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OF

COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY,

AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

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s-es-l

T~~ V. <yw cl c rv% ^

Journal

OF THE

Royal

Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Z003L0C3-Y -A-ISTID BOTANY

(principally Invertebrata and Gryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Sea.

Edited by

F. JEFFREY BELL, M.A.,

One of the Secretaries of the Society
and Professor Emeritus in King's College , London ;

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND

A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S.,

Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital,

R. G. HEBB, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.,

Lecturer on Pathology at Westminster Hospital

AND

J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A.,

Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine, Edinburgh .

FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

FOR THE YEAR

1896.

TO BE OBTAINED AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS,

20 HANOVER SQUARE, W. ;

of Messrs. WILLIAMS & NORGATE ; and of Messrs. DULAU & CO.

THE

11 opt |tlici[oscopical Socipir.

(Established in 1839. Incorporated by Royal Charter in 1866.)

The Society was established for the promotion of Microscopical and
Biological Science by the communication, discussion and publication of observa-
tions and discoveries relating to (1) improvements in the construction and
mode of application of the Microscope, or (2) Biological or other subjects of
Microscopical Kesearch.

It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio Fellows of either sex.

Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Becommendation,
signed by three Ordinary Fellows, setting forth the names, residence, and
description of the Candidate, of whom the first proposer must have personal
knowledge. The Certificate is read at two General Meetings, and the Candidate
balloted for at the second Meeting.

The Admission Fee is 2 1. 2s., and the Annual Subscription 21. 2s., payable
on election, and subsequently in advance on 1st January annually, but
future payments may be compounded for at any time for 317. 10s. Fellows
elected at a meeting subsequent to that in February are only called upon for a
proportionate part of the first year’s subscription. The annual Subscription of
Fellows permanentlyresiding abroad is 1Z. 11s. 6d., or a reduction of one-fourth.

Honorary Fellows (limited to 50), consisting of persons eminent in
Microscopical or Biological Science, are elected on the recommendation of five
Ordinary Fellows and the approval of the Council.

Ex-officio Fellows (limited to 100), consisting of the Presidents for the
time being of any Societies having objects in whole or in part similar to those of
the Society, are elected on the recommendation of ten Ordinary Fellows, and the
approval of the Council.

The Council, in whom the management of the property and affairs of
the Society is vested, is elected annually, and is composed of the President,
four Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other Ordinary
Fellows.

The Meetings are held on the third Wednesday in each month, ‘Jfrom
October to June, at 20 Hanover Square, W. (commencing at 8 p.m.). Visitors
are admitted by the introduction of Fellows.

In most Sessions there is a Conversazione devoted to the exhibition of
Instruments, Apparatus, and Objects of novelty or interest relating to the
Microscope or the subjects of Microscopical Research.

The Journal, containing the Transactions and Proceedings of the
Society, and a Summary of Current Researches relating to Zoology and Botany
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Microscopy, Ac., is published
bi-monthly, and is forwarded post-free to all Ordinary and Ex-officio Fellows
residing in countries within the Postal Union.

The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of Objects,
is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays), from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.,
and, from November 1st to June 30th, on every Wednesday evening from 6 p.m.
to 10 p.m. (except Meeting nights). It is closed for four weeks during August
and September.

Forms of 'proposal for Fellowship, and any further information, may he' obtained hy
application to the Secretaries , or Assistant-Secretary , at the Library of the Society,
20 Hanover Square.

a 2

fatron

HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS
ALBERT EDWARD, PRINCE 01? WALES,
K.G., G.C.B., F.R.S., &c.

^nst-|pr^ibcnts.

fleeted

*Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., D.C.L., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 1840-1

♦John Lindley, Pli.D., F.R.S 1842-3

*Tuomas Bell, F.R.S 1844-5

♦James Scott Bowerbank, LL.D., F.R.S 1846-7

♦George Busk, F.R.S 1848-9

♦Arthur Farre, M.D., F.R.S 1850-1

♦George Jackson, M.U.C.S 1852-3

♦William Benjamin Carpenter, C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.. 1854-5

George Shadbolt 1856-7

♦Edwin Lankester, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S 1858-9

♦John Thomas Quekett, F.R.S 1860

♦Robert James Farrants, F.R.C.S 1861-2

♦Charles Brooke, M.A., F.R.S 1863-4

James Glaisher, F.R.S 1865-6-7-8

♦Rev. Joseph Bancroft Reade, M.A., F.R.S 1869-70

♦William Kitchen Parker, F.R.S , 1871-2

♦Charles Brooke, M.A., F.R.S 1873-4

Henry Clifton Sorby, LL.D., F.R S . 1875-6-7

♦Henry James Slack, F.G.S 1878

Lionel S. Beale, M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.S 1879-80

♦P. Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S 1881-2-3

Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D., F.R.S 1884-5-6-7

Charles T. Hudson, M.A., LL.D. (Cautab.) 1888-9-90

Robert Braithwaite, M.D., M.R.C.S., F.L.S 1891-2

* Deceased.

COUNCIL.

Elected 15th January, 1896.

Albert D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.

Ukc-|prts'tticuts.

Rev. Edmund Carr, M.A., F.R.Met.S.

♦Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.A., Y.P. & Treas. L,
Richard G. Hebb, Esq., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.
Edward Milles Nelson, Esq.

Crcasurcr.

William Thomas Suffolk, Esq.

JStmtarits.

Prop. F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A.

Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LLJD., F.R.S.

©rbmarg lllcmbcrs of Cmwcil.

Conrad Beck, Esq.

Alfred W. Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.So., F.L.S.
♦Robert Braithwaite, Esq., M.D., M.R.C.S., F.L.S.
Thomas Comber, Esq., F.L.S.

Edward Dadswell, Esq.

♦George C. Karop, Esq., M.R.C.S.

The Hon. Sir Ford North.

Thomas H. Powell, Esq.

Charles F. Rousselet, Esq*

♦Prof. Charles Stewart, F.R.S.

J. J, Yezey, Esq.

Thos. Charters White, Esq., M.R.C.S., L.D.S.

* Members of the Publication Committee.

CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF TEE SOCIETY.

PAGE

I. The Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. — VIII. By Frederick

Chapman, F.R.M.S. (Plates I. and II.) 1

II. The President’s Address : Sketches from the Anatomy of the Acarina.

By A. D. Michael, F.L.S., &c 15

III. On some New and Interesting Freshwater Algge. By William West,

F.L.S., and G. S. West, A.R.C.S. (Plates III. and IV.) 149

IV. On the Male of Stephanoceros Eichorni. By F. R. Dixon-Nuttall,

F.R.M.S. (Plate V.) .. 166

V. Notes on the Genus Apsilus and other American Rolifera. By Dr.

Alfred C. Stokes. (Plate VI.) 269

VI. Interzooecial Communication in Flustridae, and Notes on Flustra. By

Arthur William Waters, F.R.M.S, F.L.S. (Plates VII. and VIII.) 279

VII. On an Addition to the Methods of Microscopical Research, by a new
Wav of Optically producing Colour-Contrast between an Object and
its Background, or between Definite Parts of the Object itself. By

J. Rheinberg. (Plates IX. and X.) 373

VIII. The Royal Microscopical Society’s Standard Screw-Thread for Nose-
Piece and Object-Glasses of Microscopes. Being the Report of a Sub-
Committee, drawn up by Conrad Beck, F.R.M.S. (Fig. 75) .. .. 389

IX. On the Occurrence of Endocysts in the Genus Thalassiosira. By

Thomas Comber, F.R.M.S. (Plate XI.) 489

X. The Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. — IX. By Frederick

Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Plates XII. and XIII.) 581

XI. A Simplification of the Method of Using Professor Abbe’s Apertometer.

By E. M. Nelson, F.R.M.S 592

XII. Photomicrographic Camera, designed chiefly to illustrate the Study of
Opaque Objects, more especially in the Study of Palaeo-Botany. By
J. Butterworth, F.R.M.S. (Plates XIV. and XV.) 595

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY (PRINCIPALLY INVERTEBRATA AND

Cryptogamia), Microscopy, &c., including Original Communications
from Fellows and Others.* 27, 167, 293, 393, 492, 597

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.

Rohde, F. — Present State of the Question as to the Origin and Inheritance of

Acquired Characters 27

Minot, C. — Heredity and Rejuvenescence 28

Herbst, Curt — Formative Stimuli in Development 29

Wagner, F. v. — Hertwig's Theory of Development 29'

Rvder, J. A. — Dynamical Hypothesis of Inheritance •• 60

Sedgwick, A. — Further Remarks on the Cell-Theory •• 62

* In order to make the Contents complete, the papers printed in the ‘ Transactions ’
and the notes printed in the Proceedings’ are included here.

viii CONTENTS.

PAC.E

Nussbaum — Progressive Differentiation of Cells in the Course of Development . . .. 32

Sewertzoff, A. — Metamerism of Vertebrate Head 32

Debierre, Ch. — Development of the Occipital Segment 33

Giacomini, C. — Abnormalities in Human Development 33

Leg he, W. — Dentition of Mammals 33

„ Questions concerning Dentition 34

"Woodward, M. F. — Development of Teeth in Insectivora 34

Laguesse, E. — Histogenesis of the Pancreas 35

Keibel — Development of Bladder and Urinogenital Sinus 35

Duval, M. — Embryology of Bats 35

Nolf, P. — Gestation of Vespertilio murinus 36

Hill, J. P., & C. J. Martin — Embryo of Platypus 37

Nathusius, W. von — A Strange Enclosure in a Hen's Egg 37

Mehnert, E. — Gastrulation in Reptiles 37

Noetzel, W. — Degeneration of Tissue in Tadpole's Tail 37

Kopsch, F. — Gastrulation in Axolotl and Frog 38

Raffaele, F. — Superficial Epidermic Envelope in the Developing Ova of Teleosteans 38

Felix — Excretory System of the T rout 39

Virchow, Hs. — The Blastodermic Margin in Salmonidx 39

Sobotta, J. — Fertilisation of Egg of Amphioxus lanceolatus 39

Alcock, A. — New Species of Viviparous Fish 40

Beard, J. — Phenomena of Reproduction 40

Moore, J. E. S. — Spermatogenesis in Birds 41

Rath, O. vom — Chromatin- Reduction in the’ Maturation of Ova and Spermatozoa 41

Moore, J. E. S. — Structural Changes in Reproductive Cells of Elasmobranclis .. 42

Gaskell, W. H. — Origin of Vertebrates 167

Davenport, C. B. — Preliminary Catalogue of the Processes concerned in Ontogeny 168

Saxer, Fr. — Development of Red and White Blood- Corpuscles 169

MacMillan, Conway — Metazoan and Metaphytic Reproductive Processes .. . . 169

Jankelowitz, A. — Development of Pancreas in Man 169

Tims, H. W. Marett — Dentition of the Dog 169

Fischel, A. — Development of Musculature in Birds and Mammals 170

Will, L. — Development of Reptiles 170

Assheton, R. — Ciliation of the Ectoderm of Amphibian Embryos 171

Platt, J. B. — Development of the Peripheral Nervous System of Necturus .. .. 171

„ „ Thyroid Gland and Suprapericardial Bodies in Necturus .. .. 172

Nussbaum, M. — Mechanism of Egg-laying in Frog 173

Dean, B. — Early Development of Amia 173

Harrison, R. G. — Development of Teleostean Fins 174

Schaffer, J. — Thymus Rudiments in the Lamprey 174

Stricht, O. van deii — Maturation and Fecundation of the Egg in Amphioxus .. 175

Charrin & Gley — Experimental Embryology 293

Weysse, A. W. — Blastodermic Vesicle of Pig 293

Ranvier, L. — Development of Lymphatic Vessels 294

Salzer, H. — Development of Veins in the Head Region 294

Nassonow, N. — Operculum of Birds 294

Grosser, O., & E. Brezina — Veins of Head and Neck in Reptiles 295

Muller, Erik — Regeneration of Crystalline Tjens in Triton 295

Waite, E. R. — Egg-Cases of Port Jackson Sharks *• •• 295

Samassa, P. — Evolution and Epigenesis 393

Morgan, T. H., & others — Experimental Biology 398

Supino, F. — Experimental Teratogeny 394

Wilson, E. B., & others — Atlas of the Fertilisation and Karyokinesis of the

Ovum 394

Bardeleben, K. von — Spermatogenesis 395

Swaen, A. — Development of Liver and Adjacent Parts 395

Schmidt, H. — Normal Hyperthely in Human Embryos 395

Spee — Glandular Character of Umbilical Vesicle 396

Wilson, Greg — Mullerian Duct of Crocodile 396

Mitsukuri, K. — Oviposition of the Snapping Turtle 396

Russell, J. B.— Blastopore of Frogs' Eggs 396

FI W. M. — Mechanics of Development 492

Driesch, Hs., & G. Wetzel — Experimental Embryology 493

CONTENTS. IX

J’AGB

Schimkewitsch, W .—Fertilisation 493

Sobotta, J. — Corpus luteum of Mouse 494

Nusbaum, J. — Development of Hypophysis 494

Brachet, A. — Development of Diaphragm and Liver in the Rabbit 495

Jacoby, M. — Accessory Glands of the Thyroid Region 495

Kingsbury, B. F. — Spermathecse and Fertilisation in American Urodela .. .. 495

Bataillon, E. — Segmentation of Egg of Amphibia and Teleostei 495

Eigenmann, C. H. — History of Sex-Cells in Cymatogaster 496

Beard, J. — Transient Nervous System in Skate 496

Dean, Bashford — Early Development of Ganoids 497

Price, G. C. — Development of Bdellostoma 498

Stricht, O. Van der — Egg of Amphioxus 498

Bergh, R. S. — General Embryology 597

Hertwig, O. — Experimental Embryology 597

Kaestner — Experimental Embryology 598

Gaskell, W. H. — Origin of Vertebrates .. 598

Locy, W. A. — Structure and Development of the Vertebrate Head .. 598

Woodward, M. F. — Mammalian Dentition 600

„ ,, Teeth of Marsupials 600

Waldeyer, W. — The Human Tail 601

Spee, F. von — Fixing of Ovum to Wall of Uterus 601

Niessing, C. — Spermatogenesis of Mammals 602

Bardeleben, Iv. von — Spermatogenesis in Monotremes and Marsupials 602

Prenant, A. — Accessory Glands of the Thyroid and Carotid 602

Janosik, J. — Development of Allantois in Lizard 602

N ussbaum, M. — Evolution of Muscles 603

Beard, J. — Yolk-Sac and Merocytes in Scyllium and Lepidosteus 603

„ „ Disappearance of Transient Nervous System in Elasmobrcmchs .. .. 604

Sobotta, J. — Gastrulation of Amia calva 664

Ruckert, J. — Development of the Spiral Intestine in Pristiurus 604

Eigenmann, C. H. — Sex-Differentiation in Cymatogaster 605

Collinge, W. E., & S. Vincent — So-called Suprarenals in Cyclostomata .. .. 605

M Bride, E. W. — Formation of Germinal Layers of Amphioxus 606

Histology.

Lenhossek, M. v. — Centrosome and Sphere in the Spinal Ganglion-Cells of the Frog 43

Rath, O. vom — Amitosis 44

Dogiel," A. S. — Sympathetic Ganglia of Mammals 44

Niessing, G. — Cell-Studies 44

Cesaris-Demel, A. — Fat-formation and Altmann's Granules 45

Preiswerk, G. — Enamel Structure and Phytogeny 45

Kolliker, A. von — Amoeboid Movements in the Neurodendrites 175

Gehlchten, M. A. van — Rohon’s Cells in the Spinal Cord of the Trout 175

Weiss, G., & A. Dutil — Nerve-Endings in Striped Muscle 176

Lee, A. Bolles — Platner's Intercellular Body 176

Bremer, L. — Paranuclear Corpuscle and Centrosome 176

Stricht, O. van der — Form , Structure , and Division of the Nucleus 176

Bambeke, Ch. van — Grouping of Pigment- Granules during Segmentation in the

Frog 176

Czermak, N. — Absorptive Paths in an Epithelial Cell 376

Andrews, R. R .—Structure of Dentine 177

Hebner, V. v. — Optical Reaction of Connective Substances to Phenol 177

Ofpel, A. — Stomach Glands of Vertebrates 295

Hepburn, D. — Papillary Ridges of Monkeys and Men 296

Dehler, A. — Red Blood-Corpuscles of Embryo Chick .. . 296

Sack, A. — Vacuolation of Fat-Cells 296

Dogiel, A. S. — Structure of the Retina 296

Flemming, W. — Structure of Nerve-Cells in Spinal and Central Ganglia .. .. 296

Spirlas, A., & G: Sclavunos — Spinal Ganglia of Mammals 296

Rohde, Emil — Nucleus of Ganglion-Cells and Neuroglia 297

Junius, Paul — Skin-Glands of Frog 297

Tomes, C. S. — Dentine and Enamel 297

X

CONTENTS.

Purvis, G. Carrington — Muscle-Fibre , Electric Disc , and Motor-Plate 298

Reinke, Fr. — Histology of Testis 298

Flemming, W. — Mechanism of Cell-Division 396

Zanier, G. — Altmann’s Granula 396

Catterina, G. — Structure of Nucleus 396

Gulland, G. L. — Granular Leucocytes 397

Sihler, Chr. — Muscle- Spindles and Nerve-Endings 397

Dehler, A. — Sympathetic Ganglion- Cells of the Frog 397

Williams, J. L. — Formation and Structure of Dental Enamel 398

Henneguy, F. — Morphology of the Cell 499

R a witz, B. — Studies on Cell- Division 499

Ruckert, J. — Reducing Divisions 499

Foot, Catherine — Yolk-Nucleus and Polar Rings 499

Rabl, Hs. — Nuclei of Fat- Cells 500

Schafer, E. — Photography of Histological Evidence 500

Balbiani, E., & F. Henneguy — Physiological Significance of Direct Cell-Division 606

Kossel, A. — Basic Substances of the Nucleus 606

Schulze, F. E. — Cell-Membrane 607

„ „ Intercellular Union of Epithelial Cells 607

Lenhossek, M. von — Structure of Nerve-Cells 607

Gulland, G. L. — Granular Leucocytes 608

Giglio-Tos, E. — Red Blood- Corpuscles of Tadpoles 608

Neumayer, L. — Retina of Selachians 608

y. General.

Macallum, A. B. — Iron Compounds in Animal and Vegetable Cells 45

Schneider, R. — Absorption and Physiological Import of Iron .. .. 46

Thomson’s (J. A.) Presidential Address 46

Saville-Kent, W. — Marine Fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos Islands 47

Vallentin, R. — Disposal of Marine Animals by means of Seaweeds 47

Vuillemin, P. — Assimilation and Activity 177

Nuttall & Tiiierfelder — Animal Life without Bacteria 178

Simroth — Monochromatic Colours among Animals 178

Hess, C. — Function of the Retina 179

Mobius, K. — JEsthetic Aspects of Animals 298

Sabatier, A. — Philosophical Aspects of Zoology 298

Danilewsky, B. — Influence of Lecithin on Growth 299

Holt, E. W. L., & W. L. Calderwood — Fishing-Grounds and Fishes of the West

Coast of Ireland 299

Ahlborn, Fr. — Use of Heterocercal Tails 299

Emery, C. — Homology and Atavism 398

Capranica, S. — Biological Action of Rontgen's Rays » 398

Koehler, R. — Deep-Sea Dredgings in the Bay of Biscay 500

Murray, John — General Conditions of Existence , and Distribution of Marine

Organisms 501

Ortmann, A. E. — Separation , and its Bearing on ^Zoo-Geography 502

Dendy, A. — Cryptozoic Fauna of Australasia 503

Hutton, F. W. — Distribution of Southern Faunae 504

Driesch, Hans — The Machine-Theory of Life 504

Masterman, A. T. — Physiological Interpretations of Structure 505

Index to the Journal ( Zoology ) of the Linnean Society 506

Poulton, E. B. — Age of the Earth 609

Virchow, R. — Anlage and Variation 610

Wilson, Gregg — Hereditary Polydactylism 610

Huppert — Chemical Basis of Specific Characters . . .. 610

Fischel, A. — Pigmentation of Salamander 611

Dahl, Fr. — Distribution of Pelagic Animals 612

Tunicata.

Garstang, W .—New Classification of Tunicata 48

Metcalf, M. M. — Notes on Tunicate Morphology 49

Kokotneff, A. — Development of Salpa democratica ( mucronata ) 49

CONTENTS.

XI

PAGE

Salensky, W. — Development of Synascidise 50

Metcalf, M. M. — “ Sub-neural” Gland in Ascidians . . 52

Caullery, Maurice — Double Larva of Diplosoma 170

Winiwarter, Hans von — Digestive Gland in Simple Ascidians 179

Caullery, Maurice — The Genus Sigillina 179

Pizon, Antoine — Follicle Cells in Molgula 180

Castle, W. E. — Cell-Lineage in the Segmentation of the Ascidian Ovum .. .. 299

Floderus, M. — Formation of Follicular Investments in Ascidians 300

Lohmann, H. — New Appendicularise 300

Caullery, M. — Polymorphism of Buds in Colella 399

Korotneff, A. — Development of Salpa 506

Willey, A. — Bemarkable Ascidian 507

Ritter, W. E. — Budding in Compound Ascidians 612

Giard, A., & Caullery — Hibernation of Clavelina lepadiformis 613

Heider, K. — Development of Salpa fusiformis 614

INVERTEBRATA.

Hill, M. D. — Fecundation , Maturation , and Fertilisation 48

Pflucke, M. — Nerve-Cells of Invertebrates 180

Jaworowski, A. — Fauna of Wells 301

Stoll, O. — Distribution of Terrestrial Invertebrates .. 301

Owsjannikow, P. — Blood- Corpuscles 399

Bedot, M. — Stinging Cells 399

Hassall, A. — Animal Parasites of Chickens , Turkeys , and Ducks 507

Erl anger, R. von — Phenomena of Fertilisation 507

Mollusca.

Dall, W. H. — Deep-Water Mollusca 400

Sturany, R. — Mollusca of Austrian Deep-Sea Expeditions , 1890-94 400

Tate, R., & C. Hedley — Mollusca of Central Australia 400

Verrill, A. E. — Archetype of Mollusca 508

a. Cephalopoda.

Lenhossek, M. v. — Histology of Optic Lobes in Cephalopods 301

Joubin, L. — New Cephalopods 302

„ „ Loligo Picteti and Idiosepius Picteti 302

Ijima, I., & S. Ikeda — New Octopod 302

Neri, F. — Beaks of Cephalopods 401

Verrill, A. E. — Opistlioteuthidse 509

Willey, A. — Notes on Nautilus 509

Jatta, G. — Cephalopods of the Gulf of Naples 614

7. Gastropoda.

Schmidt, F. — Development of Stylommatophora 52

Heymons, R. — Development of Pulmonata 53

De Bruyne, C. — Attractive Sphere in Fixed Cells of Connective Tissue .. .. ... 53

Bergh, R. — Strombidse 54

Clubb, J. A. — Cerata of Dendronotus 54

Pelseneer, Paul — Air-breathing “ Prosobranchs ” and Gill-bearing “ Pulmonates 180

Erlanger, R. von — Larval Kidney of Planorbis and Limnxus 181

Linden, Maria von — Development of Shell Ornamentation in Marine Gastropods.. 303

Amaudrlt, A. — Buccal Cartilages of Gastropods 303

Andre, E. — Melanie Pigment of Limnsea 303

Jacobi, A. — Anatomy of Malayan Pulmonates 304

Garstang, W. — New Species of Doris 304

Baker, F. C. — New Classification of Muricidee 401

Lee, A. Bolles — Spermatocytes of Helix 510

Amaudraut, A. — Digestive Apparatus of the Higher Stenoglossa 511

Xll CONTENTS.

TAGE

Garstang, W. — Neio British Doris 511

Kostanecki, K. v., & A. Wierzejski — Maturation and Fertilisation in Physa

fontinalis 511

Tonniges, C. — Origin of Mesoderm in Paludina 511

Fujita, J. — Experiments on Molluscan Eggs 512

Pilsbry, H. A., & E. G. Vanatta — Revision of North American Slugs 615

Dall, W. H. — Insular Land Shell-Faunae 615

5. Lamellibrancliiata.

Boyce, R. W., & W. A. Herdman — Oysters and Typhoid 54

Bernard, F. — New Lamellibranch Commensal with an Echinoderm 55

Bruyne, C. de — Phagocytosis in Lamellibranchs 181

Chatin, J. — Staining in the Oyster 512

„ „ Macroblasts of Oysters 512

Brachiopoda.

Dall, W. H. — Deep-Sea Brachiopoda 401

Bryozoa.

Waters, A. W. — Interzcecial Communication in Flustridse, and Notes on Flustra 279

Oka, Asajiro — “ Excretory Organ ” of Fresh-water Polyzoa 304

Michael, E. M. — Remarks on Bryozoa •• 367

Harmer, S. F. — Development of IJchenopora verrucaria 401

Spencer, Baldwin — Tertiary Polyzoa of Victoria 402

Gregory, J. W. — Catalogue of Fossil Bryozoa in the British Museum 513

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Weismann, A. — Seasonal Dimorphism of Butterflies 55

Verson, E. — Development of Male Ducts in Silk-Motli 57

Verhoeff, C. — Morphology of the Abdomen in Coleoptera 57

Kluge, M. H. E. — Genital Organs of Male Wasp 57

J anet, Ch. — History of a Wasp’s Nest 57

Edgeworth, F. G. — Statistics of Wasps 58

Emery, 0. — The Genus Dorylus 58

Wandollek, B. — Antennas of Diptera 58

Meldola, R. — Speculative Method in Entomology 181

Cuenot, L. — Physiology of the Orthoptera 182

Holmgren, Emil — Branching of the Tracheae in the Spinning- Glands of Lepidop-

terous Larvae 182

Wasmann, E. — Ergatogynous Forms in Ants and their Explanation 183

Janet, Ch. — Muscles of Hymenopter a 183

Cholodkovsky, M. — New Species of Chermes 183

Alessandrint, G. — Larva of Sarcophaga affinis in Man 184

Nagel, Wilibald — Proteid-digesting Saliva in Insect Larvae .. 184

Erlanger, R. yon — Accessory Nucleus ( Nebenkern ) in Spermatogenesis 184

Verhoeff, C. — Wound-Healing in Carabus 184

Plateau, F. — Effectiveness of a Net in excluding Insects 305

Dixey, F. A. — Relation of the Mimetic to the Original Form 305

Verson, E., & E. Bisson — Post-Embryonic Development of Vasa deferentia and

Accessory Organs in Male of Bombyx mori 305

Butler, A. G. — Synonymy of Huphina lanessa 306

Ballowitz, E. — Double Spermatozoa of Dyticidae 306

Bordas — Alimentary Canal of Forficulidae 306

Cockerell, T. D. A. — The Genus Perdita 306

Marchal, P. — Habits of Polistes 307

Grobben, C. — Queen-Bee unable to lay Drone-Eggs 307

Elliott, G. F. Scott — Flower-haunting Diptera 307

Heymons, H. — Abdominal Appendages of Insects 402

Scudder, S. H. — Fossil Butterflies 403

Bath, W. H.— Origin of European Butterflies 403

Bateson, W. — Colour Variation of a Beetle 403

CONTENTS. xiii

l’AGE

Bordas, L. — Male Genital Apparatus of Ilymenoptera 403

Hyatt, J. D. — Mouth-Parts and Terminal Armour of Cicada septendecim .. .. 404

Wheeler, W. M .—Ochthera 404

Meinert, Fr. — Structure of Strepsiptera 404

Kellogg, Y. L. — Mallophaga of North American Birds 404

Howard, L. — Destruction of Mosquitoes 405

Mayer, A. G. — Development of Wing- Scales and tlieir Pigment in Butterflies and

Moths 514

Verson, E., & E. Bisson — Genital Ducts and Glands of Female Silk-Moth . . .. 515

Meinert, F. — Lateral Organs of the Larvae of Scardbi 515

“ F. C. K.” — Myrmecophile Lepismids and Ants 515

Poulton, E. B. — Courtship of certain Acridiidas 516

Bordas — Digestive Apparatus of Brachytrypes 517

Fabre, J. H. — Habits of Locustidae 517

Wilcox, E. V. — Spermatogenesis of Calopetenus Femur-rubrum 517

„ „ Power of Resistance of Helophilus Larvae to Killing Fluids .. .. 517

Scudder, H. — American Fossil Cockroaches .. 518

Marlatt, C. L. — Mouth-Parts of Insects 61 G

Hopkins, F. Gowland — Pigments of Pieridas 616

Swinhoe, C. — Mimicry in Hypolimnas 616

Dahl, Fr. — Habits of Carrion Eating Insects 617

R engel, C. — Changes of the Intestinal Epithelium in the Metamorphosis of Meal-
worm 617

Handlirsch, A. — Digger-Wasps 618

Williston, S, W., & j. M. Aldritch — Diptera of St. Vincent, West Indies .. .. 618

Bordas — Masticatory Armature of the Gizzard in Blatthlae and Gryllidae .. .. 619

Lecaillon, A. — Scatoconchs .. .. 619

Myriopoda.

Kowalevsky, A .—Lymphatic Glands of My riopods .. .. 184

Yerhoeff, O. — Climbing Powers of Millepedes 185

„ „ Geophilidae of Central Europe 308

Garbo wski, T. — Phytogeny of Lithobiidae .. 405

Verhoeff, C. — Notes on Myriopods 405

Cook, O. F. — New Diplopod Fauna in Liberia 406

Kenyon, F. C. — Morphology and Classification of Pauropoda 406

Cook, O. F. — Classification of Diplopoda 518

Duboscq, O. — Blood-Vessels of Scolopendridx 619

Verhoeff, C. — Structure and Distribution of Myriopods 620

Silvestri, F. — Diplopoda 621

Rosenstadt, B. — Eye of Scutigera 621

•y. Protracheata.

Fletcher, J. J., & A. Dendy — Australian Peripatus 59

Steel, T. — Peripatus 519

5. Araclmida.

Michael, A. D. — Sketches from Anatomy of Acarina 15

J aworowski, A. — Development of Spinning Apparatus 59

Erlanger, R. v. —Morphology and Embryology of a Tardigrade 60

Michael, A. D. — Anatomy of Thyas petrophilus 60

Pickard-Cambridge, F. O. — Stridulating-Organs of Scytodes 61

Wagner, W. — Habits of Spiders 185

Rywosch — Biology of Tardigrades 185

Lindner, P. — Parasites of Aspidiotus Nerii .. 186

Tower, R. W. — Brick-red Gland in Limulus 186

Laurie, Malcolm — Anatomy of Scorpions 308

Tarnani, J. K. — Structure of Thelyphonus 308

Trouessart, E. — New Sarcoptid ' 309

Barrois, J. — Development of Chelifer 406

Hogg, H. R. — Spiders of Central Australia 407

l.OMANN, J. C. C. — Secondary Spiracles of Opilionidae 407

Wagner, J Spermatogenesis in Spiders 408

XIV

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Kramer — New Mite from Beaver 409

Trouessart — Marine Acarina 409

Bernard, H. M. — Comparative Morphology of Galeodidse 520

Laurie, M. — Anatomy and Development of Scorpions ,, > 21

Patten, W. — Variations in Limulus Polyphemus G21

€. Crustacea.

List, Th. — Movements of Decapoda 61

Crema, C. — Tertiary Decapoda 61

Andrews, E. A. — Breeding Habits of American Crayfish 61

Rath, O. vom — Glandular Cells of Anilocra mediterranea 61

Chun, C. — Secondary Sexual Characters of Male Phronima 62

Giesbrecht, W. — Notes on Copepods 62

Stingelin, T. — Cladocera of Basle 62

Ishikawa, C. — Phyllopod Crustacea of Japan 62

Chun, C. — Nauplii of Lepadidee 62

Weltner, W. — South American Cirripedia 63

Man, J. G. de — Crustaceans of Malacca, Borneo, Celebes, and the Java Sea .. .. 186

Gruvel, A. — Gills of Cirripedia 186

Hacker, Y. — Paternal and Maternal Nuclear Substance in Development of Cyclops 187

Ishikawa, C. — Pliyllopods of Japan 187

Bettie, A. — Abnormality in Crab 309

Chevreux, E. — Gammarus Berilloni jj 309

Jennings, A. Vaughan— The Genus Ourozeuktes 309

Pollfus, A. — Mexican Terrestrial Isopods 309

Bernard, H. M. — Hermaphroditism in Apodidse 309

Ishikawa, C. — Phyllopod Crustacea of Japan 310

Thompson, I. C. — Free-swimming Copepods from West Coast of Ireland 310

Bassett-Smith, P. W. — Parasitic Copepods 310

Brady, G. S., & A. M. Norman — Monograph of Ostracoda 310

Tornquist, Sv. Leonk. — Antennae of Trilobites 311

Clark, J. P. — Otocysts of Crustacea and Equilibrium 409

Ohlin, Axel — Malacostraca of Baffin Bay and Smith Sound 409

Spencer, Baldwin, & T. S. Hall — Crustacea of Central Australia 410

Herrick, F. H. — American Lobster 410

Man, J. G. de — New Penaeid 411

Lonnberg, E. — Cambarids from Florida 411

Ortmann, A. E. — Geographical Distribution of Hippidea 411

Kunstler, J., & A. Gruvel — Pharyngeal Glands of Hipperinae 412

Daday, E. v. — Striped Muscle in Ostracoda 412

Giesbrecht, W. — Red Sea Copepods 413

Lundberg, R. — Postembryonal Development of Daphnids 413

Marsh, C. D. — Cyclopidae and Calanidae of Michigan Lakes 414

Gruvel, A. — Anatomy of Tetraclita porosa 414

Beecher, C. E. — Respiration of Trilobites 414

Allen, E. J. — Nervous System of Crustacea 521

Bethe, A. — Abnormal Crab 521

Bouvier, E. L. — Classification and Distribution of Lithodinea 522

Chun, C. — Pelagic Schizopods 522

Schmeil, O. — Fresh-water Copepods of Germany 522

Steuer, A. — Male Gonads of Cyclops 523

Bassett-Smith, P. W. — Parasitic Copepoda of Fish from Plymouth 523

Gruvel, A. — Histology of Muscles of Cirripedia 523

Bigelow, M. A. — Early Development of Lepas fascicularis 523

Alcock, A. — Indian Crabs 623

Garstang, W. — Habits and Respiratory Mechanism of Corystes Cassivelaunus . . 623

Gorham, F. F. — Cleavage of Egg of Verbius zostericola 624

Man, J. G. de — Malayan Decapoda 625

Budde-Lund, G. — Terrestrial lsopods from Greece 625

Scourfield, D. J. — Entomostraca of North Wales 625

Brady, G. S. — Entomostraca of the Solway District 625

Schmeil, O. — Freshwater Copepods 625

Przibram, IIs.— Regeneration in Lower Crustacea 626

CONTENTS. XV

Annulata. page

Oka, Asajiro — Budding in Syllis ramosa 63

Fauvel, P. — French Ampharetinze * 64

Gilson, G. — Septal Organs of Owenia fusiformis 64

Buchanan, F. — Blood-forming Organs in Larva of Magelona 64

Beddard, F. E. — New Species of Earthworms 65

Vejdovsky, F. — Gonads of Lumbriculus variegatus 65

McKim, W. D. — Nephridial Funnel of Eirudo 65

Benham, W. B. — A new Earthworm — Kynotus cingulatus 187

Reeker, H. — Living Earthworm in Ice 187

Korschelt, E. — Maturation and Fertilisation in Ophryotrocha puerilis 188

Ude, H. — Notes on Enchytrzeidze and Lumbricidze 311

Erlanger, R. v. — Minute Structure of Testis in Earthworm 311

Eisen, G. — Pacific Coast Oligochzeta 311

Rosa, D. — Neotropical Earthworms 312

Sekera, E. — More Earthworms in Ice 312

Oka, Asajiro — New Japanese Land-Leeches 312

Joseph, de St. — Polychzeta of Dinard 342

Spencer, Baldwin — New Earthworms from Central Australia 415

Beddard, F. E. — New Earthworms 415

Lim Boon Keng — Ccelomic Fluid of the Earthworm 416

Bretscher, K. — Oligochzeta of Zurich 416

Stift, A. — Occurrence of Enchytraeida in Beetroot 416

Voinov, D. N. — Nephridia of Branchiobdella 417

Kowalevsky, Alex. — Biology of Leeches 417

Mensch, P. C. — Fate of the Parent Stock of Autolytus ornatus 524

Pereyaslawzewa, Sophie — Nerilla antennata 524

Goodrich, E. S. — Notes on Oligochzetes 525

Guerne, J. de, & R. Horst — Gigantic Earthworm from the Pyrenees 525

Bolsius, H. — Supra-cesophageal Gland of Ezementaria officinalis 525

Lewis, M. — Centrosome and Sphere in Nerve-Cells of an Invertebrate 626

Kyle, H. M. — Arenicola 626

Langdon, F. E. — Sense-Organs of Lumbricus agricola 627

Rosa, D. — Earthworms from Sumatra 627

Blanchard, R. — Leeches from Tojoland 627

Nematohelmintlies.

Man, J. G. de — Anguillulidze in Orchids 66

Spemann, Hs. — Development of Strongylus paradoxus 66

Romer, F. — New Gordiidze 66

Sabbatini, A. — Acanthocephala in Beptiles 66

Linstow, von — Echinorliynchus clavula 67

Zoja, R. — Independence of Paternal and Maternal Chromatin in Cleavage- Cells .. 67

Yung, E. — Strongylus retortzeformis in E ares 189

Ludwig, H., & Th. Saemisch — Filaria loa in the Euman Eye 189

Franca viglia, M. C. — Filaria labiata 189

Ziegler, H. E. — First Stages of Development in Nematodes 312

Railliet, A. — Parasitic Nematodes 313

Romer — Ascaris megalocephala as Cause of Death 417

Firket, Ch. — Filariosis in Negroes of the Congo 417

Zoja, R. — Development of Ascaris megalocephala 526

Schneider, J, G. — Nematode Embryos in the Skin of the Dog 526

Magalhaes, P. S. — Filaria Mansoni .. .. 526

Shipley, A. E. — New Acanthocephalid 527

Meyer, A. — New Singhalese Nematodes 627

Camerano, L. — New Gordiid 628

Platyhelmintlies.

Montgomery, T. H. — Stichostemma Eilhardi g. et sp. n 67

Beaumont, W. J. — Nemertines of Port Erin 67

Keller, J. — Turbellaria of Zurich 67

Vejdovsky, F. — Comparative Anatomy of Turbellarians 67

XVI CONTENTS.

FADE

Luhe, M. — South American Tasnise 08

Germanos, N. K. — New Cestode 68

Looss, A. — Bilharzia haematobia 68

Maccallum, W. G. — Notes on Trematodes of Fishes 69

Burger, O. — New Nemerteans 189

Stummer-Traunfels, R. von — The Genus Thysanozoon 189

Zernecke, E. — Histology of Cestoda 190

Fuhrman, O. — Taeniae of Amphibia 191

Stiles, C. W., & A. Hassall — Ctenotaenia denticulata 191

Sonsino, P. — Distomum Westermanni .. 191

Burger, O. — Monograph of Nemer tines 813

„ „ New Nemertines 316

Fuhrmann, O. — Taeniae of Birds 316

West, G. S. — New Species of Distomum 316

Garbini, A. — Nemerteans of the Lake of Garda 418

Burger, O. — South American Nemerteans 418

Montgomery, T. H. — Histology of Cerebratulus lacteus 418

Vejdovsky, F. — Neio Turbellarians 418

Meyner, R. — Two new Taeniae from Apes 419

Fuhrmann, O. — Bothriocephalus Zschokkei sp. n. 419

Lindemann, W. — Cysticerci in a Dog's Heart 419

Pintner, Th. — Morphology of Proboscis in Tetrarhynchi 419

Zschokke, F. — Parasitic Worms of Fresh-water Fish 420

Willey, A. — Polyclads of New Britain 527

Braun, M. — Parasites of Egypt 527

Sinizin, F. — Endoparasitic Worms from Birds near Warsaw 528

Roth, E. — Taeniae of Birds 528

Stiles, C. W. — Tapeworms of Poultry 528

Sluiter, C. Ph. — New Taenia 529

Sonsino, P. — Taenia flavo -punctata 529

Fuhrmann, O. — Bothriocephalus rectangulus Rud .. 529

Tower, W. L. — Nervous System of Cestodes 529

Cerfontaine, P. — Octocotylidae 530

Sekera, E. — Habitat Rich in Turbellaria 628

Lebedinsky, J. — Development of Drepanophorus 628

Shipley, A. E. — Epithelium of Tapeworms and Flukes 629

Luhe, M. — Nervous and Muscular Systems of Ligula 629

Braun, M. — Proliferating Cysticerci 630

Incertse Sedis.

Schimkewitsch, W. — Dinophilus 69

Hill, J. P. — New Enteropneuston 69

Prouho, H. — Reproduction of Myzostomata 70

Saint- Joseph, Baron de — Orthonectid in an Annelid 316

Masterman, A. T. — Anatomy of Actinotrocha 420

Wheeler, W. M. — Sexual Phases of Myzostoma 530

Rotatoria.

Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. — Male of Stephanoceros Eiclihorni 166

Sniezek, Johann — Species in Rotatoria 191

Stokes, A. C. — The Genus Apsilus and other American Rotifer a 269

Hood, J. — Rotifera of County Mayo 420

Stokes, A. C. — New American Rotifera 530

Hempel, A. — Rotifera of Hlinois River 530

Echinoderma.

Reinke, F. — Fertilisation and Cleavage of Echinoid Ova 70

Chun, C. — A Study of Auricularia 71

Kcehler, R. — Echinoderms of the Bay of Amboyna 72

Hartlaub, C. R. — Comatulidee of the ‘ Albatross 1 72

Chadwick, H. C. — Notes on Synapta 72

Cuenot, L. — Lacunar System of Starfishes 192

CONTENTS.

XV 11

Koenen, A. von — Development of Dadocrinus gracilis v. Buck and Holocrinus

Wagneri Ben. ••

Hammar, J. Aug. — Connection between Blasfomeres in the Egg of the Sea Urchin ..

MacBride, E. W. — Development of Asterina gibbosa

Bather, F. A. — Uintacrinus

„ „ Syzygy of Crinoids

Gerould, J. H. — Caudina arenata

Verrill, A. E. — New Starfishes and Ophiurans

Gregory, J. W. — New Genus of Liassic Echinoidea

Koehler, R. — Opliiurids of Recent Expeditions

Schiemenz, P. — How do Starfishes open Oysters

M ‘Bride, E. W. — Continuity of Mesenchyme- Cells in Echinoid Larva

Field, G. W. — Spermatozoa of Echinoderms

Vernon, H. M. — Development of Echinoderm Larva

Wilson, E. B. — Egg of Sea-Urchin

Monticelli, F. S. — Autotomy in Cucumaria planet

Clarke, H. L. — Viviparous Synapta of the 1 Vest Indies

Ccelentera.

Appellof, A. — New Hexactinian

Bourne, G. C. — Structure and Affinities of Heliopora cxrulea

Faurot, L — Studies on Sea- Anemones

Vanhoffen, E. — Araclmactis albida Sars

Chun, C. — Laws of Budding in Medusa

Browne, E. T. — Medusa of Liverpool Marine District

Vanhoffen, E. — Greenland Ctenophora

Iwanzoff, N. — Structure, Action, and Development of Nematocysts

Ruedemann, R — Structure of Diplograptus

Lindstrom, G. — The ‘ Corallia Baltica of Linnxus . . .

Ogilvie, Maria M. — Microscopic and Systematic Study of Madreporarian Types of

Corals

Schultze, L. — Classification of Antipathida

Bedot, M. — Siphonophora of Amboina

Hesse, R. — Nervous System of Rhizostoma

Hartlaub, Cl. — Stauridium productum and Perigonimus repens

Nutting, C. C. — Plymouth Hy droids

Bernard, H. M. — liritisli Museum Catalogue of Stony Corals

Koch, G. v. — Budding in Corals

Parker, G. II. — Reactions of Metridium to Food and other Substances

Campenhausen, B. von — Hydroids of Ternate

H ickson, S. J. — Classification of Alcyonaria

H ickson, S. J. — Nervous System of Ccelentera

Kwietniewskt, C. R. — Actiniaria of Ternate

Browne, E. T. — British Hydroids and Medusa

Murbach, L. — Life-History of Gononemus

Doflein, F. J. Th. — Oogenesis in Tubu/aria

Forifera.

Hanitsch, R. — Sponges from the West Coast of Portugal

Topsent, E. — Sponges of France ..

Allen, E. J., & G. Bidder — Growth of Sponges

Ijima, I. — New Hexactinellida

Schulze, F. E. — Uiplodal Sponge-Chambers

Breitfuss, L. — Northern Calcispongia

Protozoa.

Chapman, F. — Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone

Keuten, J — Nuclear Division of Euglena

Dervieux, E. — A peculiarly Abnormal Form of Cri stellar ia

Eauterborn, R. — New Protozoa '

Brandt, K.— Hydrostatic Apparatus of Radiolarians

l'AGE

192

317

421

422

422

423

423

531

531

630

631

631

632

633

634

631

72

73

75

75

76

76

77

192

193

194

317

317

3i8

318

318

319

424

425

425

425

531

634

635

635

636

636

77

194

319

425

636

636

1

77

78

194

194

Xviii CONTENTS.

PAGE

Mitrophanow, P. — Nuclear Division in Collozoum 11*5

Amicis, G. A. de — New Pliocene Foraminifera 195

Duclaux, E. — Evolution of the Corpuscles in Silkworm's Eggs 195

Piana, Gr. P., & B. Galli-Valerio — Endoglobular Parasites of Blood of Dog .. 196

Schurmayer, B. — Flagrtlata in the Intestinal Canal of Man 196

Ogata, M. — Sporozoa of Vaccine Lymph 196

Kasparek, Th. — Infection Experiments with Sarcosporidia 197

Sanfelice, F., & L. Loi — Bovine Hsematuria 197

Vedeler — Lipoma Profozoon 197

Sacharoff, N. — Mode of origin of the different varieties of the Malaria Parasites of

the Irregular or JEstivo- Autumnal Fever 197

Beyerinck, M. W. — Amcebx Cultivated on Solid Media 198

Shattock, S. G., & C. A. Ballance — Cultivation of Parasitic Protozoa from

Malignant Tumours , Ac 198

Brandt, K. — New Tintinnidse 319

Jennings, A. Vaughan — New Genus of Astrorliizidx 320

„ „ True Nature of “ Moebiusispongia parasitica ” .. .. 320

Rhumbler, L. — Shell-making in Rhizopods 320

Johnston-Lavis, H. J., & J. W. Gregory — Eozoonal Structure 321

Rauff, Hei mann — Reputed Organic Remains in the Pre-Cambrian Bocks of

Brittany 321

Vanhoffen, E. — 77te Genus Ceratium 426

Wallengrkn, Hs. — New Ciliata 426

Barrois — Bodo urinarius 426

Sand, R. — Freshwater Acinetw 426

Goes, Axel — Foraminifera of Voyage of 1 Albatross ’ 426

Sch audinn, F.— Synopsis of Ileliozoa 427

Karawaiew, W. — A New Radiolarian 427

Nemec, B. — Ectoparasites of Ligidium 427

Eisen, G. — Development of Sper mat obium 427

Blandford, W. F H. — Tsetse Fly Disease 428

Sacharoff, N. — Independent Movements of the Chromosomes of the Malaria Parasite 428

Smith, T. — Infectious Diseases among Turkeys 429

Casagrandi, O. G. V., & P. Bakbagallo-Rapisiardi — Biological and Clinical

Researches on Amoeb / Coli Losch 429

Hempel, A. — I'rotozoa of Illinois 532

Wallengren, Hs. — New Ciliata 532

Lagerheim. G. — Phwocyxtis 532

Cohn, L. — Myxosporidia of Pike and Perch 533

Lankester, E. Ray — Chlamydomyxa montana 533

Chapman, F. — Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone 581

Infusoria Aspirotricha 687

Lillie, F. R. — Regeneration of Stentor 637

Sciiaudinn, Fr. — Conjugation of Actinophrys sol 637

Leyden, E. von, & F. Sciiaudinn — Parasitic Rhizopod in Ascitic Fluid in Man . . 638

Chapman, F. — Webbina and Vitriwebbina 638

Schaudinn, Fr. — Life-History of Paramoeba eilhardi 639

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including- the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Strasburger — Karyokinetic Priblems .. .. 79

Wildemann, E. de — Attachment of Cell-Walls 79

Sachs, J. — Energids and Cells 199

Rosen, F. Nuclei and Nucleoles in Merismatic and Sporogenous Tissues .. .. 199

H eg ler— Mitosis and Fragmentation 200

Decagny, C.— Division of the Nucleus in Spirogyra 200

CONTENTS.

XIX

PAGE

Dixon, H. H. — Abnormal Nuclei in the Endosperm of Fritillaria imperialis .. 201

„ „ Nuclei of Lilium long i forum 201

H umphrey, J. E. — Constituents of the Cell 2<)1

Gilsox, E. — Chemical Composition of the Cell-wall 202

Zacharias, E. — Behaviour of the Nucleus in Growing Cells 322

Sargant, E. — Direct Nuclear Division in the Embryo-Sac of Lilium Martagon .. 322

Klemm, P. — Disorganisation- Phenomena of Cells 430

Schulze, E. — Cell- Wall of the Cotyhdons of Lupinus 430

Degaony, C. — Division of the Nucleus 535

Crato, E. — Elementary Organisms of the Cell 640

Sargant, E. — Formation of the Sexual Nuclei in Lilium Martagon 640

Cavara, F. — Hypertrophy of the Nucleus caused by a Parasite 641

Rosen, T. — Chromatophily of the Nucleus 641

(2) Other Cell-contents (including- Secretions).

Cooley, Gra< e E. — Reserve-Cellulose in the Seeds of Liliaceae 79

IDccarini, P. — Crystalloids in the Flowers of Leguminoste 80

Meyer, A.— Starch-Grains 80

Griffiths, W. — Starches 81

Guerin, P. — Localisation of Anagyrine and Cytisine 81

Lutz, L .—Formation of Gum in Acacia .. 81

Camusat — Silicon and Aluminium in Plants 81

Green, J. R. — Diastase in Leaves 202

O’Brien, M. — Proteids of Wheat 2<>2

Bertrand, G., & others — Pecta<e and Laccase in Plants 202

Lutz, L. — Active Principles of Senecio 202

Gerard. E — Choi esterins of Cryptogams 203

Proscher, F. — Myriophyllin 322

Bonnier, G., & others — Honeydew 322

Bertrand, G. — Tyrosinase , a new oxidis'ug Diastase 430

„ „ & A. Malevre — Pectase in Plants 430

Trees, M. — Hydrocyanic Acid in Pangium edule 431

Longo, B. — Mucilage of the Cactacere 431

Buscalionf, L. — Deposition of Calcium Oxalate 431

Czapkk, F. — Acid Excretion of Roots 4 >2

Coste, F. H. Perry — Acidity of Root-Sap 432

Sauvan, L — Localisation of Active Principles 5' 5

Kruch, O. — Crystalloids of Phytolacca 536

Rosenberg, O. — Winter- Starch 536

Wi igert, L. — Red Pigments of Plants 536

Henry, E. — Distribution of Tannin in Wood 536

Schulze, E., & S. Frankfurt — Distribution of Cane Sugar 537

Gonnermann, M. — Diastatic Ferment in Beet 537

Berg & Gerber — Organic Acids of Mesembryanthcmum 641

Czapek, F. — Acid Excretion of Roots 641

Wiitlin, J. — Pockets of Calcium oxalate 642

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Newcombe, F. C. — Regulatory Formation of Mechanical Tissue 82

Taliew, W. — Hygroscopic Tissue of the Pappus of Compos ite 82

Lutz, K. G. — Spring and Autumn Woo l 82

Ma'ule, C. — Course of the Fibres in Wounds 83

Ross, H. — Stem of Bromeliacese 83

Chauveaud, G. — Phloem- Bundles in the Root of Cyperaceae 83

Lu'iz, G. — -Obi to- Schizogenons Secretion-Receptacles of the Myrtaceae 203

Devaux, H. — Porosity of Woody Stems 203

Segerstedt, P. — Protecting Tissues of Shrubby Plants 323

Mer, E. — Formation of Duramen 323

Schenk, H. von — Aerenchyme .. .. 323

Rywosch, S. — Lacunae in the Tissue of Gymnosperms .. 323

Wiegand, K. M. — Intercellular Spaces in Embryos 323

Cavara, F. — I dioblasts of Camellia 324

Shattock, S. G. — Healing of Wounds 324

b 2

XX

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Rowlee, W. W., & M. A. Nichols — Life-History of Symplocarpus fcetidus .. .. 324

Rywosch, S. — Resin- Passages of Coniferse * 432

Pfitzeb, E., & A. Mayer — Anatomy of Artocarpus 432

Meyer, A. — Protoplasmic Connections between Parenchyme-Cells 537

Schellenberg, H. C. — Lignified Cell- Walls

G Wynne- Vaughan, D. T. — Polystely in Dicotyledons 537

Briquet, J. — Structure of Myoporacese and Allied Orders 537

Burgerstein, A. — Wood of Pomese

Hartig, R. — Red Wood of Pines

Potonie, H. — Secondary Growth in Thickness in Palms 642

Ikeno, S. — Canal-Cells in Cycas 643

Dassonville, Ch. — Action of Salts on Vegetable Tissues 643

(4) Structure of Org-ans.

M a close ie, G. — Antidromy 83

Wettstein, R. y. — Seasonal Dimorphism 83

Knoblauch, E. — Dimorphic Floivers in Gentianacese 84

Gibelli, G., & F. Ferrero — Flower and Fruit of Trapa 84

Coincy, A. de — Heterospermy of Mthionema 84

R aciborski, M. — Protection of Buds 84

Petit, L. — Distribution of Stomates 84

Goebel, K. — Morphology of Grasses 85

Figdor, W. — Tropical Saprophyte 85

Penzig, O. — Abnormal Structures in Orchids 85

Vuyck, L. — Flown s of Lemna 204

Wiesner, J. — AnisnphyUy 204

Macloskie, G. — Antidromy 204

Kohl, F. G. — Opening and Closing of Stomates 204

Haberlandt. G. — Hydathodes 204

Heinricher, E. — Haustoria of Lathrxa 205

Dixon, H. H. — Vegetative Organs of Vanda 205

Kirchner, O. — Root-Tubercles of the Soja-Bean 205

Ludwig, F. — Variation- Curves and Surfaces in Plants 205

Aresciioug. F. W. G. — Geophilous Plants 324

Russell, W. — Influence of the Mediterranean Climate on Plants 324

Kraus, G — Wat<r carrying Calyx 325

Burkill, J. H. — Variation in the Number of Stamens and Carpels 325

Malme, (J. O. A. — Achenes of Antln-midex 325

Humphrey, J. E. — Seed of Scitaminex 325

Groom, P. — Saprophytic Orchidex 325

Wiesner, J., & A. Weisse — Heterotrophy and Anisophylly 326

Goebel, K. — Dependence of the Form of the Leaf on the Intensity of the Light .. 326

Froembling, W. — Stem and Leaf of Euphorbiacex 326

Nestle r, A. — Leaves of Ranunculus and Hell ebor us 327

Mirabella, M. A. — Extraflond Nectaries of Ficus 327

Warburg, O. — Hairs of Myristicacex 327

Tieghem, P. Van — Characters of Arceuthobiacese 327

Wagner, R. — Morphology of Limnanthemum 327

Lignler, O. — Flower of Crucifer x and Fumariacex 433

Massalongo, O. — Dimorphism of Convolvulus 433

Walter, J. E. — Pollen- Grains 433

Holm, 'V. — Monopodial Ramification of Carex 433

Huth, E. — Heterocar 433

G relot, P. — Carpellary Venation 434

Schlickum, A .— Cotyledons of Monocotyledons 434

Gabelli, L. — Doubling of Leaves

Massart, A .—Morphology of Buds 43 1

Shull, G. H. — Accessory Buds

Borzi, A. — Ilydrophorous Apparatus in Xerophilous Plants 435

Brunotte, O. — Root of lmpatiens 435

Poulter, V. A. — Root of Myristica 435

Franke, M. — Morphology of the Stellatx 435

CONTENTS,

XXI

PAGE

Haacke, W. — Variation .. 538

Steinbrinck, C. — Mechanics of the Dehiscence of Anthers and Sporanges 538

Tubeuf, C. y. — Cones of Coniferse 538

Hochreutiner, (A.— Structure of Aquatic Plants 538

Wehmer, C. — Oak-leaved Hornbeam 538

Hochreutiner, G. — PhylPdes of Acacia 539

Zander, R. — Laticiferous Hairs of the Cichoriaceae 539

MacDougal, D. T. — Root-Tubers of Isopyrum 539

Rimpach, A. — Depth of the Underground Portion of Perennial Plants 539

Caruel, T. — Euthymorphosis 643

Lazniewski, W. v. — Structure of Alpine Plants 643

Lindemuth, H. — Production of Seed on Cut Inflorescences 644

Golenkin, M. — Inflorescence of Urticacese and Moraceae 644

Leger, L. J. — Vegetative Organs of Pa paveracese and Fumariaceae 644

Haberlandt, G.—Hydathodes 644

Kohl, F. G. — Opening and Closing of Stomates 645

Jahn, E. — Floating Leaves 645

Grob, A. — Epiderm of the Leaf of Grasses 645

Warming, E. — Leaves of Euphorbia buxifolia 645

Lindemuth, H. — Production of Bulbils by Lachenalia and Hyacinthus 645

Tubeuf, 0. von — Trichomes of Conifer ae 646

Hildebrand, F— Hairs on Tubers of Cyclamen 646

B. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Nawaschin, S.—Chalazogamy in the Walnut 85

Hegelmaier, F. — Development of the Embryo in Angiosperms 86

Andrews, F.M. — Embryo-sac of Jeffersonia 86

Tieghem, P. van — Acrogamous and, Basigamous Fertilisation 206

Klebs, G. — Physiology of Reproduction 206

Ewart, A. J. — Structure and Growth of the Pollen-Tube 206

Schilbersky, K., & C. E. Jeffrev — Polyembryony 207

Knuth, P., & others — Cross- Pollination and Self-Pollination 207

Eisen, G. — Caprijication of the Fig 208

Mobii s, M. — Sexual Reproduction in Plants 328

Hirase, Sakugrio — Fertilisation and Euibryogeny of Ginkgo biloba ( Salisburia ) .. 328

Ule, E., & others — Cross- Fertilisation and Self- Fertilisation 328

Schwere, S. — Embryology of Taraxacum 435

Schaffner, J. H. — Embryo- Sac of Alisma 436

Westermaieb, M. — Ovules of Angiosperms 436

Familler, J. — Abortive or Transformed Sexual Organs 437

Daveau, J. — Proterandry in a Palm 437

Lidforss, B. — Biology of Pollen 437

Molliard, M. — Formation of Pollen within Ovules 437

Robertson, O., & others — Cross -Pollination and Self-Pollination 540

Tieghem, P. van — Basigamy and Homoeogamy 646

Shaw, W. R — Embryogeny of Sequoia 617

Keeble. F. W — Fertilisation of Loranthaceae 647

Molliard, M. — Homology of the Pullen and Ovule 647

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Gsrmination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Pfeffer, W. — Elective Metabolism 87

Bonnier, G. — Effect of the Electric Light on Vegetation 87

Aloi. A. — Effect of Electricity on Vegetation 87

True, R. H. — Influence of Sudden Changes of Turgor and of Temperature on Growth 87

Kraus, G. — Growth in the Tropics 88

Cuboni, G. — Germination of Lodoicea Seychellarum 88

Dixon, H. H., & J. Joly — Path of the Transpiration Current 88

Golden, K. E. — Movement of Gases in Rhizomes 88

Burgerstein, A. — Vitality of Seeds 208

Wiesner, J. — Germination of Seeds of Loranthaceae 208

XXII

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Jonsson, B. — Growth of Orobanche 209

Filarsky, F. — Function of Antliocyan 209

Luiz, K. G. — Production , Transport , and Consumption of Reserve-Starch and Oil .. 209

Poljanec, L. — Transpiration of the Potato 209

Pfeiffer, T.f & others — Absorption of Free Nitrogen by Plants 209

Dew^vre, A. — Physiology of Drosopliyllnm 329

H iltnkb, L. — Physiology of Root-Tubercles of Alnus glutinosa 329

Kny, L. — Absorption of Water by Leafless Branches 330

Wakker, J. H. — Propagation of the Sugar-Cane 330

Schober, A. — Effect of the Rbntgen Rays on Germination 438

Wittmack, L. — Germination of the Cocoa-nut 438

Arthur, J. C. — Germination of Xanthium 438

Hering, F. — Correlation in the Growth of Different Organs 438

Mmx, A. — Protrophy 439

Kolkwitz, R. — Plasmolysis and Growth of Medullary Tissues 4: '9

Wiesner, J. — Amount of Light which is most favourable to the Growth of Plants .. 540

Thompson, S., & W. VV. Prendergast — Gain and Loss of Leaves 511

Jodin, V. — Latent Life of Seeds 541

Macloskie, G. — Antidromy 541

"Wiesner, J. — Paratonic Trophism 541

Askenasy, E. — Ascent of Sap 541

Darwin, F., & D. F. M. Pertz — Effect of Currents of Water on Assimilation.. . . 512

Farmer, J. B. — Respiration and Assimilation 542

Palladine, W. — Relation between Respiration and Nitrogenous Substances .. . . 542

Dixon, H. H. — Role of Osmose in Transpiration 542

Delpino, F. — Propagation by Buds 648

Keerle. F. W. — Germination of Lor ant kacese 648

Arcangeli, G. — Growth in Length of the Organs of Aquatic Plants 648

Honda, S. — Growth of Pine-Leaves 648

Maxwell, W. — Growth of Banana Leaves . 649

Stoklasa, J , & J. H. Aeby — Assimilation of Elementary Nitrogen and of Lecithin

by Plants 619

Ewart, A. J. — Arrest of Assimilation 649

Vines, S. H. — Suction-Force of Transpiring Branches 650

Krabbe, G. — Influence of Temperature on Osmose 650

Gain, E. — Influence of Climate and Soil on the Variation in Seeds 650

(3) Irritability.

Noll, F. — Mechanics of Curvature-Movements 89

MauDougal, D. T. — Transmission of Irritation in Mimosa 89

Watchel, M. — Geotropism of Roots 89

Czapek, F. — Plagiotropic Position of Lateral Roots 89

Noll, F. — Twining of Climbing Plants 210

Rotiiert, W. — Mechanism of Curvature in Plants 210

Kolkwitz, R. — Mechanics of Twining 330

Roze, E. — Opening of the Flowers of CEnothera 330

Debski, B. — Movements of the Leaves of the Marantaceae 439

Correns, C. — Irritability of Drosera 439

Correns, C., & D. T. MacDolgal — Physiology of Tendrils 542

Schilling, A. J. — Movements of Sensitive Leaves 543

Briquet, J. — Irritability of the Calyx and Stamens of Helianthemum polifolium .. 543

„ „ Effect of Light on the Geotropism of Stolons 543

Ewart, A. J. — Dialieliotropism 543

Macdougal, D. T. — Mechanism of the Curvature of Tendrils 650

Schwendener, S. — Motile Cushions of the Marantaceae 651

Cunningham, D. D. Turgor of Motor Organs 651

Czapek, F. — Geotropism and Pfeliotropism 651

Noll, F. — Sensitiveness of Plants 652

(4) Chemical Chang-es (including- Respiration and Fermentation).

Sablon, Leolerc du — Digesticn of Gelatinous Endosperm 89

Maquenne, L. — Accumulation of Sugar in the Beet root 210

CONTENTS.

XX1U

PAGE

Loew, O. — Formation and Assimilation of Asparagin 330

Groom, P. — Relation between Calcium and the Conduction of Carbohydrates . . .. 331

Lopriore, G. — Action of Carbon Dioxide on the Protoplasm of the Living Cell .. 439

Lutz, K. G. — Physiology of Woody Plants 440

Stahl, E. — Physiology of Coloured Leaves 543

Linz, F. — Physiology of Germination in Maize 544

Prianischnikoff, D. — Chemical Processes of Germination 544

Mangin, L. — Formation of Gum 544

Gruss, J. — Physiology of Germination 652

Poulet, V. — Vegetable Digestion 652

Puriewitsch. K. — Disappearance of the Contents from Reserve-Receptacles . . . . 652

Gruss, J. — Penetration of Diastase into Starch-Grains .. .. 653

Rode wald, E. — Swelling of Starch 653

y. General.

Squires, R. W. — Temperature of Trees 210

Dippel’s Microscope and its Application , Part II. 210

Molliard, M.— Galls 331

Mesnard, E. — Action of Light on the Disengagement of Perfumes 331

Hornell’s Microscopic <d Studies in Botany 440

Sherzer, W. K. — Mimicry of Pebbles by Beans 440

Atkinson, G. F. — Evolution of the Vegetative Phase of the Sporophyte 544

Kraus, G. — Heat of Flowers 545

Seward, A. C. — Fossil Monocotyledons 545

Sachs, J. — Architypes 653

Seward, A. C. — Fossil Gymnosperms of the Wealden 653

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Bower, F. O. — Archespore of Vascular Cryptogams 211

Atkinson, G. F. — Vegetative and Fertile Leaves of Onoclea 211

Gibson, R. J. Harvey — Ligule of Selaginella 331

Bower, F. O. — Sporophyte of the Ophioglossacex 331

Buebner, G. — Prothallium and Embryo of Danasa 332

Bower, F. O. — Sorus of Danxa 332

Jonkman, H. F. — Embryogeny of Angiopter is and Marraitia 440

Goebel, K. — Hecistopteris 441

Brebner, G. — Prothallium and Embryo of Danxa 545

Winterstein, E. — Cell- Wall of Vascular Cryptogams and Muscinex 654

Helm, C. — A pogamy in Ferns 654

Heinricher, E. — Bulbs of Cystopteris bulbifera 654

Vidal, L. — Pectic Substances in the Root of Equisetum 654

Muscineae.

Farmer, J. B. — Spore-Formation and Nuclear Division in the Hepaticx . . •• 90

Jack, J. B. — Pellia 91

G jokic, G. — Cell- Wall of Muscinex 211

Weiss, F. E. — Symbiosis in Tetraplodon 211

Britton, E. G.— Hybrid Moss 212

Rabenhorst's Cryptogamic Flora of Germany ( Musci ) 212

Correns, 0 — Gemmx of Mosses 332

Bescherelle, E —Calymperes 332

Campbell, D. H. — Geothallus , a new Genus of Hepaticx 441

Schiffner, V. — Wiesnerella , a new Genus of Marchantiacex 441

Jorgensen, E. — Jungermannia orcadensis 442

Philibert, H. — Peristome of Mosses 545

Muller, F. — Nanomitrium .. •• 651

M‘Fadden, Effie B. — Antherid of Targionia 655

Dixon, H. N., & H. G. J ameson — Dixons British Mosses 655

XXIV

CONTENTS.

Characeae. page

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany ( Characeae ) 212

Kaiser, O. — Suclear Division in the Characeae 442

Nandor, F. — Characeae of Hungary 442

Algae.

Murray, G.. & E. Grove — Calcareous Pebbles formed by Algse 91

De Toni’s Sylloge Algarnm ( Fucoideae ) 91

Smith, A. L., & F. G Whitting — Sori of Macrocystis and Postelsia 91

Kuckuck, P. — New Phaeosporeae 91

Sauvageau, C. — Ectocarpus 92

„ „ Plurilocular Sporanqes of Asperococcus 92

,, „ Badaisia, a new Genus of Myxopliycex 92

Chodat, R., & F. Huber — Hariotina 92

We^t, W., & G. S. — On some New and Interesting Freshwater Algae 149

Molisch, H. — Food-Materials of Algae 212

Kuckuck, P. — Swarmspores of Tdopterideae 212

I.agerheim, G. — Phy co porphyrin, a new Pigment of the Conjugatse 213

Jennings, A. V. — ■ Trentepohliaceae and Lichens 213

Church, A. H. — Thallus of Neomeris 213

Dill, E. O. — Chlamydomonas 213

Fochs. T. — Fossil Halimeda 214

Batters, E. A. L. — Sew Genera of Floridew 332

Davis, B. M. — Fertilisation of Batrachospermum 333

J ost, L. - Coleochaete 333

Mcebius, J. M. — Pithophora 334

CraMer, C. — Ualicoryne Wrightii 334

Sauyageau, C.-Cell- Wall of Algae 442

Buffham, T. H. — Antherids of Florideae 443

Schmitz, F. — Species of Florideae 443

Davis, B. M. — Cystocarp of Champia 443

Foslie, M. — Lithothamnion 443

Sauyageau, C. — Strepsithalia , a new Genus of Phaeosporeae 444

Hallas, E. — Production of Azygospores in Zygnema 444

Schmidle, W. — Chlamydomonas grandis and Kleinii 444

Penhallow. D. P. — Calcareous Pebbles formed by Algae 444

Klercker, j. af — Agnatic Forms of Stichococcus 444

Phillips, R. W. — Cystocarp of Rhodomelaceae 516

Darbishire, O. V. — Spencerella . a new Genus of Florideae 546

Brand, F. — Propagation of Lemanea 546

Joffe, R. — Fertilisation of Bangia 547

Sauvageau, C. — Ectocarpus 547

Borge, O. — Variability of Desmids 547

Jennings, A. V. — Pliycopeltis 547

France, R. — Carteria 518

Chodat, R. — Ccelastrum 548

Osterhout, W. J. Y. — Life-History of Bhabdonia 655

Smith, A. A. — Cystocarp of Griffithsia 655

Chester, G race D. — Development of Nemalion 656

Farmer, J. B., & J. Ll. Williams — Fertilisation and Segmentation of the Spore in

Fucus 656

Sauvageau, C. — Heterogamy in Ectocarpus 656

Fungi.

Dangeard, P. A. — Symbiosis among Fungi 92

Miyoshi, M. — Boring of Membranes by Fungi 92

Thaxter, R. — Monoblepharideae 93

Brefeld, O.—Ustilagineae 93

Nfger, F. W., & others — Parasitic Fungi 94

Wehmer, C. — Parasites of Cultivated Crops 94

Dieted, P. — TJredinopsis ., 95

Matruchot, T; - -Gliocladium 95

CONTENTS.

XXV

PAGE

Gluck, H. — Musk-Fungus 95

Funfstuck, M. — Secretion of Oil by Lichens 95

Darbishire, O. Y. — Dendrographa, a new Genus of Lichens 95

Stizenberger, E. — Stictei 95

Nielsen, J. C.— Development of the Spores of Saccharomyces 95

Ki jOCker, A. — Various Yeasts 96

Jorgensen. A. — Origin of Alcohol-Yeasts 96

Kellner, O. — Sake, Shoyu, and Miso- Making . . 96

Halsted, B. D. — Spores of Chalara .. 96

Poirault, G., & others — Nuclei of the TJredinex 97

Dangeard, P. A. —Sexual Reproduction in the Basidiomyretes 98

Moller, A. — f rotobasidiomycetes 98

Poberts, L. — Physiology of Trichophyton 99

Roncalt, D. B. — Blastomycetes in Sarcoma 99

„ „ & others — Pathogenic Blastomyretes 99

Harper, R. A. — Division of the Nucleus and Formation of the Spores in the Ascus

of Fungi 214

Istvanffi, G. — Cell-Nuclei of Fungi 214

„ „ Secretion- Receptacles of Fungi 214

Benecke, W. — Mineral Food- Materials of Fungi 215

Debray, J. — New Family of Cryptogamic Parasites 215

Marchal, E., & others — New Genera of Fungi 215

Trow, A. H. — Karyology of Saprolegnia 216

Brefeld, O. — Infection of Ustilaginese 217

Reinke, J. — Morphology of the Lichen-Thullus 217

Malme, G. O. — Injurious Symbiosis of Lichens 218

Thaxter, R., & G. Istvanffi — Lahoulbeniacex 218

Klocker, A., & H. Schlonning — Supposed Conversion of Aspergillus Oryzx into

Saccharomyces * 218

Eisenschitz, S. — Granules in Yeast-Cells 218

Swan, A. P. — Endosporous Red Yeast 219

Peglion, V. — Valpantena Wine Ferments 219

Fischer, E. — Coleosporium ... .. 220

Voglino, P. — Minute Structure of Clitocybe odora 220

Tokishige, H. — New Pathogenic Blastomycete 220

Gasperini, (4. — Actinomycosis 221

Istvanffi, G. von — Function of the Nucleus in Fungi 831

Puriewitsch, K. — Assimilation of Nitrogen by Fungi 334

Istvanffi, G. von — Secretion- Receptacles of Fungi 334

Nacmann, O. — Tannin of Fungi 335

Wager, H. — Fertilisation of Cystopus .. 335

Hartog, M. — Cytology of the Saprolegniacex 335

Ray, J., & P. \ uillemin — Mucor arid Trichoderma . . 335

Leger, M. — Zygosperm of Sporodinia 336

Thaxter, R. — Dispira .. .. 336

Brefeld, O. — Ustilaginex 336

,, „ Rust of Oryza and Setaria 337

Magnus, P. — Setchellia 337

Harper, R. A. — Division of the Nucleus and Formation of the Spores in the Ascus

of the Ascomycetes 338

Vuillemin, P., & others — Parasitic Fungi 338

Lesage, P. — Germination of the Spores of Penicillium glaucum 338

W ehmer, C. — Aspergillus Wentii sp. n 338

Sorel, E. — Aspergillus Oryzx 339

Harper, R. A. — Perithece of Sphxrotheca Castagnei 339

Matruchot, L. — Polymorphism of Cladobotryum 339

Schostakowitsch, W. — Cladosporium, Hormodendron, Fumago , and Dematium .. 339

Went, F. — Monascus purpureus sp. n , .. .. 310

Lindau, G. — Crustaceans Lichens 340

Giesenhagen, K. — Parasitic Exoascex 340

Fischer, E., & P. Lindner — Enzymes of Schizo-saccharomyces octosporus and

Saccharomyces Marxianus 341

Jorgensen, A. — Fungi which form a transition group between Moulds and Saccha-
romyces Yeast 341

XXVI

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Hansen; E. C. — Variation of Yeast Cells 341

Sappin-Trouffy — Fertilisation of the TJredineae 342

Dietel, P. — TJredineae with Repeated Formation of JEcidia 342

Ferry, R. — Fungus intermediate between Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes .. .. 343

Clautriau, G. — Glycogen in Fungi 445

Wehmek, C. — Value of Alkalies and Iron- Compounds for Fungi 445

Schilbersky, K. — Chrysophlyctis , a new Genus of Chytridiaceae 445

Maurizio, A. — Sporangial Rudiments in the Saprolegniaceae 445

Thaxter, R. — Blastocladia 446

Maurizio, A. — Culture of Saprolegniaceae 446

Dangeard, P. A. — Parasites of the Nucleus and of the Protoplasm 446

„ Reproduction in the Phycomycetes 447

Eaciborski, M. — Rasidiobolus 447

Vuillemin, P. — ffypostomaeeae, a new Family of Parasitic Fungi 447

Herzberg, P. — Usiilago Carho 448

Saccakdo, P. A., & O. Mattirolo — (Edomyces leproules 448

Richards, H. M. — Exobasidium 448

Morini, F. — Fructification of Lachnea 448

Jarius, M. — Parasitism and Saprophytism of Ascochyta Pisi 448

Rabenhorst’s Cryptngamic Flora of Germany ( Fungi ) 448

Renon, M. — Aspergi.lious Tuberculosis in Hair-Combers 449

Bay, J. C. — Is the Red Torula a genuine Saccharomyces ? 449

Marpmann, G. — Blue Yeast 449

Geerligs, Prinsen — Ang-khak, a Chinese Fungus Pigment for Colouring Edibles .. 449

Dietel, P. — New Genera of TJredineae 450

Pizzigoni & others — Parasitic Fungi 450

Morini. F. — Rhizophidium and Phycomyces 450

Roze, E. — Potato Scab and its Cause 451

Charrin — Oidium albicans as a Pathogenic Agent 45 L

Bourquelot, E., & G Bertrand — Oxidising Ferments of Fungi 548

Went, F. A. F. C. — Formation of Carbon bisulphide by Scliizophyllum lobatum .. 548

Wildeman, E. de — New Chytridiaceae 548

Mangin, L. — Structure of Peronosporeae 548

Clendenin, Ida, & E. de Wildeman — New Genera of Fungi 549

Nilsson, A., & others — Parasitic Fungi 549

Wehmer, C. — Potato Diseases 550

Sarauw, G. F. L. — Mycorhiza 550

Chodat, R., & A. Lendner — Mycorhiza of Listera cordata 550

Prillteux, E. — Rhizoctonia 550

Starback, K. — Discomycetes 551

Reinke, J. — Classification of Lichens 551

Schneider, A. — Phylogenetic Adaptations of Lichens 551

Vallot, J. — Rate of Growth of a Saxicolous Lichen .. 552

Setter, O. — Origin of Saccharomycetes 552

Rothenbach, F. — Scliizosaccharomyces Pombe 552

Sanfelice — Pathogenic Action of Blastomycetes 552

Yoglino, P. — Development of Siropharia 552

Griffiths, A. B. — Red Pigment of Amanita muscaria 553

Massee, G. — Coprinus 553

Patouillard, N. — Cyclomyces 553

Winterstein, E. — Cell- Wall of Fungi 656

Bourquelot, E., & G. Bertrand — Oxidising Ferment of Fungi 656

Benecke, W. — Importance of Potassium and Magnesium for the Growth of Fungi 657

Maurizio, A. — Saprolegniaceae, Ancylisteae, and Chytridiaceae 657

Thaxter. R. — Leptomitaceae 657

Wager, H. — Structure and Reproduction of Cystopus 657

Cunningham, D. D. — Choanephora 658

Seynes, J. de — Penicillium cupricum 658

Zukal, H. — Morphology and Biology of Lichens 658

Zopf, W. — Function of Lichen- Acids 659

Gluck, H. — New Coenogonium 659

Curtis, F. — Human Saccharomycosis 659

Schukow, I. — Fermentation Experiments with Different Yeasts 660

CONTENTS.

XXV11

PAGE

Seiffert, H.— Importance of Lime to Yeast Cultures and in Brewing 660

Lindner, P. — Blue-Staining of Spores of Saccharomyces octosporus by Iodine .. 660

Effkont, J. — Lactic Acid Barm 660

Cunningham, E). D., & D. Prain — Indian Wheat Busts 661

Eriksson, J. — Peridermium and Cronartium 661

Kre.mer, J. — Presence of Mould-Fungi in Syphilis, Carcinoma , and Sarcoma .. 661

Burt, E. A. — Development of Mutinus 661

Protophyta.
a. Schizophycese.

Chodat, R. — Kirchneriella 100

Borzi, A. — Conjugation in the Nostochinex 100

Hauptfleisch, P. — Movement, of Diatoms 100

Klebahx, H. — Behaviour of the Cell-nucleus in the Formation of the Auxospores of

Epitliemia 221

Comber, T. — Cleve’s Synopsis of the Naviculoid Diatoms 368

Schilbersky, K., & O. Muller —Movements of Diatoms 451

Castracane, F. — Sporulation of Diatoms 452

Muller, O. — Rhopalodia, a new Genus of Diatoms 452

Cleve, P. T. — Naviculoid Diatoms 453

Comber, T. - On the Occurrence o f Endocysts in the Genus Thalassiosira 489

Cox, C. F. — Recent Advances in the Determination of Diatom ' tructure 553

Ahlborn, F — Aphanizomenon flos-aqux 551

Klebahn, H. — Flos- Aquas 662

Karsten, G. — Conjugation of Diatoms 662

Debt, J. — Surirella 662

Butschli, O. — Structure of Cyanophyceas and Bacteria 6b2

B. Schizomycetes.

Prillieux, E.. & others — Bacillar Disease of Vines 100

Rodet, A. — Morphological and Physiological Variability of Microbes 101

G ruber, Th. — Species of Sarcina 102

Dieudonne — Bactericidal Influence of Hydrogen peroxide 104

Marchal, E. — Production of Ammonia in the Soil by Microbes 104

Rumpel, Th. — Luminosity of Cholera Bacilli 105

Kutscher — Phosphorescence of Elbe Vibrios 105

Young, J. B. — Bacteriological and Chemical Examination of Graveyard Soil .. .. 105

Burri, R., & A. Si’Utzer —New Nitrate-forming Bacillus 105

Gerstner, R. — New essentially Anaerobic Bacteria 105

Gosio— Decomposition of Saccharated Media by Vibrio Choleras asiaticas .. .. 106

Losener — Typhoid-like Bacilli and the Diagnosis of the Bacillus Typhosus .. .. 106

d’Espine, Ad. — Streptococcus of Scarlatina 107

Unna — Streptobacillus Ulceris Mollis 107

Kamen, L. — Cholera Notes 107

Bujwid, O. — Anthrax in a Fox 108

Schurmayer — Bacillus pyocyaneus and its Functions 108

Dallemagne, J. — Bacterial Flora of the Intestinal Tract 108

Blumenthal, F. — Influence of Alkali on Microbic Metabolism 108

Grimbert, L. — Fermentations excited by the Pneumobacillus of Friedlaender . . 109

Achard, Ch , & E. Phulpin — Invasion of the Body by Intestinal Bacteria .. .. 109

Foote, C. J. — Oysters and Enteric Fever 110

Reh>, F. J. — Fluorescent Bacillus 110

Hibler, E. v. — Constant Occurrence of Bacteria in Cells 221

Du Cazal & Catrin — Contagion from Books 222

Esmarch, yon — Sun Disinfection * 223

Duglaux — N on-Bacterial Nutrition 223

Renault, B., & C. E. Bertrand — Coprophilous Bacteria of the Permian Epoch .. 223

Bolley, H. L., & C. M. Hall — Cheese-Curd Inflation 224

Freudenreich, E. von — Bacteria of Cheese Ripening 224

Aoyama, T.— Microbes of the Plague 224

XXV111

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Beclere, A., Chambon, & Menard — Immunising Power of the Serum of the

Vaccinated Heifer 225

Beyerinck, M. W. — Spirillum desulfuricans 225

Sterling, S .— Micrococcus tetragenus citreus 226

Clement, A. — Metastatic Anthrax in Man 226

Winogradsky, S. — Microbe of Flax Retting 226

Zangkmeister, W. — Bacillus ctjaneo-fluorescens 227

Brandt, C. — Bacteria of the Conjunctiva and Eyelid 227

Grimbert, L. — P neumob icillus of Friedlander 227

Lemoine, G H — Streptococcus and non- Diphtheritic Angina 227

Winkler, W. — Character and Variability of Species of Tyrothrix Duelaux .. .. 228

Loeffler. F., & R. Abel — Specific Propedies of the Protective Bodies in the

Blood of Animals immune to Typhoid and Culi Bacteria 228

Glaser, F. — Bacterium gelutinosum betse 229

Marchoux, E. — Anti-Anthrax Serum 230

M armorer, A. — Antistreptococcous Serum 230

Johanessen, Axel — Effect of Inje iion of Solutions of Common Salt and of Anti-

Diphtheritic Serum 230

Huepfe, F. — Introduction to Bacteriology 231

Wager, H. — Structure of Bacterial Cells 343

Dyar, H. G. — Variations in the Biological Characters of Bacteria 343

Ward, H M. — Bacterial Variation 343

Renault, F. B. — Fossil Bacteria 314

Stutzer — Root-Tubercle Bacteria of Leguminosas 314

Ward, H. M. — False Bacterium 314

Piccoli, E. — Spore-formation of Bacterium coli commune 315

Pammel, L. H. — Neiv Pathogenic Bacillus 315

Vaillard, L. — Heredity of Acquired Immunity 345

Kullmann — Clad othrix odorif era * .. .. 345

Jorge, R. — New Water Vibrio 316

Petrcschky, J. — Bacillus fxcalis alcaligenes sp. 346

Ermengem, E. yan — Bacillus botulinus 316

Cheinisse — Role of Fever in Infectious Disease 346

Wiener, E. — Vibrio Infection per os of Young Cats 347

Hankin — Microbes of the Indian Rivers 347

Biel, W. — Black- Fig ment-forming Bacillus 347

Holst, Axel — Retention of Virulence by Streptococci 347

Ratz, St. yon — Anthrax in Swine 348

Stutzer, A., & others —Acid- Litter for Infectious Diseases of Cattle 318

Cambier, R. — Resistance of Bacterial Germs to Dry Heat 348

Piorkowski — Immigration of Typhoid Bacilli into Hens' Eggs 348

Calabrese, Al. — Strong Natural Virus of Rabies 348

Bordet, J. — Phagocytosis, Chimiotaxis , and Eosinophilous Microbes 319

Fraenkel, S. — Thyroanti toxin 349

Lowit, M. — Morphology of Bacteria 453

Roger, H. — Action of High Pressure on Certain Bacteria 453

Lortet, L. — Influence of Induced Currents on the Orientation of Bacteria .. .. 451

Kedrowski, W. — Conditions under which Anaerobic Bacteria can exist even in

Presence of Oxygen 451

Zopf, W. — Coccus- Condition of Beggiatoa ” •• 455

Roze, E. — New Pathogenous Micrococci 455

Behrens, H. — Mucogenous Bacteria 455

Karlinski — Bacteria of Hot Springs 456

Dyar, H. G. — Bacteria from the Air of New York 456

Durham, H. E. — Special Action of Serum of Highly Immunised Animals .. .. 456

Gilbert, A., & L. Fournier — Formation of Gallstones by Bacteria 457

Burri, R.. & A. Stutzer — Nitrification in the Soil 457

Gerard, E. — Fermentation of Uric Acid by Microbes 457

Pfeiffer — New Theory of Immunity 458

Fermi, C-, & A. Salto — Immunity to Cholera 458

Schirokikh, J. — Saltpetre-decomposing Bacillus 458

Peters, E. A. — Varieties of Diphtheria ■ Bacilli 458

Horn, H. — Malignant (Edema in the Cow 459

CONTENTS.

XXIX

page

Salomon, H. — Spirillum, found in Stomach of certain Mammals 459

Pfeiffer, R., & B. Kroskauer — Nature of the Specific Effective Substances in

Cholera-Serum 459

Cathelineau, H. — Bacillus viridis 459

Denys, J., & H. van De Velde — Antileucocidine 460

Smith, Th. — Bacillus coli communis and Related Forms 460

Klecki, Val. von — Ripening Process of Cheese .. 461

Sternberg, G. M— Researches Relating to the Specific Agent of Small-Fox , and the

Production of Artificial Immunity from that Disease 461

Moore, V. A. — Character of Flagella 461

Contagious Diseases of Animals 462

Simpson, W. J. — Microbe of Rinderpest 462

Nencki — Micro-Organisms and Digestion 462

Bernabeo — Franhel's Pneumococcus 462

Berton, F.— Action of the liontgen Rays on Bacilli 554

Brown, H. T., & G. H. Morris — Bacterial Infection by Air-sown Organisms .. .. 554

Frankland, G. C. — Bacteria and Carbonated Waters 554

Renault, B. — Fossil Bacteria 555

Arthur, J. C., & H. L. Bolley — Bacterions of Carnations 555

Brown, A. J. — Bacillus suhtilis 555

Bruni, C. — Osteomyelitis caused by the Bacillus of Typhoid Fever 555

Ruhr — Abnormal Types of Coli Bacilli 556

Brunner, C. — Staphylococcus pyaemia after Chicken-Pox 556

Galli-Valerio, B. — Microbe of Distemper 556

Hamburger, H. J.. & J. A. Klauwers — Streptococcus peritonitidis equi 556

Kornauth, K — Behaviour of Pathogenic Bacteria in Living Vegetable Tissue .. 557

Stephens, J. W. W., & R. F. W. Smith— Vbrio tonsillaris 557

Freudenreich, E. von — Identity of Clostridium foetidum lactis and Bacillus

eedematis rnaligni 558

Klecki. V. von — Bacillus sacclarobutyricus 558

Leichmann, G. — Bacillus Delbruecki 558

Marpmann, G. — Cheese Flora 559

Lerioine — Variability in the Form and Characters of Streptococci Cultures .. .. 559

1 )unbar — Differential Diagnosis between Cholera and other Vibrios 559

Wiener, E — Vibrio Infection per os in young Rabbits 559

Neisser, INI — Penetrability of the Intestinal Wall to Bacteria 663

Sc hreibek, O. — Physiological Conditions of Spore-formation in Aerobic Bacteria .. 663

Caiiano, L. — Two Filament- forming Bacilli 663

Winogradsky, S. — Microbiology of Nitrification 664

Stutzer, A., & R. Maul — Inhibitory Action of Air on Nitrate-destroying Bacteria 664
With in, .1 — Alleged Conversion of the 7 yrothrix tenuis Duclaux into a Lactic Acid

Bacterium 665

Kanthack, A. A. — Branched Diphtheria Bacilli 665

Golowkow, A. — Vitality of Diptheria Bacilli on Textile Fabrics 665

„ Penetration of Cholera Vibrios into Hens’ Eggs 665

Hankin, H. — Bactericidal Action of the Waters of the Jumna and the Ganges on the

Cholera Vibrio 665

Wolf, S. — Action of Metabolic Products of Staphylococcus and Pneumococcus .. 665

Blaxall, F. R. & others — Bacillus of Rheumatoid Arthritis 666

Remlinger & Schneider — Presence of Typhoid Bacilli in Water, Earth, and Faeces

of Persons unaffected with Typhoid Fever 666

Capman — Antistaphylococcus Serum 667

Grethe — Bacillus Smegmatis and Tubercle Bacillus 667

Lannois — The Middle Ear and Microbes 667

MacFadyen, Allan — Bacteriology of Infantile Diarrhoea 667

Liakhovetsky — Phagocytosis and Immunity 668

Pfeiffer, R., & W. Kolle — Specif c Immunity Reaction of Cholera Vibrios in the

Animal Body and in vitro 668

Karlinski, J. — Vibrio Infection of Young Animals per os 668

Schutz, H. — Disinfecting Power of Kresol and Metakresol 668

Saul & Hofmeister — Catgut Disinfection .. .. 669

Lamson, H H. — Spraying Experiments 6l9

XXX

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Klie, J. — Relative Growth of Bacterium typhi abdominalis and B coli commune in

Gelatin Media 6(59

Kister, J. — Meningococcus intracellularis 669

IVIigula, W . — Capsules of Bacteria 670

Leedham-Green, C. — Disinfection of the. Hands 670

Crookshank, E. M. — Text-Book of Bacteriology 671

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.

(I-) Stands.

Hildebrand, H. E. — Practical Remarks on Microscope Construction (Figs. 1-7) .. Ill

Zeiss’ Hand-Microscope ( Kig. 8) 114

„ Stand IX. (Fig. 9) .. 114

Beck’s Large “ Continental Model ” Microscopes (Figs. 10 and 11) 116

Nelson, E. M. — Swift's Portable Microscopes 135

Leiss, C. — Microscopes and their most important Accessories for Crystallographic

and Petrograpliical Investigations (Kigs. 27-43) 232

B eh kens, W. — Meyer s Microscope Stage w th Iris- Diaphragm 350

Nelson, E. M. — New Portable Microscope (Fig. 60) 351

„ „ Ross' Portable Microscope 368

Wilpeman, E. de — Leitz's Microscopes 463

Tatham, J. — Use of Ordinary Binocular for Dissecting 463

New Microscope . . 560

Barnes, C. R. — Horizontal Microscope 673

(2j Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Zeiss’ Apochromatics (Fig. 12) 118

„ Screw Micrometer Eye-piece (Fig. 13) 119

„ Eye-piece for Observing Axial Images (Fig. 14) 119

Czapski’s Ocular Iris- Diaphragm with Dye-piece (Via;. 15) 120

Fremont, C. — Microscope for Opaque objects (Fig. 16) 120

Ouford, H. — A Modern Microscopic Objective 241

Abbe’s Spectroscopic. Eye-piece (Figs. 4 l and 45) 241

Francotte, P. — Determination of the Vocal length of Obje tives 242

Zacharias, O. — Eye-piece with Iris Diaphragm 212

Schiemenz, P. — Leitz new Drawing Eye-pieces (Figs. 61-65) 351

Beck, C. — The Royal Microscopical Society Standard Screw-Thread for Nose-piece

and Object- Glasses of Microscopes 389

Cowl, W. — Eye-Piece with Graduated Iris-Diaphragm (Fig. 84) 5*10

Goekzs New Double Objective (Figs. 85-87).. 560

Kuznitzky, M. — Demonstration Eye-pvce (Fig. 91) 673

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus-

Zeiss’ Vertical illuminator ( Fig. 17) 121

,, New Lens-holder (Figs. 18-20) 122

Van Dyck, F. O. — Micropolariscope for Projection (Fig. 21) 1'3

New Case for Microscopical Preparations (Kig. 22) 124

Seiffert —New Clip for holding Cover-glasses (Fig. 23) 125

Siiimer, P. W. — Microscopic Filter (Figs 24 and 25) 125

Kaiser, W. — Apparatus for Electrolysis under the Microscope (Figs. 46-48) .. .. 243

Love, E. G. — Micrometry (Fig. 49) 215

Zeiss’ Stage Screw Micrometer (Fig. 50) 246

Abbe’s Apertometer (Fig. 51) 247

Hartnack’s Illuminating Apparatus for Monochromatic Light (Fig. 52) .. .. 217

Behrens, VV. — Microscope-Stage with Iris-Diaphragm .. .. 243

Haas, K.— Apparatus for Demonstrating the Effect of Lenses (Fig. 66) 353

Nelson, E. M. — New form of Double Bull's-Eye Condenser 365

CONTENTS.

XXXI

PAGE

Weinschenk, E. — Method for the exact Adjustment of the Nicol Prisms 463

Nelson, E. M.— Optical Pule 464

Pulfrich Refractometer (Figs. 76-80) 464

Klein, 0. — Universal Apparatus for the Investigation of Thin Slices in Liquids

(Figs. 81 and 82) 467

Melntkow-Raswedenkow, M. — Regulating d’Arsonvdl’s Thermostat 468

New Thermometer for Regulating the Temperature of Paraffin Baths, Ac 562

Betting, C. — New Rotating Disc for the Preparation of Lacquer Rings (Fig. 88) 562

Box for Colouring-Reagents 563

Simple Thermosiat for Microscopes of Different Construction 563

Karawaiew, W. — New Thermostat heated without the use of Gas (Figs. 95-99) .. 674

Heidenhain, M. — Object-holder of Aluminium for Observation of Objects on both

sides (Fig. 100) 677

Wessel, D. C. — New Cover-Glass Clip 678

Kaiser, O. — Simple Arrangement for Draicin'g Microscopic Preparations under very

low Magnifications Fig. 101) 678

Siddons, H. G. F. — New Form of Dissecting-Stand and Lens-Carrier (Fig. 102) .. 679

(4) Photomicrography.

Walmsley, W. H. — Some New Points in Photomicrography 126

Marktanner-'L'urneretscher, G. — Advances in Photomicrography 126

Hunter, J — New Method of Illumination for Photomicrography 248

Forgan, W. — Method of Photographing Large Microscopic Sections 249

Heurck, H. van — Acetylene and Photomicrography (Fig. 67) 353

Fox, C. F. — Walmsley s “ Autograph ” Camera, and Walmsley, FuJler, & Co.’s

Acetylene Gas Generator 354

Leaming, E. — Photographic Technique of Wilson’s Atlas 468

Goedicke, J. — Optical Works of C. P. Goerz in Schoneberg, Berlin 563

Borden, W. C — Practical Photomicrography 563

Czaplewski, E. — New Photomicrographic Apparatus 680

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Stokes. A. C. — Collar-Adjustment of the Objective as affected by a Change of Eye-
pieces 127

Czapski — Rheinberg's Colour Contrast Method 369

Rheinberg, G. — On an Addition to the Methods of Microscopical Research by a New
Way of Optically Producing Colour- Contrast between an Object and its Back-
ground, or between Definite Parts of the Object itself 373

Ambronn, H. — Appearances of Colour on the Boundaries of Colourless Objects under

the. Microscope (Fig. S3) 468

Nelson, E. M. — Tests for Microscope Objectives 681

Rayleigh — On the Theory of Optical Images with special reference to the Microscope

(6) Miscellaneous.

Modern Microscopy 127

Ferenczy, Max — Optics and Mechanics at the North German Commercial and

Industrial Exhibition at Lvbeck, 1895 127

Nelson, E. M. — Stanley’ s Optical Rule 135

Dolley, C. S. — The Planktonikrit , a Centrifugal Apparatus for the Volumetric

Estimation of the Food Supply of Oysters and other Aquatic Animals .. .. 470

Kuhlman, C. G. — The Microscope as a Gwde in Medicine 470

White, M. O. — Red Blood- Corpuscles in Legal Medicine 471

History of the Microscope 471

The late Mr. Slack 472

Cunningham, K. M. — Arc- Light Dust as an effective Abrasive Material 564

Davis, E. — Presidential Address 564

Brauns, R. — Microchemical Reaction for Nitric Acid 687

Behrens, H. — Sublimation and the Determination of Melting-points in Micro-
chemical Investigations (Fig. 107) 687

The late Mr. F. C. S. Roper 688

XXXII

CONTENTS.

/?. Technique.

PAGE

Marpmann, G. — Methods of Examining and Staining Living and Dead Cells and

Tissues 473

Lee, A. B. — MicrotomisVs Vade-mecum 504

Czaplewski — Hints on Bacteriological Technique 680

Apathy, S. — Microtechnique of Animal Morphology 690

Cl) Collecting- Objects, including- Culture Processes.

Pfaffenholz — Improvement in the Hate-Cultivation Method 128

Smith, Th. — Demonstrating the Presence of Bacillus coli communis in Water . . . . 128

Dawson, C. F. — Method for Hermetically Sealing Cultures of Bacteria 128

Steffen, W. — Sputum as a Nutrient Medium for Bacteria 129

Sleen, van der — Qualitative Bacteriological*'- Examination of Water 129

Bolton, Meade — Bactericidal Action of Metals 129

Dungern, v. — Increasing the Toxin Production of the Diphtheria Bacillus .. .. 249

Tochtermann — Cultivation Medium for Diphtheria Bacillus 249

Ohlmacher, A.P. — Improvements in the Technique of the Diphtheria Culture Test 249

Spronck, C. H. H. — Method for Preparing very active Diphtheria Toxin . . . . 250

Pfaffenholz — Platinum Wire Brush for Inoculating Culture Media with Diph-
therial Matter 250

Amann, J. — Cultivation Medium for Diphtheria Bacilli 250

Abba, F. — Demonstrating the Presence of Bacillus Coli in Water 250

Sedgwick & Preston — Influence of Variations in Composition of Gelatin on Develop-
ment of Water Bacteria 251

Will, H. — Demonstrating Wild Yeasts in Trade Yeasts and new Beer 251

Beyerinck, M. W. — Cultivation Medium for Nitrate Ferment 251

Couton & Gasser - Cold Sterilising Bougie Filters and other Apparatus . . . . 252

Kretz, R. — Apparatus for removing definite Quantities of Fluid Cultivation Media

(Fig. 53) 252

Nuttall, G. H. F. — Simple Thermostat applicable to any Microscope (Figs. 54

and 55) 253

Bujwid, O. — Filtering Fluid containing Bacteria 254

Kanthack, A A , & J. W. Stephens — Easy Method of Preparing Serum Agar . . 255

Mercer, A. C. — Improved Solid Watch-Glass (Figs. 56 and 57) 255

Sorby, H. C. — Methods for Collecting and Estimating the Number of Small Animals

in Sea- Water .. 256

Cort, C. J. — Use of Centrifuged Machine* in Zoologic d Technique (Figs. 68 and 69) 354

Fairchild, W. G. — Perforated Porcelain Cylinder as Washing Apparatus (Fig. 70) 355

Hammer — Cultivating Gonococcus .. 355

Zeltnow — Cidtivating Spirillum Undula majus 355

Celli, A. — Cultivation of Amoebae on Solid Media 356

Schardinger, F. — Cultivating Protozoa on Solid. Media 356

Elsner — Diagnostic Media for Coli and Typhoid Bacteria 357

Pfeiffer, R., & Vagkdes— Diagnosis of Clxlera by means of Cholera Aidi-Bodies 357

Noetzel, W. — Demonstrating Capsules of Micro-Organisms 357

Gilbert & Fournier — Cultures of Pneumococcus on Blood 473

Gorini, C. — Cultivation of Amoebae on Solid Media 473

Tochtermann — Blood Serum- Agar Medium for Diphtheria 473

Zia — Bacteriological Examination of old Cholera Cultures 473

Morax, V. — Cultivation of the Diplobacillns of Conjunctivitis 474

Gorini, C. — Bacteriological Diagnosis of Glanders 474

Wittlin, J. — Bacteriological Examination of Water by Pari etti's Method .. .. 474

Piorkowski — Urinous Substrata for Differentiating Bacillus coli communis and

Bacillus typhi abdrrminalis 475

Hopkins, G. M. — Simple Apparatus for Gathering Microscopic Objects 475

Migula — Apparatus for Cultivating Anaerobes 565

Marpmann — Agar Media for Bacteriological Cultures 565

Conn, H. W. — Delation of Pure Cultures to the Acid, Flavour, and Aroma of Butter 566

Nicholas, J — Influence of Glucose on Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus 566

Pfeiffer, R., & Nolle — Diagnosis of Typhoid Bacilli by means of Serum of Animals

Immunised to Typhoid 566

CONTENTS.

XXXlll

PAGE

G rcber, M.t & H. E. Durham — Method for Rapid Recognition of the Cholera Vibrio

and the Typhoid Bacillus 567

Kempner, W. — TochtermanrC s Medium for Diagnosis of Diphtheria 567

Pfuhl, A., & Walter — Presence of Influenza Bacilli in the Central Nervous System 567

Kowalevsky, O. — Relations between Chimiotaxis and Leucocytosis 56S

Cutter, E. — Bifurcated Double-Ended Crystal from Asthmatic Sputum 568

Cunningham, K. M. — New Analytical Process for the Study of Diatomaceous and

other Clayey Deposits 568

Ijima — Long Lines as Zoological Collecting Apparatus 569

New Steriliser 570

Barthel, G. — Formic Aldehyde Lamp for Disinfecting Purposes 570

Fuller, G. — Proper Reaction of Nutrient Media for Bacterial Cultivation .. .. 690

Gossage, A. M., & A. A. Kanthack — Influence of Glycerin in Culture Media on

Diphtheria Bacillus 691

(2) Preparing- Objects.

Hill, M. D. — Investigation of Ova 130

De Bruyne, C. — Investigation of the Attractive Sphere 130

Maccallum, A. B. — Investigation of the Presence of Iron Compounds in Animal

and Vegetable Cells 130

Matschinsky, M. — Preparing Bone Sections 131

Moore, J. E. S. — Study of Reproductive Cells of Elasmobranchs 131

Clubb, J. A. — Investigation of Cerata of Dendronotus 131

Macuallum, W. G. — Preparing Flukes for Investigation 131

Baciborski, M. — Preparation of Flower Bads 132

Kingsbury, B. F. — Examining Spermatheca in Newts and Salamanders 256

Plimmer, H. G. — Microscopical Diagnosis of Uterine Growths 256

Plate, Ludwig H. — Collection and Preservation of Zoological Specimens .. .. 257

Zernecke, E. — Investigation of Minute Structure of Cestodes 257

Dietel — Simple Method for Demonstrating the Germinal Pore in the Spore Mem-
brane of Rust Fungi . . 257

Rosen, G. — Fixing-Material for Meristem 258

Gerard, E. — Test for Cholesterins 258

Morsy — Microscopical Examination of Meat for Tubercle Bacilli 258

Conser, H. N. — Cocain in the Study of Pond Life 258

Hansemann, D. — Demonstration of the Pores of the Pulmonary Alveoli 358

Zimmermann, A. — Demonstrating Structure and Composition of Cell-Nucleus .. 358

Dogiel, A. S. — Structure of Retina 359

Cheney, L. S. — Demonstration of Leucoplasts 359

Wilson — Preparation of Eggs of Toxopneustes variegatus 475

Owsjannikow, P. — Stu ty of Blood -Corpuscles 476

Gerould, J. H. — Investigation of Cauaina arenata 476

Rindfleisch, V. — Demonstrating Tubercle Bacilli in Sputum 476

Hacke, E. — Demonstrating Tubercle Bacilli in Human Sputum 476

Fujita, J. — Method of Preparing Molluscan Eggs 570

Foot, K. — Examination of Polar Rings of Earthworms 570

Eisen, G. — Preparation of Specimens of Spermatobium 571

Tower, W. L. — Preparation of Nervous Sydem of Cestodes 571

Marchesini, R. — Method for Demonstrating Axis-Cylinders of Nerve-Fibres .. .. 571

Lewis, M. — Preparation of Nerve-Cells 572

Patten, W. — Preparation of Embryos of Limulus Polyphemus 691

Langdon, F. E. — Examination of the Sense-Organs of Lumbricus .. 691

Field, G. W. — Examination of the Spermatozoa of Echinoderms 692

Messing, C. — Spermatogenesis 693

Thilo, O. — Dilute Sulphuric Acid in Preparing Fish Skeletons 693

Weigert, C. — Demonstrating the Structure of the Human Neuroglia 693

Manson, P. — Rapid and Convenient Method of Preparing Malarial Blood-Films .. 694

Schmidt, A. — Examination of Sputum in Sections 694

Gantter, F. — Negative Test for Blood-Spots 695

(3) Cutting-, including- Imbedding and Microtomes.

Ryder, J. A. — Automatic Microtome (Fig. 26) 132

Mitrofhanow, P. — Phttoxylin 259

C

XXXIV

CONTENTS.

PAG*

Y edeler — Preparing IJpoma Tissue 259

Frazer, A. — Frazer's Sliding Microtome 259

Cheatle, G. L. — Apparatus for Dehydrating Tissues 266

Starlinger, .T — Improvement to the lleichert Microtome (Fig. 72) 359

Lee, A. B. — Watch-Glass Imbedding Method 359

Nowak, J. — Apparatus for Stretching Paraffin Sections (Fig. 71) 359

Alexander, G. — Apparatus for Preserving Celloidin- Blochs on the Microtome . . 477

Albrecht, H., & O. Stoerk — New Methods for Paraffin Sections 477

Nusbaum, J. — fixation of Paraffin Sections with Distilled Water 478

Ruprecht, M. — Method for Impregnating the Lacuna: and Canaliculi of Bone with

Fuel sin 478

Koch, L. — New Jung Microtome 478

Marpmann, G. — New Simple Microtome 572

Schaffer, J. — New Fromme Microtomes (Figs. 89-91) 572

Colman, W. S — Handbook of Histology 6'J5

Nowak, J. — Microtome icith new Device for liaising and Lowering the Object

(Figs. 108-110) ‘ 695

Kornauth, K. — Sect ion- Stretcher for Paraffin Sections icith the Cathcart Improved

Microtome (Figs. 111-114) 696

(4) Staining: and Injecting:.

Meyer, S. — Subcutaneous Injections of Methylene-Blue 133

Rawitz, B. — Alizarine 133

„ Modified Use of Hsematein 133

Pitfield — Flagella Staining 133

Lavdowsky, M. — Methylen-Blue Staining 259

Friedlaender, B. — Criticism of Golgi's Method 260

Israel, O. — Very Dilute llsematoxylin Solutions 260

Gerota, D. — Improvement in Mercury Injection Apparatus for Lymphatics (Figs.

73 and 74) ' 361

Unna, P. G. — Staining by Preoccupation and Subtraction 362

Moore, V. A. — Staining Flagella 478

Coupon, H. — New Contrivance for Staining Sections 479

Gerota — Injection Masses for Lymphatics 575

Mayer, P. — Staining Mucus 576

Gabritschewsky — Serum Injection Syringe (Fig. 92) 577

Unna, P. G. — Application of Anilin Mixtures for the Tinctoriat Isolation of

Tissue-Elements 698

Neumayer, L. — Retina of Selachians 698

Sargant, E. — Staining of Sexual Nuclei 698

Wager, H. — Staining of Fungi 699

( 5) Mounting:, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c-

Rath, O. vom — Fixatives 134

Marpmann, G. — Canada Balsam 134

Sorb v, 11 0. — Mounting Marine Animals as Transparent Lantern Slides .. .. 134

„ „ Methods for Mou ting and Exhibiting delicate Marine Organisms .. 136

Ersser, T. D. — Method of showing Multiplied Images formed by the Compound Eyes

of Insects 140

Rousselet, C. F. — Preserving Rotatoria 260

Pflavm, M. — Making and Finishing Wax Cells 261

Reinkk,F., & others — Japanese Method for Sticking on Paraffin Sections .. .. 261

Ermi ngem & Sugg — Formalin as a Disinfectant 261

Parker, G. H.. & R. Floyd — Formaldehyde and Formol 262

KelliCutt, D. S. — Formalin in the Zoological and Histological Laboratory .. .. 262

Malcolmsox — Mr. Wright's Method of Mounting ForaminiJ era 262

Abel, R. — Holder for Slides and Cover- Glasses (Fig. 58) 263

Seaman, W. H., & D. S. Kellicott — Notes on Formalin 479

Blum, F., & Fr. Kopsch — Formol 479

J ores, L. — Retention of the Blood-Colour in Anatomical Preparations by means of

Formalin 480

Strehl, H. — Disinfecting Power of Formalin 4S0

CONTENTS.

XXXV

PAGE

Roux, G., & others — Disinfection with Formic Aldehyde 480

Setchell, \V. A., & W. J. V. Osteriiodt — Media for Preserving Algx 481

Amann, J. — Preserving and Mounting Fluids for Algx and Mosses 481

Chavigny, P. — Antiseptic Value of Sublimate Spray 482

Edwards, A. M. — Mounting in Phosphorus 482

Fish, P. A. — Use of Formalin in Neurology 577

Elliott, G. R. — Method of Preserving Nervous Tissue 578

Browne, E. T. — Preservation of Marine Animals 570

Cori, (J. J. — Object-holder for the Observation of Objects enclosed beticeen tico Cover-

Glasses (Fig. 03) 579

Holm, J. C. — Preserving Yeast in Saccharose Solution 579

Behrens, H. — New Method for Preserving Succulent Fruit , Fungi , &c 580

H CBRECHT, A. A. \V. — Preserving Emhryological Material 099

GumPrecht— Preservation of Urinary Deposits 700

Kaiserling, C. — Preserving Museum Specimens 700

Vaillard, M. L. — Disinfection with Formalin Vapour 700

Deupser — Experiments with Porcosan 7oO

(6) Miscellaneous.

Bee, A. B., & L. F. Henneguy — Technique of Microscopical Anatomy 203

Young, J. B. — Stewart's Earth-Borer (Fig. 59) 203

Molisch, H. — New Microchemical Beaction of Chlorophyll 3G3

Tschirch, A. — Use of the Quartz-Speclograph for Vegetable Pigments 303

Molisch, H. — Demonstration and Crystallisation of Xanthophyll 303

Woods, A. F. — Recording Apparatus for the Study of the Transpiration of Plants .. 304

Dieudonne, A. — Simple Apparatus for Generating Gaseous Formic Aldehyde .. 482

Conser, H. N. — Cocaine in the Study of Pond-Life 483

Lindet, L. — Separation of Vegetable Acids 483

Marpmann, G. — Microscopical Examination of Cosmetics 483

Lange — Microscopical Examination of Samples of Meal 484

Bela v. Bitto — Estimation of Lecithin in Plants 484

J jANGE — Microscopical Ex mination of Meal 700

Mayriiofer, J. — Detection of Starch in Aleut Preparations 701

Marpmann, G. — Microscopical Examination of Jams 701

PB O CEEDINGS OF TEE SOCIETY.

Meeting. December 18, 1895 135

Annual Meeting, January 15, 1896 142

Report of Council for 1895 143

Treasurer’s Account for 1895 140

Meeting, February 19, 1890 205

„ March 18, 1890 207

„ April 15. 1890 305

„ May 20, 1896 308

„ June 17, 1896 485

„ October 21, 1896 702

„ November 18, 1896 706

Index of New Terms in Zoology and Botany 711

General Index to Volume

713

.

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■

.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

FEBRUARY 1896.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY,

I. — The Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. — YII1.
By Frederick Chapman, F.R.M.S.

{Read 20 th November , 1895.)

Plates I. and II.

Cristellaria — continued.

Cristellaria turgidula Reuss, plate I. fig. 1 a, b.

C. turgidula Reuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
vol. xlvi. p. 73, plate viii. fig. 4 a, b. C. ingenua Berthelin, 1880,
Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 54, plate iii. figs. 20, 21.

The above species may be regarded as one of the modifications
of the type C. cultrata, so numerously represented in the Cretaceous
deposits of this and other countries. It shows fairly constant characters
by which it can be distinguished from the other feebly developed
examples of a similar type occurring in the younger fossiliferous

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Fig. 1. — Cristellaria turgidula Reuss: a, lateral aspect; b, front peripheral aspect.
X 60.

„ 2. — C. circumcidanea Berthelin: a, lateral aspect; b, front peripheral aspect.
X 60.

„ 3. — C. subalata Reuss : a, lateral aspect ; b, front peripheral aspect, x 45.

„ 4. — C. secans Reuss var. angulosa nov. : a , lateral aspect ; b, front peripheral

aspect, x 45.

„ 5. — C. nodosa Reuss sp. : a, lateral aspect ; b, front peripheral aspect, x 45.

„ 6. — C. convergens Bornemann : a , lateral aspect ; 6, front peripheral aspect,

X 60.

„ 7. — C. gibba d’Orbigny : a, lateral aspect ; b, front peripheral aspect. X 60.

„ 8. — C. rotulata Lamarck sp. : a, lateral aspect; b, front peripheral aspect.

X 30.

„ 9. — C. rotulata var. macrodiscus Reuss : a, lateral aspect ; b, front peripheral
aspect, x 30.

„ 10. — C. gaultina Berthelin : a, lateral aspect ; 5, front peripheral aspect, x 30.

„ 11. — C. gaultina T erthelin : specimen of redundant growth, x 16.

1896 D

Transactions of the Society.

deposits ; and it appears worthy of being retained, under the above
name, for its value as a Cretaceous form.

Examples have been figured by Berthelin under the name of
G. ingenua, which are apparently inseparable from Beuss’ type,
although the earlier figure given by Beuss is not quite so typical
as might be desired.

The specimens from the French Gault are more compressed than
that figured by Reuss, but the difference is not sufficiently marked
amongst a number of specimens to warrant the retention of both
names.

The example here figured from the Gault of Folkestone does not
show the slight umbilical depression usually seen, but that feature is
not wanting in many of the Folkestone-Gault specimens.

As regards the Lower Cretaceous of Germany, G. turgidula has
been recorded from the Milletianus-d&y near Peine, and in the
Minimus-day near Sohlde between Peine and Salzgitter (Beuss). In
France it was found in the Gault of Montcley (Berthelin).

G. turgidula was found at Folkestone in zone iii., very rare ;
zone iv., very rare; zone xi., 40 ft. from the top, very rare; 6 ft.,
frequent.

Gristellaria circumcidanea Berthelin, plate I. fig. 2 a, b.

G. circumcidanea Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3,
vol. i. No. 5, p. 52, plate iii. fig 1 a, b.

The peripheral edge of the test of G. circumcidanea is sub-
angulate, and flattened into a narrow but tolerably sharp keel. The
sutural margin of each chamber in succession slightly overlaps the
preceding, thus giving an illusive appearance of sutural limbation or
shell thickening. This latter feature may cause it to be confounded
at first sight with G. subalata, in which the sutures are actually

Plate II.

Fig. 1. — Gristellaria sternalis Berthelin : a, lateral aspect ; b, front peripheral aspect
X 23.

„ 2. — C. diademata Berthelin : a, lateral aspect ; b , front peripheral aspect,
x 20.

„ 3. — Polymorpliina lactea Walker and Jacob sp. : b, aboral end. x 30.

„ 4. — P. lactea, fistulose form, x 45.

„ 5. — P. gibba d’Orbiguy : b, transverse sectional view, x 60.

„ 6. — P. gibba, , fistulose form ; b, oral aspect, x 45.

„ 7. — P. gutta d’Orbigny : 6, transverse sectional view, x 60.

„ 8. — P. gutta , fistulose form, x 45.

,, 9. — P.fusiformis Roeraer sp. : b, transverse sectional view, x 45.

„ 10. — P. fusiformis, fistulose form, x 45.

„ 11. — P. sororia Reuss : b, oral aspect, x 60.

„ 12. — P. sororia , fistulose form x 50.

„ 13. — P. sororia var. cuspidatci Brady. X 45.

„ 14. — P. angusta Egger. X 60.

„ 15. — P. communis d’Orbigny. x 45.

„ 1 6. — P. compressa d’Orbigny : b , transverse sectional view, x 45.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 3

thickened. The test of C. subalata , moreover, is more inflated in the
umbilical area. C. circumcidanea was found in the Gault of Mont-
cley and l’Aube (Berthelin).

At Folkestone the species occurs in zone i., specimen b, frequent;
zone ii,, specimen b, very rare ; zone iii., rare ; zone ix., very rare ;
zone x., very rare; zone xi., 55 ft. from the top, very rare; 45 ft.,
very rare ; 35 ft., very rare.

Cristellaria subalata Reuss, plate I. fig. 3 a , b.

C. subalata Reuss, 1854, Denkschr. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. vii.
p. 68, plate xxv. fig. 13. C. subalata Reuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k.
Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xlvi. p. 76, plate viii. fig. 10 ; plate ix. fig. 1.
C. megalopolitana Reuss, 1855, Zeitschr. d. geol. Gesellsch., vol. vii.
p. 267, plate ix. fig. 5. C. megalopolitana Sherborn and Chapman,
1886, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 755, plate XY.
fig. 30 a, b.

This is a neat little Cristellarian in the Gault series ; the examples
from other formations are not quite so circular in outline nor so swollen,
although in their main characters agreeing very closely.

Reuss’ specimens from the Neocomian of Germany apparently
had no umbilical protuberance, whilst the specimens from Gosau
(Upper Cretaceous) resemble those from the Folkestone Gault in
possessing an umbilical boss.

This form has been recorded from the Speeton Clay and the
Minimus- clay of North Germany (Reuss) ; from the Gault of
Montcley and l’Aube, France (Berthelin) ; from the Gault of Folke-
stone (Reuss and Rupert Jones) ; from the Cretaceous Marls of
Gosau, Eastern Alps (Reuss) ; and from the Eocene, London Clay
(Sherborn and Chapman).

At Folkestone C. subalata was found in zone i., specimen b, very
rare ; zone ii., specimen e, very rare ; zone ix., very rare.

Cristellaria secans Reuss var. angulosa nov., plate T. fig. 4 a , b.

The type species * of the above variety belongs to the thick-keeled
group of Cristellarians, and is further distinguished by its strong and
prominent sutural ribs.

The variety here figured is characterised by the flattening of
the peripheral edge between the termini of the sutural costae, thus
imparting a subangulate appearance to the test. Diam. 1/35 in. ;
thickness 1/64 in.

A somewhat analogous form was figured by Reuss as C. sub-
angulataf but this belongs rather to the C. rotulatu type ; and with
lineate sutures instead of strong riblets, as in C. secans. A similar

* Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, xl. (1860) p. 214, pi. ix. fig. 7 a, b.

t Op. cit., xlvi. (1862) p. 74, pi. viii. fig. 7 a, b ; Denkschr. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
xxv. (1865) p. 144, pi. iii. fig. 17.

B 2

4

Transactions of the Society.

snbangulate variety, but of a somewhat different type (probably
G. rotulata var. macrodiscus Reuss, lias been figured and described
under the name of G. polygona, by Dr. Berner,* from the Cenomanian
strata of Bohemia.

The type-form C. secans was found in the Minimus -clay of the
Rhine and other places by Reuss.

C. secans var. angulosa occurred in the Folkestone Gault in
zone xi,, 6 ft. from the top, rare.

Cristellaria nodosa Reuss sp., plate I. fig. 5 a, h.

Bobulina nodosa Reuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
vol. xlvi. p. 78, plate ix. fig. 6 a, b.

The specimens from the Upper Gault of Folkestone are very
close in character to the figure given by Reuss. That author’s speci-
mens were obtained from the Upper Eils-clay of North Germany.

C. nodosa was found at Folkestone in zone xi., 20 ft. from the
top, very rare ; 6 ft., very rare.

Cristellaria convergens Boruemann, plate I. fig. 6 a, b.

C. convergens Bornemann, 1855, Zeitschr. d. deutscli. geol.
Gesellsch., vol. vii. p. 327, plate xiii. figs. 16, 17. C. convergens
Brady, 1884, Chalk Rep., vol. ix. p. 546, plate lxix. figs. 6, 7.

This is quite an uncommon form in the Gault, and is perhaps a
deep-water variety of C. oligostegia in this instance, since the broad
septal face resembles that of the latter species.

G. convergens has been recorded from the Pebble-beds of Neo-
comian age in Surrey (Chapman), and was originally described from
the Tertiary of Hermsdorf (Bornemann). As a recent form, it is found
in deep-water.

At Folkestone this species was collected from zone v., very rare ;
zone xi., 6 ft. from the top, rare.

Cristellaria gibba d’Orbigny, plate I. fig. 7 a , b.

C. gibba d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii. p. 292, No. 17.
C. gibba Idem, 1839, Foram. Cuba, p. 40, plate vii. figs. 20, 21.
G. nuda Reuss, 1861, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xliv.
p. 328, plate vi. figs. 1-3. G. nuda (var. on plate VIII.) Idem,
1862, ibid., p. 72, plate viii. fig. 2 a , b. C. pulchella Id., 1862, ibid.,
p. 71, plate viii. fig. 1 a , b. G. gibba Brady, 1884, Chalk Rep.,
vol. ix. p. 546, plate lxix. figs. 8, 9. C. gibba Burrows, Sherborn,
and Bailey, 1890, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 559, plate X. figs. 19 a, b
and 21. G. gibba Crick and Sherborn, 1891, Journ. Northamp. Nat.
Hist. Soc., vol. vi. p. 212, plate, fig. 29.

C. gibba is a very widely distributed species, although at no time
does it appear to have been very commpn. It belongs to the group

V

* ‘ Foraminifery Ceskeho Csnomami,’ Prague, 1892, p. 63, pi. v. figs. 3, 4.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 5

of Cristellarians of which C. rotulata is the type, and differs from
that form in the general elongation of the test in the direction of the
oral extremity. C. gibba is in its general characters intermediate
between C. rotulata and C. crepidula. Gradational examples are
found which pass insensibly into C. planiuscula, but this latter form
is in typical specimens strongly compressed.

C. gibba has been recorded from strata as old as the Lias (Crick
and Sherborn). As a Cretaceous form it has been found in the Upper
llils-clay and the Speeton Clay of Brunswick (recorded as C. nuda by
Beuss) ; from the Bpeeton Clay and the Minimus- clay of Germany
(as C. pulchella by Beuss); and from the Chalk of JEtugen (as
C. nuda by Beuss). In this country it has been noted from the
Neocomian beds of Surrey (Chapman) ; * and from the Bed Chalk of
Speeton (Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey).

The species has apparently not yet been noticed in Tertiary
deposits, for we can scarcely include under this specific name C.
excisa Bornemann,f which has been placed in the synonymy of the
species in the Beport on the ‘ Challenger ’ Foraminifera.J

At Folkestone the occurrences of C. gibba in the Gault were: —
Zone i., spec, b., frequent ; zone iii., rare ; zone iv., very rare ;
zone v., frequent ; zone vii., very rare ; zone viii., very rare ; zone x.,
rare; zone xi., 55 ft. from the top, rare'; 50 ft., rare; 45 ft., rare;
40 ft., frequent ; 35 ft., rare ; 25 ft., rare; 12 ft., frequent ; 6 ft.,
rare.

Cristellaria rotulata Lamark sp., plate I. fig. 8 a, b.

Lenticulites rotulata Lamarck', 1801, Annales du Museum, vol. v.
p. 188, No. 3 ; Tableau Encycl. et Meth., pi. cccclxvi. fig. 5. Cris-
tellaria rotulata d’Orbigny, 1840, Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 1.
vol. iv. p. 20, pi. ii. figs. 15-18. Bobulina Munsteri Bomer, 1811,
Yerstein. norddeutsch. Kreidegeb., pt. 2, p. 98, pi. xv. fig. 30. Cristel-
laria rotulata Beuss, 1846, Yerstein. bohm. Kreidef , pt. i. p. 34, pi.
viii. figs. 50 a, b, 70. C. munsteri Beuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak.
Wiss. Wien, vol. xlvi. p. 77, pi. ix. figs. 3 a, b, 4 a} b. C. rotulata
Brady, 1881, Chalk Bep., vol. ix. p. 547, pi. lxix. fig. 13 a, b.
C. rotulata Perner, 1892, Foraminifery Ceskeho Cenomanu, p. 62,
pi. iv. figs. 1-11.

Among the Cristellarians from the Gault there are numerous
varieties which, from a biological standpoint, should be relegated to
the well-known cosmopolitan form C. rotidata. The examples from
Cretaceous deposits have unfortunately been split up into innumerable
so-called species, many of which have no claim to stand, even as
varieties, on account of their close relationship and even identity with
one another ; and this is especially evident when a large number of
specimens are examined.

* Quart. Joum. Geol. Soc., 1. (1894) p. 714.

t Zeitschr. d. deutsch. geol. Gesell., vii. (1855) p. 328, pi. ii. figs. 19, 20.

X Vol. ix. (1884) p. 546.

6

Transactions of the Society.

Only a few of the more important references to Cretaceous
examples of the above species are here given, although the synonymy
is very large. Some of the forms here retained as species distinct
from G. rotulata are treated thus not because of any virtual specific
differences, but since they have been already figured and described
they may serve a useful purpose in elucidating the distribution of these
minute fossils in the various horizons of the Gault.

G. rotulata is well distributed through the various horizons of the
Gault ; and it has been recorded from nearly all important fossiliferous
deposits from the Lias upwards. For our present purpose it is only
necessary to mention the occurrences of the above species in the
strata immediately below and above the Gault.

In this country it has been recorded from the Lower Greensand
and the Gault of Meux’s well-boring (C. Moore) ; from the Speeton
Clay of Fork shire and the Lower Greensand of Faringdon, Berkshire
(Reuss) ; from the Lower Greensand of Surrey (Chapman) ; from the
Gault of Folkestone (Reuss and Rupert Jones) ; from the Greensand
of Warminster (Reuss) ; and from the Phosphatic beds of Cambridge
(G. R. Vine). In France it was found in the Gault of Montcley,
Wissant, and l’Aube (Berthelin). In North Germany it has been
recorded from the Speeton Clay, the Minimus-o\.&y and the Flammen-
mergel (Reuss). In Bohemia it was found in Cenomanian strata
(Perner). This species has many records from the Chalk strata, and
it is probably to be met with at all horizons.

G. rotulata has also been recorded from the Red Chalk of Speeton
by Messrs. Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey ; one of the figures * given
under the above name, however, appears to agree more- closely with
the form G. rotulata var. 7nacrodiscus, referred to below.

In the Folkestone Gault G. rotulata occurred as follows : — Zone i.,
spec, a , rare ; zone i., spec, h, rare ; zone ii., spec, a, rare ; zone ii, ,
spec, b, very rare; zone ii., spec, c, very rare; zone iii., frequent ;
zone iv., common ; zone v., rare ; zone viii., rare ; zone x., very rare ;
zone xi., 50 ft. from the top, very rare ; 25 ft., very rare ; 20 ft., fre-
quent ; 12 ft., frequent ; 6 ft., rare.

Gristellaria rotulata (Lamarck) var. macrodiscus Reuss,
plate I. fig. 9 a, b.

G. macrodisca Reuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
vol. xlvi. p. 78, pi. ix. fig. 5 a, b. G. macrodisca Berthelin, 1880,
Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 48, pi. iii figs. 6-11
and 14 a, b. G, rotulata Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890, Journ
Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 559, pi. x. fig. 17 a, b.

The above variety, which hardly possesses the specific differences
seen in it by previous authors, is distinguished from the type form by
the nearly circular periphery, the greater breadth of the chambers,

* Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc , 1890, pi. x. fig. 17 a, b.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 7

and the greater width across the test. The latter point is perhaps
the most constant character, and is 1 * 3 if the width of C. rotulata is
taken as a unit. The central boss is usually large and transparent.
It is very probable that, under the interpretation of the duality of
form or dimorphism in the Foraminifera, we have here the micro-
spheric C. rotulata and the megalospheric C. rotulata var. macrodiscus
representing one species.

This variety appears to be nearly as well distributed through the
Gault as the type form. It has been recorded from the Upper Hils-
clay and the Tardefurcatus- clay of North Germany (Reuss) ; and from
the Gault of Montcley, Wissant, and 1’Aube (Berthelin) ; also from
the Red Chalk of Speeton (as C. rotulata by Burrows, Sherborn, and
Bailey).

C. rotulata var. macrodiscus was found in the Folkestone Gault in
zone ii., spec, h, very rare ; zone ii., spec, c., frequent ; zone iii., very
rare ; zone iv., rare ; zone v., rare ; zone vi., rare ; zone vii., very
rare; zone x., very rare; zone xi., 50 ft. from the top, rare ; 45 ft.,
frequent; 40 ft., rare; 35 ft., rare; 30 ft., rare; 25 ft., frequent;
20 ft., rare; 12 ft., frequent; 6 ft., rare.

Cristellaria gaultina Berthelin, plate I. figs. 10 a, h, 11.

C. gaultina Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3, vol. 1
No. 5, p. 49, pi. iii. figs. 15-19. C. cultrata Burrows, Sherborn, and
Bailey, 1890, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 559, pi. x. fig. 18 a , h.

This species is one of the commonest in the Gault series, and is
very distinct in its characters. It is easily recognised by the rapid
increase in size of the last chambers, which gives a sub-oval outline to
the test ; by the produced extremity of the last chamber, and by the
compressed form of the test seen in edge view. C. gaultina , more
than any other Cristellarian from the Gault, shows a tendency in
well-grown individuals to take on a wild irregular growth ; an example
of this is given in plate I. fig. 11. In this particular specimen, the
earlier and normal portion of the test (comparing it with other well-
grown individuals), differs from the later portion, and it is evident
that the plan of growth was subsequently somewhat changed after the
fracture of the fragile apical extremity of the typical part of the test.
It appears as if a resuscitation of life for the creature ensued by the
accidental adherence of a growing fragment of another form to its
broken oral apex. This aberrant mode of growth is also seen in
other species occurring in the Gault.

C. gaultina was originally recorded from the Gault of Montcley,
A Tssant, and l’Aube (Berthelin), and under the name of C. cultrata
has been figured from the Red Chalk of Speeton (Burrows, Sherborn,
and Bailey).

This species was found in the Gault of Folkestone in zone i.,
specimen a , very rare ; zone i., specimen h , frequent ; zone ii., speci-

8

Transactions of the Society.

men a, rare ; zone ii., specimen b, rare ; zone iii., very common ;
zone iv., common ; zone v., rare ; zone vi., very common ; zone vii.,
frequent ; zone viii., frequent: zone ix., common; zone x., common ;
zone xi., 55 ft. from the top, very rare ; 50 ft., frequent ; 45 ft.,
frequent ; 40 ft., frequent ; 85 ft., common ; 30 ft., frequent ; 25 ft.,
common ; 20 ft., very common ; 12 ft., frequent; 6 ft., common.

Cristellaria sternalis Berthelin, plate II. fig. 1 a, b.

C. sternalis Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3,
yoI. i. No. 5, p. 54, plate iii. fig. 2 a, b.

This form is perhaps more correctly to be regarded as a variety of
G. cultrata, but since it bears some few distinct characters of its own,
exhibited in all of the Gault specimens of this type, it may here
he retained under the above name.

The width of the test in G. sternalis is much greater than in
typical specimens of G. cultrata , and the chambers are less numerous.
The keel is always well developed, and the central boss very large.

G. sternalis has been described from the Gault of Montcley,
Wissant, and l’Aube (Berthelin). It occurs at Folkestone in zone i.,
specimen b, very rare ; zone ii., specimen b, very rare ; zone ii.,
specimen c, rare ; zone iii., very rare ; zone v., very rare ; zone vi.,
frequent ; zone viii., rare ; zone x., rare ; zone xi., 55 ft. from the
top, rare ; 50 ft., rare ; 45 ft., very rare ; 35 ft., frequent ; 30 ft.,
very rare; 25 ft., very rare ; 12 ft., very rare; 6 ft., very rare.

Gristellaria diademata Berthelin, plate II. fig. 2 a , b.

C. diademata Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3,
vol. i. No. 5, p. 51, plate iii. figs. 4, 5, 12, and 13.

The above name was given to the Gault form, which, although
approximating to that of G. cassis (Fichtel and Moll) * in many
particulars, yet differs essentially in having a more swollen test, and
by the absence of the thickened and often beaded septal lines seen in
typical recent examples of that species.

The undulate keel-edge of G. diademata is always more or less
irregular in its outline, apart from the fractures which a thin flange-
like structure would be likely to sustain in a fossil-deposit laid down
in moderately shallow water.

G. diademata was described from the Gault of Montcley, Wissant,
and l’Aube (Berthelin).

At Folkestone it was found in zone i., specimen a, rare ; zone i..
specimen b, rare ; zone ii., specimen c, very rare ; zone iii., very rare ;
zone v., very rare; zone vi., common; zone vii., rare; zone viii.,
rare ; zone ix., rare ; zone x., common ; zone xi., 55 ft. from the top,
rare ; 50 ft., very rare ; 45 ft., very rare ; 40 ft., very rare ; 35 ft.,
rare; 30 ft., frequent; 25 ft., rare ; 20 ft., rare; 12 ft., rare.

* Test. Micr., 1798, p. 95, pi. xvii. figs. a-l\ pi. xviii. figs. a-c.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman.

9

Sub-family P OL YMORPHININM.

Polymorphina d’Orbigny [1826].

Polymorphina lactea Walker and Jacob sp., plate II. fig. 3.

Serpula lactea Walker and Jacob, 1798 (fide Kanmacher).
Adams’ Essays, 2nd ed., p. 634, plate xxiv. fig. 4. Globulina lacrima
Beuss, 1845, Yerstein. bohrn. Kreidef., part i. pp. 40, 110, plate xii.
fig. 6 a-c ; plate xiii. fig. 83 a, b. Polymorphina lactea Brady,
1884, Chall. Bep., vol. ix. p. 559, plate lxxi. fig. 11. Burrows,
Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890, p. 561. Journ. Boy. Micr. Soc., p. 561,
plate xi. fig. 9. P. amygdaloides Iidem, ibid., plate xi. fig. 12.

Fistulose Form, plate II. fig. 4.

Misilus aquatifer Montfort, 1808, Conch. Syst., vol. i. p. 294,
74e genre. Polymorphina horrida Wright, 1875, Bep. and Proc.
Belf. Nat. Field Club, vol. for 1873-4, Appendix, p. 85, plate iii.
fig. 14. P. prselonga Terquem, 1878, Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3,
vol. i. No. 3, p. 39, plate iii. fig. 21. P. amygdaloides Idem, ibid.,
p. 39, plate iii. fig. 28. P. solidula Idem, ibid., p. 40, plate iii. fig. 33.

The Gault form of P. lactea is rather shorter and stouter than
the better known and more typical specimens which are met with in
later Tertiary and recent deposits. It is distinguished typically by
its ovate or subpyriform, inflated test. The Gault variety is not far
removed from P. gibba , from which it differs only in being slightly
longer and more compressed.

P. lactea has been recorded from Jurassic beds of the south
of England (Parker and Jones) ; from the Gault of Montcley (as
P. lacryma (Berthelin) ; from the Bed Chalk of Speeton (Burrows,
Sherborn, and Bailey) ; from the Cretaceous of Bohemia and Bussia ;
and from many important fossiliferous strata of Tertiary age.

As a recent form P. lactea affects shallow to moderately-shallow
waters.

The fistulose examples of this species from the Gault have the
outgrowths confined to the apical region of the test.

The ordinary form of this species was found in the Gault of
Folkestone in zone xi., 45 ft. from the top, very rare ; 35 ft. from
the top, very rare.

The fistulose modification was found in zone xi., 12 ft. from the
top, very rare ; 6 ft., very rare.

Polymorphina gibba d’Orbigny, plate II. fig. 5.

Polymorphina ( Globulina ) gibba d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
vol. vii. p. 266, No. 20 ; Modele No. 63. Globulina gibba d’Orbigny
1846, Foram. Foss. Yienne, p. 227, plate xiii. figs. 13, 14. Poly-
morphina gibba Jones, Parker, and Brady, 1866, Monogr. Crag

10

Transactions of the Society.

Foram., plate i. figs. 49-51. P. subsphserica Berthelin, 1880, Mem.
Soc. geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 58, plate iii. fig. 18 a , b.
P. gibba Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. ix. p. 561, plate lxxi. fig. 12.
Polymorpha [ Polymorphina\ ovata Perner, 1892, Foraminifery
Ceskeho Cenomanu, p. 64, plate viii. figs. 14-16.

Fistulose Form, plate IT. fig. 6.

Globulina tvbulosa d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 228,
plate xiii. figs. 15, 16. Polymorphina tvbulosa Jones, Parker, and
Brady, 1866, Monogr. Foram. Crag, plate i. figs. 70, 72, 73. P. gihba
fistulose form, Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. ix. p. 562, plate lxxiii.
fig. 16. Wright, 1886, Proc. Belf. Nat. Field Club, Appendix,
1885-86, p. 324, plate xxvi. fig. 11. P. gihba Goes, 1894, Kongl.
Svenska Vetenskaps-Ak. Handlingar, vol. xxv. No. 9, p. 55, plate ix.
fig. 522.

P. gihba in its typical form is more nearly spherical than
P. lactea , and the segments are never prominent as in the latter
species, although the sutural lines are sometimes rather deeply im-
pressed, as in d’Orbigny’s figure of a specimen from the Vienna
Tertiaries, and Berthelin’s P. subsphserica from the French Gault.

The fistulose variety of P. gibba from the Gault series, of which a
characteristic example is here figured, is apparently always of the
same type, the outgrowth being confined to the apical region of the
test.

P. gibba has been recorded from strata as old as the Ivimeridgian,
and it is further found in nearly all fossiliferous strata of later date.

The ordinary form of this species was found in the Folkestone
Gault in zone xi., 45 ft. from the top, rare ; 40 ft., very rare ; 25 ft.,
very rare ; 12 ft. rare ; 6 ft., common.

The fistulose form was found in zone xi., 45 ft. from the top,
frequent ; 6 ft., very rare.

Polymorphina gutta d’Orbigny, plate II. fig. 7.

Polymorphina (Pyrulina) gutta d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
vol. vii. p. 267, No. 28, plate xii. figs. 5, 6 ; Modele No. 30. Pyru-
lina obtusa Reuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xivi.
p. 79, plate ix. fig. 9. Polymorphina gutta Jones, Parker, and
Brady, 1866, Monogr. Crag Foram., plate i. figs. 46, 47.

Fistulose Form, plate II. fig. 8.

Globulina horricla Reuss, 1845, Verstein. bohrn. Kreidef., pt. ii.
p. 110, plate xliii. fig. 14. Polymorphina Boemeri Reuss, 1870,
8itzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. lxii. p. 35 ; Schlich, 1870, Foram.
Pietzpuhl, plate xxxiv. figs. 4-12, 14.

The specimens from the Gault series are very variable ; and
gradational forms are found ranging from the typical P. gutta to

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 11

broader and more regularly oval forms resembling very closely those
known as P. turgida (Reuss) * and P. rotundata Bornemann.t

P. gutta has been recorded from the Hils-clay of North Germany
(Reuss) ; from the Neocomian beds of Surrey (Chapman) ; and from
Tertiary clays of North Italy and Germany, the Barton beds of the
Isle of Wight and the Crag of Suffolk (Parker, Jones, and Brady).

The usual character of the fistulose modification of P. gutta from
the Gault is that of scattered tubules disposed evenly but sparsely
over the whole of the test. Those figured by Schlicht are fistulose in
the apical region of the test.

The ordinary type of this species was found in the Gault in
zone xi., 55 ft. from the top, very rare ; 45 ft., very rare.

The occurrences of the fistulose examples are : — Zone xi., 12 ft.
from the top, frequent ; 6 ft., rare.

Polymorphina fusiformis Rosrner, plate II. fig. 9.

Polymorph ina (Globulina) fusiformis Roemer, 1838, Neues Jahrb.
f. Min., p. 386, plate iii. fig. 37. P. liassica Strickland, 1845,
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. ii. p. 30, fig. b. P. lanceolata Reuss,
1851, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesellsch., vol. ii. p. 83, plate vi. fig. 50,
Globulina prisca Reuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
vol. xlvi. p. 79, plate ix. fig. 8 a , b. Polymorphina prisca Berthelin,
1880, Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 57, plate iv.
fig. 20 a, b. P. lactea (elongate variety) Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep.,
vol. ix. p. 559, plate lxxi. fig. 14. P. lactea Burrows, Sherborn, and
Bailey, 1890, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 561, plate xi. fig. 10.

Fistulose Form, plate II. fig. 10.

Polymorphina horrida Wright, 1875, Rep. and Proc. Belf. Nat.
Field Club for 1873-4, Appendix 1875, p. 85, plate iii. fig. 14.
P. prisca Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i.
No. 5, p. 57, plate iv. fig. 21. P. horrida Burrows, Sherborn, and
Bailey, 1890, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 561, plate xi. fig. 14.

This form has been described under many different names, but
although a variable species, it possesses certain marked characters by
which it can be readily recognised. P. fusiformis has an ovate
elongate test, tapering to the oral end, and with a more or less pointed
aboral extremity. The transverse section of the test is broadly oval
to nearly circular. Occasionally specimens are met with in which the
breadth of the test is much greater than is usual in more typical
specimens, and it is thus seen to pass almost insensibly into the
heavier, more turgid, and inequilateral form of P. sororia. Some
of the specimens from the Gault have their surfaces studded with fine
prickles.

* Guttulina turgida Eeuss, 1856, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, xviii. p. 246,
pi. vi. fig. 66.

t Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell., vii. (1855) p. 366, pi. xviii. fig. 3.

12

Transactions of the Society.

P.fusiformis has been found in the Lower Lias of England,
France, and Germany. It has also been recorded from the Upper
Hils-clay and the Minimus- clay of North Germany (Beuss) ; from
the Gault of Montcley, Wissant, and TAube (as P. prisca Berthelin) ;
from the Bed Chalk of Speeton (as P. lactea, Burrows, Sherborn, and
Bailey); from various strata in the Upper Cretaceous series; and
from many Tertiary deposits. The figure referred to as P. lactea
(elongate variety) in the Beport on the c Challenger 5 Foraminifera,
taking it as an example of P.fusiformis , appears to be the only
record of the species from a recent sounding.

It is a noteworthy fact that the fistulose modification based upon
this type is almost invariably of a uniform character, namely, an
apical aggregate of short tubular processes radiating and turning
downwards, and always short. In each of these characters it differs
from the original figures of P. horrida (Beuss) * in that the latter
form has longer, recurved, outgrowing tubules, and attached to a
fundamental form like that of P. gutta d’Orbigny. These differences
are, however, intrinsically small, and are probably modified according
to the shape of the early form of the test.

The ordinary form of this species was found at Folkestone in
zone iii., very rare ; zone v., very rare ; zone xi., 50 ft. from the top,
rare ; 45 ft., frequent ; 40 ft., very rare ; 35 ft., very rare ; 30 ft.,
very rare; 25 ft., rare ; 12 ft., frequent.

The fistulose variety of P. fusiformis occurred in zone v., very
rare ; zone xi., 50 ft. from the top, rare ; 25 ft., very rare ; 20 ft.,
very rare ; 12 ft., very rare.

Polymorphina sororia Beuss, plate II. fig. 11.

Polymorphina (Guttulina) sororia Beuss, 1862, Bull. Acad.
Boy. Belg., ser. 2, vol. xv. p. 121, plate ii. figs. 25-9. Id., 1870,
Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. lxii. p. 487, No. 9. Schlicht,
1870, Foram. Pietzpuhl, plate xxvi. figs. 4-12, 16, 18. Brady, 1884,
Chalk Bep., vol. ix. p. 562, plate lxxi. figs. 15, 16.

Fistulose Form, plate II. fig. 12.

Aidostomella pediculus Alth, 1850, Haidinger’s Naturw. Abhandl.,
vol. iii. p. 264, plate xiii. fig. 17. Polymorphina sororia , fistulose
form, Brady, 1884, Chalk Bep., vol. ix. p. 562, plate lxxiii. fig. 15.

The test of P. sororia is in its typical condition more inflated and
rounder in transverse section than P. fusiformis, and the arrangement
and development of the chambers is also more irregular, one side of
the test being in consequence of a greater convexity than the other.
The aboral end of the test is usually more or less acuminate, thus

* Globulina horrida Reuss, 1845, Yerstein. bohm. Kreidef., pt. ii. p. 110, pi. xliii.
fig. 14.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 13

separating it from the species with rounded extremities, as P. lactea
(F. and M.), P. gutta d’Orb., or P. rotundata Bornemann.

P. sororia is also frequently found in the fistulose condition, the
outgrowth consisting of a few short radiating tubules.

This species has been recorded from the Cretaceous beds of Lem-
berg (Alth) ; from the Chalk of Taplow (Chapman) ; and the Ter-
tiary beds of Pietzpuhl (Schlicht). The recent form appears to he
widely distributed.

The ordinary form of P. sororia was found at Folkestone in
zone iii., rare ; zone ix., very rare ; zone xi., 50 ft. from the top, very
rare; 45 ft., very rare ; 35 ft., very rare ; 30 ft., rare ; 25 ft., rare ;
20 ft., very rare; 12 ft., very rare.

The fistulose form was met with, in zone xi., 12 ft. fron the top,,
very rare.

Polymorphina sororia var. cuspidata Brady, plate II. fig. 13.

P olymorphina sororia var. cuspidata Brady, 1884, Chall. Bep.?
vol. ix. p. 563, plate lxxi. figs. 17-19 ; plate lxxii. fig. 4. Poly-
morphina sp., Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890, Journ. Boy.
Micr. Soc., p. 561, plate xi. fig. 15.

This variety was described from recent specimens obtained from
the N. Atlantic at depths of 808 and 1443 fathoms, and from a point
between the Cape of Good Hope and Kerguelen Id. at 1375 fathoms
(Brady). As a fossil it has been recorded from the Neocomian
Pebble-beds of Guildford (Chapman);* and it has also occurred in
the Bed Chalk of Speeton (Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey).

P. sororia var. cuspidata occurs in the Gault of Folkestone in
zone v., very rare ; zone xi., 6 ft. from the top, rare.

Polymorphina angusta Egger, plate II. fig. 14.

P ohymorphina ( Globulina ) angusta Egger, 1857, Neues Jahrb.
f. Min., p. 290, plate xiii. figs. 13-15. P. angusta Brady, 1884,
Chall. Bep., vol. ix. p. 563, plate lxxii. figs. 1-3. This species has
been described from the Lower Miocene of Bavaria (Egger), and from
the Septaria Clay of Pietzpuhl (as P. lanceolata Beuss and Schlicht).
In recent deposits it generally affects deep water.

P. angusta was found in the Gault in zone iii., very rare ; zone iv.
very rare ; zone vii., very rare.

Polymorphina communis d’Orbigny, plate II. fig. 15.

Polymorphina ( Guttulina ) communis d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci.
Nat., vol. vii. p. 266, plate xii. figs. 1-4 ; Modele No. 62. Guttu-
lina creiacea Alth, 1849, Haidinger’s Naturw. Abhandl., vol. iii.
p. 262, plate xiii. fig. 14. Polymorphina communis Brady, 1884,
Chall. Bep., vol. ix. p. 568, plate lxxii. fig. 19. P. gibba Burrovs,

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1. (1894) p. 715. .

14 Transactions of the Society.

Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890, Journ. Boy. Micr. Soc., p. 561, plate xi.
fig. 13.

This well-known form has keen recorded from the Lias of York-
shire (Blake) ; from the Neocomian beds of Guildford (Chapman) ;
from the Gault of Montcley (as P. cretacea Berthelin) ; from the
Bed Chalk of Speeton (as P. gibba Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey) ;
and from many beds of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary ages. The
greatest depths for its occurrence in recent deposits is 155 fathoms.

P. communis occurs in the Gault in zone xi., 45 ft., from the top,
very rare ; 6 ft., frequent.

Polymorphina compressa d’Orbigny, plate II. fig. 16.

Polymorphina compressa d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vien.,
p. 233, plate xii. figs. 32-4. Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1870,
Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., vol. xxvii. p. 227, plate xl. fig. 12 a-f.
Brady, 1884, Chall. Bep., vol. ix. p. 565, plate lxxii. figs. 9-11.
P. communis Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890, Journ. Roy.
Micr. Soc., p. 561, plate xi. fig. 11.

This species somewhat resembles the longer forms of P< lactea ,
but is easily distinguished by the compressed form of its test.

Its geological range is extensive, it being recorded from the Lias
and occurring in all of the more important fossiliferous strata of
the Cretaceous and Tertiary systems. It is found in shallow- water
deposits at the present day.

P. compressa was found at Folkestone in zone xi., 50 ft. from the
top, rare : 45 ft., very rare.

15

II. — The President's Address:

Sketches from the Anatomy of the Acarina.

By A. D. Michael, F.L.S., &c.

( Read 15 th January , 1896.)

Probably a man speaks best upon the subjects which have lately
occupied his mind ; I have for this address selected that to which
I have been devoting most attention during the last two years,
namely, the anatomy of the Acari. It must be admitted that it is
strictly microscopical, for the structure of creatures, amongst which a
total length of two millimetres constitutes an exceedingly large
species, must be entirely studied by means of the Microscope. One
family, the Ixodidae, run considerably larger ; but they are the single
exception ; in others, two millimetres would be a very rare length,
and even one millimetre is large. The consequence of this minute
size has been that very little has been known of the internal anatomy
until late years ; even now there is probably no group of equally
highly organised beings as to the anatomy of which less is generally
known. Text-books are usually almost silent regarding it ; and what
information is given is not always correct. Doubtless in the near
future this will be corrected, as sources are rapidly accumulating
whence reliable information on the subject may be drawn. The in-
vestigation, however, is not entirely one of very recent years ; as early
as 1812 we have Treviranus’ writings, not confined to the Acarina,
but giving a good deal of information about them. In 1860-1
Pagenstecker published his ‘ Anatomie der Mil ben,’ a much more
ambitious work, beautifully illustrated, and dealing with the anatomy
of Trombidium and of Ixodes, the former being a very good type. It
is wonderful that Pagenstecker saw so much as he did with the
means at his command ; perhaps his fault, if any, was that he saw too
much, and was not contented to leave points which he was not able
thoroughly to master to future investigators. This led him into
some errors ; but what work is free from them ? Heller’s work on
the anatomy of Ary as persicus in 1858, Gudden’s on Tyroglyphus in
1861, and Furstenburg’s great work on the Itch-mites in the same
year, may all be mentioned as substantial contributions to our know-
ledge ; but the true modern research into the anatomy of these
minute creatures may be considered to have begun with Oroneberg’s
papers on the anatomy of Eylais extendens, which unfortunately is
in the Russian language, and on the structure of Trombidium.
Then followed Henking’s paper on Trombidium fuliginosum, pro-
bably the best extant on the anatomy of any of the Acarina. These
were followed by two papers of Nalepa’s on the anatomy of Tyrogly -
phus in 1884 and 1885, and on that of Phytoptus in 1887. Two

16

Transactions of the Society.

papers also issued from Colin’s laboratory at Vienna in 1888, viz.
Winkler’s excellent paper on the anatomy of Gamasus, and Schaub’s
on that of Hydrodroma (Hydrachnidse). Finally, there are my own
works in 1883, on the anatomy of the Oribatidse ; in 1892, on that of
the Gamasidae ; and in 1895, on that of Thyas petrophilus, one of the
crawling Hydrachnidse. There are also contributions of less import-
ance by Kramer, Haller, and Donnadieu, besides the careful descrip-
tions of external anatomy and mouth-organs by Robin and Fumose,
Megnin and others.

The leading characteristic which impresses itself upon the mind
in studying the anatomy of the Acarina is centralisation ; all the
important functions seem to emanate more from a single centre, and
all the important organs seem more crowded together, than is usual in
other groups of living creatures. Division into somites or segments
is. utterly lost, except in the very young stages of a few species, and
except so far as any idea of it may be obtained from the number of
appendages, and from the embryology ; even these often lead to some
very puzzling results ; thus practically all Acari, except Phytopti,
where the hind legs are abortive, are born with three pairs of legs,
and only acquire the fourth after the first change of skin ; but Winkler
has observed, I think correctly, that the young embryo of Gamasus
has four pairs, one of which atrophies before birth, to be again
developed at a later stage of existence, and this has lately been con-
firmed by Supino in Ixodes. This centralisation is carried so far in
the external form, that in the typical Hydrachnidse, such as Piona or
PLydrachna , the head, thorax, and abdomen are one mass ; and no dis-
tinction between one and the other can be found. The text-books
almost invariably give this as the character of the whole of the Aca-
rina, and the point which distinguishes them from other Arachnida ;
but this is an error : in the great majority of families the distinction
between cephalothorax and abdomen is perfectly clear, except in the
view of those who consider that nothing can be an abdomen in the
Tracheata which is not legless — a view which I am not able to con-
cur in, as I do not see any reason why abdominal appendages should
not persist as well as those on the anterior portions of the body ;
consequently it seems to me that as a definition of the Acarina the
coalescence of cephalothorax and abdomen entirely breaks down.

The centralisation is best shown by the so-called brain, or great
nerve-centre, of an A cams ; instead of the chain of ganglia found in
Insects and most other Arthropods we have here practically the
whole united into one ganglionic mass surrounding the oesophagus,
and from this all the principal nerves arise. As during the past year
I have perhaps been able to carry the knowledge of the springing of
the nerves a little further than it had previously attained to I will
show you a picture of the brain of the creature investigated, namely
Thyas petrophilus, a new species of Water-mite.

When I sat down to compose this address I had hoped to give you

The President's Address. By A. D. Michael.

17

a general sketch of the anatomy of an Acarns. I found, however, to my
regret, that the time at my disposal for reading it would not be suf-
ficient for anything of the kind ; therefore, rather than put before
you a mere dry catalogue of parts, I have thought it best to confine
myself to a single system of organs. I have selected the nutritive as
probably the most important; it divides itself into two parts, the
mouth-organs and the alimentary canal. The former may be taken
to be somewhat on the Insect-type, but, as in the Insecta, the same
elements are so combined as to form a great variety of results. One
important difference, however, between the two groups is immediately
apparent. In the Insecta there are two pairs of maxillae : the one
pair usually free biting or piercing organs, although often joined with
other parts to form tubes or converted into lancets, &c. ; the other
pair united to form the labium ; each pair bears its own palpi ; but in
the Acarina there is only one pair, and these have coalesced to form a
maxillary lip ; to which the name of “ labium ” is sometimes, hut in-
correctly, applied. It must therefore be borne in mind when the
word “ labium ” is heard in connection with the Acarina, that the part
referred to is not the homologue of the labium in the Insecta, but of
their maxillae. In most families of the Acarina the fusion of the two
maxillae to form a lip is sufficiently complete for them to have lost all
function and appearance of biting or piercing organs ; but in the
Oribatidae, although the bases are united and form the lip, yet the tips
are free and functional as crushing-organs. A very good example of
this is to be found in the wood-boring Hoplophora, the well-known
Box-mite, so called from its power of shutting its rostrum down upon
its body like the lid of a box, and withdrawing all its legs and soft
parts into the interior, so as to surpass a tortoise in its own line, be-
cause a tortoise leaves some holes open, and a Hoplophora does not.
These organs are still functional maxillae in the genus named, and
form an interesting step between the free maxillae of so many insects,
and the completely anchylosed maxillary lip of such a creature as
Sar copies, which would not be suspected as having arisen from the
amalgamation of two jaws were it not for comparison with other
genera, and for the fact that even here some rudiments of the
maxillary palpi still persist. Another maxillary lip among the
Acarina which seems to me very interesting in this connection is that
of Gamasus : here the character of biting-organs, which is preserved
in the Oribatidae, is entirely lost ; the organ, which Prof. Berlese calls
“ the hypostome,” is a lip, and a lip only ; but Megnin has pointed
out that what may be called the accessory parts of the Insect-
maxilla, viz. the galea, the lacinia, &c., are all well preserved and
are very apparent, although entirely absent in the case of the
Oribatidae.

To this maxillary lip the palpi are articulated in the ordinary
manner, and it must be remembered that there is only one pair, and
that it is maxillary, not labial. They assume great variety of

1896 c

18

Transactions of the Society.

form, and often an importance quite unknown among insects, but
found also in some other groups of the Araohnida, for instance the
Scorpions and scorpion-like animals, where they attain great size and
are called the pedipalps, a name which has lent itself to the nomencla-
ture of the order which most of them belong to. Moreover, there
is a tendency among the writers of modern text-books, in order to
harmonise the terminology all through the Arachnida, to call the
palpi “ pedipalps ” throughout the group ; this does not appear
to be desirable, because, although the palpi are pedate in the small
group of the Scorpions and their allies, yet in the great order of
the Spiders, and in the vastly greater order of the Acarina — which
in variety, in number of species, and in number of individuals
probably enormously exceeds all the remainder of the Arachnida put
together — the palpi are not pedate in any way. It seems tome by no
means a happy idea to adopt a name which is distinctly misleading in
regard to the immense majority of the class because it is appropriate
in the case of a small number of rather exceptional creatures, which
are included in it. So great is the importance of the palpi, as I con-
tinue to call them, that Duges proposed to classify the Acarina into
families, solely by their varying natures and forms ; and this classifica--
tion held its ground for a long series of years, although it has been
superseded in recent times.

It is always interesting to watch the different developments of the
same organ in allied creatures, and observe the various forms which
it assumes, and the variety of uses to which it can be applied. Among
the Acarina the palpi will be found to divide naturally into five great
classes, viz. firstly, palpi which are almost obsolete, and have so
greatly coalesced with the maxillary lip that they have almost ceased
to be separate organs ; secondly, palpi of the insect-type ; thirdly,
raptorial palpi ; fourthly, anchoring palpi ; and fifthly, antenniform
palpi. The first, or anchylosed form of palpus is found almost entirely
among the Sarcoptidae, or Itch-mites, and may not improbably be an
instance of degradation from parasitism. The second, or insect-like
form, is found in the Tyroglyphidae, Oribatidae, &c., and is always a
small palpus having probably a tactile function ; it is kept bent
towards the ground, and in constant up and down motion as the
creature runs, swiftly and lightly touching the ground or whatever
it is treading on, and apparently feeling the way or exploring for
food ; it is quite possible also that these palpi may be endowed with
the functions of smell or taste. The third class, the raptorial palpi, is
that in which the most singular developments occur. Naturally, all
the Acari that possess them are predatory ; but the converse is not
true ; all predatory Acari are not possessed of them, for the great
predatory family of the Gamasidae have palpi of the second type- ; and
with them the mandibles are the seizing organs ; but the equally large
predatory family of the Trombidiidae have the raptorial palpi as one
of the principal features by which they are distinguished. This palpus

The President's Address. By A. D. Michael. 19

is a very curious one, for it is not chelate like the pedipalps of the
Scorpionidse, or a lobster’s claw, and yet there is an apparatus which
is almost a chela. The penultimate joint of the palpus is carried
nearly straight to its termination, or curves inward in a more or lees
clawlike form, hut before its distal end the terminal joint is articulated
on ; it has free motion but is not a claw ; it is usually a soft pyriform
piece articulated by its smaller end ; and between this and the often
soft rodlike penultimate joint the prey is held ; yet it is retained very
efficiently. The small group of the Cheyletidm is closely allied to
the Trombidiidm, although distinguished from them by some very
striking features ; it is here that the raptorial palpus attains its
greatest development among A carina. In such a species as Cheyletus
jlabellifer the thickness of the palpi, as compared with that of the
whole rostrum, is surprising ; each palpus curves inward, and usually
terminates in a simple, fixed, claw-like process of hard chitin ; the
victim is held between the two palpi ; so far the holding between the
rtwo palpi and the great size of the organs are the only remarkable
features ; but the really singular character is the presence of four or
five long rods of clear chitin movably articulated to the inner side
of the palpus, each rod armed with a series of strong spines or
pectinations on its inner, or when in action its hinder side ; these
spine-bearing rods all differ from one another, and probably they
serve to prevent the escape of a victim. There is no hope of release
for the unhappy Acarid or Thysanurid once seized by the palpi of
the Cheyletus ; for in spite of the small size, less than the fortieth of
an inch in extreme length, there probably is not a more ferocious
creature upon earth than this minute, soft-bodied, white Acarus. It
is blind, and only detects its victim by keeping its slender fore-legs,
with long tactile hairs at their ends, constantly trembling in the air
before it ; but this means of information is so accurate and sensitive
that the Cheyletus springs upon its prey with a bound like a micro-
scopic tiger before one would have thought it possible for the tactile
hairs to have touched it. So extraordinary does this appear to the
observer that I have often wondered whether some other sense, such
as smell, may be concerned in it, but we have not any grounds for
asserting that this is the case. Until it makes its bound the Cheyletus
usually seems as inert a creature as a tree-frog does before it suddenly
springs at a fly ; and yet it must possess remarkable powers of loco-
motion, for it has a knack of turning up everywhere, even in places
which have only been exposed for a very short time, which is most
deceptive, and has led to many errors ; thus an eminent English
biologist described it as inhabiting the depths of the sea, having found
it on his dredge almost immediately it came out of water ; and an
equally eminent French entomologist described it as parasitic on the
human brain, having found it on the brain immediately after the skull
had been opened in one of the Paris hospitals.

