, although
the same cannot be said of the definite compounds of iron with
sulphur and arsenic. Gold and silver too seem to be very widely
distributed, but these are so valuable that even minute
proportions, such as would be overlooked in the case of less
valuable substances, are noted. But there are other elements and
combiuations which, common enough in some localities, are
present not at all or only in very minute proportions in others,
and this not only in the case of large areas, but even in the
different parts of such a small area as our West of England
district.

The elements and mineral substances whose distribution is
to be here discussed will be dealt with in groups as follows:

Group 1.— Fluorine, boron, tin, and tungsten.

2.—Sulphur, arsenic, copper, zinc, lead, antimony.

38.—Iron, manganese, nickel, cobalt, bismuth,
uranium, titanium, chromium.

4,—Phosphates.

5.—Carbonates ores and veinstones.

6.—Barium, strontian, cerium.

7.—Gold, silver.

8.—Carbon and hydro-carbons.

Group 1.—Fluorime, Boron, Tin, Tungsten.

These are perhaps the most notable of the irregularly
distributed elements in our district, and it will be shown that
they are very specially associated with each other.

Fluorine occurs in tourmaline (schorl) and in fluor spar,
also in much smaller quantities in such minerals as gilbertite,

* Some remarks on the local occurrences of special forms of silica were made
in a previous section of this chapter.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 371

topaz, and apatite, the most abundant source being the first-
mentioned.*

Tourmaline is an important constituent of very large areas
within our district; in granite and its various modifications
(schorlyte, luxullyanyite, &c.); in tourmaline schist and in tin
eapel. Probably at least one-tenth of the entire district, in
round numbers some 200 square miles, is thus permeated with
tourmaline, and to the average extent of one-tenth of the entire
mass. Now the rocks of this district weigh very closely upon
two tons per cubic yard, so that each yard in depth of this large
area will weigh near 1,240 millions of tons, and by our estimate
one tenth of this, or 124 millons of tons, consist of tourmaline.
Tourmaline, by analysis, yields from 1:49 up to 2°70 per cent.
of its weight of fluorine. If we assume an average of 2 per
cent., our 124 millions of tons contain no less than 2,480,000
tons of fluorine. This be it remembered for each yard in depth.

Fluor spar is another, though far less important, source of
fluorine. It has been found in many of the copper lodes and
lead lodes of the district, as well as, sparingly, in a few of the
tin lodes. Also it has been met with occasionally as a constituent
of the granite (as at Wheal Daniel) and of the modified and
kaolinized granite rock known as China Stone or Petuntzyte,
notably in the parishes of St Stephens and St. Dennis. The
absolute quantity of this fluor spar must be very difficult to
estimate. It may however be worth while to make the attempt,
however roughly. If we assume the existence of 500 veins,
averaging one yard wide and continuous for an ayerage of 500
yards in length, we have a total area of 250,000 square yards,
or a little less than one-twelfth of a square mile. If in this
area we assume further that the fluor spar forms one-twentieth
of the whole vein contents, probably a reasonable estimate, then
as fluor spar contains about 47 per cent. of fluorine, there will
be thus indicated 11,750 tons per yard of depth.

It is probable that fluor spar as a rock-constituent occurs
over a much larger area than as a veinstone, perhaps even over
a square mileinall. But it exists there in much less proportions,
probably not over one per cent., and this would give us a further

quantity of fluorine of something like 29,000 tons per yard of
depth.
* The chief localites for this and other mineral substances mentioned are

given in the Author’s ‘‘ Hand-book to The Mineralogy of Cornwall and Devon,”
Truro, 1876.

372 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

If we double these last last figures for the fluorine existing
in gilbertite, topaz, apatite, and other rare or widely scattered
minerals, whether occurring as rock-constituents, or in the veins,
we reach in round numbers a total of two millions five hundred
and fifty thousand tons of fluorine per yard of depth. Thus it
is evident :

(a).—That fluorine is an important constituent of the
Cornwall mining region.

(6).—That it is localized as regards tourmaline in one-tenth,
and as regards fluor spar and other minerals in about
two-thousandths of the entire area.

There are indeed traces of fluorine to be found by careful
analyses in many other parts of the mining district, but the
element for all practical and most theoretical purposes may be
regarded as absent.

Boron. This element is with us confined to the tourmaline,
of which, like the fluorine, it constitutes about 2 per cent.
Consequently we may estimate the boron present at about two
and a half millions of tons per yard of depth. This element
hardly occurs in the West of England excepting in tourmaline,
and it is probably entirely absent from the rocks outside the
tourmaline area.

Tin has hardly been found in the district, or indeed in any
district except as cassiterite.* It is far less abundant than
either fluorine or boron. The actually impregnated area may
be roughly estimated to contain, or to have contained, tin as
follows; of course not counting the stream tin, which represents
the results of a very large denudation:

One thousand lodes (with their branches, carbonas, or other
adjuncts) averaging 1,000 yards long and one yard
wide is equal to one million yards of surface area.
And this reckoning one per cent. of (metallic) tin
would give 20,000 tons per yard of depth.

* The tin occurring in stannite (tin pyrites) may be finely divided cassiterite,
at any rate it is not, as was once supposed, a true sulphide.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 373

Fifty stockworks, averaging 250 yards long and 20 yards
wide, and yielding an average of a quarter per cent.
of metallic tin, 1,250 tons per yard. Together 21,250
tons of metallic tin per yard of depth.
The whole area thus indicated would be a little less than
half a square mile; outside of this area tin can hardly be said
to exist at all as a rock or vein constituent.

Tungsten. This element is far less widely distributed than
tin. From all the lead veins, most of the copper-veins, and
even many of the tin-veins it is altogether absent; while it
hardly exists at all as a rock constituent outside the veins. Yet
in the form of wolfram, which contains about 60 per cent. of
tungsten, it is locally abundant, as for instance at East Pool,
Great Beam, and Drakewalls Mines. Small quantities of
tungsten also occur as scheelite and as zippeeite. Still it is
probable that on the whole tungsten is not more than one-tenth,
perhaps not more than one-twentieth as abundant in Cornwall
as tin.

Here then we have four elements, each occurring in
considerable abundance, though limited to very small actual
areas in a not very large mining district, and all four are
peculiarly and intimately associated with each other. For if we
take the area which contains the whole of the tourmaline, in
other words that which contains all the boron and nearly all the
fluorine, we shall find that it includes also both the tin and the
tungsten. But as the tourmaline area is much larger than the
tin area, we may have tourmaline without tin, but not tin without
tourmaline. Similarly there may be tin without tungsten, but
not tungsten without tin.

These mutual associations have been fully discussed
elsewhere,* and the conclusion seems irresistible that fluorine in
solution has been the tin-carrier, bringing tin up from consider-
able depths to what may be called workable depth, and even to
the actual present surface in some instances.

Whether boron aided in this or not is perhaps doubtful,
since the direct combinations of boron with tin are little if at
all known. It would seem, however, that when once locked up

* Cornish Tin-stones and Tin-capels, p. 38, et. seq.

374 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

with silica and iron in the very stable mineral tourmaline, that
neither fluorine nor boron have any tin-carrying power.
Certainly the great bulk of tourmaline bearing rock everywhere
seems to be devoid of tin.}

Grove 2.—Sulphur, Arsenic, Copper, Zinc, Lead, Antimony.

The first portion of this second group of elements is often
rather closely associated with the compounds of the first group,
but the second portion is somewhat widely diverse in its modes
of occurrence; and all except perhaps arsenic occur at times in
considerable abundance away from the elements of the first
group.

Sulphur seems to be the constant and characteristic associate
of the group—as much so as fluorine and boron in the first
group—indeed more so, for the combinations with sulphur are
more direct. Stillit must be admitted that in our district sulphur
minerals are less widely distributed than are tourmaline and
fluor spar.

The most extensive vein deposits of sulphides are or have
been the great copper veins of St. Just, Breage, Camborne,
Redruth, Gwennap, St. Austell, Liskeard, and the Tamar valley ;
the great lodes of iron pyrites at Wheal Jane and Nangiles; and
the large mispickel lodes of the Tamar valley. All these
are very closely connected with what may be called the fluorine
and tin area. Sulphur is also largely associated with zinc (as
blende) not only in some of the districts just mentioned, but also
in many of the veins of galena, and in some of those yielding
lead and antimony. Probably, however, the greatest actual
amount of sulphur occurs in the large quantities of disseminated
iron pyrites found in the rocks of the fossiliferous sedimentary
series, and often far away from the tourmaline bearing rocks.

Arsenic. The only important source of ‘this element in
Cornwall is the mineral mispickel, though it also occurs to a
small extent in connection with nickel, cobalt, copper, and other
substances. The veins containing the arsenic compounds are

+The immense deposits of boracic acid, free, or in combination with lime or
with alkalies, as seen in Italy and more markedly in California and Nevada,
probably indicates the absence of the fluorine or iron necessary to fix it in the
mineral tourmaline, which is very rare in each of these regions.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 370

mostly situated in the slaty rocks (killas) near to the granite,
but occasionally in the granite itself. In the former situations,
as in the great siliceous lodes of Devon Great Consols and
Gawton in the Tamar valley, it is in the whole more closely
associated with copper than with tin, although both metals are
generally present. In the Camborne district it is perhaps more
closely associated with tin than with copper, and sometimes
copper is altogether absent. On the whole it is probable that
arsenic in the veins of the West of England is less abundant than
tin, though much more abundant than wolfram. As a rock-
constituent it is like wolfram, very rare.

Mispickel contains about 46 per cent. of arsenic combined
with nearly 35 per cent of iron, and about 19 percent of sulphur.

Copper. ‘The number of minerals containing copper is very
great, but practically they are all confined to the veins and rock-
joints near veins. The rich gray ores of the St. Just mines, of
the Godolphin mine in Breage, of the Camborne and Redruth
mines (whence the richest is sometimes called Redruthite),
and of some of the mines near St. Austell; the rich red and
black oxides and blue and green carbonates of the Caradon
district ; as wellas the rarer arseniates, phosphates, and uranates,
and the native copper of many of the coppery gozzans; all seem
to have been derived by chemical and electrical agencies from
the double sulphide of iron and copper known as chalcopyrite,
which contains when purest nearly equal proportions of copper,
iron, and sulphur.

The great cindery courses of ore at the Gwennap mines, and
the still larger siliceous ore-masses at Devon Great Consols, some-
times formerly as much as 40 feet wide, strike the imagination
with their brilliant appearance, but unlike the best tin-veins
they have for the most part become impoverished in depth, so
that copper mining, which began in comparatively recent times,
has now sunk to very small dimensions; and has been for the
greater part of its history far inferior in importance to tin
mining.

The best copper deposits have always been in veins near to
but not actually in the granite. Some copper has also been
found in veins at considerable distances from the granite, quite

876 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS.

away too from tin and from tourmaline. Even when it is
directly associated with these substances it seems to have had
quite a different origin.

Copper as a rock-constituent, apart from definite veins, is
almost non-existent, and the absolute quantity of copper in the
West of England must be far less than that of tin.

Zine in Cornwall scarcely occurs at all except as the sulphide
(blende), and it is almost exclusively confined to the veins in
which iron, copper, or lead ores are found. Occasionally it is
met with in the tin-veins as at Wheal Metal in Breage, but only
in small quantities, unless notable quantities of copper are also
present. In such cases it is of course near the granite junctions ;
but when it occurs in lead veins, like copper ores under similar
conditions, it is found far away from such junctions.

Some of the zine veins have been very large, as for instance
at Great Retallack and Duchy Peru in the parish of Perran.
Very much blende was thrown away in the old burrows, or left
behind in the upper levels of many of the mines, and especially
in those between Truro and St. Agnes; there having been
formerly no sale for blende. Many of these old mines and
burrows have been re-worked in comparatively recent times.
Still the product of zinc ore in our district has never been really
large even as compared with copper.

Asa rock-constituent zinc is very rare, and the absolute
quantity of zinc in Cornwall has probably not much exceeded
the absolute quantity of tungsten.

Lead. This element also occurs almost exclusively in veins,
and as a sulphide (galena), and almost always at considerable
distances from the granite. The best deposits, as at Hast Wheal
Rose and the Menheniot mines, have mostly been associated
with sedimentary rocks of a fossiliferous series. As already
mentioned ores of zinc and copper are often found with lead
ores in the veins. Tin however occurs near lead only very
rarely,* and even then is not intimately associated with it.

* The most notable exception is at Budnick in Perranzabuloe, described by
W.J. Henwood. Trans. Roy. Geol, Soc. Corn., V.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF ORE-DEPOSITS. 377

The galena of the district is almost always notably
argentiferous, ores running from 30 up to 100 ounces of silver
per ton being common. At times the production has been
considerable, yet it cannot be said that lead mining has ever
been a really important industry here compared with the mining
of copper, and still less as compared with tin. It has now
(1891) almost absolutely ceased to exist.

A considerable number of rare minerals resulting from the
decomposition of galena have been found in the gozzany
portions of the lodes, but rarely in workable quantities. As a
rock constituent lead ores have scarcely ever been seen in the
district, and on the whole it would perhaps not be far wrong to
reckon lead as about equal in quantity and in area of distribution
with zine, though the areas are not quite coincident.

Antimony. This element has usually occurred with lead,
and under like conditions; mostly as a sulphide, and confined to
veins in stratified rocks of a fossiliferous series, at a distance
from the granite. It has always been far less abundant than
lead.