The anchoring-palpus is closely allied to the raptorial, and indeed

o 2

20

Transactions of the Society.

probably serves both purposes ; tbe terminal joint is articulated to the
end of the penultimate, and folds down like tbe blade of a pocket-
knife, or like tbe falces of spiders ; but the latter close sideways,
whereas those of the Acarus-palpus turn downward. This form is
found in the Water-mites only, and serves, inter alia , for holding-on
purposes. Lastly we come to the singular “ antenniform palpi,” which
are only found in the small sub-family of the Bdellinae ; here the
organs are extremely long and of substantial thickness ; they are not
carried like other palpi, but are raised above the rostrum and usually
point forward and upward, quite in the position of antennae, which
they greatly resemble in appearance. It is difficult to say what
are the functions of these organs ; they are not kept in motion as the
tactile apparatus of an Acarus usually is, and they are not raptorial ;
the mandibles perform that office. They may be auditory.

The mandibles themselves are the next mouth-organs to demand
our attention, and they are very important ; they are the great
feeding-instruments ; and the commonest form of them in the
Acarina is that of a hard, chitinised chela, the movable arm of which
is the lower arm, and works perpendicularly up and down. This is
the almost universal form in the three great families of the Oribatidae,
the Gamasidae, and the Tyroglyphidae ; and yet it is an extremely
uncommon form in other orders of Arachnida ; Galeodes has it, and
some few others ; but as a rule where the mandible is chelate the
chela works sideways ; and in large groups, such as the Spiders, the
terminal joint is articulated to the end of the penultimate ; and even
then it works sideways. Another curious fact connected with this
form of mandible is that in each of the three great families before
named there is one single genus of a few species which has not the
chelate mandible : the explanation of this is the same in each instance,
viz. that the movable arm of the chela has become obsolete, and the
fixed one has been lengthened, thus transforming * a seizing and
crushing instrument into a sawing or piercing one. The genus in the
Oribatidae is Serrarius ; it consists only of two species, and is very
remarkable, because the creatures are so precisely like others in external
appearance that they were unhesitatingly classed in one of the larger
genera, and it was even doubted whether they were good species.
When I was writing my work on the British Oribatidae for the Bay
Society I drew the mandible of each creature ; on dissecting out that
of the only British species of what is now this genus I discovered,
to my astonishment, that it was totally different from every other
known mandible in the family : it is a sawing organ. The exceptional
genus in the Gamasidae is Stylochirns, and here the mandible is a long
piercing-organ ; the second arm of the chela has not entirely dis-
peared, there is just a relic of it left ; but both arms are fixed without
any movable articulation. There is only one knpwn species. The
unique genus of Tyroglyphidae is Histiostoma ; there are several
species, and they are very strange creatures. Many years ago Megnin

21

The President's Address. By A. D. Michael.

observed that in the immense cellars below Paris, which are devoted
to the cultivation of mushrooms, those which had been left a little
too long, so that decay had commenced, were covered with a thin film
of liquid ; and that in this film waded swarms of an opaque white
Acarus, usually almost, but not quite, immersed. The mandibles of
this Mite were sharply serrated but not chelate ; they were darted
in and out alternately with extreme rapidity as the creature slowly
waded along ; a large flagellum on each side of the maxillary lip
beat equally rapidly, and produced a current which transferred the
contents of the cells that the mandibles had sawn through into the
mouth of the destroyer. Canestrini had found an allied creature
before Megnin did, but without observing the peculiar habits of life
above referred to, and had called it Histiostoma. The species are
widely spread, and are a very common accompaniment of the early
stages of vegetable decay.

During the past year (1895) these Acari have acquired a new and
wholly unexpected interest from a paper in the Danish language,
published by A. S. Jensen of Copenhagen. In 1863, Leuckart described
how the Horse-leech ( Aulastomum gulo ) laid its eggs in a capsule
which it buried in the banks of the stream or pond which it inhabited.
In 1885, Bergh investigated and described the somewhat complex
metamorphoses which the leach-larva undergoes within the capsule ;
he also mentioned that he found Mites in the capsule. Jensen
has now carefully traced the life-history of this Mite, which he finds
is a Histiostoma ; it appears from his researches that from the egg
of the Acarus within the capsule emerges the usual hexapod larva,
which soon changes its skin and becomes an octopod nymph which
gradually devours the larval leech and all the albuminoid contents of
the capsule. The nymph then passes into the hypopial stage, in which
it can support greater exposure to changes of temperature, &c., and
can attach itself firmly to insects and other creatures ; the empty
capsule breaks and frees the Hypopus, which avails itself of its power
of fastening on to other creatures to obtain a conveyance to a fresh
capsule ; it then leaves the temporary host, mounts upon the new
capsule, casts the hypopial skin, becoming a fully grown nymph of
the ordinary sort, which penetrates through the wall of the capsule
and assumes the adult form inside ; there reproduction takes place,
and the same life-circle commences anew. The author thinks that
the nymph uses its short, powerful front-legs to dig through the
wall ; but I do not gather that he has seen the process. It is quite
probable that these legs may assist in opening the slit, but, judging
from analogy, which is perhaps dangerous, I should think it probable
that the principal instruments used in cutting through the wall of
the capsule are the same which I have often watched in action, cutting
through vegetable cells ; namely the sharp serrated mandibles with
their rapid backward and forward motion, reminding one of the action
of a key-hole saw.

22

Transactions of the Society.

Somehow, these exceptional forms always seem particularly
interesting ; partly, perhaps, because we speculate how they arose. A
good instance is found in Zetorchestes, a genus of Oribatidae having
one species only : all other Oribatidae are slow crawling creatures, with
all the legs of the same character ; in this one species only the fourth
pair of legs are greatly developed and form leaping organs ; the
creature jumps like a flea ; yet there are not any intermediate steps
known between it and other Oribatidae, which it resembles in the
rest of its anatomy. In all other Oribatidae the legs are arranged in
two groups each of two pairs; in this species only the three front
pairs are crowded together and widely separated from the fourth,
while the acetabula into which the fourth pair are inserted are
positively gigantic compared to those of the other legs and of other
members of the family ; this of course is to give scope for the great
leaping-muscles.

The two remaining mouth-organs, neither of which are invariably
present, are the lingua and the epipharynx ; these project into the
mouth-cavity and spring, the former from the lower, and the latter
from the upper anterior edge of the pharynx. The former is too well
known to need comment here, but I fancy that the epipharynx has
been much neglected, both by entomologists and arachnologists ;
when well developed it is a membranous, often haired or fringed,
penthouse overhanging the entrance to the canal — a sort of portico to
the pharynx. It must surely have some function ; it may be merely to
guide the food, but I fancy it also serves to exclude particles which
are too big for the frequently small lumen of the oesophagus.

The alimentary canal consists, where perfect, of the pharynx, the
oesophagus, the ventriculus with its caeca, the liindgut, and the
Malpighian vessels. The pharynx is the great sucking-organ;
although, of course, considerable variation in details is found in
different families, yet the principle, and the leading features of con-
struction, are singularly constant throughout the Acarina ; indeed, the
affinity is very strong to the arrangement of the corresponding part
in most other Arachnida. The arrangement in the Acarina is as
follows. If you imagine a short and tolerably large chitinous tube
cut in half longitudinally, so as to form two half-tubes like the gutters
which are put round the roofs of houses, and imagine that one is laid
horizontally and the other placed inside it, both having the convex
side downward, and that the edges are fastened together, you have a
tolerably good idea of the chitinous part of the apparatus. The lower
half-tube is usually nearly rigid and fixed ; the upper somewhat
flexible. A number of perpendicular muscles arise from the roof of
the rostrum, and, descending, are inserted by tendinous attachments
along the median line of the dorsal side of the upper half-tube. When
these muscles contract they of course raise the upper half- tube in the
centre, and instead of being concave upwards it becomes convex in
that direction, thus leaving a considerable space between it and the

The President's Address. By A. B. Michael. 23

lower half-tube; as the edges are anchylosed a partial vacuum is
formed in this space ; the food, generally liquid, rushes into it ; the
muscles then relax, the upper half-tube returns by elasticity to its
normal position, thus once more greatly diminishing the space ; but,
as the entrance to the mouth is closed by a valve, the food contained
in the lumen of the pharynx is driven backward through the oeso-
phagus into the stomach. In the Oribatidae, which swallow some
solid food, the lower half-tube also is more or less flexible, and can be
bent down by muscles arising from the floor of the rostrum, thus still
further enlarging the hollow of the pharynx. In a paper which I
read before the Zoological Society this year I described what seemed
to me an interesting variation which I lately discovered in the
anatomy of the pharynx, in the new species of Water-Mite ( Thy as
petrophilus) before referred to. In the Acari a considerable propor-
tion of the muscles are attached to their point of insertion by tendons,
each muscle being attached by a single tendon ; this is usually the
case with the muscles which raise the roof of the pharynx ; but in
this particular species these levator muscles are broad and strap-like ;
each is attached to the roof of the pharynx by six to eight short
tendons, slightly radiating ; it will be seen at once what a grasp of
the surface to be raised this gives to the muscle.

In some Gamasidae there is a substantial variation in the detail of
the pharynx ; the lumen of the organ in transverse section is like a
tri-radiate sponge-spicule instead of the simple crescent ; and not only
are there distensor muscles inserted into the roof, but also in the sides
of the pharynx ; while the constrictor muscles pass from the apex of
one ray to that of the other, i. e. from one ridge to the next in the
uncut organ.

The oesophagus is a long but simple tube running longitudinally
right through the centre of the brain ; it is of small diameter in the
predatory species which only suck blood, such as Trombidium, but is
larger in vegetable-feeders such as the Oribatidse, in which family it
is generally provided with numerous ring-muscles.

The ventriculus, or stomach, with its cseca, is the great digesting-
organ, but the relative importance of the central viscus and its caeca
varies in different families; the cseca are not usually numerous, as
they are in many Spiders and some other Arachnids, but they are
often very large. Taking the Oribatidse, which are vegetable-feeders,
as a type to start with, the ventriculus itself is always a sac of very
substantial size, usually provided with two large csecal appendages
directed backwards ; these in such a species as Nothrus theleproctus
may be longer, and the two together broader, than the central organ ;
they are apparently partly food -containing, and partly glandular
structures ; and, in many Acari, exhibit peristaltic movements. In
the Gamasidse (animal feeders) the ventriculus itself is generally quite
a small organ, which, in effect, only forms a centre of communication
between the caeca, which are more numerous than in the Oribatidae.

24

Transactions of the Society.

being ordinarily four to eight, and of various lengths, some being very
long and even extending into the legs as in Pycnogonida, but not to
the extent found in those very small-bodied creatures. In the great
predatory group which comprises the Trombidiidae, Hydrachnida?,
Bdellinae, Cheyletinae, &c., the caeca are as a rule short and shallow,
and ill-defined from the ventriculus itself, which covers the greater
part of the dorsal surface of the abdomen ; but in my investigation of
Thyas petrojohilus, one of the Hydrachnidae, last year, I was surprised
to find it possessed of a ventriculus, which, as far as I know, is quite
unique among the Acarina hitherto investigated. It may be described
as a hollow square, the outer edges of the square being lobed and the
inner straight ; if it were round and we could call it a flat ring its
form would perhaps be more readily understood ; but it is not round,
and hollow square is the only expression. Dorso-ventral muscles and
some of the abdominal organs pass through the hollow of the square.
The lumen is quite continuous throughout. This is a very remark-
able ventriculus ; yet if we consider I think we can imagine how it
may have arisen ; suppose we start with a small ventriculus such as
that of Gamasus, and instead of its rather numerous caeca give it the
two large caeca of Nothrus theleproctus ; these turn inward a little
posteriorly ; if they were prolonged they would touch each other at
their ends, which might well coalesce ; we have then only to suppose
the coalesced part to be pierced through, so as to make a continuous
lumen, and we have the ventriculus of Thyas petrophilus ; it is true
that we must suppose the coalescence to be so complete as not to leave
a trace of the join.

The hindgut is the last division of the canal, and is probably seen
in its typical conditions in the Oribatidae ; the ventriculus is followed
by a short, ill-defined tract which may be considered to be a small
intestine, then we have a well-marked and perfectly distinct colon and
rectum. In other families the small intestine is mostly lost. In the
Gamasidae and Tyroglyphidae two so-called malpighian vessels enter
the canal just in the narrow constriction between colon and rectum ;
in the latter family they are short and small, in the former long and
important, often running forward to the very front of the body, where
they end blindly. A serious question arises whether these malpighian
vessels of the Acarina, and some other Arachnida, can be considered
to be either the homologues or analogues of the tubes which bear the
same name in Insects ; in that order these organs spring from the
canal immediately behind the pyloric end of the ventriculus, that is to
say, at the very commencement of the hindgut ; in the Acari they
spring from behind the termination of the colon, immediately adjoin-
ing the rectum, even if they be not processes of the rectum itself ; thus
the homology is certainly doubtful. As to the analogy which has
probably governed the name, at one time it was considered that the
Malpighian vessels of Insects had a hepatic function ; for a considerable
number of years, however, this idea has been abandoned, and com-

The President's Address. By A. D. Michael. 25

parative physiologists have been agreed that they are excretory
(urinary) organs. Now there is not any doubt whatever that the
malpighian vessels of Acari and some other Arachnida are excretory ;
they are filled with the unmistakable opaque, white, crystalline matter,
and with that only ; hence the analogy. But Prof. Lowne, in the
recent edition of his work on the Blow-fly, is inclined to return to
the hepatic function in Insects ; if he he correct, what becomes of the
analogy ?

If we turn to the great Acarine group before spoken of, of which
Trombidium may be considered the type, a very interesting question
arises as to the hind-gut and Malpighian vessels. In 1878, Croneberg,
in his great work in Russian upon Eylais extendens, one of the
Hydrachnidae, and also in 1879, in his memoir on Trombidium,
pointed out that in this group the hind-gut and Malpighian vessels
were not separate organs, but were represented by a single large tube
running straight down the middle of the body in the ordinary position
of the hind-gut, and ending in what in other Mites would be called
the anus ; but 'that this tube always contains the white excretory
matter only, and never any trace of food-balls. Croneberg positively
asserted that in both creatures the ventriculus ends blindly and has
not any connection with the excretory tube. Henkin, in his work on
Trombidium, agreed with Croneberg as to the contents and position of
the organ, and confessed that he had tried in vain to find any connec-
tion with the ventriculus ; still he thought that it must exist some-
where or at some time, and that the excretory sac must be regarded
as a hind-gut. In my study of Thyas I found myself much in
Henkin’s position ; there was no doubt that the organ which one
would be inclined to call the hind- gut was filled solely with the white
excretory matter, without a' trace of the balls of half-digested food
which are so conspicuous in the hind-guts of other Acari, and I
utterly failed to find any connection with the ventriculus ; moreover,
the excretory organ, for such it certainly is, whether it be a modified
hind-gut or not, considerably overlaps the ventriculus, and a good
length of the anterior end of the former lies on the dorsal surface of
the latter. On the whole, one would be inclined to say that this so-
called Malpighian organ was neither more nor less than the homologue
of the hind-gut, and that in this group of creatures it had become
modified so as to be chiefly or wholly an excretory organ, either with-
out any communication with the mid-gut, or with a connection so fine
or so temporary that it has not yet been detected, notwithstanding
the careful searches made by several anatomists. Against this view
there is one strong argument : in 1888, Schaub published a paper
which emanated from the laboratory of Prof. Claus at Vienna; this
paper dealt with the anatomy of Hydrodroma, one of the Hydrachnidae.
In it Schaub agrees with Croneberg that the organ which ends in
what is called the anus has not any communication with the ventriculus ;
but he says that this so-called anus is not the anus at all ; that there is

26

Transactions of the Society .

another much smaller opening anterior in position ; and that a perfectly
plain hind-gut, quite different to the Malpighian organ, runs from the
ventriculus to this second opening. There is no doubt of the existence
of the small second opening in Hydrodroma, for Haller also has figured
it. If Schaub be correct in saying that a hind-gut runs to it, there is
an end of the theory that the Malpighian organ is the homologue of
the hind-gut; but no one except Schaub has Over recorded seeing
this second hind-gut in any of the great Tro mbidium-growp, where
alone the difficulty exists ; and it is not the only point in Schaub’ s
paper where he differs from all other Acarine anatomists. The strangest
part is that, a year later, Schaub published a second paper on Ponta-
rachna, another of the Hydrachnidae ; in it he drew and described a
single opening only, the ordinary one, which he called the anus, just
as other writers had done, without saying what viscus ran to it, or
what was its connection, if any, with the mid-gut.

Finally, the question arises whether we ought to consider, as we
ordinarily do, that for the mid-gut to end blindly and not be in com-
munication with any anus is something so utterly against the course
of nature, as to be entirely incredible, even in animals like Trombidium
and the Hydrachnidae, which live entirely by sucking the blood of
other creatures. It is certain that Spiders and Gamasids live in the
same way, and yet have a functional hind-gut, and there is a tradi-
tion that Prof. Owen, when presiding over a meeting where some one
described a creature with an alimentary canal that ended blindly,
suggested that doubtless there was blindness somewhere, but it was not
in the alimentary canal of the animal. On the other hand, some para-
sites which live constantly bathed in the blood or wholly assimilable
fluids of their hosts, do not possess a functional anus. Swammerdam
figured the alimentary canal of the bee-larva as continuous, yet recent
eminent writers, Dohrn, Leuckart, and others, have denied this, and
assert it to consist of a mesenteron opening only by the oesophagus
and entirely disconnected from the proctodaeum. Dohrn extends the
observation to larval ants, and although Lowne is inclined to differ
as to the precise stage of the life-history at which this occurs, yet it
seems fairly well established that there are considerable periods iu the
existence of some immature Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, and Diptera,
when the alimentary canal is not continuous from mouth to anus ; it
may therefore be just possible that in the Trombidium group, that
condition may persist to a later period, it being a case of creatures
living entirely upon assimilable fluids and not requiring to pass solid
dejecta.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally inyertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others.

*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBUATA.

a. Embryology. f

Present State of the Question as to the Origin and Inheritance of
Acquired Characters.^ — Dr. F. Rohde begins by observing that Darwin’s
influence has been gradually saturating medicine. The physiologist,
pathologist, and even the practitioner, now recognise the need of being
aware of what is known and unknown as to variation and heredity. His
book is intended to help them. After discussing what heredity means,
he gives a clear history of recent biological discussion in regard to
heredity. The various theories may be grouped in a series between
the extremes of pangenesis and the continuity of the germ-plasm.
Turning to actual concrete cases in pathology, to nervous diseases in
particular, he admits that acquired characters stimulate the germ-plasm
to variability. The amount of this will depend on the extent, duration,
and intensity of the somatic influence. What is inherited from neurotic
parents is predisposition, a sensitive debility. Though it cannot be
said that acquired pathological characters may never be transmitted, the
probability is that all transmissible diseases and malformations have a
germinal origin.

Heredity and Rejuvenescence^ — Prof. C. Minot republishes an old
article (1885) which has escaped attention, and adds to it two chapters
on death and rejuvenescence.

In opposition to the view that development is the outcome of a play

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development and Reproduction, and allied
subjects.

X ‘ Ueber den gegenwartigen Stand der Frage nach der Entsteliung und Ver-
erbung individueller Eigenschaften und Krankheiten,’ Jena, 1895, 8vo, xx. and
149 pp. § Biol. Centralbl., xv. (1895) pp. 571-87.

28 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of forces wholly predetermined by the constitution of the ovum, Minot
maintains that the formative forces are distributed through all the parts.
The evidence for this is found in the facts of regeneration, in the occa-
sional doubling of parts, and in the phenomena of asexual reproduction,
wherein it appears that each part shares in the essence of the organism,
is a sample or model of it, and tends partially or perfectly to reproduce it.

The death of Protozoa is not homologous with the death of Metazoa ;
death for a Protozoon means the destruction of a cell, for a Metazoon the
breaking up of an alliance, when in the course of cell-generations some
which are essential grow old or weak or go out of gear. Weismann
has not disproved the occurrence of senescence in Protozoa. “ He misses
the real problem.”

Larvae, living freely, are more primitive than embryos which are
nourished by yolk within the egg. All the lower animals have only
larvae, and yolk appears and increases very gradually in the animal
series. But larvae show no special cells which keep up the continuity
of germinal stuff; they are thoroughly differentiated.. Indeed, germ-
plasm in Weismann’s sense does not exist. The development of an
organism depends not upon material contained in special cells, but on a
particular state or stage of the organisation. In short, all cells are
potentially reproductive or morphogenetic, and may become really so in
various conditions, of which the fertilisation of the ovum is only one.

The great difference between embryo and larva lies in the fact that
the former have a longer period for the multiplication of indifferent
cells — an adaptation securing progress in organisation.

Rejuvenescence is one of the chief vital phenomena. The rejuvenated
state of a cell is marked by the preponderance of nucleus over cytoplasm,
by the undifferentiated state of the latter, and by the capacity for rapid
multiplication. Somatic cells are those in which the activity of heredity
is inhibited by senescence or differentiation, but in certain conditions
they may be rejuvenated, and show more or less reproductive power.

In the origin of a new part there are two stages — the formation of
the rudiment, and its differentiation. The undifferentiated state is not
useful ; it occurs in virtue of a post-selection or Nachauslese , which
affects the result, just as natural selection affects not the mother wasp
which lays its eggs in a leaf, but the larva which is hatched there.

Minot, as he said in 1893, regards the recapitulation theory as
scarcely half true, wherein he agrees with Sedgwick. He asks how
characters disappear ; to say “ by disuse ” is no explanation, and “ pan-
mixia ” is an hypothesis founded on nothing. The loss of ancestral
characters in an embryo is brought about by post-selection, the cells
remaining in the young or rejuvenated state, so that they subsequently
bring about a new differentiation.

Minot regards Weismann’s theory as mystical, without basis of fact,
illogical, misleading, and unscientific. It would be interesting to know
what Weismann thinks of Minot’s.

Formative Stimuli in Development.* — Herr Curt Herbst has
already shown at length that “directive stimuli” play an important
part in developmental processes ; he now proceeds to discuss formative

* Biol. Centralbl., xv. (1895) pp. 721-15, 753-72, 792-805.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

29

or morphogenic stimuli. All external factors which induce qualitatively
distinct formative processes are morphogenic stimuli. Correlation means
the induction of specific formative changes (qualitative and quantitative)
by internal factors. These internal correlations must be distinguished
from growth-compensations, where one organ exerts an indirect influence
on the size of another, and from growth-modifications (. Alterations -
erscheinungen ), where one organ indirectly affects the quality of growth
in another.

Under external formative stimuli or the induction of specific forma-
tive changes by external factors, Herbst treats of the action of light
(photomorphosis), the action of gravity (baryomorphosis), the action of
contact (thigmomorphosis), the action of pressures and strains (mechano-
morphosis), the action of chemical substances (chemomorphosis), the
influence of habitat in water and air (hydro- and aeromorphosis), and
the influence of oxygen (oxygenomorphosis).

After a brief discussion of internal formative stimuli, the author
passes to a general physiological discussion of what is meant by a specific
reaction, of the duration and intensity of stimuli, of the dependence of
the reaction on the developmental stage reached by the organism, of
the mechanism of reaction, and of the various worth of different stimuli.
His general summing up is still to follow.

Hertwig’s Theory of Development.* —Dr. F. v. Wagner has some
criticisms to offer on Prof. 0. Hertwig’s theory of development. His
contention is that the real causes of development are internal, in the
constitution of the fertilised ovum, and that this is the product of
the ages, an “ TJrsacTiendepot .” What are called external causes are
conditions, — of normal growth if they are favourable, i. e. if they
are within the narrow limits for which each ovum is adapted, of
inhibition or malformation if they are beyond these limits.

Hertwig speaks of the food of the embryo serving for growth and
development, of the “ Anlage ” growing and changing continuously at
the expense of its food ; but Wagner thinks even this innocent statement
inaccurate, — the nutrition of the embryo, like that of the adult, serves
for self-preservation.

To Wagner the causes of development are only of one kind, those
dependent on the constitution of the germ-cells; Hertwig confuses
conditions and causes. Regarded causally, development is in all cases
an “ evolution,” not an “ epigenesis.” It seems to us, however, that
much of this discussion is only logomachy.

Dynamical Hypothesis of Inheritance.f — The late Prof. J. A. Ryder
was a strong opponent of the preformationist doctrine of development,
and one of his last essays was a forcible criticism of this. Although
Weismann, with his theory of the continuity of the germ-plasm, is far
removed from Democritus and his successors down to Darwin, who have
been supporters of pangenesis doctrine, he is like Democritus in his
preformationist theory of determinants and biophors. “ To these he
ascribes powers little short of miraculous, in that he asserts that these

* Biol. Centralbl., xv. (1895) pp. 777-84, 805-15.

f Wood’s Holl Biological Lectures, Boston, 1895, pp. vii. and 287 ; 2nd lecture,
pp. 28-54 (4 figs.).

30

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

infinitesimal germinal particles grow and divide just at the right time
and order, and control development so as to build up anew the arrange-
ment of parts as seen in the parent-type.” But progress lies rather in
the resolute refusal to recognise anything in the nature of preformed
organs or gemmules, except the actual chemical molecules.

“ The organism during every phase of its existence is a molecular
mechanism of inconceivable complexity, the sole motive force of which
is the energy that may be set free by the co-ordinated, transformation of
some of its molecules by metabolism.” If not, the principle of the con-
servation of energy does not hold true for organisms. The detailed
organisation of living matter must be the result of the operation of forces
liberated by its own substance during its growth by means of metabolism.
The parts of the whole apparatus are kept in a condition of continuous
moving equilibrium by external agencies.

Variations arise by the blending of molecular dynamical systems of
different initial potential strengths, by the conjugation of sex-cells (re-
ciprocal integration), and by means of variations in the interactions of
such resultant systems with their surroundings.

It is an unwarrantable assumption that only some of the matter in
the germ is concerned in hereditary transmission, and that the rest is
passive. For the germ is a single whole, a dynamical system.

It seems i£ as if the permutations, transformations, and the dynamical
readjustment of the metameres of the molecules of living matter were
the source of its varying potentialities as manifested in its protean
changes of specific form and function.” Similarly, in the germ “ the
initial changes in the configuration of the complex molecular system
must dynamically determine within certain variable limits, under chang-
ing conditions, the nature of all its subsequent transformations. The
‘ ids,’ e idants,’ &c., are not causes but mere effects, produced as passing
shadows, so to speak, in the operation of the perfectly continuous pro-
cesses of metabolism incident to development.” All the forces of
development are ultimately metabolic in their origin.

Any assumed isotropy of the germ is inconsistent with fact ; it is
“ seolotropic,” i.e. different along each radius. But the “ seolotropy ” of
the molecular structure of the germ is followed by a gradually increas-
ing simplification of molecular structure of organs as these are built up.

“Corpuscular doctrines of inheritances are merely a. survival in
philosophical hypothesis of a pre-Aristotelian deus ex machina. The
dynamical hypothesis rejects the deus ex machina , but finds a real
mechanism in the germ that is an automaton, but that is such only in
virtue of its structure and the potential energy stored up within it.
Every step in the transformation of such a mechanism is mechanically
conditioned within limits by what has preceded it, and which in turn so
conditions, within limits, what is to follow, and so on for ever through a
succession of descendants.”

Further Remarks on the Cell-Theory.* — Mr. A. Sedgwick adds to
the remarks which he has already made on the cell- theory ,| and also
offers a reply to the criticisms of Mr. G. C. Bourne. J Mr. Sedgwick
points out that the assertion that organisms present a constitution which

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1895) pp. 331-7.
t See this Journal, 1395, p. 29. | Tom. cit., p. 610.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

31

may be described as cellular is not a theory at all. It is a statement
of fact, and no more a theory than is the assertion that sunlight is
composed of all the colours of the spectrum. The theory comes in when
we try to account for the cellular constitution of organisms, and it is
this theoretical part of the “ cell-theory,” and the point of view it makes
many of us assume, that he condemns. Mr. Sedgwick is not at issue
with the word cell, for structures most conveniently called cells
undoubtedly exist, and he fully agrees that the phenomenon called
cell-formation is very general in organic life ; but at the same time he
bolds with Sachs and many others that it is not of primary significance.
The author’s work on Peripatus first led him to doubt the validity of
the current view of the origin of the Metazoan body. In the first place,
he found that in some forms there is no complete division of the ovum,
und on examining the facts he discovered that such forms were more
numerous than had been supposed. It therefore appeared that, in some
Metazoa, the ovum divided into completely separate cells, while in
others it did not so divide. The question then arose, which of these
methods is primitive. The answer naturally was, the complete division,
because this fitted in with our ideas as to the supposed evolution of the
Metazoa from a colonial Protozoan ; but on reflection this difficulty arose :
the individuals of colonial Protozoa are in protoplasmic connection,
while the cells of the completely segmented ova are separate. In an
important particular, therefore, the parallel between the ontogeny and
the phylogeny breaks down. It was possible, therefore, to entertain the
view that the differentiation of the Metazoa had been effected in a con-
tinuous multinucleated plasmatic mass, and that the cellular structure
had arisen by the special arrangement of the nuclei. Since his researches
on Peripatus, Mr. Sedgwick has paid attention to Vertebrates, and has
found that a number of embryonic processes have beeh wrongly described.
He thought he could trace the errors to the dominating influence of the
cell-theory in its modern form. A theory which led to obvious errors
must surely be wrong, and Mr. Sedgwick consequently denounced it ;
but this denunciation in no way implied a failure to recognise the so-called
cellular structure of organisms, or their origin from the one-celled ovum.
Ou the contrary, what he was led to, was a reconsideration of the
question, what is the meaning of the predominance of the structure
called cellular? In answer to Mr. Bourne’s criticism, that he cannot
ascertain from Mr. Sedgwick’s article the latter’s views on the cell-
theory, it is asked why he should expect or wish to discover them.
Mr. Sedgwick’s remarks were simply directed to show the shortcomings
of the theory with regard to certain anatomical facts. He thinks that
Mr. Bourne has been unfortunate in selecting Prof. Haeckel as an ally,
in consequence of his having completely failed to grasp the German
naturalist’s meaning. He points out that much of Mr. Bourne’s essay
is taken up with discussing the meaning of the word cell, and he asks
if it is likely that, when so much discussion is required to arrive at the
meaning of the word cell, there will be simple agreement as to the theory
which is supposed to explain and account for the so-called cellular
constitution of organisms. In fact, he thinks that Mr. Bourne is in
substantial agreement with him in his condemnation of the theoretical
part of the cell-theory.

32

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Progressive Differentiation of Cells in the Course of Development.*'
— Prof. Nussbaum begins his discussion by noting that no amount of
external influence will rear a duck out of a hen’s egg. Ova are
specialised. Yet as recent work shows, they can be modified not a
little ; experiment must decide the limits of this modifiability. Simi-
larly, at different times, and to different degrees, somatic cells become
specialised. According to Pfliiger, the frog’s ovum is isotropic, either
the dark or the white half may form the central nervous system.
According to Roux, the head and tail ends are defined by the point
at which the spermatozoon enters. The results reached by Driesch,
Wilson, and others point to relative isotropy. But at a certain stage,
sooner or later, specialisation occurs ; certain layers of cells can only
form certain organs. This is illustrated in reference to the development
of the eye and other organs. But here again there is great plasticity,
the limits of which experiment must define ; and Nussbaum refers to
various regeneration-experiments which we have from time to time
recorded. He believes in gradual loss of many-sidedness on the part of
the somatic cells, in differentiating cell-division, in the course of which
functions and potentialities are restricted. And this restriction is in
proportion to the grade of phyletic and ontogenetic development.

Metamerism of Vertebrate Head.f — Mr. A. Sewertzoff gives an
account of the development of the occipital region of the Lower
Vertebrates, in connection with the question of the metamerism of the
head. He comes to the conclusion that there was a time when the head
of the ancestors of existing Vertebrates was segmented. The metameres
of the head were in their essential characters similar to the metameres
of the trunk. They consisted of myotomes, and were innervated by the
ventral roots of spinal-cord-like nerves. There exists a complete series
of intermediate stages between typical head-segments and typical trunk-
segments ( Acijpenser ). The relation of the head-myotomes of the head-
nerves, for example, to the vagus nerve, is the same as that between
trunk-myotomes and the spinal nerves. So like are the head-segments
to the trunk-segments that it is difficult to recognise any fundamental
distinction between them. The resemblance between the several somites
of the head in different groups of Vertebrates is due to this. The
somites which lie in front of the second somite of the metaotic region
of the Urodeles are segments common to all the Craniata, and are
consequently primitive head-myotomes. Succeeding segments which
lay immediately behind them, and primitively belonged to the trunk,
gradually became parts of the head ; first the occipital arch and the
myotome which lies in front of it. The Urodeles have remained at
this stage. In the Anura another myotome is annexed. Finally, wre
have in Fishes, Sauropsida, and Mammalia, the most complete expression
of this process, so that in them a whole series of trunk- segments has
entered into the constitution of the head. The evolution of the hinder
part of the head has therefore followed the disappearance of the meta-
merism which extends from before backwards, and to the gradual
conversion of the anterior segments of the trunk into the hinder part of
the head.

* SB. Niederrhein. Gesellsch. Bonn, 1894, pp. 81-94.
t Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 1895, pp. 186-284 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

33

Development of the Occipital Segment.* — Prof. Cb. Debierre has
studied this in man and mammals, and emphasises the essential
similarity of tlie occipital region in all cases, its intracartilaginous
origin, its composition out of four parts which remain separate or fuse
in variable degree, and various other facts. He traces the relation of
the embryonic metameres to the adult skull; but his work is corroboratory,
not novel.

Abnormalities in Human Development-! — Prof. C. Giacomini adds
other cases to the series of teratological phenomena which he has de-
scribed, and proposes the following classification : —

I. Those in which there is an embryo which retains its relations
with the membranes.

a. Atrophic forms, in which the internal and external struc-
ture is profoundly modified, but without obliteration
of organs.

(3. Nodular forms, in which microscopic examination shows
no trace of organs.

II. Those in which the embryo is wanting.

a. In which the embryo has disappeared in situ , leaving
(a) all the foetal annexes, or (h) all but the chorion.

(3. In which the embryo has left its cavity, passing (a) from
the amnion into the external coelom, (6) away from all
the membranes, (c) away from all but the chorion,
( d ) producing destruction of the chorion.

Dentition of Mammals.! — Prof. W. Leche has completed the first
part of his extensive memoir on the development of the teeth in
Mammals. He has investigated 27 different genera , often in 7-11 stages.
We shall restrict our reference to some of his general results.

The dental groove stands in no causal relation to the origin or de-
velopment of the teeth, but is a transitory epithelial structure. So the
lip-groove has nothing directly to do with the enamel ridge, and any
union of the two is secondary. The rudiments of teeth and of skeletal
parts are quite independent ; thus teeth rooted in the premaxiila may be
homologous -with teeth in the maxilla. The enamel or dental ridge — a
unified ridge of epithelium — is the beginning of tooth development ; a
distinction of primary and secondary ridges cannot be upheld ; a stage
with free papillae is very rare. The ridge causes an elevation on the
free surface of the buccal epithelium, but immediately grows down into
the mesoderm, and where it goes deep enough causes a thickening
therein. A proliferation, exclusively or mainly to the labial side, forms
the enamel-germ which passes through bud-like, cap-like, and bell-
shaped stages. At the last stage, as the enamel pulp arises, the germ
begins to be constricted off from the ridge, and this emancipation is a
necessary condition for the origin of a new enamel germ, and the more
important the free end of the enamel ridge, the greater is the predis-
position to form a new tooth. Only when the end of the ridge is swollen
into a club or bud and surrounded by a dental sac, can a realised rudi-

* Joum. de l’Anat. Physiol., xxxi. (1895) pp. 385-426 (2 pis.),
t Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xxx. (1895) pp. 642-63.

X Biblioth. Zool. (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 17, 1895, 160 pp. (19 pis.).

1896 d

34

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ment be spoken of. In certain cases the whole depth of the enamel
ridge passes into the enamel germ, and at such a place there is usually
no succession. It seems that the continuauce of a connection between
the buccal epithelium and the enamel ridge implies a continued pro-
ductivity in the latter. The replacement teeth are not derivatives of
the milk-teeth, but both arise (the younger to the lingual side) from the
common ridge.

A dentition is a generation of teeth, and Leche supports the view
that the second set was probably first acquired by the placental Mammals*
The serial succession in time and space was a gradual result following
on the differentiation of individual components. Reduction follows
either from intense division of labour and specialisation of teeth, or from
change of diet. On the whole, monophyodontism in mammals points to
the suppression of the first dentition. Though the arguments are not
conclusive, the probabilities are that the molars belong to the first
dentition.

There may be representatives of a third dentition (hedgehog, seal,,
man), an interesting case of the acquisition of new parts. But there are
also hints of a pre-milk dentition (hedgehog, opossum, &c.). Leche
gives evidence in favour of the position that there may be an increase in
the number of teeth in Mammals, while most believe only in the possi-
bility of decrease, and he ends by summing up the arguments against
the theory of coalescence — the origin of multituberculate teeth from the
fusion of simple cones.

Questions concerning Dentition.* — Prof. W. Leche agrees with
Klikentbal in regarding the ante-molar teeth of Placentals, except
pm. 3, as persistent milk-teeth, the replacement-teeth being represented
merely by enamel germs lying to the tongue side of the persisting teeth*
But he has two questions to ask : (1) Why does pm. 3 alone develop as
a replacement-tooth ? and (2) Are the enamel germs in a progressive or
in a retrogressive state ? Leche supposes, in answer to the first question,
that the development of a suctorial mouth, characteristic of all young
Marsupials, has inhibited the second dentition. He differs from Kiikentkal
in regarding the enamel germs as incipient rather than vestigial : they
last longer than the enamel ridge ; it is difficult to see why a second
set should have been suppressed rather than the first ; in Erinaceus and
Phoca teeth sometimes develop from similar bud-like swellings to the
lingual side of the persisting teeth ; in the Jurassic Triconodon serrula
only the last premolar has a successor, just as in modern Marsupials.
Leche goes on to criticise Kukenthal’s interpretation of the buds as.
vestiges.

Nor does he agree with the view that the teeth of Odontoceti are
milk-teeth, noting that in other cases of monojdiyodont dentition the
first set disappear, and that Zeuglodon had a typical succession of teeth.
But he leaves the question open. The contrast between Leche’s views
and Kukenthal’s comes in general terms to this, that the latter allows
only retrogressive reduction in the number of dentitions in Mammals,
while the former sees evidence of progressive increase as well.

Development of Teeth in Insectivora.j* — Mr. M. F. Woodward,
from a study of the teeth of various Insectivores, comes to the conclu-

* Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 270-6. f Rep. Brit. Ass., 1895, p. 736.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

35

sion that two sets of calcified teeth are generally developed in Mammals
of this order, and that it is characteristic of them to exhibit a tendency
towards a reduction of the milk-set, with early development of the
replacing dentition.

Histogenesis of the Pancreas.* * * § — Dr. E. Laguesse has studied this
in the sheep. On the primitive pancreatic diverticulum solid buds
arise which ramify irregularly and form the primitive varicose strands.
These anastomose, are hollowed by the formation and enlargement of
intercellular cavities, and form the primitive pancreatic tubes. But
still these exhibit solid anastomoses, which only gradually disappear.
Besides the solid buds which form the first “ islets of Langerlians,” they
give origin to numerous hollow buds, which enlarge, and become thinner
in their walls. At the ends there are lobed vesicles, and along the
tubes there are scattered elements, isolated or grouped, which may be
regarded as the precursors of the true secretory cells.

Development of Bladder and XJrinogenitai Sinus.t — Herr Keibel
has followed the modelling method in a study of a series of human
embryos, and has generally corroborated his previous conclusion that
the bladder does not arise from the allantois or allantoic duct, but in
part at least from the endodermic cloaca. The latter is divided by two
lateral folds, forming a frontal partition, into the ventral bladder and
urinogenital sinus, and a dorsal gut region. The details are, however,
too complex for brief summary.

The author also directs attention t to his models of pig embryos,
which shed light on the closure of the medullary canal in the head
region, the rudiments of the optic vesicles, the mouth, the visceral clefts,
the auditory sac, and the first protovertebra.

Embryology of Bats.§ — Prof. M. Duval has especially studied
Vespertilio murinus. He has some interesting notes to make on their
reproductive habits ; thus, for most European species, it seems now
well established that copulation occurs before the winter, that the
sperms remain throughout the winter stored up in the uterus, and that
the development of the egg does not begin until the following spring
after the animal awakens. In the great majority of cases ovulation
and fertilisation occur in April ; in exceptional cases they seem to occur
in winter. Moreover, young forms which were not mature in autumn,
have been known to pair in spring.

The uterus of the virgin female has two equal cornua ; in the mature
animal the cornua dilate with a slight predominance of the right, after
fecundation the uterus increases in volume and the right horn is more
and more accented. It is in the right that the ovum is fixed. The
changes in the form of the uterus are mainly due to the hypertrophy
of the mucosa and its glands ; the uterine epithelium loses its cilia when
the ovum descends, and as the latter becomes fixed the epithelium entirely
disappears.

Gestation is always (in 300 cases) in the right horn of the uterus,

* Journ. de l’Anat. Physiol., xxxi. (1895) pp. 475-500 (19 figs.).

t Verh. Anat. Ges., ix. (1895) in Anat. Anzeig. Erganzungslieft, x. (1895)^

pp. 189-99 (4 pis.). t Tom. cit , pp. 199-201.

§ Journ. de l’Anat. Physiol., xxxi. (1895) pp. 93-160 (1 pi. and 9 figs.).

D 2

36

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

but tbe ovum may come from either ovary. There is only a slight
majority in favour of the right ovary.

The earliest stage in development which M. Duval observed was
the four-cell stage. The cells resulting from the division of the micro-
meres form the ectoderm and grow round the macromeres which form
the endoderm. A meta-gastrula results — an external sphere of ectoderm
and an internal mass of endoderm. But although the author meantime
regards this as the gastrula, he admits the difficulty of establishing the
homology, and promises to return to the subject.

In a continuation * of the above memoir, Duval describes first the
extension of the endodermic mass. The blastodermic vesicle becomes
didermic, but this state does not at first exist in the inferior hemisphere,
the centre of which remains for a time monodermic — that is to say,
ectodermic. The formation of the amniotic mass is then discussed ; it
begins as a massive thickening of ectoderm, but this, instead of being
hollowed out by a closed central cavity, becomes irregularly broken
and thereafter forms a cupola by folds of the familiar type. With the
growth of the amniotic folds the appearance of a differentiated mesoderm
is associated.

The fixing of the ovum is accomplished by a process very like what
occurs in Kodents and Carnivores. The ectoderm is closely applied to
the uterine mucosa, whose epithelium has disappeared ; the ectoderm
elements penetrate the mucous tissue and surround the capillaries, whose
walls are remarkably modified.

Gestation of Vespertilio niurinus.f — M. P. Nolf has investigated
the modifications of the uterine mucous membrane which take place
during the gestation of this bat. He finds that the muscular fibres at
the level of the placenta tend to take, during gestation, a circular
direction. In the glandular part of the mucous membrane the superficial
layers of the dermis rapidly undergo necrosis, while the deeper layers
are converted into an epithelium-like tissue, which is likewise destined
to disappear later on. In the deeper region there is produced, before
the reception of the blastocysts, a general vascular dilatation, which is
accompanied by the formation of vessels. The uterine dermis is dif-
ferently modified in the immediate neighbourhood of the placenta, and
in the deeper layers in them there are formed two layers, an upper one
which is called the paraplacental layer, and a deeper one which is called
epithelioid. The latter has at first, however, a fibrous appearance. Its
elements, after active proliferation, ultimately die down, necrosis begin-
ning in the part which is in relation to the paraplacental layer. The
cells of this latter layer are arranged in a way which differs at different
stages of gestation. These variations are probably due to variations in
the rapidity of the growth of the placenta. The vessels of this latter
are surrounded by the plasmodioblast, with the exception of the largest
vessels. The endothelial cells of the surrounded vessels fall into the
vascular cavity at a time when they show no trace of degeneration, and
they are carried away by the blood. The endothelium of the venous
vessels undergoes considerable hypertrophy in parts ; its elements
appear to be leucocytes. Later on, the modified cells of this endothelium

* Journ. de l’Anat. Physiol., xxxi. (1895) pp. 427-74 (2 pis. and 2 figs.).

f Bull. Acad. Beige, lxv. (1895) pp. 206-40.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

37

fall into the blood-cavity, and the venous wall is formed afresh by a
simple epithelium. There is a complete parallelism between the wealth
of the blood in the leucocytes and the formation of the thickenings of
the venous wall. It is probably due to an increase in size of the venous
plexus by the formation of buds, which become connected with the
neighbouring buds and are ultimately hollowed out. The cells of the
paraplacental tissue have a phagocytic function. In the later periods
of gestation the epithelium which invests the uterine cavity undergoes
the modifications which have been described by M. Van Beneden.

Embryo of Platypus.* * * § — Messrs. J. P. Hill and C. J. Martin publish
a full account of their observations on a Platypus embryo from the
intra-uterine egg.j" They raise our hopes in stating that, as they now
know the exact breeding season of Platypus in certain convenient
localities in New South Wales, they are going to endeavour to obtain
the stages intermediate between the earliest we now possess and the
embryo described in the present paper. The authors’ abstract was so
full that it will suffice if we now content ourselves with referring the
student to their details.

A Strange Enclosure in a Hen’s Egg4 — Herr W. v. Nathusius de-
scribes a remarkable body from a hen’s egg which contained cartilage,
bone, and connective tissue. After bringing together a number of other
cases of a similar nature, he gives a detailed description of the enclosure.
It is most to our purpose, however, to give prominence to his suggestion
or conclusion that the body owes its origin to a double-yolked or twin
ovum which has developed parthenogenetically and abnormally, and given
rise to something comparable to an ovarian cyst in Homo.

Gastrulation in Xteptiles.§ — Dr. E. Mehnert agrees with Kupffer and
others that gastrulation in Reptiles is introduced by an invagination of
the upper germinal layer. The invaginated sac lies at first freely
between the upper germinal layer and the paraderm. Later, however,
its lower wall fuses with the lecithoderm (paraderm), and a perforation
of the archenteron ( TJrdarmdurclibruch) follows. Some say that the dis-
appearance of the lower wall of the archenteron with the associated
lecithoderm is due to the gradual increase of one originally small aper-
ture ; others describe numerous perforations. Mehnert cites twelve de-
scriptions by various authorities, and concludes, from his study of JEmys ,
&c., that perforation at one spot is the normal process, and that the
appearance of numerous holes is artificial.

Degeneration of Tissue in Tadpole’s Tail.|| — Dr. W. Noetzel has
studied this from a pathologist’s point of view. His results tend to
weaken the general belief in the importance of leucocytes in the reduc-
tion of the tail.

The skin. The cutis membrane is invaded by connective-tissue cells
of the subcutis, and becomes fibrous connective-tissue continuous with
the subcutis. As the tail shortens the epidermis thickens; its cells

* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., x. (1895) pp. 43-74 (5 pis.).

t See this Journal, 1*95, p. 409.

X Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlv. (1895) pp. 654-92 (1 pi. and 15 figs.).

§ Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 257-69.

|| Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlv. (1895) pp. 475-512 (1 pi.).

38

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO 1

draw together till there may be 14-16 layers of them. The outer layers
become horny and are cast ; the cells of the lower layers break up, their
cell-substance becoming vesicular and rich in granules and pigment.
Eberth’s bodies swell up and disappear. The leucocytes were not seen
to share in the disruption of the skin.

The muscles. Special “sarcolytes ” arise from amitotic proliferation
of the sarcoplasm, and in these, which Metschnikoff called “ muscular
phagocytes,” intracellular digestion of debris occurs. But much of the
debris is simply dissolved away in the fluids of the body.

The notochord becomes folded in numerous loops, the clastica swells
up and dissolves, the internal sheath shows abundant amitotic divisions.
The notochord begins to break up, numerous refractive granules make
their appearance, cells from the skeletogenous layer enter the debris and
probably help in disruption. Nothing decisively pointing to the im-
portance of leucocytes was observed.

Noetzel goes on to describe the degeneration of the caudal nervous
system, which he seeks to bring into line with pathological processes,
and he finishes up with the blood-vessels and blood. But the most im-
portant result is the general one, that the importance of leucocytes in
this connection has been exaggerated. They are not markedly abun-
dant, they seem to do little more than take up pigment-granules or other
insoluble particles. All the material which becomes fluid passes directly
into the juices of the body.

Gastrulation in Axolotl and Frog.* — Herr F. Kopscli has studied
this photographically. Four stages are distinguishable — the incipient
invagination, the U-shaped blastopore, the circular blastopore, the
closure of the blastopore and the formation of the anus. The position
of the first invagination in the brown frog is 20°— 30° below the equator,
somewhat deeper in the axolotl. The movement of the dorsal blas-
topore lip is real, not apparent, and occurs over about 75°. Boux’s con-
clusion as to the congruence of the first cleavage plane and the median
plane of the embryo is mistaken. In neither frog nor axolotl is there
concrescence in the sense in which His uses this term.

Superficial Epidermic Envelope in the Developing Ova of Tele-
osteans.f — Dr. F. Baffaele describes this layer — known as Dechschicht ,
lame enveloppante, &c. — which is precociously differentiated from the
blastoderm in bony fishes. The ova studied were apparently those of a
species of Exocoetus.

The epidermis, both embryonic and extra-embryonic or vitelline,
exhibits two layers, which are minutely described. The superficial
epidermic stratum is differentiated precociously by a modification of the
superficial cells of the blastoderm. It grows partly by superficial in-
crease of individual cells and partly by cell-division. The author was
surprised to observe rapid contractions apparently in the superficial
epidermic cells, but. he was unable to determine whether the deeper
epidermic layer and the mesoblast cells were or were not also involved.
In the nuclei of the superficial epidermic layer phenomena indicative of
degeneration were observed. Baffaele also describes the division of the

* Verh. Anat. Ges., ix. (1895) in Anat. Anzeig. Erganzungsheft, x. (1895)
pp. 181-9 (4 figs.). f MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xii. (1895) pp. 169-207 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

39

cells at some length, and has a few notes on centrosomes and intercel-
lular bodies.

Excretory System of the Trout.* — Herr Felix describes the origin
of the pronephros from five metameric evaginations of the lateral
plates, in the third to seventh primitive segments. They correspond to
other pronephric tubules, but there is no “ nephrotome” ; and they arise
from both somatopleure and splanchnopleure. At the twelve-segment
stage a pronephric fold arises anteriorly in place of the tubules, and
posteriorly the caudal portion of the pronephric duct arises indepen-
dently in the mesoderm. In the hatched trout the pronephros functions
as the sole excretory organ.

The pronephric fold becomes divided into a dorsal and a ventral
portion by a fold ; from the dorsal portion is formed the cranial part of
the pronephric duct; from the ventral portion, the pronephric chamber.
The two portions are separated except at one point— the “ pseudo-
pronephric tubule ” ; the dorsal part is shunted laterally, the ventral
towards the middle. From a paired rudiment the glomerulus arises, and
the pronephric duct opens behind the anus.

The mesonej)hros arises, between the fifty-second and fifty-fifth day,
by constriction from the pronephric duct, as five to nine spherical cell-
masses successively separated off. From these there gradually arise the
mesonephric tubules which break into the pronephric duct, about a
month after hatching. They thus reunite with the duct from which they
were originally constricted off.

Between the posterior end of the mesonephros and the anterior end
of the bladder, what the author calls the hind-kidney ( Nachniere ) arises,
from an uncertain Anlage. There are 16-20 tubules, differing from the
mesonephros in structure and position. They may be regarded, perhaps,
as transitional phylogenetically to the metanephros of Amniota.

Blastodermic Margin in Salmonidae.t — Herr Hs. Virchow discusses
the concrescence-theory in an impartial manner; he finds that the
direct metric (or volumetric) evidence breaks down, that the indirect
volumetric evidence is inconclusive, and that though the morphological
evidence lends the theory some countenance, the theory requires to be
modified from its usual form. He is, however, exceedingly cautious, and
declines to commit himself at present to any decisive statement as to the
manner and degree in which the blastoderm margin in Salmonidsc is
used in the formation of the embryo.

Fertilisation of Egg of Amphioxus lanceolatus.J — Dr. J. Sobotta
gives a preliminary account of his observations on the fertilisation of
the egg of Amphioxus , of which as yet but little is known. It is generally
supposed that the egg of Amphioxus is smaller than that of any other
Vertebrate, but this is by no means the case. Its size varies not incon-
siderably, but it is at least 100 p in diameter, and may be as much as
130 p. Now the egg of the mouse is scarcely 60 p in diameter, and
that of the guinea-pig is but little larger. The egg of Amphioxus is
extraordinarily rich in yolk, while the quantity of protoplasm and of

* Verb. Anat. Ges., ix. (1895) in Anat. Anzeig. Erganzungsheft, x. (1895)
pp. 147-52. t Tom. cit., pp. 201-18 (9 figs.).

X Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 129-37 (9 figs.).

40

8UMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

nuclear substance is very much smaller than in the Mammalian egg.
The egg of Amphioxus is much more like that of Amphibians and
Lampreys. The just evacuated egg has a structureless envelope directly
touching the delicate outer zone of protoplasm. It contains one radially
placed directive spindle, which is formed in the ovary directly before
the evacuation of the eggs. At the pole of the egg at which the directive
spindle lies there is a small quantity of protoplasm which is free or
almost free of yolk-granules. Immediately after the deposition of the
egg, which ordinarily occurs in water in which spermatozoa have
already been evacuated, one or more spermatozoa make their way into it.
The author describes the disappearance of the directive spindle, and the
formation of the male and female pronuclei. These gradually approach
one another, and, uniting, fuse to form the first cleavage nucleus. The
first cleavage is effected very slowly, and some time after the formation
of the daughter-nuclei. The yolk is not divided into two distinct
halves. Like Hatschek, the author noticed that after division was
completed there remained for a long time between the two spheres a
bridge of protoplasm which was poor in yolk.

New Species of Viviparous Fish.* — Dr. A. Alcock describes a new
species of Diplcicanthopoma. He finds that there is no attachment or
adhesion of any kind between the ovarian capsule and its conteuts. The
embryos form a thick surface layer immediately beneath the capsule,
and enclose a central mass of largish ova, which consist entirely of yolk-
spherules, without any trace of an embryo or even of a germinal area.
These latter are probably intended for present use rather than for a
future brood. The embryos, which are long and eel-like, lie matted
together, and firmly adhering to one another by means of a coagulated
secretion. The vertical fins only are represented by a long fold of in-
tegument, which consists of layer upon layer of large nucleated cells.
The author is inclined to think that this fold, which is really only an
extended sheet of embryonic cells, is an absorbent surface. It differs
however, from that seen in the embryos of certain fishes of the family
Embiotocidse in that there is no vascular connection, at any rate on the
fcetal side. The author thinks that the nutrient material is absorbed
not so much from the thin tough ovarian capsule as from the ovary, in
which no trace of a germinal vesicle can be found.

Phenomena of Reproduction.* — The full title of Dr. J. Beard’s
paper is, ‘ On the Phenomena of Reproduction in Animals and Plants, on
Antithetic Alternation of Generations, and on the Conjugation of the
Infusoria.’ The final result of these essays is to show that there is one
universal law underlying all the processes of conjugation and fertilisa-
tion which are classed together as sexual in nature. Dr. Beard appears
to have been drawn to the considerations, which he puts forth in this
paper, by an article by Strasburger on the periodic reproduction of the
chromosomes in living organisms. Zoologists in general, having as
little belief in the occurrence of spore-formation in animals, as in anti-
thetic alternations in generations, and being limited by a blind acceptance
of recapitulation with direct development, or by a simple negation of any

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1895) pp. 144-6.

I Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 234-55 (5 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

41

such theory, are hardly to be expected to admit that the botanists may
have obtained a deeper insight into the phenomena of plant-development
than they believe themselves to have of those of animal-reproduction.
Dr. Beard’s object appears to be to consider the following problem : —
Assuming an antithetic alternation of generation to take place in meta-
zoan development with aposporous formation of the sexual generation in
most if not in all cases, to show what bearings such a conception may
have on the interpretation of certain phenomena that occur in the
maturation of the sexual products ; and, as a corollary to all this, it has
been deemed necessary to enquire into the nature of the processes in-
volved in the conjugation of the Protozoa. The result surprised the
author, for he came to recognise the prevalence of one primitive mode
of reproduction for the whole of organic nature, and this is of such a
character that an alternation of generations becomes absolutely essential
to its being carried out. Mr. J. A. Murray was associated with Dr. Beard
in the chapter on the reducing division in Metazoan reproduction.
Taking the results of various writers, they explain their researches as
showing, for the case of the Vertebrate, at any rate, how the gametozooid
arises from an aposporous tissue within a larval or asexual generation
resulting [from the segmenting of the egg. It is suggested that the
pole-mesoderm cells of Hatschek may be interpreted as representing
spore-mother-cells which have undergone no reduction. Passing to a
consideration of the conjugation of the Infusoria and the meaning of the
processes involved, Dr. Beard considers the work of R. Hertwig and
of Maupas. The primitive form of sexual reproduction or conjugation,
apart from fission, was from its very nature bound up with an asexual
process, or spore-formation, leading to the reduction of the previous
reduplication of chromosomes. This very primitive antithetic alterna-
tion of generations still exists, and is bound to remain in a more or less
modified form in both plants and animals, in consequence of the dupli-
cation which results from any conjugation.

Spermatogenesis in Birds.* — Mr. J. E. S. Moore finds that the
spermatogenesis of Birds supports in every way the conclusion, first put
forth by Strasburger, which is at present gaining ground — that the pro-
cess of numerical reduction in the chromosomes is not brought about by
any division at all, and is similar for both animals and plants.

Chromatin-Reduction in the Maturation of Ova and Spermatozoa.!
— Dr, 0. vom Rath has collected and extended his observations on the
reduction-processes. A comparison of those which occur in maturation
of the ovum in Copepods with those in the spermatogenesis of Gryllo-
talpa and Salamandra reveals a remarkable congruence. The author
agrees rather with Riickert than with Ishikawa and Hmcker, but he
holds that both maturation divisions are reducing-divisions, while
Riickert holds that only the second is of this nature. It does not seem
to be at present possible to decide this question.

In all the cases of spermatogenesis and oogenesis which Vom Rath
has observed, the quadruple groups ( Yierergruppen ) arise before the
period of maturation in the same way. In the coil-stage two segments,

* Rep. Brit. Ass., 1895, pp. 735 and 6.

t Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 168-238 (3 pis.).

42

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

one behind the other, remain united, and a close or loose connection is
also maintained between the two sister-segments which arise from the
longitudinal cleavage of the chromatin threads. From each of these
four segments four rod-like or spherical chromosomes arise by contrac-
tion. It seems to the author most natural to regard each quadruple
group as consisting of four single chromosomes.

The author displays much ingenuity in endeavouring to establish
some degree of harmony between the diverse views on reducing divi-
sions which are at present in the field ; but we have already recorded
many of these, and a more complete summary may be deferred until
more facts accumulate.

Structural Changes in Reproductive Cells of Elasmobranchs. * —
Mr. J. E. S. Moore has made a study of the spermatogenesis of Elasmo-
branchs. For the sake of clearness he divides that part of the reproduc-
tive cycle which comes before the proper spermato- or oogenesis, or
primary period, from the first and second spermato- or oogenetic series,
in which the cellular generations precede or follow the numerical reduc-
tion of the chromosomes. Treating first of the resting cells in the first
spermatogenetic period, and next of the divisions of the cells of that
period, he points out that the features of primary importance ap>pear to
be : — (1) the existence in the resting cells of a large round nucleolus
lying near the nuclear periphery ; (2) the evolution during the prophasis
of division, of 24 bent chromosomes, which shorten up, and split longi-
tudinally in half to form the same number of chromosomes in the
daughter-cell ; (3) the existence of an extra-nuclear attraction-sphere,
which, during this period of the spermatogenesis, is practically destitute
of archoplasm ; (4) the consequent non-formation of an archoplasmic
spindle-figure, and the dual origin of this latter structure, partly from
the simple cytoplasmic radiation, partly from the intra-nuclear substance ;
(5) the differentiation of the spindle during the dyastral figure into an
outer and an inner fibrous sheath, which, after the escape of the parental
nuclear sap, collapse and coalesce to form a delicate connecting thread
between the attraction-sphere of both daughter-cells; (6) the formation
of extra-nuclear chromatic bodies from the debris of the nuclear chro-
matin. The rest of the transformation, or to use Mr. Moore’s term, the
synaptic phase, between the first and second spermatogenetic periods, is
described, and the author passes next to the divisions which occur in the
second spermatogenetic period. The most important points appear to
be: — (1) the transformation of the cells of the first spermatogenetic
period into those of the second, which Mr. Moore has termed the synap-
sis, is accomplished while the cells are in complete repose, and is marked
by a peculiar evolution in the chromatin with the formation of peculiar
nucleoli, and by the formation of an archoplasmic constituent round the
centrosomes. (2) The evolution during the prophases of the first and
second divisions of the second spermatogenetic period of twelve ring
chromosomes, each split transversely to form the same number in the
daughter-cell. (3) The differentiation of the spindle during the dyastral
figure into an outer and an inner fibrous sheath, which coalesce and form
a delicate connecting thread between the attraction-spheres of both

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1895) pp. 275-313 (4 pis. and figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

43

daughter-cells. (4) The existence during the synapsis of a peculiar
evolution among the constituents of the attraction-sphere, whereby the
eentrosomes are brought to its exterior surface. (5) The repetition of
the process in a more pronounced manner, so that a short flagellum is
protruded from the eentrosomes through the membrane of the cell.
(6) The origin of the long whiplash tail of the spermatozoon in a similar
manner, after a corresponding metamorphosis of the sphere during the
formation of the flnal cellular generation. In the comparative sketch
with which Mr. Moore concludes his memoir, he points out that the re-
productive cycles of animals and plants correspond, not only in the
number of the chromosomes typical of the somatic cells of any species
being halved, but also in the successive and complex phases by which
their numerical reduction is brought about, as well as in the type of
modification which the post-synaptic cellular generations may undergo.
Whatever the synapsis may eventually turn out to be, it is evidently a
cellular metamorphosis of a profoundly fundamental character, which
would appear to have been acquired before the animal and vegetable
ancestry went apart, and to have existed ever since.

£. Histology.

Centrosome and Sphere in the Spinal Ganglion-Cells of the Frog.*
— Prof. M. v. Lenhossek has succeeded for the first time in securely
proving the presence of a centrosome in nerve-cells which have long
since ceased to divide. The plasma is disposed concentrically, not
around the nucleus, but around an almost central point — the centrosome.
This is a very important observation, and strengthens the position of
the centrosome. It occurred regularly, not in all the spinal ganglion-
cells, however, but in the second smallest.

The cell-substance consists of two distinct zones, ectoplasmic and
endoplasmic. The outer has a clear matrix and coarse flakes in longitu-
dinal rows parallel to the surface. These are probably thickenings in
the honeycomb-like structure of the plasma. In the endoplasm there
are small granules in concentric lines. The two zones differ in their
staining reactions, and in other w'ays ; in short, there are two distinct
kinds of microsomes.

The centrosome lies in the middle of a central disc ; it is an aggre-
gate of minute granules, and there is no doubt as to its nature. But
the central disc corresponds only to the medullary layer of van Beneden’s
attraction-sphere, and may perhaps be called a centrosphere by way of
distinction, though this is a new use.

The centrosome always lies in the main portion of the cell-substance,
in the middle of the endoplasm, never in the immediate neighbourhood
of the nucleus. The nucleus is eccentric, and if the cell is divided at
the level of the centrosome, it is seen that the part of the cell in which
the nucleus lies is larger than that in which the centrosome lies. Len-
hossek’s theory is that the centrosome would have exactly equal masses on
each side of it, if the nucleus were not there.

No eentrosomes were found in the spinal ganglia of cat and dog, and
in these cases the nucleus is quite central. Perhaps the dynamic or

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 345-69 (2 pis.).

44 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

even morphological equivalent of the centrosome is in these cases in the
nucleus. Lenhossek acknowledges Mann’s observation of centrosome-
like bodies in the nuclei of various mammalian nerve-cells, but does not
see his way as yet to accept the interpretation that they are centro-
somes.

Amitosis.* — Dr. O. vom Rath discusses at great length the general
question of amitosis, having for his particular text its occurrence in the
glandular cells on the head of Anilocra mediterranea. His general con-
clusions are (1) that cells which once divide by amitosis never again
divide by mitosis, they go to the ground, but further amitotic divisions
may first occur; (2) the number of successive amitoses is narrowly
limited ; (3) regeneration of cells by amitosis has not been demonstrated ;
(4) amitosis is especially common in intensely assimilating, secreting or
excreting cells ; (5) compared with mitosis, amitosis indicates more or
less marked degeneration, and though simpler, cannot be regarded as the
primitive mode of division.

All the cells in gonads which have morula-like or polymorphic
nuclei are out of the regular developmental line of germ-cells ; they
gradually go to the ground, but may serve as nutritive material ; the
mulberry-form of the nucleus indicates that no subsequent mitosis will
occur.

Yom Rath goes on to describe the great variety in the shape, size,
number, and disposition of the attraction-spheres and centrosomes in
amitotic cells. This variability is perhaps associated with the degene-
rative character of the cells. He also directs attention to frequent cases
in which he has observed spheres and centrosomes in the cell-plasma of
resting cells, and rejects the view that the centrosome has any particular
relation to nucleolar substance.

Sympathetic Ganglia of Mammals.j — Prof. A. S. Dogiel has used
Golgi’s method and a slight modification of Ehrlich’s in the study of the
ganglia on the gall-bladder of dog and cat, and those of Auerbach’s and
Meissner’s plexus in guinea-pig, rabbit, rat, and other animals. Among
his results may be noted that all the cells of the ganglion are associated
by a plexus of ramifying protoplasmic processes, and that Ramon y
Cajal’s “ pericellular nests ” have not the importance with which the
latter credited them. The fine fibres which end with an intercellular
plexus in the ganglia belong to the sympathetic, and are apparently pre-
dominantly medullated, but the thick fibres whose terminal ramifications
form pericellular plexuses in the ganglion are medullated fibres from
the cerebro-spinal system.

Cell-Studies, j'— Dr. G. Niessing has studied especially the liver and
spleen of the salamander, the embryonic liver of man, and the red
marrow of rabbits. He found the best fixative a mixture of platinum
chloride 10 per cent, solution, 25 parts ; osmium 2 per cent, solution,
20 parts ; glacial acetic acid, *05 parts; and fourthly, either distilled
water 50 parts or concentrated aqueous solution of corrosive sublimate
50 parts.

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lx. (1895) pp. 1-89 (3 pis.),
t Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 305-44 (3 pis.),
t Tom. cit., pp. 147-68 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

45

He first emphasises his conviction that all cells have a protective
limiting membrane. This conclusion rests partly on observation, partly
on general physiological grounds. Centrosomes occur in resting cells,
but Heidenhain’s “ primary centrodesmoses ” are regarded as mythical.
The author finds no evidence of centrosomes budding, and he refuses to
accept Heidenhain’s conclusion that every centrosome comes from a
centrosome.

Niessing has studied the plasmic fibrils which radiate out from the
centrosome through the cell, some to the periphery, some ending freely,
and some probably on the nuclear membrane. In this connection he
runs a tilt against Heidenhain’s “ Spannungsgesetz .” He regards the
centrosome as a body forming the centre or insertion of the protoplasmic
fibrils. Against Heidenhain, again, he regards the astrosphere as more
than a mere region ; it is a fibrillar system with special material (per-
haps “ archoplasm ”) in the interfilar spaces.

Fat-formation and Altmann’s Granules.* — Dr. A. Ccsaris-Demel
has investigated the rapid appearance of fat in the epithelium of injured
or diseased kidneys, and the supposed relation of Altmann’s granules to
the fat-formation. The appearance of fat in the cells is interpreted as
the result of diminished oxidation, following artificial lesion, ligature of
the renal artery, choleraic infection, &c. The absence of intermediate
forms, the localisation of the granules, and other facts point to the
absolute independence of the fat-globules and the f'uchsinophilous
granules of Altmann.

Enamel-Structure "and Phylogeny.f — Herr G. Preiswerk notes how
the families of Eodents are characterised by peculiarities of enamel-
structure (Tomes), and how light has been cast on the relationships of
Selachians by a study of the same tissue (Jrnckel). He applies this
method to the extinct Ungulates. All fossil and living Ungulates which
show a contour-band and a bow-shaped arrangement of the prism-sections
of the diazonia are highly differentiated, while contour-striae and pave-
ment-like prism arrangement of the diazonia point to enamel in process
of differentiation. In man there are contour-striae, and the zonia show
possibilities of further differentiation ; his teeth at least have not reached
the goal. But it is difficult to follow a paper of this sort without figures.

y. General.

Iron Compounds in Animal and Vegetable Cells.J — Dr. A. B.
Macallum has an essay on the distribution of assimilated iron compounds,
other than haemoglobin and haematins, in animal and vegetable cells.
After some preliminary remarks he gives an account of general observa-
tions on the distribution of assimilated iron in highly specialised animal
and vegetable cells. He next discusses the occurrence of assimilated
iron in special forms of life, such as Protozoa, Fungi, Bacteria, Ascaris ,
and the larvae of Chironomus. The facts described appear to indicate
that a substance in which iron is firmly held is a constant constituent of
the nucleus or of the cytoplasm of non-nucleated organisms, and of those

* Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xxx. (1895) pp. 765-79.

t Verh. Anat. Gres., ix., in Anat. Anzeig. Erganzungsheft, x. (1895) pp. 227-31.

X Quart. Journ.<Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1895) pp. 175-274 (3 pis.).

46

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

possessed of apparently rudimentary nuclei, and that, further, a similar
iron-containing substance obtains in the cytoplasm of ferment-forming
cells. This substance, to which cytologists apply the term chromatin,
cannot on theoretical grounds be regarded as constant in its molecular
structure, even in the same organism. It is difficult to say whether
there is anything different in the way in which the iron is held in the
animal cell from that obtaining in the vegetable organism. As a rule,
it is easier to liberate the iron with ammonium hydrogen sulphide from
vegetable than animal cells, from the fact that haemoglobin, which is
found in a large number of animal forms, is present in no vegetable
organism. It seems probable that the iron is combined in animal chro-
matin in a way unlike that in which it is held in the vegetable cell.
The conditions known as anaemia and chlorosis in higher Vertebrates
have been hitherto explained as caused by a diminished production of
haemoglobin directly from organic or inorganic compounds absorbed
by the intestine from food. They must now, however, be referred to a
deficient supply of the primary iron-containing compound chromatin,
not only in the haematoblasts, but in all the cells of the body. If we
accept this explanation of the nature of chlorosis it may be inferred that
the condition is not limited to animal organisms in which haemoglobin
is found, although its occurrence in others may be difficult to detect,
because of the total absence of this pigment. From this point of view
animal chlorosis is fundamentally similar to the chlorosis of the Vegetable
Kingdom.

Absorption and Physiological Import of Iron.* — Dr. B. Schneider

has experimented with Clavellina Bissoana Sav., and proved (a) the
rapid natural absorption of iron by the living animal, ( [b ) its occurrence
in the walls of the alimentary tract, hepatopancreas, tunic-cells, &c.,
and (c) the importance of the nuclei as the special areas where the iron
is stored.

He has also shown the almost general occurrence of iron oxides in the
respiratory tissues and organs of aquatic Invertebrates. In some organs,
whose respiratory function has been doubtful, the iron test succeeds,
e. g. in the lobed ciliated membrane at the end of the proboscis in
Sipunculus nudus, in the spiral threads at the anal region of Sternaspis
thalassemoides , in the skin of Phascolosoma , Cerebratulus, Aphrodite , &c.

Mr. Thomson’s Presidential Address.j — Our valued co-editor,
Mr. J. Arthur Thomson, has published his presidential address to the
Scottish Microscopical Society. He took as his subject the present
phase of the theory of evolution. He discusses the characteristics of the
great schools, and points out the various ways in which the problems
are approached. The great problems before the evolutionist are those
of variation, of heredity, of selection, and of isolation. The president has
obviously been greatly impressed with Mr. Bateson’s work, ‘ Materials
for the Study of Variation,’ which he describes as an endeavour to get
out of the speculative mire in which, to the physicist’s contempt, the
biologist still flounders. It is pointed out that the evolutionists’ funda-
mental question, and the least answerable, is, what causes variation?

* MT, Zool. Stat. Neapel, xii. (1895) pp. 208-16 (1 pi.).

f Proc. Scot. Micr. Soc., 1894-5 (1895) pp. 178-210.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

47

The great gap in Darwinism appears to Mr. Thomson to be the absence
of a theory of variation.

Taking, perhaps, a somewhat more charitable view than some take,
he says of Prof. Weismann that he has repeatedly changed his position
because he is progressive, but he assigns to him the credit of having
taken several bold steps into the darkness. With regard to the criti-
cisms on the German naturalist, he says that one has simply to tie them
into bundles, label them misunderstandings, see page so-and-so of the
‘ Germ-plasm,’ and burn them. At the same time he allows that he
feels that some difficulties — for example those concerning syphilis — if
properly stated and marshalled, may lead to yet farther concessions
from the Professor of Freiburg. He says in conclusion, very wisely,
that, while the general conception of evolution stands more firmly
than ever as a reasonable modal interpretation of nature, there is great
uncertainty in regard to almost every question concerning the factors
in the evolution process. We are not where we were forty years ago,
we have become more aware of our ignorance and of the complexity of
the problem.

Marine Fauna of Houtman’s Abrolhos Islands.* — Mr. W. Saville-
Kent describes this group of islands as a small archipelago chiefly of coral
origin. The ordinary Australian rock oyster, Ostrea glomerata, occurred
there in tolerable abundance and under conditions that would justify its
being made the subject of systematic cultivation. The site selected for
experiments in acclimatisation was in Shark’s Bay, in the neighbourhood of
extensive banks of Turbinciria. With regard to this genus of Madrepores,
Mr. Saville-Kent finds that it is the one which, in Australian waters,
enters most extensively into the composition of coral reefs in the colder
or extra-tropical limit of their distribution. Although the group called
Houtman’s Abrolhos lies some 2° south of Shark’s Bay, the character
and composition of the coral reefs prove to be entirely distinct. In
place of the extra-tropical Turbinarise the corals of the Abrolhos reef
comprise, as in the essentially tropical districts, numerous varieties of
branching Madreporse mingled with many species of intra-tropical reef-
building species. A still more remarkable phenomenon is the presence
on this reef of three of the most valuable economic species of Holo-
thurians, identical with types that are systematically collected in Torres
Straits and throughout the northern half of the Queensland Great Barrier
Reef. The anomalous character of the marine fauna of Houtman’s
Abrolhos can only be accounted for by the assumption that an ocean
current setting in from the equatorial area of the Indian Ocean penetrates
as far south as this island group.

Dispersal of Marine Animals by means of Seaweeds. f — Mr. R.
Yallentin was led, whilst surface-netting, to examine a large mass of
Fucus serratus , which was being swept away to sea by an ebbing tide.
On securing it he discovered a large stone attached to the base ; numerous
specimens of Hydroids and Polyzoa were also noticed attached to the
fronds of this seaweed. Since then he has paid attention to floating
seaweed when out in his boat, and has recorded his observations in a.

* Rep. Brit. Ass., 1895, pp. 732-3.

t Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1895) pp. 418-23.

48

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

notebook kept for the purpose. He has farther made some experiments
as to the powers of flotation of some of our common seaweeds in water.
He has had portions of Fucus nodosus floating in vessels of seawater for
eleven and a half weeks, and F. serratus for upwards of seven weeks.
He brings forward examples sufficient, he thinks, to demonstrate clearly
that seaweeds, and particularly those furnished with air-vessels, have
played in the past, as they continue to do at present, a most important
part in the dispersal of many of our littoral forms over the globe.

INVERTEBS.ATA.

Fecundation, Maturation, and Fertilisation.* — Mr. M. D. Hill
has notes on the fecundation of the egg of Sjphserechinus granularis and
on the maturation and fertilisation of the egg of Phallusia mammilata.
In both he finds there is no egg-astrosphere or egg-centrosome. Both
these structures are brought into the ovum by the spermatozoa, and they
give rise by division to all the subsequent astrospheres and centrosomes.
There is, consequently, no such thing as that which the late Prof. Fol
called a “ quadrille.” In both the sperm head rotates through 180°,
and the astrosphere and centrosome are elaborated out of or under the
influence of the middle piece. In Phallusia the nucleus of the oocyte I.
contains eight chromosomes irregularly dispersed throughout its sub-
stance. In the two succeeding nuclear divisions these eight chromosomes
divide into 16 each time, eight passing out into the first, and eight into
the second polar body. There is consequently no “ reducing division ”
at this period. The sperm head breaks off into eight chromosomes, and
16 are found in the first segmentation spindle. In neither genus is
there any evidence pointing to the centrosome being an artefact. In the
former it seems to be all that appears of the middle piece, and is
brought to light by the disintegration of the latter into granules, and its
final disappearance. With regard to the relations of the chromatin sub-
stance during the maturation of the ovum, Phallusia agrees more with
Vertebrates than with Invertebrates.

Tunicata.

New Classification of Tunicata.f — Mr. W. Garstang proposes the
outlines of a new classification of the Tunicata. He begins by pointing
out that Herdman’s classification, which is based very largely upon
modifications of external form, connected with gemmation and the for-
mation of colonies, involves an unnatural separation of forms which are
admittedly allied, as well as the unnatural approximation of forms whose
structure is altogether dissimilar. Mr. Garstang thinks that while
Lahille’s system, based upon modifications of the structure of the pharynx,
is admirable for fixed Ascidians, his treatment of the pelagic forms is
most unsatisfactory. Thus the scheme now suggested by Mr. Garstang
is based upon anatomical and embryological facts. The pelagic cadu-
cichordate types possess a single row of undivided branchial slits
(protostigmata). This condition is recapitulated in the ontogeny of
various fixed Ascidians, but the protostigmata of the young post-larval
form are subsequently divided into rows of minute secondary stigmata.
The group is divided into the Perennichordata and Caducicliordata ; the

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1895) pp. 315-30 (1 pi.).

f Rep. Brit. Ass., 1895, pp. 718 and 19.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

49

former divided into two groups — that of the Endostylophora, in which
the pharynx is provided with an endostyle, e.g. Oikopleura and Fritil -
laria ; and the Polystylophora, in which the pharynx is provided with
numerous finger-like processes arranged in rows, e. g. Kowalevskia. The
latter are divided into the Thaliacea, in which the protostigmata are
undivided and the cloaca posterior. These pelagic forms are either
Myosomata, e.g. Doliolum, Salpa, Anchinia, or Pyrosomata. The Ascidi-
acea are divided into three groups : — Stolidobranchia , e.g. Botryllus and
Goodsirea ; Plilebobranchia , e.g. Perophora and Diazona ; and Aplouso-
branchia, e. g. Clavelina and Didemnum.

Notes on Tunicate Morphology.* — Dr. M. M. Metcalf has a note on
the presence of pharyngeal and cloacal glands in Cynthia partita. Over
the whole surface of the pharynx and cloaca of this Tunicate there are
minute pores, which are the openings of the ducts of well -developed
glands. The author has not, however, yet determined the nature of
these organs or the character of their secretion. He next discusses some
points in the anatomy of the nervous system of Boltenia bolteni. In this
form the nerve runs from the ganglion to the walls of the ciliated funnel,
and among its fibres there are found scattered ganglion-cells. The
author was, however, unable to trace the nerve-fibres into actual union
with individual cells of the ciliated funnel, as this can only be done with
fresh material, which he was unable to obtain. He does not think that
the presence of nerve-fibres running to the ciliated funnel proves that
the organ is sensory, though it does, however, make it possible that it
may be so. Attention is next drawn to the ganglionated condition of
certain nerve-cords and their intimate connection with muscle-bundles.
The nervous nature of certain lateral outgrowths from the ganglion in
the chain-form of Salpa cordiformis is pointed out, and there are some
notes upon the smaller eyes in the Salpidse. The author has finally a
note on the precocious development of the testis, and the absence of the
elaeoblast in the young chain individuals of Salpa cylindrica.

Development of Salpa democratica (mucronata).f —Prof. A. Korot-
neff corroborates Salensky’s account of the early stages. The ovum has
a long stalk, a cellular follicle, a relatively large nucleus. In a remark-
able way the oviduct forms around the fertilised ovum a cap or brood-
sac, with the base of which the follicle fuses. The margins of the
brood-sac close around the follicle and the segmenting ovum ; the follicle
cells multiply and a number come to lie between the ovum and the
follicle wall, penetrating even between the blastomeres. Some of the
blastomeres remain active and capable of further division ; others are
dislocated and form nutritive material. The peculiar history of the
degenerating blastomeres is followed up. Besides the blastomeres
active and passive and the follicle-cells, other elements, perhaps kalym-
mocytes, are soon distinguishable ; they penetrate the embryo.

Korotneff describes the “ placenta,” which does not arise from the
ectoderm of the embryo, but is wholly maternal. The blood-forming
bud ( Blut-knospe ) is wholly due to follicle-cells. Two groups of blasto-
meres are differentiated — a plastic and a gonogenic group. Through an
opening in the floor of the brood-sac mesenchyme-cells and blastocytes.

* Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 329-40 (9 figs.).

t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lix. (1895) pp. 29-45 (1 pi.).

1896

E

50

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(i. e. “ histogens,” descendants of blastomeres) enter, and fill up the
lumen, and from these blastocytes the ectoderm is formed. The plastic
blastomeres are thus divided into those which enter the brood-sac and
form the ectoderm, and those which remain in the centre of the em-
bryonic rudiment and form the endoderm. Thus, against Salensky
and Brooks, Korotneff maintains the existence of two germinal layers
in Salpa. A cleft between the endoderm elements is the beginning
of the future respiratory cavity, the upper portion of which forms
the cloaca, while a diverticulum becomes the pericardium. The heart
arises as an invagination of the anterior pericardial wall. The nervous
system is formed from a closed vesicle, which lies at first quite inde-
pendently in the mesoderm, without any relation to the ectoderm or to
the respiratory cavity, with which it subsequently becomes closely asso-
ciated. As to the elaeoblast, it is wholly due to cells of the embryonic
rudiment.

Development of Synaseidise.* — Prof. W. Salensky, in his second
communication on this subject, describes the development of Didemnum
niveum , and sums up his general conclusions.

A. The Development of Didemnidse and Diplosomidse. — The ovaries
are without oviducts.. The mature ovum forms a protrusion on the
integument, is surrounded by the latter, and constricted off into the
cellulose cavity.

The ovum is very rich in yolk, and is surrounded by kalymmocytes,
by the follicular membrane, and by the maternal ectoderm.

Segmentation is unequal, and results in an epibolic gastrula. The
first two cleavages are meridional ; the third is equatorial, divides
the egg into two halves of four cells each, and represents a frontal
plane. The ventral group of cells is the rudiment of the ectoderm, the
dorsal of the meso-endoderm. In Diplosoma the mesoderm is differen-
tiated early in the form of two cells at the posterior end. These by
division form the two symmetrical mesoderm-plates.

The two mesoderm- plates represent the common rudiment of trunk
and tail mesoderm ; the former falls into mesenchyme cells, the latter
forms the caudal musculature.

A nerve-plate appears dorsally at the posterior end ; plate becomes
groove, groove becomes canal, and the system extends gradually forwards.
The anterior neuropore remains open for a considerable time in Didem-
num, but in neither of the types was a neurenteric canal observed.

In front of the neuropore the neural canal ends in a blind sac, the
rudiment of the primary funnel. To the right of this an expansion of
the neural canal forms the sensory vesicle. The trunk portion of the
neural canal thickens and loses its cavity ; the caudal portion remains
thin.

In embryos of Diplosoma a tubular process is formed on the right
side of the neural canal — the lateral neural tube. It elongates ventrally
and forms the rudiment of the nervous system of the ventral individual.
It is absent in Didemnum.

The primary funnel thickens posteriorly into the cerebral ganglion,
the anterior part opens into the branchial sac as the infundibulum or
secondary funnel. A chorioid fold is formed in the sensory vesicle,

* MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xi. (1895) pp. 488-630 (4 pis. and 4 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

51

the outer wall is differentiated into retinal and lens cells. The trunk
part of the cord persists as the visceral nerve ; the rest degenerates.
In the ventral individual of Diplosoma , the secondary funnel and the
cerebral ganglion arise from the lateral neural canal, the other parts
(sensory vesicle and cord) are wanting.

An epithelial enteric plate arises from the endoderm, two lateral
protrusions form the lateral sacs, which grow axially and fuse to form
the axial enteric cavity. From the latter is formed the branchial sac
in Didemnum , in Diplosoma only that of the dorsal individual. The
lateral sacs are in part the rudiments of the intestinal canal, in part of
the branchial sacs.

In Diplosoma, the right lateral sac divides into an anterior
branchial sac (rudiment of the branchial sac of the ventral individual)
and a posterior stomach sac, which forms the stomachs of both indi-
viduals. The left lateral sac — the rudiment of the intestines of both
individuals — remains undivided. In Didemnum , a caecum arises at the
boundary of the right lateral sac and the axial enteric cavity ; this is
the right branchial sac. The right lateral sac becomes the stomach.
A left branchial sac also arises in front of the left lateral sac.

The two branchial sacs of Didemnum approach ventrally, unite with
their blind ends and form a vesicle — the pericardium. The stomach
sac unites ventrally with the intestinal sac ; the latter is freed from the
branchial sac, unites with the left peribranchial sac, and opens finally
through the anus into the cloacal cavity. In Diplosoma the matter is
much more complicated.

The peribranchial sacs arise as ectodermic invaginations, a pair in
Didemnum , two pairs in Diplosoma.

Two lateral evaginations from the branchial sac of Didemnum grow
in on the peribranchial sacs, fuse with them, and in breaking into their
cavity form the two j)rimary clefts. The others are much later in
appearing. The dorsal parts of the peribranchial sacs grow towards
one another and fuse to form the cloacal cavity, into which a cloacal
invagination opens from the outside.

The cellulose mantle is formed at the expense of the kalymmocytes,
but a fibrous layer in Didemnum is due to processes of ectoderm cells.

Even before hatching the embryos begin to bud. Numerous small
evaginations arise from the oesophagus, and during metamorphosis (later
in Didemnum ) these form new individuals. In Diplosoma the buds
appear on both individuals.

B. The Organogenesis of Tunicata. — From this chapter we can only
state some of the general conclusions.

(1) As to the nervous system. — The primary form is that of Appen-
dicularian and Ascidian larvae, consisting of primary funnel, sensory
vesicle, and the nerve-cord. The cerebral ganglion of Tunicates is
secondary, and arises from the wall of the sensory vesicle or from the
posterior wall of the primary funnel. In the Pyrosoma and Salpa types
the nervous system corresponds solely to the primary funnel. Except
in the Appendicularia type the primary form of sense-organ — the sensory
vesicle — is either only embryonic or absent. All other kinds of optic
and auditory organ are of secondary origin.

(2) The mesoderm. — There is no substantial evidence of primary
metamerism or of a coelom. The mesoderm arises from two plates

E 2

52

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which are formed sooner or later from the endoderm, these divide into
prechordal and chordal (or caudal) portions, of which the former
breaks into mesenchyme cells, while the latter forms only the tail
muscles.

(3) The peribranchial sacs and cloaca. — The peribranchial apparatus
arises (a) from the peribranchial invaginations ; ( b ) from the branchial
canals ; and (c) from the cloacal invagination. The author gives a
useful comparative table of the state of each of these parts in the
different types.

(4) The respiratory and intestinal tract consists (1) of the branchial
or pharyngeal sac, which, along with the peribranchial apparatus forms
the clefts, and (2) of the intestinal canal which arises along with the
former. In Tunicates there is really only one pair of true g ill-clefts ;
the secondary clefts are not homologous with those of Vertebrates.

(5) The branchial sacs, the procardium , the pericardium , and the
heart. — The two branchial sacs of Didemnum represent procardial canals,
the single branchial sac of Diplosoma is the right and the only pro-
cardial canal. In Didemnum the procardial canals serve for the formation
of pericardium and epicardial canals, but the single branchial sac of
Diplosoma becomes the branchial sac of the ventral individual and has
nothing to do with pericardium or epicardial tube which arise inde-
pendently in each of the two individuals. The heart is a product of
the pericardium, but in Appendicularia the so-called heart is a peri-
cardium (the cellular membrane) with a but slightly developed heart-
invagination (the muscular wall).

(6) The notochord is then discussed, and this leads to an essay on
the ancestry of Vertebrates. Salensky’s views are that the Proto-
chord ate was worm-like, with a straight gut having paired metameric
pouches and a terminal anus, and with a strand-like nervous system.
Two factors operated in the differentiation of this type — the anterior
pouches broke through and became branchial ; the posterior pouches
coalesced and formed a supporting organ. There was probably a coelom
arising from endodermic diverticula.

(7) The cellulose mantle arises primarily from the kalymmocytes,
but mesenchyme cells and processes of the ectoderm may help.

Finally, in a third chapter Salensky describes the longitudinal-frontal
division of the Diplosoma embryo which results in the dizoic larva.

“ Sub-neural” Gland in Ascidians.* — Dr. M. M. Metcalf describes
the neural gland of Botryllus Gouldii. The facts of special interest are
(1) that the gland and its duct are dorsal to the ganglion (as also in
Molgula Manhattensis , Cynthia partita, and Boltenia Bolteni ) ; (2) that
there is no truly glandular portion ; and (8) that the posterior end of
the gland is fused with the posterior end of the ganglion.

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

Development of Stylommatophora.t — Dr. F. Schmidt has studied
early stages of Succinea, Limax, and Clausilia. His results chiefly con-
cern the sensory plates, the foot, and the shell area.

* Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 277-9 (3 figs.),
f Zool. Jahrb., viii. (1895) pp. 318-41 (9 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

53

(a) The sensory plates are from the first two distinct structures. As
is well known, they give origin to the tentacles, the cerebral ganglia,
and the cerebral tubes which form the accessory lobes. In Limax , the
oral or subtentacular palps arise as a third, modified pair of tentacles,
and tentacles have nothing to do with a velum, but solely with the sen-
sory plates. It does not follow, of course, that all the subtentacular or
labial palps of Gastropods are of this nature; some may be derived
from the velum like the labial palps of Lamellibranchs.

(b) The foot in Succinea (as in Patella) has originally a paired rudi-
ment, and the author regards this as primitive. After the closure of
the typically elongated blastopore, which separates the two rudiments of
the foot, fusion of the two parts occurs. A podocyst, or embryonic cir-
culatory organ, is absent in Succinea. The “ Nachenblase ” is not an
organ, but merely a region to which the contractions of the podocjst
give a false appearance of contractility ; in Succinea it shows no hint of
movement.

(c) The mantle or shell-area. At a very early stage the epithelium
in the centre of the shell area in Clausilia sinks in to form a closed sac.
This forms the shell-gland within which an embryonic shell is formed.
A further insinking in the centre of the mantle area meets the shell-sac,
and the rudimentary shell is exposed. This confirms an old observa-
tion of Gegenbaur’s, and Schmidt finds that in Succinea also the originally
internal shell comes secondarily to the surface.

Development of Pulmonata.* — Dr. R. Heymons makes a few re-
marks on Dr. von Erlanger’s lately published studies on the development
of the Pulmonata. He objects to Erlanger contradicting his views, not
on the ground of independent investigation, but because his view on the
position of an organ and its unpaired condition appears to him to con-
tradict it. From Dr. Heymons’s remarks it would appear that he has
already considered the chief objections to Erlanger’s view, and naturally
is vexed that they have not been accepted.

Attractive Sphere in Fixed Cells of Connective Tissue, f — Dr. 0.
De Bruyne has taken up the study of this subject, which has been, as
our readers know, the object of numerous researches since the time when
M. E. van Beneden, studying the egg of Ascaris megalocephala, indicated
the importance of the attractive sphere. The present author has been
occupied with this sphere, as he met with it in the fixed connective tissue
cells in the interstitial tissue of the liver and of the gonad of Paludina
vivipara. The sphere of these cells is generally composed of a mass,
which is either homogeneous or finely granular, and which may reach,
but rarely surpasses in size, the dimensions of the nucleus. From this
mass, as a centre, there radiate out in all directions filaments which form
a widely open plexus. They reach the surface of the cell, where they
end freely in the cytoplasm. The sphere is found situated in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of the nucleus, and is sometimes so closely applied
to it that it is very difficult to see the line of separation. The author
recommends the tissue which he has chosen, as being very suitable for
researches of this kind, and asserts that it is better adapted for the
subject than many which have been selected by other investigators.

Zool. Anzeig., xviii. (1895) pp. 400-2.
f Bull. Acad. Beige, lxv. (1895) pp. 241-56 (1 pi.).

54 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Strombidse.* — Prof. R. Bergh gives a general account of this family,
and describes Strombus gigas L., Str. gibbus Mart., L., Str. urceus L.,
Str. ( Pterocera ) millepeda , and Terebellum subulatum L. The internal
anatomy of Terebellum has not been previously investigated, but it
differs only slightly from that of the Strombidse.

Cerata of Dendronotus.j — Mr. J. A. Clubb has continued the inves-
tigations of the cerata of Dendronotus arborescens, which were begun by
himself and Prof. Herdman. Pelseneer, who has lately studied the sub-
ject, seems to have somewhat misunderstood the results at which these
two authors arrived. Mr. Clubb has gone over the preparations which
were made of their earlier work, and has verified in every particular the
conclusions which were come to in their first paper. Considering in
what further directions he could proceed in order to obtain additional
evidence, it occurred to him that a series of sections cut horizontally, in
a plane as nearly parallel as possible with the creeping surface, would
be of great service. A minute examination of these sections did not
reveal any tissue that could possibly be mistaken for liver, and he could
not see that there is the least justification of the doubts which have been
raised by Pelseneer. With regard to the innervation of the cerata,
Mr. Clubb also finds that the original statements of Prof. Herdman
and himself are correct.

5. Lamellibranch.iata.

Oysters and Typhoid .J — Profs. R. W. Boyce and W. A. Herdman
have made an experimental enquiry into the effect upon oysters of
various external conditions, including pathogenic organisms. The
motives they had, when undertaking this investigation, have been firstly
purely scientific — the elucidation of the life conditions of the oyster
both under normal and abnormal environment. Secondly, economic or
technological — to trace the causes and effects of diseased conditions with
the view of determining what basis exists for the recent oyster and
ty phoid scare. The results as yet obtained are based upon tentative
experiments, and serve only to indicate further and definite lines of
research. The authors impress on the reader that all the experiments
must be repeated, and extended in several directions. Their experi-
ments demonstrate : — I. The beneficial effects of aeration, (a) by the
addition of water only, (Jb ) by change of water. It would appear, there-
fore, that the laying down of oysters in localities where there is a good
change of water by tidal current, or otherwise, should be beneficial.
II. Results obtained by feeding upon various substances demonstrate
the exceedingly harmful action of sugar. Those fed upon oatmeal and
flour after a time sickened and died. The oysters thrive best upon the
living Protophyta and Protozoa. III. The effects of stagnation are
deleterious, owing to the collection of excretory products, growth of
micro-organisms, and formation of scums upon the surface of the water.
IV . As to toleration of sewage, &c., it was found that oysters would, up
to a certain point, render clear sewage-contaminated water, and that they
could live for a prolonged period in water rendered completely opaque

* Zool. Jahrb. Abth. Anat., viii. (1895) pp. 342-78 (2 pis.).

t Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., lx. (1895) pp. 220-34 (2 pis.).

t Rep. Brit. Ass., 1895, pp. 723-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

55

by the addition of faecal matter. The faecal matter obtained from cases
of typhoid was more inimical than that obtained from healthy subjects.
Y. As to the infection of the oyster by the micro-organisms, it was
found that when oysters were laid down in the open water of the bay
the colonies present were especially small in number, while those laid
down in proximity to a drain pipe had an enormous number of colonies.
In the case of oysters grown in water infected with the bacillus of
typhoid, it was found that they could be identified in cultures taken
from the water of the pallial cavity and rectum 14 days after infection.
As it was found that the typhoid bacillus will not flourish in clean sea-
water it is possible that, if oysters are carefully subjected to a natural
process of cleaning, they may be freed from contamination without
spoiling the oyster for the market.

New Lamellibranch Commensal with an Echinoderm.* — M. F.
Bernard finds among the collections from Cape Horn two examples of
Tripylus excavatus , which, instead of carrying young in the depressed
ambulacra, bore therein a small Lamellibranch not more than 3 mm.
long. The author gives some details as to the character of the shell,
which appears to be of an embryonic type, while the internal organism
shows considerable specialisation. The abductor muscles are greatly
reduced, the foot is poorly developed, there is no byssus. The digestive
tube is very simple, stomach large. The liver occupies the two anterior
thirds of the visceral mass. The kidneys are greatly reduced. The
gonad is hermaphrodite, and occupies the hinder third of the visceral
mass. The most interesting organs are the gills. On each side there
is a single branchial plate, so arranged as to form a hinder pallial cavity,
which only communicates with the anterior by a median orifice. This
hinder cavity is utilised as an incubatory chamber. The author proposes
to call this lamellibranch, Scioberetia australis , and promises to discuss
its affinities on a later occasion.

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Seasonal Dimorphism of Butterflies.f — Prof. A. Weismann has
during the last ten years made a number of new experiments on the
seasonal dimorphism of butterflies, which was the subject of one of his
earlier studies in evolution (1875). His object has been to discover
how far the phenomenon of seasonal dimorphism may be directly induced
by the influence of altered temperature, and how far differences of climate
may be credited with producing permanent, i. e. transmissible effects on
colouring.

He first describes experiments and observations on CTirysophanus
phlaeas L., some of which, of Italian origin, were reared in Naples and
others at Freiburg, while others again, of German origin, were reared at
different temperatures. The first question asked was, whether the tem-
perature which acts on the pupa affects the colour of the butterfly, and
the answer is decisively in the affirmative. The second question was,
whether the result of the influence of temperature becomes inherited ;

* Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 5G9-71.

f Zool. Jahrb. Abtli. Syst. Biol., viii. (1895) pp. 611-84.

56

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and Weismann’s answer is that the warmth influences at the same time
the wing-rudiments in the pupa and the germ-cells, and affects similar
elements (determinants) in both. Merrifield’s experimental results here
agree with Weismann’s.

Another set of experiments, with Pieris napi, show that the deter-
mination of summer or winter dress occurs directly after pupation ; that
low temperature does not evoke the winter form if the exposure of
the pupae is delayed until shortly before emergence, and that there
are individuals which do not react to warmth. Experiments with Pieris
napi var. bryonise showed in nine cases a puzzling occurrence of an
ordinary napi form among the rest.

A third set of experiments concerned Vanessa levana-prorsa. Just
after pupation the influence of cold tends to evoke from the second
generation (offspring of the April levana type) the levana form, but not
in every case, as the tendency to the prorsa type is strong. In the third
generation the great majority have a strong tendency to hibernation
and the levana type, but some, even without high temperature, turn out of
the prorsa type, and of the rest the majority may by the action of warmth
on the fresh pupae, become more or less pure specimens of the prorsa
type. Median forms, so-called porimse , always arise where a generation
at the beginning of its pupa-period does not meet with the adequate
temperature. Weismann’s present inclination is to regard the dimor-
phism as adaptive, and not as the direct result of differences of tem-
perature ; the temperature acts rather as the stimulus inducing the
development of one of the two developmental Anlagen , than as a directly
productive factor.

The fourth set of experiments had Pararga egeria and var. meione
for subject. The southern form meione , at 10°-14° C., becomes less
bright in colour, though always brighter than egeria . A northern brood,
at 25° C., was not visibly affected. This result confirms Weismann in
the opinion that the influence of the climate is not direct, but germinal.

Experiments on Vanessa cardui , made in order to test whether the
influence of light could affect the formed pigmentation of the animal
through its pupa-sheath, yielded a wholly negative result. So did
similar experiments by Standfuss.

With Vanessa urticse, Weismann showed the effect of cold and
warmth in the pupa period in evoking darker or brighter colouring, but
his results were much less emphatic than those of Reichenau and others.

The influence of prolonged warming on a large number of hibernating
pupae was tested, but in no case was there deviation from the normal
marking or colouring.

Weismann distinguishes direct seasonal dimorphism, referable to
the direct action of variable environment, from adaptive seasonal dimor-
phism, the outcome of a process of selection. He gives as an example
of the former Chrysophanus phlseas , of the latter the caterpillar of Lycsena
pseudargiolus, and perhaps Vanessa prorsa-levana. On the forms which
illustrate adaptive dimorphism, the changes of temperature act only as
Auslosungsreize. In P. napi both kinds are probably mixed. We have
not space to give a full account of Weismann’s theoretical reflections,
but the gist of the matter lies in the interpretation of environmental
action as being oftenest a stimulus inducing the development of particular

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

57

determinants, and in tlie distinction between direct and adaptive seasonal
dimorphism.

Development of Male Ducts in Silk-Moth.* * * § — Sig. E. Verson, with
the assistance of E. Bisson, has followed the post-embryonic development
of the efferent ducts and accessory organs of the male Bombyx mori.
According to Herold (1815) and Nussbaum (1882) the vasa deferentia
arise from the posterior strands of the genital organs ( Herold ’s organ),
while the other parts are derived from the ectodermic epithelium. With
this general conclusion the author does not agree. In the embryonic
stages Herold’s organ was not securely demonstrated, nor was the ligament
of the genital organs traceable to the last segment. In the first larval
period the solid strands of the testes were seen attached on each side
to a microscopic pouch of the integument — Herold’s organ. It is an
invagination on the border-line between the eighth and ninth abdominal
segments. Just before pupation the following regions are distinguish-
able : — (a) the testes with their four divisions ; ( b ) the vasa deferentia,
arising from a hollowing of the testes-strands, and communicating with
seminal vesicles, accessory glands, and the two ejaculatory ducts ; and
( c ) Herold’s pouch with four ectodermic knobs, which form the penis
and its sheath. But in the final elaboration of Herold’s pouch and its
derivatives, mesoderm elements play an important and intricate part.

Morphology of the Abdomen in Coleoptera.f — Dr. C. Verhoeff has
made an elaborate study of the abdomen of Endomychidae, Erotylidae,
and Languriidae (in the old sense), and of the musculature of the
copulatory apparatus in Triplax. He describes 22 species, and draws
42 morphological conclusions, which he thereafter applies to classifi-
cation.

Genital Organs of Male Wasp4 — Herr M. H. E. Kluge describes
the male genital organs of Vespa germanica. The hard parts of the
copulatory apparatus — spatha, sagittae, cardo, and stipites — are first
discussed ; then their musculature ; then the ejaculatory duct ; the vasa
deferentia ; the accessory glands and the testes. Herr Kluge pictures
the probable action of the different parts of the copulatory process, but
the act itself eluded his observation. Besides the contributions which
the paper makes to the descriptive anatomy of insects, it has important
bearings on classification. For the author emphasises the fact that
there is great variability even within the species as regards genital
organs. Therefore too great reliance must not be placed on these in
distinguishing or establishing species.

History of a Wasp’s Hest.§ — M. Ch. Janet gives a very careful
account of the nest of Vespa crabro from its beginning to its completion.
The first, second, and third grades of nest-development are described
at length ; the envelopes, the cells, the material used, and the internal
temperature are all discussed. He has also interesting notes on the
egg-laying, the larvae, the pupae, the division of labour, the length of

* Zool. Anzeig., xviii. (1895) pp. 407-11.

t Arch. f. Naturgsch., lxi. (1895) pp. 213-87 (2 pis.).

X Tom. cit., pp. 159-98 (1 pi.).

§ Ex. Mem. Soc. Zool. France, viii. (1895) pp. 1-140 (41 figs.).

58

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

life, the year’s work, and the manner of death. We must, however,
simply refer to the original memoir.

Statistics of Wasps.* — Prof. F. G. Edgeworth, the well-known
political economist, points out that the number of wasps in a nest may
be inferred from the number issuing per minute if (1) we know the
average time occupied by a wasp in the cycle of operations between two
successive exits ; (2) we assume that the whole population is occupied
in keeping up the traffic. The author has collected some statistics
bearing on the first datum. The average time occupied by the wasps
which he has observed in loading is six minutes. The average interval
between the departure of a laden wasp and the return of the same wasp
for another load is nine minutes. Accordingly the mean periodic time
for a wasp employed in collecting sweets may be assumed to be about
15 minutes. The corrected figure is 20. If the number of wasps issuing
per minute is x , the total number would be 20 multiplied by x, if
assumption 2 is true, but how inadequate it is, is shown from the fact
that the same nest within a short period shows very different rates of
traffic. Thus a nest which at the beginning of a week had a traffic
of 20 per minute, had after three days a traffic of 60 per minute, and
after two more days a traffic of only 12 per minute. In some cases
examined by the author the calculated minimum was found to be very
much below the actual number.

The Genus Dorylus.f — Prof. C. Emery begins a somewhat hetero-
geneous paper with an account of the male copulatory organs of ants.
He gives a useful comparative table of the manifold terminology. The
terms he himself uses are — lamina annularis, paramera externa (including
stipites, volsellae, laciniae, squamulae), paramera interna, lamina sub-
genitalis, and cerci.

Then he submits a revision of the genus Dorylus , which he divides
into seven subgenera — Anomma, Dorylus sensu stricto, Typhlopone,
Dichthadia , Alaopone , Dhogmus, and Shuchardia. A number of new
species are described.

Emery divides the family Formicidae into five subfamilies, Dorylini,
Ponerini, Myrmicini, Dolichoderini, and Camponotini, which he sub-
divides into tribes. He regards the Dorylini as the first offshoot from
the original stock, and the Ponerini as the root from which the other
three subfamilies have sprung. The ancestors of ants were probably
nearly related to the older forms of Mutilidae, and probably formed small
societies of wingless females among which sterile individuals afterwards
differentiated.

Antennae of Diptera.J — Dr. B. Wandolleck has made some beautiful
photographs of these, which show the superficiality of the figures
frequently given. He finds that the forms of antennae do not afford a
trustworthy basis for classifying into groups or orders, though they are
of great importance in the diagnoses of genera and species. He proposes
a phylogenetic arrangement, from simple forms upwards to the complexity
of Hypoderma and Hippobosca.

* Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1895, pp. 729 and 30.

t Zool. Jahrb. Abth. Syst., viii. (1895) pp. 685-778 (4 pis. and 41 figs.).

t Tom. eit., pp. 779-89 (1 pi.). /

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

59

7, Prototracheata.

Australian Peripatus.* — Mr. J. J. Fletcher returns to the question
of the specific identity of the Australian Peripatus usually supposed to
he P. leuckarti Saenger. The difficulties with regard to this species
are originally due, no doubt, to the fact that Saenger’s description
was published in the Russian language. Prof. Spencer, when in
England, had the original account translated, and it is owing to this,
that Mr. Fletcher has been able to speak with greater definiteness than
heretofore. He thinks that the most satisfactory arrangement would
be to consider all the known Australian species of Peripatus as referable
to one comprehensive species with four varieties. He gives a dia-
gnosis of the species and distinguishes as varieties, typica , occidentalism
orientalise and a Victorian Peripatus which he leaves to be dealt with by
Prof. Dendy.

Prof. A. Dendy f gives an account of P. oviparus, the general internal
anatomy of which conforms to the usual condition as described in other
species. He has satisfied himself, however, that the oviparous Victorian
form is certainly worthy of a distinctive name, and he now gives a
description by which it is to be hoped this bone of contention may be
easily recognised.

8. Arachnida.

Development of Spinning Apparatus.^ — Herr A. Jaworowski finds
in Trochosa singoriensis Laxm., that the exopodites of the fourth
pair of abdominal appendages form the anterior pair of spinnerets, and
those of the fifth pair the posterior spinnerets, that the endopodites of
the fourth pair degenerate, while those of the fifth pair form the median
spinnerets. The cribellum, which is rudimentary and transitory in
Trochosa , seems referable to the endopodites of the fourth pair of
abdominal appendages. The spinning glands arise as ectodermic in-
vaginations on the spinnerets.

Jaworowski also traces the evolution of the combing claws from
simple setae. The calamistrum, like the cribellum, is absent in the
adult Trochosa, but its rudiment is seen at an early stage, before the
embryo is covered with hair. It is marked by a strong calamistrum
nerve which runs up the fourth leg and ends in a ganglionic bulb just
beneath the cuticle. As a similar nerve, weaker and slightly different,
occurs in the first three legs, the hypothesis is suggested that the
endings of these nerves represent ancestral sensory organs.

The author holds that the pulmonary sacs represent the anterior
portions of embryonic tracheae, and that gills represent evaginations of
pulmonary lamellae. The Araneina are related to the Tracheata, not to
the Xiphosura ; and the Crustacea are brought nearer the Tracheato
stock. Similar speculations are suggested as to the homologies of
Arthropod appendages and parapodia, the skin-glands of Arthropods,
and the parapodial glands of Annelids.

* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., x. (1895) pp. 172-94.

t Tom. cit., pp. 195-200.

X Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., xxx. (1895) pp. 39-71 (2 pis.).

60

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Morphology and Embryology of a Tardigrade.* — Dr. E. v.

Erlanger has studied Macrobiotus macronyx Duj., which was fairly
abundant in the Altrhein at Neuhofen in January and March 1895.
Free balls of eggs were frequent ; the males were almost as common as
the females (while in terrestrial forms they are rare) ; the males are
about a half smaller than the females, more mobile, much more trans-
parent, and colourless ; the spermatozoa are simply thread-like ; no
copulatory organ was observed. The spermatozoa ejected near the
posterior end of the females are sucked into the chitinous hind- gut and
thence passed to the eggs, which occupy a space in the posterior half of
the chitinous shell, left empty by the retraction of the body to half its
usual length. The eggs are laid per anurn and have no membrane
until fertilisation. Two polar bodies and the union of the two nuclei
in fertilisation were observed. Sometimes both polar bodies divide into
two, and the four may persist to the 16-cell stage. The first cleavage
is at right angles to the longitudinal axis ; then one of the two blasto-
meres divides, at right angles to the long axis and to the first plane ;
then the second does the same ; then all four divide simultaneously ;
the 16-cell stage and the 32-cell stage are similarly attained. A
blastula with an excentric segmentation cavity results in about 36 hours.
Before leaving the egg-membrane, the ovum has formed blood-cells.
The membrane is burst by powerful contractions of the body and the
boring action of the teeth. In the newly hatched young the glands of
the appendages, arising from the coelom-sacs, are relatively very large
and open between the claws. Development on to hatching takes about
12 days at the temperature of a room, about 20 days in the river. The
adults do not survive desiccation, as the terrestrial forms do.

Anatomy of Thyas petrophilus.j — Mr. A. D. Michael gives a full
account of the internal anatomy of an unrecorded Hydrachnid found in
the neighbourhood of the Land’s End. The creature occupies a some-
what curious habitat, for it was found in a very small stream of fresh
water in such a place that, when the wind was on shore and the sea at
all rough, considerable quantities of salt water must be carried into the
stream. Although a water-mite, it is not found swimming ; like other
members of its group, it is adapted for crawling only. Mr. Michael
invariably found it either in some chinks and splits in the rock, where
it can only be discovered by carefully chiselling away the rock in likely
places, or clinging to the under side of large stones lying in deep pools.
When its hiding-place is discovered the mite is very conspicuous. It
is of a beautiful scarlet colour, shaded and varied with orange. Most of
the joints of the legs are furnished with a radiating whorl of large yellow
spines tipped with scarlet, which give it a very brilliant appearance.
The colours are very difficult to preserve after death. The alimentary
canal of the new species differs considerably from everything which, to
the author’s knowledge, has been described in the family, or indeed in
the Acarina at all ; of course, however, it is a modification of the
general plan. This the author describes in considerable detail. Like
the alimentary, the male reproductive system differs in a remarkable
degree from anything which has, to Mr. Michael’s knowledge, been

* Biol. Centralbl., xv. (1895) pp. 772-7.

f Proc. Zool. Soc., 1895, pp. 174-209 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

61

hitherto described among the Hydrachnidae, or, indeed, any of the allied
families. The female genital organs, on the other hand, resemble what
has been described by preceding writers. The so-called genital sucker
has a formation entirely different from what would be expected in a
sucker, and has much more the appearance of a sense-organ of some
kind. In the histology of the great nerve-centre the principal point
which attracted attention was the great thickness of the structureless
neurilemma, below which is a single layer of the usual small round
cortical cells coating the fibrous material of the brain, but this was
much less conspicuous than is generally the case in Acarina.

Stridulating-Qrgans of Scytodes.* — Mr. F. 0. Pickard-Cambridge
has lately discovered the stridulating-organs in this genus. The struc-
ture consists of a series of short transverse ridges. On the femoral joint
of the palpus, near the inner basal angle, there is a stout conical pro-
minence. This would, when the palpi were moved to and fro, pass over
the ridges on the mandible, and perhaps produce a strident sound of
greater or less intensity.

e. Crustacea.

Movements of Decapoda.f — Dr. Th. List has followed up his analysis
of the crayfish’s movements by a study of other Decapods. He deals
with Penseus caramote , Palsemon serratus , Leucifer, Sergesies, Nilca edulis,
Homarus vulgaris , Palinurns vulgaris , Pagurus striatus , Pachygrajpsus mar-
moratus, Portunus , Maja , &c. The study is most elaborate ; there are
pages and pages of co-ordinate-tables and angle-tables, whereby those who
wish may know how every joint of every leg of crab or shrimp or lobster
moves. It is a monument to patience, but it seems to us to savour more
of kinematics than of biology.

Tertiary Decapoda.J — Sig. C. Crema has studied the Decapod Crus-
taceans of Tertiary strata in Piedmont, and describes the following new
forms : — Callianassa joedemontana , C. Povasendse, Lyreidus Paronse , Gono-
jplax Sacci , G. (?) C raveni, and a number of others which have been pre-
viously recorded or are incompletely defined.

Breeding Habits of American Crayfish. § — Mr. E. A. Andrews has
made a study of Cambarus ajjinis kept in confinement. He finds that
conjugation takes place in the autumn and in the spring, and that it
differs in many respects from what is known in Astacus. The peculiar
organ of the female, the annulus, proves to be an essential, secondary
sexual character. The male passes the sperm into the cavity of the
annulus of the female, and does not distribute it elsewhere. The well-
known hooks on the third walking legs serve to hold the two animals
firmly together and are necessary secondary sexual organs.

Glandular Cells of Anilocra mediterranea.il — Dr. O. vom Hath
describes the minute structure of the remarkable (salivary or poisonous ?)
glands on the head of this Isopod. What is most striking about these
glands is the polycentric arrangement of the chromatin. Each of the

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvi. (1895) pp. 371-3 (2 figs.),
t MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xii. (1895) pp. 74-168 (3 pis. and 9 figs.),
t Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xxx. (1895) pp. G64-8i.

§ Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ., xiv. (1895) p. 74.

1| Zeitsclir. f. wiss. Zool., lx. (1895) pp. 1-89 (3 pis.).

62

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

stellate chromatin figures consists of an intensely stainable centre and a
number of radially disposed chromatin rods. The centre is probably
the nodal point of the chromatin network, a point of intersection around
which the rest of the chromatin is radially disposed. In the cells
amitoses are frequent. The other portions of vom Bath’s paper are re-
ferred to under “ Histology.”

Secondary Sexual Characters of Male Phronima.* * * § — Prof. C. Chun
found that the male of Phronima Colletti wholly agreed with what Claus
described as the male of Ph. sedentaria ; this led him to suspect that the
real male of this last species had not been seen ; after some search he
had the good fortune to find it. It is much smaller than the female,
occurs at the surface at the breeding time in spring, and probably dies
after pairing.

In this memoir Chun is concerned with the male’s secondary sexual
characters. He describes the peculiarities of both pairs of antennae, the
remarkable claw-hand on the fifth pair of legs, the abdomen and its
appendages. The main sexual differences lie in the antennae, in the part
of the abdomen which bears swimming appendages, and in the brood-
lamellae on the second, third, and fourth thoracic appendages of the
female. The claw-hand is virtually the same in both sexes, and the
other appendages are also alike.

Hotes on Copepods.f — Dr. W. Giesbrecht describes Mirada minor
Th. Scott. It and M. efferata Dana are the only two well-established
species. A form recently described by Mrazek is identical with Scott’s.
He also describes Seridium rugosum , a mature female of which was found
by Ed. Meyer as a parasite on an Annelid ( Praxilla sp.).

Cladocera of Basie.J — Herr T. Stingelin gives an account of the
Cladocera found in the neighbourhood of Basle. After some introductory
historical and biological notes the author enumerates the species which
he found in different lakes and pools, in a certain geographical order.
Passing to the special part of his work, he gives some detailed descrip-
tions of the species which he has observed. Some of these are, as may
be supposed, new.

Phyllopod Crustacea of Japan.§ — Mr. C. Ishikawa gives au account
of a new species of Daphnia which he dedicates to Prof. Morse. The
parthenogenetic female is nearly the size of the European D. magna.
The male, as is usual, is about two-thirds the length of the female, and
differs considerably in general shape. Full details are given as to the
characters of this species, which is found plentifully in ponds and ditches
round Tokyo. It is one of the earliest Cladocera to appear in the spring,
and the earlier forms are, as usual, all parthenogenetic females.

Nauplii of Lepadidae.jj — Prof. C. Chun describes three types of
nauplius which, for the sake of convenience, he names eques , hastatus,

* Biblioth. Zool. (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 19, 1895, pp. 109-29 (2 pis. and

1 fig.). t MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xii. (1895) pp. 217-26 (1 pi.).

t Rev. Suis. Zool., iii. (1895) pp. 161-274 (4 pis.).

§ Zool. Mag., vii. (1895) pp. 137-42 (1 pi.).

|| Biblioth. Zool. (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 19, 1895, pp. 79-106 (2 pis. and
7 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

63

and loricatus. He discusses the dorsal shield and its glandular
apparatus, the upper lip and the lip-glands, the tail and its spine, the
appendages, the gut, the nervous system and sense-organs, the muscula-
ture, the development of the cypris-pupa in the nauplius, and the
question of the larvae generally. Apart from these important matters,
Prof. Chun has something interesting to say in regard to the extra-
ordinarily bizarre feathery bristles and spinous processes. They may
help in nutrition and sensation, but part of their meaning is surely
found when we regard them as adaptations to pelagic drifting. This
leads the author to a short essay on the floating and drifting of pelagic
Crustaceans. Several small Entomostraca like Evadne have air-bubbles,
many have oil-globules, Hyperidae and others have gelatinous substance,
but not least important are the elongated and feathered outgrowths.

South American Cirripedia.* — Dr. W. Weltner gives a short account
of a collection of Cirripedia brought by Drs. Michaelsen and Plate from
Patagonia, Chili, and Juan Fernandez. The list of thirteen species
includes a new variety of Balanus tintinnabulum, a divergent form of
Lejpas australis , and Goronula diadema from an unknown whale — all new
to the Chilian region.

Annulata.

Budding in Syllis ramosa. f — Mr. Asajiro Oka has been able to
make some remarks upon the curious budding- sponge Syllis ramosa ,
which was one of the most remarkable finds of the ‘ Challenger * expe-
dition. It -was notable, it may be remembered, for the way in which a
remarkable worm colony was made by repeated budding. Want of ma-
terial, however, has prevented the mode of this reproduction being
investigated. The author was fortunate enough to get a small mass of
this rare worm in the living state, and he promises to give in time a
detailed account of his results. It was early seen that many of the buds
arose in a paired manner, and on either edge of the primitive trunk.
Closer examination showed him that he had to do with two kinds of
buds, which varied according to their mode of development. Collecting
a large number of buds and arranging them in two groups he was easily
able to show that the buds of each group were arranged in a continuous
series. In other words, Syllis ramosa has two different modes of budding.
The first kind, which he calls intercalatory, is effected by a new segment
appearing between two which have been already formed. This, immedi-
ately after its appearance, produces a bud on either side of the body.
The paired buds that thus arise are only for a short time the same size,
and in a very early stage in development they begin to differ from one
another in dimensions, one increasing much more rapidly than the other.
The second mode of budding is called that of regeneration. Here the
first embryo of the bud appears at the place where, earlier, a cirrus was
attached to the body. Whether the loss of a cirrus acts as a stimulus to
the gemmation, or inversely the internal budding force leads to the dis-
appearance of cirrus, cannot be definitely said. In any case, the surface
which did bear a cirrus becomes the primitive zone of the young bud.

* Arch. f. Naturgesch., lxi. (1895) pp. 288-92.

t Zool. Mag., vii. (1895) pp. 117-20 (4 figs.).

64

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

French Ampharetinse.* — M. P. Fauvel has a note on this family,
which is very poorly represented on the coasts of France. Some
additions are made to our knowledge of Amjpharete grubei , which has
been found in comparative abundance in the neighbourhood of the
French Zoological Station at Tatihou.

Septal Organs of Owenia fusiformis.f — Prof. G. Gilson calls
attention to certain peculiarities presented by the septa of this worm.
All of them, with the exception of the first and the most remote, are
perforated, and each has two pores through which the adjoining segments
communicate. These pores are provided with a muscular apparatus
which in certain of the septa is very powerful. In the second septum,
which is the most muscular of all, there is an enormous ovoid mass of
muscles through which passes a tiny canal. This septal canal is very
sinuous in its course and its existence is not easy to recognise, owing to
the state of violent contraction in which the muscles are always found
in sections. There is no doubt, however, that they may open widely
enough to allow the eggs to pass and reach the fifth segment of the
body, which is the only one that communicates with the exterior. In
the fifth and sixth septa the muscular mass on each side is joined by a
tubular ingrowth of the epiderm. This tube protrudes into the septal
tissue until it meets a cavity which communicates with the septal canal
and with the anterior segments. With regard to the function of these
pores, the author points out that the worm swells or dilates its body,
when it wants to adhere to the sheath in which it lives. The resistance
indeed is so powerful that it is quite impossible to pull the worm out
of its tube without breaking the body in pieces. When a part of the
body has been cut off the remaining segments do not relax at all, but
remain as turgid and resisting as before. This shows that the various
segments of the body may swell or relax quite separately. It may be
concluded therefore that the curious septal organs of Omnia are valves
intended to regulate the pressure in the separate chambers of the
perivisceral cavity, and to eventually divide entirely from one another
those which at a given moment the animal desires to dilate.

Blood-forming Organs in Larva of Magelona.J — Miss F. Buchanan
points out that there is a good deal of individual variation with regard
to the time of the first appearance of the vascular system, as there is
indeed with regard to that of other organs also, in the larva of Magelona.
The “ heart ” is always the first part of the vascular system to make its
appearance, and the dorsal and ventral vessels after it are formed, to
begin with, by the accumulation of a transparent fluid between the
splanchnic layer of mesoblast and the hypoblast. This causes a
pouching of the splanchnic mesoblast in front to form the walls of the
“ heart.” By the time that the larva has reached the stage in which
the body is divided into three regions there is seen at the posterior end
of the dorsal vessel, and in the middle region of the body, a dark
reddish-brown mass. This mass is seen in section to consist of a much
swollen portion of .the mesoblast in which there are many nuclei, but no
distinct cell boundaries. In later stages, when the splanchnic layer

* Mem. Soc. Sci. Nat. Cherbourg, xxix. (1895) pp. 328-48.

t Bep. Brit. Ass., 1895, pp. 728 and 9. $ Tom. cit., pp. 469 and JO.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

65

has closed round so as to nip off the dorsal and ventral vessels entirely
from the hypoblast, this brown body is no longer to be seen, but, floating
in the liquid of both dorsal and ventral vessels and also in the vessels of
the tentacles, there are pink-coloured corpuscles, which, in sections, are
seen to have the appearance of broken-off bits of the dark body, present
in the earlier stage, and containing for the most part each more than one
nucleus. There seems to the writer to be very little doubt that by the
further breaking up of such multi-nucleated corpuscles, the blood-
corpuscles of the adult described last year by Benham would be formed,
but unfortunately she was not able to obtain later larval stages, and to
observe this breaking up coming on.

New Species of Earthworms.* — Mr. F. E. Beddard has a pre-
liminary account of new species of earthworms belonging to the
Hamburg Museum. The collection consisted exclusively of members
of the four families, Lumbricidae , Perichaetidae, Acanthodrilidae, and
Cryptodr didae. The total absence of Eudrilidae from a collection made
in South America is most singular. The Lumbricidae were fairly abun-
dant, but the author is convinced that here, as elsewhere, they have
been introduced. The collector of the worms, Dr. Michaelsen, observed
that the proportion of Lumbricidae in his gatherings diminished with the
increased distance from the coast. In cultivated gardens near the sea-
board this family was the most abundant. This fact, which Prof. Spencer
has confirmed for Australia, is an argument for regarding these worms
as the result of intercourse between Europe and the countries in question.
A fact which obviously points in the same direction is the invariable
identity of the exotic species with the European, or North American
forms. Of the genus Acanthodrilus twenty-two species are already
known from South America, and all but five of these were collected by
Dr. Michaelsen; all but four of these are regarded as new species.
Many of them live equally well in fresh water and on land. Of the
genus Kerria two new species are described. The Cryptodr ilidae are
represented by the genus Microscolex only. Mr. Beddard proposes a
new definition of this genus, and enumerates from Michaelsen’s collection
eleven species, eight of which are new. For this genus, as for Acantho-
drilus, South America appears to be the headquarters. The Perichaetidae
were represented only by one new species of Perichaeta, and of that there
was but a single specimen in the collection.

Gonads of Lumbriculus variegatus.f — Prof. F. Vejdovsky, in
answer to a criticism by Dr. E. Hesse, who denied the presence of a
protrusible penis in the atrium, points out that in all cases observed the
structure was present. He vindicates his position by giving a detailed
description of the atrium.

Nephridial Funnel of Hirudo.J — Dr. W. D. McKim describes the
funnel associated with the seventh to seventeenth nephridia of the leech.
In the first nine of these the terminal lobe of the nephridium lies on
the dorsal surface of a testis, but this has no morphological interest.
It is with this testicular lobe that the funnel is connected, enclosed in

* Proc. Zool. Soc., 1895, pp. 210-39.

+ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lix. (1895) pp. 80-82 (1 fig.).

I Torn, cit., pp. 147-66 (2 pis.).

1896 f

66

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

a blood-space. The author gives a detailed description of the complex
structure, but the important point is his demonstration or corroboration
of the fact that the funnel is the anatomical and physiological end-
organ of the nephridium.

N emat ohelminthe s .

Anguillulidse in Orchids * * * § — Dr. J. G. de Man describes three
species of Anguillulidse, observed in diseased pseudo-bulbs of tropical
orchids. Most of the pseudo-bulbs belong to the species which is called
Calanthe Veitcliii, which is itself a hybrid form cultivated at Chelsea, so
that Dr. de Man’s first supposition of the importation of these worms
from the tropics is highly improbable. The first species described is
new, and is called Aphelenchus tenuicaudatus. This species may, at
first sight, be distinguished from all other species of the genus hitherto
observed in Europe by the elongated, slender, finely terminating tail.
In the Australian species, however, described by Mr. Cobb, under the
name of A. longicaudatus , the tail-end is likewise hair-like, but it differs
in the situation of the vulva. The second species is identified as
Bhabditis curonata , but like many other writers, Dr. de Man finds a want
of exactness and completeness in Cobb’s description, so that he is not
quite certain that the identification is correct. The species was origi-
nally discovered by Cobb in the roots of banana plants in the Fiji
Islands. The third species is called B. oxycerca ; numerous individuals
of this species, both male and female, have been found, and it resembles
somewhat B. teres, but it is distinguished from all other species by the
quite different distribution of its eight bursa-ribs, and by some other
characters which the author enumerates in full detail. This species
appears to be viviparous.

Development of Strongylus paradoxus.f— Herr Hs. Spemann has
followed the development of this common parasite of the pig, and con-
firms the results which Boveri reached in regard to Ascaris megalocephala.
Of the first two blastomeres, one contains almost all the yolk, which
makes orientation easy. The cell fre>e from yolk forms ectoderm only,
and the greater part of it ; the other forms endoderm, mesoderm, and
part of the ectoderm. The germ-cells belong to no layer, but are
distinct from an early stage.

New Gordiidse.J- Hr. F. Bomer gives an account of the Gordiidse
in the Hamburg Museum, including Gordius aquaticus L. ; G. tolosanus
Dujardin ; G. molaceus Baird ; G. aeneus Villot ; G. f ulgur Baird ; and
G. longissimus sp. n. (132 cm. in length); Chordodes pilosus Mobius ;
Gh. bouvieri Villot; Ch. liguligerus sp. n. ; Ch. variopapillaius sp. n. ;
and Ch. hamatus sp. n.

Acanthocephala in Beptiles.§ — Dr. A. Sabbatini has studied the
Acanthocephala occurring in the reptiles of the Campagna, and finds
six species variously distributed in nine snakes and lizards.

* Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., ix. (1895) pp. 7G-94 (3 pis.),

f Zool. Jahrb. Abth. Anat., viii. (1895) pp. 301-17 (5 ids.).

t Tom. cit., pp. 790-803 (1 pi.).

§ Ricercbe Lab. Anat. Roma, iv. (1894) pp. 205-23 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

07

Echinorhynchus clavula.* * * § — Dr. von Linstow describes with his
usual careful minuteness Echinornynclius clavula Duj. from Thymallas
vulgaris , Trutla fario, and other fishes. It is in some details divergent
from other species.

Independence of Paternal and Maternal Chromatin in Cleavage-
Cells.f — Dr. R. Zoja finds that in the dividing ovum of Ascaris megalo-
cephal-a, the independence of paternal and maternal chromatin is marked
even more clearly than in the case of Cyclops recently described by
Rucker t.

Platy he Iminthe s.

Stichostemma Eilhardi g, et sp. n.* — Dr. T. H. Montgomery jun.
describes this new type, as regards certain of its systems. The body-
epithelium, a high single layer, with ciliated supporting cells, unicellular
glands of three kinds, and pigmented interstitial cells, is first described.
Then follows a description of musculature, ht-ad-glaud, aud head-groove.
The gut is described at greater length, and we may notice that the
histological uniformity of the median and termiual part of the intestine
strengthens the view that there is no proctodceum. Most space is given
to the proboscis ; thus in the wall of the eversible portion no less than
eleven layers, as McIntosh recognised, are described. The author gives
various reasons showing that the main stilet is not formed nor replaced
by an accessory stilet. The two have no gent tic connection, and the
accessory stilets’ are of little use, and in process of disappearance. Ac-
cessory stilets must not be confused with reserve stilets. The gonads
show most resemblance to those of Geonem^rtes australiensis , but Sticho-
stemma is a protandrous hermaphrodite.

Nemertines of Port Erin § — Mr. W. J. Beaumont has a report on
the species of these worms observed at Port Erin in 1S94 and 1895
21 or perhaps 22 species have been found. jNoue of the parasitic species,
however, have yet been obtained in the district. The author enumerates
the forms which have been found, and gives interesting notes on the
structure and habits of many of them. The rare species, Tetrastemma
robertianse, hitherto found only by Prof. McIntosh, has been found on
the shelly ground off Port Erin in about 15 fathoms.

Turbellaria of Zurich j] — Herr J. Keller has a short note on the
Turbellaria found in the neighbourhood of Zurich. He has increased
the number of species from 5 to 24, but of these only one is new, aud
that is called Stenostoma hystrix.

Comparative Anatomy of Turbellarians.l — Prof. F. Yejdovsky
begins with an account of the genus Opistoma O. Schm., describing
O. Schultzeanum. A second chapter is devoted to the reproductive
organs of Derostomeae, with particular reference to Derostoma unipunc-
lafum aut., D. gracilis sp. n., D. anophthalmum sp. n., 1 >. typhlops Vcjd.

* Arch. f. Naiurgesch , lxi. (1895) pp. 145-58 (1 ph).

t Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 289-93 (3 figs.).

X Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lix. (1895) pp. 83-146 (2 pis.).

§ Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., ix. (1895) pp. 354-73.

|| Rev. Suis. Zool., iii. (1895) pp. 295-7.

1 Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lx. (1895) pp. 90-162 (4 pis. and 4 figs.); 163-214
(3 pis. and 1 fig.).

68

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Thirdly, the author describes Vortex microphthalmus sp. n. and V. quadri-
oculatus sp. n., and seeks to refer the gonads of Opistoma , Derostoma,
and Vortex to a common type of structure. A fourtti chapter discusses
the Prorhynchidse of Bohemia, describing Prorhynchus funtinalis sp. n.
and Pr. hygrophilus sp. n. Fifthly, Vejdovsky describes Macrostoma
obtusum sp. n., and compares it with other Macrostomidae.

He then passes to Bothrioplana boltemica sp. n. and compares the
characters of this type (Bothrioplanidae f. n.) with those of other Tur-
bellariaus. The branched gut shows three main divisions, and the
posterior branches fuse, as in many Triclades ; the anterior and posterior
regions give off lateral paired and simple pouches, as in Microplana ;
the pharynx is plicate as in Monotidae ; there may be one pair or two
pairs of olfactory grooves ; the nervous system resembles that of
Triclades ; the excretory system is disposed like that of Triclades, and
opens like that of Bhabdocoela. The genital apparatus lies in the
posterior part of the body behind the pharynx, with a large antrum into
which the paired dorsal compact testes open by two vasa deferentia,
with a seminal vesicle and a simple penis like that of Plagiostomidae.
There is a pair of ovaries, a pair of lobed yolk-glands, and a uterus.
The gonads have a tunica propria.

Vejdovsky finally discusses Planaria Mrazelcii, which is probably a
direct derivative of PL lactea, from which it differs in the absence of
eyes, in the less developed state of the suctorial pit, in the position of
the large ovaries, in the larger number of testes, and in having a long-
stalked uterus. The author also gives a revision of Bohemian Triclades.

South American Taeniae.* — Dr. M. Liilie describes Tsenia ( Monieza )
rugosa Dies., from Cebus hypoxanthus ; T. ( Anoplocephala ) globiceps
D ies., from the tapir; T. decrescens Dies., from Dicotyles albirosiris ;
T. megastoma Dies., from Brazilian monkeys; and T. tetragonocephala
Dies., from Myrmecophaga.

New Cestode.j — Dr. N. K. Germanos describes BothrioccpJialus schisto-
chilos sp. n. from the intestine of Phoca barbata. The specific title
refers to the remarkable way in which the margins of the joints are cleft
posteriorly and hang down like ear-lobes. Another characteristic
external feature is the proportionally large and thick head, which bears
two suckers with protuberant margins. In internal structure the most
striking peculiarities are those of the excretory or water-vascular
system. Thus there is a sharp differentiation between central and
peripheral longitudinal canals. They are not connected as usual by
transverse anastomoses, but the central system shows a peculiar seg-
mental system of branches. The four canals of the central system, and
the twelve canals of the peripheral system run uniformly and symmetri-
cally through the whole strobila, and retain their original cavities.

Bilharzia haematobia.J — Dr. A. Looss gives a detailed account of
the anatomy and histology of this parasite, supplementing and correcting
the descriptions of previous investigators. We cannot summarise the
numerous minute points which are new, but in illustration would direct

* Arch. f. Natnrgesch., lxi. (1895) pp. 199-212 (1 pi.).

f Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxx. (1895) pp. 1-38 (2 pis. and 1 fig.).

j Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 1-108 (3 pL.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

69

attention to the author’s description of the internal endings of the
excretory system. The ciliated funnels are without the lid-cell charac-
teristic of the funnel in related Trematodes, and the capillary strand
passing from the funnel is formed by a single much elongated cell.

Notes on Trematodes of Fishes.* * * § — Mr. W. G. Maccallum describes
the anatomy of two Distomes parasitic on fresh- water fish. He points
out that among the Trematode parasites on fishes there is a series of
Distomes, which are evidently very closely related, possessing many
characteristic features in common, such as the relations of the suckers,
the form of the intestines, the position and arrangements of the genital
and secretory organs, &c. Still there are points of distinction, and
several species have been described, but until the descriptions of all
such forms are collected and carefully compared, there must remain
some obscurity as to their exact relations to one another. He gives a
rather full description of a variety of Distomum isnporum, which he calls
armatum , and compares it wTith the classical description of D. isoporum
given by Looss. The points of difference do not appear to be many or
important. A new species of Distomum, D. lobotes, was found in the
intestine of Anguilla chrysopa, Perea flavescens, and Stegostedion vitreum ,
and a detailed description is given of its structure.

Incertae Sedis.

Dinophilus.f — Herr W. Schimkewitsch gives an account of Dino-
philus vurticoides 0. Schm. from the White Sea. His general view of
this interesting type is somewhat as follows. In its rope-ladder-like
nervous system with five pairs of ventral ganglia, in the metameric
disposition and differentiation of a pair of ventral longitudinal muscles,
and in the metameric segmental organs, Din^philus is an oligomeric
Annelid. But the ciliated rings, the ventral ciliated band, the double
pre-oral ring on the head, and the superficial position of the ventral
cord, indicate an embryonic character.

The coelom is represented only by the genital cavities, and the
segmental organs have no coelomic connection. In the male, the fifth
pair of segmental organs enter at a late stage into connection with the
genital cavity and form the seminal vesicles ; and it may be that the
short oviducts are those of the sixth segment.

In the development of the mesoderm from primitive mesoblasts, and
from mesenchyme-Anlage separated from the endoderm, there is again
resemblance with Annelids. So is there in the existence of a schizocoele
along with a coelom (genital cavities).

In the cleavage of the ovum, the caudal appendage, the sexual
dimorphism, the state of the coelom, there is resemblance with Rotifers,
but they have no mesolerm.

New Enteropneuston.t — Mr. J. P. Hill now gives a full account of
the new species of Enteropneuston, of which he published a preliminary
account some time since.§ He finds that it belongs to tho genus

* Veterinary Mag., ii. (1895) No. 7 (10 pp. and 8 figs.).

f Ze tschr. f. wiss. Zool., fix. (1895) pp. 46-79 (3 pis.).

1 Froc. Linn. Soe. N.S.W., x. (1895) pp. 1-42 (8 pis.).

§ This Journal, 1894, p. 455.

70

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Ptychodera , and he proposes for it the specific name of australiensis It
lias been found at such widely distant points that it may be looked for
along the whole coast line of New South Wales. Specimens were found
in abundance in a rocky corner of the ocean beach. Like the other
species of the genus it is littoral and confined to very shallow water.
The largest specimen found was a sexually mature male, which measured
in the living condition, and when only very moderately extended, about
12 <m in length. A still larger specimen measures as much as 18 crn.,
and this when fully extended reached a length of over 25 cm. All
appear to be capable of very considerable extension. Sexually mature
males and females can very easily be distinguished from one another by
their different coloration. In the male the testes are of very deep
yellow colour, while the ovaries are very light yellow or almost white.
The present species is destitute of any odour. A large proportion of
the individuals are infested by a parasitic Copepod of the genus Ives ,
but the author is not certain whether or no it is identical with the single
member of the genus hitherto described as I. balanoglossi. A detailed
account is given of the anatomy of this new species. The notochord
is very like in shape to that of P. minuta. With regard to the
histology of the cellular part of the chord, the author has never been
able to observe in any of his preparations the giant ganglion cells
described and figured by Spengel. In the structure of the gonads also
this species does not seem to accord very well with the description given
by the just-named anatomist. On the other hand, the author’s observa-
tions on the gill- vessels confirm, so far as they go, the observations of
Spengel.

Reproduction of My'TQstomata.* — M. H. Prouho reminds zoologists
that he wrote a prelimin iry note on the sexual characters of Myzostomes
three years ago, since which time Mr. Wheeler has announced his dis-
covery of the special conditions of hermaphroditism in this parasite.
M. Prouho appears to claim a priority over Mr. Wheeler, although
remarking that the American author has made some interesting observa-
tions on the development of the ova.

Echinoderma.

Fertilisation and Cleavage of Echinoid Ova.f — Herr F. Reink e
has, l'ko many others, turned his attention to the phenomena of fertilisa-
tion and cleavage in the ova of Echinus microtuberculatus , Sphserrchinus
granularis, and Strongylocentrotus lividus. He first studied the living
ova, and got some interesting results by using Ziegler’s compressorium
and artificially concentrated sea-water. Thus, he observed the marked
amoeboid movements of the ovum-nucleus on the approach of the sperm-
nucleus, and the impulsive movements of the segmentation-nucleus.
Pressure dexterously applied greatly increases the rapidity of mitosis.
In compressed ova, nuclear division often occurs without cell-division,
mieromeres and macromeres are usually differentiated, the spindles are
always at right angles to the direction of pressure, and generally, as
Hcrtwig has shown, in the line of the largest plasma-masses.

* Zool. Anzeig., xviii. (1895) pp. 392-5.

t SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1895, pp. 625-37.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC,

71

By pressing on the first two blastomeres, Reinke made them longer
than broad, and displaced the nuclei to one side. In these cases a
radiate system appeared in the half of the blastomere which was free
from the nucleus. This system was centered in a space free from fibrils,
disappeared as the nucleus passed into the resting state, reappeared with
the next mito is, and was quite independent of the centrosomes.

On ova preserved by Hermann’s mixture, vom Rath’s mixtures,
and best by corrosive-glacial acetic acid or corrosive-glacial acetic acid
and bichromate of potash, Reinke made some important observations.
An apparent honeycombed structure is demonstrably due to the dis-
position of yolk-granules. The sphere around the sperm-nucleus shows
at least hints of a centrosome or of several, afterwards more distinct.

Reinke refuses to allow that Fol’s statements as to a “ quadrille ”
have been disproved by the criticisms of Wilson and Boveri.

The sphere of the sperm-nucleus divides into two, and the female
pro-nucleus is received between them ; spindle mantle and central sp:ndle
are differentiated ; the granular, apparently honeycomb-like structure of
the plasma becomes modified into rays, except in a neutral zone which
is the subsequent plane of division. Details of this “ internal division ”
of the plasma are given.

But soon the whole peripheral part of the radiate plasmic ball re-
assumes the honeycomb structure. Only around the spheres do the rays
persist. They end peripherally in the honeycomb-like plasma, centrally
in the margin of the sphere. In the network of the spheres there are
1—2 dozen centrosomes, grouped to form a microcenti um.

The peripheral plasma begins again to change into rays, which are
continued to the membrane of the egg ; the hitherto spherical “sphere”
becomes like a biconvex lens ; the microcenti um becomes like a plate ; the
sphere passes into a peculiar pear-like shape ; cell-division and sphere-
division ensue.

The changeable shape of the sphere is the result of the outer shape
of the cells and of the radiate structure of the cell-substance. Reinke
confirms Heidenhain’s theory of cellular mechanics.

A Study of Auricularia.* — Prof. C. Chun describes Auricularia
nudibranchiata , the larva of some undetermined Holothurian. He dis-
cusses the form of the body and the course of the ciliated band ; the
single layer of flat epithelium which seems to represent the larval ecto-
derm, and does not degenerate as Semon affirms; the bilateral nervous
system ; the complicated mouth region and its ciliated band. The
unusually luxuriant development of the oral and aboral bands raises the
question of their physiological import, and Chun points out that in
addition to their locomotor function, they are important in respiration,
and probably in food- wafting. As to the alimentary system, it s
typical, except that a caecum from the ventral anterior region of the
hind-gut seems to represent the very early rudiment of a respiratory tree.

In the youngest larvae the hydro-enteroccele (to the left) was already
divided into two — the enterocoele, which divides into right and left sacs,
and the hydrocoele, or water-vascular system. The coelom-sacs subse-

* Bibliotheca Zoologica (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 19, pp. 55-75 (2 pis. and
2 figs ).

72

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

quently exhibit a quite unusual expan: ion, and the configuration of the
ambulacral system in the large larvae is also unique.

In the origin of the calcareous plates, cells of the gelatinous matrix
first produce a homogeneous cap-like secretion-hall, which is sharply
defined by a membrane. By a complicated folding of this membrane
the form of the subsequent calcareous plate is mapped out, and in this
organic model — as within a matrix — the hard material takes form. This
is “ bio-crystallisation,” and still beyond mechanical analysis. Chun
pours contempt on the attempts to explain the origin of skeletal parts
mechanically, according to laws of vesicular tension, &c. Dreyer said
that the bubbles in a beer-jug suggested the explanation of the tetra-
radiate type ; Chun offers the neo-Darwinists a bottle of champagne “ zur
Vertiefung in Hire Ideen ! ”

Echinoderms of the Bay of Amboyna.* — Prof. R. Koehler gives an
account of the Holothurians and Crinoids collected by MM. Bedot and
Pictet in the Bay of Amboyna. A new species of Phyllophorus , called
P. Bedoti , is remarkable for the size of the calcareous pharyngeal ring,
but we note that no reference is made to the paper of the late
Prof. Moseley on the existence of large pharyngeal rings in Holothurians.
The species collected are very much what one would have expected, and
the author has gone carefully into the question of synonymy.

ComatulidaB of the ‘ Albatross.’ f — Dr. C. R. Hartlaub gives an
account of the few species of Comatulids collected during the expedition
of the ‘ Albatross.’ They all belong to the genus Antedon, and there
are but seven species. These were dredged at ten stations only. In
some cases the number of specimens collected was numerous. It is
certainly striking to compare the poverty of the Pacific side of Central
America with the comparative wealth of the Atlantic side. Especial
attention is directed to the fact that a group of species (the Eschrichti
group), which was hitherto supposed to be confined to the Arctic and
Antarctic regions, is found also in the tropics. The new species de-
scribed are called A. agassizii. A. tanneri , A. parvula , and A. bigra-
data. Two species are not definitely named. The author takes the
opportunity of describing a new species from Gaspard Strait, which he
calls A. subiilis ; it belongs to the Palmata group of P. H. Carpenter,
and is closely allied to the author’s species, A. Klanzingeri, from the
Red 'Sea.

Notes on Synapte.lj; — Mr. IT. C. Chadwick has notes on some speci-
mens of Synapta inhserens from Port Erin. Although referring the
specimens to this species, he notes that the number of digitate processes
on the sides of the tentacles never exceeds four, and is very commonly
three. He thinks that S. busld , as described by various authors, is pro-
bably synonymous with S. inhserens.

Ccelentera.

New Hexactinian.§ — Dr. A. Appellof describes Ptyrhodactis patula
g. et sp. n. from Drontheimsfjord. There are five rows of peripheral

* Bev. Suls. Zool., iii. (1 895) pp. 277-93.

t Bull. Mils. Comp. Zool., xxvii (1895) pp. 129-52 (4 pis.).

% Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., pp. 235-42 (2 pis.).
r § Bergens Museums Aarbog, 1893 published 1894, received 1895, pp. 1-22
(3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

73

tentacles, about 100 in number, longitudinally striped, and about 72
pairs of septa. The lip margin is much folded, and the gullet is very
rudimentary. Where the complete septa of the first order are attached,
the gullet is wrinkled like the leaves of “ greens.” Six pairs of prin-
cipal septa, two directive, were observed ; the others occur, according to
their size, in four orders. All bear reproductive organs, but there are
no acontia. The body is surrounded with regular ridges and furrows,
which run concentrically on the basal disc ; the wall has a median
annular constriction ; circular muscles and marginal saccules are absent.
This new genus is probably a specialised, simplified type of Hexactinia.

Structure and Affinities of Heliopcra caerulea.* — Mr. G. C.
Bourne has a memoir on the structure and the affinities of Heliopora
cserulea , with some observations on the structure of Xenia and Heteroxenia.
He directs attention to the recent figures of Heliopora given by Saville-
Kent, who succeeded in seeing and figuring the expanded polyps, which
Bourne and Moseley both failed to do. The tentacles in these figures
are seen to be of the usual Alcyonarian type, that is pinnate. Curiously
enough, Mr. Bourne has been unable to find any tra'-e of pinnae in any
of his sections, and both in them and in Moseley’s figures and descrip-
tions what may indicate the pinnae might equally be attributed to con-
tractu n in spirit.

When the corallum is decalcified soft tissues are seen to form a
sheet covering the whole of the surface of the corallum, but penetrating a
very little way into its interior. As the tissues on one face of the colony
are not in any way connected with those on the opposite face, the axial part
of the skeleton is destitute of living tissue. In the fully developed parts
of the colony there is beneath the ectoderm a thin layer of mesogloea, which
passes into the mesogloea of the polyps, and into that of the coenenchymal
tubes. The general structure of the polyp is of the normal Alcyonarian
type, and has been fully and accurately described by Moseley. The struc-
tures known as coenenchymal caeca are peculiar to Heliopcra. The inner
halves of the polyps are placed in direct communication with the adjacent
coenenchymal cteca, and in indirect communication with oue another, by
a network of canals which lies at the surface of the colony, and may be
called the superficial canal system. The calcareous tissue is deposited
by a special layer of cells, which completely invests the coenenchymal
tubes, the inner halves of the polyps and inner parts of the superficial
canals. As the superficial canals and the coenenchymal tubes are lined
throughout by an endoderm, we find that the walls of these structures
consist internally of a layer of endoderm, outside which is a thin layer
of mesogloea, and outside this again, there is a layer of coral-producing
cells, which Mr. Bourne calls caly coblasts. As to the nature of these
cells, and the layer from which they are derived, Mr. Bourne adduces
reasons for believing that they are ectodermic. Owing to the activity
and division of the ectoderm, an ill-defined layer of some thickness is
formed below it, whilst special cords of cells penetrate inwards beyond
it, and become skeleton-producing cells or calycoblasts.

A detailed account is given of the characters of the hard corallum,
and a suggestion is made as to its growth and formation. In a flattened
explanate frond there may be seen in vertical section a central cord,
composed, as Mr. Bourne show.-, of numerous parallel vertical tubes,
* Phil. Trans., clxxxvi. B (1895) pp. 455-83 (4 pis.).

74

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with thin walls and a general vertical ascending course. The colony
being flat and explanate, this central cord may be described as an axial
plane consisting of hollow tubes arranged four deep, but extending right
through the frond, except at its extreme lateral edges. As these central
tubes grow upwards new tubes are constantly being formed, and inserted
amongst them. Thus in the course of growth the number of tubes is
constantly increasing, and in order that there may be room for the in-
creasing number, some of the tubes are pushed on one side, and that at
such a sharp angle, that some come to lie at right angles to the ascending
central tubes ; the external ends of the tubes, after they have been
deflected outwards, become thickened by a secondary deposit of carbo-
nate of lime within their cavities ; among them the calicles are formed,
which are likewise set nearly perpendicularly to the central cord. A
c/Lsideration of the mode of growth of Heliopora explains several
features in the corallum. After the tubes have been pushed away from
the vertical and have assumed a more or less horizontal position, they
are closely packed together and there is no room left for the intercalation
of new tubes. Growth consequently ceases in the lateral parts of the
colony, and the activity of the calycoblasts is limited to the formation
of secondary deposits within the cavities of the tubes, and to the formation
of the characteristic echinulations at the points where the walls of
adjacent tubes unite. It is urged that a close study of the structure and
mode of formation of the hard parts of Heliopora is of importance, as
extinct corals can bo judged only by a study of their hard parts. After
pointing out some errors in Prof. Nicholson’s descriptions, who assumes
that, wherever the walls of the corallites or coenenchymal tubes of an
extinct coral are not obviously separated from one another, they must
nevertheless have been originally distinct and have been subsequently
fused together, Mr. Bourne suggests that tabulate Alcyonarian corals
should be divided into two distinct groups according to the characters of
their skeletons. In the one, each corallite, and if they are present,
each coenenchymal tube, has no distinct and proper wall, and if the
corallites are closely apposed so that their walls become contiguous this
primitive distinction is not lost. This group is represented to-day by
Tubipora, and it is proposed to call it the Autothecalia. In the second
group the walls of the calicles and coenenchymal tubes are not separate
and independent, but the pieces forming the wall of each take a share in
forming the walls of contiguous tubes or calicles. This group, repre-
sented to-day by Heliopora , receives the name of Ccenothecalia. To
Tubipora is allied the extinct Syringopora. It is exceedingly probable
that Syringo'lites and the Favositidse belong to this group, while the
Columnariidse may be provisionally placed in it. Among extinct Coeno*
thecalia are Heliolites , Plasmopora, and Propora. The Chsetetidae must
certainly be ranked among them in spite of the absence of coenenchymal
tubes, and the Monticuliporidae may be provisionally placed in the same
group, though perhaps they will hereafter be shown to be Autothecalia.

A chance examination of some members of the Xeniidae has shown
that the spicular skeleton of Alcyonaria, other than Heliopt ra, may als'*
be ectodermic. A new species of Xenia , X. garciee , is described, and
reasons are given for retaining the genus Heteroxenia. X. umbellata ,
X. garcise , and II. elizabethse display successive grades of differentiation

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

70

in the union of a bunch of polyps to form a colony, and in the eoenenchyme
which binds them together, and forms the common stem by which their
proximal portions are united. They are of interest as indicating how
the steps by which skeletal structures, at first purely ectodermic, may,
as a consequence of the great thickening and subsequent fusion of the
mesogloea and continuous polyps, lose their primitive position, and became
wholly included, as are the spicules of the majority of the Alcyonaria ,
in the mesogloea. The Helioport doe and Xeniidse appear to be derived
from a common ancestor in which the skeleton was completely ectodermic.
In the Helioporidae the differentiation has been effected by the speciali-
sation of the endodermic canals and the extreme development of the cal-
cigenous elements. In the Xeniidae, on the other hand, there has been
a development of a thick mesogloeal eoenenchyme at the expense of the
calcigenous elements, and a subordinate, but on the whole, well marked
differentiation of the endodermic canals. Mr. Bourue points out how
much the progressive development of the mesogloea in the Xeniidae,
accompanied by intrusion of ectodermic elements, which were originally
distinct from it, bears out the views as to the nature of the mesog’oea
which he expressed ten years ago iu his paper on Fungia,

Studies on Sea-Anemones.* — Dr. L. Faurot has endeavoured by
elaborate histological and anatomical studies to throw some light on
the relationships of Hexactiniae and other Actinozoa. The first part
of his memoir is devoted to a general account of the anatomy of Sea-
Anemones, which is naturally for the most part a summary of well-known
facts. When he comes to the histology, however, he has some details to
add to our knowledge of the mesoderm or mesogltea. A general account
of development is then given. In Adamsia palliata, and Sagartia
parasitica , total segmentation results in a solid morula, this becomes a
planula, a circular depression at one pole forms mouth and gullet as the
internal mass gradually diminishes, soon eight septa and eight tentacles
make their appearance, aud thereafter the typical dozen are formed.
M. Faurot discusses the development and disposition of the mesenteries
in the various types of Actinozoa, and gives a clear diagrammatic
summary of his results.

The second part of the memoir contains a description of the structure
and development of Edwardsia Beauxtempsi De Quatrefages, E. adenensis
sp. n., Halcampa clirysanthellum Peach, Pvachia hastata Gosse, Elvactis
Mazeli Andres, llyanthus purthmopeus Andres, Tealia crassicornis ,
Sagartia parasitica , Adamsia palliata , Palythoa arenacea and P. sulcata ,
Zoanthus Perii Audoin, Cerianthus membranaceus Gmelin, aud Arach-
naclis, which the author has previously maintained to be only a larval
Cerianthus.

Arachnactis albida Sars.j — Dr. E. Vanhoflfen describes this rare
Actinian, and publishes a- coloured sketch from life. The animal has
hitherto been little known, except in its young stages or from poor
specimens. In returning from Greenland, on the Danish brig 4 Con-
stance,’ the author passed through a swarm, and captured a considerable
number. Alcohol, picric acid, and corrosive sublimate are of little use

* Arch. Zool. Exper., iii. (1895) pp. 43 262 (12 pis and 29 figs.).

t Bibliotheca Zoologica (Leupk irt and Chun), lloft 20, 18J5, pp. 1-15 (1 pi.).

76

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

for preserving them, but treatment with 1/2 per cent, chromic acid and
slow transference to alcohol succeeded.

The largest were 15 mm. long by 7 mm. broad after preservation ;
the inner tentacles averaged 3-4 min , the outer 35—40 mm.; each cirole
included 12-15 tentacles. Yanborfen describes six genital septa and
six filament septa, the order in which the septi develope, aud the micro-
scopic structure of ect )derm and endoderm. But it is perhaps enough to
say that he entirely confirms the close resemblance between Araclinactis
and Cerianthus , which previous observers have noted. In following the
development, however, all previous investigators have mistaken posrerior
for anterior. Boveri was mistaken, too, in regarding Araclinactis as
related to the Edwardsia type. Yanhoffen does not agree with Vogt in
giving this form a un que place ; he agrees with Gosse, Agassiz, Andres,
and Boveri that Araclinactis is a young Cerianthus.

Laws of Budding in Medusae.* — Prof. C. Chun first discusses the
Sarsiidae, especially Dipnrena dolichogaster Haeck. and Sarsia gemmifera
Forbes, in which the buds decrease in size in a distal direction, the
upper or proximal being oldest and largest. Each daughter-bud repeats
the same process, its buds also decreasing in size in a distal direction.

In Ratkea octopunctata several circles of buds, each of four, are
formed on the interradial surfaces of the stomach. All the daughter-
buds lie on four interradial bands, and decrease in size distalwards.
On ground plan the line passing through buds 1, 5, 9, 13 is opposite
the liue passing through 2, 6, 10, 14; the line through 3, 7, 11, 15 (to
the left) is opposite the line through 4, 8, 12, 16 (to the right).

Chun has many other important results to communicate ; thus in
Ratkea octopunctata the bud is due only to the ectoderm. He says
that the germinal layers are “ predisposed ” neither histologically nor
organogetically. In fact, the homology of the layers rests only on their
relative positions. The author also discusses Lizzia Clapuredei Haeck.,
whose budding agrees with that of Ratkea and Cytacis macrogaster
Haeck.

Medusae of Liverpool Marine District.f — Mr. E. T. Browne has a
report on the Medusae of the Liverpool Marine District. Although the
author has not found any new species he has added a few of interest to
the list of Manx Medusae, and he shows that some, which have been
described as species, are stages in the development of others already
recorded. The present paper is to be regarded only as preliminary, as
the author hopes at a later date to publish an account of each species
with figures. He remarks that the great obstacle which prevents pro-
gress is the inability to collect sufficient specimens of a species, so as to
trace its development, and to see how far it is necessary to allow for
variation. So far his attempts to rear Medusae from their hydroids or
to keep them in confinement have been failures. The rearing of a
Medusa in confinement is the only safe method for tracing its life-history,
and until this can be done the uncertain method of catching a sufficient
quantity of specimens must be adopted. Unfortunately the majority
of species have not the characteristic features that mark a few, and it is

* Bibliotheca Zoologica (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 19, pp. v. and 1-51 (2 pis.
and 4 figs.). t Proo. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., ix. (1895) pp. 243-80.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

77

difficult to distinguish the early stages of different species. The author
gives a number of interesting details as to a number of forms, of which
our space will allow us to mention only a few. For example, he remarks
that Amphicodon Jritillaria is marked by the interesting feature of the
Medusa? carrying young bydroids in the umbrella-cavity. So far as
the author knows this has uot been recorded before in any other Medusa.
In dealing with Margellium octopunctatum the author takes twenty speci-
mens to show the change of number of the tentacles, and he points out
that the increase is not a variation, but that it simply shows stages in
development. Those who have to do with specimens in museums will
learn with interest that Mr. Browne’s experience tells him that specimens
preserved in spirit are not to be relied upon for the presence of marginal
vesicles. The otolith usually disappears and the vesicle shrivels up.
Pilema octopus was once fouud represented by several large specimens.
At times the species would appear to be very numerous otf the Isle of
Man, for Mr. Walker states that he has seen many hundreds in a day.

Greenland Ctenophora.* — Dr. E. Vanhdffen found three species of
Ctenophora in Greenland seas, and his observations, taken along with
those of Liitken, Levinsen, and Chun, corroborate the accuracy of Fabri-
cius who over a hundred years ago described four Greenland Ctenophora.
Vanhoifen mak >s some systematic notes on the three forms lie found —
Polina septentrionalis, Beroe cucumis , and Mertensia ovum ; the fourth
circumpolar form is PleurobracJiia pilous. They have been traced on
the East Coast of North America as far as Florida, in Europe from
Spitzbergen to the German Ocean and Baltic, and on the west coast of
America to Vancouver and the Gulf of Georgia, thus well illustrating
circumpolar diffusion.

Porifera.

Sponges from the West Coast of Portugal.! — Dr. B. Hanitsch has
notes on a collection of Sponges from the west coast of Portugal, all but
one of which were marine. He has not in all cases succeeded in specific
identification, and with some of the forms he did not even attempt it.
Many of the specimens sent him were mere fragments cut from larger
specimens, and this often made identification difficult, especially with
the Horny Sponges. W ith regard to some genera he did not seriously
attempt specific identification, as he considers that a vast number of their
species are quite insufficiently defined. The collection comprised twenty-
eight forms, two of which represent new genera and species, and are very
interesting. These are Amphiute paulina, which is the first instance of
a calcareous sponge containing large, longitudinally arranged, oxeote
spicules both in the dermal and gastral cortex, and Physcaphora decorti -
cans, a tetractinellid sponge with a new type of microscleres. The
former genus belongs to Dendy’s family Heteropidse, and the latter to
the Placospongidae.

Protozoa.

Nuclear Division of Euglena.j; — Dr. J. Keuten finds that the
nuclear division of Euc/lena viridis is without doubt mitotic. The

* Bibliotheca Zooloyica (Leuckart and Cliuu), Heft 20, 1895, pp. 15-21.
t Proc and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soe., ix. (1895) pp. 205-19 (2 pis.),
t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lx. (1895) pp. 215-35 (l pi.).

78 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

concentration of the chromatiu in threads, the movement of the threads
to the equator, their longitudinal splitting, their divergence and arrange-
ment in two daughter-nuclei, are all distinctive. But among the
peculiarities, the author notes that the chromatin is always in thread-
form, and that there is a peculiar “ nucleolo-centrosome.” This is an
axial rod around which the chromosomes are grouped. It defines the
direction of division, directs the movement of the chromosomes, and
dominates the whole process of division. The relations of this nucleolo-
centrosome to an ordinary nucleolus and to an ordinary centrosome
remain obscure, but the author draws some interesting comparisons, e. g.
between the division of Euglena and that of Diatoms.

A peculiarly Abnormal Form of Cristsllaria.* — Sig. E. Dervieux
describes a Piedmontese fossil form of Gristellaria Lmk., which unites
in itself the characters of two species, G. fragaria Giimbel and G. cassis
Fichtel and Moll. His interpretation is that a spore of G. cassis found
lodgment on a specimen of G. fragaria , and used the old shell as a
foundation for a new and different architecture.

Dervieux also describes f a collection of Foraminifera from the
Ampliistegina- zone near Pavone d’Allessandria.

♦ Atti Accad. Pontific. Nuovi Lincei, xlviii. (1895) pp. 111-2 (1 fig.),
f Tom. cit., pp. 113-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

79

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Xaryokinetic Problems.*- Prof. E. Strasburger gives a critical and
suggestive resume of recent work in vegetable cytology. He discusses the
behaviour and function of the nucleole during karyokinesis, and confirms
the statements of other observers as to its frequent fragmentation and
partial distribution in the cytoplasm at this period. He suggests that it
provides the material for the construction of the achromatic spindle. T his
body he considers to consist of two parts — a central strand of unbroken
fibres, which stretch from pole to pole, and along which the chromo-
somes slide ; and an outer group of fibres, which end at the equator on
the chromosomes themselves. These latter fibres are effective in con-
veying the daughter-chromosomes to their respective poles. He regards
the SicJiel stage, so often observed daring nuclear divisions of spore-
mother-cells, as due to the presence of suspended (or dissolved) chromatin
in the nucleus, which becomes driven up to the nuclear walls by the
reagents used to fix the cell. He considers that the substances which form
the chromatin are supplied by the cytoplasm, and confirms the statement
of Farmer and Belajefff as to the peculiar mode of division of the
chromosomes in Lilium , but believes that the longitudinal fission for
the next mitosis is thereby provided for. In a general way, Prof. Stras-
burger favours the view that the various appearances seen during
karyokinesis, such as centrosomes, spindle-fibres, and the like, are
essentially morphological structures, which are definitely referable to
particular substances or bodies always present in the cell.

Attachment of Cell-walls4 — M. E. de Wildeman defends, against
the attacks of Wahrlich and Kny,§ the theory of Errera,[| that a cell-
membrane, at the moment of its formation, tends to take the same form
as, under the same conditions, a liquid layer without weight would take.
The objections of Knv are taken on the ground of examples to which
the law does not apply, viz. in the case of fresh membranes formed, in
consequence of injury, in cells long differentiated from the surrounding
protoplasm. Errera’s law is subject to but few exceptions, and these
will probably disappear on further examination.

(2) Other Cell-contents (including- Secretions).

Reserve-Cellulose in the Seeds of Liliaceae.f — Miss Grace E. Cooley
has studied the nature of the cellulose in the endosperm of the seeds of
plants belonging to the Liliaceae and to some other allied orders, with
the following results : — The endosperm was found to consist, in many

* Jalirb. f. wiss. Bot (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxviii. (1895) pp. 151-201 (2 pis.).

f Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 501.

X Bull Soc. Beige Mieroscopie, xxi. (1895) pp. 81-93.

§ Cf. this Journal, 1894, pp. 74, 216. || Op. cit., 1S88, p. 555.

^1 Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. (1895) 29 pp. and 6 pis.

80

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

species, of cells with thick walls, the thickening being produced by a
substance which is laid down as a secondary structure during the ripen-
ing of the seed, and which is used up during the period of germination
as nutriment for the young plant.

Reserve-cellulose appears as such, on the walls of the cells, soon
after the endosperm is formed. Sugar and oil are present in the cells
before the appearance of reserve-cellulose, and during the process of
wall-thickening ; of these sugar is first detected. The reserve-cellulose
appears first at the angles of the cells, and thence extends to the walls.
The cells of the endosperm, near the chalaza, are the first to have their
walls thickened ; those next the integuments are next affected ; and the
cells near the embryo are the last to mature. In some seeds (Iris)
reserve-cellulose in its younger stages has the property of swelling with
water and going over into a mucilaginous modification. This swelling
is noticeable in the mature seed after long-continued boiling in water.
The reserve-cellulose of Paris and Trillium- seeds swells with water before
maturity. This is true of Paris , when the seed is ripe, and will un-
doubtedly prove true of Trillium also. With the exception of Paris and
Trillium , the association of starch with reserve-cellulose has not been
observed as a reserve constituent of the cells in seeds of Liliaceze. In
Colchicum starch is found outside the endosperm in the crest of the
ripening seed. In Galantlius, Scilla, Lloydia, and Narcissus it is found
in the endosperm-cells during the latter stages of the ripening of the
seed, and is perhaps a sign of arrest in processes of development. When
the seed is fully matured starch is not present. In Convallaria, Fritil-
laria, Tojieldia, Anthericum, and Asphodelus , it is never present in the
seed. In Asparagus and Polygonatum starch-builders, with minute
grains of starch, are found in certain cells of the endosperm before the
thickening of the wall begins ; during the processes of thickening they
are not visible. In Iris a little starch appears in the cells of the chalaza,
never in the endosperm, before any thickening takes place.

Crystalloids in the Flowers of Leguminosae.* — Dr. P. Baccarini
finds crystalloids present in the floral organs of a considerable number
of Leguminosa?, mostly belonging to the Genistese and the Phaseolere.
Negative results were obtained with other species. They were found
especially in the petals of fugacious flowers, and cannot therefore be
regarded in the light of reserve food-material, like the crystalloids of
seeds or tubers.

Starch-Grains. | — Dr. A. Meyer gives a detailed account of the present
state of our knowledge of the mode of formation and structure of starch-
grains, together with the results of an extensive series of observations
of his own (chiefly on Adoxa, Hordeum, Oxalis, Pellionia, Hyacinthus ,
and Cyrtodeira). He regards starch-grains as true spliserocrystals, in
every way analogous to the sphserocrystals of inulin ; and as composed
of two substances, one of which, a-amylose, can be obtained separately
in the crystalline form, while the other, /3-amylose, cannot be isolated in
crystals. Acicular crystals, or trichites , of amylose occur in the starch-
grains, arranged more 'or less radially, and more crowded in the denser

* Bull. Soc. Biol. Ital., 1895, pp. 139-44.

f ‘ Unters. iiber d. Starkekorner,’ Jena, 1895, 9 pis. and 99 figs. See Nature, lii.
(1895) p. 640.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

81

layers than in the softer ones. The phenomenon of swelling is due to
the trichites absorbing water and themselves swelling ; in other words,
the water dissolves in the crystals. There are, however, two kinds of
swelling — “ pore-swelling,” where water is merely imbibed between the
crystals ; and “ solution swelling,” where it is taken up by the crystals ;
it is the latter which initiates the disorganisation of the starch-grain.

Starch-grains may grow in chromoplasts as well as in chloro- and
leucoplarts ; they are always surrounded by a layer of plastid within
the cytoplasm. They grow by apposition, the theory of intussusception
being entirely discarded. Protoplasm is regarded as an emulsion, the
elements of cell-walls and of starch-grains being crystallised out of it.

The author proposes a new nomenclature and classification of the
various kinds of starch-grain. In an anomalous form which colours
reddish-brown with iodine, there is an unusually large proportion of
amylodextrin. This form of starch is characteristic of a large number
of saprophytes, but occurs also in many green plants.

Starches.* — Mr. W. Griffiths gives descriptions, accompanied by
photomicrographs, of the principal starches used as food, the greater
number being from the Marantacere and the Gramineae. A short account
is given with the illustration of the origin of the starch, each being
magnified by 160 diameters. The mounting medium recommended is
1 part glycerin with 7 parts camphor water or carbolic acid water.

Localisation of Anagyrine and Cytisine.')' — M. P. Guerin has studied
the occurrence of these alkaloids respectively in Anagyris fcetida and in
several species of Cytisus , especially G. Laburnum. In both cases he
finds them located chiefly in the epidermal cells and in the outer cortical
layers ; they are present in the largest quantity in the cortex of the
root and in the seed. In the seed, the alkaloid is located in the epiderm
and parenchyme of the cotyledons, not in the integument. In G. Laburnum
cytisine occurs also in the petals. Similar results were obtained in
Baptist a and Thermoptis , two genera allied to Anagyris.

Formation of Gum in Acacia. — M. L. Lutz has studied the pro-
cess of gummosis in several species of Acacia. It commences in the
cambium, the cell-walls of which display an acid in place of their pre-
vious alkaline reaction, and thence spreads in both directions, outwardly
and inwardly. When the medullary rays have been completely impreg-
nated with gum, certain spots near the pith'exhibit a swelling of the cell-
wall, and this marks the first exudation of gum ; it flows out into the
cell-cavities of the fibres and of the xylem-vessels. From these it
spreads to the parenchyme, which becomes transformed into a gummy
mass. The processes are similar in other gum-producing genera. The
reaction used for gum was the red colour produced with cassella red
(0 • 25 parts neutral cassella red ; 20 parts 90 per cent, alcohol ; 30 parts
distilled water).

Silicon and Aluminium in Plants.§ — According to M. Camusat,
aluminium is taken up by plants in the form of potassium or sodium

* ‘The Principal Starches used as Food,’ Cirencester, 1802, 62 pp. and 21 photo-
micrographs. f Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlii. (1895) pp. 428-32.

t Tom. cit., pp. 467-71.

§ Bull. Soc. d’Hist. Nat. Autun, 1S95. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlii. (1895)
llev. Bibl., p. 535.

1896

G

82 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

aluminate ; these arise from the decomposition in the soil of argillaceous
substances in the presence of organic acids, the result being the produc-
tion of silica and of silicates of the alkalies and alkaline earths, which
are also in part absorbed by the plant.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Regulatory Formation of Mechanical Tissue.* — Prof. F. C. New-
combe points out that the mechanical theory of growth rests partly on
two erroneous assumptions, viz. : — that extension of cells is due wholly
to stretching from the hydrostatic pressure of the cell-contents; and
that tbe resistance offered by the cortex is great enough to control the
amount and direction of the growth from the cambium. All the phe-
nomena of growth can be better explained by the theory of self-regula-
tion. As examples of regulatory growth may be cited the excessive
formation of mechanical tissue in stems swayed by the wind ; the growth
of clasping organs when they support a weight ; and the great multipli-
cation of mechanical tissue in roots, stems, and petioles, when subjected
to an artificial traction.

Hygroscopic Tissue of the Pappus of Composite, f — Herr W.
Taliew classifies the various forms of this tissue under three principal
types, viz. : — (1) The Lactuca type (all Cichoriaceae examined, and most
Tubuliflorse). In the upper part of the fruit the pericarp forms a
hollow beak, the hollow formed by the disappearance of parenchymatous
tissue being closed above by a corky diaphragm. At the upper end of
the beak is the hygroscopic tissue in the form of a continuous ring.
Water causes the walls of this tissue to swell greatly in the superficial
direction. The tissue which bears the pappus is fixed to the upper
margins cf the hygroscopic ring, and its hairs are consequently set in
motion by the moistening or drying of this ring. This may take
place for a very considerable time (even ten years) after the ripening of
the fruit. (2) The Tussilago- type (Tussilagineee). The movement of
the pappus is brought about by the unequal capacity of swelling of the
inner and outer sides of the tissue on which the pappus is seated.
(3) Cirsium-type (all Cynareae examined). The movement takes place
in the hairs of the pappus themselves, which curve actively, especially
in their lower part. Transitional forms occur between the various
types.

In Lactuca Scariola the hygroscopic tissue is fully developed on the
first day after the opening of the flower. The involucral scales exhibit,
in many cases, hygroscopic properties corresponding to those of the
pappus, but less intense. The greatest degree of sensitiveness occurs
in the Tussilagineae.

The author states that the variation in the hygroscopic mechanism
does not correspond with the usual classification of the Composite into
tribes, but more closely with that of Hoffmann in Engler and Prantl’s
4 Natiirliche Pflanzenfamilien.’

Spring and Autumn Wood. — Herr K. G. Lutz { attributes the
difference between the spring and autumn wood (beech and pine) to the

* Bob Gazette, xx. (1895) pp. 441-8.

t In Russian; 39 pp. and 1 pi ., Kazan, 1894. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiii. (1895)
p. 320. + Ber. Deutseh. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 185-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

83

large amount of water in tlie regions of the cortex and young wood in
the spring. This leads both to an increase in size and to a multiplica-
tion of the cells, not in the leaves only, but also in the wood ; and from
this results the great difference in the diameter of tracheids of the same
annual ring formed in the spring and in the autumn. The production of
sclerenchymatous tissue takes place chiefly in the late summer and
autumn.

Herr G. Haberlandt * claims priority for the more important of these
observations.

Course of the Fibres in Wounds, j — Dr. C. Maule has investigated
the changes which take place in wood in consequence of wounds, and
especially the very complicated and often apparently irregular arrange-
ment of the fibres. These phenomena appear to be determined chiefly
by two factors — the stretching of the elements of the wood connected
with the wound, by which the course of the bundles is determined in a
general way ; and the polarity of the cells, which affects the course of
the individual fibre.

Stem of Bromeliacese.J — Sig. H. Eoss records the fact that in the
stem of certain Bromeliacese ( Bromelia fastuosa, Quesnelia cayaunensis) a
secondary thickening takes place similar to that which occurs in the
arborescent Liliacem. The generating zone is formed outside the region
of the vascular bundles, new bundles proceeding from it to the funda-
mental parenchyme.

Phloem-Bundles in the Boot of Cyperaceae.§ — M. G. Chauveaud
finds the root of Cyperacese to agree in structure with that of Gramineae,
in possessing two kinds of sieve-tube, one developed directly, the other
indirectly, derived from a group of phloem-cells. This is especially
illustrated in the case of Eleocharis jpalustris.

(4) Structure of Organs.

Antidromy.|j — Mr. G. Macloskie points out the frequent occurrence
of this phenomenon in plants, displayed in a variation of the arrangement
of the organs within the embryo. In one kind, the lowest foliage-leaf has
the right margin of its sheath overlapping the left margin, or infolded
dextrally; while the other is infolded sinistrally, or has the left margin
overlapping the right. This results in a variation in direction of the
line of phyllotaxis (to the right or to the left). It is universal in
Gramineae ; and a large number of instances are given in other natural
orders. A similar variation occurs in the inflorescence ; e.g. in Spi-
ranthes and CEnothera , where the inflorescence sometimes curves to the
right, sometimes to the left,

Seasonal Dimorphism.^ — Prof. E. v. Wettstein gives illustrations of
the occurrence, in the same genus, of two nearly allied species, one of
which blossoms early, the other late in the year. He regards this as

* Tom. cit., pp. 337-8.

f Biblioth. Bot. (Luerssen u. Frank), Heft 33 (1895) 35 pp. and 2 pis.

I Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1895, pp. 195-6.

§ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlii. (1895) pp. 450-1. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 445.

|| Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxii. (1895) pp. 379-87.

^1 Ber. Doutsch. Bot. Gcsell., xui. (1895) pp. 303-13 (1 pi. and 2 figs.).

84

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

a true example of the origin of species by means of natural selection.
Instances are taken from the genera Gentiana and Euphrasia.

Dimorphic Flowers in Gentianaceae.* — Herr E. Knoblauch finds
the flowers in several genera of Gentianacem (chiefly Hockinia ) to be
heterostylous. In the short-styled form the anthers are free, dorsifixed
at the end of long filaments, and with scarcely a trace of connective. In
the long-styled form the anthers are sessile or nearly so, and are united
into a tube, and the anther-lobes are separated by a strongly developed
connective, which is greatly elongated and slit at the apex in a swallowT-
tail fashion. This is accompanied by a difference in the structure of the
stigma, which is much more papillose in the short-styled form. The
anthers in each form are nearly on a level with the stigma in the other
form, and the dimorphism is obviously adapted to cross-fertilisation by
insects.

Flower and Fruit of Trapa.j — Sigg. G. Gibelli and F. Ferrero con-
tinue their investigation of the anatomy and morphology of the flower
and fruit of Trapa natans. During the development of the internal
floral organs, the sepals and petals form a completely closed chamber
into which no water can enter. The flower jn’esents the irregularity
of the rudiments of the stamens making their appearance before those of
the petals. Between the stamens and the ovary is a nectariferous
cushion. The flowers are, however, entirely self-fertilised, pollination
taking place within the cavity of the flower. About 12 hours after pol-
lination, the flower reaches the surface of the water, owing to the carpo-
tropic curvature of the peduncle, and remains there open for a short
time. A detailed description is given of the anatomy of the ripe fruit,
especially of its remarkable horns.

Heterospermy of iEthionema.J — M. A. de Coincy states that several
species of AEthionema (Cruciform) from Spain, in addition to heterocarpy,
display also heterospermy. Some of the silicules are monospermous,
while others, belonging to the same raceme, are oligospermous (usually
containing only two seeds). The seeds in the monospermous silicules
are quite smooth, while those in the oligospermous silicules are covered
with small protuberances.

Protection of Buds.§ — M. M. Raciborski describes in detail the
various contrivances by which flower-buds are protected against injurious
external influences such as drought, excessive rain-fall, excessive transpi-
ration, the attacks of animals, &c. These need not occur in the flower
itself, but may be found in bracts (spathe of Arum), leaves, hairs, emer-
gences, in the excretion of protecting substances like mucilage, or in the
position of the flower with respect to the axis. The special adaptations
are discussed in the cases of maritime plants, xerophilous plants, epi-
phytes, aquatic plants, tropical plants, and alpine plants.

Distribution of Stomates.|| — According to M. L. Petit, the distribu-
tion of the stomates on the two surfaces of the leaf is intimately con-

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 289-98.

f Malpighia, ix. (1895) pp. 379-437 (5 pis.). Cf. this Journal, 1892, p. 384 ;
1894, p. 709. X Journ. de Bot. (Morot), ix. (1895) pp. 415-7.

§ Flora, lxxxi. (1895) Erganz.-Bd., pp. 151-94 (30 figs.).

|| ‘ De la distribution des stomates foliaires,’ Bordeaux, 1894, 3 pis. See Bull.
Sue. Bot, Frauee, xlii. (1895), Rev. Bibl., p. 533.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

85

nected with the structure of the mesophyll. Where the mesophyll of
the two surfaces preseuts the same structure, as in DiantJius Caryophyllus,
the number of stomates on the two sides is the same. As the mesophyll of
the upper surface increases in extent, the number of stomates diminishes,
falling to zero when the mesophyll is very compact, while that of the
lower surface is fall of lacunae, as in Pelargonium citriodorum. The cells
of the upper epiderm are then distinctly longer in the vertical direction
than those of the under epiderm.

Morphology of Grasses.* — Herr K. Goebel has studied the structure
of the flower in the South American genera of Gramineae Streptocliseta
and Pariana. The former genus has two trimerous perianth-whorls ;
the trimerous perianth of Pariana corresponding to the inner perianth
of Streptocliseta. The lodicules he regards as independent foliar struc-
tures ; while the superior palea of ordinary grasses is a double leaf,
resulting from the coalescence of the two anterior perianth -leaves of
Streptocliseta, the posterior one having entirely disappeared.

Tropical Saprophyte.f — Herr W. Figdor describes a saprophyte
from Java, Cofylanthera tenuis, belonging to the Gentianaceae, which
presents several interesting points of structure. The plant is entirely
destitute of chlorophyll and the cortical parenchyme is infested with
fungus -hyphae. A tap-root exists only in the young state. The anthers
open by means of a single terminal pore. The ovules are destitute of
integument. The mature embryo consists of only a few cells without
any special differentiation.

Abnormal Structures in Orchids.^ — Prof. 0. Peuzig has collected
together the various departures from the normal type exhibited in the
flowers of the Orchideae. Axillary buds are sometimes found in the inflor-
escence, which do not develope till the following year. The normal inver-
sion of the flower, caused by resupination or by torsion of the ovary, is not
universal. An increase in the number of parts of the flower beyond the
normal trimerous structure is rare ; reduction to a dimerous type is
much more common ; the author terms the flower “ pseudo-dimerous ”
when this is caused by abortion of an organ or by coalescence ; a true
dimerous structure occurs generally in the Cypripedieae. Spiranthy, in
which the flowers are arranged spirally on aic elongated axis, occurs
occasionally. Both cohesion of similar, and adhesion of dissimilar
organs, are frequently met with. Metamorphosis is not uncommon,
especially the appearance of actinomorphic or peloric flowers. A large
number of species also occasionally exhibit a metamorphosis of petals
into stamens. The gynaeceum seldom exhibits anomalies ; but polyem-
bryony and a cohesion of ovules have been observed.

/3. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Chalazogamy in the Walnut.§ — Dr. S. Nawaschin finds a new and
very remarkable example of chalazogamy in Juglans regia . At the

* Flora, lxxxi. (1895) Erganz.-Bd., pp. 17-29 (1 pi. and 11 figs.).

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gvsell., xiii. (1895) pp. 395-6.

X Mena. Soc. Sci. Nat. Cherbourg, xxix. (1895) pp. 79-101 (10 figs.).

§ Bot. Centralbl., lxiii. (1895) pp. 353-7. Cf. this Journal. 1895, p. 651.

86

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

period of impregnation the cavity of the ovary is entirely filled up by
the orthotropous ovule, the surface of the placenta and the wall of the
ovary being in contact with one another, and even coalescing in places.
On each side of the placenta is a remarkable wing-like growth. The
course of the pollen-tubes is entirely intercellular ; after they have
penetrated the stigma, they make their way into the tissue of the style,
and finally reach that of the ovary, advancing close to the stylar canal
without actually entering either it or the cavity of the ovary. They
finally reach the wing-like outgrowths of the placenta, ascending,
through the chalaza, into the nucellus, and penetrating to the embryo-
sac. During their course the pollen-tubes put out a number of branches,
so that the tissue of the nucellus has the appearance of being veined by
a number of tubes which surround the embryo-sac on all sides.

In this, as in other cases, the author regards chalazogamy as the
result of the inability of the pollen-tube to grow in an open cavity ; it
occurs only in those species which are on the border-line between Gymno-
sperms and Augiosperms. He was able to detect the nuclei of the pollen-
tube within the embryo-sac. At this period there is no differentiated
egg-apparatus or ovum-cell. Iu addition to the antipodals there are only
a few free nuclei which perform the function of a female apparatus.
The male nuclei appear to wander through the protoplasm of the
embryo-sac until they meet and coalesce with one of these, and this
coalescence constitutes the act of impregnation.

Development of the Embryo in Angiosperms.* — Herr F. Ilegel-

maier states, as the result of a large number of observations on plants
belonging to a great variety of different natural orders of Angiosperms
(Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons), that the position of the cotyledons
in the embryo of ripe seeds by no means always corresponds to their
position when first formed, as changes of various kinds very frequently
take place during the development of the seed. In a great number of
examples (e. g. Crucifer se>, Polygala vulgaris), ovules which have precisely
the same position in the same ovary, exhibit, at the time of differentiation,
quite different positions of the two cotyledons, one being incumbent, the
other aecumbent. The difference cannot, therefore, be the result of geo-
tropism. The author has investigated the causes, which, in the different
cases, have determined the changes that have taken place in the posi-
tion of the cotyledons ; these depending largely on the pressure exercised
on them by the other portions of the embryo or by the surrounding
endosperm or perisperm.

Embryo-sac of Jeffersonia.f — Mr. F. M. Andrews has followed out
the development of the embryo-sac in Jeffersonia diphylla (Berberideae).
The more important points are stated as follows : — The embryo-sac
arises as a hypodermal cell at the apex of the nucellus. This cell
divides first into two cells, each of these again dividing. The lowermost
of these four cells alone undergoes further development, and becomes
the embryo-sac. The upper daughter-cell is occasionally divided into
two by a neaily vertical wall. The antipodal cells are unusually
large.

* Cot. Ztg., liii. (1895) lte Abtli., pp. 143-73.

f Cot. Gazette, xx. (1895) pp. 423-5 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC,

87

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Elective Metabolism.* * * § — Prof. W. Pfeifer discusses the problem of
the specific difference displayed by plants in the proportion absorbed of
different nutrient substances. This is especially displayed in the absorp-
tion of carbon compounds ; and can be studied with advantage in the case
of fungi such as Aspergillus niger and Penicillium glaucum, When two
substances of different nutritive properties are presented 'at the same
time to the same plant, it will absorb the more nutritive one in preference
to, and sometimes to the entire exclusion of, the less nutritive one ;
though this is not always the case. Thus, when dextrose and glycerin
are both presented to Aspergillus niger , and the former is greatly in
excess, the latter will be entirely neglected ; while, if the proportion of
dextrose is but small, some of the glycerin will also be taken up.
Peptone may, in the same way, partially or entirely protect glycerin and
dextrose lactic acid, from absorption by fungi.

Effect of the Electric Light on Vegetation. — M. G. Bonnier f has
carried out a series of observations, with the view of comparing the
influence of the electric light, both continuous and interrupted, on plants,
with that of normal daylight. The general result is that a continuous
electric light promotes the formation of chlorophyll, and, at the same
time a simpler anatomical structure of the leaves. Under a continuous
electric light the distribution of chlorophyll in the tissues is more
extended than in ordinary daylight ; chlorophyll-grains make their
appearance in the cortex as far as the endoderm, and even in the
medullary rays and the pith. The palisade-tissue of the leaf is reduced
or disappears entirely, and the epidermal cell-walls are thinner. The
hark is less developed, and the various tissues of the stem are less
differentiated. When the electric light is discontinuous (12 hours in
the 2-1) the effect on vegetation is intermediate between that of normal
light and that of a continuous electric light. Alpine plants cultivated
under a continuous electric light exhibit points of structure identical
with those of Arctic plants.

Effect of Electricity on Vegetation.^ — Prof. A. Aloi gives further
evidence in favour of his previous statement that both terrestrial and
atmospheric electricity exercise a favourable influence on the germina-
tion of seeds and on the growth of plants. He predicts that the employ-
ment of electricity will be a most useful element in the future of
agriculture.

Influence of Sudden Changes of Turgor and of Temperature on
Growth.§ — Mr. R. H. True gives the following as the result of a series
of experiments on this subject : — Following a sudden fall or a sudden
rise of the temperature between 18 •0°-21,0° and O'S0-].^0 C. as
extremes, the f rst effect seen is a slight turgor-change due to physical
causes, producing, or tending to produce, a shortening in length if the

* Ber. Verhandl. ’K. Sachs. Gesell. Leipzig, 1895, pp. 324-9; Jahrb. f. wiss.

Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxviii. (1895) pp. 205-68.

t Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), vii. (1895) pp. 241-57, 289-306, 332-42, 409-19
(10 pis.). X Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1895, pp. 188-95. Cf. this Journal, 1892 p. 69.

§ Ann. Bot., ix (1895) pp. 365-402.

88

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

temperature be lowered ; or, in case the temperature be raised, pro-
ducing an elongation. Following this mechanical action, a period of
depressed growth usually follows. The duration of the depression-
period depends upon the position of the lower temperature-limit and on
the length of time of exposure to this temperature. The depression is
regarded as the irritable response to the stimulus furnished by the
exposure to the low temperature followed by the sudden change to the
higher degree. The duration of the depression may be increased by
lowering the minimum temperature-limit and by lengthening the period
of exposure. An exposure to the lower temperature for less than a
certain period of time is followed by no noticeable depression. Changes
of temperature between 18° and 80° C. as extremes seem to be followed
by turgor-changes only.

Growth in the Tropics.* * * § — Herr G. Kraus gives measurements of
the extraordinarily rapid growth of the bamboo in Java. He also shows
that the same law of growth holds good in the Tropics as in temperate
climates, that, with regard to the trunks of trees, the increase in diameter
takes place in the night, an actual decrease being sometimes recorded in
the day-time.

Germination of Lodoicea Seychellarum.f — Prof. G. Cuboni records
an example of the very rare occurrence of the germination of the double
cocoa-nut of the Seychelles. The hypocotyl ( peziulo cotiledonare ) attained
the extraordinary length of 70 cm., growing in a perfectly horizontal
direction. The first foliage-leaf was altogether destitute of lamina.

Path of the Transpiration Current.^: — Pursuing their investigations
on this subject, Mr. H. H. Dixon and Dr. J. Joly have endeavoured to
follow the course of the current by means of precipitates, and also by
choking the cell-cavity by the introduction of foreign substances. The
result of the experiments was that the stoppage of the cavity and the
freedom of the cell-wall were preserved by the use both of gelatin and
of paraffin. The flagging of the leaves appears to be the more rapid the
more completely the closure of the cavity is effected. The freedom of the
cell-cavity seems to be necessary for the rapid transmission of water,
although a slow current may pass through the wood even when the
cavities are completely blocked.

Movement of Gases in Rhizomes.§ — Miss K. E. Golden has investi-
gated the phenomena connected with the movements of gases in rhizomes,
which they must enter by diffusion through the epiderm, there being no
stomates or lenticels through which they can pass. In the cases examined
there were found to be two sets of movements, a molecular one, when
the gases are passing through the imperforate epiderm, diffusing through
the cell-sap or permeating the protoplasm ; and a movement of the masses
of gases, when they fill the intercellular spaces, vessels, and air-cavities.
The factor of greatest importance in determining these movements is the
specific character of the membrane of the epiderm, which varies greatly
in different plants.

* Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, xii. (1895) pp. 196-21G (2 pis.).

f Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1895, pp. 123-4.

t Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 403-20 (7 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 335.

§ Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1894 (1895) pp. 275-82.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

89

(3) Irritability.

Mechanics of Curvature-Movements.* * * §— Dr. F. Noll controverts the
view taken by Kohl, that the phenomena of curvature are due to an active
shortening of the concave, and a consequent passive lengthening of the
convex side of the organ in question. The observed phenomena show,
on the contrary, that the convex membrane is subject to greater elastic
and plastic tension than the membrane of the concave side, which is
affected in the ojjposite direction. He does not agree with Pfeffer that
the phenomena of tension point to a growth by intussusception. The
author suggests that the transformation of the elastic tension into a
plastic change of form may be due to the excretion from the protoplasm
of one or more substances which produce an effect similar to that of
sulphur in the vulcanising of caoutchouc.

Transmission of Irritation in Mimosa.f — Mr. D. T. MacDougal
claims to have proved that the transmission of the stimulus in Mimosa
pudica does not take place through the vesicular cells, but, in all pro-
bability, through the tissues of the entire cross section.

Geotropism of Roots.J — M. M. Wachtel replies to Sapoznikow’s
defence of Knight and Hofmeister’s theory that the downward geotropic
curvature of roots is a purely passive phenomenon. By a series of
experiments with an apparatus specially contrived for the purpose he
demonstrates the active character of the curvature, and of the considerable
expenditure of force that takes place in it.

Plagiotropic Position of Lateral Roots.§ — Herr F. Czapek contests
Sachs’s theory that the plagiotropic or oblique direction of growth nor-
mally assumed by lateral roots is due to their being endowed with a
weaker positive geotropism than is the case with the primary root. He
suggests, on the other hand, that it is the result of the mutual action of
positive geotropism and of a second kind of geotropism which tends to
cause the roots to assume a horizontal direction.

(4) Chemical Changes (including1 Respiration and Fermentation!.

Digestion of Gelatinous Endosperm || — M. Leclerc du Sablon has
studied the processes which take place in the absorption of the endo-
sperm in those Leguminosse — e. g. Gleditschia, Sophora — where the reserve
focd-material is formed from the thick gelatinous cell-walls. They
consist almost entirely of carbohydrates. The seeds were found to
contain a diastase which at all events takes a share in the digestion of
the reserve substances. The principal product of digestion is a carbo-
hydrate analogous to dextrin ; this is absorbed by the plant, and appears
to be assimilated directly. The glucose which is produced in small
quantities in the endosperm, and which does not exist in the seedling,
plays a secondary part in germination. Saccharose, which is abundant

* Flora, Ixxxi. (1S95), Erg'anz.-Bd., pp. 36-87 (3 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1895,

p. 455. f Bot. Gazette, xx. (1895) pp. 411-2.

% Arb. St. Petersb. Naturf. Gesell., xxv. (1895) 17 pp. and 1 pi. See Bot. Cen-
tralbl., lxiii.(1895) p. 309. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 458.

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 299-302.

|| Rev. Ge'n. de Bot. (Bonnier), vii. (189.5) pp. 401-8.

90

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

previous to germination, is formed in very small quantities during the
digestion of the endosperm.

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Muscinese.

Spore-Formation and Nuclear Division in the Hepaticae.* — Prof.
J. B. Farmer gives an account of the details of nuclear division atten-
dant on spore-formation in eleven genera of Hepaticse, together with
certain peculiarities observed in the nuclei of the archespore and of the
germinating spore. He finds that the number of chromosomes in the
sporophytic nuclei is double that in the gametopliytic nuclei.

The Hepatic*©, as regards spore-formation, fall into two groups :
— (1) The Jungermannia series, in which the spore-mother-cell becomes
tetrahedrally four-lobed before division ; and (2) the Marchantia series,
in which (with the exception of Targionia ) no such lobing occurs. In
the Jungermannia group four centrospheres appear on the periphery of
the nucleus, and effect the formation of a quadripolar spindle, one arm
of which is protruded into each of the four lobes of the spore-mother-
cell. This appearance may either be retained through the first mitosis,
or the spindle-arms may fuse in pairs ; so that during actual division a
bipolar spindle only is found. The second division is, so far as could
be decided, similar to the first one, but differences are seen in the
rapidity with which the two mitoses succeed each other, this being most
marked in Pallavicinia.

In the Marchantia series, Fegatella was especially studied. The
division here is bipolar, but of a peculiar character. The cell-plate of
the first division persists as a free plate-like body suspended in the
cytoplasm. It does not reach the walls, and is rotated, during the
second division, through an angle of 90°.

The author lays emphasis on the differences, which are obvious,
between the nuclear divisions of the spore-mother-cells and those of tho
other nuclei of the same plant, whether belonging to the gametopliytic
or sporophytic generation. He discusses the function of the centro-
spheres, which he regards as the expression of mechanical conditions
operating in the cell, and not as organised or permanent constituents of
it. In this connection special stress is laid on the difference between
the Jungermanniem and Marchantiese. The origin of the chromatin in
the chromosomes, together with the nature and function of the nucleole,
are also considered. The latter body is regarded as being concerned,
probably indirectly, with the formation of chromatin (nuclein). Tho
evidences for this view rest partly on chemical considerations, and partly
on the mutual relations observed between the chromosomes and the
nucleole both at the beginning and end of karyokinesis. The author
advocates the advisability of regarding the facts of karyokinesis from
a mechanical standpoint. Thus he regards the achromatic spindle, not
as an organised structure, developed from any special spindle-forming
body, but as the ex-pression of stresses and strains operating temporarily
in the protoplasm of the cell.

* Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 353-4, 469-523, G6G-8 (3 pis.). Cf. this Journal, 1894,
p. 4S3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

91

Pellia.* * * § — Treating of the European species of this genus of Hepatic®,
Herr J. B. Jack points out that the organs described as elaters are fre-
quently elaterophores. In Pellia epiphylla one finds at the base of the
sporange 20-30 brown sacs, united at their base into a compact column
about 1 mm. in height. Each sac has from 1 to 4 brown spiral bands ;
the true elaters are borne at the end of these sacs. In the sporange of
P. calycina there are often as many as 100 pale yellow elaterophores at
the base of the sporange, in the form of long threads, which are not
united together. They are also surrounded by a spiral fibre, the net of
the membrane being very thin, and difficult of detection without a stain-
ing reagent.

Algae.

Calcareous Pebbles formed by Algse.t — Mr. G. Murray and Mr. E.
Grove describe the structure of calcareous pebbles found in a lake in
Michigan. In addition to the calcareous incrustation, they consist of a
weft of filaments composed apparently of various species of Schizothrix ,
among which S. fasciculata was recognised. These were accompanied
by no less than 80 species of diatoms.

De Toni’s Sylloge Algarum (Fucoide8e)4 — The third volume of
this most important work is occupied entirely with the Fucace® and
the l’h®ophyce®, grouped together under the name Fucoide®, and
includes descriptions of upwards of 1000 species, of which nearly 200
belong to the genus Sargassum. The Fucoide® are divided into three
orders : — The Cyclosporin® (Sargassace®, Fucace®, Himanthaliace®,
and l)urvill®ace®) ; the Tetrasporiu®, conterminous with the Dictyo-
tace® ; and the Ph®ozoosporin®, which are classified under 24 families.

Sori of Macrocystis and Postslsia.§ — Miss A. L. Smith and Miss F.
G. Whitting describe the structure and distribution of the sori in these
genera of Fucace®. In M. pyrifera the sporanges occur in longitudinal
sori in the hollow part of the furrow of the fertile leaves, which closely
resemble the vegetative leaves, except in the absence of air-bladders.
In P. palmseformis all the fronds are sporophylls, and at certain points
the whole furrow is lined with a dense mass of sporanges and typical
paraph yses.

Hew Ph.3eosporese.|| — Herr P. Kuckuck describes a number of new
alg® from the Western Baltic, especially Milcrosyphar Zosterse g. et sp. n.,
Ectocarpus criniger sp. n., Ascocyclus orbicularis , Pliseostroma pustulosum ,
and P. Bertholdi. The following is the diagnosis of the new genus
Mikrosyphar : — 'l’hallus composed of monosiphonous somewhat branched
creeping filaments, sometimes coalescing into a pseud oparenchyme ;
vegetative cells usually twice as long as broad, enclosing 1—2 discoid
chromatophores ; hairs present or not ; propagation by swarmspores,
each one formed from the entire contents of a vegetative cell ; uni- or
plurilocular sporanges. Pliseostroma , of which a new diagnosis is given,
is referred to the 1'unctariace®.

* Flora, Ixxxi. (1895) Erganz.-Bd., pp. 1-16 (1 pi.),

t Phycol. Mem. (Murray), 1895, pp. 74-83 (1 pi.),

t Vol. iii., 638 pp., Patavii, 1895.

§ Phycol. Mem. (Murray), 1895, pp. 84-7 (1 pi.).

1| But. Ztg., liii. (1895) l‘° Abth., pp. 175-87 (2 pis. and 2 figs.).

92

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Ectocarpus.* — M. C. Sauvageau has studied the structure and de-
velopment of Ectocarpus pusillus, of which he makes four distinct varieties,
epiphytic or endophytic on different seaweeds ; the distinction between
these varieties being largely dependent on the host- plant, and on the
habit of the Ectocarpus , whether epiphytic or endophytic. All the
varieties agree with one another in the form of the plurilocular sporanges,
in the size of the spores, in the presence of clamping filaments, and in
the appearance of the chromatophores. E. Battersii is also described in
detail, with its Mediterranean variety.

Plurilocular Sporanges of Asperococcus.f — M. C. Sauvageau has
detected the plurilocular zoosporanges of Asperococcus compressus, which
had not previously been observed. They are not collected into definite
sori, but form confluent plates of indeterminate shape, clothing almost
the entire surface of the frond.

Radaisia, a new Genus of Myxophyceae.J — M. C. Sauvageau
separates his Entophysalis Gornuaua from the genus, making it now the
type of a new genus Radaisia, with the following diagnosis : — Thallus
horizontaliter expansus, minutus, inferiore pagina adnatus, filis verti-
calibus simplicibus v. fastigiatim subdichotomis, densissime stipatis, e
cellulis numerosis subcompressis, intra vaginam firmiorem crassam
seriatim nidulantibus formatis, coutextus ; sporangia sphasrica v. oblonga,
e transformatione celluhe terminalis v. intercalaris orta, solitaria v.
pluries superposita, sporas numerosas minutissimas inter perisporium
crassum lamellosum continentia. Another new species, R. Gomontiana,
was found on species of Fucus at Biarritz. While Entophysalis remains
among the Coccogoneaa Chroococeacese, Radaisia must be placed among
the Coccogoneae Chamaesiphonaceae.

Hariotina.§ — Prof. R. Chodat and M. F. Huber have studied the
development of this genus of Algse. They consider that Dangeard is in
error in placing it among the Volvocineae, having mistaken for the
sculpture of a membrane of the mother-cell what is in reality the
skeleton of the cells of the mother-colony, in other words, the network
which unites the daughter-colonies. The authors regard Hariotina as
having, like Ccelastrum, lost the faculty of producing mobile elements,
being in fact a term in the series of Pediastreae, parallel to Ccelastrum
among the Volvocineae.

Fungi.

Symbiosis among Fungi. || — M. P. A. Dangeard records a remarkable
example of symbiotic growth in Fungi, in which Dacryomyces deli-
quescens and an undetermined species of Tremellini had their hyphae so
densely interwoven that the characteristic basids of the two fungi
appeared side by side on the same hymenium.

t Boring of Membranes by Fungi.t — M. M. Miyoshi has experimented
on the power of the filaments of fungi to penetrate solid membranes.

* Journ. de Bot. (Morot), ix. (1895) pp. 274-80, 281-91, 307-18 (20 figs.).

t Tom. cit., pp. 33f5-8 (1 fig.). X Tom. cit., pp. 372-6 (1 fig.).

§ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xli. (1895) Sess. Extraord., pp. cxlii.-vi. (6 figs.). Cf.
this Journal, 1890, p. 489.

|| Le Botaniste, (Dangeard) iv. (1895) pp. 182-7 (1 fig.).

Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeft'er u. Strasburger) xxviii. (1895) pp. 2G9-89 (3 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

93

The fungi employed were chiefly species of Benicillium and Botrytis ;
the membranes — cellulose, theepiderm of the bulb of the onion, leaves of
Tradescantia , collodion, parchment, pith of elder, cork, wood, &c. The
irritation-contact causes the formation of hapters or attaching organs ;
and the forces which bring about the penetration of the fungus are both
chemical and physical. That the latter can act by themselves is shown
by the fact that fungi can penetrate a very thin layer of gold. The
power of parasitic fungi to infect only special hosts, is probably due to
the nature of the excreted ferment, which varies with the species.

Monoblepharidese.* — Mr. R. Thaxter describes two new species of
Monoblepharis , both growing on submerged sticks, 31. fasciculata and
M. insignis , and records some general observations on the life-history of
the genus. The free-swimming antherozoids are nearly spherical or
broadly ovoid, and contain a few refractive granules and a large central
nucleus. They move with considerable rapidity, the single cilium being
directed backwards, and they may often be seen to come suddenly to
rest on an unfertilised oogone, over which they begin at once to creep
with an amoeboid movement. A portion of the protoplasm discharged
by the oogone when it opens collects round its mouth, and exercises an
attractive force on the antherozoids.

A full description is given of the genus Gonapodya, and of a new
species G. polymorpha.

A new genus Myrioblepharis is described, with the following
diagnosis : — Hyphae slender, sparingly branched, bearing terminal zoo-
sporanges which become many times proliferous, and form an elongated
series traversed by the hyphae from the successive proliferations of which
they arise ; zoospores very large, multiciliate over their whole surface,
resulting from the division of the contents of the sporanges, and making
their exit as a single ciliated mass surrounded by a gelatinous membrane
attached to the distal end of the sporange ; the successive envelopes,
after rupturing distally, are persistent round the series of empty
sporanges. The single species, 31. paradoxa, was found on submerged
sticks.

TJstilagineae.f — Herr O. Brefeld records the result of a series of
experiments on the infection of oat, millet, and maize by fungi belonging
to the Ustilaginese, the infection being effected by means of the conids.
The author describes in detail the mode in which the oat is penetrated
by the mycele of Ustilago Avense, the millet by U. cruenta, and maize by
U. 3/laydis .

The author divides the Hemibasidii into Protohem ibasidii (Ustila-
gineae) and Autohkmibasidii (Tilletiaceae) according to whether the
ustilagospores produce on germination septated conidiophores (promy-
celes) with lateral conids, or unseptated conidiophores with terminal
conids. The conids may develope into yeast-fungi by budding. In the
course of development the higher form or hemibasid is produced only
once, the lower mode of fructification many times.

The genus TJstilago is divided into three sections, Proustilago,

* Bot. Gazette, xx. (1895) pp. 433-40, 477-85 (2 pis.).

f Unters. a. d. Gesammtgeb. d. Mykclogie, xi. and xii. (1 pi.), MUnster, 1895.
See Hedwigia, xxxiv. (1895) Rep., p. 138.

94

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Hemiustilago, ami Euustilago, dependent on the relative frequency of
the production of the lower and of the higher mode of fructification.
Several new species of Ustilago are described, and two now genera are
established — Anthracoidea on U. Caricis, and Ustilaginoidea on Tilletia
Oryzse.

Parasitic Fungi. — Dr. F. W. Neger * * * § gives a full description of
Antennciria scoriadea , a common parasitic fungus in Chile, and retains
the autonomy of Berkeley’s species. The trees which it attacks are
infested by a black ant, which appears to feed on the fungus.

Herr H. 0. Juelf has established the identity of JEcidium Sommer -
fcltii , parasitic on Thalictrum alpinum , with a new species of Puccinia ,
P. sepfentrionalis, found on Polygonum Bistorta and vlviparum. He
states that this is the first example recorded of hetercecism in a Puccinia,
the teleutospore-host of which is a dicotyledonous plant.

M. P. A. Dangeard J describes in detail the destructive effects of
Cladosporium herbarium, on apple-trees. It produces minute sclerotes
within the tissue of the leaf.

According to Herr P. Dietel,§ Melampsora Helioscopise is an autoecious
species, having both the spermogone and the cseoma-form on the same
plant, Euphorbia Cyparissias. M. vernalis belongs to the same cycle of
development as Cseoma Saxifragarum , and must be known as M. Saxi-
fragarum.

According to Mrs. F. W. Patterson || the species of Taphrina parasitic
on the ovary of Populus tremuloides and other hosts is T. Jolinsonii, while
the form which occurs on the leaves is T. aurea.

Dr. P. Baccarini ^ has investigated a disease of the date-palm
indicated by the fall of the leaves. He finds the disintegrated tissues
to be permeated by the sterile mycele of several different fungi, especially
of Antliostomella contaminans ; but it is uncertain whether they are the
cause or only the accompaniment of the disease.

Parasites of Cultivated Crops.**' — Herr 0. Wehmer finds that the
rotting of grapes and walnuts is chiefly due to Botrytis cinerea, that
of apples and pears to species of Penicillium and Mucor, principally
P. glaucum and M. pyriformis. Two new species are described, parasitic
on southern fruits, Penicillium italicum and olivaceum. Maleinic acid
was found, even in very small quantities, to be pathogenous to parasitic
fungi ; combined with potassium it is harmless or even nutritive.
Potassium salts may be replaced by those of sodium in the growth of
fungi ; but the latter act more slowly. Certain fungi have a preference
for free acids. Verticillium glaucum will completely fill up a solution of
citric acid with a solid slimy mass of mycele ; a species of Citromyces
was found in tartaric acid.

* Central!)], f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., i. (1895) 2te Abtli., pp. 536-41 (1 pi.).

f Ofv. K. Vetensk.-Akad. Forh. Stockholm, lii. (1895) pp. 379-86 (3 figs.)

(German). J Le Botaniste (Dangeard), iv. (1895) pp. 190-5 (6 figs.).

§ Forst-Naturf. Zeitschr., 1895, p. 374. See Hedwigia, xxxiv. (1895) Rep., p. 142.

|| Proo. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1894 (1895) pp. 293-4.

f Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1895, pp. 196-203.

** Beitr. z. Kenntn. einheimiseker Pilzc, ii., Jena, 1895 (3 pis.)- See Hedwigia,
xxxiv. (1895) Itep., p. 136.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

95

Uredinopsis.* * * § — Of this genus of Fungi, at present known only as
parasites on Ferns. Herr P. Dietel describes a new species, U. Pteridis, on
Pteris aquilina from California. In addition to the two kinds of sporo
observed in the older species, the author now describes a third, which
he regards as unicellular toleutospores enclosed in a pseudoperidium
composed of asciform cells. The aecidio-form is at present unknown,
and the genus appears best placed at present among the Melampsoreae.

Gliocladium.f — M. L. Matruchot has determined that this genus of
Fungi, hitherto placed under the Mucedinese, must be transferred to the
Ascomycetes, since G. penicillioides produces, under special conditions,
a perfect ascogenous form, belonging to the Perisporiaceoe, and presenting
in some respects a resemblance to Penicillium. He further states that
some of the characters used to distinguish the species from one another
cannot be relied on.

Musk-Fun gus.l; — By cultivation Dr. H. Gluck has been able to obtain
from the musk-fungus, Fusnrium aquseduclum, peritheces belonging to a
Nectria which he named N. moschata sp. n. The ascospores from these
peritheces produce again, on germination, a mycele bearing the ordinary
conids of Fusarium.

Secretion of Oil by Liehens.§ — According to Herr M. Fiinfstiick,
the oil which is found in crustaceous lichens in special vesicular cells
is not of the nature of a reserve food-material, but is rather an excretory
product. The abundance of this oil is, as a rule, in inverse proportion
to the number of the gonids ; its production is dependent on the nature
of the substratum, being due to the decomposition of the carbon
dioxide set free by the action of acids on the carbonates in that sub-
stratum.

Bendrographa, a new Genus of Lichens. || — Herr 0. Y. Darbishire
establishes this new genus, founded on Boccella leucophsea , and dis-
tinguished from Boccella chiefly by the structure of the stem, in which
the cortical hyphoe run parallel to the surface instead of in a vertical
direction. The hypothece also of Bendrographa encloses the hymenium
on the sides as a black layer, while in Boccella it is wanting at these
spots; the basal disk of the former genus possesses bolh cortex and
gonids, while that of the latter apparently does not.

Stictei.^T — In a monograph of this family of foliaceous lichens Dr.
E. Stizenberger gives a full account of their anatomy, especially of the
cyphellae and pseudo-cyphellse, which have often been taken for organs
of reproduction, having been confounded with the soredes. The 189
known species are arranged under three genera, viz. : — 35 of Biccasolia,
82 of Sticta, and 72 of Stictina.

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 326-32 (1 ph).

t Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), vii. (1895) pp. 321-31 (1 pi.).

J Hedwigia, xxxiv. (1895) pp. 251-5.

§ Beitr. z. wiss. Bot. (Fiinfstiick), i. (1895) p. 157 (1 pi.). See Hedwigia, xxxiv
(1895) Rep., p. 119.

|| Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 313-26 (1 pi. and 1 fig.).

*[ Flora, lxxxi. (1895) Erganz.-Bd., pp. 88-150.

96

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Development of the Spores of Saccharomyces.* — M. J. C. Nielsen
finds that, although Saccharomyces membransefaciens , Ludivigii , and
anomalus differ greatly from one another morphologically, they present
the same physiological properties with regard to the optimum tempera-
ture for the germination of their spores. The maximum temperature,
above which the spores will not germinate, is 34° C., the minimum 3°,
and the optimum about 8°.

Various Yeasts. j — M. A. Klocker first discusses Saccharomyces
Marxianus , and corrects an error that has arisen to the effect that this
species can ferment maltose. Neither it nor S . Ludwigii can do so.
After repeated experiments, he has come to the conclusion that S. apicu -
latus cannot produce endogenous spores, though several authorities
maintain the affirmative. Nor can he find any trace of the novel endo-
genous formation of cells described by Fischer and Brebeck in
S. anomalus.

Origin of Alcohol- Yeast s.j: — The laboratory at Copenhagen has
issued its first report, which is devoted to the origin of the alcohol-
yeasts. The matter of the report has already been noticed. § Herr A.
Jorgensen first gives a short historical retrospect of the yeast question,
and then deals with its solution. In the next report the yeasts arising
from the Dematium- like forms will be discussed.

Sake, Shoyu, and Miso-Making.||— Herr 0. Kellner describes the
preparation of sake, shoyu, and miso, in all of which the mycele of
Aspergillus Oryzse is an important ingredient, as it produces the diastase
requisite for converting the raw material into sugar. The author’s
description of the making of sake or rice-wine is in its essential points
much the same as that of previous writers. The raw material consists
of the various kinds of rice cultivated over half Japan. There are four
stages in the making of sake : — (1) the preparation of koji, the equivalent
of our malt ; (2) of moto, the yeast-mash ; (3) the fermentation proper ;
(4) the separation of the fermented liquid from the grains. Sake has
the colour of Bhine wine, an arrack-like aroma, and contains 11-14 per
cent, of alcohol.

Shoyu, or bean-sauce, is made from wheat, soja beans, and salt.

Miso forms a stiff brown pappy mass, for making which soja beans,
rice, or barley, and much sea-salt are used.

Spores of Chalara4 — According to Prof. B. D. Halsted, Clialara
paradoxa produces four kinds of spores. The first kind illustrates the
internal abjunction of spores. The tip of the hypha dissolves, and the
protoplasmic contents become divided serially into a row of hyaline
cylindrical spores, which are pushed out of the tip of the spore-bearing
hypha. The second kind is larger, and is produced in the ordinary
way, forming long moniliform chains. The third is formed by internal
abjunction, is oval, brown, and not hyaline. The fourth kind is produced
within the substance of the host (pine-apple).

* C.R. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg, 1894. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlii. (1895)
Rev. Bibl., p 535. f Ann. Micrographie, vii. (1895) pp. 313-25.

X Ber. d. Gahrungsphysiolog. Laborat. zu Kopenhagen, 1895, No. 1, 37 pp.
and 11 figs.. § See this Journal, 1895, pp. 462 and 556.

|| Chein. Ztg., xix. (1895) Nos. 6 and 7. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiii. (1895)
pp. 85-7. H Proc. A.mcr. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1894 (1895) p. 293.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

97

Nuclei of the TTredineae. — From observations on the formation of
teleutospores in Puccinia Liliacearum , M M. G. Poirault and M. Raci-
borski * state that the process of karyokinesis in the Uredineae is typically
that of the higher plants. No reduction in the number of chromosomes
takes place at the time of the formation of the aecidiospores, spermatia,
and teleutospores. It follows that the fusion of the nuclei of the teleu-
tospores cannot be regarded as a sexual phenomenon. The modifications
in the nucleus which accompany the ripening of the teleutospores of the
Uredineae, and which are readily observed in Trachyspora Alchemillsey
correspond altogether to those which take place in the ovules of flower-
ing plants, with the exception that in the Uredineae there are two nuclei.
The two nuclei which unite are not always separated ; at a certain
moment they coalesce, but still behave as two nuclei, each forming two
chromosomes, a number which has hitherto not been observed in plants,
and but very rarely in animals. The authors propose to term these
nuclei conjugated nuclei , and the phenomenon of karyokinesis which they
exhibit conjugated division.

To this statement MM. P. A. Dangeard and Sappin-Trouffy reply, j
asserting that it rests on an error of observation on the part of the
authors. They have taken the two nucleolated nuclei for a single
nucleus, the nucleole of which undergoes bipartition ; the two nuclear
masses of each nucleus were mistaken for the two chromosomes of a
single nucleus. The “ single nucleus with two chromosomes ” consists in
reality of two nuclei. They have further seen only one nucleus instead
of two in the hymenial cells which give birth to the teleutospores. Each
of these divides normally into two, the first phase in the division being
marked by an elongation of the nucleus and the disappearance of the
nuclear membrane.

In another paper £ MM. Poirault and Raciborski admit the correct-
ness of some of MM. Dangeard and Sappin-Trouffy’s criticisms, and give
further details with respect to the development of the aecidiospores and
of the probasids (teleutospores) in Peridermium Pini acicolum , Puccinia
Liliacearum , and Coleosporiun Euphrasise. rl he general conclusions
arrived at are stated as follows : — The multinucleated cells of the
Uifedinese differ from ordinary multinucleated cells, such as binucieated
pollen-grains, where the two nuclei are the result of the division of
a single nucleus. The nuclei of the TJredinese are “ conjugated nuclei.”
Each nucleus contains only a single chromosome, an instance of
simple karyokinesis not previously observed in the vegetable kingdom.
During karyokinesis each nucleus forms two chromosomes. The
nucleoles have nothing to do with the centrosomes. The principal
distinction between the conjugated division of the nucleus of the Uredineae
and ordinary karyokinesis is that the eight, twelve, or twenty-four
chromosomes (e. g. in the nucleus of the Liliaceae) are surrounded by a
common protoplasmic mass, while the secondary segments of conjugated
nuclei remain isolated. The two nuclei which coalesce in the probasids
(teleutospores) are not sister-nuclei, their origin being very remote from
one another ; but, since they have the same structure and exhibit the

* Comptes Bendus, exxi. (1895) pp. 178-80, 308-10. Cf. this Journal, 1894,
p. 238. t Tom. cit., pp. 364-6 ; Le Botaniste (Dangenrd) iv. (1895) pp. 196-8.

X Journ. de Bot. (Morot), ix. (1895) pp. 318-24, 325-32, 381-8 (1 pi. and 23 figs.)
1896 h

98

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

same reactions, this act of fusion cannot be regarded as a time process of
fertilisation.

Sexual Reproduction in the Basidiomycetes.* — M. P. A. Dangeard
confirms his previous statements on this subject from the result of a
series of observations on the various families of Basidiomycetes — Tremel-
lineae, Discomycetes, Thelephoreae, Agaricineae, Hydnaceae, Polyporeae —
in all of which a coalescence of nuclei takes place, which he regards as of
a sexual character. The basid is an “ oospore ” ; and, as in the Uredineae
and Ustilagineae, its protoplasm, enclosing a sexual nucleus, gives birth
to an indefinite number of sporidsv

Protobasidiomycetes.'l' — From researches in Brazil Herr A. Mbller
adds greatly to our knowledge of this order of Fungi. He proposes to
classify them under six families, viz.: — (1) Auriculariaceae ; basids sep-
tated horizontally, four-spoied ; divided into Stypinelleae, Platygloeeae, and
Auricularieae ; (2) Uredineae ; (3) Pilacraceae ; basids septated horizon-
tally, in angiocarpous receptacles ; (4) Sirobasidiace^e, fam. n. ; basids
formed in long chains behind one another on the same mycelial filament;
receptacle rudimentary; (5) Tremellaceae; basids divided by vertical
walls into four cells arranged in a cross ; divided into Stypelleae,
Exidiopsideae, Tremellineae, Protopolyporeae, and Protohydneae ; (6)
Hyaloriaoe^e, fam. n. ; with basids resembling those of the Tremellineae,
but angiocarpous receptacle like that of the Pilacreae.

Many new species and several new genera are described. Saccoblastia
is a new genus of Stypinelleae, forming an irregular loose white weft of
hyphae, scarcely 1 mm. thick, on rotten wood and bark ; basids solitary
and free ; the supporting cell of the basid bears a lateral vesicular sac,
the contents of which are used up in the formation of the basid, and
migrate completely into it. In Jola g. n. (Platyglceeae), the basids are
arranged in a more or less smooth hymenium resembling that of Thele-
phora ; receptacle composed of a soft waxy or slimy incrustation fixed to
the substratum. The Protopolyporeae are founded on a new genus Pro-
tomerulius, externally resembling Merulius , but with the basids of the
Tremellineae ; the Protohydneae on Protohydnum g. n., with .resupinate
waxy receptacle, densely clothed with obtusely conical projections covered
by the hymenium. The Hyaloriaceae are founded on Hyaloria g. n.
with the following diagnosis: — Gelatinous stalked fungi growing in
tufts or clusters ; the basids, sterigmas, and spores buried in a weft of
sterile filaments, not allowing an immediate escape of the spores,
which are not violently thrown out.

The Sirobasidieae form an interesting link between the Auricularieae
and the Tremellineae in the form of their basids. The Protobasidio-
mycetes may be arranged under two series, one ascending from the
Stypinelleae to the Auricularieae, the other from the Sirobasidiaceae to
the Tremellaceae.

A new genus Henninysia is also established, belonging to the Poly-
poreae.

* Le Botaniste (Dangeard), iv. (1895) pp. 119-81 (24 figs.). Cf. this Journal,
1895, p. 465.

f Bot. Mittheil. a. d. Tropen (Seliimper), Heft 8, 1895 (179 and xix. pp. and
6 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

99

Physiology of Trichophyton.* — According to Mr. L. Roberts an
examination of several varieties of fungus which occur in ringworm and
allied conditions shows that their distinguishing feature is their ability
to digest horny tissues, probably by means of a ferment. This keratolytic
group, as he terms it, includes Favus, the various kinds of Trichophyton ,
some species of Aspergillus , and probably others not yet identified.
There are at least two kinds observable of the purely trichophytic fungi,
viz. : — a kind that digests both the cuticle and the cortical substance of
the hair simultaneously, and a variety that digests the cortical substance,
leaving the cuticle unaffected, or attacking it only at a later period.

Blastomycetes in Sarcoma.f — Dr. D. B. Roncali sums up, in a
preliminary communication, the results of his investigations on five sar-
comata : — 1, a large round-celled sarcoma of the iliac bone ; 2 and 3 were
spindle-celled (one being melanotic) sarcomata of the eye ; 4 and 5 were
spindle-celled sarcomata from the upper jaw (one being melanotic).

In these five sarcomata were found, in greater or less numbers, para-
sitic forms having a close resemblance to one another, and also to the
forms described by Sanfelice and by the author in adeno-carcinoma of
the ovary. These parasites are regarded by the author as Blastomycetes,
partly because they react to the specific stains for Blastomycetes, and
resist the action of acids and alkalies. The parasites are found within
and without cells, though but rarely in the nucleus ; they propagate
themselves by budding, and contain a granular protoplasm, which,
according to its age, is more or less susceptible of being stained with
anilin dyes.

Pathogenic Blastomycetes. — Dr. D. B. Roncali $ describes another
case of cancer of the ovary with secondary deposits in the omentum in
which blastomycetes were present. The parasites were found in the
cells, and also free — single or in collections. They are larger than the
cell-nucleus, from which they are also distinguished by the difference in
the staining reaction. The parasites are almost invariably round, and
possess a well-defined limiting membrane. In many respects the micro-
scopical appearances were identical with those observed in a similar case
by Sanfelice.

Dr. G. Corselli and B. Frisco § also describe a sarcoma of the
mesenteric glands with numerous secondary deposits on various parts of
the body, from which a pathogenic blastomycete was isolated. Micro-
scopical examination of the fluid drawn off during life revealed cells of
various sizes, many having extensions and others containing granules.
All stained easily with methylen-blue, with haematoxylin, with carbol-
fuclisin, and with a mixture of malachite-green and safranin. All the
forms were also obtained from cultivations made from the milky fluid
removed post-mortem from the thorax. Subcultures were made in the
usual media and in Fucus. From the latter successful transferences
were made in bouillon, gelatin, agar, glycerin-agar, and sugar-agar.

The morphological and developmental characters of the parasite are
apparently those of Blastomycetes, though failure to develop on fruit-

* Journ. Path, and Bacteriol., iii. (1895) pp. 300-9. See Journ. Chem. Soc., 1895,
Abstr., p. 457.

t Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lt0 Abt., xviii. (1895) pp. 432-4.

% Tom. cit., pp. 353-68 (1 pi.). § Tom. cit., pp. 368-73.

100

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

media and on acid substrata is explained by supposing that the parasite
has become accustomed to its altered environment. In guinea-pigs,
rabbits, and dogs, both with the milky fluid, removed with antiseptic pre-
cautions, and with pure cultivations, positive results were obtained, for
malignant neoplasms formed in all the animals, the tumours chiefly
affecting lymphatic glands. In all the neoplasms the parasite was
present. One character should be specially mentioned, the presence of
pigment and also of black corpuscles, which, according to the authors,
represent the spores of Blastomycetes.

Protophyta.
a. Schizopliyceae.

Kirchneriella.* — An examination by Prof. B. Chodat of this genus
of Protococcoidem, established by Schmidle, induces him to place it near
JDactylococcns or Baphidium.

Conjugation in the Nostochiness.f— Prof. A. Borzi has observed a
peculiar formation of spores in certain species of Anabsena (A. insequalis ,
torulosa, oscillarioides, and tenuissima sp. n«). The fertile cells are, as a
rule, produced only in the immediate neighbourhood of the heterocysts.
It is not always the case, especially in A. torulosa , that the contents of
the cells are transformed into a single spore. The cell divides, the two
segments remaining in close contiguity, but quite distinct. In the course
of their development the two coalesce, the product of their union having
all the characters of a nascent spore. It is noteworthy that some of these
spores unquestionably result from the union of bodies derived from the
same cell, but the two differ somewhat in volume.

Movement of Diatoms.f — According to Herr P. Hauptfleisch there
exists, in Amphiprora quarnerensis , Amphicyma data, and Brebissonia
Boeckii , a canal which penetrates the raphe, is in open communication
with the interior of the cell, and is clothed with protoplasm. From this
protoplasm fine threads pass through delicate pores in the membrane ;
and it is by means of these threads that the diatom is able to perform
its creeping movement. At the poles these threads are wanting. For
Pinnularia also the author is not able to accept Muller’s § explanation
of the movement, but believes it to be due to a similar cause.

The author also describes the formation of auxospores in Brebissonia
Boedcii , in a manner similar to that of Frustulia saxonica.

j8. Schizomycetes.

Bacillar Disease of Vines. — MM. E. Prillieux and G. Delacroix |j
assert that the disease of vines known in France as “ aubernage ” and
“ roncet,” in Italy as “ mal nero,” is due to a microbe which finds its
way into the tissues through external wounds. It may take the form of
a Streptococcus or of a Leptoihrix , and it is to this that is due the

* Bull,' Herb. Boissier, iii. (1895) pp. 308-15 (1 fig.).

t Bull. Soc. Bot. I tal., 1895, pp. 208-10.

J Mitth. Naturf. tYer- Neu- Vorpommern u. Riigen, xxvii. (1895) 30 pp. and
10 figs. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv. (1895) p. 116. § Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 607.

•I Ann. Inst. Agronom., xiv. (1895) 32 pp. and 1 pi. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France,
xlii. (1895) Rev. Bibl., p. 536. Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 492.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

101

gummosis known as “ gummose bacillaire ” and the formation of thylleo
in the living part of the wood. The development of the bacillus is
greatly facilited by a moist air.

M. L. Ravaz * describes similar phenomena, but states that the
formation of gum is not characteristic of the disease, seeing that it may
take place in the healthy vine.®

Herr K. Schilbersky f reviews the accounts of this disease of the
vine given by different observers, and advocates the view that it is not
an independent disease, but a secondary result of other pathogenic con-
ditions.

Morphological and Physiological Variability of Microbes. t — In a
monograph on the variability exhibited bv microbes, M. A. Rodet first
discusses the morphological variations. Bacillus anthracis appears in
the blood in the form of rodlets of equal length. In gelatin cultures these
may extend to filaments of any length, while spore-formation depends
on the nutrient medium. The poorer this is in nutritive substances the
more numerous are the spores. In this connection too, temperature
exerts considerable influence. With many other bacteria the same
results are obtained ; for example, B. prodigiosus , Megatherium , septicus ,
cyanogenus, pyogenes , &c. Bac. coli com. exhibits these morphologi-
cal variations in a high degree. At a temperature of 31° it shows short
rodlets, at 42°-46° the rodlets are much longer. But even the same
culture will exhibit quite different appearances, at one time being quite
coccoid, at another very long. The mobility and the number of flagella
are also very variable. The morphological variations of the Proteus
group are very numerous (very long rods to cocci), and in general this
is the case with every species.

The physical macroscopical characters of the same species are just
as little always the same, e. g. Bac. anthracis shows more or less large
flakes on the medium. Cholera colonies on gelatin are different in
different cases, and the polymorphism of this vibrio on gelatin is so
great that no bacteriologist would trust to the appearances on this
medium alone. Potato cultures of B. coli may be so dissimilar that
they often resemble a crowd of different species.

Like the morphological and physical characters, the chemical pro-
perties are also subject to variation. Thus the pigment of B. pyocyaneus
depends on the quantity of oxygen. The colour in albumen cultures is
green, in pepton cultures blue. So, too, the secretion of diastase by
Bac. mesentericus milgaius is variable, as is the indol reaction of the coli
and cholera bacteria. The intensity of pigment production of Bac. pro-
digiosus is not always the same. In alkaline fluids it may even be
absent. By long cultivation in the laboratory, Staph, aureus gradually
loses its colour. Streptococcus erysipelatis produces at one time inactive
lactic acid, at another laevolactic acid. The toxic properties of the same
species are often very different (diphtheria, B. coli, cholera).

Moreover, the biological characters, e. g. the resistance of one and
the same species, are not always alike ; and often it appears that an older

* Rev. de Viticulture, 1895, 12 pp. and 14 figs. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlii.
(1895) Rev. Bibl., p. 588. f lu Russian ; see Bot. Centralbl., lxiv. (1895) p. 90.

I Paris, 1895. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lla Abt., xviii. (1895)
pp. 49S-5UI.

102

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

culture is more resistant than a younger one, and that individuals of the
same culture betray like differences ; some live while others die, though
under exactly the same conditions.

The characters of some species ( coli , typhoid) are altered by the
action of high temperatures. Some species become accustomed to the
action of antiseptics, if these be added gradually. The tubercle bacillus
can be much better cultivated on gelatin if previously it have been
bred for some time on blood-serum. All these phenomena indicate that
the biological characters of the same species are often very unlike at
different times or under different conditions.

Variations of pathogenic properties of the same species are very
important. It is usual for each species to exhibit its most virulent
characters towards certain kinds of animals, e. g. as does anthrax. But
even for the same kind of animal the virulence may be stronger or
weaker, and hence it was that Pasteur was able to diminish the virulence
of anthrax, and conversely to increase the virulence.

Cultivated in the laboratory the cholera vibrio gradually loses
its virulence. Blackstein, however, found the virulence increase in
gelatin containing phosphates or a trace of iron. Vibrios, coli and
typhoid bacteria are most virulent immediately after their exit from the
body.

The author believes that Bac. coli is the actual cause of typhoid,
because in water typhoid bacteria are rarely found, while coli bacteria
are frequent ; and also because in the dejecta of typhoid patients the coli
bacteria are frequent, while the typhoid bacteria are scanty. Indeed, it
would seem from the frequent references to B. coli and B. typhosus that
the author’s main object is to prove the identity of the two organisms.

Species of Sarcina.* — In the introduction to his paper Herr Th.
Gruber gives a short history of the genus, and explains the principle of
his classification. A cellulose membrane cannot be demonstrated.
Altogether, 39 species are known, of which 19 have been recently
described. The special part of the work deals with the morphological
and biological characters of the different species. The following table,
to facilitate the recognition of the species, is given at the end : —

I. Species, the Colonies of which are White in Solid Media.

1. Forming typical packets in solid and liquid media.

a. Gelatin liquefied,
a. Colonies round.

S. alba Zimm., S. alutacea sp. n.

(3. Colonies of irregular shape.

S. incan i n. sp.

b. Gelatin not liquefied,
a. Colonies round.

S. pulchra H enrici.

(3. Colonies of irregular shape.

S. pulmonum Virch., S. lactea sp. n., S. vermicularis sp. n.,
S. minuta De By., sp. n.

* Arb. a. d. Bacteriol. Inst. d. Techa. Hocksch. zu Karlsruhe, i. (1895) p. 239.
See Hedwigia, xxxiv. (1895) Rep., pp. 72-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

103

2. Forming packets only in liquid media.
a. Gelatin liquefied.

S. Candida Reinke, S. albida sp. n.
h . Gelatin not liquefied.

S. Wclkeri Roman, 8. nivea Henri ci, S. ventriculi Goods.

II. Species forming Pigment.

A. Pigment yellow.

1. Forming typical packets in solid and liquid media.

a. Gelatin liquefied,
a. Colonies round.

S. flava De By., S. superba Henrici, S. olens Henriei,
S. aurescens Gruber.

/3. Colonies of irregular shape.

S. liquefaciens Fraenkel.

y. When old no longer forming pigment and not liquefying
gelatin.

S. aurea Mace.

b. Gelatin not liquefied,
a. Colonies round.

S. lutea Scliroet., S. livida sp. n., S. melliflava sp. n.

/?« Colonies of irregular shape.

S. luteola sp. n., S. vcrmiformis sp. n., S. citrina sp. n.,
S. striata sp. n., S. m rginata sp. n., S. gasoformans sj). n.

2. Forming typical packets only in liquid media.

a. Gelatin liquefied.

Colonies round.

S. Jlavescens Henrici, S. aurantiaca Lindner.

b. Gelatin not liquefied.

a. Colonies of irregular shape.

S. sulphurea Henrici, S. velutina sp. n.
ft. Colonies at first irregular, afterwards becoming round.

S. intermedia sp. n.

B. Pigment red.

1. Forming typical packets in solid and liquid media. Gelatin not

liquefied.

S. carnea sp. n., S. incarnata sp. n.

2. Forming typical packets only in liquid media.

a. Gelatin liquefied.

S. rosea Schroet.

b. Gelatin not liquefied.

S. persicina sp. n.

C. Pigment brown. Gelatin not liquefied.

1. Forming typical packets in solid and liquid media.

S. fusca sp. n.

2. Forming packets in liquid media only.

S. fuscescens Falkenh. S. paludosa Schroet., S. intestinalis Zopf,
S. maxima Lindner are doubtful.

104

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Bactericidal Influence of Hydrogen peroxide.* — Herr Dieudonne,
after exposing uninoculated agar plates for ten minutes to direct sun-
light, or for 3J-4 hours to diffused daylight, was enabled to demonstrate
the presence of peroxide of hydrogen by means of iodide of potassium,
starch, paste, and sulphate of iron (Schonlein’s reaction). With gelatin
plates the reaction was manifested in five hours. By covering part of
the capsule containing the agar with blackened paper and then exposing
it to the sunlight, the presence of peroxide of hydrogen could be demon-
strated in the illuminated portion only of the agar, while in the covered
it was wanting. The effective rays in the formation of hydrogen per-
oxide are the blue and violet, the red and yellow having no such
influence. Even tap-water, when exposed to the sun for a couple of
hours, showed a slight reaction on the addition of ether, bichromate
of potash, and dilute sulphuric acid (blue colour). The reaction was
most manifest in the upper layers, the middle showing it less clearly,
and the lowermost scarcely at all, even after prolonged exposure. Upon
the formation of hydrogen peroxide depends in great measure the bac-
tericidal action of light. Illumination-experiments, made with cultures
of Bacterium coli with exclusion of oxygen, showed that these organisms
were not killed off with exposure to light in the absence of oxygen under
four hours, but when oxygen was present one and a half hours sufficed.
The author is inclined to explain the self-purification of streams, which
according to Buchner essentially depends on light, by the formation of
hydrogen peroxide.

Production of Ammonia in the Soil by Microbes. f — The conver-
sion of nitrogenous organic bodies into nitrates by the lower organisms
is divisible into three phases : — (1) The formation of ammonia from the
organic matter ; (2) the oxidation of the ammonia to nitrite ; (3) the
further oxidation of the nitrite to nitrate. M. E. Marchal has recently
devoted some attention to the first phase of this mineralisation process,
and gives experimental proof that no ammonia is formed from organic
substances in the soil without the co-operation of microbes — bacteria, and
mould fungi. Of the former fifteen species are enumerated, of the latter
five, which were found to possess the power of converting albumen into
ammonia. It is inferred from these experiments that the formation of
ammonia from albuminous substances is not a specific function of certain
organisms, like nitrite and nitrate formation, but is common to a large
number of micro-organisms.

Whether the mould fungi or bacteria are more efficient as producers
o* ammonia in the soil was determined by experiment in favour of the
bacteria ; for in highly cultivated land, either on account of its alkaline
leaction, which is favourable to bacteria, or because of the absence of
large quantities of organic matter, mould fungi were decidedly re-
pressed. If, however, the reaction were acid, though rich in organic
substances, mould fungi flourished. To a description of the morpholo-
gical and .cultural characters of B. mycoides Fliigge the author devotes
much attention.

* Arb. a. d. Kaiserl, Gesund., ix. (1891) p. 537. SeeBot. Centralbl., lxiii. (1895)
pp. 63-4.

f Agricult. Science, viii. (1891) p. 574. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Paru-
sitenk., 2te Abt., i. (1825) pp. 753-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

105

Luminosity of Cholera Bacilli.* — According to Herr Th. Rumpel,
the luminosity of a culture of vibrios is no diagnostic criterion for dis-
tinguishing between the true cholera vibrio and those closely resembling
it ; for in the fatal case of laboratory cholera (Oergel) the cultures were
strongly luminous..

Phosphorescence of Elbe Vibrios.f — Dr. Kutscher states that the
phosphorescence of the vibrios kept by him for some years aud originally
obtained from the Elbe and also from human stools, has up to the
present in no way diminished. The author makes this statement in
reply to Hiippe, who recently said that tbe vibrios obtained from him
(the author) had lost their phosphorescence. It is possible that differ-
ences in the composition of the cultivation media may account for this
loss of luminosity.

Bacteriological and Chemical Examination of Graveyard Soil4 —
Dr. J. B. Young finds that the soil of graveyards contains as a rule more
bacteria than virgin soil, the difference being most marked in the deeper
layers, although the number of bacteria is not so great as one might
expect. The bacteria are not most numerous immediately surrounding
the coffin, but at some distance above, while at a short distance below the
coffin, there is a marked diminution in the number. Liquefying bacteria,
especially Proteus vulgaris , are very abundant in the soil from the
immediate vicinity of coffins.

Burial has little if any effect in increasing the organic matter in the
upper reaches of the soil, whereas it has a very marked effect on the
layers containing the coffins, i.e. at depths greater than 4 feet from
the surface. The organic nitrogen and carbon in graveyard soil are by
no means so great in amount as is commonly supposed.

New Nitrate-forming Bacillus. § — Herren R. Burri and A. Stutzer
have isolated a nitrate-forming bacillus which can be grown on gelatin.
The organism has certain properties akin to those of the Quito bacillus
described by Winogradsky, but its special characters are sufficiently
marked to easily distinguish it. The living rodlet is 0 • 75-1 • 5 p, long and
0*5 p, thick, stained with phenol-fuchsin 0*5-1 p, long and 0*25-0*33 p,
broad. Movements were observed in the silicic acid jelly and gelatin
plate colonies. It can grow on organic nutrient media, gelatin being
slowly liquefied. The superficial colonies on silicic acid plates are
colourless to blueish. Deep gelatin colonies are never lenticular in
shape. Ammonia salts are never converted into nitrous acid salts. It
oxidises 9 * 3 mg. of nitrite per diem in 20 ccm. of nutrient medium.
Thus it is distinguished from Winogradsky’s organism by its size, by
growing on organic nutrient media, and by the colour of the colonies.
The preparation of the media and the details of the isolation are
described at some length.

New Essentially Anaerobic Bacteria. || — Herr~R. Gerstner isolated
from mud seven species of anaerobic} bacteria, by exposing the original

* Miinchener Med. Woclieiischr., 1895, No. 3. See Bot. Centralbl., Ixi. (1895)
p. 398. f Centralbl. fc Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xviii. (1895) p. 424.

t Trans. Boy. Soc. Edinburgh, xxxvii. (1895) pp. 759-73.

§ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., i. (1895) pp. 721-40.

|| Arb. aus deni BacterioL Inst. d. Techn. Hochsch. zu Karlsruhe, ii. (1895) p. 149
(2 pis.). See Hedwigia, xxxiv. (1895) Rep., pp. 71-2.

106

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

material, placed in tubes containing bouillon, to the air. As the aerobic
bacteria hud absorbed the oxygen, the organisms sought for were found
in the sediment. This was inoculated in roll tubes from which the
oxygen had been driven by hydrogen, and colonies of bacteria grew up
on the thin gelatin layers. The species found were Bacillus cincinnatus ,
B. diffrangens, B. granulosus , B. reniformis , B. funicularis, B. jibrosus ,
B. penicillatus. With the exception of B. reniformis , all possessed
flagella and liquefied gelatin. All formed spores. At the conclusion,
the author gives an account of all the known anaerobes, of which there
are altogether thirty-two.

Decomposition of Saccharated Media by Vibrio Cholerae asiaticse.*

— When Vibrio Cholerse asiaticse is cultivated in media containing grape-
sugar, laevolactic acid is produced. Herr Gosio has further determined
that the decomposition of the sugar and the formation of lactic acid go
hand in hand. In sugar-pepton media, butyric and acetic acids are
regularly found, and the production of these acids is favoured by incu-
bation temperatures. In saccharated media, alcohol, aldehyd, and
aceton are also formed, but carbonic acid is not produced. Media con-
taining cane-sugar, maltose, milk-sugar, and starch were also examined.
The amount of lactic acid produced was small compared to that formed
when grape-sugar was present, and in the case of starch there was
scarcely any at all. The quantity of volatile acids produced by the latter
media was approximately the same, hence their formation would not
appear to be dependent on the decomposition of the sugar. But between
the latter and the production of indol there was some relation ; for the
less sugar that was attacked, the greater was the formation of indol, and
when the saccharine decomposition was extreme indol was absent.
When non-albuminous media were used, the energy of the decomposi-
tion was about as great as with peptonised media. In these experi-
ments the relations of the quantity of the decomposed sugar to the
quantity of the lactic acid formed on the one hand, to volatile acids
on the other, were found to correspond approximately with the results
obtained with the albuminous media.

Typhoid-like Bacilli and the Diagnosis of the Bacillus Typho-
sus.f — In the course of experiments made for the purpose of ascertain-
ing how long pathogenic bacteria retain their vitality in the bodies of
brried animals, Herr Losener lighted on bacilli perfectly indistinguish-
able from the bacilli of enteric fever ; the bacteria were also found in
water, faeces, and in fallow soil. The following criteria serve as a basis
for diagnosis : — (1) the appearance of surface colonies on gelatin ;
(2) the mobility of the rodlets, which are very variable in shape, on con-
genial media ; (3) a large number of flagella ; (4) being decoloured
by Gram’s method ; (5) non-formation of gas on saccharated media ;
(6) growth in milk but without coagulation ; (7) growth in albuminous
media without forming indol ; (8) formation of acid not exceeding 3 per
cent, in whey ; (9) when grown on potato, behaves exactly as culture of

* Arch. f. Hygiene, xxii. (1894) p. 1. See Bot. Centralbl., v. (1895), Beih.,
pp. 298-4.

f Arb. ausd. Kaiserl. Gesundheitsamte, xi. (1895) p. 207. See Bot. Centralbl.,
v. (1895) Beih., pp. 294-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

107

Bacillus typhosus growing on the other half ; (10) no growth on Maassen’s
normal solution if glycerin be added.

Taken altogether, the foregoing characters are of striking import,
though separately none are specially characteristic of the typhoid
bacillus. All other characters ^described by various authors are either
inconstant or useless. The author isolated five different bacteria, all of
which possessed the aggregate characters of typhoid bacilli, and as these
organisms were derived from different places, localities quite free at the
time from typhoid fever, an interesting question arises, viz. whether the
disease is specifically connected with the Bacillus typhosus , and if so
whether the present tests for it are sufficient and satisfactory.

Streptococcus of Scarlatina.* — M. Ad. d’Espine has isolated from
the blood and tonsillar exudation of scarlet fever cases, a streptococcus,
which rapidly coagulates milk, with the formation of whey and curd. In
this respect it differs from common streptococci which, though they
curdle milk, form a compact clot without producing whey. The scarla-
tina streptococcus is much smaller than ordinary cocci, and differs there-
from in shape, being round, while the ordinary coccus is lenticular, and
that of contagious mammitis fusiform. It resembles, in its morphological
and biological characters, the scarlatina coccus described by the author
in 1892.

Streptobacillus Ulceris Mollis. f — According to Dr. Unna the
stroptobacillus described by him in 18 S9 as being the cause of the soft
chancre, and Ducrey’s suppuration bacillus, are identical. The chain
bacillus is somewhat thinner and longer than Ducrey’s bacillus, and its
ends are angular, while those of the latter are rounded. In other respects
they are alike, their staining relations are the same ; both stain with
Gram and have an affinity for methyl-violet. Both are found only in
the soft chancre and not in other kinds of pus or ulceration ; their
position in the tissues indicates their pathological connection with the
soft chancre.

Neither bacillus has been cultivated in artificial media, and inocula-
tions on animals were negative.

Cholera Notes.* — Dr. L. Kamen, wdio had much experience o*f cholera
in 1894, describes the morphological and cultural characters of four
vibrios from different cases of cholera. All four were of the typical comma
shape, with unipolar flagella ; but there were differences of mobility and
in the length of the spirilla. The amount and shape of the liquefied
gelatin were strikingly different. There wrere differences in the indol
reaction, and in the shape and colour of the colonies. In recording these
cases the author’s object is to show that the cholera vibrio may present
morphological and physiological variations, though these are insufficient
to make different species. In connection with cholera a species of
Proteus is mentioned which was invariably found in dysenteric stools.
The chief distinguishing character of this Proteus is the fact that it
gives a clear indol reaction when cultivated in pepton water.

* Comptes Rendus, cxx. (1895) pp. 1007-9.

t Monatshefte f. Prakt. Dermat., xxi. (1895) p. 61. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiii.
(1895) pp. 338-41.

% Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt, xviii. (1895) pp. 417-23 (10 figs/

108

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Anthrax in a Fox.* * * §— Prof. O. Bujwid gives a short account of
anthrax in a fox. The animal, which had been kept in a cage for some
months, was fed on a rabbit dead of anthrax. The next day the animal
seemed out of sorts and refused its food ; on the third day it died. In
the subcutaneous cellular tissue and in the muscles numerous capillary
haemorrhages were observed. The spleen was much enlarged. The
blood in the heart was clotted. From the blood and various organs cul-
tivations were made on oblique meat-pepton-agar. After incubation
Tor 24 hours at 37° numerous colonies grew up. The case is recorded
on account of the rarity of anthrax among wild animals.

Bacillus pyocyaneus and its Functions.! — Dr. Schurmayer describes
a case of Bursitis prepatellaris from which Bacillus pyocyaneus w'as ob-
tained in pure cultivation. Notwithstanding frequent aspiration and
compression, there was constant occurrence until oxygen, produced by
electrolysis, effected a cure. Observations on the particular specimen
show that B pyocyaneus exhibits considerable variation of form and
function, of which pigment-production is the most sensitive. The author
does not regard this microbe as an invasive pathogenic micro-organism,
and points out that this case shows that it may excite a local hypersecre-
tion without suppuration.

Bacterial Flora of the Intestinal Tract-! — M. J* Dallemagne de-
scribes the bacteria of the healthy intestinal tract and those found in
the intestine post mortem. Special attention is paid to the part played
by B. coli com. in the alimentary canal. The author’s investigations
lead him to the following conclusions. Each of the larger divisions of
the healthy human intestinal tract has a specific bacterial flora, of which
some are permanent inhabitants, while others are migratory. The
development of the former exerts no harmful influence on the normal
functions of the body, while the latter damage the organism if their stay
be too prolonged. The quantity of the bacteria depends on the digestive
secretions, so that under certain circumstances the stools contain few
bacteria. As a rule the intestinal canal of the dead body contains
definite species, often dependent on the cause of death. In general they
correspond to the bacteria found during life. Chronic non-f'ebrile dis-
eases have little effect on the intestinal flora ; while in certain acute
diseases the intestinal bacteria hold a prominent position ; whenever any
disturbance occurs in the intestinal flora, Buc. coli com. and pyogenic
bacteria gradually become predominant. If the former organism stay
long in the intestinal canal of the corpse, it often becomes so altered
that it resembles so extraordinarily the bacillus of typhoid fever that a
differential diagnosis must be extremely difficult.

Influence of Alkali on Microbic Metabolism.§— Herr F. Blumenthal
lias made some observations relative to the influence of alkali on the
vital activity of microbes, with especial reference to the chemically
demonstrable metabolic products. For this purpose pure cultivations

* Central!)], f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xviii. (1895) pp. 435-6.

f Zeifschr. f. Hygiene, xx. pp. 281-94. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasi-
tenk., lte Abt , xviii. (1895) p. 450.

X Arch. Med. Exp. et d’Anat. Pathol., 1895, p. 274. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.
u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xviii. (1895) pp. 503-4.

§ Zeitsclir. f. Klin. Medizin, xxviii. Nos. 3 and 4. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u.
Parasitenk., lte Abt, xviii. (1895) p. 393.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

109

(Bad. coli ), mixed cultivations, and even mixtures of putrefaction germs
were employed. The investigations on putrefaction were confined to
the following products : sulphuretted hydrogen, methyl-mercaptan,
ammonia, indol, phenol, the volatile and non-volatile acids. At the
same time the estimation of the undissolved proteids afforded a notion
of the intensity of the decomposition under the influence of alkali. It
was found that, both in mixed and pure cultures, the formation of
metabolic products is really dependent on the amount of alkali in the
decomposed material, while the intensity of the decomposition was little
or not at all dependent on the alkali. Liquefaction of the gelatin was,
however, found to be dependent on the amount of alkali. Under the
influence of alkali more of those products were formed which are
detrimental to the microbes themselves. The virulence of B. coli ,
tested on a series of animals, indicated that toxin formation was
apparently influenced by alkali. To every 250 ccm. bouillon were
added (1) 2 ccm. of 10 per cent. Na2C03 solution; (2) 8 ccm.; and
(3) 12 ccm. ; and after sterilisation the mixture was inoculated with
B. coli. Almost all the guinea-pigs inoculated with No. 2 culture
exhibited more severe phenomena than those inoculated with 1 or 3.

Fermentations excited by the Pnenmobacillus of Friedlaender.*
— M. L. Grimbert has examined the fermentation properties of Pneumo-
bacillus Friedlaender, going over the same ground that Frankland and
others did in 1891, but arriving at quite different conclusions from the
English observers. This microbe was found to ferment not only glucose,
galactose, arabinose, mannite, saccharose, maltose, lactose, raffinose,
dextrine and starch, but also glycerin and dulcite. The fermentation
products varied with the sugar used, and were ethylic alcohol, acetic
acid, laevolactic acid, and succinic acid. Sugars in C12 gave a mixture
of lactic and succinic acids ; while the hydrates of carbon of a high
molecular weight (starch, dextrine, &c.) yielded merely succinic acid.
Mannite gave laevolactic acid only, while its isomer dulcite produced
succinic acid.

From the pneumobacillus used by Frankland, that used by the
author differs in attacking glycerin and dulcite, in the nature of the
fermentation products, and in the energy of its action. Hence*, while
these two forms are morphologically identical, they differ very consider-
ably in their fermentative properties.

Invasion of the Body by Intestinal Bacteria.f — MM. Ch. Achard
and E. Phulpin have endeavoured to ascertain whether intestinal bacteria
invade the body immediately before or after death. Out of 49 cases,
in 14 bacteria were detected during life in the blood and in the liver;
in 24 bacteria were found only after death; in 11 cases no intestinal
bacteria were found up to 24 hours after death. The penetration of
germs from the intestine into the body seemed to be directly dependent
on the temperature of the air, though the nature of the disease had an
unmistakable influence on the bacterial migrations. During life Strejpto-
and Staphylococci were found, but no other putrefactive bacteria ; after
death, in addition to the foregoing, the most frequent microbe was Bac.
coli com. Of the various organs the liver was the first to show the

* Comptes Rendus, exxi. (1895) pp. 698-700.

t Arch. Med. Exp. et d’Anat. Pathol., 1895, p. 25. See Cenlralbl. f. BakterioL
u. Parasitenk., lte Abb, xviii. (1895) p. 501.

110

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

presence of germs, and of the bacteria found after death Staph, py.
aureus was the first usually met with.

Oysters and Enteric Fever.* — Dr. C. J. Foote made experiments
for the purpose of ascertaining if the bacillus of typhoid fever will
multiply in oysters placed under natural conditions. It was found that
an increase did take place during the first two weeks after inoculation,
but afterwards the numbers steadily decreased, though the presence of
the organism was still demonstrable BO days after inoculation. It was
also made out that the typhoid bacilli penetrated into the stomach of the
oyster and retained their vitality in this situation, and further that the
microbes were viable longer in the body of the oyster than in the water
in which the molluscs were kept.

Fluorescent Bacillus. — The following is the substance of Mr. F. J.
Keid’s note, read at the last October meeting : —

This microbe was isolated last June from tap-water. I have grown
the bacillus under varying nutritive conditions, and when so grown it
behaves in a similar manner to the pyocyanic bacillus under like con-
ditions, as described by M. Gessard.f After isolation a tube of gelatin
was inoculated ; in 12 hours fluorescence was noticed; in a few days the
whole of the gelatin showed a vivid blue-green fluorescence ; the growth
was thin, white, and pasty. Cultivated on glycerin-gelatin the growth
changed, it became thick and luxuriant, in form resembling the leaf of
Pteris serrulata ; fine feathery bunches extended from the surface growth
into the depth of the culture medium. At first the pigmentary appear-
ances are similar to those in ordinary gelatin, but later the green is lost
and a blue coloration prevails. When grown upon glucose gelatin, the
pigmentary properties are entirely lost, and the growth becomes scanty.
Although there is no coloration of the gelatin, the growth itself becomes
yellow. Albumen is coloured bright green.

Broth cultures were heated, some for 5 minutes at 50° C., others for
the same time at 57° C. ; inoculation to gelatin from the culture heated
to 50° “ took ” at once ; no growth was obtained from the one heated to
57°, unless it was allowed to stand for three days, indicating the exist-
ence of spores. Heat did not destroy the colour-producing properties
of the bacillus.

Microscopic appearance. — Very motile, varies in size ; involution forms
frequent.

Plate colonies. — In depth, circular, well-defined edges, granular ; on
surface, raised, irregular ; pale green.

Agar. — Irregular pasty growth ; the agar rarely shows any colour.

Broth. — On second day slightly fluorescent, in ten days a dry surface
skin forms ; slimy sediment.

Potato. — Thick slimy expansion, glazed surface, dirty yellow at first,
afterwards colour of raw veal ; later still, dark brown ; tough and stringy,
may be picked up with the needle. Optimum temperature, 18°-20° 0.

Gelatin is not liquefied.

Since writing the above I notice that grape-sugar added to gelatin
inhibits the growth of many pigment-forming bacilli. With prodigiosus
the gelatin is not liquefied and the red colour is absent.

* Medical News, 1895, March 23.« See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
lte Abt , xviii. (1895) p. 502.

t M. C. Gessard, ‘ Des races du bacille pyocyanique,’ Ann. Inst. Pasteur.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

Ill

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

(1) Stands.

Practical Remarks on Microscope Construction.! — Dr. H. E. Hil-
debrand makes some practical remarks on Microscope construction : —

I. The Continental stand and its fine-adjustment. The author points
out that in teaching establishments where as many as two hundred
Microscopes may be used by a large number of pupils, the weak points
of the stand are soon brought to light. There are certain parts of the
Microscope which become injured with great regularity — viz. the micro-
meter-screw has become unsteady; the prism has suffered bending or
rotation ; the prism flauge, or the hinge-block under the object-stage,
have loosened their connection with the stage-plate. In this connection
the author discusses the question as to where and how the Continental
stand should be held in moving it from one place to another. The most
convenient method, and the one consequently most often adopted by
scholars, is to use the prism-socket as handle. The effect of this is to
subject the micrometer-screw, the prism, as well as its fastening, to con-
siderable pressure, torsion, bending, rotation, and displacement ; and
when once a defect is started it magnifies itself with astonishing rapidity.
Although this method of manipulation must therefore be reckoned as
faulty, yet it appears on the other side that it would be highly desirable
that the prism-socket should be suitable as the handle to the instrument,
not only in its position but also in its construction. To render this
possible the socket should be rigidly connected with the object-stage,
and the prism with the body-tube.

There are two ways by which this could be effected. One is to pass
the spindle of the micrometer-screw through a boring in the prism and
fix it at the bottom of the socket. The screw-head in the old position
acts then on the prism, which is pressed upwards by a spring. This
method, however, was rejected, since it appeared that there was not
sufficient guarantee for the absolutely correct motion of the prism. The
second way of attaining the object in view is to throw out from the
socket connected with the object-stage a projecting piece over the upper
end of the prism, and from this piece to control the ascending prism by
means of the micrometer-screw. The projecting piece rises from the
upper face of the socket with three arms a a a, passes through openings
ooo in the part p of the tube-support which surrounds the upper part of
the prism, and widens itself above the end of the prism into a round
disc s, through the middle of which the micrometer-screw passes
(figs. 1, 2, 9*), The figures show how hinge-block, object-stage, and
support, in which the prism-socket is screwed, are formed out of one
piece of cast iron. A chamber at the lower end of the socket serves to
receive the spiral spring for maintaining a central pressure on the

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

f Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii (1895) pp. 145-54.

112

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

prism. The arm of the tube-support for connection with the prism
broadens itself into a thick round plate p, in the middle of which the

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

prism i is screwed, while a supporting ring r projects dowtfwards over
the prism-socket. The projecting piece from the socket consists of
many parts. In the upper end of the socket three screw-holes (z ; fig. 1)

are made; over these are placed three hol-
low bolts a a a, which pass through the holes
o of the plate p. Corresponding to the three
holes in the socket are three holes in the
plate s (figs. 1, 3), through which and the
hollow bolts pass three screws, binding the
parts into a single whole.

To give the fingers a firmer grasp of the
socket in lifting the Microscope, and to pro-
tect the mechanism of the fine-adjustment
from injury in the process, a projecting
plate m is attached to the socket just beneath
the tube-support.

II. The adjustment by sliding tube. This method of adjustment, the
author thinks, has received but “ stepmotherly ” treatment at the hands

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

113

of the makers. Many instruments in which this mode of adjustment is
used are faulty, either from the socket being somewhat oval, or from tho
lower opening being wider than the upper. The movement of tho body-
tube in the socket is also generally much too hard.

Fig. 4. Fig. 5.

An improvement which the author has devised consists in replacing
the ordinary small and thin ring for the manipulation of the body-tube
by a much larger one. This (tigs. 4 and 5) consists of a round disc,
2 in. in diameter, which is surrounded by a hoop, 1 in. broad, and

Fig. G.

provided with a milled edge. By this device the movement of the body-
tube is rendered much more smooth and certain, as the result of which
the author has noted that with this modified tube much fewer cover-
glasses are broken by beginners.

1896 I

114

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

III. The horse-shoe foot. The author considers that in the Con-
tinental stands now made the horse-shoe foot is far too small. This
defect is especially noticeable in the smaller models, which are very
liable to be overturned by a comparatively slight shock. The space
between the two arms of the horse-shoe is also
not sufficiently wide for stable equilibrium. As
a model for the correct shape of the foot, he
points out the instrument which was constructed
thirty-five years ago by Merz in Munich. The
requirement that the boundary of the supporting
surface shall be as far as possible from the
vertical line from the centre of gravity, is suf-
ficiently satisfied by the curvature of the horse-
shoe being here replaced by an almost straight
bar b (fig. 6), which, at a comparatively great
distance from the column of the stand, throws out in front, on right
and left, with a sudden turn, the two parallel three-sided prismatic
arms x x.

The foot is broader than long in about the proportion of 7 : 6. The
width between the arms is nearly equal to the diameter of the object-
stage. Five circular leather discs e of a half-inch diameter, distributed
as shown in the figure, support the foot. These discs are screwed on to
the foot, as seen in fig. 7.

Zeiss’ Hand-Microscope.* — This instrument, shown in half full size
in fig. 8, is intended for class demonstration. The sliding-tube, after

Fjg. 7.

adjustment, can be securely fixed by a clamping ring. Fine-adjustment
can be effected by altering the position of the eye-piece. In use it is
directed towards the window or lamp.

Zeiss’ Stand IX. j-— This stand (fig. 9) is intended as a simple
auxiliary stand for laboratory and technical purposes. It has a plain
large stage of 100 mm. diameter, with large aperture, which can be
decreased by dropping in a diaphragm. The adjustment is by rack and
pinion, the construction of which admits of the use of medium powers.

* Zeiss’ Catalogue, No. 30, 1895, p. 56. f Op. cit., pp. 56-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

1 15

Fig. 9.

116

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Beck’s Larg*e “Continental Model’1 Microscopes. — Fig. 10 repre-
sents one of Messrs. Beck’s large Continental model Microscopes

which is fitted with a circular rotating and screw centering stage, rack-
and-pinion focusing and screw cent, ring substage. The coarse-adjust-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

117

mcnt is by means of the usual rack and pinion of the spiral form, and
the fine-adjustment, which is built perfectly solid, has been constructs

118

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

fine-adjustment milled head is divided, and has a pointer for recording
the depth through which the focusing has been made. The draw-tube
is graduated in the mm. scale, and shows exactly how much mechanical
tube-length is in use (the tube-length being reckoned from the top of
the draw-tube to the bottom of the nose-piece of the instrument). The
base is perfectly solid, standing upon three flat points. The instru-
ment being attached to a single pillar, allows plenty of room for work-
ing the substage adjustments.

Fig. 11 represents another of Messrs. Beck’s large Continental
model Microscopes, but has different stage and substage adjustments.
The large square stage is furnished with a vulcanite plate, and when
the stage clips are removed, allows of a very large object or large
culture plate being examined. The substage is arranged on a swinging
arm, with a spiral focusing adjustment, and will carry any of the
regular sized substage condensers. The construction of this instrument
is almost identical with that of the other.

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Zeiss’ Apochromatics.* — The well-known special characteristics of
these objectives, wdiich distinguish them from all other microscopic
lenses, are : (1) the union of three different colours of tbe spectrum in
one point of the axis, i. e. the elimination of the so-called secondary
spectrum ; and (2) the correction of spherical aberration for two different
colours, in contradistinction to the usual correction for one colour only
in the brightest part of the spectrum.

The apochromatic lens 2 mm. of 1*40 mm. aperture, owing to the
hyper-hemispherical form of the front lens, which is supported by a very

Fig. 12.

narrow ridge at the edge of the setting, demands careful treatment. For
this reason, although it possesses a greater resolving and defining power
and gives a brighter image than the apochromatic 2 mm. of 1*30
aperture, for regular work preference should be given to the latter in
which the front lens has a much firmer setting. In fig. 12 the left side

* Zeiss’s Catalogue, No. 30, 1895, pp. 8-13.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

119

represents tlie apochromatic 2 mm. aperture 1*40, showing the front
lens held by the lower ridge only ; while the right side shows the
apochromatic 2 mm. aperture 1 • 30 with the much wider setting.

As regards the durability of the apochromatic lenses, the firm state
that all glasses used in their construction having been amply tested
through several years’ experience, offer a fair guarantee for their per-
manency, at any rate in temperate climates. In tropical climates their
use is not advised. In damp or hot climates they should not be kept
in closed receptacles, as they are liable to be affected by stagnant damp
air.

The apochromatic 2 * 5 mm , aperture 1 * 60 (monobromide of naphtha-
lene immersion) has hitherto been used successfully for the examination
of Diatomaceae only, since no mounting medium of sufficiently high
refractive index, 'which can be used for other organisms without destroying
their structure or colour, has yet been found.

Zeiss’ Screw Micrometer Eye-piece.* — In this instrument for exact
measurements, which is shown in sectional elevation and plan in tig. 13,
the glass plate with crossed lines is moved across the field by means
of the micrometer-screw. The instrument is provided either with a

Fig. 13.

Eamsden or with a compensating eye-piece, and is clamped to the upper
end of the body-tube by means of the screw shown on the left side of
the figure. Each division of the divided drum corresponds to 0*01 mm.
of the objective image.

Zeiss’ Eye-piece for Observing Axial Images.! — This eye-piece for
axial images (fig. 14) consists of a Huyghenian eye-piece No. 2 with

* Zeiss’ Catalogue, No. 30, 1895, pp. 74-5.

t Op. cit., p. 8G.

120

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

sliding eye-lens combined with a collective system consisting of two
single lenses, the lower one of which may, by means of a sliding tube,
be focused with respect to the upper focal plane of the objective.

Fig. 14.

Czapski’s Ocular Iris-Diaphragm with Eye-piece.* — This apparatus,
for the accurate examination of the axial images of small crystals, con-
sists, as seen in fig. 15, of a small iiis-diaphragm fitting in the upper

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

end of the tube, with a sleeve attached, in which slides a Bamsden
eye-piece. In the figure, A shows the longitudinal section, and B the
iris-diaphragm seen from above.

Microscope for Opaque Objects, f — M. C. Fremont describes the
method of illumination which he uses for opaque objects under the
Microscope. The method is somewhat similar to that adopted in the
Zeiss vertical illuminator, but instead of the reflecting prism the author
uses a mirror. The pencil of light L (fig. 16) reflected from the mirror
D, passes through the opening E E into the body-tube A of the Micro-
scope, where it meets the concave mirror C. This mirror is movable,

* Zeiss’ Catalogue, No. 30, 1895, p. 87.
f Comptes Rendus, exxi. (1895) pp. 321-3..

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

121

and can be raised or lowered so as to transmit the light through the
lenses of the objective B. A prism K is interposed in order to render
the pencil of light parallel to the axis of the Microscope before it enters
the objective.

The mirror C and the prism K are pierced to allow of the passage of
n conical tube J, through which the image of the preparation H formed
by the objective is observed.

Fig. 17.

M. Marey, in reference to this new apparatus, considers that it might
find useful application in the reproduction by chromophotography of the
movements of microscopic creatures. With the ordinary illumination
the objects detach themselves on a luminous field, and the successive
photographs are taken on a movable plate. It would be preferable, with
a dark field, to photograph successive images of the object on the same
immovable plate ; and the possibility of doing this for microscopic
objects might be realised with M. Fremont’s instrument.

C3) Illuminating and other Apparatus.

Zeiss’ Vertical Illuminator.* — This serves to illuminate opaque
objects from above. As seen in fig. 17, it is inserted in the form of an

* Zeiss’ Catalogue, No. 30, 1895, p. 65.

122 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

adapter between the tube and tlie objective. Light entering through a
lateral opening in the revolving sleeve K is reflected downwards by the
prism P, which covers half of the aperture of the objective, and is con-
centrated upon the object by the objective. To obtain the proper
incidence of the rays, .the fitting carrying the prism is made to rotate
about the optic axis. The prism P can within certain limits be inclined
about an axis parallel to its edge by means of the milled head 1c.

Zeiss’ new Lens-holder.* — Prof. A. Zimmermann has devised the
new lens-holder shown in fig. 18. In its external form it is very similar
to the older Zeiss model. An important feature which distinguishes it
from this is that the whole upper part can be rotated about a vertical
axis, and clamped in any position by the screw a. The displacement of

Fig, 18.

the lens in the vertical plane is effected as in the older model by means
of two joints b and c. The second distinguishing feature of the new
instrument is that both joints can be simultaneously arrested with one
screw. Figs. 19 and 20 explain the method, devised by Herr M. Berger,
by which this is effected. In these figures the two joints b and c, with
the arm / between them, are shown in two positions at right angles.

The movement of the joints b and c will be so much more difficult the
closer the joint-faces are pressed together. By means of the screw g
such a pressure can be simultaneously applied to both joints. This is
effected by means of the iron rod h in the tube /, one end of which is
rigidly connected with the ball-joint c, while the ether end has a conical
hole, in which fits the conical end of the screw g. When the screw is
screwed farther into the joint b , the rod h is displaced to the left, and the

* Zeitsclir. f. Instrumcntenk., xv. (1895) pp. 322-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

123

two ball-joints pressed tightly against the corresponding sockets of the
tube /. In order to prevent any rotation of the tube /, there is a screw i
on the lower socket, which slides in the same groove of the ball-joint b ,

Fig. 19.

Fig. 20.

as the rod h. As regards the rest of the apparatus, the exact adjustment
is effected by the rack and pinion at d, and the lens itself fits into a
spring socket, and is fixed by means of the screw e.

Micropolariscope for Projection.* — Mr. F. C. Van Dyck describes
the form of apparatus which he has used for projection work. The
figure (fig. 21) shows the general arrangement, but does not indicate
proportions.

The light from an arc-lamp, in which an electro-magnet keeps the
crater steadily directed towards the condenser, after passing through the
pair of lenses constituting the condenser and through the alum-cell, falls
in parallel rays upon the polariser. The parallel rays reflected from
the polariser are converged by the second condenser-lens so as to come
to a focus upon, or nearly upon, the object. A substage condenser is
also sometimes necessary. As objective the author has used with good
results a 7/8 bought of Queen and Co., and of higher powers a 1/2 of
Tolies and a 1/4 of Bausch and Lomb. The analyser is a Nicol prism
about 3/4 in. across the face.

As regards the alum-cell, the liquid was about 5/8 in. in thickness,
and consisted of a mixture of equal volumes of cold saturated alum solu-
tion in water and strong glycerin. The polariser is made of twelve plates
of as colourless a glass as possible. To prevent contact and formation

* Amer. Micr. Journ., xvi. (1895) pp. 15-1-6.

124

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of mould between the plates, a narrow strip of paper soaked in a solu-
tion of corrosive sublimate in alcohol was pasted around the margin on
one side of each plate.

Fig. 21.

New Case for Microscopical Pi eparations. *— In this new case,
shown in tig. 22, the slides lie in two or three rows close together, and

Fig. 22.

Zeitsehr. f. Augewandte Mikr., i. (1895) pp. 74-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

125

are firmly clamped by binged flaps on tbe sides or in the middle of the
case, which are held down by two small clips.

New Clip for holding Cover-Glasses.* — Dr. Seiffert has devised a
new clip for holding cover-glasses. As seen in fig. 23, the cover-glass
is held on the sharp edges by the spring
points of the clip, and is released by
pressing on the handle. The curvature
of the points is to allow the cover-glass
to be immersed in the colouring solution
in a dish, and to remain there while still
held in tbe clip.

Microscopic Filter, f — Dr. P. W.

Shimer has devised the apparatus shown
in figs. 24 and 25 for concentrating upon a slide or cover-glass the
suspended matter in measured amounts of water or urine. Fig. 24
shows the arrangement for a cover-glass, fig. 25 that for a slide. The
filter-tube is a graduated tube, 5 in. long and 5/8 in. internal diameter,
open and ground at both ends. The filter B, which has a perforation
the size of the bore of the tube, and consists of thin blotting-paper

Fig. 23.

Fig. 24.

Fig. 25.

or mauilla paper (when bacteria are to be collected), is saturated with
water and made to adhere to the base of the tube, which is then pressed
down over the cover-glass C (fig. 21) or slide I (fig. 25), by means of the
spring G and chain H. In fig. 24, D is a pile of blotting-paper, which is

* Zoitbchr. f. Aug. Mikr., i. (1895) p. 84. f Micr. Bull., xi. (1S94) pp. 22-3.

126

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

replaced in fig. 25 by a sponge J ; E is a porcelain vessel. The liquid
is slowly drawn off in the direction of the arrows, leaving the suspended
matter cm the slide or cover-glass. The rate of filtration, which can be
regulated by the pressure of the spring, and in some cases by pressure
of air from an inflated rubber bag, must be so slow that no suspended
matter is carried into the filter. For the larger organisms in water
20 ccm. should take three hours ; for bacteria, 1 com. should take twenty-
four hours, and for urine analysis, 2 to 20 ccm. should take from one to
two hours.

(4) Photomicrography.

Some New Points in Photomicrography.* — Mr. W. H. Walmsley
calls attention to a new form of camera which he has recently introduced
under the name of the ‘‘Autograph.” It was devised in order to remedy
some defects in the instrument known as the cc enlarging, reducing, and
copying pliotomicrographic camera,” which the author placed on the
market early in 1882.

The base, or platform, of polished wood, 26 in. long, stands
upon three very short feet, the front end being heavily weighted. At
the other end of the platform is bolted a stout iron frame, 24 in.
long, which carries the camera. The latter slides freely in parallel
grooves, and can be fixed in any position by a binding screw which
passes through a slot. By means of a joint at its base, the frame carry-
ing the camera can be inclined and firmly held at any angle.

The camera-box is furnished with leather bellows extending to
twelve inches, and is fitted with a reversible back, carrying both focus-
ing screen and plate-holder. The ground glass of the focusing screen
can be replaced by plate-glass when very fine adjustment is to be made.
The plate-holder is double, and fitted with inside kits to carry 3J by
4£, 2J by 2^, or lantern plates, as well as the full size plate, 4 by 5.

For focusing when the Microscope is in the horizontal position, a
short rod is attached to the base board on the right hand of the camera.
It carries at one end a large milled head, and at the other a pulley -
wheel with Y-shaped groove in its periphery, a corresponding groove
being also turned in the micrometer screw of the Microscope. This
pulley wheel slides along the rod so that it can be placed in a line with
the fine-adjustment screw, where it is firmly held by a screw. A fine
cord passing round the two grooves effects the movement of the micro-
meter screw when the milled head is turned.

The platform is long enough to carry Microscope, lamp, and bull’s-
eye condensing lens.

As regards artificial illumination, the author considers that the new
acetylene gas lamp is the ideal light for photomicrography.

Advances in Photomicrography. I — Herr G. Marktanner-Turner-
etscher gives an account of the advances which have been recently made
in pliotomicrographical work. He draws attention to new and improved
apparatus, and gives brief abstracts of the various papers on the subject
recently published, most of which have been already noticed in this
J ournal.

* Amer. Micr. Journ., xvi. (1895) pp. 3G9-78.
t Eder’s Jahrb. f. Pliotog. u. Reproductionstochnik, 1894 and 1895.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

127

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Collar- Adjustment of the Objective as affected by a Change of
Eye-pieces.'* — -Dr. A. C. Stokes remarks on the general ignorance
amongst amateur Microscopists of the use of the collar-adjustment in the
change of eye-pieces, and regrets that so little stress is laid on this
point in the standard Microscopical text-books. He gives the following
table to show the range of alterations for various eye-pieces and objec-
tives. The object examined was Pleurosigma angulatum on the Thum
test-plate (styrax), with concave mirror 30° from axis.

Eye-piece.

Tulles
4/10, 120°.

Zeiss
1/4, 144°.

B & L.
1/5, 130°.

Gundlach
1/5, 135°.

Spencer
1/5, 135°.

Spencer
1/5, 163°.

Bulloch’s A, x 4J ..

0

1

8

S\

8

P. & L.’s Comp. A, x 5 ..

1

17

7

8

9

8

Griffith’s B, x 7*6..

111

15

6|

8

8

U

Zeiss’ Comp. 8

10J

16

6

ii

7 1

7

Bulloch’s B, x 9 ..

11

13

5

7§

8

7

Bulloch’s C, X 12 .. ..

15

§i

8

8

7i

Tolies’ solid 1/2, x 20 ..

ii

13

5

7\

8

7

Zeiss’ Comp. 27

101

16

6

7\

7i

7

(6) Miscellaneous.

Modern Microscopy .f — The second edition of this capital little
manual has been enlarged by about 80 pages, the new matter being
pretty equally distributed between “ Microscopy ” and “ Methods.” To
the former is appended a short chapter on the influence of diffraction on
the resolving power of objectives, by Dr. Johnstone Stoney, F.R.S., and
to the latter a list of tissues and organs with the most suitable fluids
for hardening, staining, and mounting them — a useful feature ; Mr.
Hopewell Smith’s process of preparing teeth, and Mr. Rousselet’s
method of preserving Rotifers. The favourable opinion expressed in
this Journal on the first appearance of this work is fully justified by the
present issue, and a beginner could not possess a more excellent and
reliable guide. At the same time it may be as well to draw the author’s
attention to one or two blemishes which should be removed in future
editions. Steinheil is spelt Steinbeil , and Kellner Kelner in both, and
if fig. 6 (“ un modele de luxe ”) is a model of anything but misapplied
ingenuity, the makers would probably supply a newer cliche with a
more modern form of fine-adjustment.

Optics and Mechanics at the North German Commercial and In-
dustrial Exhibition at Lubeck, 18954 — Dr. Max Ferenczy, in an
article with the above heading, mentions amongst other exhibits those
made by the firm of Zeiss. These included an exhibition of the methods
in which the lenses for Microscopes and other optical instruments were
prepared. The glass is first roughly shaped on a grindstone. On a

* Micr. Bull., xi. (1894) pp. 18-9.

t ‘Modern Microscopy,’ M. I. Cross and Martin Cole, London, 8vo, 182 pp.

X Central-Ztg. f. Optik u. Meclianik, xvi. (1895) pp. 23S-9, 217-8, 257-9.

128

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

rotating grinding apparatus it is then given the spherical surface of
determined radius, using emery of gradually increasing fineness. Then
follows the polishing. To determine whether the lens has the correct
form it is fitted in or on a normal concave or convex form of glass or
rock-crystal, when any difference of surface is recognised by the pro-
duction of Newton’s rings.

)S. Technique.* * * §

(1) Collecting- Objects, including: Culture Processes.

Improvement in the Plate-Cultivation Method.f — Dr. Pfaffenholz
recommends a platinum brush for smearing sputum, diphtheritic mem-
brane, &c., on agar or gelatin plates. An important requirement of the
stroke-method is a sufficiently firm consistence of the agar ; this may be
attained bv adding the agar to the bouillon after the latter has been
neutralised with soda.

Demonstrating the Presence of Bacillus coli communis in Water.J
— Dr. Th. Smith has for four years used the following method for
detecting the presence of B. coli communis in water. A series, usually
ten, of fermentation flasks is provided with 1 per cent, dextrose-bouillon
and 0*1-1 ccm. of the water added. If, after three or four days, one or
more of the flasks be found to contain 40-60 per cent, of gas in the
closed tube, if the reaction be strongly acid, if the increase of the bacilli
be slight and quite ended by the fourth day, the presence of B. coli
may be regarded as certain. Such tubes almost always contain pure
cultivations, as plate-cultures of the sediment will show. The isolation
must, however, be made within the week, for the acid formed from the
sugar soon kills the culture. If the water be very impure, it must be
freely diluted on account of the great number of fermenting bacteria
present ; among these are Proteus and B. cloacae , whose gas reaction is
easily distinguished from that of B coli. Ladis aerogenes offers greater
difficulties.

Method for Hermetically Sealing Cultures of Bacteria. § — Dr. C. F.

Dawson seals cultures as follows. The end of the tube is flamed and
trimmed down level with the mouth of the tube, on which is then placed
a cover- glass of the same size as the mouth. A piece of sheet gelatin
is next stretched over the mouth of the tube and temporarily fixed with
a rubber band. After the gelatin has set, for of course it is applied
warm, the band and edge of the gelatin are trimmed off close under the
flange. The gelatin cover, which will be quite dry in about half an hour,
is coated with shellac varnish made from the following formula : —
Absolute alcohol 100 parts ; white shellac 45 parts ; balsam of copaiba
4 parts. Allow to stand for a fortnight and use the supernatant fluid.

* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects ; (8) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes;
(1) Staining and Injecting ; (5; Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

t Hygien. Rundschau, 1895, No. 16. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriul. u. Parasiteuk.,'
lte Abt., xviii. (1895) p. 467.

X Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xviii. (1895) pp. 494-5.

§ Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., xvi. (1S95) pp. 822-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

129

Sputum as a Nutrient Medium for Bacteria.* — Dr. W. Steffen
regards sputum as a natural cultivation medium, especially for pneumo-
cocci, strepto- and staphylococci, and diphtheria bacilli. The sputa
most suitable are the clear mucoid and pneumonic expectoration, and
these may be added to other nutrient substances or prepared alone in
test-tubes. Any coarse impurities are first removed and the sputum
sterilised in the usual manner.

Qualitative Bacteriological Examination of Water. f — Herr van
der Sleen made comparative researches on three kinds of water (marsh,
river, and spring). Chemical examinations of the three varieties vvero
carefully made from time to time. For the bacteriological analysis
1 ccm. of the marsh and spring water and 0*1 ccm. of the river-water
were used and the rapidly liquefying colonies on gelatin were killed with
a drop of glycerin and sublimate. Observations were made on the
influence of temperature and the alkalinity of the medium. In all 400
bacteria and 77 species were described and photogiaphed. The value
of filtration was also tested by passing the impure water through a sand
filter, and afterwards through an Anderson’s purifier. No better results
were obtained than by using the sand filter alone ; the KMn04-figure
was however lowered.

Besides the 77 species of Bacteria Penicillium glaucum and pink
yeast were found. No cholera bacilli were detected, though a vibrio
closely resembling cholera was sometimes present. Among the
organisms repeatedly observed were Proteus vulgaris and mirabilis ;
Bacillus coli , subtilis , and ramosus ; many putrefactive bacteria, e. g.
fluor., liquef., aureus , longus, tenuis , non-liquef ., punctatus, and gaso-
f or mans.

Bactericidal Action of Metals.J — Attention is called to a paper by
Dr. Meade Bolton on the effects of various metals on the growth of
certain bacteria. This gentleman has tested the bactericidal effect of
various metals. For the most part agar plates were used, and bits of
metal were put on as soon as the agar was inoculated with the micro-
organism. In some cases the metals were absolutely pure; in some
cases they were commercial but marked chemically pure ; in one set
brass foil was used, and a few preliminary experiments were made with
impure metals. A notable result is that it is those metals that are re-
sistant toward chemical reagents in general which fail to show any
reaction, or do so only to a limited extent. On the other hand, the
metals that are readily attacked by chemical reagents all exhibit a
marked inhibitory action on the growth of the bacteria. The effect is,
therefore, probably due to a solution of the metal in the medium, and
putting bits of metal on the cultures is really equivalent to the addition
of a small amount of that salt of the metal formed by the action of the
nutrient medium.

* Inaug. Diss., Berlin, 1894. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt.,
xviii. (1895) p. 464.

t Haarlem, 1894. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lt0 Abt., xviii.
(1895) p. 465. % Amer. Natural., xxix. (1895) pp. 933-6,

1896

K

130

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(2) Preparing- Objects.

Investigation of Ova.* — Mr. M. D. Hill preserved certain quantities
of ova, immediately after fertilisation, in a mixture of corrosive sublimate
and acetic acid, at intervals of about five minutes, until the first cleavage
plane made its appearance. This usually took place about 1J hours
after fertilisation, but the time varied greatly with the temperature of
the surroundings. After being hardened in alcohol, the eggs were em-
bedded in paraffin, cut into sections, and stained with Heidenhain’s
iron-htematoxylin.

Investigation of the Attractive Sphere.f — In his study of the at-
tractive sphere of the interstitial tissue of the liver and gonad of
Paludina vivipara , Dr. C. De Bruyne made exclusive use of Hertinann’s
fluid for fixing purposes. The longer the period of fixation, the better
the results. Safranin was used as a colouring reagent.

Investigation of the Presence of Iron Compounds in Animal and
Vegetable Cells.;}; — Dr. A. B. Maccallum describes at some length his
methods of study. In his first communication on the method of demon-
strating micro-chemically the occurrence of “ masked ” iron, the reagent,
whose use he described, was called in a general way ammonium sulphide.
This is a term properly applicable only to the compound represented by
the formula (NH4)2S, but is sometimes given to solutions which contain
either ammonium hydrogen sulphide (NH4SH), or to polysulphides of
ammonium, or to mixtures of the (NH4)2S and (NH4SH). Further
experiment has led the author to the conclusion that (NH4SH) is more
active than the di-ammonium salt, and that none of the polysulphides of
ammonium have any action whatever on iron in its “masked” form.
Information is given as to the best way of preparing the reagent, which
should not bo kept in stock. The tissues which were teased out for
treatment were always hardened in alcohol wholly free from iron in
solution. To facilitate the teasing out, Dr. Maccallum frequently used
sections made with a clean steel knife covered with absolute alcohol.
The conclusion is come to that ammonium hydrogen sulphide may be
regarded as a reagent of very great value in the investigation of masked
compounds of iron, and it must constitute the final test for this purpose
whenever the accuracy of other reagents is called in question. To get
the best results with the use of acid alcohols, the tissues must be well
hardened. If the tissues are fresh, or imperfectly hardened, the appli-
cation of acid alcohols for the time sets free the organic iron, but the
structure of cellular elements is more or less changed by the acids.
This change will not be found to occur when the tissues have been care-
fully hardened. Strong alcohol of 90 to 95 per cent, was found to bo
the best hardening reagent. It can, by redistillation, be made free from
iron, and when it is of absolute strength it neither extracts any of the
iron compounds (hsematins excepted) from tissues, nor allows these to
diffuse. The objections to all other hardening reagents than alcohol are
pointed out.

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1895) pp. 316 and 7.

t Bull. Acad. Befire, Ixv. (1895) p. 242.

X Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1895) pp. 179-205.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

131

Preparing* Bone Sections.* — Dr. M. Matscliinsky, in his study of
the matrix structure of hone, made his sections as follows : — A thin
plate sawn off the hone is filed smooth on one side (watchmakers’ files
are recommended) ; the smooth side is glued to a stone or glass and the
rough side smoothed ; the translucent slice is taken off and rubhed
between two pieces of ground glass with emery powder ; then it is
polished with the finest hone till the surface shines. All this — a
familiar enough process — takes, he says, about 10-15 minutes.

The section is then placed in distilled water, then in 1 per cent,
silver solution, and exposed to light. When a brown colour appears it
is removed, washed in distilled water, dried in blotting-paper, and very
carefully repolished. Another method is to leave the section in the
silver solution in complete darkness for a couple of hours ; in this case
the impregnation is deeper.

Study of Reproductive Cells of Elasmobranchs.f — Mr. J. E. S.

Moore, in his study of the spermatogenesis of Elasmobranchs, cut up
the testes of various species into pieces about the size of half a cubic
centimetre, and fixed them in various ways. The most successful pre-
parations were obtained after the use of Flemming’s strong solution,
Hermann’s fluid, osmic acid in various strengths, and corrosive sublimate,
both with and without acetic acid. Valuable comparative material was
obtained by treating the testes with glacial acetic acid and washing
quickly in water, by teasing up the fresh material in acid carmine, by
fixing in a 2 or 3 per cent, solution of formic aldehyde, by the use of
Carnoy’s fluid, and last, but not least, by a formic acid method which he
hit upon quite by accident. This consisted in placing small fragments
of the living testis in a 50 per cent, solution of formic aldehyde for a
few seconds, and then transferring directly to 50 per cent, alcohol, after
which they were treated for sectioning in paraffin, in the usual way. By
this means the chromosomes were in some cases rendered admirably
distinct, but the fixing, so far as the author has yet tried it, renders the
material difficult to stain.

Investigation of Cerata of Dendronotus.J — Mr. J. A. Clubb allowed
specimens of Dendronotus arborescens to expand in a little sea-water, and
then deluged them with sulpho-picric acid, which by a rotatory move-
ment of the hand is made to whirl round in the vessel. This treatment
has the effect of fixing Nudibranehs before they can retract. Even with
the more delicate species of Eolidee, which, with almost all other methods,
break away the cerata from the body, this method is usually successful.
The specimens are allowed to stand in this fluid, changed once or twice,
for two or* three hours, according to size. They are then transferred to
gradually increasing percentages of alcohol, rising up to about 75 per
cent. ; they are afterwards stained in toto in picrocarmine, treated with
acidulated alcohol, dehydrated, imbedded in paraffin in the usual way,
and cut with the Cambridge “ Rocking ” microtome.

Preparing Flukes for Investigation^ — Mr. W. G. Maccallum de-
scribes a new method of preparing flukes for study. The worm should

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 290-305 (1 pi.).

t Quart. Joura. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1895) pp. 276 and 7.

X Proc. and Trans. Liverpool Biol. ISoc., ix. (1895) pp. 222-3.

§ Veterinary Mag., ii. (1895) No. 7, 10 pp., 8 figs.

K 2

132

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

be killed in glacial acetic acid, and left in it for 5 to 10 minutes. It
should be removed tbence directly into aqueous alum cochineal or alum
carmine solution for a half to one minute, then washed and mounted in
water, the cover slip being ringed with Canada balsam or gold size. As
may be supposed, however, these specimens are not very permanent, and
become clouded on long standing.

Preparation of Flower-Buds.* — M. M. Raciborski recommends the
following process for preparing flower-buds from herbirium specimens
for microscopical examination. The specimen is steeped for some hours
in alcohol ; then for two or three hours in water, and finally for 24 hours
in 50 per cent, ammonia at a temperature of about 40° C. After the
ammonia has been removed by water, and then by alcohol and toluol, the
object is imbedded in paraffin and fixed to the slide by white of egg. In
flower-buds taken from specimens that had lain long in the herbarium,
the position of the tapete-cells in the embryo-sac could frequently be
made out, and even the nuclei of the pollen-grains could be detected.

(3) Cutting-, including- Imbedding- and Microtomes.

Automatic Microtome. f — The late Prof. J. A. Ryder devised the
new microtome shown in fig. 26 in order to facilitate the preparation of

Fig. 26.

sections for large classes, and also for the rapid preparation of series of
sections in embryological work. It differs from the majority of auto-

* Flora, Ixxxi. (1895) Erganz.-Bd., pp. 152-3.
f Ainer. Mior. Journ., xvi. (1895) pp. 216-20.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

133

matic microtomes by being small and compact, and does not cut in an
arc like the Cambridge Rocking Microtome.

The working parts are an oscillating lever, provided at one end with
a clamp and at the other with a simple handle. This lever rests on
trunnions supported in triangular notches at the top of the two pillars
between which the lever oscillates. At the cutting end of the lever a
spring pulls the lever down and effects the sectioning. The lever is
adjusted for the successive sections by a hollow screw, through which
passes the trunnion on the side away from the knife. This screw is
fixed to a toothed wheel by the side of the lever. The toothed wheel
and screw are actuated by a pawl fixed to the side of the lever near the
handle. A fixed stop on the under side of the lever brings the lever to
rest at a constant point in its downward course. An adjustable section
throws the pawl ouc of gear after a given number of teeth have been
turned through, so that it is possible to adjust the apparatus for cutting
sections of any desired thickness. Sections can be cut from *0025 mm.
to • 0625 mm. in thickness.

(4) Staining: and Injecting".

Subcutaneous Injections of Methylene-Blue.* — Herr S. Meyer has
used this method for the demonstration of the elements of the central
nervous system of Mammals. For the peripheral system, it is inferior
to intravenous injection ; but Herr Meyer obtained, for instance, an
extremely distinct staining of Purkinje’s cells in the cerebellar cortex.
Success depends on two factors, the amount of stain which the animal
will stand, and the length of time during which it can operate. Some
of the results are striking, but the method seems cruel as the convulsions
and agony tend to be prolonged.

Alizarine. | — Dr. B. Rawitz recommends alizarin and alizarine
cyanine for the differentiation of cell and nucleus. As neither are stains
in the strict sense, the sections must be first treated with corrosive fluids
(“ Beizflussigkeiten ”). The methods evidently require much care, and
we must refer for details to the original paper.

Modified Use of Haematein.l — Dr. B. Rawitz recommends the use of
glycerin-alum-haematein solution in order to avoid over-staining with
liEematein or haematoxylin. The receipt for the mixture is given in
Rawitz’s ‘ Leitfaden fur histiologische Untersuchungen,’ 2nd edition. One
to three drops of the concentrated solution are added to 25-50 ccm. of
distilled water, and the objects are left there for 24-48 hours. Over-
staining never occurs.

Flagella Staining.§ — Dr. Pitfield recommends the following solution
for staining flagella. The solution is made in two parts, which are
filtered and mixed when required for use.

(A) Saturated solution of alum, 10 ccm. ; saturated alcoholic solution
of gentian violet, 1 ccm.

(B) Tannic acid, 1 grm. ; I120, 10 ccm.

Both solutions are to be made writh cold water.

•

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 2S2-90 (1 pi.).

t Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 294-300. J Tom. cit., pp. 301-3.

§ Medical News, lxvii. (1895) p. 2G8,

134

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(5) Mounting-, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Fixatives.* — Dr. O. vom Rath recommends six fixatives. The first
is picric-osmio-acetic acid: — 1000 ecm. saturated filtered solution of
picric acid in distilled water, 1 grm. crystallised osmic acid, and 4 ccm.
acetic acid. The second is picric-osmio-platinum chloride-acetic acid : —
200 ccm. concentrated aqueous solution of picric acid, 25 ccm. 2 per cent,
aqueous osmic acid, 1 grm. platinum chloride dissolved in 10 ccm. water,
and 2 ccm. glacial acetic acid. After this fixative the objects are to be
treated with wood-vinegar, or 20 per cent, tannin solution, and with
gradations of alcohol. Thirdly, vom Rath recommends picric-platinum
chloride-acetic acid for cells with much fat, yolk, or similar contents : —
200 ccm. saturated aqueous solution of picric acid, 1 grm. platinum chlo-
ride in 10 ccm. distilled water, and 2 ccm. glacial acetic acid. TLe
fourth mixture is picro-corrosive-acetic acid ; the fifth picro-corrosive
osmic acid or picro-corrosive-osmio-acetic acid. For collecting, when
picric acid is apt to get spilt on hands and clothes, the author recom-
mends the following : — 200 ccm. absolute alcohol, 1 grm. corrosive sub-
limate, 2 ccm. glacial acetic acid.

Canada Balsam.! — According to Herr G. Marpmann, Canada balsam
is frequently adulterated with other resinous substances, the mixture
often being quite useless for microscopical purposes on account of its
drying too slowly, becoming cloudy or crystalline. Pure Canada balsam
is a bright yellow, clear, slightly opalescent substance, soluble in
chloroform and xylol ; forming cloudy solutions with alcohol, acetone,
and benzine, because a part remains undissolved. When dry it forms
a perfectly transparent hard layer, and does not become cloudy or
crystalline.

The author then goes through, in considerable detail, numerous
t sts for detecting impurities in and adulterations of Canada balsam.
These tests are far too numerous to mention', but the method seems,
though tedious, easy, and for those requiring a perfectly pure and trust-
worthy mounting medium, useful.

Mounting Marine Animals as Transparent Lantern Slides. J — •
Dr. H. C. Sorby finds that the methods which give good results vary
much in the case of different animals. Some must be arranged on the
glass and* dried quickly soon after having been caught, whereas others,
such as jelly-fishes, must be treated over and over again with moderately
strong alcohol to dissolve out all the salts. In some cases various staining
materials must be used to bring out the structure, and some should be
decalcified. Usually the animals are killed by keeping them for a short
time in diluted alcohol, and then arranged on the glass after as much of
the alcohol as will drain out is lost. They are dried in a current of air.
In some cases they must be thoroughly soaked with clear gum before
becoming quite dry. Finally, when quite dry, they are mounted in
Canada balsam, and the edges of the cover- glass very completely bound
round.

•

* Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 280-8.
f Zeittchr. f. Angewandte Mikr., i. (1895) pp. 8-11, 38-46.
j Rep. Brit. Ass., 1895, p. 730.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 18th of December, 1895, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,
the President (A. D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.) in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 20fch November 1895, were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received
since the last meeting, was submitted, and the thanks of the Society
were given to the donors.

From

Monographs of tlie United States Geological Survey, xxiii.l The United States

and xxiv. (4to, Washington, 1894) / Geological Survey.

C. Babbage, Table of Logarithms. (8vo, London, 1872) .. Mr. W. T. Suffolk .

Dr. W. H. Dallinger read a letter received from Mr. Hammond of
the Borough Polytechnic, asking for the aid of the Society in procuring
Microscopes for their conversazioni arranged to take place on December
27th, 28th, 30th, and 31st. He said that the Society was of course
unable to exhibit anything, as a Society, but if any of the Fellows were
able to render any assistance in that way he was sure it would be much
appreciated.

Mr. E. M. Nelson exhibited a. Microscope which, though of a pattern
previously described, differed in one or two points which had been
recently added. The instrument would no doubt be recognised as one
of Mr. Swift’s portable Microscopes, but the stage had been enlarged to
4J in. by 5J in., which gave it an advantage in being able to carry tho
larger specimens and sections which it was now often required to
examine. The other point was that the body was fitted with three
draw-tubes giving a range of length from 4J in. to 12J in., which would
no doubt be sufficient to suit objectives corrected for every distance
l'kely to be met with. The additional draw-tubes were no doubt fitted
at some cost to the steadiness of the instrument, but he thought this
could be overlooked in the face of the advantage derived from being able
to adapt the tube-length to the correction of the objective in use. The
Microscope was also fitted with a differential screw-adjustment, cut with
French threads so that the motion could be divided into parts of a
millimetre. The mirror could also be rotated to get rid of tho multiple
image.

He also exhibited a new optical rule, made by Stanley, for facili-
tating simple optical calculations as to the power of lenses. It was
square in section, one side being marked in inches and tenths, and
the opposite side in millimetres. On one of the other sides there was a

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

new scale of powers, and on the other a scale of diopters, the lines in
all cases being brought to the edge so that they could readily be com-
pared with those on the adjoining sides. It would be found useful not
only in enabling the power of a simple Ions to be read off at once by
measuring its focal distance, but the magnifying power of a combination
of lenses could also be ascertained very simply by the measurement of
each.

Mr. C. Beck enquired if the scale of powers represented the re-
ciprocals or the optical powers? With reference to the tube-length, he
thought it was stated in the Continental catalogues that the lenses were
corrected in all cases for one tube-length.

Mr. Nelson said the scale was that of the optical power, which was
the same thing as the reciprocal of the focus. He knew it was generally
understood that the foreign objectives were corrected for a tube-length
of 6 in. ; this was not the case. They might have been so corrected as
for adjustment upon an uncovered object, but when used upon covered
objects this was found to be entirely delusive. Some time since he was
examining a rotifer with one of these objectives, but neither he nor
Mr. Kousselet were able to see the cilia with it, and he found it was
incapable of showing them because it had been corrected for a shorter
distance than 6 in. ; but when they reduced the tube-length to 5 in. it
showed them perfectly. In practice he found that the 6 in. was a myth,
and that the actual distance for these objectives might be anything from
5 in. to 7 in.

Mr. J. E. Ingpen said Professor Abbe decided that his 10-in. tube-
lengths should be measured from the back of the combination to the
field front, and he always understood that the 6-in. tube-lengths were
to be measured in the same way. It was, he thought, a great pity that
he could not have been induced to arrange to assimilate the two.

The President said their thanks were due to Mr. Nelson for his
exhibits and also for the very clear way in which he had explained them.
The arrangement for rotating the mirror was a matter of some import-
ance as providing an effective means of getting rid of the multiple images
which were sometimes a source of very great inconvenience.

The President said they were that evening honoured by the presence
of Dr. H. C. Sorby, whom they were extremely pleased to welcome as one
who had done such good service to the Society in years gone by. He
was happy to say that Dr. Sorby had kindly consented to give them
some account of the successful methods he had adopted for mounting
and exhibiting many of the very beautiful and delicate marine organisms,
and he would therefore call upon him to do so.

Dr. H. C. Sorby said he had not the remotest idea when he came to
the meeting that he should be asked to say a word, but as Dr. Dallinger
had told him that there was very little upon the Agenda paper and had
asked him to say something about the methods he had adopted to pre-
serve some of the more delicate marine organisms, he had consented to
do so, although he felt that, not having the specimens with him, there was
some fear that his description of them would not be so intelligible as
might otherwise have been the case.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

137

Several years ago lie was vory much interested in the Nudibranchs
find very greatly admired the beautiful colours of some species of Eolis ,
but found that when placed in alcohol in order to preserve them their
colour was removed, and this of course rendered them very much less
attractive in appearance as well as less valuable for illustrative purposes.
It. therefore occurred to him that perhaps something might be done to
remedy this, and that if they could be preserved and mounted as lantern
slides to be shown on the screen with their natural colours, it would be
of great advantage. His attempts to do this turned out very successful ;
the only principal group of animals he had not been able to succeed with
was that of the Actiniae. Different plans, of course, had to be adopted in
different cases, experience soon showing what was best for each ; but the
plan generally followed was to kill the specimens by putting them into
alcohol and water, not leaving them long enough to injure the colour,
but to get rid of the salt water, and then to arrange them carefully in
the position it was desired to show them upon a piece of lantern-glass,
and allow them to dry. There was in most marine animals a certain
amount of mucus which caused them to adhere to the glass, and the great
secret of success lay in the fact that they dried at the edges first and
became fixed, and no change in the outline took place as the drying pro-
ceeded, the only alteration being that they got thinner. In some cases
in which the colouring matter is dissolved out by alcohol or by Canada
balsam ; when mounted in balsam the red colour comes out and blurrs
the outline as well as spoils the ajrpearance generally. This disadvan-
tage was, however, overcome by carefully coating the specimen with gum
arabic, allowing the gum to thoroughly soak into it, and when this was
dry the animal was so perfectly protected from the balsam that it could
then be permanently mounted in that medium without undergoing any
change whatever, except the slight change which took place immediately
after it was killed. In this way they got the beautiful purple Eolis prel
served with its red colour intact, and rendered so transparent that when
shown on the screen everything was seen to great perfection. Speci-
mens mounted in this way had kept perfectly good for six years and
showed no signs of change. Small flat fish were much more easily dealt
with, and it was quite surprising what excellent slides could be made
with young soles, plaice, or dabs up to as much as 2^ in. long. All it
was necessary to do was to arrange them on the glass and let them dry,
then soak them in benzole and afterwards to mount them in Canada
balsam, where they became so transparent that every detail could be
seen when used as lantern slides, and a great deal more of their internal
structure than it was possible to see in the living fish. He hoped he
might on some future occasion be able to show the Society some of the
results of this method of preparation.

In connection with this matter he had carried out a great many ex-
periments in staining, the object of this being to bring out such
characters as could be seen when thrown upon the screen. He had got
some very good results in this way with Medusae, and though they
looked at first rather unpromising, they in most eases turned out very
well. In their case the first thing to be done was to put them into a
mixture of methylic alcohol and water — about half of each — and to
change this until all the salt was dissolved out. It was absolutely

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

necessary to get rid of this, as otherwise it would crystallise and spoil
everything. It was very important, in staining these animals, to choose
SJme colouring matter which was adapted for the purpose in view, and
it by no means followed, as he found by experience, that what was a
good staining material for microscopic work was necessarily the best in
the preparation of lantern slides. Carmine stained very well, but made
them rather too smart, and he found, after various trials, that nothing
was more satisfactory than a tincture of madder in alcohol, which dif-
ferentiated the parts very well and gave very good results. In dealing
with Medusae care was required in the drying process, because they
cracked off from the glass if dried in the ordinary way ; but it was
possible to succeed very well by treating them with gum as they dried,
and keeping them moist until the gum had thoroughly soaked in. At
first he found there was great trouble caused by the growth of mould
upon the damp surface, which, amongst other inconveniences, altered the
colour of the stain and very much spoilt the general effect, but, after a
few attempts, he found he could keep them damp for weeks and months
by putting them into a develop in g-glass covered with a piece of plate-
glass, over some alcohol diluted with water. The vapour of the alcohol
did not in any way affect the gum, whilst it effectually prevented the
growth of mould and allowed the specimen to be kept damp for as long
as desired.

With animals which had red haemoglobin, it was surprising to find
that in some cases, after being mounted in Canada balsam, it underwent
no change whatever for years, so that specimens of marine worms, with
their vessels injected with their own blood, were just as good at the
present time as they were when first mounted.

In preparing Arenicola the best way was to slit the animal from end
to end and turn the viscera to one side so as to show the principal blood-
vessels and the branch blood-vessels supplying the branching, and after
being mounted in balsam, these parts could be shown with their per-
fectly natural colours, and in a very satisfactory manner.

Some of these creatures were very delicate, and he had been trying
this year, not merely to preserve their larger vessels, but to preserve
the whole of the blood-vessels, a matter of very great difficulty, because
if .there was the slightest lesion the whole attempt was a failure. It
seemed necessary to be able in some wray to sterilise them, and he had
therefore tried to keep them in some medium which would have this
effect without killing them. He found that a solution of benzote of
ammonium was one of the best things he had tried, though a solution of
ordinary galls answered very well, the effect being to, as it were, tan
them whilst alive. He had succeeded so well at last in preserving some
of the common Nereis as to show, if not all, certainly the larger part of
the blood-vessels. In some species he found that the animals from one
locality differed very much from those met with elsewhere, and contained
comparatively few blood-vessels.

One point more he should like to mention in connection with the
subject, because it was the very opposite to staining. He found that
there were a number of animals which were too opaque through there
being too much colour about them, so that in the lantern they showed
like dark shadows. Others became dark after a time, although not so at

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

139

first. Thus, for example, the almost colourless bodies of some Mollusca
became brown, and small Sepiolas became too dark to serve useful pur-
pose. It occurred to him, therefore, that it might be possible in some
manner partially to bleach them, and to take away the colouring matter
from one part, but to leave it in another. He had not yet finished his
operations in this direction, but thought he had done enough to show
that the process would be successful. His first attempts in this direc-
tion were with peroxide of hydrogen, and after trying several other
things, he thought the most satisfactory method up to the present time
was to expose them to sulphurous acid as vapour, or in solution in water.
He found that when so treated they did not decompose, and that an
animal which was at first too dark, was by this process made sufficiently
transparent to show the structure very fairly. In the Sepiolas the result
had been very satisfactory indeed : after a week or two of this treatment
all the natural colouring matter remained, but all the colour which had
been formed after the creature was killed was entirely got rid of, so
that when the specimen was mounted he was able to show the ink bag,
and considerable portions of other internal structures.

In dealing with almost every different group of animals, different
methods were required, and it needed a great deal of experience and
trouble to find out what was best suited to each. He could not yet
altogether succeed with Actiniae, because their slime would not adhere
to the glass, the consequence being that in drying the animals contracted
in all directions, until they resembled a horn button, but with all the
other groups he had tried he had found it was possible to preserve the
specimens in very much their natural form and colour, so as to show
well as lantern slides. He should be very glad also to be able to suc-
ceed with some of the beautiful Nudibranclis, but these broke themselves
to pieces in alcohol, and were of course utterly spoilt ; he should, how-
ever, not give up the attempt, and hoped to succeed even with these.

He hoped to be able at some future time to show the Fellows of the
Society some of the specimens which he had endeavoured to describe, so
that they might be able to judge for themselves as to the practical value
of these methods of preparation. He had shown some of them at the
Royal Society and at the Linnean Society some time ago, but he had
many others which had been prepared since then, which he thought
would show considerable advance. What he aimed at throughout, was
to mount the whole animal in such a way that it could be exhibited with
the colour it possessed when living. In order to do this, some parts
had to be stained of their natural colour, and other portions left in the
natural state, but by cutting the specimen to pieces, and putting it
together again as required, and judiciously staining where necessary, the
final result is that the preparation remains permanently of the true
colour of the living animal, or with but very slight alteration.

I )r. Dallinger said he had seen some of the latest specimens of Dr.
Sorby’s work in this direction, and could say that they showed how
greatly he had been able to advance towards perfection since his early
attempts were made. Some of them were so excellent that it seemed
almost incredible that they could really be the actual organisms them-
selves, and he was quite sure that the difficulties of preparation were
such, that if any of those present were to try to mount these things in

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

like manner, they would most likely make a great bungle of it. When,
however, the mounting was done as it had been by Dr. Sorby, the effect
was far more efficient than that of the most excellent drawing or photo-
graph. In some respects it might be possible to exhibit the structure of
certain organs more intelligibly bv means of a drawing, but the perfec-
tion to which Dr. Sorby had brought this method of preparation, rendered
a specimen so shown, as an addendum to a drawing, one of the most
beautiful things in the way of illustration that could be imagined.

The President said he recollected seeing some of Dr. Sorby ’s work at
the Linnean Society, and it struck him at the time what a great 6eld was
opened up to them by this method, and what a wide scope of subjects it
might embrace. They had listened to Dr. Sorby’s description with great
interest, and those who knew him would be sure that, like everything
else which he took up, this would be carried out to the greatest perfection
possible. The idea of using what he might call a selective bleacher was
one of the most useful ideas yet introduced in connection with the pre-
paration of this class of objects. He should like to ask Dr. Sorby a
question as to the method of killing these animals in cases where the
alcohol might be injurious : Had he in such cases ever tried the sudden
plunging into boiling water? It consolidated the blood plasma, and
prevented the alteration in form and colour which a less rapid process
sometimes failed to prevent.

Dr. Sorby said he had never tried hot water, but he would do so,
and was glad to have had the suggestion. At the same time some of these
organisms were so very delicate that he was by no means sure they would
stand boiling water: some of Ihe Nudibranchs, for instance, were so
fragile that it was the most difficult thing to prevent them from being
injured by even the most careful means.

A vote of thanks to Dr. Sorby for his extremely interesting communi-
cation was proposed by the President and carried by acclamation.

Mr. T. D. Ersser read the following note on a new method of show-
ing the multiplied images formed by the compound eyes of insects. “ Cut
a piece of mica about If in. in diameter, paint on it a red cross, 3/8 in.
long each way, unscrew the top lens from the Abbe illuminator, screw
in the rotating carrier, and place in mica plate. Then place slide on the
stage of the Microscope, and by slightly adjusting the focus, and with
careful illumination, the image will be seen in each focus sharp, bright,
and clear ; also, by placing another image in the carrier on swinging
arm, both images will be seen without any readjustment. By this
arrangement, good results can be obtained with high powrers. This can
be worked without the back lens, or with any Microscope having a sub-
stage.”

The thanks of the meeting were given to Mr. Ersser for his
exhibit.

The President reminded the Fellows that the next ordinary meeting
—that of January 15th — would be their Annual Meeting, and he
regretted to have to inform them that they would have to suspend the
bye-laws in order to enable their present President to go on for another

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

141

year. Ho did not know that it was a good thing for a Society that it
should have the same President too many years in succession, but he
had yielded in this instance to the pressing request of the Council and
trusted that the interests of the Society would not suffer in con-
sequence.

He therefore gave notice, as required, that at the next meeting it
would be proposed that bye-law No. 36 be suspended in order to allow
of the re-election of the President for a further year of office.

The List of Fellows recommended as Officers and Council for the
ensuing year was read as follows

President — Albert D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.

Vice-Presidents — *Rev. Edmund Carr, M A., F. R.Met.S. ; * Frank
Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.A., Y.P. and Treas. L S. ; Richard G. Hcbb, Esq.,
M.A., M.D., F.K.C.P. ; Edward Milles Nelson, Esq.

Treasurer — William Thomas Suffolk, Esq.

Secretaries — Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A.; Rev. W. H. Dallinger,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Twelve other Members of Council — Conrad Beck, Esq.; Alfred W.
Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. ; Robert Braithwaite, Esq., ID.,
M.R.C.S., F.L.S. ; *Thomas Comber, Esq., F.L.S. ; Edward Dadswell,
Esq. ; George C. Karop, Esq., M.R.C.3. ; *The Hon. Sir Ford North ;
*Thomas H. Powell, Esq. ; Charles F. Rousselet, Esq. ; *Prof. Charles
Stewart, F.L S. ; John Jewell Yezey, Esq.; Thomas Charters White,
Esq., M.R.C S., L.D.S.

The President said that it would be necessary to appoint two
Auditors of the Society’s accounts. On behalf of the Council he
appointed Mr. J. J. Yezey, and he asked the Fellows present to elect
another gentleman to act iu that capacity on their behalf.

Mr. J. Mason Allen was thereupon proposed by Mr. J. M. Offord,
seconded by Mr. J. E. Ingpen, and unanimously elected Auditor on behalf
of the Fellows of the Society.

The President said that the Honorary Fellows who were elected
at their last meeting had written letters expressing their very apprecia-
tive thanks for the honour conferred upon them.

It was announced that the Library would be closed from Tuesday
the 24th instant to Monday the 30th instant.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—

Mr. T. D. Ersser — Apparatus for showing multiplied images in
compound eyes of insects.

Mr. E. M. Nelson — A Portable Microscope.

New Fellows. — The following was elected an Or dinary Fellow : —
Mr. Thomas Henry Gurrin.

* Those with an asterisk (*) have not held during the preceding year the office
for which they are nominated.

142

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

ANNUAL MEETING

Held on the 15th of January, 1896, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,
the President (A. D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.) in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 18th December last were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given
to the donors.

From

Gosse, P. H., Evenings at the Microscope. New edition,

revised by F. J. Bell. (8vo, London, &c., 1895) .. .. Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell.

Report of the British Association, 1895. (8vo, London, 1895) Mr. Frank Crisp.

Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell said that some time ago the Secretary of the
Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge asked his advice as
to Gosse’s ‘ Evenings with the Microscope,’ of which the Society had
the copyright, but which was getting out of print. He replied that had
he been the happy possessor of this copyright he should certainly keep
it, for he thought that, with all respect to those who had followed, no
more charming book on the subject had ever been written. Some time
after, the Council asked him to prepare a new edition of this work,
and the volume presented to the Society that evening was the result.
The attitude he had adopted was that expressed in the preface, his en-
deavour being to destroy none of the charm of the author’s style, and,
whilst he had corrected such things as more recent observations required,
he had altered the original work as little as possible. With regard to
the other donation to the Society — the £ Report of the Meetings of the
British Association at Ipswich, 1895,’ presented by Mr. Crisp — he
thought the Association was to be congratulated, not only upon the con-
tents of the Report, but also upon the promptitude with which it had
been issued.

The President, in moving a vote of thanks to the donors of these
books, remarked that all, no doubt, knew the former edition of Gosse’s
‘ Evenings with the Microscope,’ and a more delightful book upon the
subject had perhaps never been written.

Prof. Bell said that since their last meeting Prof. Golgi had written
a letter expressing his appreciation, and returning thanks for the honour
done him by his election as an Honorary Fellow of the Society.

The business of the annual meeting was then proceeded with.

The Report of the Council for the year 1S95 was read by the
Secretary : —

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

143

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR 1895.

FELLOWS.

Ordinary. — During the year 1895, 17 new Fellows were elected,
whilst 18 have died, and 25 have resigned or have been removed from the
list for non-payment of subscriptions and other causes. The Council regret
to report that the number of new Fellows elected is unprecedentedly small,
whilst so many names have had to be removed from the list. In 1894,
27, and in 1893, 37 new Fellows were elected. While the Council are
aware that this Society alone is not suffering a diminution in the number
of its Fellows, they feel that they should take this opportunity of press-
ing on the Fellows the duty of urging the claims of the Society to the
support of scientific men.

Among the Fellows who have died, the Council regret to notice the
names of Mr. A. E. Durham and Mr. C. Tyler, both of whom had for-
merly served on the Council.

Honorary. — No less than five Honorary Fellows have passed away
during the year, and among them some of the most distinguished. They
are: The Right Hon. Prof. T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. ; Mr. F. Kitton ;
Prof. Sven Loven, of Stockholm ; M. Pasteur, of Paris ; and Prof. W. C.
Williamson, F.R.S. In their places have been elected I)r. Anton Dohrn,
the well-known Director of the Zoological Station at Naples; Prof.
Camillo Golgi and Prof. Gustav Retzius, the distinguished histologists
of Pavia and Stockholm, who have done so much for the new methods of
staining ; and Hermann, Graf zu Solms Laubach, the eminent professor
of botany in the University of Strasburg. The vacancy in the place of
M. Pasteur remains to be filled.

Ex-Officio. — During 1895 two vacancies have occurred in the list of
Ex-officio Fellows of the Society, owing to the fact that two Microscopical
Societies have ceased to exist — i. e. the North of England Microscopical
Society, and the South London Microscopical and Natural History Club.
The presidents of both these bodies were Ex-Officio Fellows.

The list of Fellows now contains the names of 578 Ordinary, 1 Cor-
responding, 49 Honorary, and 84 Ex-Officio Fellows, being a total of
712.

By order of the Council, a new List of Fellows was prepared and
issued in May last.

FINANCES.

Subscriptions. — The Council regret to report that there is a marked
falling off in the annual income from subscriptions. They feel it their
urgent duty to impress upon the Fellows, on account of the heavy
expenses connected with the Society, the desirability for a greater
promptness in the payment of their annual dues. It is to the advantage
of the Society that claims on it should be paid as they arise, and the
paid officials have plenty of work which they can do if they are relieved
from the duty — the disagreeable duty — of acting as <c duns.” The
Council venture to urge on the Fellows the more general use of bankers’
orders, which can always be obtained from the Assistant-Secretary.

Journal. — The amount received from their publishers for the sale of

144

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

the Journal is up to the average of recent years, the amount being
316Z. 15s. 9eZ., as against 324Z. 13s. 3 d. for the preceding year. The
Council have to report, with sincere satisfaction, communications to the
Transactions from several fresh contributors, from whom they hope to
again hear. The condition of the finances of the Society has compelled
the Council on some occasions to regretfully decline the consideration of
papers which the editor reported he could see no early hope of publish-
ing. The editor has been fortunate in retaining for yet another year
the otherwise busily-occupied coadjutors who are of such material assist-
ance to him, and he notes, as one striking advantage of their long
association with the work, a greater conciseness in the valuable notes
which they supply to him.

The number of woodcuts in the last volume of the Journal is some-
what greater than usual. Knowing how highly these are appreciated by
those who use the Journal, the Council trust that they will not be com-
pelled to contract this expansion in the way of illustration. Some idea
of the extent of information given in the Journal last year may be
gathered from the fact that the number of references in the Indices
amount to more than 4900.

Advertisements. — Tne falling off of the amount received for Adver-
tisements is more apparent than real. The reason is that many of the
Advertisements appearing in 1894 were prepaid, and were included in
the accounts for 1894.

INVESTMENTS.

The Council have pleasure in informing the Fellows, that, through
the exertions of the Treasurer, assisted by a sub-committee, the proceeds
of the mortgage that was paid off in 1894 have been invested on advan-
tageous terms in the following stock, i.e., Nottingham Corporation 3 per
cent., North British Railway 3 per cent. Debentures, and New South
Wales Government 3^ per cent.

ROOMS.

The Council have again to direct the attention of Fellows to the ad-
vantage of the rooms being open on Wednesday evenings. They regret
to find that no use has been made of the rooms during the past year.
The Council would call attention to the fact that the rooms were first
opened on Wednesday evenings during the latter part of 1892, when 17
Fellows attended ; in 1893 the attendance rose to 29, but in 1894 it fell
to 16. Altogether the Library has been open for 92 Wednesday even-
ings, exclusive of meeting nights, and the total number of attendances
does not average one per night.

INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS.

The Council have the pleasure of congratulating the Fellows on the
valuable addition to the Collection of a Lantern, which was kindly pre-
sented to the Society by the Committee and Members of the South
London Microscopical and Natural History Club, on the dissolution of
that body.

The Inventory of the Society’s Instruments and Apparatus is now
nearly complete, the objectives remaining to be examined before being

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

145

catalogued in a manner as satisfactory as the unsatisfactory nature of the
earlier records allow. The Council are determined to use their best
efforts that a criticism of this kind shall not bo passed on them by their
successors.

L1BBARY.

The Council are glad to hear that the Fellows have made good use
of the Library during the past year, and that many books have been con-
sulted. A considerable amount of binding remains to be done, and they
trust to an improved state of the Society’s finances to allow of this being
effected.

Rev. Canon Carr then moved, “ That the Report of the Council be
received and adopted.” The Report, he thought, spoke for itself, and
rendered it unnecessary for him to say anything in support of it. The
diminution in the number of Fellows was, he thought, a matter for regret,
but he hoped that this was one which could be remedied by each of the
Fellows of the Society doing what he could to induce other persons to join.
He also regretted to find that two Societies had ceased to be connected
with the Society, as the association could hardly fail to be of benefit ; in
fact, he had recently received a letter from the President of the Carlisle
Microscopical Society expressing this feeling, and showing that vigorous
and hearty work was being done. The small number of persons using
the rooms on Wednesday evenings was rather disappointing, though he
hoped the arrangement had been of advantage to the few who attended —
and the paragraph as to punctual payment of subscriptions would, he
hoped, convey a useful hint to those concerned.

Mr. F. H. Ward having seconded the adoption of the Report,

The President put the resolution to the Meeting, and declared it
carried unanimously.

The Treasurer then read his Annual Statement of Account and
Balance Sheet, duly audited by Messrs. J. M. Allen and J. J. Vezey, who
were appointed for the purpose at the preceding meeting (see p 141).

The Hon. Sir Ford North moved that the Report of the Treasurer as
read be received and adopted, and that he be cordially thanked for his
services. He was sorry to see that one cheerful item in the balance
sheet was balanced by the large sum outstanding for printing the Journal,
and also much regretted the need which arose for urging the prompt
payment of subscriptions. Talking a short time since to a person who
was the manager of a large public institution, he was mentioning the
great difficulty experienced there in getting people to pay their subscrip-
tions. In that case a paid collector was appointed, with the result that
his commission upon the amounts collected absorbed a great many good
subscriptions. Those who found it troublesome to pay annually might
perhaps consider the desirability of compounding for their future sub-
scriptions by a single payment.

Mr. T. Comber having seconded the motion, it was put to the meeting
and carried unanimously.

1896 L

146

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

147

The Secretary, in pursuance of notice given at the preceding meet-
ing, moved the suspension of Bye-law No. 36 — to enable the President to
be re-elected for another year. The proposal, having been duly seconded,
was put to the meeting and carried nem. dis.

The Secretary having read the list of Fellows proposed as Officers
and Council for the ensuing year, and Messrs. J. M. Allen and 0. L.
Curties having been appointed Scrutineers, the ballot was taken — the
scrutineers subsequently reporting that the whole of the gentlemen
whose names were printed on the list, as below, were duly elected.