In group 2 we have a number of elements very intimately
associated with each other, more particularly through tke non-
metallic sulphur, which may have come in part from ‘deep
seated”’ sources, as is almost certainly the case with fluorine and
its associates of the first group. But there is a notable
association of some at least of the sulphuretted metals (lead
and antimony) with the stratified rocks of a fossiliferous series.
It seems probable that at any rate galena and antimonite, and
possibly too part of the blende and chalcopyrite, may have been
derived directly from these rocks, or from others formerly
over-lying them and now denuded away; though primarily
coming from deep-seated sources by means of ancient springs,
which mineralized the waters in which the rocks in question
were laid down.

378

THE DIAMOND PROSPECTING CORE DRILL.

By STEPHEN ROGERS, F.G.S.

One of the most important considerations in the development
of mineral property is the preliminary ‘‘ prospecting,” by which
the exact position, extent, thickness, and valne of the mineral
deposits are determined. For this purpose the ‘“‘ Diamond Rock
Drill” is now being extensively used, both at home and abroad,
and the superiority of this method over that of the ordinary shaft
sinking is very striking. It bores a perfectly straight, smooth
hole to any depth, or in any given direction from the vertical to
the horizontal, bringing to the surface in order a solid section or
“‘core’’ of every stratum passed through, shewing its exact
depth, thickness, and the character of the rock. The “ core” is
large enough to be thoroughly tested, and can therefore be
subjected to physical and chemical tests. Another advantage of
great value is, that, in the event of the mineral sought for being
absent, this important fact is conclusively proved. It also gives
positive information of the nature of the strata, thus making it
possible to estimate the cost of the shaft closely. Any machine
for accomplishing such work must have many requirements. It
must be strong, simple, and durable, economical in the use of
steam, and in the wear and tear of the diamond or “ carbon”’
points, rapid in operation, and, above all, its work must be
accurate and reliable.

Many excellent diamond rock borers are manufactured, but -
the ‘‘ Sullivan”? machine is the one I more particularly advocate,
as it combines all these important and essential features. As
regards its construction, with the exception of the smaller sizes, it
consists of the engines, the hoisting, and the feed apparatus. Each
part is distinct, and can be operated independently of the others.
They are mounted on a cast-iron base plate, which rests on a
bolted and braced hard-wood frame. The base plate slides
backwards and forwards on ways on the frame, moved by a hand
lever working in arackontheframe. The engines are designed

THE DIAMOND PROSPECTING CORE DRILL. 379

especially for these machines, with a view to completeness and
economy. ‘They are vertical, two in number, set quartering, and
can be driven by steam or compressed air. The hoisting appa-
ratus in the larger machines consists of an iron drum, wound
with wire-rope, and with suitable combinations of gearing for
hoisting the full weight of rods from any ordinary depth with-
out the necessity of using double blocks. For the advance or
“feed” of the drilling bit the single cylinder hydraulic piston
feed is used, except in the case of the ‘“‘M” and “ E”’ drills.

In purchasing one of these machines it will be well to select
one a little larger than that just equal to the work contemplated,
in case the drilling should be carried deeper than was expected.
The location of the prospect hole should be determined by the
extent and general features of the land to be developed. The
‘ground should be reasonably good for hauling, and, where the
available supply of water is limited, it might be used over and
over, allowing the water as it comes from the hole to run back
into the tank or well from which it was pumped. The bit, when
it first penetrates the rock, is first set on its lowest face and
inner and outer edges with the small pieces of black diamond or
carbon. As the bit is rotated and fed forward, the diamonds chip
and grind away the rock in an annular hole, leaving untouched
in the centre a cylindrical ‘‘core.”’” The bit passes down over
this ‘‘core,’’ followed by the core shell and the core barrel.
The latter is a smooth-bored tube, in which the core is enclosed.
After drilling as many runs as will fill the core-barrel, the rods
are pulled up, until the top joint reaches the surface, discon-
nected at the joint, and the drill moves back on the frame out of ©
the way. Casing pipe is used to keep the hole clean, and to
prevent caving. When its use is found necessary, the hole is
. enlarged to a suitable diameter by means of a reamer. No core
is made in reaming, the object simply being to enlarge the hole.
All the indications of the machine and gauges should be closely
watched, as well as the cuttings as they come to the surface, as
the indications shew before the rock is pulled up the thickness of
the strata, and the character of the rock, and they act as checks
which establish the accuracy of the work beyond question.

It is undoubtedly well known that Cornwall does not enjoy
at the present moment that mining prosperity which so eminently

380 THE DIAMOND PROSPECTING CORE DRILL.

distinguished her years ago. To the dark cloud, however, there
is a silver lining, for we are assured by the highest mining
authorities of the day that there is every probability of this
highly valued ore of tin, which forms such a valuable and
indispensable article of commerce, beg found below the work-
ings of the long-since abandoned copper mines of the county.
Cornwall is essentially a mining county, and if she is to
maintain her position as a tin producer, the mining industry must
be fostered in every conceivable way. The Diamond Drill has
amply justified its existence in many parts of the globe, rapidly
growing in popularity as a means of expeditiously testing for
minerals, and I firmly believe that if adopted in Cornwall, and
deep borings are made in the abandoned mining districts and
in the virgin ground, highly important discoveries of tin will
result, and that very many years will roll by ere Cornwall will
be pronounced to be tinless.

381

A Wears Teather.

By HENRY CROWTHER, F.R.M.S., Curator of the Truro Museum.

JANUARY.

We have made a good start for a dry year. Our monthly
rain, hail, and snow falls, when all calculated, equalled a total
downfall of 2°27 inches, the driest January for thirteen years. In
my letter on ‘‘ Weather for December’? I showed how the year
closed, a little drier than 1890; and, singularly, the Board of
Agriculture give the wheat crop of Great Britain at 31°26 bushels
an acre, as compared with 30°74 bushels for 1890, which is in near
accord with the meteorological observations of that letter. The
month was cold, our average maxima of heat for January being 48°27
degrees, last month it was 46°10; our average minima, greatest
cold in night, 38°10; last month, 34°00 degrees, or a monthly mean
of temperature, two-and-a-quarter degrees colder in the day, and
over four degrees colder in the night. The sun shone on 19g days,
and we had a peep of the sun behind the clouds on nine other
days; yet snow fell on six days, hail on six, and fog was in
evidence on four days. Our most prevalent winds were northerly,
the next north-westerly. On one day we had the wind in the
south ; it followed a south-westerly wind, and brought with it the
heaviest day’s rainfall ("74 inch) of the month. We had rain on
22 days, and frost on 17 days. The highest reading of the
barometer was on the 26th, 30°52; the lowest 29°03 inches, on
the 16th—a range of 1°49 inches. We often complain of the
heaviness of certain days, but few of us fully realize the meaning
of the cheerful or depressing effects of the alternating column of
air which rests upon us, and is measured by our barometers.
Every square inch of this column weighs, when the glass stands at
30 inches, about 15lbs.; over 2,00olbs. to the square foot, and over
30,000,000 tons to the square mile. The range of the barometer
between the 16th and 26th of January was 1°49 inches, one-and-a-
half inches, and the oscillation of the mercury through such a space
means a difference of about 1,500,000 tons per square mile. Such

382 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

varying pressures cannot take place without causing effects on our
seas, often disastrous ones.

We had several delightful days in January, and on three days
towards its end, the temperature out of doors was 52 degrees.
Our coldest night was on the 11th, when under cover we registered
1g degrees, or 13 degrees of frost, in the open 15 degrees, or 17
degrees of frost; the wind blew over a carpet of snow which
overspread the country, from two to six or seven inches deep.

On the 22nd, Mr. John Burton, of the Old Curiosity Shop,
Falmouth, sent me some male flowers of the willow, which he had
gathered on the Castle Drive, and which for many years he had
noticed as coming out in the first week of February, their early
appearance on the dry ground there is interesting. Primroses were
to be found in the sheltered valleys about Truro.

I regret to say that Mr. F. H. Davey, who so kindly takes the
charge of a rain-guage for me at Ponsanooth, is laid up ; hence for
the time being, and, I hope sincerely, for the briefest period, his
interesting records of Kennal Vale are suspended.

I purpose, as last year, to tabulate the rainfalls from month to
month, as I learn that this method has given great satisfaction to

many of my readers.

40 years’ mean. 1891. 1892.
January...... 4°85-ins ...... 3°40-ins. ...... 2°27-ins.

A peep backwards, January 1792 :—8th, ice one inch thick
in the course of one night. 12th, snowdrop stem above ground,
ice in general two and a half inches thick. 14th, thermometer at
10 a.m. registered 26 degrees. joth, snowdrops in bloom.
Rainfall 2°30 inches.

February gth, 1892.

FEBRUARY.

There are many who believe that bad seasons repeat them-
selves, and yet would never expect a repetition of the February
weather of last year. That month was the driest February we
have on record, this year it was the wettest since 1885. The
rainfall for this month was 4°43 inches, which fell on 18 days.
Our heaviest day’s rainfall was on the 18th, ‘93, nearly an inch.
The month commenced wet, half an inch of rain on the first day,
with hail, yet a general feeling of warmth. Next we had a

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 383

fortnight of dry weather, and then followed for nine days
all sorts of weather changes, snow, sleet, hail, heavy rains,
lightning and thunder, the thermometer registering 12 degrees
of frost outside, the snow falling six inches deep. Except
on one day the sun was seen in gleam or clearness every
day in the month. On five nights the thermometers in shade
registered frost. Our greatest heat in day showed a monthly mean -
of 50°4 degrees, one degree warmer than our 40 years’ average.

A peculiarity of the month was the general fixity of the wind.
It began with a week or more of north-westerly winds, followed
by similar periods of northerly, southwesterly, and easterly winds,
with which it closed.

The following are the rainfalls of the month and those of last
year and a forty years’ mean.

40 years’ mean. 1891. 1892.
January...... 4°85-ins. ...... 3°40-ins. ...... 2:27-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 0:22-ins. ,..... 4°43-ins.

Totals ... 8°23-ins. ...... 3°62-ins. ...... 6°70-ins.

The rainfall for January and February, 1890, was 7°46 inches.

The cold and sometimes biting winds did not wholly keep
in check the growth of the larger trees ; their blossoms depending on
the wind for fertilization were conspicuous during the greater part
of the month, and gave a pleasant relief to the general wintry
aspect of many trees. But many of our valleys, especially noticable
from the railway in those about Lostwithiel, were all of a grey-green
tint, due to humble plants which grew on the barer ground, the
trunks of the trees, or hung in tufts from nearly every twig.

Whether the lichens be useless, or even harmful, they gave a
special charm to our Cornish valleys in February. Some lichens
are very useful, as the litmus lichen, Iceland and reindeer moss,
for dyes and foods.

The lichens in interest take the first rank, though generally so
despised. They are slave makers, who have cultivated a taste
for vegetable food which they cannot make themselves. A cross-
section of a leafy stem shews within small green bodies, these are
green algz which the lichen creeps upon and captures, and wraps
up in threadlike tissue, between which light and air can pass.
They are not parasitic in any sense of the word, the alge cells

384 A-YEAR’S WEATHER.

cannot escape, they are prisoners, but they thrive under their new
conditions ; it is a case of mutual interdependence, the alga receive
mineral salts, iron, lime, potash, magnesia, and phosphorus, and
give to the lichens carbo-hydrates. ‘Uhis relationship is known as
symbiosis, and is a phase in plant life particularly interesting at
this season of the year when every exposed stone almost, and
every tree attests its success.

The weather in February, 1792—one hundred years ago—was a
little colder than with us this year, there were more frosty nights,
but not so much snow. By the 8th, the thrushes were in song
and the primroses in flower, on the 12th the honeysuckle leaf was
out, and that of the gooseberry just ready to expand. The wind
went out on east as it has done this year. The rainfall was 2°20

inches.
March 17th, 1892.

MARCH.

The driest March for fifty years. The meteorological
aspect shows three distinct periods of dryness from the 1st—8th,
rith—13th, 17th—31st, leaving few days on which rain fell. On
one of these, the 15th, we had a gale and a downpour of over
half-an-inch of rain following a wet day, yet the whole rainfall for
the month was little over one inch—1'07 inches. The last March
which was nearly as dry was in 1854, the rainfall being 1°08 inches:
Our average March rainfall at Truro is close upon 3 inches; scme
years we have twice that amount, but records of only one-third
the usual supply are very rare. We had wet on two mornings
only during the month and on three afternoons; most of the rain
fell in the night. The sun was fully visible on 25 days and seen
in gleam on 4 others, leaving 2 sunless days. The winds had a
tendency for north and north-east, giving a chilly feeling to the
air. On the 15th the wind veered westerly, and gained such force
that great damage was done to property and trees. We had frost
on 17 nights, the coldest in shade being 22 degrees—ro degrees
of frost—an exposed thermometer registered on the nights of the
12th and 14th 16 degrees, or 16 degrees of frost. On one of these
nights we had hoar frost. We had hail on four days and snow
and sleet on two.

The average coldness of nights for the month was 33°5 degrees
the mean warmth in shade during the day for the month 47°4

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 385

degrees, or an average of 4 degrees colder in the day and 5 degrees
colder in the night than our usual March temperature. The
following are the average rainfalls for comparison ;_ I include those
of Kennal Valley, kindly taken by Mr. F. H. Davey, of

Ponsanooth :—
Kennal Vale

Average of 40 1891. 1892. 1892.
yrs. rainfall.
January...... 4:85-ins. ...... 3°40-ins. ...... MANS, sconae 2°89-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins...... 5 OPPS goosa0 4°45-ins. ...... 5‘11-ins.
iManch ... .<2 2:9]l-ins. ...... 3.90-ins. ...... 1-O7-ins. ...... 1-45-ins.
Totals ... 11'14-ins. ..... a ROZ-INS)8 ay. & Ti nsee eee 9°45-ins.

During February and March were witnessed the singular
reversal of the meteorological phases of the previous year, although
the cold and bitter weather of about the same time of the month as
the blizzard visited us last year frightened many people into
prognosticating another blizzard with a certainty which was truly
alarming. Instead, therefore, of registering a dry February and
a wet March, our record runs a wet February and a dry March.
I saw the March fly (82670) on the 1st. It was most delightful to
see the growth of flowers at one period of the month; they
sprang into sight as if they had been hiding beneath the dry and
brown grasses for warmth ; in places the primrose, daisy, buttercup,
ground ivy, violet, and stitchwort asserted themselves, and the
golden gorse filled the lanes with the odour of honey. The bees
worked as if wishful to make up for lost time, and the rooks fought,
stole each other’s nests, gambolled, and filled the air with that
melodious cawing which registered Spring. March, 1792—one
hundred years ago— roth, ice one inch thick, plenty of flowers in
bloom. goth, wheat looked well, not much sun during the month,
wind generally got up towards evening ; rainfall, 2 inches.

April rith, 1892.

APRIL.

The rainfall for April was 1°36 inches, which fell on
eleven days; on two only of these days were good showers
experienced—on the 20th, when a quarter of an inch, and the 28th,
when nearly half-an-inch of rain fell. On the remaining days the
rain was so slight as only to bring disappointment to the farmer,
who was sadly in want of moisture for his parched land. The

386 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

rainfall for the month was an inch and a quarter less than our
average April rainfall, the driest April since 1887, when only °36 inch
of rain fell. In 1881 the April rainfall was exactly the same as that
of this year, 1°36 inches. In April, 1870, the monthly rainfall was
18, in 1882 5°98 inches.

The end of the month was very cold: this, perhaps, its
most distressing feature. ‘The mean of all the daily maxima was
59°9, six degrees below the average; mean of all the nightly
minima 382, or nearly thirteen degrees below our April average.
This coldness followed a period of great heat. Our highest heat
in the sunshine was gt degrees on the 11th, our warmest in shade
72 degrees on the 7th; our coldest in shade on the 15th, (Good
Friday), 24 degrees: our greatest cold in the open, 20 or 12
degrees of frost, on the same night. We had frost on nine nights
in the shade, and frost during half the month in the open.

The twelve cloudless days with which April opened, and the
summer warmth then experienced, unique for such a period of the
year, will always give to April, 1892, a meteorological distinction,
even in spite of its later coldness, which did so much damage. It
seems singular that the weather should play the same freak with
the Easter holidays of this year asit did with those of Whitsuntide
last year ; then, as at Easter, it held aloft the allurements of beautiful
weather to break into storm, rain, and snow when the holidays
came. It is only on a weather chart that one can really picture the
change, and even then it is hard to grasp that so glorious a fortnight
of April summer had a following for nearly a week of wet, frost,
snow, hail, and sleet. Yet in this came the birds of spring. What
a hard time they must have had! We had a range of about 50
degrees of temperature during the month. The wind was chiefly
N. and N.E. Of S.W., the common wind with us, we had very
little.

The following are the rainfalls for comparison :—

40 years’ mean. 1891. 1892.
January...... ATS, — soopan Boren, gapo00 9:27-ins,
February ... 3°38-ins. ..... . 0:22.ins. ...... 4°43-ins.
March. ...... 29l-ins. ...... 3°90-ins. ...... 1:07-ins.
Nook aejen, CONES “Bohan AAS ITIES Saganc 1°36-ins.

GROEN) ooo UB PDI, Gonco 10:00-in, .,.... 9°13-ings.

A YEAR’8 WEATHER. 3887

We are drier than last year, although February this year was
so wet.

Weather 1792, one hundred years ago:—gth, Keen frost in
the morning. roth, Sycamore, elm, and many forest trees foliating.
Bees busily employed, and return heavily loaded. Clear sky.
Chimney boards put up and fires extinguished. 11th, Swallows
observed by a gentlemen who notices they seldom appear before
the 17th, and from that to the 27th April. 14th, Vegetation
made wonderful progress. 18th, Cuckoo heard; a continued
heavy rain for 48 hours, 3 inches of rain falling. 20th, Keen frost,
chimney boards taken down, and fires lighted up. 23rd, Strawberries
in bloom and trees in bloom, much injured by frost. 28th, New
potatoes in market, 2s. 6d. and 1s. 6d. per lb.; green gooseberries,
rod. per quart. Rainfall for month, 4°8 inches.

The warm days in early April brought out many flowers and
many birds, so that our records are early this year. Mr. Earthy
heard the chiff-chaff on the 2nd; I saw it on the 3rd, the
sandmartin on the 7th. I saw the cuckoo on the 16th; it was
heard in song in Cuckoo Bottom, Besore, on the 18th. Mr. Morris
gave me the 22nd for the swallow which he saw at Shortlanes-end ;
they were common at Chacewater a day or two after this. The
tortoiseshell butterfly I saw on the third. The lilac was in flower
on the 22nd, and the horse-chestnut in leaf on the 26th.

Cuckoos are plentiful this year, and will afford to those who
have opportunities better scope for learning the habits of these
birds than usual. Briefly, for in a letter of this kind one cannot
write the history of such a bird, I will state a few facts which
are known about the cuckoo. The birds do not mate; only the
male birds sing, usually from a tree. Mr. Chirgwin gives me an
instance where he heard near Allet Chapel, on the Perranporth-
road, three singing at one time, on one tree. When the female
birds pass the male birds make a rapid descent and chase them,
returning to the same tree usually, and again calling out. The
female cuckoo does not make a nest of its own; it lays its egg on
the ground—it only lays an egg now and then—and, taking the egg
in its mouth, places it in the nest of another bird. Many birds are
chosen to rear the young cuckoo, but it has a preference for the
hedge sparrow and the meadow pipit. The cuckoo does not suck

388 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

other birds’ eggs to make its voice clear, but lives on caterpillars,
usually the hairy ones, and insects. Another peculiarity worth
mentioning is that as soon as the cuckoo is born it begins to lift
out of the nest all that is foreign to itselfi—eggs, foster brothers,
and foster sisters. As it gets older this propensity passes off, but
then, alas! it has got rid of all who were in the nest with it.

May 12th, 1892.

MAY.

The driest May since 1887; the whole of the rainfall for the
month was little over 1% inches, 1°55 inches, but fortunately the
winds have been light; the wind in many cases dries the land
more than sunshine. Our average May rainfall here is 2°45 inches,
hence the fall of rain this May was nearly one inch below the
monthly average. ‘Taking the rainfalls for over forty years the
wettest May was in 1869 with 5°42 inches, and the driest in 1876
with 0°13 inch of rain.

The greatest heat in shade during the month was 75 on the
13th; the lowest 29 on the 8th, or a difference of 46 degrees.
The barometer stood 30°39 inches on the 12th, and 29°69 inches
on the 3rd, a difference of 70, or nearly three-quarters of an inch.

A glance at the comparative rainfalls shows how favourable
the year has been as regards wetness :—

40 years’ mean. 1891. 1892.
January...-. 4'85-ins. ...... 3'40-ins. ...... 2°27-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 0:22-ins. ...... 4:43-ins.
METRO s5000¢ POI —~ aooo00 3°90-ins. ...... 1:07-ins.
April. cine 26l-ins. ...... 2°48-ins. ...... 1°36-ins.
MLE noone 2°45-ins. ...... 2:26-ins. ...... 1°55-ins.

Totals ... 16°20-ins_ ...... 12'26-ins. ...... 10°68-ins.

We have had 13 inches less rain these last five months than
the same period last year, and five inches and a half less than a 40
years’ mean. This is the period when the rhyme runs in our

heads—
“Tf the ash before the oak,

Then you may expect a soak ;
If the oak before the ash,
Then ‘twill only be a splash.”

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 389

So far as I can judge, the oak and the ash simultaneously
broke into leaf here at the beginning of May. A comparison of
hundreds of the trees, at dozens of places, gave the best foliage
first to the oak and then to the ash. Perhaps observers in other
localities may decide for me.

On May 17th we had slight evidence of the earthquake which
visited Cornwall; its rumbling was heard by Dr. Sharp, at Truro,
at 1.30 a.m., and he gave me another case where it was heard
near the city about the same hour. My only personal evidence is
the knocking down of a series of Cornish birds from their stands
in the museum. ‘The line of fallen birds ran north and south, and
on naming this fact, the doctor tells me, the report was heard to
die out in a similar direction in the Helston district, where the
shock was most intense.

I am told that not only have three cuckoos been seen on trees
hereabouts, each calling, as mentioned in my last letter, at the
same time, but that at Cuckoo Bottom, near Truro, it is no unusual
thing to hear three of these birds calling at once from the telegraph
wires. Mr. Blenkinsop gives me the 26th, as the earliest date
for hearing the landrail in this district, which is late. I saw the
swift at Truro on the 3rd. 1 have had several communications
respecting observations in my last weather letter, which, I think,
should be mentioned here,and as these weather letters are intended
to be familiar and chatty monthly records, observations from other
sources embodied in them make them doubly valuable.

The Rev. C. F. Rogers, Sithney Vicarage, Helston, says,
““T observed several swallows on the sea coast between Porthleven
and the Loe Bar on Thursday April 14th.’ Our first arrival at
Truro was the 22nd. Mr. Wilkinson, Riviére, Hayle, says, “ My
experience of the weather at the beginning of April was very
different from yours at Truro. Of the first twelve days nine of
them were accompanied by cold winds, and only three were
comfortably warm.” I have had a similar experience myself on
the north and south coasts this month. Mr. Wilkinson also gives
the swallow’s first appearance as March 22nd, one month earlier
then ours. On March 23rd he again saw, in the presence of two
of his neighbours, three more of these birds. This record is
exceptionally early.

390 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

The Rev. Fred. E. Gutteres, Nymet Rowland Rectory,
Lapford, North Devon, gives me the sandmartin’s first appearance
as March 19th; mine was April 7th. ‘The latter date agrees with
its first appearance in the North of England. Mr. Gutteres, in
the presence of a friend, saw three of them above the Taw, later
in the afternoon they saw four, and then did not see the bird again
for three weeks. From the 14th to the 20th of April is the usual
time to notice their earliest arrival in North Devon, but this
gentleman tells me that he saw his first martin in 1886 at the same
spot as this year on March 26th. This early appearance and
disappearance of these birds have led many to think that they
hybernate. Such a thing is impossible; and, in addition, birds
feeding on insects require an almost constant supply of food; to
meet this demand, when insects are scarce they try new localities,
disappearing for a time from where first seen.

One word about the plants. The hawthorn this year is
unusually prolific in flower, not only with us but in many other
places where I have seen it, from the Lizard up to Newquay.
In some cases not a trace of leaf iscarcely to be seen. May I cal]
this the hawthorn year, and does it mean a dry hot summer ?

Weather for May 1792 (100 years ago),—2nd, ground
strewed with leaves and bloom by the hail-storms; 4th and 5th,
keen morning frosts; 12th, ice in the morning, early potatoes
injured ; 16th, hawthorn in bloom; 19th, laburnum and honey-
suckle in bloom; 21st, landrail heard. The air of the month is
generally raw and cold. A show of fruit, but much injured by
weather. Cattle that lie out seemed starved, some have been sick,
occasioned as supposed by cold. Milch cows fail in milk. Fall
of rain 3°40 inches.

June 25th, 1892.

JUNE.

With a rainfall of 1°83 inches, June was comparatively
dry ; last year we had one inch more rain during the month than
this. The rain fell on eleven days, but except on three of these,
the rainfall was very slight. The heaviest day’s rain was on the
tst, with eight-tenths of an inch; and, singularly, last year, on the
Ist of June, we had one inch of rain. It was a month of sunshine.
The sun was yisible on every day except one. Day after day

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 391

we registered in the sunshine temperatures from 96 to 104 degrees.
Whitsuntide fell this year amidst this display of heat. A wet
Saturday was followed by a beautiful Whit-Sunday and a scorching
hot Whit-Monday. I spent the day in company with friends
dredging in Helford River, and we enjoyed the warmth very much.

June this year was not exceptionally dry for Truro—we have
had many drier. Of those of the last 40 years 15 have had a less
rainfall, the driest being that of June 1887, with only -o5 inch;
next, June 1859, 0°26, about a quarter of an inch, whilst the June
of 1870 was almost as dry with °32 inch; the wettest June we
have any record of during the above period was June 1860, 7°38
inches of rain.

The comparative rainfalls are :—

40 year’s mean. 1891. 1892.
January...... 4°85-ins. ...... 3°40-ins. ...... 2°27-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 0:22-ins. ...... 4°43-ins.
March son MSIE, goaace 3:90-ins. ...... 1:07-ins.
Jvayall Ueéoceg ZADUSLIE | “Gapacc 2°48-ins. ...... 1:36-ins.
WER A Saceco 2°45-ins. ...... 2°26-ins. ..,.. 1°55-ins.
TUNG oasoas 2'39-ins. ...... 2°86-ins. ...... 1°83-ins.