President — Albert B. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.

Vice-Presidents — *Rev. Edmund Carr, M.A., F.R.Met.S. ; *Frank
Crisp, Esq., LL.B, B.A., Y.P., & Treas. L.S. ; Richard G. Hebb, Esq.,
M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. ; Edward Milles Nelson, Esq.

Treasurer — William Thomas Suffolk, Esq.

Secretaries — Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A. ; Rev. W. H. Ballinger,
LL.B., F.R.S.

Twelve other Members of Council — Conrad Beck, Esq. ; Alfred W.
Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. ; Robert Braithwaite, Esq., M.D.,
M.R.C.S., F.L.S. ; *Tkomas Comber, Esq., F.L.S. ; Edward Badswell,
Esq.; George C. Karop, Esq., M.R.C.S. ; *The Hon. Sir Ford North ;
*Tliomas H. Powell, Esq. ; Charles F. Rousselet, Esq. ; *Prof. Charles
Stewart, F.L.S.; John Jewell Yezey, Esq.; Thomas Charters White,
Esq., M R.C.S., L.B.S.

The President then read the Annual Address to the Society, t king
as his subject the ‘ Anatomy of the Acari ’ ; the numerous illustrations
were shown upon the screen by lime-light lantern. (The address is
printed in extenso at pp. 15-26.)

Mr. J. J. Yezey felt sure that all would agree with him that they
owed a debt of gratitude to the President for his learned a id interesting
Address. He was such a master of the subject that it was hardly to
be expected that any one present would be in a position to offer any
further remarks ; and he would only say that when they considered the
small size of the creatures dealt with, averaging in length about 1 mm.,
they could not fail to be impressed with the amount of patience and
skill required to carry out so successfully those investigations, the
results of which had been placed before them that evening. He had
great pleasure in moving that a hearty vote of thanks be given to the
President for his Address, and that he would allow it to be printed and
circulated in the usual way.

The motion having been seconded by Mr. G. C. Karop, was put to
the meeting by the mover and carried by acclamation.

The President acknowledged with thanks the cordial manner in
which this vote had been proposed and carried.

* Those w ith an asterisk (*) had not held during the preceding year the office
for which they were nominated.

148

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Mr. T. C. White moved that a cordial vote of thanks be given to the
Secretaries and Officers of the Society for their services during the past
year. Having had some experience in secretarial work of that kind, he
could assure them that such a post was no sinecure, and no one without
experience of it knew how much it involved. They had heard something
as to the difficulties of the Treasurer in getting in subscriptions ; and the
work the Editor had done in connection with the Journal was apparent
to every one who received it, and indicated an amount of labour which
certainly could be no joke.

The motion having been seconded by Mr. T. D. Ersser, was put to the
meeting by the President, and unanimously carried. He had great
pleasure in offering this vote of thanks to their Officers, not simply on
account of the amount of work which had been done, but for the way in
which it was done, and for the time and talent which 4} ad been bestowed
upon it.

A vote of thanks to the Auditors and Scrutineers was proposed by
Mr. Karop, seconded by Mr. C. F. Rousselet, and carried unanimously.

Prof. Bell said, that as the only officer then present — his colleague
having gone away, possibly from presentiment as to what was coming — it
fell again to him to respond. He always found it difficult to return thanks
for the extremely kind manner in which the Society received a proposal
of this sort, which seemed to him to exceed the merits of the occasion.
At the present moment he felt it more than usually difficult, as during
the whole of that day, and the day before, he had been suffering from
facial neuralgia, which, to use the words of the mover of the vote of
thanks, was “ no joke.” He would therefore say no more than that he
sincerely thanked them for their expressions of good will.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows —
Mr. Robert Thomson and Dr. James Leon Williams.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

APRIL 1896.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

III. — On some New and Interesting Freshwater Algse.

By William West, F.L.S., and G. S. West, A.R.C.S., Scholar of
St. John’s College, Cambridge.

(Communicated by A. W. Bennett, M.A., F.R.M.S.)

{Read 19th February , 1896.)

Plates III. and IV.

The results embodied in the following paper have been gradually
accumulating during the investigation of innumerable gatherings of
material from very varied stations, and we now consider that there
are sufficient facts to form a paper which will be interesting to the
algologist as well as to the general and physiological botanist. The
most interesting features of the paper are the descriptions of a new
genus of Pandorinese, and of a new genus closely allied to Glosterium ,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

[ The figures have been reduced to 10/11 ( approximately ) of their original dimensions .]
(Explicatio iconum.)

front view (a fronte visa),
vertical view (a vertice visa),
side-view (a latere visa),
basal view of semicell (a basi visa).

Plate III.

Fig. 1-13. — Tetragonium lacustre gen. et sp. n. x 520.

,, 14. — Stichococcus variabilis sp. n. x 520.

„ 15. — Oocystis ciliata Lagerh. var. radians var. n. x 520.

„ 16-20. — Closterium trochiscosporum sp. n. x 520. 16-18 and 20, zygospores.

„ 21, 22. — Xanthidium Robinsonianum Arch, x 520.

„ 23, 24. — Roya obtusa (Breb.) nob. var. montana var. n. x 625.

„ 25, 26. — Closterium calosporum Wittr. forma major. X 220. Zygospores.

„ 27. — Staurastrum Bieneanum Rabh. x 520. Zygospore.

„ 28. „ orbiculare (Ehrnb.) Ralfs. x 400. Zygospore.

„ 29. — Micrasterias denticulata Breb. x 120. Zygospore.

,, 30, 31. — Cosmarium Regnesii Reinsch. x 520. Zygospores.

„ 32, 33. — Conferva undulata sp. u. x 520.

1896

a, a , a

b

c

d

M

150

Transactions of the Society.

the descriptions of many hitherto unobserved zygospores of Desmids,
and the descriptions of many new species, as well as the enumeration
of some species as yet unrecorded for the British Isles.

Class Confer voide/E Isogah^:.

Order Confervace.e.

Genus Conferva (Linn.) Link ; Wille.

1. C. undulata sp. n PI. III. figs. 32, 33.

C. cellulis cylindricis, diametro 2-3-plo longioribus ; mein-
brana valida undulata, cellula unaquaque ad marginem 5-7
undulata ; ad septa latioribus et membrana crassiori ad
partem periphericam septi.

Crass, fil. 6-9*5 fi; long. cell. 15-25 ya.

Hah. Ogden Clough, W. Yorks.; Helvellyn, Westmoreland.

We found this some time ago in the English Lake District, but
it was not examined until after preseiwation ; for this reason it was
put aside until living material might be available. Decently we
found the plant again from the above-mentioned Yorkshire locality ;
the examples were a little smaller than those from the Lake District,
but otherwise precisely identical with them.

Class Conjugate.

Order Desmidiace.®.

Genus Closterium Nitzsch.

2. C. lanceolatum Kiitz. (Ralfs, Brit. Desm., p. 163, t. 28, f. 1).

Zygosporae subglobosae vel ellipticae, glabrae.

Diam. zygosp. 81-104 yu.

Hah. Epping Forest, Essex.

Plate IV.

Fig. 84. — Cosmarium pseudoprotuberans Kirchn. x 520. Zygospore.

„ 35. „ Iseve Rabh. x 400. Zygospore.

,. 36. — Staurastrum margaritaceum Menegh. x 520. Zygospore.

„ 87. „ corniculatum Lund, x 520. Zygospore.

„ 38. — Cosmarium lusitanicum West, x 400. With zygospore.

39. — Staurastrum sibiricum Borge forma trigona. x 520.

„ 40. — Xanthidium Smithii Arch. var. variabile Nordst. x 520. Zygospore.

„ 41. — Cosmarium confusum Cooke var. regularius Nordst. x 400. Zygospore.

42.— Xanthidium antilopaeum (Breb.) Kutz. x 400. Zygospore.

„ 43, 44 .—Penium cuticulare sp. n. x 520. 43, zygospore.

„ 45. — Cosmarium inconspicuum sp. n. x 520. With zygospore.

„ 46. — Staurastrum Kjelmanni Wille var. rotundatum var. n. x 520.

„ 47. — Closterium gracile Breb. x 400. Abnormal zygospore.

„ 48. — Staurastrum suborbiculare sp. n. x 400.

„ 49. „ Picum sp. n. x 520.

„ 50,51. ,, micron sp. n. x 625.

tt 52. „ cuspidatum Breb. var. divergens Nordst. x 400. Zygospore.

53-56. „ brachiatum Ralfs. x 400. Abnormal states of division.

,, 57. — Cosmarium canaliculatum sp. n. X 625.

„ 58. — Oscillatoria splendida Grev. var. attenuata var. n. x 520.

New British Freshwater Algae. By W. and G. 8. West. 151

3. C. prjelongtjm Breb. (Babb. FI. Europ. Algar., iii. p. 130).

Forma brevior Nordst. (Freshw. Alg. of New. Zeal, and
Austr., p. 68, pi. iii. f. 22-24).

Zygosporae globosae, glabrae.

Diarn. zygosp. 40-46 g.

Hab. In ditcb, amongst Vaucheria aversa Hass., near
Ruislip Reservoir, Middlesex.

4. C. gracile Breb. in Ralfs, Brit. Desm.. p. 221.

Forma cum zygospora rectangulari, lateribus leviter
retusis. PI. IV. fig. 47.

Long, zygosp. 27 * 5 g ; lat. 20 g.

Hab. Near Goring, S.E. Oxfordshire.

The zygospore of this species is, as a rule, globose.

5. C. Ehrenbergii Menegh. (Synops. Desm., p. 232 ; Ralfs, Brit.
Desm., p. 166, t. 28, f. 2).

Zygosporae globosae, membrana lamellosa, lamellis dif-
fluentibus.

IJiam. zygosp. (sine lamell.) 113-118 g .

Hab. Wimbledon Common, Surrey, with zygospores in
abundance, amongst Mougeotia mirabilis Braun.

The conjugation appears to take place between two individuals
which have just separated after division, and in which the younger
semicells are but partially developed. (Of. note under Micrasterias
dentieulata.) Moreover, the semicells do not come apart, but their
contents pass through a perforated protuberance at the base of the
younger semicells.

6. C. parvultjm Nag. (Gatt. Einzell. Alg., tab. vi. fig. C, 2).

Long, zygosp. 30-40 g ; lat. 26-34*5 g.

Hab. Esher West End Common, and Mitcham Common,
Surrey.

The examples noticed of this always had elliptical zygospores
which were occasionally surrounded by a very distinct gelatinous
investment.

7. C. trochiscosporum sp. n. PL III. figs. 16-20.

Cl. minutum, semilunare, diametro 7-8-plo longius, ventre
non tumidum, lateribus subparallelis ad medium, polos versus
valde attenuatis curvatisque, apicibus subacutis; membrana
glabra lutescens ; pyrenoidibus duobus semicellula unaquaque.

Zygosporae oblongae et subrectangulares, lateribus bre-
vioribus retusis, lateribus longioribus convexis et ad medium
inflatis, angulis subrotundatis saepe tortae cum angulis duobus
zygosporae in planitie perpendiculariter disposita ad planitiem
angulorum duorum alterorum ; membrana glabra fuscescente.
Lat. 8 * 6-9 * 5 ya ; apicibus inter se distantibus circiter 69 g ;
long, zygosp. 23-28 * 5 g ; lat. max. zygosp. 18-22 g.

M 2

152

Transactions of the Society.

Hab. Near Goring, S.E. Oxfordshire. In great abundance
with zygospores.

This little species differs sufficiently from allied species, such as
Cl. yarvulum Nag., CL Venus Kiitz., Cl. calosjoorum Wittr., &c., in
its curvature and in the peculiar form of the zygospore, which is often
twisted, one half being turned through an angle of about 90°.

8. C. calosporum Wittr. (Anteck. Skandin. Desm., p. 23, f. 11).

Forma major. PI. III. figs. 25, 2G.

Lat. 14-17 yu. ; apicibus inter se distantibus circiter 161 yu, ;
diam. zygosp. sine proc. 29 '5-37 yu, ; cum proc. 38-51 /x.

Hah. Goring, S.E. Oxfordshire.

This beautiful little species has not been previously recorded with
zygospores from England, but Archer has found it in Ireland, and
Roy and Bisset in Scotland. The colourless conical processes of the
zygospore in our examples were distinctly longer than those observed
by Wittrock.

Boy a g. n.

Cellulae levissime arcuatae, perfecte cylindrical baud attenuatae,
utroque polo subtruncatae vel obtuso-rotundatae ; contentum chloro-
phyllosum cellularum prope apices attingens, in medio absens ad latus
unum in spatio semicirculari ; locellus apicalis nullus, igitur sine cor-
pusculis moventibus ; pyrenoides 4-6 in una serie axillari dispositi ;
membrana acliroa glabra.

9. R. obtusa (Breb.) nob. f Closterium obtusum Breb. Liste Desm.,

p. 154, t. ii. f. 46 ; Rabh. Flor. Europ. Algar. iii. p. 124 ;
Cooke, Brit. Desm., p. 19, pi. x. f. 4 ; Wolle, Desm. U.S.A.,
p. 38, pi. vi. f. 1.]

Var. Montana var. n. PL III. figs. 23, 24.

[Closterium ohtusum Breb. f. apicibus subtruncatis,
West, Alg. of Eng. Lake Distr., Journ. Roy. Micr.
Soc., Dec. 1892, p. 719, PI. IX. fig. 13.]

Var. minor, apicibus distincte subtruncatis, membrana
tenuissima et glabra. Forsan sit species propria.

Long. 48-81 fx ; lat. 5 * 5-6 /x.

Hah. Fairly abundant, along with Penium cruciferum
de Bary, in washings of Bhacomitrium aciculare ,
from constantly dripping rocks, Baildon Moor, W.
Yorks. Also in profusion amongst Mougeotia
scalaris Hass, on dripping rocks, Ogden Clough,
W. Yorks. Scarce, amongst other algae on wet
rocks, Helvellyn, Westmoreland.

The entire absence of attenuation in the slightly bent cells, the
position of the nucleus in the peculiar semicircular excavation of the
chlorophyll, and the absence of an apical locellus sufficiently separate
this genus from Closterium. We have much pleasure in naming it

New British Freshwater Algse. By W. and G. S. West 153

after the late Dr. John Roy, who was the first to point out the differ-
ences between the species of this and those of the allied genus
Glosterium.

The var. montana, which we describe of B. obtusa , may perhaps
he a distinct species. The only other species of the genus is B.
Pseudoelosterium (Roy) nob. [ Glosterium P seudoclosterium Roy in
Roy et Biss. Scottish Desm., p. 55.]

Genus Penium Breb. ; de Bary.

10. P. didymocarpum Lund. (Desm. Suec., p. 85, t. v. f. 9.)

In a specimen from a pool between Hawkshead and Yewdale in

the Lake District (cf. West, Alg. of Eng. Lake Distr., Journ. Roy.
Micr. Soc., Dec. 1892, p. 721), the outer membrane of the zygospore
was splitting exactly as figured by Reinsch for ScMzospora minor
Reinsch (Contrib. Alg. et Fung., tab. xvii. fig. 2).

11. P. cuticulare sp. n. PL IY. figs. 43, 44.

P. minutum, cylindricum, diametro 2J-3J-plo longius, ad
medium non constrictum, apicibus truncatis, angulis leviter
rotundatis; membrana juveni glabra tenuissima et achroa,
membrana vetusta firma rufo-ferruginea et minute papilloso-
punctata.

Zygosporae angulari-globosae, glabrae.

Long. 19-34 //, ; lat. 8-10 ya; diam. zygosp. 19-22 y.

Hab. Thursley Common, Surrey.

This species differs from P. rufescens Cleve ( = P. rufopellitum
Roy) in its much smaller size and truncate ends. It differs from
P. truncatum (Breb.) Ralfs in its membrane and in its less truncate
ends.

Genus Micrasterias Ag.

12. M. denticulata Breb. (Ralfs, Brit. Desm., p. 70, tab. vii.

%. i).

Diam. zygosp. sine proc. 116 ya, cum proc. 195 ya.
PI. III. fig. 29.

Hob. Halgavor Moor, Cornwall.

The zygospore in the specimen figured appears to have been
formed by the conjugation of two individuals which have but just
separated after division. The figure of M. angulosa Hantzsch, with
zygospore, given by Roy and Bisset (Scottish Desm., pi. viii. f. 2),
also appears to have been thus formed. Cf. also remarks under
Glosterium Ehrenbergii Menegh.

Genus Euastrum Ehrnb.

13. E. pectinatum Breb. in Ralfs, Brit. Desm., p. 86, tab. xiv.
fig. 5.

Zygospores of this species are more often elliptical or oblong in
outline than round, as figured by Ralfs. We have noticed this in

154

Transactions of the Society.

specimens from many places ; one example from Adel, W. Yorks.,
was quite oblong. (Long, sine papill. 75 y ; lat. s. papill. 40 y.)

Genus Cosmarium Corda; Ealfs.

14. C. canaliculatum sp. n. PL IV. fig. 57.

C. mediocre, circiter l j-plo longius qnam latius, profucde
constrictum, sinu angusto-lineari, extremo subampliato ; semi-
cellulse truncato-pyramidatse, angulis inferioribus et superio-
ribus subrotundatis, lateribus apicibusque leviter convexis ;
membrana crassa asperulata dense et irregulariter scrobiculata,
in centro incrassata ; a vertice visae ellipticae, in medio utro-
bique tumidae ; a latere visae late ovatae, basem versus tumidae
utrobique.

Long. 72 y ; lat. 51 y ; lat. isthm. 17*5 y; crass. 35 y.

Hah Near Goring, S.E. Oxfordshire.

This is smaller than the average example of G. p yramiclatum
Breb., from which it differs in its form, its central elevation, its
thicker membrane, and in its more marked scrobiculations.

Only one specimen of this was seen, and the membrane was
slightly but distinctly rough.

15. C. tenue Arch. (Cooke, Brit. Desm., p. 92 ; West, Freshw.
Alg. of W. Ireland, p. 147, pi. xx. f. 25).

We have seen many specimens of this species with zygospores
from Scarborough, Maine, U.S.A. Mr. L. N. Johnson has recorded
it with zygospores from Michigan (Some new and rare Desm. of
U.S., Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, xxi. No. 7, July 20, 5 1894, p. 288).
0. melanosporum Arch. (Cooke, Brit. Desm., p. 188 ; Eoy et Biss.
Scottish Desm., p. 38, pi. iv. fig. 14) seems to differ from this species
in its relatively longer cells, its broader isthmus, and in its dark
zygospore.

16. C. inconspicuum sp. n. PL I Y. fig. 45.

C. minutum, circiter lj-plo longius quam latius, sinu
aperto valde excavato ; semicellulae ellipticae, apicibus compressis
(paene subtruncatis) ; a vertice visae ellipticae ; membrana
achroa glabraque ; pyrenoidibus singulis.

Zygospora ovoidea, membrana achroa glabraque.

Long. 13 *5-14 *5 y; lat. 9*5-11 y ; lat. isthm.

4 *8-5 *7 y; diam. zygosp. 14*5-17 y.

Hob. Mitcham Common, Surrey.

This seems nearest to G. minutissimum Archer, but differs suffi-
ciently from it, and also from G. melanosporum Arch., G. tenue Arch.,
G. pygmseum Arch., C. tinctum Ealfs, &c., all of which have smooth
zygospores.

17. C. ljeve Babh. (FI. Europ. Alg., iii. p. 161 ; Wittr. &
Nordst. Desm. et (Edog. in Italia et Tyrol., taf. xii. f. 4 :

New British Freshwater Algse. By W. and G. S. West. 155

West, Nonn. Alg. Aquae dulc. Lusitan., Notarisia, 1892,
p. 1502). Pl. IV. fig. 35.

We noticed tlie occurrence of the zygospores in the above paper,
but no figure was given.

Zygosporae globosae, spinis brevibus nuinerosis truncate
bifidisve ornatae.

Diam. zygosp. sine spin. 31 /x ; c. spin. 41 ya.

Hab. Lepa, Portugal.

18. C. pseudoprotuberans Kirchn. (Alg. Scbles., p. 150 ; Nordsh
Desm. Gronl., taf. vii. fig. 3). PI. IY. fig. 34.

Zygosporae globosae, glabrae.

Diam. zygosp. 30 ya.

Hab. Thursley Common, Surrey.

19. C. Begnesii Reinscb. (Algeufi. von Franken, p. 112, t. viii.
f. 8 ; W. and G-. S. West, Freshw. Alg. of Madagascar, Trans.
Linn. Soc., 1895, vol. v. pt. 2, pl. vi. fig. 44). PI. III. figs.
30, 31.

Zygosporae plerumque rhomboides, lateribus leviter concavis,
interdum rotund o-quadratae vel pentagonae ; membrana luteo-
fuscescente.

Long, zygosp. 15-19 //,, lat. 11*5-13 y,.

Hab. Thursley Common, Surrey.

These zygospores were numerous in a gathering of desmids from
Utricularia minor ; they were occasionally enveloped in a gelatinous
matrix.

20. C. lusitanicum West (Nonn. Alg. Aq. dulc. Lusitanicae,
Notarisia, 1892, p. 1502). Pl. IY. fig. 38. This was pub-
lished in the above journal without a figure.

C. mediocre, diametro circiter lj-plo longius, prolunde
constrictum, sinu sublineari ; semicellube granulatae, breviter
subpyramidatae, subtruncatae ad apicem, angulis superioribus
et inferioribus rotundatis ; granulis conicis in seriebus sub-
transversis et subconcentricis ordinatis, granulis minoribus ad
apices; a vertice visae ellipticae, medio subtumidae; a latere
visae subrotundatae utrobique, ad medio leviter subtumidae.

Zygosporae globosae, spinis attenuatis, delicatulis, longis, ad
apices breviter bifidis trifidisve ornatae.

Long. 45-46 ya ; lat. 36-37 y ; lat. isthrn. 13 ya ; crass.

25 ya ; diam. zygosp. s. spin. 35-36 ya, c. spin. 61-
< 67 ya.

Differt a C. confuso Cooke et var. regulariore Nordst.
praecipue cellulis angustioribus et apicibus subgranulatis, etiam
angulis inferioribus semicellularum rotundatis et granulis
numerosioribus.

Hab. Lepa, Portugal.

156

Transactions of the Society.

Since the above species was published, we have met with zygo-
spores of G. confusum var. reyularius ; they are very different from
those of the above.

21. C. confusum Cooke (Brit. Desm., p. 110).

Yar. regularius Nordst. (Freshw. Alg. of N. Zeal, and
Austr., p. 47, tab. v. fig. 6). PI. IY. fig. 41.

Zygosporae globosae vel subglobosae, nodulosae, mem-
brana externa incrassata ad nodulos.

Diam. zygosp. 52*5-61 fi.

Hah. Thursley Common, Surrey.

Genus Xanthidium Ehrnb. ; Balfs.

22. X. antilopjeum (Bre'b.) Kutz. (Cooke, Brit. Desm., p. 132,
tab. 46, fig. 2).

A mature zygospore of a small form of this (from Ballynahinch,
Co. Galway, Ireland), with perfectly straight spines to the semicells,
is figured (PI. IY. fig. 42), diam. s. spin. 45 //,, c. spin. 80 /i; a
zygospore of a large form (from Thursley Common, Surrey), the semi-
cells having curved spines, was also seen. The two zygospores were
practically alike in form, the spines being furcate with the divisions
recurved.

23. X. Smithii Arch. var. variabile Nordst. (Freshw. Alg. of
New Zeal, and Austr., p. 44, tab. iv. f. 27-29). PI. IY.
fig. 40.

Zygosporae globosae, spinis validis, brevibus, numerosis,
apicibus leviter bifidis trifidisve vestitae.

Diam. zygosp. s. spin. 29-31 /*, c. spin. 42-45 /*.

Hah. Devil’s Jumps, Frensham Common, Surrey.

The poles of the vertical view are described and figured by
Nordstedt in his New Zealand specimens as truncate. We have
observed this variety of X. Smithii in abundance from many localities
in W. Ireland and the S. of England, and the majority of the speci-
mens had the poles rounded and not truncate.

24. X. Bobinsonianum Arch. (Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., 1880,
p. 114; Cooke, Brit. Desm., p. 134). PI. III. figs. 21, 22.

This has been rather too briefly described by Archer ( l.c .) ; and as
his promised detailed description has never appeared, there is some
doubt as to the correct identification of our plant. However, from
some remarks by Dr. Nordstedt in his Freshw. Alg. of New Zeal, and
Austr., 1888, p. 44, it would appear that it is of the same species as
that observed by Archer in Ireland. The following is a description
of the plant seen by us :

• X. parvum, tarn latum quam longum, profunde constrictum,
sinu valde aperto et acutangulo sed ad extremum obtuso ;
semicellulae transverse subrectangn lares, marginibus inferioribus

New British Freshwater Alyas. By W. and G. S. West. 157

convexis, lateribus subparallelis, apicibus leviter convexis, vel
trapezicae et subpyramidatae, angulis basalibns late rotundatis,
lateribus subrectis subconcavisve, apicibus rectis, angulis
superioribus cum spinis minutis 1-2, angulis inferioribus cum
spinis minutis 1-4 ad marginem, intra margines et centrum
versus spinis minutis paucis irregulariter dispositis praeditae ;
a vertice visae ellipticae, ad medium utrobique tumore perparvo,
polis rotundatis spinis minutis (in ambitu 3-6) obsessis.

Long, sine spin. 18-27 /, i; lat. sine spin. 16-24 //,, cum

spin. 19-25//,; long. spin. 0 * 8—1 • 2 yu. ; lat. isthm.

5 * 5-9 *7 //, ; crass. 1 1 * 5-13 /x.

Hab. Amongst Sphagnum, Orkney Islands.

This is closely allied to X. Smithii Arch. var. variabile Nordst.,
but differs in the minute spines scattered over the surface of the semi-
cells, especially towards the margins ; there are usually two or three
within the margin at the middle of the apex (which show plainly in
vertical view), and the spines also vary at the inferior angles from one
to four. The vertical view also has the central protuberance less
pronounced and in some cases almost obsolete ; the sinus, moreover, is
not parallel but open. The specimen, fig. 22 a, very much resembles
X. simplicius Nordst.

Genus Staurastrum Meyen ; Ealfs.

25. S. cuspidatum Breb. (Ealfs, Brit. Desm., p. 122, tab. xxi.
fig. i).

Var. divebgens Nordst. (Desm. Brasil., tab. iv. fig. 49).
PI. IV. fig. 52.

Zygosporae globosae mamillatae, unaquaque mamilla
cum spina singula brevi ornata.

Diam. zygosp. sine mam. 23*5-25 fi, c. mam. et spin.
37-41 fi.

Hab. Keston Common, Kent.

The zygospore is somewhat similar to that of the type.

26. S. corniculatum Lund (Desm. Suec., p. 57, t. iii. f. 23).
PI. IY. fig. 37.

Zygospora globosa, spinis longis delicatulis obsessa,
apicibus spinarum profunde divisis, divisionibus patentibus.

Diam. sine spin. 31 fi, c. spin. 63 fi; long. spin.

15-19 ,1.

Hab. Thursley Common, Surrey.

Only one zygospore of this rare species was seen.

27. S. sibiricum Borge (Siberiens Chlorophyllophyce-Flora,
p. 9, f. 4).

f. TRIGONA. PI. IY. fig. 39.

A vertice visum lateribus tribus con ca vis.

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Transactions of the Society.

Long. 13*5-14*5 /x ; lat. 15-16 u; lat. isthm. 3*8-
5*5 fji.

Hah. Devil’s Jumps, Frenskam Common, Surrey.

One example was noticed with a gelatinous investment 39 /x in
diameter.

28. S. Bieneanum Rabh. (Alg. No. 1410; St. orhiculare b.
Bieneanum Rabh. Flor. Europ. Alg., iii. p. 200). PI. III.
fig. 27.

Zygosporse globosae, spinis validis integris plerumque
leviter curvatis ad basem dilatatis obsessae.

Diam. zygosp. sine spin. 32-35 /x, cum spin. 50-52 /x ;
long. spin. 8-10 yix.

Hah. Near Goring, S.E. Oxfordshire, with zygospores in
abundance.

This species, although described by Rabenliorst, was afterwards
placed by him as a variety of St. orhiculare (Ehrnb.) Ralfs. It
certainly does not belong to the latter species, but is a very character-
istic and constant species throughout the British Isles. The semi-
cells are more convex on their lower margins than on their upper
ones, and the latter are always truncate or slightly retuse in the
middle. This inequality of curvature causes a slight outward
divergence of the semicells ; the angles of both the front and vertical
views are acutely rounded, and the membrane is always delicately
punctate. Moreover, the zygospore differs from that of St. orhiculare
in the spines being shorter, stouter, and fewer. We figure a zygo-
spore of St. orhiculare from Maine, U.S.A. for comparison (PI. III.
fig. 28).

29. S. suborbiculare sp. n. PI. IY. fig. 48.

A S. orbiculari differt apicibus semicellularum truncatis et
leviter retusis, membrana dense et subtiliter punctulata, zygo-
sporis spinis brevissimis multe inflatis ad basem ornatis.

Long. 35-44 /x ; lat. 35-37 ya ; lat. isthm. 7 * 5-9 * 5 ya.

Hah. Glas Maol, Perthshire, Scotland.

Messrs. Roy and Bisset, in their ‘ Scottish Desmidiese,’ pi. iv. fig. 7,
figure a zygospore of “ St. orhiculare ( forma ?).” From the form of
the cells and zygospore it does not belong to that species. We have
seen this in abundance from Glas Maol, and give it the above name.

30. S. Kjelmanni Wille (Ferskv. Alg. fr. Nov. Semi., p. 50,
tab. xiii. figs. 50-3).

Yar. rotundatum var. n. PI. IY. fig. 46.

Yar. psene duplo-longior quam latior; semicellulis sub-
rotundatis, granulis irregulariter ordinatis.

Long. 43 /x ; lat. 25-26 * 5 ya ; lat. isth. 13*5 ya.

Hah. Ogden Clough, W. Yorks.

Some algologists place St. Kjelmanni Wille as a variety of

New British Freshwater Algse. By W. and G. S. West. 159

St. punctulatum Breb. The two species are however quite distinct.
Moreover, St. Kjelmanni occurs only in subalpine and alpine localities
in the British Isles ; we have met with it in mountain tarns and
springs in many places, but never in lowland districts. (Of. Boy et
Biss., Scottish Lesm., p. 3).

31. S. brachiatum Balfs (Brit. Pesm., p. 131, t. xxiii. fig. 9).
PI. IV. figs. 53-6.

An adult zygospore of this (from Thursley Common, Surrey) was
observed (long. 42 /x, lat. 31 /x) which differed from all those we have
previously noticed in having the angles rounded and scarcely pro-
duced.

A large number of examples in various stages of division were
observed from Slieve Donard, Co. Down, Ireland, which were dividing
in an abnormal manner. After the division of one plant, but before
the separation of the two individuals, and while the new semicells are
as yet young and without any trace of processes, either one or both
of the plants divide, the result being, that there are but two adult
semicells, and between them (still in connection) either four (fig. 55)
or six (fig. 56) young semicells without processes.

32. S. micron sp. n. PI. IY. figs. 50-51.

S. minutum, circiter tarn latum quam longum (cum pro-
cessibus), profunde constrictum ; semicellulse obverse semi-
circulares, apicibus leviter convexis, angulis superioribus in
processus breves validos divergentes productis, processus cum
annulis duobus spinarum brevium (4 annulo unoquoque)
prope basem vestiti, apicibus processuum dilatatis truncatisque,
et cum spinis tribus brevibus; a vertice visae triangulares,
lateribus concavis, angulis in processus breves dilatatos et
trispinosos productis.

Long. s. proc. 8*5-11*5 /x, c. proc. 12-17’ 5 ycx; lat. s.
proc. 7-9*5, c. proc. 12*5-19 /x; lat. isthm. 3-3*5 /x.

Hah. Puttenham. Common, Surrey. In great profusion
with other desmids amongst Utricularia minor.

This minute species has very constant characters which render it
easy of distinction. It is nearest to St. pseudotetracerum (Nordst.)
W. and G. S. West (Fresh w. Alg. of Madagascar, Trans. Linn. Soc.
Oct. 1895, p. 79, pi. viii. fig. 39 ; St. contortum Delp. var. pseudo-
tetracerum (Nordst.) Freshw. Alg. of New Zeal, and Austr., p. 37,
t. iv. f. 9), but it is much smaller, the arms are more robust and
shorter, and the spines at the dilated apices of the processes and the
two rings of short spines at their base distinguish it. Compare with
St. sp. Turn. (Freshw. Alg. of E. India, p. 126, t. xv. f. 22).

33. S. Picum sp. n. PI. IY. fig. 49.

S. parvum, paullo latius quam longius, profunde constric-
tum, sinu aperto et subacuminato ; semicellulae elliptico-

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Transactions of the Society.

fusiformes, angulis subinflexis et subcapitatis cum spina singula
valicla inflexa subcurvata, dorso spinis geminatis brevibus
curvatis circiter 6 ornato ; a vertice visse triangulares, angulis
obtusis et subcapitatis, lateribus leviter concavis cum spinis
geminatis circiter 6 ad latus unumquodque ; membrana
glabra.

Long. s. spin. 20 /x, c. spin. 25 /x ; lat. s. spin. 23-26 /x,
c. spin. 29-34 /x ; lat. isthm. 8 /x.

Hah. Glen Caragh, Co. Kerry, Ireland.

34. S. margaritaceum Menegh. (Synops. Desm., p. 227 : Kalis,
Brit. Desm., p. 134, t. xxi. f. 9). PI. IV. fig. 36.

Zygosporse globosae, spinis obsessae, apicibus spinarum
dichotome furcatis.

Diam. zygosp. sine spin. 31 /x, c. spin. 52 /x.

Hob. Devil’s Jumps, Frensham Common, Surrey.

ClaSS CcENOBIEJE.

Order Pandorine#}.

Tetragonium g. n.

Coenobium e cellularum quattuor strato singulo horizontali piano
formatum ; cellulis ovoideis subparallelis cruciatim ordinatis, con-
tentum chlorophyllosum cellularum laete viride granulosum, polo
angustiore acbroo, et cum ciliis binis perlongis instructs; cellulis
processibus latis brevissimis (cum uno cellulae unaquaeque) connexis.
Propagatio formatione cellularum filialium quattuor in cellula matricali
oritur.

35. T. lacustre sp. n. PI. II. figs. 1-13.

Character idem ac generis.

Long. cell. 11 ‘5-19 /x ; lat. cell. 7 *5-15 *5 /x ; diam.
coenob. 28-47*5 fi.

Hah. In “ Black Lake,” Esher Common, Surrey, in pro-
fusion amongst Sphagnum, Lancashire (Narramore).

It appears to be very distinct from the only other allied genera,
Gonium and Pandorina. Mr. W. Narramore * mentions a plant
which we take to be this.

The cilia of each pair form an angle of 30° to 40° with each other ;
they are very long, and they appear to be actively vibratile only in
their terminal portions ; for this reason the progression of the colony
is comparatively slow. The cells are joined by a short colourless
projection from each cell, which are seen best in the vertical view of a
colony. This connection is very fragile, and the cells easily separate ;
pairs of them may often be seen swimming about. The four cells
are not quite parallel, but are divergent, with their narrower ends
outwardly inclined. The colourless narrower ends of the cells in

* ‘List of the Freshwater Algae of the Liverpool District,’ Trans. Bio. Soc. Liv.,
v. p. 284.

New British Freshwater Algse. By W. and G. S. West. 161

the specimens that have lost their cilia are slightly produced and
emarginate.

When the cells of the colony become large, the cilia disappear
and the contents divide into four. The daughter-cells are at first
round or elliptical and somewhat irregularly disposed, but they quickly
become ovoid and arrange themselves in one plane. The cilia then
appear and the young colony breaks away from the mother-cell and
swims off. The colony often shows indications of breaking up^before
the daughter-cells are mature.

Class PR0T0C0CC0IDE.ZE.

Order Eremobie.e.

Genus Nephrocytium Nag.

36. N. ecdysiscepanum sp. n.

N. cellulis semicircularibus vel subreniformibus cum polis
late rotundatis, ventre subrectis, diametro circiter lj-lg-plo
longioribus; familiis e cellulis 2-8 formatis, irregulariter
ordinatis; diametro circiter lj-plo longioribus, tegumento
firmo hyalino, ad partem exteriorem irregulariter dissociato ;
familiis cum in’tegumentis vetustis associatis ; contentum cellu-
larurn granulosum.

Long. cell. 24-26 • 5 y, lat. 13-17 y ; long. fam. 72-86 • 5 y,
lat. 46-71 y.

Fab. Near Goring, S.E. Oxfordshire.

This differs from other species of the genus in having the families
held together by the well-marked integuments, the outer portions of
which have separated off, the families being often associated in fours
in a somewhat fan-shaped manner. The outer part of the integument
seems to be frequently splitting off, small families of but two cells
often having as many as three old integuments still attached to them.
The cells are similar in form to those of N. obesurn West ; they are
much shorter, more robust, and straighter than those of N. Ndgelii
Grun.

Genus Oocystis Nag.

37. 0. ciliata Lagerh. (Stockholm. Ped. Protoc. o Palmell.,
p. 76, t. iii. f. 33-37).

Yar. radians n. var. PI. III. fig. 15.

Yar. setis paullo brevioribus et in toto ambitu (18)
distributis.

Long. 18 y\ l it. 13' 5 y\ long. set. 13*5-17 y.

Eab. Lindeth, Lake District.

Order Protococcace^: (inclus. Palmellace^:).

Genus Pleurococeus Menegh. ; Wildem.

38. P. nimbatus Wildem. (Note sur le gen. Pleurococeus et
sur une espece nouv., Bull, de l’Herb. Boissier, i. No. 7,
juillet 1893, p. 342, pi. 18 ; Tetracoccus Wildemani Schmidle,

162

Transactions of the Society.

Chloroph. -Flora Torfstich. zu Virnheim, Flora oder Allg.
Bot. Zeitung, 1894, Heft 1, p. 45).

Diam. cell. 9*5-18 p.

Hab. Keston Common, Kent, in water-lily pond.

Fine examples of this species were observed from the above
locality, and the gelatinous matrix was very firm ; the old cell-walls
were also very conspicuous. After seeing examples of this species
(which agree well with Wildeman’s description and figures), we do
not agree with Schmidle in placing it under the genus Tetracoccus.
The latter genus is practically without a gelatinous matrix (when
compared with specimens of Plearococcus nimbatus). It is certainly
nearest to Dimorphococcus, as previously stated, when the genus was
described. It certainly does not belong to Palmellaceae, as does
Pleurococcus nimbatus. In the latter species the groups of four are
arranged tetrahed rally ; but in Tetracoccus the groups of four are in
one plane, as they were illustrated (West, Alg. of Eng. Lake District,
Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., Dec. 1892, p. 735, PL X. figs. 43-8). We
replied to a pressing query from Prof. W. Schmidle in a hurry, and
h re afraid, from what he states (Schmidle, l.c. footnote at bottom of
p. 46), that we have accidentally made (or mixed up) a remark
applying to Kirchneriella obesa (West) Schmidle (= Selenastrum
obesum West) with one about Tetracoccus. The genus as first
described and figured is quite correct , and cannot be amended in
order to include Pleurococcus nimbatus. Fig. 46 ( West l.c.) as
specially quoted by Schmidle does not show any tetrahedral arrange-
ment of the groups , but simply four cells in one plane , vdiich
have been produced by division in two directions in that plane. We
have found Tetracoccus from several localities since the description of
the original specimens from Bowness, and it is always in free-swimming
colonies like Dimorphococcus.

Genus Stichococcus Nag.

39. S. variabilis sp. n. PI. III. fig. 14.

S. strato molli mucosoque, obscure viridi, cellulis diametro
2-4-plo longioribus, ssepe solitariis, ssepius binis, rarissime
cellulis tribus concatenatis, varie curvatis (rare subrectis),
subcylindricis, vel inflatis vel subpyriformibus (interdum
oblongis), polis plerumque truncatis.

Long. cell. 6*5-16 p; lat. cell. 3-6 p.

Hab. On shady rocks subject to spray of waterfall, Horton
Park, Bradford, Yorks.

This is a polymorphous species, the nearest to which is S. mira-
bilis Lagerh. (Wittr. et Nordst., Alg. Exsic., No. 1087), from which
it differs in its much shorter cells, which are never Y* and T-shaped,
as well as in its different habit. The pale-green parietal chlorophyll
plate is usually in a band round the middle of the cell or towards
one end.

New British Freshwater Algse. By W. and G. 8. West. 163

Class MyxoPHYCEiE.

Sub-class Hormogonej:.

Heterocysteae.

Order Kivulariaoe^:.

Genus Calothrix Ag.

40. C. parietina (Nag.) Thur. (Born, et Flah., Bevis. des
Nostoch. Heterocyst., p. 366).

Crass, fil. 7*7-13 /x; crass, tricb. 4-7*5 /i.

Eab. Slieve Donard, Co. Dowd, Ireland.

Order Scytonemace^e.

Genus Scytonema Ag.

41. S. ambiguum Ivutz. (Species Algarum, p. 894 ; Tabulae
phycolog., ii. p. 7, t. 26, f. ii. ; West, Alg. from W. Indies,
JourD. Linn. Soc. Bot., xxx. (1894) p. 270, pi. xv. figs.
11-15).

Crass, fil. 8-10*5 /a; crass, tricb. 2 *4-2 *8 /a.

Hob. Near Westport, Co. Galway, Ireland.

This is new to the British Isles, and was associated with Stiyo-
nema hormoides and Mesoteenium chlamydosporum Arch.

Order Sirosiphoniace^e.

Genus Eapalosiphon Nag.

42. H. eibernicus sp. n.

H. inter alias algas aquaticas repertus, aeruginosus, filis
primariis subflexuosis, vaginis adultis arctissimis (interdum
indistinctis), e cellulis singulis (vel binis hinc inde) formatis,
cellulis rotundo-quadratis vel diametro brevioribus, dense
unilateraliter ramosis ; ramis erectis elongatis flexuosis, filo
primario paullo angustioribus vel aequalibus, vaginis arctis et
distinctis, cellulis diametro 3-4-plo (usque ad 8-pio) longiori-
bus ; heterocystis intercalaribus diametro 14-5-plo longioribus.

Crass, fil. prim. 7 *2-9 *5 /a; crass, ram. 4 *5-5; 5 /a;
eras, heterocyst. 5 /a.

Hab. Glen Caragh, Co. Kerry, Ireland.

This species comes nearest to E. intricatus West (Freshw.
Alg. from W. Indies, Journ. Linn. Soc., xxx. (1894) p. 271, pi. xv.
figs. 16-28), but it has a different habit, and the filaments are not
densely intricate. Moreover, the primary filaments and branches
are rather different, the former having rounded cells as long as broad
(or shorter), and the latter cylindrical cells from three times as long
as broad to — in rare cases — even eight times. The primary filaments
are rather short and the branches very dense, whereas in E. intricatus

164

Transactions of the Society.

the branches are scarce. It differs from H. laminosus Hansg. in its
habit, its branches, and other points.

The branches are themselves often further branched, and towards
their apices very often consist only of empty sheaths, the cells having
escaped.

Genus Stigonema A g.

43. S. hormoides (Kutz.) Bornet et Flah. (Bevis. des Nostoc.
Heterocyst., p. 69; Scytonema hormoides Kutz. ; Sirosiphon
brevis Kutz., Botan. Zeit., 1847, p. 196 ; Tabulae Phycolog.,
ii. p. 10, t. 34, f. ii. ; Sir o siphon hormoides Kutz., Species
Algar. p. 316 ; Tabulae phycolog., ii. p. 10, t. 34, f. iv.

Crass, fil. 6 *5-8 *5 /a.

Hab. Near Westport, Co. Galway, Ireland.

This is the first time we have met with this species in the British
Isles.

Homocysteae.

Order Vaginarie^e.

Genus Schizothrix Ki'itz.

44. S. cuspidata nob. ( Symploca cuspidata West, Alg. of
W. Indies, Journ. Linn. Soc., xxx. (1894) p. 273, pi. xvi.
figs. 1-7).

This is certainly a Schizothrix, and evidently belongs to Gomont’s
subgenus Symplocastrum.

45. S. funalis sp. n.

In strato molli tenui brunneo mixta cum Calothrice
parietina , sine calce. Fila flexuosa inferne breviter trunciformia
pseudoramosa ; pseudo-rami contorti et valde funiformes,
apicem versus latiores. Vaginae firmae, amplae, lamellosae, in
partibus inferioribus brunneo-nigrescentes, in partibus supe-
rioribus lutescentes. Trichomata aeruginea parallela, 1-2
(plerumque 2) in pseudo-ramis ; articuli diametro circiter duplo
longiores.

Crass, fil. 8-12 ; crass, trich. 0*5-0 *7 /x.

Hab. Slieve Donard, Co. Down, Ireland.

This probably comes nearest to S. lacustris A. Braun and
S. Creswellii Harvey, but is characterised by its smaller size, its
closely twisted threads, &c.

Genus Microcoleus Desmaz.

46. M. delicatulus sp. n.

Fila variis algis consociatis, simplicia; vaginae mucosae,
achroae, apice evanescentes. Trichomata subparallela sub-
tortiave intra vaginam permulta ; articulis diametro paullo

New British Freshtvater Algse. By W. and G. S. West. 165

longioribus ; dissepimenta distincta non granulata, cellula api-
calis obtnsa.

Crass, trich. 1 • 5-2*0 \i ; diam. yag. circ. 45
Hah. Glen Tummel, Perthshire, Scotland.

This species was observed in but small quantity ; it comes nearest
to the marine species M. tenerrimus, but differs from it in many
points.

Order Lyngbye^:.

Genus Oscillator ia Yauch.

47. O. splendida Grev. 1824; Gomont, Monograph, des Oscillar.,
p. 244 ; Oscillar ia leptotricha Kutz., Phyeol. german., p. 158 ;
Tabulae phycolog., i. p. 27, tab. 39, fig. ii.

Yar. attenuata var. n. PL 1Y. fig. 58.

Yar. apicibus longissime attenuatis (usque 30 fi) et
tenuissimis.

Cras3. trich. 2-2*3

Hah. Baildon Moor, W. Yorks. Abundant in peaty
ditches and pools, July 1895.

The apices of this variety are much more elongated and attenuate
than those of the typical form, though, like those, they are sub-
capitate.

1896

y

166

Transactions of the Society.

IV. — On the Male of Stephanoceros Eichhorni.

By F. B. Dixon-Nuttall, F.B.M.S.

(Bead 19 th February, 1896.)

Plate Y.

Although the female of this charming Botifer has been known since
1761, when on the 20th July of that year it unfolded its corona
before the astonished eyes of Pastor Johann Conrad Eichhorn, of
Danzig, and although it has been seen and closely watched by
thousands of observers since, the male has only been discovered in
recent years by Mr. John Hood, of Dundee, and made known by
Mr. George Western in the Journal of the Quekett Microscopical
Club for July 1893, vol. v. pp. 157-8.

Early in January 1895, Mr. Hood sent me a quantity of Stepha-
noceros Eichhorni , with many male eggs, which are more numerous
and smaller than the ordinary female eggs, in the tubes, and I was
successful in hatching a number of them in a small trough, thus
enabling me to make the accompanying sketches of them.

Like most male Botifers, they are restless, and swim about in an
apparently aimless manner.

The dorsal antenna is situated on a small hump, and at each side
of it lie the lateral antennae. In some animals these are furnished
with a bunch of long fine setae, though in several examples that I
looked at most carefully I was unable to find them; it is possible
they may get broken off.

The many-celled sperm-sac (in which may be seen the spermatozoa
actively lashing their flagella) takes the place of the stomach and
intestine. The vascular system, with its contractile vesicle, is normal.

The corona is circular, and furnished with a wreath of fine vibratile
cilia ; the front of the head is conical, and two red eyes, rather wide
apart, are conspicuous.

Owing to their flexible nature, it is difficult to fix the exact size.
I put it down at 1/90 in. to 1/80 in., though they can elongate to
1/60 in., or even longer.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE Y.

Fig. 1. — Lateral view.
„ 2. — Dorsal view.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(PRINCIPALLY INVERTEBIIATA AND ORYPTOGAMIA),

MICBOSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others .*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology, f

Origin of Vertebrates.^ — Dr. W. H. Gaskell returns to this lasting
problem. The principles upon which he has investigated the matter
are based upon the continuity of the evolutionary process. That is to
say, wherever a variation of organs in the Vertebrate phylum has taken
place in a well defined direction, then, by tracing the same curve a step
further, we may arrive at the condition in the immediate ancestor of
Vertebrates. This principle holds good whether the curve of variation .
is an ascending or descending one, related, for instance, to tlie cerebellum
or to the pineal eye.

Dr. Gaskell considers the history of the Vertebrate central nervous
system, of the skeletal system, of the muscular system, of the respiratory
system and nerves IX. and X., of the thyroid and nerve VII., of the
motor part of the fifth nerve, of the eighth nerve, of the cranial segments
and nerves, of the heart and ventral aortue, of the alimentary canal ; and
his general conclusion, with elaborate evidence which we cannot here
summarise, is that the phylogenetic signpost points directly to Limulus
and its congeners as ancestral to Vertebrates. In particular, his paper
emphasises the resemblances between Ammocoetes and Limulus .

The discussion which followed, in which Messrs. Sedgwick, MacBride,
Harmer, Gadow, Bateson, Shipley and Bles took part, is a valuable
record of expert opinion in regard to the problem at issue. Gaskell’ s
summary of the most important criticisms is that the resemblances
between Ammocoetes , on the one hand, and Limulus and Scorpions on the

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development and Reproduction, and allied
subjects. X Proc. Cambridge Phil. Sqc., ix. (1896) pp. 19-47.

N 2

168

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

other, are alleged to be mere trivialities in comparison "with the true
criteria of a Vertebrate, viz. the presence of a coelom of a more primitive
type than that of an Arthropod, and the existence of a notochord. He
endeavours to answer this criticism.

Preliminary Catalogue of the Processes concerned in Ontogeny.*
Mr. C. B. Davenport has published the fourth of his studies in morpho-
genesis. His object is to analyse the ontogenetic complex of processes
into its simple elementary ones. He points out that he distinguishes
between ontogenetic principles and ontogenetic processes. Under the
former he includes such laws of development as terminal growth, repe-
tition of parts, and bilateral symmetry in development. These he has
not attempted to catalogue ; he is concerned only with ontogenetic pro-
cesses which comprise the different elementary operations or actions
exhibited in ontogeny. They may be divided into two classes, the grosser
ontogenetic processes and the histogenetic processes. At present,
the author deals with the former class only. These may be either
general or special. Of the former, growth, nuclear division, and secre-
tion are examples. The special ontogenetic processes affect the differ-
entiation of the body. They may be classified first of all according to
the form of the protoplasmic bodies in which they occur. These must
exist either as isolated cells, or as larger multi-nucleated bodies. Of the
latter we may recognise three classes: bodies extended chiefly in one
direction, such as fibres, those which extend as a layer, and those in
which the three dimensions are more nearly equal, and which form solid
masses.

The differential processes which the author recognises may be
thus enumerated: — I. Processes occurring in mesenchyme, the term
mesenchyme being used for all amoeboid migrating cells, of whatever
origin: (1) Migration of nodal thickenings; (2) free migration of
amoeboid bodies ; (3) aggregation of mesenchyme ; (4) attachment of
the same ; (5) investment and inter-penetration ; (6) transportation ;
(7) absorption. II. Processes occurring in protoplasmic threads or
tubules : (1) Tropism, a term applied to certain processes which con-
cern the direction which the elongated body takes ; (2) splitting ;
(3) anastomosing; (4) union with other organs. III. Processes occur-
ing in protoplasmic layers : (A) Processes affecting area, (a) Processes
occurring in the wall of a sac. (1) Excessive growth of particular parts.
(J3) Processes occurring in a plane or warped surface. (2) Formation of
perpendicular folds ; (3) formation of folds in the plane of the area.

(B) Processes affecting thickness. (4) Thickening ; (5) thinning. These
two may be either general or local. (C) Processes affecting continuity.
(6) Atrophy ; (7) detachment of a piece from a layer. (D) Processes
affecting two or more layers. (8) Concrescence ; (9) perforation.
IV. Processes occurring in a protoplasmic mass : (A) Affecting espe-
cially change of volume. (B) Affecting especially change of form.

(C) Affecting especially change in number.

The author believes that his hypothetical interpretation of the onto-
genetic processes will admit of being tested experimentally. Just as
the control of the migration of amoeboid bodies in the adult has been

* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xxvii. (1895) pp. 173-99.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

169

undertaken with success, so we may hope to control the trophic and
aggregation phenomena of ontogeny. By experiment alone can the
causes of the developmental processes be determined.

Development of Red and White Blood-Corpuscles.* — Dr. Fr. Saxer
gives a preliminary.note of his researches on this subject. Both red and
white corpuscles owe their ultimate origin to “ primary wandering-cells,”
which appear at an early stage, and are not connected with the connective-
tissue elements. These wandering-cells, by direct division, or by pluri-
polar mitosis, may become converted into multi-nucleated giant-cells.
The nuclei may fuse, producing cells with lobed nuclei (megakaryocytes) ;
or, by division, cells having the primitive characters may be reproduced.
The primary cells, or these secondary ones, divide either by direct or
indirect nuclear division, and form transition cells with simple nuclei.
These transition cells are also migratory, and penetrate to all parts of
the embryonic body. In the early stages of development they give rise
only to red corpuscles, but later also to the white.

Metazoan and Metaphytic Reproductive Processes.! — Prof. Con-
way MacMillan comments severely on Dr. Beard’s theory regarding the
essential resemblance between metazoan and metaphytic reproductive
processes. lie has his own views on the matter. First, we must be
clear as to the difference between palingenetic spores, e. g. in Bacillus
anthracis, and coenogenetic spores, which are always subsequent to a
sexual process. Then we may see that the metaphytic coenogenetic
spore is a homologue of the metazoan blastomere. “ The syngamete of
the metaphyte or of the metazoan may develop in one of two ways —
directly, into an organism like the parent, or indirectly, into a group of
isolated blastomeres, spores, or into a single spore-mother-cell or (in
plants only) into spore-mother-cells plus sterilised spore-mother-cell
homologues.” In plants the group of isolated blastomeres (coenogenetic
spores) is laid hold of by natural selection, and improved and integrated
into a sporophyte. In animals this does not happen. The author works
on to show that “ sporophytisation is as essentially a plant character as
cephalisation is an animal. The one is an expression, in the organism,
of the static life ; the other of the dynamic.”

Development of Pancreas in Man.J — Dr. A. Jankelowitz finds in a
human embryo of the fourth week that the human pancreas arises from
three rudiments, which are at first quite separate, — a dorsal which is
associated with the epithelium of the primitive duodenum, and two
ventral, which arise from the groove-shaped rudiment of the ductus
clioledochus.

Dentition of the Dog.§ — Dr. H. W. Marett Tims notes among the
results of his study of the development of the teeth in the dog the fol-
lowing conclusions : — (1) The evidence of a pre-milk dentition in
modern mammals is insufficient ; (2) a lingual downgrowth of the dental
lamina represents a post-permanent series, and occasionally gives rise to
a functional tooth ; (3) in the dog, the first premolar and the molars
belong to the so-called permanent dentition.

* Anat.'Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 355-8. f Tom. cit., pp. 439-13.

X Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 702-8 (11 figs.).

§ Anat.“Anzeig., xi. (1896) pp. 537-46 (5 figs.).

170

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Development of Musculature in Birds and Mammals.* — Dr. A.
Fiscliel finds tliat the primary or dorsal trunk musculature develops
in all classes from the median myotome lamella ; the origin of the
ventral trunk musculature and that of the extremities is more varied.
In Selachii, Teleostei, Amphibians, and Reptiles it is processes of the
ventral myotome-corners, the so-called muscle-buds. In Birds and
Mammals it arises in the thick peripheral cellular mass of the Wolffian
or appendicular ridge, which is no muscle-bud, but rather a mixture of
cells, partly belonging to the somatopleure and partly arising from the
myotomes.

Development of Reptiles.l — Dr. L. Will, in the third of his con-
tributions to the developmental history of Reptiles, deals with the
formation of the germinal layers in the lizard. As is the case in other
reptiles, the process of gastrulation consists in a close connection of
epiboly and emboly. The former appears first, and leads to the laying
down of the primary germinal layers and the primitive plate. The
latter consists of an endodermic cell-material, which is in continuous
connection with the lamella of endoderm. This last, therefore, forms
at first a completely definite germinal layer, which at the end of the
first stage divides into the primary endoderm or archenteric layer, and
a secondary endoderm or yolk-layer. As in the Gecko, the latter
extends as a simple cellular layer under the whole of the embryo. The
yolk is also to be regarded as a part of the endoderm. Later, seg-
mentation is effected by the yolk-nuclei, which exhibit mitotic division.
To the epiboly, which introduced the process of gastrulation, the emboly
is soon added, and brings about the invagination of the cell-material
of the primitive plate and the formation of a hollow archenteron.
It follows, from the author’s descriptions, that in the lizard the same
structures are derived from the primary endoderm as in the other reptiles
which he has already examined. The form of the primitive plate is from
the first distinguished from that of the Gecko and tortoise, for the
extended lamellar processes of the latter are altogether wanting. Other
differences between the two are also indicated. The primitive plate
becomes divided into two zones, the median area, which is homologous
with the yolk-plug of the Amphibia, and a marginal area, which corre-
sponds to the lips of the blastopore in Amphibians. The terminal phase
of the process of gastrulation consists in the formation and the final
disappearance of the primitive groove. The homologue of the primitive
streak of the Amniota is to be sought for in the Anamniota in the yolk-
plug, plus the lips of the blastopore. The mesoderm of the lizard,
exhibits just the same relations as in the Gecko. The notochord arises-
in the anterior part, from the anterior part of the archenteric region,
from the axial division of the upper wall. The prostomial mesoderm
arises by the metamorphosis of the whole prostomial archenteron, with
the exception of the parts which are set aside for the notochord. The
gastric mesoderm has its primary origin in the solid lateral wings of the
archenteron ; with the exception, perhaps, of the region in front of the
mesodermic plates, no part of the primary endoderm becomes definite
enteric epithelium.

* Morph ol. Jahrb., xxiii. (1895) pp. 544-61 (1 pi.).

t Zool. JB. Abtli. Anat., ix. (1895) pp. 1-91.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 17.1

Ciliation of the Ectoderm of Amphibian Embryos.* — Mr. R.

Assheton notes that although the ciliated ectoderm of the embryo and
larva of Amphibians has been frequently noticed, Osborn and Willey
have recently spoken of ectodermic ciliation as unknown in Craniate
Vertebrates.

The first signs of cilia in the frog embryo occur shortly before the
closure of the neural folds. There is a rapid current along the external
portion of the edges of the neural plate, but no cilia were seen on the
portion of the neural plate which becomes the neural tube. Yet it is
known that the cavities of the brain and spinal cord are ciliated in the
adult.

Mr. Assheton describes the various currents, dorsal, ventral, and
lateral, at different stages. He objects in passing to the term “ suckers,”
since the organs so designated are essentially mucous glands, bordered
by strongly ciliated ridges, by the action of which exuded mucous cement
is swept out.

In both newt and frog the first sign of ciliation is along the edges of
the neural plate. This is followed by a ciliated patch on the antero-
ventral surface where the stomodaeal depression is formed. Shortly
afterwards the whole surface becomes ciliated.

Is the ciliation purely coenogenetic ? If so, what purpose does it
serve ? On the whole, it is doubtless respiratory. The system associated
with the cement-gland wafts out mucous secretion ; that associated with
nasal epithelium and gill-filaments produces a rapid flow of water ; that
producing a flow into the stomodaeal pit has no obvious use.

The author suggests, but with no great confidence, that the occurrence
of definite ciliated tracts may, in their relation to blastopore and mouth,
be compared morphologically with certain ciliated tracts of Torncivia
and of Echinoderm larvae.

Development of the Peripheral Nervous System of Necturus.f —
Miss Julia B. Platt reaches the following conclusions: —

(1) An early differentiation of the ectoderm into three longitudinal
ridges, with intersegmental transverse connections, forms the basis of
the lateral line system.

(2) The supra-orbital line of sense-organs and the ear form by direct
modification of the primitive ridge of the dorso-lateral line. Sense-organs
connected with the dorsal branches of the glosso-pharyngeal and vagus
form from ridges that secondarily grow upwards from the epibranchial
ridge, after the primitive ridges of the corresponding intersegments have
disappeared in giving rise to mesectoderm. The infra-orbital sense-
organs, the otic sense-organs, the lower organs supplied by the glosso-
pharyngeal, and the organs of the epibranchial vagus develop by the
modification of the primitive epibranchial ridge. The primitive inter-
segmental thickening of the ectoderm, where it touches the hyomandi-
bular pocket in the line of the gill-cleft, is directly modified into the
hyomandibular line of sense-organs. The mandibular line develops as
a secondary outgrowth from the hyomandibular line. The primitive
ridge of ectoderm at the third vagus-cleft is the beginning from which

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1896) pp. 465-84 (ljpl.).
f Tom. cit., pp. 485-547 (3 pis).

172

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the ventral trunk-line develops. The anterior part of the primitive
ventral longitudinal ridge is retained in the ventral part of the hyo-
mandibular line of sense-organs (the internal mandibular). The lateral
lines of the trunk grow from the head backwards through indifferent
ectoderm, and do not result from the direct modification of primitive
ridges.

(3) The primitive ridges are the source of both nervous and con-
nective tissue ; the secondary, of nervous tissues only.

(4) The primitive ridges of the trunk, as of the head, add to the
meseetoderm.

(5) Few of the cells that disappear from the secondary ridges of the
trunk, as the sense-organs arise, enter the lateral nerve. The majority
migrate between the two layers of the ectoderm towards the terminal
point of growth in the advancing line.

(6) The third vagus-cleft forms in the intersegmental plane once
occupied by the second vagus-cleft, and the primitive vagus myotome
divides in the plane secondarily occupied by the second vagus-cleft,
while the nerves of the second vagus-arch arise from the root of those
of the first arch. This suggests the interpolation of a vagus-segment
in the original metamerism.

(7) Some fibres from the lateral-line ganglion enter the vagus-root,
but most enter the brain through the glossopharyngeal root, via the
neural crest-cells bridging the space between the vagus and glosso-
pharyngeal ganglia.

(8) Many cells of the neural crest of the trunk help to form con-
nective tissue, not spinal ganglia.

(9) Motor nerves of the trunk appear before spinal ganglia, by
migration of bipolar cells from the cord.

(10) The nerve below the infra-orbital sensory line divides into two,
connected with the Gasserian and facial ganglia respectively.

(11) The ramus hyomandibularis and its direct continuation, the
internal mandibular, appear as the post-trematic branch of the hyoid
arch, while the hyoid nerve resembles the lateral nerves of the posterior
arches.

(12) Cells of ectodermic origin contribute to form blood-corpuscles
in the branchial region.

(13) A common reticulum, such as Sedgwick describes, into which
nuclei migrate, does not exist in Necturus, although delicate protoplasmic
prolongations connecting cell with cell imitate the specialised co-ordi-
nation of the nervous system.

(14) The root of the sensory nerve is no index to the segmental
value of the nerve.

Thyroid Gland and Supraperieardial Bodies in Necturus.* — Miss
J. B. Platt finds that the development of these bodies in Necturus , which
she has studied, differs from that in Triton or Siredon , as described by
Maurer, in the following respects : —

(1) The thyroid outgrowth begins at the hyomandibular, not at the
second branchial pocket ;

(2) The cells separated from the anterior part of the outgrowth

* Anat. Auzei°:., xi. (1S96) pp. 557-67 (9 hgs.).

173

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

are taken into tlie mylohyoid muscle, and do not form an accessory
thyroid ;

(3) The suprapericardial bodies (“ post-branchial ” of Maurer) are
paired, developing on the right as well as on the left side of the embryo ;

(4) These bodies lie in the plane of the second vagus cleft (fourth
branchial beginning with the liyomandibular), and are followed by a
third vagus cleft. Hence they cannot well be regarded as the rudiments
of a posterior branchial cleft.

Mechanism of Egg-laying in Frog.* — Prof. M. Nussbaum corro-
borates Spallanzani as to the possibility of eggs being laid (by Bana
fused) without the aid of the male, and inquires further into the manner
in which the ova pass from the abdominal cavity into the oviduct. On
both sides of the ligamentum triangulare hepatis and on the rima trans-
versa hepatis the cells are all ciliated ; in the region of the M. rectus
abdominis the naked cells occur in islands, i. e. ciliated cells pre-
dominate ; in the region of the M. obliquus abdominis the ciliated cells
are in scattered groups ; in the depths of the recessus pulmonalis there
is no ciliated epithelium ; at the beginning of the oviduct there are also
ciliated cells on the peritoneal wall ; laterally to the beginning of the
oviduct, over the M. obliquus abdominis internus, they are numerous ;
medianly to the oviduct there are none.

The non-ciliated recessus pulmonalis acts as a sort of reservoir ; it
is filled with ova and emptied by the action of the anterior part of the
M. obliquus abdominis internus. This muscle also acts on the begin-
ning of the oviduct, displacing it laterally, — an action resisted by the
ligamentum triangulare hepatis. The contractions of the heart also
help in inducing the movement of the ova. From the rima hepatis,
however, ova may pass into the ostium by ciliary action alone.

Early Development of Amia.f — Dr. Bashford Dean begins with an
account of the spawning habits. In spring the fish leaves the deeper
water, where it has remained sluggish during the winter, and moves to
the shallows. Spawning began on April 25th, and was generally com-
pleted by the 1st of May ; larvae were abundant by the middle of the
month. It is said that the fish divide into spawning parties, each con-
sisting of a female and several males. The nests of weeds and rootlets
are prepared in advance of spawning. The fishes apparently rub closely
together, and the eggs and milt are emitted simultaneously. The eggs
adhere to what they touch, and there may be about a million in a nest.
A single male mounts guard, and his breathing and restless movements
are doubtless important in causing currents. A swarm of larvae attends
the male for some time, and he courageously protects them.

The early development of Amia bridges the gap between Ganoids
and Teleosteans. In many ways it is Lepidosteoid, e. g. in meroblastic
segmentation, relations of blastoderm to yolk, flattened segmentation
cavity, late gastrulation, early neuron, and absence of neurenteric canal.

The Teleostean features, on the other hand, are thus summarised : —
Small area of blastoderm at the beginning of invagination (?) Flattened
segmentation cavity. Early relations of inner germ-layer of dorsal lip

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 479-500 (1 pi.),
f Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1896) pp. 413-44 (3 pis., 13 figs.).

174

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with periblast-like conditions of the yolk-cells ; the enteron is then
practically continuous with the segmentation cavity. General thinness
of the down-growing blastoderm, whose Randwulst corresponds to the
germ-ring ; close apposition of blastoderm to yolk-mass. Early appear-
ance of embryo ; and, in general, early differentiation of the germ-layers
of the blastopore’s dorsal lip, corresponding lack of differentiation of
ventral lip. The mode of closure of the blastopore ; the presence of
Kupffer’s vesicle, and the absence of neurenteric canal. Early growth of
a solid neuron, early prominence of brain-mass, evanescent medullary
groove, secondary acquisition of neural canal. The peristomial origin
of the mesoblast ; its late differentiation ; the absence of gastric meso-
blast. The early mode of establishment of the embryo’s outward form.

Thus the embryological differences between Ganoids and Teleosteans
are shown to be greatly lessened.

Development of Teleostean Fins.* — Dr. R. G. Harrison has investi-
gated the development of the paired and unpaired fins in the salmon.
The pectoral fin arises as a thickening of the somatopleure. Muscle
buds do not, as in other cases, enter into the composition of the rudi-
ment. The protovertebrse of the pectoral region give off outgrowths
from the ventral margin, which correspond not to muscle-buds, but to
the ventral processes which give rise to the ventral musculature. The
anterior outgrowths form the coraco-hyoid muscle, the posterior form
the ventral muscles of the trunk. One of the latter, the fifth, reaches the
base of the fin, and disappears, without, however, forming fin-muscula-
ture. Muscle and skeletal parts arise from a single fin-rudiment. The
following table is given : —

Proto -

vertebra

Segment in

Ventral Process

Somatopleure.

AT orrm

in

Adult.

of Protovertebra.

Embryo.

a

only mesen-

absent

p

chyme

thickening of

1

i. occipital

mesenchyme

> pericardial
l region

?

2

ii. occipital

m. cor.-hyoid

)

hypoglossal >

3

i. trunk

)

1st spinal ■

l pectoral

4

ii. trunk

> pectoral plate

2nd spinal I

r plexus

5

iii. trunk

unites with next

)

3rd spinal J

1

6

iv. trunk

grows below fin
as ventral mus-

4th spinal \

secondary

culature

7

v. trunk

ventral muscu-

no special

5th spinal

plexus

lature

? thickening

8

vi. trunk

6th spinal \

trunk

9

vii. trunk

1

&c. )

' muscles

Thymus Rudiments in the Lamprey.f — Herr J. Schaffer has dis-
covered what he believes to be the thymus rudiments — hitherto unde-

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 500-78 (4 pis.),
f SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1894 (received Dec. 1895) ciii. pp. 149-56 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 175'

tected — in Petromyzon Planeri. In young larvae, bud-like proliferations,
quite similar to those in Elasmobranchs, arise from all the seven branchial
sacs. But while in Elasmobranchs and other fishes such proliferations
arise only on the dorsal commissures of the clefts, and are bilaterally
symmetrical only on the median sagittal plane, there are in Ammoccetes
ventral rudiments, and the two sets are symmetrically disposed to a
median plane. While the maximum number hitherto has been 14 (in
Heptanclms'), there are 28 rudiments in the lamprey.

Maturation and Fecundation of the Egg in Amphioxus.* — Dr. 0.
Van der Stricht has been investigating this subject, but finds, like others,
that the material is not suitable for the study of minute histological
details. The eggs were mostly fixed in Flemming’s or Hermann’s solu-
tions, and stained with safranin. Contrary to the statements of Hatschek
and Sobotta, the author finds that two polar bodies are formed, one before
and one after the laying of the eggs. Polyspermy, resulting in the
formation of several male pronuclei and of subsequent abnormalities, is
of frequent occurrence. Appearances very similar to those produced by
polyspermy are frequently found in ova from the peribranchial chamber
and from the substance of the ovary. In view of the difficulty of
supposing that spermatozoa can have reached such ova, the author is
inclined to believe that a partlienogenetic division of the germinal vesicle
or of the female pronucleus may take place, the vitellus in such cases
remaining undivided.

/3. Histology.

Amoeboid Movements in the Neurodendrites.f — Herr A. von
Kolliker criticises the hypothesis put forward recently by Duval, aud
previously suggested by Rabl-Riickhard, that the ends of the neuroden-
drites are amoeboid, and that this character is of great importance in the
occurrence of psychical phenomena. While admitting that the hypo-
thesis appears to throw light upon some phenomena, Kolliker opposes it
because of the absence of experimental proof, as well as on account of
the character of the axis-cylinder, which is not contractile and not
composed of simple protoplasm. Kolliker considers that at present
there is conclusive evidence that the nerve-cells are the structures
essentially associated with psychical phenomena, although the neuro-
dentrites with all their ramifications also play their part.

Rohon’s Cells in the Spinal Cord of the Trout. J — M. A. van

Gehuchten has been studying in embryos of Trutta fario the large nerve-
cells usually called after their discoverer Rohon, which have been de-
scribed by various authors. By applying the method of Golgi he lias
obtained preparations showing these cells very clearly. He finds that
they are pyriform, unipolar, and furnished with a single prolonged pro-
cess. This process subsequently divides into two, of which the more
slender remains within the medulla, while the other enters the posterior
root of a nerve and becomes the axis-cylinder of a peripheral fibre. A
critical account of the literature of the subject is included, and in an
appendix the cells are compared to those described by Kutschin and
Freud in the spinal cord of Cyclostomes.

* Bull. Acad. Belgique, xxx. (1895) pp. 539-70 (2 pis.),
f SB. Phys.-Med. Gesell. Wurzburg, 1895, pp. 38-42.
j Bull. Acad. Belgique, xxx. (1895) pp. 495-519 (7 figs.).

176

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Nerve-Endings in Striped Muscle.* * * § — MM. G. Weiss and A. Dutil
maintain tliat the neuromuscular or muscle spindles have nothing what-
ever to do with the motor plates. They are nerve-endings of a sensory
nature, comparable to the tendino-muscular nerve-terminations of Golgi.
This is borne out by their development and minute structure.

Platner’s Intercellular Body.f — Mr. A. Bolles Lee finds that in the
spermatogonia and spermatocytes of the snail, the karyokinetic spindle
generally persists during regression in the form of a little body (Platner’s
j3roblematic body) between the two cells. These bodies last for more
than one cell generation, and if the cells go on dividing at a certain
angle, the residual bodies form a chain of bridges between cells. These
chains form the “ Zellkoppell ” or intercellular ligament of Zimmer-
mann. Of course the author allows that other modes of regression
occur, but the above is probably more frequent than is supposed.

Paranuclear Corpuscle and Centrosome.J — Dr. L. Bremer finds in
Dr. A. Dehler’s observations on the red blood-corpuscles of the embryo
chick, direct proof of his supposition that the paranuclear corpuscle and
the centrosome are identical. This being so, he withdraws the term
paranuclear corpuscle, but points out the interest of the established
identity.

Form, Structure, and Division of the Nucleus.§ — Dr. O. van der
Stricht describes in detail the peculiar lobed and mamillated appearance
frequently seen in nuclei of the epidermal cells of larval Salamanders,
and discusses the significance of these appearances and their occurrence
elsewhere. Special attention is paid to the relation between the lobes
of the nucleus and the nuclear threads from which the nucleus is recon-
structed after mitosis. The paper also includes some account of the
polymorphism of the nuclei of the spermatogonia of the Salamander.

Grouping of Pigment-Granules during Segmentation in the Frog.||
M. Cli. van Bambeke has studied this subject in its relation to theories
of the mechanism of cell-division. He finds that during the formation
of the first furrow in the egg of the frog, there is an arrangement of
pigment-granules resulting in the production of a pigmental ring sur-
rounding each of the two nuclei, but in each case separated from the
nucleus by a clear zone. The nuclei appear to possess the power of
attracting the pigment-granules, and the author is inclined to suppose
that the fibrils of the asters are important factors in this attraction. He
compares their action to that of the filaments of the epithelial cells of
the retina upon the retinal pigment, and to that of the pseudopodia of
rhizopods on foreign particles.

Absorptive Paths in an Epithelial Cell.H — Dr. N. Czermak justly
remarks that the mode by which food is absorbed is far from being
clearly understood. In plants it is all diffusion ; in animals the phago-

* Comptes Kendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. G13-5.

f La Cellule, xi. (1895) pp. 29-51 (1 pi.).

I Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. G18-20.

§ Arch. Biol., xiv. (1896) pp. 243-GO (1 pi.). See also Bull. Acad. Belgique,
xxix. pp. 38-58.

|| Bull. Acad. Belgique, xxxi. (1896) pp. 29-46 (4 figs.).

«[[ Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1896) pp. 547-50 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

177

cytes and the cilia help. But various considerations suggest that proto-
plasm “ must have the power of actively sucking into itself both colloid
fluids and solid particles.” In studying the yolk-sac of a trout embryo,
Czermak observed what he could only interpret as an active suction of
blood serum from intercellular lacunae into a splanchnopleure cell.
From each intercellular lacuna there seemed to be a broad stream
flowing into the cell and dividing into branches. He attributes the
process to plasmic contraction and calls it myzocytosis. But one would
like further corroboration.

Structure of Dentine.*' — Mr. R. R. Andrews finds that two kinds of
cells are concerned in the formation of dentine ; one, a fibre-forming
cell, with a long process running into the canals ; the other a matrix-
forming cell, the true odontoblast. This is usually square and abrupt
against the dentine, and the processes, which it appears to have, belong
to the fibre-cells deeper within the pulp tissue. As the dentine layer
forms, the fibre of the fibre-cell lengthens, and against this lengthening
fibre the same hyaline layer is formed as against the forming matrix-
next the formative pulp. All the branching of the canaliculi is due to
the merging of the fibre-cells, which form branches from the main fibres.
The so-called sheath of Neumann is but transitional tissue only partially
calcified, which lines the canals in the dentinal matrix, and is only a
tube or sheath when acids have destroyed the adjoining more fully
calcified substance.

Optical Reaction of Connective Substances to Phenol.f — Herr V.
v. Ebner finds that the positive double refraction of typical connective
tissue, cartilage, decalcified bone and dentine, &c., becomes negative on
treatment with benzophenol (carbolic acid), while the negative double
refraction of the lens-capsule becomes positive. A reversion also occurs
in chitin, spongin, mucus hardened in alcohol, but not in muscle, horn,
starch, cellulose, or cork. Resorcin, trinitrophenol, metakresol, metaxy-
lenol, kreosol, heavy clove oil, oil of bitter almonds, &c., act like benzol-
phenol ; some other substances, such as thymol, a-naphthol, hippuric
acid, diphenylamin, and inorganic substances, do not act. The degree of
the negative double refraction varies with the concentration of the solution
and the temperature. The reaction does not depend on the formation
of any crystalline substance in the tissue, nor directly on histological
structure, nor on diffraction or capillary processes, but primarily on the
chemical behaviour of the tissue to the reagent.

y. General.

Assimilation and Activity.! — M. P. Yuillemin discusses the two-
aspects of metabolism which Claude Bernard defined — assimilation and
disassimilation. He agrees with Le Dantec that the separability of
these is artificial ; the processes of receipt and discharge are combined
in limited time and space. We may regard it as highly probable that
the two phenomena are simultaneous, that one is the counterpart of the
other. But until analysis has done more to disclose the successive-

* Ex. Internat. Dental Journ., Nov. 1895, 5 pp.

t SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, ciii. (1894) [received Dec. 1895] pp. 1G2-88.

X Comptes' Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 411-2.

178

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

transformations of matter and energy during assimilation, the problem
remains metaphysical.

Animal Life without Bacteria.* — Herren Nuttall and Thierfelder
have investigated the interesting question whether the presence of Bac-
teria in the food-canal is necessary to effective digestion. It was, it will
be remembered, one of Pasteur’s suggestions that the Bacteria usually
present in an alimentary tract had probably a symbiotic action in
digestion and absorption. The authors reared a young guinea-pig with
the utmost — almost indescribable — carefulness. It was born and bred,
fed and cleansed, without Bacteria. It lived and died a sterilised
animal. Therefore microbes are not indispensable.

Monochromatic Colours among Animals.f — Under this heading
Dr. Simroth discusses in a somewhat comprehensive manner the pheno-
mena of Colour in organisms. His object is to gather the isolated facts
on colour which have been disclosed by recent investigations, and to
attempt to unify them. The conclusion to which his study of the
subject has led him is expressed in the following somewhat mystical
terms : — Almost all the monochromatic pigments of organisms have
originated from a single substance which is closely united to primitive
protoplasm, and which by its development and modification gives rise
to the simple prismatic colours ; these colours appear in the order of
the spectrum, beginning at the red end and passing gradually towards
the violet. The reason for this course of development is either (1) the
fact that in geological time the atmosphere was at first such that
only the red rays of sunlight could penetrate, and that it became gra-
dually modified so that the others were also able to pass, the gradual
appearance of the colours being the expression of this gradual succession
of stimuli ; or (2) the nature of protoplasm is such as to cause it to
respond differently to the different rays, the result being that there is a
relation between the molecular weight of the pigment produced, and the
length of the rays of light which give the stimulus leading to its pro-
duction. This, in correlation with the (assumed) fact that the pigments
near the red end of the spectrum have the simplest chemical structure,
accounts for the gradual appearance of the colours. Both hypotheses
of course assume that pigment-production is the response of the sensitive
organism to the stimulus of light, and therefore a considerable part of
the paper is devoted to proving the direct effect of light and warmth
on the production of pigment. The discussion especially refers to the
colours of the shells of the Plankton Mollusca.

In support of his main thesis Dr. Simroth brings forward three series
of facts. First, he appeals to the modifications of “ visual purple ” and
of the chromophanes of the eye to illustrate his view that under the
direct stimulus of light one colour may be converted into another,
the change taking place in the order of the spectrum. Next, he dis-
cusses at some length the pigments of plants, especially the lipochrome
series. These illustrate both the evolution of colour and the prevalence
of primitive colouring-matters in relatively simple organisms. Lipo-
chromes are pigments of low molecular weight, and are especially

* Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 123-4 ; Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chemie, xxi. Hel't
2 and 3, pp. 109 et seq. f Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 33-51.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

179

characteristic of plants as opposed to the more complex pigments of
animals. Finally, he notices that colouring-matters which belong to
the right half of the spectrum, or are not primary colours, are charac-
terised by their chemical complexity, and their association with complex
tissues in differentiated organisms. They are notably absent from
simple organisms.

Function of the Retina.* * * § — Herr C. Hess calls attention to Herr G.
F. Weinland’s bookf on this subject. Weinland’s view is that the
visual purple is destroyed by light, and the change induces volume
changes which express themselves as pressure upon the cones of the
retina, varying intensities of light giving rise to corresponding varia-
tions in pressure. The pressure thus produced is conveyed by the
fibrils of the optic nerve to the brain. Colour blindness depends upon
a diminution of delicacy of pressure-transmission. All sense-stimuli
are similarly regarded as leading to differences in pressure which are
transmitted along the nerves.

Tunicata.

Rouble Larva of Diplosoma.t — M. Maurice Caullery discusses the
morphological interpretation of the double larva in the compound
Ascidians of the genus Diplosoma. His conclusion is that the larva
does not correspond to a division of the embryo, but to a combination of
oozoid and blastozoid. The latter arises on the former by the ordinary
processes of budding which set in at the end of the embryonic period.
It is a phenomenon of accelerated development , of heterochronism, which
results in an exchange of viscera between the two individuals.

Digestive Gland ill Simple Ascidians.§ — Herr Hans von Winiwarter
has studied the anatomical relations of the so-called digestive gland in
Corella par allelo gramma and Phallusia scabra by the method of sections.
He finds that the gland consists of a network of tubules composed of a
single layer of cells and a structureless basal membrane. The gland is
continued into excretory canals of similar structure, which open by
several (five or six usually in Corella) pores into the mid-region of the
stomach.

The Genus Sigillina.|| — M. Maurice Caullery describes the structure
of Sigillina australis , and discusses the systematic position of the genus.
It agrees in many respects with Polyclinidae, but the heart is situated
in the abdomen , on the right side, to the interior of the digestive loop ;
and the testis consists of eight to twelve ampullae, also to the interior of
the digestive loop. In these two respects, Sigillina agrees with the
Distomidae. Caullery proposes to unite Polyclinopsis and Sigillina in a
special family, Polyclinopsidae, a name already proposed by Gottschaldt,
and to place the family between Polyclinidae and Distomidae.

* Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 175-6.

t ‘ Neue Untersuchungen fiber die Funktionen der Netzhaut, nebst einem
Versuche einer Theorie iiber die im Nerven wirkende Kraft im Allgemeinen,’
Tubingen (no date) 123 pp.

X Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 776-80 (3 figs.).

§ Arch. Biol., xiv. (1896) pp. 261-73 (1 pi.).

U Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 832-4.

180

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Follicle Cells in Molgula.* — M. Antoine Pizon returns to the old
problem of the follicle cells and cellules de rebut in Tunicates, having
studied the case of Molgula socialis. Ovarian follicle cells accompany
the ovum, and multiply by mitosis to form a primitive follicle. This
becomes differentiated into an external and an internal follicle, and the
latter more or less degenerates. Quite distinct therefrom are the cellules
de rebut , which appear endogenously within the ovum, are expelled, and
form a layer within the internal follicle.

INVERTEBRATA.

Nerve-Cells of Invertebrates.! — Herr M. Pfliicke has studied the
fine structure of the nerve-cells in earthworm, crayfish, snail, cuttlefish,
&c. His general conclusions are the following : — (1) The cell-substance
consists of varicose fibrils, which form a network around the nucleus ;
in Lumbricus the anastomoses occur at the origin of the processes. The
varicosities are peculiar to the plasmic fibrils, being apparently absent
from those of the axis-cylinder.

(2 ) The nuclear framework of the nerve-cell consists of a system of
uniformly thick threads, which radiate out from the nucleolus and branch
in a reticulate fashion within the nucleus. The terminal strands pass
into the nuclear membrane. The threads of the framework bear the
granular chromatin.

(3) The nuclear membrane has knot-like thickenings, like those of
the plasma-fibrils. These knots form the junctions of the terminal
threads from the plasma and from the nuclear framework.

Thus the nuclear membrane is not a cuticular product, but a fusion
of nuclear and plasmic constituents.

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

Air-breathing “ Prosobranchs ” and Gill-bearing “Pulmonates.” }
Hr. Paul Pelseneer criticises the terms Prosobranch and Pulmonate, and
gives several new examples of variation in the respiratory organs in
these Molluscs in accordance with the habitat. In the “ Prosobranchs, ”
adaptation to an aerial life may take place in three ways. First by a
modification of the etenidium, second by the formation of a lung which
is equivalent to the whole paliial cavity, and third by the formation of a
lung equivalent to the left part of the paliial cavity. The first modifica-
tion occurs for example in Littorina , Cremnoconchus, and Neritina; the
second in Cerithidea obtusa and many others; and the third in Ampul-
laria. In all there is not merely modification of the etenidium, but also
of the circulatory system, while the hypobranchial gland and the os-
ph radium tend to disappear, the former being replaced by a vascular
network.

Similarly, the Pulmonata may be adapted to aquatic life in the
following ways: — By the association of a secondary branchia with an
aquatic lung ( Planurbis naulileus ) ; by the association of a secondary

* Comptes Rendus, exxii. (1896) pp. 40-2.

f Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lx. (1895) pp. 500-42 (1 pi.).

X Arch. Biol., xiv. (1895) pp. 351-93 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

181

branchia with an ordinary lung ( Siphonaria , with intra-pul monary
brancliia, Planorbis corneus with extra-pulmonary branchia) ; by a
secondary branchia without any lung ( Ancylus ).

Dr. Pelseneer gives in detail his reasons for believing that the lung
of the Pulmonata is the homologue of the pallial cavity of the Strepto-
neura, but states that the branchiae of Planorbis, & c., are not homologous
with the ctenidia of the Streptoneura or Opisthobranch Tectibranchiata ;
they are merely examples of homoplastic organs.

Larval Kidney of Planorbis and Limneeus.* — Dr. K. von Erlanger
distinguishes in the Y-shaped primitive kidney a short posterior efferent
portion, a dilated median portion or ampulla, and an anterior longer
limb. An oval exit aperture lies a little behind the foot, about half-way
up the embryo. The iarge size of the ampulla is due to a ventral giant
cell, which probably contains granular excreta. At the anterior end of
the third or internal portion, there is a cell with a very large nucleus,
and this forms the “ funnel,” which opens into the primary body-cavity.
A very long undulating flagellum works in this internal portion. The
author inclines to regard the efferent part as an ectodermic invagination.

5. Lamellibrancliiata.

Phagocytosis in Lamellibranchs.f — Dr. 0. de Bruyne has studied
the phenomena of phagocytosis — migration of phagocytes, incorporation
of solid foreign bodies, and excretion — in the gills, palps, mantle, &c., of
Mytilus edulis , Ostrea edulis , TJnio pictorum , and Anodonta cygnea.

Observations on the living animals were corroborated by the study
of sections, and many results of importance have been arrived at.
Among the more important general conclusions are the following : —

The epithelium is invaded by leucocytes coming from the subjacent
tissues. Among them are healthy leucocytes, degenerating leucocytes,
and phagocytes.

They occur either isolated or grouped, and they force a way partly
by separating, partly by eroding the epithelial cells. Neighbouring
cavities are sometimes separated by delicate partitions or epithelial
residues, which gradually disappear under the pressure or dissolving
action of the leucocytes. Thus large intra-epithelial lacunae are formed.

The communication between these cavities and the deeper tissues is
often invisible, but sometimes very distinct.

A sortie of leucocytes, carrying inclusions which result from de-
generated elements, or from actively functioning organs, or from foreign
bodies, is a normal phenomenon in Lamellibranchs, which may in certain
conditions be greatly exaggerated. The sortie is often accompanied by
lesions in the mucous and integumentary epithelial. Its end is to
purify the tissues, and the result is excretion.

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Speculative Method in Entomology.^ — Prof. E. Meldola in his
presidential address to the Entomological Society of London, pleads for

* Arch. Biol., xiv. (1895) pp. 127-38 (1 pi.), t Tom. cit., pp. 161-241 (3 pis.).

% Nature, liii. (1896) pp. 352-6.

o

1896

182

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

a more generous use of hypothesis as a scientific guide in entomology.
Taxonomy is all very well and a useful discipline, descriptive anatomy
supplies a necessary basis of fact, all additions to our physiological and
embryological knowledge are most welcome, but, as Faraday said, “ let
us encourage ourselves by a little more imagination.” In a most judicial
way Prof. Meldola holds the balance between wanton theorising, on the
one hand, and refusing to speculate at all, on the other. He refers to
the fertility *of the Batesian theory of mimicry; and his own suggestion
(1873) that variable colouring may be the result of individual adapta-
bility due to natural selection, is, whether valid or not, another good
case in point. Times are indeed changed since Darwin wrote (1857)
that “ few naturalists care for anything beyond the mere description of
species ” ; but even the author’s occasionally marked apologetic tone
shows, were other evidence wanting, that a plea for more “ scientific use
of the imagination ” is still relevant. “ The c bugbear ’ — speculation —
is a very harmless animal if you look him boldly in the face ; and if you
treat him gently and put him in harness, he will drive the chariot of
science for you at a speed that will leave the empirical method far
behind in the race for the knowledge of nature’s ways.”

Physiology of the Orthoptera.* — M. L. Cuenot has continued in
the Orthoptera the series of careful physiological researches which he
began with the Pulmonate Gastropods and the Decapod Crustaceans.
He has especially investigated the processes of excretion, of intestinal
absorption, and of phagocytosis, as well as various points of interest in
the physiology of digestion and of the blood. The method was chiefly
by means of physiological injections and subsequent examination ; the
types were the larger of the common orthopterous insects of southern
and eastern France. The most important results are the following : —
In the types examined there are three sets of excretory organs — the
malpighian tubes, the pericardial cells, and certain cells of the corpora
adiposa. In the last-named cells urates are stored throughout life, the
pericardial cells apparently secrete waste-products, which are finally
eliminated by the malpighian tubes, but do not store these waste-
products ; the malpighian tubes are constantly eliminating waste.
Absorption of the products of digestion takes place entirely in the mid-
gut, and in its caeca when these are present (cf. Decapod Crustaceans).
The mid-gut exercises a selective action on the food-constituents com-
parable to the action of the Vertebrate liver.

Branching of the Tracheae in the Spinning-Glands of Lepidopterous
Larvae.! — Herr Emil Holmgren discusses the interpretation of the so-
called ‘‘tracheal end- cells,” and gives a preliminary account of his own
observations. While Schultze held that the tracheae terminated in these
much-branched cells, Wielowiejski maintained that the processes of the
so-called cells were tracheal capillaries, the cells themselves being the
constituents of a peritoneal investment of the capillaries; recent in-
vestigators have not determined which is the correct interpretation, nor
have they decided whether or no the tracheae penetrate into the cells of
the spinning-glands. By the use of methylen-blue as a “ vital ” stain,

* Arch. Biol., xiv. (1896) pp. 293-341 (2 pis.).

f Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 340-6 (3 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

183

the author claims to have cleared up these points to some extent. The
“ end-cells,” according to him, are better called transition cells, as they
lead from the tracheal tubes proper to the “ capillary ” network. This
latter is formed by slender nucleated cells, often with an intracellular
lumen, and according to the author, probably constituting a respiratory
epithelium. The author finds that both large and small tracheae may
penetrate the gland-cells.

Ergatogynous Forms in Ants and their Explanation.* — Under
this heading Herr E. Wasmann has a somewhat comprehensive paper,
which besides an account of his observations on the subject, contains
discussions as to the bearing of the facts on theories of evolution, and
on comparative psychology, as well as a polemic against Haeckel’s
monism.

Wasmann distinguishes six types of ergatogynous transition forms,
to all of which he gives special names, and whose characters he discusses
in detail. As compared with hermaphrodites, ergatogynous forms show
in the first place considerable uniformity of occurrence ; they do not,
occur in all species, but one type has frequently a strong tendency to
appear in a species. Secondly, in some species they are extraordinarily
common, which is never the case with hermaphrodites. Finally, they
are contrasted with hermaphrodites in being almost always symmetrical
while the latter are usually markedly asymmetrical. On these grounds
the author concludes that ergatogynous forms do not owe their origin to
the same causes as monstrosities. His theory as to their cause assumes
the presence in the fertilised ovum of a double Anlage — that of the
queen and the worker; these respond differently to developmental
stimuli, e.g. to food, and the different intermediate forms between queens
and workers therefore owe their characters to the instinct of the wrorkers,
which leads them to supply the larvrn with food of certain quantity or
quality.

The author opposes Spencer’s theory as to the direct influence of
food, and professes himself an adherent of a modified Weismannism,
holding that variations occur in definite directions, and are then sub-
jected to the influence of natural selection.

Muscles of Hymenoptera.-]* — M. Ch. Janet describes the muscles of
ants, bees, and* wasps. Each consists of a group of fibres diverging
from a tendon, which is an integumentary invagination. Each fibre
may be regarded as a multi-nucleate cell; the sarcolemma represents
the cell-membrane, and the longitudinal and radiating filaments lie in a
nutritive filling substance. The radiating filaments ( filaments rayon-
nants ) are formed of an exceedingly elastic substance, and serve to
sustain the longitudinal filaments, to transmit the nervous stimulus to
them, and to bring them back into position after contraction. Janet’s
account of the minute structure agrees on the whole with van
Gehuchten’s.

New Species of Chermes.f — Herr M. Cliolodkovsky, wrhile con-
tinuing his studies on the species of Chermes which infest the larch, has

* Biol. Centralbl., xv. (1895) pp. 606-22, 625-46.
t Comptes Reudus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 610-3 (20 figs.).

X Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 37-40.

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SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

found a form whicli differs in some respects from Cli. viridis, for which
he proposes the name of Ch. viridanus. Its interest lies in the fact that
it is exclusively parthenogenetic and confined to the larch, while the
other species migrate from larch to pine. Its discoverer considers it to
be derived from the Ch. viridis, and suggests that it owes its origin to a
prolonged sojourn of the ancestral form upon the larch, and therefore to
the influence of changed diet.

Larva of Sarcophaga aflinis in Man.* — Dr. G. Alessandrini de-
scribes an extraordinary case of parasitism. A boy of thirteen, otherwise
healthy, comjilained of pains on the top of his head. The source of
these was found in several small tumours, out of which larvae emerged.
One of these was hatched and identified as Sarcophaga a finis Meig.,
which is briefly described. A useful account and bibliography of
similar cases is given, but for this species the occurrence in man seems
unique.

Proteid-digesting Saliva in Insect Larvae.f — Dr. Wilibald Nagel
describes the method of feeding in larvae of Dytiscus. In these larvae
the mouth is very much reduced in size, and the ingestion of food is
performed by means of suction through the much modified mandibles,
the process being facilitated by the powerful digestive action of the
saliva. Under natural conditions the larvae eat only living animals, but
in captivity they will also take pieces of meat. The saliva has a marked
poisonous action, killing other insects, and even tadpoles of twice the
size of the attacking larva, very rapidly. The larvae not only suck the
blood of their victims, but absorb the proteid substances. Drops of
salivary juice seem to paralyse the victim and to ferment the proteids.
The secretion is neutral, the digestion tryptic. Similar extra-oral
digestion seems to occur in larvae of ant-lions, &c., and spiders, and,
according to Krause, in Cephalopods.

Accessory Nucleus (Nebenkern) in Spermatogenesis.}: — Dr. B. von
Elian ger points out that it is high time to put an end to the confusion
which has arisen in regard to the use of the word Nebenkern. Biitschli
applied it to the halved cell-bridge or spindle-residue in the spermatides
of the cockroach, and this signification it should retain. But v. La
Valette used the same term in reference to the granular envelope or
hood around the nucleus of the spermatocytes of the first order, and
Platner has applied the term to the centrosome and the dark granules
around it.

Wound-Healing in Carabus.§ — Dr. C. Verhoeff* finds that a wound
on a full-grown Carabus, and presumably on other insects, is speedily
closed, not merely by a clot of blood, but by a new growth of chitin.

B. Myriopoda.’

Lymphatic Glands of Myriopods.|) — Prof. A. Kowalevsky finds that
when a centipede ( Scolopendra cingulata ) is injected with carminate of
ammonia mixed with indigo-carmine and Chinese black, the carmine

* Boll. Soc. Bom. Stud. Zool., iv. (1895) pp. 278-89 (1 pi.).

f Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 51-7 (1 fig.), 103-12.

X Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 65-9. § Tom. cit., pp. 72-4.

|| Arcli. Zool. Exper., iii. (1895) pp. 591-616 (6 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

185

passes into numerous filaments around tlie Malpighian tubules — the acid
filaments of the fatty body ; the indigo is absorbed by the Malpighian
tubules ; and the Chinese black is found in the lymphatic glands. A
variable number of these (2-10) occur in each segment after the second.
They absorb not only Chinese black but all sorts of dust, red blood-
corpuscles, milk-globules, and bacteria. They are distinctively phago-
cytic glands. Numerous experiments bear this out. In Iulidae a similar
system seems to be represented by lymphoid cells, which line a sinus
surrounding the ventral nerve-cord.

Climbing Powers of Millepedes.* — Dr. C. Verhoeff comments on
vom Rath’s conclusion that Iulidfe could move on vertical or even over-
hanging glass plates, or along the under surface of a glass lid. This
seemed to Verhoeff physiologically impossible, since the legs end in
simple claws, which, though well suited for movement on rough or fairly
soft surfaces, are unsuited for movement on glass. Experiments with
Tachypodoiulus albipes C. K., Micropodoiulus ligulifer Latz., lulus nitidus
Verh., Chordeuma silvestre C. K., and Craspedosoma Hawlinsii Leach
corroborated this conclusion. They could not climb up clean glass
surfaces sloping at an angle of 45°, far less vertical or overhanging
surfaces.

5. Araclmida.

Habits of Spiders. f — Herr W. Wagner has given a detailed descrip-
tion of the nests, webs, cocoons, &c. of the Spiders of middle Russia. A
feature of the memoir is the arrangement of the industries of each group
in phyletic series, which bear some remarkable relations to the ordinary
systematic series of morphological basis. The author has pursued a
resolutely objective mode of treatment, and the general conclusion is
that the choice of sites and materials, the architecture of nests and webs,
the cocoon-making, and so on, illustrate instinctive activities with little
evidence of intelligence. Prof. Emery J gives a summary of Wagner’s
observations, and evidently agrees with the main results, protesting
against the too common custom of crediting animals with intelligence
where learning from experience, imitation, &c. are not proved. He
regards Wagner’s observations on fluctuating and divergent instincts as
very important in relation to the theory of instinct; they point to
germinal variations and not to inherited habit as the probable origin
of most.

Biology of Tardigrades.§ — Dr. Rywosch, in reference to a recent
paper by R. v. Erlanger, notes that it is only in early spring that the
males of Macrobiotus macronyx are as common as the females. Apart
from their small size and the contents of their gonads, the males are
known by a peculiar extra hook on the anterior appendages. In 1889,
the author pointed out that the desiccated adult of the above species
does not revive. But other forms which live in moss ( Macrobiotus
Hufelandii , Milnesium tardigradum, &c.) are very resistent, surviving
four days’ desiccation. Indeed, these moss forms are not adapted for
prolonged life in water.

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 1-3.

t Mem. Acad. Imp. St. Petersburg, xlii. (1894) pp. 270 (10 pis.).

I Biol. Ceutralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 118-22. § Tom. cit., pp. 122-3.

186

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Parasites of Aspidiotus hTerii.* * * § — Dr. P. Lindner found that a
myrtle shrub growing in a room was infested with lice. On crushing
a large specimen between a slide and cover-glass, microscopical exami-
nation revealed the presence of numerous yeast-cells having the general
characters of Saccharomyces apiculatus. Attempts at cultivation in
various nutrient media failed ; from this it was inferred that the yeast
was an obligatory parasite. The blastomycete was present even in the
eggs.

In the same lice existed another parasite bearing a general resem-
blance to a fly maggot, though but 2 mm. long. In a few large specimens
rudiments of eyes and wing-like processes were observable. In a large
number of lice were perforations through which the parasites had
escaped. Occasionally black fly-like insects 2-5 mm. long were found
on the myrtle, and as their wings were scarcely at all veined and were
covered with hairs, it seems probable these insects belong to the
Ichneumon flies.

Brick-Red Gland in Linmlus.f — Mr. R. W. Tower has a note on the
external opening of the brick-red gland in Limulus polyphemus, as to
which different accounts have been given by different writers. The
present author says, that if the basal portion of the gland be followed
posteriorly beyond the junction with the lobe from the fifth appendage,
it is found to attach itself to the posterior interarticular membrane of
the fifth coxal joint, where it opens to the exterior at the apex of a
definite well-formed papilla. This papilla is somewhat hidden by the
folds in the interarticular membrane and is more easily distinguished
in large adults than in younger specimens. In very young forms a
strong lens is necessary to detect it. Chemical analyses now being
carried on indicate that the glands are of an active excretory nature,
without doubt of renal character.

e. Crustacea.

Crustaceans of Malacca, Borneo, Celebes, and the Java Sea.j; —
Dr. J. G. de Man continues his descriptions of Decapoda and Stomato-
poda from these regions, dealing in the present instalment with thirty-
eight species, of which a dozen are new.

Gills of Cirripedia.§ — M. A. Gruvel notes the variety of structure
in the mantle-fold which serves as a gill in Cirripedia ; if present it is a
simple plate in the stalked forms ; it is more complex in the sessile
forms. In Tetraclita porosa , the species described, there is an even
greater reduction of the pallial surface and an even more perfect closure
of the shell than in Balanus ; and it is therefore interesting to find that
the gill has become adaptively modified. Instead of a single plate, there
are 8-10, and each is folded irregularly upon itself. The upper end of
each lamella is supported by a raphe, the lower extremity is fixed to the
internal wall of the mantle.

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2ta Abt., i. (1895) pp. 782-7 (9 figs.).

t Zool. Anzeig., xviii. (1895) pp. 471 and 2.

J Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Syet.), ix. (1895) pp. 75-218.

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 43-4,

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

187

Paternal and Maternal Nuclear Substance in Development of
Cyclops.* * * § — Dr. Y. Hacker describes his observations as to the inde-
pendence of the paternal and maternal nuclear substance in the
development of Cyclops, a subject which has been at the same time
investigated by K ticker t. The most important result is that in the
first and third cleavages the two chromatin groups are distinguishable.
The paternal and maternal components remain not merely separate in
space, but they retain a certain degree of physiological independence.
It seems as if the two nuclear groups entered into different and perhaps
antagonistic relations with the cytoplasm.

Phyllopods of Japan.f — Dr. C. Ishikawa describes Moina Weismanni
sp. n. The head has a slight indentation above the eye ; the anal claws
have a longitudinal row of very fine setae, a row of larger ones on the
proximal third ; the setae of the first pair of legs are unequal in the
female, and equal in the male ; on the anterior and on the ventral edge
of the shell there is a sparse row of setae ; the ephippium has reticulate
markings and contains a single oval egg ; the sperm-cell is spherical,
with an excentric nucleus. The male is smaller than the female, and
appears at the second partlienogenetic generation.

Annulata.

A new Earthworm— Kynotus cingulatus.J — Dr. W. B. Benham
describes this new species from Tmerina in Madagascar. One of the
most striking characters of the genus is the great number and small
size of the segments composing the body ; a second feature is the
amount of secondary annulation, which is very deceptive. ITke specimen
described had 356 rings, mostly true segments, and a length of 225 mm.
Its external features and internal structure are described.

Inter alia, the author notes that we can distinguish at least four
kinds of apparatus for holding two copulating worms together : —

(1) The penis-like terminal duct of the spermiducal gland of Peri -
chseta , Acanthodrilus, and other worms, which appears to be capable of
pleurecbolic eversion and is presumably received by the copulatory sac,
a portion of the spermatheca ;

(2) “ Suckers ” such as Benham has described in Microchseta papillata ,
perhaps including the terminal “ atrium ” of the sperm-duct of Criodrilus ,
and perhaps of Geoscolex ;

(3) Muscular “ claspers ” in Kynotus and Siphonogaster , and perhaps
in Eudrilidae ;

(4) Tubercula pubertatis of the Lumbricidae, Sparganopliilus , Bhino-
drilus , &c., which secrete a fluid.

Living Earthworm in Ice.§ — Herr H. Reeker found (in the month
of July) a living earthworm ( Lumbricus rubellus Hoffm.) inside a piece
of natural ice. He supposes that it probably came from the earth used
to cover the blocks, that it got among the ice during a thaw in February
or March, and that it was enclosed by subsequent freezing of adjacent

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 579-618 (3 pis.),

f Zool. Mag. Tokyo, viii. (1896) pp. 1-6 (1 pi., not there),

t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1896) pp. 445-63 (2 pls.)>

§ Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 3-5.

188

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

pieces. It was lively and vigorous. Similar cases have been recorded
by Leidy and Warren Knaus.

Maturation and Fertilisation in Opliryotrocha puerilis.* — Dr. E.
Korschelt comes to the following conclusions : — The division of the
spermatogonia and oogonia is mitotic. Amitotic nuclear divisions occur
in the intestinal epithelium, though karyokinetic figures are also ob-
served. The number of chromosomes in dividing cells is four, but some
of the later cleavage cells may show eight chromosomes in each daughter-
plate. As the blastomere nuclei prepare to divide, the nuclear frame-
work disappears, but it reappears after the dissolution of the nucleolus.
The nuclei of the nutritive ceils and of the oogonia or oocytes are at
first alike, but the former acquire a dense nuclear framework, a dark
colour, and irregular shape, while in the latter the sparse nuclear frame-
work forms nuclear threads.

The four chromosomes in the germinal vesicle are at first long
loops ; they soon shorten and split longitudinally, appearing as four
split rods. A granular, slightly stainable, viscid substance perhaps
helps in forming the spindle fibres, which appear within the nucleus,
while the membrane is still quite intact. The centrosome, with its rays,
is first seen near but outside the nucleus ; it soon divides, with a sort of
transient central spindle. The chromosomes become disposed in the
middle of the nucleus, the spindle fibres become more distinct, the
membrane disappears, and a plump, barrel-shaped, first-directive spindle
is formed.

The four rods lie in pairs, one behind the other, and the longitudinal
cleavage disappears. The spindle becomes very long and narrow, the
four closely juxtaposed rods occupy little room, the mantle fibres run
from pole to pole, there is no central spindle.

In forming the first polar body the spindle moves to the margin, the
four chromosomes separate in pairs, the longitudinal cleavage is again
distinct, and four chromatin grains are given off. From the internal
daughter-plate is formed at once the equatorial plate of the second
directive spindle ; the chromatin bodies again diverge in pairs, and two
pass out into the second polar body.

Both polar bodies are distinct cells ; the first may again divide by
karyokinesis. Instead of granular chromosomes, chromatin loops may
occur. The splitting of the chromosomes of the first directive spindle
may be suppressed, and the first polar body may thus have two entire
chromosomes. In other cases the splitting occurs earlier than usual, so
that the first directive spindle, still uncontracted, may show, in the
middle of the ovum, eight chromatin granules. The formation of the
first polar body is clearly a reducing division.

Fertilisation is external, soon after egg-laying. Polyspermy results
in abnormalities. Around the spermatozoon which has penetrated the
ovum, a radiate system develops, and a centrosome appears to arise from
the middle portion. Centrosome and ray-svstem divide. The centro-
somes of the first segmentation spindle are both formed from the
spermatozoon.

The two pronuclei are at first irregular, but become rounded. Their

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., Ix. (1895) pp. 543- G88 (7 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

189

nucleoli are large, show a honeycomb structure, and subsequently break
up into granules. The two nuclei become closely apposed, and the
sperm-centrosomes take up their position in relation to the segmentation
spindle. The framework of both nuclei is modified into threads, the
membranes disappear, and the spindle-fibres are formed.

In pathological cases maturation and fertilisation may occur within
the mother animal ; then the cleavage is abnormal, and several ova may
coalesce in a complex.

Nemathelminthes.

Strongylus retortseformis in Hares. * * * § — Prof. E. Yung describes an
epidemic of pneumonia among Bohemian hares in a preserve (Haute-
Savoie). The animals were very thin, but normal, except as regards
the lungs. Trachea and bronchi were choked by legions of Strongylus
retortseformis Zeder. Yon Linstow notes Sir. commutatus in the hare’s
lungs, while Str. retortseformis has been previously recorded as ex-
clusively intestinal, Yung found about 30,000 in a single lung.

Filaria loa in the Human Eye.f — Plerren H. Ludwig and Th. Sae-
misch describe a case of Filaria loa Guyot, which in August 1895 showed
itself beneath the conjunctiva of an African traveller, whose last sojourn
in Africa was in 1891. Ludwig gives a description of the worm, and
notes two other cases recently reported by Robertson % and by Hirscli-
berg.§

Filaria labiata.il — Dr. M. Condorelli Francaviglia gives a full de-
scription of the anatomy and minute structure of Filaria labiata Creplin,
parasitic in Ciconia nigra , and probably also in C. alba . It is a very
large form, the female measuring 60 cm. in length, the male 8’5-
8*9 cm. The colour of the body is whitish yellow, but the undulating-
intestine is seen as a cinnabar-red tube through the skin. We cannot,
however, enter into the details of the paper.

Plathelminth.es.

New Nemerteans.^F — Dr. O. Burger describes the following new
species: — Carinoma patagonica, Amphiporus bicolor , A. michaelseni, Eu-
polia maculosa. E. lineolata , E. antillensis, Micrura (Linens?') glandulosa,
Cerebratulus barentsi, C. magelhaensicus ; he has also some notes on
geographical distribution.

The Genus Thysanozoon.** — Dr. R. Ritter von Stummer-Traunfels
discusses the characteristics of this genus, and gives an account of the
species. The genus belongs to the Pseudoceridae ; there are pointed
car-like marginal tentacles ; there are villous dorsal appendages into
which blind diverticula of the gut are sometimes continued ; the male
copulatory apparatus is single or double. In none of the forms examined
were diverticula of the gut continued into the dorsal outgrowths, as in

* Comptes Rer.dus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 413-4.

t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lx. (1895) pp. 726-40 (1 pi.).

X Brit. Med. Journ., Oct. 1S94, pp. 920-1.

§ Berlin Klin. WocheDschr., Nov. 1895, pp. 956-8.

|| Boll. Soo. Rom. Stud. Zool., iv. (1895) pp. 98-108, 248-64 (1 pi.).

Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxi. (1895) pp. 16-37 (2 pis.).

** Op. cit., lx. (1895) pp. 689-725 (3 pis.).

190

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Th. hrocchi Gr. Probably this occurs only in forms with specially long
outgrowths. In Th. distinction sp. n. the “ uterus glands ” are unusually
numerous and large ; their contents are probably masses of sperms ;
their function is apparently to ensure fertilisation and to absorb the
superfluous material, whether ova or spermatozoa. The author describes
six species, three new, with a single male copulatory apparatus, and
other six, three new, in which the apparatus is double. Of ten other
species sufficient details are still wanting. The geographical distribution
of the species is sketched.

Histology of Cestoda.* — Dr. E. Zernecke finds that the parenchyme
of these worms consists of multi-ramified connective-tissue cells, the
protoplasmic processes of which are connected with one another and
with those of neighbouring cells. These cell-processes are surrounded
by a sheath of the intermediate substance which is secreted by them,
and they thus form a network of fine lamellae and fibrils which traverses
the whole body. These lamellae afford the necessary support to the
muscles of the parenchyme. Spaces in the meshwork are filled with a
homologous fluid which does not stain. The Cestoda possess a true
epithelium, the so-called sub-cuticular cells, of which the cuticle is to be
regarded as a product. Their muscles all consist of muscle-cells, which
are referable to the same general type as those of nematodes. They
partly lie directly on the fibres, and partly are merely connected with
them by plasmic processes. The innervation of the muscles is effected
partly by means of the myoblasts, and partly by direct contact with the
contractile substance. The -excretory vascular system of Ligula is made
up of an outer and an inner plexus of vessels, which pass into one
another at the anterior end, and are connected along their course by
numerous capillaries. Other capillaries are connected with ciliated
funnels at the sides of the body and at the terminal point. The outer
plexus of vessels opens by a number of lateral vessels. The nervous
system consists of a central and a peripheral part. The central organs
are the longitudinal trunks and the cerebral commissures. In Ligula
they are surrounded by a proper envelope, possess numerous ganglionic
cells and lateral nerves which arise by roots. The longitudinal trunks
of Cestodes are homologous to the lateral nerves of Nemertines and to
the ventral medulla of Annelids. The peripheral nervous system con-
sists of sensory and motor fibres and a sub-epithelial plexus. The
sensory part consists of specific sensory cells under the epithelium, the
central processes of which end freely in the longitudinal trunks of the
wall. The peripheral processes are connected with terminal vesicles in
the cuticle as well as by terminal branchlets ending freely in the epi-
thelium, the ganglionic cells of which are placed partly in the sub-
epithelial plexus and partly in a deeper layer. The motor part of the
nervous system consists of nerves which arise partly from the longi-
tudinal trunks, and partly from the plexus. The plexus is connected
with the longitudinal trunks by a number of nerve-fibres, in the course
of which bipolar ganglionic cells are intercalated. In the cuticle of
Ligula there are branched cells, the terminal processes of which form
a basketwork around depressions that appear to be of service in the
absorption of food.

* Zool. Jalirb. (Abtli. Anat.), ix. (1895) pp. 92-161 (8 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

191

Tsenise of Amphibia.* — Dr. 0. Fuhrman draws attention to the
paucity of our knowledge with regard to the tapeworms of Amphibia.
He gives an account of T. dispar, which has already been made the sub-
ject of some description by earlier writers. He also describes a new
type which he calls Ichthyotsenia Lonnbergii. The single example which
he has had in his hands was taken from the intestine of Nedurus
maculatus. Although these two species are anatomically very different
they have some characters in common. In both cases the scolex is
armed in the same way and exhibits the same disposition of the two
chief longitudinal trunks, and the same plexiform branched transverse
anastomosis at the hinder end. So far as the reproductive apparatus
is concerned they only agree in the irregularities in the orifices of the
genital ducts and in the position of the female in front of the male
organs. T. dispar has a number of peculiarities which account for its
isolated position among the Tsenise, while the points already enumerated,
as common to Ichthyotsenia, are all characters of the Tsenise of Fishes.
We may add that like them T. dispar has no seminal vesicle. The
external form, the characters of the muscle fibres, the small number
of testes, the arrangement and form of the female gonads, and the
structure of the uterus and oocysts are partly peculiar and partly rare
phenomena in other representatives of the family. The anatomical
structure of the reproductive apparatus of Ichthyotsenia Lonnbergii agrees
completely with that of Callibothrium coronatum from the Dog-fish. The
separation of the Fish Tsenise from other Tsenise and the formation of the
new genus Ichthyotsenia by Lonnberg is completely justified.

Ctenotsenia denticulata. | — Mr. C. W. Stiles and Mr. A. Hassall
have compared segments of Rudolphi’s Tsenia denticulata with leporine
parasites and find that T. denticulata contains two species of worms, one
identical with T. Goezei Baird, 1853, and with Diplydium latissimum
Riehm, 1881, the other with Ctenotsenia pectinata. They conclude that
T. denticulata Rudolphi, 1804, is not a parasite of cattle or sheep, but
that it is a leporine cestode of the genus Ctenotsenia, and contains Cteno-
tsenia Goezei and Ctenotsenia pectinata.

The authors point out that the time has now passed when specific
determinations can be safely made from external form, and no statement
relative to any species of cestode should be published unless the speci-
mens have been examined microscopically.

Distomum Westermanni.J — Dr. P. Sonsino directs attention to this
fluke which Prof. Kellicott lately found (in Ohio) in the lungs of a dog.
The species was first recorded by Herbert (1878) from a tiger, and was
afterwards identified with a form which in Japan and the far East occurs
in man, dog, and cat. Prof. Ward of Michigan has also found it in the
cat. Thus its distribution is less restricted than was supposed.

Rotatoria.

Species in Rotatoria.§ — Herr Johann Sniezek has some useful re-
marks on species-mongering in this group. He points out that in spite

* Zool. Jahrb. (Abtli. Anat.), ix. (1895) pp. 207-26 (1 pi.),
f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lt0 Abt., xix. (1896) pp, 70-3.
t Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., ix. (1895) pp. 291-2.

§ Biol. Centralbl., xv. (1895) pp. 602-5.

192

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of tlie fact that Wierzejski in his monograph * * * § has shown that there is
almost a complete chain of forms connecting Brachionus Balzeri and
B. quadratics , which are therefore not of specific value, yet other
authors are perpetually bringing forward links in this chain as new
species. Similar groups of forms are found in the genera Anursea and
Nothulca , and show the folly of introducing new names to designate
mere varieties.

Echinoderma.

Lacunar System of Starfishes, j* — M. L. Cuenot finds in Asterias
rubens and Asterina gibbosa that each radial caecum bears two efferent
lacunae in the mesentery which binds it to the dorsal wall, and that
these radial lacunae unite in a pentagonal lacuna around the stomach.

He corroborates, what has been repeatedly observed, that the ovoid
gland, towards its aboral end, gives off two apparently glandular pro-
longations which stretch into the coelom towards the stomach, and
accepts the interpretation which regards these as vessels or lacunas con-
nected with the digestive tube.

The nutritive fluid enters the ovoid gland, filters among its cells,
and passes, on the one hand, into the lacunar aboral ring abutting on the
gonads, and, on the other hand, into a lacunar oral ring which gives off
radial and ambulacral branches.

The longitudinal lacunae of the caeca and the pentagon around the
stomach are large canals with delicate walls, and contain an albuminoid
coagulum and blood-cells. The coelomic prolongations of the ovoid
gland have the same structure as the gland itself. It is probable that
the radial caeca are covered with fine lacunae which pass into the longi-
tudinal vessels, as injections seem to show.

Development of Dadocrinus gracilis v. Such, and Holocrinus
Wagneri Ben.J — Herr A. von Koenen has investigated the development
of these two forms with a view to determining their relationship to
other Crinoids. His conclusion is that Dadocrinus gracilis is related to
forms like Erisocrinus, which are older even than Encrinus, while Holo-
crinus,, on the other hand, is related to more recent forms, such as those
included in the Apiocrinidte.

Coelentera.

Structure, Action, and Development of NematocystsJ — Herr N.
Iwanzoff has studied the nematocysts of many Coelentera. They may
be spherical, oval or cylindrical ; the coiled thread is typically evagi-
nated, but in Anthozoa it may simply burst the capsule. In most
Siphonophora there are four or five kinds in one animal, and all
Coelentera seem to have at least two kinds, if they have any. In
Ctenophora, they were observed only in Euchlora rubra.

The capsule wall consists of two layers, of which the inner is usually
the thicker ; the wall of the thread is continuous only with the outer ;
the opening of the capsule has usually a plasmic lid ; the interior con-

* ‘Rotatoria Galicyi,’ Akad. d. Wissensch, Krakau, 1893.'

t Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 414-6.

i Nachr. K. Gesellsch. Wiss. Gottingen, iii. (1895) pp. 283-93 (5 figs.).

§ Anat. Anzeig.. xi. (1896) pp. 551-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

193

tains a gelatinous, not fluid, substance. This swells when water enters,
and the swelling expels the thread.

The thread often has a broader proximal portion, the axis-body,
which may bear bristles, spines, &c. In the more primitive form of
thread, three spiral rows of minute thickenings extend along the whole
length, but there are many variations in this arrangement.

The action of the nematocysts is both mechanical and chemical.
The thread may entangle or perforate the booty, or poison it.

The cnidoblasts which enclose the nematocysts are often somewhat
complicated ; the peripheral layer forms a sheath, there is often a clear
space around the nematocysts, the distal end may have a fringe of
minute bristles, a cnidocil, &c.

In all cases the development begins with the appearance of a small
vacuole around the nucleus of an interstitial cell. This increases in
size and becomes surrounded by a sheath — the outer sheath of the
capsule. An inner sheath is then differentiated. The thread seems
always to begin as an invagination of the capsule wall, into which a
protoplasmic process from without penetrates. But the matter is by no
means simple.

Structure of Diplograptus.* — Dr. B. Ruedemann maintains that
Diplograptus pristis and D. pristiniformis grew in composite colonies ;
the polyparies were united in a tetraradiate stock by axial processes from
the ends hitherto regarded as distal. The siculae were always at the
outer ends. The bases of the polyparies, of which as many as forty
might be united, were surrounded by the “ funiculus,” which was
enclosed in a capsule, the “ central disc” of Hall.

Round the central disc was a whorl of (4-8) chitinoid vesicles, which
enclose the siculae. The latter have their broad ends outwards, and
each is connected by a thread-like process with an axial club-shaped
body inside the vesicle. It is supposed that the vesicles are gonangia,
and the club-shaped bodies blastostyles.

Over the whorl of gonangia lay a hemispherical vesicle with a
quadrangular basal plate, probably a swimming organ.

The siculae seem to have been liberated when ripe, and were at first
without hydrothecae. Those with two hydrothecae show a four-cornered
chitinoid plate — the future pneumatocyst — at the thread-like process of
the sharp end. At the attachment of the pneumatocyst there is a small
knot, from which funiculus and central disc arise. Before half-size is
attained, gonangia are recognisable around the central disc.

The siculae which arose from these gonangia remained in partial union
with the central organs and grew into new branches. The polyparies
grew backwards, and the ne v hydrothecae were always formed at the
basal end of the polypary.

The whole colony was borne by the chitinous air- vesicle with a
quadj angular basal plate ; below this lay a chitinous capsule, the central
disc, enclosing the funiculus; the central disc was surrounded by a
whorl of gonangia which enclosed siculae ; below this whorl, and pro-
ceeding from the enclosed funiculus, hung the convex-concave tuft of
polyparies. It does not appear, however, that the actual observational
basis for these very precise generalisations is as yet very broad.

* Ber. Gesellsch. Freiburg, ix. (1895) pp. 174-5.

194

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The 4 Corallia Baltica ’ of Linnaeus.* * * § — Herr G. Lindstrom gives a
brief account of the sad fate of Linnasus’s collections of fossils, and
traces the history of the dissertation known as ‘ Corallia Baltica.’ It
is often ascribed to Fougt, a mistake which Lindstrom explains. It is
enough that Linnaeus speaks of the work as his own. Lindstrom has
taken pains to identify, as far as possible, the forms there described and
figured. Twenty- three species are dealt with, of which eighteen can
with certainty be referred to their name, and four with some doubt,
while one is indeterminable.

Porifera.

Sponges of France.f — M. E. Topsent continues his monographic
account of the sponges of France, dealing now with the Carnosa — the
second order of the sub-class Demospongiae.

He divides the order Carnosa into three sub-orders: — (1) The
Microtriaenosa, provided throughout their thickness with tetractinellid
spicules, forming triasnes with short rhabdome, and often remarkably
decorated, and also provided with microscleres of some sort, including
Dercitus Gray, Corticella Sollas, ffliachella Sollas, Tripiolemus Sollas,
Thrombus Sollas, and Sanius Gray.

(2) The Microsclerophora, provided only with tetractinellid spicules
of small size, and in Oscarella with none, also without distinct micro-
scleres ; including Corticidae, Placinidae, and Oscarellidae.

(3) The Oligosilicina, without tetractinellid spicules, sometimes
without any spicules at all ( Chrondrosia , Thymosia ), with microscleres
in Chondrilla ; including the single family Chondrosidae.

The author describes the eleven known French species, and takes a
general survey of the order.

Protozoa.

New Protozoa.j — Herr B. Lauterborn describes some new Protozoa
from the Oberrhein : — Amphitrema rhenanum sp. n., distinguished from
the two known species by its elongated, sparsely encrusted test and the
small number of pseudopodia ; Thciumatonema setiferum g. et sp. n.,
referable to the Mastigopliora, with two sluggish flagella and numerous
mobile branched pseudopodia ; Vacuolaria depressa sp. n., differing from
V. virescens Cienk. in its flattened, almost heart-shaped form, and a
somewhat unusual mode of emptying its vacuoles ; Chrysosphserella
lorujispina g. et sp. n., a spherical monad colony beside Synura and Mallo-
monas , but with a peculiar Heliozoon-like appearance due to radiating
flinty spicules; Eyalobryon ramosum g. et sp. n., related to Dinobryon,
but with tubular cases round the individual cells ; and Peridinium pala-
tinum sp. n.

Hydrostatic Apparatus of Radiolarians.§ — Dr. K. Brandt discusses
the floating, sinking, and rising of Sphserozoa and Collidae. They float
passively and do not swim ; but as the floating is due to the gelatinous
substance and vacuolar fluid, which give the organism the same specific
gravity as the water, a change in jelly and vacuoles may cause sinking

* Ofversigt K. Vetensk.-Akad. Forhandl., iii. (1895) pp. 615-41.

t Arch. Zool. Exper., iii. (1895) pp. 493-590 (3 pis.).

% Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 14-8.

§ Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Syst.), ix. (1895) pp. 27-74.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

195

and rising again. The simple experiment of adding some fresh water
to a vessel containing floating Sphasrozoa is effective, for they sink at
once ; that this is not the result of a fatal shock may be proved by rapidly
transferring some of those which have sunk to normal sea-water again, —
where they float as before.

An average of measurements shows that a floating colony consists of
vacuolar fluid to about two-thirds, of gelatinous substance to about one-
third, while the small remainder is plasma. To keep this plasma up,
the hydrostatic part (vacuolar and gelatinous) need only have a specific
gravity *00002 less than that of sea-water. It is not less at any rate
than 1-026, while that of sea-water is 1*028. In some cases the jelly
has a greater specific gravity than the water, and then the floating
depends on the vacuoles.

Brandt reaches the interesting result that the carbonic acid gas
formed in the organism is dissolved in the vacuolar fluid, and that
according to the laws of osmosis this brings about a lessening of the
salt-content and thus of the specific gravity.

A disappearance of vacuoles causes sinking, their reappearance rising.
The sinking may be due to mechanical stimuli which cause retraction of
pseudopodia, but this seldom lasts long unless sufficiently violent to
be fatal ; or to thermal stimuli which have a longer effect. In no case
was spontaneous sinking observed, unless the sinking associated with
spore-formation be ranked as such.

Nuclear Division in Collozoum.* — Prof. P. Mitrophanow has studied
the division of the nuclei in the vegetative phase of Collozoum inerme.
In spite of all the apparent simplicity of the process of division, it is
really indirect, though simplified. Future observations will show
whether the case illustrates a primitive form of karyokinesis, or an
adaptation to special physiological conditions.

New Pliocene Foraminifera.| — Sig. G. A. De Amicis describes some
new forms from Pliocene deposits in Sicily : — Nodosaria Di Stephani,
N. Ciofali , Lingulinojjsis Jiimerensis and Uvigerina canariensis d’Orb.
forma distoma n.

Evolution of the Corpuscles in Silkworm’s Eggs4 — It is well
known, says M. E. Duclaux, that pebrine parasites in silkworm’s eggs
remain in a quiescent condition from the time the eggs are laid by the
moth until the period of hatching arrives. Active development is first
evident when the tissues of the embryo are beginning to form owing to
incubation in the following spring. Why should there be this coinci-
dence between the evolution of the embryo and that of the corpmscle ?
Does the latter also require a winter’s slumber, or is the egg an un-
suitable medium and only utilisable when the embryo has been formed,
owing to the changes which have occurred in the substance of which it
is composed ? To learn something about the conditions it is necessary
to induce premature hatching of the eggs, and for this purpose several
means can be employed, the action of cold, acids, friction, and electricity.
Choosing the last the author found that if in the silkworm’s egg the

* Arch. Zool. Exper., iii. (1895) pp. 623-7 (1 pi.),
t Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., xiv. (1895) pp. 18-31 (1 pi.),
t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, ix. (1895) pp. 885-91.

196

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

formation of the embryo and the multiplication of the corpuscles are
cotemporaneous it is because they are associated with one another.
The corpuscle remains inert in the liquids of the egg, and only begins
to make use of them when they have become lit for the evolution of the
embryo. This is very much the same as the latent microbism of
M. Verneuil, but the position is more strictly defined.

Endoglobular Parasites of Blood of Dog.* — Sig. G. P. Piana and
Sig. B. Galli-Valerio had an opportunity of examining the blood of a
dog which sickened with fever weakness and slight jaundice, after a
day’s hunting in a marshy locality. In 3-4 per cent, of the blood-cor-
puscles the authors found pyriform bodies 3’5— 2*5 /x in size, with a
small oval or round figure in the interior. They stained well with
methylen-blue, but showed in their interior a small white spot. When
treated with quinine the pyriform bodies disappeared, and the dog got
well. The authors consider the pyriform bodies to be Protozoa, and
very similar to those described by Smith and Kilborn in Texas fever.
They name them Pyrosoma bigeminum var. canis.

Flagellata in the Intestinal Canal of Man.f — Dr. B. Schiirmayer
records the case of a child one year old, which was seized with cramps,
vomiting, and diarrhoea. The stools were typhoid-like, and had an acid
odour. Microscopical examination of fresh and stained preparations of
the stools revealed nothing specially characteristic. Cultivations from
the stools in albuminous media contained, in 24 hours, large numbers of
Flagellata. Examined in hanging drops, they were found to be 12-14 /x
long and 4-5 /x broad. At the front end were two thick cilia, longer
than the body-length. The posterior end was somewhat pointed. At
the anterior end was a bright round vesicle, the rest of the body being
filled with a granular plasma. The general form of the adult body was
spindle-shaped, but while some of the spindle forms had the vesicle,
others showed a large dark nucleus. Reproduction was effected by
fission, after conjugation of two individuals, the result being spores
with spheroidal shape and large nucleus.

Sporozoa of Vaccine Lymph.J— Prof. M. Ogata has made micro-
scopical examinations of human lymph, calf lymph, and variola lymph,
and has found in all three appearances so similar that he comes to the
definite conclusion that the three diseases are caused by the same para-
site. Though there are slight differences in the form of the parasites
these are probably due to differences in the growth stages, or of the
host. The parasite itself is declared to be the Gregarinid Clepsidrina.
In human lymph it manifests itself as a nucleated and non-nucleatcd
body, as cysts of various descriptions, and as wormlike bodies. The
parasite is found free in the lymph or in epithelial cells. In calf and
variola lymph the appearances observed were much the same, though
there were slight differences of colour-reaction and of size.

The examinations were made with fresh unstained and stained pre-

* Moderno Zooiatro, May 10, 1895. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
lte Abt., xviii. (1895) p. 345.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xviii. (1895) pp. 324-7 (G figs.).

X Mitth. a. d. Med. Fac. d. Kaiserl.-Japan. Univ. Tokio, iii. (1895) pp. 85-114
(4 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

197

parations. Fresh lymph preparations were examined in hanging drops.
Dry preparations were made by fixing lymph films on cover-glasses with
sublimate or sublimate and alcohol, and stained with anilin dyes (methy-
len-blue, gentian- violet, fuchsin), haematoxylin, and picrocarmin.

Infection Experiments with Sarcosporidia.* — Dr. Th. Kasparek
obtained some fresh Miescher’s tubes from the oesophagus of recently
killed sheep, and after having cleaned them with sublimate alcohol and
ether, opened them with scissors. The contents thus obtained (about
1/2 ccm.) were injected subcutaneously into the muscles of the back of
guinea-pigs. In about 36 hours the first animal died. Blood prepara-
tions were stained with methylen-blue, and a few spindle-shaped cells
having some resemblance to sickle-shaped germs were observed. The
blood of the second guinea-pig was examined four hours after the injec-
tion. Some drops of blood obtained from the aural veins were stained
with methylen-blue serum (a mixture of equal parts of Loefiler’s alco-
holic methylen-blue solution, and of blood serum, a small quantity of
thymol being added). These blood preparations showed some well
stained Sporozoa, lying free between the blood-corpuscles. Twelve
hours after, no sickle-germs were observable, though there were many
cells having some resemblance thereto, but not clearly distinguishable
from leucocytes. The animal died in 24 hours, but nothing was found.
Further experiments gave the same results, and they are interesting as
showing that Sporozoa, when injected subcutaneously, may reach the
blood circulation, in which they very soon alter their shape. Whether
this alteration of shape is a precursor of death, or a normal change pre-
paratory to another stage, remains to be shown.

Bovine Haematuria.j — Sig. F. Sanfelice and Sig. L. Loi had the
opportunity of observing ten cases of haematuria in cattle in Sardinia,
where this disease is prevalent. The same microbes were always found
in the blood-corpuscles. They are round or pear-shaped. In some
corpuscles only one organism is observed, in others two joined together
like the figure 8. They stained well with anilin dyes, and some better
along the margin. Subcutaneous inoculation of a cow reproduced the
organism after 16 days. The authors think the organism is identical
with that found by Babes in bovine haematuria, and by Smith and Kil-
born in Texas fever.

Lipoma Protozoon.J — Dr. Vedeler describes a Protozoon which in-
habits tumours composed of adipose tissue. They are spheroidal forms,
with doubly contoured investing membrane and opaque contents ; or the
contents are finely granular, and then a nucleus and nucleolus are visible.
In some examples the specimens appeared to show early spore-forma-
tion.

Mode of origin of the different varieties of the Malaria Para-
sites of the Irregular or iEstivo-Autumnal Fever.§ — According to Herr
N. Sacharoff, all the observed varieties of the parasites of the irregular
malarial fever represent a single form of the malaria parasites — the para-

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lta Abt., xviii. (1896) pp. 327-30.

f Moderno Zooiatro, 1895, p. 344 (1 pi.). See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Para-
sitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 295-6.

% Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lt0 Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 274-6 (2 figs.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 268-73.

1896 P

198

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

sites of the haematoblasts — and the biological and morphological modifi-
cations of this variety are dependent on the character of the host-cell,
or in other words, on the stage of development of the baematoblasts at the
moment of infection. Placing them in series, these varieties; or rather
modifications of a variety, become (1) Hsmamsba immaculata ; (2) H. febris
quotidians ; (3) H. f. tertians maligns ; (4) crescents of acute perni-
cious fever ; (5) ordinary crescents. The crescents are nothing else
than the parasites of the younger stage of the hsematoblasts, while the
other parasites of the irregular forms have infected the liaematoblasts at
later stages of development. The author’s theory is supported by facts
derived from observations on birds, and he infers that similar pheno-
mena must occur in man, although he admits that he has never seen a
parasite in a nucleated erythrocyte from a case of pernicious fever. The
explanation of this discrepancy is to be sought in the escape of the
nucleus, when the parasite enters the hsematoblast. When the nucleus
has escaped, protoplasm of the transitional erythrocyte can no longer be
distinguished from that of the fully formed erythrocyte.

Amcebse Cultivated on Solid Media.* — Dr. M. W. Beyerinck gives
the life-history of two amoebae which were successfully cultivated on
solid media. Amsba nitropbila was obtained from garden earth, and
cultivated on media used for nitrifying bacteria. When fully formed it
measures 15-20 p ; the sarcode is hyaline, and there is a well-marked
nucleus. There are two vacuoles, one of which is contractile. There
are often three accessory vacuoles in connection with the last. Multi-
plication by fission was easily observed. Spore-formation somewhat
analogous to that in Myxomycetes took place. The spore-wall is double.
When the young amoeba (10-12 p) escapes from the spore-case the
hyaline protoplasm goes first, then follows the vacuole, and directly
behind the nucleus.

Amsba zymophila was isolated from grapes in company with several
organisms, the most noteworthy being Saccharomyces apiculatus, and an
acetic acid bacterium. Cultivated on malt extract gelatin, the medium
was liquefied. This peptonising effect was ascribed to the presence of
a tryptic ferment excreted from the vacuole. The liquefaction of the
medium apparently had no reference to nutrition, for the amoebae took
solid food. The amoebae measured 10—12 p, and multiplied by fission.
Neither spore nor cyst formation was observed. The structure of the
protoplasm appeared to be reticular or foaming. There were two to four
vacuoles, but none contracted.

Cultivation of Parasitic Protozoa from Malignant Tumours, &c.|
Messrs. S. G. Shattock and C. A. Ballance made numerous attempts to
cultivate parasitic protozoa from malignant tumours, vaccinia, Molluscum
contagiosum, and from normal tissues, but failed to obtain positive results.
No traces of protozoic life, whether as spores or amoebaB, were encoun-
tered, although the examinations were made at regular intervals, and
repeated for periods of many months. The chief interest of the authors’
researches lies in their method of procedure, and the care taken to avoid
all sources of contamination.

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 257-87 (1 pi.).

t Proc. Roy. Soc., lviii. (1895) pp. 469-72.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

199

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Energids and Cells. * — Pursuing his investigations on the subject of
energids, Prof. J. Sachs insists on the essential distinction between the
idea of an energid and that of a cell. The former term denotes solely
the living body endowed with energy, in contrast to the bodies which
are found outside it (cell-walls) or inside it (starch-grains, aleurone-
grains, crystals, &c.). These structures do not belong to the energid,
and havTe no, or only a potential energy. If they serve for the nutrition
of the energid, and the building up of its substance for the purpose of
multiplication, this takes place only through the energy of the energid
itself. These substances may therefore be regarded as passive products
of the energid.

In the more highly differentiated energids there are to be distin-
guished ; — the nucleus, with its ground-substance and nuclein, together
with the centrosomes and nucleoles; and the protoplasm, with its
cliromatophores. To the nuclein or chromatin appears to belong the
special energy belonging to new formations; while the energy of
chlorophyll is more directly connected with nutrition. So numerous
are the phenomena connected with protoplasm, that it is difficult to
assign to it its characteristic function. The cell may be defined as a
cellulose-chamber inhabited by an energid.

The author regards the term “ organised ” as misapplied to such a
substance as starch, which has no vitality without the co-operation of
an energid. The parts of an energid are not ephemeral, like starch-
grains, but constitute the embryonal substance, the carrier of heredity ;
they render possible the continuity of generations ; it is in them that
the ontogenesis of individuals and the phylogenetic connection of species
and types are fulfilled ; and this is accomplished by the energids through
the fact that they are multiplied exclusively by intussusception, not by
apposition, like cell-walls, starch-grains, and crystals. The production
of a new mass of protoplasm presupposes the previous existence of other
masses of protoplasm. It is only on this supposition that the idea of
heredity is possible. Isolated masses of protoplasm, if they contain a
nucleus, will envelope themselves with cellulose and continue to grow.
Hence each nucleus, with the portion of protoplasm which surrounds it,
is an energid. In the Coeloblastae we do not find the sharp separation
of adjoining energids which occurs in the Metaphytes.

The author concludes with some further remarks on the connection
between his energid theory and heredity.

Nuclei and Nucleoles in Merismatic and Sporogenous Tissues.j —
Ilerr F. Rosen has studied the behaviour of the nucleus and nucleoles

* Flora, lxxxi. (1895) Erg'anz -Bd., pp. 405-34. Of. this Journal, 1892, p. 381.
t Beitr. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen (Cohn), vii. (1895) pp. 225-312 (3 pis. and 8 figs.).

p 2

200

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in various growing tissues. In the root-tip of Hyacinthus orientalis he
observed a periodicity in the divisions, principally in the periblem. At
a later stage, especially in the cells of the root-cap, he states that the
amount of nuclein diminishes with the increasing age of the cell ; the
framework is composed of thick threads and wide meshes, the nuclear
membrane becomes distinct, the nuclei acquire the power of assuming
various forms, and the nucleoles become scattered and decrease in mass,
the entire mass of the nucleus also diminishing. Similar appearances
were seen also in the formation of raphid-cells and of vessels, except that
the nucleoles in these cases increase in size.

At the commencement of the nuclear division in the root of the
hyacinth, the nucleus is surrounded by a hyaline layer of kinoplasm ;
this soon becomes concentrated in the form of two opposite caps, from
which the achromatic nuclear spindle is formed before the absorption of
the membrane. The author could discover no centrosomes ; the number
of chromosomes he made out to be twenty-four. Analogous results were
obtained in other similar tissues and in ferns.

In the spore-mother-cells of Psilotum the author detected, before the
commencement of the first division, a delicately filamentous structure
of the chromatin, which he calls the dolichonema- stage. The nucleus
appears to become suddenly filled by an enormous number of extremely
delicate serpentine threads, which subsequently become granular, lose
their individuality, and are transformed into spirema-filaments.

As a fixing material for the meristem of roots, Rosen employs a
mixture of 10 gr. sublimate, 300 gr. distilled water, and 3 gr. glacial
acetic acid ; for ferns a mixture of 6 parts alcohol, 1 part glacial acetic
acid, and 2 parts chloroform. As staining reagents, he uses iodine-
green-fuchsin and Heidenhain’s hsematoxylin-iron-alum in combination
with Bordeaux R., or Rubin S.

Mitosis and Fragmentation.* — Dr. Hegler insists on the point that
mitosis and fragmentation are not identical. Only in cells which result
from mitosis is the entire mass inherited ; cells formed by fragmentation
cannot produce new individuals, although they frequently display an
increased growth in length. New individuals may arise from the cells
of the nodes of Tradescantia, the nuclei of which divide by mitosis;
not from those of the internodes, in which the nuclei divide by frag-
mentation. There are, however, intermediate processes between mitosis
and fragmentation. By the help of special methods of preparation, the
author was able to demonstrate karyokinetic division of the nucleus in
several Schizophycem, in all its stages, aster, diaster, &c., as also the
presence of a nucleus in the spores of bacteria.

Division of the Nucleus in Spirogyra.t — M. C. Decagny has
followed out the stages of nuclear division in Spirogyra anterior to
the disappearance of the nuclear membrane. These may be arranged
under two phases.

In the first phase the nucleus swells, forming in its caryoplasm a
certain quantity of protoplasmic substances which pass gradually into

* Ber. Yersamml. Beutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, 1895. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv
(1895) p. 203.

t Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlii. (1895) pp. 319-26. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 329.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

201

an insoluble state, and which are seen as granulations in Lilium can-
didirn. At the same time the nucleole becomes slowly incorporated
with the filament, the folds of which swell, and part disappears. The
filament becomes knotted, and subsequently unrolls. During the knot-
phase it becomes detached from the nuclear membrane. When the
nucleus is completely filled, and the membrane can no longer stretch,
the osmotic interchanges between the cell and the nucleus almost
cease. The end of this first phase is characterised by the complete
dissolution of all the insoluble substance of the caryoplasm, all the
granulations disappearing, as in Lilium candidum. But in Spirogyra it
is possible to detect the product of the dissolution of the granulations,
in the form of a new, completely homogeneous caryoplasm. The forma-
tion can be followed of the achromatic filaments from this caryoplasm,
while the nuclear cavity is still provided with its membrane, although
the author had previously erroneously stated the contrary.

The second phase commences at the period when the nuclear mem-
brane becomes more permeable, especially in its two opposite portions
which are most removed from the cell- wall. This appears to be the
result of the direct action of the caryoplasm, which passes through it
and enters the cell. The cell-sap at the same time enters the nucleus,
which gradually swells until the formation of the plate.

The details of these processes are minutely described in the case
of Spirogyra crassa.

Abnormal Nuclei in the Endosperm of Fritillaria imperialist —
Mr. H. H. Dixon observes that, before direct fission, nuclei often attain
monstrous dimensions, and sometimes break up into a large number of
small nuclei. In the endosperm of the crown-imperial, transition-forms
between direct and indirect fission in the smaller of these nuclei may
be observed. The nuclei disappear, and the nuclear thread breaks up
into a number of chromosomes ; without the nuclear membrane dissolving,
or the formation of a nuclear plate, the nucleus becomes constricted
across the middle, so that it becomes dumbbell-shaped. Similar modes
of fission have been observed in animal cells.

Nuclei of Lilium longiflorum.| — Mr. H. H. Dixon states that the
chromosomes of the dividing nuclei in the growing point of the stem
of this plant vary in number, the most usual being 16 or 24.
Similar variations occur in the divisions in the pollen-mother-cells and
in the upper nuclei of the embryo-sac. Before entering on the early
stages of karyokinesis, the nucleus of the pollen-mother-cells possesses
a very delicate and completely coiled nuclear thread. Even without
impregnation the central portion of the embryo-sac becomes occupied by
a large number of nuclei, which arise by direct division from the lower
polar nucleus.

Constituents of the Cell. J — Mr. J. E. Humphrey reviews the present
state of our knowledge with respect to the minute structure of the
vegetable cell. He regards the great variability and the evident passivity

* Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 665-6; Proc. R. Irish Acad., iii. (1895) pp. 721-6

(1 pi.).

t Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 663-5; Proc. R. Irish Acad., iii. (1895) pp. 707-20
(1 ph). % Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 561-79 (1 pi.).

202

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the nucleoles as opposed to the conception of their definiteness and
permanence. He adheres also to his previous view of the essential
improbability of any genetic connection between the nucleoles and the
centrospheres. The nucleoles are probably of a fluid consistency ; the
karyokinetic forces appear to exert a direct influence on them.

Chemical Composition of the Cell-wall.* * * § — Replying to criticisms
by Herr E. Schultze,f M. E. Gilson adduces additional reasons for his
previous conclusions on this subject, viz. : — that in vegetable membranes
there are always found, side by side with cellulose, other carbohydrates —
the semicelluloses — which are not coloured blue by iodine reagents, and
which do not crystallise under conditions in which cellulose does
crystallise. The reserve-celluloses of Reiss are composed of a mixture
of cellulose which is coloured blue, and of paramannane which is not
coloured. These results are obtained from a microscopic, in addition
to a chemical study of vegetable membranes.

(2) Other Cell-contents (including: Secretions).

Diastase in Leaves.J — According to Prof. J. R. Green, the diastase
in foliage-leaves varies in amount during the day, being greatest in the
early morning, and least after sunset. This variation is due to the
action of sunlight. Experiments made on the living leaf of a scarlet-
runner proved the destructive action of light — whether sunlight or the
electric light — on diastase, the proportion destroyed amounting to from
10 to 20 per cent. The proteids in the cells of the leaf act as a screen
from this destructive influence of light.

Proteids of Wheat.§ — Dr. M. O’Brien has now investigated the
proteids of the embryo of the wheat-grain, comparing them with those
contained in the endosperm. She finds them to consist of three
globulins — mycosin, vitellin, and albumin ; the insoluble gluten of the
endosperm appears to take the place of the albumin of the embryo.

Pectase and Laccase in Plants. || — Pursuing their researches on the
presence of pectase in plants, MM. G. Bertrand and A. Malevre find this
diastase in a number of cryptogamic plants, and assert also its very wide
diffusion in green plants, especially in the leaves when growth is rapid.
The authors describe a convenient mode of preparing it from lucerne or
trefoil.

The oxidising ferment laccase is found by MM. E. Bourquelot and
G. Bertrand to occur in several fungi examined, belonging to the Basidio-
mycetes, Ascomycetes, and Myxomycetes, in which the phenomenon of
oxidation is especially energetic. Its distribution varies in different
fungi, and in some it is present only at a late period of growth.

Active Principles of Senecio.1T — M. L. Lutz has found in several
other species of Senecio the two alkaloids, senecionine and senecine,
already detected, in minute quantities, in S. vulgaris. In all cases they

* La Cellule, xi. (1895) pp. 19-25.

f Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 583.

X Rep. Brit. Ass. (Ipswich), 1895, p. 856. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 73.

§ Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 543-8 Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 544.

|| Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 726-8, 783-6. Cf. this Journal, 1895,
pp. 330, 649. Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlii. (1895) pp. 486-8, 618-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

203

occur in the underground parts only, to the entire exclusion of the aerial
organs. They were found in the largest quantities in S. erucsefolius and
paludosus, to a smaller extent in S. Jacobsea, Cineraria , viscosus , and
sylvaticus. The tissues in which they chiefly occur are the pith, the
liber, and the cortical parenchyme. Other species gave negative results.

Cholesterins of Cryptogams.* — M. E. Gerard has extracted the
cholesterins from a number of the lower Cryptogams — Saccharomyces ,
Mucor mucedo , Lobaria pulmonaria — and finds that, like those of the
higher plants, they belong exclusively to the class of ergosterins, differ-
ing, therefore, from those of animals. M. Gerard gives the following
test for distinguishing between animal and vegetable cholesterins. If
the former are treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, a yellow colour
is produced, and a white precipitate on diluting with water ; while the
latter are coloured red by sulphuric acid, and yield a green precipitate
on the addition of water.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Oblito-Schizogenous Secretion-Receptacles of the Myrtacese. f — *
From observations made on about twenty species of Myrtaceas, Dr. G.
Lutz gives the following general account of these structures. The form
of the receptacle is never that of a canal, but is usually globular or
ellipsoidal. They are generally formed, at an early period, from one
or two epidermal cells, distinguished from the rest by their granular
contents. The original cell or cells divide, and the receptacle is formed
schizogenously by the separation of the daughter-cells. The so-called
resinogenous layer is formed on the walls of the secreting cells, in the
form either of caps or of a continuous coating. It consists of a mucila-
ginous ground-substance in which granules and rods are imbedded. The
secreting cells become obliterated at an early period ; hence the term
given to these structures by Tschirch of oblito-schizogenous secretion-
receptacles. At a later period the walls of the receptacle become
suberised. The secretion is formed in the resinogenous layer, which
disappears as the secretion accumulates. When the receptacle is fully
formed, the intercellular spaces become filled with the secretion, and the
resinogenous layer disappears altogether or nearly so. The receptacles
vary in diameter between 20 and 230 p.

Porosity of Woody Sterns.^ — M. H. Devaux has conducted a series
of experiments which demonstrate the great variation in the degree of
porosity of the trunk of different trees. They may be divided into four
classes : — (1) Those in which the stem has both a system of vessels and
a system of cortico-medullary canals which often communicate with
those of the leaves ; (2) Stems with a distinctly porous cortex and a less
porous wood ; (3) Stems with a porosity which is essentially vascular,
the cortex and pith being less porous and sometimes not at all, as in the
vine ; (4) Woody stems only very slightly porous in their cortical
region, i. e. from canals, and very little or not at all porous from vessels.

* Comptes Rendus, exxi. (1895) pp. 723-6.

t Bot. Centralbl., Ixiv. (1895) pp. 145-53, 193-202, 257-64, 289-301 (2 pis).

X Mem. Sci. Phys. et Nat. Bordeaux, v. (1895) pp. 365-96 (3 figs.).

204

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(4) Structure of Organs.

Flowers of Lemna,* * * § — Herr L. Vuyck describes tbe rarely seen
flowers of Lemna. The stigma is funnel-shaped, and appears to have
assumed the character of a nectary. This character and the spiny pol-
len-grains seem to point to cross-pollination by means of insects.

Anisophylly.f — Pursuing his investigations on this subject, Prof. J.
Wiesner finds anisophylly a less common phenomenon with tropical
trees than with those of temperate climates. Its object is to promote
favourable conditions in the leaf for illumination. In large-leaved
deciduous trees anisophylly is advantageous ; while in small-leaved
plants with long internodes it is found to occur very rarely. In plants
with small crowded leaves it is advantageous, since it increases the
amount of light which reaches the lower leaves. Anisophylly is very
seldom found in the leaves of evergreen trees. In the trifoliolate
Gardenieas anisophylly seems to fulfil the purpose of increasing the
extent of assimilating surface. Lateral anisophylly appears to be of no
direct advantage to the plant.

Antidr omy. :J — Mr. G. Macloskie gives further examples of this phe-
nomenon in a variety of plants, and adduces illustrations of the law that
tho original phyllotaxis may be frequently changed by the requirements
of the plant in the way of light, or by other forces which act upon it
during its growth.

Opening and Closing of Stomates.§ — According to Dr. F. G. Kohl,
the increase of turgor in the guard-cells of a stomate which causes it to
open, is due to the action of a diastatic ferment. Closed stomates
open when treated with a solution of diastase. The opening and closing
is effected by changes of temperature or of light rather than of moisture.
The author determined that it is the rays between B and C, and those
at F in the blue, which are alone effective in this respect ; no motion
took place in the yellow, green, violet, ultra-red, or ultra-violet.

Hydathodes.j} — Herr G. Ilaberlandt gives further information re-
specting these organs for the secretion and absorption of water, which
are commonly met with in tropical vegetation. Unicellular hydathodes
were observed only in two plants, but they attained in these examples a
high degree of differentiation and adaptation. Their most common
form is that of a capitate hair, consisting of three or more cells, in which
the hydathodic functions are performed by the apical cell. A good
example of this is furnished by Phaseolus multiflorus. When the leaf is
fully developed, the hydathodes on the upper surface lose their property
of excreting water, while the secretion continues unchecked on the under
surface. That it is through the glandular hairs that the water is ex-
creted was proved by experiments in destroying the function of these

* Dodonsea, 1895, p. 60. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv. (1895) p. 228.

t SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, ciii. 1894 (1895) pp. 624-64 (4 pis. and 3 figs.).
Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 448.

X Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxii. (1895) pp. 466-70. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 83.

§ Ber. Yersamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, 1895. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv.
(1895) p. 109.

|1 SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, ciii. 1894 (1895) pp. 489-538 (3 pis.). Cf. this
Journal, 1895, p. 333.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

205

hairs by poisoning. In Peperomia scandens the glandular hairs have
lost their power of excreting, and are simply organs for the absorption
of water. In their perfect condition these organs serve as an apparatus
for regulating the araouut of water in the plant.

Haustoria of Lathrsea.* * * § — Dr. *E. Heinriclier has again studied in
detail the structure and the adaptation to their function of the haustoria
of the two species of Lathrsea , L. squamaria and clandestine,, which
present some differences in the mode in which the liaustorium enters
and penetrates the tissues of the host-plant. In general terms, the origin
and development of these organs in Lathrsea correspond altogether
with the same processes in the Rhinanthidese, and the author agrees
with those who regard this genus as more nearly allied to the Scrophula-
riacese than to Orobanche. The following are the chief points of affinity —
The structure and development of the ovule, especially the embryo-
sac, with its characteristic diverticula, which appear after impregnation.
The structure and form of the embryo. The mode of attachment of the
parasite to the host-plant. The radical apex of the embryo does not
become the primary liaustorium, as in Orobanche , but developes into the
root, the haustoria .appearing on it as secondary formations. Various
points in the structure of the root and of the haustoria, and in the de-
velopment of the haustoria. The arrangement and course of the vascular
bundles. The presence of glandular hairs in the cavities of the rhizome-
scales in Lathrsea, and in the leaves of the Rhinanthidese, while no such
structures occur in Orobanche. In all these points Orobanche presents
a different type of structure from that which is common to Lathrsea and
to the Rhinanthideae.

Vegetative Organs of Vanda. f — Mr. H. H. Dixon describes the
anatomy of the stem and roots of Vanda teres. The velamen of the
root is composed of two layers, the outer consisting of fibrous tracheids,
the inner of much thicker- walled pitted elements. The root-caps of the
growing points in a state of rest are clothed with a thick cuticle, which
is not the case when they are in active growth.

Root-Tubercles of the Soja-Bean.J — Having noticed that the roots
of Soja hispida, when grown in Europe, do not produce tubercles, while
they do in their native country of Japan, Prof. 0. Kirchner devised the
expedient of infecting them by growing them in soil obtained from that
country. The device succeeded, and they produced abundant tubercles,
thus showing that these must be caused by a microbe present in the soil.
In anatomical structure the root-tubercles of Soja present the greatest
resemblance to those of Phaseolus ; the special microbe which produces
them the author proposes to call Bhizobacterium japonicum, substituting
this generic name for Frank’s Bhizobium.

Variation-Curves and Surfaces in Plants. §— Prof. F. Ludwig has
laid down a series of curves, on the principle proposed by Galton, for

* Beitr. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen (Cohn), vii. (1895) pp. 315-406 (7 pis.). Cf. this
Journal, 1893, p. 500.

t Proc. R. Irish Acad., iii. (1894) pp. 441-58 (4 pis.). See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv.
(1895) p. 131.

t Beitr. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen (Cohn), vii. (1895) pp. 213-24 (1 pi.).

§ Bot. Centralbl., lxiv. (1895) pp. 1-8, 33-41, 65-72, 97-105, 248-9 (2 pis.).

206

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

showing graphically the degree of variation to which the numbers of
parts are subject in plants. The examples taken are chiefly the number
of ray-flowers in the capitule of certain Composite, and the number of
rays or branches to the umbel of certain Umbelliferse.

j8. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Acrogamous and Basigamous Fertilisation.* * * § — M. P. Yan Tieghem
calls attention to the fact that the normal polarity of the so-called
“embryo-sac” is occasionally reversed. The ordinary position of the
“ egg-apparatus ” and of the antipodals is invariable in those plants in
which the mother-cell of the endosperm (embryo-sac) is produced
within the nucellus of a tegumented ovule, with its apex turned towards the
micropyle, whether the mode of impregnation is porogamic or chalazo-
gamic. But in certain of the Loranthaceae, in which the mother-cell of
the endosperm arises on the inner surface of the carpel, and where there
is therefore neither placenta nor ovule, the oosphere and the synergids
are located at the lower, the antipodals at the upper end of this mother-
cell. A similar phenomenon is presented by the genus Arceuthobium,
which the author proposes to remove from the Loranthaceae, and to make
the type of a new order Arceuthobiace^, intermediate between the
Loranthaceae and Santalaceae, where two endosperm-mother-cells are
produced at opposite spots in the ovarian cavity, and where, therefore,
there is a placenta, but no ovules. This mode of impregnation the
author terms basigamous , in contrast to the ordinary acrogamous mode.
It occurs again in some of the Balanophoraceae with naked ovules, a
reversion apparently to an archaic type, where it is accompanied by
chalazogamy. This phenomenon appears to be in harmony with that
observed by Tretiakof f in Allium odorum , where the antipodal cells
may sometimes assume physiologically the part of embryonic vesicles.

Physiology of Reproduction.^: — Prof. G. Klebs gives a resume of
recent observations on the phenomena of sexual reproduction and of
non-sexual propagation. He sums up in favour of the view that the
universal original mode of multiplication was non-sexual ; the sexual
mode, when once established, entirely superseded the non-sexual in all
the higher animals, and became also the ordinary mode of multi-
plication in most of the higher plants, in consequence of the advantage
afforded by the union of the slightly dissimilar properties of the two
parents.

Structure and Growth of the Pollen-tube.§ — Mr. A. J. Ewart
records the results of a series of observations on the mode in which the
pollen-tube makes its way through the tissues of the style. In some
plants — Narcissus , Lilium, Tulipa , Scilla — minute round or oval pores
were detected in the apex of the pollen-tube, through which solid
particles had been extruded. These particles probably consist of
granules of a zymogen, by means of which the tube disintegrates the

* Journ. de Bot. (Morot), ix. (1895) pp. 465-9.

t Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 450.

X * Ueb. einige Probletne d. Phys. d. Fortpflanzung,’ Jena, 1895, 26 pp.

§ Proc. Liverpool. Biol. Soc , ix. (1895) pp. 189-204 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

207

tissues through which it forces its way. These pores appear, however,
to have only a temporary existence, closing up again after the granules
have forced their way through. In some cases a very large terminal
opening is formed, which may be from half to one-third the diameter of
the tube. Both direct sunlight and total darkness are unfavourable to
the growth of pollen-tubes, a feeble light being the most advantageous ;
the optimum temperature is between 20° and 30° C. Both branching
and septation are not uncommon phenomena in pollen-tubes ; the septa
are the result of ingrowths of the wall of the tube. The branching may
be either dichotomous or apical. Pollen-grains of Mercurialis may emit
two or even three separate tubes.

Polyembryony.* * * § — Dr. K. Schilbersky distinguishes two principal
kinds of polyembryony — one resulting from the ovum-cell, the other
adventitious ; the embryos resulting from the former he terms true, from
the latter pseud-embryos ; the latter are simply a modification of non-
sexual propagation within the ovule. Polyembryony occurs normally
in some families, as in the Conifer®, at least in the early stages of the
development of the embryo. The author regards the embryonic vessel,
together with the synergids in Angiosperms, as analogous to the
numerous central cells in the embryo-sac of Conifer®.

Mr. E. 0. Jeffrey! describes the frequent occurrence of several
embryos in the embryo-sac of Erythronium americanum. In some cases
the number of embryos is very large, but there is never more than one
in the ripe seed. The phenomenon appears to be exactly homologous
with the polyembryony of the Gymnosperms.

Cross-Pollination and Self-Pollination. — Dr. P. Knuth J states that
both the short-styled and long-styled flowers of Primula acaulis are
abundantly visited by Bombus hortorum , which also visits neighbouring
flowers of P. officinalis and P. elatior , so that frequent hybridisation
may take place. All three species are also visited less frequently by
Lepidoptera and Bombyliid®.

The same writer § deduces the following laws from the facts already
accumulated with regard to the visits of insects to plants : — The more
complicated the structure of a flower, and the deeper its honey is con-
cealed, the less are the insect-visitors dependent on the insect-flora of
the district, and the more do they belong to the same or to similar
kinds ; while the nearer the honey lies to the surface, the more do the
insect- visitors vary in different regions, and the more is fertilisation
dependent on the species characteristic of, or peculiar to, the district
in question.

From experiments made, chiefly on the dahlia, by covering up the
outer flowers of the capitule with coloured papers, Prof. F. Plateau ||
comes to the conclusion that insects are not attracted visually by the
bright colour of the flowers, but by some other sense, probably that of
smell.

* In Hungarian. See Bot. Ceutralbl., lxiv. (1895) p. 229.

f Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 537-41 (1 pi.).

i Bot. Centralbl., Ixiii. (i895) pp. 97-8. Cf. this Journal, 1893, p. 66.

§ ‘Die I lutenbesuoher derselbcn Pflanzen-Art in verschiedener Gegenden,’ Kiel,
1895. See Bot. Centralbl., xliv. (1895) p. 83.

|| Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belg., xxx. (1895) pp. 466-87 (1 pi.).

208

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Herr L. Kny * * * § describes the structure and mode of pollination of the
flowers of Aristolochia Clematitis. He concludes that they are adapted
for cross-polliuation, and chiefly by a small fly, Ceratopogon pennicornis ;
though, when this does not take place, they can self-pollinate.

In another communication, the same author | states that red, blue,
and violet colours are more attractive to insects than white or yellow ;
and that the more difficult the nectar is to obtain, the higher is the class
to which the visiting insect belongs.

Mr. J. C. Willis and Mr. J. H. Burkill J give a list of the insect-
visitors observed on between 70 and 80 species of flowering plants in
localities in England, Scotland, and Wales. The observations confirm,
as a general rule, Muller’s law that the bulk of the visitors to the higher
types of flower are insects of a high degree of specialisation. The
observations of the authors also show that there is, in Great Britain, as
compared to Low Germany, a larger proportion of Lepidoptera and a
much larger proportion of short-tongued Diptera, with a smaller pro-
portion of Hymenoptera, especially of short-tongued bees and other
short-lipped species.

Caprification of the Fig.§ — Dr. G. Eisen gives a historical resume
of the means employed for producing fertile figs. He distinguishes
between the Smyrna fig ( Ficus carica smirniaca ), which contains only
female flowers, neither males nor mules, and which therefore requires
caprification or artificial pollination to bring them to maturity, and the
common fig ( F . carica hortensis), which does not require caprification.
To the paper is appended a copious bibliography of the subject.

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including1 Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Vitality of Seeds. |] — According to Dr. A. Burgerstein, the seeds of
barley, wheat, and oat may retain their vitality for ten years, from 70 to
90 per cent, being still capable of germinating ; while those of rye have
by this time lost their power of germination.

Germination of Seeds of Loranthacese.u — Prof. J. Wiesner gives
the result of a number of observations on the germination of tropical
parasites belonging to this order, comparing it with that of the European
species Viscum album and Loranthus europseus. While the seeds of these
species remain dormant through the winter and germinate only in the
light, those of Viscum articulatum and orientate , and of Loranthus
repandus and pentandrus germinate in the dark as well as in the light,
though more slowly, and the first three after only a few days of rest.
The fruit (pseudocarp) of the European Loranfchacese contains a much
larger quantity of viscin than that of the parasitic tropical species;
tropical species which are not parasitic contain no viscin. In small

* Bot. Centralbl., lxiv. (1895) p. 178.

f Bot. Jaarb., Gent, 1895, pp. 24-37. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv. (1895) p. 34G.

X Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 227-73.

§ Proc. Californian Acad. Sci., v. (1895) pp. 897-1001. Cf. this Journal, 1893,
p. 757.

|| Verliandl. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. "Wien, xlv. (1895) pp. 414-21. Cf. this
J ournal, 1895, p. 197.

H SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, ciii. 1894 (1895) pp. 401-37.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

209

quantities tlie viscin-slime serves to attach the seed to the bark of a
tree ; while in larger quantities it has the effect of retarding its germina-
tion. The hypocotyl of Viscum album is negatively heliotropic, as also
are those of V. articulatum and orientale, but to a less extent. At a later
period the hypocotyl of the European species is negatively geotropic, as
are also those of the tropical species, hut more strongly.

Growth of Orobanche.* * * § — By means of the Baranetzky-Pfeffer
auxanometer, Herr B. Jonsson has registered the variations in the
rapidity of growth of several species of Orobanche that contain but little
chlorophyll — 0. Hederse, rubens, and speciosa. In addition to the great
period of growth, he finds irregular accelerations and retardations,
dependent apparently on the development of the floral organs. No
daily period could be detected. Immediately before the development of
the first flower, there was a retardation in the growth of the main axis,
owing to the deviation of the nutrient current from it to the lateral
organs. When the flowers and bracts were cut away, a corresponding
acceleration followed.

Function of Anthocyan.f — According to Herr F. Filarsky the
function of anthocyan is in all cases to serve as a protection, and also
to assist in the transformation of light into heat, both in flowers and in
fruits.

Production, Transport, and Consumption of Reserve-Starch and
Oil.+ — Herr K. G. Lutz discusses these subjects, especially in the case
of the beech and pine. In the former case the removal of the buds in
the spring caused an immediate suspension of the increase in thickness,
the reserve-starch remaining unconsumed. In the latter case, on the
contrary, the removal of the leaves had but little effect on the growth
in the first year, the whole of the reserve-starch being used up. The
new wood thus formed had the characters rather of spring than of autumn-
wood in the dimensions of its tracheids.

Transpiration of the Potato.§ — Herr L. Poljanec has determined by
experiment that the periderm plays an important part in protecting the
underlying tissues from excessive transpiration.

Absorption of Free Nitrogen by Plants. — Herren T. Pfeiffer and
E. Franke jj find, as the result of a series of experiments, that mustard
has no power of absorbing free nitrogen from the atmosphere.

Herr L. Hiltner^i confirms the statement that the root-nodules of the
alder act in the same way as those of the Leguminosse. The microbe
which causes the formation of the nodules acts as a parasite until the
nodule is fully developed, after which it benefits the growth of the
plant.

* Acta Reg. Soc. Pliys. Lund, vi. (189.5) 23 pp. and 2 pis. See Bot. Centralbl..
lxiv. (1895) p. 420.

f SB. K. Ungar. Natur.-wiss. Gesell. Buda-Pest, March 13, 1895. See Bot.
Centralbl., lxiv. (1895) p. 157.

X Beitr. z. wiss. Bot. (Funfstuck), i. (1895) pp. 1-80. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv.
(1895) p. 15.

§ Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlv. (1895) pp. 3G9-74.

|1 Landw. Versuclis-Stat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 117-51. See Journ. Cliem. Soc., 1895,
Abstr., p. 521. ^ Tom. cit., pp. 153-61. See Journ. Cliem. Soc., 1895, p. 522.

210

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(3) Irritability.

Twining of Climbing Plants.* * * § — Dr. F. Noll points out that a twining
or climbing plant attains the same object of exposing its leaves and flowers
freely to the air, at far less expense of material than a plant with a stout
woody stem. Hence it has more energy to spend in providing material
for its often very large leaves and handsome flowers.

Mechanism of Curvature in Plants.f — Dr. W. Rothert criticises
Herr Kohl’s new theory on this subject. The essence of Kohl’s theory
lies in the fact that he attributes the process of curvature to an increased
turgidity of the cells of the side which becomes concave, resulting in an
active shortening of these cells. The active part of the process is thus
confined to the concave side, the convex side is merely passively
stretched, and curvature is thus primarily independent of growth.
Rothert opposes the theory, because it assumes that the mechanism of
curvature is different in unicellular and in multicellular organisms, and
also because of the difficulties connected with a passive stretching of the
convex side. The remainder of the paper is devoted to a detailed
criticism of Kohl’s statements, Rothert’s conclusion being that, although
Kohl has brought forward some new points of interest, his theory as a
whole is untenable.

(4) Chemical Chang-es (including: Respiration and Fermentation).

Accumulation of Sugar in the Beet-root.| — M. L. Maquenne attri-
butes the relation between the amount of sugar in the leaves and in the
root of the beet to the operation of the principle that osmotic pressure is
in inverse proportion to the molecular weight of the dissolved substance.
The molecular weight of saccharose is double that of glucose. When,
therefore, in consequence of assimilation, the osmotic pressure increases
in the leaves, the elaborated principles take the form of saccharose and
move towards the root ; when the pressure in the leaves diminishes, the
sugar of the root undergoes deduplication and moves towards the
leaves ; while, when the pressure remains constant, all movement
ceases.

7. General.

Temperature of Trees.§ — Mr. R. W. Squires has made a series of
experiments on the temperature of a trunk of Acer Negundo between
January and June. He finds that, as a general result, the temperature
of the tree is lower than that of the air in the morning and at noon,
while it is higher in the evening. The mean temperature of the tree, as
compared with that of the air, was 1*31° C. higher in January, in
February nearly the same, in March nearly 1° lower, in April 0 • 85°
higher, and in May 1 * 13° lower.

Dippel’s Microscope and its Application, Part II.|| — The first divi-
sion of the second part of the second enlarged edition of this important

* SB. Niederrhein. Gesell. Natur- u. Heilkunde Bonn, 1895, pp. 15-7.

t Biol. Centialbl., xv. (1895) pp. 593-602. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 455.

X Comptes Ilendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 834-7.

§ Minnesota Bot. Studies, 1895, pp. 452-9.

|| ‘ Das Mikroskop u. seine Anwendung,’ 2te umgearb. Auflage, 2ter Th., lte Abth.,
Jena, 1896, 443 pp., 3 pis. and 302 figs.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

211

work is devoted to the 4 Application of the Microscope to the Histology
of Tissues.’ It is divided into four chapters ; the first treats of the
general form of the cell and of its contents, including the cell-wall, the
living cell-body, under which protoplasm and the nucleus are discussed,
the cell-sap, and fluid and solid excretions. The second chapter is
devoted to the changes ( Unibildung ) which occur in the cell, com-
prising changes in the size and form, thickening of the cell-wall,
and chemical changes in the cell-wall. The third chapter discusses the
different kinds of cell, — parenchymatous cells, fibre-cells, and tubular
cells, including sieve-tubes and laticiferous cells. The fourth chapter
treats of the tissues of the higher plants, classified under uniform tissues
(primary-tissue, ground-tissue, and epidermal tissue), and non-uniform
tissues, i. e. vascular bundles. The work is illustrated by three coloured
plates and a large number of woodcuts (some of them coloured), many of
which are borrowed from familiar text-books.

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Archespore of Vascular Cryptogams.* — Prof. F. 0. Bower insists
on the fact that the archespore is not invariably hypodermal in its
origin ; exceptions being furnished by Equisetum , Isoetes, Ophioglossum,
and the leptosporangiate ferns. When the apical meristems are stratified,
the archespore is hypodermal in the usual sense ; where initial cells
occur, it is the result of periclinal divisions of superficial cells. Inter-
mediate types of meristem show an intermediate type of origin of the
archespore. Ophioglossum , having only a single initial cell in both stem
and root, can hardly have a hypodermal archespore.

Vegetative and Fertile Leaves of Onoclea.j — The barren and fer-
tile leaves of Onoclea sensibilis are sharply differentiated, without any
intermediate conditions. Prof. G. F. Atkinson states that, by ampu-
tating the early vegetative fronds, others are produced presenting every
conceivable gradation between the fertile and barren fronds.

Muscineae.

Cell-Wall of Musciness-t — Herr G. Gjokic has applied the usual
reagents to determine the chemical composition of the cell- wall of
Muscineae, both Musci and Hepaticae, and finds that they exhibit no
lignin-reaction ; they must therefore be regarded as unlignified. On the
other hand, the presence of cellulose can invariably be demonstrated in
the case of Hepaticae, and, with very few exceptions, also in the case
of Musci. The cell-wall always contains substances of the nature of
pectin.

Symbiosis in Tetraplodon.§ — Prof. F. E. Weiss has found the
rhizoids of this moss closely associated with the hyphae of a fungus,
a species of Peziza, in a manner which suggested symbiosis between the
two.

* Rep. Brit. Ass. (Ipswich), 1895, p. 851.

f Proc. Arner. Ass. Adv. Sei., 1891 (1895) p. 290.

+ Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlv. (1895) pp. 330-4.

§ Rep. Brit. Ass. (Ipswich ), 1895, p. 855.

212

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Hybrid Moss.* — Mrs. E. G. Britton records an example of bybridity
in mosses between Aphanorhegma serrata as the female, and Physcomitrium
turbinatum as the male parent.

Babenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Musci). — The second
division of Yol. IV. of this work is completed with Pt. 26, which is
devoted to the remaining genera of Leskeacese, viz. Pterogonium (1 sp.),
Pterigynandrum (1 sp.), Lescursea (2 sp.), Ptychodium (5 sp.), Pseudo -
leshea (1 sp.), Eeterocladium (4 sp.), and Thuidium (12 sp.). Pt. 27
commences the Hypnacese, divided into three groups, the Isothecieae,
Brachythecieae, and Hypneae. All the genera of Isothecieae are treated
in the present part, viz. Cylindrothecium (4 sp.), Climacium (1 sp.),
Isothecium (2 sp.), Orthothecium (6 sp.), Eomalothecium (2 sp.), Platy -
gyrium (1 sp.), and Pylaisia (5 sp.). A commencement is made of the
Brachythecieae with Camptotliecium (4 sp.), and a portion of Bracliythe-
oium , numbering about 40 species.

Characeae.

Babenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Characeae). — A large
portion of the last two parts of Prof. W. Migula’s exhaustive monograph
of the Characeae (Nos. 10 and 11) is occupied by the very numerous
subspecies, varieties, and forms of Chara foetida , hispida, and asperat
which are treated in great detail, and many of them figured. The other
species described and delineated are Chara Babenhorstii, crassicaulis ,
rudis , horrida, and galioides.

Algae.

Food-Materials of Algae.j — Prof. H. Molisch has determined that a
considerable number of Algae — Microthamnion, Stichococcus, (Jlothrix, and
Protococcus — are entirely independent, like certain Fungi, of calcium
for their nutriment. It follows that calcium-salts are not a neces-
sary constituent of every living cell ; and that cell-walls, nuclei, and
chlorophyll-grains can be developed perfectly independently of this
element.

Swarmspores of Tilopterideae.t — Herr P. Kuckuck has made a
careful examination of Eaplospora Vidovicchii from the Mediterranean.
He finds it to be propagated by non-motile “ monospores,” similar to
those described by Beinke in the case of E. globosa,§ but differing from
those of that species in containing only a single nucleus instead of four.
The author considers them to be unquestionably of non-sexual origin. He
states, moreover, that the thallus contains also chromatophores, physodes,
and pyrenoids, the latter not having been previously observed in the
Tilopterideae. But, in addition to the non-motile monospores, the alga
produced also (in cultivation) unilocular zoosporanges ; and on this
account he proposes to establish for it a new genus Heterospora , differing
from Haplospora in the presence of pyrenoids in the chromatophores, in
the monospores being nucleated, and in the second mode of propagation
by means of large biciliated zoospores.

* Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1894 (1895) p. 292.

t SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, July 11, 1895. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 545.

X Jalirb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxviii. (1895) pp. 291-322 (1 pi.
and 1 fig.). § Cf. this Journal, 1889, p. 419.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

213

The author has also followed out the life-history of Choristocarpus,
which genus he regards as having a very close affinity with the Sphacc-
lariacese on the one hand, and with the Tiloptcrideae on the other
hand.

Phycoporphyrin, a new Pigment of the Conjugatae.* — Prof. G.
Lagerheim has extracted the pigment from several purple species of
Conjugatae, especially Zygnema purpureum , on which he founds a new
genus of Zygnemaceae, Pleurodiscus, with the following characters : —
Chromatophores two, parietal or somewhat eccentric, disc-shaped ; each
has a central pyrenoid, with an envelope of starch ; otherwise the cell
contains no starch, the product of assimilation being probably glucose ;
there are numerous tannin-vacuoles ; the vacuole which occupies the
greater part of the cell is filled with a purple-brown pigment which the
author terms phycoporphyrin. It is prepared by treating the alga with
absolute alcohol, pressing between cloths, and then laying in distilled
water, when the pigment is dissolved. Its optical and chemical pro-
perties are given ; but it has not yet been obtained free from tannin.

Trentepohliaceae and Lichens.f — Mr. A. Y. Jennings describes two
new species of Trentepohliaceae from New Zealand, Phycopeltis expansa
sp. n., and P. nigra sp. n., belonging to the “ peltoid ” section, which
form cell-plates and not cell-filaments. The former species is epiphytic
on leaves, and forms sporanges of two kinds — enlarged cells of the disc,
and cells borne singly on a hooked pedicel supported on a single basal
cell. In connection with fungus-hyphae it forms the lichen Strigula.
The second species is also epiphytic on leaves, but there was no indica-
tion of stipitate sporanges. On the leaf the alga appears quite black ;
by transmitted light it has an olive-green colour. It exhibits no
tendency to associate itself with a fungus in the formation of a lichen.

Thallus of Neomeris.J — Mr. A. H. Church describes in great detail
the structure and development of the thallus of Neomeris dumetosa. In
its earliest stage it consists of an erect Vaucheria- like ccenocytic filament,
attached to the substratum by a dichotomously lobed basal portion, and
bearing at its apex a whorl of six dichotomously branched filaments,
separated from the main axis by perforated septa. The various stages
of development are followed out, especially the formation of the cortex
and of the aplanosporangcs. The deposit of calcium carbonate is in
direct relation to the energy of the assimilating process" which goes on
in the chlorophyll-corpuscles.

Chlamydomonas.§ — Herr E. 0. Dill contests the view that the
various forms of Chlamydomonas represent only a very small number of
species ; the relative position of the organs and other characters being,
on the other hand, constant in the various forms. The following new
species are described : — Chlamydomonas longistigma,parietaria,pisiformis,
cingulosa, gigantea, stellata, and glceocystiformis, and Cartcria ohtusa. The
life-history of several of these species was followed out.

A classification is proposed of the Yolvocaceae into four families,

* Christiania Vidensk.-Selsk. Skrifter, 1895, pp. 1-25. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv.
(1895) p. 115. f Rep. Brit. Ass. (Ipswich), 1895, p. 851.

X Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 581-608 (3 pis).

§ Jalirb. f. wiss. Bot. (PfefFer u. Strasburger), xxviii. (1S95) pp. 823-5S (1 pi.).

1896 Q

214

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

viz.: — (1) Polyblepharidem : unicellular solitary green organisms of
cylindrical or globular form, enveloped in a membrane, with four, rarely
more, cilia of equal length at the anterior end, and one or two contractile
vacuoles at their base, an eye-spot, and a single chromatophore, which
is either lobed or mulberry-form, with a pyrenoid and starch-envelope ;
vegetative multiplication by longitudinal division ; formation of cysts
without conjugation ( Polyblejpharis , Pyramidomonas, Chloraster , Tetra-
toma ) ; (2) Chlamydomonadeae ; unicellular solitary green organisms,
spherical, oval or fusiform ; two or more cilia at the anterior end ; a
single usually mulberry-form chromatophore, with one, rarely more, or
no, pyrenoid with a starch-envelope ; delicate closely attached cell-wall
(rarely thicker and distant), with one or two contractile vacuoles and an
eye-spot ; propagation by continuous longitudinal and transverse divi-
sion when in a state of rest, seldom when free-swimming; conjugation
of mega- and microgonids, or of microgonids only, into a zygote ( Car -
teria, Chlamydomonas , Polytomci , Chlorogonium , Chlorangium, Sphserella).
(3) Phacotem ( Pteromonas , Coccomonas , PJiacotus. (4) Yolvocem ( Spondy -
lomorum , Gonium , StepJianosphsera , Pandorina, Eudorina , Volvox).

Fossil Halimeda.* * * § — From an Eocene sandstone at Greifenstein,
Herr T. Fuchs has obtained a fossil impression of an alga clearly
identical with Halimeda , though not referable to any existing species.
He proposes for the species the name Halimeda Sajportse.

Fungi.

Division of the Nucleus and Formation of the Spores in the Ascus
of Fungi.f — According to Herr E. A. Harper, the nucleus of the ascus in
Peziza and Ascobolus is the result of the union of several nuclei which
are present in the young ascus. Characteristic features of the mitotic
division by which the eight ascospores are formed, are these : — Imme-
diately before the formation of the spindle the chromatin consists of a
group of irregular bodies in the middle of the nucleus, which are united
with one another and with the wall of the nucleus by fine almost
achromatic threads. The wall of the nucleus is not destroyed during
the formation of the spindle and the separation of the daughter-segments
in the equatorial plane. It disappears only when broken through by
the further separation of the daughter-nuclei. During the first stages
of division the nuc-leole is greatly reduced, its substance being probably
used up in the formation of the spindle.

Cell-Nuclei of Fungi.J — Herr G. Istvanffi asserts that the presence
of a cell-nucleus can be demonstrated in every stage of development of
fungi, and that without a nucleus no growth, development, or formation
of reproductive organs can take place.

Secretion-Receptacles of Fungi.§ — Pursuing previous investigations
on this subject, Herr G. Istvanffi finds receptacles for the storing up of

* SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, ciii. 1894 (1895) pp. 2G0-4 (1 pi.).

t Ber. Yersamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, 1895. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv.
(1895) p. 206.

% SB. K. Ungar. Natur.-wiss. Gesell. Buda-Pest, Feb. 13, 1895. See Bot.
Centralbl., lxiv. (1895) p. 155.

§ SB. K. Ungar. Naturwiss. Gesell. Buda-Pest, Dee. 12/1894. See Bot. Cen-
tralbl., lxiv. (1895) p. 76.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

215

secretions generally distributed through the Thelephorei. They are
of three different forms, tubular, club-shaped ( knuppelformig ), and
spherical.

Mineral Food-Materials of Fungi.* — From further experiments,
made chiefly on Aspergillus niger, but also on Penicillium and Mucor ,
Dr. W. Benecke confirms his previous conclusion that magnesium is
essential to the growth of fungi, while calcium is not. Iron is also
indispensable. With regard to potassium, even such a very small per-
centage in the nutrient fluid as 0 * 00003 per cent, of potassium chloride
makes the difference in the luxuriant growth or otherwise of the mould-
fungi.

New Family of Cryptogamic Parasites.j — According to Prof. J.
Debray, the common disease of the vine known in France as bnmissure,
characterised by the presence of brown or blackish blotches on the
leaves, is not due, as stated by Yiala and Sauvageau, to a parasite which,
can be referred to the genus Plasmodiophora. The disease is of very
wride distribution, having been detected by Debray in plants belonging
to 42 natural orders ; not only the leaf, but the root, branch, and flower,
in fact every part of the plant, is liable to its attacks. According to
him, the organism which causes it cannot be referred to any recognised
family ; he makes it the type of a new genus Pseudocommis , and of a
new family Pseudocommide^b, allied to the Yampyrellese and Myxomy-
cetes. The organism is met with in various forms in the cells of the
host, never occurring in the intercellular spaces ; its plasmode may be
intimately mixed with, and scarcely distinguishable from, the protoplasm
of the cell, or it may be more sharply differentiated. Under certain
conditions, the plasmode travels from the interior of the cells of the
leaf or other part of the plant, to the surface, where it appears as a slimy
or gummy secretion, and by this means passes to other parts of the
plant.

New Genera of Fungi. — Among a number of new species of copro-
philous fungi of Belgium, M. E. Marchal J describes the following new
genera : —

Boudierellci (Sacc. MS.). Ascomata carnosula, sessilia, hemispherica ;
discus planus, margine ciliatus, axis papillatus ; asci oblongi, 4-spori,
fissura longitrorsus dehiscentes, paraphysati ; sporidia globosa, hyalina,
laciniis numerosis angustis insigniter contexta. Among Discomycetes,
near to Boudiera.

Laclinodocliium. Sporodichia alba, subglobosa, sessilia, e gelatina
tenaci baud fluxili composita, sporoplioris tecta ; conidia oblonga, in
sporophoris hyalinis simplicibus longe exertis acrogene-capitulata.
Among Hyphomycetes, nearest to Cephalodochium.

A new genus of Ustilagineae, Sirentyloma, is described by Herr P.
Hennings, § from Goyaz, with the following diagnosis : — Mycelium inter-
cellulare, sporae catenate, dein decedentes, fuscae, episporio crasso, levi.

* Jalirb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxviii. (1895) pp. 486-530. Cf.
this Journal, 1895, p. 545.

f Rev. de Viticulture, 1895. See Nature, liii. (1896) p. 18. Cf. this Journal,
1893, p. 80.

Z Bull. Soc. R. Bot. Belg., xxxiv. (1895) pp. 125-49 (2 pis. and 5 figs.).

§ Iledwigia, xxxiv. (1895) p. 319.

Q 2

216

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The following new North American genera are described by Mr. A.
P. Morgan : * —

Lentodium (Agaricini). Pileus fleshy-coriaceous, tough, hard when
dry, persistent ; stipe more or less elongated, tough, central or eccentric,
confluent with the hymenophore ; hymenium porose-cellulose, the lower
surface veiled by a thick persistent membrane, which is at length radi-
atcly dehiscent ; spores white.

Argynna (Ascomycetes). Peritheces superficial, carbonaceous, sub-
globose, naked, astomous, breaking up irregularly ; sporids fuliginous,
uniseptate, papilionaceous.

Pyrenomyxa (Ascomycetes). Stroma superficial, pulvinate. the sub-
stance black and carbonaceous, composed mostly of large confluent cells
writh thin, fragile walls, their large mouths covered by a uniform
continuous layer; sporids navicular, brown, continuous, produced in
spherical or oval clusters of eight, lying edge to edge.

Under the name Trichoseptoria Alpei g. et sp. n., Dr. F. Cavara f
describes a parasitic fungus which causes black spots on the fruit of the
lemon. The following is the diagnosis of the genus, belonging to the
Ascomycetes : — Perithecia carpophila, innato-erumpentia, maculicola,
trichomatibus undique fulta, membranacca ; basidia nulla; sporulae
bacillares, septatae, hyalinoe.

Karyology of Saprolegnia. f — Mr. A. H. Trow has studied the
structure of the nucleus and its mode of division, as well as the pheno-
menon of conjugation of nuclei, in several species of Saprolegnia and
Adilya. The following is a summary of the results at which he has
arrived.

The nucleus in the genus Saprolegnia is bounded by a nuclear wall,
and possesses one central chromosome of spongy texture. The space
between the nuclear wall and chromosome is occupied by a nucleo-
hyaloplasm, which is traversed by fine threads. The nucleus undergoes
direct division in the zoospore and mycele, and the products of these
divisions ultimately pass into the sporanges and gametanges. In the
oogones and antherids each nucleus undergoes one reducing division by
an indirect method, in virtue of which the whole chromosome becomes a
half-chromosome, but no fusions of functional nuclei take place. The
number of gameto-nuclei produced in the oogone by the reducing
division is about twenty times greater than that necessary to provide
one nucleus for each oosphere. The number is reduced by the degene-
ration of the excess. Most of the gameto-nuclei in the antherids and
fertilisation-tubes also undergo degeneration.

Fertilisation takes place invariably in S. dioica , and at least occasion-
ally in S. mixta, Adilya americana , and another species of Adilya; while
S. Thureti is normally apogamous. The whole chromosome condition
is restored to the nucleus either by the sexual process, or by a process
of growth. The two gameto-nuclei do not fuse to form the single zygote-
nucleus until a late stage in the maturation of the oospore. The Sapro-
legnieae as a group arc not apogamous. At the period of germination

* Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., xviii. (1895) pp. 36-15.

t Atti 1st. Dot. Pavia, iii. (1891) pp. 37-44 (1 pi.).

% Ann. Bot., ix. (1 895) pp. 609-52 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

217

of the oospore the nucleus of the zygote undergoes direct division to
furnish one nucleus for each zoospore.

In conclusion the author advocates the view that the sporophytc
generation of the higher plants probably owes its origin to the fusion
of gametes whose nuclei did not undergo a reducing division. The
doubling of the chromosomes acted as a stimulus to spore-formation, and
involves a halving of the chromosomes in the return from the undoubled
condition of the nuclei in the gametophyte generation.

Commenting on this paper, Prof. M. Hartog * charges the author
with several erroneous conclusions. In particular he states that he has
overlooked the existence of four chromosomes in the vegetative nuclei,
to which he ascribes only a single chromosome.

Infection of TJstilaginese.f — Prof. 0. Brefeld publishes the result
of a series of observations of the infection of their respective host-
plants by the parasitic species of Ustilagineae, especially of Ustilago
Avense on Avena sativa, TJ. cruenta on Sorghum saccharatum, and
U. Maydis on Zea Mays. The saprophytic stage of the development of
these parasites is especially dwelt on. It presents two different forms
in two different groups. In one (U. longissima, grandis. and bromivora ),
the conids give birth in the nutrient solution again to conidiopliores ;
in the other group (U. carbo, Maydis , and cruenta ), the conids ait)
developed directly from the preceding generation of conids.

It was found, in the infection both of oat and barley by TJ. carbo, and
of Sorghum saccharatum by TJ. cruenta , that the seedlings are most recep-
tive to infection in their earliest stages of germination, the susceptibility
gradually decreasing as the tissues become more differentiated. The mix-
ing of the soil with fresh horse-dung greatly facilitates the infection. In
the cases of TJ. carbo and TJ. cruenta infection can take place beneath
the surface of the soil ; while with TJ. Maydis infection is carried through
the air by the conids, which, however, are produced from the ustilago-
spores only in nutrient solutions (saprophytically). The ustilagospores
themselves are inoperative in infection. The action of the infection-
germ is strictly limited locally to the tissues in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the spot where the germ has entered.

Morphology of the Lichen-Thallus.J — Dealing further with this
subject in great detail, Prof. J. Keinke’s present instalment of his trea-
tise includes the Parmeliaceae and Verrucariaceee ; the structure of the
thallus is described for a very large number of species. The Parme-
liacem are derived, by further development, from the Lecideacem. Some
of the families have chlorophyll-green, others blue-green gonids. The
Omphalariese exhibit a great variation in the structure of the fructifica-
tion, from a discocarp tea pyrenocarp ; but they must not, for this
reason, be distributed among the Discolichenes and the Pyrenolichenes.
The Verrucariaceee are probably derived from the Sphaeriacese. They

* Op. cit., x. (1896) pp. 98-100.

t ‘ Unters. a. d. Gesammtgeb. d. Morph. ; Heft xi. Die Brandpilze,’ Miinchen,
1895, 98 pp. and 5 pis. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv. (1895) p. 273. Of. this Journal,
ante, p. 93.

Z Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfefftr n. Strasburger), xxviii. (1895) pp. 359-486 (113 figs.).
Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 664.

218

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

are nearly related to tlie Parmeliacese, and the boundary between the
two cannot he clearly laid down.

Injurious Symbiosis of Lichens.* * * § — Herr G. 0. Malme records
several instances of one lichen living parasitically on another, and
weakening it or even destroying its life. Thus Lecanora atriseda attacks
in this way Rhizocarpon geographicum. The hyphee of one lichen appear
to obtain their nourishment from the gonidial layer of the other species.
A similar relationship exists between Lecanora sordida and Lecidea
inlumescens.

Laboulbeniacese. — Together with a number of new species of this
order of Fungi, Mr. E. Thaxterf describes two more new genera, with
the following diagnoses : —

Liplomyces. Flattened antero-posteriorly, subtriangular, bilaterally
symmetrical, furcate through the presence of two prominent posterior
projections. The receptacle consisting of two superposed cells, followed
by four cells placed antero-posteriorly in pairs, of which the posterior
produce the prominences, the anterior a pair of short peritheces, near
the base of which, within and above, arise two or more pairs of appen-
dages, and eventually, a second pair of peritheces. Appendages copiously
branched, many of the branchlets terminated by beak-like cells. Spore
once septate.

Eucantheromyces. Keceptacle consisting of two superposed cells,
giving rise on one side to a free stalked peritliece, on the other to a free
appendage, the appendage consisting of a basal and sub-basal cell, ter-
minated by a compound antherid. The antherid formed from numerous
small cells, obliquely superposed in three rows, bordered externally by
a sterile cell, and terminated by a cavity from which the antherozoids
are discharged through a short irregular finger-like projection.

The name Acanthomyces, previously given to a genus of Laboulbeni-
aceae, is now replaced by Eliachomyces.

Under the name Laboulbenia gigantea , Herr G. Istvanffi^ describes a
new species of this genus, the largest at present known, measuring 1 * 2
mm. in length. It forms yellow patches on the elytra, legs, and thorax
of a ground-beetle living in caves.

Supposed Conversion of Aspergillus Oryzse into Saccharoniyces.§ —
Herren A. Klocker and H. Schlouning have repeated the experiments
made by Juhler and Jorgensen with Aspergillus Oryzse , and have failed
to observe any indication of a conversion of this fungus into a Saccharo-
myces form. In the course of their researches the authors remarked
that A. Oryzse forms sclerotes, a phenomenon hitherto unnoticed. Full
particulars and details of the experiments are promised later.

Granules in Yeast-Cells. || — Dr. S. Eisenschitz has cultivated certain
yeasts in beer-wort coloured with benzopurpurin, methyl-green, and Congo

* Naturv. Studentsallsk. Upsala, March 31st, 1892. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv.
(1895) p. 46.

t Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci., xxx. (1895) pp. 467-81. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 461.

t Termesz. Fuz., xviii. (1895) pp. 82-6, 136-8 (1 pi.). See Bot. Centralbl., 1895,
Beih., p. 327.

§ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2tc Abt., i. (1895) pp. 779-82. Cf. this
Journal, 1895, pp. 462, 556.

|] Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., i. (1895) pp. 674-80.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

219

red, and lias found that, after a day or two, granules become visible in the
cells. The granules stained by the pigment are partly within and partly
without the vacuoles. Those within exhibit lively movements, revolving
about their own axes ; they are further distinguished by a halo which
in certain positions appears as if unstained. When the granules are
observed in the plasma, their movements are quite slow.

From the relation of the number of the granules to that of the vacuoles
three divisions are made ; one shows vacuoles and numerous granules ;
the second has merely granules and is without vacuoles ; in the third
are vacuoles and but few granules. These three conditions render it
probable that the granules and vacuoles are identical. It was further
determined by means of single staining that the granules within and
without the vacuoles are not of the same chemical nature, and this
result was confirmed by the action of hydrochloric acid, the inference
being that the granules in the plasma are devoid of nuclein. Digestion
of yeast-cells with artificial gastric juice, and after-staining with methyl-
green, failed to stain the plasma granules. As nuclein is a non-pepto-
nisable substance, the author inferred that the granules are to be regarded
as nuclear, and that the granules and vacuoles are the preliminary stage
of a nucleus.

Endosporous Red Yeast.* — Mr. A. P. Swan describes a red yeast
which forms endospores, probably Saccharomyces rosaceus. It is ellip-
tical in shape, about 8 by 5 /x in size, very aerobic and sensitive to light.
It grows favourably in 10 per cent, wort-gelatin and at tempe-
ratures between 4° *5 and 10° produces fully matured spores in less
than a month. When cultivated on plates it has a marked tendency to
grow upwards, and at temperatures above 15° the gelatin is liquefied. In
malt extract a thick scum of a red coral colour forms in about ten days.
It is not capable of producing vinous fermentation. In cover-glass
cultures it is polymorphic, and forms chains with septate liyphee like
Oidium lactis ; this is more frequent in albuminous than in saccharine
media. In malt extract the cells are usually in pairs, and bud off from
the end of the parent cell. Endospores are regularly produced by
cultivating in wort-gelatin, kept in the light at a temperature between
5° and 10°, and with a plentiful supply of air. The spores are first
produced on the surface of the colony, but afterwards throughout its
mass. The manner in which they are produced consists in the usual
gradual thickening of the protoplasm ; and when one spore only is to be
formed, the protoplasm collects into a central globular mass of the same
diameter as the breadth of the mother-cell. When two spores are going
to be formed, the protoplasm, after a general inspissation, is first con-
stricted in the middle, gradually separating into two globular spores
which are nearly always of the same size. The number of spores is
generally two, less often one ; but sometimes three or more are formed.

Yalpantena Wine Ferments.f — Sig. Y. Peglion contends that the
notions which have recently become prevalent relative to wine manufac-
ture from pure yeasts are in many respects erroneous. Thus musts

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 1-11 (8 figs.).

t Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital., xviii. p. 369. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
2te Abt., i. (1895) pp. 862-3.

220

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

from selected districts are fermented by mixtures of yeasts composed of
various races. It is therefore absurd to isolate yeasts from high class
musts for the purpose of bettering poor wines. On the contrary, it would
be advantageous to import yeast mixtures which to a certain extent are
products of natural selection, and then to examine into their composition,
and endeavour to estimate the efficiency of the component species. On
these lines the author lias studied the fermentation organisms of Valpan-
tena musts. The medium used was 10 per cent, must-gelatin, and the
experiments were conducted on Hansen’s lines. The organisms isolated
were : — (1) A liquefying yeast with strong fermentation properties and
having all the characters of Saccharomyces cllipsoideus. (2) A non-
liquefying species which excited strong alcoholic fermentation in sterile
must. The wine obtained from pure cultures was very cloudy even after
complete fermentation. (3) The organism predominating during strong
fermentation was a yeast distinguished by its slow growth on must-
gelatin. This species fermented must very energetically, with copious
scum-formation. When fermentation was over the fluid was perfectly
clear, the yeast forming a sediment. (4) At the time when fermentation
was slackening and when the fluid contained 10 per cent, of alcohol, a
yeast was isolated which apparently has an important share in end-fer-
mentation. The efficiency of this species, which was easily distinguished
by the characters of its culture from other types, continued until the
wine contained 14*3 per cent, of alcohol. Together with these true yeasts
some yeast-like forms were present. (5) When the must was strongly
fermenting, an organism apparently identical with Torulopsis rosea
Berlese was present. (6) During the height of fermentation, and then
only, a yeast-like organism which had many characters in common with
Torula No. 6 Hansen was observed. It rapidly liquefied the medium,
inverting and fermenting saccharose in considerable quantity. (7) This,
a Dematium- like form, had apparently no power of exciting alcoholic fer-
mentation in grape-must.

Coleosporium.* — M. E. Fischer confirms the statement of Klebahn,
that Peridermium Pini acicolum comprises the tecidioform of a number
of species of Coleosporium, viz. : — Coleosporium Inulse on Inula Vaillantii
(aecidioform Peridermium Klebahnii ) ; C. Sonclii arvensis on several
species of Sonchus (P. Fischeri ) ; G. Senecionis on species of Senecio
(P. oblongisporum') ; G. Gacalise on Adenostyles alpina (P. Magnusianum ) ;
G. Petasites on Petasites officinalis (P. Boudieri) ; G. Tussilaginis on
Tussilago Farfara (P. Plowrighlii ) ; and C. Campanula on Campanula
Trachelium (P. Bostrupi). He considers that here we have a good
example of “ species sorores.”

Minute Structure of Clitocybe odora.| — Dr. P. Voglino describes
the minute structure of the mycele, stipe, pileus, and reproductive organs
of this anise-scented agaric.

Hew Pathogenic Blastomycete.J — Dr. H. Tokishige describes a
disease affecting horses and cattle in Japan. Nodules form in the skin,

* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xli. 1894 (1895), Sess. Extraord., pp. clxviii.-clxxiii.
Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 722.

t Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xxx. (1895) pp. G90-703 (1 pi.).

| Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 105-12 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

221

and these, after softening, may suppurate. After a time the disease
usually becomes generalised, chiefly through the intermediation of the
lymphatic system ; the parts specially affected are the skin, the respi-
ratory tract, the lymphatic system, and the testicles. Microscopical
examination of the material revealed ovoid corpuscles 3 *7-4 fx long and
2 *4-3 *6 jx broad, the contents of which were homogeneous, and were
enclosed in a double-contoured membrane. Besides the homogeneous
plasma the corpuscles may contain a small highly refracting nucleus
0 * 5-1 * 0 /x in diameter. These bodies, which have the ordinary characters
of yeast-cells, are either free or are enclosed in leucocytes. The fungus
was cultivable on the usual media (gelatin, agar, potato), but the colonies
developed unusually slowly. Examination of a colony showed that it
was composed of a mycele consisting of hyphse, spherical cells, and a
large number of spore-like granules.

Inoculation experiments, with pure cultures and by direct trans-
ference from one animal to another, failed. As the fungus exists and
multiplies in the animal body as a pure Sacchavomyces , and as the cultures
showed transition forms similar to those of the soor-fungus, it seems
possible that the natural infection may be due to the original and not
to the fungus form. The name suggested by the author is Sacchavomyces
farciminosus.

Actinomycosis.* — Sig. G. Gasperini describes the characters of
Actinomyces albus and the results of inoculating with it. The particular
point of the paper is a discussion of the analogies and differences
between actinomycosis and tuberculosis, both as regards the diseases
and the parasites.

Protophyta.
a. Schizophycese.

Behaviour of the Cell-Hucleus in the Formation of the Auxospores
of Epithemia.t — Dr. H. Klebahn states that in this process the bipar-
tition of the mother-cell is preceded by a qualripartition of the nucleus ;
each daughter-cell contains therefore two nuclei, one of which becomes
large, and has the ordinary appearance of a nucleus, while the other
remains small, and resembles a nucleole in taking up an intense colour
with haematoxylin. The small nuclei soon disappear, and in the cells
which result from the conjugation there are only two large nuclei in
each. During the elongation of these two cells the two nuclei of each
auxospore unite. The process differs from that in Closterium and Cos -
marium , in the excretion of the small nuclei taking place before, instead
of after, the coalescence of the large nuclei, and bears a greater analogy
to the formation of the directing spheres in animals.

Schizomycetes.

Constant Occurrence of Bacteria in Cells. J— Dr. E. v. Hibler states
that the inclusion of micro-organisms in cells is not only of very common,

* Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., ix. (1895) pp. 292-7.

t Ber. Versamml. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Acrzte, 1895. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv.
(1895) p. 112.

x Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 1-50, 113-36
(2 pis., 48 figs.). Cf, this Journal, 1891, p. 639.

222

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

but of constant occurrence in suppurative processes. The phenomena
are easily observable in the infective maladies of man and animals, and
occur both in the spontaneously acquired and in artificially imported
diseases. Where the appearances are associated with special characters,
the observations may possess diagnostic value. The cells in which the
Schizomycetes were most frequently met with were polynuclear leuco-
cytes. Much less often they were observed in mononuclear leucocytes,
in epithelial cells (gonorrhoea), in bone marrow (osteomyelitis), and in
peritoneal cells. By careful observations the author satisfied himself
that the bacteria were inside and not upon the cells. In addition to
the presence of the Schizomycetes in the cells, changes were observed
both in the including cells and in the included bacteria. The changes
affecting the bacteria were those of shape and size with loss of colour
reaction. Changes in the cells affected both the cytoplasm and the
nucleus. In both a diminution in staining capacity might occur. The
nucleus might show great alterations of shape. The cytoplasm might
become softened, and this degeneration went so far as complete vacuola-
tion. These changes were apparently connected with living bacteria
only ; for if dead cultures were used, then no retrogressive changes were
observed in the cells. If the presence of bacteria in cells be so common,
it would seem to follow that a specific diagnosis, unless the appearances
were accompanied by some special criteria of shape and colour reaction,
would be difficult from a microscopical examination. The author’s
observations naturally recall phagocytosis ; and it would seem that the
retrogressive changes seen both in the vegetable and in the animal
cells afforded evidence of a struggle between the two ; but the fact that
retrogressive changes were not found when dead cultures were used,
must be taken into account. The preparations were stained by Inghil-
leri’s method.

Contagion from Books.* — In some experiments made by Drs. Du Cazal
and Catrin for the purpose of testing whether contagious diseases can
be transferred by books, the question was considered under three heads :
do books contain microbes, and especially pathogenic ones ? can a disease
be imparted through the agency of a book used by a patient suffering
from a contagious malady ? can books be easily and effectively disin-
fected ? The method employed was to soil books with morbid products,
allow them to dry, and then cut out a piece and put it in sterilised
bouillon. Portions of infected bouillon were injected into veins, the
peritoneal sac, and beneath the skin of animals. The animals sickened,
but did not die, and the organisms isolated were bacteria and moulds. In
the second section five pathogenic bacteria were examined as to their
capacity for transmission. Positive results were obtained with Strepto-
coccus, Pneumococcus , and diphtheria ; the results with tuberculosis and
typhoid fever were negative. Disinfection experiments were conducted
with the vapour of formic aldehyde ; the results from this method were
for the most part satisfactory ; but in application, especially on a large
scale, it was found to present considerable difficulties.

Disinfection in an autoclave was not only effective, but facile, and
this method is strongly recommended.

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, ix. (1895) pp. 865-7G.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

223

Sun Disinfection.* * * §' — It is well known, says Herr von Esmarch, that
sunlight is a powerful disinfectant, being able to destroy micro-
organisms when occurring in thin layers. Experiments with the view
of rendering this power useful in practice were made with substances
infected with diphtheria, cholera, typhoid, and suppuration bacteria.
The results did not answer the expectation ; for though the uppermost
layers were disinfected, the micro-organisms in the undermost layers
retained their vitality. For practical purposes, therefore, sunlight is
not an effective disinfectant.

Non-Bacterial Nutrition.! — Prof. Duclaux, in discussing the ques-
tion of non-bacterial nutrition, gives special attention to the recent experi-
ments of Nuttall and Thierfelder. J Ten years ago the author published
a note “on germination in soil rich in organic matter but devoid of
microbes,” and showed that when leguminous plants are grown in a
medium containing milk, starch, and sugar, the sugar is not inverted
nor the starch saccharised, nor the milk clotted ; and with regard to
animals, the position taken up was that while bacteria play a part in
digestion which cannot be neglected, yet their presence is not a physio-
logical necessity. M. Pasteur, however, was of opinion that life devoid
of microbes was an impossibility ; that without their ferment action and
their peptonising function there could be but imperfect and indifferent
digestion. Nencki, taking the opposite view, held that bacterial products
(indol, scatol, ammonia, and such like) were of no nutritive value. For
the solution of the problem it had been Pasteur’s suggestion that fowls
should be bred from sterilised eggs, kept in a sterilised atmosphere, and
fed on sterilised food. MM. Nuttall and Thierfelder, however, found
that most eggs contain microbes ; their experiments were conducted on
guinea-pigs. The animals were removed from their mothers by caesarian
section performed with antiseptic precautions, and were afterwards kept
in a sterile environment and fed on sterilised food. For the details of
the laborious and lengthy experiments the original should be consulted.
It will be sufficient to say that all the difficulties were surmounted, and
the guinea-pig, which was even in a more thriving condition than its
brothers and sisters brought up in the ordinary way as checks, was
opened on the eighth day. No bacteria were found in the alimentary
canal, all the tubes remaining sterile. The author thinks that Nuttall
and Thierfelder have proved that bacteria are not needed for nutrition,
in so far at. least as animal food is concerned. All the same, experi-
ments with vegetable nutriment are wanted in order to render the case
complete.

Coprophilous Bacteria of the Permian Epoch.f — MM. B. Renault
and C. E. Bertrand, who have repeatedly examined the coprolites from
the lower gut of fossil fishes of the Permian epoch, have found number-
less forms of fossil bacteria. The authors’ communication is illustrated
with photographs of these gigantic microbes. The most frequent form

* Zeitsclir. f. Hygiene u. Infekt., xvi. (1894). See Bot. Centralbl., v. (1895)

Beih., p. 125.

f Ann. Inst. Pasteur, ix. (1895) pp. 896-901 ; and also Zeitsclir. f. Phys. Ckemie,
xxi. (1895) p. 109. i See ante, p. 178.

§ La Me'decine Moderne, 1891, No. 70. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Para-
sitenk., 2te Abt., i. (1895) p. 822. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 467.

224

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

is a rodlet 14-16 /x long and 2-5 /x broad, arranged in pairs or chains,
the individuals being somewhat bent or spirillar. Chemical analysis
showed the presence of phosphate of lime.

Cheese-Curd Inflation. — Prof. H. L. Bolley and Mr. C. M. Hall * * * §
adduce evidence to show that when cheese-curd inflation is the work, as
it mostly is, of gas-forming organisms, these organisms arc not located
in the udders, either in the fore oi hind milk. The normal udder, how-
ever, does possess a considerable bacterial flora, but no gas-engendering
organisms. It would appear, therefore, that, by taking suitable pre-
cautions, cheese-curd inflation may be almost entirely prevented. The
value of these precautions is easily perceived from the authors’ experi-
ments, one of which may be quoted as an example. Strippings from a
shorthorn cow were taken with the following precautions. The flank,
belly, and udder were washed and dried with moist cloth, and the hands
of the milker treated in a similar manner. The milk was stripped
directly into a sterile bottle. .Results : a very few large “ pinholes,” i.e.
inflation cavities in a solid non-floating curd, and no gas formation in
the fermentation tube after 48 hours.

In a subsequent communication f Prof. Bolley deals with the con-
stancy of bacterial species in normal fore-milk ; the general conclusions
being that, while there is no clear proof that the same species are common
to different animals, yet the constancy of the appearance of certain types,
when once present, becomes clearly evident.

Bacteria of Cheese Ripening4 — The recent investigations on cheese
ripening made by Dr. E. von Freudenreich, led him to suspect that, after
all, anaerobes may very possibly participate in the process ; and in support
of this view he adduces two facts. By making emulsions of various
cheeses and inoculating milk therewith, absolutely anaerobic bacilli
were eventually obtained. These microbes apparently form butyric acid.
From a similar source was isolated a bacillus which formed spores, and
in this stage was a Clostridium form. This microbe, called Clostridium
feetidum ladis, is an obligatory anaerobe and, as its name implies,
imparts a disagreeable odour to milk. This organism will not grow on
gelatin, but does so, though fr lowly, on sugar-agar. Puncture cultiva-
tions in sugar-agar resemble an inverted pine-tree, recalling cultures of
tetanus and of swine-erysipelas. The agar-cultures have a cheesy odour.
Though without the power of liquefying gelatin, it apparently entirely
dissolves the casein of milk, this medium turning yellow, and only a
slight sediment remaining.

Hence it seems possible that the organisms which bring about the
ripening of cheese need not be sought among the liquefying bacteria.

Microbes of the Plague.§ — Dr. T. Aoyama found in the lymphatic
glands (bubos) of persons dead of plague a bacillus identical with that
described by Kitasato. It can be stained by alkaline methylen-blue, but
not by Gram’s method. In the blood was found another bacillus resem-

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Paraaitenk., 2te Abt., i. (1895) pp. 788-95 (8 figs.).

f Tom. cit., pp. 795-9.

J Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., i. (1S95) pp. 854-7. Cf. this
Journal, 1895, p. 668.

§ Mittheil. a. d. Med. Facult'at d. Kaiserl.- Japan. Univ. Tokio, iii. (1895)
pp. 115-238 (6 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

225

bling that of fowl-cholera, and this could be stained by Gram’s method.
Besides these bacilli, which the author holds to be different species, partly
on account of their different shape and their staining reactions, Strepto-
cocci, amenable to Gram’s method, and Micrococci, only faintly coloured
by alkaline metliylen-bluc, are alluded to. The author’s paper, which
is lengthy, is almost entirely clinical.

Immunising Power of the Serum of the Vaccinated Heifer.*—
MM. A. Beclere, Chambon, and Menard have made a series of experi-
ments on the vaccinal immuuityand the immunising power of the serum
of the vaccinated heifer. The procedure adopted was to inoculate the
flanks of a heifer with approved vaccine, making linear incisions 2 cm.
long, about 3-4 cm. apart, with quincunx arrangement, and from 80-120
on each flank. The blood was drawn a certain number of days after the
end of the virulent period, i. e. after the pustules no longer contained
inoculable lymph. The serum was used by subcutaneous injection. A
large number of experiments were made on animals and some on children,
and from these the authors derive the conclusion that the serum of the
vaccinated heifer, when taken, beyond the virulent period, from ten to
fifty days after vaccination, possesses immunising properties against
inoculated vaccine. This immunising action is very rapid, while that
from subcutaneous vaccination is acquired slowly. This rapidity of
action shows that the serum owes its immunising properties to soluble
substances and not to the presence of microbes. The immunity from
subcutaneous vaccination is not complete till the eighth day, while that
from serum is practically instantaneous. The evidence of the efficiency
of both is the same, viz. inoculations are sterile, or rudimentary and
abortive, and if the latter, then the virulence of the contents is attenuated.
The quantity of serum required to confer even an incomplete immunity
is relatively large, being not less than one-hundredth of the weight of
the animal. The serum of the vaccinated heifer also possesses thera-
peutic properties as against the vaccine, and this action is less marked
the longer the interval after inoculation.

One of the authors has used this serum of the vaccinated heifer on
seventeen cases of small-pox. One of the patients, who received, on the
third day of the eruption, by subcutaneous injection, in the space of one
hour, more than a litre and a half of serum, and this without any local or
general ill effects, got rapidly well.

Spirillum desulfuricans.f — Prof. M. W. Beyerinck has isolated from
ditch water an organism which is strictly anaerobic and whose most
striking characteristic is its power of reducing sulphates. The colonies
are composed of short spirilla, very little bent, and usually about 4 fx
long and 1 /x thick. The individuals are extremely mobile, but their
movements are quickly stopped on access of oxygen. The isolation of
the organism, owing to its extreme sensitiveness to oxygen, was very
difficult. Success was eventually attained by employing a special
apparatus for its separation. The apparatus is a modification of the
•ordinary fermentation flask, and its construction rests on the principle
that the ordinary specific weight of bacteria is greater than that of the

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 1-46 (9 figs.).

f Arch. Nc'erland. d. Sci. Exact, et Nat., xxix. (1S95) pp. 233-77.

226

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

nutritive medium. After the spirilla liad developed iu these flasks,
they were isolated in agar or gelatin, to which malate of sodium,
asparagin, phosphate of potassium, and also minute quantities of Mohr’s
salt and carbonate of soda, were added.

Micrococcus tetragenus citreus.* — Herr S. Sterling describes a
coccus which was found iu the blood and urine of a case of ulcerative
endocarditis. In form it is very similar to Gonococcus ; it is grouped
in fours ; spore-formation was not observed ; it stains with alkaline
methylen-blue and by Gram’s method. The colonies on gelatin and
agar were yellow, round, and radiating. In puncture cultivations the
citron colour was most evident in gelatin which is liquefied. On potato
the growth is little evident, though by the end of the second week a
thin yellowish layer becomes visible. Other characters, such as coagu-
lation of milk, indol reaction, gas formation, and phosphorescence, were
negative. In the first direct cultures from the blood and urine, a capsule
enclosing four cocci was demonstrable. The organism is called M. tetra-
genus citreus.

Metastatic Anthrax in Man. j — Dr. A. Clement describes a case of
anthrax which was particularly marked by the small number of bacilli
in the capillaries, by the almost complete absence of bacterial emboli,
usually so frequent in anthrax, and by the extent of the metastatic
lesions. From these facts the author concludes that the prevalent
opinion that anthrax is essentially and always a blood infection, is
wrong. Anthrax is rather a local affection which, according to indi-
vidual predisposition and the quality of the virus, gets well without after
consequences, or is complicated with bacteriaemia, or with metastatic
lesions. Dissemination of the bacilli takes place more probably through
the lynqfliatic system than through the blood.

Microbe of Flax Retting.J — M. S. Winogradsky records the results
of researches, made in his laboratory by M. Y. Fribes, as to flax retting
and its microbe. After careful trials the specific agent of this industrial
process was found to be a somewhat large bacillus, which, when it con-
tained a spore, was tadpole-shaped. When young the joints are from
10-15 jx long and 0 • 8 /x broad. Later on they thicken somewhat (1 /x),
and then ovoid swellings 3 /x by 2 /x appear in their course, the spore
therein being 1*8 [x by 1*2 /x. M. Fribes obtained pure cultures of
this bacillus by cultivating it anaerobically on boiled potato rubbed in
with chalk.

Trial as to the retting power of these pure cultures was made on an
extensive scale, and the flax thus treated was afterwards scutched, harled,
and combed ; the fibres turned out fine, silky, and pale, but rather weak
and loose in texture from the fermentation being too protracted. Further
experiments showed that the specific agent of flax retting acts in virtue of
being a pectic ferment, decomposing pectic substances, pectin, or pectic
acid with great facility. The microbe has no action on cellulose or gum
arabic. It can, however, ferment glucose, cane-sugar, milk-sugar, and

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lt0 Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 141-2.

t Ann. de Micrographie, viii. (1896) pp. 1-20.

j Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 742-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

227

starch, provided pepton be present. If ammonia he the only source of
nitrogen in the medium, then the microbe has no fermentative power.

Bacillus cyaneo-fluorescens.* * * § — Herr W. Zangemeister describes a
bacillus found in coagulated milk on the surface of which were dark
blue flakes. The pigment was of Berlin blue colour, and insoluble in
water, alcohol, ether, and chloroform. The bacillus is oval in shape,
short and thick, with flagella at both ends. It is very mobile, grows
well at room temperature, does not liquefy gelatin, and the colonies on
this medium are round and white. The medium becomes stained of a
greenish-yellow colour and fluoresces briskly. The gelatin colonies
smell strongly of trimethylamin. This organism combines the charac-
ters of two species, viz. fluorescent and cyanogenus. The pigment is
formed only when the reaction of the medium is acid.

Bacteria of the Conjunctiva and Eyelid.f — The communication of
Dr. C. Brandt on bacteria which have been detected on the eyelids and
conjunctiva, has for its chief object certain measures for the repression
or removal, by means of bandages and ointments, of the parasites. Of
the therapeutic and longer portion of the author’s work, notice need not
be taken ; and of the shorter and preliminary portion it need only be
said that it is practically confined to an enumeration of the bacteria and
fungi which have been found by different observers on the lid margins
or on the conjunctiva.

Pneumobacillus of Friedlander.J — M. L. Grimbert found, from a
study of the fermentative products of the bacillus of Friedliinder, that
these were ethyl-alcohol, acetic acid, lscvolactic acid, and succinic acid.
While glucose, galactose, arabinose, mannite, and glycerin give lsevo-
lactic acid only, saccharose, lactose, and maltose give both succinic acid
and laevolactic acid, while dulcite, dextrin, and potato produce only suc-
cinic acid. Acetic acid was met with in a state of purity in all the fer-
mentations. Ethyl-alcohol was sometimes absent, as in the fermentation
of arabinose and potato ; or traces only were found, as with glucose,
saccharose, and maltose. With dextrin, it is mixed with a small quan-
tity of the higher alcohols. With mannite, the ferment produces hevo-
lactic acid, while dulcite gives only succinic acid. In consequence of
his results differing from those obtained by Frankland, the author con-
cludes that there are two Pneumobacilli Friedliinder, which, though
morphologically alike, differ in their fermentative action, and suggests
that the action on glycerin should be ascertained before a definite con-
clusion is arrived at.

Streptococcus and non-Diphtheritic Angina.§ — Prof. G. H. Lemoine
examined 168 cases of angina, of which 112 were scarlatinal (74 pseudo-
membranous, and 38 erythematous), the remaining 58 being distributed
among measles, mumps, simple and membranous tonsillitis, and chronic
tonsillitis (3 cases). The material used was obtained from the tonsils.
The patient having washed out the mouth with sterilised water, the
surface of the tonsil was swabbed with’ cotton wool,' and a portion of

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xviii. (1895) pp. 321-4.

f Verhandl. Phys.-Med. Gesellsch. zu Wurzburg, xxix. (1895)20 pp.

1 Ann. Inst. Pasteur, ix. (1895) pp. 840-53. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 109.

§ Tom. cit., pp. 877-84.

228

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the surface cauterised with a heated pipette. Into the centre of the
eschar a capillary tube was plunged, and the minute portion of matter
removed was placed in bouillon. Some of the infected bouillon was dis-
tributed in gelose tubes, and incubated at 37°, some was inoculated in
liquid serum, and some on solid serum.

In some cases matter was removed from the tonsillar crypts and
from the surface of the tonsil, and in pseudo-membranous cases the
membrane itself was used. The result of the experiments was to show
the remarkable constancy of the presence of Streptococcus. Out of the
165 acute cases, the material in 142 came from within the tonsil, in the
remaining 23 from the surface. In 126 cases, Streptococcus was alone,
in 11 it was associated with Staphylococcus , and in 5 with Bacillus
coli communis. In the 23 exudate eases, Streptococcus was alone in 12,
associated with Staphylococcus in 6, with B. coli in 3, and with Pneumo-
coccus and B. coli in 2 cases.

From the 3 cases of chronic tonsillitis was obtained a pure culture of
bacilli, having characters resembling those of B. coli. They were slightly
mobile ; the colonies on potato were typical ; one coagulated milk, but did
not give the indol reaction ; another had every character of B. coli , except
mobility ; and the third reddened litmus milk without coagulating it.

Character and Variability of Species of Tyrothrix Dnclaux.* — Dr.

W. V inkier found, from an examination of species of Tyrothrix , that,
while some, as T. tenuis , were more allied to the hay and potato bacilli,
others, as T. urocephala and T. filiformis, were more nearly connected
with the Granulobacteria (both aerobic and facultative anaerobic). They
adapt themselves with ease to different nutrient media, their characters
thereby becoming altered. In milk they are more or less peptonising.
Butyric acid is only occasionally produced. Milk-sugar promotes
growth, but appears to interfere with their peptonising power. Three
varieties of T. tenuis were cultivated : (1) a form peptonising milk and
liquefying gelatin ; (2) a form producing lactic acid, but not liquefying
gelatin ; (3) a fluorescing form which formed a red pigment on potato.
Bacillus xvi. Adametz, which is undoubtedly a species of Tyrothrix, is
an example of the conversion of a lactic acid bacterium into a peptonising
organism. T. urocephala and T. tenuis were found to aid the ripening
of cheese, and there are grounds for believing that in this ripening, pep-
tonising bacteria play the principal part. On bacteriological examina-
tion of ripe hard- cheese, however, lactic acid bacteria were always found
to predominate. It is possible to explain this by supposing that certain
peptonising bacteria are converted into lactic acid bacteria, or develope
the power of forming lactic acid more strongly.

Specific Properties of the Protective Bodies in the Blood of Ani-
mals immune to Typhoid and Coli Bacteria.f — Herren F. Loeffler
and R. Abel made a large number of experiments with a view to ascertain
the specific properties of the protective bodies in the blood of animals
previously rendered immune to infection of typhoid and coli bacteria.
The animals were treated with bacteria from different sources and of
different virulence. Both kinds of bacteria had not only the typical

* -Oentralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., i. (1895) pp. 658-73 (G2 figs.),
f Op. cit., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 51-70.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

229

morphological characters proper to their species, but were further distin-
guished from one another by the typhoid not fermenting sugar, not
coagulating milk, and giving no indol reaction, and by the coli cultures
coagulating milk, fermenting sugar, and giving a positive indol reaction.
The virulence of the cultures was found to be extremely high, 0*02 of a
loopful of a 24 hours old agar culture of typhoid suspended in 1 ccm. of
bouillon killing a guinea-pig in 13-20 hours, and 0*002 of a loopful of a
coli culture being fatal in 10-12 hours. Expressed in weight these
quantities would be equivalent to 0*000036 grm. and 0*0000036 grm.
The principal conclusions arrived at by the authors are, that by treating
dogs with increasing doses of virulent typhoid or coli bacteria, bodies
are produced in the blood of these animals which possess a specific pro*
tective power, but only against those bacteria to which they owe their
origin. This seems to support the view that typhoid and coli bacteria are
distinct species. Normal serum, i. e. serum of animals not so treated,
also exerts a certain amount of protective power. Typhoid serum is
more strongly protective against coli bacteria than normal serum, and
coli serum is also stronger than normal serum against typhoid bacteria.
One interesting result was that high and low doses were ineffective,
while with medium doses the animals survived (Table vi.) For further
particulars, the original should be consulted.

Bacterium gelatinosum Betse.* — Dr. F. Glaser has isolated a bac-
terium which exerts on beet-juice an action very similar to that of
Leuconostoc mesenterioides. Pure cultivations were easily obtained on
beet-juice gelatin, on which in about twenty-four hours white milky
colonies developed, the gelatin being quickly liquefied. The bacteria
were extremely mobile, and when stained with methylen-blue, were found
to be short rodlets, several being often joined together. Cultivated in
beet-juice the optimum temperature was 40°-45° ; and after about twelve
hours’ growth in the medium the surface became covered with a jelly-
like membrane. Similar but less marked growth appearances occurred
in beer-wort. On neutral 10 per cent, molasses it did not grow, this
defect serving as a distinguishing criterion between Bacterium gelatino-
sum Betse and Leuconostoc for the latter grows with remarkable rapidity
in that medium. If, however, the membrane from a beet-juice medium,
after treatment with alcohol or after incineration, be added to the
molasses, a membrane forms ; hence the inorganic bodies present in the
membrane, such as phosphoric acid, iron oxide, and magnesia, must be
necessary for the development of the bacterium. Another distinguishing
feature between this bacterium and Leuconostoc is that the fermentation
product of the former is alcohol, that of the latter lactic acid, when
cultivated in beet juice. The fermented juice reduces Fehling’s solu-
tion ; from which it may be inferred that the beet-sugar is inverted.

The gelatinous membrane has characters similar to those of beet-
gum ; it is soluble in warm dilute acids ; a hydrochloric acid solution
reduces Fehling’s solution, the red suboxide being precipitated ; a sul-
phuric acid solution gives a greenish-yellow precipitate ; it is easily
soluble in caustic alkali, but insoluble in baryta water and in lactate of
lime.

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., i. (1895) pp. 879-80.

1896 R

230 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Anti- Anthrax Serum. * — M. E. Marchoux records a large number of
experiments made with anti-anthrax serum, and finds that the serum of
animals (rabbits and sheep) which have become habituated to strong
doses of anthrax cultures in bouillon, acquires a special property ; it
indisputably possesses preventive and curative properties. After the
injection of the serum a transient phagocytic reaction, ending in destruc-
tion of the bacteria, may be observed. This anti-anthrax serum does not
act after the manner of a vaccine ; its protective action is established
quickly, and is as quickly lost. It appears to act as a stimulant to the
white corpuscles of the blood, it increases their mobility, and hence its
protective and curative action is indirect and due to phagocytosis.

The serum is obtained in the usual way, namely, by accustoming
animals (sheep and rabbits) to increasing doses of an attenuated virus,
so that eventually they can support considerable quantities of virulent
cultures. The serum was found to be most efficacious at a period of from
fifteen days to three weeks after infection, and its activity was required
to be at least 1000. Once obtained, the serum retained its power very
well ; for at the end of two months its activity was not diminished.

Antistreptococcous Serum, j — Dr. A. Marmorek gives an analysis of
96 cases of scarlet fever treated with antistreptococcous serum having a
preventive power of 30,000. In all these cases Streptococcus was present
either alone or in company with other microbes. In seventeen cases the
bacillus of Loeffler was found ; of these, four died from diphtheritic
intoxication. Only one purely scarlet fever case was lost.

All the children received 10 ccm. of serum, and if the case was severe
double that quantity. The injections were repeated daily until the
temperature fell: one or two injections were usually sufficient. If,
however, the lymphatic glands enlarged or albumen appeared in the
urine, the injections were continued until the bubos subsided and the
albumen disappeared.

It is inferred that scarlet fever is not caused by the Streptococcus
known to us ; for when a rise of temperature is due to the action of this
microbe, it ceases after injection of the serum ; while the fever from
the scarlatinal virus continues and the eruption pursues its ordinary
course.

Effect of Injection of Solutions of Common Salt and of Anti-
Diphtheritic Serum 4 — Dr. Axel Johannessen has performed a series of
experiments to determine the truth of the statement that anti-diphtheritic
serum is dangerous in the case of tuberculous children. The injections
were performed on children and nurses, and consisted in the first place
of a 0*79 solution of common salt, and in the second of 5-20 ccm. of
Koux’s serum injected subcutaneously. The salt solution produced no
very definite effect in either tuberculous or non-tuberculous cases ; the
serum, especially in adults, produced very marked effects, among which
were rise of temperature, development of erythema, pain and swelling of
the joints; but there was no distinct difference between tuberculous and
non-tuberculous patients.

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, ix. (1895) pp. 785-810.
t Op. cit., x. (1896) pp. 47-50.
t Biol. Centralbl., xv. (1995) pp. 647-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

231

Introduction to Bacteriology.* — Prof. F. Hueppe’s Introduction to
Bacteriology is one of those professorial exercises which are wont to be
put forth on the occasion of the jubilee of some distinguished person, or
dedicated to the honour of some ancient foundation. As might have
been expected from the position of the author, the present monograph
deals with the numerous aspects of Bacteriology in a thorough and
scientific manner. The tone is impartial and the matter up to date.
Its most interesting features are the discussions on the nature and effects
of the bacterial poisons and the methods for dealing with disease. After
describing the chief features of the morphology of bacteria, the pheno-
mena of their life-history are reviewed. These are followed by a short
account of the more important pathogenic micro-organisms and of the
causes of disease. Immunity, protective and curative inoculation are
then discussed at some length. In this section protective serum and its
action receive considerable attention. The work concludes with chapters
on the prevention of disease and the history of Bacteriology.

* Wiesbaden, 1896, 268 pp., 28 figs. J

232

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

(i) Stands.

Microscopes and their most important Accessories for Crystallo-
graphic and Petrographical Investigations.-)- — Herr C. Leiss gives a
full descriptive account of the various Microscopes and accessories for
crystallographic and petrographical purposes which have been supplied
by the firm of Fuess, of Berlin.

Among the instruments which have not already been described and
figured in this Journal are the following : —

Small model (IV. and V.), shown in fig. 27. The stand is of the
tripod form. The rack-and-pinion adjustment is sufficiently delicate
for the use of fairly high objectives, such as Nos. 7 and 9. At the lower
end of the body-tubes are the screws c for centering the objective. The
latter is not screwed on, but is held by a spring clamp h in a short conical
adapter. Immediately above the clamp h at K is a slit for the reception
of the Biot-Klein quartz-plate, gypsum, and mica plates, &c. In the
lower part of the body-tube is the opening for the analysing prism N
of the Glan-Thomson construction, which gives the greatest field of
view. Another slit at B serves to receive the Bertrand lens. The
draw-tube R is provided with a projecting ring, which carries the index
for the divided circle of the auxiliary analyser A used for stauroscopic
measurements, &c. The ocular lens of the Huyghens eye-piece is held
in a movable socket, so that each observer can adjust on the cross-wires.
For the observation of axial images, in connection with the Bertrand
lens a Ramsden eye-piece is provided which is furnished with a glass
micrometer.

The rotating stage is divided in degrees, and carries a vernier reading
to 5 minutes. On its upper surface are two rectangular divisions.

Under the stage, attached to the stand is the socket H, which is
adjustable by rack and pinion, and carries the polarising nicol. Above
the polariser is screwed a condensing lens. For the interchange of
parallel and convergent light there is a special arrangement for the
rapid insertion and removal of the hemispherical lens for convergent
light. In the hollow space between the base-plate of the stage and its
upper plate is a small plate, from which projects an arm terminating in
a ring which holds the hemispherical lens. When the polariser with
its weak condensing lens is raised, it catches up the hemispherical lens
and raises it with it up to the plane of the object-stage. When the
polariser is lowered, the hemispherical lens follows its movement until it
reaches the ring of the movable arm, when it can be moved aside out of
the axis of the Microscope.

The larger models (I.-III.) have been described in this Journal,
1886, p. 843 ; 1891, p. 393 ; and 1892, p. 665.

Improvements which have been recently introduced are an arrange-
ment for rotating the inner nicol, and the insertion of an iris-diaphragm

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

t Zeitschr. f. Ang^wandte Mikroskopie, i. (1895) pp. 97-109, 129-38, 193-206.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

233

beneath the Bertrand lens. The rotation of the nieol is effected by
the head d (fig. 28), and the angle is read off on the divided quadrant T.
The two principal positions (0° and 90°) are marked by stops.

Accessory Apparatus. — Of especial importance in mineralogical in-
vestigations for the determination of differences of refraction in rock
constituents is the iris-diaphragm. Fig. 29 shows how the iris-
diaphragm beneath the stage is connected with the holder of the polariser.

234

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Its position is between the Nicol’s prism and the lower lens of the con-
densing system which is attached to the polariser. For the observation
of objects in light of definite wave-length, the Rollet spectropolariser as
modified by Dippel and Abbe (fig. 30) is serviceable. It is connected
with the Microscope by the insertion of the tube R in the socket of
the polariser. The light reflected from the mirror s passes through
the polarising nicol Po to the movable slit, and thence through the
collimator C and the prism combination P P to the objective 0, which

Fig. 28.

projects a spectrum upon the object to be examined. By reflection on a
prism face, a scale of wave-length is projected, together with the spec-
trum, in the plane of the image. The scale is illuminated by the mirror
s pi.

The screws s and s' serve to adjust the prisms so as to bring cor-
responding positions of the spectrum and scale into coincidence. To
bring definite parts of the spectrum in the middle of the field, the
objective 0 can be displaced by the slide u.

For the observation of minerals with wide axial angle Fuess prepares
a special condenser and objective system (immersion), whose lenses are
cut out of strongly refracting flint glass.

Of axial angle apparatus which can be attached to the Microscope-
stage there are several varieties.

In the apparatus shown in fig. 31, for the measurement of the axial
angle in very small plates, the principle of Adams is used ; in larger
plates or crystals the usual medium of immersion is a strongly refractive
liquid.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC,

235

On a base-plate which is clamped to the stage by the binding-screw M
rises the stand S with the divided circle T, which is provided with a
vernier reading to 5 minutes. The rod carrying the glass hemispheres of
the Adams apparatus, between which the crystal plate is laid, can be
rotated by the arc D for the adjustment of the plane of the optic axes.

Fig. 30.

The two hemispheres can be removed when desired, and replaced by the
crystal-holder P or K. For axial measurements in liquids, the vessel
G is used. This is attached to the angle-plate W, which is clamped
to the base-plate by the screw M.

The simple apparatus devised by C. Klein for the optical examination

236

8UMMA11Y OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of crystals in media having approximately the same refractive index as
the mean refractive index of the crystal is shown in fig. 32.

The rotating pin carrying the crystal projects into the cylindrical
vessel containing the immersion liquid. The pin is steadied by the
spring H, and the glass apparatus is firmly held to the circular base-
plate by the clamp K.

Fig. 88. Fig. 3 k

Fig. 35.

Fig. 36.

In fig. 33 is shown a more complete apparatus, in which two rotations
at right angles can be given to the crystal. For this apparatus the
Microscope must be in the horixontal position. The divided circle M
is rotated by the head P and is fixed by the screw R. The movable
axis carries the divided circle K and the object-holder 0.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

237

Klein’s large universal apparatus (fig. 34) serves not only to deter-
mine the extinctions of the different faces of a zone and to ascertain the
directions of the optic axes, but also to measure the axial angle. The
Microscope is placed in the horizontal position. At right angles to
the base-plate G rises the holder T, with the divided circle K, which is
fixed by the screw S. The rod P can be displaced in the direction of
the axis and fixed by the screw Y. The lower end of the rod P carries
the two arcs L and bl for the adjustment of the crystal.

Fedorow’s universal stage for observation in parallel polarised light
(Type I.), as made by Fuess, is represented with the neighbouring parts
of the Microscope in fig. 35.

The base-plate of the apparatus carries an upright with the axis of the
divided circle T. On the inner surface of this the plate A is fastened ;
at right angles to this rests the support for the movable axis of the
divided circle T, at right angles to the first. On the side of this turned

Fig. 37. Fig. 38.

towards the Microscope is the sliding-piece, adjustable by the screw s,
which carries the object-stage 0.

For investigations in strongly refracting liquids the apparatus has
the arrangement shown in fig. 36. In place of the object-stage O the
holder W is attached by the screw a. The vessel containing the liquid
is carried by the support S. When filled it can be brought into position
from below and clamped by the screw m.

Fedorow’s universal stage (Type II.) is shown in fig. 37. From a
base-plate which can be firmly clamped to the stage rises the upright
carrying the vertical divided circle. On the inner surface of this is
• attached the sliding-piece (as in Type I.) which supports the holder of
the horizontal circle.

Of special eye-pieces, the one shown in fig. 38 is provided with a
Calderon calcite plate or the Bertrand quartz plate, and is used for the
determination of the directions of extinction in weakly doubly refracting
substances. In order to enable the observer to look exactly at right
angles to the stauroscopie plate, a diaphragm d is placed over the

:238

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

analyser, and the field of view is correspondingly limited by the dia-
phragm c.

For exact microscopic measurements in the field of view such as
cannot be effected by the ordinary glass micrometer, a screw eye-piece
micrometer is used. It is particularly adapted for the measurement of
the apparent separation of the optic axes. It consists of a long four-
sided box, in which, by means of a micrometer- screw and counter spring,
moves a slide A, in the central opening of which is a diaphragm, across
which at an angle of 30° two spider webs are stretched.

Ftg. 39. Fig. 40.

The eye-piece goniometer, seen in fig. 39, serves for the measurement
of plane angles. The tube a, which fits into the body-tube of the
Microscope, carries in its upper part the diaphragm e, which is held by
four screws i. Over this is drawn a thread passing exactly through
the axis. With the circle d divided in half-degrees is connected the

Eamsden eye-piece with the dia-
Fig. 41. phragm /. The latter is approached

as near as possible to the diaphragm e,
g and also carries a thread centered ex-
actly in the axis.

In fig. 40 is shown the measuring-
apparatus of Becke for use when the
axial images are observed by Klein’s
method of placing a lens above the
Ozapski eye-piece. In a tube fitted
over the Czapski eye-piece is the ap-
lanatic lens O. Under this is the
micrometer-scale M, which can be ad-*
justed in the direction of the axis
by the two milled heads & and Jc'. For the observation and measure-
ment of the axial image, the Klein’s lens is placed above the Eamsden
eye-piece, adjustment is made with the objective 0, and the micrometer M
is raised or lowered so as to coincide in position with the image formed
by the Eamsden eye-piece.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

239

' Exner’s micro-refractometer (fig. 41) serves for the determination of
the difference of refraction of two strongly refracting substances in a
rock-section. The apparatus is brought over the end of the body-
tube T in the position of the analyser.

Fig. 42.

An instrument suitable for instruction on the optical properties of
rocks and minerals is the demonstration Microscope shown in fig. 42.
The body-tube M slides in the socket H, and can be clamped by the
ring K. The analysing nicol A is movable about a hinge, and can be
rotated in its socket, which is provided with a division. Gypsum and
mica plates can be inserted between it and the eye-piece. Above the

240 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

polariser is a condensing system of two lenses, the upper of which can he
removed for observation in parallel light. For observation of the axial

Fig. 48.

image with magnification, the Klein’s lens L is attached to the analyser
by the three screws.

The Fuess Microscope, in which the Dick principle for the simul-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

241

taneous rotation of the two nicols has been adopted, has already been
described in this Journal, 1892, p. 668. In its latest most perfect form
it is represented in fig. 43. This model is provided with a rotating
stage and centering arrangement for the objective.

In another model, having the same form and size, the stage is fixed.
Fuess also supplies a cheap instrument, non-inclinable, and without fine-
adjustment, but having the same arrangement for the simultaneous
rotation of the nicols.

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

A Modern Microscopic Objective.* — Mr. H. Orford looks upon the
Abbe diffraction theory as one of the “ untenable theories ” which were
advanced “ years back, when the instrument was known only to a few
scientists.” He is willing to admit, however, one good effect which has
resulted from it, viz. that it has settled for ever striving after useless
magnifying power in objectives with small apertures, and has led
opticians to construct lower powers of large aperture. He endeavours
to demonstrate the benefit derived from the larger aperture by reference
to the pinhole experiment of Lord Kayleigh, which consists in looking
at a piece of fine wire gauze through a small and a large pinhole in a
black card. If the gauze be gradually removed until the meshes can
be no longer seen through the small pinhole, they will again become
visible on looking through the large pinhole. That this result is not
merely due to the greater intensity of the light is shown by another
experiment, which consists in looking at the gauze through two scratches
(one vertical and the other horizontal), about 1/16 in. long, on a piece
of blackened glass. The gauze is held so that the wires are horizontal
and vertical to the scratches on the glass, when at a certain distance it
will be found that the vertical scratch will only show the horizontal
wires, and the horizontal scratch only the vertical wires.

The result of the author’s experience as a manufacturer of lenses of
some years’ standing is that a Microscope objective should have large
aperture, but that aperture is worse than useless unless it is properly
corrected.

Abbe’s Spectroscopic Ey e-piece, j — This instrument (figs. 44 and 45)
is specially constructed for the examination of absorption-spectra of
microscopic objects. The achromatic upper lens is adjustable so as to
focus on the slit between the lenses. The mechanism is actuated by
a screw, so as to effect the symmetrical contraction and expansion
of the slit. The screw H serves to limit the length of the slit, so that
the image of the object may completely fill it when the comparison-
prism is inserted.

Above the eye-piece is placed an Amici prism of great depression
which may be turned aside about the pivot Jc , so as to allow of the
adjustment of the object being controlled, the prism being retained in
its axial position by the spring catch L. A scale of wave-lengths is
projected on the spectrum by means of a scale-tube and mirror attached

* Journ. New York Micr. Soc., xi. (1895) pp. 106-10.
f Zeiss’ Catalogue, No. 30, 1895, pp. 88-9.

242

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

to the prism-casing. The screw P serves to adjust the scale with respect
to the spectrum.

The instrument is inserted in the tube in place of the ordinary eye-
piece, and is clamped by the screw M in such a position that the mirrors

A and 0, which respectively serve to illuminate the comparison-prism
and the scale, are simultaneously illuminated by sunlight.

Determination of the Focal Length of Objectives.* — M. P. Fran-
cotte regrets that opticians do not mark their objectives with their focal
lengths instead of by letters or by arbitrary numbers. He finds that
with a tube-length of 160 mm., using the compensating eye-piece 4 of
Zeiss, the value of one division of a micrometer eye-piece in which 1 mm.
is divided into 100 parts, is equal in microns to the number which
expresses the focal length of any objective used. For any other eye-
piece the same result follows by varying the tube-length. Thus, if the
length of the tube be fixed once for all for any eye -piece, in order to
find the focal length of an objective, it is sufficient to determine with
the aid of the objective and an objective micrometer the value of one
division of the eye-piece micrometer ; the number of /x obtained is then
the same as that which expresses in millimetres the focal length
sought.

Eye-piece with Iris-Diaphragm.f — Hr. 0. Zaeharias calls attention
to a new eye-piece recently brought out by Zeiss, which has proved very
serviceable in biological work.f

* Bull. Soc. Beige de Microscopie, xxi. (1894-5) pp. 208-15.
t Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 30-1.
t See this Journal, ante , p. 120.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

243

£3) Illuminating1 and other Apparatus.

Apparatus for Electrolysis under the Microscope.* — Dr. W. Kaiser
describes the apparatus which he uses for electrolysis and for electro-
physiological experiments with infusoria and bacteria under the Micro-
scope.

The apparatus is represented in section and plan in figs. 46 and 47.
In fig. 46, E F G H is an ordinary slide, on which is cemented by Canada

Fig. 46.

balsam the conical glass block bl. This block is pierced by six holes,,
of which only the two middle ones at hr are visible in fig. 46. Under-
neath, where the block is cylindrical, these borings, which are parallel
in pairs, meet at an obtuse angle the borings /3 /?. The ends of the six
borings on the upper face of the block are seen in fig. 47, at ab cdef.
Through these openings are drawn the three platinum wires which serve
as electrodes in the apparatus. Only the upper parts of the wires between
a and b, c and d , e and /, are left free. These parts, a b, c d, e /, of the
wires are parallel to each other, and about 5 mm. long. The outer
wires a b and e f are 0 • 2 mm. thick, the middle wire c d is 0 • 1 mm. thick,
and 1 mm. distant from the other two. In fig. 46 the further course of
the wire c d is shown as a white line on a black ground. At c and dl
and at X and XL the wire is bent at an obtuse angle. On the right it
passes from Xl to p2, but on the left it ends at y. The pieces Xlf p2 and
X y are imbedded in black sealing-wax, or rather are between two glass
plates cemented together by sealing-wax. For on the slide E F G H
(fig. 46) is cemented a thick object-holder A B C D conically bored
through in the middle, so as to fit over the block bl and leave a groove o
round it, as seen in fig. 47. The glass block bl (fig. 46) is about 0 * 1 mm.
lower than the thickness of the plate A B C D, so that when a cover-
glass S— is placed over the aperture o-o1} there is room for a drop of
liquid t-t1 (fig. 46) between the cover-glass and the upper surface of the
glass block on which are the platinum wires. Fig. 47 shows the appa-
ratus as seen from above, and explains how the platinum wires are con-
nected with the terminals of the battery. The middle wire c d which
forms the cathode has its branch p2 on the right soldered to the strip-
of copper foil Aq, while on the left the ends p and of the outer wires
a b and e/, which together form the anode, are soldered to the copper
strip Jc. The copper strips are firmly held by the cement between the
plates, and project about a decimetre beyond them to the clamping-
screws Jc l and Jc to which the wires from the battery are attached.
A drop of the liquid to be examined is brought on to a cover-glass S-SL

* Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, civ. iii. (1895).

“244

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which is then placed over the opening o and attached with a little grease .
The platinum wires ab , c d, e f then lie in the liquid, which is prevented
from passing into the borings by the latter being tilled by a cement which
is not attacked by acids or alkalies.

l'TGr. 47.

To prevent the cover-glass from being displaced owing to the dis-
engagement of gases during the electrolysis, a channel y x (fig. 46) is cut,
by which they may pass off.

With medium' power objectives the three wires all come within the
field of view, but with stronger objectives only one wire can be observed
at a time. For this reason the thickness of the middle wire has been
made one-half that of the other two, and this wire in electrolytic experi-
ments is used as the cathode on which the metal is deposited.

The apparatus can be used for both qualitative and quantitative
electrolysis, and for electrophysiological experiments.

Fig. 48.

In electrolytic experiments, the metal (copper, gold, mercury, (fee.)
is deposited on the middle wire, and determined by observation under
the Microscope or by chemical tests.

The use of the apparatus for quantitative results is not much insisted
on by the author. The method consists in measuring the thickness of
the metallic deposit on the cathode. Fig. 48 represents this cathode
magnified. If r denote the original radius of the wire, rx its radius after

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. MICROSCOPY, ETC.

245

the deposition of the metal, h its length, d half the increase in thickness
(so that rx = r 4- d)x and vx the volume of the deposited metal, then

vx = Jix 7r rx2 — h . 7r r2
= h 7r (r -f- d)2 — h . 7rr2
= Ji7r(2rd + d2).

If s denote the specific gravity and p the weight of metal deposited,
p = s . vx = 9 . li tt (2 r d + d2).

Thus, if the specific gravity of the electrically deposited metal and
the original thickness of the platinum wire are known, the weight of
metal deposited can be determined by measuring with the micrometer
the increased thickness (2 d) of the wire. The use of the apparatus for
electrophysical experiments needs no particularising.

Micrometry.* — Mr. E. G. Love passes in review the various methods
in use for determining the actual size of microscopic objects.

The earliest efforts in this direction, such as those of Leeuwenhoek
and Jurin, consisted in comparing the microscopic object with other
objects, such as grains of sand, of which the size was known.

In 1742, Benjamin Martin described an eye-piece micrometer con-
sisting of a screw pointed at one end, and carrying at the other a hand
which passed over a dial divided into twenty parts.

In 1747, Cuff devised a micrometer consisting of a lattice of fine
wire in a circular frame to be placed in the focus of the eye- piece.
Baker made a similar micrometer of human hair.

The needle micrometer shown in fig. 49 was designed by Adams.

Fig. 49.

It was clamped to the body-tube, the needle passing through a small
opening in the eye-piece. The number of revolutions of the screw
was registered by the prism a, while each division of the divided circle
indicated 1/1000 in. The value of the revolutions of the screw was
determined by means of a sectoral scale (fig. 49, A, B, and C) upon the
stage.

In 1840, Jackson devised an improved form of Martin’s eye-piece
micrometer. In this micrometer the scale was on glass, and was mounted

1896

Journ. New York Micr. Soc., xi. (1895) pp. 97-105 .

S

-246

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in a metal frame, which could be inserted in a slit in the eye-piece,
which was a negative one.

Of the micrometer eye-pieces with movable scales, the author de-
scribes that of Ramsden, which was first used for telescopes. It consists
of a positive eye-piece, in the focus of which two parallel wires or
cobwebs are stretched across the field. One of these is fixed, while the
other can be moved by means of a screw provided with a divided head.
Entire revolutions of the screw are registered by a metal comb on the
lower side of the field.

Nelson has modified this micrometer so that both wires can be
moved en bloc across the field.

Lastly, photomicrography supplies an accurate means of measuring
objects. The image of the stage micrometer is thrown upon the ground
glass, and then can be measured or photographed, as desired.

Zeiss’ Stage Screw Micrometer. " — This apparatus, shown in fig. 50,
is intended for the exact measurement of objects too large to be included

Fig 50.

in one visual field of the Microscope. A sliding-piece actuated by a
micrometer-screw, carries a rotating disc with divided circle, the divisions
of which indicate 0* 002 mm. The screw measures up to 10 mm.

* Zeiss’ Catalogue, No. 30, 1895, pp. 75-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

247

Abbe’s Apertometer.* — This apparatus, for determining the nume-
rical and angular aperture of objectives, f is seen in its latest form in
% 51.

Fig. 51.

Hartnack’s Illuminating Apparatus for Monochromatic Light, f —
In this apparatus, shown in fig. 52, the light from the slit Sp is rendered

Fig. 52.

parallel by the collimator C, and after passing through the pair of
prisms Px P2 is projected upon the object by the objective O. The
different colours of the spectrum can be made to successively traverse

* Zeiss’ Catalogue, No. 30, 1895, p. 29.

+ See this Journal, 1878, p. 19, and 1880, p. 20.

X Zeiss’ Catalogue, No. 30, 1895, pp. 66-7.

s 2

248

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the field of view by adjusting the position of the slit by means of the
screw sr The screw s2 serves to regulate the width of the slit.

The apparatus is connected with the Abbe illuminator by a centering
collar.

Microscope-Stage with Iris-Diaphragm.* — Dr. W. Behrens de-
scribes the stage with iris-diaphragm made by Meyer & Co., to facili-
tate the change from condenser-illumination to diaphragm-illumination.
The aperture f>f the stage is larger than usual, having a diameter of
23 mm. The short cylinder with the iris-diaphragm is fixed by a round
brass plate, screwed into the under part of the stage. On the right this
plate is cut away to make room for the handle of the iris-diaphragm,
which is so long as to project beyond the side of the round stage.
Beneath the diaphragm is the condenser, which on racking down can be
turned to one side.

(4) Photomicrography.

New Method of Illumination for Photomicrography, f — Mr. J.
Hunter draws attention to the fact that a paper under the above title
was read by him before the Scottish Microscopical Society in 1891.
The method there advocated, and more fully described in the present
paper, has many points in common with the method described by
Dr. Kohler in a paper in the Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr. in 1893, an
abstract of which appeared in this Journal, 1894, p. 261. The optical
conditions in the two methods are essentially identical; in both an
evenly illuminated disc, instead of an image of the source of light, is
thrown upon the slide by a condenser. The author’s scheme, however,
differs from that of Dr. Kohler in the detail that in it, instead of the
ordinary plano-convex lens 0,J he uses a triple form of condenser con-
sisting of a flint-glass shell, a correcting lens of crown glass, and the
interspace filled with pure water. This producess a very perfect form
of aplanatic condenser possessing many capabilities. Minor differences
are that the diaphragms at s b and J are dispensed with, and that an
equi-convex lens is used instead of the plano-convex lens at S Z. In
the course of a detailed account of his method, the author strongly
advocates the use of corrected condensers, and states that superior
results should be expected from his apparatus owing to the use of the
aplanatic condenser instead of the ordinary plano-convex lens in Dr.
Kohler’s arrangement.

The merits of the new system are : — (1) . The whole field is
uniformly luminous. (2) The illuminating rays are parallel. (3) The
extent of luminous area, as well as angle of aperture, can be easily
altered to suit the objective. (4) The heat of the flame is rendered
harmless by position. (5) The water compartment of the condenser
obviates the use of an alum-cell. (6) Monochromatic light can be
readily obtained by dropping the required tint into the water of the
lens. {7') In the same way the lens may act as a colour-screen.
(8) The correction of the lens is very perfect. (9) Edge interference

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xif (1896) pp. 292-5.

f Proc. Scottish Micr. Soc., 1894-5, pp. 229-56.

X See this Journal, 1894, p. 261, fig. 23.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

249

bands are completely absent. (10) The difficulty of centering the usual
small type of condenser is avoided.

For the purely theoretical considerations connected with the system,
which the author discusses, we must refer the reader to the original
paper.

Method of Photographing Large Microscopic Sections.* * * § — Mr. W.
Forgan uses, for photographing objects having a diameter of over an
inch, a single landscape lens of about 4^ in. focus. It has a diameter of
about 1 in., is used with a stop at F 16, and gives excellent definition.
It is screwed into the front of the camera so that the Microscope is
altogether dispensed with, the slides being held on a separate carrier-
board.

A piece of glass, obscured on both sides, is placed between the
specimen and the illuminant to diffuse the light. The author strongly
recommends burning magnesium ribbon as the source of light.

B. Technique.!

(1) Collecting- Objects, including Culture Processes.

Increasing the Toxin Production of the Diphtheria Bacillus. t —
Dr. Freiherr v. Dungern has found that the addition of human ascitic fluid
to artificial nutrient media is a good means for increasing the virulence of
diphtheria bacilli, at least in so far as the production of toxin is con-
cerned. For making diphtheria antitoxin it is important to be in pos-
session of a strong toxin.

Cultivation Medium for Diphtheria Baeillus.§ — Dr. Tochtermann
recommends the following serum medium for cultivating diphtheria
bacilli. A 2 per cent, watery solution of agar is treated with 1 per cent,
pepton, 1/2 per cent, common salt, and 0*3-0 *5 per cent, grape-sugar,
and the whole filtered. The filtrate is heated from a quarter to half an
hour with sheep’s blood-serum in equal parts, or of three of serum to
two of the agar solution. The filtrate is then put into tubes and steri-
lised in the usual way.

Improvements in the Technique of the Diphtheria Culture Test. || —
Dr. A. P. Ohlmacher makes very rapid and successful diagnoses of diph-
theria by means of the following modifications of the ordinary procedure.
To the culture medium a decided alkaline reaction is imparted by adding
to the glucose-beef-pepton-bouillon a saturated solution of sodium hy-
droxid, drop by drop, until a pronounced blue colour is obtained with
red litmus paper. The alkalinised bouillon is added to the serum
before its coagulation. The medium, when rapidly coagulated, forms a
smooth, moist, slanting surface. This kind of surface, which is a sine

* Proc. Scottish Micr. Soc., 1894-5, pp. 221-2.

t This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

% Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 137-41.

§ Centralbl. f. Inn. Med., Oct. 5, 1895. See Epit. British Med. Journ., ii. (1895)
par. 507.

|1 Medical News, May 4, 1895.

250

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

qua non for this procedure, is then inoculated with exudate from the sus~
pected throat, and the tube incubated for four hours at 37° * * * § 5-38°. A
platinum loop is then rubbed over the surface, after which the loop is
well rubbed on to a minute drop of water on a cover-glass. When
spread and dried the film is stained.

The author states that an incubator is not necessary for detecting
diphtheria bacilli, as they can be grown at room temperature in about
eighteen hours sufficiently copiously to give a good preparation, though,
as in the previous case, there will be no naked eye evidence of the exist-
ence of a colony.

Method for Preparing very active Diphtheria Toxin.* — Prof. C.
H. H. Spronck has found that the most important condition for obtaining
very active diphtheria toxin is to use bouillon which does not contain a
trace of glucose. For this purpose meat as old as possible should be
used. The author employs two per cent, pepton, containing no glucose,
and for’safety adds to the bouillon, after it has been alkalinised with
0 * 5 per cent, sodium carbonate, a small quantity of carbonate of lime.
With these simple precautions a diphtheria bacillus of medium virulence
can be made to furnish in 3-4 weeks, a toxin killing with a dose of 0 • 2
com. a kilogram of guinea-pig in 24 hours.

Platinum Wire Brush fori Inoculating Culture Media with Diph-
therial Matter.f — Herr Pfaffenholz uses a platinum wire brush for
smearing material suspected of being diphtherial on culture surfaces.
Its special advantage is that it can be easily and perfectly sterilised. It
is made by melting into a glass rod about a hundred pieces of very fine
platinum wire, in lengths of 1^-2 cm.

Cultivation Medium for Diphtheria Bacilli. if — M. J. Amann has
obtained very excellent results with the following medium for cultivating
diphtheria bacilli. To the white of an egg are added 0*5 per cent.
NaCl, 1 per cent, meat-peptone, 1 per cent, grape-sugar, and 10 per cent,
distilled water. The mixture is poured into a Petri’s capsule, and steam
sterilised. Good cultures are obtained after incubating for 8 to 12 hours.

Demonstrating the Presence of Bacillus Coli in Water. § — Sig.
F. Abba adopts the following method for demonstrating the presence
of B. coli in water : — To a litre of the water to be examined 100 ccm.
of a medium composed of grape-sugar 200 grm., pepton 100 grm., salt
50 grm., carbonate of soda 5 grm., water 1000 grm., are added. To the
mixture 0 * 5 ccm. of a 1 per cent, alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein
is added. The whole is then distributed among five or six Erlenmeyer’s
flasks and incubated at 37°. At the same time agar plates in Petri’s
capsules are incubated in order to evaporate off the condensation water.
If B. coli develop on the bouillon, the contents of the flasks are deco-
lorised in 8-16-24 hours. Should decolorisation occur, a loopful of the

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, ix. (1895) pp. 758-65.

f Hygienische .Rundschau, 1895, No. 16. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv. (1895)
pp. 357-8.

f Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat. Geneve, i. (1896) pp. 169-70.

§ La Riforma Med., 1895, No. 176. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk..
lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 224-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

251

bouillon is smeared over an agar plate, and afterwards examined for
the bacteria which may have grown up.

Typhoid bacteria also decolorise the bouillon, but more slowly,.
3-4-5 days.

Influence of Variations in Composition of Gelatin on Development
of Water Bacteria.* — Messrs. Sedgwick and Preston found that the same
water when examined at different laboratories gave no constant results.
Even in the same laboratory the results were different when the com-
position of the nutrient gelatin was different. For the purpose of ascer-
taining the cause of these varjung results, the authors have examined
into the constituents of the ordinary gelatin and the importance thereof
for the growth of different water bacteria. Accordingly, the importance
of the amount of acid, of pepton, of meat, of gelatin, and of salt for for-
warding the growth of water bacteria was tested. It was found that
0*2 of 1/20 normal acid per ccm. of nutrient gelatin gave the best
results, but the amount of acid was found to be dependent on the pepton
used. Increase in the amount of j>epton aided the development of the
water bacteria ; on gelatin which contained 15-20 grm. pepton per litre,
far more colonies appeared than upon the ordinary gelatin, which con-
tained only 5 grm. If, however, salt was in excess, the growth of the
bacteria was hindered ; and if it were omitted far more colonies ap-
peared. The meat used was not found to exert any special influence.
The gelatin which gave the best results was that known as hide-gelatin ;
bone-gelatin and ordinary gelatin promoted the growth of water bacteria
in mass.

Demonstrating Y/ild Yeasts in Trade Yeasts and New Beer.f — Herr
H. Will has tested Hansen’s method of examining for wild yeasts by
cultivating in 10 per cent, saccharose, with addition of 4 per cent, tartaric
acid. He found that the results were in accord with those of the older
procedure, and that the time was shortened by the addition of tartaric
acid. This method also facilitates the recognition of SaccJiaromyces
apiculatusy which could be demonstrated in 57 per cent, of trade yeasts
and new beers. In the sugar solution it developed with the typical
lemon-shaped cells, which permits its easy recognition, though, if it do
not show this characteristic shape, it may be overlooked.

Cultivation Medium for Nitrite Ferment.} — Dr. M. W. Beyerinck
has successfully cultivated the nitrite ferment of the ammonia salts on
agar plates by preparing this medium in the following manner : — A not
too thick layer of agar, previously filtered after having been dissolved
in distilled water, is allowed to set in an Erlenmeyer’s flask. The
surface is then covered with distilled water and the medium left to
itself. The soluble organic substances diffuse out into the water, and
bacteria spontaneously develope therein. After a few days the water is
poured off' and renewed. This is repeated several times. In a week to
14 days, according to the thickness of the layer, the soluble organic

* American Public Health Assoc., x. (1895) p. 450. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.
u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) p. 222.

t Zeitschr. f. gesammte Brauwesen, xvi. pp. 29-30. See Bot. Centralbl., lxiv.
(1895) pp. 269-70.

X Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., l,e Abt., xix. (1896) p. 258.

252

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

matters are removed. To this mass may now be added a saline mixture,
suitable for forming nitrites, and also calcium carbonate. The whole
is then boiled to kill off any bacteria. This method is far simpler
than the silicic acid method. The salt recommended to be added is
NH4NaHP04 -{- 4H20 in the proportion of 0*2 per cent. Besides this,
chloride of potassium 0*05 is also inserted. The chalk makes the re-
action neutral, or slightly alkaline.

Gold Sterilising Bougie Filters and other Apparatus.* — MM. Couton
and Gasser use two solutions for cold sterilising porcelain bougie filters,
one a dilute solution of calcium chloride, the other a dilute hydrochloric
acid. Neither solution need be prepared afresh every time, but can be
used for ten purifications. The bougies are placed in each solution for
a quarter of an hour, first in the eau de Javelle, and afterwards in the
acid. The calcium chloride decomposes the albuminoid substances
which block up the pores ; the hydrochloric acid afterwards unites with
the calcium, and chlorine is set free. This gas decomposes the im-
purities, and the process is finished by washing out with pure water.
Bougies which had previously given 1-2 litres per hour, after having
been treated by the cold purifying procedure, gave 9-12 litres. The
bougies remained germ-free for 10 days; after 28 days there were
880-1310 germs per ccm.

Apparatus for Bemoving definite Quantities of Fluid Cultivation
Media.t — Dr. R. Kretz has devised a very simple and easily sterilisable

Fig. 53.

apparatus for drawing off small quantities of bouillon, &c., in an exact
and facile way. The apparatus is merely a siphon with intermitting

* L'ev.Td’Hygiene, 1895, 17, 4. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
1“ Abt., xix. (1896) p. 299.

t Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 73-4 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

253

action, and is easily made by cutting off the bottom of a test-tube and
plugging an end with a caoutchouc stopper perforated in two places (for
the long arm of the siphon and for the inflow tube). The long arm is
about 14 cm. long, and the short one varies from 1 • 5-3 • 5 cm. according to
the quantity required to be drawn off. The inflow has a small opening
at the side, and in order to avoid bubbling is only pushed in so far that
the fluid pours out at the lowest level. To the free end of the inflow
pipe a rubber tube which can be clamped, may be attached and to this a
glass tube to be immersed in the nutrient medium. By squeezing the
air out of the rubber tube, the inflow current is started, and may be
regulated by the clamp. In order to facilitate ready working and com-
plete evacuation, the short arm of the siphon is expanded into a funnel-
shape, and the funnel must be so wide as to allow the outflow quantity
time to escape before the inflow reaches the mouth of the siphon.

Simple Thermostat applicable to any Microscope." — Mr. G. H. F.
Nuttall has devised a very simple thermostat, which can be adapted to
any form of Microscope. The illustrations show the apparatus open and

closed ; it is made of copper, and has the following dimensions : —
breadth 16 cm., length 18 cm., height in front 20 cm., behind 13 cm.

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt.,xviii. (1895) pp. 330-2 (2 figs.).

254

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The top is sloping and the sliding panels are cut out so as to allow the
Microscope to project, and are accurately fitted to the instrument by
means of felt. In front are a square glass window, the thermometer,
and regulator; on the left is the opening for inserting slides. The

Fro. 55.

doors are behind. To the right side may be fitted the arrangement for
moving the slide to and fro and up and down, but this is rarely neces-
sary, and much increases the price.

Filtering Fluid containing Bacteria.* — Prof. O. Bujwid says that
now he only uses Chamberland’s porcelain filter, having given up the
Berkefeld on account of its brittleness, slowness, &c. For filtering toxins
the author works the filter from without inwards, and thus obtains a
closed sterilised space for receiving the filtrate. Though a new bougie
filters very quickly for 1/2-1 hour, its pores soon get blocked, and in
order to avoid this the bougie should be removed, and its surface wiped
with a rag moistened with distilled water. While this is being done the
rubber tube should be tightly clamped. This purification should be
performed every one or two hours. Filtration over, the pores of the

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lt0 Abt., xviii. (1895) pp. 332-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

255

filter should he freed of albuminous matter by passing distilled water
through several times, after which the bougie may be sterilised in an
autoclave. If purified in this way, bougies can be used a long time
without firing them. With a one bougie filter it is easy to get 3-5 litres
of fluid in 24 hours.

Easy Method of Preparing Serum Agar.* — Messrs. A. A . Kantliack
and J. W. Stephens use ascitic, pleuritic, or hydrocele fluid for making
serum-agar. The procedure is as follows : — To every 100 ccm. of the
exudate 2 ccm. of a 10 per cent, solution of caustic potash is added. To
this is added 1 • 5-2 per cent, agar previously soaked in acidulated water,
and the mixture boiled until the agar is dissolved. The fluid is then
hot-filtered, and to the filtrate 4 to 5 per cent, of glycerin should be
added. After this it is poured into test-tubes and sterilised. The addi-
tion of 0 * 5-2 per cent, of grape sugar in no way improves this mixture as
a cultivation medium. Before adding the caustic potash to the serous
fluid a small quantity of the latter should be boiled in a test-tube, and in
case it should be highly albuminous, when it will set solid, the serum
should be diluted with at least twice its bulk of distilled water, and then
to every 100 ccm. of the diluted fluid 2 ccm. of KOH and 1 • 5-2 grm.
of agar are to be added. Unless this precaution be adopted the whole
mass will gelatinise and be useless.

Improved Solid Watch-Glass. | — Dr. A. C. Mercer describes an im-
proved form of solid watch-glass which, when a series is superimposed,

Fig. 56. Fig. 57.

makes a secure pile. The size, shape, and method of using may be easily
gathered from the illustrations. The writing (fig. 57) is not intended to
be permanent.

* Lancet, i. (1895) pp. 835-6.

t Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvii. (1896) pp. 371-f (3 figs.).

256

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Methods for Collecting* and Estimating the Number of Small
Animals in Sea-Water.* — Dr. H. C. Sorby, when collecting moderately
small animals, uses a brown holland bag, at the bottom of which there
is an arrangement by which brass wire sieves with meshes of various
sizes can be fixed to a sort of bayonet-joint. Another method is to
collect water in a special bottle at various depths, and to pour 2b gallons
through a sieve with openings of about one-liundredth of an inch in
diameter. From this the animals are washed off into a few ounces of
water. The numbers of the various kinds are afterwards counted in
a small deep narrow trough filled over and over again until the whole
quantity has been examined. The number of each kind per gallon can
then be easily calculated.

C2) Preparing- Objects.

Examining Spermatheca in Newts and Salamanders.y— Dr. B. F.
Kingsbury adopted the following procedure : — Serial sections of the
cloaca were made transverse to the long axis of the body, to which were
added, in Plethodon, Desmognathus , and Ambly stoma, series cut sagitally.
The cloaca was dissected off and placed in Fish’s mixture (50 per cent,
alcohol 1000 ecm., mercuric chloride 5 grm., picric acid 1 grm., glacial
acetic acid 10 ccm.). It was then washed in 50 per cent, alcohol one day,
and passed through successively 70, 82, and 95 per cent, alcohols, ether-
alcohol equal parts, remaining one day in each. It was placed in 1^-2
per cent, collodion for two days and 6 per cent, collodion for three days,
and imbedded. The collodion was hardened in chloroform and cleared in
Fish’s castor- thyme oil mixture, in which the sections were cut. They
were arranged in serial order on the knife, from which they were re-
moved by tissue-paper, and then placed upon the slide ; all oil possible
was absorbed with tissue-paper, and the sections secured by melting the
collodion with a few drops of ether-alcohol. A few minutes (5-10) in
95 per cent, alcohol sufficed to remove all the oil, when they were
treated as usual. Gage’s hasmatoxylin, with eosin, erythrosin, or picric-
alcohol, as a counterstain were employed ; Yasale’s clarifier (xylol 3 parts,
carbolic acid 1 part) was used. This was supplemented by teasing fresh
spermathecae upon the slide to detect the living zoosperms.

Microscopical Diagnosis of Uterine Growths.i — Mr. H. G. Plimmer
points out the importance of histological examination of uterine tumours,
and deals with the modern methods of investigation. During the past
three years he has examined 92 cases of uterine tumours, 72 of them from
the cervix being diagnosed as cancers, though 12 of these were found to
be benign in nature. The tissue to be examined should be placed in the
following solution for 24 hours : sodium chloride 7* 5 grm., glacial acetic
acid 10 ccm., distilled water 1 litre, mercuric chloride to saturation. It
should then be washed in running water for 2-3 hours, and then in
alcohols of increasing strength up to absolute for three consecutive days.
The sections are best stained with Mayer’s hsemalum and contrast-stained
with 1 per cent, solution of Congo red. Kiihne’s aniseed oil method,
preceded by fixation in 30 per cent, solution of formalin, is also adopted

* Rep. Brit. Ass., 1895, p. 730.

t Trans. Amer. Micr. 8oc., xvii. (1896) pp. 261-95.

j Reprint from British Gynaecological Journal, Nov. 1895, 14 pp.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

257

by the author. The use of Congo red is strongly advocated, as it is found
to be of great service in differentiating in doubtful or oblique sections
the gland epithelium from atypical epithelium. The former is stained
strongly red, while the cytoplasm of the cancer-cells remains almost
uncoloured.

There are numerous other hints of great value in the author's paper,
and though short, the information therein indicates a mastery of the
subject.

Collection and Preservation of Zoological Specimens.* — As the
result of his experience on the West Coast of S. America, i)r. Ludwig
H. Plate gives a number of useful hints to collectors. For the narco-
tisation of the smaller marine animals he strongly recommends cocaine,
20 or 30 drops of a 5 per cent, solution of which should be added to
100-200 ccm. of sea-water. Various details as to subsequent treatment,
and the packing and transport of specimens are also given. The paper
concludes with a discussion of methods of dredging, and a complete
description of the method of obtaining fish by means of dynamite.

Investigation of Minute Structure of Cestodes.f — Dr. E. Zernecke,
in his investigation of various Cestodes and cystic worms, got the best
results from the use of the rapid Golgi method. As is well known, a
large quantity of material is necessary when using this method, and the
author was fortunate to find in the market of Rostock fish which con-
tained a large number of Ligulse or their larvae. A Ligula taken fresh
from the body was killed in a moderate degree of extension by the use
of the chrome-osmic mixture. After one or two hours the animals were
taken out of this solution and cut into pieces about 1 cm. long. These
were placed in a fresh supply of the solution for three or four days at a
temperature of 25°. On being dried they were treated with a solution
of *75 per cent, silver nitrate 25 g., to which one drop of formic acid
was added. The pieces remained in the silver solution two or three
days, were then imbedded in liver, and cut into sections. Smaller
pieces were imbedded, after a short process of dehydration in absolute
alcohol, in some drops of celloidin. The sections, after clearing, were
stained, and then developed in Kallius’s hydrochinon developer. As
this method only does for very thin sections, thicker sections were more
satisfactorily treated with liquid paraffin after the method first intro-
duced by Prof. Blochmann. As control sections the author made use of
a series treated with concentrated aqueous solution of corrosive subli-
mate, or alcoholic corrosive sublimate, and preserved in 90 per cent,
alcohol. Sections 5-10 fx thick were generally treated with the orange
g . haematoxylin.

Simple Method for Demonstrating the Germinal Pore in the
Spore Membrane of Rust Fungi4 — Dr. Dietel has found that the
pores in the spore-membrane of Uredinese can be easily seen if slight
pressure be made on the cover-glass. The germinal pores then appear
like bright spots, even in spores with colourless membranes.

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 40-6.

t Zool. JB. Abth. Anat., ix. (1895) pp. 93-6.

J Zeitschr. f. Angewandte Mikroskopie, i. (1895) pp. 69-71.

258

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Fixing-Material for Meristem.* * * § — Herr G. Rosen recommends the
following : — A mixture of 10 gr. sublimate, 300 gr. distilled water, and
3 gr. glacial acetic acid; for Ferns, a mixture of 6 parts alcohol, 1 part
glacial acetic acid, and 2 parts chloroform. As staining reagents he
employs iodine-green-fuchsin and Heidenhain’s liflematoxylin-iron-alum
in combination with Bordeaux R or Rubin S.

Test for Cholesterins.f — M. E. Gerard gives the following test for
distinguishing between animal and vegetable cholesterins : — If the
former are treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, a yellow colour
is produced, and a white precipitate on diluting with water ; while the
latter are coloured red by sulphuric acid, and yield a green precipitate
on the addition of water.

Microscopical Examination of Meat for Tubercle Bacilli.:): —
Dr. Morsy examines meat for tubercle bacilli by placing a small piece
of a gland between two slides and pressing them firmly together. The
films on the slides are then dried over the flame of a lamp. Upon the
film are placed some cubic centimetres of carbol fuchsin, and the slide
warmed for ten minutes. The fluid should not be allowed to become
dry. The slide is then washed in water and afterwards decolorised in
an acid mixture. When sufficiently decolorised the slide is washed
again in water, and then contrast-stained with malachite-green. The
preparation is again washed with water, then treated with absolute
alcohol, and finally dried in the air. It may now be examined by just
dropping on the surface a little cedar oil, no cover-glass being used.
The tubercle bacilli appear as dark red thin threads, the tissues and
cells and other organisms being green, except a diplococcus occasionally
met with in tuberculous pus. This coccus cannot be confounded with a
tubercle bacillus, partly on account of its shape, but partly also because
it does not retain the red so well as the tubercle bacillus.

The carbol-fuchsin solution is made as follows : 1 grm, of fuchsin is
dissolved in 20 ccm. of alcohol, and then 5 ccm. of carbolic acid and 90 ccm.
of water are added. The formula for the decoloriser is — hydrochloric
acid 3*0, common salt 2*0, water 100*0, alcohol (90 per cent.) 500*0.
The counter-stain is made by dissolving malachite-green 1 • 0 in 100 of
alcohol and 100 water.

Cocain in the Study of Pond Life.§ — Prof. H. N. Conser finds
that the following method is suitable for fresh-water Bryozoa. Several
-colonies are placed in a solid watch-glass with 5 ccm. of water, and as
soon as the animals have expanded, 1 or 2 cgrm. of cocain are dropped
on the edge of the water at two or three distant points. After about
15 minutes, 1 per cent, chromic acid is poured into the watch-glass and
left to act for half an hour or more, when it is replaced by water. In
half an hour the process is repeated ; then alcohol is gradually added
until it reaches about 80 per cent, of the immersion fluid. The free-
swimming Rotifers readily succumb to the influence of the cocain, but
.the family Melicertidae hold out a long time ; the quantity of cocain

* Beitr. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen (Cohn), vii. (1895) p. 233.

f Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) p. 723.

% Zeitschr. f. Angewandte Mikroskopie, i. (1895) pp. 71-4.

§ Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvii. (1896) pp. 310-1.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

259

must therefore be relatively large in their case, and when all movements
cease they should be killed with 20 per cent, formalin, as chromic acid
precipitates cocain in strong solution. An after-treatment with chromic
acid in. 1/2 per cent, seems to harden better than formalin alone. When
a colony of Melicertidse is subjected for 15 minutes to a 1/2 per cent,
cocain solution and then transferred to another watch-glass with pond
water, the individual Rotifers come out of the tubes and attach them-
selves to the bottom of the glass in perfect condition for study.

(3) Cutting-, including- Imbedding- and Microtomes.

Photoxylin.* * * § — Prof. P. Mitrophanow sings the praises of photoxylin,
which was introduced into microscopic technique by Krysinski (1887).
For sectioning purposes it compares well with celloidin in transparency
and suitable consistence. It is also exceedingly useful in the treatment
of very minute bodies, which may be imbedded first in photoxylin and
then in paraffin. It may also be used with great success in preserving
fine preparations, embryos, and minute animals, in a certain order on
glass plates, for museum and demonstration purposes.

Preparing Lipoma Tissue, f — Dr. Vedeler prepares adipose tissue by
first fixing in 5 per cent, sublimate solution, and then treating the piece
with ether repeatedly renewed until all the fat has disappeared. The pieces
(0*5 cm.) were then hardened in alcohol, stained with hasmatoxylin and
eosin, and imbedded in paraffin. If the fat had not entirely disappeared
the paraffin would not penetrate.

Frazer’s Sliding Microtome. J — Mr. A. Frazer describes a sliding
microtome, which is intended for students and others who may desire an
instrument less costly than those constructed on the Thoma-Jung or
Schanze model. Tne sliding parts of the instrument are similar to
those in the Schanze model, but the part which raises the object is con-
structed after the Cathcart design. A further simplification consists in
making the knife-holder of such a shape that it will hold an ordinary
razor,.

(4) Staining- and Injecting.

Methylen-Blue Staining.§ — Prof. M. Lavdowsky has found that the
following fluids are more or less satisfactory vehicles for the pigment
in vital methylen-blue staining : — fl) Pure blood-serum. (2) White of
egg. (8) Ammonium chloride. (4) Ammonio-chloride of iron. The
two last are only used in from 1/10-1/2 per cent, solutions in water or
egg-albumen. Blood-serum, a perfectly indifferent physiological fluid,
should be taken from an animal of the same genus as that to be experi-
mented on. After the blood has been allowed to stand for about twelve
hours the serum is decanted off and then filtered into a tall narrow
vessel. If the amount be scanty, it may be diluted with an equal bulk
of 0*5 per cent, of common salt solution, or 0*1 per cent, aqueous
ammonium chloride solution. Directly the methylen-blue is quite dis-

* Arcli. Zool. Exper., iii. (1895) pp. 617-21.

t Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lt# Abt., xix. (1896) p. 274.

% Proc. Scottish Micr. Soc., 1894-5, p. 211.

§ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1895) pp. 177-81.

260

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

solved in this fluid, the tissue to be examined should be treated there-
with. Hen’s egg albumen is by far the best solvent for methylen-blue,
not only because it gives satisfactory pictures, but also because it is
easily and rapidly prepared. The white of one or two fresh eggs is
filtered, and to the filtrate is added 1/4-1/2 per cent, methylen-blue solu-
tion in sodium or ammonium chloride, or the methylen-blue in powder
may be mixed with the albumen directly. Should the examination be
a protracted one, the author dilutes the fresh albumen with an equal
volume of 0 * 5 per cent, sodium chloride or 025 per cent, ammonium
chloride solution ; and when the pigment is dissolved therein it is
filtered, after which it is ready for use.

In all the fluids the solution of the methylen-blue is made by adding
to them only just sufficient of the pigment as will make 1/10-1/4 per
cent, clear solution ; or to the powder may be added solutions of sodium
or ammonium chloride, and these afterwards mixed with serum or
albumen.

In certain special cases satisfactory pictures may be obtained by
spreading the tissue to be examined on a slide, keeping it moist with
serum or albumen, afterwards adding a few grains of the methylen-
blue powder. This procedure is more rapid than the ordinary method,
and even this may be hastened by adding a little of the dry pigment
during examination. When properly carried out, only the nerves, their
endings, and the cells are stained, and the time required is from three-
quarters to one hour, though occasionally double this time is necessary.

Criticism of Golgi’s Method.* — Dr. B. Friedlaender points out that
in Golgi’s method several delusive appearances are inherent, and shows
from special preparations of egg-albumen, celloidin, the earthworm, and
also from old preparations, that precipitates occur which are barely
distinguishable from those indicative of nervous tissue. The intention
of the author is not so much to contest the general validity of the con-
clusions arrived at by Golgi’s method as to point out sources of error
intrinsic to the method.

Very Dilute Hsematoxylin Solutions.! — Prof. 0. Israel notes the
advantages of slow staining with very dilute solutions, to which Rawitz
recently called attention. This, he says, is a familiar method, and much
used. Alum-solutions of the various hasmatoxylins are all useful, and
very dilute solutions of carmine and some anilins (e. g. R. Pfeiffer’s
carbol-fuchsin) give beautiful results.

(5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Preserving Rotatoria. — Mr. C. F. Rousselet has a second paper on
the methods of preserving Rotatoria, in which, as many of our Fellows
know, he has been peculiarly successful. His principle, that of nar-
cotising, killing, fixing, and preserving in a watery-fluid not appreciably
denser than water, remains the same, but a number of improvements have
been made in the details of the process. Of the reagents before advised
it is now recommended that osmic acid be omitted from the preservative

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1895) pp. 168-76 (1 pi.).

t Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1895) pp. 454-6.

X Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, 1895, pp. 5-13.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

261

fluid. Liko others, Mr. Rousselet finds that formalin is a preserving
material which may be made of much use. By itself it does not fix the
Rotifers at all well, hut it has the very valuable property of preserving
the animals without the least shrinkage or turgescence, and as perfectly
transparent as the fixing process leaves them. A very weak solution of
• 25 per cent, or less of osmic acid should be allowed to act for a very
short time only. If the animals become coloured a little by the osmic
acid, the colour can be removed by passing them for two or three minutes
through peroxide of hydrogen. For narcotising, the following mixture
was found to give better results than 2 per cent, cocain alone : — 2 per
cent, of cocain, 3 parts; methylated spirit, 1 part; and water, 6 parts.
Different species vary very much in the length of time they require for
narcotisation. In killing, it is merely necessary to introduce a drop of
osmic acid on to the animals under water, and then almost immediately
transfer them to some fresh water in another block, and then again to
two or three more lots of distilled water, so as to get out all traces of
the acid. Finally they should be placed in 2*5 per cent, formalin.
The author gives some useful hints as to how different species should be
treated. He thinks that he is justified in saying that this unpreparable
group, as Mr. Bolles Lee has styled the Rotifers, is now fairly conquered.
Mr. Rousselet hopes to be able to form in time a complete type collection
of the known Rotatoria.

Making and Finishing Wax Cells.* — Mr. M. Pflaum makes wax
cells by first drawing an asphalt (in benzol) ring wider than the intended
ring on the slide. With a mixture of wax and paraffin in equal parts,
a cell of the required depth is drawn, and immediately covered with
asphalt cement. The slide is finished by fastening the cover-glass
with shellac dissolved in alcohol. For greater permanence a ring of
zinc white cement is put over the shellac, and for adornment any colour
of King’s lacquer.

Japanese Method for Sticking on Paraffin Sections.! — Herr F.
Reinke highly recommends a method adopted in Japan for making
paraffin sections adhere to slides and glass plates. It is a combination
of the albumen method of Mayer and the water method of Gulland, and
consists in putting a very thin layer of albumen-glycerin on the glass
plate and then dropping on a little distilled water. The section having
been laid on the top, the excess of water is removed with blotting-paper,
and then the preparation is dried at 30°-35°.

According to Herr v. Erlanger,J this Japanese adhesive method has
been known for years. This writer saw it used by Cambridge students
at the Zoological Station at Naples in the winter of 1891-2, and was
informed that the procedure had been in vogue there for some time.

Mr. A. B. Lee also writes to a similar effect, and mentions that the
method was published by Duval, and also by Henneguy in 1891.

Formalin as a Disinfectant^ — MM. van Ermengcm and Sugg ex-
amined the disinfecting power of formalin on pathogenic bacteria,

* Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvii. (1896) pp. 371-6,

f Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1895) pp. 21-3. X Tom. cit., pp. 186-7.

§ Arch, dc Pharmacie, 1891. Sec Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk, l,e Abt.,
xix. (1896) p. 91.

1896

T

262

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

clothes, &c., at 13°, and from 36°-48°. In the first experiments Bacillus
rubiginosus and B. anthracis were put under a bell-jar with formalin. In
from 3-12 hours all the spores were quite dead (with 5 per cent, carbolic
acid this end is not attained in six days). Sporeless bacteria died in
a quarter of an hour. In test-tubes closed with cotton-wool the spores
were not killed before 48 hours ; but if the wool were damped with
formalin, it only took 24 hours. In the next series the experiments
were conducted on a larger scale. The results were quite favourable,
but too much formalin was required to wet the clothes, and the smell
from them was very unpleasant. The chief advantage is that disinfection
can be carried out at ordinary room temperature and the clothes not
damaged, as is so frequently the case at a temperature of 100°. In the
third series the temperature was increased to 50°. At this temperature
anthrax spores were killed in a quarter of an hour. Books were com-
pletely disinfected at 60°.

Formaldehyde and Formol.* — Messrs. G. ‘H. Parker and R. Floyd
deny, it seems to us justly, Mr. A. B. Lee’s allegation that their previous
paper on formol has added to the confusion which has arisen in regard
to formaldehyde, formaline, formol, and formalose. They recommended,
for preserving a sheep’s brain, 2 per cent, solution of formol, which
surely means a mixture of 2 volumes of formol with 98 volumes of
water. That formol is 40 per cent, formaldehyde was clearly stated.
The brain in question is, after six months, in excellent preservation.

Formalin in the Zoological and Histological Laboratory.f — Mr.
D. S. Kellicott thus summarises the advantages of formalin for zoological
purposes. It is cheaper than any other method that gives good results ;
it gives results in much less time ; the colours are better preserved, and
there is less change of form by shrinkage or by swelling ; its penetrating
power is excellent, notably for insects, Crustacea, Molluscs, and Vermes.
Its disadvantages are that it is extremely volatile, and jars have to be
sealed with care. The water solution will freeze, and not all museums
are at all times above 0° C. In 5 per cent, solution formalin is also a
useful histological reagent.

Mr. Wright’s Method of Mounting Foraminifera. — Mr. Malcolm-
son describes the method employed by Mr. Wright, of Belfast, for
preserving Foraminifera.

The slide on which the specimens are mounted consists of two parts,
a tray and a holder. The tray is composed of a piece of cardboard 3 in.
by 1 in. in size, on which is pasted a piece of paper, having a series of
divisions numbered 1 to 100 printed in black upon it. Another piece
of cardboard, from the centre of which a rectangular piece has been
removed, is fixed to the front of the first piece of cardboard, and the
specimens are mounted one by one upon the black surface. The holder
consists of an ordinary 3 in. by 1 in. glass slip, a piece of cardboard of
the same size, and a piece of paper large enough to enclose the whole.

The card is glued to the centre of the paper, the tray is placed on

* Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1896) pp. 567-8.
t Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvii. (1896) pp. 331-5.
j Proc. Scottish Micr. Soc., 1894-5, pp. 212-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

263

the top and covered with the slip, and the edges of the paper are then
turned up and attached to the upper surface of the slip.

For mounting the smaller species, a thin layer of gum is placed
upon the divisions. The specimens are picked out with a small brush
moistened with water, and applied to the gummed surface.

Holder for Slides and Cover-Glasses.*— Herr E. Abel describes the
sort of clamp for holding slides or cover-glasses which he has used with

Fig. 58.

advantage for a long time past. As iu an ordinary letter-clamp, the
arms are opened by pressure on a plate provided with a spring. (See
fig. 58.)

(6) Miscellaneous.

Technique of Microscopical Anatomy, f — MM. A. B. Lee and L. F.
Henneguy have just issued the second edition of a treatise on the
technical methods of microscopical anatomy. The present volume
has been entirely recast and considerably enlarged. This work is the
outcome of the ‘ Mierotomist’s Vade-Mecum,’ a handbook of the methods
of microscopic anatomy, published in London in 1885, and differs
therefrom chiefly in amplifications in one direction and suppressions in
the other. Many old methods have been omitted and replaced by newer
ones, and many new features have been added. The additions are chiefly
connected with staining, especially with carminic acid, haematein, and
anilin pigments. The chapter on cytological methods has been entirely
recast, and those on the nervous system considerably amplified. Among
the suppressed portions is the chapter on bacteriology, so that the
present work appeals chiefly to histologists, embryologists, and zoologists.
The treatise is divided into two parts, the first comprising general
methods, while the second is devoted to special embryological and
histological procedures.

The character, utility, and excellence of the previous edition are so
well known that it is almost superfluous to say that in the present
volume the high standard is maintained.

Stewart’s Earth-Borer. £ — The boring instrument used by Dr. J. B.
Young for obtaining samples of soil is made throughout of steel tubing.
The cutting section, the point of which is furnished with a strong taper

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., xviii. (1895) pp. 782-3.

t Paris, 1896, 515 pp.

X Trans. Roy. Soe. Edinburgh, xxxvii. (1895) p. 769 (3 figs.).

264

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

screw, lias in it a long cutting-slot, one edge being sharp, the ether
rounded off. The slot is opened or closed by means of a handle A
attached to a rod passing down the interior of the bore to a hollow
plunger 0. When A is pulled up, 0 is raised and the cutting-slot H
opened.

Fig. 59.

A transverse section of the cutter is shown in F. E is a projection
attached to the plunger for clearing the cutting-slot of any earth got
during the sinking of the borer. In using the instrument, the slot is
opened by pulling up A, the boring is resumed, and when the cavity
contains sufficient earth, the slot is closed by pushing dowrn A and
firmly fixing it by means of the thumb-screw B.

265

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 19th of February, 1896, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,
The President (A. D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.) in the Chair.

The President said he wished, before the proceedings commenced,
to make an announcement which he felt sure would be received with
great regret. He was sorry to have to say that Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell’s
health was in so bad a state that his doctors had insisted upon his
giving up all work at once and going abroad for rest and change. He
had therefore gone to the Canaries and might proceed to the Cape, and
was expected to be absent for three months. He was sorry to say that
Dr. Dallinger was also prevented from being with them through illness.
Prof. Bell had asked Mr. J. J. Yezey to act for him at the meetings
during his absence, and the thanks of the Society were due to that
gentleman for kindly undertaking the duty.

The Minutes of the Annual Meeting of 15th January last were
read and confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society
were given to the Donors : —

From

Guide to the British Mycetozoa. By A. Lister. (8vo, London,

1895)

An Introduction to the Study of Rocks. (8vo, London, 1895)

Catalogue of Scientific Papers. Yol. xi. (4 to, London, 1890)..

A. B. Lee and F. Henneguv, Methodes Techniques de l’Anatomie

Microscopique. (2nd edition, 8vo, Paris, 1896) .. -.. .. The Authors.

Mr. A. W. Bennett called the attention of the Society to the little
work on Mycetozoa, presented by the Trustees of the British Museum.
Persons who had visited the Museum lately would have noticed that
in the botanical gallery there had been placed a series of very beautiful
drawings of Mycetozoa, and the Trustees had issued this pamphlet,
which was a most admirable guide to the study of these plants. Tho
book had been very carefully compiled by Mr. Lister, and contained a
description of every species in the Museum ; and a drawing to illustrate
nearly every genus, made by Mr. Lister’s daughter.

The President said that every one who knew Mr. Lister knew that
there was no more painstaking worker than he was, and students of this
group of vegetable organisms would be greatly indebted to him for tho
valuable help this little book afforded them. lie wished to call atten-
tion to another of their donations — the Royal Society’s Catalogue of

The Trustees of the
British Museum.

Royal Society.

266

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Scientific Papers, than which no more useful work existed in any
language. The portion before them was the 11th volume, extending
over a period from 1874 to 1883. This volume comprised the lists
from the letter P to the end of the alphabet for this period.

Mr. E. M. Nelson said ho very greatly regretted to have to announce
the death of Mr. George Marriott of Salisbury, who, though not con-
nected with their Society, nor, he believed, with any other, was one of
the hardest workers he ever met with. A few days before Mr. Marriott’s
death he had sent up some photomicrographs, which were amongst the
finest yet produced, of the karyokinesis of Ascaris megalocephalus , all of
which were done with a power of x 600 and a dry 1/6 in. objective.
He had brought these to the meeting as the best monument to the memory
of one who had so recently died.

Dr. G. L. Cheatle exhibited and described an apparatus for de-
hydrating tissues, and explained the way in which it was used ; it not
only did what was required of it most efficiently, but it effected a great
saving of time. Tissues which it formerly took him a week to
dehydrate, were by this means ready in from 24 to 36 hours, or in some
cases in even less time.

Mr. T. C. White inquired if this more rapid method did not entail
some greater amount of shrinkage than usual.

Dr. Cheatle said this "was not so, the shrinkage was rather reduced
than otherwise.

The President expressed the thanks of the Society to Dr. Cheatle
for exhibiting and explaining this apparatus. He had thought at first
that the convenience gained by the quickness of the process might be
compensated by some additional amount of shrinkage, but he understood
Dr. Cheatle to say that this was not the case. Their thanks were also
due to Mr. Nelson for bringing Mr. Marriott’s photographs for their
inspection. Considering the nature of the objects, these were certainly
amongst the most remarkable photographs he had seen.

Mr. Bennett gave a brief resume of the paper by Messrs. W. and
G. S. West, ‘ On New Freshwater Algae.’ The paper itself he re-
garded as one of great value, but it was so full of details of new forms
and new species that it could not be read to the meeting with advantage,
but no doubt would be read with great interest when it appeared in the
Journal with the illustrations by which it was accompanied.

The President said it was, of course, somewhat difficult to comment
upon or criticise a paper which they had not heard read, but they were
all acquainted with the admirable nature of the work which Messrs. West
had already done, and had no doubt that this further contribution would
be fully appreciated when they had it before them.

On the motion of the President, the thanks of the Society were voted
to Messrs. West for their paper, and to Mr. Bennett for communicating
its contents to the meeting.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

267

The President said they had received a letter from Miss Jelly, a
portion of which he read to the meeting, to the effect that the state of
her health was such that she could not undertake to promise the return
within any given time of specimens sent to her to name. He thought it
was well to mention this because many persons had been in the habit of
sending specimens to Miss Jelly for that purpose.

Mr. F. Xi. Bixon-Nuttall’s paper, c On the Male of Stephanoceros
Eichhorni ,’ was read by Mr. 0. F. Rousselet (see ante , p. 166).

Mr. G. Western said he could not say anything on the subject in
addition to what appeared in this paper, but he was well acquainted
with Mr. Dixon-Nuttall’s work, and was quite sure that his drawings
and description might be entirely relied upon. He had diligently
searched for, but had not been able to discover, a single male egg,
although his aquarium swarmed with female specimens.

The President'was sure the Fellows of the Society would feel greatly
indebted to Mr. Dixon-Nuttall for his very interesting paper. He always
thought that there was no better work to be done than that of tracing
out the life-history of these minute forms ; it was most important in its
results, and it was of the greatest interest to them to hear what had been
done in this direction. Not only was the paper extremely interesting,
but he would call attention to the great beauty of Mr. Dixon-Nuttall’s
drawings with which the paper was illustrated.

A hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Dixon-Nuttall for his communication,
and to Mr. Rousselet for taking charge of it on that occasion, was pro-
posed by the President and carried unanimously.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited: —
Dr. G. L. Cheatle : — Dehydrating apparatus.

Mr. E. M. Nelson : — Photomicrographs.

Mr. 0. F. Rousselet : — Male of Stephanoceros Eichhorni.

MEETING

Held on the 18th of March, 1896, at 20 Hanover Square, \Y.,
the President (A. D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.) in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 19th February last were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

Mr. Conrad Beck exhibited two Microscopes made on the Conti-
nental pattern, which he thought the Fellows of the Society might be
interested in seeing, although, as they had already been figured in the
Journal, he did not think any description would be necessary. He also
exhibited a simple form of mechanical stage intended for use on the
cheaper class of instruments ; it could be easily fitted, and would be
found to work very satisfactorily ; amongst its merits he might mention
that it was very inexpensive. It had already been described, but he had

268

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

brought it to the meeting, thinking that some of the Fellows present
might like to examine it.

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Beck for his exhibit.

The President said they bad received a paper from Dr. A. 0. Stokes
£ On some American Rotifers,’ which Mr. Karop had kindly undertaken
to read to the meeting.

Mr. G. C. Karop said he hoped that Mr. Rousselet would have been
prevailed upon to read this paper, as the subject was more specially in
liis line of investigation, but as he was unable to do so, he, Mr. Karop,
would do his best in the matter. He then read in extenso the first half
of the paper, and gave a brief resume of the remainder.

Mr. 0. F. Rousselet said the paper would no doubt be read with
much interest when it appeared in the Journal, but he had personally
very little to say about it, because he had never had the opportunity of
seeing any of the species described. The genus Apsilus was first de-
scribed by Prof. Metschnikoff ; it had been found in the United States
of America, Canada, and Germany, but not elsewhere. He had written to
Dr. Stokes to ask for some preserved specimens, and hoped at least they
might some day be able to see these, if unable to obtain any living ones.

The President said that their thanks were due to Dr. Stokes for com-
municating this paper to the Society. It would be a valuable addition
to their Proceedings, because, as they w'ould already have noticed, it
was not a mere dry technical description of species, but was also a very
interesting account of the functions and habits of a genus which appeared
to be entirely unknown in this country, and indeed to be very little
known elsewhere.

I he thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Dr. A. C. Stokes
for his paper.

The meeting was adjourned to April 15th.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited: —

The Society : — The Drawings illustrating Dr. Stokes’ paper.

Mr. C. Beck : — Two Microscopes, and a simple form of mechanical
stage.

Mr. C. F. Rousselet : — Notops brachionus (mounted).

Hew Fellow. — The following was elected an Ordinary Fellow —
Dr. Arthur James S. Beveridge.

JUl 20 1896

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

JUNE 1896.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

Y. — Notes on the Genus Apsilus and other American Botifera.

By Dr. Alfred C. Stokes.

{Read 18 th March , 1896.)

Plate VI.

In Hudson and Gosse’s learned monograph on the Rotifera the genus
Apsilus is made to include but two species, Apsilus lentiformis
Metsch. (of which the two American forms A. vorax Leidy and
Cupelopagus bueinedax Forbes are made the synonyms), and A . hiper a
Foulke, which Dr. Leidy claimed to he synonymous with A. lenti-
formis. While the internal structure of all these forms may be, and
I think will prove to be, closely similar, they seem to possess sufficient
outward variation from one another to be separated as four distinct
species. If internal structure, to the exclusion of external form, were
to he considered as entitling any Rotiferon to specific rank, there
would be a sudden reduction in the number of species now recognised.
A glance, however, at Hudson and Gosse’s monograph of any single
genus will afford ample proof of the value placed by the authors upon
external form. Miss S. G. Foulke, in her paper £ On a New Species

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. — Apsilus bueinedax Forbes, dorsal view, g, ganglion ; i, intestine ; ov, ovary ;
p , proventriculus ; st, stomach.

,, 2. — A. bueinedax , ventral view, c, cloaca; cv , contractile vesicle; oe, oeso-
phageal ring ; i, intestine ; m, intestinal (?) gland ; ov, ovary.

,, 3. — A. bueinedax , side view of coronal cup; slightly altered from Miss Foulke
after Forbes.

„ 4. — A. bipera Foulke, dorsal view of coronal cup ; slightly altered after Miss

Foulke.

„ 5. — Trophi of A. lentiformis Metschnikoff. From Hudson and Gosse after
Metsch nikoff.

„ 6. — Trophi of A. bueinedax.

„ 7. — Colurus agilis, lateral view.

,, 8. — C. agilis, ventral outline of lorica.

„ 9. — 0. agilis, diagram of the curve of the frontal hook.

10. — Copeus guinquelobatus sp. n , dorsal aspect.

„ 11. — Contour of the protruded auricle of C. guinquelobatus.

1896

u

270

Transactions of the Society.

of Rotifer, of the Genus Apsilus ,’ * recognised four species, separating
them by the shape of the coronal cup ; Hudson and Gosse accepting
— chiefly, as it appears, upon the dictum of Dr. Leidy — only A. lenti-
i or mis Metsch. and A. hiper a Foulke. While I have never seen
Leidy’s A. vorax, which seems to be exceedingly scarce, I have fre-
quently taken, especially lately, A. hucinedax and A. hipera. Recently
I have had both these strictly American species in some abundance,
and have been enabled to observe some structural features, the
description of which is the principal subject of this note.

The two species, as I consider them (A. hucinedax and A. hipera ),
were captured together from the same shallow clear- water pool near
Trenton, N.J., where they were adherent to the leaflets of Utricularia
and to the fronds of Biccia fluitans L., or were there entangled. After
the plants had been in the aquarium for several days the Rotifers,
or perhaps their progeny, attached themselves loosely to the side of the
vessel, where they were visible to the naked eye as minute white dots.

Apsilus hucinedax Forbes, plate VI. figs. 1, 2, 3, and 6.

The coronal cup is obliquely truncate, if I may so express it, and
is without the ventral, lobe-like enlargement characteristic of A. hipera .
although the frontal opening has a somewhat reniform outline (fig. 2).
A. lentiformis has its coronal cup with an oblique front, but its
margin is to a certain extent cucullate, and the ganglion is on its
dorsal wall, while the ganglion in A. hucinedax is cervical.

Two lateral antennas are present, and seem to have been over-
looked by Prof. Forbes. Each is situated near the base of the coronal
cup, on the ventral side, and bears a radiating cluster of long fine
setae (fig. 2).

Dr. Hudson, speaking of the structure which gives A. hipera its
specific name, says, “If A. hipera really has two stomachs, one above
the jaws and the other below them, and each is a closed sac with
walls distinct from those of the body-cavity, then it would not only
be a new species but also a perfectly unique one among the Rotifera.”
A. hipera has the two stomachs, but is no longer unique, for A. huci-
nedax possesses a similar organisation, with a sac-like stomach in
front of the mastax, and absolutely free and distinct from the body-
walls ; in fact, it is in no way connected with those walls, and is in
no part in contact with them, except as contact is produced by its
ever active motions. It is, furthermore, a closed sac, opened only
for the entrance or for the exit of alimentary matters. Anteriorly it
is closed by what may perhaps be called the oesophageal ring, to
which it is attached, and from which it is suspended in the cavity of
the body. This oesophageal ring is a stout, muscular, ring-like mass
protruding forward into the cavity of the coronal cup, and posteriorly
into the proventriculus or the anterior stomach. The pro ventricular

* Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci. Philadelphia, 1884, p. 37.

Apsilus and other American Rotifer a. By Dr. A. G. Stokes. 271

portion of this thick, collar-like muscle bears pendent from its central
region, and apparently communicating with its central passage, a
long membranous tubular body, which sways with the movements of
the anterior stomach (proventriculus), and with the flow of its con-
tents. This tube (figs. 1 and 2) probably has the same purpose as
the similar structure observable in the crop of Floscularia; but I
have not been able to observe this, although I have several times seen
the Rotifer take food. The process was accomplished too rapidly to
exhibit the details after the food-particle had passed into the oeso-
phageal ring.

The proveutriculus is a thin- walled sac, provided with several
muscular bands, and in vigorous, almost constant motion, especially
when the coronal cup is expanded. Its external surface, or that
•surface bathed by the fluid of the general body-cavity, is furnished
with a coat of somewhat scattered cells, oval, nucleated, and usually
Ailed with dark-bordered granules and refractive bodies, probably oil-
drops. These cell-contents are noticeably increased when the pro-
ventriculus is well supplied with food and the processes of digestion
are apparently active. They thus seem to have some important
function to perform in connection with the solution of the food or
with its absorption. That the proventriculus positively has digestive
power, is proved by the fact, which I have several times seen, of the
presence within it of the mastax from one or more Rotifers, with
the soft parts entirely gone, the chitinous framework of the part alone
remaining. I have likewise several times observed the presence within
the proventriculus of the empty lorica of a Rotifer, its protoplasmic
contents having been dissolved out, only the indigestible lorica and
the enclosed framework of the mastax remaining. 1 do not know
that such chitinous remains ever pass the mastax into the posterior or
true stomach ; I have never seen such remains there nor in the
intestine, but I have seen at least one large and indigestible object
ejected through the oesophageal ring, after what may be called a
mighty effort to get rid of it. I have seen, not Apsilus bucinedax, it
is true, but Apsilus bipera, thus eject through the oesophageal ring a
Cypris which had been rotated about the proventriculus, apparently
much against its will, for it was tightly closed within its shell, and
after its ejection remained dazed for a few moments, when it separated
the valves of its shell and sailed off into the open water. That what
I have called the proventriculus has digestive power, there can be no
doubt.

The mastax at the fundus of the anterior stomach is large, massive,
and complex. The trophi differ conspicuously from the same parts in
Apsilus lentiformis Metsch., as shown by figs. 5 and 6, the former
being the trophi of A. lentiformis. Fig. A is from A. bucinedax , but,
complex as it appears, I am inclined to think that 1 have either mis-
interpreted some portion or have not seen it all distinctly, as there
are at times glimpses of another curved, rod-like piece of chitin at the

u 2

272

Transactions of the Society.

base, and occasionally, at favourable moments, even of two, unequally
curved rods. However, even as I have drawn and observed it, the
mastax differs widely from that of A. lentiformis, and forms another
item in favour of separating the two as distinct species. There are
four large acuminate teeth, yet I have seen in the nearly mature
embryo still within the egg, four teeth on one side and five on the-
other. These, in all cases, are accompanied by a secondary series of
five alternate acuminations situated slightly below the larger teeth,
and much less robust in appearance, shorter, and apparently in no
way connected with the primary series above them. A broad, band-
like adductor muscle is conspicuous at the posterior, ventral region of
the mastax, and produces the rolling and crushing motions of the part.

The granular, fluid contents of the posterior stomach are often to
be seen flowing forward through the mastax into the proventriculus,
and back into the stomach, with which the mastax communicates
directly.

This posterior stomach is a subspherical sac, smaller than the
proventriculus, and with thicker walls which, internally, are densely
clothed with long, fine cilia. It is not always easy to determine the
exact size and form, as it is usually obscured by the large ovary which
seems to encircle it when in the act of producing the embryos, as it
generally is. But in dorsal view, by careful focusing, a densely
ciliated region is visible between the developing ovules, and in almost
any condition of the ovary. Its entire outer surface is enveloped by
a sheet of granular, vacuolar substance which is probably glandular.
Traversing it longitudinally are about five oblique bands which appear
to be muscular, but in which I have thought myself able to see at
least traces of a lumen.

The intestine (i, figs. 1 and 2) is immediately beneath the ciliated
stomach, and so situated that I have not been able to see how the two
are connected. But the intestine is on the ventral side of the body,
and consists of a wide sac composed of three distinct subspherical
diverticula, two lateral and large, with one central and smaller, the
whole together forming one general cavity, the contents of the three
parts flowing freely to and fro through the smaller central division.
The walls are thin and are not ciliated. I have never observed the
slightest independent motion of the intestinal walls, their movements
seeming to be produced only by the movements of the organs above
them, especially at the moment when the coronal cup is retracted ;
then the contents of the sac are forced to and fro from one part to the
other as a consequence of the crowding displacement of the digestive
organs above it. It is reasonable to suppose, however, that the part
must have independent contractile power to expel the excrement, but
I have never seen this act. The intestine opens, probably by means
of a rectum, although I have not seen it, into a subspherical cloaca,
terminating in a conspicuous anal aperture with a much wrinkled
margin.

Apsilus and other American Rotifer a. By Dr. A. C. StoJces. 273

On both sides of the intestine is a pyriform gland composed of
a mass of nucleated cells, each gland apparently emptying into the
larger lateral diverticulum (m, fig. 2). Under Apsilus lentiformis
Metsch., Dr. Hudson says,* “There are two pear-shaped glands
attached by their narrow ends to the crop.” I have not been able
to see that the pyriform glands of A. hucinedax are so attached. If
there is a duct from each gland to the proventriculus, which has the
position of the crop in the other Flosculariidae, it must be about half
as long as the entire body. I have at times thought, however, that
I could observe such a duct, but the appearance seems to be caused
by a long ribbon-like muscle directly above each gland. If the parts
do empty into the proventriculus, then they must be secretory ; if
into the intestine, excretory — a difference of considerable importance.

The contractile vesicle (cv, fig. 2) , opens directly into the cloaca
through a plainly visible circular aperture. It is similar to that de-
scribed in A. lentiformis Metsch., likewise sending off a single large
trunk which divides into two branches, each passing obliquely toward
the front, and terminating in a cluster of long loops surrounded by a
granular material, and with branches and vibratile tags in the anterior
body, and a somewhat complicated system of canals in the walls of the
coronal cup. The lumen of the main cup and of the primary branches
is not clear and open, but is obstructed by what seem to be irregular
membranous folds of the inner walls. The fluid of the contractile
vesicle is finally expelled into the external water through the anal
aperture, which is always imperfectly closed, and is surrounded by a
sphincter-muscle about 1 /3000 in. broad.

The whole inner surface of the coronal cup is densely hispid, but
after careful and prolonged examination I have not been able to find
the slightest trace of cilia. All the setae are fine, short, recurved,
and absolutely rigid and immobile.

The entire front surface of the body, the basal region circum-
scribed by the coronal cup, is likewise densely hispid ; but in addition
to the short setae, this surface exhibits numerous rounded, cushion-
like elevations, each armed with a broad fan-like cluster of long-
immobile setae, those at the lateral borders (figs. 1 and 2) being
especially long and conspicuous, measuring about 1/900 in. in length.
After extended and careful examination of this region also, I feel
entirely safe in saying that there are no cilia present within the
coronal cup ; even the fine setae clothing the coronal surface of the
oesophageal ring, where their presence might be anticipated, are
absolutely rigid and motionless.

I have seen food taken in more than one instance, the Infusorian
Halteria grandinella Mull, being the victim in each instance. The
coronal cup is exceedingly sensitive ; at the slightest touch of a
floating object it is quickly tilted in the direction of the delicate blow

‘ The Rotifera,’ i. p. 58.

274

Transactions of the Society.

witli every part alert and ready for the prey, which it has no other
means of capturing. At the moment of the victim’s entrance into the-
cup the membrane is folded together, contracting closer and closer, as
it struggles, until in some instances the pressure is great enough to
crush the body of the animalcule into a diffluent mass of protoplasm.
In other cases the Infusorian is directed, by the folds and the furrows,
within the reach of the oesophageal ring, which suddenly gaps and
snaps, and engulfs it with a gulp, transmitting it to the proventriculus,.
where it may live for several seconds, as so often observed in various
Infusoria.

The tufts of setae within the cup, unlike the larger but similar
setae of Floscularia, do not extend into the open water beyond the
margin of the coronal cup, there to form a trap to lead the victims
down to the buccal orifice, but are far below the margin, where their
function must be to assist in retaining the prey near the oesophageal
ring. Yet, although the Eotifer has no more active means of
seeking its prey, small desmids and other naturally immobile objects
are not rare within both the anterior and the posterior stomach. How
they are obtained is not easily conjectured, unless these freely floating
objects are carried toward and into the cup with the strong currents
produced by the expansion of the contracted cup. This is the effect
when the Kotifer is confined under a cover-glass, as I have repeatedly
witnessed.

The muscles of the cup are slender, and exceedingly numerous
and complex in their arrangement. In Apsilus bipera they are
comparatively few, and unusually large and robust. Their number,
size, and arrangement may be of value in separating the species
(figs. 1, 2, and 4). Several of the larger body-muscles are coarsely
striated transversely.

The entire mass of the internal organs is enveloped in a network
of fine nerve-fibres, a minute ganglionic enlargement being present at
the point of each anastomosis, the network extending between the
membranes of the coronal cup, where it is even more luxuriantly
developed than within the body. The primary or central nervous
ganglion (g, fig. 1) is not situated within the substance of the coronal
cup, as it is said to be in A. lentiformis Metsch., but in the frontal
region of the dorsal body-wall, immediately behind the base of the-
coronal cup, and just above the position of the oesophageal ring. It
is an elongated, irregularly ovate mass of nucleated cells, placed
transversely in the cervical region. It gives off* numerous fibres from
its lateral poles.

The young are essentially similar to those described from A. lenti-
formis.

Apsilus bipera Foulke, plate YI. fig. 4.

In company with A. bucinedax I have taken several specimens of
this species, but the only apparent differences between the two are in

Apsilus and other American Hot if era. By Dr. A. C. Stokes. 275

the form of the coronal cup (fig. 4), anil in the larger muscles of this
part, with their conspicuously different arrangement in A. bijpera from
that which obtains in A. bucinedax. The nervous ganglion is
cervicil, and all the internal organs, including the two stomachs,
are essentially the same in both.

The inner surface of the coronal cup is likewise densely hispid,
with rigid, immobile, recurved setae. I have carefully searched the
part for the cilia which Miss S. G. Foulkes describes as being present.*
She says that by “focusing downwards from the outside of the
dorsal view of the net, two gradually narrowing ridges or flaps are
seen extending up the inside of the hood. These flaps are fringed
with quite long cilia, and there are also shorter diagonal lines of more
minute cilia, the exact number of which lines could not be accurately
determined. . . , In this case their presence was first detected while
focusing through the dorsal side of the net, although they could
afterwards be plainly seen in a ventral view. It was only by carefully
placing the mirror that the cilia were visible.” After prolonged
examination with central and with oblique illumination, I have failed
to find any cilia on any part of the coronal cup. There are none. The
setigerous, cushion-like knobs of the body-region circumscribed by the
base of the cup are similar to those of A. bucinedax , and in both
species are undoubtedly analogous, as well as homologous, with the
setigerous coronal knobs of Floscularia. The remarkably large
muscle on each side of the cup, near where Miss Foulke thinks she
detected cilia, are so coarsely striated transversely that they are
actually ridged and furrowed, presenting an appearance not unlike
that of large quiescent cilia.

The specific differences of the four known forms I should tabulate
as follows : —

Coronal cup not oblique, its frontal margin horizontal ; ganglion ?

A. vorax Leidy.

Coronal cup and its frontal margin oblique.

a. Ganglion on the dorsal wall of the cup.

A. lentiformis Metsch.

b. Ganglion cervical.

i. Ventral margin of the cup with a central, convex, lobe-
like projection. A. bipera Foulke.

ii. Ventral margin of the cup even, without central lobe.

A. bucinedax Forbes.

Colurus agilis sp. n., plate VI. figs. 7, 8, and 9.

Lorica, viewed dorsally, elongate-ovate, rather less than three
times as long as broad, obtusely pointed anteriorly ; the posterior

* ‘On a New Species of Rotifer, of the Genus Apsilus,’ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia, 1884, p. 37.

276

Transactions of the Society.

margin rounded, not produced nor pointed, and without a dorsal cleft ;
viewed ventrally, the cleft is seen not to be continued throughout the
entire length of the lorica, but to he in two distinct portions, an an-
terior short and posteriorly acute region, rapidly widening anteriorly,
its margins convex ; and of a posterior portion, the anterior region of
which is narrow, the borders being parallel for about one-fourth of
their length, whence they rapidly diverge to form an elongate-ovate
opening for the passage of the foot (fig. 8) ; viewed laterally (fig. 7),
the frontal border is convexly truncate ; the dorsum strongly convex
posteriorly, and somewhat flattened anteriorly ; eyes two, placed
below the median line of the body ; foot with four joints, especially
distinct in the dead animal ; toes two, acute. Length of lorica alone,
1 /450 in. ; transverse width about 1 / 1300 in. ; toes about one-
half as long as the foot.

Habitat, shallow clear-water pools near Trenton, New Jersey,
U.S.A. Abundant in its locality. Movements exceedingly active and
exasperating.

Near the middle of the hack is conspicuously displayed the inex-
plicable organ referred to by Gosse in his account of Colurus deflexus
Ehr., in which he says that, “ in the middle of the hack, just under
the lorica, are two curious organs, each apparently an agglomeration
of minute, clear vesicles, perhaps of air, perhaps of oil, observed long
ago by Ehrenberg. He declared them inexplicable, and I cannot
supply the explanation.” In the present form there is hut one organ
of the kind, hut it consists of an irregularly subcircular ring of small
refractive vesicles, apparently of oil, bordering a semi-opaque disc of
granular matter varying in depth of opacity and of colour, as well as
in degree of development, in different individuals (fig. 7).

The frontal hook is strongly curved posteriorly, or at that part
which is inserted, actually hooked, into the substance of the head, as
shown by diagram in fig. 9. It is not indented in front.

This Rotifer’s movements are so incessant and so annoying to
the observer that, from the microscopist’s point of view, a stronger
word might he a more appropriate specific name than the one
selected, but the creature is assuredly agile.

There is a variety of Colurus , presumably a variety of this species,
found in company with it and often on the slide at the same time. It
is rather larger and more robust than the typical form (1/375 in.
in length without the frontal hook and the foot) ; the dorsal curve of
the lorica is more regular ; the ventral borders are slightly more con-
vex ; the posterior border rather more conspicuously emarginate ; the
frontal hook is a broad, curved lamella indented at the free extremity,
somewhat as in Colurus bicuspidatus Ehr. ; and the two eyes are
usually placed above the median line of the body, or, at least, not
below it, as in the typical Colurus agilis .

Apsilus and other American Botifera. By Dr. A. C. Stokes. 277

Copeus quinquelobatus sp. n., plate YI. figs. 10 and 11.

Body pale yellowish, flexible, very changeable, normally elongate -
subcylindrical, posteriorly ventricose ; when contracted, subglobose or
often with an anterior and a posterior, short, truncate, subcentral
projection ; tail-like prolongation conspicuous, cuticular, subcylindrical
and surrounding the foot sheath-like, ventrally oblique, the dorsal
region being longer than the ventral ; foot soft, flexible, apparently
of but one joint ; toes two, furcate, conical, acute, slightly decurved,
about one-third as long as the foot, the proximal region flexible ;
foot and toes together about one-sixth as long as the body, entirely
retractile ; auricles present, seldom protruded, but large, elongate,
somewhat recurved, obtuse, their frontal border densely ciliate ; face
continued posteriorly on the ventral surface as a flat, densely ciliated
surface, hut not protrusible into a lip ; lumbar sense-organs small,
each terminated by a cluster of several fine, long, radiating setae ;
dorsal antenna single, with a terminal cluster of fine, radiating
setae ; brain enormous, multinucleated, with five elongate lobes, the
central one clavate, about one-third as long as the body, and bearing
a large, red, plano-convex eye near the frontal termination of its
stem ; mastax large, broadly ovate, trophi normal ; oesophagus long,
conspicuous, dilatable into a wide, thin-walled tube ; stomach and
intestine together more or less obpyriform, both internally ciliated and
differentiated only when filled with food-particles, the surface with
numerous golden-brown granules and refractive oil-drops collected
into apparently cellular and glandular polygonal areas, visible only
when the stomach is dilated by alimentary matter in the process of
digestion ; intestine proper always with colourless walls, and never
exhibiting the brown polygonal areas ; a bilobed, multinucleated
gastric gland attached to each side of the antero-lateral region of the
stomach ; ovary ventral to the stomach and the intestine, but rising
on both sides almost to a level with the dorsal surface of the parts ;
contractile vesicle apparently double, each vacuole large, ovoid, thin-
walled, the whole extending below the intestine, and almost entirely
across the body, as a centrally bilobed organ, in close proximity to
the posterior body- wall; foot-glands elongate-ovate, multinucleate,
granulate ; lateral canals forming two loop-like convolutions on each
side, one near the ovary, the other near the gastric gland, five flame-
cells (vibratile tags) visible on each, one being in the head, all, in
face view, flabelliform, much compressed, the frontal border convex,
apparently thickened, the lateral margins obliquely concave; longitu-
dinal muscles numerous, large, coarsely striated transversely. Length
of the extended animal, 1/53 in.

Habitat, a shallow pool in a rocky wood near Trenton, New
Jersey, U.S.A. Movements usually not rapid. Facial cilia short.

The species differs from all forms thus far described in the
enormous five-lobed brain with the great flexible club of nervous

278

Transactions of the Society.

tissue depending from it posteriorly, with the apparently double con-
tractile vesicle as another characteristic feature.

The outline of the accompanying figure was sketched with the
camera lucida during a momentary pause in the animal’s movements,
and shows the body slightly contracted and widened anteriorly.

The mastax is protrusible, and the trophi snap and nibble, but
. the creature not rarely takes the end of an algar filament into the
oral aperture, when the trophi gnaw at the object at the animal’s
ease. The food seems usually to be the soft and decaying flocculent
matters at the bottom, where the animal appears to delight to be,,
and whence it is generally taken.

279

YI. — Interzooecial Communication in Flustridm, and Notes
on Flustra.

By Arthur Wm. Waters, F.B.M.S., F.L.S.

(Read 15 th April, 1896.)

Plates VI F. and VIII.

It has long been known that throughout the Chilostomata there is
connection between neighbouring zooecia through rosette plates,* and
in some cases the avicularian, radical, and ovicellular chambers com-
municate with the zooecia in the same way. They have, however,
been but very slightly studied, and scarcely used for purposes of
classification. I first gave particulars of some in my paper on the
Bryozoa of the Bay of Naples, published in the Annals of Nat. Hist.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate VII.

Fig. 1. — Flustra serrulata Busk. Lateral rosette plates x 25.

2. „ „ Rosette plate X 250.

,, 8. „ „ Distal wall x 25,

,, 4. ,, militaris Waters. Lateral wall, showing raised ovicells x 2{).

„ 5. ,, „ Plate x 250.

„ 6. ., „ Distal wall x 85. Fig. 7. — Ditto x 25.

•„ 8. armata Busk. Lateral wall x 25.

.,9. „ Distal wall x 25.

„ 10. nobilis Hincks. Lateral wall x 25.

„ 11. „ „ Distal wall x 25. The section is not satisfactory,

and no doubt there are other details uot made out.

„ 12. „ pisciformis Busk. Lateral wall X 25.

„ 13. „ „ Distal wall x 25. a — Ditto x 85.