Total ... 18°59-ins. ...... 15°12-ins. ...., 12°51-ins,

he rainfall of the last six months in Kennal Vale, taken by
Mr. Davey, is nearly three inches heavier than ours :—

January de RO nie ase te 2°89 inches,
February ... ie as oA se 511 93
March Bee ane sis 600 ae 1:46 56
April ste one wie wos 800 1°32 3
May ws re 00 300 es 1-72 20
June 000 n00 as o0¢ Wea 2°85 a
15:35 ss

A glance shows we have had a very dry six months; we are
six inches under our mean rainfall, and nearly 23 inches drier than
the first six months of last year.

The glass kept very high, close on 3o inches, during the
whole month ; the winds were chiefly south-easterly. The average
heat in shade was 67°5 degrees, the average coldness of nights
489 degrees; we had no registration of frost; our highest
temperature in shade during the day was 78 degrees on the
28th, the thermometer in the sun registering 104 degrees.

392 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

Our coldest night, under cover, 7.e. the glass was not! exposed,
was 39 degrees, on the 18th, so that during the month the
temperature in shade ranged 39 degrees. June is the month
when nature looks its brightest, and this year it has been no
exception to the rule. ‘The foxglove showed up well this season,
and the growth on the younger trees was very distinct, the cereals
wheat, barley, and oats looked very healthy. I was very much
struck with the butterfly life; I never saw so much of it,
my observations extending from the Lizard up to Newquay.
The meadow browns, blues, and coppers were very common, and
the bigger and brighter ones, such as the Peacock, Tortoiseshell,
Ked Admiral, and even the Painted Lady were not rare. On two
occasions I saw the Clouded Yellow, Colvas edusa, Fabr. and as much
discussion arises on the distribution of this form, which only
appears to turn up in certain years, ] make the record here, as
verified by another witness, who is a naturalist; St. Clement's,
Truro, June 2nd; and at Cadgwith, the Lizard, on the grd, next
day; I saw it both times on our lovely Cornish hedgerows.

Weather in June, 1792—I00 years ago.—5th, bees swarm;
a field of grass mown for hay. 17th, thunder and lightning. 18th,
Fox-glove in bloom. 20th, very little sun; hay harvest protracted ;
none spoiled; the crops heavy upon the high and rich lands;
pastures in general abundant, but the grass sour; spring corn
appears starved; wheat and early oats in the ear. Fall of rain this
month, one inch.

July 20th, 1892.

JULY.

The month was dry. Rain fell on 14 days, but on only six
of these had we proper showers. ‘Total fall 1°76 inches. Though
so dry, July last year was drier, with a rainfall of 1°62 inches.
This July was a hot month, with plenty of sunshine. There was
not a single day on which the sun was not visible. We had
thunderstorms on the 11th and 13th.

The following are the seven monthly rainfalls :—

40 years’ mean. 1891. 1892.
January...... 4.85-ins. ...., . 340-ins. ....,. 2°27-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 0°22-ins. ..... 4:43-ins.

March ...... 2-Dieimsv ees 3:90-ins. ...... 1.07-ins.

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 3938

Avorilieeecsep) eesOl-INSs | ooc06 2°48-ins. ...... 1°36-ins.
May —...r006 2°45-ins. ...... 2°26-ins. ...... 1°55-ins.
aba a5 ono DBO gnocoo PSOE, Geooon HAS Braet,
dally Gognoe: | CRESTOR Banaae 1:62-ins. ...... 1°76-ins.

Ocal el O=IT Searcy. » 16;74-ins) 230. 14:27-ins.

A glance shews how it is that we are enjoying the distinction
this year of being one of the most favoured counties as regards
weather. I receive many letters from correspondents asking if
Cornwall is under sunshine and suitable to visit, and this year my
replies have invariably been ‘‘ Weather glorious!”’ A rainfall for
the seven months seven inches below the mean rainfall, and only
two-thirds the usual downpour, must give dryness.

This dryness has been favourable to the potato and to the corn,
as these crops have not felt so much the ill-effects of moulds, smuts,
and rusts as they do in warm, wet weather. How little is popularly
known about these enemies, and yet how interesting their history
to the scientific mind. When one thinks that the smallest wrinkle
in a potato leaf holding a drop of rain or dew isa lake, comparatively,
for the development of any potato-disease spores which may fall
into it, one feels glad to record a July free from mugginess, ?.e.,
warm, steamy wetness. A potato-disease spore falling into such
a drop of warm rain, small though the spore be, breaks up into a
score or two of minute swimming spores, each bent on boring, by
means of little rootlets, into the potato leaf, and stealing the starch
ready in the leaf to be passed into the tuber. Once in possession,
leaf, stem and tuber fall before their poisonous attack.

Generally the barometer stood high during the greater part of
the month, yet it had a range of over eight-tenths of an inch.

The highest heat in shade was on the 3oth, temperature 80
degrees; the lowest 42 degrees, on the night of the 23rd; a range
of 38 degrees.

The wind had about as many records from the north and
east, as from the south and west, the latter bringing us the rain
mentioned.

From correspondents I find that my observation about the
appearance of the Clouded Yellow butterfly Colvas edusa, Fabr., inthe
last month’s weather letter is confirmed. Records of its occurrence
in addition to my own at Truro and The Lizard, are to hand
from Perran, Lostwithiel, Par, Worcester, and Essex.

394 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

Just another nature note: Robins are plentiful this year.
Watch them. A sudden dart from the meadow into the hedge ;
on reaching a twig they suddenly turn, presenting to the observer
their red breasts, and then remain perfectly still—as if stuffed—often
ten minutes or so. We are just on the turn of the year, the black
fungus is on the sycamore already, leaves are turning reddish, and
the robins are becoming hard to distinguish in their surroundings.

A peep backwards, about which many of my readers like
to read, July, 1792—100 years ago—i17th. A_ hail storm,
preceded by continued thunder for more than half an hour,
as if it came from different points; sometime before and
during the storm, which did not continue a couple of minutes,
pitchy darkness; and during the fall of hail a violent gust of
wind. Hail stones about two inches long, angular and pointed,
as if encircled with ice; the storm was followed by long and heavy
rain. Vegetables injured. Some fields of wheat so much injured
that they were mown for fodder for cattle. Chiefly gloomy
weather the whole month, very little sun, many days without the
least appearance, hay harvest far from being finished. Rainfall
2°3 inches.

‘What a contrast between July 1792, and July 1892!

August 22nd, 1892.

AUGUST.

For over three-fourths of the month we had splendid harvest
weather, with every prospect of registering a very dry August.
Up to the 23rd only 0°67 of an inch of rain had fallen, the days
followed one another beautifully fine, plenty of hot sunshine,
though cold on some nights. On the 17th we had a magnificent
day, 102 degrees in the sun; then a little dulness and yet a
tendency to be fair. The first serious break was about 4.30 p.m.
on the 24th, when we had a heavy sudden shower; yet next day,
which I spent on the Gwithian and Godrevy Towans and along
the North cliffs, was delightfully fine. On the Friday, the day
still kept fair with plenty of sunshine, but after midnight the rain
’ came down in torrents, next morning we registered nearly half an
inch ; the downpour continued all Saturday, the rain gauge giving
next morning }°go inches, nearly two inches of rain for the 24 hours.

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 3895

S ome observers got more than this, as did Mr. Daubuz at Killiow,
and further west of the same district, but equally well wooded,
Mr. Davey, in Kennal Vale, registered 2°26 inches. The wet
continued till the month was out, registering 3.55 inches in six
days at Truro, and 4°84 inches of rain in Kennal Vale. Our total
downpour for the month was 4°40 inches, which, though making
this August a wet month, is much less than last year, when the
rainfall was 6°48, or over two inches more rain. August last year
was one of the wettest on record. It is singular that the next
heaviest records of rain occur in four consecutive years—1876, 4°37 ;
MOV O45 1870, 4:40), and 13870, 5:33 inches. Since then, ‘fll
last year, the Augusts have been comparatively dry. Our average
August rainfall is 3°01 inches.

The following are comparative rainfalls :—

40 years’ mean. 1891. 1892.
January...... 4-85-ins. ...... 3°40-ins. ...... 2°27-ins.
February ... 3°38-ins. ...... 0°22-ins. ...... 4°43-ins.
March ..... . 29l-ins. ...... 3°90-ins. ..... . 1:07-ins.
Agora ooa00 26l-ins. ...... 2°48-ins. ...... 1°36-ins.
IWIN, “aeoid 2°45-ins. ...... 2:26-ins. ...... 1°55-ins.
June) ese. 2:°39-ins. ...... 2°86-ins. ...... 1°83-ins.
dimly sapeco 2°60-ins. ...... 1°62-ins. ....... 1°76-ins.
August ...... 3:Ol-ins. ...... 6:48-ins. ...... 4°40-ins,

Total ... 2420-ins. ....., 23°22-ins. ...... 18-67-ins.

These show over four and-a-half inches less rain in this
district from January to August than last year, during the same
period. To the visitor Cornwall never, perhaps, appeared more
charming than during this month, but the bright sunshine and
continued blue skies brought on droughts in many villages, and
many were at their wits’ end for water when the welcome rain
came. The contour of the county allows of plenty of rainfall
without much injury.

The usual height of the barometer was not quite reached, the
mean pressure in August with us is 29°989 inches, this month
29°936 inches. The temperature of the month was favourable ;
the average mean of our highest temperature in shade is 69°70
degrees, this August it was 69°80 degrees. Our average greatest
coldness of nights in August is 54°21 degrees, this month it was

396 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

53°80 degrees, or a little warmer in the days and a little colder in the
nights than usual in August month.

On three days during the month the sun was not visible, the
winds were moderate except on the 14th and at the close of the
month.

The excursion of the Royal Institution of Cornwall to Dolcoath
and Tehidy was made amidst this wind and rain; few will forget
how they met those who were journeying over the hill near to
Redruth. Our rainfall during the excursion this year was not
continuous, the total rainfall being 0°30 inch, or under one-third of
an inch; last year, when the excursion was to Padstow and Prideaux
Place, the downpour was 1°48 inches, nearly one and a-half inches
of rain, about five times as heavy as on this year’s outing.

Just after midnight on the morning of the 18th, earthquake
shocks were felt throughout Cornwall. Perhaps an epitome,
without any explanation of the causes of earthquakes, would be read
‘with interest. Direction: south to north. Duration of shock:
probably from three to thirty seconds. Effects: a general
awakening of people, rattling of windows, doors. and crockery,
shaking of houses, and earth tremors. The following are a few
Cornish impressions :—“ Sharp shock’’ (Penzance); “‘ Perceptible
shake of the earth’’ (Redruth) ; “‘ Perceptible motion of the earth,
bed seemed to be lifted from the floor, watch was thrown down
and glass smashed’”’ (Truro); “Furniture was in a state of
perturbation ”’ (St. (Blazey) ; “‘ Noise resembled that of a rambling
waggon’’ (Lostwithiel); ‘‘ Noise of falling bricks, a low
rumbling sound’ (Helland) ; ‘‘ Curious trembling of houses without
any noise’ (Callington) ; “‘ Walls vibrated, and china and other
articles distinctly rattled’’ (St. Cleer); ‘‘ Loud noise somewhat
resembling the sound of thunder’ (Liskeard) ; ‘‘ Slates on the roof
rattled’ (Tregeare, near [.aunceston); many in Truro say they
felt the shock, personally, I was totally oblivious.

Further records of the occurence of the Clouded Yellow butterfly
Colias edusa, Fabr., in many localities have been sent me, and
Mr. Davey saw in Kennal Vale as pecimen of the Pale Clouded
Yellow, Colias hyale, L. Although we have had so exceptional a
summer for butterflies—and these insects have been very common,
too—yet the dense flights of the Clouded Yellow, so frequent in
1877, have not been observed.

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 397

Councillor Buck noticed at Perran a remarkable swarm of one
of the cockchafers, Rhizotrogus solstitialis, L., which almost covered
the outsides of some of the houses. The farmer should see that
all cockchafers are destroyed, as the beetle both in the grub and
perfect state is harmful to vegetation.

Weather in August, 1792—-one hundred years ago—3rd, fall
of rain in the night, ‘20 of an inch; corn lodged much in consequence
of the rain. 11th, wheat and barley have changed wonderfully in
colour in a few days. 17th, butterflies busy amongst the cabbages
depositing their spawn. 18th, pears ripe and abundant. 23rd,
oats cut. 26th, fall of rain yesterday, and the present 1°80 inches ;
grain of all kinds laid quite flat by the last fall of rain. 3oth, wheat
cut; harvest becoming general ; fall of rain this month, 5°20 inches.

The rainfall of August one hundred years ago was heavy, and
its greatest showers were on the 25th and 26th: ours, on the
26th and 27th. On the 26th of August, 1792, it rained all
day, but ceased at 7 p.m., on the 27th of August, 1892, it rained
all day.

September 20th, 1892.

SEPTEMBER.

We have had only about eight Septembers during the
last 43 years so dry as the last one. Our average rainfall for the
month is three and a half inches, but last month under two inches
fell during that period. We had wet on 16 days, which singularly
is the average number of days on which rain falls in September
here, but half of them only registered one-hundredth of an inch
each, or under one-tenth of an inch for the eight days. We hada
dribbling rain about the 7th and 8th, a heavy shower on the 2oth,
rain which fell somewhat heavily on the 27th, a little lighter, but
continuous on the 28th, which finished in very heavy rains on the
29th, with these exceptions we had practically a dry month. Mr.
Davey gives me the September rainfall in Kennal Vale at 2°88 inches,
an inch heavier than at Truro.