„ 14. — Euthyris bombycina Busk ? Distal wall x 25. Fig. 15. — Ditto x 85.
.,16. „ „ Lateral wall x 25, showing raised ovicell.

„ 17. — Flustra dissimilis Busk. Lateral wall x 25.

., 18. „ ovoidea „ „ x 25.

.. 19. „ „ „ Distal wall x 25.

„ 20. „ cyathiformis MacG. „ x 25.

„ 21. „ „ Lateral wall x 25.

„ 22. „ crassa Busk. „ x 25.

* I am unable to see any sufficient reason for changing the name rosette plate,
although there is often such a wide divergence from the diaphragm as first described
in Zoobotryon pellucidus , nor does that description seem quite correct. Hincks
speaks of a communication plate ; Levinsen also of a “ Forbindelsplader ” with
pores in it ; Smitt speaks of a communication pore, and Busk, in the ‘ Challenger 1
Report, p. 57, mentions interzooecial pores or discs. The name communication plate
or pore is not satisfactory, as both have often been used as if it were a simple struc-
ture, whereas the communication really takes place through the small pores in the
rosette plate, and in each rosette plate there may be one or numerous pores. If we
are to change a name because it is unsuitable in some subsequently discovered cast s,
then nomenclature would become more complicated than it is at present. We all
recognise the reason for the name avicularia in Bugula , and would not think of dis-
carding it because the small dorsal avicularia of Retepora do not suggest a bird’s
beak.

280

Transactions of the Society.

in 1879, and in various papers have given their number and position,
especially in fossil forms, and in my ‘ Challenger ’ Supplementary
Beport figured several, and referred to them on page 18, &c.

Plate VIL ( continued ).

Fig. 23. — Flustra crassa Busk. Distal wall X 25.

„ 24.

99

tenella Hincks. „ x 25.

25.

„ „ Lateral wall x 25. a and b, rosette plates, as

seen from the two sides x 85.

„ 26.

9?

securifrons Pallas. Distal wall x 25.

. 27.

reticulum Hincks. Lateral wall x 25.

.. 28.

,, Distal wall x 25.

„ 29.

carbasea Ell. and Sol. Lateral wall x 25. a , rosette plate x 85.

30.

„ Distal wall x 25.

31.

cribriformis Busk. Lateral wall X 25.

32.

99

„ Distal wall x 25.

„ 33.

„ dentigera Hincks. Lateral wall x 25. Showing the rosette plates
near the base of the zooecium, denticles near the opercular wall, and an
immersed ovicell.

„ 34.

99

„ Distal wall x 25. 6, denticles X 85.

Plate VIII.

Fig. 1. — Membranipora pilosa L. Section showing ordinary rosette plates and two
gigantic ones x 25.

„ 2. „ „ Section of small rosette plate, showing proto-

plasmic connection x 250.

„ 3. „ „ Section of gigantic rosette plate x 85.

„ 4. ,, „ Showing protoplasmic connections x 250.

,, 5. — Flustra crassa Busk. From Station 149 D ‘Challenger.’ Showing ovi-
cells and avicularium x 25.

„ 6. „ biseriata Busk. From Station 196 ‘ Challenger.’ Transverse

section, showing distal rosette plates, the bordering chambers ( bch ) and
section of the projecting chitinous tube X 25.

7. „ „ Showing the immersed ovicells and the lateral

chitinous tubes X 25.

,, 8. ,, „ Transverse section of bordering cells (b cli) as fig. 6,

showing the chitino-calcareous band (c b) x 150.

.»> 9. „ „ X 4.

„ 10. „ reticulum Hincks. With avicularium and projecting chitinous

tubes.

99

11.

12.

13.
„ 14.
„ 15.
„ 16.
„ 17.

„ 19.

., 20.
„ 21.
,, 22.

„ „ Dorsal surface X 2.

„ oblonga sp. n. Showing the rosette plates in one zooecium all
directed away from the centre x 25.

„ „ Avicularian mandible x 85.

„ tenella Hinks. „ „ X 85.

„ Barleei Busk. ,, „ x 85.

„ securifrons Pallas. „ „ X 85.

,, denticulata Busk. Lateral wall, showing rosette plates, and the
internal denticles x 25.

,, „ Distal wall as above x 25.

„ spinuligera Hincks. Lateral wall, showing ovicell, plates and
denticles x 25.

„ „ Distal wall x 25.

„ reticulum H. Avicularian mandible x 85.

„ biseriata Busk. From Station 196 ‘ Challenger.’ Lateral wall with
rosette plates x 25.

Interzooecial Communication in Flustridds. By A. W. Waters. 281

With the exception of Levinsen, few authors have noticed them,
but in more than one paper he has supported my view as to
their value in classification, and recently, in a most valuable work,*
he has given particulars of the mode of communication in 34 species
of Chilostomata.

The mode of connection is, throughout the Bryozoa generally, a
useful character, but in what we may call the calcareous forms the
examination is not easy, though sections ground on a hone, or cut
sections of decalcified stained material, will usually give the chief
points.

As Flustra seemed the most suitable genus for making compara-
tive studies of these rosette plates, I have prepared sections, mostly
from dried specimens,! of all the species which, were available, with the
result that all show some distinguishing character. I must here
thank Miss Jelly, Mr. Levinsen, and Mr. Kirkpatrick for specimens
enabling me to make the list more complete.

The characters of importance are the position, the number on both
walls, and the number of pores on each plate through which com-
munication takes place. First, there is a connection between the
distal end of one zooecium and the proximal end of the next, and this,
for simplicity, I speak of as the distal wall. In the distal wall there
may be only one rosette plate, as in Flustra securifrons, papyrea,.
nobilis , pisciformis, biseriata.

Or two, as in F. serrulata.

Or three rosette plates, as in F. membranaceo-truncata and
Barleei .

Or four, as in F. tenella and oblonga.

Or six, as in F. papyracea, cribrif ormis, denticulata, dentigera ,
and foliacea.

Or the distal plates may be numerous, as in F. carbasea, armata,
ovoidea, militaris, reticulum, crassa ; and Euthyris bombycina, epi-
scopalis, and obtecta.

The plate may have only one perforation for the protoplasmic
connection, as in F. tenella (plate VII. fig. 25), or there may be a large
plate with many perforations, as in F. nobilis (plate VII. fig. 10).

Turning to the lateral walls, there is a question how the plates
should be counted. The entire lateral wall of one zooecium is in con-
tact with the halves of the lateral walls of two zooecia. This may be
seen in such species as Membranipora pilosa (plate VIII. fig. 1) and
F. crassa (plate VIII. fig. 5), though where the zooecium is more
hexagonal it might seem correct to speak of six walls. Levinsen gives
the number of rosette plates in the upper half of the lateral wall, and

* Levinsen, G. M. R., ‘Mosdyr,’ Zoologica Danica, 9te Heft. See also his
‘ Bryozoer fra Kara-Havet’ and his ‘ Polvzoa,’ from which many of the figures in his
last work are copied.

t It is often easier to make out these plates in dried than fresh specimens, and
many of my sections have been cut without decalcifying.

282

Transactions of the Society.

in which way the numeration is made is not a matter of much import-
ance, though as there are some cases in which it is better to give the
position of the plates in the entire wall, I have done so, adhering to
the plan adopted in my previous papers, and therefore, to compare
Levinsen’s figures with mine, his must he doubled.

On the lateral wall there may be two plates, as in id armata ,
papyrea, nobilis, pisciformis , serrulata , ovoidea, militaris , Euthyris
bombycina .

Or four plates, as in F. biseriata, crassa , dissimilis , elegans.

Or six , as in F. membranaceo-truncata, Barleei, oblonga , separata ,
cyathiformis, foliacea, carbasea, securifrons, Euthyris episcopalis.

Or eight, as in Euthyris obtecta.

Or ten, as in F. tenella, papyracea, reticulum , denticulata, denti-
gera ; or over ten, as in F. spimdigera and cribriformis.

We need not be surprised to find that there is not absolute regu-
larity in the number of these plates, and naturally the regularity is
greatest in those species with the fewest plates ; so that, while in those
with two we may speak of the number as constant, this is by no
means the case with those having a larger number.

There are two ways in which irregularity may occur. Taking
as an example Membranipora membranacea, there are usually four
lateral plates, but sometimes one of these plates is seen to be replaced
by two smaller ones, thus three large and two small, or some such
irregularity ; but even then it is generally easy to say what is the
typical number, but should this not be the case, the examination of
a few zocecia will show what must be considered as typical. The
other form of irregularity occurs more with the many plated species,
for then sometimes the plates may be said to occur at equal distances ;
and as irregularity in the shape of the zooecia means that the length
of the wall may vary considerably, the number will correspond with
the length. This was pointed out by Yigelius * for F. membranaceo-
truncata, and he says the number for each wall is fairly inconstant.
However, he figures | what I should consider a typical zocecium show-
ing six lateral and three distal plates. Levinsen gives the range
within which variation takes place.

The results of the comparison of 29 species are given as a table
to facilitate reference. The genus Euthyris, comprising E. obtecta ,
episcopalis , and bombycina has been included. E. episcopalis has
been called Onchoporella, but as to a new genus being required, I am
very doubtful. F. biseriata v ill probably have to be removed from
Flustra. However, the object of this paper is not to define the limits
of Flustra, but to show that there are additional characters which
may be used in studying their relationships.

Although there is this interzooecial communication through the

* Yigelius, W. J., Morph. Unters. fiber Flustra membranaceo-truncata , Biol.
Cent. Blatt., iii. p. 708; and ‘Die Bryozoen des Willem Barents,’ p. 21.

f Yigelius, Bry. des W. Barents, pi. i. fig. 9.

Interzooecial Communication in Flustridas. By A. W. Waters. 283

Rosette Plates.

Lamina.

Avicu-

laria.

Ovicells.

Spines.

Ten-

tacles.

Figured.

Distal.

Lateral.

Flustra securi-

(!) 1* * * §

(r) 6-8

2

semi-

im-

?

PI. VII. 26

frons Pallas

circular

mersed.

F. papyrea

(0 1

(0 2

1

0

unknown

0

Pallas

F. nobilis Hincks

00 1

00 2

1

minute

unknown

nume-

PI. VII.

' semic.

rous

! 10, 11

F. pisciformis

(0 1

(0 2

1

0

imm.

0

24 (B)

PI. VII.

Busk

12, 13

F. biseriata Busk

(I) 1

(0 4

2

0

imm.

0

19

PI. VII.

6 -9. 22

F. dissimilis

2?

(*) 4

1

trian-

raised

0-1 or

PI. VII. 17

Busk

gular

1-1

F. serrulata Busk

2

2

1 & 2 f

0

imm.

0

22

PI. VII.

1-3

F. membranaceo-

([) 3

(') 6

1

semic.

imm.

0

16 (V)

truncata Smitt

F. Barleei Busk

(i) 3

(r) 6-8

2

semic.

imm.

0

PI. VIII. 15

F. tenella Hincks

(r) 4

(i) 10-12

2

triang.

imm.

1-1

pi. vir.

24, 25

PI. VIII 14

F. oblonga Waters

4

6

1

triang.

lunknown

0

PI. VIII.

12, 13

F. papyracea

(i) 6

(r) 10

2 j

o

imm.

1-1

Ellis

F. cribriformis

6

16-18

1

o

imm.

0

PI. VII.

Busk

. 31. 32

F, denticulata

(r) 6

(i) 10-12

2

triang.J

imm.

various

PI. VIII.

Busk

17. 18

F. dentigera

(i) 6

(i) 10

2

0

imm.§

0

PI. VII.

Hincks

33, 34

F. spinuligera

(0 6

(0 16

2 1|

triang.

imm.

various

PI. VIII.

Hincks

19, 20

F. cyathiformis

(i) nume-

(i) 6

1

0

unknown

0

PI. VII.

MacG.

rous

1

20, 21

four walls, there is in the bilaminate forms none between the walls
known as the basal or neural wall ; nor is this confined to Flustra ,

* (i), (s), signify one or several pores in the rosette plate.

f Levinsen, G. M. R., ‘ Bryozoer fra Kara Havet Dijmphna-Togtets,’ Zool. Bot.
Udbytte, 1886, p. 316 (12), pi. xxvii. figs. 1, 2. Says serrulata occurs as uni-
laminate and as bilaminate. In the specimens in my collection from Greenland and
Bell Island it is bilaminate.

X As the ovicell occurs in conjunction with the avicularia they are prominent,
but the ovicell is immersed in the zooecium above it. Hincks, in his description of
dentigera, says the ovicell of denticulata is not immersed, but sections show them
distinctly immersed. Busk, when he says in the ‘Challenger’ Report that the
rosette plates only occur in the bordering zocecia of denticulata, is, of course,
mistaken.

§ F. dentigera has a much longer ovicell than that of F. denticulata or F. spinu-
ligera.

|| Hincks (Aun. M.N.H., ser. 6, vol. xii. p. 145) says F. spinuligera is unilami-
nate and F. rhizopora Ort. bilaminate, but this is clearly a slip, and he means the
opposite. The mandible of F, spinuligera has a much longer beak than that of
F. denticulata.

284

Transactions of the Society.

Rosette Plates.

i

Avicu-

Ovicells.

Spines.

I Ten-

Distal.

Lateral.

! • laria.

! tacles.

Figured.

F. foliacea L.

(r) nume-

(0 4-6

2

semic.

: imm.

1-1 to

14

rous

4-4

(Ben.)

F. carbasea

(r) num.

00 6

1-2*

0

unknown

0

PI. VII.

Ml. and Sol.

‘ 29, 30

F. elegans Busk

(i) num.

4

1

0

uuknown

0

F. crassa Busk

(i) num.

(0 4

1

duck- *

raised

1-1

PI. VII.

bill i

to

22, 23

2-2

PI. VIII.

5, 2

F. armata Busk ;

(i) num.

0) 2

1

triang. 1

unknown

0

PI. VII.

F. militaris

(i) num.

(s) 2

2

0

raised

1-1

8, 9

PI. VII.

Waters

4-7

F. ovoidea Busk

(i) num.

00 2

1

0

unknown

o

16

PI. VII.

18, 19

Euthyris bomby-

( i ) num. i

(s) 2

1

0

raised

1-1

, ,

PI. VII.

cina Busk

14, 16

E. episcopalis

(r) num. :

00 4-6f

1

0

raised

0

Busk

E. obtecta Hincks

(i) num.

8

1

0 ,

large

0

zooecium

Flustra reticulum

(r) num.

10

1

duck-

imm.

0

22 !

PI. VII.

Hincks

bill

27, 28

PI. VIII.

10, 11, 21

F. separata

(r) num.

5-6

1

duck-

unknown

0

Waters

bill |

for in the Eschara of old authors, namely, bilaminate forms of
Lepralia, Schizoporella, Micropora , Porella, Smittia, &c., there is,
as far as I am aware, no case in which there is any connection of the
two laminae through the basal wall. In Foveolaria , Galeschara
and Membranipora tubiyera, and M. perfragilis, the laminae do not
communicate, and, in fact, the ease with which they may be separated
has been made one of the characters of Biflustra. Again, Beania
bilaminata throws out radicles which may attach themselves to the
other layer, but there is no organic communication.

I think that a consideration of these facts teaches us why such
genera as Eschara, Carbasea, and others based upon whether there
were one or two layers, have proved so untenable. On the other
hand, there are cases where the zoarial form depends upon the
manner in which one zooecium springs from another, and the form of
the zoarium viewed in this light must not be ignored in classification.

Although Flustra has been chosen because the connection can be
easily demonstrated, it is not only throughout the suborder that these

* Smitt says, occurs as unilaminate and bilaminate.

f Very similar to the rosette plates of F. carbasea (see plate VII. figs. 29, 30).

Interzoceeial Communication in Flustridee. By A. W. Waters, 285

characters and the connection with the stolon will be found useful,
but also the position of the diaphragms in the Ctenostomata furnish
specific indications, and it is a matter of surprise that they have been
so seldom mentioned in descriptions.

In the Cyclostomata the connection is through very small pores,
but their position and size I have sometimes used in determination.

The connection is not always so simple as in Flustra, for often
where at first sight we should imagine that the connection to a
zocecium, either from its neighbour, from a stolon, or from a radicle,
takes place directly, sections prove that there is an intermediate
chamber, and that communication is thus made indirectly by the
parenchym threads which enter and leave the chamber through discs
or rosette plates. Hippothoa divaricata may be taken as a simple
example of this, and also in Chorizopora Brongniartii Aud., and
some species of Membranipora, there are chambers between the
zooecia. In Porella cervicornis the distal rosette plates are in short
tubes, while in Tubucellaria and some Celleporee the tube is of con-
siderable length, often as long as a zooecium.

The rosette plates have already been studied in Membranipora
pilosa, and are referred to, and figured by Levinsen, in his ‘ Mosdyr *
(£ Danske Dyr ’), but as a special form of rosette plate which has been
overlooked can be more easily studied in this species than in Flustray
I give figures (plate VIII. figs. 1-i). There are two distal rosette
plates, and usually four lateral ones, and the discs in this, as in so
many other species, have a small “ watch-glass ” protection to them.
In the upper part of the zooecium the discs are usually on the inside,
but there is a certain amount of irregularity in this particular. (See
plate VIII. fig. 1, and also fig. 12.) In the regular course of growth a
new zooecium is added at the end of the parent ; but where a zooecium
is intercalated, a large rosette plate two or three times the size of an
ordinary one (plate VIII. figs. 3, 4) is formed on the inside of the old
zooecium, and through this the connection is made to the additional
zooecium. The growth in Flustra papyrea and several other Flustrse
is similar, whereas in F. ovoidea, where increase takes place, there are
two zooecia growing from the distal end of the parent. In Bugula
calathus and some other cases a similar gigantic rosette plate is formed
at the beginning of a new branch, and probably they occur in a large
number of species.

There is an interesting point worth mentioning, for the three
species having internal denticles — F. dentigera , F. denticulata, F,
spinuligera — each have six distal plates, and a row of lateral plates in
all three species at about equal distances apart ; for while there are
more rosette plates in F, spinuligera , it is only because the zooecia
are longer ; thus a natural group seems indicated by both the denticles
and the rosette plates. How questions of doubtful identification may
be elucidated by means of the rosette plates is shown under the
description of F. tenella and F. papyrea.

1896

x

286

Transactions of the Society.

The object of intercommunication is now well known to be an
interchange passing through the protoplasmic network attached to
all the organs, and from which all can obtain nourishment lor their
growth. This parenchym occurs in greatest abundance round the
caecum, from which it no doubt absorbs the digested food, but when
the polypides die down — if we must so call it — the colony would
soon become a dead skeleton were there no interchange of living
material. The direct communication with the surrounding sea-water
is often somewhat similar, for the shell of many species is ornamented
with pores, or, as I have called them, pore-tubes, formed by a chitinous
or integumentary tube containing coloured corpuscles, but these tubes
are usually closed at both ends by a membrane or disc, and in some
cases the structure of these discs must be compared with the rosette
plates. The frequent death of the polypide has necessitated various
contrivances by which the colony may be kept in health when there
are few or no active polypides.

In no species of Flustra have I found the suboral glands* * * § to
which I have called attention in various papers.

Before turning to the detail consideration of a few species, I
would point out that a better acquaintance with Flustra proves that
their geographical distribution is much more limited than in most
genera.

We now see that the northern seas and the Mediterranean only
have F. securifrons in common, and, as far as I am aware, of the
South African fauna only F. dentigera (an Australian form) is found
elsewhere. Of the South American species, F. biseriata and F. elegans
occur in the Australian seas, and F. ovoidea in the South Indian
Ocean ; then of the thirteen known species from the Australasian
seas, only the three mentioned occur elsewhere. Of the three J apanese
species Ortmann considers one is F. carbasea, a form occurring in the
northern seas of Europe.

The following table shows the distribution of species that can be
recognised from the descriptions : —

Northern F. f carbasea, securifrons, membranaceo-truncata , Barleei ,

papyracea , serrulata, pedunculata, foliacea,% oblonga.

Mediterranean . . . securifrons, papyrea , tenella, pusilla.

South African . . . . dentigera, armata, spinuligera, bomb))cina.§

Australian . .. .. dentigera, biseriata, elegans, denticulata , cribriformis ,

dissimilis , indivisa, pisciformis, mosleyi, reticulum , episco-
palis, militaris , obtecta.

South American . . biseriata, ovoidea, elegans.

South Indian Ocean . . ovoidea, crassa.

Japan carbasea, rhizopora , spoliata.

* ‘ Gland-like Bodies in the Bryozoa,’ Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxiv. p. 272, pi. xix.

t Species printed in small capitals occur from a second region,

j Flustra foliacea does not occur in the Mediterranean. Hincks, on the authority
of Kirch enpauer, gives it from China and Algoa Bay, but this should be re-examined.

§ I have this from Cape Agulhas, Port Elizabeth, and “ S. Africa,” and recent
authors have only mentioned it from S. Africa, nor does it seem probable that this is

InterzooeciaV Communication in Flustridse. By A. W. Waters. 287

With such genera as Flustra and Membranipora, as we become
better acquainted with more of the minute characters, the distribution
can be better studied ; but except where genera have been very
thoroughly worked up there will be much uncertainty in speaking of
the geographical distribution, and naturally the results with highly
differentiated species will be the most reliable. Let us take Chlidonia
Cordierii Sav., which has a characteristic zoarial growth, a stalk of
peculiar character from which grow branches bearing zooecia of a
marked form ; now when it is found common on both the European
and African coasts of the Mediterranean, also in New Zealand and
Australia, we feel that there is no possibility of doubt as to the
determination, and we recognise the fact of its wide distribution,
though not forgetting that it may have been introduced by ships.

Turning to the Cyclostomata, where few characters can be used
for classification, there is always much uncertainty about the de-
termination of recent, and still more of fossil species. Perhaps the
simplest of all Bryozoa is Entalophora, and it is natural that the least
differentiated should be the most widely distributed, and last through
the longest time, now there is a carboniferous Entalophora , in which
I fail to find any difference between forms from the Jurassic, Cre-
taceous, and Tertiary formations ; or from living specimens. One of
our most experienced palaeontologists has agreed with me that no
difference could be found, though it does not follow that if all the
hard and soft parts could be compared, differences of a specific or
generic character might not be discovered ; but until differences can
be demonstrated there does not seem any sufficient reason for giving
more than one name. Workers in this group would not attach the
same importance to this last case as to the former ; but it is difficult
for those who are not specialists to appreciate in which genera the
results may be looked upon as reliable.

Flustra papyrea Pall, (non Busk, non Smitt).

Eschara papyrea Pallas, Elenchus Zoophytorum, p. 56. Flustra
papyrea Waters, Bryozoa of the Bay of Naples, Ann. and Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 5, iii. p. 119. Garbasea papyrea Pall. var. Mazeli, Marion,
Ann. des Sciences Nat., ser. 6, viii. p. 32, plate xvii. fig. 10.

Mr. Hincks, in a footnote* to Flustra carbasea, supports Kirchen-
pauer in thinking that F. carbasea Ell. and Sol. should be separated
from F. papyrea , as the first has the cells linguiform, while in the
latter they are described as rhombic. The shape of the colony is

the same thing as Ellis and Solander mention from the West Indies. Busk, in his
‘Challenger’ Report, says this is not the species of Ellis and Solander, but gives a
reference to Lamouroux’s Expos. Meth. Now Lamouroux used the plate previously
published by Ellis, and merely quoted Ellis’s description, so that they must stand or
fall together. If tliis is not Ellis and Solander’s species the name should have been
changed. * Hincks, Brit. Mar. Polyzoa, p. 125.

x 2

288

Transactions of the Society.

similar, and camera sketches that I have made of the zooecia of the
northern and of the Mediterranean one, show that here also there is
hardly any difference ; both are without avicularia, and in neither is
any ovicell known. However, the northern form has four to six
lateral rosette plates, as shown by Levinsen,* whereas the papyrea
from the Mediterranean has only two; again, F. carbasea has
numerous small distal rosette plates, while F. papyrea has only one
distal plate. These differences seem sufficient to justify us in separating
the two, though I should have hesitated to do so on the grounds given
by Kirchenpauer and Hincks.

Both Kirchenpauer and Hincks make a strange mistake in saying
that Smitt did not mention whether his papyrea was unilaminate,
showing how unfortunate it is that Smitt’s valuable observations were
not given to the world in a more universally read language, for in the
Swedish text Smitt f refers to its being in the Carbasea form, but
says that it does occur in the Flustra form.

The creation of the var. Mazeli by Marion arises from Busk’s
plates xlix. and 1. in the British Museum Catalogue being reversed,
and Marion has not noticed that when Busk refers to plate 1. fig. 1, it
should have been plate xlix. fig. 1.

Flustra tenella Hincks, plate VII. figs. 24, 25 ; plate VIII. fig. 14.

F. tenella Hincks, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, xix. p. 313,
pi. ix. fig. 1. F. securifrons Hincks, op. cit., xvii. p. 264. F. truncata
Waters, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, iii. p. 119.

This in most particulars is so closely allied to F. securifrons that
when first seen it was merely considered to be a variation. In both
F. securifrons and F. tenella the branches are at the commencement
very narrow, becoming rapidly wider, giving the wedge-shaped
appearance to which Mr. Hincks alludes, nor are the fronds of
F tenella always narrower than those of securifrons. The spines on
which Hincks lays some stress are not constant. I have specimens
from Naples on which I am unable to find any, nor are there any
visible on the specimen from Rapallo ; on the other hand, in some
Naples specimens they are very distinct, and also in a specimen from
Roscoff, sent to me by Joliet as F. securifrons , they occur, but un-
fortunately this specimen has neither avicularia nor ovicells.

In the mandibles of securifrons the lucida is oval, whereas in
tenella it is round (fig. 14). The ovicell is much shorter than that of
securifrons , but the rib-like appendages to which Mr. Hincks alludes
as occurring in securifrons are not constant, as I have a specimen
from Karahavet without ; whereas in one from Nymundegab they are
always present. The avicularia, though usually oblique, may be
directed straight forward. /

c* Danske Dyr., p. 50, pi. ii. fig. 38-46.
t Smitt, Krit. Fort. ofy. Skand. Hafs-Bry., 1867, p. 380.

Interzooecial Communication in Flustridse. By A. W. Waters. 289

Although we now see, that four of the characters mentioned by
Hincks cannot be always relied upon, the rosette plates furnish one of
greater importance, for, as already mentioned, there are four distal
plates and eight lateral ones, whereas in F. securifrons there are six
to eight lateral, and only one distal plate.

I have two small pieces of securifrons from Naples, mounted some
years ago, but the common species is tenella.

Loc. Adriatic, Naples, Rapallo.

« Flustra oblonga sp. n.r plate VIII. figs. 12, 13.

Carbasea indivisa Joliet, L’Hist. Nat. des Bryozaires des Cotes
de France ; Arch, de Zool. Exp. et Gen., vi. pp. 92 and 97.

Dr. Joliet sent me from Roscoff a specimen of what he called
C. indivisa Busk, but he had overlooked the fact that there are large
triangular avicularia, whereas none are yet known in the F. indivisa
from the southern hemisphere. The avicularia occur usually close to
the intercalation of a new zooecium, and this seems to be the case in
most Flustra provided with avicularia.

The surface behind does not seem to be granulated, whereas this
is given as a character in F. indivisa ; but a large tubular rooting
process is thrown out from the dorsal surface of most zooecia. In this
respect it agrees with the Carbasea rhizopora Ortmann,* from Japan.
The Japanese form, however, has two spines, and the beak of the
mandible is elongate, so that although closely allied they can hardly
be united. Flustra membranaceo-truncata also throws out large
radicals from the back of the zooecium near the distal end, and in
several respects F. oblonga seems closely allied to it. As seen in a
specimen mounted whole, there seem to be usually six lateral and four
distal rosette plates. In some zooecia the watch-glass projections are
very distinct, while in others they cannot be seen.

Flustra reticulum Hincks, plate VII. figs. 27, 28 ; plate VIII.
figs. 10, 11, and 21.

Flustra reticulum Hincks, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5,
x. p. 94, plate vii. fig. 4 ; Kirkpatrick, op. cit., ser. 6, ii. p. 13.
• Carbasea reticulum MacGillivray, Trans. Roy. Soc. Viet., xxi. p. 109,
plate iv. fig. 2.

In a specimen from Port Phillip, sent to me by Mr. Kirkpatrick,
there are very wide radical tubes starting from a chamber at the
bifurcation. They exactly resemble those of Flustra cribriformis ,
as figured in my ‘ Challenger ’ Supp. Rep. on the Polyzoa (plate i.
fig. 10. Besides these, the marginal zooecia are prolonged into
spinous processes, which in the spirit specimen are curved over the
back, as described by Kirkpatrick, who speaks of them as “ marginal

* ‘ Die Japanische Bryozoenfauna,’ Arch. f. Naturgesch., 1890, i. p. 27, pi. i.
fig. 24. Hincks has compared Ortmann’s species with F. spinuligera.

290

Transactions of the Society.

radical (?) fibres.” I quite agree with Mr. Kirkpatrick in doubting
whether they should be compared with the radical tubes, as these
almost always seem to start from a distinct chamber, and are produced
from a mature portion of the zoarium. Marginal blind zooecia, to
which I refer at length under F. biseriata, occur in many species, as
in F. securifrons, dentigera, elegans , pedunculata , E. bombycina and
episcopalis ; and as a rule these zooecia are very long and narrow,
mostly being about three times the length of an ordinary zooecium.
These blind zooecia have rosette plates at about the same distance
apart as those of the ordinary zooecia.

I do not see anything like the branched spines figured by
MacGillivray, and the marginal cells of my figure (10) are excep-
tionally broad, also the prolongation is sometimes absent, and then
the marginal cell is much the same as we know it in other species.

Flustra crassa Busk, plate VIII. fig. 5.

Flustra crassa Busk, Zool. 4 Challenger 3 Exp., part xxx. p. 53,
plate xvi. fig. 6.

In the 4 Challenger ’ Keport no reference is made to the avicu-
larium, although a figure is given of an isolated one. It occurs at
the base of the zoarium, and this large prominent avicularium reminds
us of that of Membranipora minax. There are most frequently two
spines on each side, but sometimes only one, or there may be two on
one side and one on the other. The large, round, raised ovicell is
coarsely granular, and the ovicell figured by Busk must have been
either an imperfectly formed one, or have been drawn from one broken
down, and in the specimen submitted to me most are thus damaged.
The base of the ovicell is very thin, and the light thus passing
through often gives the appearance of a thin area on the front, but
Mr. Busk could hardly have been misled by this.

The specimen from Station 149 D Kerguelen Island is very dark,
but bleaches with acid.

Flustra biseriata Busk, plate VIII. figs. 6-9 and 22.

Flustra biseriata Busk, Zool. Chall. Exp., part xxx. p. 54,
plate xvi. fig. 1.

In a 4 Challenger ’ specimen from Station 196, kindly submitted
to me by Mr. Kirkpatrick, there are ovicells which were overlooked
when the species was described. They are large, immersed, occupying
nearly all the superior zooecial chamber, which in the cases examined
is a blind zooecium, without either a polypide or an oral aperture,
and is shorter and squarer than the other zooecia. One such short,
square, blind zooecium does not contain any ovicell, indicating that
the ovicell is subsequently formed.

Mr. Busk says, branches 44 bordered on each side by a continuous
chitinous tube,” but the structures at the side are very complicated,

Interzooecial Communication in Flustridse. By A. W. Waters. 291

and make this one of the most curious specimens dredged by the
‘Challenger.’ There are projecting chitinous tubes at more or less
regular intervals, on both sides, which have been overlooked, hut it
will be best to first consider what I call the bordering cells. Several
Flustra, as F. securifrons, dentigera, elegans , ovoidea , pedunculata ,
reticulum , Euthyris bombycina and episcopalis, have bordering cells
which are usually long and narrow, being imperfectly developed zooecia.
These are often three or four times the length of an ordinary zooecium,
with a row of rosette plates placed at about equal intervals, and cor-
responding with those on the walls of the ordinary zooecia. These
bordering cells should not be compared with the chitinous radicals
thrown out from the side of such genera as Caberea , Catenicella, &c.
The radicals in such cases are thrown out at any time from mature
zooecia ; whereas these bordering cells grow with the zoarium, and
it is from these, but as a separate structure, that radicals start in
Flustra.

In Flustra reticulum these bordering cells are prolonged into
spinous processes, hut this is not the case in F. biseriata.

Iu sections of F. biseriata these bordering chambers are seen to
have on the inside two straight walls separating them from the zooecia
both of the upper and lower lamina. (Plate VIII. figs. 6 and 8.)

On each side of these straight walls there is a longitudinal *
chitinous hand supporting a calcareous deposit.

We now come to the tubular chitinous projections, which grow
from the side at irregular intervals, averaging about the length of
one-and-a-half zooecia, usually directed upwards, hut occasionally
downwards. These always occur in about the same position, namely,
over the wall separating the bordering from the zooecial chamber, in
fact more over the zooecial chamber, as shown in fig. 8. In a few
cases there is such a tube on the front over the median line of the
zoarium, and then a chamber with straight walls similar to the lateral
one is formed between the zooecia; and there are chitinous hands
exactly analogous with those of the bordering chambers. Longi-
tudinal sections of these chitinous projections show a minute opening
near the base, and a communication with the contents of the zooecium
takes place through this pore, which I think must be compared with
a rosette plate. There is also lateral communication through a
structure like a rosette plate.

The contents of this chitinous projection have a more or less
definite shape, but the state of preservation does not admit of satis-
factory description ; there are, however, nucleated cells and a number
of large vacuolated cells, and at the end of the contents of one tube
there are groups of cells like rudimentary arms, but the amount of
material available was but limited, and I am under a great obligation
to Mr. Kirkpatrick for being allowed to examine it.

* One median chitino-calcareous band occurs in the bordering cells of Eutliyris
bombycina , and, although much stouter, is comparable with the bands in F. biseriata.

292

Transactions of the Society.

The first impression was that these projecting tubes were ex-
traneous growths, and they look much like the cases of Hydrozoa ;
but a study of the sections shows the definite way in which they grow
from certain parts of the zoarium ; but what the function may he there
is little to guide us. We must, however, ask if this can be a primitive
form of avicularium ; that is to say, have we here a structure main-
taining direct contact with the sea even when the polypides have
disappeared ? Another question has suggested itself : Must they he
compared with the nematocalyx of the Hydrozoa ? but nothing is seen
to support this.

There is one distal rosette plate and a double row of lateral plates,
making four to each side, and it will he seen that in the position of
the rosette plates, as well as in the projecting tubes and other
characters, there is so much variation from known Fiustrse that its
ultimate removal from this genus is most probable.

Tentacles 19.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and oryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others .*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology. f

Experimental Embryology 4 — MM. Charrin and Gley have shown
that toxin-injection of rabbits results in abnormalities in the skeletal
system of the progeny. They show that chemical conditions may
produce malformations similar to those usually traceable to physical
factors.

Blastodermic Vesicle of Pig.§ — Mr. A. W. Weysse describes as the
earliest stage observed a blastodermic vesicle consisting of a sharply
defined inner layer of flattened cells (endoderm), forming a closed sac,
and an outer layer of nearly isodiametric cells (ectoderm), thickened at
one point to form the germinal disc. The thickening is due both to an
increase in the diameter of the cells at right angles to the surface, and
to an increase in the number of cell layers. On the outside of the
ectoderm is found here and there a Deckschiclit ” cell, apparently in
process of disintegration.

As the embryo develops, the germinal disc grows by a multiplication
of cells ; the area covered by the disc is, however, thickened rather than
extended. While the disc increases in thickness, the proliferation of
cells at the posterior end continues, producing a distinct upfolding or
overgrowth in that region, and at the same time a similar process has
been going on at the two lateral margins. Soon these three overgrowths
meet and fuse, forming one continuous bridge, at first attached at only
three points, but later coming in contact with the disc at all points of

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development and Reproduction, and allied
subjects. X Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 664-6.

§ Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci., xxii. (1895) pp. 283-321 (4 pis.).

294

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the margin save the anterior. There is present also a depression on the
surface of the ectoderm of the disc immediately beneath the bridge, and
the cavity which lies between this surface and the under surface of the
bridge is connected by a narrow canal with the cavity which surrounds
the disc between the extra- germinal ectoderm and the endoderm. The
bridge seems to grow not only by a proliferation of the ectoderm cells
of the germinal disc, but also by additions from the adjacent cells of the
extra-germinal area. The fate of the bridge seems to be that its free
anterior margin finally meets the true ectoderm of the disc ; the structure
then sinks down until it comes in contact with the underlying ectoderm,
with which it finally fuses.

The author discusses the possibility that the bridge may be homo-
logous with a thickening of the “ Deckschicht ” or Rauber’s layer ; but
it seems to him more probable, for reasons stated, that the bridge
corresponds to the overgrowth along the dorsal side of Amphioxus.

Whatever the interpretation of the bridge may be, we have the fact
of its existence, and it is likely that it will be found to occur in other
Mammals as well, such as the sheep.

Development of Lymphatic Vessels.* — Prof. L. Ranvier has studied
the development of the lymphatic vessels — hitherto almost quite unknown
— in embryos of the pig, where they make their first appearance in
embryos about 10 cm. in length. His conclusion is that the lymphatic
system may be regarded as an immense vascular gland, having its origin
in the venous system, and contributing to the veins its secretory product,
which is the lymph. The lymphatic capillaries correspond to the
secretory portion, the lymphatic trunks to the excretory canals of the
gland.

Development of Veins in the Head Region. | — Herr H. Salzer has
studied this in the guinea-pig. The first distinct venous channel is
median (vena cardinalis anterior ), and close to the neural canal. Then
a lateral channel appears (vena capitis lateralis ), from the trigeminal to
the hypoglossal, and the first-named vein, which anastomoses with it,
disappears. When the skeletal rudiments have appeared, the blood from
the anterior cerebral region leaves the cranial cavity by a vessel which
is closely applied to the lateral side of the facial, while the blood from
the posterior region follows a channel alongside of the vagus group.
The two uiiite just at the posterior surface of the auditory labyrinth.
The vessel running with the vagus is the rudiment of the subsequent
root of the internal jugular, and soon becomes the only vein from the
cranial cavity. But the author shows how veins from the orbit, &c.,
gradually become more prominent, and in a somewhat complicated
maimer form the external jugular, which more or less completely
replaces the internal jugular. The external jugular is thus subsequent
to and independent of the internal jugular. Herr Salzer sketches the
history of these veins throughout the Vertebrate series, and insists on
the general similarity throughout.

Operculum of Birds.J — Prof. N. Nassonow notes that the skin folds
which he found in front of the hyoid arch in embryos of the African

* Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 1105-9.

t Morphol. Jahrb., xxiii. (1895) pp. 232-55 (1 pi.).

X Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 159-60.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

295

ostrich, and which correspond to the operculum described by T. J. Parker
in embryos of the Kiwi, also occur more or less developed in Sterna
minuta, Corvns cornix , G. frugilegus, CEdicnemus crepitans, AEgialitcs
hiaticula, and Anas domestica.

Veins of Head and Heck in Reptiles.* * * § — Herren 0. Grosser and
E. Brezina find the simplest state of affairs in lizards. In these the
cardinal vein persists in the region of the trigeminal ; and further back
its place is taken by the F. capitis lateralis. In snakes there is a lateral
vessel in the whole region of the head. In both snakes and lizards there
is an internal jugular, but this is absent in Chelonians. The crocodiles
are most divergent, having only that portion of the V. capitis lateralis
which lies lateral to the vagus group, and two jugulars, one superficial,
and the other comparable to the internal jugular. The fundamental
system probably consists of a median longitudinal vein falling into three
portions, and three transverse veins running between the main divisions
of the brain.

Regeneration of Crystalline Lens in Triton.f — Herr Erik Muller
has repeated the experiments of Gustav Wolff j; on this subject in order
to satisfy himself that regeneration occurs after complete extirpation.
His results completely confirm those of Wolff, that is, the lens is rapidly
regenerated after extirpation, the process taking place as follows : — The
inner layer of the iris becomes thickened, and loses its pigment, the
cells nearest the margin of the outer layer partake of the same change,
and by the continued growth of these cells a new lens is formed.
The differentiation of the lens from the iris-outgrowth occurs in the
same way as that in which the lens is originally formed in develop-
ment.

Egg-Cases of Port Jackson Sharks.§ — Mr. E. R. Waite describes
the hitherto unrecorded egg-case of Cestracion galeatus, which differs
conspicuously from that of C. Philippi in having long tendrils. The
eggs of the latter species are found wedged firmly, crown outwards,
among the rocks ; those of the former are entangled by their tendrils to
seaweeds. Both have external spirals, but these are diminished and
probably of little use in C. galeatus, where they have been replaced by
the tendrils, which may be 90 inches in length.

£. Histology.

Stomach Giands of Vertebrates. || — Dr. A. Oppel notes that the
stomach glands of Vertebrates are divided into those of the fundus and
those of the pylorus. The former are again distinguished in lower Ver-
tebrates as basal cells and neck cells, while in Mammals there are cover-
ing cells ( Belegzellen ) and main cells ( Hauptzellen ). His theory is that
the Haupt cells of Mammals correspond to the neck cells of lower Ver-
tebrates, and the Beleg cells to the basal cells.

* Morphol. Jahrb., xxiii. (1895) pp. 289-325 (2 pis.).

t Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii. (1896) pp. 23-33 (2 pis.).

X Biol. Centralbl., xiv. (1894).

§ Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxv. (1896) pp. 325-9 (1 pi.).

|| Auat. Anzeig., xi. (1896) pp. 596-601 (7 figs.).

296

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Papillary Ridges of Monkeys and Men.* — Dr. D. Hepburn con-
cludes that the papillary ridges and their intervening furrows are
adjuncts to the prehensile function and power of the hands and feet, as
ivell as arrangements associated with increasad sensibility and discrimina-
tion of the sense of touch. The eminences on which papillary ridges
form designs or pattsrns are specially developed areas raised above the
general level of suriounding parts. They are also special developments
in relation to the prehensile function. This accounts for their constancy
in the hands and feet of animals which have these organs modified for
prehension. The “ design ” which covers each of these eminences has
its character determined by the position, shape, and dimensions of the
particular eminence.

Red Blood-Corpuscles of Embryo Chick.f — Dr. A. Dehler observes
that the red blood-corpuscles in a chick embryo a few days old show,
in regard to central corpuscles, the same conditions as many other cells,
especially leucocytes. In their processes of division, like cells slightly
influenced by their surroundings, they assume the simplest, that is, the
spherical form. In their resting stage, with increase of their surface,
they exchange this for a lenticular form, mainly in adaptation to an in-
creased function of oxygen-transport.

Vacuolation of Fat-Cells.J — Dr. A. Sack has studied a wide series
of fat-cells, and finds that, as a normal process, quite apart from atrophy,
spherical or ellipsoidal vacuoles are formed within the nuclei, attain a
certain size and tension, and then pass out into the cell-substance. A
depression or hole, left by the extrusion of the vacuole, persists for some
time ; and after one vacuole has migrated another begins to be formed.

Structure of the Retina. § — Prof. A. S. Dogiel has studied the
minute structure of the retina in various birds, using a modification of
the methylen-blue method. One of his important general results is that
the protoplasmic processes and the axis-cylinder process of each cell con-
sist of the same component substances (chromophilous substance, ground-
substance, and threads), but in different quantities. In the axis-cylinder
processes there are only traces of chromophilous and ground-substances,
the greater part consisting of threads. In the protoplasmic processes
the chromophilous and ground-substances are much more abundant.

Structure of Herve-Cells in Spinal and Central Ganglia. || — Prof.
W. Flemming corroborates his previous conclusions that the cells of
spinal ganglia in Mammals show a distinct threadwork. The fibrils
have a very irregular wavy course, while in central nerve-cells they run,
on the whole, straight. For the details we must refer to the original
paper.

Spinal Ganglia of Mammals.1[ — Drs. A. Spirlas and G. Sclavunos
find that the spinal ganglia of Mammals (goat) include, during embryonic
life, at least, a number of multipolar cells. In some cases the cells

* Sci. Trans. E. Dublin Soc., v. (1895) pp. 525-38.

f Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 414-30 (1 pi.).

X Tom. cit., pp. 431-78 (1 pi., 8 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 394-413 (1 pi.).

|| Tom. cit., pp. 379-94 (1 pi.).

Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1896) pp. 629-34 (6 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

297

deserved to be called dendritic, like those which Disse and Lenhossek
have shown to occur in frog and bird.

Nucleus of Ganglion-Cells and Neuroglia.* — Dr. Emil Rohde de-
scribes the process of cell-increase in the ganglion-cells of Molluscs.
Three different ways in which daughter-cells may arise from a ganglion-
cell are described in detail, but these details cannot be readily condensed.
A special point of interest is that in the first way the daughter-cells
arise by separated portions of the nucleus of the mother-cell, surround-
ing themselves with neuroglia, which, under nuclear influence, becomes
transformed into ganglion-cell protoplasm. Rohde considers that this
confirms the view of the supreme importance of the nucleus.

Skin-Glands of Frog.y — Dr. Paul Junius has investigated the his-
tology of these structures with a view to determining whether more than
one kind=of skin-gland exists in the frog, and whether all the glands
possess a muscular sheath ; both of which points are undetermined by
previous authors. Junius’ conclusion is that only one kind of gland
exists, the differences observed by various authors being due to the stage
of development of the gland. He distinguishes two well-marked stages
— (1) the embryonic stage, in which the gland is lined by a continuous
secreting epithelium, and possesses but a few contractile cells not form-
ing a distinct sheath, or a cell-layer of which the contractile nature is
not distinctly marked ; and (2) a later stage, in which the lumen is com-
pletely filled with secretion. In this stage some of the seereting-cells
degenerate, and thus give rise to gaps in the wall of the gland ; while
the pressure of the secretion and the presence of the well-developed
muscular sheath quite alter the appearance of the gland. Junius was
not able to completely satisfy himself as to the nature of regenerated
glands, but holds it probable that these are of the embryonic type.

Dentine and Enamel. i — Mr. C. S. Tomes has made careful analyses
of dentine and enamel. Instead of stating that the former has 42 • 5 per
cent, organic matter and the rest lime salts, we should say 34 per cent,
organic matter and 8 • 5 per cent, water. Enamel, on the other hand, is
“ practically an inorganic tissue,” the organic matter being infinitesimal
in amount, though along with water it forms 5 * 49 per cent.

Mr. Tomes makes an interesting comparison between the structure
of enamel and the prismatic layer of a Pinna shell. Both show, for
instance, a striation of prisms, probably due to regularly recurring vari-
cosities. An analysis of a Pinna shell shows the following composition :
Lime salts 89 • 2, organic matrix 1 • 3, water 9*5. “ The Pinna shell con-
sists of crystalline prisms of calcic carbonate, containing no organic
matter in themselves, but deposited in a honeycomb of connective tissue.”
It seems a legitimate speculation, the author says, that enamel may be
formed in somewhat the same fashion as the Pinna shell, “ namely, that
the lime salts may be deposited in the interior of the enamel cells, and
so a definite pattern produced, their exceedingly delicate walls playing
the same part as the connective tissue honeycomb in the shell.”

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii. (1896) pp. 121-35 (1 pi.).

f Tom. cit., pp. 136-54 (1 pi.).

j Trans. Odont. Soc., xxviii. (1896) pp. 114-36 (2 pis.).

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SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In another paper * * * § Mr. Tomes discusses in more detail the chemical
composition of enamel. He is led to conclude : —

(1) That there is very little organic matter in enamel, not enough
for quantitative estimation.

(2) That there is at least one equivalent of water in combination
with the calcic phosphate, and this has generally figured as organic
matter.

(3) That there is still more water than this in enamel.

Muscle-Fibre, Electric Disc, and Motor-Plate.t — -Dr. G. Carrington
Purvis describes a concavity at the end of the striped muscle-fibres of the
skate, which he interprets as an indication of the primitive position of
the motor-plate. In the electric disc, cup, or plate the nerve enters the
modified muscle-fibre at one extremity, and the theory suggested is that
an originally anterior and terminal nerve-ending shifted its position to
become a lateral and central motor-plate.

Histology of Testis. :[ — Herr Fr. Reinke describes crystalloids in the
interstitial cells of the testes in man, which have not hitherto been
observed. They occur in the cells, but by degeneration of the cells may
pass into the lymph. They are of albuminoid nature, possibly consisting
of a globulin, and are comparable to the similar structures found in the
seeds of plants. They seem to occur only in testes where the formation
of spermatozoa is going on, except in cases of tubercular testes, where
they are always abundant.

y. General.

^Esthetic Aspects of Animals.§ — Prof. K. Mobius begins an interest-
ing discussion of this subject with the statement that both zoologists and
non-zoologists speak of beautiful and ugly animals. He supports this
somewhat obvious assertion by quotations from F. E. Schulze, C. Chun,
W. K. Brooks, and others, but none of his quotations indicts a zoologist
with calling an animal ugly. His second proposition is that the aims of
a science of animal life are different from those of an “ aesthetic ” of animal
life. He clearly contrasts the scientific and the aesthetic mood, and
points out that increased knowledge of an animal may enhance our
aesthetic delight in it, while ignorance raises intellectual prejudices
which cause many to call certain animals, e. g. snakes, ugly. Mobius
proceeds to discuss the relativity of aesthetic impressions, and the com-
ponents which go to form them. Symmetry, regular repetition of parts,
proportion, size, transparency, colour, movements, combine in our
aesthetic perceptions, which are again compared with pre-existing ideal
constructs.

Philosophical Aspects of Zoology. || — Prof. A. Sabatier discoursed
on this subject in his presidential address to the Zoological Society of
France. After stating his own monistic position, he recommended the
study of zoology to the philosophers. The psychologists especially must

* J. Physiol., xix. (1896) pp. 217-23.

f Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edin., xiii. (1894-5) pp. 72-5.

% Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii. (1896) pp. 34-44 (1 pi.).

§ SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1895, pp. 1005-15.

1| Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxi. (1896) pp. 38-44.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

299

sojourn for a time in the zoological camp. On the other hand, in
becoming an evolutionist, the zoologist is himself a philosopher :
“ L’introduction de l’evolutionnisme dans le monde animal, c’est la pro-
clamation de la predominance de l’esprit et du regne de l’idee.” Man —
ethically, intellectually, physically — is what he is because of pre-human
conditions which made him possible ; and in discovering these the
philosophic zoologist and the zoological philosophers have a great task
before them.

Influence of Lecithin on Growth.* * * § — M. B. Danilewsky has experi-
mented on the effect of adding lecithin to the water containing the ova
and larvm of frogs. The result is a marked stimulus to growth. The
lecithin was only present in minimal quantity, and it is not directly
organoplastic. It seems to stimulate cell-multiplication very rapidly.

Fishing-Grounds and Fishes of the West Coast of Ireland. f —
Messrs. E. W. L. Holt and W. L. Calderwood describe the rarer fishes
found on their survey of the West Coast of Ireland in 1890-91. The
region seems to be a meeting-place of two faunas, Lusitanian and Scan-
dinavian. The authors also support the position that “ though there is a
degree of cold or heat beyond which fish of a given species cannot exist,
the cause that governs a change of habitat in accordance with latitude is
mainly one of competition, and not of temperature.” The struggle for
existence drives the feeblest forms to the least desirable localities, e. g.
from littoral to bathybial life, and the resemblance of the Arctic to the
bathybial fish-fauna is explicable on the ground that it has been brought
about by precisely the same cause, viz. a migration to a more barren
region. The memoir contains many other points of much interest.

Use of Heterocercal Tails, f — Dr. Fr. Ahlborn argues that the
heterocercy of bottom-fishes and the pseudo-heterocercy of surface-fishes
must be interpreted not as a steering arrangement, but as an adaptation
for sculling in dangerous proximity to the upper or to the lower limits
of the water. Tails may be described physiologically as “epibatic”
(i. e. raising off the ground), “ hypobatic ” (i. e. bringing down), and
“ isobatic.” The paper is somewhat beyond the scope of those usually
recorded in this J ournal, but its interest warrants this brief note.

Tunicata.

Cell-Lineage in the Segmentation of the Ascidian Ovum.§ —
Mr. W. E. Castle has made continuous observations on the segmenting
ova of Ciona intestinalis in order to determine the exact cell-lineage.
He finds a fundamental error in the work both of Van Beneden and
Julin and of Seeliger, “Seeliger has determined the dorsal and ventral
sides of the egg correctly, but reversed the anterior and posterior ends
in all his figures of the early stages. Yan Beneden and Julin have
determined correctly the anterior and posterior ends, but have reversed
dorsal and ventral in all stages previous to the 44-cell stage.”

Having mistaken the orientation, Yan Beneden and Julin stated that

* Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 1167-70.

f Sci. Trans. R. Dublin Soc., v. (1895) pp. 361-512 (6 pis.).

% Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxi. (1895) pp. 1-15 (1 pi.).

§ Proc. Amer. Acad., xxx. (1895) pp. 200-16 (2 pis.).

300

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the four smaller cells of the 8-cell stage give rise to ectoderm only, while
the four larger cells produce both endoderm and ectoderm. “ On the
contrary, neither the four smaller cells nor the four larger ones produce
ectoderm, exclusively, but it is the four larger, not the four smaller ones,
which give rise to the greater portion, perhaps all, of the ectoderm.”

The author cannot at present assent to the statement that the separa-
tion of the germ-layers is complete at the 44- cell stage. In Giona, from
the sixth to the eighth generations at least, cell-multiplication is more
rapid in the anterior and lateral portions of the egg, and this is im-
portant in determining the shape and position of the blastopore. The
point where the polar globules form becomes later the centre of the
dorsal or endodermic half of the egg. In a postscript, the author notes
a certain amount of corroboration in a recent research by Samassa,
received after his own was printed. Samassa and Castle are agreed, at
any rate, that Yan Beneden, Julin, and Seeliger were wrong.

Formation of Follicular Investments in Ascidians.* — Herr M.
Floderus has investigated this subject in fourteen simple Ascidians by
the method of serial sections. His paper contains also a historical
survey and a copious bibliography. The most important of his results
are the following. The common rudiment of ovary and testis is a syn-
cytium, apparently of mesenchymatic origin, which soon becomes hollow.
At this stage its outer wall is only one cell thick, but the inner consists
of many layers. This rudiment divides into two parts — an outer, the
future ovary, and an inner, the future testis. The cells of the ovary,
originally all similar, divide into the germinal epithelium and the
primary follicle-cells. After being freed into the cavity of the ovary,
the ova become surrounded by the follicle cells, which are at first few in
number. Later they greatly increase in number, and split off, on their
inner sides a structureless chorion, on their outer sides a similar outer
follicular membrane; at a slightly later stage they give off numerous
radial membranes. During a period preceding the formation of yolk-
spherules in the plasma of the egg, more or less numerous chromatin
bodies can be observed in it. They seem to arise from a “ Neben-
nucleolus ” in the germinal vesicle, which passes out through the nuclear
membrane into the plasma. It is the presence of these bodies which has
led authors to believe that the follicle- cells arise from the ovum, but the
egg is already surrounded by the follicle cells before they appear. The
so-called testa-cells arise from the primary follicular epithelium, but
are pushed inwards and form a complete envelope, converting the mother
layer into a secondary follicular epithelium. This secondary epithelium
again divides into two layers which form the outer and inner follicular
epithelia.

New Appendicularise.j' — Dr. H. Lohmann describes three new
species collected by Vanhoffen on Drygalski’s expedition to Greenland.
The new forms are named Oikopleura labradoriensis, Oik. vanhoffeni , and
Fritillaria borealis.

The author also discusses the formation of the “house.” The
fibrillar mass and its membranes, as well as the intermediate layers and

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxi. (1896) pp. 1 63-260 (1 pi.).

t Bibliotheca Zoologica (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 20 (1896) pp. 25-44 (1 ph).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

301

its inclusions, are formed from the cells of the Jibrilloplast-zone. Each
epithelial cell makes numerous fibrils, as to the cuticular nature of which
there can be no doubt. But the oikoplast region of the integument also
includes membranoplast- cells, which form membranes in part composed
of a trelliswork of threads and bands. The membrane has its surface
at right angles to the secreting cells; its formation is comparable to
that of periostracum and ostracum in Molluscs, while that of the fibrillar
mass corresponds to that of the liypostracum. But both are truly
cuticular ; and the casting of the “ house,” which occurs in two stages,
first affecting the fibrillar part, and then the membranous part, is com-
parable to ecdysis.

The author also discusses some questions of distribution.

INVERTEBRATA.

Fauna of Wells.* — Herr. A. Jaworowski has made a study of the
fauna of the wells of Krakau and Lemberg, and has found some
novelties: — A monostomatous Khizopod, Quadrula acolis ; two amphi-
stomatous Bhizopods, Diplophrys elongata and D. Graberi ; Cothurnia
puteana and C. cyathus among the Infusorians ; Mesostoma Vejdovskyi
among Turbellarians ; and a Gammarid Niphargus leopoliensis. He
gives a detailed description of the last, and a diagnostic key to the other
species of the genus.

Distribution of Terrestrial Invertebrates.! — Herr 0. Stoll con-
tinues his studies on this subject, discussing as two particular cases the
distribution of the species of the Gamasid Megisthanus (including
M. afer sp. n.) and the Pulmonate Clausilia.

The members of the genus Clausilia must be included among the
persistent types which have lasted long and travelled far without under-
going, so far as their shells indicate, any essential modifications in their
generic characters. They are represented in widely separated islands
by over 1000 species, and yet without divergence from the generic
characters. Similarly, in Megisthanus , with few but widely separated
species, there is an equally marked absence of divergence.

Mollusca.
a. Cephalopoda.

Histology of Optic Lobes in Cephalopoda, f — Herr M. v. Lenhossek
has investigated this subject with a view to determining the relation of
the retina of Ceplialopods to that of Vertebrates. The Cephalopod
chosen was Eledone, of which immature specimens were taken. The
author describes in detail the anatomical relations of the optic lobes, and
their histological structure as seen in sections. The substance of the
lobes shows a division into cortical and medullary zones. The cortical
zone resembles strongly the retina of a Vertebrate, and consists of an
outer and an inner granular layer, separated by a plexiform layer. The

* Arch. f. Naturgesch., lxi. (1895) pp. 319-15 (1 pi.).

t Vierteljalirschr. Nat. Gesell. Zurich, xl. (1895) pp. 288-316 (2 pis.).

X Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii. (1896) pp. 45-120 (3 pis. and 3 figs.).

1896 Y

302

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

nerve-fibrils from the retina pass by means of tbe optic nerve into the
cortical layer of the optic lobes ; here they penetrate into the plexiform
layer, at the outer surface of which they expand into a bulbous structure.
The author then describes in detail the histological structure of the
cortex and medulla of the optic lobes, the description being illustrated
by some beautiful figures. The general conclusion is that the retina of
a Cephalopod corresponds to the layer of rods and cones in the Vertebrate
retina, its individual cells being homologous only with the cones. The
cortical layer of the optic lobes of a Cephaloj)od corresponds to the rest
of the Vertebrate retina. This suggestion is only an application of that
made long ago by H. Muller as to the dual nature of the Vertebrate
retina, i.e. that it is comj)osed of a layer of epidermal sense-cells and
numerous layers of nervous tissue. The separation of these two parts in
the Cephalopod may seem to show that the optical organs of Cephalopod
and Vertebrate are widely separated from one another, but the great
similarity between the nerve-cells in the cortex of the optic lobes in the
Cephalopod and the cells of the Vertebrate retina forbids this supposi-
tion. For the details of the homologies of these cells reference must be
made to the original paper, as also for the author’s hypotheses as to the
paths of the nerve-impulses in the Cephalopod. The medulla of the
optic lobes in the Cephalopod the author considers to be homologous
with the optic lobes of Vertebrates.

New Cephalopods.* — M. L. Joubin describes — so far as they are
describable — some large Cephalopods ejected by, or found within, a
sperm-whale ( Pliyseter macrocephalus) captured off the Azores on the
Prince of Monaco’s expedition in 1895. Three specimens, over a yard
long, indicated a new species of Histioteuthis ; a head, with arms as thick
as a man’s, probably belonged to a species of Cucioteutliis ; but the most
striking was a unique form— -for which the name Lepidoteutliis Grimaldii
is proposed — covered with large rhomboidal scales in spiral rows. These
scales were cartilaginous and transparent, and included very numerous
clastic fibres and muscle-fibres. Their appearance suggested that of one
of the Ganoid fishes.

Lolig’o Pictet! and Idiosepius Picteti.f — Dr. L. Joubin notes that
the singular little Cephalopod from Amboina, which he jmeviously
named Loligo Picteti , really belongs to the genus Idiosepius Steenstrup.
It closely resembles the only species of this genus hitherto known —
Id. pygmseus Steenstrup — but Joubin remarks nine differences which
warrant him in regarding it as a second species Id. Picteti.

New Octopod.J — Dr. I. Ijima and Mr. S. Ikeda describe a new
Octopod, which they include in the genus Opisthoteuthis Verrill as 0.
deprcssa. The single specimen upon which the species is founded was
obtained in Sagami Bay, at a depth of about 250 fathoms. The authors
describe the external appearance and some points in the internal
anatomy.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 1172-4 (1 fig.),
f Revue Suisse Zool., iii. (1895) pp. 459-60.

% Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Japan, viii. (1895) pp. 323-37 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

303

y. Gastropoda.

Development of Shell-Ornamentation in Marine Gastropods.*— The
Countess Maria von Linden has investigated this subject in order to
determine whether Eimer’s well-known views as to the development of
the markings of animals are applicable in this case. From a study
both of fossil shells, and of various stages in the life-history of recent
forms, the author concludes that the development of shell-sculpture,
both phylogenetically and ontogenetically, takes place as follows. The
first stage is a thickening of the lines of growth to form transverse
ridges; then, first transverse, and secondly longitudinal, rows of tubercles
are developed, and finally longitudinal bands appear. Thus transverse
sculpturing always precedes longitudinal (cf. Eimer’s results). The
development of surface-sculpturing is worked out in detail, and applied
to the classification of the species of the genera Voluta , Strombus,
and Conus, of which genera genealogical trees are given. As to
coloration, the author finds that the colour is due to two pigments, a
brown and a black ; in the species of Helix , at any rate, similar granular
pigment occurs in the epithelial and connective-tissues, especially in
spring. Just as the sculpturing of the shell is due to an increased
secretion of lime at particular parts of the mantle, so the markings are
produced by a special pigment-production at certain spots.

As to the cause of the sculpturing and markings of shells, the author
follows Eimer in rejecting the theory of their usefulness and consequent
origin by the action of natural selection, and in accepting, as an efficient
cause, the inherited effect of external conditions. She emphasises
especially the fact, that during life the surface of the shell is often so
covered with algss, that the markings are quite concealed. The
similarity between the colours of shells and algae of similar habitat
she is inclined to regard as the result of like physico-chemical con-
ditions.

Buccal Cartilages of Gastropods. f — M. A. Amaudrut describes four
pairs of cartilages in the buccal mass of the limpet, a pair of inferior
laterals in addition to the superior laterals, the anterior pair, and the
posterior pair described by Geddes and Gibson. He traces the modi-
fications of fusion, &c., in Nerita, Navicella, Fissurella, Turbo, Trochus ,
Haliotis , &c., and the associated changes of musculature.

Melanie Pigment of Limnsea.]:— Dr. E. Andre discusses the black
pigment found in minute spherical granulations in the cells of the
external epithelium of Limnsea, on the region covered by the shell, or
sparsely between the cells in the connective layer around the buccal
mass, the food-canal, &c. This melaine is insoluble in water, alcohol,
ether, alkalies, and most acids ; it is not digested by artificial gastric
juice, and can thus be separated from the tissue ; it contains iron, and
so on. In short, its properties are the same as those which Girod has
assigned to the melaine in the ink-bag of Cephalopods. It must be
noted that it is not melanin , which occurs in little rods, and has different
chemical properties. “ It is, perhaps, as is the case with many pigments,

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., Ixi. (1896) pp. 261-317 (1 pi.).

t Comptes Rendus, exxi. (1895) pp. 1170-2.

J Revue Suisse Zool., iii. (1895) pp. 429-31.

Y 2

304 SUMMARY OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

a product of disassimilation, deposited in certain tissues which thus
function as reins d’ accumulation”

Anatomy of Malayan Pulmonates.* — Ilerr A. Jacobi has made a
detailed investigation of the structure of Amphidromus chloris and A.
interruptus, amplifying previous studies by Semper and Fr. Wiegmann.

New Species of Doris.f — Mr. W. Garstang describes, under the
name Doris maculata, a small Dorid of striking appearance, which has
been several times obtained at Plymouth. The largest specimen was
nearly one inch in length. The notaeum is usually about twice as long
as broad ; the rhinophores are large, distinctly laminated, and com-
pletely retractile ; the circumanal gills are five simple pinnate com-
pletely retractile plumes; the anterior margin of the foot shows a
transverse groove, which separates a slender propodial lip from the rest
of the foot ; there is an oral tentacle on each side of the oral protuber-
ance. But the most distinctive feature is the presence, on the back, of
a number of conspicuously coloured tubercles of a deep purple colour,
in sharp contrast to the bright yellow of the body.

Bryozoa.

“ Excretory Organ” of Fresh- water Polyzoa.J — Hr. Asajiro Oka
has investigated, by means of sections, the so-called excretory organ in
the Phylactolaematous Polyzoa, in order to decide whether or not it is a
true nephridium. The species studied was Pectinatella gelatinosa Oka,
but for purposes of comparison sections were also made of Barentsia
misakiensis Oka and Phoronis Kowalevshii Caldwell. The author’s con-
clusion is that the so-called nephridium, although it opens from the
body-cavity to the exterior, is not glandular, and does not function as an
excretory organ. The tube-like appearance of the organ is only ap-
parent, and is produced by a Y-shaped partition which divides the
epistome from the rest of the body-cavicy ; the so-called excretory organ
is therefore only a portion of the body-cavity in which the lining epi-
thelium is well provided with cilia. As the result of his comparative
investigations, the author draws up the following conclusions as to excre-
tory organs in the Polyzoa. In all Ectoprocta the function of excretion
is carried on by free mesodermal cells, which leave the body by a pore
at the base of the median tentacle, and carry refuse particles with them
(cf. the researches of Harmer and Cori) ; their removal from the body is
aided by the ciliation of the epithelium in the neighbourhood of the
pore. In the Phylactolaematous Polyzoa a complication is introduced in
the presence of the partition mentioned above, which produces the
peculiar structure hitherto described as a nephridium. In all essentials,
however, the process of excretion is identical in Gymnolaemata and Phy-
lactolaemata. In the Endoprocta, on the other hand, there are two
tubular nephridia, consisting of a row of cells, the proximal of which
is a flame-cell. They closely resemble the excretory organs of mesen-
chymatous worms, and may be called pro-nephridia. In Phoronis the

* Arch. f. Naturgesch., Ixi. (1895) pp. 293-318 (1 pi.).

f Journ. Marine Biol. Ass., iv. (1896) pp 167-8.

+ Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Japan, viii. (1895) pp. 339-63 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

305

nephridia are true meta-nephridia, comparable to those of other coeloma-
tous animals. As to the bearing of his results on the classification of
the Polyzoa, the author would associate the Endoprocta with mesenchy-
matous worms, on account of the absence of a true body-cavity and the
nature of the nephridia, Phoronis with Sipunculids, on account of its
nephridia and closed blood-vessels, and thus make the Ectoprocta alone
constitute the Polyzoa.

Arthropoda,
a. Insecta.

Effectiveness of a Net in excluding Insects.* * * § — Prof. F. Plateau,
following Spence f (1834), has made a number of interesting experiments
as to the effectiveness of a net in excluding insects, although the meshes
were wide enough to allow their passage. Somewhat similar experiments,
but less detailed, have been made by M. E. Pissot : J —

Plateau’s conclusions are: — (1) A stretched net does not absolutely
stop the flight of insects. (2) In their flight, the insects behave as if
they did not see the meshes. (3) Direct passage during flight is always
rare ; in most cases the insect stops and scrambles through, if at all.
(4) The explanation is to be found in the lack of precision associated
with compound eyes ; the threads of the net, like hatchings on an
engraving, produce the illusion of a continuous closed surface.

Relation of the Mimetic to the Original Form.§ — Dr. F. A. Dixey
first gives a number of examples (figured) to show that the process of
mimetic association depends rather on the development of old, than on the
starting of new features, either of pattern or of colour. The series shows
that, granted a beginning, however small, such as the basal red touches
in the normal Pierines, an elaborate and practically perfect mimetic
pattern may be evolved therefrom by simple and easy stages. Dr. Dixey
discusses the question of the diversity of the two sexes as regards
mimicry. The male is less mimetic, probably because its habits are
different (Wallace), perhaps because the females select the more ancestral
coloration (Belt), but the partial mimicry there is has probably its pro-
tective value at certain times and on certain occasions. The author
states some facts which suggest the occurrence of “ reciprocal mimicry ”
— a kind of give-and-take arrangement, in consequence of which two or
more inedible forms may hasten the assimilative process by imitating
each other. Finally, he gives a case where the two extreme forms —
Papilio and Heliconius — “ which by themselves might perhaps not be
sufficiently near one another to be mutually protective to any very great
extent, are held together, as it were, within the limits of an inedible
mimetic group by the welding power of the intermediate Fwterpe-forms.”

Post-Embryonic Development of Yasa deferentia and Accessory
Organs in Male of Bombyx mori.|| — Messrs. E. Verson and E. Bisson
call attention to the doubt which exists on the above subjects among
entomologists, and give the results of their own investigations on this

* Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg., xxx. (1895) pp. 281-302 (1 pi.). Cf La Natuialiste

xi. (1889) p. 125. f Mag. Nat. Hist., vii. (1834).

X La Naturaliste, xi. (1889) pp. 179-80, 202-3.

§ Trans. Entom. Soc. London, 1896, pp. 65-79 (3 pis.).

i| Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoo)., lxi. (1896) pp. 318-37 (2 pis.).

306

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

species. They find that bands of hypodermal tissue extend in the first
larval stage from the testes to either side of the ectodermal insinking first
described by Herold. These bands at each side become differentiated
into two expanded vesicles connected by a narrow band. The anterior
vesicle at each side forms the envelope of the testes, the median region
forms the vas deferens, the posterior vesicle gives off two outgrowths, of
which one forms the accessory gland and the other the ductus ejacu-
latorius ; the remainder of the vesicle is modified to form the seminal
vesicle. The two ductus ejaculatorii' unite with one another at the
beginning of the second pupa stage, the union beginning at their blind
ends. The organ of Herold gives rise to the penis, to the projecting
fold which covers it, and to its basal portion ; the two former arise from
paired outgrowths of the original invagination. The ampullae of the
testes-bands are remnants of coelom-sacs, and therefore mesodermal,
although arising from the hypodermis ; the whole of the musculature of
the sexual organs arises from the nucleated plasm of these testes-bands.

Synonymy of Huphina lanessa.* * * § — Dr. A. G. Butler has a note on
this subject. The confusion has arisen from the fact that the species
is tetramorphic, the under surface of the secondaries and apex of
primaries varying from white through yellow to whitey-brown or earthy-
brown. The author holds that the dark forms are dry-season forms, and
the light ones wet-season forms. He gives the synonymy of Huphina
lanessa as follows : it is equivalent to Pieris lanessa , P. nabis , P. peri-
theca , P. periclea, P. narses.

Double Spermatozoa of Dyticidse.f — Prof. E. Ballowitz gives a
detailed account of the double or coupled spermatozoa which he dis-
covered in Dyticus, Acilius, Hydaticus, and Colymbetes. Of the general
nature of this strange phenomenon of “ dejugation,” or whatever it may
be called, we have, however, already given a summary in reference to a
previous paper by Ballowitz, and an independent confirmation by
Auerbach. A full description and copious figures are now before us.

Alimentary Canal of Forficulidse.J — M Bordas points out that
no one seems to have paid any attention to the alimentary canal of the
Forficulidse, although this is very interesting in its simplicity. It is
little more than a simple tube. The fore-gut includes pharynx, oeso-
phagus, crop, and rudimentary gizzard ; the mid-gut has no diverticula ;
the hind-gut is almost equally simple.

The Genus Perdita.§ — Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell is persuaded that
“ the plan of teaching the elements [of entomology] without entering
into detail is essentially a vicious one.” “ The idea that some facts are
to be regarded b}^ the student, and all others ignored, is an entire per-
version of the proper spirit of biological inquiry.” He was thus led, in
connection with his entomological course at the New Mexico Agricultural
College, to tackle the genus Perdita , a work in which his students assisted.
As a study in classification, in the relation of structure to environment,
and in bionomics, the task was found most profitable.

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hi&t., xvii. (1896) pp. 231-3.

+ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lx. (1895) pp. 458-99 (5 pis.).

% Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 655-7.

§ Proc. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1896, pp. 25-107.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 307

Seventeen North American species of Perdita were known before
Mr. Cockerell began to study them; of these, two are not considered
valid, but 55 have been added, bringing the list up to 70 ! Thus, in
number of species described, Perdita becomes at a bound the largest of
North American bee genera.

The author discusses the characters on which the classification must
be based, the geographical and vertical distribution, the flowers visited,
and so on. A description of the 70 species forms the bulk of the paper.

Habits of Polistes.* — Dr. P. Marchal first discusses the nest-making
of Polistes gallicus, and shows the correctness of de Saussure’s theory
that the primary form of cell, seen at the outset, and in part in those
situated marginally, is cylindrical, and that the hexagonal form is the
result of the association of several cells in a limited space, and of the
uniformity observed in construction.

He also shows that honey is collected and stored from the very
foundation of the nest, when the queen is still alone. This observation
excludes the theory that the collection of honey is in relation to the pro-
duction of fertile females. All the larvae get honey as well as animal
food.

Thirdly, the author points out that several females hibernate together,
and may take part in founding one nest.

Queen-Bee unable to lay Drone-Eggs.f — Prof. C. Grobben refers
first of all to the well-known fact that queen-bees are sometimes unable
to produce anything but drones. In other words, on the usual theory,
none of the eggs are fertilised. But it was the reverse case which
excited his interest ; that of a queen unable to produce drones. In other
words, on the usual theory, all the eggs were fertilised. This occurrence,
though vigorously denied by some authorities on bees, has been repeatedly
recorded by P. Briifach. Prof. Grobben points out that the phenomenon
may be due ( a ) to an imperfect nerve-control of the muscular ring sur-
rounding and normally closing the neck of the receptaculum seminis ; or
( b ) to defective musculature in that region ; or (c) to an abnormal width in
the efferent duct, so that thorough closure is not effected; or (d) to over-
abundant secretion on the part of the accessory glands or the glandular
epithelium of the receptaculum. He inclines to suppose that the defect
was in the innervation, but the case has not yet been investigated.

Flower-haunting Diptera.J — Mr. G. F. Scott Elliott has made
numerous observations which go to show that flower-haunting Diptera
are of much importance in pollination. He thinks that his evidence
clearly proves the colour-sense of the Diptera observe.!, and also that
they “ are, on the whole, more intelligent than the lower class Hymeno-
ptera.” “ It is to these Diptera,” he says, “ that we probably owe all the
neatly made, small and bright-coloured forms (of flowers) which are
particularly abundant in this country.” The author gives tables showing
the visits of about sixteen Diptera to various types of flower, and com-
pares these with the visits paid by Hymenoptera. He suggests that
Diptera map out the ground as vultures do, and keep flying up and down

* Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxi. (1896) pp. 15-21 (2 figs.).

f Verh. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xlv. (1895) pp. 411 -4.

X Trans. Eutom. Soc. London, 1896, pp. 117-28.

308

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

over a chosen area. At the beginning of his paper there is an interesting
note on the part which insects play in isolation. Thus, if flowers of the
same species occur partly inside a sheltered wood and partly on the bare
ground outside, probably not more than 5 per cent, of those outside will
be fertilised by pollen from those inside the wood, and vice versa. This
means, for reproduction, almost perfect isolation.

£. MCyriopoda.

Geophilidae of Central Europe.* * * § — Dr. C. Yerhoeff continues his
survey of Palsearctic Myriopods, discussing the Geophilidae. He de-
scribes two new species, Geophilus pannonicus, G. bosniensis, and several
varieties, besides discussing already recorded species of Geophilus , Scolio-
planes , Schendyla, and Stigmatog aster.

The author has also f an answer to Mr. B. T. Pocock’s supplementary
note on Yerhoeff ’s treatment of the genus Julus.

8. Arachnida.

Anatomy of Scorpions.:};— Dr. Malcolm Laurie suggests that it is
desirable to base the classification of Scorpions, at least in part, upon
internal characters, and not, as at present, wholly upon external ones.
He gives some notes upon the anatomy, with a view to contributing to
this end. He finds that, in the first place, the condition of the nervous
system is useless as a basis, as it varies greatly in closely allied forms.
On the other hand, the structure of the eggs and the mode of formation
of the embryo, together with the condition of the lung-books, can
apparently be made available for systematic purposes. There are two
types of development, in one of which the egg is large and contains much
yolk, while in the other it is minute. The first type occurs in the
Buthidae and many others ; the latter in Scorpio , Heterometrus , Opistho -
phthalmus , Palamnseus, Opisthocentrus , and Hormurus. These last,
Dr. Laurie suggests, should be placed together, and the remaining
scorpions classified according to the condition of the lung-books.

Structure of Thelyphonus.§ — Herr J. K. Tarnani complains that
Dr. M. Laurie, in his paper on the morphology of the Pedipaljn. has
overlooked some previous work by Tarnani himself, Wood-Mason, and
Schimkewitsch.

On the other hand, he confirms in regard to the anterior and lateral
eyes of Thelyphonus Schimkewitschi what Laurie has observed in the
development of the eyes of tbe scorpion. The anterior eyes appear as
two lateral evolutions, which become distinct vesicles ; they gradually
approach, fuse, and subsequently redivide. The lateral eyes develop
from a thickening of the matrix on the sides of the anterior portion of
the cephalothorax. Like Laurie, he found no external openings to the
coxal glands of the adults of Th. asperatus and Th. Dorise3 but in the
embryo of Th. SchimJcewitschi they open between the first and second
legs. The mid-gut of the embryo appears as a sac filled with yolk ; its
epithelium arises as a longitudinal groove on the ventral surface. The

* Arch. f. Naturgesch., lxi. (1895) pp. 346-56 (4 figs.).

t Tom. cit., pp. 357-61.

X Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1896) pp. 185-94 (1 pi.).

§ Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 115-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

309

endosternite of the embryo is weakly developed when compared with
that of the adult. A tubular granular invagination occurs on the
rostrum behind the eyes, directed towards the brain.

New Sarcoptid.*' — Dr. E. Trouessart has found on the beaver, already
remarkable for its parasitic Coleoptera ( Platypsyllus castoris and Lep-
tinillus validus), a new Sarcoptid, which he names ScJiizocarpus Mingaudi
g. et sp. n. This new form adheres to the beaver’s hairs by means of
its peculiarly modified anterior limbs, which are quadrangular discs
with a deep median groove. It occupies a position between Chirodiscus
Trt. and Labidocarpus Trt., differing from the latter in having normal
posterior limbs, and from both in the adherent groove above-mentioned.

e. Crustacea.

Abnormality in Crab.'f — Herr A. Bethe describes a specimen of
Carcinus with a large right-handed walking leg on the left side of the
fifth abdominal segment. It was innervated from a small surplus half-
ganglion on the right side between the claw-ganglion and the ganglion
of the first walking leg.

Gammarus Berilloni.j: — M. E. Chevreux describes this species, which
was first determined by J. D. Catta. It has hitherto been found in
streams and lakes in the region of the western Pyrenees, but Chevreux
found it at Jersey along with G. pulex. Its distribution is thus some-
what puzzling, especially since the transport of Gammarid eggs by
migratory birds is out of the question.

The Genus Ourozeuktes.§ — Mr. A. Vaughan Jennings describes and
figures the external characters of this remarkable form, of which only
dried specimens have been hitherto noticed. The specimen, probably
from near Kerguelen Island, was nearly two inches in length by more
than an inch in breadth ; but an enormous brood-chamber, three-quarters
of an inch in depth, made the body appear almost globular when viewed
from in front. In the brood-chamber there were several larvm, which
are also described. Probably the nearest living relative of Ourozeuhtes
is the remarkable genus lclitliyoxenos , which occurs in cavities of the
skin of a Javanese fish ( Puntius maculatus). It is less specialised than
Ourozeuhtes in having the abdominal segments free, the first abdominal
appendage scarcely modified, and the thoracic limbs unflattened. It
seems likely that the genus under consideration is a temporarily parasitic
descendant of some form similar to Anilocra,

Mexican Terrestrial Isopods. || — M. A. Dollfus describes Armadillo
Dugesi and Metoponorthus Saussurii spp. nn. The Isopod fauna of Mexico
seems to be relatively sparse, and not much is known of it. It seems to
have more affinities with that of the temperate parts of the States than
with that of the tropical regions of America.

Hermaphroditism in Apodidae.«[ — Mr. H. M. Bernard notes that
three species — Lepidurus glacialis, L. productus, and Apus cancriformis —

* Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxi. (1896) pp. 22-3.
f Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., iv. (1896) pp. 144-5 (1 fig.).

X Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxi. (1896) pp. 29-33 (3 figs).

§ Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxv. (1896) pp. 329-38 (2 pis.).
i| Bull. Soc. Zool. Frauce, xxi. (1896) pp. 46-9 (2 figs.).

Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1896) pp. 296-309 (2 pis.).

310

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

all showed minute clear cells, interpreted as sperm-cells, in the female
genital organ. He admits that he has been unable to discover these
“ sperm-forming centres ” in specimens which he has subsequently-
examined, but the slides of the observed cases are deposited in the
Huxley Research Laboratory for inspection. The question as to
whether the minute cells are really sperm-cells can hardly be decided
absolutely, without direct comparison with undoubted sperm-cells from
a male.

Bernard’s theory of the reproductive arrangements in Apodidae is that
parthenogenesis with suppression of males was brought about in the
abundance of summer ; that when desiccation and scarcity set in it
becomes necessary to produce resting eggs which require fertilisation ;
that some females become hermaphrodite, and possibly eventually male.
At the same time it is more probable that true males are developed,
under the influence of the same unfavourable conditions, out of younger
specimens not yet sexually mature.

Phyllopod Crustacea of Japan.* * * § — Prof. C. Ishikawa describes Moina
paradoxa W eismn. var. japonica. It agrees in all essential respects with
the European species, but seems to be a distinct local variety. It is the
commonest species of Daphnid about Tokyo, abounding in all muddy
pools, and forms the best food for young gold-fishes. For this purpose
the cultivators of these fishes rear the Daplinids from mud containing
the gamogenetic eggs.

Free-swimming Copepods from West Coast of Ireland, j — Mr. I. C.
Thompson found in a collection made by Mr. E. T. Browne off Valencia,
six decidedly rare species : — Metridia armata , Candace pectinata ,
Pseudocalanus armatus , Monstrilla, rigida , Corycseus speciosus, and Oncsea
mediterranea. The two last-named species are southern forms, and
probably indicate the influence of the Gulf Stream. Mr. Thompson
compares this collection with another made by Prof. Herdman in 1890.

Parasitic Copepods.f — Mr. P. W. Bassett-Smith gives a useful list,
with brief diagnoses, of parasitic Copepoda which he has found on fishes
obtained at Plymouth. The list includes the following new species : —
Caligus scomberi from the inner surface of the operculum of Scomber
scomber, C. brevipedis from the gill-cavity of Motella tricirrata, Lepeo-
phtheirus pollachius from the palate and tongue of Gadus pollachius and
from the gills of the ling, Lernsea lusci on the gills of Gadus luscus,
Chondr acanthus clavatus on the gills of Platessa microcepJialus, Brachiella
merluccii from the points of the gill-rakers of the hake, Ancliorella
quadrata from the gill-rakers of the dragonet.

Monograph of Ostracoda.§ — Dr. G. S. Brady and the Rev. Canon
A. M. Norman continue their monograph of marine and freshwater
ostracoda of the north Atlantic and of north-western Europe. The first
part of the monograph (1889) dealt with the section (I.) Podocopa,
including Cypris, Cythere, &c. ; the present part deals with section (II.)
Myodocopa (e. g. Asterope , Crossophorus, Cypridina, Philomedes , Nemato-

* Zool. Mag. Tokyo, viii. (1896) pp. 7-12 (1 pi.).

1 Trans. Biol. Soc. Liverpool, x. (1896) pp. 92-102.

j Journ. Marine Biol. Ass., iv. (1896) pp. 155-63.

§ Sci. Trans. R. Dublin Soc., v. (1896) pp. 621-784 (19 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

311

Ji amnia, Sarsiella, Conchoecia , and Conchoecilla ) ; section (III.) Cladocopa
(e. g. Polycope and Polycopsis ) ; section (IV.) Platycopa (e. g. Cythe-
rella). Tlie monograph includes diagnoses of not a few new genera and
species.

Antennse of Trilobites.* — Herr Sv. Leonk. Tornquist calls attention
to the fact that in 1759 f Linnaeus noted and figured the antennae of
Parabolina spinulosa Wahlenb. Tornquist quotes the sentence, “ Most
remarkable in this specimen are the antennae in the front, which I never
saw in any other example, and which clearly prove this fossil to belong
to the insects ” ( = Arthropoda).

Annulata.

Notes on Enchytraeidse and Lumbricidse.f — Dr. H. Ude describes
Bryodrilus Elder si Ude, belonging to that group of Enchytraeidae which
includes Pachydrilus and Marionia. The setae (3-5, or rarely 6) are
S-shaped ; the dorsal vessel has no heart ; the oesophagus passes gradually
into the intestine.

He discusses at some length the so-called chyle-pouches or enteric
caeca of Enchytraeidae, which he regards as secretory, not chyle-absorbing.
But only their structure can be said to be known.

From a collection of North American earthworms Ude describes
Allolobophora gieseleri sp. n., Diplocardia singularis Ude, D. verrucosa
sp. n. A general discussion of the genus Diplocardia is also given.

Minute Structure of Testis in Earthworm.§ — Dr. B. v. Erlanger
has studied species of Lumbricus and Allolobophora , especially the latter,
in which the testes lie freely in the body-cavity instead of being covered
by the median seminal vesicle. The worms were put in water, and this
was gradually replaced by 70 per cent, alcohol ; thereafter they were
opened in salt solution, and the gut was removed ; then the open anterior
part was douched with corrosive sublimate. This brings out the testes
very clearly. Sometimes the testes were removed without any pre-
liminary process, and stained intra vitam with dahlia solution, or treated
with Hertwig’s maceration -mixture, or preserved in Flemming’s or
Hermann’s mixtures, &c.

The testis is a flattened lobed body, attached by its base to a septum ,
and consisting of many composite follicles, invested by a tunica propria
(a peritoneal covering), through which follicles protrude. These Blom-
field mistook for cells. The proper testicular cells are pear-shaped,
and hang by their stalks in the middle of the follicle. Each has a
delicate narrow - meshed framework, a nucleus with many minute
chromatin granules united in a network, a crescent-shaped Nebenkern —
apparently an archoplasmic aggregate, including the centrosome. In
their division a distinct “ cell-plate,” or Zivischenkorper , was seen. It is
probable that each follicle arises from the division of one mother-cell.

Unlike Blomfield, the author regards those cells which arise directly
from the peritoneal covering as Urkeimzellen, and all the rest as
spermatogonia.

* Geol. Mag., iii. (1896) p. 142.

t Svenska Yetensk. Acad. Handlingar, xx. (1759).

X Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxi. (1895) pp. 111-41 (1 pi.).

§ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii, (1896) pp. 1-13 (1 pi.).

312 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In an additional note* the author contrasts his own results with
those obtained by Mr. G. N. Calkins, f Calkins regarded the small
follicles as multi-nucleated cells instead of clusters of cells, and was not
able to assure himself of the existence of Nebenkern and nucleolus.
Erlanger regards these differences as the result of defective method.
The note contains also some discussion as to the true significance of the
terms Nebenkern , archoplasm, and corps residuels ; the author proposing
to drop the first in favour of the last.

PacificICoast Oligochaeta.ij: — Dr. G. Eisen describes several new
species of Benhamia, Acanthodrilus, Aleodrilus g. n., Sparganophilus , and
Phoenicodrilus, and two new varieties of Deltania .

Neotropical Earth worms.§ — Dr. D. Rosa describes some new earth-
worms from the Argentine Republic and Paraguay, including a new
genus Opisthodrilus, and new species of Ardens , Tykonus , Microscolexy
Benhamia , Kerria , and Ocnerodrilus.

More Earthworms in Xce.|| — Dr. E. Sekera notes the fact that he
found eight specimens of Dendrobsena rubida in Eastern Bohemia, in
holes within an icy crust of snow. They were living, and emerged
lively enough. They had probably crept out on some very sunny day,
and been frozen up before they were able to return to the soil.

New Japanese Land-Leeches.^] — Dr. Asajiro Oka describes three
new land-leeches forming a new genus Orobdella , to which he gives
the names of 0. Whitmani, 0. Ijima'i , and 0. octonaria. The genus is
especially characterised by the absence of jaws, the reduction of the
acetabulum, the presence of two eyes, and the fact that the number of
rings in a somite is variable, though constant for the individual species.
These leeches occur in moist earth or under moss in mountainous
regions, and live upon earthworms, which they swallow entire. Exter-
nally they resemble earthworms and attain a considerable size, one
specimen of 0. octonaria being found which had reached the extra-
ordinary length of 27 cm.

The paper includes an account of the anatomy of the species, and a
discussion of the classification of the Land-Leeches. The author adopts
that proposed by Dr. R. Blanchard (1894), and considers that Orobdella
is most nearly allied to Lumbricobdella.

N ematohelminthes.

First Stages of Development in Nematodes.**' — Dr. H. E* Ziegler
has studied Bhabditis nigrovenosa, Bh. teres, and Diplog aster longicauda
in reference to the early stages in development.

The movements of the two nuclei before fertilisation appear to be
due to streamings in the ovum. According as the nuclei meet in the
anterior end (defined as that turned towards the receptaculum seminis),
or in the posterior end of the ovum, the head of the embryo is towards
the posterior or anterior end of the ovum. What comes to the same

* Tom. cit., pp. 155-8. f Journ. Morphol., xi. (1895) pp. 271-98 (3 pis.).

| Mem. California Acad. Sci., ii. (1896) pp. 123-98 (12 pis.).

§ Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xlv. (1896) pp. 89-152 (1 pi.).

|| Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) p. 159.

*([ Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Japan, viii. (1895) pp. 275-306 (3 pis.).

** Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lx. (1895) pp. 351-410 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

313

thing, the position of the united nuclei defines the position of the large
animal cell. The amoeboid movements of the ovum cease with the
formation of the nuclear spindle. This spindle always lies in the longi-
tudinal plane of the ovum ; the particular rotation or taxis by which it
takes up this position is discussed at length. An interesting periodicity
in the cleavages is demonstrated, and their history is followed on the
128-cell stage.

Parasitic Nematodes.* — Dr. A. Railliet describes the structure and
life-history of 140 species of Nematodes, chiefly those which are parasites
in man and domestic animals.

Platyhelminthes.

Monograph of Nemertines. t — Dr. 0. Burger has added to the Naples
series a massive monograph on Nemertines. He begins with the usual
historical survey, in which the names of McIntosh, Hubrecht, and J oubin
figure prominently, and he gives an index to all genera and species, and
their synonyms.

The first division of the anatomical portion deals with the general
structure of Nemertines, working from the morphologically simple types,
e. g. Carinina, to the more complex forms. The second division is
devoted to histological details. We follow the author’s own summary.

The skin is represented by an epithelium with a gelatinous basal
layer, or, instead of the latter, a glandular cutis, often with musqle-fibres.
The epithelium consists of ciliated and glandular cells, and is often
wholly glandular, e. g. in Carinella, near the genital pores at the period
of sexual maturity. It contains hook-like bodies in Eunemertes echino -
derma, crystals or calcareous corpuscles in Geonemertes , and muscle-
fibres in Carinoma.

The cutis is often divided into an outer glandular and an inner
connective layer, the latter represented by gelatinous tissue in the
transparent forms, both often including longitudinal muscle-fibres.

In Proto-, Meso-, and Metanemertini, the muscular sheath consists of
a circular and a longitudinal layer, often with diagonal fibres between
them. In Heteronemertini there is also an external longitudinal layer,
and then the diagonal fibres, if present, lie between this and the circular
layer. Each fibre is a nucleated cell ; the striping, often visible in the
muscular layers, depends on ampullations of the fibres.

There is no body-cavity. A parenchyma of gelatinous appearance
surrounds the organs ; it exhibits nuclei, and sometimes (e. g. around
the rhyncho-coelom and blood-vessels) distinct cells, and is traversed by
dorso-ventral muscle-strands or plates.

Except in Malacobdella the gut is straight. The mouth may be
either behind or in front of the brain. In the latter case it usually opens
into the rhynchodaeum. The anus is frequently at some distance from
the posterior end on the dorsal surface ; the fore-gut is very rich in
glandular cells, which are absent elsewhere ; the mid-gut of the higher
forms has lateral pockets, alternating with the genital sacs ; the hind-gut

* ‘ Traite de Zool. Medicale et Agricole, ’ 2nd ed., Paris, 1895, pp. 388-562,
figs. 255-385. Review in Zool. Centralbl., iii. (1898) p. 207.

f * Die Nemertinen des Golfes von Neapel und der angrenzenden Meeres-
Abscknitte,’ in ‘ Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel,’ Monograpliie xxii.
Berlin, 1895, 4to, 743 pp. and 31 pis.

314

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

is short, except in Carinoma ; the whole gut is lined by high ciliated
epithelium, which fills'up the lumen during digestion; at the mouth
there is sometimes a circle of salivary gland-cells.

The gut has a distinct musculature — of longitudinal fibres on the
fore-gut, of circular fibres on the mid-gut. Most Metanemertini (except
Malacobdella and Pelagonemertcsy have a caecum, at the junction of fore-
gut and mid-gut.

Proboscis and rliynchocoelom are always present. The proboscis is
fixed anteriorly by its whole surface to the wall of the rhynchoccelom?
posteriorly by two retractors (absent in Cerebratulus, according to Coe) ;
it consists of a muscular sheath and a high internal epithelium with
mucus-cells, rhabdites, and stinging-cells. In Metanemertini there is
usually a stilet apparatus, including functional stilets and reserve stilets,
which lie in pockets, each associated with a very large glandular cell.

The proboscis of Metanemertini is divided into three cavities, which
communicate by narrow canals, and can be evaginated only as far as the
anterior cavity ; the posterior cavities make a secretion which is ejected
forcibly by the musculature of the first cavity. In the adults of
Eunemertes carcinophila reserve stilets and their pockets seem to be
wanting.

In Protonemertini the proboscis sheath usually extends only half the
length of the body ; in other cases it often reaches to the anus. Its wall
consists of a muscular sheath with a very low epithelium: in Drepano -
phorus it has pockets alternating with the genital sacs.

In the simplest case ( Garinina , Carinella, Pelagonemertes ) the blood-
vascular system consists of two lateral vessels, united by commissures at
the head and tail ends. Of general occurrence is a dorsal vessel in the
rhynchocoelom anteriorly, below it posteriorly. Especially in Hetero-
nemertini numerous ramifications may also occur.

The excretory system remains undetected in Cephalothrix , Pelago-
nemertes, and Prosadenoporus. The two canals are richly branched, lined
with ciliated epithelium, and end in blind ampullae imbedded in the walls
of the blood-vessels. The blood-cells are nucleated elliptical discs,
sometimes intensely red ; the corpuscles of the rhynchocoelom are very
large elliptical discs, with very thin margins, with a relatively small
nucleus, and often a very distinct attraction-sphere. They may be filled
with reddish, oily globules, but are otherwise greenish or colourless.

The “ brain ” consists of paired dorsal and ventral ganglia, connected
by commissures around the rhyncliodeeum or rhynchocoelom. The
system may lie in the epithelium, between that and its basal layer, in
the muscular layer, or still further in. In Drepanophorus, &c., the lateral
cords from the ventral ganglia show a tendency to approach one another
ventrally.

The ganglion-cells always lie peripherally to the nerve-fibres. These,
along with a very fine connective tissue, form the central substance,
which is surrounded by an inner neurilemma. An outer neurilemma
forms a capsule around the whole brain. Four kinds of (unipolar)
ganglion-cells are distinguishable.

The sense-organs are the head-grooves, the cephalic slits, the cerebral
organs, the lateral organs, eyes, otoliths, and terminal sensory structures
on the head.

The reproductive elements arise either as solid balls in the paren-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

31&

chyma, or, in higher forms, on the epithelium lining the genital sacs.
An efferent duct is not formed until maturity. Several species of
Geonemertes , Prosadenoporus, and probably Prosorhochmus , are herma-
phrodite ; a few species of Tetrastemma are protandrous hemaphrodites ;
ProsorJiochmus , a freshwater Tetrastemma , and a species of Linens are
viviparous.

In the physiological chapter the author notes, inter alia , his conclu-
sion that the reserve stilets really replace the functional stilets, that
Cerebratulus , Langia , and Drepanophorus owe their capacity for swimmin
to the neurochord cells, that the cerebral organs test the surroundin
medium, and that the head grooves are tactile.

Two polar bodies are extruded ; fertilisation may be internal or
external ; segmentation is total and equal (unequal in Munopora vivipara ) ;
gastrulation is complete or partial; development is direct in Meta- and
Mesonemertini, usually indirect in Heteronemertini ; six species of
Pilidium larvte are distinguished.

The systematic portion is very full ; 164 species (74 established by
the author) are described ; three new genera — Hubrechtia , Nemertopsis,
and Prosadenoporus — are constituted, and others are reconstituted ;
Hubrecht’s Palaeo- and Schizonemertini are rearranged as Proto-, Meso-,
and Heteronemertini.

Burger’s scheme of relationships is as follows : —

Lineidae

Eupolidae

Heteronemeutini

Hubrechtia

Carinina

Protonemertini

Ancestral forms
(related to Turbellaria)

Holorhynchocoelomia

Prorhynchocoelomia

Pelagonemertes

Metanemertjni

Ceplialothrix

I

Carinoma

Mesonemertini

to to

316

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Four species of Tetrastemma live in fresh water; seven species of
Geonemertes are terrestrial ; the rest are marine, and very cosmopolitan.

The chief habitats are among Algae, especially calcareous Algae, in
rock-clefts and loose coral blocks, in sand and mud, in empty shells and
tubes. Many make tubes of mucus and debris. They often live in
companies, e. g. Linens gesserensis. They are only partially nocturnal.
Most are predatory, attacking annelids, molluscs, and even small crusta-
ceans. Some forms are commensals in Ascidians and bivalves, but
Cephalothrix galathese destroys the eggs of its host. The colouring often
agrees very markedly with that of the surroundings, and thus many local
varieties occur.

New Nemertines.* * * § — Dr. 0. Burger describes among Protonemertini
a species of Carinella ; among Mesonemertini, Carinoma patagonica and
a species of Cephalothrix ; among Metariemertini, Amphiporus hicolor and
A. michaelseni ; among Heteronemertini, Eupolia maculosa , E. lineolata ,
E. antillensis , Micrura (Linens?) glandulosa, Cerelratulus harentsi , and
C. magelhaensicus.

Taeniae of Birds.f — Herr 0. Fuhrmann observes that out of a list of
about 240 species of Tsenia found in birds, only twenty-one are known
more than by name. Similarly, of the twelve in Eeptiles, only T. dispar
Goeze has been studied ; of those in Amphibians, Fuhrmann has recently
described two ; of the two dozen or so recorded from fishes only five are
accurately known. The author devotes the present study to a careful
description of T. Dujardini Krabbe, T. capitellata Bud., and T. depressa
v. Siebold.

New Species of Distomum.J — Mr. G. S. West describes Distomum
Philodryadum sp. n., found in the buccal and narial cavities of Philodryas
Schottii, one of the opisthoglyphous Colubridae. Among the charac-
teristics are — the fusiform body ; minute spines besetting the epidermis ;
oral sucker orbicular and almost ventral ; ventral sucker sessile, orbi-
cular, lying about one-third of the length of the body from the anterior
end and equal in size to the oral sucker ; oesophagus extremely short,
two long, narrow, and simple intestinal branches; genital pore posterior
to the ventral sucker, a little to the left; length 3-5 mm., breadth 0*8-
1*3 mm. ; eggs numerous and very minute.

Incertee Sedis.

Orthonectid in an Annelid.§ — M. le Baron de Saint- Joseph describes
Bhopalura Pterocirri sp. n., which he found, along with some rare
Gregarines, in the body-cavity of Pterocirrus macroceros Gr., one of the
Phyllodoceidae. Young forms and adult females were seen. The adult
female had six well-marked rings, and there* were cilia at each end, and
between rings 2 and 3, 3 and 4, 4 and 5. Along with the parasites were
round or oval cysts enclosing minute refractive spheres.

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., Ixi. (1895) pp. 16-37 (2 pis.).

t Revue Suisse Zool., iii (1895) pp. 433-58 (1 pi.).

% Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxv. (1896 ) pp. 322-1 (1 pi.).

§ Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxi. (1898) pp. 56-8 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

317

Echinoderma.

Connection between Blastomeres in the Egg of the Sea-TJrchin.* —
Dr. J. Aug. Hammar has studied in fresh material and in sections the
nature of the connection between the cells of the segmenting egg in
Echinus miliaris. He finds that it is most distinct in the two-celled
stage, but is also visible even in the late blastula stages. He finds that
the ectoplasm does not divide during cell-division, but persists undivided,
giving the appearance of a clear sheath round the products of division.
As this sheath crosses the spaces between the cells it appears to be a
band connecting the cells, but in origin it belongs to the ectoplasm.

Coelentera.

Microscopic and Systematic Study of Madreporarian Types of
Corals.t — This paper is an abstract of a communication by Dr. Maria
M. Ogilvie read before the Royal Society. The author finds that the
skeleton of the Madreporaria arises from an actual calcification of ecto-
dermal cells (calicoblasts), and not by a secretion laid down outside the
cells. This calcification is followed by a formation of fibro-crystalline
groups of aragonite, and a disintegration of the organic cell-remnants
which produce carbonaceous flecks and bands in the crystalline deposit.
The author then traces the grouping of these calcified calicoblasts into
fascicles, which are the structural units of the coral-skeleton, and dis-
cusses in detail the nature of the skeleton in typical genera. As a result
of her investigation she finds that the subdivision of the Madreporaria
into the sub-orders Rugosa, Aporosa, and Perforata is entirely artificial,
and prefers to classify them into a number of families of equal rank.
These families she arranges in accordance with the views as to their
descent which she deduces from her investigations.

Classification of Antipathidse. — Herr L. Schultze has studied a
collection of Antipatharia made by Prof. Kukenthal off the coast of
Ternate. He dissents from the view of Brook that the Schizopathinaa
show any real dimorphism, beyond a division of the body into nutritive
and reproductive regions; and finds his basis of classification in the
number of septa which extend in the upper part of the polyps be-
tween gullet and body- wall. Three groups of Antipathidae are thus
established : —

(1) 6-chambered: Cladopathes Brook.

(2) 10-chambered : Cirripathes Blainv. (em. Brook).

Stichopathes Brook.

Antipathes Pallas (em. Schultze).

Aphanipathes Brook.

Parantipathes Brook.

(3) 12-chambered : Leiopathes Gray (em. Brook).

Schultze also gives the diagnoses of the following new species : —
Parantipathes simplex , Aphanipathes thamnoides , Aph. spinulosa , Antipathes
ternatensis, and Ant. delicatula.

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii. (1896) pp. 14-28 (1 pi.).

t Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1896) pp. 219-28. See also Proc. Roy.
Soc., lix. pp. 9-18. % Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 89-92.

1896

z

318

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Siphonophora of Amboina.* — M. M. Bedot notes that most of the
Siphonophora he found in the Bay of Amboina are common in the
Mediterranean, and that the new forms are not of great zoological
interest. These new species are Amphiroa dispar, Parasphenoides
Amboinensis, and Enneagonoides Picteti.

The author submits a much-needed critical revision of the family
Agalmidae. He recognises the following : —

Agalma Eschscholtz, with three species, Ag. Eschscholtzi Haeckel,
Ag. Oikeni Eschscboltz, Ag. breve Huxley.

Crystallomia Dana, with one species, Or. polygonata Dana.

Stephanopsis g. n., with one species, St. Glausi Bedot.

Halistemma Huxley, with one species, H. rubrum Huxley.

Cupulita Quoy et Gaimard, with four species, C. picta Haeckel, C. cara
Haeckel, C. Canariensis Haeckel, and G. amphitrites Bedot.

Anthemodes Haeckel, with one species, A. ordinata, Haeckel.

Agalmopsis Sars, with one species, Ag. Sarsi Kolliker.

Lychnagalma Haeckel, with one species, L. utricularia Haeckel.

We have given Bedot’s list in full, since he rejects a dozen genera
and two dozen species.

Nervous System of Rhizostoma.t — Herr R. Hesse has studied the
nervous system and sense-organs of Bhizostoma Guvieri, and has also
taken account of Gotylorhiza tuberculata ( Cassiopeia borbonica ) and
Pelagia noctiluca. His most striking general result is that in the
internal sensory groove of each marginal body numerous ganglion-cells
lie in the nerve-plexus of the epithelium, and that others connected with
these lie at the base of the stalk of the marginal body. These portions
of the epithelium provided with ganglion-cells are the proper central
organs of the nervous system. The peripheral nervous system extends
over the sub-umbrellar surface, as a feltwork of nerve-fibres which are
processes of bipolar ganglion-cells. The fibres show a distinct order-
liness of arrangement, and are in relation with the inner sensory grooves
and their nerve-centres. Herr Hesse seeks to explain the experiments
of Eimer and Romanes in the light of his discoveries.

Stauridium productum and Perigonimus repens.f — Dr. Cl. Hart-
laub makes a welcome contribution to our knowledge of the structure
and life-history of these two forms. The medusoids of Stauridium
productum , which were reared in the aquarium, agree in most respects
with those of the genus Sarsia (e. g. S. tubulosa , S. mirabilis), while the
hydroid is closely related to the hydroid genus Gladonema. The
umbrella is a truncated oval, 10 cm. high by 7 cm. broad ; the manu-
brium, brownish in colour, is slightly contractile, and has one-third of
its length hanging below the cavity of the bell ; the yellowish- white
gonads begin at the base of the manubrium ; the young medusa has a
wide stalk-canal ; the tentacles of the adult are 15 cm. long when
extended, and end in a knob.

Hartlaub has also succeeded in tracing the well-known Tiara pileata
L. Ag. back to its origin from a species of Perigonimus (P. repens ?)
which lives on the shell of Nucula nucleus.

* Rev. Suisse Zool., iii. (1895) pp. 367-414 (1 pi.),
t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lx. (1895) pp. 411-57 (3 pis. and 3 figs.),
t Op. cit., lxi. (1895) pp. 142-62 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOBOSOOPY, ETO.

319

Plymouth Hydroids.* — Prof. 0. C. Nutting has some notes on these,
describing Eudendrium album sp. n., Opercular ella hispida sp. n., Plumu -
laria Alleni sp. n., &c. In discussing Plumularia pinnata , the author
deals particularly with the nematophores. Each consists of a “ sarco-
style ” — the sarcodal process, and a “ sarcotheca ” — the chitinous
receptacle. One pair of naked sarcostyles is found in the usual position
of the supracalycine nematophores, and another pair is in the axil of
each hydrocladium. The greater part of the sarcostyle is composed of
ectodermic cells ; there is a central endoderm core, with a cavity in one
species ; the cells on one side of this core are very large and quad-
rangular ; there are pseudopodia-like processes from the free surface of
the sarcostyle. No free interstitial protoplasm, as described by Merej-
kowsky and Weismann, was observed. As to function, it seems that in
P. pinnata the sarcostyles are primarily neither fighting persons, nor
concerned in the repair of mutilated or diseased parts. It is probable,
on the other hand, that they remove extraneous matter, or dead organic
material from the interior of the hydrothecm and gonangia, and that
they may aid in the capture and ingestion of food for the colony. As
Weismann showed, both ova and spermatoblasts arise in the endoderm of
the stem, and migrate to the gonophores. The ova break through the
Stutz-lamella , and are fertilised and segmented between this and the ecto-
derm. The primary divisions of the spermatoblasts occur in the endo-
derm. An unusual mode of asexual reproduction, by what may be called
stolons, is described in the same species.

Porifera.

Growth of Sponges.f — Messrs. E. J. Allen and G. Bidder have
made an interesting report on the possibilities of the artificial culture
of sponges. Buccich concluded that sponge-cuttings would grow to
marketable size in seven years, and the Florida experiments seem to
show that a piece may, in favourable conditions, grow to 4-6 times the
original size in six months. Marenzeller points out, however, that there
is lack of evidence that cut pieces of a sponge would, in a given time,
together attain a greater weight than the original sponge would have
reached if left undisturbed. Mr. Bidder also says there seems to be no
reason to suppose that the yield of a sponge fishery will be increased by
planting cuttings, unless these are placed in more advantageous positions
than the original sponges. He suggests attaching either cuttings or
small sponges to canes or tiles, disposed on iron hurdles standing some
feet from the sea-bottom.

Protozoa.

New Tintinnidse, t — Prof. K. Brandt describes some new Tintinnidse
collected by Vanhofien in Davis Strait, Karajak Fjord, &c.s on the
Greenland expedition. The new forms are four species of Tintinnus ;
five species of Tintinnopsis ; Ptychocylis g. n. with four new species;
and three new species of Cyttarocylis.

Brandt also discusses the structure of the test. In Tintinnus , it

* Journ. Marine Biol. Ass., iv. (1896) pp. 146-54. f Tom. cit., pp. 188-200.

X Bibliotheca Zoologica (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 20 (1896) pp. 45-72 (1 pi.).

z 2

320

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

suggests the sculpturing of diatoms, and consists of exceedingly delicate
and hardly recognisable primary chambers or cells between the two
closely apposed lamellae. In Cyttarocylis cassis there is a coarse
irregular reticulation, but higher magnification shows in each area a
number of minute and delicate cells. In Ptychocylis ( = Cyttarocylis
semireticulata Biederm., &c.), the external shell-lamella bears reticulate
ridges, and there are fine primary cells between the lamellas. In the
littoral Tintinnopsis the wall has refractive portions, and in part extrinsic
bodies, in the pelagic Codonopsis these are absent ; but in both there
is a primary and secondary figuration. The author also deals with
the question of distribution, distinguishing eupelagic and hemipelagic
forms.

New Genus of Astrorhizidse.* — Mr. A. Vaughan Jennings describes
Bhaphidoscene conica g. et sp. n., which was found adherent to Botellina
labyrinthica Brady in some ‘ Porcupine ’ dredgings. The shell consists
of a tent-shaped structure of closely-set sponge-spicules, and measures
about 1/25 in. in height. The form appears to be an extremely simple
type of Foraminifer, building a protective roof of sponge-spicules. In
.habit it is the equivalent of simple forms of Nubecularia in the Porcel-
lanea, and of Placopsilina and Webbina in the Lituolidae.

True Nature of “ Moebiusispongia parasitica.”! — Mr. A. Vaughan
Jennings points out that this organism,* which Prof. Martin Duncan
found in some sections of Carpenteria rhapTiidodendron Mob., and supposed
to be a parasitic calcareous sponge, is really a Foraminifer, a species of
Bamulina , probably B. globulifera.

Shell-making in Ehizopods.f — Dr. L. Rhumbler finds that some
freshwater Rhizopods ( Difflugia pyriformis , D. constricta , &c.) lose the
power of increasing the size of their tests after the shell-formation which
occurs during gemmation. In other words, there are some which have
no secondary shell-growth. Others, like Arcella , show secondary growth.
The author gives a detailed account of Cyphoderia margaritacea. As
regards the conjugation, he observed that an animal with a nucleus just
divided frequently united with one whose nucleus had not for a long
period undergone division. He goes on to discuss the phylogeny of
shell-formation and of budding in the Testacea. Thus he suggests the
following four groups, established in relation to their shells : —

(1) Nuditestidse, with naked shell, of unlimited growth, where the
shell begins by the constriction of the adult mother-shell into two, e.g.
Lieberhuhnia , Diploplirys.

(2) Adjungentidse, with extrathalamous accumulation of the test-
material, and inversion of this in the formation of the test, e. g.
Difflugia (?) amphora , var. minor, Pseudodifflugia amphitrematoides.

(3) Revolventidse, with intrathalamous accumulation of test-material,
and inversion of this, Cyphoderia.

(4) Protrudentidse, with intrathalamous accumulation of test-
material, without inversion, e. g. Euglypha , Difflugia urceolata, &c.

Had we space, there is much else that is noteworthy to be recorded in

* Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., xxv. (1896) pp. 320-1 (1 pi.). ~

f Tom. cit., pp. 317-9.

J Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.; lxi. (1895) pp. 38-110 (2 pis. and 10 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

321

this interesting paper. Some new forms are also described, e. g. JPonti-
gulasia sjpiralis g. et sp. n.

Eozoonal Structure.* — Prof. H. J. Johnston-Lavis and Dr. J. W.
Gregory have described the eozoonal structure of ejected blocks of Monte
Somma, a subject of zoological interest in connection with the discussion
as to the real nature of Eozoon canadense. In all essential points the
ejected blocks agree with the typical Canadian Eozoons, and the authors
therefore claim to have proved that Eozoon canadense has been formed at
a period geologically recent, as a product of contact-alteration combined
with the absorption of a magma of basic silicates.

Reputed Organic Remains in the Precambrian Rocks of Brittany . |
— Herr Hermann Rauff criticises in detail M. L. Cayeux’s statements t as
to the presence of sponge-spicules and Radiolarian tests in these rocks.
He has studied one of M. Cayeux’s rock-sections containing the alleged
spicules, and finds that all these show irregular thickenings, spiral
twisting round their own axes, and worm-like bending, characters very
rarely found combined, even in very abnormal sponge-spicules. Further,
he finds that the “ spicules ” not infrequently cross the veins and fissures
of the rock, and are never atfected by the veins ; this shows that the
“ spicules ” are younger than the rock, younger even than its meta-
morphosis. The spicules are therefore growth-forms of iron, probably of
pyrites. The author then goes on to criticise the so-called Radiolarians,
laying especial stress upon the fact that they are ten times smaller than
all other known forms. His own view is that they are pseudomorphous
granules of pyrites.

* Sci. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc., v. (1894) pp. 259-85 (5 pis.).

f Jahrb. f. Mineral., i. (1896) pp. 117-38 (16 figs.).

X Bull. Soc. Geol. France, xxii. (1894) pp. 197-228 (1 pi. and 2 figs.) ; Comptes
Rendus, cxviii. (1894) pp. 1433-5 (6 figs.); Ann. Soc. Geol. du Nord, xxiii. (1895)
pp. 52-65 (2 pis.).

322

SUMMARY OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including1 the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Behaviour of the Nucleus in Growing Cells.* — Herr E. Zacharias
gives a number of illustrations of the law that in the nuclei of growing
cells specific changes are very widely distributed ; such, for example, as
an increase in the size of the nucleus and in the mass of the nucleoles in
the first stages of cell-growth. With an increase in the size of the
nucleus appears to be associated a corresponding decrease in the amount
of nuclein.

In the sieve-tubes and in the elements of the vessels of Cucurbita , the
author finds at first an increase in the amount of chromatin and nuclein,
which, however, again diminish before the maturity of the organ. During
the germination of the seeds of Bicinus a considerable increase of nucleus
and nucleoles takes place. In the larch he found no increase of the
nucleus, but the formation of a nuclear framework in the previously
homogeneous nucleus. In Zea and Hyacinthus the nuclei remain quite
unchanged during germination. This difference appears to be associated
with the fact that in Bicinus a considerable growth of the endosperm
cells takes place during germination, while this is not the case with Zea .
In Hyacinthus and Galanthus the mother-cells of the stomates and the
young guard-cells are smaller, and contain smaller nucleoles but more
nuclein than the neighbouring epidermal cells.

Direct Nuclear Division in the Embryo-Sac of L ilium Martagon.t
— According to observations made by Miss E. Sargant, the two lower
antipodal nuclei in the embryo-sac of this plant are formed in a dif-
ferent way from the remaining six nuclei which are found in the
embryo-sac before fertilisation, viz. by a process of direct division.

(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions).

Myriophyllin.J — Herr F. Prosclier has made a series of observations
on this pigment, found by Eaciborski in the trichomes of Myriophyllum
and in other water plants. These show that the red reaction of the
pigment when treated with vanillin and hydrochloric acid is due to a
process of oxidation, myriophyllin itself being colourless.

Honeydew.§ — According to M. G. Bonnier, there is a purely vege-
tative honeydew apart from that which is caused by the attacks of
Aphides. It is formed especially when there is a great difference in
temperature between day and night, and then only during the night-time.
It may be seen to escape through the stomates. The chemical composi-
tion of this secretion differs from that caused by the attacks of insects,
and appears to correspond closely to that of the nectar of flowers.

* Flora, lxxxi. (1895) Erganzungsbd., pp. 217-66 (3 pis.).

T Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 107-8.

J Ber. Deutscli. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1896) pp. 345-8. Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 76.

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 335-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

323

Dr. J. Yan der Plancken and M. P. Biourge* * * § have collected the
white drops which fell from three copper beeches. The drops were
about the size of sand-grains, and when fairly well purified were found
to be odourless and very hygroscopic. The honeydew was sweet, and
stuck to the teeth like gum. It was very soluble in water and dilute
alcohol, and the solution turned the plane of polarisation to the right. It
did not contain nitrogenous matter, and when incinerated left 1 • 55 per
cent, of ash composed of OaO, MgO, K2C03. It is a mixture of gum,
dextrin and levulose, and contains no saccharose.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Protecting Tissues of Shrubby Plants.* — Herr P. Segerstedt de-
scribes the contrivances for protection in the stem of a number of
shrubby plants. The formation of periderm takes place earlier when
the epiderm is not strongly cuticularised. The outer walls of the epi-
dermal cells are thicker in inverse proportion to the development of the
assimilating tissue. The formation of hairs is, as a general rule, of
secondary importance. A red pigment is of frequent occurrence in the
epiderm or in the hypodermal parenchyme. Tannin is most common in
those species which have perennial branches that do not form periderm.
The formation of cork is frequently determined by external conditions.

Formation of Duramen.^ — M. E. Mer describes in detail the pro-
cesses by which duramen or “ perfect wood ” is formed in a variety of trees,
chiefly by the deposition of tannin and resinous substances. The dura-
men does not always consist entirely of dead cells. The cause of the
tannin entering the tissue is probably the decrease in turgidity of the
vessels. f • ... .!

Aerenchyme.§ — Mr. H. von Schrenk describes the modification which
takes place in the tissue of many American plants when the stem is
completely immersed in water, similar to that which has been observed
in the trees of mangrove swamps. The species especially described are
Lycopus sinuatus, Ludwigia spliserocarpa , and Sambucus canadensis.

LacunaeCinithesTissue of Gymnosperms.|| — -Herr S. Rywosch has
detected lacunae at the boundary of the protoxylem and parenchyme in
the stem and leaf of many Gymnosperms (Coniferae and Ephedra ).
These lacunae are not air-chambers, like those of water-plants, but
appear to result from the inability of the annular and spiral elements to
follow the expansion of the living elements which adjoin the protoxylem ;
the lignified elements are forced apart, and the lacunae result. The
best examples were seen in the leaves of Pinus austriaca and P. insignis.

IntercellularlSpaces in Embryos.f — Mr. K. M. Wiegand describes
examples of thisTrather rare phenomenon in the case of the embryo

* La Cellule, xi. (1896) pp. 375-99.

f Bih. K. Svensk. Yet. Akad. Handl., xix., 86 pp. and 3 pis. See Bot. Centralbl.,
lxv. (1896) p. 154.

+ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlii. (1896) pp. 582-98. Cf. this Journal, 1888, p. 446.

§ Proc. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvii. (1896) pp. 98-104 (3 pis.).

l| SB. Naturf.-Gesell. Univ. Dorpat, x. pp. 515-7. See Bot. Centralbl., lxv.
(1896) p. 70. T| Proc. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvii. (1896) pp. 174-6 (1 pi.).

324

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of two American Composite, Erechthites hieracifolia and Bidens cernua.
In the latter species they are entirely confined to the hypocotyl.

Idioblasts of Camellia.* * * § — Sig. F. Cavara describes three kinds of
idioblast in the Camellieae: — (1) Very large cells, in all the vegetative
organs, but rarely seen in the sexual organs ; (2) cells with limited
growth, in the primary liber of the stem and branches ; (3) sclerenchy-
matous cells, forming the protecting layer of the testa.

Healing of Wounds. f — Mr. S. G. Shattock points out that the mode
of healing of incisions in plants corresponds, in general terms, with
that by primary and secondary adhesions in animal textures. But the
analogy with secondary adhesion is not exact, since the two surfaces
which coalesce in plants are first healed by cork-tissue, while in animals
they remain granulating till brought together.

Life-History of Symplocarpus fcetidus.J — Mr. W. W. Eowlee and
Miss M. A. Nichols describe several points in the structure of this
plant, the skunk-cabbage, belonging to the Araceee. The embryo
displays peculiarities in the absence of a radicle, in the marked develop-
ment of vascular tissue in the axis, and in the conversion of the seutellum
into a fleshy bulb filling the entire seed. The tissues of the plant con-
tain an enormous number of raphid-sacs. The rootstock contains a
layer of meristematic tissue separating the cortex from a central cylinder
in which the vascular tissue is disposed, and this meristematic layer
gives rise centrifugally to completely closed bundles and interfascicular
tissue, centripetally to cortex.

(4) Structure of Organs.

Geophilous Plants. § — Prof. F. W. C. Areschoug applies the term
geophilous plants, or geophytes , to those species which produce sub-
terranean buds, and whose shoots are therefore, to a greater or less
extent, developed beneath the surface of the soil. In addition to those
plants which possess rhizomes or bulbs, it includes also the following
four classes : — Plants (especially alpine) which preserve a perennial life
by means of green underground stems ; by gemmae ; by a perennial base
to the stem ; and by rosettes. A number of cases are described in detail
in which the stem and leaves attain a very considerable degree of deve-
lopment before they emerge above the surface of the soil, as in Anemone
nemorosa , Orobus vernus , Corydalis nobilis, and others.

Influence of the Mediterranean Climate on Plants. ||— Mr. W.
Russell has studied the difference of structure between individuals of
the same species growing in the neighbourhood of Paris and in the
Mediterranean region, in a number of cases, and finds that the latter
display the following characteristics : — The epidermal cells are larger
and thicker walled ; the stomatic apparatus is more developed, especially
on the upper surface of the leaf ; the cortex of the aerial branches is

* Atti R. 1st. Bot. Univ. Pavia, iv. p. 27 (2 pis.). See Bot. Centralbl., 1895,

Beih., p. 422. f Proc. Roy. Soc., lix. (1896) pp. 182-3.

X Proc. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvii. (1896) pp. 157-60 (2 pis.).

§ Acta Univ. Lund., xxi. (1895) 60 pp. and 28 figs. (German).

|| Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), i. (1895) pp. 323-54 (2 pis.). Cf. this Journal, 1890,
p. 363.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

325

reduced ; that of the underground branches is thicker, and is composed
of larger cells ; increase in the amount of xylem and phloem, and in the
size of the vessels ; stronger sclerification ; greater thickness of the
leaves ; and a stronger development of secreting tissues.

Water-carrying Calyx.* * * § — Herr G. Kraus records another instance,
similar to that described by Raciborski in the case of Spathodea , in
which the calyx is transformed into a receptacle for holding water. It
occurs in Parmentiera cereifera (Bignoniacese) in Java. Even in the
bud-condition the calyx is filled with a clear fluid, which has a slightly
acid reaction. The interior of the calyx (as well as other parts) is
covered with glands, from which the fluid appears to be secreted.

Variation in the Humber of Stamens and Carpels.f — Mr. J. H.
Burkill records the variation in the number of these parts in a very large
number of flowers of several different species, and concludes that it is
generally dependent on the position of the flower on the axis. The
earlier formed flowers on a plant possess, as a rule, a larger number of
these organs than those formed later; and the same is true of the
terminal flowers of a cyme and the basal flowers of a raceme.

In another paper J similar observations are recorded on the variability
of the number of the floral organs in Parnassia palustris.

Achenes of Anthemidese.i — Herr G. 0. A. Malme has investigated
the structure of the fruit of various species of this tribe of Cojnpositse,
chiefly included in the genus Chrysanthemum , especially in relation to
the contrivances for floating through the air. He classifies them accord-
ing to this character under three types, viz. : — (1) The Pinardia- type, in
which the achenes are furnished with wing-like outgrowths, consisting
chiefly of aerenchyme ; (2) the Coleostephus-tjpe , in which, instead of
wings, there is a crown to the achene, derived from a swelling of the
epiderm of the ribs, this tissue excreting a mucilage, which serves to fix
the fruit to the soil ; (3) the Pyrethrum- type, where none of these
structures are strongly developed.

Seed of Scitamineae. || — According to Prof. J. E. Humphrey, a micro-
pylar collar and germinal lid are very characteristic of the seed of
Scitamineae, though absent in Strelitzia and some other cases. Except in
the Musaceae, the starch-bearing tissue is entirely perisperm ; in the
MusaceoB there is an abundant starch-bearing endosperm. The develop-
ment of a micropylar aril is another general characteristic of the
Scitamineae. The Canneae exhibit no near affinities in the development
of their seed to any other group of Scitamineae. In Heliconia the
formation of a true testa and of all the special structures associated
with it is replaced by the development of a stony endocarp.

Saprophytic Orchideae.U — An examination of the structure of a large
number of Orchidaceous saprophytes leads Mr. P. Groom to the
following general conclusions. The subterranean parts of the plant

* Flora, lxxxi. (1895) pp. 435-7.

f Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), xxxi. (1895) pp. 216-45.

X Journ. of Bot., xxxiv. (1896) pp. 12-5.

§ Bot. Notiser, 1895, pp. 147-52. See Bot. Centralbl., lxv. (1896) p. 205.

|| Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 1-40 (4 pis.).

1 Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), xxxi. (1895) pp. 149-215 (3 pis. and 3 figs.).

326

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATINO TO

undergo a comparatively large development. The absorbing organs are
formed in different ways, and exhibit a great variety of form. These
organs lie in the superficial layers of the substratum, and are always
connected with the presence of mycorhizal hyplias, the function of which
is obscure. These hyphae appear to enter the plant only by cells which
are specifically absorbing cells. In the cortical cells which are attacked
by these hyphae, the nuclei grow, and become much more deeply staining,
indicating possibly a beneficial effect on the host. The absorbing organs
are generally characterised by the large size of the cortex and the small-
ness of the central cylinder. In the case of holosaprophytes (those
entirely destitute of chlorophyll) the leaves are reduced to mere scales.

Heterotrophy and Anisophylly. — Prof. J. Wiesner* * * § proposes the
general term Trophy for all unilateral excesses of growth in tissues or in
organs which are dependent on the position of the organ in question, the
term position being understood in a wide sense, as the relation in space
of the heterotrophic organ to the horizon and to its parent-shoot.
Heterotrophy may be exhibited in epitrophy or hypotrophy of the
axillary buds ; in epitrophy of adventitious buds ; in epitrophy or hypo-
trophy of the shoot ; and in exotrophy or endotrophy. In relation to
the cause of the unequal supply of nutriment which results in unequal
growth, we may have phototrophy , geotrophy , or hydrotrophy. Anisophylly
may be the result of a combination of all these last three forms of trophy,
and has for its object to place the organ in a convenient position for
illumination without any twisting of the internodes.

From observations on anisophylly in Acer platanoides , Herr A.
Weisse j* concludes that it is dependent on the position of the shoot in
relation to the horizon, and also in relation to its parent-shoot. The
greater length of the stalk of the lower leaves is the result of a weaker
illumination.

Dependence of the Form of the Leaf on the Intensity of the
Light .J — From experiments on cultivating the harebell, Campanula
rotundifolia , under various conditions as to exposure to light, Prof. K.
Goebel concludes that its heterophylly may be traced to the effects of
light. The lower rounded leaves, with a sharply defined petiole, are
formed in a weak, the upper lanceolate leaves, with no well-defined
petiole, in a stronger light. The formation of the basal cordate leaves
has, however, become hereditary, and independent of external conditions.
Other examples are given of the direct influence of moisture and light in
determining the form of organs.

Stem and Leaf of Euphorbiacese.§ — Herr W. Froembling describes
in great detail the structure of the leaf and stem in a large number of
genera and species belonging to the two tribes of Euphorbiaceae, Croto-
neae and Euphyllantheae.

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 481-95. Cf. this Journal, ante,

p. 204. f Tom. cit., pp. 376-89 ; xiv. (1896) pp. 96-100.

t SB. K. Bay. Akad. Wiss. Miinchen, xxv. (1896) pp. 331-5; Flora, lxxxii.
(1896) pp. 1-13 (4 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 334.

§ Bot. Centralbl., lxv. (1896) pp. 129-39, 177-92, 241-9, 289-97, 321-9, 369-78,
403-11, 433-42 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

327

Leaves of Ranunculus and Heileborus.* — Dr. A. Nestler has made
a critical examination of the anatomical characters of the leaves in these
two genera. In Ranunculus the hairs are always unicellular ; water-
pores occur in all the species, even in the floating and submerged leaves
of Batracliium. Many species have small crystals of calcium oxalate in
the epidermal cells ; one only, R. asiaticus, has large crystals in the
fundamental parenchyme of the leaf-stalk. The two most distinguishing
features in the leaves of Helleborus are that the sclerenchymatous fibres
form a completely closed sheath surrounding the vascular bundle ; and
that they are entirely wanting in the leaf-segments.

Extrafloral Nectaries of Ficus.f — Sig. M. A. Mirabella describes
the nectaries found on the leaves of several species of Ficus. They agree
with one another in their anatomical character, in their origin, which is
always as modifications of epidermal cells, and in the nature of their
contents, which consist, in addition to saccharine matters, of proteid
substances, but not of starch. They make their appearance as small
areolte, with well-defined outline, somewhat depressed, sometimes covered
with a white scurf. They are usually situated on the under surface of
the leaf in the axils of primary veins, less often on the branches at the
base of a leaf-stalk.

Hairs of Myristicacese.'l — Herr O. Warburg describes the very
peculiar trichomes which are characteristic of all the genera of
Myristicacete examined. The hairs are multicellular, and either one-
armed or two-armed. In the former case each cell is more or less bent
at right angles, and springs from the bent angle of the one beneath it.
In the latter case, each cell is produced in two directions from the point
from which the next cell above it springs, so that the successive cells
are greatly elongated in a direction nearly parallel to the surface, and
each '’is attached nearly by its middle to the one above and to the one
below it. The number of such cells of which a hair is composed is some-
times very large.

Characters of Arceuthobiacese.§ — M. P. Van Tieghem gives ana-
tomical reasons for the separation of Arceuthobium as a distinct natural
order, intermediate between Loranthacese and Santalaceae. In the
Loranthacese the embryo-sacs are directly plunged in the cortex of the
carpels ; there is neither placenta nor ovules, and therefore no open
ovarian cavity. In the Arceuthobiaceae there is a placenta and an open
ovarian cavity, but the embryo-sacs are still completely imbedded in the
placenta, and there are no ovules. In the Santalaceae there is also a
placenta in an open ovarian cavity ; but this placenta puts out pro-
tuberances, in the interior of each of which an embryo-sac is differen-
tiated, and which are therefore naked ovules.

Morphology of Limnanthemum.|| — Herr R. Wagner describes in
detail the structure of the organs of Limnanthemum nymphseoides, an
aquatic member of the Gentianaceae.

* Verhandl. K. Leop. Car. Deutsch. Akad. Naturf., lxi. (1894) pp. 1-44 : lxiii.
(1895) pp. 281-310 (6 pis.). Cf. this Journal, 1893, p. 754.

f Nuov. Giom. Bot. Ital., ii. (1895) pp. 340-7 (1 pi.).

X Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) Gen.-Vers.-Heft, pp. 78-81 (1 pi.).

§ Journ. Soc. Bot. France, xlii. (1896) pp. 625-31. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 206.

|| Bot. Ztg., liii. (1895) lte Abth., pp. 189-205 (1 pi.).

328

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

/3. PhjT’siolog'y.

Cl) Reproduction and Embryology.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants.* * * § — Prof. M. Mobius considers that
there is apparent a general tendency to look upon sexual reproduction
as the primitive condition, and to regard its absence, at least in multi-
cellular organisms, as a sign of degeneration. On the other hand he
instances numerous cases, such as Caulerpa , Laminaria , and most Fungi,
where the absence of sexual organs coexists with considerable differen-
tiation. The absence of sexuality in Fungi may be connected with the
peculiar mode of life, but this cannot apply to Algae ; a detailed account
is then given of the gradual development of sexuality in Algae as shown
in living forms. The author regards sexual reproduction as having a
twofold function, firstly the maintenance of the stability of species by the
elimination of acquired characters, and secondly the production of new
varieties or species by the union of different germ-plasms. As regards
the latter, the author is inclined to lay stress on crossing between
different species, which he says is more common than is usually supposed.
He also points out that sexuality, even in plants, is often associated
with sexual dimorphism, and so with increasing complexity of organi-
sation.

Fertilisation and Embryogeny of Ginkgo biloba (Salisbnria).f —
Mr. Sakugrio Hirase has investigated this subject with a view to filling
up the gaps in Strasburger’s observations. The chief points of interest
in his results are that the oosphere does not attain maturity till twenty
weeks after pollinisation ; that the canal-cell which is formed shortly
before fertilisation becomes almost at once disorganised ; and that the
nuclear division which immediately follows fertilisation is not accom-
panied by the formation of cell-walls until after the eighth bipartition.
The author notices also the presence of large granules in the cytoplasm
of the oosphere. According to his observations, these granules arise from
two sources, from the nucleus of the oosphere, and from the nuclei of the
cells in the neighbourhood of the archegone, and their function is to
nourish the oosphere.

Cross-Fertilisation and Self-Fertilisation. — Herr E. Ule f describes
a new species of Melastomaceae from Brazil, Purjpurella cleistoflora, in
which the flowers always remain closed, but in which other points of
structure appear to point to cross-pollination by means of insects.

Sig. L. Nicotra § states that in the neighbourhood of Messina the
open flowers of Oxalis cernua produce no seeds, apparently in conse-
quence of their occurring only in the short-styled form. The plant does,
however, also bear fertile cleistogamous flowers.

Dr. C. A. M. Lindman || finds that honey-bees and Syrphidae are
abundant visitors of the sweet-chestnut, Gastanea saliva , for the sake of
the nectar, which is copiously secreted by the disc.

* Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 129-53 (10 figs.).

t Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Japan, viii. part ii. (1895) pp. 307-22 (2 pis.).

J Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 415-20 (1 pi.).

§ Bull. Soc Bot. Ital., 1895, pp. 256-8.

|| Bot. Centralbl., lxv. (1896) pp. 401-3 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

329

Dr. Ida A . Keller * brings forward some observations tending to
show that self-pollination not unfrequently occurs in flowers which are
apparently adapted for cross-pollination, and emphasises the danger of
drawing hasty conclusions as to the importance of insects in promoting
cross-pollination .

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Physiology of Drosophyllum.t — M. A. Dewevre describes the ana-
tomical structure of Drosophyllum lusitanicum , a member of the
Droseracese which differs from the rest of the order in being an inhabi-
tant of dry situations. The most important special point of structure
noted is that the ultimate branches of the vascular bundles which proceed
towards the leaf-glands are destitute of sieve-tubes. The heads of the
leaf-glands are covered by an uninterrupted cuticle, through which
there is an abundant excretion of mucilage. This mucilage is not of
a proteid character, but belongs to the cellulose group ; it contains
neither nitrates, phosphates, potassium, nor sugar ; but calcium, sodium,
and an organic acid, which is certainly not formic. The mucilage has
the power of dissolving fibrin, legumin, and albumin, a property which
cannot be attributed to bacteria contained in it ; no diastatic ferment
could be detected in it. Contrary to the statements of Darwin and
Goebel, the author was quite unable to establish any absorption of the
digested substances into the tissue of the leaf. The glands and their
secretion seem to act simply as a protection to prevent the access of
injurious fungus-spores and bacteria to the loose tissue of the leaf.

Physiology of Hoot-Tubercles of Alnus glutinosa.J — Herr L. Hiltner
cultivated two tuberculated and several non-tuberculated alders in quartz-
sand devoid of nitrogen and mixed with suitable nutrient material. In
the course of a few weeks a comparison showed differences greatly in
favour of the plants having root-tubercles. The non-tuberculated plants
evinced a strong growth only after the formation of root-tubercles for
which they were inoculated. Alders were also cultivated in nutrient
solution, and the cultures successfully inoculated with rubbed-up nodules.
After the tubercles had attained a certain size, two of the plants were
deposited in nutrient solution quite devoid of nitrogen, two others being
placed in normal nutrient solution. While the tubercles on the latter
scarcely grew at all, though the plants, owing to the presence of nitrogen
in the medium, did well, the nodules in the non-azotised medium greatly
increased in size, attaining a diameter of 8 mm. These latter, kept for
two years in non-azotised medium, had stems 10-20 mm. in diameter,
thirty branches, and from 300-500 leaves. From these experiments the
author infers that alders, in virtue of their root-tubercles, possess the
power of collecting nitrogen, a power of which the nodule-free plant is
devoid. In soil rich in nitrogen, the action of the root-tubercle is
unimportant or even absent. It seems probable that the effective
organism finds its way in through the root-hairs.

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii. (1896) pp. 249-55. See also Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia, 1895, pp. 555-61. f Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), i. (1895) pp. 19-66.

X Landw. Vers.-Stat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 153-61 (1 pi.). See Central bl. f. Bak-
teriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 97-8.

330

SUMMARY OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Absorption of Water by Leafless Branches.* — Herr L. Kny states
that the terminal internodes of a large number of trees and shrubs which
lose their leaves in the winter are subject to a considerable loss of weight
from transpiration, and that this loss is replaced by the absorption of
water in the liquid state with which they are in contact. Except in the
case of the horse-chestnut, where the buds are protected by a resinous
secretion, this absorption takes place more quickly through the buds,
though even there it is very slow.

Propagation of the Sugar-Cane-f — Dr. J. H. Wakker points out
that the various cultivated varieties of the sugar-cane exhibit a gradual
degeneration of the sexual organs. The pollen-grains display various
degrees of sterility until the stamens finally disappear altogether. In
other varieties this degeneration extends also to the female organs, the
ovary being in some entirely suppressed. Finally, the inflorescence
itself is reduced to a very rudimentary condition. This appears to be
the result of the selection by cultivators of those varieties in which the
energy is thrown into the production of sugar-producing stems.

(3) Irritability.

Mechanics of Twining.^ — Herr R. • Kolkwitz gives a resumb of the
results arrived at by previous observers on this subject, especially in
reference to permanent curvatures. His own conclusion is that the
permanent establishment of a coiling once set up is due to the grasping
of the support by the twining organ.

Opening of the Flowers of (Enothera.§ — M. E. Roze describes the
sudden opening of the flower of (Enothera suaveolens in the evening,
the sepals being suddenly forced apart by the pressure of the petals,
and bending back on the calyx-tube ; a proceeding which is characteristic
also of other species of the genus. Without offering an explanation of
the fact of the special occurrence of the phenomenon in this genus,
M. Roze attributes it to the high temperature attained during the day,
and the increase of moisture in the evening causing a turgidity in the
tissues of the calyx.

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation}.

Formation and Assimilation of Asparagin.|| — Herr 0. Loew shows
that asparagin is very often the result of the splitting up of proteids
into that substance and carbon dioxide. In many cases, on the other
hand, as in the sugar of ripe beet-roots, asparagin is a synthetic product ;
it may be formed out of ammonia or nitric acid ; this takes place in
barley and maize. Sugar or some substitute is indispensable for the
transformation of asparagin into proteids ; this may take place even in
the dark ; and the sugar need not be formed in the same cells as the
asparagin.

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 361-75.

t Mitthl. Versuchsstat. f. Zuckerrohr in Pasoeroean. See Bot. Centralbl., lxv.
(1896) pp. 37-42.

% Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 495-517 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal,
ante, p. 89. § Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xiii. (1895) pp. 574-81.

|| ‘ Das Asparagin in pflanzenchemischer Beziehung,’ 1896. See Bot. Centralbl.,
lxv. (1896) p. 302.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

331

Relation between Calcium and the Conduction of Carbohydrates.* * * §
— From experiments made chiefly with Elodea canadensis and Oxalis
floribunda, Mr. P. Groom concludes that acid potassic oxalate retards
the action of diastase on starch, and that the main function of calcium
is to prevent an accumulation of this salt.

y. General.

Galls.f — M. M. Molliard has studied the galls produced by insects
or fungi in flowers, especially in relation to the anatomical disturbances
brought about in the host-plant. When the same parasite attacks allied
species, the results will often be different in the two cases. In the
vegetative organs of the flower, either the nature or the distribution of
the tissues may be altered. In the sexual organs, castration either of
the pollen-sacs or of the ovules is not uncommon. A very large number
of the various modifications of the flower caused by the attacks of
parasites are described in detail.

Action of Light on the Disengagement of Perfumes.^ — According
to M. E. Mesnard, the disengagement of odours which results from the
transformation and destruction of the substances that cause the odours
is due to the combined action of oxygen and of light; but the latter
is by far the most important agent. Its action is both chemical and
mechanical. The apparatus for measuring the intensity of the perfumes
is described in detail, as well as the results of the experiments on a
great variety of different perfumes.

B. CRYPTQGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Ligule of Selaginella.§ — Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson describes the
structure and development of the mature ligule in a number of species
of Selaginella. It is sunk in the tissue of the leaf-base by a more or less
massive glossopode, bearing an intimate relation to the cells of the leaf-
base. It has always a multicellular origin. The author agrees with
Hofmeister rather than with Pfeffer in stating that it originates inva-
riably from two rows of cells. With regard to its function, he regards
it as a specialised ramentum similar to those of the Pteridophyta and of
the Hepaticse ; its function is probably a temporary one, serving to keep
the growing point and the young leaves moist.

Sporophyte of the Ophioglossaceae.|| — Prof. F. O. Bower gives
further examples, from an examination of different species of Ophio-
glossum , Botrychium, and Helminthostachys, of various stages of septation
in the sporange, which throw light on the affinities of the different
families of Vascular Cryptogams.

* Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 91-6.

f Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), i. (1895) pp. 67-245 (12 pis.).

% Comptes Eendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 491-3 ; Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), viii.
(1896) pp. 129-57, 203-16 (1 pi. and 14 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1893, p. 214.

§ Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 77-88 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 595.

|| Proc. Roy. Soc., lix. (1896) pp. J 37-41; Ann.*Bot., x. (1896) pp. 100-5. Cf.
this Journal, 1895, p. 551.

332

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Prothallium and Embryo of Ban®a.* — According to Mr. G. Brebner,
there is a close similarity between Dansea and the other two genera
of Marattiacese, Angiopteris and Marattia , in the structure of the pro-
thallium. The rhizoids possess a distinctly septate structure, resem-
bling the protoneme of a moss. The development of the antherids of
Dansea agrees in the main with that in the other two genera ; but the
development of the archegones was not followed out. The concentric
bundle of the primary embryonic stem shows an endodermal layer.

Sorus of Dansea.')' — Prof. F. O. Bower describes the development of
the sorus of Dansea , calling special attention to the points that single
cells of the sporogenous group may develop as sterile cells, and con-
sequently that, in Dansea , the identity of the sporange or loculus is not
strictly defined.

Muscinese.

Gemmse of Mosses.J — Herr C. Correns describes in detail the gemmae
of Georgia ( Tetraphis ) pellucida , which give rise to protonemal filaments.
He finds a differentiation in the marginal cells of the gemma, a few of
them being smaller, with thinner walls, and containing less chlorophyll,
but more protoplasm, than the rest. These cells he terms nematogonous ,
since it is from them only that the protonemal filaments are developed.
Whether the protoneme springs from a spore or from a gemma, the
protonemal leaves which serve as assimilating organs are, as a rule,
formed from its ascending branches ; but occasionally it puts up a
much-branched “ fruticose protoneme ” ( Protonema-bdumchen ), similar to
those of Andresea. These never develope into leafy plants, and are
apparently the result of a feeble illumination ; they produce, however,
gemmae abundantly, in all respects like the normal ones. No sexual
organs were observed on the leafy plants. The author regards the
gemmae as modified paraphyses.

Similar differentiated nematogonous cells were observed in the
gemmae of Pleuridium nitidum var. bulbilliferum and Zygodon viridis-
simus , and, in a rudimentary condition, in Encalypta streptocarpa.

Calymperes.§ — M. E. Bescherelle gives a monograph of this entirely
tropical and subtropical genus of Mosses, of which he enumerates
180 species. In the leaves he describes, under the term cancellinse,
groups of large hyaline cells at the base of the leaf arranged in rows
parallel to the vein ; the term tseniolse being applied to rows of much
smaller cells between these and the margin. The size and form of the
cancellinse are used in delimiting the subsections.

Algse.

New Genera of Florideae.|| — Mr. E. A. L. Batters establishes the
following new genera from British seas : —

Colaconema. — Thallus microscopic, consisting of rose-red creeping

* Rep. Brit. Ass. (Ipswich), 1895, p. 857.

t Proc. Roy. Soc., lix. (1896) pp. 141-3 ; Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 105-7.

X Ber. Deutseh. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 420-32 ; xiv. (1896) pp. 94, 5 (1 pi.
and 2 figs.). § Ann. Sci. Nut. (Bot.), x. (1895) pp. 247-308 (5 figs.).

|j Joura. of Bot., xxxiv. (1896) pp. 6-11.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICBOSCOPY, ETC.

333

irregularly branched jointed filaments living in the cell-walls of various
Algae ; filaments often anastomosing, sometimes loosely united laterally ;
monosporanges formed from portions either of the terminal cells of
the principal axes or of short swollen one- or few-celled lateral branches ;
the undifferentiated portions of the cells forming cup-like bases for the
sporanges.

Trailliella. — Fronds composed of monosiphonous branching jointed
filaments; primary filaments procumbent, attached to the substratum
by disc-shaped cells ; secondary filaments arising from the primary
filaments, erect, branching ; tetraspores immersed, formed from a portion
of the cell-contents of cells in the continuity of the frond, irregularly
cruciate ; cystocarps and antherids unknown ; tetraspores formed in an
analogous manner to the monospores of J ffliodochsete. Near to Spermo-
thamnion.

Fertilisation of Batrachospermum.* — Mr, B. M. Davis asserts that
in the species of Batrachospermum examined by him, belonging to
different sections of the genus, there is no true process of impregnation,
understanding by that term the fusion of a male and female nucleus.
The trichogyne is a separate cell, having a well-defined nucleus, and,
when young, a chromatophore. The carpogone is the cell situated
immediately below the trichogyne, and is connected with it by a strand
of protoplasm ; it contains a central nucleus. The antherozoids contain,
at an early stage, a body certainly derived from the chromatophore of
the vegetative cells. The fertilisation of the procarp is accomplished
when the trichogyne becomes separated from the carpogone. The
exciting cause of the process of fertilisation is the cytoplasmic fusion of
one antherozoid with the contents of the trichogyne. The nucleus may
never leave the antherozoid to enter the trichogyne. No portion of it
appears ever to reach the carpogone. A process of fragmentation of the
nuclei of both trichogyne and antherozoid very frequently begins soon
after the fertilisation of the carpogone. The cystocarp consists of
many fertile filaments, all of which may be traced back to the carpo-
gone.

Coleochsete.'f — Under the name Coleochsete Nitellarum sp. n., Dr. L.
dost describes a new species found abundantly in Germany and else-
where, but only on species of Nitella and on uncorticated species of
Ghara, and differing from all the species hitherto known in being
endophytic instead of epiphytic, its rhizoids penetrating into the
membrane of the host-plant. It is most nearly allied to C. irregularis ,
and is propagated by both sexual and non-sexual modes. The swarm-
spores resemble those of the other species ; the antherids can apparently
be formed from any vegetative cell; the oogones are formed from a
single usually marginal cell.

In G. scutata the oogones and antherids may occur on the same
plant ; the oogones are terminal cells of a radial row. In G. pulvinata
the oogone always contains, before impregnation, only a single nucleus.
No expulsion of protoplasm was observed from the normal oogone;
apparently a thickening layer beneath the apex of the oogone swells up

* Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 49-76 (2 pis.).

t JJer. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 438-52 (1 pi.).

1896 2 A

334

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and bursts the oogone, the oosphere having previously been forced back
into its ventral portion.

Pithophora.* * * § — Prof. J. M. Moebius has examined a species of Pitho-
phora (probably affinis ) from Brisbane. The akinetes contain a number of
nuclei, even when mature, and differ from the corresponding structures
in other Algas in being not formed simply by a modification of ordinary
vegetative cells ; they are first of all separated, and have then a special
mode of germination of their own after a period of rest. They are
distinguished from the ordinary vegetative cells by having a thicker
membrane and containing a large quantity of protoplasm and starch.
Apparently the only mode of propagation of Pithophora is a non-sexual
one.

Halicoryne Wrightii.f — Prof. C. Cramer describes this rare Alga
from the Loo-Choo Islands. Harvey placed it between Dasydadus and
Neomeris, and Agardh, on account of its reproductive system, among the
Acetabularieee. The author confirms Agardh’s conclusion by a study of
the vegetative system, noting the calcification (chiefly in the outermost
layers of the stem-cell and the fertile branches), the occurrence of
alternate whorls of hairs and fertile branches, and the anatomical
structure generally. His specimen was, however, without reproductive
organs.

Fungi.

Function of the Nucleus in Fungi.! — Herr G. von Istvanffi has
investigated the part played by the nucleus in various fungi belonging
to the Mucorini, Saprolegniacete, Ustilaginese, Ascomycetes, and Basidio-
mycetes. He asserts that it exercises an important function in the
development of the fungus, especially in the formation of branches,
which always originate in the neighbourhood of a nucleus. No conju-
gation of nuclei takes place in the formation of the zygosperms of the
Mucorini ; nor could this be determined to be the case in the Sapro-
legniaceae. In all the Eumycetes there is a transitory period when the
number of nuclei is very large, owing to their rapid multiplication. The
migration of the nuclei in the formation of the fructification could
generally be observed. The size of the nucleus varies greatly in the
same species in different regions. The nucleus is, as a rule, multiplied
directly by bipartition ; sometimes karyokinetic figures are formed ;
occasionally there is a breaking up into a number of distinct portions.

Assimilation of Nitrogen by Fungi.§ — From a series of experiments
made chiefly on Penicillium glaucum and Aspergillus niger, Herr K.
Puriewitsch concludes that the conditions under which they can absorb
free nitrogen from the atmosphere are similar to those in bacteria, being
dependent on the amount of sugar present in the nutrient fluid.

Secretion-Receptacles of Fungi. |] — Herr G. von Istvanffi has detected
lypical and well-developed conducting organs, hitherto unobserved, in

* Ber. Deutsck. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 356-61 (1 pi.).

t 'Vieiteljahrschr. Nat. Gesell. Zurich, xl. (1895) pp. 265-77 (1 pi.).

X Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 452-67 (3 pis.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 342-5.

|| Termeszetrajzi Fiizetek, xviii. (1895) pp. 240-56 (German resume ). See Bot.
Centralbl., 1895, Beili., p. 483. Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 214.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

335

the fructification of the Hydnei, Thelephorei, and Tomentellei. When
occurring in any genus, they were found in all the species irrespectively
of habit, and in both European and exotic examples. These organs are
closely connected with the formation of the spores, the contents of the
receptacles decreasing considerably when the spores mature, to such an
extent that they frequently become empty. They frequently excrete
crystals, as in Hymenochsete , and may then be termed cystids, serving
also for the protection of the hymenium. They always possess a coating
of protoplasm in which several nuclei are imbedded. They are formed
in the young fructification as lateral branches of ordinary hyphse. They
are generally connected with adjoining hyphse by anastomoses. The
products usually transported by them are proteids and oils, but they
sometimes contain other substances, as an acid in Thelephora.

Tannin of Fungi.* — Herr 0. Naumann has determined that tannin
is absorbed, as such, by fungi from the organic substances on which they
feed ; and this is especially the case with the Agaricaceee and Polyporeae ;
in the case of the persistent fructification of the Polyporeae it appears to
act as a food-material. The author does not regard tannin as a protection
against the attacks of animals or parasitic plants.

Fertilisation of Cystopus.f — Mr. H. Wager states that in the basids
of Cystopus candidus no fusion of the nuclei is to be observed such as
that which takes place in those of the Hymenomycetes. The oogone
may contain more than one hundred nuclei. The actual process of fusion
of the male and female nuclei in the production of the nucleus of the
oosperm was observed.

Cytology of the Saprolegniacese.J — The following are among the
more important points noted by Prof. M. Hartog in his study of this
subject. Protein granules are found everywhere in the protoplasm ;
they are highly refractive and of irregular form. Cellulin bodies also
occur, and are especially conspicuous in Leptomitus. The zoosporanges
are almost always terminal, intercalary ones being formed only ex-
ceptionally in old and irregular cultures. They are completed, except
in Aplianomyces, by the formation of a short tubular process, through
which the spores are destined to escape. The differentiation of the
zoospores may be resolved into the following processes : — The accumula-
tion and growth of the protoplasm round the nuclei ; the concentration
of the protoplasm; the gradual separation of the zoospores in two
successive stages; and their final fashioning. The zoospores always
become encysted either within the sporange, at the mouth of the
sporange, or in the medium after a short swarming. The so-called
“ spermamoebse ” of Pringsheim are detached pseudopodes of the
amoeboid oospheres. In his account of the mode of formation of the
oospores, the author agrees in the main with De Bary.

Mucor and Trichoderma. — M. J. Ray§ describes a species of
Trichoderma as truly parasitic on a new species of Mucor which he

* ‘ Ueb. d. Gerbstoff d. Pilze,’ Dresden, 1895, 44 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., lxv.
.(1896) p. 254. t Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 89-91.

X Trans. R. Irish Acad., xxx. (1895) pp. 649r708 (2 pis. and 6 figs.). Cf. this
Journal, ante, p. 216. § Oomptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 44-6, 338-9.

•2 A 2

336

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

names M. crustaceus. It actually penetrates the cells of the Mucor ,
living on their contents.

M. P..Vuillemin * * * § identifies the parasite with the polymorphic species
Trichoderma viride.

Zygosperm of Sporodinia.f — M. M. Leger describes in detail the
mode of formation of the zygosperm of a species of Mucorini, Sporodinia
grandis. The two gametes, from the conjugation of which it is formed,
are in every respect identical; there is no sexual differentiation. A
special formation is described which has not previously been observed
in similar cases. At the moment when the zygosperm appears to
contain only a single nucleus, there is formed at each of its extremities,
near the poles, a small spherical mass of a strongly staining substance.
These bodies coalesce to form a kind of embryo, and the author
believes them to have a very important function in the reproduction of
the plant. He terms them embryonal spheres ; they are formed by the
fusion of a large number of minute bodies, the embryogenous spheres ,
which appear to result from the dissolution of the old nuclei.

Dispira4 — Under the name Dispira americana sp. n., Mr. R. Thaxter
describes a new species of this rare genus of Mucorini, found on rat’s
dung. The vegetative mycele is composed of rather irregular branching
hyphse, for the most part non-septate, and much smaller in diameter
than the fertile ones. From these vegetative hyphse are produced
lateral branches, which, becoming slightly swollen terminally, attach
themselves usually to the fertile hyphse of mucors. This lateral branch
fixes itself firmly by a sucker-like tip, which eventually penetrates the
host by means of an irregular protrusion. The suckers were the only
parasitic organs observed. In the formation of the zygosperm this
lateral branch, after it has fixed itself to the host, becomes divided into
two parts by a septum, and these two parts conjugate with one another,
the outer one becoming eventually separated from the parent-filament
and receiving from the inner one the material derived from its parasitic
union with the mucor. The outer gamete soon becomes nearly spherical,
enlarging greatly to become the zygosperm, while the inner one sends
out simple or once-branched finger-like processes, which grow about
half-way round the mature zygosperm, and are at first yellowish ;
they do not appear to have any very definite function. There seems to
be eventually a direct connection between the contents of the mucor-
liypha and the supplying gamete.

The new species appears in some respects to have a closer relation-
ship with Dimargaris than with Dispira. Both genera are placed pro-
visionally among the Cephalidem.

TJstilaginese.§ — Dr. O. Brefeld defines the characteristics of the
Ustilagineae as the possession of basid-like fructifications, which ger-
minate from the ustilagospores, and which may be regarded as the
forerunners of the true basids of the Basidiomycetes ; while the ustila-

* Tom. cit., pp. 258-60.

f Kev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), vii. (1895) pp. 481-96 (4 pis.).

% Bot. Gazette, xx. (1895) pp. 513-8 (1 pi.).

§ ‘Unters. a. cl. Gesammtgeb. d. Mykologie,’ Heft xii., Munster-, 1895, 236 pp.
and 7 pis. See Bot. Centralbl., lxv. (1896) p. 326. Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 217.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

337

gospores themselves are seen to be chlamydospores from their gemma-
and oidium-like mode of formation. The order possesses three kinds of
fructification — ustilagospores, the higher conidial form of the Idemi-
basidii, and the lower conidial form. The ustilagospores, which are
produced chiefly or exclusively on the host-plant, are chlamydospores
formed in the mycele. The products of the germination of the chlamy-
dospores (formerly described as promyceles and sporids) are, in the
Tilletiaceae, clusters of conids, while the Ustilaginese produce lateral
conids. The third form of spore consists of the conids formed free on
the mycele without hemibasids. In Ustilago the hemibasids formed
from the chlamydospores are usually 4-celled, less often 1-, 2-, or
3-celled.

According to the development of the fructification, Ustilago may be
divided into three genera or sub-genera — viz. (1) Proustilago ( U. longis-
sima , grandis), with repeated formation of fructification, though variable
in form ; (2) Hemiustilago ( U. Vaillantii, bromivora ), with repeated but
constant formation of hemibasids ; (3) Euustilago, with only one forma-
tion of hemibasids. In this last subgenus there are forms in which, in
addition to the hemibasids, there is abundant formation of conids, others
in which they are not strongly developed.

The fusion of conids, or of the separate cells of the hemibasids,
regarded at one time as a process of conjugation, is shown by the author
to be an entirely secondary process which has nothing to do with
sexuality. It consists simply of a union of masses of protoplasm,
which takes place only when the nutriment is defective. Both cells are
capable of independent germination.

Rust of Oryza and Setaria.* — Dr. O. Brefeld announces the inter-
esting discovery that the parasitic rusts on Oryza sativa and Setaria
Grus-Ardese , hitherto known as Ustilaginoidea Oryzae and U. Setarise , are
in reality stages of development of ascomycetous fungi allied to ergot.
This was proved by cultivation of the so-called uredospores in nutrient
solutions, where they give rise to an abundantly septated mycele bearing
minute conids similar to those of Pilacre. The rust of Setaria produces
true sclerotes. From these sclerotes were obtained peritheces contain-
ing true asci, each ascus with eight ascospores. Ustilaginoidea must be
removed from the Hemibasidii, and must be regarded as a genus of
Hypocreacese allied to Tilletia ; the ustilagospores are simply a secon-
dary form of reproductive organs. The small colourless conids which
are first of all produced on the mycele are of transient duration, and are
succeeded, when the mycele has attained its full development, by black
spores, which the author regards as a kind of chlamydospore.

Setehellia.f — A further examination of this genus of Ustilaginem
leads Herr P. Magnus to the conclusion that the germinating sorus is
closely analogous to the hymenium of a simple Hymenomycetous
fungus, the unbranched and unseptate promyceles corresponding to the
unseptated basids, from the apex of which spring the sterigmas and
spores.

* Bot. Centralbt., lxv. (1896) pp. 97-108.

f Bor. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 468-72.

338 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Division of the Nucleus and Formation of the Spores in the
Ascus of the Ascomycetes. * * * § — Herr R. A. Harper has followed out
these processes, which appear to be very uniform throughout the group,
chiefly in Peziza Stevensoniana and Ascdbolus furfuraceus. The nuclei
of the young asci are much larger than those of the paraphyses or of the
cells which give birth to paraphyses. They exhibit a cyanophilous
framework and a strongly erythrophilous nucleole. At the period when
the substance of the spindle is absorbed into the cytoplasm, a cyano-
philous body makes its appearance in both daughter-nuclei at the previous
point of attachment of the spindle ; these bodies appear to correspond to
the polar extremities of the old spindle. In essential points the karyo-
kinesis of ascospores agrees with that of the pollen-mother-cells of Larix
and Lilium, a portion of the substance of the nucleoles being used up in
the formation of the spindle.

Parasitic Fungi. — M. P. Vuillemin f describes a case of natural
infection of Uncinaria Prunastri from the sloe Primus spinosa to the
maple.

Herr G. Lopriore | has investigated the disease known as the black
of cereals, and attributes it to the attacks of Pematium pullulans, but
this fungus he regards only as a stage in the cycle of development of
the polymorphic Cladosporium herbarum. It appears not to be poisonous
to animals.

Mr. D. M£Alpine§ identifies TJromyces Amygdali , which grows on
the leaves of the peach and almond in Queensland, with Puccinia Pruni ,
which is common on various species of Prunus.

On groundsel in Tasmania the same author |] finds a species of
Puccinia belonging to the section Pucciniopsis, with three forms of
teleutospore, uniseptate, biseptate, and non-septate.

Prof. B. T. Galloway % gives in detail the life-history of Uncinula
spiralis ( Oidium Tuclceri), which attacks species of both Vitis and
Ampelopsis.