September, 1891, was asad month to the farmer, but September
this year was more favourable as regards rain, as the downpour was
less by 1.13 inches. We saw the sun on 28 days. The month
suffered from coldness. We did register on one day 70 degress in
shade, but registrations of 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, and 82 degrees

398 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

are not uncommon here during this month, and our average
September heat in day runs 3 or 4 degrees warmer. We were
colder by 1 degree at nights, so that on one or two nights frost was
felt. On the evening of the 18th we had 2 degrees of frost in
shade and 5 degrees in the open, the range of temperature on that
day being 38 degrees.

The following are the comparative rainfalls :—

40 years’ mean. 1891. 1892.
January... .. 4:85-1nSy sae .ce 3°40-ins. ...... 2°27-1ns,
Kebruary ... 3°38-ins. ..... 022-ins. ...... 4.43-ins.
March ...... 2‘91-ins...... 3:90-ins. ...... 1:07-ins.
April ...... 26l-ins. ...... 248-ins. ...... 1-36-ins.
May... 2:45-ins. ...:. 2°26-ins. ...... 1°55-ins.
VO sconce OES concen 2°86-ins. ...... 1:83-ins.
Sty yeaaccen GOAN es0000 162-ins. ... .. 1°76-ins.
August ...... 3:0l-ins, ...... 6°48-ins. ...... 4-40-ins.
September., 3°49-ins. ...... 3:03-ins. .....- 1:90-ins.

WoL ooo PAGES, Gops0s PALS sognen 20 57-ins.

A glance shows how favourable we are as regards rain this
year, our year’s rain so far being slightly over five inches and five-
eights less than last year during the same period.

The cold weather has stopped the flight of butterflies, but
their great number and variety this year will be long remembered
by many observers. It will be recollected, too, asa year when the
Clouded Yellow was plentiful, though not so numerous as in 1877,
many correspondents have seen it so common as to be particularly
attracted by it. The foliage of the trees, except the sycamore, and
plane, is still holding on, and does not show any abnormal
appearances. The ruddy glow of the hawthorn berries is one of
the prettiest sights this autumn in our lanes, and later on when the
leaves have gone they will be more noticed. We have many |
flowers still in the hedgerows.

In September, 1792—one hundred years ago—the price of
wheat in Cornwall was 5s. 8d. per bushel.

Weather :—4th, people very busy at harvest work. 7th,
cutting second crop of clover. i1oth, a strong gale of wind,
attended with violent storms of rain and hail; corn considerably
damaged. 12th, fall of rain, nearly one inch. 14th, swallows
sporting on the wind in flocks. 18th, furze in autumnal bloom.

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 399

20th, a loud and long clap of thunder about 10 o’clock at night.
21st, two claps of thunder about half-past two p.m. 23rd,
Rain-gauge quite full, 53 inches deep. 26th, the sun of this day,
which was brilliant, a welcome guest, and so great a stranger that
every countenance seemed cheered by his friendly and benign
aspect. 29th, the rain of yesterday, accompanied by close and
sultry air, has contributed more to injure the grain than any of the
preceding weather. Wall fruit has little flavour. Apples fall off
and are insipid. The greatest part of the grain remains in the
field. Summer fallows in sad plight. The leaves of the turnip
turn yellow. Fall of rain 7°8 inches. Only four days during the
month on which it did not rain.

Surely we have need to rejoice in comparison to our ancestors
of one hundred years ago with a September rainfall nearly six
inches in excess of our experience for the same month this year.

October 26th, 1892.

OCTOBER.

A glance down the weather sheet shews a repetition
of cloud character of a somewhat ominous nature, for the word
nimbus—rain cloud—occurs with much frequency, for three weeks
out of the four we had constant records of this class of cloud, and
rain fell on 22 days. The month came in very wet, 85 of an inch
of rain, the second day being also wet, the two days giving one
hundred and twenty tons of rain to the acre; on the Sth and 7th,
we had nearly one hundred tons, and between the 24th and 27th
nearly two hundred tons of rain over a similar area. Our total
downpour for the month was 5°70 inches, which is in excess of
Mr. Davey’s record for Kennal Vale (4°34) by 1°36 inches, about
one inch and one third.

Heavy as the rain seemed, it was only about two-thirds of the
rainfall of October last year. We often have heavy October rainfalls
of 6 or 7 inches, and in 1865 we had one with over 9 inches of rain.
Our average rainfall for the month is 4°80 inches.

In addition October was cold. We had frost on eleven nights
under cover, and on some of these nights it registered on the
exposed thermometers 7 degrees of frost. As a rule at such times
‘there is apt to be great ranges of daily temperature, which do great

400 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

damage to vegetation. On one day (3oth), we had such a range,
-when the maximum and minimum thermometers in the same
screen stood 26 degrees apart, and on the 13th and 19th, 25 degrees.

The mean temperature of the air for the month was 49°4
degrees, and the average height of the barometer was 29°691
inches. The range of the barometer during the month was I‘05
inches. Our warmest day in shade was the 6th, 61 degrees ; our
coldest night in shade was the 19th, 27 degrees, the difference of
34 degrees being the range of temperature for the month. The
winds were for two-thirds of the month from north-east, and for
one-fifth south-west. We had hail on the rst, 2nd, 15th, and 2ist.

There are two nature phenomena of interest at this season,
the changing foliage and the falling leaves. As one looks down
some winding coombe the tinted leaves seem the most striking of
the two; they touch more our love of the beautiful. How few of
us feel any compassion for the plane or the sycamore which has
shed in a single night nearly the whole of its foliage before a biting
wind. Theleaves have every appearance of being burned, and rustle
before the wind on the hardened road, as if they were fresh from a
fire. Yet the tree forsaw all this and prepared for it, the leaves could
not have fallen otherwise in that great mass beneath the branches
of the tree. When once we realize that, as a rule, every leaf is cut
off by the parent, and that, too, very soon after the leaf has attained
its full growth preparation is being made for its separation by the
ingrowth of a thin layer of cork-like tissue at the base of the leaf
stalk, the fall of the leaf becomes an intensely interesting study,
surpassing, to many, even the study of the tinting of the autumn
leaves. Of course, some trees, as the oak, beech, and others do
not shake off their leaves so readily, and some, as the evergreens,
are out of season, yet so many trees obey the common law that the
bareness of winter is understood to apply to this phenomenon.
Add to this, and it clearly belongs to it, the action of gravitation,
and watch its effects on the falling leaf; those effects give the
flutter to the leaf. But this is a study beyond a weather letter, yet
ever interesting to the observer.

Below are the rainfalls for comparison :—

40 years’ mean. 1891. 1892.

January, 4:8D-1N8) ose) O0-1S. ane 2°27-ins.
February .., 3°38-ins. ....., 0-22-ins. ...... 4°43-ins,

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 401

March ... .. 2 ein Sean 3'90-ins. ...... 1-07-ins.
PANpratl ie eennss 26l-ins. ...... 2°48-ins. ...... 1°36-ins.
May ...... 2°45-ins.... 2°26-ins. ...... 1:55-ins.
June... 2°39-ins. ...... 2°86-ins. ...... 1 83-ins.
July ...... 2 60-ins. ...... 1-62-ins. ..... 1°76-ins.
ANUGTUSH gsocce GMS Gaanse 6°48-ins. ...... 4-40-ins.
September... 349-ins. ...... 3:03-ins. ...... 1:90-ins.
October .... 48l-ins. ...... 8°55-ins. ...... 5°70-ins.

Total ... 32°50-ins. ...... 34°80-ins. ...... 26°27-ins.

We are 82 inches drier than last year for the same months,
and 6+ inches below the average.

Weather for October, 1792—one hundred years ago :—12th,
gathered the orange pippin apple, whilst on the eastern aspect of
the tree was a considerable quantity of bloom; the fruit has very
little flavour. 14th, severe lightning. 15th, thunder and lightning.
24th, hoar frost and some little ice; many potatoes yet remain in
the ground, which have received no inconsiderable damage, numbers
being quite rotted; very little wheat yet sown ; carrots of a large
size in general, the following are the dimensions of a particular one
on common ground:—Length, 19 inches; circumference, 16
inches ; weight, 44 lbs. avoirdupois. Springs have never failed,
but kept continually running; the trees begin to be despoiled of
their foliage ; leaves of the hawthorn quite gone. Fall of rain this
month, 53 inches.

Novernber 22nd, 1892,

NOVEMBER.

Our average November rainfall for forty years is 4:37
inches: the average of the last ten years, 4°83 inches; this
month it has only reached 3:11, about 13 inches less than usual.
It is the driest November since 1884, and is one of the six driest
Novembers for over forty years. During the same month in
1852 it rained 10°51, and in 1888, 8°89 inches.

The chief winds have been N.K. and §8.W. Taking the
cloud, and considering 10 to represent a sky entirely covered
with cloud, and 0 to shew a cloudless sky, the average cloudiness
of the month was 5°6.

It was a warm November; certainly we had frost on four
nights under cover, and on one of these nights an exposed

402 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

thermometer registered seven degrees of frost, yet the mean
temperature was somewhat high. The thermometers read 60
degrees on two or three days in the shade; so that taking
the mean of the daily monthly heat and the nightly
monthly cold the mean temperature for the month was 48-5
degrees. The range of temperature was 14:7 degrees. The
barometer stood its highest on the 28th, 30°50 and its
lowest on the 6th, 29°50 inches, a monthly range of one inch.
We had fog on the 10th and 24th. The rain fell on 19 days,
the chief downpours being on the 4th, 18th, and 25th, when 1°84
of the month’s rainfall of 38:11 inches was registered. Mr.
Davey gives me the rainfall at Ponsanooth as 4°17 inches, so
that in Kennal Vale the month has been somewhat dry.
The following are the comparative rainfalls : —

40 years’ mean. 1892. 1892.
January...... 4-85-ins. ...... 3°40-ins. ...... 2°27-Ins.
Hebruatyy eo O0-U0S. cs en Op22-111Semeetee 4:43-ins.
Mareh ...... 2:9]-insi ...... 3:90-ins. ...... 1‘07-ins
April _...... 2°6l-ins. ...... 2°48-ins. ... .. 1:36-ins
WIERY —— G0500 DMISTAS — soooae 2726-18) een: 1:55-ins
June ...... 2°39-ins. ..... 2°86-ins. ...... 1:83-ins.
UiwlhY —— sconae 2°60-ins. ...... 1-62-ins. ...... 1°76-ins.
August ...... SOL-INsy) | sense) OFLS-INS2) een: 4°40-ins.
September.. 3°49-ins. ...... 3'03-ins. ...... 1-90-ins.
October...... 4°8l-ins. ...... S:50-In sae eeeeee 5°70-ins.
November... 4°37-ins. ...... 5°03-ins. ...... 3'11-ins.

Total ... 36°87-ins. ...... 39°53-ins. ....., 29°38-ins.

We are over 10 inches drier for the eleven months of
this year than for the same period of last year, and 73 below
the mean rainfall of forty years.

Mr. Morris, of Truro, gave me a record of a Garden White
butterfly late in November. It wasa sign of the mild season.
The appearance, often in noticeable numbers, of certain of our
common butterflies in late autumn is worth a passing word.
The geologist regards such a form of butterfly as a living type,
speaking to him, like an erratic or an ice-scratched boulder, of
the Ice Age, when nearly the whole of Europe lay under piace
ice. A Garden White butterfly hatched in autumn—not a
hybernating summer specimen—differs in colour from what it

A YEAR’S WEATHER. 408

would do if born in spring. The effect of varying temperatures
on clusters of eggs of butterflies may produce two distinct forms,
one with the white wings blackened at the base, the other
blackened at the tips; one of these is the type form, the other
a distinct variety. During the glacial period the short cold
summers allowed of only single-brooded butterflies, but the
increased heat and longer days have permitted in some cases
of another brood—and in other cases of two more broods—
arising from the same insects during the year, giving rise to the
dimorphic and trimorphic insects of the biologist.

Weather for November, 1792,~-one hundred years ago :—
3rd, primroses in bloom. 12th, flocks of fieldfares pasturing on
the land; late crops of barley housed to-day. 15th, a violent
storm of wind and hail. 16th, Seagulls in abundance cnland.
This month was gloomy; colds under the fashionable term of
influenza have prevailed very generally both the last and present
month. Fall of rain, 1:20 inches.

A hundred years ago November was even drier than our
somewhat dry November this year.

December 22nd, 1892.

DECEMBER.

The rain fell on 19 days, reaching a total of 2°52 inches,
the driest December since 1885, when the fall of rain was 2°17
inches. Our average rain in the last month of the year is 4°65
inches, so that we were more than two inches below our average,
which is a mean of over 40 December rainfalls. Taking the
same month during this long period, the wettest December was
in 1876 with 10°59 inches, and the driest one in 1873 with 1°23
inches of rain.

The month was cold. Just after Christmas we had intensely
severe weather, hoar frosts came day after day and the
thermometers sank very low before them. Taking outside
temperatures from the 26th to the 30th, we registered 18, 11,
13, 23, and 28 degrees respectively; the registration of 11
degrees on the 27th, marked the coldest night of the year, with
21 degrees of frost; the second coldest was the next night with

404 A YEAR'S WEATHER.

19 degrees of frost, and the third coldest nights were on January
10th and 11th, (1892), with 17 degrees of frost. Many may
remember those nights ; we had several days of frost and heavy
hail, then snow fell heavily, covering the ground some five or
six inches, the north winds blew over this carpet giving a
chilliness, before which the exposed thermometers sank 15
degress. The intensity of the December frosts may, perhaps,
be better realized when we observe that their registration was 4
degrees below the keenest of the January colds, even with the
help of a covering of snow to blow over.

Yet there were some delightful days in December, two were
simply glorious, the rooks sported and tumbled in its brightness
as if it were spring, and the bright sunshine and intense blue
sky were most enjoyable.

We had hoar frost on eight days, hail on four, and a flake
or two of snow on one night. The winds were chiefly S.W.
and N.E., the one bringing us rain, the other frost. The mean
amount of cloud was 5:6, taking 10 asa maximum. The range
of temperature of the thermometers in shade, 39 degrees. The
mean temperature of month 437 degrees. Mean height of
barometer 29°945 inches, being its highest on the 17th, 30-47,
and lowest on the 5th, 29°45, or a range for the month of 1:02
inches.

The following are the summaries of rainfalls for comparison :
Greatest Fall in

40 years’ 24 hours.
mean. 1891. 1892. pe ee :
Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Date.
January 4:85." ahdein SAO ok FAT sonet (Ae a roncsamellG
February ... 3°38 O22: 2eimrcerr. BAS. disuse BIBI “oodare 18
IMIBTECIN ococsn BOM soaene 3°90 LID ee oe acee "DOnt tienes 15
Ajyaill 250 oc DO esas DAR ere ISSO) Waves ‘AG. Eee 28
May Oe eed DObe Utena NSS aahaoe OF nat 26
June 2°39 2eSOb) makes WS3im ise) 1S80ba) kas ]
Hal goose PHO) nedao0 1°62 Mi Gewese, 66 15
August ...... SHOES = gavieon O48} goo eee B40) ocoane 1-90 ai
September.. 3°49 ...... 303} conccd UBO —— beac00 (083 9) Gounat 26
October AS {lie Ie 8°55 On] eeepc O4 26
November... 4°37 ...... D038 1 = sree 31 76 18
December... 4°65 ...... IPA ERA eas Di, ONO ty foasions 1
Total ... 41:52 45:05 31:90

A YEAR'S WEATHER. 405

A glance shews how dry the weather has been, we are 138
inches or a little over 1,300 tons of rain to the acre less than
last year, and over 93 less than our mean yearly rainfall. Mr.
Opie, of St. Agnes, whose measurements of the rain are given
below, says the rainfall of 1892 is 7-81 inches below an average
of 25 years, in his district. The records from Kennal Vale,
taken by Mr. F. H. Davey, of Ponsanooth, shew a decrease of
nearly 133 inches on last year’s fall. The deficiency of rainfall
in the South-West district of England for 1892 amounts to 10°8
inches, or more than 25 per cent. below the average of the 25
years, 1866-90.

The rainfalls of Kennal Vale and St. Agnes, taken by
Messrs. Davey and Opie, I append :—

Kennal Vale. St. Agnes.

1, —"/"_—..

1891. 1892. 1891. 1892.
Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.

January ...... BB) coo PS) goo BI ake EB}
WEVA coccs WO goo BP pon NES oo SHES
March ..... BD, G00 TH bon BE p00 SD
ZN cy) NE eee PBI 45, UBB 55, PPB ooo UO
Mian, sete BO ooo LW! oc5 | PPNED cag PROM)
Aw — conoon ONE OOM EO Om GOO)
duly tena WS) son PROT ooo Bg I
August ...... 734 ... 5153 ... 604 ... 4:17
SEMUSMOD! Gao SE con FHS 55 SPS nun SPD
October ...... 10°26 ... 4°34 ... 841 ... 4:78
November ... 615... 4:17 ... 4°51 .. 3°85
December .,. 6°70 ... 329 ... 4:74 .., 2:58

Total ... 50°79 ...87:08 _.. 42°53 ...33:07

The wettest day of the year and the amount of rain which
fell in the three districts may be interesting to many :—Truro,
August 27th, 1:90; St. Agnes, August 27th, 1:43; and Kennal
Vale, August 27th, 2°26 inches.

Weather for December, 1792—100 years ago. 4th, storm
in the evening. 5th, great quantities of seagulls inland; three
different rainbows in the space of one hour; a hurricane from
N.W. began soon after one, accompanied by rain, and continued
for twelve hours; during the storm the barometer sank over
one inch. 8th, a fiery horizon, with stripes of black; the sea
roars in the evening. 12th, the wind still blowing a hurricane ;

404 A YEAR’S WEATHER.

this and several evenings since the 8th, with some intermission
during daylight. 21st, a large circle, or as is vulgarly termed,
wheel round the moon ; rain generally succeeds. 22nd, a violent
storm of wind, accompanied with rain, began about three p.m.,
and continued almost the whole night; fall of rain 6-6 inches.

Rather a rough and wet December in 1792; as the rainfall
for the year was 43°80 inches, they had a wet year, too, our
ancestors of 100 years ago.

January 18th, 1893.

407

@Obituary PLotice.

The name of our late Vice-President, Dr. Jaco, has been so
intimately associated with the history and progress of the Royal
Institution of Cornwall during the last forty years or more, that
it becomes naturally our duty to place on record in the Journal
of the Institution, a few brief notes on his personal and scientific
career. It has fallen to the lot of few scientific men to be able
to give, for so long a period, so much active assistance in the
management of a Society as he did, for it is well-known that Dr.
Jago has never failed in taking a more than common interest in
everything that had for its object the prosperity of our Institu-
tion. Next to his venerated friend, Dr. Barham, perhaps, no one
was more devoted than he in promoting its scientific and general
welfare, whether at the Council table, the Annual Meetings, or at
the more social summer excursions. He had filled with distinction
the offices of Secretary and President, and at the time of his
death he was our oldest Vice-President. The Institution has
sustained a great loss by the removal of so old a supporter of its
interests, while his many friends most deeply deplore that they
have been deprived of a faithful colleague, although during the
last few years his physical weakness quite incapacitated him from
attending the ordinary meetings.

James Jaco, B.A. (Cantab), and M.D. (Oxon), F.R.S., was
the second son of Mr. John Jago, of Falmouth, who married
Jane, daughter of Mr. John Smith, of Tregearn, St. Keverne.
He was born on December 18, 1815, at the Barton of Kigilliack,
Budock, once a seat of the Bishops of Exeter. This branch of
the family formerly resided in the parish of St. Erme, where
they were settled before the year 1588. In 1646, a Mr. John
Jago, of Truthan, from whom Dr. Jago was lineally descended,
petitioned the House of Lords respecting some land held by him
under Col. Nicholas Burlace. In his petition he complains ‘that
the said Nicholas Burlace had turned him out of certain lands
which he held under him, and he prays that he may be permitted

408 OBITUARY NOTICE.

to repurchase the land, ete., on which his ancestors lived for 300
years.” (Calendar of MSS., House of Lords). Dr. Jago always
referred to this John Jago with a considerable family interest, as
he was considered to have been of some note in his day asa
strict Parliamentarian. He was appointed a Commissioner of
Sequestration by Oliver Cromwell, and died at Truthan in 1652.

When young Jago was in his eighth year, his father went
tv reside at Falmouth, which gave him many advantages.
Though of such tender years, the youth was sent to the Falmouth
classical and mathematical school, where he received his pre-
paratory education. He remained a pupil in this school until
about 1833, but as it was the intention of his father to send him
to Cambridge, he had afterwards the advantage of receiving
some advanced lessons in classics and mathematics from private
tutors. Dr. Jago retained an interest in the Falmouth school to
the end of his life.

In 1835, Dr. Jago entered St. John’s College, Cambridge,
as a pensioner, from which he graduated B.A. in the mathe-
matical tripos of 1839 as 32nd wrangler. Soon after he
completed his course at Cambridge, he resolved to adopt the
medical profession as his future occupation of life. For this
purpose, and to obtain the necessary qualifications, he studied
at various hospitals in London, Dublin, and Paris. But anxious
to have a good medical degree, he resolved to go through a
second special course of training in the University of Oxford,
where he accordingly entered his name asa student, both in arts
and medicine, on the books of Wadham Oollege, from which he
graduated B.A. and M.B. in 1843, and finally M.D. in 1859.

During the early years of his professional career, Dr. Jago
was a most voluminous writer on various medical subjects, the
most important of which are undoubtedly those connected with
certain special diseases of the eye. One of his first contributions
on this subject is on ‘‘ Points in the physiology and diseases of
the eye,” published in 1845. In this paper he develops certain
entoptical methods of exploring the eye by means of divergent
beams of light, which, in his opinion, is a theory which preceded
all like solutions of the problem. In 1854, he communicated a
paper to the Royal Society on ‘Ocular Spectres and structures

OBITUARY NOTICE. 409

as mutual exponents,” which was followed by another on the
same subject in 1856. In 1857, a paper ‘‘ On the functions of
the tympanum” was also read before the Royal Society. These
three papers are published in the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Society.” Among his other medical papers which are mostly
inserted in medical journals and proceedings of kindred societies,
the following will give a good example of the Author’s
investigations :—‘‘ The Eustachian Tube, why opened in deglu-
tion’, 1856; ‘‘Entacoustics,” 1868; ‘‘The Eustachian Tube,
when and how it is opened,” 1869; ‘‘ Pains in the abdominal
and thoracic walls,” 1861; ‘‘Ophthalmoscopic musce volitantes
in a very myopic eye,” 1861; ‘‘ Medicine as influenced by
scientific tendencies,’ 1861; and ‘‘On Entoptics,” 1859. So
much interest was taken by physicians in Dr. Jago’s paper on
Entoptics, that he was encouraged to continue his investigations
on this subject, which resulted in the publication of a separate
treatise in 1864, entitled, ‘‘ Entoptics, with its uses in physiology
and medicine.” While engaged on this important work, Dr,
Jago exerted himself to produce a real treatise, in which, while
giving his own views in some detail, he does not fail to make
the reader acquainted with the views of other writers. The
work is a masterly exposition of a difficult subject, especially as
the Author has ventured on untrodden ground, while investigat-
ing and suggesting explanations of phenomena relating to the
subject, which had not hitherto been sufficiently accounted for.
Dr. Jago evidently brought many original thoughts to bear on this
difficult question. These attracted the notice of some of the
leading scientific members of the profession, as tending to
physiological conclusions which would probably lead to a correct
solution. Among those who were specially interested in Dr.
Jago’s investigations, was Dr. William Sharpey, F.R.S., then
one of the Secretaries of the Royal Society, through whose
influence principally, Dr. Jago was elected on June 2nd, 1870,
a Fellow of the Royal Society. One of his proposers was Sir
Charles Lemon, Bart., whose signature appeared first on the
original certificate of candidature, which had been suspended in
the rooms of the Society a few years before his election.

Dr. Jago was also an occasional contributor to the ‘‘Reports”’
and ‘Journal of the Royal Iustitution of Cornwall.” Of these

410 OBITUARY NOTICE.

papers the titles of a few may be sufficient here :—‘‘The
opening of the Eustachian Tube, limited to the act of deglutition,
now first rightly explained,” 1853. This appears to be the
original of a second paper on this subject alluded to above;
‘“‘ Observations of the Solar phenomena of April 5, 1871,” 1872;
‘‘Nangitha Cross, with illustration,” 1874; ‘‘ Ancient Cross at
Trelanvean, St. Keverne,” 1881; and his Presidential Addresses
delivered at the Annual Meetings of the Institution in 1873-
1875.

Besides enjoying a large private practice, Dr. Jago
generously gave his services and experience to most of the
local medical institutions. Im 1852, he was elected Physician
to the Truro Dispensary, and its consulting Physician in 1856;
and Physician to the Royal Cornwall Infirmary in 1856, and
consulting Physician in 1885. Filling so prominent a position
as Dr. Jago did in the management of the Royal Institution of
Cornwall, it was only natural that he should be called upon to
undertake the active duty of one of the Honorary Secretaries,
and in due time afterwards that of President. To the latter
important office, which has usually been held by a distinguished
Cornishman, he was elected on November 18, 1878, for two
years. His Presidential Addresses delivered to the members at
the annual meetings, have all been marked by their devoted
interest in notifying the general progress of the Institution, and
even at the present time the information contained in them may
be read with profit. Asa Vice-President, Dr. Jago continued,
as long as he was able, to take his personal share of work, and
his presence at the annual meetings was always looked upon as
certain. Lately, however, owing to his feeble health, he was
compelled to forego what to him was a great deprivation, but
though absent from the meetings his interest in the proceedings
never abated. It has been stated that our Institution was the
only one in the city in which he, after his retirement from
practice in 1885, retained an intimate interest. This was very
evident to anyone who had had the pleasure of conversing with
him during the later years of his Jife. En connection with this
it is pleasing to note that though he was physically unable to
attend the annual meetings, he made it a point, if possible, to

OBITUARY NOTICE. 41}

leave his card while on his accustomed afternoon drive. Hven
at the last annual meeting in November, 1892, he sent a note to
the Chairman apologising for his absence.

Dr. Jago was married on November 24, 1864, to Maria
Jones, daughter of Mr. Richard Pearce, several times Mayor of
Penzance, by whom he leaves two daughters. He enjoyed
generally good health until 1885, when he was slightly attacked
with paralysis. From that year his weakness yearly increased,
though his intellect remained as clear as ever. If possible, he
always endeavoured to have his afternoon airing in an open
carriage, accompanied by Mrs. Jago, or his daughters. Even
on the Friday preceding his death, he went for his usual drivey,.
but he had been ailing rather more than usual during the week.
On Saturday he had a fresh though slight seizure, but he
apparently soon again rallied. On Tuesday he became uncon-
scious. On Wednesday, January 18, 1893, at 4.385 p.m. he
passed away peacefully, aged seventy-seven. On the Saturday
following his remains were laid to rest in the churchyard at.
Kenwyn. ;

Epwin Donny, F.RS.