Germination of the Spores of Penicillium glaucum.** — M. P. Lesage
finds the conditions necessary for the germination of the spores of this
fungus to be heat, moisture, and the presence of oxygen. The optimum
temperature was found to be between 22° and 26° C., the uj>per and
lower limits 1 • 5° and 43°.

Aspergillus Wentii sp. n.fj — Dr. C. Wehmer describes a new species
of Aspergillus , A. Wentii, used in Java for making Soja sauce and bean-
mash. It thrives on rice, starch, gelatin, beer-wort, and sugar solutions.
The starch is dissolved and saccharised ; gelatin is peptonised. On the
cultivation media the snow-white mycele consists of branched septate
hyphse, which penetrate below the surface of the medium, nnd also
develope luxuriantly aerial liyphse. In the course of a few days tliero

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1 895) Gen.-Vers.-Heft. pp. G7-78 (1 pi.). Cf.

this Journal, ante , p. 214. f Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 734-7.

X Landw. Jahrb., xxiii. pp. 969-100G. See Bot. Centralbl., lxv. (1896) p. 229.

§ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, x. (1895) pp. 440-G0 (3 pis.).

|| Tom. cit., pp. 461-8 (3 pis.).

Bot. Gazette, xx. (1895) pp. 486-91 (2 pis.).

** Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.) i. (1895) pp. 309-22.

ft Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 140-50 (1 pk).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

339

appear conidiophores terminating in a bulbous expansion baying radial
sterigmas, from the ends of which the conids are developed. The ripe
conids are usually spherical. Peritheces are only occasionally present.
The conidiophore bulbs are at first colourless, afterwards becoming yellow-
ish to yellowish-brown. The average diameter of the conids is about
4* * * §5 /i; the conidiophores are 3—4 mm. high.

Aspergillus Oryzse.* — M. E. Sorel has confirmed the results obtained
by Juhler and Jorgensen, who found that Aspergillus Oryzse might, under
appropriate conditions, be metamorphosed into Saccharomyces. The
medium used was malt wort which had been saccharified at 65° ; to this
was afterwards added hydrofluoric acid. Conids of A. Oryzse sown on
this medium developed, according to the quantity of the acid, a mycele
alone, a mycele eventually producing oval budding cells, or oval cells
and only a little mycele. When the “ yeast ” thus generated was culti-
vated on ordinary wort, strong fermentation was excited, but no mycele
developed. If, however, the yeast was cultivated on the same medium
to which 0 • 01 per cent, hydrofluoric acid had been added, and then
transferred to a rice medium at 26°, the green mould and conids of
A. Oryzse reappeared.

Perithece of Sphserotheca Castagnei.f— Herr R. A. Harper has
followed out the development of the perithece of this fungus, belonging
to the Perisporiacese, parasitic on the leaves of the hop. It is the result
of an actual process of conjugation between the nucleus of an antherid
and the nucleus of an oogone. The impregnated oogone becomes an
ascogone, and divides into a row of five or six cells, of which the last but
one is the young ascus. The behaviour of the nucleus of Sphserotheca
may be compared to that of Nemaleon among Algrn.

Polymorphism of Cladobotryum.J — M. L. Matruchot has studied the
life-history of a Cladobotryum found on the leaves of Populus pyramidalis
— G. ternatum — which he states to be simply a form of C. gelatinosum.
Cultivated on certain nutritive media (carrot), it produces a fasciculate
form, which is closely allied to Graphium penicillioides ; all intermediate
stages between the two were observed.

Cladosporium, Hormodendron, Eumago, and Dematium.§ — Herr
W. Schostakowitsch has investigated the relationship to one another of
the fungi which produce the disease known as Bussthau. These are
chiefly Fumago, Hormodendron , Cladosporium, Pleospora, Dematium, and
Coniothecium , of which the first plays much the most important part.
They are not parasites, and produce but little injurious effects on the
host, though they may attack almost any woody plant. Pure cultivation
of the various forms has led the author to different conclusions from
those of Costantin,|| Frank, and other writers with regard to their
autonomy. In particular, he asserts that Cladosporium , Dematium, and
Hormodendron are three perfectly distinct fungi, having no genetic con-
nection with one another. The development of Dematium is greatly
•dependent on external conditions ; under ordinary conditions it usually

* Comptes Rendus, cxxi. (1895) pp. 948-50. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 556.

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 475-81 (1 pi.).

% Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), vii. (1895) pp. 497-502 (1 pi.).

§ Flora, lxxxi. (1895) pp. 362-93 (8 figs.). \\ Cf. this Journal, 1893, p. 764.

340

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

produces yeast- cells. Fumago is a very polymorphic fungus, and
possesses organs of fructification of various forms ; but the yeast-cells
which Zopf has described probably do not belong to Fumago. Clado~
sporium and Hormodendron do not form conids when submerged, and
Fumago only when the nutrient fluid contains milk-, grape-, or cane-
sugar.

Monascus purpureus, sp. n.* — Under this name M. F. Went de-
scribes a fungus producing the pigment known as “ang-quac,” which is
introduced into J ava from China, and is largely used for colouring food-
stuffs, especially fish. The pigment, which is of a deep purple colour,,
appears to be produced in a portion of the tliallus. The fungus belongs
to the Hemiasci ; it has no true conids, but transformed chlamydospores,
which are wanting in Thelebolus.

Crustaceous Lichens.f — The following are the main results of Herr
G. Lindau’s observations on this class of Lichens. In those forms which
live on the bark of trees there is a portion of the thallus — the basal
layer — destitute of gonids, which grows in the interior of the periderm,
between the layers of cells. In the Hypophloeodse this layer extends
rather deep ; in the Epiphlceodac it is limited to the uppermost strata.
A similar structure occurs in the higher lichens, where the hyphae of the
basal layer, destitute of gonids or of the rhizoids, may also penetrate
between the cells of the periderm. This portion serves, in the first
place, for fixing the lichen, possibly also for its nutrition. The growth
of the hyphae is entirely intercellular, through the separation of the
layers of the periderm ; no perforation of cell-walls ever takes place.
There is no direct absorption of cellulose by the hyphae, but it is possible
that cell-walls which have already undergone change by the action of
atmospheric agents may be absorbed. Trentepolilia umbrina does not
possess, any more than the hyphae, the power of perforating cell-walls
and absorbing cellulose.

Parasitic Exoascese.ij: — Dr. K. Giesenhagen gives a monograph of
the parasitic species of this group of fungi comprised in the genera
Fxoascus, Taphrina ( Taphria ), and Magnusiella. He regards the form
of the ascus as the most important character in determining genetic
affinity. On this principle all the species included in the first two
genera are classified under four types — the Filicina, the Betulae, the
Pruni, and the iEsculi types. The author believes that all the species
have one common origin, and have undergone gradual development pari
passu with the host-plant on which they are parasitic. Those belonging
to the Filicina type are found only on Pteridophyta, the Betulae-tjpe
only on J uliflorae, the Pruni-type only on Rosiflorae, and the iEsculi-type
only on Eucycleae. Of these the first is in all probability the oldest, all
the parasitic species being derived from one archaic form, in which the
asci have arisen as lateral outgrowths from single cells. The second
type includes nearly one-half the total number of species, and may be
again divided into forms with and forms without pedicel-cell.

* Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), i. (1895) pp. 1-18 (2 pis.).

t ‘ Ueber Waehsth. u. Anheftungsweise d. Rinden-flechten,’ Dresden, 1895,.
66 pp. and 3 pis. See Bot. Centralbl., lxv. (1896) p. 60.

X Flora, lxxxi. (1895) Erganz.-bd., pp. 267-361 (71 figs.). Cf. this Journal,
1895, p. 663.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

341

Enzymes of Schizo-Saccharomyces octosporus and Saccharomyces
Marxianus.* — It is extremely probable that the fermentation of a poly-
saccharid is brought about by Saccharomycetes through the agency of
enzymes, which convert it into a monosaccharid. Such enzymes can be
obtained from yeasts dried in air by extraction with water. The solution
of ordinary beer yeast contains not only invertin, which splits up cane-
sugar, but also glucase, which decomposes maltose. So, too, kefir-
grains and milk-sugar yeast produce lactase, which decomposes milk-
sugar. From these considerations Herren E. Fischer and P. Lindner
concluded that Scliizo-Saccharomyces octosporus , which ferments maltose
but not cane-sugar, does not produce invertin, though it docs glucase.
Experiment converted suspicion into certainty ; for the enzyme solution
had no action on cane-sugar, though it decomposed maltose with facility,
both in the presence and absence of chloroform. After one part of
maltose, with 10 parts of the solution, had been heated for 20 hours
at 33°, the decomposition was so far advanced that by the phenylhydrazin
test it was found that the quantity of glucosazon was considerably*
greater than that of the maltosazon. Attempts to isolate the enzymo
were not successful. The enzyme solution also acted on a-methyl-
glucosid, but more slowly than on maltose.

Saccharomyces Marxianus behaved in just the opposite way : as it
fermented cane-sugar but not maltose. An aqueous extract of this yeast
was able to completely invert 10 per cent, cane-sugar at 33° in 20 hours.
Under similar conditions no demonstrable hydrolysis occurred with
maltose. Just as little as maltose was a-methylglucosid affected.

Fungi which form a Transition Group between Moulds and Sac-
charomyces Yeast. f — Among the fungi which produce sprouting cells
with endogenous new formations there is a group, says Herr A.
Jorgensen, of special interest, because these fungi form a transition group
in the sense that, under certain circumstances, the mould stage is com-
pletely in abeyance, and the fungus developes only a yeast vegetation,,
yet under others the mould and yeast stages occur simultaneously during
the whole of development. The determination of these variation phe-
nomena appears to depend on the nature of the cultivation medium and
the environment. This group is also important because it developes with
especial power in hopped wort, and may impart to beer a disagreeable
flavour and odour. Full details are promised in a forthcoming laboratory
report.

Variation of Yeast Cells4 — When Eeess described alcoholic fer-
mentation fungi, the size and shape of the cells was taken as the basis of
classification ; but, as Prof. E. C. Hansen urges, the distinguishing
characters lie not in the size and shape per se, but in the form and size
contingent upon particular conditions of cultivation. But not only in
size and shape, but in other characters, may there be variation, such as
spore-formation. Under certain conditions (cultivation in aerated wort
at a temperature above the maximum for spore-formation) certain typical

* Ber. Deutsch. Cliem. Gesellsch., xxviii. No. 8. See Bot. Centralbl., Ixiv.
(1895) p. 335.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 41-4.

X Ann. of Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 549-60. (Jf. this Journal, antey p. 96.

342

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

£accharomycetes lose the power of forming spores. This change is
correlative with others ; e. g. the power of forming films is also lost ;
and there is more abundant and quicker rate of growth. These newly
acquired qualities prove to he heritable.

More recently varieties have been produced in another way and with
other properties. By cultivating on gelatin, varieties develope having a
greater fermentative power than the primitive forms. By operating on
yeast-cells with antiseptics the alcoholic fermentative property has been
found to be accelerated and strengthened. In these cases, however, only
transitory transformations are meant.

Experiments for the purpose of attenuating the fermenting power of
yeast-cells resulted in a “ constant ” variety. This was obtained by
making continuous subcultures at 32° without aerating them. The effect
of the chemical composition of the nutrient liquid is shown by culti-
vating S. pastorianus in cane-sugar-yeast-water ; after a number of
generations this yeast loses the power of imparting an offensive odour
and disagreeable taste.

Thus there are three important factors in the production of variation
— the medium, the aeration, and the temperature — the most influential
being the last.

Prof. Hansen refers to the experiments of Takamine, Juhler, and
Jorgensen,* who describe how Saccharomyces cells develope from Asper-
gillus and Dematium. He remarks that Klocker and Schlonning,j- who
repeated the experiments, failed to observe any development of yeast-
cells, and that the whole question must at present still be considered as
an open one.

Fertilisation of the Uredinese.J — M. Sappin-Trouffy adduces further
evidence that the process of impregnation in the Uredinese is strictly
analogous to that which takes place in the higher plants and in animals,
especially in the reduction of the number of chromosomes. In a state
of repose the nucleus has two chromosomes fused into a single mass.
The multiplication of the nucleus takes place at the extremity of the
filaments by indirect division perpendicularly to the axis of the tube.
No reduction in the number of chromosomes takes place before fecunda-
tion. The peculiarity of the Uredinese is that this reduction occurs
after fecundation. During fecundation the chromosomes, four in number,
unite into a single nuclear filament ; the fusion of the nuclear elements
is always complete; each nucleus contains two chromosomes. When
the nucleus of the germinating oospore begins to divide, the karyokinetic
figure, instead of presenting four chromosomes, presents only two.

Uredinese with Repeated Formation of iEcidia.§ — Herr P. Dietel
has extended his observations on this phenomenon in the life-history
of the Uredinese. He enumerates six species of Uromyces and Puccinia ,
in which the germination of secidiospores results in another secidium-
generation. He states, however, that this is by no means a universal
phenomenon in the Uredinese ; but that, on the contrary, it is confined
to those species which have not a perennial mycele, being wanting in

* Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 556. f Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 218.

J Comptes Eendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 333-5. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 97.

§ Flora, lxxxi. (1895) pp. 391-104. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 665.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

343

those in which the mycele hibernates within the tissues of the host-
plant. It does not appear to occur in other genera of Uredinese than
these two.

Fungus intermediate between Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes.*
— According to M. R. Ferry, the sclerote-fungus known as Mylitta
australis is not only connected with the basidiomycetous form Polyporus
Mylittse , but produces also in its interior an ascogenous layer.

Protophyta.

/3. Scliizomycetes.

Structure of Bacterial Cells.j — In a preliminary communication
Mr. H. Wager lays it down that in a bacterial cell there are two different
substances to be recognised— a nuclear substance and a cytoplasmic
substance ; that the nuclear substance has a definite structure which is
found in principle in all bacterial cells, and which plays an important
part in the division of the cell ; but that it is simpler in form and struc-
ture than the nucleus of the higher plants and animals. The author’s
observations were made on Spirillum undula and on a bacillus with a
gelatinous capsule.

Variations in the Biological Characters of Bacteria.^ — Mr. H. G.
Dyar made observations on two kinds of bacteria for the purpose of
ascertaining to what extent variations in biological characters became
evident in ordinary cultivation media. . *

(1) Merismopedia rosea (syn. Micrococcus roseus ; Sarcina rosea').
Five samples of different origin were used. Gelatin was liquefied in
from 10-50 days. There was no coagulating effect on milk. All the
samples grown in nitrate solution effected a moderate reduction to
nitrite. On potato only one sample grew well. With regard to colour
there was practically no difference, all the growths being pink.

(2) Bacillus lactis erythrogenes (syn. B. versicolor , B. helvolus ).
Seven samples from different sources were employed. Liquefaction of
ihe gelatin usually began on the third day, but was sometimes deferred
till much later : the degree of acidity of the medium was noticed to have
a distinct effect on the rapidity of the liquefaction. The casein of
milk was slowly precipitated and peptonised, the reaction of the medium
becoming neutral or alkaline ; the clot, however, was never distinct,
even after boiling. Nitrates were usually quickly and thoroughly
reduced to nitrites. The colour of the growths was yellow, that of the
medium being pink.

Bacterial Variation^ — Prof. H. M. Ward is of opinion that it is
extremely probable that (1) variations in the form, rate of growth, size
and colour, and other characters of plate colonies result from much
slighter variations in the gelatin and other environment than has
hitherto been recognised. (2) That, regarding the water of a river as
a food medium, the vicissitudes which a Bacillus has been exposed to
in this medium, previous to its capture and isolation in the laboratory,

* Rev. Mycol., 1895, p. 162. See Hedwigia, xxxiv. (1895) Rep., p. 176.

t Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 659-61.

X Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., xiv. (1895) pp. 94-9.

§ Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 653-7.

344

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

may have stamped on it sucli differences that its plate-colonies differ
considerably at different times of the year, or even in the same season,,
according to the length of time the individual germ isolated has been
in the river. (3) It is in great part owing to the coincidence of these
causes of variation that it is often so difficult to recognise a given
“ species ” ; in fact, the same “ species ” recurs under different names,,
because the conditions preceding and during its cultivation in the
laboratory have differed more or less.

Fossil Bacteria.* — In addition to species already described, M. B.
Renault now records the following from coprolites and schists in the
neighbourhood of Autun -.—-Bacillus permiensis (previously described
as Bacterium permiense ), 12-13 X 1*3-1 *5 /x; Bacillus granosus, 9-10
X 1*6 fi, often united into filaments, and apparently containing spores ;
Micrococcus lepidophagus and Bacillus lepidophagus , closely resembling
existing bacilli of the caries of teeth ; Bacillus Tieghemi , in the pith of
Artliropitijs lineata , near to B. Amylobacter ; Micrococcus priscus and M.
esnolensis, respectively 0*6 x 0*7 /x and 2*5 x 3*4 /x, from the Culm.

Root-Tubercle Bacteria of Leguminosse.f — Prof. Stutzer discusses
the more recent views respecting the root-tubercles of Leguminosae, and
the part played by micro-organisms in the fixation of free nitrogen.
Nobbe showed that the bacteroids of all the Leguminosae, even of the
Mimosese, belonged to one species, Bacillus radicicola. This, however,
is so much influenced by the plant on the roots of which it lives, that
its descendants become adapted only to that species of Leguminosae to
which the host-plant belongs, and for all the rest losing more or less its
special property. The neutral root-tubercle bacteria are found only in
soil which for a long time has not borne Leguminosae. How the free
atmospheric nitrogen is made to unite with hydrogen and oxygen
through the intermediation of bacteroids is chemically an unsolved
question.

Root-tubercles are occasionally observed on non-leguminous plants,
such as Elseagnus, Hippophae, and Alnus ; but the organisms are quite
different. The question whether for the fixation of free nitrogen by the
higher chlorophyllous plants the symbiosis-fungus of the Leguminosae
is absolutely necessary, or whether the atmospheric nitrogen can be
assimilated by those chlorophyllous plants which do not form tubercles,
has been answered in opposite ways by different investigators. Still, it
is thoroughly well made out that in the soil there exist micro-organisms
which are able to fix free nitrogen.

False Bacterium/]; — Prof. H. M. Ward isolated an organism which
forms non-liquefying porcelain-white or cream-coloured colonies on
gelatin, and behaves like a Schizomycete on other media. It does not
ferment glucose ; under the Microscope its form is bacilloid, 2-4 /x
long and 1 fx thick, or coccoid, 1 /x in diameter. It stains by Gram’s
method, is devoid of movement and of endogenous spores. On alkaline
gelatin, and observed under high powers, it is found to branch and to

* Bull. Soc. d’Hist. Nat. Autun, vii. (1895) pp. 433-68. See Bull. Soc. Bot.
France, xlii. (1895) p. 676. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 467.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., i. (1895) pp. 68-74. Cf. this
Journal, 1895, p. 566. % Ann. Bot., ix. (1895) pp. 657-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

345

grow by acropetal apical growth. When short the segments resemble
bacilli or cocci ; the joints separate at the septa. This, the author
points out, is an excellent example of the rule that it should not be
assumed that an organism is a Schizomycete because it is small, grows
on gelatin, and can be stained.

Spore-formation of Bacterium coli commune.* * * § — Dr. E. Piccoli has
observed an instance of spore-formation by B. coli commune , when culti-
vated in broth at 35° for twenty-eight days. The spores were oval,

1 • 5 /a long and 1 p broad. They were either quite free, or attached
to one end of a bacillus. Examination of the material in hanging drop
cultivations showed that the bacteria were mobile. Cultivations made
on various media, and under very variable conditions, failed to reproduce
the spore-formation, but showed that the bacterium was really B. coli
commune. The source of the original cultivation was the excrement of
a healthy man.

New Pathogenic Bacillus. j- — Mr. L. H. Pammel describes the
injuries done to the crops of beet and turnips in Iowa by the attacks of
a new form of bacillus to which he gives the name B. campestris. It
consists of motile rods 1*87-3 x 0*37 p, rounded at the end, and
occurring singly or in chains.

Heredity of Acquired Immunity.} — Prof. L. Vaillard makes an
important contribution to the subject of acquired immunity. The
experiments were made on animals immunised to tetanus, cholera,
anthrax, and the disease produced by the Vibrio avicida. The immu-
nising procedures adopted were those in common use, viz. for tetanus,
progressively increasing injections of toxin modified by iodine, and
afterwards active toxin ; for anthrax, the method of Cbamberland and
Eoux ; for cholera, progressively increasing injections of cultures heated
to 100° ; for the Vibrio avicida , subcutaneous inoculation of graduated
doses of virulent cultures. The animals used were rabbits and guinea-
pigs. Erom his observations the author deduces three principal facts.
Only the mother is able to transmit immunity to the offspring ; the
father never does. The immunity received from the parent is always
of short duration, and is lost in the first few months of life. These
results are opposed to the view that hereditary immunity is due to the
accumulation of immunities or resistances, acquired from having been
handed down through a long series of generations ; and though it was
found that one parent can impart immunity, the force of this is much
diminished by the early disappearance of the preservative influence.

Cladothrix odorifera.§ — Dr. Kullmann has recently found Cladothrix
odorifera in several kinds of earths, and always with the same characters
as he had previously ascribed to it. Cl. odorifera and Cl. dichotoma
were found growing on the same plate, and were differentiated by the
former browning the gelatin and developing the characteristic earthy
smell. It would appear, however, that when bread-pap and starch-
paste, which are very suitable for cultivating Cladothrix, are used,

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 307-13 (1 fig.).

f Iowa Agric. Coll. Exp.-Stat., 1895, Bull. No. 27.

% Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 65-85.

§ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 116-7.

346

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Cl. dichotoma also produces the earthy smell. On these media conid-
formation is copious ; while on gelatin this does not occur, since the
colonies sink through the liquefied gelatin to the bottom. The writer
believes that Cl. odorifera is only a variety of dichotoma which has
gradually adapted itself to its environment and acquired its charac-
teristic property. The earthy odour may cling to the soil (natural or
artificial) long after the disappearance of the organism itself.

New Water Vibrio.* — Prof. R. Jorge isolated from the water
supplied to the town of Porto, an organism which, while it possesses
the morphological features of a vibrio, is devoid of most characteristics
peculiar to that class of microbe ; it does not liquefy gelatin ; it does not
coagulate milk ; it does not form a film on the surface of pepton solu-
tions ; it developes not at all or very poorly on potato ; it has no
pathogenic action on animals.

Bacillus fsecalis alcaligenes sp. n. j — Dr. J. Petruschky has found
that Bacillus fsecalis alcaligenes is frequently present in human evacua-
tions, especially in cases with symptoms of enteric fever. Morphologi-
cally and physiologically it closely resembles B. typhosus and B. coli.
Prom the former it is easily distinguished by cultivations in litmus-
whey, which at first is rendered cloudy and afterwards becomes alkaline.
With B. typhosus it remains clear and is slightly acid. B. coli of course
gives a strongly acid reaction. When cultivated on potato, a pretty
thick overlay with browning serves to distinguish B. alcaligenes from
B. typhosus.

The milk-coagulation test for these three organisms is not nearly so
satisfactory as the litmus test; but if no coagulation have occurred,
then the reaction alone is a safe criterion. Should the litmus-whey
cultures be indecisive, the immunity test may be applied by testing
guinea-pigs with typhoid serum.

Bacillus botulinus.j; — Bacillus hotulinus was isolated by Dr. E. van
Ermengem from a ham which in December 1895 was the cause of
serious and even fatal illnesses. The ham did not present any of the
objective signs of putrefaction. B. hotulinus is of large size ; is strictly
anaerobic ; is mobile, having numerous flagella ; and forms terminal
spores. It rapidly liquefies gelatin, especially if the media contain
dextrose. It does not attack lactose. The colonies are sharply defined
and circular. The cultures are pathogenic to numerous animals, and the
symptoms similar to those produced by the ham when eaten by cats,
pigeons, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and monkeys. The toxin is very active,
and produces very similar effects to those caused by the ham on the
animal economy.

Prom the spleen of one of the persons who died from the effects of
eating the ham, a microbe absolutely identical with B. hotulinus was
isolated.

Role of Pever in Infectious Disease. § — M. Cheinisse infected rab-
bits with Staphylococcus, and applied lotions of ga'iacol which suppressed

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 277-81.

f Tom. cit., pp. 187-91. { Ann. de Micrograpkie, viii. (1896) pp. 66-8.

§ Comptes Rendus, exxii. (1896) pp. 35-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

347

the fever, but resulted in acute septicaemia and death in 21-48 hours.
Where the fever was allowed to run its course, the animals lived for
2-4 weeks. The injurious result seems to be wholly due to a lowering
of the febrile temperature, not to the lotion itself, nor to any toxic action.
He regards “ the fever as a rational phenomenon favourable to the
organism, and the heat itself as useful.”

Vibrio Infection per os of Young Cats.'* * * §' — Dr. E. Wiener has re-
peated the experiments made by Metchnikoff, who failed to infect young
cats with cholera per os. Two lots of animals were treated with cholera
cultures of different origin. In the first lot (5) all the animals were
affected with diarrhoea, and one died. All the second lot (6) died, the
symptoms being cramps, diarrhoea, and fall of temperature. The prin-
cipal anatomical appearances were hyperaemia of intestinal mucosa, with
some epithelial desquamation and enlargement of the spleen. Vibrios
were found in the liver and kidneys, and in large numbers in the
blood.

Microbes of the Indian Rivers.f — Mr. Hankin has observed that the
Jumna and the Ganges possess the power of destroying the cholera
microbe, apparently from the presence of certain volatile acid substances.
In the well water of the same districts the cholera microbe flourishes
vigorously. Only in natural conditions do the river waters retain the
power of auto-disinfection ; for when boiled the river water was found to
favour the multiplication of the cholera microbe.

Black - Pigment - forming Bacillus, f — Herr W. Biel describes a
bacillus belonging to the group of potato bacilli, its distinguishing
character being the formation of black pigment. It is an essential
aerobe, and its optimum temperature is from 37°-40°. The rodlets are
straight, with rounded ends, from 2 ■ 8—3 * 6 /x long and 0*8 /x broad. They
are easily stained with anilin dyes, and are not decolorised by Gram’s
method. In hanging drops they exhibit lively movements, effected by
means of lateral and polar flagella. In old cultures endogenous spores
are formed. Inoculation experiments on animals were negative. The
organism was successfully cultivated on the usual media, and formed
pigment, which on bread was quite black. On the remaining media the
colour was less intense. All the ordinary solvents failed to extract the
pigment or to alter its tone.

Retention of Virulence by Streptococci. § — In 1887, Prof. Axel
Holst isolated from the cusp of a valve of a case of infectious endocar-
ditis a streptococcus which exhibited the cultural characters of Strepto-
coccus brevis. For more than eight years this coccus has retained its
virulence undiminished, notwithstanding that it has been kept in ordinary
media and at room temperature. This retention of virulence under the
conditions stated is unusual ; for it has been laid down by previous ob-
servers that to maintain the virulence of Streptococci they must be trans-
ferred daily to new media, preserved in a refrigerator, or special media,
such as ascitic fluid or serum, must be used for the cultivation.

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 205-7.

t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 175-6.

X Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 137-40.

§ Op. cit., lle Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 387-9.

348

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Anthrax in Swine.* * * § — Prof. St. von Eatz records an epidemic of
anthrax which occurred among swine of the Poland-China breed in
Hungary last year. Most of the animals were yearlings, and their most
prominent symptom was stiffness of the neck, in consequence of swelling
of the subcutaneous cellular tissue. The chief post-mortem appearances
were swelling of the lymphatic glands and some enlargement of the
spleen. Microscopical examination of the viscera showed the presence
of anthrax bacilli, and this was confirmed by cultivations and by infection
experiments on animals. Experiments were also made on sucking-pigs,
of a Hungarian breed, by feeding and subcutaneous injection of virulent
anthrax cultures. All the experiments (7) were without fatal result,
though two animals which were injected at the back of the pharynx
sickened for a few days. The author concludes that the porcine race
generally is considerably resistant to anthrax, and that the American
and English breeds sicken more easily than the Hungarian.

Acid-Litter for Infections Diseases of Cattle.f — Herren A. Stutzer,
E. Burri, and E. Herfeldt made a series of experiments relative to the
action of acids on certain microbes pathogenic to animals. The bacteria
used were those of anthrax, swine-plague, and swine-erysipelas, and these
were tested against sulphuric acid, acetic acid, and also carbonate of
ammonia. Positive results were obtained with the acids, and further in-
vestigations on similar lines were made to ascertain how far litter soaked
with acid would be preventive of infectious disease, and to what extent
the presence of acid would have a deteriorating influence on the manure.
Though the answers to the questions were favourable, it would seem that
in practice the use of acid-litter should be limited to railway trucks and
to stalls liable to infection.

Eesistance of Bacterial Germs to Dry Heat.J — M. E. Cambier has
made experiments relative to the resistance of bacterial germs to dry
heat. By means of a special apparatus, a high temperature was main-
tained with perfect constancy, however long the experiment lasted. The
material used was dust from rooms and garden earth. The results
showed that dry heat is an imperfect steriliser, as certain germs are able
to resist temperatures which destroy textile fabrics. Hence dry heat
would appear to be useless for disinfecting furniture.

Immigration of Typhoid Bacilli into Hens’ Eggs. § — Herr Pior-
kowski has demonstrated that typhoid bacilli are able to penetrate the
shell of hens’ eggs and reach the interior. The bacteria were found to im-
migrate more easily at 37° and 28° C. than at 21° C.

Strong Natural Virus of Babies. ||— Dr. Al. Calabrese, after alluding
to the difference in the virulence of the “ street ” or natural virus and
the “ fixed ” or laboratory virus of hydrophobia, the former exciting
rabies in 15—18 days, the latter in 7 days, shows that the distinction is
not an absolute one, and that there exist in nature viruses the strength

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 305-7.

t Op. cit., 2te Abt., i. (1895) pp. 841-54.

% Ann. de Micrographie, viii. (1896) pp. 49-54 (1 fig.).

§ Arch. f. Hygiene, xxv. pp. 145-53. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
xix. (1896) pp. 226-7. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 576.

[1 Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 97-103.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

349

of which is increased in ways as yet unknown. Two of these naturally
strong cases are reported ; that of a sheep which died 20 days after
having been bitten by a rabid dog, the inoculated rabbits dying on the
8th day; and that of a dog, the rabbits inoculated dying in 7 days.
Experiments were made with these viruses by passing them through a
series of rabbits, by noting the effect on other animals, and by their
resistance to desiccation, heat, corrosive sublimate, and acetic acid.
The results from all these experiments showed the presence of viruses of
very similar strength to that of the fixed virus.

Phagocytosis, Chimiotaxis, and Eosinophilous Microbes.* — Dr. J.
Bordet discusses the part played by chimiotaxis in infection and im-
munity, and also the alterations that microbes exhibit in the interior
of phagocytes. The phenomena of chimiotaxis were observed in vitroy
and were the result of streptococcous infection of the peritoneal sac of
the guinea-pig. At first many of the leucocytes were observed to con-
tain cocci ; but after a time modifications were noticed in the staining
reactions of those microbes which were the descendants of the first refugees.
Later on the exudate contained a large number of microbes and of
phagocytes. The phagocytes were now quite empty, though remarkably
active, while the microbes were distinguished by their size, the presence
of an areola, their increased virulence, and by repelling the leucocytes
(negative chimiotaxis). The survival of the more virulent and the
destruction of the less virulent microbe are explained as due, to the
exercise of a selective power by the leucocytes.

Assuming that the leucocytes are the source of the bactericidal sub-
stance, it is to be expected that their cytoplasm will give evidence of
certain changes due to the struggle between the microbe and the cell.
Observations showed this to be the case, the change of the microbes
into granules being observed within the cells and in the plasma.

The inference from these observations is that the bactericidal sub-
stance of the body-juices is of phagocytic origin, and, while it resides
chiefly in them, may become dissolved in the ambient medium. But
whether the phagocytic substance which renders microbes eosinophilous
be the same as that which reduces to granules, is at present difficult to
determine.

Thyroantitoxin. j* — Thyroantitoxin is the name given by M. S. Fraenke
to the physiologically essential part of the thyroid gland. By making
hot and cold extracts of sheeps’ thyroids, and by treating with acetic
acid, almost all the albuminoid matters were separated out. By physio-
logical experiment it was found that the active principle resided in the
filtrate. This principle is therefore not albuminoid, but is a substance
soluble in alcohol, and precipitated by ether or acetone. It has the
properties of an alkaloid, and is met with in all preparations (of
the thyroid) which exhibit active qualities. Like the thyroid itself,
it causes a fall of arterial pressure and an increased pulse-rate after
injection. The results obtained by injecting thyroantitoxin into cats
deprived of their thyroid were similar to those obtained by Gley with
thyroid juice.

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 104-17 (1 pi.).

f Wiener Med. Blatter, xviii. (1895). See Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896)
pp. 127-8.

1896 2 B

350

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

(1) Stands.

Meyer’s Microscope-Stage with Iris-Diaphragm.f — Dr. W. Behrens
refers to the various contrivances which have been tried for passing from
condenser illumination to diaphragm illumination, and describes the
method adopted by the firm of Meyer & Co., in which an iris-diaphragm
is attached to the under side of the stage.

The aperture of the stage, which is of the Zeiss type, is larger than
usual (23 mm. in diameter). The short cylinder with the iris-diaphragm
is fixed to the under side of the stage by a circular plate, with central
aperture, which is screwed to the stage. This plate is cut away on one

side to make room for the handle of the diaphragm, which projects on
the right side of the stage.

Beneath the diaphragm is the condenser system, which can be turned
to one side when the stage-diaphragm is to be used.

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1896) pp. 292-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

351

The drawback to the serviceability of the apparatus is the fact that
it is fixed to the stage, and cannot therefore be easily cleaned.

New Portable Microscope. — At the meeting on May 20th Mr.
E. M. Nelson read the following: — This portable Microscope (fig. 60)
was made by Baker at the instance of Surgeon-Major Ross, of the Indian
Army Medical Department, principally for the diagnosis of malarial
fever. It only weighs 2 lbs. with lenses complete, and when folded
measures 7 X 3 x 2£ in. It is fitted with a rack work coarse-adjust-
ment and direct-acting screw fine-adjustment, a draw-tube, achromatic
condenser (doublet) in sliding focusing tube, iris diaphragm, and plane
and concave mirrors. It has a tripod stand with a spread of no less than
6J X 6 in.

When the tube is extended the body measures 7 in. ; additional length
for adjustment may be obtained by drawing out the eye-piece.

In India, where long distances have to be traversed on horseback,
portability and lightness are important qualities. These have been
secured in this instrument without sacrificing the essential points of a
good rough and ready working Microscope.

C2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Leitz new Drawing Eye-pieces.* — Dr. P. Schiemenz describes two
new drawing eye-pieces recently brought out by the firm of Leitz.
These are represented in figs. 61 and 62. The eye-piece shown in' fig. 61
serves for drawing with the Microscope inclined, that shown in fig. 62 for

Fig. 61. Fig. 62.

drawing with the Microscope in the vertical position. The drawing
apparatus, the prism (fig. 63 pr) in its metal frame, is attached to a cap
(fig. 63 c), which is screwed over the eve-piece. In the metal frame
beneath the prism is a groove in which smoked glass plates can be
inserted in order to diminish the intensity of the light from the drawing

* Zeitschr. f. wies. Mikr., xii. (1896) pp. 289-92.

2 B 2

362

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

surface. Tie whole drawing eye-piece is fixed to the body-tube of the
Microscope by a clamp and screw (fig. 63 e). The prism has a different
torn in the two eye-pieces. Fig. 64 shows the form of the prism of fig. 62,

Fig. 63. Fig. 64.

f

and fig. 65 that of the prism of fig. 61. The dotted lines indicate the
path of the light-rays coming from the drawing surface. As seen from
tigs.. 64 and^ 65, with the eye-piece fig. 62 the drawing surface must be
inclined 12°, while with the eye-piece fig. 61 it must be inclined 45°,

Fig. 66.

or rather the Microscope must be inclined 45°, while the table on which
the instrument stands is used as a drawing-board.

The simplicity of the apparatus, and the fact that nothing about it
needs adjustment, are great advantages.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

353

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

Fig. 67.

Apparatus for Demonstrating the Effect of Lenses.*— Herr K. Haas
describes this apparatus, which is shown in fig. 66. On a metal tripod
is supported a prismatic box, the long side-walls of which are of glass,
while the ends are opaque, but provided with windows for the passage
of the light. In front of the windows
are grooves for the reception of
adiathermic glasses. In the box are
two hollow lenses, one biconvex and
the other biconcave, to which tubes
are attached above and below. In
the upper tubes funnels for filling the
lenses can be inserted, while the
lower tubes serve to empty them. On
the box are also a feed-pipe and an
exit-tube. When the lenses are filled
with a refracting liquid and the box
with smoke, the biconvex lens acts as
a collective lens and the biconcave as
a dispersive one, but the reverse is the
case when the box is filled with the
liquid.

(4) Photomicrography.

Acetylene and Photomicrography-!

— Dr. H. van Heurck describes the
acetylene gas lamps recently con-
structed by M. G. Trouve. In prin-
ciple they do not differ from the
Walmsley apparatus described be-
low, but are made of glass, and have
no appliance for cooling and dry-
ing the gas. The arrangement of the
small apparatus is shown in fig. 67.

The inner glass vessel containing the
wire basket holding the calcium car-
bide has a hole in the bottom, and is
closed at the top by a caoutchouc
stopper, through which passes a tube
which can be closed by a stopcock.

The inner vessel slides in the outer
one, which contains water,
is also made.

The author considers that acetylene apparatus will render useful
service to photomicrography.

A larger

apparatus with nickel mounting

* Zeitschr. f. Phys. u. Ohem. Unterr., viii. (1895) p.
Instrumentenk., xvi. (1896) pp. 94-5.

t Bull. Soc. Beige de Micr., xxii. (1895-6) pp. 68-73.

266. See Zeitschr. f.

35'4 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Walmsley’s “Autograph” Camera, and Walmsley, Fuller, & Co.’s
Acetylene Gas Generator.* * * § — Mr. C. F. Fox considers that the Walmsley
“ Autograph ” camera f possesses many advantages with regard to com-
pactness, steadiness, and general accuracy. It is applicable not only to
photographing objects through the Microscope, but also to the copying of
photographs and to the making of lantern slides.

The best form of illumination with the camera is the acetylene gas
lamp. Walmsley’s portable apparatus is a modification of the hydrogen
gas generator. It consists of an outer vessel containing water, and an
inner vessel open at the bottom and sliding into the outer one. The
calcium carbide, which on contact with water gives off acetylene, is
contained in a wire screen or basket placed in the inner vessel. As
considerable heat is given off in the reaction, the gas, before being led to
the burner, is cooled and dried by passing through a small chamber
consisting of one metal cylinder within anothpr, the space between
the two being filled with cold water. As an illuminant, acetylene
possesses many advantages : the light is pure and white, and is highly
actinic ; the temperature of the flame is much lower than in the case
of coal-gas, and the amount of carbonic acid produced is reported
to be one-sixth as much, on the basis of candle-power to candle-
power.

For use with the Microscope, a lamp which consists of a pin-hole
burner surrounded by a metal tube lined with plaster of Paris, and
having a glass slip run into a slot on one side, is very efficient.

j3. Technique 4

(1) Collecting- Objects, including: Culture Processes.

Use of Centrifugal Machines in Zoological Technique^ — Dr. C. J.
Cori regrets that, although in medical investigations centrifugal machines
have been long used in order to quickly separate solid material from
liquids, in zoological methods no general use has been found for such
apparatus. The cause of this he attributes to the cumbersome and costly
form of apparatus hitherto employed. This consideration led to the con-
struction of the simple and cheap centrifugal machine shown in figs. 68
and 69. The whole arrangement consists of three parts : — (1) the centri-
fugal machine itself ; (2) the supporting stand ; and (3) a metal cover
(fig. 69).

As seen in the figures, the mechanism for rotating the tubes contain-
ing the preparations is that of the ordinary drill. The rotation is always
in one direction, for no rotation results from the upward movement of
the nut T on the spindle Sp.

* Journ. New York Micr. Soc., xii. (1896) pp. 35-41.

t See ante, p. 126.

j This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c.f;
(6) Miscellaneous.

§ Zeitscbr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1896) pp. 303-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

355

Perforated Porcelain Cylinder as Washing Apparatus.* — Mr. W. Gr.
Fairchild describes a new washing apparatus. It consists (fig. 70) of a
cylinder of white unglazed porcelain, haying both sides and bottom per-
forated with small holes, and provided with a cork large enough to float
the cylinder in the washing fluid.

Fig. 68. Fig. 69.

Cultivating’ Gonococcus.f — Dr. Hammer uses highly albuminous
urine for cultivating Gonococcus. The urine, obtained with antiseptic
precautions, is passed into sterilised vessels and, if necessary, filtered.
Mixed with glycerin- agar, it makes plates on which Gonococcus is easily
isolated, even in the presence of other organisms. This medium is said
to be far more successful than blood-serum-agar.

Cultivating Spirillum Undula majus.f — Prof. Zeltnow cultivates
* Z:itscbr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1896) pp. 301-3.

f Deutsch. Med. Wockensckr., 1895, No. 51. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.' u.
Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) p. 239.

X Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 393-5.

356

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Spirillum TJndula magus in a medium the basis of which is meat-agar, the
adjuncts being pepton, ammonium sulphate, and potassium nitrate.
The last three ingredients are added in the proportion of 0*1 per
cent.

Ftg. 70.

Cultivation of Amoebae on Solid Media.* — Prof. A. Celli has found
that the most suitable medium for the cultivation of Amoebae is Fucus
crispus, made like agar with 5 per cent, of water, with or without bouillon,
and always strongly alkalinised (to 10 ccm. of the medium, 1 ccm. of
a solution N/10 of caustic potash, or 4-5 ccm. of a saturated solution of
sodium carbonate may be added). Hanging drops are better without the
bouillon. It was found to be practically impossible to obtain Amoeba
colonies free from bacteria, although it was quite easy to obtain pure
Amoeba cultures, that is to say, isolation of the species and varieties.
Isolation was effected by cultivating the Amoeba material in the Fucus
medium in Petri’s capsules, and then waiting for cyst formation ; culti-
vations were then made in hanging drops from the ripe cysts. From these
it was easy to obtain a single species or variety. In cultures from intestinal
contents Infusoria are often present, but are easily got rid of by 1 to 3
transfers. The apparatus required for examining Amoeba is a hot stage,
or, better still, a thermostat-Microscope. By the above method, which
is much simpler than that of Beyerinck, pure cultivations of Amoeba
guttula, oblong a, undulans, coli, spinosa, diapliana , vermicularis, and
arbor escens were obtained, and observed throughout the course of their
life-history.

Cultivating Protozoa on Solid Media. f — Dr. F. Schardinger ob-
tained pure and bacteria-free cultures of Protozoa by incubating samples
of the material in hay-infusion at 37°. Next day there were numberless
swarmers on the surface, and from this surface the condensation water
of an oblique hay-agar tube was infected. By the third day of incuba-
tion at 37°, bacteria, cocci, and much larger forms were observable.
Fresh nutrient material was inoculated from a place where these larger

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 536-8.

t Tom. cit., pp. 538-45.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

357

bodies (spores) were predominating, and by the dilution method pure
cultures of a Mycetozoon were obtained. Great difficulty was experi-
enced in getting rid of bacteria, but this was finally overcome by frequent
transference to fresh solid and occasionally fluid media. The me lium is
easily prepared ; 30 to 40 grm. of hay or straw were boiled with 1 litre
of water, and to the filtrate 1— 1^ per cent, of agar added. The mixture
is then boiled until the agar is dissolved, and then Na2C03 added until
the reaction is alkaline. Wo filtration is needed, for when sterilised, pre-
cipitates are deposited and in no way hinder observations on the cultures.
Of course the medium can be prepared in the usual way, if so desired.
Though the author claims to have obtained bacteria-free cultures by his
method, in another place it is admitted that this result is scarcely
possible.

Diagnostic Medium for Coli and Typhoid Bacteria.* — Herr Eisner
has found in potassium iodide a substance which imparts to nutrient
media a capacity to diagnose between typhoid and coli bacteria. Gelatin
is boiled with potato extract (1/2 kg. to 1 litre of water), and to 10 ccm. of
the gelatin 2*5-3 ccm. of 1/10 normal soda solution are added. The
liquid is then filtered and sterilised. When necessary, only 1 per cent,
of potassium iodide is added. In 24 hours colonies of B. coli are easily
distinguished from those of B. typhosus , in that the former are quite
large and the latter tiny. The latter are further described as small,
bright, watery-like, finely granular colonies, which contrast strongly
with the coarsely granular brownish coli colonies.

Diagnosis of Cholera by Means of Cholera Anti-Bodies.j — Prof. R.

Pfeiffer and Dr. Vagedes have devised a method for diagnosing cholera
vibrios by the aid of the serum of cholera-immune animals. The serum
used was of such power that 1/15 mg. sufficed to destroy 2 mg. of a
living virulent cholera culture. A 1 : 50 bouillon dilution of this serum
was made, and then hanging drops, inoculated with a trace of cholera-
culture, examined under the Microscope. The inhibitory effect was very
marked, the vibrios losing their mobility and aggregating into little heaps.
Only rarely slightly mobile vibrios were observed, and after 20 minutes
in an incubator the last traces of mobility were lost. Microscopical
examination showed that the vibrios were morphologically unaltered.
After an incubation of 24 hours, the vibrios in the hanging drops were
found to have multiplied, were in lively motion, and the little clumps
were barely observable, showing that the inhibitory effect of the serum
had passed off. Other vibrios were not affected by cholera serum, and
the authors claim that the specific inhibitory property of cholera serum
is a valuable aid for diagnostic purposes. Seventy cholera cultures and
twenty species of vibrios were examined by this method, which is merely
an application of Pfeiffer’s specific immunity reaction.

Demonstrating Capsules of Micro-Organisms. + — Herr W. Noetzel

* Zeitschr. f. Hvg. u. Infektions., S.A. xxi. (1895). See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.
u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xviii. (1895) pp. 590-1.

t Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 385-7.

X Fortschr. d. Med., xiv. No. 2. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
P* Abt., xix. (1896) p. 498.

358

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

lias succeeded in demonstrating capsules not only in Anthrax , but in
cadaver bacilli, by Johne’s method,* in samples taken direct from the
animal body. In preparations from artificial cultures it was found tor
be more difficult to stain the sheath, but by previous treatment with
one per cent, caustic potash the capsule was made to swell, and a suc-
cessful staining was obtained with gentian-violet and decolorising in
acetic acid.

Capsules were also demonstrated in artificial cultures of various
species of Proteus and Staphylococci , Streptococcus pyogenes , Diplococcus
lanceolatus, and Friedlaender’s pneumonia bacillus. The results with the
diphtheria bacillus were unsatisfactory. The author agrees with Butschli
and Bunge that the deeply stained part corresponds to the cell-nucleus,
and the pale or unstained portion between the nucleus and capsule to
the cell-body.

(2) Preparing: Objects.

Demonstration of the Pores of the Pulmonary Alveoli. | — Dr. D.

Hansemann has demonstrated the existence of fine channels between the
lung vesicles, so that it seems that adjacent pulmonary alveoli are really
in free communication. The experiments were made on the lungs of
rats, guinea-pigs, and rabbits. All the air was extracted from the lungs
by killing the animals in an atmosphere of carbonic acid. In this way
the lungs were rendered perfectly atelectatic, and were quite uninjured.
They were then injected with glycerin stained with Berlin-blue at a very
low pressure. By immersing the preparations in alcohol, the injec-
tion mass shrank away from the walls of the alveoli, and sections showed
stellate masses connected ^by fine filaments. Careful focusing showed
the continuity of the filaments, and therefore the existence of stomata
between adjacent alveoli.

Demonstrating Structure and Composition of Cell-Kucleus.i — Prof.
A. Zimmerman fixed the material, used by him in studies of the chemical
composition of the vegetable cell-nucleus, in Reiser’s mixture of 10 grm.
sublimate, 300 grm. water, and 3 grm. acetic acid. After twenty-four
hours the material was washed in water, 50 per cent, alcohol, iodine-
alcohol, alcohol and xylol, and afterwards imbedded in paraffin. The
sections were stained with a mixture of 1 vol. saturated aqueous solution
of fuchsin and 9 vols. of 0 • 1 per cent, aqueous solution of iodine-green.
This staining fluid requires to be made afresh every time. The sections
are immersed therein for eight to ten minutes, and then treated with a
mixture of 100 ccm. absolute alcohol, 1 ccm. acetic acid, and 0*1 grm.
iodine, cleared up in xylol, and mounted in balsam. Apart from differ-
ences of detail, having a greater or less scientific value, the practical
result of this method is that the nucleoli stain red and the nuclear network
green. The author divides the structure of the nucleus into four parts,
the network, the nucleoli, the nuclear membrane, and the nuclear juice.
Tie is of opinion that his observations indicate that the nuclear network

* See this Journal, 1895, p. 126.

f Sitzungsber. d. Konig. Preussisch. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, xliv. (1S95)
p. 999-1001 (2 figs.).

X Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1896) pp. 458-76 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 359

may be composed of very different substances, just as the membrane of
a cell may be. The present paper is apparently preliminary to others
on the same subject.

Structure of Retina.* * * § — Prof. A. S. Dogiel obtained very successful
results by using a methylen-blue method. The retina must be laid on
the slide with the nerve-fibre-layer turned towards the observer, and so
that some quantity of vitreous humour remain associated with it. The
methylen-blue solution must not come into direct contact with the retina.
A solution of 1/10-1/16 per cent, solution, acting for 20-40 minutes,
suffices to affect many nerve-cells of the inner and middle ganglionic
layer. The preparation must be fixed on the slide with five to six drops
of picric-acid-ammonia solution, to be followed by a mixture of glycerin
and the aforesaid solution. After standing thus for 18-20 hours, the
preparation may be closed up in the mixture named.

Demonstration of Leucoplasts. j — Mr. L. S. Cheney recommends the
leaf-stalk of Musa Ensete as a favourable object for examining leuco-
plasts, all the stages in the development of the starch being easily fol-
lowed. The leucoplasts are seated in the middle layers of the diaphragms
which divide the intercellular passages of the leaf-stalk.

C3) Cutting-, including- Imbedding- and Microtomes.

Improvement to the Reichert Microtome.^ — Dr. J. Starlinger
describes an improvement which, at his instigation, the firm of Reichert
have made in their microtome (fig. 71). This improvement consists in the
replacement of the free-hand movement of the knife-block by a mecha-
nical movement. This is effected by a wheel, with which is connected a
toothed wheel in whose teeth the links of a chain exactly fit. The
chain passes over another wheel (with no teeth) at the other end of
the instrument, and both ends of the chain are attached to the block.
While one wheel is fixed, the other is adjustable with a screw, so that
sufficient tension can be given to the chain. The second wheel is fixed
by a clamp. By these means the friction is reduced to a minimum, and
the movement is very smooth.

Watch-Glass Imbedding Method.§ — Mr. A. B. Lee, in reply to
Rhumbler, who described a method of imbedding small objects in watch-
glasses, says that the method is a very old one, having been published
in 1885 by Graf Spee, and employed by the writer for years most ex-
tensively. For small objects he has found it the best process of any.
It is not necessary to prepare the watch-glass with either glycerin or
clove oil. After cooling, blocks can be readily cut out by means of a
slightly warmed knife. Good paraffin does not break in the process.

Apparatus for Stretching Paraffin Sections. || — Dr. J. Nowak uses
an apparatus, constructed on the principle of the thermostat, for

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 391-113 (1 pi.).

f Bot. Gazette, xx. (1895) p. 81.

X Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1896) pp. 295-9.

§ Tom. cit., pp. 157-8.

|| Zeitschr. 1'. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1896) pp. 117-9 (1 fig.).

Fig.. 71.

360

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

361

stretching paraffin sections. It (fig. 72) consists of two parts m com-
munication, one an open pan, the other a thermostatic box. To the lattei
are fitted a Reichert’s regulator and a thermometer. The apparatus is
filled with distilled water, which is heated to a suitable temperature. Into
this the sections are dropped as they are cut off by the microtome.

Fro. 72.

(4) Staining: and Injecting-.

Improvement in Mercury Injection Apparatus for Lymphatics.*—
Dr. D. Gerota has made a considerable improvement in Sappey’s apparatus
for injecting lymphatics with mercury (figs. 73, 74). By bending the top
of the cock at a right angle, the instrument is much more easily worked
and more under control, as the tap is now moved with the thumb instead

* Anat. A nzeig., xii. (1896) pp. S5-8 (2 figs.).

862 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the forefinger. Another improvement consists in making the receiver
of transparent celluloid instead of horn, so that the quantity of mercury
can be observed. In order to adapt a glass canula to the nose-piece of
the cock, the author winds round the end a thin layer of cotton-wool
saturated in silicate of soda solution (soluble glass), and then screws
this in and out of the nozzle of the nose-piece, thus imparting to it a
screw turn. After being allowed to dry for 24 hours, wax is dropped
on the screw, so that the junction is made perfectly tight.

Fin. 74.

Staining by Preoccupation and Subtraction.*— Dr. P. G. Unna
claims that Heidenhain’s method of subtractive staining and his own,
which he calls staining by preoccupation, are substantially the same.

Heidenhain’s method consisted in previously saturating the affinity
of the protoplasm and nucleus with Bordeaux E, and then staining the

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1896) pp. 454-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

363

central body with iron-haematoxylin, any excess of the latter stain being
removed by a decoloriser. Hence the term “ subtractive.”

The author’s method has been chiefly applied to preparations from
cutaneous eruptions. For obtaining a double stain the author satu-
rates his material, say with orange or acid orcein, and then treats with
inethylen-blue.

(6) Miscellaneous.

New Microcheniical Reaction of Chlorophyll.* — Dr. H. Molisch
states that if tissues containing chlorophyll, which have not been
moistened, are placed in a saturated aqueous potash-lye, the chlorophyll-
grains almost immediately assume a yellow-brown colour, which again
passes into green after about a quarter or half an hour. This reaction
was observed in about 100 different plants, and even in material which
had been kept a year in the herbarium.

Use of the Quartz-Spectograph for Vegetable Pigments.f — Herr
A. Tschirch describes the use of this instrument in observing the
spectra of vegetable pigments; by its means the so-called terminal ab-
sorption (of the violet and ultra-violet rays) can be resolved into bands
Among the more important results which he has obtained are the
following: — Xanthophyll is not an independent substance; he was able
to crystallise from it a substance which he calls xantliocarotin , and which
gives the so-called xanthophyll- bands in the absorption-spectrum of the
extracts of leaves. Two distinct yellow substances are present in the
yellow pigment of leaves, having entirely different spectroscopic pro-
perties. There is a very close relationship between chlorophyll and
haemoglobin ; the chlorophyll of leaves is a compound of phyllocyanic
acid with some hitherto unknown substance. The close resemblance of
the spectra of chlorophyll and of the blood is pointed out. By means
of the quartz- spectograph the terminal absorption of the spectrum of
chlorophyll was resolved into a broad absorption-band (VI.), which is
much the most stable in position and intensity of all the bands, and is
visible in the most dilute solutions.

Demonstration and Crystallisation of Xanthophyll.J — Dr. H.

Molisch has succeeded in separating the xanthophyll (carotin) within
the leaf in the following manner. Small pieces of fresh leaves were
placed in 40 per cent, (by volume) alcohol, in which 20 per cent, (by
weight) of calcium hydrate was dissolved, and the solution left for
several days in the dark until the whole of the chlorophyll had dis-
appeared. If the calcium hydrate is now washed out, the xanthophyll
can be crystallised out in the form of orange-yellow or orange-brown
tabular or needle-like crystals, with a mother-of-pearl glance. They
were obtained from about 100 different species, and vary greatly in form
and arrangement, even in the same leaf. The author regards the xantho-
phylls as forming a group of substances to which the general term
carotin may be applied. The chemical reactions are distinct from those
of cholesterin.

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell , xiv. (1896) pp. 16-8.

t Tom. cit., pp. 76-94 (2 pis.). + Tom. cit., pp. 18-29 (1 pi.).

364

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

Recording' Apparatus for the Study of the Transpiration of
Plants.* — Mr. A. F. Woods describes an apparatus which he has found
useful for this purpose. It consists essentially of two parts, a balance
and a register. The two parts are in an electrical circuit which is opened
or closed whenever the equilibrium of the balance is disturbed. When
the circuit is closed, the movement of the armature of the magnet
mounted on the left arm of the balance engages a notched wheel, which
turns a long screw parallel to the beam. This screw works in a half-nut
attached to the carriage of the counter-weight, and is adjustable, so that
the weight may be set at any point along the beam. For recording
evaporation a left-hand screw is used, moving the weight from left to
right. As evaporation from the plants goes on, the right arm of the
scale rises, thus closing the circuit above the beam. The armature of
the magnet is then attracted, and turns the screw carrying the counter-
weight; at the same time the pen on the register is carried along by a
similar mechanism. This is continued until the balance is brought to
equilibrium, and the circuit broken. Further evaporation causes a
repetition of the process.

Bot. Gazette, xx. (1895) pp. 473-6 (1 pi. and 1 fig.).

365

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 15th of April, 1896, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,
the President (A. D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.) in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 18th March, 1896, were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society
given to the Donors : —

From

E. Pulsford, The Wonders of the Microscope. (16mo, London,

1896) The Author.

A Stereoscopic Photomicrograph . . . . Dr. W. C. Borden.

The President said that this photograph had been taken in a
rather different way from others which had been exhibited on former
occasions. In this instance the difference between the pictures was
obtained by tilting the object slightly from opposite sides. There was
some little doubt as to whether there was a true stereoscopic effect pro-
duced, but the photograph would be passed round for the Fellows present
to examine.

Mr. E. M. Nelson exhibited and gave the following description of a
new form of doublet bull’s-eye condenser: — During an investigation of
the spherical aberration in doublets an examination was made of the cele-
brated Herschel’s doublets of “no aberration.”* Calculating the path of the

was revealed ; the analysis showing that under the given conditions it
was not possible to construct a doublet free from aberration.

Further, an error in the focus of the doublet was found, and it was
also seen that the aberration was not a minimum.

These doublets have been quoted in many books both on the Micro-
scope and on optics, including works by writers of high mathematical
attainments, consequently they have gained much popularity, which is
to be regretted, because an erroneous view of the fundamental principles
of aplanatism is thereby propagated.

In this condenser, which was made by Baker, the aberration is a

* Ency. Metrop., Art. ‘ Light,’ p. 391, pi. iii. fig. 55.

2 o

1896

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

minimum, and is 27 per cent, less than that of Sir John Herschel’s.
This doublet differs from Herschel’s both in the ratio of the radii of the
meniscus and also in the ratio of the foci of the two lenses ; the only
point of similarity is in the first lens, which is “ crossed.” *

Permit me again to urge every microscopist to try for himself the
following simple experiments. Project the image of the flat of a lamp-
flame on a piece of white card with a plano-convex lens (such as the
field-lens of a Huyghenian eye-piece), using first the convex side and
then the plane side towards the card, the lamp being about 6 ft. from
the lens. When the convex side of the lens is towards the card, and the
lamp-flame as sharply focused as possible, a circular halo of misty light
will be seen to surround the lamp-flame ; but when the plane side of the
lens is facing the card this circular halo of misty light will be reduced,
and the brightness of the image of the flame will be much increased,
because a portion of the light which before was scattered and formed a
part of the misty halo is now condensed in the image of the lamp-flame.
If the lens were strictly aplanatic there would be no misty halo, all the
light being concentrated in the image of the lamp-flame, and the image
of the flame would be of maximum brightness under the given conditions.
In brief, the diameter of the halo of misty light is a measure of the
spherical aberration. If one of my condensers, of the form of minimum
aberration for two pianos, be compared in the above manner with an
ordinary single bull’s-eye of the same focus, the diameter of the misty
halo will be found reduced to a radius of about 1 /5 in., but with this
new condenser there is a further reduction, so that the radius of the misty
halo measures only 1/20 in. These experiments are most instructive
and form a good training for critical work with the Microscope, because
the brightness or the mistiness of the Microscope image is an asso-
ciated phenomenon.

The President moved the thanks of the Society to Mr. Nelson for
this communication aud exhibit, which struck him as calling attention
to a matter of very considerable practical service. Many microscopists
took a great deal of trouble with their Microscopes in order to get the
best results, but did not take enough with their condenser with which
the Microscope was supplied with light. It was of course very important,
if the best definition was required, to take care that light of the best
possible kind was supplied in the most perfect manner which could be
attained ; and he thought that those who had seen this condenser and
heard Mr. Nelson’s description of it would agree that it provided the
means of obtaining just what was wanted.

The thanks of the meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Nelson.

The President said that they had a communication from Mr. A. W.
Waters which would no doubt be found of considerable value, as the
author was probably the best English authority on the Polyzoa now
living. Unfortunately the state of Mr. Waters’ health obliged him to
reside at Davos Dorf, but Mr. Karop had kindly undertaken to read the
paper to the meeting.

Mr. Waters’ paper on the ‘ Interzooecial Communication in Flustridse

* See Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, April 1896, pp. 197-205

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

367

and Notes on Flustra ’ was then read by Mr. G. C. Karop, who said that
the subject was not one which he had himself given great attention to,
but the treatment of it by Mr. Waters, and the suggestions which the
paper contained, would probably render it of great use to workers in this
branch of zoology, and was likely to be especially valuable in facilitating
classification.

The President regretted that with such a paper before them they
had no specialists on Polyzoa present that evening. He noticed that
in the opening portion of the paper the author remarked that the
existence of the rosette-plates was not a new discovery, but he might
perhaps remind them that their existence, when it became well known,
was of the greatest interest as relating to the question of the continuity
of protoplasm which of late years has been very much discussed. It
used to be thought that in the vegetable kingdom every cell was sur-
rounded by an impermeable cell-wall, by which it was entirely cut off
from communication with every other cell, and it was a great puzzle to
botanists how under these conditions it was possible that impressions
could be communicated from one cell to another, as they evidently were
in the case of the sensitive plant, and others where, if one part was
touched, it was quite clear that others acted at once in sympathy with
it. It had, however, of late years been discovered that these cell-walls
were not imperforate, but there was a communication between them
enabling the protoplasm to pass from one to the other. In much the
same way it was thought that the Polyzoa were entirely shut off from
one another, each in its separate cell, each one being considered to be
a separate and distinct animal, and it was equally difficult to see how
common impulses arose. It was then discovered that in the walls of
the zooecia these rosette-plates occurred which were perforated with one
or more holes, and that through these minute holes, which sometimes
were numerous, communication between the separate individuals was
kept up ; and it became evident that it was by this means that impulses
were communicated, and that nutriment acquired by one individual was
shared by the rest. The continuity of protoplasm by means of the
rosette-plate was considered as fully established, but though the subject
had been gradually worked up so that the facts were now well known,
this was, he believed, the first time that any proposal had been made to
use the rosette-plates as a basis of classification. He congratulated the
Society upon having such a paper communicated to it, and was sure, when
it appeared in the Journal, it would be regarded as a paper of great
value. He thought that their thanks were due, and would be very
heartily given, to Mr. Waters for his very interesting and admirable
paper, and they should also thank Mr. Karop for reading it to the
meeting.

The thanks of the Society were then unanimously voted to these
gentlemen.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—
The Society : — Dr. Borden’s Stereoscopic Photomicrograph.
Mr. E. M. Nelson : — Bull’s-eye Condenser.

368

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 20th of May, 1896, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,
the President (A. D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.) in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 15th April, 1896, were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations (exclusive of exchanges and reprints) received
since the last meeting was submitted, and the thanks of the Society given
to the donor.

P. T. Cleve, Synopsis of the Naviculoid Diatoms, part ii.

[(4to, Stockholm, 1896.)

Mr. T. Comber said they received the first part of Prof. Cleve’s work
about twelve months ago, and he thought it was without doubt the most
valuable work on diatoms which had been published for many years.
The author’s views upon limits of species were especially worth atten-
tion, tending as they did towards the reduction instead of the increase
of the already too numerous lists. Without desiring to be in any way
hypercritical he might, however, mention one thing which he thought
might be improved. Prof. Cleve had divided the old genera Achnanthes ,
Achnanthidium, and Cocconeis into several new genera. Into one of
these, under the name of Heteroneis , he had brought together several
allied forms, and they should, he thought, have been all designated by
the generic term Heteroneis , but instead the old generic names had been
retained. Some were called Achnanthes and others Cocconeis , which would
be likely to cause needless confusion. With this exception he thought
the work before them was an admirable one. Prof. Cleve was a dis-
tinguished chemist, and some time since had been upon the point of
discovering the new element argon, but, unfortunately for him, whilst
he had been engaged on the study of diatoms, he had been anticipated by
two English chemists.

Mr. E. M. Nelson exhibited and described a small portable Micro-
scope which had been designed by Dr. Eoss for the investigation of
cases of malarial fever (see ante , p. 350).

The President said they must remember that for an Indian medical
officer extreme portability was of the utmost importance, seeing that
they often were required to travel over long distances with no more
facilities for carrying things than saddle-bags. This instrument seemed
to be very compact, and in this respect would no doubt be found of great
value.

Mr. J. E. Ingpen said he wished something could be done in design-
ing Microscopes of this kind to get them to fold up a little flatter, so
that they could be carried without inconvenience in the pocket. Some-
thing seemed to be wanted which would fold into a case more in a book

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

369

form instead of something three inches thick. He saw some time ago a
French folding Microscope which had the germs of this idea about it,
and he thought it would be possible to contrive some means of joint-
ing or swinging the stage so as to obviate the necessity for such a
thickness.

Dr. W. H. Dallinger thought that for the purposes of the surgeon in
India a Microscope of this kind was most valuable ; it had a condenser,
a mirror, rack-and-pinion movement, and all that was really essential in
an instrument of this class.

Mr. J. Rheinberg’s paper, 4 On an Addition to the Methods of Micro-
scopical Research by a new way of optically producing colour contrast
between an object and its background, or between definite parts of the
object itself,’ was read by Mr. E. M. Nelson.

The President said he had great pleasure in announcing that they
were honoured that evening by the presence of Dr. S. Czapski, the co-
adjutor and successor of Prof. Abbe at the well-known establishment of
Carl Zeiss at Jena. He desired, in the name of the Royal Microscopical
Society, to express to Dr. Czapski the great pleasure it gave them to
welcome him on that occasion.

Dr. Czapski said it was a little difficult for him to express what he
felt, on account of his imperfect command of the English language, and
he would on that account ask the indulgence of the Fellows present
whilst he endeavoured very sincerely to reciprocate the kindly feeling
shown towards himself by the reception which had been accorded to
him. When he thought that nearly all the progress made in microscopy
had been the result of the labours of English workers, it was with no
ordinary feelings that he now found himself to be at that moment asso-
ciated with the men whose papers he had been so often reading, and
whose work he had so long followed with such interest. He desired to
express to the Society the great pleasure it gave him to be present at
their meeting, and his sincere thanks for the very kind manner in which
he had been welcomed.

With regard to the paper which had just been read, it had been
mentioned that he was acquainted with the method which it described,
and he might say that Mr. Rheinberg applied some time since to the
firm of Zeiss, and that they were extremely interested in the results
which he said he was able to attain by his method. There were,
however, some difficulties of an optical character to be overcome, and
they endeavoured to solve the problem for themselves, with the result
that they were at last able to devise a method by which the same kind
of results could be obtained, with the exception that whereas Mr. Rhein-
berg’s method was principally suited to high-power work, their own
plan was more suitable for work with low powers. Both these methods
were illustrated in the room, and he wished, on his own part, fully to
recognise the ability with which Mr. Rheinberg had worked out so suc-
cessfully his ideas on the matter. This was perhaps the more remarkable
because about a year and a half ago Mr. Rheinberg had so little know-
ledge of microscopy that he had applied to them for advice as to the
best way in which to acquire it. They gave him the best advice they

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

could, recommending him such books as Dallinger’s edition of Carpenter,
and it was a little surprising to Germans to find that after so short a
period he had produced before them such a paper as that which had just
been read — one which he regarded as a very able one, both as to the
subject, and the manner in which it has been worked out. As regarded
the value of the method for purposes of research and the determination
of structure, he was not so well able to judge of the advantages which it
offered ; that was not the optician’s work, but was a matter which could
only be judged of after years of work by those who were accustomed to
other methods as well, and it was rather a matter for them to apply it
and afterwards to decide on its value. He was sure, however, that this
method of using coloured screens was in many respects superior to dark-
ground illumination for the examination of fine structures.

Dr. W. H. Dallinger said it would hardly be fitting for him to be
silent when an opportunity occurred of extending a welcome to the
representative as well as the great active worker of the largest optical
establishment in Europe, and knowing as they did that Dr. Czapski had
not only been a co-worker with Prof. Abbe in his unique optical improve-
ments, but was now carrying on this work as Abbe’s successor — work
which had been of such inestimable benefit to microscopists throughout
the world, they had both to thank him for his presence that evening and
for the remarks he had made, and to express to him their very cordial
feelings of personal regard. As to the paper before them, it evidently
opened up a new feature amongst methods of research which seemed to
promise to be of special utility ; but inasmuch as it was so new to him,
and he could not quite see how the use of the glass discs could leave
delicate optical corrections in the objective unaffected, he was absolutely
unable to give any opinion concerning it, except as to imaginary results.
He hoped, however, when he had more strength to do so, that he should
be able to apply it to all the problems which were at present exercising
his mind, upon which it might profitably be brought to bear. He most
heartily thanked the reader of the paper for bringing it before them,
and again expressed the gratification which it afforded the Society to see
Dr. Czapski amongst them.

Mr. Nelson could not say much upon the subject as he had not tried
any of the experiments himself, but he had seen some of the results and
thought the paper was one which deserved the highest attention, and
that those who felt so inclined, and had the means, should certainly
devote some time to the further following up of so promising a subject.
He quite agreed with Dr. Czapski as to the admirable manner in which
the paper had been worked out.

Mr. Conrad Beck said that at so early a stage it was hardly possible
to express any opinion upon a paper which described an entirely new
method of analysing the image of an object by means of variously
coloured component rays, which in a very rough way reminded him of
an idea suggested some time ago for producing a stereoscopic projection
by the use of different colours on opposite sides.

Mr. G. C. Karop said it was rather curious to note that Mr. J. D.
Hardy, a former Fellow of the Society, had some time * since invented a

See this Journal, 1883, pp. 126-7, 158-9.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

371

method of doing the same thing. It would perhaps be remembered
Mr. Hardy took an ordinary spot-lens and put behind it a series of
coloured segments, and the effects which he produced in that way were
certainly very beautiful, and his “ Chromatoscope, ’* as he called it, was
very much admired at the time. This only showed that “there was
nothing new under the sun,” but it did not in any way detract from the
scientific value of Mr. Rheinberg’s work as described in his paper.

Mr. J. E. Ingpen thought one of the most important things brought
out by this method was its ability to show the coarser details of a diatom
in the centre, and the finer details in the peripheral zone.

Mr. Rheinberg expressed the surprise which he felt at hearing from
Mr. Karop that the method introduced to their notice in his paper had
been anticipated ; but he felt sure that those who had an opportunity of
seeing some of the results already attained would agree that it was likely
to be useful. At present only the theory had been worked out, but he
was very sanguine in his belief that it could be most usefully applied to
many purposes. The exhibits shown in the room that evening in illus-
tration of the application of the method were, he regretted, not so good
as those results which he had been able to obtain when working with his
own Microscope, it being always more difficult to obtain the same effect
with a strange Microscope than with an instrument to which a person
was accustomed. He desired to acknowledge the assistance which he
had received from Mr. Nelson, and also his indebtedness to Dr. Czapski,
who had already been of very great help to him in bringing out this
method.

The President was sure it would be the desire of the Society to pass
a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Rheinberg for his very admirable and
extremely interesting paper, the subject of which, with the exception of
what Mr. Hardy had done, was entirely novel, and had certainly been
worked out in a most ingenious manner. Mr. Hardy’s invention could,
he thought, hardly be considered identical, seeing that it did not pretend
to be a scientific but only an ornamental device. He had for a long
time been of opinion that the differentiation by contrast of colours was a
process of considerable value, and he had himself, in a totally different
manner, endeavoured to get similar effects by the employment of oblique
polarised light with a selenite film and a black ground. By throwing
this upon an object mounted in glycerin — such as one of the delicate
Crustacea — the body of which would depolarise light, but the extremely
fine hairs of which would not, these hairs would pick up the coloured
light from the selenite, and in this way he was able to get a differentia-
tion by brilliant colour which he was otherwise unable to obtain. This
plan was, of course, only available for low^power objects. The process
described by Mr. Rheinberg would, in a much simpler and more perfect
manner, do all that he had aimed at, and he had great hopes of seeing it
turn out to be of practical value. He also desired to express at the
same time their thanks to Dr. Czapski for his presence and his remarks
that evening.

The thanks of the meeting were unanimously voted, and the proceed-
ings adjourned to June 17th, which the President intimated would be
the last meeting of the present session.

372

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited: —

Mr. J. Mason Allen : — Rotifers from ponds at Highgate.

Mr. E. M. Nelson : — Portable Microscope.

Mr. J. Rheinberg : — Lantern exhibition and slides illustrating his
paper.

Mr. 0. F. Rousselet : — Coretlnra larva, stained while living.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows: —
Mr. Walter Dixon and Mr. William John Marshall.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

AUGUST 1896.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

YII. — On an Addition to the Methods of Microscopical Research, by
a new way of Optically producing Colour-Contrast between an
Object and its Background , or between Definite Barts of the
Object itself

By J. RHEiNBEna (communicated by E. M. Nelson, F.R.M.S.).
{Read May 20th, 1896.)

Plates IX. and X.

It is my privilege this evening to bring before your notice the
results of a series of what I believe to be original experiments, under-
taken by myself during the last few years with the object of pro-
ducing certain colour effects with the aid of the Microscope.

The immediate end in view was to cause an object, when viewed
with an objective of any power, to assume any desired colour upon a

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate IX.

N.B. — Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6 represent dark-ground illumination if the colour-disc,
fig. 2 a, is supposed to be replaced by a dark-ground stop, fig. 2 h. The blue parts of
the figures should then be taken as being black, i.e. devoid of light, and the red
parts as representing the passage of white light.

Fig. 1. — Various colour-discs.

Fig. 2. — Illustrating the effect which a colour-disc a, or a dark-ground stop b,
placed at the back of an objective, has on the image of structures of varying degrees
of fineness. F, Complete Diffraction Fan. D, Dioptric Pencil. 1, 2, 3, Diffraction
Pencil of 1st, 2nd, or 3rd order.

Figs. 3, 4. — Colour-disc illumination with low powers.

Figs. 5, 6. — Ditto, ditto with high powers. D, Colour-disc ; C, Condenser ; S, Ob-
ject ; O, Objective ; G, Diaphragm ; B, Dark space.

The dotted lines in figs. 3, 4, 5, 6 indicate the passage of light, but it should be
noted that in figs. 4 and 6 refraction and diffraction by the object S cause an uneven
distribution of the light above it, which could not be clearly shown in the diagram.

Plate X.

Four photomicrographs of Diatoms (from Patuxent River, U.S.A.), taken with a
double-image colour-disc, under precisely the same conditions, excepting that the
aperture of the illuminating cone from the condenser was gradually increased. A
1 in. objective of *21 N.A. was used.

1896 2 d

374

Transactions of the Society.

background of any other colour, and by thus securing a greater
contrast than usual, to obtain sharper and more perfect definition.

That any increase of contrast, produced without materially altering
other conditions, does sharpen the visual perception of an object when
viewed through the Microscope goes almost without saying, since it
is an admitted fact of the nature of an axiom that all vision is depen-
dent upon the perception of contrast.

I hope to be able to show you that I have succeeded in obtaining
this desired result with numerous classes of objects, and that by the
same methods by which it is possible to effect a colour-contrast
between the background and the object, it is also, under certain
circumstances, possible to effect a colour-contrast between various
definite parts of the objects themselves.

The way in which these results can be obtained is to place trans-
parent discs or screens (plate IX. fig. 1), the central and peripheral
parts of which are differently coloured, or which are coloured in certain
parts only, somewhere in the path of the rays of light proceeding from
the source of illumination.

The discs to be employed are for the most part made up of several
pieces of glass, or, if preferred, of one piece of glass only, coated with
collodion or gelatin of the required colours. The most generally useful
discs are those in which the central portion is of one colour, e.g. red,
while the peripheral portion is of another well contrasting colour such
as green or blue (plate IX. fig. 1 c), and those in which the central or
peripheral part only is coloured (plate IX. fig. 1 a b). The breadth of
the central portion should be from about one-third to one-fifth of
the effective diameter of the disc.

According to the circumstances of the case such discs of suitable
size may be placed somewhere between the back lens and the focal
plane of the objective, or in the diaphragm-holder of the condenser, or
interposed between the illuminant and fthe mirror. Sometimes even
it is useful to place them between the lenses of the objective.

It will have now become evident that this colour-disc method is
solely concerned with optical effects, so that before considering it in
greater detail it will be well briefly to define its relation to several
optical methods of changing the colour of object or background which
are in general use.

In the first place may be mentioned monochromatic illumination,
produced either by spectroscopically decomposing white light, or by
placing an absorption screen in the path of the illuminating cone.
The advantage gained hereby for visual work lies chiefly in the
elimination or reduction of chromatic aberration, in addition to which
a more sharply defined image of the finer structure is obtained, since
light of approximately uniform wave-length is substituted in the place
of light possessing wave-lengths of various magnitudes, which latter,
in the case of fine structures giving rise to extended diffraction-fans,
produce separate final images which vary in their nature and position.

Neiv Way of producing Colour-Contrast. By J. Bheinlerg. 375

But, along with the increase of definition due to this cause, there is
unfortunately a not inconsiderable loss of contrast, because the object
appears to he more or less of the same colour as the background.

To photomicrography the above applies also — perhaps I ought to
say especially.

It will be part of my task this evening to show you subsequently,
that by means of the colour-disc method the advantages of the mono-
chromatic illumination can in a great measure be retained, whilst its
drawback is to a great extent obviated.

Secondly may be mentioned the poJariscope in conjunction with
selenites, &c., which, when used for its proper purpose of investigating
the crystalline formation of objects, &c., is in nowise related to the
methods under consideration. But whilst in their scientific applica-
tion both methods have their distinct aims and results, they are
undoubted rivals when compared as agents for the production of
striking colour effects, and for this rather subordinate purpose the
colour-disc method may claim the further advantage of greater
simplicity.

And, lastly, I must mention dark-ground illumination as affording
a means of changing the colour of the background ; but from this
I will at once pass on to the colour-disc method of illumination, since
one part of it indeed ought, strictly speaking, to be considered as
an extension of the principles of ordinary dark-ground illumination.

I say one part of it, for it is necessary to separate the colour-disc
method of illumination into two distinct parts, the one applicable
chiefly to high and the other to low powers. At first sight these two
methods may appear to be almost opposed to one another, but upon
closer examination it will be evident that there is a common principle
underlying both.

In the first case, an objective of wide aperture is used in conjunc-
tion with a comparatively narrow cone of light from the condenser.
This method is chiefly of use with high powers.

In the second case, an objective of small aperture is employed,
together with a wide cone of light from the condenser, just as with
fiark-ground illumination, and this method is for use with low
powers.

The common principle underlying both is that, compared with
ordinary illumination, we allow a much smaller proportion of direct
light to enter the objective (i. e. light whose direction is wholly
determined by the action of the optical system), relatively to the
quantity of indirect light (by which I mean light which is taken up
by the objective after having suffered refraction or diffraction by the
object).

We must consider this fact and what it entails a little more in
detail.

The Abbe theory of microscopic vision has taught us the respec-
tive roles played by the illuminating cone and the objective cone.

2 d 2

376

Transactions of the Society .

It has demonstrated the fact that, even with a narrow pencil of light
from the condenser, we may be utilising the full aperture of the
objective, for a single ray of light, in passing through the object,
emerges not as one ray, but as several, forming together the so-called
diffraction-fan, which is the more spread out the finer the structure.
Moreover, we know that the innumerable narrow pencils of light of
different obliquities which go to make up the illuminating cone, each
form their own dioptric and diffraction pencils, and thus each elemen-
tary ray incident upon any part of the finer structure, of an object
utilises several zones of the objective at the same time.*

Now besides, and combined with this polyzonal change of direction
of an incident pencil, the direction of each incident pencil of light is
more or less changed by the refractive and reflective properties of the
object.

Bearing this in mind, a fundamental difference in the formation
of the image of the object and of the background becomes apparent.

The object is seen by virtue of its action on the light in four
ways, viz. by absorption, refraction, reflection, and diffraction.! It
is obvious, therefore, that the direction of the rays of light incident
upon an object must be changed to a great extent by the object
itself. But the background of an object is seen solely by means of
those rays which have passed the lenses without having had their
direction changed by an intervening obstacle, viz. the object.

It is this fact of which we take advantage in the method under
consideration : we separate out as far as possible, and contrast the
direct rays of light by which we see the background with those
whose original directions have been changed, and by means of which
we see the object.

Ordinary dark-ground illumination affords a familiar instance
illustrating the above general principles. Taking out the eye-piece of
the Microscope and looking down the tube, no light whatever reaches
the eye, the background appears black therefore. (See plate IX.
fig. 3 and explanatory note on same.) When, however, some refracting
object is placed in position, the field becomes filled with light ; this
light depicts the object when the eye-piece is replaced. (See plate IX.
fig. 4 and explanatory note.)

Now, we can obtain dark-ground illumination in another way
especially applicable to high powers. If we stop down the condenser
cone of illumination until it only fills about a quarter of the back
diameter of the objective, that is to say only ^ of the total area, and
we then place a black stop behind the objective to cover this directly

* Although it is obviously impossible to consider the action of a single ray apart
from that of the pencil or beam of which it constitutes an element, I haye made use
of this abstraction to lend greater clearness to the principle.

f According to the nature of the object, the one or other of these four properties
predominates. With very minute structures it is impossible, strictly speaking, to
separate them, and I understand that in that case they are sometimes all classed
under the head “ diffraction.”

Neiv Way of producing Colour-Contrast. By J. Rheinberg. 377

illuminated portion (plate IX. fig. 5 and explanatory note), we obtain
a similar effect as with ordinary dark-ground illumination. When the
object is put into position, the remaining of the area, as may be
seen by looking down the tube with eye-piece removed, are more or less
filled with light (plate IX. fig. 6 and explanatory note). When we
look at the object it appears on a dark ground. The image, however,
although we will assume we are using an objective absolutely corrected
for chromatic and spherical aberration, suffers from two defects, the
one of greater the other of less importance, to understand which we
must again have recourse to the diffraction theory. We will take
the case of a normal object, viz. one which has structure of varying
degrees of fineness to be made visible, and also refracts light to a
different extent in its various parts. For simplicity’s sake, moreover,
we will suppose the object to give rise to diffraction-fans having a
number of regular maxima and minima of light.* Let us divide the
light incident upon the object into two divisions according to the
extent to which it may suffer refraction (plate IX. fig. 2). In
division I. we will place those pencils which are but slightly refracted
by the object, and the dioptric pencils of which consequently fall
within the central zone of the objective which is covered with our
black stop. In division II. we place those pencils which are more
strongly refracted by the object whose emergent dioptric pencils are
refracted outside of the central zone.

(As there appears to have been some doubt upon the meaning to
be attached to the term “ dioptric ” pencil or ray, it will be as well
here to state that I use it solely in the sense of the central or axial
ray of any complete diffraction-fan, viz. that ray which follows the
ordinary laws of geometrical optics.)

Having divided the pencils of light according to the extent to
which they are refracted , we must now subdivide our two divisions
each into three classes, according to the degree in which the light is
diffracted, which corresponds to the fineness of the structure. In the
first class, A, let us place the pencils of light traversing coarse struc-
ture, the whole of whose diffraction-fan is admitted together to the
objective, without appreciable angular extension. In the second
class, B, all finer structure giving rise to a more extended diffraction-
fan, but such that at least the diffraction-spectra of first and second
order are admitted by the objective. In the third class, C, we place
still finer structure from which only diffraction-spectra of the first
order are admitted.

Now we are in a position to consider the action of our black
central stop above the objective.

Firstly, in relation to division I., which comprises the slightly
refracted beams, class A, where the total diffraction-fan is admitted
together to the objective : these are obliterated by the stop — in other

* The same general principles and reasoning can easily be applied to other
cases.

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words, all the coarser structure which does not happen to refract the
light strongly from its original path is blotted out.

Now the dioptric beams of classes B and C of division I. are
intercepted by the stop also; in the former case, as the objective
admits at least two, but generally several consecutive diffraction-
spectra from the same incident pencil of light, the image does not
appreciably suffer ; but in the latter case, i.e. in class C, where only
diffraction spectra of first order are admitted by the objective, the
stopping out of the dioptric beam causes a duplication of structure, as
in the well-known experiment of Prof. Abbe with the diffraction-plate.

With respect to division II., the structure corresponding to each
of our classes A, B, and C, will be to all intents and purposes faith-
fully depicted as reference to the diagram shows, because in this
instance we always have the dioptric pencil together with at least
one, but mostly several consecutive diffraction-spectra admitted to the
objective.

The total result then of our black central stop is to give us on a
dark ground an image of the object, in which the coarser structure is
to a great extent obliterated, and in which a certain part of the very
fine structure is depicted somewhat erroneously.* Now it is evident
that in dealing with the generality of objects, it is of little use to see
the finer structure clearly, without being able to discern its relation
to the coarser parts, and the want of being able to do this is in my
opinion the great defect of dark-ground illumination by the method in
question. As for the duplicated appearance of any structure so fine,
relatively to the objective, that only diffraction -spectra of the first
order are admitted by it, with the knowledge that this occurs, we are
able to make allowance for it in our interpretation of the structure.
Moreover, the separation of the lines is so small, that it is only just
on the border of visibility, and therefore often only gives rise to a
somewhat thickened appearance. To this defect, then, I think less
importance need be attached in dealing with the generality of objects.
The nature of the formation of the image by higli-power dark-ground
illumination helps us to understand the image seen when using colour-
discs, under similar conditions, to a consideration of which we will
now pass.

To begin with, however, we must take cognisance of a factor which
has special importance in dealing with colour-discs above the objective.
It is that in a diffraction-fan produced with light possessing wave-
lengths of various magnitudes, such as white light, which diffractive
fan will consist of an infinitely narrow dioptric beam, and a number
of diffraction-spectra, only the rays of uniform wave-length can co-
operate— in other words, the light of any particular colour acts quite
independently of the light of other colours.

* Certain differences may occur in the image according to whether the light ti a-
versing the structure falls under division I. or division II., which it is unnecessary
to discuss in detail.

New Way of producing Colour-Contrast. By J. Bheinberg. 379

This fact had not yet, to my knowledge, been experimentally
demonstrated, and I therefore made a series of test experiments with
discs coloured in various manners, using an a a Zeiss objective, and
the Abbe diffraction-plate as the object, and also with use of a 1/5 in.
objective and diatoms as the object, which have undoubtedly established
the above as far as visual perception is concerned.*

It will be well to consider separately the action of three kinds of
colour-discs, viz. those in which the central zone (say quarter the
effective diameter of the disc) is coloured only, those with the
peripheral portion coloured only, and those with central and peripheral
portion both coloured.

In all three cases, of course, we obtain a background of the colour
possessed by the central zone of the disc, because the whole of the
direct light passes through that part only and not through the other
(plate IX. fig. 5).

Therefore if we use a disc with the centre coloured only, e.g. red,
the image of the background is red, and the object appears almost
white similarly, as was the case with the high-power dark-ground
illumination. But whereas in that case the image of the object was
determined by the light passing outside the central zone of the disc
only, in this case it is determined by some further factors. For now
part of the white light, viz. the red, can pass through the central as
well as the peripheral portion of the disc, whereas light of other colour
can only traverse the peripheral portion. The result is, therefore, that
as far as red light is concerned we obtain a perfectly true image of
the object, just as if we were using a monochromatic screen. Prac-
tically coincident in position with this is an image of the object formed
by the other components of the white light, which is incorrect to the
small extent in which the image which we got with the dark-ground
stop was incorrect. But the red correct image is so much more
luminous than the other one, because none of the component rays of
the diffraction-fans have been stopped out, that it is quite impossible
to distinguish any duplication of structure. The image of the other
than red light, however, being superposed as it were on that of the
red light, the colour of the resulting image is practically as if it
proceeded from white light.

You will note that the above refers to all except division I., class A
(plate IX. fig. 2). With the dark-ground stop we lost the image of
part of the coarser structure falling under this category completely ;
with the red spot stop, however, we do not do so, it is simply depicted
in red.

We have thus got rid of both the defects of the high-power dark-
ground illumination, whilst we retain the advantage of the contrast it
afforded. True, we have now the image of part of the coarser structure

* Since this paper was written I have learnt from Dr. Czapski that some different
experiments with the same end in view were undertaken by Prof. Abbe some years

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Transactions of the Society .

in a different colour to the image composed chiefly of the finer struc-
tures, but the two blend together, and the total result is that the finer
structure appears more distinct than by ordinary illumination, whilst
we retain the image of the coarser structure just as distinctly as
usual.

When we use a disc with the periphery coloured only, e.g. red, we
get rather less contrast, but the image is almost monochromatic. The
reason is that the image of the whole of the object, excepting part of
the coarser structure (division I., class A) is formed by means of the
red rays, whereas we get more light in the formation of the back-
ground than in the last case, thereby lessening the contrast. On this
account it is sometimes possible to get better results with a red than
with a blue disc, because the former colour is more luminous.

If we use a disc with central portion and the remainder both
coloured (plate IX. fig. 6), we can obtain very good contrast, but we then
introduce the one error attaching to the use of the dark-ground stop,
viz. the duplication of structure of which only diffraction-spectra of
first order are admitted by the objective, when their dioptric pencil
falls within the central zone.* Also, in this case, wre should bear in
mind the relative intensity of the lights we are using, and modify them
with a view to the desired effect, which is usually to emphasise the
finer structure. Thus, in general, the central spot should be more
deeply stained or coloured than the peripheral part of the disc.

It will now be seen that in the last two cases we are using a
species of illumination offering almost all the advantage of ordinary
monochromatic illumination, vrith the additional advantage of great
contrast of background.

. It may be objected that the effect of chromatic aberration of the
objective has not been eliminated. But, in reality, it has, for by
hearing in mind how the differently coloured parts of the objective act
independently of one another, it will be understood that we are
practically working at the same time with two objectives, one of which
is of very much smaller numerical aperture than the other. But
since the penetrating power varies inversely as the N.A., it follows
that the central zone, when used independently, has far greater
penetrating power than the "whole objective or the whole objective
minus that zone. This then allows the image from the central zone
to accommodate itself to that of the remainder of the objective and to
be in focus at the same time, and corrects for chromatic aberration.

A very interesting feature about the colour-disc method is, as
you will already have noticed from the foregoing, the additional evi-
dence it affords on the Abbe theory; and at this point I must

* Theoretically, since the two colours of the disc are never truly monochromatic,
a certain range of wave-lengths is transmitted by both, and this tends towards
reducing the error. Owing to their comparatively feeble luminosity, however, when
we use a disc with strongly contrasting colours, the effect is not noticeable^ visually.
Photographically it is possible to detect it.

New Way of producing Colour- Contrast. By J. Rheinberg. 381

• acknowledge my indebtedness to the learned professors at the firm of
Carl Zeiss, of Jena, who have during the past year, with great
courtesy and generosity, lent me their valuable assistance and advice
in the furtherance of this system of illumination, and to whom certain
modifications of the method for low-power work, and especially the
following ingenious ocular demonstration of princqfies involved in
the Abbe theory, are due.

They have made some colour-discs of green glass, with a small
central red glass of 2 mm. or 3 mm. diameter inserted ; the one part
of the disc, however, instead of having plane parallel faces, is
slightly prismatic in form (plate IX. fig. 1 h), and effects a displace-
ment in the image as compared with the other part. By using such
a glass in the back focal plane of the objective, we obtain two images
of any object side by side, the one formed by the red centre, the other
by the green rim.

The nature of these two images I have already explained, and
you will readily understand, therefore, that by the present arrange-
ment we see through the Microscope at one and the same time a red
image on a red background of a suitable diatom showing plenty of
coarse structure and very little fine structure, next to a green image
of the diatom, with fine detail and somewhat unclear in respect of its
coarser structure. This affords a singularly striking ocular proof of
the fact first pointed out by Prof. Abbe, that a single dioptric (or
single diffraction pencil) will not show any structures ; whilst, when
at least two of the emergent pencils from any single elementary
pencil impinging on fine structure reach the eye, such structure
becomes visible. Discs as described, which I will call double image
colour-discs, are also of great interest in showing the relative part
which the different zones of the objective play in the formation of the
image, looked at from another point of view, viz. according to the
intensity of light proceeding to the eye from the different zones under
varying conditions. I will show you a set of four photomicrographs,
all taken with a 1-in. objective under precisely the same conditions,
with exception that the opening of the iris diaphragm was varied.

In taking the first one (plate X. fig. 1) the iris was closed to
2J mm. diameter, under which condition only the red central part of
the colour-disc could receive direct light. The background was red,
therefore, and appears dark coloured on the photograph in con-
sequence. In strong contrast to the background we see the white
images A, formed by the green peripheral part of the disc, showing
plenty of detail, though some of them are wanting in clearness of
outline, and the dark images B, which show a strong outline, but
are wanting in all but the coarsest structure.

Next we have the same (plate X. fig. 2) taken with a 6 mm.
iris opening, under which condition not only the red central part of
the disc, but also a narrow ring of the green part, would receive
direct light. The colour of the background will now have a certain

382

Transactions of the Society.

element of green in it in place of pure red, as before, and in con-
sequence the green images A will not be contrasted so well with it.
The dark images B show a still more marked diminution of contrast,
because these being almost entirely dioptric images, scarcely any of
the additional light which we obtained by enlarging the iris opening
is utilised in their formation.

In the next photograph (plate X. fig. 3), taken with a 7J mm.
iris diameter, the background becomes still more greenish in colour,
so that the green images A begin to change from the appearance of
light on a dark ground to dark on a light ground. The images B
become still fainter than before.

The last of the series (plate X. fig. 4) is taken with a cone of
light (12 mm. iris diameter) equal to the full aperture of the objective,
so that the whole of the colour-disc receives direct light. The back-
ground appears completely green, and is therefore light coloured on
the photograph, and now the images A appear quite dark in strong
contrast to it. On the other hand, the images B have practically
disappeared ; the excess of direct light passing through the green part
of the disc has flooded them out, and the photograph is to all intents
and purposes the same as if taken without the red central stop at all.

1 may here mention that these photographs were taken on the
most colour-sensitive plates obtainable, viz. Cadett’s spectrum plates.
Had less colour-sensitive plates been used, the transition of the back-
ground from dark to light would have been better shown at the
expense of not rendering the images B so well.

Under one of the Microscopes exhibited this evening, you will
find objects arranged with the double image colour-discs, and you can
there see the results much more clearly than in the imperfect photo-
graphs which I have been able to take. A great peculiarity about the
visual perception is that as the iris is gradually opened, the images
A from the green rim appear to change from green to red, whilst
the image B from the red central part appears to become greenish.
This is purely an effect of subjective colouring.

It seems to me that an important fact to be learned from these
photographs with the double image colour-discs, is that in using
increasingly wide cones of illumination we are working more and more
with the marginal zones of the objective, and less and less with the
central portion. The reason is apparent. Dividing an objective having
a back lens of, say, 8 mm. into four zones by constructing imaginary
circles of 1, 2, 3 and 4 mm. radius respectively, the illuminating
powers of the zones are as —

Now it is evident that in focusing an image we adjust it to work
more particularly with that zone of the objective which has the
greatest illuminating power, i.e. through which most rays of light

22, 42 - 22,

and 82 — 6 2 respectively,

or as 1 3

7

New Way of producing Colour-Contrast . By J. Rheinberg. 383

reach the eye. When we use a cone of illumination equal in aperture
to the aperture of the objective, each part of the whole area of the
objective back may be considered as receiving approximately an equal
quantity of direct light and equal quantity of diffracted and refracted
beams ; consequently, most light reaches the eye from the marginal
zone of the objective, the light from the other zones being flooded out
to a smaller or greater extent. With the photographic plate the same
thing of course occurs. The practical result seems to be that we
focus for the outermost zone of the objective, which receives direct
light from the condenser; and this probably, to a certain extent,
explains why few objectives of high power will admit of a full cone of
light being used.

But this is somewhat of a digression from the main subject.

Let me now refer to the method of optical colouring available with
low powers.

This is an extension, as I have before mentioned, of ordinary
dark-ground illumination.

We place in the diaphragm carrier of the condenser coloured discs
similar to those for use above the objective, only of larger size, and
in this case the central portion of the disc, which we will suppose to
be blue, must be sufficiently large that the cone of light it transmits
completely fills the aperture of the objective (plate IX. fig. 3). The
red periphery should be of the full aperture of the condenser. Using
a cone of light as large as the condenser will permit we see the object
red on a blue background. In the previous method we utilised the
central pencils of light, which impinging on the object at a relatively
small angle from the normal, are bent outwards into other zones of
the objective ; in this method we chiefly use the oblique illuminating
pencils from the condenser which the object bends inwards so that
they can be taken up by the objective (plate IX. fig. 4).

So far, the action of the two is somewhat analogous, but the
conditions determining the result in the present method are much
simpler than in the former one, for they resolve themselves into a
mere question of the relative quantity of light of the different colours
which impinge on the object.

If the diameter of the central blue zone is one-third the diameter
of the whole disc, the difference in area between it and the red portion
is so great that the relatively small percentage of the former scarcely
affects the general colour of the object visibly.

With this method we can also get many further results by using
discs with the colours differently arranged. Supposing we use a disc
with the central red and the periphery divided into four quadrants,
the two opposite ones being blue and the other two yellow (fig. 1 g ),
and look at an object having ridges or striations at right angles to
one another, then, taking care to bring the disc to the correct position,
the one set appears blue, the other yellow, the whole on a red back-
ground.

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Transactions of the Society .

Again, if we use a disc with centre red and the remainder bilat-
erally divided (plate IX. fig. 1 e ) and look at a serrated or fibrous object,
e.g. a bundle of muscle- fibres, the one side of the separate fibres
appears blue, the other yellow. The general form and structure of
an object are brought out most forcibly in this way.

The same effects which can be obtained with low powers by use
of coloured discs in the diaphragm-carrier of the condenser may also
be obtained, though not so conveniently generally, by placing screens,
coloured in similar fashion to the disc3, between the source of illumi-
nation and the mirror, and with high powers we can get the same
effects as those before described with discs over the objective, by
interposing suitably sized discs between object and objective, or
between the lenses of the objective — in fact I have obtained my best
results with the latter method, though for general practice it has very
obvious disadvantages. As to having the discs between object and
objective, that has the disadvantage that the spots or other colouring
on the discs have to be exceedingly minute, and that a disc in this
position disturbs the correction of the lens very much more than
when the disc is placed above the objective, so that for ordinary
purposes the latter plan is most useful.

It is also possible to combine the high- and low-power methods
with an objective of * 6 N.A. for example, although I have not yet
been able to get very sitisfactory results in this way. We should
in this case use, say, a disc in the carrier of the condenser having a
blue margin admitting the whole annular cone of light (if I may use
such an expression) greater than *6 N. A., whilst the remainder of the
disc would be blackened with exception of a small central space
admitting a cone of • 1 to *2 N.A. which would remain clear (plate IX.
fig. 1 h). In conjunction with this we should use one of the ordinary
discs (plate IX. fig. I c or b) above the objective as described before,
and the two discs would then be helping each other as far as the
effect is concerned.

Now with respect to the applications to which I believe these
methods of viewing objects will lend themselves.

In the first place, we can view many unstained botanical and
physiological preparations to greater advantage. The effect of the
colour-discs on these in many cases is not only to make the structure
appear more distinct, but also to increase depth perception, and throw
the object up into almost stereoscopic relief. This seems partly to
be due to the mingling of the colour of the background with that
of the object in a greater or less proportion according to its shape,
thickness, Ac., which results in a gradual transition between two
contrasting colours, which, similar to shadow effects, the eye readily
and unconsciously interprets into the forms of relief. We have in
fact an intensified form of the well-known stereoscopic effect when we
look at complementary colours in apposition.

But apart from this we actually get, for reasons which I cannot

'New Way of 'producing Colour-Contrast. By J. Bheinberg. 385

completely explain, a greater penetrating power, especially with the
low-power method, and sections which are too thick for viewing in
the ordinary way appear quite distinct when this method is applied ;
semiopaque preparations such as bone, where it is often difficult to
get very thin sections, show up especially well.

I am in hope, therefore, that the method may prove of service to
the general medical practitioner and student, where a rapid examina-
tion of sections or objects may be desirable, and where careful cutting
and staining are impossible or might take too long. Of course, as far
as staining is concerned, it only applies to such objects where the
raison d'etre of the staining is for the sake of general contrast
with the background, as it is obvious that it cannot in any way replace
selective staining. Stained preparations themselves also show up
well on a background of other colour, notably again such as are too
thick to be seen well by ordinary methods.

Secondly, it is available in that important class of research — the
observation of living organisms. At present we have few means of
sufficiently clearly differentiating the structure of living organisms,
except by the aid of one or two stains such as Bismarck-brown, or by
dark-ground illumination. The colour-disc method seems particularly
to make the internal organs stand out more distinctly. With such
living organisms as naturally show different colours in different parts,
better results can be generally obtained with discs the centre only of
which is coloured, because a coloured rim suppresses the natural
diversity of hue to a great extent.

For crystals and other mineralogical specimens the method is very
suitable, since it shows up their form more than otherwise.

For the examination of commercial fibres, as silk, wool, cotton,
and for viewing thin fabrics, it is useful, as it admits of the fibres or
threads being counted more readily, apart from increased distinctness
of structure. I may mention that with one of the discs as described
before, for throwing red and blue light on the object in directions at
right angles to each other, I have been able to make the weft of a
finely woven cloth appear completely red, whilst the warp appeared
blue.

The next class of objects for which I believe it to be of value are
those where we deal with resolution of striae or dots, e.g. diatoms,
and all objects which refract and diffract light strongly in a regular
manner. The whole system of the colour-disc illumination being
based upon refraction and diffraction, such objects are naturally suit-
able to experiment with, and generally, lend themselves easily to a
variety of results apart from those obtained by use of the ordinary
concentrically arranged colour-discs. If the striations consist of
ridges, we can, with the low-power method, cause the opposite sides
of the ridges to assume different colours. If there are sets of striations
in different directions, we can likewise differentiate them in colour.
By means of the modified colour-discs to which I have already

386 Transactions of the Society.

referred, we can visibly separate the coarse structure from the fine
and view both side by side, and so on.

It has frequently been emphasised by microscopists how, in the
ease of diatoms and many other objects, it is very often not only
what we actually see that has to be taken into account, but the infer-
ences which we can draw as to the structure, from that which we
happen to see ; as a familiar instance, I might mention air or oil-
bubbles in water. And in all such cases where we have to relv more
or less on inferences, I think it will be found that the colour-disc
method renders good service ; it is able to play the part, as it were, of
a special kind of optical analysis. This leads me to another important
matter, where I am confident that the application of the method will
yield good results, viz. in theoretical investigations concerning the
optics of the Microscope, and certain questions in optics generally.
It appears to me that such questions as the mutual interaction of
light of different wave-lengths under certain circumstances, the exact
parts which the different zones of the objective play in the formation
of the image under varying conditions, the relative quality and nature
of dioptric and diffraction beams, and other problems relating to inter-
ference of fight-waves as connected with the formation of the micro-
scopic image, might be further elucidated with its help.

To a limited extent I have experimented on the above fines
myself, but more exhaustive investigations than I am capable of
carrying out, even if' I had the time to do so, are certainly desirable,
and I hope that they will be undertaken by some of the Fellows of
the lfoyal Microscopical Society, or other competent men of science.

At this place I should like to observe, too, that this paper
does not profess to be more than a record of experiments and an
exposition of my personal view s, which, as far as they relate to the
practical uses of the methods in question, must remain to be verified
by the actual results of independent workers in the various branches
of practical microscopy. As for the utility of the method in the
advancement of microscopical optics, I am glad to say. in confirmation
of my views, that this has been recognised by such well-known
authorities as Prof. Abbe and Dr. Czapski, of Jena, who expressed
to me, about a year ago, their opinion that the method is of much
theoretical interest in itself, and would probably prove of value in
theoretical research.

There is one department of microscopy where the colour-disc3
may perhaps be used to advantage, to which I have not yet alluded,
viz. photomicrography.

This subject is too large to deal with in a paper like the present ;
moreover, my experiments in this direction are too few to enable me
to form an opinion as to its practical utility. May be, however, that
bv its means, for instance, we shall be able to secure greater contrast
with high-power photography since we are able to modify the relative
actinic power of the light depicting the background and that depict-

New Way of producing Colour-Contrast, By J. Rlieinberg. 387

ing the object, or even of particular structure in the object. At all
events, interesting results from a theoretical point of view may he
looked for by the application of the colour-discs to photomicrography,
and I am convinced that an extended series of experiments in this
direction will well repay the time spent.

It may not he amis3 to describe briefly how the colour-discs may
be prepared.

For the condenser colour discs or for the stand-up screens, glass
painted in the required manner with coloured gelatin can be employed.
If desirable, another thin glass can be cemented with Canada balsam
over the gelatin film, to prevent the liability of scratches. For the
discs to be used with the objective, however, gelatin films will not
do, as they cannot be got sufficiently homogeneous. For these it is
preferable to coat the glasses with coloured collodion. This may be
made by dissolving a small portion of colouring substance such as
fuchsin, methylen-blue or malachite-green in alcohol to which, after
filtration, an equal quantity of ether is poured. To this is added
sufficient pure collodion to give a thin film on glass (generally an
equal quantity to the above mixture). If the collodion when applied
to the glass peels off, more alcohol should be added ; if the film cracks
when drying, more ether must be added. Microscopic cover-glasses
of the required size are now coated with the coloured mixtures, and
supposing, for example, that we want to make a disc with 2 mm.
diameter blue centre and red periphery, we should take a red disc and
scratch off the collodion film with a needle point from the central
zone of 2 mm. diameter, and from a blue disc we should remove the
film from all except that central part. Then the two glasses can be
cemented together with Canada balsam with their filmed surfaces in
contact.

For experimental purposes, where great durability is not required,
we can coat a single piece of thin glass one colour one side, the other
colour on the opposite side, and then scratch off the films where not
wanted. When absolute homogeneity of the film is required, it is
better to coat large sheets of thin glass with the collodion, nnd
subsequently cut the circular discs from these.

Another way of making the discs is to insert a circular piece of
glass of one colour into a corresponding drilled hole in another, and to
grind the two together to ensure plane parallel surfaces, otherwise we
obtain a lateral displacement of images from the two parts as in the
dou.ble-image colour-discs. A better way than both of these, un-
doubtedly the best way in fact, would be to stain glass directly in
various colours, if this can be done.

Besides homogeneity of the discs, one other requirement will be
necessary to obtain the finest results with high-power work, viz. to
make some provision for the alteration in the correction of the lens by
the interposition of the glass discs above (or between) the lenses of
the objective. If it were not too expensive and did not necessitate

388 Transactions of the Society.

the use of a separate lens for each colour effect, one of the objective
lenses itself might be suitably coloured, but even this would have the
disadvantage that the size of the spot would be fixed, whilst practice
shows that larger spots are desirable for some objects than for others.
No doubt, however, opticians can find some simple and convenient
arrangement in order to be able to use the discs in best harmony with
the rest of the Microscope.

With the low-power method it is desirable to have an arrange-
ment for altering the distance between the discs and the back lens of
the condenser, within certain limits, as this will allow us to control
the N.A. of the cone passing through the central area as necessity
may require.

I shall not trouble you much longer, as this paper has already
exceeded in length what I intended, but I cannot close without a word
or two as to an objection which will probably be raised against the
use of the high-power colour-disc method.

At a time like the present, when there are two schools of micro-
scopists, the one in favour of wide, the other in favour of narrow cones
of illumination, I am fully aware that any method adapted for work
in the latter manner will be looked upon with disfavour by many.
Personally I cannot make up my mind in favour of either of the two
parties, the subject is too intricate ; there are too many pros and cons
on both sides ; and when we see the war waging on the subject in the
4 English Mechanic * as recently as this year, and come to note the
diversity of opinion of the various authorities, I would submit that the
whole question must await the light of further investigations before
we can definitely consider the matter settled, and that at present it is
to a great extent an empirical matter what size cone of illumination it
is best to use. Perhaps the colour-disc method will contribute to the
further elucidation of this most important problem.

In conclusion, I will express the hope that the methods of observa-
tion discussed this evening will be taken up and developed by opticians
and practical microscopists, and that before very long they will be
definitely established as an aid to microscopical research.

389

Till. — The Royal Microscopical Society's Standard Screw-Thread
for Nose-Piece and Object-Glasses of Microscopes.

Being the Report of a Sub- Committee of the Council, drawn up by
Conrad Beck, F.R.M.S., Secretary to the Sub-Committee.

( Read lltli June , 1896.)

The so-called Standard Screw-Thread of the Royal Microscopical
Society has been but an imperfect standard, and has not ensured that
interchangeability which it originally promised. It has been our
duty to investigate the causes of this state of affairs, and to formulate
a plan by which such an inconvenience should be remedied in the
future.

Without going too closely into the entire history of the subject,
we propose to briefly explain the reasons why the original standard
was not efficient for practical purposes, and then to state the plan
which the Council of the Royal Microscopical Society has now adopted
for the future.

The specification of the original standard screw was as follows : —

Form of Thread. — Whitworth thread, i.e. a Y-shaped thread,
sides of thread inclined at an angle of 55° to each other, one-sixth of
the Y depth of the thread being rounded off at the top of the thread,
and one-sixth of the thread being rounded off at the bottom of the
thread.

Pitch of Screiv, 36 to the inch.

Length of Thread on Object-Glass , 0*125 in.

Plain Fitting above Thread of Object-Glass 0*15 in. long, to be
about the size of the bottom of male thread.

Length of Thread of Nose-Piece not less than 0 * 125 in.

Diameter of the Object-Glass Screw at the bottom of the screw,
0*7626 in.

Diameter of the Nose-Piece Screw at the bottom of the thread,

0*8 in.

When the exact form of the Whitworth screw-thread is calculated
it will be found that this allows a difference between the male and
female screw of 0*0018 in., which is in itself quite sufficient margin
of looseness to make an easy fit.

The Society had two plug and ring gauges, one 0*8 in. and the
other 0*7626 in., made by Whitworth as standards for the use of the
Society, and it has been shown that if an adjustable tap and die (as
recommended by the late Mr. Richard Beck in a paper printed in the
‘Transactions of the Microscopical Society/ 1859, p. 92) be made
which could be accurately adjusted to these standard sizes so that the
tap exactly fitted the 0*8 in. ring size, and the die exactly fitted the

1896 2 e

390

Transactions of the Society.

0*7626 in. plug, the exact standard screw as originally suggested
could be adhered to. These adjustable taps and dies were not used
for cutting the thread, but for passing over each thread after it had
been cut to approximately the right size. That this method will work
satisfactorily, is evidenced by the fact that in the late Mr. Eichard
Beck’s firm the method has been in successful operation ever since.

The use, however, of such a system involved the necessity of
every maker being provided with adjustable tap and die, and also the
two pairs of plug and ring Whitworth sizes, together with a means of
accurately sharpening the adjustable tap and die. And it was found
in practice that Microscope makers were not universally prepared to
go to such an outlay for a matter which at that time did not appear
to be of such importance as has since proved to be the case.

Therefore the Society issued solid taps, and finding that, as is
well known to be the case, a solid tap could not be made to an exactly
accurate size owing to the alteration of the steel during the process of
hardening and tempering, they had them made somewhat larger than
the standard 0*8 in. gauge. An additional reason for their being
larger was to allow for the slight wearing of the tap after prolonged
use.

Here, however, there was no record of the amount larger which
the taps were made, and although the first set appear to have been care-
fully manufactured, those which were from time to time obtained were
less and less like the original, and in this manner a discrepancy arose
which the arrangements now adopted by the Council are intended to
correct for the future.

Beyond the fact that the Council specify that the diameter of the
plain fitting of the object-glass should be as near as possible to, but
not exceeding 0*759 in., and that the length of this fitting has been
reduced to 0 * 1 in., the original specification of the standard screw is
only altered as to the exact diameters of the screw itself.

The original specification of these diameters allowed only 0*0018
for clearance between the male and female screw.

If absolutely exact sizing taps and dies could be made which
should not wear, the original diameters might have been adhered to,
but as has been previously pointed out, adjustable dies in connection
with gauges, &c., are requisite for this.

The Council has been able to obtain taps and dies which are
guaranteed not to vary more than 1/1000 of an inch larger or smaller
than the nominal size. And they are therefore having manufactured
a series of taps of the nominal diameter on the top of the screw-
thread of 0*8015 in. which will not vary more than from 0*8005
in. to 0*8025 in. To ensure this the Council has ordered a Whit-
worth plug and ring, size 0 * 803 in. in diameter, and no tap will be
allowed to be stamped with the Society’s stamp unless it will pass
easily through this 0 * 803 in. ring, and unless it is of such a size
that it will not enter the 0*8 in. standard gauge already in the
Society’s possession.

The Boyal Microscopical Society's Standard Screw-Thread. 391

They are also having made a series of dies of the nominal inside
diameter on the top of the thread of O’ 7611 in., which will not vary
more than from 0*7601 to 0*7621. To test this the Council has
ordered a Whitworth plug and ring, size 0*7596 in. diameter, and
no die will be allowed to be stamped with the Society’s stamp unless
it will pass easily over the 0*7596 in. plug and will not pass over
the 0 * 7 626 in. plug.

These taps and dies will be for sale almost immediately, at cost
price, 21 15s. for each pair of tap and dies, and it is earnestly
requested that every maker of Microscopes will possess himself of a
pair of these sizing gauges.

The Council believe that at such time as these sizing taps and
dies have come into universal use the standard screw-thread will have
been put upon a permanent basis, and complete interchangeability of
all object-glasses will have been established.

Specification of

The Royal Microscopical Society Standard Screw.

Thread. — Whitworth screw, i.e. a Y-shaped thread, sides of thread
inclined at an angle of 55° to each other, one-sixth of the Y depth
being rounded off at the top and the bottom of the thread.

2 e 2

392

Transactions of the Society .

Pitch. — 36 to the inch.

Length of Thread on Object- Glass 0*125 in.

Plain Fitting above Thread of Object-Glass 0*1 in. long, not to
exceed 0*759 in. in diameter.

Diameter (C) of Thread on Object-Glass at top of thread not to
exceed 0*7982 in., or to be less than 0*7952 in.

Diameter (D) of Thread on Object-Glass at bottom of thread not
to exceed 0*7626 in., or to be less than 0*7596 in.

Length of Screw of Nose-Piece to be not less than 0*125 in.

Diameter of Screw of Nose-Piece (A) at top of thread not to
exceed 0*7674 in., or be less than 0*7644 in.

Diameter of Screw of Nose-Piece (B) at bottom of thread not to
exceed 0 * 803 in., or be less than 0*8 in.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others .* * * §

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.-}-

Evolution and Epigenesis.J — Herr P. Samassa points out that F. v.
Wagner, in his criticism of Hertwig’s views as to development, uses the
words “ evolution ” and “ epigenesis ” as if they were meant to express
that the conditions of development were from within and from without
respectively. This is quite a mistake. The original usage of the two
terms had no particular reference to the importance or unimportance of
environmental conditions, nor has the modern usage.

Experimental Biology.§ — The editor of the ‘ American Naturalist ’
has brought together in a convenient form notices of recent memoirs on
experimental embryology published in Roux’s ‘ Archiv fur Entwickel-
ungsmechanik.’ Mr. T. H. Morgan presents evidence to show that two
blastulue of Sphser echinus may fuse together and form one embryo.
Notwithstanding complete fusion, the future development of such
blastulae gives evidence of their dual origin. Another paper by the
same worker records a variation in the cleavage of the eggs of the same
sea urchin, when shaken ; while most eggs divide into 2, 4, 8, and 16
cells, some were found to divide at once into three. Eggs that have not
been shaken sometimes divide at once into four cells.

A third paper gives a detailed account of the partial larvae obtained
when the eggs of the same urchin are shaken into fragments. Mr. Morgan,
with Dr. Driesch, has investigated the remarkable half-larvae obtained

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development and Reproduction, and allied

subjects. + Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 368-71.

§ Amer. Nat., xxx. (1896) pp. 76-82.

394

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

by Chun. Dr. Driesch, starting with the fact that it has been proved
that isolated cleavage cells may produce an entire organism, sought to
find where the limits of this power appear in the subsequent stage
of development. He appears to have soon come to a state in which the
primitive tendency of cells to replace others in the formation of organs
becomes lost. Herr Herlizka succeeded in tying a thread about the
eggs of Triton cristatus in such a way as to completely separate the first
two cleavage cells.

Experimental Teratogeny.* — Dr. F. Supino has some general notes
on this subject, and describes a double and a tbree-eyed trout. He sub-
mitted trout ova to the influence of an induction current, but the results
showed little beyond a debilitating and dwarfing of the young. For the
causes of monstrosities in the strict sense, Supino looks to organismal
rather than to environmental conditions.

Atlas of the Fertilisation and Xaryokinesis of the Ovum.f — Prof.
E. B. Wilson, with the aid of Dr. E. Learning, has prepared a most
instructive and valuable atlas of the fertilisation and karyokinesis of
the ovum. It is the object of this work to place before teachers and
students of Biology a series of figures photographed directly from nature,
to illustrate some of the principal phenomena in the fertilisation and early
development of the animal ovum. While the discoveries of recent years
must in some measure be dealt with by every text-book on the subject^
they belong to a region of observation inaccessible to the general reader
or student, since they can only be approached by means of a refined
histological technique applied to special objects. No drawing, it is
remarked, can convey an accurate mental picture of the real object. The
photograph, whatever be its shortcoming, at least gives an absolutely
unbiassed representation of what appears under the Microscope. The
eggs selected were those of the common sea urchin Toxopneustes varie-
gatns. These have the great advantage of being devoid of pigment and
very transparent, so that nuclei, asters, and spindles can be clearly seen,
and their history followed in life. The general results of Prof. Wilson’s
investigations are entirely opposed to those of Fol on every essential
point. With regard to the bearings of his observations on the general
question of inheritance, they seem, if accurate, to afford a conclusive
demonstration that the archoplasm is not concerned in inheritance,
since it is derived from one sex only. These investigations thus remove
some of the objections that have been urged against the nuclear theory
of inheritance, and confirm the view of Boveri that the archoplasm is
essentially a dynamic element of the cell, concerned with cell-division.
They indicate further, in the author’s opinion, that neither the archo-
plasm nor the centrosome can in any proper sense be regarded as a
necessary and constant element of the cell.

Reviewing this atlas, Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, J under the suggestive
title of “ The photography of histological evidence,” makes some
interesting and valuable remarks on the real value of photography.
He comes to the conclusion that, when photography has done its best,

* Bull. Soc. Veneto-Trent. Sci. Nat., vi. (1896) pp. 43-9 (3 figs.).

f New York, 1895, large 4to, 32 pp., 10 photo, plates, 20 figs. See also Proc.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxvi. (1895) pp. 469-73.

X Nature, liv. (1896) p. 73.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

395

the evidence of the condition of the nuclei represented at a particular
moment still rests upon Prof. Wilson’s reputation as a histologist as
completely as it could have done had he published the woodcuts only,
or no figures at all. It seems certain that the best photograph, at
present possible, does not show as much as can be seen by looking
directly at a good histological preparation, so that it is not yet possible
for the histologist to multiply copies of his evidence, in a form from
wticli the subjective element is altogether excluded. There is still no
way of testing a histological subject without direct examination of the
object described. Prof. Weldon thinks that a careful drawing by a
trained observer gives a better idea of appearances seen under the
Microscope, than the best available reproduction by photograph can at
present achieve.

Spermatogenesis.* — Prof. K. von Bardeleben maintains that only the
heads of spermatozoa arise from the spermatides, and these from the
round,” darkly nucleated, peripheral cells (spermatogonia) by karyo-
kinesis. The tails, and especially the axis-threads, arise from the cells
with pale nucleus, which have their origin from, or are identical with,
the supporting, basal, or Sertoli’s cells. The tails arise amitotically by
outgrowth or disruption of these cells. Thus the two parts arise
separately, and the thickened anterior end of the (hollow ?) axial thread
unites with the posterior end of the vesicular or balloon-like head-rudi-
ment, forming at the junction the so-called N ebenJcdrper. There is a
distinct origin for the fertilising substance and the motile substance,
and the originating elements may be termed head-cells and tail-cells. On
this view the head corresponds to the ovum, the tail to follicle-cells or
egg-envelopes.

Development of Liver and Adjacent Parts.j — Prof. A. Swaen has
studied in the rabbit the development of the mid-gut, liver, and pos-
terior peritoneal cavity. The hepato-enteric cavity is a primitive
formation, and nowise the result of a rotatory movement of the gut. In
embryos of 10J-11 days this cavity is in its anterior portion a vertical
cleft in the mesenteric septum along the right lateral wall of the gut ;
it divides the fold into two portions, of which the right is the meso-
lateral. Posteriorly, the cavity is an antero-posterior groove in the
middle part of the mesenteric septum ; still further back it passes into
a cul-de-sac. The rotatory movement of the gut modifies the situation
of the hepato-enteric cavity and leads to the formation of a dorsal meso-
gastrium. Prof. Swaen proceeds to follow out the intricate modifications
of cavities and mesenteries, and describes the development of the lobes
of the liver and of the abdominal veins and sinuses.

Normal Hyperthely in Human Embryos.f — Dr. H. Schmidt gives
an account of his observations on the occurrence of supernumerary
mammary glands in human embryos. They occurred both above and
below the normal glands, but were all localised in the upper pectoral
region. He regards embryonic hyperthely as the normal condition.

* Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1896) pp. 697-702.

t Journ. de l’Anat. Physiol., xxxii. (1896) pp. 1-84 (3 pis.).

t Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1896) pp. 702-11.

396 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Glandular Character of Umbilical Vesicle.* — Dr. Graf Spee shows
that the epithelial covering of the human umbilical vesicle developes
into a distinct glandular tissue. This is clearest about the end of the
third week of pregnancy. He regards the tissue as a simple hepatic
tissue, discharging at an early date functions which the liver after-
wards performs.

Mullerian Duct of Crocodile.t — Dr. Gregg Wilson describes the de-
velopment of the ostium abdominale tubae in the crocodile. His results,
taken along with Wiedersheim’s, indicate that the Mullerian duct is
derived from tbe thickened coelomic epithelium that appears first round
the pronephric nephrostomes, and afterwards extends backwards to give
rise to the perfect tube.

Oviposition of the Snapping Turtle.:}: — Prof. K. Mitsukuri has made
a study of the number of times the Trionyx lays eggs in one season.
He comes to the conclusion that during certain warm months of the
year, May to August, when the temperature is within certain limits,
successful crops of eggs rapidly mature, and are deposited as soon as
they mature. As a general rule, three or four deposits are thus made
in the course of one season. The difference in the number is mainly due
to meteorological conditions, but perhaps also to some extent to other
circumstances, such as the healthy condition of the ponds, the age of
individuals, and the supply of food.

Blastopore of Frogs’ Eggs.§ — Mr. J. B. Russell wishes to direct
special attention to the fact that in the development of the frog the
alimentary cavity is formed as a narrow slit-like aperture. This slit
rapidly grows inwards and spreads out beneath the surface of the egg,
near the future dorsal surface of the embryo. The history of develop-
ment shows that the hypoblast, which lines the embryonic canal, is
derived from yolk-cells.

j8. Histology.

Mechanism of Cell-Division. || — Prof. W. Flemming allows that
Driiner’s interpretation of the central spindle as a supporting organ,
which keeps the poles apart, has much to recommend it, but he adheres
to his position that the polar rays have a directive and attractive action.
He admits, also, that he was inaccurate in speaking of a centrifugal
shortening of the polar rays as the condition of the divergence of the
poles ; all that he meant was a change of tension.

Altmann’s Granula.l" — Dr. G. Zanier supports, against the[criticism
of A. Fischer and others, the view that Altmann’s granules pertain to the
normal structure of protoplasm, and are expressions of its inherent vital
activity. He lays emphasis on the uniformity of their occurrence in
embryos as well as in adults, in fasting as well as in normal animals.

Structure of Nucleus.** — Dr. G. Catterina gives a brief history of
research as to the structure of the nucleus, and adds his own observa-

* Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 76-9. f Tom. cit., pp. 79-85 (8 figs.)

t Zool. Mag., vii. (1895) pp. 143-7.

§ Trans. Hertfordshire Nat. Hist. Soc., viii. (1895) pp. 129-30 (1 pi.).

|| Aich. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 696-702 (4 figs.).

If Bull. Soc. Veueto-Trent. Sci. Nat., vi. (1896) pp. 63-7.

** Tom. cit., pp. 67-76.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

397

tions. Among these we note that in the red blood-corpuscles of birds
and amphibians, and in the marrow of mammals, he finds a fine nuclear
reticulum, which stains with eosin. The reticulum shows minute en-
largements at the intersections of its threads. The author identifies it
with the achromatin-reticulum. As the cytoplasm and the nuclear mem-
brane also stain with eosin, he emphasises the continuity of cytoplasmic
and nuclear material.

Granular Leucocytes.* — Dr. G. L. Gulland has, during the past
seven years, accumulated a mass of material consisting of everything
which bears upon the study of leucocytes. These bodies must be fixed by
reagents, of which the best is sublimate, if we desire to examine their
finer structure.

The author thinks that it is impossible to divide leucocytes into a
haemal variety and a coelomic variety, for (1) lymphocytes are the pre-
cursors of all forms ; (2) leucocytes are not present in the blood in
early foetal life ; (3) they are constantly passing from blood to connec-
tive tissue, and vice versa ; (4) the mitotic reproduction of leucocytes
takes place almost entirely in adenoid tissue. All varieties of leuco-
cytes are merely stages in the development of a tissue. They may be
divided for convenience, and with regard to the presence or absence of
granules, into three main groups, the hyaline, acidophile, and basophile.
These forms are all derived from the lymphocytes, which are the
daughter-cells derived from the mitosis of all leucocytes.

The author is of opinion that the granules of leucocytes are not
products of the metabolic activity of the cell imbedded in a structureless
protoplasm, as was hitherto supposed, but represent an altered condition
of the microsomes. They always form part of the cytomitoma, and are
therefore plasmatic, and not paraplastic. They are probably concerned
with amoeboid movement, and they and the rest of the mitoma are more
visible, the more active the cell. In diseased conditions it is utterly
impossible to say what organ is affected, from the kind of leucocytes
present in excess in the blood.

Muscle-Spindles and Nerve-Endings.j — Dr. Chr. Sihler describes
the simple muscle-spindles of snakes and the more complex, but more
familiar, muscle-spindles of the frog, and interprets both as the sensory
end-organs of the muscles.

A terminal plate is a composite organ. It consists of a number of
fine terminal fibres, each of which is surrounded for some distance by
Henle’s sheath, which may still exhibit a nucleus. The proper terminal
fibres often show nuclei corresponding to those of Schwann’s sheath,
and bear Endbeeren enclosed in a sheath of protoplasm. Besides these
there are often 4-6 so-called “ sole-nuclei.” Thus there are three
different sets of nuclei.

Sympathetic Ganglion-Cells of the Frog4 — Dr. A. Dehler finds
that the sympathetic ganglion-cells of the frog must be ranked among
those cells which, even in the resting stage, show central bodies and a
centered cytoplasmic structure. He has demonstrated a central-corpuscle-

* Journ. Physiol., xix. (1896) pp. 385-417 (2 pis.).

t Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 709-23 (1 pi.).

X Tom. cit., pp. 724-39 (1 pi.).

398

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

group, thus confirming von Lenhossek’s discovery of centrosome and
sphere in the same calls.

He suggests, as an explanation of certain discrepancies, that there
are two kinds of sympathetic ganglion-cells : — (1) those surrounded by
spiral fibres, giving off a single undivided nerve-process to the peri-
phery, and corresponding to the motor cells in the anterior cornu of the
spinal cord ; and (2) those without the spiral fibres, and with a process
which divides into a half going central wards and a half going to the peri-
phery, corresponding to the sensory nerve-cells of the cerebro-spinal
system.

Formation and Structure of Dental Enamel.* — Dr. J. L. Williams

summarises the special points of the results of his research in something
like the following terms. He has discovered the existence of a very thin
membrane, or a structure of a membrane-like appearance, lying between
the ameloblasts and the forming enamel. Enamel is formed by deposit
and not by cell-calcification ; this deposit probably consists of two distinct
cell-products. The varicosities of the enamel rods are not caused by
acids, but represent a true structural peculiarity of this tissue. The
varicosities correspond with the course of one set of fibres, and may
therefore be caused by their presence.

•y. General.

Homology and Atavism.^ — Prof. 0. Emery emphasises the contrast
between two kinds of variation : — (a) a variation common to a whole
series of organs, and dependent on a germ-plasmic correlation ; and
(6) the special differentiation of individual orgaus or groups of organs.
He also maintains that an abnormality can be regarded as an atavism
only when traces of the observed structure are demonstrable in the
normal ontogeny. Deviations of which the normal ontogeny shows not
the slightest hint cannot be referred to latent ancestral rudiments. He
urges the distinction between retrogressive changes and reversion,
between resemblance to ancestral structure and genuine atavism. Also,
inter alia, he agrees with many that the succession of events in ontogeny
is in no way the direct consequence of phylogeny, but the resultant of
physico-chemical factors and of the relative potency of older and
younger germinal elements. Recapitulation, palingenesis, and coeno-
genesis, are all metaphors.

Biological Action of Rontgen’s Rays.J — Prof. S. Capranica has
experimented with white mice, subjecting them to the action of Ront-
gen’s rays. In his introductory experiments he found that the same
quantity of C02 was given off in complete darkness and in diffuse day-
light, but that intense illumination, whether solar or artificial, had a
marked effect on respiration. Rontgen’s rays had no influence on the
amount of C02 eliminated, either during digestion or during fasting.
But they were followed by a marked nervous excitement, in regard to
which details arc promised.

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., lix. (1896) pp. 181 and 2.

+ Biol. Centralbl. , xvi. (1896) pp. 344-52.

X Atti ft. Accad. Lincei (Rend.), v. (1896) pp. 416-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

399

Tunicata.

Polymorphism of Buds in Colella.* — M. M. Caullery notes, in
regard to this genus, the characteristic disposition of the four rows of
tremata, the unisexuality of the corms, and the origin of the buds in a
manner similar to what occurs in Distaplia. He dwells, however, upon
the occurrence of two hinds of buds (a) without reserve-substances, and
(6) with abundant stores in the ectodermic investment. The latter,
being far from the head, are, by their position, slow of developing ; it
is probable that they regenerate the colony when the head portion is
amputated. It is also noteworthy that as the ectodermic part of the
bud is wholly given over to storage, all the organs arise from the internal
endodermic portion.

INVEHTEBRATA.

Blood-Corpuscles.f — Prof. P. Owsjannikow has made a study of the
blood-corpuscles of the crayfish and the fresh-water mussel. He finds
that the blood-corpuscles of the former remain for a long time unaltered
under the influence of either low or high temperatures. Lower tem-
perature prevents also the coagulation of the blood. The nucleated cells
are only distinct from the spindle cells by their further development, the
former being only young stages of the latter. Phagocytotie phenomena
are only seen in the young forms, or, at least very rarely also in the
intermediate forms. The blood-cells consist of nucleus and protoplasm.
The former consists of one or two or, oftener, of several nuclear frag-
ments, a fluid and a membrane. The protoplasm consists of a spongy
body and a fluid, and contains nuclei, and a limiting layer, which in older
cells appears as a true limiting membrane. After this membrane is
formed phagocytosis is no more possible. In the blood-corpuscles of
the mussel there are also to be seen cells in various stages of de-
velopment.

Healing next with the lymph-glands of the crayfish, the author finds
that, in various organs, the connective tissue contains aggregations of
cells which in size, staining capacity, and other peculiarities, are seen to
be lymph-cells. He was led, therefore, to the conclusion that, in addi-
tion to one larger lymph-gland, there are in the body of the crayfish a
number of smaller glands. These may be some day detected by
injections.

Stinging Cells. f — Prof. M. Bedot describes as spirocysts the cnidse
cochleatse which Gosse noted in Actinozoa. They are simpler than
cnidoblasts, and quite different. The thread is very probably without
a cavity ; it is quite smooth and without barbs or the like, and issues
directly from the cell without evagination or attachment. In fact,
spirocysts are more like trichocysts than cnidoblasts.

Bedot goes on to note the occurrence of nematocysts in Eolididae and
Pleurophyllidiidee. In Pleurophyllidia lineata L. he saw spirocysts
beside the nematocysts. As to their alleged occurrence in the cuttle-

* Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 1066-9.

f Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, 1895, pp. 365-82 (1 pi.).

X Revue Suisse Zool., iii. (1896) pp. 533-9 (1 pi.).

400 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

fish Tremoctopus microstoma Reynaud, he satisfied himself that the
animal had simply appropriated the tentacle of a Medusa.

Mollusca.

Deep-Water Mollusca.* — Dr. W. H. Dali has a report on the
Mollusca dredged in deep water chiefly near the Hawaiian Islands. He
says that the material obtained is not only very interesting zoologically,
but wholly new. In his description of Spergo glandiniformis he is able
to give details as to the structure of the animal. There is an immense
crop, which, from the deep longitudinal wrinkles of its surface, is evidently
capable of being distended. It has a smooth, rather tough lining, without
any horny appendages. The teeth are set regularly in a single row on
each side of a strip of rather horny consistency. The width of the radula
from base to base is 1/125 in. The length of the developed radula is
about 1/20 in. This, for a creature over 4 in. long when extended,
seems very minute.

The opportunity of studying a new species of Euciroa enabled the
author to complete his description of the group, and establish its generic
distinctness ; the gills in particular appear to be specially peculiar,
bridging in some degree the transition between two other types of
gill-structure.

The anatomical details given in this memoir make it a very im-
portant contribution to our knowledge of the Mollusca.

Mollusca of Austrian Deep-Sea Expeditions, 1890-94.f — Dr. R.
Sturany finds that the uniformity of the Molluscous fauna of the greater
depths of the Mediterranean is proved afresh by the dredgings of the
‘ Pola.* An Atlantic origin has very rightly been ascribed to the deep-
sea fauna of the Mediterranean. The deeper parts of the eastern
Mediterranean appear to be poorer in shells than the similar parts of
the western basin. On the whole, nine new species were discovered,
and nine already long known are new to the fauna of the Adriatic.

Mollusca of Central Australia.^ — Prof. R. Tate has a report on the
Mollusca collected during the Horn Scientific Expedition to Central
Australia. Before the advent of this expedition, the published informa-
tion concerning the land shells of the region investigated was restricted
to three species. We know now that^tliat portion of Central Australia,
which Prof. Tate has named Larapintine, has 25, four of them extend-
ing beyond the area, while five others are more or less allied to forms
living beyond its limits. The remaining 16 offer such distinctive
characters that they must be regarded as restrictively endemic. The
fauna approximates in character more to that of subtropical and tem-
perate West Australia than to any other part of the Continent, and is in
strong contrast with that of tropical and subtropical regions to which
it is geographically equally near. The limited number of genera repre-
sented, together with the facts of their geographical distribution, would

* Proc. U.S. Mus., xvii. (1895) pp. 675-713. *

1 1 SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1896, pp. 56-9. See Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xvii.
(1896) pp. 469-70.

X Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia, pt. ii. (1896) pp. 181-219
(3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

401

seem to indicate a primitive population which has been maintained in
an isolated condition by climatic and geographic changes. There is
every reason to believe that the elevated parts of the Larapintine area
have been land surfaces from precretaceous times, and that climatic
extremes have prevailed since that period. Like the truly endemic
plants, the land snails live on the southern escarpments of the elevated
land, or in the deeply shadowed gorges of the same, and occur in more
restricted areas, sometimes as one colony only, or, if in more than one,
are usually widely separated from one another.

Mr. 0. Hedley * * * § has a note on the anatomical characters ?of some of
the Mollusca collected during this expedition. Viewing the fields of
anatomy and phylogeny from the standpoint to which Pilsbry’s study
has lately advanced science, the facts now detailed show that between
some Australian snails whose dentition and shells are much alike, a line
of cleavage is indicated by the reproductive system, while the same
feature knits together species hitherto separated by the systematists.

a. Cephalopoda.

Beaks of Cephalopods.f — Sig. F. Neri has investigated the minute
structure of the beaks of Cephalopods, and found that they consist of
fibrous cuticular laminae. He has inquired into their chemical composi-
tion, and with the help of his friends, Dr. G. Catani and Prof. F. Sestini,
has shown that the substance is not chitin, but rather allied to keratin.
The upper part is also encrusted with carbonate and sulphate of lime.

y. Gastropoda.

New Classification of Muricidae.J — Mr. F. C. Baker has published
a preliminary outline of a new classification of the Muricidac. This
classification, he says, is modern and original. He divides the family
into three sub-families, and gives diagnoses of them and of their genera,
for the details of which we must refer the student to the original.

Brachiopoda.

Deep-Sea Brachiopoda.§ — Mr. W. H. Dali has some remarks on the
Brachiopoda collected at the Hawaiian Islands and elsewhere in the
Pacific. For these, as for the Mollusca already noted, the chief value of
the paper lies in the anatomical details which it provides.

Bryozoa.

Development of Lichenopora verrucaria.|) — Mr. S. F. Harmer re-
minds the student that, when describing certain very remarkable pheno-
mena in the development of Crisia , he ventured to suggest that embryonic
fission would he found to be characteristic of the whole group of Cyclosto-
matous Polyzoa. A chance discovery of large numbers of colonies of

* Tom. cit., pp. 220-6 (16 figs.).

t Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., x. (1896) pp. 56-65, 118-20.

X Bull. Chicago Acad. Sci., ii. (1895) pp. 169-89.

§ Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xvii. (1895) pp. 713-29.

U Proc. Roy. Soc., lix. (1896) pp. 73 and 4 ; also Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxix
(1896) pp. 71-144 (4 pis.).

402

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Liehenopora verrucaria in all stages of development enabled him, not
only to confirm the main fact of the occurrence of embryonic fission, but
to discover certain remarkable phenomena in the life-history of that
species. It may be pointed out that it would not be easy to find two
genera of Cyclostomata which are more unlike than these two. It
follows, therefore, that the occurrence of the same mode of development
in the two forms may be taken as a good reason for believing that we
are really dealing with a process which is normal and characteristic of
the group.

One very striking fact which the author has succeeded in estab-
lishing is the restriction of the production of embryos to one or two of
the whole colony in the normal development. This may, perhaps, be
due to the fact that the colony in this genus is to be regarded as an
individual of a higher order. The discoid al form and the close
association of the zooecia have produced the result that the colony
behaves in this respect as if it were a single individual.

Tertiary Polyzoa of Victoria.* — Prof. Baldwin Spencer has edited
the monograph of the tertiary Polyzoa of Victoria, which is the last
contribution by the late P. H. Macgillivray to his favourite science.
It was largely by this author’s efforts that the 400 species of
recent Polyzoa now known to occur on the coasts of Victoria were
accurately determined. In Victoria, as well as in South Australia,
there are numerous tertiary formations containing large deposits of
Polyzoa, the accurate determination of which, especially in relation to
the living species, is of great interest. The most marked feature of the
fossil species is their striking resemblance to those of the existing fauna.
Of the species, not peculiarly Australian, which are identical with recent
species, most are cosmopolitan. The only important innovation in
nomenclature which the author makes in this paper is the introduction
of the term “ thyrostome ” for the opening through which the tentacles
and oral extremity of the polypide are protruded. The terms “ orifice,”
“ oral aperture,” and “ mouth ” are inaccurate and confusing, and the
proposed name will, no doubt, prove advantageous.

. Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Abdominal Appendages of Insects, j — Dr. H. Heymons has studied
the morphological characters of the various abdominal structures in
insects. The cerci arise from appendages on the eleventh embryonic
segment, but by the suppression of the latter become associated with the
tenth abdominal segment. The styles are to be interpreted as vestiges
of abdominal appendages, most marked in primitive forms, and under-
going gradual reduction. They are homologous with cerci. On the
other hand, the gonapophyses have no relation to apj>endages, but are
secondary hypodermic outgrowths or proliferations. In no epoch of
embryonic or larval life are there appendages on the segments on which
the gonapophyses occur.

* Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria, iv. (1895) pp. 1-166 (22"pls.).
t Morpliol. Jahrb., xxiv. (1896) pp. 178-204 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC,

403

Fossil Butterflies.* — Mr. S. H. Scudder states that fossil butterflies
are the greatest of rarities. They only occur in Tertiary deposits, and
out of the myriads of objects that have been exhumed from these beds in
Europe and America, less than twenty specimens have been found. From
one small lake 50,000 insects were collected, but of these eight alone were
butterflies. When they are preserved they are generally in such fair
condition that the course of the nervures, and the colour patterns of the
wings, can be determined, and in one case even the scales may be
studied.

Origin of European Butterflies-t — Mr. W. H. Bath calls attention
to the assertion of E. Hoffmann that of the 290 species of Rhopalocera
inhabiting Europe at the present time, no less than 173 were originally
derived from Siberia. If this be so, the majority of them probably
immigrated westward. The glacial species of butterflies, that is the
most ancient forms, are in many cases distinguished by their tendency to
form black varieties.

Colour Variation of a Beetle.^ — Mr. W. Bateson gives an account
of his statistical examination of the colour variations of the beetle
Gonioctena variabilis , which appears to be abundant in hilly places in
the South of Spain. He finds that we have here to do with a species
whose members exhibit variation in several different respects, and that
the variations occur in such a way that the individuals must be conceived
as grouped round several special typical forms. There is thus not one
normal for the species but several, though all live in the same localities
under the same conditions, and though they breed freely all together
these various forms are commoner than the intermediates between them.
Some time since, when calling attention to the excessive variability of
the colour of Coccinella decemjpundata and the no less striking constancy
of C. sejptempunctata which lives with it, Mr. Bateson remarked that to
ask us to believe that the colour of the one is constant, because it matters
to the animal, and that the other is variable because it does not matter,
is to ask us to abrogate reason. Mr. Wallace, it seems, is of this very
opinion, but he does not explain how it is that the colour of one is so
important, and the colour of the other unimportant to the beetle.

Male Genital Apparatus of Hymenoptera.§ — M. L. Bordas describes
in considerable detail the male genital 'apparatus of the various families
of the Hymenoptera ; although in appearance complicated, these parts
can be referred to a general scheme, the parts of which only differ in
form or size. Moreover, there are not those numerous accessory glands
of remarkable form which are found in other orders of Insects. Theoreti-
cally, the male genital apparatus of Hymenoptera consists of six parts
— the testicles, efferent canals, the seminal vesicles, accessory glands,
ejaculatory canals, and the copulatory armature. The testicles are
always paired, or united into a single mass, the double nature of which
is always indicated by a more or less distinct longitudinal groove ; each
gonad, enveloped in a double membrane, is made up, either of a large
number (250 to 300) of seminiferous canaliculi, or of a very small

* Amer, Natural., xxx. (1896) p. 154. f Tom. cit., pp. 154 and 5.

% Proc. Zool. Soc., 1895, pp, 850-60 (1 pi.).

404

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

number, ordinarily three. The efferent canals arise either from the
internal surface or from the external angles of each gonad ; they are
cylindrical and short, and have on their course a more or less marked
swelling, which forms the seminal vesicles. They vary a good deal in
size and form in different families ; they always open into voluminous
accessory glands, which are well marked in all species. The ejaculatory
canals which arise from these glands are sometimes rudimentary, as in
the bee, sometimes long and sinuous, and sometimes very short. The
copulatory armature is generally composed of six pieces, which vary very
much in form in different species.

Mouth-Parts and Terminal Armour of Cicada septendecim.* * * § —
Mr. J. D. Hyatt describes the four grooved setae which form the
“ sucking-tube,” the muscular labium which surrounds these, and the
ovipositor of the so-called “ seventeen-year locust.” As far as feeding
is concerned, no injurious influence could be detected on the trees the
insects frequented, and Hyatt thinks that they take very little, if any,
food after reaching the winged state. When the insect is engaged in
the act of sawing, the ovipositors slide backward and forward on T-shaped
rails, being held in place and guided by a central piece or so-called
sheath, which is trussed in such a manner that it might serve as a model
of rigidity combined with lightness and strength.

Ochthera.j — Dr. W. M. Wheeler calls attention to the parallelism
which exists between the peculiarly developed fore-legs of the flies of
this genus, and the fore-legs of the Mantidae, Mantispidas, and Nepidse,
which belong to three different orders of Insects, and the second
maxillipeds of the Crustacean Squilla. He thinks there is no doubt
that these are true cases of parallelism, the legs having assumed the
same form under the stress of similar conditions, but independently in
the different orders.

Structure of Strepsiptera.J — M. Fr. Meinert confirms some of
Nassonov’s results and controverts others. Without having recourse to
sections, he demonstrated the female imago within the larval skin. He
rejects the terms psedogenesis and pseudopsedogenesis, maintaining that
the state of affairs in Strepsiptera does not differ notably from other
cases with larval females. The “brood-canal” is due, as Nassonov
showed, to a simple depression of the median region of the ventral
surface ; Meinert regards it not as exit for the young, but as an entrance
for the spermatozoa; its associated “genital ducts” are receptacula
seminis. While others have given the name of head or cephalothorax
to the part of the body which protrudes from the “ stylopised ” insect,
Meinert regards it as the posterior region. He finds no trace of brain
or eyes ; indeed the female has no head nor need of one.

Mallophaga of North American Birds.§— Mr. Y. L. Kellogg has
described among water and shore birds one new genus and thirty-eight
new species, and identified other twenty-three which have been noted on
Old World birds. Of forty species taken from American land birds,

* Amer. Micr. Journ., xvii. (1896) pp. 45-51 (5 figs).

f J^ntomol. News, 1896, pp. 121-3.

x Oversigt K. Danske Vidensk. Selkabs, 1896, pp. 67-76 (4 figs.).

§ Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 121-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

405

twenty-four were new, and sixteen were referred to already described
Old World forms. In almost all cases where already known Old World
species were found, they were on birds identical or closely allied in
species with Old World birds. The species of Mallophaga are many,
isolation of variations being likely to occur, but the genera aro few.
Migration from one species to another is evidently rare, except in cases
of actual contact.

Destruction of Mosquitoes.* — The ‘American Naturalist’ reports
that Mr. L. 0. Howard has made a discovery which will probably be of
practical importance. He finds that a thin film of oil on the surface
of the water where they breed will destroy the larvae of mosquitoes. If
this be true, the habitable part of the earth in many latitudes must be
greatly increased in extent by this discovery. We may add that
experienced travellers are amused by this notice.

B. Myriopoda.

Phylogeny of Lithobiidge.j — Dr. T. Garbo wski gives a systematic
account of the known species of Lithobius , and three ingeniously con-
trived analytic tables of the sub-groups Archilithobius , Lithobius s. str.,
Pseudolitliobius , and Polijbothrus. The suggested phyletic arrangement
is the following : —

Pseudolithobius

Lithobius s. str.

Archilithobius

Archilithobius

Polijbothrus

Henicops

? Primitive form

Notes on Myriopods.l — Dr. 0. Yerhoeff observes that, while Chilo-
gnatlia cannot climb on vertical glass plates, Polyxenidae can. There
are three minute blunt processes at the end of the last tarsals, and
besides these there is a small evaginated vesicle which acts as a sucker.
In these forms (Pselaphognathae) the tracheae dichotomise as in Chilo-
gnatlia-Opisthandria ; there are no tracheal pouches. The Cliilognatha-
Opisthandria are midway between Proterandria and Pselaphognatha.

* Amer. Natural., xxix. (1896) p. 986.
t Zool. Jalirb. (Abth. Syst.), ix. (1896) pp. 244-70 (1 pi.).

+ Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 160-3 (2 figs.).

2 F

1896

406 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Dr. Verlioeff has also * many corrections to make in a recent paper by
P. Schmidt concerning Pauropus and Scolopendrella.

New Diplopod Fauna in Liberia.-)- — Mr. 0. F. Cook calls attention
to the large number of new kinds of Diplopods which have recently been
discovered on the west coast of Africa. No less than three new families
will have to be, and are here formed, to receive these new types. With
regard to the African continent at large, it appears that there are four
very distinct Diplopod faunae, for the northern, southern, eastern, and
western parts have little in common. The species are, of course, even
more local.

Morphology and Classification of Pauropoda.J — Mr. F. C. Kenyon
points out that in many peculiarities of their structure the Pauropoda
are undoubtedly Diplopoda; as in them, the genital aperture occurs
upon the third postcephalic segment, the ovary is below the intestine,
the mouth-parts consist of a pair of mandibles and a lower lip. The
intestine is simple, a portion of the body segmentation is double or
tends to be so, the legs are six-jointed, and the movements are slow.
All these characters outweigh, the author thinks, the apparently
anomalous position of the testes, and other characters which have led to
Pauropus being separated from its most obvious allies. The correct
position of the Pauropoda is not so easy to determine. That they are
primitive in some respects is shown by the simplicity of the segmenta-
tion ; that they are degenerate is equally well demonstrated by the lack
of tracheal and circulatory systems. Some characters are nothing more
than superficial. Taking all the facts into consideration, the author
thinks he is justified in reducing the Pauropoda from an order to a sub-
order; with its companion sub-order Pselaphognatha it may form an
order to be termed the Protodiplopoda. The author adds some notes on
the morphology of the Diplopoda. After reviewing the opinions of
recent writers on the subject, he gives a table which indicates the
similarities and differences in the segmentation and in the position of
the genital apertures in Peripatus , Lithobius, Hexapoda, Diplopoda,
Symphyla, Arachnida, Xiphosura, and the decapod Crustacea.

S. Arachnida.

Development of Chelifer.§ — Dr. J. Barrois has studied the develop-
ment of a species of Chelifer which he found abundantly in winter in
small closed nests beneath stones. Between October and February the
occupant of the nest is plump and has a swollen abdomen ; towards the
end of April or in May the nest is empty, or contains an emaciated
inmate. In the meantime egg-laying has occurred. The males appear
to be smaller and rarer.

The eggs are not laid before January, but after that they may be
found in a packet adhering to the vulva, with its cavity in free com-
munication with that of the oviduct, evidently a nutritive adaptation.

The result of development is in the first place a larva with a large
suctorial apparatus. This gives rise to a second stage, filled up with

* Tom. cit., pp. 153-9. f Amor. Natural., xxx. (1896) pp. 413-20.

+ Tufts College Studies, No. iv. (1895) pp. 77-146 (4 pis.).

§ Revue Suisse Zool., iii. (1896) pp. 461-98 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

407

albumen which is sucked out by the larva from the mother, whose
dimensions now begin to shrink very markedly. From this second
stage the adult is gradually developed.

Segmentation appears at first either total or partial, according as
the deutoplasmic portion is more or less involved, but the partial mode
predominates, and the result is a core of yolk with peripheral cells, —
some large, which form the blastoderm, others very small, which become
applied to the vitelline membrane. The blastoderm shows an invagi-
nation, followed by a deep groove, which is bounded by five paired
groups of ectodermic cells — the first hints of appendages. Mesodermic
elements arise as groups of cells from the wall of the invagination.
The nutritive vitellus, which showed no trace of cellular elements after
the formation of the blastomeres, begins to show endodermic nuclei.
This first embryonic stage is covered by a cuticular layer especially
thick at the level of the invagination and groove.

From the invagination and groove is formed the suctorial apparatus,
aud groups of mesoderm cells form muscles. The endodermic nuclei
of the vitellus form a transitory digestive sac.

This sac is replaced in the larva by the suctorial apparatus which
takes up the whole body. Its structure is described.

The suction results in the accumulation of much albumen in the
general cavity of the larva — a second vitellus, in short. This deut-
embryo stage is marked by swelling, moulting, thickening of the
appendages, the appearance of- the first appendage, and the nervous
system.

The suctorial apparatus is excluded from the body of the embryo
and forms an appendage lodged for a long time in the cavity which
leads to the stomodseum and attached to the rest of the body by the
“umbilical cord.” Barrois completes his account, of which we have
only given excerpts, with a description of the development of the
nervous system and mesoderm segments.

Spiders of Central Australia.* — Mr. H. K. Hogg reports that, while
as yet very few specimens of spiders from the desert and sandy country
of Central Australia have been seen by zoologists, the Horn expedition
brought down 150 specimens, well distributed over the various tribes
and orders, and comprising 57 species, while nearly one-third of these
are as yet undescribed ; they present a general analogy to those of the
coast districts of New South Wales and Queensland, exhibiting here and
there interesting variations in what are clearly co-ordinate types. The
differences in shape and measurement are such as might be expected to
be developed during an isolation extending over a comparatively long
period. They consist chiefly of such points as longer or shorter legs,
relative distances and sizes of eyes, bespining, absence of patterns, and
shapes of genital organs, rather than differences in colouring, which
might naturally be looked for among differently coloured soils.

Secondary Spiracles of Opilionidse.f — Herr J. C. C. Loman directs
attention to H. J. Hansen’s discovery of spiracles on the legs of
Opilionidae, fam. Phalangiidse. The tracheal system of Opilionids

* Horn Scientific Expedition, pt. ii. (1896) pp. 309-56 (1 pi.),
f Zool. Anzeig, xix. (1896) pp. 221-2.

2 f 2

408

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

consists of two large tracheae, whose stigmata lie in the groove between
the fourth coxa and the abdomen. Each foot receives two smaller
branches from the main trachea, and these run down the femur and
patella. The larger of the two communicates with the proximal spiracle
of the tibia, the second passes down the tibia and reaches the distal
spiracle. Herr Loman finds that in young Harvestmen (probably
Phalangium opilio L. and AcantholopJms spinosus Bose.), the external
openings on the tibia do not exist. The spiracles are post-embryonic,
and arise from the tracheae within the tibia at a time when the appen-
dages are rapidly growing and requiring more aeration. Perforation
of the tracheal cavity probably occurs at eedysis.

Spermatogenesis in Spiders.* — Herr J. Wagner gives a preliminary
account of his researches. There are at first no cell-boundaries between
the spermatogonia ; the nuclei do not show the usual karyokinesis, but
are not amitotic. In the modification of the spermatogonium-nucleus
into the spermatocyte-nucleus, the linin network gives rise to one linin-
thread or to a few. The nuclei become excentric ; the linin with the
chromatin granules passes into the half of the nucleus next the cell-
periphery, and forms loops of similar length and direction. Archoplasm
granules collect in the narrow space between the chromatin half of the
nucleus and the surface of the cell, and in their interior lies a large central
corpuscle. The nuclear membrane disappears as the linin and chromatin
become aggregated. After the contraction of the archoplasm the greater
part of the cytoplasm passes to that half of the cell. The number of
central corpuscles in the spermatocytes of the first generation is 1-3.
A true nucleolus of elliptical form lies always quite peripherally, and
never within the linin-thread. In the first spermatocyte division the
nucleolus divides either in the plane of the equatorial plate along with
the chromosomes or outside these beside one of the spindle-poles. In
the latter cases it passes out of the nucleus after the disappearance of
the membrane. The achromatin-spindles do not disappear after the
first and second divisions of the spermatocytes ; the second achromatin-
spindle is formed independently of the first.

Cell-division and nuclear division of spermatocytes are not quite
contemporaneous ; multinuclear spermatides may first be formed. During
the cell-division the round ZwisclienTcorperchen usually arises from the
middle part of the spindle ; it may either migrate anew into the cell-
substance or separate from both daughter-cells. The remains of the
spindle always persist in the spermatids until they become spermatozoa,
forming round bodies or seminal granules which are subsequently con-
stricted off. During the modification into spermatozoa the nucleus
becomes homogeneous and vesicular, the chromatin condenses into a
plate which alone persists, and becomes elongated and spirally twisted.
The axial thread of the tail is formed in the protoplasm of the sperma-
tocyte or spermatid as a short rod, which unites with the above-
mentioned chromatin plate, the function being marked by a little tooth
on the plate. The mature spermatozoa of Tarantula are mobile. In
the vas deferens both head and tail are so modified that a rod-like
corpuscle without either head or tail is the final form.

Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 188-90.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

409

New Mite from Beaver.* — Dr. Kramer describes Eaptosoma trun-
catum g. et sp. n. from the beaver. It has some of the characters of
Trouessart’s Chirodiscinae, but is quite distinct. The anterior pair of
feet and the sternal regions of the second pair are remarkably well
adapted for clambering among the soft fur, uniting the peculiarities of
Listrophorus, Chirodiscus, Labidocarpus, and Campylochirus. The first
two pairs of appendages are two-jointed and shovel-like, the posterior
feet have distinct attaching discs. The male is strongly compressed
laterally, truncated posteriorly, and hollowed in adaptation to copula-
tion.

Marine Acarina.| — Dr. Trouessart describes some Acarina dredged
from deep water by Prof. Koehler in the Bay of Biscay. The dredging
shows that Halicaridae live even at a depth of 1410 metres. The
cuticle is slightly chitinised and without salient sculpturing ; the hairs
are generally setiform, not spinous ; two species, out of the four which
are new, seem to be blind, or at least without cornea, while the other
two have well- developed eyes. It must also be noted, in connection
with eyes, that some littoral forms are blind. The systematic part of
the paper has descriptive notes on Halacarus abyssorum sp. n., H. Gaudani
sp. n., H . gracilipes Trt., E. oculatus Hodge., H. actenos Trt., Agaue
aculeata sp. n., Coloboceras Koehleri sp. n., and Leptognathus falcatus
Hodge.

6. Crustacea.

Otocysts of Crustacea and Equilibrium.^ — Prof. J. P. Clark has
made a study of the relation of the otocysts to equilibrium-phenomena
in Gelasimus pugilator and Peltyonychus ocellcitus. The work of previous
investigators furnished evidence in support of the hypothesis that the
otolith in lower and higher animals is an important mechanical factor
in the maintenance of equilibrium. The author selected, therefore, for
investigation crabs whose otocysts contain no otolith. A comparison of
the results of experiments on these two forms with those obtained by
other observers on other forms of allied Crustacea shows, in the main,
agreement in the effects the otocysts have upon the maintenance of
equilibrium. The evidence at hand justifies the view that the co-ordinate
movements of equilibrium-phenomena depend in part upon different
impulses, started in certain nerves by the movements of hair-cells, with
which they are connected. Some movement of the hair-cell is the
essential factor. If an otolith be present its pressure or strain may
modify or intensify the movement of the hair-cell, but it is conceivable
that the movement of the hair-cell may occur in the absence of an otolith.
The author adopts the suggestion of Yerworn to substitute the terms
statocyst and statolith for otocyst and otolith.

Malacostraca of Baffin Bay and Smith Sound.§ — Herr Axel Ohlin
discusses 78 species of Malacostraca from these localities. Among the
new species are the following : — Anonyx affinis , Halirages Nilssoni,
Protomedeia aberrans.

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 134-6 (2 figs.).

f Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxi. (1896) pp. 102-5.

X Journ. Physiol., xix. (1896) pp. 327-43 (5 figs.).

§ Acta Univ. Lund., xxxi. (1895) pp. xxii. and 70 (1 map and 1 pi.).

410

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Crustacea of Central Australia.* — Prof. Baldwin Spencer and
Mr. T. S. Hall give an account of the Crustacea collected during the
Horn scientific expedition to Central Australia. Living specimens of
three forms only were obtained — Astacopsis bicarinata , Telphusa trains -
versa , and Estheria packardi.

The rate of growth of Apus and the Estheriidse must be very great.
Certainly not more than two weeks after the fall of rain and probably
only a few days, specimens of Apus measuring 2J to 3 in. in length were
swarming about, and, as not a single one was to be found in the water-
falls prior to the rain, these must have been developed from the egg.
Estheria packardi may certainly, both in numbers and persistency, be
regarded as the dominant species. It is worth noting that every species
yields specimens of both males and females. So far as their habits are
concerned, the Crustacea of this central district of Australia may be
divided into two groups : firstly, those which can burrow and so tide
over a certain length of dry season ( Astacopsis, Telphusa ) ; both species
included in this group have a very wide distribution over Australia :
secondly, those requiring that their eggs shall be dried up prior to
development (Apus, Estheriidm) ; these are naturally well adapted to such
a district, though none of the genera are by any means confined to it.

American Lobster.f — Dr. F. H. Herrick, whose preliminary studies
we have from time to time noticed, has prepared a complete monograph
of the American lobster, making a study of its habits and development.
Dealing with its distribution, he points out that this lobster ranges from
the 35th to 52nd parallel, and may descend as far as 100 fathoms. It
is most abundant and attains its greatest size in the northern part of its
range. There is a great diversity in the characters of its environment,
and this explains in some measure the many variations which occur in
the habits of the animal, as in the time and frequency of moulting, in
egg-laying, in the hatching of the young, and in the rate of growth.
The lobster displays a considerable degree of intelligence, but Dr.
Herrick doubts if the so-called auditory organs are real ears. Migrations
appear to be due to the character of the coast and theAature of the bottom,
and to be influenced by temperature and by the abundance of food. The
best temperature appears to be about 55° F. ; a prolonged cold spell may
prove fatal. When adult, the lobster is essentially a nocturnal animal,
but the reverse is true in the larval period. It has developed to an
extraordinary degree the habit of burrowing, and it almost always enters
its burrow tail first. The lobsters feed upon fish, and even on smaller
or weaker ones of their own kind.