HENWOOD MEDAL.

rise for Sctentific Literature in Cornwall.

GOLD MEDAL intrinsically worth more than TEN
GutnEas, is offered for competition every three years

by the Royat InstTiTuTION oF CorRNWALL, which

has its head-quarters and Museum at Truro.

The first Medal was awarded to the Rev. W. Iaco, on 25th
November, 1890.

Members and Non-Members may alike compete for it.

The written competition which is to win the Prize must relate
to one or other of Eight given subjects. It may be illustrated if
necessary, and must be forwarded to the Council of the Institution
in time for publication in some number of the Society’s Journal to
be issued within the 3 years next following the last award.

The terms of the Award are fully set forth in the Will of the
donor, Witt1am Jory Henwoop, F.R.S., the eminent miner-
alogist and writer on Metallurgical deposits, who for two years was
President of the Institution, and died in 1875 leaving certain
bequests to its funds. The following is an abstract from his will :-

.... To the President, Vice-presidents, Treasurer, Secretaries,
and Council of the Royal Institution of Cornwall and to their
successors for the time being, I give the sum of [&c.], the interest
thereon to accumulate to provide Dies, and in the third year next
after the purchase of the said Dies, and in every successive third
year, to purchase one Gold Medal of the value of Ten Guineas at
the least to be struck from the said Dies. And I further direct

that the said Triennial Gold Medal shall be awarded to the person
who shall, in the opinion of the said Officers and Council, for the
time being, or of the majority of them present at a Meeting
convened for the purpose, have contributed the best treatise or

paper on the

GEOLOGY,
MINERALOGY,
MINING OPERATIONS,
BOTANY,
ORNITHOLOGY,
ICHTHYOLOGY,
CONCHOLOGY, or |
ANTIQUITIES, ;

.
7

OF CORNWALL.

|

(but on no other subject whatsoever) published in any Journal,
Proceedings or Transactions of the said Institution during the three
years next preceding the date of such award.

And I further direct that no award shall be made except at a
Meeting regularly convened by a notice in writing issued by the
Secretaries, stating the object of such Meeting, and to be delivered
to the President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and other members of
the Council, for the time being, and to every of them, at least
seven days previous to the holding of such Meeting; and unless
seven at least of the Officers and Members of the Council shall
be present at such Meeting.’’ Provision is then made for a casting
vote in cases of equality, and for further Meetings if any should
prove abortive.

Writers at a distance, who are interested in matters relating to
Cornwall, should not overlook this opportunity, as any well-written
paper on one of the subjects specitied (if accepted for publication
by the Council) may secure the Medal for its author.

’

PR oval Kustitution of Cornwall,

Jos Be sell

OF

BRITISH LEPIDOPTERA

BY
HENRY CROWTHER, F.R.M.S.,

CURATOR OF THE Truro Museum,

(cg PCH ‘BT “BOMIVIID HD

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REFERENCE LIST OF LETTERS IN PLATE.

)

a. Costal nervure.

6. Sub-costal nervure.

b', 6, 6°, b*, b°. Sub-costal nervules.
2

c!, ¢. Discoidal nervules.

d. Median nervure.

d', d*, d®*. Median nervules.

e. Sub-median nervure.

f. Internal nervure.

g, 9°, 9. Disco-cellular nervules.
h. Interno-median nervule.

k. Precostal nervure.

(0)

The letters correspond in each figure.

INTRODUCTION.

A few remarks are perhaps necessary, on some of the names
appearing in this list, which have probably no greater right in it, than
many, which, although appearing in the lists of Doubleday and
others, have been omitted here.

The names of some butterflies have been expunged from
certain British lists because the types are said to be extinct, or the
records of their occurrence extremely doubtful, yet these recording
lepidopterists so disagree, that no two retain the same specific
names throughout their descriptions, in consequence an unqualified
list of British Lepidoptera cannot be drawn up. Under such
circumstances it is better to retain the names of some doubtful
species, rather than circumscribe the usefulness of the list by delet-
ing every capture, which has not been re-verified.

From some attention [ have given to the distribution of shore
insects, I have charity sufficient to believe, in the possibility of
occasional European forms being found on the east and south coasts
of Britain. One swallow does not make a summer, neither does
an occasional captured butterfly make a new British insect, but as
the records of such captures are highly prized by those who study
animal distribution, they ought to be encouraged. We allow the
ornithologist to interleave his Yarrell with doubtful records without
demur, but somehow, the humbler lepidopterist gets but scant
justice, if he proclaims the discovery of a widely distributed
European form in Britain.

I have followed in the arrangement, Mr. W. F. Kirby’s
“‘Furopean Butterflies and Moths,” as the book is easily accessible,
or already in the hands of many collectors, and contains descriptions
of types near akin to our own, which the student probably buys
in many cases as British. I see no harm in having a collection in
which doubtful or extinct British species are replaced by Continental
ones, if the replacement leads the student to wider reading and
comparison.

Introduction.

The plate illustrating the characters of the wings has been
drawn for me by my friend Mr. C. H. Collinge, of London, from
the Swallow-tail butterfly, Papilio Machaon, L., which is the only
English butterfly that posesses typical neuration. The drawing is
twice the size of the original, so that the costal nervures and sub-
costal nervules may be easier made out; and of the under side of
the wing, because on the upper aspect the precostal nervure (2) on
the hind wing in not visible; and for identification, the under side is
clearer. As every character has been verified under the microscope,
I feel this addition to the label list will be valued by the student.

I have to thank Mr. Charles G. Clark, F.E.S., of London, and
Mr. S. L. Mosley, F.E.S., of Huddersfield, for their general criticisms
on the doubtful types. From these, and personal and other observa-
tions the few remarks below on the distribution, have been drawn
up ; they are of necessity very brief, but I think essential to the list.

Papilio Fodalirius, L. Not British, no certainty it ever was.
Continental form.

Parnassius Apollo, L. Probably introduced, no specimens taken
in Great Britain. Alps and Pyrenees.

Pieris Napi, var. Sabellice, Steph. A variety with black nervures,
and rare. War. (Vapee, Steph., a slightly larger form, no
characteristic value.

Pieris Rape, L. Commonest English butterfly. Vars. AZe¢ra, Steph.
and Mera, Steph. as variety names are worthless. Var.
Novanghe, Scudd., kindly shewn me at the Natural History
Museum, South Kensington, by Mr. A. G. Butler, F.L.S., is
the yellow variety, which, though somewhat rare in Europe,
is very common in America.

P. Brassica, var. Chariclea, Steph. Is a small form, not separable
from type.

Aporia Crategt, L. Now believed to be extinct.
Colias yale, LL. In some years very rare.

C. Edusa, Fabr. Common in 1877, rare since. Var. Helice, Hiibn.
is a white form of the female.

Introduction.

Vanessa Antiopa, L. Periodically common; 1878 is the Antiopa
year of lepidopterists.

V. Cardui, L. Periodically common. Var. Z/ymz, Robson, not
British.

Melitea Aurinia, Rott. Local, and becoming rare owing to habi-
tats being destroyed by drainage.

M. Athalia, Esp. Locally abundant, confined to south of England
and Ireland.

Argynnis Aglaia, L. Becoming rather rare.
A, Lathonia, L. Very rare and uncertain.

A. Faphia, var. Valesina, Esp. Dark variety of female, now almost
confined to New Forest, Hampshire.

A. Niobe, L. By some lepidopterists thought to be a form of
Adippe, probably not British, the Kentish captures were false,
and those of the New Forest are doubtful.

A. Dia, L. Not known as British, except on two doubtful records.
Erebia Ligea, L. No authenticated British specimens exist.

Melanargia Galanthea, L. The variations of forms so common, from
suffusion of black, is melanism only.

Satyrus 4igeria, L. The form found in the south of Europe.
Epinephile Janira, L. The second commonest British butterfly.

Polyommatus Semiargus, Rott. Local and almost extinct in
England.

P. Minima, Fuessly. The smallest English butterfly.

P. Beticus, i. One or two specimens have been collected, it is
said, on the south coast, but no real claim to be considered
British.

Lycena Dispar, Haw. Extinct in Britain, since 1848 ; was a true
British insect ; the Continental form is Z. Au¢z/us, Werneb.,
the Dark Under-winged Copper.

Introduction.

L. Virgauree, L. Said to have existed in the Fens, but no locality
known, nor any authenticated specimens. A specimen, it is
said, was taken at Cromer a year or two ago.

Thecla Pruni, L. Local insect, probably confined to about five
counties, Huntingdonshire, Suffolk, Hampshire, Monmouth-
shire, and Derbyshire.

Famphila Lineola, Ochs. Eastern counties of England, iocal, until
recently overlooked.

The extensions, of the abbreviated names of the authorities used
in the list, are given on page xvill. On the same page will be
found the signs which the student may need to distinguish the
male (3) and female ( 2 ) forms.

The rules between the lines are scissor guides for cutting up
the list.

This label list was drawn up for use in the Museum of the
Royal Institution of Cornwall, and by request extra copies were
struck off for the use of students.

CLASS INSECTA--HEXAPODA.
ORDER Lepidoptera [Scate-wenged [nsects];

BUTTERFLIES & MOTHS.

Insects with suctorial mouth-parts, which form a spirally rolled
proboscis, with four similar wings which are completely covered with
scales. The prothorax is fused. Metamorphosis complete, z.¢ these
insects pass through three stages after leaving egg; (1) caterpillar or
larva; (2) chrysalis or pupa; (3) perfect butterfly or moth. They grow
in stage 1 only, not in stages 2 and 3. :

TRIBE RHOPALOCERA [Céué-horns or Butterflies |.

Lepidoptera of slender build, usually with brightly coloured wings
and clubbed or knobbed antenne. All European butterflies fly in day-
light, usually hold their wings upright and applied together when at rest.
Caterpillars which may be naked or clothed with hairs or spines have
sixteen feet, six of which are horny, the rest (claspers) fleshy. For the
most part the caterpillars develop without cocoons into pupe or
chrysalides occasionally of a metallic lustre, which attach themselves to
leaves, twigs, stones, &c.

[The Habitat and Time of Appearance of each species are given after
the specific name].

ty

Iv.

FAMILY 1. PAPILIONIDA.

Both sexes with six perfect legs; inner margin of the hind wings
concave ; larvee long, cylindrical, not spiny ; pupe attached by the tail,
and a belt of silk round the body.

Genus 1. Papilio, Z.

P. Podalirius, Z. Scarce Swallow-tail.
Open places near Woods,—June and July.

P. Machaon, Z. Swallow-tail.
Cambridge and Norfolk Fens,—May to July.

Genus 2. Parnassius, Lav

P. Apollo, Z. Crimson Ringed.

Mountains,—June and July.

FAMILY 2. PIeRipa.

Characters in common with Papilionidze, but the inner margin of
the hind wings is not concave.

Genus 1. Leucophasia, SzAz.

L. Sinapis, Z. Wood White.
Woods,—May and August.

L. Sinapis, var. Erysimi, Borkh.

L. Sinapts, var. Diniensis, Bdv.

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Vv.

Genus 2. Euchloe, Wudn.

[Anthocharis of some Authors].

E.

Cardamines, Z. Orange Tip.
Fields and Lanes,—May.

Genus 38. Pieris, Sch.

Be

Daplidice, Z. Bath White.

South coast,—August.

. Napi, Z. Green-veined White.

Fields and ILanes,—May and August.

. Napi, var. Sabellicee, Steph.

Napi, var. Napee, Steph.

Rapee, L. Small Cabbage White.
Gardens,—May and August.

Rapee, var. Metra, Steph.

Rapee, var. Mera, Steph.

. Rapee, var. Novangliee, Scudd.

Brassicee, L. Large Cabbage White.
Gardens,—May and August.

Brassicee, var. Chariclea, Steph.

Vi.

Genus 4. Aporia, Flubn.

A. Crateegi, L. Black-veined White.
Meadows, South of England,—June and July.

Genus 5. Colias, adr.

C. Hyale, L. Pale Clouded Yellow.
Lucerne fields,—July.

C. Hyale, var. Pallida, Robson.

C. Edusa, fabr. Clouded Yellow.
Clover fields, South of England,—Aug.—Nov.

C. Edusa, var. Helice, Hwobn.

Genus 6. Gonepteryx, Leach.

G. Rhamni, L. Brimstone.
Lanes and Woods,— July and August.

FAMILY 3. NYMPHALIDE.

Moderately large brightly coloured butterflies. Fore-legs of male
(3S) quite rudimentary (apparently two jointed), female (2) separate
portions are present, but small. | Larvee spiny, or with fleshy warts
covered with hair, or horns on the head. Pupz suspended by the tail.

Genus 1. Vanessa, Fade.

V. Atalanta, L. Red Admiral.

Waste places,— August to October.

Vil.

V. Antiopa, L. Camberwell Beauty.
Willow beds,—Spring and Autumn.

V. Antiopa, var. Hygizea, Hdrch.

Vo lox Peacock.
Waste places,—August to October.

V. Urticee, L. Small Tortoiseshell.
Waste places,—April to October.

V. Polychloros, £. Large Tortoiseshell.

Open Woods,—Summer.

V. C-aloum, L. Comma.

Hop gardens,—Summer and Autumn.

V. C-Album, var. Hutchinsoni, Hobson.

V. Cardui, L. Painted Lady.

Waste places,—August to June.

V. Cardui, var. Elymi, Robson.

Genus 2. Melitza, Fads.

These Fritillaries are not spotted nor streaked with siiver. Larvze
feed on plantain, &c.

M. Aurinia, Rott. Greasy Fritillary.

M. Artemis, SzepA.
Marshy Meadows,—May.

vill.

M. Aurinia, var. Hibernica, Birch.

M. Aurinia, var. Scotia, White.

M. Cinxia, L. Glanville Fritillary.
Sea Cliffs, Isle of Wight,—May and June.

M. Athalia, Asp. Heath Fritillary.

Heaths,— Midsummer.

M. Athalia, var. Eos, Steph.

Genus 3. Argynnis, Fadr.

The under-side of the hind wings of these Fritillaries is always
spotted or streaked with silvery white. Larvze feed chiefly on violets.

A. Selene, Schiff. Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary.

Woods,—June.

A. Euphrosyne, L. _ Pearl-bordered Fritillary.
Woods,—May and June.

A. Adippe, L. High-brown Fritillary.
Woods,—July.

A. Adippe var. Cleodoxa, Ochs.

A. Aglaia, L. Dark-green Fritillary.

Downs and Wastes near Sea, Mountain Heaths,—July.

A. Aglaia, var. Charlotta, Sowby.

A. Lathonia, LD. Queen of Spain Fritillary.
South coast,—September.
A. Paphia, L. Silver-washed Fritillary.
Woods,—July.

A. Paphia, var. Valesina, Esp.

A. Niobe, L. Niobe.

New Forest,—June and July.

A. Dia, L. Weaver's Fritillary.
Woods,—Spring and Autumn.

Gems 4 himenitis, 257

L. Sibylla, L. White Admiral.
Woods, South of England,—July.

Genus 8. Apatura, /adr.

A. Iris, . Purple Emperor.
Oak woods,—July.

A. Iris, var. lole, Schiff.

X,

FAMILY 4. Saryripé.

Large or small, dull coloured, butterflies. | Front pair of legs
rudimentary. Wings rounded, hind margins either entire or scalloped,
and nearly always with ocellated spots. Larvee clothed with fine, short
hair, tail ends ina fork, head is round. Pupze suspended by tail, or
formed in, or on, the ground.

Genus 1. Hipparchia, Faédr.

[Satyrus of some Authors].

H. Semele, L. Grayling.
Rocky and Sandy places,—July and August.

Genus 2. Erebia, Baz.

E. Epiphron, Knoch, Small Ringlet.

Mountains in the North,—June and July.

E. Epiphron, var. Cassiope, abr.

E. AEthiops, “sp. Scotch Argus.

E. Medea, H#éx; E. Blandina, Fader.
Mountain Flats,—July and August.

mM

. Ligea, JL. Arran Brown.

Mountain Districts,—June and July.

Genus 3. Melanareia, Meg.

[Arge of some Authors].

M. Galathea, L. Marbled White.
Open Woods,—July.

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Xl.

Genus 4. Satyrus, La¢r.

[Pararge of some Authors].

S. Megeera, L. Wall Brown.
Lanes,—May and August.
S. AAgeria, L. Speckled Wood.
Woods,—May.

S. A-geria, var. Egerides, Staud.

Genus 5. Epinephile, 7udn.

[Satyrus of some Authors].

E. Hyperanthus, L. Ringlet.
Woods and Lanes,—July.

E. Hyperanthus, var. Arete, Wil.

E. Janira, L. Meadow Brown.

Pastures,—Summer.

E. Janira, var. Hispulla, “sp.

E. Tithonus, L. Large Heath.
Lanes,—July.

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Genus 6. Ccnonympha, Yuédn.

[Satyrus and Chortobius of some Authors].

C. Pamphilus, L. Small Heath.
Dry Heaths,—May to October.

C. Pamphilus, var. Lyllus, Hsp.

C. Typhon, Haw. Marsh Ringlet.

C. Davus, Faér.
Damp Heaths,—June and July.

C. Typhon, var. Rothliebi, Staud.

FAMILY 5. ERYCINIDA.

Only one species in Europe, moderately large, and brown in color.
Male (¢) front legs rudimentary ; female (2) legs perfect. Palpi of
moderate length. Antennz long. Hind wings slightly grooved, sub-
costal nervure with four branches. Larvae wood-louse shape. Pupz
attached by tail, and girth around body.

Genus 1. Nemeobius, SZAz.

N. Lucina, L. Duke of Burgundy.
Damp Woods,—June.

FAMILY 6. LYCANIDA.

Small blue, copper-red, and brown butterflies. Club of antennze
rather long. Palpi hairy, last joint naked. Front legs perfect in female
(2). Larvee wood-louse shape, clothed with fine short hairs, head
small and retractile. Pupze attached like Zrycinide.

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Genus 1. Polyommatus, Lav.

[Lyczena of some Authors].

In Polyommati or Blues the antenne are slender.
wings of male (¢) blue, seldom brown; of female ( ?) brown, dusted
Palpi long. Eyes sometimes hairy, sometimes naked.
Larvee feed on leguminous plants.

with blue.

Upper side of

P. Arion, L. Large Blue.

Cotswolds, &c.,—June and July.

Semiargus, Rott. Mazarine Blue.

Acis, Fadr.
South Wales,—June and July.

Minima, fuessly. Bedford Blue.
Alsus, WV.

Waste places,—June.

Argiolus, L. Azure Blue.
Holly hedges,—May and August.

Corydon, Poda. Chalk-hill Blue.

Chalk Downs,—May to July.

Bellargus, Rott. Clifden Blue.

Adonis, idx.
Chalk Downs,— May.

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cs / ‘ E
ie jf Ls
' a . -
7 bd j Yo ot
= tw -
. ' . ata
o cs J ae
ki r i” i - _ ‘

XIV.

P. Icarus, Fott. Common Blue.
P. Alexis, WV.

Waste places,—Summer.

P. Icarus, var. Icarinus, Seriba.

P. Icarus, var. Thersitis, Bdv.

P. Astrarche, Bergstr. Brown Argus.

P. Medon, £sf. P. Agestis, /Zizdn.
Waste places,—May and August.

P. Astrarche, var. Artaxerxes, faor.

P. Astrarche, var. Salmacis, Steph.

P. Astrarche, var. Allous, Hubn.

Ps AEE Win Silver-studded Blue.
Heathy places,—July.

P. Boeticus, L. Pea-pod Argus.
Channel Islands,—September and October.

Genus 2. Lycena, Faér.

[Ghrysophanus & Polyommatus of some Authors].

In the Zycene, or Coppers, the antennz are long. Upper side
of wings of male (¢) copper red; of female (2) copper to brown.
Palpi long. Eyes naked. Larvee feed on dock and sorrel.

:
SC eA: De rt Ceuta
: 1 , te
| an 0
}
t * a
‘
Hi 1
on
& ; am
“ = 2 ; “a
in) J Ld ‘ L = ew M a ‘
4 : L
* m, > S ag

XV.

L. Chryseis, Ochs. Purple-edged Copper.
iL, leirmyelice, Avot. L. Hippothoe, Z.

L. Dispar, Haw. Large Copper.

Fens, Cambridge,—June to August.

L. Virgaureee, L. Scarce Copper.

No known locality.

L. Phleeas, L. Common Copper.
Waste places,—April to September.

Genus 3. Zephyrus, Daim.
[Thecla of some Authors].
Differ from Zec/e in the gradually formed club. In fore-wings

having eleven nervures, sub-costal nervure emitting two branches before
the extremity of the discoidal cell, and a third beyond, which ts _ bifur-

cated.

Z. Betula, L. Brown Hairstreak.
Blackthorn Woods,—July to October.

Z. Quercus, L. Purple Hairstreak.
Oak Woods,—July to August.

Genus 4. Thecla, Fader

Differ from Zephyrz in suddenly formed club on antenne. In
fore-wings having ten nervures; sub-costal nervure emitting three
unforked branches before extremity of discoidai cell, and none after-

wards.

=) 2 “
‘ :
i X ome be fe
Ae
eX De
ety
if 7
5:
so)
i i 4 .
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ss : aes
. bens ‘ io
*
r vit ny i
. py iF
: 6 fd é rh i ae
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1 ay aie vy
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escy it ey ! It's ‘ F ae et
7 *
i] *
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a * - of
mi
t r
e Pee oe
~
4 - y% '
ap: - *

ai AD Oe, Gib tele Bee}

‘od

i a > a P E Pa ite
POOL aT Oe, CaenDin Nt eva wees
Att) ; ‘aa vie pet ee

Teer GAT me EEE Fah

; aa ; as = Ss a
ey
any a
* TA
‘
ei 6
?. sn
7 *
. i) @ cel
So
- 2 eek
rar, ch
a
as
ate
= ‘me

XVI.

T. Rubi, L. Green Hairstreak.
About Brambles,—May and June.

T. Pruni, Z. Dark Hairstreak.
Monk’s Wood,—June and July.

T. W-album, Knoch. White Letter Hairstreak.
Elm Woods,—July.

FAMILY 7. HESPERIIDA.

Small thick-bodied butterflies, with short wings and jerky flight.
Antennz inserted widely apart and often hooked at the tips. Legs
perfect in both sexes ; hind tibize with four spurs. Larvze with promi-
nent head, body tapering at both ends and clothed with fine thin hair,
live usually between leaves spun together, and undergo changes there in
a slight cocoon.

Genus 1. Hesperia, /adr.
[Syrichthus of some Authors].

H. Malvee, L. Grizzled Skipper.

H. Alveolus, idx.
Damp Woods,—May.

H. Malvee, var. Taras, bergstr.

Sein Am A
ee HE a =
oat .
ps te Dyas Sa
Ao i eal 2 i Ye
y Z

2 .
73k S. ELO hee Ones CS es
‘ é , =
# %
* wh
¢ r
Ph} 4
is 4 i
=
x i a ‘ 3
i t j
pt r
x y 4 F
ri ¥ = Fi
i th be ot
= 3
Pits 5
A,
% =
AA Se
ah & 4:
SMe Wa) a? Dare

[a iste a3 bem ma

a Me 0 mee . folowine ;

tan sano ERDAS

‘a! aor
= ete

Lies hes»

XVI.

Genus 2. Nisoniades, Audn.

[Thanaos of some Authors].

N. Tages, L. Dingy Skipper.
Waste places,— May.

Genus 38. Cyclopides, Wudn.

[Steropes & Hesperia of some Authors].

C. Paleemon, Pall. Chequered Skipper.

C. Paniscus, Fady.
Grassy openings in Woods,—May and June.

Genus 4. Pamphila, Fade.

[Hesperia of some Authors].

P. Comma, L. Silver-spotted Skipper.
Rough fields, South of England,—July—August.

P. Sylvanus, Hsp Large Skipper.
Open Woods,—May and August.

P. Acteeon, Esp. Lulworth Skipper.

Dorset coast,—July and August.

P. Thaumas, Hun. Small eres

em eines ise
Waste places,—J uly.

P. Lineola, Ochs. Narrow-lined Skipper.
Meadows and Cornfields,—July and August.

ni hy 7 aie
Che) f ucae/, Te 421 ete ty BEE

Serge, it MUTA 34 OW ice

‘are vA

mre ate ye: wenwate

2 Z ; ; Viste, papas Fe | sf i) us ~ . i"
ne | ee ee rt) bf tarsi a ; =e 3
eee aM a) ald 8 4 ay lagi ce

Birra: pari i aioe s ga Paesoe oe

ans eel wae ee rd er eae.

a ae

EXTENSION OF ABBREVIATED NAMES oF AUTHORITIES.

Bdv. (Boisduval).

Bergstr. (Bergstraesser).

Birch.

Borkh. (Borkhausen).
Dalm. (Dalman).
Esp. (Esper).

Fabr. (Fabricius).
Fuessly.

Haw. (Haworth).

Hdrch. (Heydenreich).

Hubn. (Hiibner).
Hufn. (Hufnagel).
Knoch.

L. (Linné).

Latr. (Latreille).

Leach.

XVIil.

Meig. (Meigen).
Mull. (Miller).
Ochs. (Ochsenheimer).
Pall. (Pallas).
Poda.

Robson.

Rott. (Rottenburg).
Schiff.

Schrk. (Schranck).
Scriba.

Scudd. (Scudder).
Sowby. (Sowerby).
Staud. (Staudinger),
Steph. (Stephens).

W. V. (Wiener Verzeichniss).

White.

CHARACTERS TO DISTINGUISH MALE AND FEMALE FORMS.

3 3 3
3 3 3
3 3 3
? 2 ?
2 2 2

3

3

3

3

3 3 3 3

3 3 3 3

3

3

pte

Roval Institution of Gornwall,

FOUNDED 1818.

Patron.
THE QUEEN.

Vice=Pafron.
H.R.H. THE Prince oF WALES, DUKE OF CORNWALL, &c., &c.

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COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1692-93.

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THE FOLLOWING WORKS ARE

PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY

THEY MAY BE OBTAINED FROM THE -CURATOR,
Mr. R. A. GREGG, AT THE MUSEUM.

ae CORNISH FAUNA: A Compendium of the Natural History of
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PART I.—Containing the Vertebrate Animals and Crustaceans,

by JONATHAN COUCH, J. BROOKING ROWE, THOMAS

CORNISH, E. H. RODD, and C. SPENCE BATE, F.R.S.
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by RICHARD Q. COUCH, M.R.C.S., &c. Price 3s.

HE SERIES OF REPORTS of the Proceedings of the Society, with
numerous [llustrations. (Some only in print).

IST OF ANTIQUITIES in the West of Cornwall, with References and
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DDITIONS TO BORLASE’S NATURAL HISTORY OF CORN-
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