The law of the production of eggs may be expressed arithmetically
as follows : — The numbers of eggs produced at each reproduction period
vary in a geometrical series, while the lengths of the lobsters produc-
ing these eggs vary in an arithmetical series. Tho largest number of
eggs recorded for a single lobster is 97,440. The period of incubation
is from 10 to 11 months, but it varies with the temperature of the water.
The lobster does not spawn oftener than once in two years. A full
account is given of the process of moulting. The rate of growth
varies considerably with the individual and its surroundings. The

* Horn Scientific Expedition) pt. ii. (1896) pp. 227-48 (4 pis.).

f Bull. U.S. Fish Comm., 1895, pp. 1-252, pis. A-J and 1-54.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

411

greatest size attained is about 25 pounds ; the adult male is as a rule
heavier than the adult female of the same length. Colour variations
do not appear to be adaptive, but the normal coloration of the lobster
is of protective significance. In the pelagic stages, young lobsters
rise to the surface in the day-time and stay there, going down at night.
Great destruction is wrought upon the free-swimming stages by both
animate and inanimate enemies ; a survival of two in every 10,000 larvae
hatched would maintain the species at an equilibrium. The whole
course of development and later growth is slow. This secures the
necessary transportation from the shores, and wide horizontal distribu-
tion which is absolutely necessary for the life of the species.

New Penseid.* — Dr. J. G. de Man describes Heteropenseus longi -
manus g. et sp. n. from the Java Sea. It differs from all other Penseids
in the first pereiopods of the male, which are the longest (instead of
being the shortest) of the legs, and have chelae almost twice as long as
the carpus, while the dactylopodite is extremely short in relation to the
propodite. In the female the proportions are as in Penseus.

Cambarids from Florida.f — Mr. E. Lonnberg has an interesting
account of anew blind species, Cambarus acherontius, which he discovered
during a stay in Florida. An account of its characters shows that it is
a well-defined species, that does not show any likeness to any of the
blind Gambari hitherto known.

Although very little is known about the subterranean water system
of Florida, the author thinks that it must be of considerable extent.
This view is based on the numerous sink-holes he has seen, and from
the mighty springs that suddenly come to the surface at different places.
The new species is, in the author’s opinion, a rather recent form, allied,
it appears, to the normal blind forms of Cambarus which still exist in
Florida. As a result of the comparison which he institutes, the author
comes to the conclusion that it seems very probable that the ancestors
of G. acherontius were rather similar to the present species G. clarJci.
The ancestors of the new form may either have forced their way from
the outer world into the subterranean water, or, which is more probable,
have accidentally fallen down when one or another of the many sink-
holes originated. When they once had come down, they had to adapt
themselves to their new life. The mode, then, in which G. acherontius has
originated is somewhat different from that of other blind species, which
live in large open caves with an easier entrance.

Geographical Distribution of Hippidea.J — Dr. A. E. Ortmann
thinks that the morphological characters and geographical distribution
of this group point to an antiquity of at least the middle Tertiary epoch,
but no fossils are known. He regards an American littoral region as
the probable area of origin, since all the widely scattered forms seem
allied to the American types, which are in general more primitive. The
great trend of dispersal was east to west in the direction of the main
equatorial current. Excepting Pemipes cubensis (which occurs in West
Africa and in the West Indies) Hippidea are absent from West Africa.

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 111-3.

f Bih. K. Svenska Yet. Akad. Hdlgr., xx. (1894) No. 1, 14 pp. £1 pi.).

X Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Syst. Geogr. Biol.), ix. (1896) pp. 219-43.

412

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The case of Bemipes cubensis illustrates discontinuity of distribution.
While the usual dispersal is by free-swimming larvae, the possibility of
an original topographical and climatic continuity along the litoral region
of the North Pacific must be borne in mind.

Pharyngeal Glands of Hipperinse.* — MM. J. Kunstler and A.
Gruvel describe the minute structure of the pharyngeal glands in the
Hipperinae found as commensals of Medusae. Each cell has its own
duct, or they occur in pairs beside one duct. They are united in groups
by a connective-tissue envelope. Each cell has a vesicle formed by a
swelling of the duct and lying in a hilum-like depression into which
canaliculi open. The intracellular canaliculi are richly ramified in
the cytoplasm, which has a distinct alveolar structure surrounded by a
more differentiated peripheral layer. The nucleus is surrounded by a
clear zone and has a remarkably muriform alveolar structure, recalling
that seen in Stylonichia mytilus.

Striped Muscle in Ostracoda.j — Dr. E. v. Daday has studied the
striped muscle of Ostracoda, and has reached the following conclusions.
The membrane around the muscle-fibres is two-layered even in the
finest fibres. Between the two layers of the thicker sarcolemma, there
is a very finely granulated protoplasmic substance, but in the narrower
sarcolemma this is hardly or not at all demonstrable. The muscle-
nuclei are to be found between the two layers of the sarcolemma, but
only if there is protoplasmic substance there. The oval nuclei are
united in necklace-like fashion by a grey protoplasmic strand, running
from the poles of their long axis. They contain a nucleolus with
nuclear corpuscles, and their walls show three spiral systems running in
different directions.

The muscle-substance is not disposed in discs, but is a spirally-
twisted strand, or sarconema, corresponding to Merkel’s muscle-element.
Each muscle-fibre has one or more of these. In the state of contraction
the muscle-strand becomes cylindrical, and its spirals horizontal ; in
relaxation it is a more or less flat band.

Around the muscle-strand is a delicate membrane, identical with
Krause’s membrane. The muscle-strand consists of an external light
substance — hyalolemma, a median grey substance — glaucolemma, and a
central strand — endonema. The light substance — hyalolemma — is a
cylindrical tube, whose walls correspond to the isotropic discs of
previous interpretations. The grey substance — glaucolemma — corre-
sponds to Engelmann’s discs. The endonema is a cylindrical strand,
and its substance corresponds to Hensen’s median disc.

In the outer substance of hyalo- and glaucolemma, there run in
opposite directions, two crossing systems of bands, whose optical image
is identical on the one hand with Engelmann’s Nebenscheibe (hyalo-
lemma), and on the other hand with the sarcous elements (glaucolemma).
The central strand consists of a cylindrical tube of a light substance,
and another of a grey substance, and of a median thread, the axonema.
The two substances demonstrable in the axonema are analogous to those

* Mem. Soc. Zool. France, ix. (1896) pp. 149-58 (2 pis. and 2 figs.).

t Math. Nat. Ber. Ungarn, xii. (1895) pp. 92-118 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 413

of the sarconema. The axonema consists of a bundle of fine fibres
containing a necklace-like arrangement of nuclei.

The hyalolemma of the muscle-strand is very elastic and contractile.
When the strand functions expansion and contraction are most marked
in the hyalolemma. Contraction is active, relaxation passive.

The muscle-strand surrounds numerous primary, secondary, tertiary
cross-striped fibrils, which correspond to the primitive fibrils of other
authors. These are not artificial products, but show the same struc-
ture as the strand. The relaxation and contraction of muscle-fibre
is a simple mechanical process, due to the expansion and contraction of
the muscle-strand. Narrowing and broadening are necessary and natural
consequences ; but the proper activity is only in contraction.

Daday does not say that all this applies to muscles which are not
those of Ostracods, but he evidently expects to find that it is in no way
unique.

Red Sea Copepods.* — Dr. W. Giesbrecht describes a collection of
Red Sea Copepods made by Dr. A. Kramer. The collection was made
by filtering the water drawn up by the ship’s pump, and the result
showed that this simple method may be very effective. Analysis shows
that the Red Sea forms have closer affinities with the Indopacific than
with the Atlantic types. Nothing decisive can be said as to a mixture
of Mediterranean and Red Sea fauna via the Suez Canal. The new
species described are Scolecithrix chelipes , Centropages elongatus , Schmac-
keria salina, Monops krdmeri, and Oithona rigida.

Postembryonal Development of Daphnids.j- — Mr. R. Lundberg has
had the opportunity of investigating the postembryonal development of
a Daphnid which he found in abundance at the fresh-water biological
station at Finspong. A study of the literature of the subject shows him
that his observations did not contain any new facts, but by a mere
accident, he says, he obtained an opportunity to study the matter under
very favourable circumstances, as it can hardly be doubted that all his
specimens belong to one and the same species. However rich the
material may be, supposing that it has been collected partly from one
place and partly from another, the investigator can never be sure of
getting the series of evolution clear and complete. The author’s results
appear to be the more interesting, since, in his opinion, the neglect to
observe the changes of form during growth is the chief cause of the con-
fusion and doubt which exist with regard to the distinction of species
among the Daphnid s, or, we might safely say, among the Cladocera in
general. All transformations of Daphnids appear to tend in the same
direction, that is to say, spines and other prominences, the so-called
balancing organs, tend to become shortened or even to disappear in time,
as is the case with the larval forms of other Crustacean orders. There
is no doubt that these changes during growth are adapted to the sur-
rounding conditions of the medium in which the animals live, and that
they are of a certain advantage to them. The author thinks that great
attention should be shown to the temperature of the water at the different
depths at which the creatures are found.

* Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Syst.), ix. (1896) pp. 315-28 (2 pis.),
f Bih. K. Svenska Yet. Akad. Hdlgr., xx. (1895) No. 2, 19 pp. (2 pis.).

414

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Cyclopidse and Calanidse of Michigan Lakes.* * * § — Prof. C. D. Marsh
has made a biological examination of the lakes of Michigan. He finds*
that the Copepod fauna of the Michigan Lakes is richer than those of
the Continent of Europe ; whereas Zacharias found seven species in the
Lake of Plon, in Lake Michigan there are nine, in Round Lake eleven,
and in Lake St. Clair sixteen. One new species only has been observed,
Diaptomus reigJiardi. The species of this genus are in some cases
quite limited in their distribution, and appear to be more susceptible to
the influences of the environment than are species of Cyclops. Very
little indeed is known of the life-histories of the species of Diaptomus,
and it is possible that a more complete knowledge may lead to a reduc-
tion in the number of species. So far, however, as the author can see,
all the forms described vary within comparatively narrow limits, and
there is no evidence to lead us to question the separation of the forms.

Anatomy of Tetraclita porosa.f — M. A. Gruvel finds that the
structure of this Cirripede agrees with the normal structure of its
group, but the test appears to form an intermediate stage between that
of Chthausalus and Balanus. His paper contains merely a detailed
account of his observations.

Respiration of Trilobites.f — Hr. C. E. Beecher is reported as remark-
ing on the probable method of respiration in Triarthrus in the following
terms: — No traces of any special organs for the purpose have been found
in this genus, and their former existence is very doubtful, especially in
view of the perfection of details preserved in various parts of the animal ;
the delicacy of the appendages and vential membrane of Trilobites and
their rarity of preservation are sufficient demonstration that these portions
of the outer integument were of extreme thinness, and therefore perfectly
capable of performing the function of respiration. Similar conditions
occur in most of the lower Crustacea.

Annulata.

Polychaeta of Dinard. § — The Baron de St. Joseph has published an
appendix to the four memoirs which he has already published on these
worms. The most interesting part of it is, perhaps, that in which he
discusses their geographical and bathymetrical distribution. In the last
twelve years he has observed on the coasts of Hinard 207 species, 53 of
which, or about a quarter, are new ; 50 species inhabit the shore only,
while another 50 inhabit both the shore and the bottom of the sea.
The depths from 4 to 27 metres below low-water mark are occupied by
103 species. So far as we know at present, 34 of the species are confined
to the coasts of Dinard, and of the 20 other new species established by
him, 3 have been found in the English Channel, 7 in the Straits of
Dover, 6 in the Atlantic, 1 in the Channel and the Atlantic, 1 in the
Straits of Dover, the Channel, and the Mediterranean. From the analysis
which he makes he finds that 22 species which are found at Dinard are
found in the Glacial Arctic Ocean, 02 in the North 8ea, 124 in the

* Bull. Michigan Fish Commission, No. 5 (1895) 24 pp. (9 pis.),

t Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 205-7.

j Amer. Journ. Sci., i. (1896) pp. 251-5 (1 pi.).

§ Ann. Sci. Nat., xx. (1895) pp. 185-272 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

415

Atlantic, 101 in the Mediterranean, 8 in the Black Sea, 4 in the Japanese
Seas, and 2 in the Red Sea. In addition to the 207 species which the
author has reported from Dinard, 40 which he has not discovered have
been seen by other writers. The author concludes this memoir with an
exceedingly useful index to the forms described in this and his four
preceding memoirs.

Hew Earthworms from Central Australia.* — Prof. Baldwin Spencer,
though not expecting to find many earthworms in Central Australia,
had no idea that there would be so few, for previous experience had
shown him that earthworms were to be found in the most unlikely spots.
It is quite possible, indeed, that more than one species exists, but to
secure them one would probably need to be on the spot immediately after
a fall of rain. During the course of the Horn Expedition it was only
on three occasions that very limited patches of damp black earth were
met with. Though these spots were separated by wide tracts of country
quite impassable to earthworms, yet in each one there is found only the
single species, which is referable to the genus Acantliodrilus. The author
has already, in the case of Mammals, as has Prof. Tate in the case of
Mollusca, pointed out what a vast influence the change from a pluvial to
a desiccating climate has had upon the early fauna of the central area ;
the majority of the forms became extinct, whilst a certain number were
preserved in sheltered and favourable places. As abundant forms of
earthworms have not been introduced into this central area, it is scarcely
likely that the rarest genus in Australia should be carried to three spots
separated from one another, and from the rest of the Continent, by tracts
absolutely impassable to earthworms. We are bound, therefore, to
regard this species as the survivor of the old earthworm fauna, which
almost entirely disappeared when, in post-Pliocene times, the climate
changed, and the country gradually died up. It is clear that Acantho-
drilus is a very ancient genus, and it is probable that, at an early period,
it must have been the dominant one in that part of Australia from which
the central area derived its earthworm fauna. The new species is called
Eremius.

New Earthworms.f — Mr. F. E. Beddard commences his memoir
with an account of some earthworms from the Sandwich Islands. At
the present time, our knowledge of the earthworms from these islands
is exceedingly limited, as two only are known to be peculiar to them.
In the present communication three new Hawaiian species are described,
and nine in all are enumerated. Though a meagre enough list, it is
long when compared with those of the earthworms of other oceanic
islands, from very few of which undoubtedly indigenous forms have
been secured. Peculiar types appear as a rule to be absent from oceanic
islands. Three new species of PericTiseta are described from Hong
Kong, Barbadoes, and Trinidad. With regard to the distribution of this
genus, Mr. Beddard points out that it is truly tropical in its range,
extending into all parts of the Oriental region. It is a dominant form,
and always constitutes a large proportion of the gatherings of worms
from such localities. It is also exceedingly abundant in some of the

* Horn Scientific Expedition, pt. ii. (1896) pp. 416-20 (1 pi.).

t Proc. Zool. Soc., 1896, pp. 194-211 (3 figs.).

416

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

West Indian Islands, but occurs more rarely in South America. One
species of Acanthodrilm is described from Macquarie Islands, and
Benhamia indica is a new species from Bombay.

Ccelomic Fluid of the Earthworm.* — Mr. Lim Boon Keng has an
exceedingly interesting memoir on the coelomic fluid of the earthworm,
in reference to a protective mechanism. He describes in detail the
characters and contents of the ccelomic fluid, adding considerably to our
information with regard to what many of us thought to be a well-known
fluid. Among other points of interest he shows that micro-organisms
may live and flourish in this fluid ; he describes the different forms of
cells which are found in it, and the action of these corpuscles on bacteria.
With regard to the dorsal pores which are found in some, though not in
all, earthworms, the author tells us that they are not, as they are usually
described to be, simple apertures leading into the coelomic cavity, but
that it is possible in fresh preparations to make out strands of muscle-
fibre passing across the apertures longitudinally and transversely.
Some simple experiments made with earthworms show that irritating
bodies placed on the skin caused large quantities of milky coelomic fluid
to be poured out through the dorsal pores. This slimy exudation is rich
in cells, and these cells of the coelomic cavity. They are almost all
actively amoeboid. It is difficult to inject liquids into the coelomic
cavity, but the fate of all such is the same ; they are expelled through
the point of injection, as well as through the dorsal pores. As the
amoeboid cells of the coelomic fluid possess a remarkable mechanism for
attacking bacteria, it is clear that when we consider how closely the
functions of this fluid are correlated with those of the skin, we are able
to realise the existence in the earthworm of a complicated protective
mechanism which may effectually exclude parasites. To a highly
organised animal like the earthworm, inhabiting localities swarming
with parasites, it must be an enormous advantage to have the power of
discharging upon its assaulting enemy great numbers of phagocytes.
There is, at any rate, formed from the coelomic fluid and from the
mucous glands a slime which possesses considerable complexity of
structure, and which in addition to active phagocytes, contains sticky
threads of mucus which form a complicated network ready to entangle
any parasite that endeavours to bore its way through the skin.

Oligochaeta of Zurich. f — Herr K. Bretscher gives a list, with de-
scriptive notes, of the Oligocliaeta he collected round Zurich. The
following are new : — AEolosoma fiedleri , Homochseta naidina g. et sp. n.,
Macrochseta intermedia g. et sp. n., Ghsetogaster langi, Pachydrilus macu-
latus , and Fridericia Helvetica. He has some notes on the occurrence of
the reproductive period and its dependence on external conditions, on
the presence of sensory papillae in Nais apjpendiculata, EmbolocepJialus
velutinus , &c., which live in a thick envelope of mud and debris, on
various parasites which occur in Oligochaeta, and on distribution.

Occurrence of Enchytrseida in Beetroot.f — Herr A. Stift describes
how a three-year old beet was found to be affected with Enehytrseida.

* Phil. Trans., 186 B. (1895) pp. 383-99 (2 pis.).

t Revue Suisse Zool., iii. (1896) pp. 499-532 (4 figs.).

X Oesterr.-Ungar. Zeitschr. f. Zuckerindustrie u. Landwirtsckaft, xxiv. (1895)
p. 999. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) p. 244.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

417

The plant, which had seeded twice and had hitherto done well, all of a
sudden began to droop and wither. On removal the root was found to
be infested all over with white worms 5-10 mm. long.

Nephridia of Branchiobdella.* * * § — M. D. N. Voinov describes the
nephridia of B. varians var. Astaci. They consist of (a) a ciliated
funnel, which is stalked and movable, and opens into the body-cavity ;
(b) the red gland of Odier, a lobed capsule with irregular lacunae and
regular canals; (c) the canalicular cord or Schleifenorgan, which is
folded four times on itself, and, having fused along the surfaces of
contact, presents the appearance of four canals, which all communicate
in the capsule ; ( d ) the efferent canal, which is without cilia ; and
(e) the oval terminal vesicle. The whole apparatus resembles that of
Hirudinea; the lumen seems to be intracellular, and the protoplasm
shows strong radial striations around the cavities. The whole surface
of the nephridium is enveloped by peritoneum. The nephridia absorb
not only fluid, but also solid bodies, arising from the fragmentation of
chloragogen cells.

Biology of Leeches4 — M. Alex. Kowalevsky has chiefly studied
Glepsine complanata , and has made comparative observations on other
fresh-water leeches. By the use of litmus he finds that the principal
part of the intestinal canal has an acid reaction, while the terminal part
is alkaline. The cloaca, however, has an acid reaction. The coelomic
canals and spaces are full of a liquid which is very rich in leucocytes,
and possesses a well-marked alkaline reaction. The large cells on the
walls of the coelomic cavity have an acid reaction, and the author pro-
poses to call them the acid-cells. In the nephridial areas the author
finds a number of phagocytic organs. This property of the nephridial
cells has also been observed by the author in some aquatic Oligochaeta.

Nematohelminthes.

Asearis megalocephala as Cause of Death.J: — Herr Komer narrates
two cases in which Asearis megalocephala was the cause of death of
horses. An old horse died of peritonitis from perforation of the small
intestine by A. megalocephala. In a two-year old filly the irritation
produced by the presence of the parasites was so severe that there was
not only prolapse but rupture of the gut, the animal dying from
haemorrhage into the abdominal cavity.

Filariosis in Negroes of the Congo. || — M. Ch. Firket examined the
blood of negroes brought from districts of the Congo basin to the
Antwerp Exhibition of 1894, and also of negro children brought up
in the Institute of Gyseghem, for Filaria. The number examined was
54, of which 39 were males, 15 females, the ages varying from 6 to 25
years. In 30, or 55 per cent., Filarise were found. The blood was
taken only in the forenoon (10-12) and the examinations were made
from fresh and from dried specimens, the latter being stained with

* Comptes Rendus, exxii. (1896) pp. 1069-71. f Tom. cit., pp. 165-8.

x Deutsche Tierarztl. Wochenschr., 1896, No. 3. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u.

Parasitenk., xix. (1896) p. 792.

§ Bull. Soc. Acad. Roy. Med. de Beige, 1895, p. 19 (1 pi.). See Centralbl. f.
Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lta Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 791-2.

418

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

fuclisin or methylen-blue. The general appearance of these Filarim
conformed to the description of F. sang, liominis perstans, and this
diagnosis was confirmed by Manson. In the first specimens the animals
were extraordinarily agile and in continual movement. Measurement
of dry preparations showed two sizes, one 0*009— 0*1 mm. and one
0*160-0*180 mm. Intermediate sizes were rare; once a Filaria
0 * 230 mm. was noted. All were devoid of a sheath aud their cuticula
was finely striated. All the negroes were in good health. Most of
them had been absent from their native land for some months, and one
had lived in Belgium for six years.

Platyhelminth.es,

Nemerteans of the Lake of Garda.* — Dr. A. Garbini points out
that this lake is not of marine origin, and that its fauna is not a relict
fauna. It includes Tetrastemma lacustre du PL, which seems, like
T. obscurum M. Sch., adapted to fresh water. He attributes the dis-
persal of this and similar forms to birds. His paper has reference to
the conclusion recently expressed by Dr. du Plessis, that the Nemerteans
of lakes were relict marine forms.

South American Nemerteans.f — Dr. O. Burger describes some
marine and terrestrial Nemerteans collected by Plate in Peru, Chili, and
South Patagonia. The new forms are Eunemertes violacea , E. flavens ,
Geonemertes grajji , G. micholitzi , Eupolia platei , and E. aurea.

Histology of Cerebratulus lacteus.f — Dr. T. H. Montgomery has a
preliminary note on the histology of this worm. He thinks that the
connective elements of Nemertines have never been satisfactorily clas-
sified. He proposes to arrange them under four heads: — (1) Paren-
chyme tissue, in the strict sense. This tissue is characterised especially
by the presence of cell-walls and the absence of intercellular fibres or
substances. (2) Connective tissue with intercellular substance. It con-
sists of multipolar-branched cells with oval or spindle-shaped nuclei,
which stain deeply. Between the cells and their branching fibres
there is a nearly homogeneous substance, which stains faintly with
haematoxylin. (3) Mesenchyme tissue, in the strict sense. This con-
sists of usually bipolar, but frequently multipolar flattened cells, whose
long branching fibres anastomose together and with those of neighbour-
ing cells. The small nucleus stains deeply. Between these cells, which
are without membranes, there is no intercellular substance. (4) The
intracapsular connective tissue of the central nervous system. This
consists of branched cells with a comparatively large nucleus, but no
membrane. Three modifications of these cells are noted,

[New Turbellarians.§ — Prof. F. Vejdovsky describes the following
new forms : — Derostoma gracile, D. anophthalmum , Vortex microplithalmus,
V. quadrioculatus, Prorhynchus fontinalis, P. hygrophilus, Macrostoma
obtusum, and Planaria Mrdzekii. The paper devotes particular attention
to the reproductive organs, but it is in Bohemian.

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 125-7.

t Zool. Jab rb. (Abth. Syst.), ix. (1896) pp. 270-6 (1 pi.).

X Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 241-5.

§ SB. K. Bohm. Ges. Wiss., 1895, 47 pp. (8 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 419

Two new Taeniae from Apes.* * * § — Herr K. Meyner describes two new
Taeniae found in apes. The first (T. mucronata sp. n.) was obtained
from the intestine of a howling monkey ( Mycetes niger). It has about
600 short joints in a length of 14 cm. The neck is short and the
unarmed head provided with four large suckers. There is much pigment
about the vertex of the head. There is a genital apparatus in each
segment, and the pore is lateral and irregularly alternating. In the
ripe proglottides is a canal, running transversely and almost straight,
with numerous dilatations. The eggs, which have three coats, are
0*036 mm. long. This Teenia belongs to the Anoplocephalina and
probably to the genus Bertia Blanch.

The second species ( T. conferta sp. n.) was obtained from an Indian
monkey ( Macacus radiatus ). It is only 8*4 cm. long, with short joints,
and is quite unarmed. The genital pores are marginal and irregularly
alternating.

Bothriocephalus Zschokkei sp. n.f — Herr 0. Fuhrmann describes a
new species of tapeworm, Bothriocephalus Zschoklcei, of which two speci-
mens were obtained from the intestinal canal of Ardea stellaris, a fish-
eating bird. The lengths of the strobiles were 25 and 30 mm., and the
breadth of the segments near the middle of the worm 2*5 mm. A
singular characteristic of this species is that in the anterior half the
proglottides are broader than in the posterior half. The scolex is
triangular. In the text two bothria are described, but in the illustration
the sucker is represented as horseshoe-shaped. The number of joints is
about 80. The muscular system is strongly developed and presents
some striking peculiarities, five layers being described. The water-
vascular system is well developed, and the number of anastomoses
numerous. The nervous system consists of two thick longitudinal
bundles, which in the scolex unite at a ganglion. The sexual openings
lie on the ventral surface. The reproductive organs are described in
detail. The ova are 0 * 07 mm. long and 0 * 029 mm. broad.

Cysticerci in a Dog’s Keart.J — Hr. W. Lindemann found 20-25
vesicles, each the size of a hazel-nut, filled with clear fluid, in the muscle
of a dog’s heart. From the inside of each bladder grew a swelling the
size of a hemp-seed. This was found to be a tapeworm scolex, provided
with a double circle of hooklets and four suckers. The hooklets, 26-28
in number, had two long fangs. On the whole these worms seem to
resemble Cysticercus cellulosse. After alluding to the rarity of the
occurrence of the hydatid form of tapeworm in dogs, the author goes
on to suggest that the reason of this is to be sought in a special
immunity.

Morphology of Proboscis in Tetrarhynchi.§— Dr. Th. Pintner con-
cludes that the proboscis of Tetrarhynchi and perhaps also some of the
suckers of Taeniidae are referable to the apical auxiliary suctorial grooves
of the attaching disc in the Tetrdbothrium type. Both have the same

* Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Naturwiss., lxviii. (1895) pp. 1-105 (2 pis.). See Centralhl.
f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) p. 793.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lt0 Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 546-50 (2 figs.).

j Tom. cit., pp. 769-71 (3 figs.).

§ Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 258-67 (3 figs.).

420

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

relation to tlie attaching disc and to the parenchymatous structure in the
interior of the head ; both consist of evaginated integumentary layers,
under which there is a cap-like muscular layer.

Parasitic Worms of Fresh-water Fish.* — M. F. Zschokke analyses
a collection of parasitic worms found in 23 species of fish. In the first
table is given a list of the parasites, with the number of hosts. In the
second is found a list of the hosts, under each of which is enumerated
the special parasites and their anatomical position. Table III. shows
to which class the worms belong. Much of the communication deals
with the geographical distribution and the derivation of the parasites.

Incertee Sedis.

Anatomy of Actinotrocha.! — Mr. A. T. Masterman has a prelimi-
nary note on the anatomy of Actinotrocha , and its bearing upon the
suggested Chordate affinities of Phoronis. He states that he has found
in Actinotrocha an organ which appears to be the homologue of the
notochord, as well as other characters so much resembling those of the
Hemichordata that Actinotrocha appears to bear the same relation to
Balanoglossus and Phoronis respectively, as the tailed ascidian larva does
to Amphioxus and to the adult ascidian. Comparing Actinotrocha with
Tornaria in their leading characters, he finds six features common to
both : — (1) a bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, pelagic larva; (2) a
complete and functional alimentary canal, a ventral mouth, a short
gullet, and terminal anus ; (3) a large pre-oral lobe covering over the
mouth ; (4) three ciliated bands ; (5) a thickened apical pla*te on the
surface of the pre-oral lobe, bearing in most cases a pair of eye-spots ;
(6) mesoblast consisting mostly of an unpaired coelomic sac in the pre-
oral lobe, and two pairs of post-oral coelomic sacs. The author believes
that some extremely important generalisations flow from the above facts,
but he leaves this for his complete paper, which will, we hope, be shortly
published.

Rotatoria.

Rotifera of County Mayo.t — Mr. J. Hood has a report on the
species of Rotifera observed by him in the lakes, ponds, marshes, and
bog pools within a radius of some 16 miles of the town of Westport.
He regards it merely as an instalment towards a more extensive cata-
logue, and hopes it may give some idea of the exceeding richness of the
fauna. Longer residence in the district can hardly fail to result in the
discovery of many other local species. The want of boats on the many
small lakes has doubtless prevented the discovery of many forms which
haunt the deeper waters, and the circumstance that his visits have all
taken place nearly at the same time of year may have led to the omission
of many more which become plentiful at other seasons. The author
points out that very few countries offer such advantages to the student
of fresh- water life as the West of Ireland. It is, he says, indeed a
happy hunting-ground with its countless lakes, its deep swamps of

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., xix. (1896) pp. 772-84, 815-25.
f Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 266-8.
t Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., iii. (1895) pp. 664-706 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

421

Sphagnum , its endless bogs, and its immunity from drainage and
reclamation. Notwithstanding Mr. Hood’s short experience, he is able
to enumerate about 220 species, of which a considerable number are very
rare. No species is here described as new, and only two, Pterodina
hidentata and Eosphora elongata , are recorded for the first time as new to
Britain.

It will be remembered that about two years ago Miss Glascott
published a catalogue of 158 species, 24 of which were new. With
regard to these latter, however, it is probable that many are already
"known forms. Making some allowance for duplication, the whole
number of Rotifera of Ireland now reaches a total of about 275 species.

Echinoderma.

Development of Asterina gibbosa.* — Mr. E. W. MacBride has
made, what was certainly wanted, a thorough revision of the whole
history of the development of most organs of the starfish. Unfortunately,
the student is so often referred from the text to the plates, that it is
impossible in our space to make clear the body of the details which
the author puts before us. On general subjects two main questions
arise : what light does the developmental history of Asterina throw
on the affinities of the Asterids with other Echinoderms, and does
it suggest any direction in which we may look to find the origin of
the group of Echinoderms as a whole. There can be no doubt that
the stalks of Asterina and Antedon are morphologically equivalent.
Both are formed from the pre-oral lobe, and the adhesive discs by
which they fix themselves are situated in precisely the same posi-
tion. Now no one doubts that Antedon had a fixed ancestor. If
Asterids ever had an ancestor in common with Crinoids which could be
called Echinoderms at all, it must have been one represented by the
fixed larvae of Antedon before it had fully acquired radial symmetry. As
the courses of the metamorphosis of Antedon and Asterina are different,
the mouth shifting backwards in the former and downwards in the latter,
the apparent correspondence of the calcareous plates of the calyx in
Antedon and the so-called calyx in Asterina would appear to be due
simply to the fact that their arrangement is in both cases dominated by
prevailing pentamerous symmetry of the adult. This the student who
is acquainted with the work that has been done on the morphology of
the Echinoderms during the last twenty years will recognise as most
revolutionary. It is not for that reason to be supposed that it is not
justified by the facts that Mr. MacBride has collected.

The author has done good service in insisting on the low character
of the organisation of the starfish. He points out that there are no
proper blood-vessels, no specialised excretory organ, a central nervous
system which is really a local concentration of a diffuse skin plexus,
perfectly simple generative ducts, and a most feeble development of the
muscular system ; and lie asks, where is such a state of things to be
found outside the Ccelentera? He insists that the almost complete
atrophy of the ambulacral nervous system in the Crinoid, and its replace-
ment by a new system developed in a totally different position, show

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxviii. (1896) pp. 339-111 (12 pis.).

1896 2 g

422

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

that we are at about as low a level as one could well imagine, since the
central nervous system in all higher forms is a most persistent structure.

Mr. MacBride’s views as to the affinities of the Echinoclerms to other
animals, and among themselves, are indicated by the subjoined table : —

Protocoelomata

Dipleurula

Hemichordata ( Tornaria )

Balanoglossus

Cejphalodiscm

Protochordata

Asterids Ascidians

Protoechinids Ophiurids Ampliioxus

Echinids Holothurids Yertebrata

Uintacrinus.* — Mr. E. A. Bather has made a study of this peculiar
unstalked Crinoid. Like the other unstalked Crinoid Marsupites it is,
he says, a forlorn foundling with not even a birthmark to reveal its
parentage. After giving a morphological description of TJ. socicilis, in
which he tells us the deficiencies in previous accounts are made good,
and the errors in them corrected, he makes, with the more accurate
knowledge thus obtained, a more useful comparison with other Crinoids.
He finds by a process of comparison and elimination that it is most
closely related to Dadocrinus.

Syzygy of Crinoids. j — Mr. F. A. Bather calls attention to the fact
that the leading writers on Crinoids use the term “ syzygy ” with more
than one meaning. A slight acquaintance with the literature of Crinoids
is sufficient to convince one that the writers must plead guilty to this
charge. Even Johannes Muller, the author of the word, has used it
both as meaning a suture, and as meaning two joints united by a suture.
Mr. Bather proposes that the term syzygy should invariably be used in
accordance with its original definition for an immovable sutural union,

* Proc. Zool. Soc., 1895, pp. 974-1004 (3 pis.),
t Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp, 57-61.

F ixed ancest< r
of Echinoderms

I

Crinoids

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 423

"bile the term joint be restricted to its primitive sense of articulation ;
that in place of the term joint, as used for a part of an arm, the word
ossicle or segment should be used. These and other changes which he
proposes will certainly result in greater clearness, if not in greater
conciseness.

Caudina arenata.* — Mr. J. H. Gerould has a memoir on this Holo-
thurian. After describing its external features and giving an account
of its habits and food, he enters fully into the details of the anatomy and
histology of the body-wall, the nervous system, the digestive apparatus
and the water- vascular system, and the other parts of its organisation.
His study of the structure of this and allied forms has strengthened in
1 1 is mind the conviction that the Molpadiidae are more closely related to
the Cucumariidae than to any other family. This, it is true, has already
been pointed out by Ludwig.

Inasmuch as the Synaptidae differ in so many points from other Holo-
thurians, the idea that they have been derived from a primitive form
distinct from the ancestors of the remaining families seems not wholly
improbable. The author, however, is inclined to adopt the view of
Ludwig, that they represent an early offshoot from the common branch
of Cucumariidse and Molpadiidae near its junction with the main stem
from which all Holothurians have arisen. The water-vascular system,
both in the Molpadiidae and Synaptidae, has undergone a marked de-
generation, in adaptation to a life of burrowing in the sand. In the
former, the radial canals and a few rudimentary ambulacra alone remain.
In the latter, even the radial canals, as Ludwig has shown, are lost
during the development of the individual.

Hew Starfishes and Ophiurans.f — Prof. A. E. Yerrill describes a
number of new species of Starfishes and Ophiurans, and revises certain
species formerly described. Nearly all these are from the collections
made by the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. In
dealing with the Starfishes he follows pretty closely the serial arrange-
ment adopted by Sladen, partly as a matter of convenience, but also
because it probably represents, in most cases, the real affinities of the
genera more nearly than any other published classification. In the
Archasteridae he makes the new subfamilies Benthopectininae and Pon-
tasterinae ; a new genus Isaster is made for the elegant starfish
which the author previously described as Archaster bairdii , of which he
gives a full detailed description. Prof. Yerrill thinks that the families
Archasteridae, Astropectinidae, and Pentagonasteridae, as described by
Mr. Sladen, are not well defined, and that the few characters given by
him do not hold good in all cases. For example, the presence or
absence of an anal pore, supposed to be characteristic of the first of these
families, is unreliable ; though whether the pore ever is a true anus is
very doubtful. The distinctions between the Pentagonasteridae and the
Archasteridae are also very faint and indefinite, for though the typical
genera of each group appear to be very different, there are many inter-
mediate genera now known. It would perhaps be more in accordance
with a natural classification to drop the family Archasteridae, and dis-

* Froc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxvii. (1896) pp. 7-71 (8 pis.).

f Pruc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xvii. (1895) pp. 245-97.

2 g 2

424

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tribute the genera referred to it among the other two families. The
author takes occasion to distinguish by definite names those various
forms of dermal ossicles which are generally called paxillae. These he
calls spinopaxillm, parapaxillae, protopaxillae, and pseudopaxillae.

A new genus named Acanthar chaster is made for a remarkable form
apparently closely allied to Pontaster. The type of this genus was
originally described as Archaster dawsoni. In dealing with the Ophiurans
new species only are described.

Ccelentera.

British Museum Catalogue of Stony Corals.* — Mr. H. M. Bernard has
prepared a second volume of the Catalogue of the Stony Corals in the
British Museum, in which he deals with the genera Turhinaria and
Astrseopora. We have from time to time called attention to his pre-
liminary notes on these forms.

Perhaps the most interesting point in his introduction is that in
which he deals with the question, Is any classification of the various
forms composing a genus into separate clearly defined species possible ?
Answering this question so far as it concerns his own work, he says
that “ the only specimens which can be claimed with absolute certainty
as specifically identical, are a few which have in each case been gathered
at the same place and time, and resemble one another as closely as if they
were two fragments of one and the same stock. Beyond these no cer-
tainty exists, and strict regard to the variations of form and structure
would compel us to label all the remaining specimens as different species
or varieties. Further, I do not remember ever having seen a specimen
in either private or public collections which exactly recalled any single
specimen in the British Museum. Are all these to be classed as new
species ? Such a course is only possible when the collection dealt with
is very small, but when the number of specimens is measured by hun-
dreds, one’s courage fails. Hence recourse is had to a recognised but
hardly satisfactory system of grouping ; certain striking and conspicuous
specimens, or single specimens which have already been described by
previous workers, are selected as types, and the remainder are divided
according as, in the opinion of the individual worker, they approach
one or the other of these favoured specimens. The types are thus in
the highest degree arbitrary and accidental, as is also, it must be con-
fessed (though in a less degree), the selection of other specimens to
be associated with them.”

In the present volume 260 specimens of Turhinaria are grouped round
some fifty such types. Mr. Bernard thinks that we are rapidly nearing
the time when our ever-increasing collections, revealing as they do the
infinite grades of variation presented by living organisms, will compel
us to break loose from the restraint of the Linnean species. It will be
remembered that the first volume of this catalogue, prepared by the late
Mr. Brook, dealt with the genus Madrejpora. The present author finds
that it, with Turhinaria and Astrseopora, forms a well-demarcated group
of ccenenchymatous corals, that is, of corals out of the development of

* ‘ Catalogue of the Madreporarian Corals in the British Museum,’ vol. ii. London,
1896, 106 pp. and 31 pis.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

425

which one of the two elements of skeleton has practically dropped. In
all three the epitheca appears in the early stages alone, whilst the great
mass of the coral substance is built up entirely by septa and their synap-
ticular connections. These three genera do not lend themselves to any
trustworthy phylogenetic arrangement. It is safest to deduce them
independently from some more primitive coenenchymatous coral, which
is now perhaps only represented in the earliest encrusting stages of
Astrseopora and Madrepora.

Budding in Corals.* — Dr. G. v. Koch describes in Alveopora retusa
Yerrill the Zwisclunknospung which he previously observed in the fossil
form Favosites gotJilandica , and also discusses the septal budding of
Favia cavernosa Forsk. It is difficult, however, to summarise the
matter profitably without the beautifully clear figures which accompany
the original.

Reactions of Metridium to Food and other Substances.f — Mr. G.
H. Parker has made some observations on the habits of this common
American sea-anemone. He finds that the outer surfaces of the column
rnd aboral disc are not ciliated, and are incapable of being stimulated
by the soluble constituents of the food. The tentacles are covered with
cilia, but the action of these was not noticeably influenced by the soluble
constituents of food. The cilia of the siphonoglyphe wave invariably
inwards, and it is possible that the stimulation of the surfaces of this
orifice by meat-juice gives rise to a peristaltic movement in the gullet.
The cilia of the lips usually wave outwards, but the direction of their
stroke can be temporarily reversed by meat-juice. Application of this
juice to the lips calls forth peristaltic movements of the gullet. The
effects of frequently repeated weak chemical stimuli on one side of the
oral disc are not transmitted in any appreciable degree to the other side.
In other words, the nervous functions are not centralised. In an ex-
panded quiescent Metridium the tentacles point away from the mouth,
and their cilia wave towards the tips. The cilia in the siphonoglyphe
wave inward, those on the lips outward. If any indifferent substance is
dropped on these parts it is carried along with the ciliary currents ; if
a piece of meat be placed on the tentacles, these turn their tips towards
the mouth and their cilia carry the meat to their free ends, from which
it drops on the lips ; the cilia of the lips thereupon reverse, and the
meat passes down the gullet, partly by ciliary action and partly by
peristaltic movements.

Hydroids of Ternate.J — Herr B. von Campenhausen describes some
Hydroids from a collection made by Prof. Kiikenthal at Ternate. Of the
twenty species, three are new : — Cryptolaria ternatanat Calyptothujaria
opposita , and Caminothujaria molukkana g. et sp. n.

Porifera.

New Hexactinellida.§ — Dr. I. Ijima describes several new sponges
from Sagami Bay. Three of them are representatives of new genera ;

* Morphol. Jalirb., xxiv. (1896) pp. 167-77 (8 figs.).

t Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xxix. (1896) pp. 107-19.

t Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 103-7. § Tom. cit., pp. 249-54.

426 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Chaunoplectella appears to be allied to the well-known Venus’ Flower-
basket ; Hyalascus is a near ally of Asconema, while its close affinity to
the Rossellidae cannot be denied ; Aulosaccus is a new Bossellid, repre-
sented by a single specimen.

Protozoa.

The Genus Ceratium.* — Dr. E. Vanhoffen finds that the form known
as Ceratium tripos (O. F. Muller) Nitsch, var. labradorica Schiitt, occurs in
enormous numbers in the Greenland plankton, and without intermediate
forms linking it to others. He proposes, therefore, to regard it as a
distinct species under the title C. labradoricum Schiitt, and to keep the
name C. tripos (O. F. Muller) for C. tripos var. baltica Schiitt. The
genus Ceratium in the strict sense should include only those forms in
which the three horns are turned to the side which is foremost in loco-
motion. Those with one horn forwards and two backwards, of which
C. furca Dujardin is type, should be placed in the genus Biceratium ;
the C. fusus type in the new genus Amphiceratium , the C. gravidum type
in the new genus Poroceratium.

New Ciliata.-]* — Herr Hs. Wallengren proposes a new family Chilo-
dochonina for a new genus Chilodochona with two species Ch. Qvennerstedti
and Ch. microchilus. He also describes the structure and life-history of
Heliochona and Hemispeira Asteriasi Fabre-Domergue.

Bodo urinarius.J — M. Barrois gives an account of the peculiar
Infusorian said to be found in human urine. The author lays particular
stress upon the fact that the Infusoria found by him only appeared in
urine which contained animal matter, and which had been exposed some
time to the air; in no case did he find them in fresh urine. Bodo
vrinarius would appear, therefore, not to be a parasite, but to exist in
the air in a spore-like form, ready to develope whenever it is brought
into contact with a suitable nidus.

Freshwater Acinetse.§ — M. B. Sand points out that the form E. Buck
described as Acineta gelatinosa belongs to the genus Podophrya , and gives
descriptive notes on Trichophrya epistylidis, Urnula epistylidis, and Toho-
phrya quadripartita, all from Belgian waters. In regard to AcinetsB in
general, the author maintains the cosmopolitan distribution of species :
the occurrence of the same species on various substrata ; the presence
of a single or double cuticular layer on the body, tentacles, and stalk,
with minute pearl-like markings as in Diatoms ; the constant occurrence
of an internal prolongation of the tentacles; the gelatinous, amorphous
transparent content of the stalk ; the frequent division of the nucleus
long before the cytoplasm. He agrees with Maupas as to the centri-
fugal and centripetal currents in the process of suction, identifies the
refringent spheres as albuminoids, and describes the cytoplasm as both
reticular and alveolar.

Foraminifera of Voyage of ‘ Albatross.’ || — Mr. Axel Goes reports
on the Foraminifera collected at 131 stations in the West Indian waters,

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 133-4.

f Acta Univ. Lunch, xxxi. (1895) pp. 1-77 (4 pis.).

X Amer. Natural., xxx. (1896) pp. 67-9.

Ann. Soc. Beige Micr., xx. (1896) pp. 87-103 (1 ph).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 427

and from 126 in tlie Pacific. There appears to be a sudden decrease of
foraminiferal life below a depth of 1200 fathoms in these seas. It often
happens that, in greater depths, the whole shell deposit of pelagic forms
seems to be in a state of decay, probably owing to the chemical condition
of the deep water. It is probable too that a constant snowing down of
dead pelagic forms may be injurious to many of the delicate organisms,
leaving unimpaired only the stronger which may occur in such localities.
Our material is at present too limited to allow us to make any trust-
worthy comparison between the faun® of either side of the isthmus of
Panama, but it may be said with some certainty that the deep-water
fauna of both seas is nearly common for the two. A large number of
species are reported on, a small proportion of which is new.

Synopsis of Heliozoa.* — Dr. F. Schaudinn has prepared a synopsis
of the Heliozoa, which the German Zoological Society has sent out as
a type of the method by which they propose to form a complete synoj)sis
of the Animal Kingdom. We learn that rough calculations, lately made
by contributors to the ‘ Zoological Kecord,’ result in the belief that some
360,000 species of animals have been described up to the present date.
It will be seen, therefore, that the German Zoological Society has
undertaken an enormous task ; in selecting Prof. F. E. Schultze of Berlin
as the general editor they have given the best assurance they can that
the work will be well and successfully done. Dr. Schaudinn’s synopsis
shows that it is proposed to give a short diagnosis of the species, with
keys to the genera, and a limited number of figures. In addition to a
number of well-known German naturalists, who have undertaken to take
part in the work, we notice the names of Prof. R. Blanchard, who makes
himself responsible for the leeches, Mr. Ogilvie-Grant takes the
pheasants, the Honourable Walter Rothschild the birds of paradise,
and Mr. Stebbing, as may be supposed, will deal with the amphipod
Crustacea.

New Radiolarian.j — Herr W. Karawaiew describes a unique Radio-
larian from Villafranca, of which, however, he found only one specimen.
The spherical cell was traversed by six thin spicules, arranged in
parallel pairs, and reaching to near the centre. Besides these there
were very numerous minute spicules, and also extremely fine hair-like
spines lying in little groups.

Ectoparasites of Ligidium.j; — Herr B. Nemec describes, from the
Isopod Ligidium agile , a new Rhizopod ectoparasite .Discella Ligidii
g. et sp. n. ; and two new species of Infusorians Chilodon longidens
and Opercularia epistyliformis.

Development of Spermatobium.§ — Mr. G. Eisen has a short memoir
on the various stages of development of Spermatobium , with notes on other
parasitic Sporozoa. Spermatobium is a new genus, found parasitic in two
earthworms which inhabit the Pacific Coast of North America. In both
species the parasite is confined to the sperm-sacs, where in the young
stages it occupies the interior of a sperm-cell, but in the later stages it

* Berlin, 1896, 8vo, 24 pp.

t Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 185-7 (1 fig.).

t SB. K. Bokm. Ges. Wiss., 1895 (Bohemian), 13 pp. and 1 pi.

§ Proc. Californ. Acad. Sci., v. (1895) pp. 1-33 (1 pi.).

428

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

lives free in tlie sperm-sac ; lie finds that there are two distinct species,
which, whilst similar in structure, differ markedly in the size of the adult,
but principally in the size of the cytosplieres. The free form is shuttle-
like, later on oval, and finally globular, with extremely prominent nucleus
and nucleolus. The macronucleus, at first globular, becomes irregular,
and finally disposes itself all through the cytosplieres, forming at first
nodes which, later, change into new secondary nuclei equidistant from
each other. The cytospheres group themselves around these micro-
nuclei, which later again divide by karyokinesis, thus forming at first
microsporogonia, then sporoblasts. These sporoblasts develope first
into shuttle-spores.

Mr. Eisen points out that the amitotic division of nuclei may take
place in at least four different ways : —

(1) Segmentation. — The nucleus divides itself in equal parts in the
equatorial plane.

(2) Fragmentation. — The nucleus is beaded off in various equal or
unequal parts, not separated by regular division fields.

(3) Badiation or Budding. — The nucleus branches out, forms nodes,
which latter by retraction of filaments become independent nuclei.

(4) Sporulation. — The nucleus plasma becomes by the aid of achro-
matic filaments divided into numerous equal parts, which become set free
and form independent nuclei.

Tsetse Fly Disease.* — Mr. W. F. H. Blandford has a notice of
Surgeon-Major Bruce’s preliminary report on the Tsetse fly disease in
Zululand. For 46 years this fly has been notorious as a terrible scourge
to live stock, and the most formidable of impediments to colonisation in
Equatorial and South Africa. On man, nothing but temporary irritation
is produced by the bite of this fly. Wild animals do not suffer, but
domestic animals which have entered fly districts are seized in the
course of a few days with fever and wasting, and almost invariably die.
Here, as elsewhere with the progress of discovery, it has been found
that it is not the fly which is the poisonous agent, but the microbe
which infests it. The microbe in question appears to be a flagellated
Infusorian about 10 to 20 p, long by 2 p wide. It is intimately allied
to, if not identical with, Trypanosoma evansi , the cause of horse disease
in India. These blood-parasites, after an incubation period of seven to
twenty days, make their appearance in huge numbers in the blood of the
patient, where they appear to worry the blood-corpuscles. The disease
produced by the Tsetse fly belongs to the class of which malaria may
be taken as the type.

Independent Movements of the Chromosomes of the Malaria
Parasite.! — M. N. Sacharoff, who had previously expressed the opinion
that the flagella of the malaria parasites were nothing else than the
chromatin threads extended from the cells, has recently been able to
observe all the stages of the process and its relation to nuclear fission.
The blood used was that of young unfledged crows taken from nests in
malarious districts. In the earlier condition the chromatin filaments
form an ovoid coiled up mass which, later on, divides into two portions.

♦ Nature, liii. (1896) pp. 566-8 (2 figs.).

t Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., I'8 Abt., xviii. (1895) pp. 374-80 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

429

From each of these four long chromosomes with pointed distal ends are
developed. The chromosomes, still attached by their thicker extremities
to the body of the parasite, next attempt to escape from the red corpuscle
by perforating the elastic limiting membrane. All this time they are
in constant movement, but if they fail to escape from the corpuscle the
movements cease.

As the flagella of the malaria parasites and the chromosomes are
identical, it is obvious that chromosomes are possessed of independent
active movement.

Infectious Diseases among Turkeys.* — Mr. T. Smith has made an
investigation of the infectious diseases among turkeys caused by Amoeba
meleagridis , a new species which he discovered in the liver or cseca of
turkeys infected with the disease. This disease seems to attack turkeys
when quite young, and the primary seats are the cseca. From these the
liver is invaded. The disease runs a regular course, but varies from
bird to bird in severity, duration, and termination ; its action is in many
cases severe enough to prove fatal. The parasite appears to be trans-
mitted from bird to bird without passing through &n intermediate host.

Biological and Clinical Researches on Amoeba coli Losch.f — Sig.
0. G. V. Casagrandi and Sig. P. Barbagallo-Rapisiardi have frequently
met with Amoeba coli in typhoid diarrhoea, in simple intestinal catarrh,
and in sporadic dysentery. The Amoebse vary extremely in size, shape,
movement, &c. even in the same case. This variability is also seen in
encysted Amoebse. According to the character and properties of the
faeces the free or encysted multinucleated Amoebse are met with. The
free forms divide on the spot, while the encysted are intended for another
host. Experiments show that the clinical importance of A. coli is over-
rated, for diarrhoea does not develope in cats unless the intestinal
canal be already in a catarrhal condition. The A. coli of dysentery will
develope in cats, but only because the dysenteric material injected at the
same time sets up the condition necessary for its development. Nor can
A. coli be held responsible for abscesses of the liver, since there are
cases of dysenteric abscess of the liver in which the Amoebse cannot
be demonstrated. A. coli of healthy persons and of those suffering from
diarrhoea and dysentery are, therefore, one and the same form, which
multiplies in the host by simple fission and is transferred to another
host after encystment. It is pathogenic neither to man nor cats, and
is really a useful guest, as it destroys other organisms living in the
intestinal canal.

* Bull. U.S. Department of Agriculture, No. viii. (1895) pp. 7-3S (5 pis.).

f Catania, 1895, 8vo, 15 pp. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt.,
xix. (1896) p. 572.

430

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Disorganisation-Phenomena of Cells.* * * § — Herr P. Klemm classifies
the changes which result in the disorganisation of the cell under
three lit ads : — Collapse of the protoplasm, indicated by the disappear-
ance of turgor; changes in configuration, including a breaking up of
the protoplasm; and changes in the interior of the protoplasm. The
objects examined were plasmodes of Myxomycetes, hairs of Gucurbita ,
Momordica, and Urtica , the staminal hairs of Tradescantia, filaments of
Spirogyra, Vaucheria , Bryopsis, Derbesia, and Saprolegnia, and root-hairs
of Triania. The changes in the interior of the protoplasm may be of
several kinds : — Excretions, of a fibrillar, or more often of a granular cha-
racter ; solution-phenomena which result in the formation of vacuoles ; or
a coagulating of the protoplasm, accompanied by granulation and forma-
tion of vacuoles. These changes may be either sudden or gradual. The
disorganisation caused by a very high or a very low temperature, or by
excess of light, is dependent on an arrest of the currents of protoplasm.
The effect of electricity is to bring about swelling and formation of
vacuoles. By treatment with alkalies the foam- structure can be artifi-
cially produced.

Cell-Wall of the Cotyledons of Lupinus.| — By the use of chemical
methods, Herr E. Schulze has come to a different conclusion from that
of Elfert J with regard to the composition of the thickenings of the cell •
walls in the cotyledons of Lupinus angustifolius , albus , and luteus. He
claims to have established that they do not consist of cellulose, but of
paragalactan, and that they are reserve-food-substances used up in the
process of germination. Paragalactan appears to occur only in the
cotyledons, not in the plumule and radicle, of Lupinus.

(2) Other Cell-contents (including- Secretions).

Tyrosinase, a new Oxidising Diastase.§ — In the root of the dahlia
and beet, as well as in several fungi ( Bussula nigricans ), M. G. Bertrand
finds a hitherto undescribed diastase, to which he gives the name
tyrosinase , from its connection with tyrosin. It belongs to the class of
soluble oxidising ferments of which laccase is the type, and which he
calls oxydases.

Pectase in Plants.|| — MM. G. Bertrand and A. Malevre find pectase
in forty species of floweriug plants examined, belonging to widely-
separated families, and in five species of Cryptogams, the only negative

* Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxviii. (1895) pp. G27-700 (2 pis.;.

f Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 66-71.

X Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 192.

§ Oomptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 1215-7.

11 Journ. do Bot. (Morot), x. (1896) pp. 37-41. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 330.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

Vdl

results obtained being with Conifers. The amount of this diastase
present varies with the species and with the part of the plant; it was
found in the root, stem, leaves, flower, and fruit, most abundantly in the
leaves, from which (lucerne, clover) it was obtained in the pure state
as a white powder, by dissolving in chloroform and precipitating by
alcohol.

Hydrocyanic Acid in Pangium edule.* * * § — Dr. M. Treub publishes
the results of an elaborate investigation on the localisation and transport
of hydrocyanic acid in this plant, usually classed in the Bixaceae. Its
special seat is in the leptome, the sieve-tubes, the assimilating tissue of
the leaf, the basal cells of hairs, and the epidermal cells which contain
clusters of crystals. Its conduction takes place mainly through the
cortex of the stem and leaf-stalk. As regards its function, the author
rejects the explanation that it is protective, seeing that it is not poisonous
to many animals ; the apices of the stems, where it is especially abun-
dant, are infested with larvae. He looks upon this substance rather as
one of the earliest nitrogenous products of assimilation. It is apparently
formed in the leaves, but only in the presence of inorganic substances
carried from the soil by the ascending current.

Mucilage of the Cactacese.f — Dr. B. Longo has made a study of
the muciferous canals and idioblasts of the Opuntieae. He finds the
idioblasts distributed through the fundamental parenchyme of all
the parts of the stem and root. Their contents include plastids and
starch. In the cladodes and pseudocarps of the Platopuntieae there are
canals behind the sieve-portion of the vascular bundles, containing
calcium oxalate in a crystalline condition, gum, drops of oil, starch-
granules, and protoplasm.

Deposition of Calcium Oxalate.J — Dr. L. Buscalioni has studied the
mode of formation of crystals of calcium oxalate, especially in the seeds of
the Magnoliacese and Papaveraceae, and of the mucilaginous bodies which
accompany the groups of crystals in a variety of other plants. His
conclusions are rather in harmony with those of Kohl § than with those
of Wakker.j| He states that these crystals, whether in the form of
clusters or of raphides, originate in the cells in w'hich there are special
accumulations of mucilage of the nature of callose, or possibly of pectoso
(the “ mucilaginous bodies ”), and that both kinds are developed on the
periphery of these bodies ; hence they cannot originate in vacuoles.
These crystals have probably only an indirect connection with the
thickening of the cell-wall which accompanies their production. The
reaction used for determining the presence of this mucilaginous sub-
substance is the precipitate formed by a soluble copper salt (acetate),
which precipitate is converted into cupric ferrocyanidc by the addition
of potassium ferrocyanide. The deposition of calcium oxalate appears
to be entirely w anting in Gramineae, Typhaceae, Naiadem, Selaginellaceae,
and Equisetaceae, and to be comparatively rare in Muscineae and Algae.

* Ann. Jartl. Bot. Buitenzorg, xiii. (1895) pp. 1-89 (11 pis.).

f Ball. Son. Bot. Ital., 1896, pp. 51-2.

X Malpighia, is. (1895) pp. 469-533; x. (1896) pp. 3-67 (2 pis.).

§ Cr'. this Journal, 1890, p. 476. || Cf. this Journal, p. 402.

432

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Acid Excretion of Roots.* * * § — Herr F. Czapek has investigated the
nature of the acid substances contained in the fluid excreted from the
roots of a variety of plants. Of inorganic bases, potassium was found to
be invariably present, magnesium very often, calcium only rarely. Small
quantities of chlorides were often found, phosphates invariably, and the
acid reaction was due to the presence of potassium orthophosphate.
Of organic acids, formic was often found in the form of potassium
formate, oxalic acid only in the hyacinth, and then only in the form of
potassium orthoxalate. The corrosive action of roots on mineral
substances was found to be in all cases due to carbon dioxide.

Acidity of Root-Sap.f — Mr. F. H. Perry Coste gives a summary of
the recent method of estimating the amount of potash and phosphoric
acid contained in soils, that is actually available as plant-food. The
object being to decide what strength of (organic) acid solution should be
used in the analytical process of extracting soils, so as to correspond
with the acidity of roots, this acidity was estimated in between 50 and
60 species of 20 natural orders — special attention being paid to Cruci-
ferae, Leguminosae, and Gramineae. The acidity is calculated into
(A) terms of hydrogen, (B) of citric acid.

Percentage of Acidity in Sap
in terras of

Hydrogen. Citric Acid.

Gramineae (average of 16 species) *0055 *38

Cruciferse (average of 25 determinations in 13 species ’0085 *60

and varieties).

Leguminosae (average of 5 species : 9 determinations) . . * 0094 • 66

Umbelliferse (average of 4 species) *0079 *55

Onagracem (CEnotliera) *0220 1*54

Kosaceae ( Geum and Strawberry : 4 determinations) .. *0348 2*43

The last family is unique in its high acidity, and in Geum this was
found in one case to be as high as 3 * 69, that of the strawberry reaching
1 *5 (in terms of citric acid). The acidity in Armeria (Plumbaginacete)
is nearly as high as that in Onagracese.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Resin-Passages of Coniferse.j: — Herr S. Rywosch points out a corre-
lation between the position of the resin-passages and the development of
the hypoderm in the two-leaved species of Pinus. If the latter tissue
consists of several layers, the passages are completely imbedded in the
chlorophyll* layer ; if of only a single layer, they lie outside it. In the
former case resin-passages occur also within the protecting sheath, and
therefore in the central cylinder, one or two in each leaf close to the
protoxylem ; they are much smaller than those outside the sheath.

Anatomy of Artocarpus.§ — Herron E. Pfitzer and A. Mayer find
several peculiarities in the anatomical structure of the inflorescence and
fructification of Artocarjpus integrifolia. In the stalk of the ripe fructi-
fication, the horseshoe-shaped vascular-bundle-system is broken up into
a large number of circular fragments arranged irregularly on the trans-

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 29-33.

t Nat. Sci., 1896, pp. 312-7.

J SB. Naturf.-Gesell. Dorpat, x. pp. 517-8. See Bot. Centralbl.. lxvi. (1896) p. 67.

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 52-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

433

verse section. In the parenchyme of the stalk are clusters of crystals
of calcium oxalate united to the cell-wall by bands of cellulose. In the
tissue of the projections which occur on the surface of the ripe inflores-
cence are collencliymatous cells, and between them a number of inter-
cellular spaces, in which are roundish or sharp outgrowths from the
cell-wall, similar to those found in the roots of Orchideee.

(4) Structure of Organs.

Flower of Cruciferse and Fumariacese.* * * § — On anatomical grounds
M. 0. Lignier comes to the following conclusions with regard to the
composition of the flowers of Cruciferae. The petals are simply lateral
lobes of leaves, of which the sepals are the median lobes ; while the six
stamens correspond to two three-lobed leaves. The structure of the
flower is therefore closely analogous to that of Fumariaceae, except that
the anterior and posterior sepals of the latter are wanting in Cruciferae.
The floral formula is S2 (S -f- P)2 St2 C2.

With regard to the flowers of Fumariacese, M. Lignier adopts the
view that each bundle of stamens in this order represents a three-lobed
leaf. The flower is then composed of five alternate whorls of opposite
leaves, corresponding to the formula S2P2+2 + St2 C2, the members of
each whorl exhibiting a tendency to trilobation. In Hypecoum the two
staminal leaves are strongly connate.

Dimorphism of Convolvulus.')' — Sig. O. Massalongo gives further
illustrations of the heterandry in the stamens of Convolvulus arvensis
produced by the attacks of Thecaphora Convolvuli , which, however, he
identifies with C. hyalina. The same fungus attacks also the flowers of
C. sepiurn and C. Soldanella.

Pollen-Grains.J — Mr. J. E. Walter gives descriptions and drawings
of the pollen-grains of about 120 species of American plants belonging
to the Dicotyledones.

Monopodial Ramification of Carex.§ — Mr. T. Holm points out the
frequent occurrence of monopodial ramification in American species of
Carex. In the monopodial species the floral shoots are surrounded at
their base by scale-like leaves; while in the sympodial species the
flowering stems are commonly, if not always, surrounded by normal
leaves with closed sheaths and long green blades.

Heterocarpy.il — Herr E. Huth enumerates further examples of
different forms of fruit found on the same species, especially of the kind
which he terms heteromericarpy , in which the two halves of a binary fruit
differ from one another. This occurs in Turgenia heterocarpa and in
many other Umbelliferae, also in Cruciferae, and occasionally in
Commelyna , Valerianella, Antirrhinum , and Nigella. Macleya cordata
(Papaveraceae) presents two forms resembling one another completely

* Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 630-2, 675-8.

t Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1896, pp. 11-3. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 549.

I Observer (Portland, Conn.), vii. (1896) pp. 21-6, 59-63 (2 pis.).

§ Amer. Journ. of Sci., i. (1896) pp. 348-50 (1 pi.).

|| Abhandl. u. Vortr. a. d. Gesammtgeb. d. Naturw., iv. (1895) 32 pp. See Bot.
Centralbl., lxvi. (1896) p. 96. Cf. this Journal, 1891, p. 491.

434

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in the h aves and inflorescence, but differing so widely in the structure
of the fruit that they might well be placed in different genera.

Carpellary Venation.* * * § — M. P. Grelot points out that, in the orders
of bicarpellary Gamopetalae, the arrangement of the dorsal and placental
libro vascular bundles in the carpels is subject to considerable variation.
The placental bundles, in particular, are sometimes independent in their
whole course, and pass separately into the ovules ; while sometimes they
unite in pairs at the summit of the ovary.

Cotyledons of Monocotyledons.! — Dr. A. Schlickum has investigated
the relationship between the single cotyledon and the first foliage-leaves
in plants belonging to a number of different orders of Monocotyledons.
When the cotyledon emerges above the soil and carries on assimilating
functions, it exhibits also the greatest morphological similarity to a
foliage-leaf. The chief distinctions between cotyledon and first foliage-
leaves lie in the nature of the epiderm, in the number and mode of
branching of the vascular bundles, to a less extent in their structure,
and in the development of the assimilating tissue when present. When
the cotyledon has assimilating functions to perform, its lamina displays
a differentiation into a nutrient portion, the “ haustor ” (Sanger), and a
conducting portion, the “ conductor ” (Leiter). In grasses the conductor
is very rudimentary or entirely suppressed, while the haustor is trans-
formed into the scutellum, which has no resemblance to a foliage-leaf ;
the epiblast is here probably an outgrowth of the coleorhiza. When the
cotyledon does not emerge above - the soil, its function is to take up,. by
means of the haustor, the nutrient substances present in the endosperm
or perisperm, and to protect the rudimentary leaves by the formation of
a more or less developed cotyledonary sheath.

Doubling of Leaves-! — Dr. L. Gabelli combats the theory that the
tendency of a leaf to become bifid or bilobed is always pathological.
While it may frequently be the result of injury to the growing point, it
more often arises from the inherited tendency of the growing point to
modify the phyllotaxis by producing more than one leaf, when favoured
by surrounding circumstances.

Morphology of Buds.§ — M. J. Massart classifies the leaf-buds of
climbing plants under two heads — sarmentary , those which produce the
long slender branches which assist the plant in climbing ( Langtrieben ),
and those which develope into the shorter branches (Kurztrieben) which
bear the flowers and the greater part of the leaves ; these he terms
ramillary. Both these kinds of bud grow in rows in the axil of the same
leaves, or, in other cases, in the axils of different leaves. In the former
case the bud which developes first is usually ramillary, while the others
are sarmentary.

Accessory Buds.|| — Mr. G. EL Shull has investigated the position of
the accessory buds in a number of woody plants belonging to different

* Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 1144-7.

t Bibliotli. But., Heft 35, 1896, 88 pp. and 6 pis.

X Malpighia, x. (1896) pp. 67-71.

§ Ann. Jard. But. Buiteuzorg, xiii. (1895) pp. 121-36 (2 pis. and 1 fig.).

|| Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 166-9 (1 pi ).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, -ETC.

435

natural orders. Allied species often differ from one another in the
presence or absence of these buds. He finds that they are not anomalous
in character, but are in all cases axillary to bud-scales, or to undeveloped
leaves in the bud.

Hydrophorous Apparatus in Xerophilous Plants.* — Prof. A. Borzi
describes the structures by means of which many plants belonging to the
Mediterranean flora are enabled to store up supplies of water to protect,
against excessive transpiration. Illustrations are afforded by the nodal
sheath and cushion of the Caryophyllacere, the leaf-sheath of the Um-
belliferm and Graminese, and the ochrea of the Polygonaceae.

Root of Impatiens.f — M. C. Brunotte calls attention to the fact that
the root of Imjpatiens noli-tangere differs from that of other species of the
genus in the abortion of the primary root. In the place of the four
layers of cells which form the cap in the ripe seed in all other species
examined, there is a single layer of cells which extends to the periphery of
the whole of the hypocotyledonary region, and which remains undivided.
The author suggests that there are probably a considerable number of
plants in which the lateral roots, or one of them springing from near
the summit, takes the place of the true principal root.

Root of Myiistica.* — Herr Y. A. Poulsen describes the peculiar
adventitious roots of a species of Myristica from Amboyna. They spring
from all sides of the lower part of the stem, but cannot be regarded as.
pneumatodes, seeing they contain no aerenchyme. The anatomical
structure of these roots presents several peculiarities, which are de-
scribed in detail. In those that are thicker the cambium is formed within
the leptome-bundles, passing transvcrsly through the hadrome. It
consists of large cells, and forms leptome-elements and bast-fibres out-
wardly, inwardly secondary hadrome arranged in curves.

Morphology of the Stellatae.§ — Herr M. Franke goes into great,
detail with regard to the morphology and development of the various
organs in this suborder of the Rubiacese. He calls special attention to
the points that, while all the aerial internodes of the stem are invariably
square, the hypocotyledonary internode is round ; and that, in the
phyllotaxis, an exactly decussate arrangement of the leaves and stipules,
is unusual.

£. Physiology.

Cl) Reproduction and Embryology.

Embryology of Taraxacum. ||— Herr 8. Schwere finds various ab-
normalities in the ovule of Taraxacum officinale. It is not rare for two
ovules to develope within an ovary ; in one case he found in an ovule
two well-developed embryo-sacs, each with a normal embryo. The
nucleus of the oosphere always contains a very large nucleole. The
synergids are always placed at the apex of the embryo-sac, and remain

* Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Itah, iii. (1896) pp. 80-8.

f Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 897-900.

t Copenhagen, 1896, 8 pp. and 2 pis. (Danish). See Bot. Centralbl., Ixvi. (1896).
p. 139. § Bot. Ztg., liv. (1896) lta Abt., pp. 33-60 (1 pi.).

|| Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 32-66 (4 pis.).

436

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

for a long period after impregnation ; one of them is apparently
occasionally fertilised. The antipodals are seated at the opposite end
of the embryo-sac. The suspensor remains unicellular until after the
first divisions have made their appearance in the embryo. The nuclei
of the endosperm divide pari passu with those of the embryo, until a
body of 32 cells is formed, each with its own nucleus. This is subse-
quently almost entirely resorbed, until only two layers of strongly com-
pressed endosperm-cells remain, which assume the function of an inner
integument to the seed.

Embryo-Sac of Alisma.* — Mr. J. H. Schaffner has investigated the
development of the embryo-sac of Alisma Plantago, and gives the
following as his more important conclusions. During the conjugation
of the two polar nuclei the four centrospheres conjugate in couples,
resulting in the formation of two new ones for the definitive nucleus.
The endosperm results entirely from the division of the definitive
nucleus. The division of the generative nucleus of the pollen-grain
occurs within the grain. Both of the pollen-nuclei enter, with the pollen-
tube, into the embryo-sac, but only the lower takes part in the act of
fertilisation, the other remaining in the tube. The nucleus of one
of the synergids is entirely absorbed when in contact with the pollen-
tube ; the other is also dissolved later. The centrospheres of the lower
pollen-nucleus precede it as it approaches the oosphere. The nucleus
of the oosphere becomes bulged out on the side nearest the pollen-
nucleus, and its centrospheres, being situated immediately opposite
the bulge, travel slightly towards the approaching pollen-nucleus. All
the stages preliminary to the conjugation of the male and female nuclei
indicate a conjugation of their centrospheres at the time of impregna-
tion of the oosphere.

Ovules of Angiosperms.f — Herr M. Westermaier describes a number
of special cases of the development of the antipodal apparatus in the
embryo-sac. In Forsythia sp. there is at the antipodal end of the sac
a cylindrical cellular structure which he terms the “ antipodal cell-
body,” which is present in young ovules, the embryo-sac above this body
appearing to collapse. The funicle contains no vascular bundle ; one
is, however, present in Syringa, some species of which possess also a
similar antipodal cell-body. In Alstrcemeria, the antipodal apparatus
has assumed a lateral position from the unequal growth of the embryo-
sac. In the CruciferaB and Resedaceae there is no true antipodal appara-
tus ; but it is probable that at the basal region of the embryo-sac there
are special contrivances for the nutrition of the embryo.

The anatropy of ovules is the result, according to the author, not of
any cohesion in growth, but of the mode of growth of the funicle and
its relation to the integument. From a theoretical point of view, the
funicle is homologous with the pedicel of the sporange.

In another paper t the author corrects seme errors into which he has
fallen with regard to the ovule of the Oleaceae and of Anemone.

* Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 123-32 (2 pis.).

+ Beitr. z. wiss. Bot. (Funfstiick), i. (1895) pp. 255-80 (2 pis.). See Bot. Ceu-
tralbl., lxvi. (1896) p. 128.

X Ber. Deutscb. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 33-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

437

Abortive or Transformed Sexual Organs.* — Herr J. Familler Las
traced the biogenesis of reduced sexual organs in a number of plants,
and gives the following as the more important general conclusions.
The repression or transformation of the organ in question may go back
to very different stages in different plants, or even in different flowers
of the same plant. In the case of the male organs the most common
cases are: — an arrest of the primordial stage with a small development
of filament ; and the appearance of divisions which would lead normally
to the formation of an anther-wall, without a true archespore being
developed. In arrested female organs the embryo-sac is usually, but not
always, formed, but the formation of the integuments is very feeble.
In flowers with numerous stamens and staminodes, the passage from
one to the other is gradual. If pollen is formed in an arrested stamen,
it is the number and not the size of the pollen-grains that undergoes
reduction. Filiform staminodes, such as those of Pentstemon , correspond
not to the filament alone, but to the anther as well. A staminode may
be actually transformed into a nectary or secreting organ in the course
of its development.

Proterandry in a Palm.f — M. J. Daveau records a remarkable
instance of proterandry ■ in a species of Kentia ( Hoivea ). The small
flowers are grouped in clusters within the spadix. Each cluster consists
of three flowers, two male and one female ; but the female flowers are
only in a very rudimentary condition even after the male flowers are
fully matured and have dropped. They remain in this condition through
the autumn and winter, and only expand at. the same period in the next
summer, when the male flowers in other newly formed inflorescences are
discharging their pollen.

Biology of Pollen. J — Herr B. Lidforss points out that the statement
that the immense majority of pollen-cells perish in water, and that even
contact with water is very injurious, is much too wide. The closing of
flowers in wet weather does not effect a protection of the anthers against
rain to the extent that is often assumed, since it affords no defence
against sudden and heavy rain. The capacity of different pollen-grains
to resist the injurious action of water differs very widely, even in plants
nearly related to one another. Many pollen-grains will germinate well
in distilled water, while the addition of even a very small percentage of
a mineral salt will arrest the power of germination ; in some cases the
addition of even 0*01 per cent, of potassium or calcium nitrate will have
this effect. The addition of an acid will, on the other hand, often
promote germination ; and this may, in some cases, be induced by
placing the stigma in the water. In a large number of plants the
stigma and anthers are entirely unprotected from rain, and this is
especially the case with anemophilous plants. In these instances the
pollen generally displays a great resistancy against moisture. The
pollen-grains of anemophilous plants almost invariably contain starch.

Formation of Pollen within Ovules. § — Among other changes, M.
M. Molliard finds the formation of pollen within the ovule to be not

* Flora, lxxxii. (1S96) pp. 133-68 (10 figs.).

t Journ. de Bot. (Morot), x. (1896) pp. 25-6.

X Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxix. (1896) pp. 1-38.

§ Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), viii. (1896) pp. 49-58 (1 pi.).

1896 2 H

438

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

uncommon in a hybrid double Petunia. The following is bis explana-
tion of the morphology. The anthers have, between their pollen-sacs, a
special tissue which assists their dehiscence by its gelatinisation. The
nectaries have the morphological value of carpels. When a stamen is
developed within the ovary, it corresponds, not to an entire leaf, but only
to a portion of a leaf. A pollen-sac may replace the embryo-sac within
the ovule ; and all stages of transition may be observed between an
ovule and an anther-lobe. The only universal law which governs the
formation of the nutrient layer in the anther is that its cells become
differentiated around the mother-cells of the pollen-grains.

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including' Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Effect of the Rontgen Rays on Germination.* * * § — Herr A. Schober
has experimented on the effect of the X-rays on the germination of the
oat, and concludes that they differ from the ordinary light-rays in this
respect also, that they have no power of producing heliotropic curvatures,
even in organs so sensitive to light as the axis of a young seedling.

Germination of the Cocoa-nut. t — Herr L. Wittmack has followed
out the early stages in the germination of the cocoa-nut, and has added
some items to our previous knowledge of the subject. The absorbing
organ has a fungus-like appearance, consisting of an obconical stalk, and
a nearly hemispherical head which contains vascular bundles imbedded
in a large-celled spongy parenchyme. This organ conveys to the
originally very small embryo the food-material, which it absorbs first
from the milk and then from the endosperm ; but the statement usually
made, that the ripe cocoa-nut contains no milk, is erroneous.

Germination of Xanthium.f— Prof. J. C. Arthur states that the two
seeds contained in the fruit of the “ cocklebur,” Xanthium canadense and
strumarium , do not lie side by side, and that they do not germinate at
the same time, one being delayed for a whole season after the other,
apparently for the purpose of promoting distribution. The same phe-
nomenon is popularly attributed to the two seeds of the spikelet of the
wild oat, Avena fatua, but the author’s observations do not tend to
confirm this.

Correlation in the Growth of Different Organs.§ — Dr. F. Hering
has experimented on the effect on the growth of certain organs of plants
of the suppression of the growth of other organs by mechanical con-
trivances ; and has come to a somewhat different conclusion from that of
Kny,|| that the growth of roots and shoots proceeds with a high degree
of independence. When either the root or the shoot-system was encased
in plaster of Paris, he found a retardation of growth always to take place
in the system not so enclosed. In Streptocarpus it is usual for one only
of the cotyledons to attain considerable dimensions, while the other

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 108-10.

t Tom. cit., pp. 145-50 (2 figs.).

X Proc. Ann. Meeting Soc. for Promotion of Agric. Sci. (Springfield), 1895,
pp. 70-9 (2 figs.).

§ Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeifer u. Strasburger), xxix. (1896) pp. 132-70 (4 figs.).

|| Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 71.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

439

remains rudimentary. If tlie former one is encased so as to hinder
growth, or is destroyed, then the smaller usually fugacious cotyledon
takes its place and performs its functions.

Protrophy.* * * § — Dr. A. Minx claims to have noted for the first time a
peculiar relationship of growth between the different elements of a lichen,
to which he gives the name protrophy. It is best exhibited in Biatora
intumescens. The protroph is at first a lodger but not a guest; even-
tually it obtains its nourishment through the medium of another lodger,
viz. a different lichen ; and the protrophy becomes thus an example of a
very remarkable “ wet-nurse relationship ” ( Ammenverhaltniss ).

Plasmolysis and Growth of Medullary Tissues.f — According to
Herr R. Kolkwitz the chemical composition of the solution used for
plasmolysis influences the intensity of the phenomenon. Temperature
has a sensible, though very small, effect on the elasticity of membranes.
The author also shows that superficial growth has no connection with
turgor, but may in fact take place in opposition to it.

(3) Irritability.

Movements of the Leaves of the Marantacese.t — Herr B. Debski
describes the structure of the motor cushions of the leaves of various
species of this order, especially belonging to the genera Maranta ,
Ctenanthe, and Calaihea. The movements are nyctitropic, heliotropic,
and paraheliotropic. They occur not only in the cushions themselves,
but also in the similar parts of the mid-rib. The lieliotropic movements
are not connected with growth, since no lengthening, or only a slight
one, of the cushion could be detected, but are caused by changes in
turgor, which result in the shortening of the concave side of the cushion.
The active tissue in this phenomenon is the parenchyme of the concave
side.

Irritability of Drosera.§ — From a series of experiments on Drosera
rotundifolia , Herr C. Correns draws the conclusions that the tentacles
exhibit no perceptible sensitiveness to changes of temperature, and that
various salts of calcium possess the property of rendering the leaves
insensitive to chemical irritation.

C4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Action of Carbon Dioxide on the Protoplasm of the Living Cell, t!
— Herr G. Lopriore describes in detail an apparatus for the purpose of
testing the action of carbon dioxide on living protoplasm. The material
experimented on consisted of the staminal hairs of Tradescantia , spores of
Mucorini, yeast-cells, and the pollen-grains of Angiosperms. The retard-

* Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlvi. (1896) pp. 50-2, 88-91. Cf. this Journal. 1893,
p. 665.

t Beitr. z. wiss. Bot. (Fiinfstuck), i, (1896). See Bot. Ztg., liv. (1896) 2t9 Abt.,
p. 151.

i Anz. Akad. Wiss. Krakau, 1895, pp. 244-59 (34 figs.) (German).

§ Bot. Ztg., liv. (1896) lte Abt., pp. 21-8.

|| Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxviii. (1895) pp. 531-626 (2 pis.
and 3 figs.).

2 h 2

440

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ing effect on growth of pure C02 appears to be positive, not merely
negative from the absence of oxygen. The turgor-pressure of growing
pollen-tubes is decreased, while the extensibility of the cell-wall is
increased ; but if the action lasts only for a limited time there is no
permanently injurious effect. In other cases the cell-wall is ruptured.
A small proportion of C02 — 1-10 per cent. — promotes growth, but
does not increase the turgor-pressure. The different parts of plants
exhibit a very different degree of sensitiveness to the action of C02, and
the living cell can, to a certain extent, adapt itself to resist its injurious
effects.

Physiology of Woody Plants.* — Experiments made by Herr K. G.
Lutz on the beech showed that, between October 10th and November 10th,
a large transference of starch takes place from the interior of the trunk
to the last annual ring and to the bark, and that this starch is then
transformed into a fatty oil and glucose. If the leaves were removed,
the succeeding growth was entirely destitute of vessels, the tree used up
its reserve food-material for the formation of new buds. When pines
were stripped of their leaves, very few buds were produced ; if this was
done in the spring or early summer, the reserve-materials were used up
until the close of the growing period; no increase in thickness took
place if no buds were formed.

y General.

Hornell’s Microscopical Studies in Botany. f — The most recent part
of this publication contains photomicrographs, with descriptive letter-
press, of the following preparations : — Longitudinal and transverse
sections through underground bud of Equisetum maximum; transverse
sections through leaf-bud of ash and elm ; cuticle of Araucaria imbricata ;
longitudinal section through node of sycamore; longitudinal section
through flower- bud of peony ; transverse section through fruit of date-
palm ; transverse sections through flower-bud of Iris germanica and
Lilium croceum.

Mimicry of Pebbles by Beans.j' — Mr. W. K. Sherzer describes
the remarkable resemblance of the seeds of the £< Philippine Island
Bean ” to the pebbles among which they fall. It is exceedingly difficult
to distinguish them, the resemblance extending to their shape, size,
colour, lustre, hardness, and stratification. They appear also to be
uninjured by soaking in sea-water.

B. CRYPTO G AMI A.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Embryogeny of Angiopteris and Marattia.§ — Dr. H. F. Jonkman
has followed out the formation and development of the embryo in these
two genera, which he considers establishes a closer relationship of the
Marattiace® than of the other Pteridophyta to the Hepatic®, while
exhibiting some remarkable points of affinity with Phanerogams.

* Beitr. z. wiss. Bot. (Fiinfstuck), i. (1895) pp.1-80. _
f Yol. i. pt. 2, 14 pp. and 5 pis., Jersej7, Hornell.
j Bot. Gazette, sxi. (1896) pp. 235-6.

§ Bot. Centralbl., lxvi. (1896) pp. 49-52. Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 481.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

441

The first division of the embryo differs in the Marattiaceae from that
in typical ferns ; the basal wall, which divides the embryo into two
nearly equal cells, is almost vertical instead of parallel to the axis of the
archegone, causing a difference in the position of the organs formed from
the embryo. This basal wall divides the embryo into an epibasal and a
hypobasal half, each of which again divides by a median wall vertical
to the basal wall. The further development is described in detail:
from the epibasal half originate the cotyledons and the stem ; from the
hypobasal half the root and the foot. The cotyledon does not spring, as
in other ferns, from the under side of the prothallium, but grows through
the prothallium, emerging on its upper side. Neither in the root nor
in the stem could an apical cell be detected ; the former organ appears
to be developed from four cells ; the latter from a small-celled meristem.

Hecistopteris.* — Prof. K. Goebel revives this genus of ferns for
Gymnogramme pumila, which belongs, not to the Polypodieae, but to the
Vittarieas, as is shown by the structure of the prothallium and by the
presence of spicular cells in the epiderm of the leaves. The structure
previously described as a creeping rhizome consists in reality of roots
which have a faculty of producing adventitious shoots ; they have a
true root-cap. The prothallium is irregularly lobed, and is composed of
a single layer of cells; it possesses the peculiarity of the Vittariese in
producing elongated adventitious shoots on the margin, which bear
stalked club-shaped gemmae. From the cells of these gemmae are pro-
duced new prothallia. No organs of reproduction could be detected on
the prothallium.

Muscinese.

Geothallus, a new Genus of Hepaticse.* — Under the name Geothallus
tuberosus g. et sp. n., Prof. D. H. Campbell describes a Californian liver-
wort, which he makes the type of a new genus of the lower Jungerman-
niaceae, resembling Sphserocarpus in the general structure of the sexual
organs. The following is the diagnosis : — Plant thalloid, simple or
dichotomously branched; thallus fleshy, wedge-shaped or nearly orbi-
cular, partially buried in the earth; margin of thallus divided into
irregular leaf-like lobes ; similar laminae on the dorsal surface ; ventral
surface with numerous colourless rhizoids and jointed glandular hairs
near the apex. Sexual organs scattered over the dorsal surface, each
surrounded by a sac-like envelope ; sporogone globular, with very short
seta and bulbous foot ; capsule-wall composed of a single layer of black
cells ; spores very large, mingled with thin-walled sterile cells. Plant
perennial by means of tubers developed at the end of the growing
season.

Wiesnerella, a new Genus of Marchantiaeeae.J — From Java, Dr. Y.
Schiffner describes Wiesnerella javanica, the type of a new genus of
Marchantiaceae, with the following diagnosis : — Fronde parenchymate
basali et strato aerifero e cameris rhombo-oblongis filis chlorophylliferis
impletis sedificata, epidermide dorsali poris magnis simplicibus pertusa,
gernmis nullis, pedunculo carpocephali e frondis sinu anteriore or to,

* Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 67-75 (7 figs.).

t Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 9-13 (1 pi.).

X Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlvi. (1896) pp. 82-8 (1 pi.).

442

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ventre fossis radicelliferis geminis percurso, carpocephalo stellato radiis
triangularibus subtus involucra gerentibus ovata apice dehiscentia,
archegonia complura, sed tempore maturitatis sporogonium unicum tan-
tum foventia, sporogoniis seta longiuscula suffultis ex involucris emersis,
periantbio nullo, capsula irregulariter quadrivalvi, elateribus valvis baud
adhserentibus longis bispiris, sporis magnis alato-reticulatis, receptaculo
masculo e frondis sinu orto brevissime pedunculato crasse disciformi,
subtus radicellis et squamis ventralibus velato. Wiesnerella is inter-
mediate between Lunularia and Dumortiera.

Jungermannia orcadensis.* * * § — Herr E. Jorgensen lias examined both
male and female plants of tbis liverwort (from West Norway), and pro-
poses to establish from it a genus Anastrepta , distinguished by its convex
leaves with recurved ventral portion, its large involucral ampbigasters,
and its compressed perianth.

Characese.

Nuclear Division in the Characese. f — From an examination of a
number of species of Char a and Nitella, Herr 0. Kaiser finds the size
and form of the resting nucleus to be subject to very great variation.
The mode of division is, however, always the same in the apical, segment,
nodal, and marginal cells, in the nodal cells of the cortical lobes, in the
antherids, and in the young oogones ; it is always karyokinetic. In the
segment-cells, especially in those of the so-called leaves, the aster, meta-
kinesis, and diaster stages differ from those in the other nuclei which
divide karyokinetically ; we find the “ barrel-karyokinesis.” All the
spindle-figures in the apical, nodal, cortical, and marginal cells are re-
markably large, and the achromatic spindle-fibres are strongly curved
outwardly. Centrosomes occur both in the resting nucleus and also in
the various stages of division. In the internodal cells and those of the
enveloping tubes of older oogones, the division of the nucleus takes place
by fragmentation. The nuclei of the internodes which are formed in this
way are remarkably rich in chromatin substances ; this is not so much
the case in those of the enveloping-tubes of the oogone. Only in older
internodes, and in the cells of the enveloping tubes of older oogones, are
several nuclei found ; in all other cells there is only one. Granules
occur in all the cells.

Characese of Hungary.f — Dr. F. Nandor gives a monograph of the
species of Characese found in Hungary, with some descriptive details of
general structure. With regard to the systematic position of the group,
he is strongly of opinion that they must be included in the section
Chlorophycese of Algae.

Algae.

Cell-Wall of Algse.§ — M. C. Sauvageau has tested the action of
various reagents on the cell-wall of Phseosporese ( Ectocarpus fulvescens)>
and finds that they indicate a cellulose-pectic character. The external

* Bergens Mus. Aarb., 1895, No. 18, pp. 1-6 (1 pi.). See Bot. Centralbl., Ixvi.

(1896) p. 120. f Bot. Ztg., liv. (1896) lt8 Abt., pp. 61-79 (1 pi.).

X 4 Die Characeen, mit besonderer Eiicksicht auf d. in Ungarn beobachteten
Alien,’ Buda-Pest, 1895, 129 pp. and 5 pis.

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 896-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

443

surface, which is entirely pectic, plays the part of a cuticle ; within this
is a cylinder, septated by lamellae, which is strongly and perhaps also
entirely pectic ; in the true cell-walls belonging to each separate cell the
proportion of cellulose is much larger than that of pectic substances.

Antherids of Florideae.* * * § — The late Mr. T. H. Bufifham described
the hitherto unobserved or little-known antherids of several Florideae,
among others those of Chondrus crispus and Gigartina mamillosa. The
antherids of Compsothamnion differ greatly from those of Callithamnion ,
from which genus it has been recently separated. He also records the
remarkable fact of the occurrence of a Japanese species, Bonnemaisonia
hamifera , in Cornwall.

Species of Florideae.f — The late Prof. F. Schmitz criticised in
several points Mr. E. M. Holmes’s J new species of Florideae, and
dissented from his establishment of the new genus Myriophylla, which he
regarded as not distinguishable from Chrysymenia. He proposed, on the
other hand, a new genus Cyrtymenia , formed from Grateloupia hiero-
glyphics and Iridsea cornea , intermediate between Grateloupia and
Modes. It is especially distinguished by the wrinkled appearance of
fertile sections of the sporange.

Cystocarp of Champia.§ — Mr. B. M. Davis has investigated the
structure and development of the cystocarps of Ghampia parvula, his
results differing in some respects from the previous conclusions of
Hauptfleisch. The young cells at the apex of a branch contain only
one nucleus, while those somewhat removed from the growing point are
multinucleate. The procarpic branch may consist of two or three cells.
It is a small structure always attached to one of the large thallus-cells.
The trichogyne is a very delicate structure, always arising from an
extremely small cell, the carpogone. It withers and completely tdis-
appears, together with the carpogone, at a very early period, and more
resembles a degenerate cell than one actively employed in the process
of impregnation. No evidence was obtained of the fusion of the cells
of the procarpic branch with each other, or with the thallus-cell which
bears them ; nor of the complete fusion of an auxiliary cell with any of
the cells directly concerned in the development of the cystocarp.

Lithothamnion. [| — Herr M. Foslie publishes a monograph of the
Norwegian species of this genus of Corallinaceae, including a number
now described for the first time. The characters used for their classi-
fication are the form and mode of development of the thallus, the
position, size, and form of the sporange-conceptacles, and the mode of
division of the sporange. The sexual organs are of but rare occurrence,
and the characters are often disguised through changes caused by the
attacks of animals (especially mussels), and by epiphytic algae. The
former genus Lithophyllum is included as a section of Lithothamnion. A
few fossil species are also described.

* Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, vi. (1896) pp. 177-90 (2 pis.).

t La Nuova Notarisia, vii. (1896) pp. 1-22.

X Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 78.

§ Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 109-17 (2 pis.). Cf. this Journal, 1892, p. 644.

|| Trondhjem, 1895, 180 pp. and 23 pis. (Danish). See Bot. Centralbl., lxvi,
(1896) p. 87.

444

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Strepsithalia, a new Genus of Phaeosporese.* * * § — M. C. Sauvageau
finds endophytic on Helminthocladia and other marine algae, two species
of this genus of Ectocarpaceae, which presents points of resemblance
with Elachistea, Streblonema , and Myrionemn. The following is the
diagnosis of the genus : — Thallus maculiformis endophyticus, e filis
articulatis monosiphoniis muco gelatinoso vaginatis formatus ; fila
primaria horizontalia, incremento indefinito intra cellulas plant®
matricalis excurrentia, ramosa, hinc inde fila secundaria erecte definita,
clavata v. cylindrica, simplicia, aut basi bis terve furcata, in pulvinulos
minutos densos congregata emittentia ; pili ad modum Phseosporearum
confecti e filis repentibus et a basi filorum verticalium provenientes ;
sporangia utriusque generis e cellulis inferiorum filorum nascentia ;
unilocularia ovoidea v. piriformia, plurilocularia filiformia, cylindrica,
loculis uniseriatis.

Production of Azygospores in Zygnema.f — According to Fraul. E.
Hallas, a species of Zygnema is frequent in the neighbourhood of
Copenhagen, which forms bodies resembling zygosperms without any
previous process of conjugation. Their production is preceded by an
increase in the number of chromatophores ; the protoplasm then con-
tracts into a spherical mass, and becomes clothed with a coat of cellulose.
After about 2 J months, the spore begins to germinate within the mother-
cell.

Chlamydomonas grandis and Kleinii.J^ — Herr W. Schmidle dis-
sents from Dill’s proposal to identify these two species. He points out
that the latter species is readily distinguished, among other characters,
by the invariable presence of only two pyrenoids, and by the division
taking place not longitudinally, but transversely. G. grandis is a
“ collective species,” the forms included under it differing in the presence
or absence of longitudinal bands, in the presence or absence of a beak
through which the cilia project, and in the presence or absence of proto-
plasmic warts.

Calcareous Pebbles formed by Algae. §— Prof. D. P. Penhallow has
subjected the calcareous pebbles from Michigan to a more detailed
examination, and finds that, in addition to the ScJiizothrix fasciculata and
numerous diatoms, they contain fragments of (Edogonium, Glceocystis ,
Calothrix, and Urococcus , and especially plants of Sirosiphon informe , and
large quantities of Dicothrix gypsophila. The specific composition of the
pebbles appears, however, to vary according to circumstances.

Aquatic Forms of Stiehococcus.|] — Herr J. af Klercker has culti-
vated two aquatic forms of Stichococcus , which he names S. subtilis and
bacillaris , and gives a synopsis of the characters of the known species of
the genus. These -two species are both characterised by the presence
in the cells of large numbers of “ spherules ” of an oily substance,
especially where the rapidity of the cell-division is repressed by a large
proportion of magnesium and iron in the nutrient solution. External

* Journ. de Bot. (Morot), x. (1896) pp. 53-65 (8 figs.).

t Bot. Tidssk., xx. (1895) pp. 15-6 (2 pis.). See Bot. Centralbl., lxvi. (1896)

p. 223. % Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 85-9 (6 figs.). Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 213.

§ Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 215-7. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 91.

|| Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 90-106 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

445

conditions cause a great variation in the external form of the species of
Stichococcus ; they may assume either a coccoid or a filamentous con-
dition, and have been described as species of TJlothrix , Hormidium , and
Hormiscia. The genus may be divided into two “ collective species,”
S. bacillaris and S. flaccidus, each including a number of sub-species.

Fungi.

Glycogen in Fungi.* — According to M. G. Clautriau, glycogen is in
fungi the most important equivalent of the starch of ordinary plants.
Like animal glycogen, that obtained from fungi is dextrogyrous ;
diastatic ferments convert it into a sugar, probably maltose, which
reduces Fehling’s solution ; dilute acids convert it, when heated, into
glucose. The iodide has usually a red-brown colour. The glycogen of
fungi contains a rather large amount of ash, but no nitrogen. A process
of obtaining glycogen from fungi (Basidiomycetes and Saccharomycetes)
is described in detail. The proportion in the dried powder varies
between 14 and 31 per cent.

Value of Alkalies and Iron-Compounds for Fungi. t — From a series
of experiments on different fungi ( Penicillium , Aspergillus , &c.), Herr C.
Wekmer derives the conclusion that potassium salts are not necessary to
their life. In opposition to the view of Molisch, j he makes the same
statement with regard to salts of iron.

Chrysophlyctis, a new Genus of Chytridiaceae.§ — Under the name
Chrysophlydis endobiotica g. et sp. n., Dr. K. Schilbersky describes a
parasitic fungus which attacks the potato, causing, eventually, holes as
if the tissue had been eaten out. It is endobiotic and has no mycele,
consisting, when mature, simply of a spherical golden-brown zoosporange,
usually found in the hypoperidermal layers of the tuber ; the zoospores
are minute and spherical, each with a single flagellum. Besting
sporanges were also observed.

Sporangia! Rudiments in the Saprolegniacese.|| — The observation
previously made by Herr A. Maurizio that, iu Saprolegnia rhsetica , the
conids have the power of developing either into non-sexual sporanges or
into oogones, is now extended by him to many other species of the
genus, including several new ones — S. esocina, heterandra , intermedia ,
and bodamica, mostly parasitic on living fish. He therefore proposes
for these conids the term “sporangial rudiments” (, Sporangium-anlage ),
and for the sporanges and oogones which result from them, “ conidial
sporanges ” and “ conidial oogones.” In one section of the genus the
antherids have also a similar origin. The author gives reasons for
believing that the “ sporangial rudiment ” is not a degraded form of the
perfect sporange, but is the original structure from which the latter has
sprung.

* ‘ Etude cliimique d. glycogene chez les Champignons et les levures,’ Bruxelles,
1895. See Morot’s Journ. de Bot., x. (1896), Bull. Bibl., p. i.

f Beitr. z. Kenntniss einheimischer Pilze, 1895. See Bot. Ztg., liv. (1896)
2‘® Abt., pp. 11, 12. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 215.

X Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 545.

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 36-7.

|| Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeifer u. Strasburger), xxix. (1896) pp. 75-131 (2 pis.).
Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 79.

446

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Blastocladia.* — Mr. R. Thaxter describes the structure of this
remarkable genus of aquatic Saprolegniace®, which he places either
among the Pythie®, or as the type of a separate family. B. Pringsheimii
consists of a highly developed unicellular main axis, which is either
simple or branched, and is attached to the substratum by numerous
rhizoids. The ultimate form of the plant is very variable. It contains
a number of spherical oily masses, the function of which was not
detected, but which appear to have no connection with propagation.
The only organs of multiplication observed were non-sexual, viz.
zoosporanges formed at the extremity of branches, and large thick-
walled resting-spores developed in similar situations. The zoospores
are usually biciliated ; each contains a large nucleus, connected with
the cilia by a fine strand of granular protoplasm. Their escape from
the zoosporange is often prevented by the accumulation of immense
quantities of bacteria. The outer wall of the resting-spore has a pitted
appearance.

Culture of Saprolegniaceae.t — Herr A. Maurizio gives the results of
the culture of a number of species of Saprolegniaceae in different nutrient
solutions, especially in reference to the production of conids. They can
live and multiply only in water, a moist atmosphere being of no advantage
if the substratum is dry. The author enumerates seventeen different
species of fish that are attacked by different species of Saprolegnia and
AcJilya, and considers that there can be no doubt as to the truly parasitic
character of this group of Fungi.

Parasites of the Nucleus and of the Protoplasm.^ — In the nucleus
of Amoeba verrucosa , M. P. A. Dangeard finds a parasitic fungus which
he describes as Nucleopliaga Amoebse, making it the type of a new genus
of Chytridiace®. The parasite may consume the whole substance of the
nucleus, and then frequently divides into a large number of roundish
cells which impart to the nucleus the appearance of a sporange. It
produces spores, probably zoospores, invested by a thin membrane and
containing a nucleus. The genus appears to belong to the lowest
Chytridiace®, near to Sphserita.

Nucleophaga is very widely distributed among the Amoebse, and the
author believes that its presence has given rise to many erroneous state-
ments with regard to the mode of reproduction of the Rhizopoda,
especially to the alleged propagation by zoospores and by “ovules.”
He further believes that the study of the phenomenon of karyophagy
may throw much light on the structure of the nucleus of the Rhizopoda.

The life-history of Sphserita endogena , parasitic on the Euglene®, is
then followed out in detail, the genus being very closely allied to
Nucleophaga. Another parasite of Euglena, Olpidium Euglense sp. n., is
described. It is found in the interior of the cytoplasm in the form of a
spherical cell. In the process of propagation the parasite breaks through
the cell-wall of the host, and forms outside of it a hernioid projection ;
the zoospores are then formed within both the inner and the outer bladder,,
escaping by the rupture of the thin wall of the latter.

* Bot. Gazette, xxi. (189G) pp. 45-52 (1 pi.).

t Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 14-31 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 79.

J Le Botaniste (Dangeard), iv. (1896) pp. 199-248 (10 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

447

Reproduction in the Phycomycetes.* — M. P. A. Dangeard reviews
the various theories with regard to the mode of reproduction in the
Phycomycetes or Siphomycetes (Cliytridiaceae, Saprolegniaceae, and
Mucorini), agreeing in the main with those of Trow j and Humphrey,^
while he differs in some important points from those of Hartog.§ The
act of fecundation is preceded by the disappearance of the greater part
of the nuclei, two only remaining, which coalesce into a single sexual
nucleus. The nucleus of the Saprolegniaceae is composed of a nuclear
membrane enclosing hyaloplasm, in the centre of which is a nucleole.
The vacuoles which are seen in the oosporange cannot be regarded as
nuclei in various stages of conjugation. The antherids are, like the
oogones, multinucleated. At the moment of germination the oosperms
contain several nuclei in the protoplasmic layer which extends from the
central oily globule to the cell-wall. Whether these are old nuclei
previously concealed in the protoplasm, or whether they result from the
division of a single nucleus, i£ uncertain. Oosperms may be formed
parthenogenetically ( Saprolegnia Thureti ), and then contain only a single
nucleus. There are still important points undecided with regard to the
mode of fecundation in the Mucorini.

Basidiobolus.|| — Herr M. Raciborski points out that the Phycomycetes
are composed of two sharply distinguished series. In one of these, the
Siphomycetes, including the Mucorini, Peronosporeae, and Entomo-
phthoreae, the organism consists, in the vegetative condition, as in the
Siphoneae, of unseptated multinucleated tubes. In the other series, to
which belong most of the Chytridiaceae, and which he calls the Archi-
myoetes, the vegetative structure is composed of normal uninucleated
cells, resembling those of the Conjugatae. Basidiobolus belongs to the
latter of these groups, being made up of unicellular structures, which
form a colony of cells but slightly connected with one another.

In Basidiobolus, as in the Conjugatae, the process of impregnation
divides itself into two stages, which may be widely separated in point of
time — the fusion of the protoplasmic contents of two cells, and the fusion
of the two sexual nuclei. The interval between these two processes may
extend to some weeks ; the second process may be promoted or delayed
by external conditions.

The author gives details of the results of the changes caused in
Basidiobolus ranarum by growth in different nutrient media. The best
medium is a peptone solution. By changing the composition of the
medium, the fungus may be induced to pass into a palmella condition
similar to that of some algae, which leads to the formation of perfectly
free unicellular individuals.

Hypostomacese, a new Family of Parasitic Fungi.1T — Under this
name M. P. Yuillemin establishes a new family of Ustilagineae, composed
of the genera Meria and Hypostomum, intermediate between the Asco-
mycetes and the Hypliomycetes. The author regards it as the point of
departure of a series distinguished by a progressive adaptation to
parasitic habits and degradation of the reproductive organs.

* Le Botaniste (Dangeard), iv. (1896) pp. 249-56. Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 701.

t Cf. this Journal, aide, p. 216. X Cf. this Journal, 1893, p. 764.

§ Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 335. || Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 107-32 (11 figs.).

If Comptcs Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 545-8.

448

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

TJstilago Carbo.* * * § — Herr P. Herzberg has studied the development of
the seven species into which this rust is now divided, and classifies them
in two groups according as they germinate from a mycele or a promycele,
the latter being simply a form of mycele with early production of spores.
To this group belong TJstilago Jensenii , Avense, and perennans ; while
TJ. Hordei and Tritici produce sterile myceles, and are formed into a new
genus Ustilagidium. In nutrient solutions all the species produce
chlamydospores, which again germinate into myceles.

(Edomyces leproides.f — Prof. P. A. Saccardo and Dr. O. Mattirolo
have studied the development of this fungus, parasitic on beet-root, and
have determined that it must be placed in the Ustilagineae, near to
Entyloma.

Exobasidium.‘| — Mr. H. M. Richards has investigated the life-history
of several species of this genus of parasitic fungi, and the nature of the
distortions which it causes on the host-plant. He comes to the conclu-
sion that E. Andromedse , parasitic on Andromeda ligustrina, is, in all
probability, but a form of E. Vaccinii, which occurs on several genera of
Vacciniaceee and Ericacete. The form and extent of the hypertrophy
caused by the parasite appear to depend on the host, and on the age of
the tissues affected.

Fructification of Lachnea.§ — Sig. F. Morini has followed out the
development of Lachnea hirta, belonging to the Ascomycetes. The
archicarp originates from an internal cell of the mycelial ball. From
the archicarp is derived a single ascogenous cell, and from this spring
the ascogenous liyphae. The author considers that his observations con-
tribute a further confirmation to the view that the ascus of the Asco-
mycetes is not derived from sexual ascogenous cells, the function of
these cells being simply the nutrition of the asci.

Parasitism and Saprophytism of Ascochyta Pisi. || — This fungus, a
common parasite on the field-pea, Dr. M. Jarius found could also be
grown by infection on various other leguminous plants, though not with
the same luxuriance. Cultivation in various artificial nutrient solutions
showed that it will also grow easily and luxuriantly, especially in those
which are rich in proteias and in easily soluble carbohydrates, where it
developes abundance of pycnids ; but that when the proteids are in excess,
the formation of reproductive organs is suspended, and only the vegeta-
tive organs attain a luxuriant development. This is especially striking in
cultures in peptone-gelatin.

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Fungi).lf — The third
section of the first volume of this work is now complete, and comprises
a monograph of the mid-European species of the Hysteriaceae and
Discomycetes by Dr. H. Rehm. In the three concluding parts the
Ascobolese are completed with the genera Thelebolus (3 sp.), Zukalina

* Beitr. z. Phys. u. Morph, niederer Organismen (Zopf), Heft 5, 1895, pp. 1-36

(1 pi.). f Malpighia, ix. (1895) pp. 459-68 (1 pi.).

% Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 101-8 (1 pi.).

§ Malpighia, x. (1896) pp. 92-9 (4 figs.).

|| Biblioth. Bot., Heft 34, 1896, 21 pp. and 1 pi.

«([ Erster Band, 3te Abtheil., Leipzig, 1896, 1275 pp. and numerous figs. Cf. this
Journal, 1895, p. 344.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

449

(2 sp.), Boudiera (3 sp.), Saccobolus (9 sp.), and Ascobolus (22 sp.). The
Helvellacete comprise the three families Rhizinem, Geoglossem, and
Helvellete. In the Rliizineae are included Psilopezia (2 sp.), Bhizina
(2 sp.), and Sphserosoma (2 sp.) ; in the Geoglosseae Mitrula (6 sp.),
Microglossum (3 sp.), Geoglossum (8 sp.), Spathularia (3 sp.), Leotia
(3 sp.), Cudoniella (4 sp.), Gudonia (1 sp.), and Vibrissea (3 sp.) ; and
finally, the Helvelleae include Helvetia (15 sp.), Gyromitra (7 sp.), Verpa
(7 sp.), and Morchella (11 sp.). The volume concludes with a long list
of the additions and corrections required in consequence of the time
during which the publication has been proceeding.

Aspergillous Tuberculosis in Hair-Combers.* * * § — M. M. Renon has
observed two cases of Aspergillus infection in hair-combers. These
people buy the hair from rag-dealers, and, if dry, work it up at once,
but if not, dust it with rye meal. Two persons in one family engaged
in this occupation sickened with severe haemoptysis and symptoms in-
dicative of extensive pulmonary tuberculosis. Two birds in the same
room died of wasting in 14-21 days. In the expectoration of the
patients no tubercle bacilli were found, and six guinea-pigs sub-
cutaneously inoculated with the sputum died in 48 days without a trace
of tuberculosis. In the sputum canids and a much ramified mycele were
found. The culture contained Aspergillus fumigatus , which is patho-
genic to rabbits. In the dust of the room, as well as in the rye meal,
Aspergillus was demonstrated, but not in the untreated hair.

Is the Red Torula a genuine Saccharomyces ? \ — Mr. J. C. Bay
criticises Swan’s article on the endospore formation and general descrip-
tion of a red yeast, raising the objection that the organism has not been
sufficiently or properly examined. There is no evidence, he says, that pure
cultures of the red Torula were obtained, nor is it stated whether the
spores escaped from the mother-cell and underwent further development.

Blue Yeast.J — A malady affecting dried cake-yeast, which renders it
useless for brewing or baking purposes, becomes evident by its assuming
a grey to blue colour, turning greasy, and developing a disagreeable
odour. According to Herr G. Marpmann, the disorder is due to con-
tamination with a chromogenic bacterium, which, according to the
cultivation medium, produces a yellow, brown, or blue pigment. Hydro-
fluoric acid or formaldehyde should be used as a protective against its
development.

Ang-khak, a Chinese Fungus Pigment for Colouring Edibles.§
— According to Prinsen Geerligs, ang-khak is composed of granite-red
rice grains, and is much used for colouring edibles and beverages. For
making ang-khak in bulk, boiled rice spread on dishes is mixed with
some ang-khak, and is kept in a dark cool place for six days, by which
time the rice is covered with a white fungus, and is itself stained red.
The dried mass, seasoned with garlic or mustard, forms the export

* Journ. des Conn. Med., 1895, No. 44. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasi-

tenk., lte Abt., xix. 1896, pp. 561-2.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 259-61. Cf. this
Journal, ante , p. 219. i Zeitschr. f. angewandte Mikr., ii. (1896) pp. 9-10.

§ Chem. Zeit., 1895, No. 57. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2teAbt.,
ii. (1896) pp. 284-5. Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 340.

450

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

article. The starch of the rice is found to be but little altered. It
appears that the Chinese use arsenic acid in the preparation of ang-
khak for keeping down bacteria and other fungi. The pigment,
extracted from the rice by means of alcohol or chloroform, imparts a
beautiful red colour to the solution, and after the solvent is driven off
there remains an amorphous powder, but little soluble in water, though
easily soluble in ether, acetic acid, aceton, alcohol, &c. Its chemical
composition is not accurately determinable, but it is devoid of nitrogen,
and is probably a derivative of anthrachinon. It melts at 50° C., but
decomposes when heated higher. The alcoholic solution shows two
absorption bands.

New Genera of Uredineae. — Herr P. Dietel* establishes the three
following new genera of Uredinem : — Masseeella , separated from Cronar-
tium and founded on G. Capparidis ; Phakopsora, separated from
Melampsora and founded on M. punctiformis ; Schizospora , nearly related
to Puccinosira , founded on S. Mitragynes sp. n., parasitic on Mitragyne
macrophylla from Sierra Leone.

The same author | separates Melampsora Sori from that genus on the
ground of the teleutospores resembling those of Goleosporium, in dividing,
before the death of the leaves of the host-plant, into three or four super-
posed cells. He proposes for the new genus the name Ochnospora.

On Uromyces alpinus, parasitic on Bumex alpinus, Herr P. Magnus J
founds the new genus Schroeteriaster, belonging to the Pucciniem. It
presents some resemblance to Phalcospora, but does not belong, like that
genus, to the Melampsoreae. It has no peridium or paraphyses ; the
uredo-layer consists of flat tufts of sterigmas from which the stylospores
are abstricted ; the uredospores have lateral germ-pores, the teleuto-
spores are unicellular, usually more or less thickened at the apex, and
have no distinct germ-pore.

Parasitic Fungi. — Sig. A. Pizzigoni § maintains that the diseases of
the potato known as dry and moist gangrene are due to different causes,
the former being caused by the attacks of Fusisporium Solani alone, the
latter by those of that fungus together with bacteria.

Herr C. Wehmer || attributes the“ dry-rot” of the potato in all cases
primarily to Fusarium Solani , though other fungi and bacteria may play
a secondary part in the decay of the tuber.

Mr. Y. TakahashiH identifies Ustilago virens with Tilletia Oryzse
( Ustilaginoidea Oryzse ) ; and describes a new species of Tilletiai T.
horrida , parasitic on rice in Japan.

Mr. J. Omori, on ** the other hand, disputes the identification of
TJstilago virens with Ustilaginoidea Oryzse , and considers that it should
rather be placed under the genus Sphacelotheca.

Rhizophidium and Phycomyces.ft — In a new species of BhizopM-
dium , parasitic on Cladophora , Sig. F. Morini points out three successive

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii. (1895) pp. 332-5 (2 figs.).

f Tom. cit., pp. 401-2. X Op. cit., xiv. (1896) pp. 129-33 (1 pi.).

§ Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., iii. (1896) pp. 50-3.

|| Ber. Deutseh. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 101-7 (3 figs.).

If Bot. Mag. (Tokyo), x. (1896) pp. 16-20 (1 pi.).

** Tom. cit., pp. 29-30 (4 figs.).

'ft Malpighia, x. (1896) pp. 72-92 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

451

stages, — that of uniciliated swarmspores, the encysting and germination
of the swarmspores, and the parasitism or vegetative condition, with
formation of zoosporanges and resting spores. The new species, R.
Messanense , forms a connecting link between Rhizidium , Rhizophidium,
and Rhizidiomyces. In a new species of Pliycomyces , P. Pirottianus, found
on horse-dung, the mode of formation of the zygosperm is described, and
its very peculiar investment in a weft of rigid hyphae which ultimately
become bifid at the apex and serve to assist in its dissemination.

The remarkable polymorphism of Mucor racemosus was demonstrated
by a series of cultures.

Potato Scab and its Cause.* * * § — M. E. Eoze succeeded in infecting
healthy from unhealthy potatoes with this disease, which appeared as
little brown spots on the surface. Beneath some of these spots were
whitish excrescences, which, on microscopical examination, were found to
contain mycele of MucedineaB. Still deeper the cells were softened, and
contained one or two species of mobile bacteria. The co-operation of
the bacteria and the Mucedineae seemed to result in the formation of the
little pustuliform cavities, the principal features of this disease. Careful
examination of the infected tubers showed that their surface was covered
with minute pale brown spots, which from mere points enlarge into the
excrescences previously alluded to. Under the Microscope the small
brown spots were found to be dead epidermal cells containing a Micro-
coccus stainable with methyl-blue (? methylen) about 0-6 /x in diameter.
In this Micrococcus pellucidus the author sees the first cause of the potato
scab, which by preparing a suitable substratum, i. e. dead epidermal cells,
and exposure of less resistant tissue beneath, permits the invasion of
other organisms.

Oidium albicans as a Pathogenic Agent, t — M. Charrin found
Oidium albicans in a submaxillary abscess. Experiments on animals
showed that this organism did not thrive in the liver until the glycogen
was converted, hence it was only found in the larger hepatic vessels.
The kidneys were crammed with it, and there coexisted acute nephritis
with almost complete suppression of urine. Both serum and urine showed
toxic properties, but these were very slight, so that the pathological
action of this organism is probably mechanical.

Protophyta.

Schizopliyceae.

Movements of Diatoms. — Dr. K. SchilberskyJ adduces further argu-
ments in favour of the view of Lauterborn and Hauptfleisch § that the
creeping movement of diatoms is due to delicate threads of protoplasm,
which pass through pores in the membrane. These threads must
probably be capable of changes in form, which cause alternate con-
tractions and elongations similar to those of Rhizopods and of some
Eoraminifera. The swimming movement of diatoms is probably due to

* Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 1012-4.

t Semaine Med., 1895, p. 247. See Bot. Centralbl., lxv. (1895) p. 216.

t Bot. Centralbl., lxv. (1896) pp. 33-6. Cf. this Journal, 1892, p. 245.

§ Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 100.

452 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

some other cause ; but the author is unable to confirm the statement of
Cohn that these organisms are capable of motion only when they are in
contact with some solid substance. The free-swimming cells never
maintain a horizontal position for any considerable time, but elevate
first one end and then the other, and are constantly turning on their
longer axis.

Dr. O. Muller, * while confirming Hauptfleisch’s observations on some
points, differs from him in others. The phenomena are not, he states,
uniform in all families of diatoms. In the Pinnularieas the motor forces
are displayed exclusively on the raphe itself, or in close proximity to it.
In no other region of the cell-wall are motor-phenomena seen. But
the raphe exhibits different degrees of complexity of structure in dif-
ferent families. In the raphe of the Ampliiproriese, Khopalodieae,
Nitzscliieae, Surirelleae, Campylodiscese, and Cymatopleurese, it consists
of a canal running along the edge and communicating with the interior,
and may be called a “ canal-raphe.” In this canal (in the Nitzschiem
and Surirelleae) a longitudinal fissure may be detected, and the structure
is adapted for the conduction of a current, and for the protrusion through
the fissure of fine threads of protoplasm. The structure of the raphe of
the Pinnulariem, on the other hand, with its complicated terminal and
central nodes, and with the long curved canals passing through them,
renders the conduction of a current through it and the protrusion of
protoplasmic filaments extremely improbable. The author rejects the
theory of Hauptfleisch that the knots observed in these cases are con-
tracted protoplasmic filaments. No perforations in the cell- wall could
be detected through which such filaments could protrude ; many of the
“ knots ” are probably foreign bodies.

With regard to the gelatinous envelope, Dr. Muller states that it
frequently entirely disappears under cultivation ; he was unable to
detect in it any prismatic structure ; it appears to originate in the form
of drops. The so-called “ protoplasm filaments ” appear not to be fila-
ments in the true sense of the word, but rather aggregations of granules.

The author goes into great detail with regard to the mechanics of the
movement. The raphe of the Naviculeae, especially of the Pinnularieae,
he describes as a contrivance of the nature of a screw-propeller, which
forces the current of protoplasm into spiral lines.

Sporulation of Diatoms.j — L’Abbe Comte F. Castracane claims to
have observed the mode of propagation by the internal production of
spores in the following marine species of Diatomacene i—Achnanthes
brevipes, Biddulpliia Mobilensis , Gocconeis dirupta, Diatoma hyalinum ,
Hemiaulus Hauckii, Licmophora jiabellata , Nitzschia lanceolata, N. maci-
lenta, Synedra fulgens, Striatella unipunctata. In some of these the
process of binary division was also seen.

Rhopalodia, a new Genus of Diatoms. { — On a number of new
species from East Africa, together with Epitliemia gibba, Dr. 0. Muller
founds a new genus of Diatomaceae, Bhopalodia , distinguished from
Epitliemia by the form of the frustule, which, on the valve side is kidney-

* Ber. Deutscli. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 54-64, 11 1—28 (2 pis.). Cf. this
Journal, 1889, p. 793. t La Nuova Notarisia, vii. (1896) pp. 37-41.

X Engler’s Jalirb., xxii. (1895) p. 54 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

453

or sickle-shaped, on the pleural side ascus-like, club-shaped, or pear-
shaped. Most of the species have a somewhat depressed central or two
terminal nodes, united by a raphe which is not broken by an angle.

Haviculoid Diatoms.* — In the second and concluding part of this
most important work, Prof. P. T. Cleve deals with the Naviculm Minus-
culee, DecussataB, Ileterostichse, Lineolatse (104 species), Punctatae
(51 species), Lyratae (37 species), and Laevistriatae ; and the genera
Anomoeoneis ; Pinnularia , divided into the Gracillimae, Capitatae, Diver-
gentes, Distantes, Tabellarieas, Brevistriatae, Majores, Complexfe, and
Marinas ; Amphora , divided into Amphora, Diplaniphora (30 species),
Halamphora (25 species), Oxyamphora, Amblyamphora, Cymbamphora,
Calamphora, and Archiamphora ; Mastogloia (88 species) ; and the family
Achnantheae ( Anorthoneis , Bhoicosphenia , Campyloneis , Pleuroneis , Coc-
coneist , Achnanthes , Heteroneis , Eucocconeis, Microneis, Achnanthidium ,
Disconeis , and Actinoneis. Both recent and fossil species are included ;
in addition to the diagnosis of each species (in English), an artificial
key is given for the species of each genus or sub-genus ; some new
species are described ; and to all the old species the date of first descrip-
tion is appended.

0. Schizomycetes.

Morphology of Bacteria. f — Prof. M. Lowit has made observations
on numerous species of bacteria with reference to their structure. By
treating film preparations with mordants (Loeffler’s and a sulphate of
copper modification thereof), the bacteria were found to present two
definite structural areas, a cortical external zone and a central me-
dullary portion. While the latter stained deeply, the former, though
distinctly coloured, was relatively much less stained. Apparently this
cortical layer is the capsule or halo successfully demonstrated. Within
this cortical area are almost invariably granules. The author regards
the central body in the light of a nucleus, and the peripheral zone in
that of the cytoplasm or extra-nuclear plasma of an ordinary cell.

One feature in the author’s preparations was that flagella were almost
invariably absent when the outer layer was demonstrable, and vice versa.
He regards flagella as processes of protoplasm, which become obscured
under certain circumstances, such as swelling of the cortical layer, or
damaged by the method of preparation.

Action of High Pressure on Certain Bacteria4 — According to
the researches of several investigators, the vitality of bacteria is im-
paired or extinguished by gases (0 or C02) at a relatively low pressure.
M. H. Roger has recently examined into the effect produced on bac-
teria by compression of the cultivation medium. The bacteria used
were Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus coli , Streptococcus erysipelatis, and
Bacillus anthracis. In bouillon- cultures pressures from 200-250 kg.
on the square centimetre had no effect whatever. By raising the
pressure to 3000 kg. to the square centimetre, about one-third of the
Streptococci were killed and the virulence of the survivors diminished.

* * Synopsis of the Naviculoid Diatoms,* pt. ii., Stockholm, 1895, 219 pp. 4 pis.
and numerous figs.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lt0 Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 673-86 (1 pi.).

X Comptes Bendus, cxix. (1894) pp. 963-5.

1896 2 i

454

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Of asporogenous anthrax, a good number were killed ; while on sporo-
genous anthrax there was no appreciable action. On the other bacteria
there was no effect.

influence of Induced Currents on the Orientation of Bacteria.* —
Living mobile bacilli are very sensitive, says M. L. Lortet, to the
influence of induced currents, immediately orientating themselves in the
direction of the current ; on dead or paralysed bacilli the influence of
electricity is nil. The method of demonstration is simple, and merely
consists in surrounding a portion of a slide with platinum wires. Within
this area is placed the fluid containing the bacteria and covered with a
thin glass. The ends of the wires are connected with a Ruhmkorff’s coil,
and as generator a bichromate of potash battery is used. Directly the
current is started the bacteria place themselves parallel to its direction,
no matter what course the direction may take. When killed or para-
lysed this influence of electricity is lost.

Conditions under which Anaerobic Bacteria can exist even in
Presence of Oxygen.f — In mixed cultures with aerobes, says Herr W.
Kedrowski, anaerobes thrive even with access of oxygen. According to
Pasteur this was because the aerobes absorbed all the oxygen. Another
possible explanation would he that the aerobes form a special fermenta-
tive substance which renders possible the existence of anaerobes in the
presence of oxygen. For his experiments the author used an anaerobic
bacterium obtained from a mixture in which butyric acid fermentation
had occurred. This organism, Clostridium butyricum , prospered along
with some aerobes, as with Bac. prodigiosus, Bac. pyocyaneus, Sarcinse ,
yeasts, and Mic. agilis, when cultivated in bouillon to which there was
access of air. The tetanus bacillus was also cultivated under similar
conditions. From his own observations and those of others, the author
concludes that the presence of aerobic bacteria imparts to anaerobes some
faculty which enables them to grow in the presence of air. Furthermore,
when a mixed culture of Clostr. butyricum and other anaerobes was con-
stantly treated with oxygen, the growth of the anaerobic bacterium was
not inhibited. This, of course, is against Pasteur’s view, and in favour
of a fermentative substance. Experiments were then made to cultivate,
in the filtrate of bouillon cultures of aerobic bacteria, anaerobes in the
presence of oxygen. These experiments, however, were negative or
uncertain. When, however, agar cultures of aerobic bacteria were killed
with chloroform vapour, and over this bouillon infected with Clostr.
butyricum was poured, the organism grew well in the presence of oxygen.
Hence it seemed that the ferment of the aerobes which rendered the
growth of the anaerobes possible had not passed through the filter in the
former experiments ; and this suspicion was confirmed on further in-
vestigation. The main conclusion of the author is that the cause of this
phenomenon, viz. the thriving of anaerobes in the presence of oxygen in
a mixed culture with aerobes, is due to the latter excreting a specific
substance, at the expense of which the growth of the anaerobes proceeds.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 892-4.

t Zeitschr. f. Hygiene, xx. (1895) No. 3. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasi-
tenk., lte Abt., xix. (1893) pp. 470-1.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 455

Coccus-Condition of Beggiatoa.* — Herr W. Zopf has been able to
determine the passage of the very fine peach-red filaments of Beggiatoa
to a swarming coccus-condition, which he regards as a process of retro-
gression ; but the progressive development of these to the filament-
condition was not demonstrated. The shortly elliptical coccoid elements
still contained grains of sulphur, which were always formed in pairs in
each element.

New Pathogenous Micrococci.f — In specimens of special varieties
of potato having a disagreeable smell M. E. Koze finds two new species
of Micrococcus , which he names M. nuclei and M. imperator. The former
consists of oval-elliptical cells with a diameter 0*5 by 0 * 33 yu, ; the
latter of cells of a similar form 1 by 2 fx in diameter.

Mucogenous Bacteria.J — In an article on the developmental history
of the mucogenous bacteria, Herr H. Behrens remarks that these slimy
masses have been known from the earliest times as affecting wine,
milk, beer, and other vegetable products. Glceogenous bacteria will even
thrive in distilled water, and their settlement in the laboratory of the
pharmacist or chemist is most detrimental, as they are only eradicated
with great difficulty. In some places, however, as in Norway, muco-
genous bacteria are used in the preparation of an edible called Wai,
which is milk rendered jelly-like, from which all the casein has dis-
appeared. In Ireland and other places mucogenous bacteria are used
for making cheese. On the whole, however, the presence of these bac-
teria, especially in milk, is harmful, and the sale of infected substances
is properly forbidden. When cultivated on gelatin the colony is
colourless or cream coloured, and looks like a crumb of bread. The
eonviction is arrived at, from carefully considering their growth, that
these bacteria derive much of their nutriment directly from the air.
When cultivated in bouillon the mucous alteration is effected in a few
days, the whole being converted into a jelly-like mass entangling gas-
bubbles.

The gummy mucus is of at least two kinds ; one being perfectly
soluble in water, the other merely swelling up. One stains yellow with
<;hloriodide of zinc, the other disappears on the addition of this reagent.
Deposits occur with the ordinary precipitants, such as alcohol, alum,
acetate of lead, and also with the special reagents for albumen. Micro-
scopical examination of fresh material shows a bacterium within a
mucous cell ; but in stained film preparations the mucous cell disappears,
and only the ordinary appearance of a bacterium is visible. By placing
a fresh piece of mucus on a cover-glass and staining with Weigel’s
hsematoxylin solution, treating with acid alcohol and contrast-staining
with fuchsin, the mucous cells come out perfectly, the mucous sheath
being pale blue and the bacterial cell red. At the same time the extra-
ordinary polymorphism of these organisms appears ; cocci of various
.arrangement, bacilli and filaments are all present. On potato the
growth is characteristic ; along the inoculation track long worm-like
deposits of different colours develope.

* Beitr. z. Phys. u. Morph, niederer Organismen (Zopf), i. (1895) pp. 37-44 (2 figs.).

t Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 543-5.

X Zeitschr. f. angewandte Mikr., ii. (1896) pp. 4-9.

2 i 2

456

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Bacteria of Hot Springs.* — Herr Karlinski found two species of
bacteria in two hot springs in Bosnia, the temperature of one being 51°,
and of the other 58°. Both bacteria developed well at from 50°-60°, but
did not grow at room temperature, while at 80° their growth stopped.
On potato the first species formed pale yellow, moist, round colonies,
consisting of short, thick rodlets, devoid of movement, and not forming
spores. The bacterium grew on all the ordinary media ; in the presence
of oxygen it formed acid, and was not pathogenic. The second species,
Bacillus Ilidgensis capsulatus, is a fairly long thin rodlet, possessing a
distinct capsule. On potato it forms circular, flat, snow-white, porcelain-
like colonies, and grows well on all the ordinary media. At a tem-
perature of 68° spore-formation was observed.

Bacteria from the Air of Hew York.j — Mr. IT. G. Dyarhas made an
attempt to determine the identity of the bacteria commonly occurring
in the air of Hew York. Twenty-four Micrococci and forty-four Bacilli
w’ere found in the air of the city, but no Spirilla. The cultures were
obtained by exposing gelatin plates for from one to five minutes in
various situations. The yeasts, Cladotlirices , and moulds, were disre-
garded. The systematic description of the species isolated and of others
used for purposes of identification and comparison is preceded by
remarks on species among the Bacteria, the identification of old descrip-
tions, and variation in Bacteria. Under the last head experiments were
conducted with B. lactis enjthrogenes to test the range of variation in a
given species, and the question is considered under the heads of Slight
Continuous Variations, Sports or Discontinuous Variations, and the
Effect of Environment. The author infers from his experiments as to
variability that “ it is premature to assume that races of bacteria are
produced by the direct action of the environment.” Bather the species
possess, first, a power of continuous variation, producing intergrading
varieties, which power is, under a long process of natural selection, capable
of adapting them to various situations or functions ; second, a power of
considerable discontinuous variation, producing “ sports,” dimorphic or
polymorphic forms or races (which may revert to type spontaneously,
and which are distinguishable from true species only by the occurrence of
such reversion), and ultimately species by the lapsing of the capability
of reversion.

Special Action of Serum of Highly Immunised Animals.J — Mr. H.

E. Durham has investigated some of the effects produced on microbes in
vitro by the serums of highly immunised animals. The bacteria used
were the cholera and other vibrios, typhoid bacillus, Bacillus coli com-
munis, and B. pyocyaneus. It was found that when to an emulsion of
actively motile microbes minute quantities of potent kinds of serum were
added, the most prominent effect was the aggregation of the bacteria into
“ clumps ” ; this was associated with loss of motility and inhibition of
growth. The reaction is said to be “ complete ” when all the clumps
settle down, leaving a perfectly clear fluid. AYith regard to diagnostic

* Hyg. Kimdscliau, 1895, No. 15. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk...
lte Abt., xix. (1896) p. 471.

f Ann. New York Acad. Sci., viii. (1895) pp. 322-80 (2 figs.).

% Proe. Boy. Soc., lix. (1896) pp. 224-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

457

value, it was found tliat the action of cholera serum upon more or less
closely related vibrios might be complete or nil. All the typhoid bacilli
reacted to typhoid scrum, but none to that of B. coli , so that, given a
young culture and typhoid serum, a diagnosis can be made in a few
minutes.

Formation of Gallstones by Bacteria. * — MM. A. Gilbert and L.
Fournier examined 36 cases of gallstones, 3 of which were from cattle. In
14 cases bacteria were found, and in 11 instances were cultivated. The
organism isolated was B. coli commune. In order to determine whether
B. coli penetrates into the calculus after its formation, the following
experiment was made : — A. pretty large cholesterin stone was incubated
for 1 hour at 75° daily for 3 weeks. It was then put in a tube inoculated
with B. coli, and incubated at 33° for 14 days. In its interior, when
examined, B. coli was found. A similar experiment with a pigment
stone gave negative results. From this the authors infer that in the
majority of cases the introduction of bacteria into gallstones is not sub-
sequent to their formation, as it is rare for a gallstone to be composed
entirely of pigment, and then they are small and gravelly. Most gall-
stones are mixtures of cholesterin and pigment.

Nitrifi cation in the SoiL| — Herren R. Burri and A. Stutzer found,
in all cultures in which ammonia salt was oxidised to nitrite, a coccoid
organism closely resembling Nitromonas europsea described by Wino-
gradsky. Both organisms form zooglcea-like masses in mineral nutrient
solutions. But, while Winogradsky’s organism exhibited movements at
times, that of the authors was always immobile. No success attended
the attempts to obtain pure cultivations of a nitrite-forming organism on
silicic acid plates. As far as could be judged from comparative experi-
ments, conducted j with impure cultivations in mineral solutions, as to the
oxidising power of nitrite-formers of different origin, there was no
particular difference in the efficacy of those examined, five of which
came from Germany and one from Africa. A nitrate-forming organism
was isolated from a sample of earth from Northeim, and this the authors
hold to be identical with that cultivated by Winogradsky from Quito
earth. This organism throve on organic media, such as gelatin, but then
did not oxidise any nitrite, and on reinoculation on mineral media often
appeared to have lost its oxidising power, for only in a few instances
could nitrate production be obtained. Experiments made with no t
perfectly pure cultures of nitrate-formers of German origin did not
betray any important differences. Cultures which contained both nitrite
and nitrate-formers, provided there were present in the medium a salt
containing nitrogen, showed that nitrification was effected in the same
way as in the soil — i. e. the ammonia salts were apparently transformed
directly into nitrates without any demonstrable nitrite formation.

Fermentation of Uric Acid by Microbes4 — M. E. Gerard has
shown that uric acid can be decomposed by microbes into urea and car-
bonate of ammonia. Further experiments were made to estimate the

* La Semaine Med., 1896, No. 8. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
l,e Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 629-30.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 105-16, 196-204:
(1 pi.). % Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 1019-22.

458

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

proportion of tlie urea and carbonate of ammonia. The effective organ-
isms are not specifically designated, hut are merely called cocci and
bacilli.

New Theory of Immunity.* — According to Herr Pfeiffer, none of
the explanations of the immunising action of cholera serum are satis-
factory, and he suggests that the immunising matters in the serum
represent a kind of preliminary stage of the bactericidal substances, just
as the glycogen present in the body is the predecessor of glucose. Like
the grape-sugar, the bactericidal substances are easily destructible — even
warming up to 55° is sufficient. In case of need the animal body has
the power of rapidly forming them from the inactive substances of the
serum.

Immunity to Cholera. f — In an investigation as to the difference of
susceptibility of certain animals and man towards the cholera vibrio,
Drs. C. Fermi and A. Salto considered the question from the following
points : — The reaction of the intestinal contents ; the substances of
which these contents are composed ; the intestinal atmosphere ; the
flora of the intestine and of the intestinal mucosa. The reaction of
the intestinal contents appears to possess a certain influence, and iu
the faeces of animals refractory to cholera there exists a substance which
possesses an inhibitory effect. The intestinal gases seem to have no
influence. The intestinal flora exerts an unmistakable influence, and this
is almost exclusively due to Bac. coli commune. The healthy intestinal
mucosa has a distinctly inhibitory action on the cholera vibrio.

Saltpetre-decomposing Bacillus.J — Herr J. Schirokikh isolated from
fresh horse-dung a bacillus which liquefies gelatin and acts energetically
on the nitrate salts. The organism was easily obtained by making
gelatin plates from suspensions in bouillon and then inoculating agar
plates from the liquefying colonies. The bacillus has rounded ends, is
nearly twice as long as thick, and forms chains of from 2-8 links. It
is mobile, is easily stained, and is an essential aerobe. It grows fairly
well at room temperatures, but its optimum is 37° *5. It liquefies
gelatin. On agar the growth is usually white, on potato brownish.
On bouillon a white scum forms, the subjacent medium being stained
yellow. It forms spores in great numbers. Wheniinoculated in bouillon
which contains 2*5 grm. KN03 per litre, the salt is decomposed at a
temperature of 30°-35° in 5-8 days.

Varieties of Diphtheria Bacilli.§ — Mr. E. A. Peters read a paper
before the Pathological Society on the varieties of diphtheria bacilli, of
which four kinds were described. The points of difference exhibited by
early cultures were as follows : — (1) Long Klebs-Loeffler bacillus. A
twenty-four hours’ old culture on blood-serum showed short bacilli, long
segmented forms *003 mm. in length, long-clubbed bacilli, and short
clubs. This form was pathogenic to guinea-pigs, with long retention
of virulence. (2) Short bacilli, the twenty-four hours’ cultures of which
showed large numbers of conical bacilli *0015 mm. in length, and a

* Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., 1S96, Nos. 7 and 8. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.
u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 575-9.

f Centralbl. f . Bacteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 525-36.

X Op. cit., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 201-7. § Lancet, 1895, ii. pp. 1576-7.

459

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

few long segmented forms. This variety was pathogenic to guinea-pigs,
but the retention of virulence was of short duration. (3) Short pseudo-
diphtheria bacilli *001 mm. long. This variety was non-pathogenic.
(4) Bacilli resembling long Klebs-Loeffler bacilli, except for slight
clubbing and more definite segmentation. It was non-pathogenic.

Variety Number 1 was met with in severe cases of diphtheria;
number 2 in mild cases; number 3 was found in tonsilitis and in
catarrhal conditions of the faucial mucosa. The conditions under which
number 4 was encountered are not mentioned, but the author considers
that it is possibly a non-pathogenic form of number 1.

Malignant (Edema in the Cow.* — Owing to failure to inoculate
malignant oedema in cattle, bacteriologists hold that these animals are
immune to this disease, while veterinary surgeons have often observed
instances of this disorder. Herr H. Horn records four cases of malignant
oedema in cows from which Bacillus cedematis maligni was isolated, and
demonstrated by inoculation. All the four instances occurred after
calving ; in three there was puerperal metritis, and in the fourth a
haemorrhagic oedema and swelling of the neck.

Spirillum found in Stomach of certain Mammals.-f — Herr H.
Salomon has found that the spirillum described by Bizzozero also
inhabits the stomach of dogs, cats, and rats. The spirillum is re-
markable for inhabiting the protoplasm of the mucosa cells and the
vacuoles therein. It was also observed in large numbers in the lumina
of glands. The number of turns varies from two to twenty-four, the
most common being nine to eleven. The distance of the turns from one
another is very slight and the diameter relatively large. The flagella,
one at each end, were easily demonstrated by the Nicolle-Thorax method.
The spirillum in smear preparations was best stained with carbol-fuchsin
or alkaline methylen-blue. In sections the organism was best shown by
staining the preparations for one to throe days in methylen-blue. All
attempts to cultivate the organism failed, and transfer experiments
succeeded only with white mice.

Nature of the Specific Effective Substances in Cholera-Serum.J —
Herren R. Pfeiffer and B. Kroskauer have made an investigation into
the nature of the specific bodies which give rise to the “ Pfeiffer
reaction ” with the serum of immunised animals. Though the results
of their analysis are negative, they tend to indicate that these specific
bodies are of the nature of enzymes. The authors are pursuing their
investigation, and hope to obtain positive results.

Bacillus viridis.§ — Dr. H. Cathelineau has studied the green pigment
secreted by Bacillus viridis, an organism found in the stools of the green
diarrhoea of infants^and has also considered the biological phenomena
occurring in the cultivation media. The bacillus is a rodlet 2-4 fx long
and 0*75-1 yu, broad. It is an aerobic organism, and its chromogenic
function is subordinate to the presence of air. In bouillon mixed with
various kinds of sugars the bacillus developed very differently. In those

* Norwegische Veteriuar-Zeitschr., 1895, p. 65. Soe Beihefte z. Bot. Centralbl.,
vi. (1896) p. 67.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 433-41 (2 pis.).

t Tom. cit., pp. 191-9. § Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 228-37.

460

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

containing maltose or galactose it developed rapidly, fairly well with
glucose, levulose, and lactose, badly with sacrose and mannite, and
scarcely at all with glycerin. The green pigment varies with the
medium and the age of the culture, and in some media, such as pepton-
gelatin, it is fluorescent. In whey without pepton tbe cultures were
fluorescent, hut there was no pigment. Both the fluorescence and the
pigment developed in a medium containing 100 ccm. water and 1 grm. of
sulphate of ammonia, to which were added glucose or pepton or succinate
of soda or phosphate of soda in different proportions. Without the
presence of air the pigment was not formed. By extracting with boiling
alcohol the pigment was found to be an amorphous substance, reddish-
brown in colour, very hygroscopic, with a penetrating odour and bitter
taste. It is almost insoluble except in water and boiling alcohol. Its
reaction is neutral. Acids remove, and alkalies increase the colour. The
chemical formula is given as C5H10O8. A small quantity (*02 grm.)
injected into a frog killed the animal in five hours.

Antileucocidine.* — Prof. J. Denys and M. H. van de Velde have
found that, in rabbits vaccinated against Staphylococcus pyogenes , there is
produced a substance which neutralises tbe effects of leucocidine, and
which they call antileucocidine. It plays an important part in the
immunity of rabbits vaccinated against Staphylococcus , and appears to
destroy leucocidine by combining with it. It is only found in animals
vaccinated against Staphylococcus , and was sought for in vain in rab-
bits vaccinated against Streptococcus pyogenes and Bacillus coli com-
munis. With regard to its mode of action, the authors opine that the
antileucocidine combines with leucocidine to form an inoffensive
compound.

Bacillus coli communis and Related Forms.f — Dr. Th. Smith urges
the necessity of a more exact examination for gases in bacteriological
investigations, and shows that the ordinary methods of gas examination
fail to distinguish gas-forming species from one another. For this
examination fermentation flasks are valuable, as not only can the
presence of gas be determined, but the course of its accumulation, the
total quantity, and the relative volume of C02. Examples are also
given of gas-forming bacteria which by the ordinary culture methods
are indistinguishable, but which are distinctly differentiated in the
presence of different kinds of sugar. But before this is possible the
muscle-sugar in the bouillon must be determined and disposed of. This
is done by inoculating the fermentation tube with a gas-forming
bacterium. If no gas be formed the bouillon can be used for saccharose
and lactose bouillon. Bouillon in which more or less gas is formed is
only suitable for dextrose. In tabular form, the behaviour of thirty-six
cultures of coli and coloid organisms in dextrose, saccharose, and lactose
bouillon is given. Some of these resembled typhoid bacilli, others
B. lactis aerogenes. These tables indicate the importance of greater
accuracy in the determination of gas. For example, in the B. lactis
aerogenes group the gas reactions of certain species or varieties exhibited
considerable difference, and of two subspecies of B. coli communis one

* La Cellule, xi. (1896) pp. 359-72.

t Amer. Journ. Med. Sci., cx. (1895) pp. 283-302.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

461

fermented saccharose, while the other did not. The author also refers
to the formation of acid in saccharated media as a valuable criterion,
especially for those bacteria which do not form gas. Among the
typhoid-like bacteria just as marked differences in acid formation in
presence of different kinds of sugar were observed, as in the case of the
coloid bacilli, in reference to gas-formation.

Ripening Process of Cheese.'* — Dr. Yal. von Klecki reviews at
some length the literature of cheese-ripening. After a short general
introduction, the author deals with the chemistry, and then the bac-
teriology of the process. With one exception, the works (44) quoted
are those of Continental authorities, many of which have been already
reported in this Journal.

Researches relating to the Specific Agent of Small-Pox, and the
Production of Artificial Immunity from that Disease. f — The points
taken up by Dr. G. M. Sternberg are the experimental evidence relating
to the nature of the specific infectious agent of vaccine and variola ; the
genetic relation of cow-pox, horse-pox, and small-pox ; the production of
artificial immunity by subcutaneous inoculations with vaccine-lymph
and by subcutaneous or intravenous injections of blood-serum from
immune animals. It is, of course, assumed that vaccinia is variola
modified by passage through the cow.

The conclusions arrived at are: — (1) That small-pox, cow-pox, and
horse-pox are genetically related, being different manifestations of the
same infectious disease in different genera of auimals. (2) The specific
infectious agent of variola and of vaccinia has not been demonstrated,
and it seems probable that it is not a bacterium. (3) The bacteria
found in vaccine-lvmph are accidents or contaminations. (4) Lymph
preserved in glycerin eventually becomes sterile in so far as bacteria
are concerned, though it retains its specific virulence. (5) Immunity
may be conferred by subcutaneous injection of vaccine virus. (6) Blood-
serum of immune animals contains a substance in solution which destroys
the specific virulence of vaccine virus, but the substance exists in such
small quantity that it is useless for practical therapeutic purposes.
(7) The immunity resulting from the subcutaneous injection of vaccine
lymph is gradually developed, and is not completed until the eighth day,
while the immunity resulting from the transfusion of a large amount of
blood-serum from an immune to a susceptible animal is immediate.

Characters of Flagella.J — Dr. V. A. Moore has made a study of the
colon, the typhoid, and the hog-cholera bacilli, as they form a group
which resemble each other very closely morphologically, but are readily
differentiated by their biological and eetiological properties. They con-
sequently formed a rigid test for the differential value of the flagella.
The results of his comparison are, that there are apparently slight
differences in the flagella of these bacilli, but that the differences are not
marked enough to be of differential value. The character of the flagella

* Centralbl. f. Bacteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 21-33, 61-77.
Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 668.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 805-15, 857-69.
See also Trans. Amer. Med. Ass., 1896.

X Proc. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvi. (1895) pp. 217-22 (1 pi.).

462 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

does not, at present, therefore, furnish a means for specific differentiation,
although it may be of use, the author thinks, for fixing genera.

Contagiousif Diseases of Animals.* — The Board of Agriculture has
published an account of its proceedings under the Contagious Diseases
(Animals) Acts, &c. The Report of the Chief Veterinary Officer deals
with, among others, swine fever, rabies, and glanders. The Report is
one which should be studied by those who are interested in the relations
of bacteriology to the diseases of our domestic animals.

Microbe of Rinderpest.f — Dr. W. J. Simpson has made a preliminary
communication to the Calcutta Microscopical Society on the microbe of
rinderpest. He reports that this microbe is a Diplobacterium varying
from 0*3 to 0*6 mm. in length, and about a third of this in breadth.
The microbe is not unlike the bacilli found by Dr. Klein in ordinary
calf vaccine. It is easily stained by the ordinary dyes. It grows with
air and without air, but gradually becomes attenuated in virulence by
repeated growth in air. It is a motile bacillus, is sporeless, and multiplies
rapidly in cultures with the formation of air-bubbles. Dr. Simpson
hopes to be able to prepare a vaccine for preservative purposes.

Micro-Organisms and Digestion.^ — Dr. Nencki has come to the
conclusion that micro-organisms possess the property of changing
the insoluble forms of carbohydrates and albumen into a soluble form,
but it does not appear that micro-organisms are necessary for the normal
piocess of digestion. As a matter of fact, the acid of the stomach
destroys the majority of them. Only a small number escape this fate
and get into the intestinal tract. New-born guinea-pigs were put into
a closed bell, and kept on a sterilised milk diet, the respiratory air
being also sterilised ; microscopical investigation of the intestinal tract
failed to reveal the presence of any micro-organisms.

Fraenkel’s Pneumococcus.§ — Dr. Bernabeo has modified Foas
method, and has succeeded in keeping alive and virulent for over a
year Fraenkel’s Pneumococcus. The method consists in receiving the
infected blood into small glass tubes 5 mm. in diameter and 20 cm.
long, so that the blood completely fills the tube. This tube is then
sealed by heat, and without any further treatment is kept away from
the light at an ordinary temperature.

* Board of Agriculture : Animal Tteports, &c., iv. (1894), Loudon, 1895, 142 pp.,
7 pis. and 2 maps. f Brit. Med. Journ., 1896, No. 1846, p. 1227.

X Tom. cit., No. 1843, p. 68. § Tom. et p. cit.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

463

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.* * * §

(1) Stands.

Leitz’s Microscopes.f — M. E. de Wildeman describes several of the
Microscopes supplied by the tirm of Leitz. In many cases the same
stand can be obtained either with the Continental horse-shoe base or
with the English tripod.

One large model is inclinable, and has a horse-shoe base. It is
provided with coarse- and fine-adjustment, and with a draw-tube with
a scale indicating the total length of the tube. The circular stage is
movable, and can be centered. Beneath the stage is the Abbe illumi-
nating apparatus, with iris- diaphragm, which can be displaced laterally.
There is also beneath the stage a cylinder-diaphragm, in which is
another iris-diaphragm. Another model is very similar, but with tripod
base, and without the cylinder iris-diaphragm.

The model II b is intended for institutions and for students. It is
provided with both fine- and coarse-adjustment so that high-power
objectives can be used. The illuminating apparatus is much simpler
than in the preceding models, and consists of a cylinder carrying above
a lens, and below an iris-diaphragm.

Use of Ordinary Binocular for Dissecting. J — Dr. J. Tatham makes
use of the ordinary binocular for dissecting, by the device of attaching
to the rackwork substage a brass ring carrying a supplementary stage.
For dissecting, the Microscope is placed in the vertical position, and
the low-power objective is racked down through the aperture of the
principal stage until focused upon the object lying on the supplementary
stage.

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

Method for the Exact Adjustment of the Nmol's Prisms.§ — Dr. E.

Weinschenk gives the following method for adjusting the Nmol's prisms
of the Microscope : —

A doubly refracting crystal between two nicols shows no interference
colours during the rotation of one of the nicols, if one of its directions
of vibration is exactly parallel to the direction of vibration of the other
nicol. For the application of this principle to the adjustment of the
nicols a crystal is required which allows its directions of vibration to
be adjusted exactly parallel to the cross-wires, and gives lively inter-
ference colours of a low order. These properties are possessed by
quartz which occurs in water-clear needles 5 to 7 mm. long and
0*05 to 0*15 mm. thick. Such a needle is imbedded in Canada balsam,

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation; (6) Miscellaneous.

+ Bull. Soc. Beige de Micr., xxii. (1896) pp. 74-7.

X Journ. Quekett Micr. Soc., vi. (1896) pp. 206-7.

§ Zeitsch. f. Krystallogr. u. Min , xxiv. (1895) p. 581. See Zeitschr. f. Instrumen-
tenk., xvi. (1896) p. 188.

464

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which possesses almost the same refractive index as the quartz, and
the preparation is brought under the Microscope between two nieols
approximately crossed, but with directions of vibration oblique to the
cross-wires. The long edge of the crystal is then adjusted parallel to
the cross-wire, and the polariser is turned until the crystal cannot be
distinguished from the rest of the field ; the analyser is then turned to
the position of darkness. If during this rotation the crystal, in any
position becomes again visible, the polariser must be turned until the
crystal remains perfectly invisible during the rotation of the analyser
through 180°. The direction of vibration of the polariser will then be
parallel to the direction of vibration in the crystal, i.e. to the cross-wire.
The analyser can be adjusted in a similar way.

Optical Rule.* — Mr. E. M. Nelson describes a useful optical rule.
The rule, which is made of box and is 20 in. long and square in
section, has on one face a scale of inches and tenths, and on the other
side centimetres and millimetres. On one of the sides, at right angles
to these, is a scale of dioptrics marked D, and on the opposite side a
new scale of powers marked P. The author gives several examples
illustrating the use of the rule.

Pulfrich Refractometer.'f— This instrument in its new form as con-
structed by Zeiss is shown in fig. 76. It is intended as a universal
apparatus for refractrometric and spectrometric investigations.

In principle the apparatus depends on the use of a rectangular prism
of strongly refracting glass, of which the horizontal face is brought in
contact with the object to be examined, while through the second vertical

Fig. 76.

Fig. 77.

face the line of demarcation of the light falling at grazing incidence on
the object is observed. From the angle i under which the limiting ray
leaves the vertical face of the prism (see figs. 76 and 77), and from the
known index (N) of the prism, the refractive index n of the substance
examined is given by the formula n = VN- — sin2 i. A glass tube (fig. 76)
cemented on to the prism serves for the reception of liquids. Solid
bodies (fig. 77) are provided with two faces I and II at right angles to

* Journ. Quekett Micr. Soc., vi. (1896) pp. 208-9. ;

t Jena, 1895, 8vo, 8 pp. and 4 figs.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

465

each other, one of which, I, must he plane polished, while the face II
need be only so far polished that light can enter. Between the object
and prism face is a thin film of a liquid with a higher refractive index
than the object.

The improvements which Dr. Pulfrich has introduced into the new
instrument render it serviceable for almost all refractometric and
spectrometric investigations, viz. : —

(1) For the determination of the refraction (wD) and the dispersion
(difference of the indices for the Fraunhofer lines C, D, F, and G') of
transparent, liquid, and solid (single and doubly refracting) bodies.

(2) For the investigation of liquids at high temperatures , e.g. of
bodies which only become liquid at high temperatures.

(3) For the determination of the differences of refraction and dis-

466

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

persion of solid and liquid bodies which are closely related in optical
characters. (Use of the apparatus as differential-refractometer.)

The auxiliary arrangements consist (fig. 78) of —

(1) A new illuminating apparatus, by which the use of sodium light
and the light of Geissler tubes (H-light), as well as a quick interchange
of the two kinds of light, is possible. The
Fig. 79. illumination with sodium light is effected with

the help of the reflecting prism N, that with
H-light by means of the Geissler-tube Q and
the condenser P, which can be adjusted in height
by c. A micrometer arrangement for the de-
termination of dispersion consists of the axial
clamp H, and the measuring-screw G, with
divided drum.

(2) A new heating arrangement, which allows
of the accurate investigation of liquids up to
100° C.

The heating is effected either by a stream
of hot water at a constant temperature, which
traverses the apparatus as shown by the arrows
(fig 78), or by the vapour of boiling water or
other liquids. The prism shares in the heating.
It is enclosed on three sides by a hollow casing L,
through which the stream of water flows first
before it reaches the upper part for the heating
of the liquid.

The warming of the liquid takes place in
the interior of the glass tube. For this purpose
there is a silver vessel S, which is attached to
tiie column M, and can be lowered b}r rack and
pinion into the liquid and adjusted at any height.

The course of the hot water through the
vessel S' is seen in fig. 79. The base-plate of
S can be approached to within a fraction of a
millimetre of the face of the prism without
injuriously affecting the observation of the limiting line, so that the
temperature indicated by the thermometer represents very rigidly the
temperature of the liquid. To prevent loss of heat
Fig. 80. by radiation the liquid is surrounded with a wooden

case (W in fig. 78), with cylindrical boring and
opening for the entrance of the light.

(3) A new vessel for liquids, as suggested by
a Prof. Ostwald, by which the simultaneous investiga-
tion of two liquids and the direct determination of
the difference of refraction and dispersion are
possible. The glass tube is divided into two com-
partments by a piece of black glass parallel to the
divided circle. One compartment contains the normal liquid, and the
other the liquid to be compared with it.

With respect to the ordinary use of the apparatus for the determina-
tion of nD, to the new instrument two accessories have been added, viz. —

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

467

(A) A small reflecting prism (p in fig. 80) for quickly finding tlie
zero-point of tlie telescope. This is placed between the eye-piece and
cross-wires, and is illuminated by a source of light opposite the opening
u to the right of the observer.

(B) A diaphragm with elliptic aperture placed before the objective
to cut off all disturbing light from the facets of the upper face of the
prism.

Universal Apparatus for the Investigation of Thin Slices in
Liquids.*- — Prof. C. Klein describes the universal apparatus which he

D

has devised for the optical examination of sections of minerals and rock-;
in liquids of high refraction.

Fig. 82.

The apparatus (figs. 81 and 82) is sufficiently large to allow of the
examination of ordinary rock-sections. A rectangular metal plate P,

* SB. K. Preuss. Akad. AViss., 1895, pp. 1151-9.

468

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with central aperture 0 closed by a glass plate, supports the vessel V,
52 mra. high and 80 mm. upper diameter, which contains the liquid.
The section under examination is held by the clamps K on the plate 8,
whose central part is of glass. Rotation of the section about a vertical
axis is effected by the screw D, that about a horizontal axis by D'.
Divisions and verniers N and N' allow these rotations to be read to five
minutes.

The author explains the use of the apparatus in determining the
position of the plane of the optic axes and the character of the double
refraction in biaxial crystals.

Regulating d'Arsonval’s Thermostat.* — Dr. M. Melnikow-Raswe-
dcnkow states that d’ Arson val’s thermostat may be regulated to the tenth
of a degree by the careful removal or addition of water from the jacket.
This may be easily effected by inserting into the glass tube, which indi-
cates the level of the water in the jacket, a siphon tube and a burette
tube, the former for withdrawing, the latter for adding water. In this
way the constancy of the temperatare is easily maintained.

C4) Photomicrography.

Photographic Technique of Wilson’s Atlas. f — Dr. E. Learning
gives the following account of the technique used in producing the
photomicrographs of eggs of Toxojpneustes. The installation used was
that manufactured by Zeiss of Jena. The adjustment of focus was left
entirely with Prof. Wilson, as being most familiar with the special
points desired. The exposure was then made so as to slightly overtime
the plate, and it was subsequently intensified. Where advisable, Strong’s
adjustable false stage was used, in order to bring into the same focal
plane a second or third point of interest, and it was found that, notwith-
standing the short working distance of a 2 mm. lens, the slide could be
considerably tilted. The optical combination wras an Abbe substage
achromatic condenser 1 N.A., a Zeiss 2 mm. oil-immersion apochromat,
and projection ocular No. 4. The luminant employed was the electric
arc, specially modified for the purpose and giving an evenly lighted
field. As the objects had a light blue tint by transmitted light, iso-
chromatic plates were used with a coloured screen made by dyeing a
lantern slide plate, from which the silver salts had been removed with an
alcoholic solution of tropmolin.

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Appearances of Colour on the Boundaries of Colourless Objects
under the Microscope.^; — Dr. II. Ambronn remarks that it is only when
the refractive indices of a solid and a liquid are sensibly different from
each other that the boundary between them is seen under the Microscope
as a colourless dark line. If, on the other hand, the values for the
refractive indices only vary by some units in the third decimal place,
then in white light certain, often very lively, colour appearances are
seen on the boundary. The author gives the following explanation of
this phenomenon.

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 709-12 (1 fig.).

+ See Wilson’s Atlas, ante, p. 394.

% Ber. Verb. d. K. Sachs. Gesell. d. Wiss. Leipzig, i. (1896) pp. 134-40.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

469

A colourless liquid and a colourless solid, which have the same
refractive indices for an intermediate colour of the spectrum, e. g. for
the D line, show a considerable difference in the dispersion ; the value
of nF — nG is greater for the liquid than for the solid. Consequently.,
by observation in white light, the yellow rays at grazing incidence will
suffer no deviation and will give no indication of the boundary between
the solid and liquid, but will form a direct image of the source of light
in the hinder focal plane of the objective. The other rays, however,
suffer a more or less marked deviation since slight differences in the
refractive indices under these circumstances produce a considerable
difference in the limiting angle of total reflection corresponding to the
individual rays. Denoting the latter angle by e, the refractive indices
of the liquid by n, those of the solid by nr, we have for the colours at
C and F of the spectrum the equations :

where nG < n’G and nF > nfF. Since the sine of the angle near 90°
changes only very slowly, a considerable change of the limiting angle
corresponds to a slight difference of the refractive indices.

The red rays at grazing incidence will thus be deviated towards the
solid, the blue towards the liquid, as seen in fig. 83.

Accordingly, if the Microscope be adjusted on the upper plane of the
preparation (AB in the fig.), the edge of the glass will appear reddish

nG

sin e0 = — , sin eF
nc

Fig. 83.

1896

k 2

470

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and the edge of the liquid blueish-green, while the reverse is the case
if adjustment be made on the lower plane C D.

These colour appearances are best obtained with a system of con-
siderable focal length, e.g. with the Zeiss system a a and the weak apo-
chromatic system of 16 mm. focal length.

The phenomenon is of practical importance for the determination of
the refractive indices of Microscopic objects on which no plane faces can
be cut. Out of a number of mixtures of liquids with refractive indices
differing by about five units in the third decimal place, one is sought
which shows the coloured edges most distinctly when the object is
immersed in it. In this case the values of wD for the solid and the
liquid are not very different. Observation is then made in sodium light,
and liquids of various refractive indices are tried until one is obtained
in which the boundary completely disappears.

(6) Miscellaneous.

The Planktonikrit, a Centrifugal Apparatus for the Volumetric
Estimation of the Food-Supply of Oysters and other Aquatic
Animals.* — Dr. C. S. Dolley referring to the work of Hensen, Haeckel,
and others on planktonology, explains the importance of a quantitative
determination of the primitive food-supply of marine animals. Since
oysters, clams, and mussels depend practically upon diatomaceous food,
determinations of the bulk of diatoms for each cubic metre of regions
abounding in Molluscan fauna should be made, and used as standards for
estimating the value of neighbouring waters. The ostreiculturist should
also have a quick and accurate method for determining the amount of
plankton in the water of his parks. For this purpose the author uses a
centrifugal apparatus, instead of the old method of counting the indi-
viduals. The apparatus consists of a series of geared wheels, by which
an upright shaft is caused to revolve up to a speed of 8000 revolutions
a minute. To the upright is attached a frame carrying two funnel-
shaped receptacles of 1 litre capacity each. The main portion of each
of these consists of tinned copper. To this is attached the stem of the i
funnel, which is formed of a heavy glass tube of 15 cm. outside diameter
with a central bore of 2J to 5 mm. These glasses are protected by a
cover.

The Microscope as a Guide in Medicine. f — Dr. C. G. Kuhlman
has a remarkable article on this subject, the summary of which we would
not dare to give otherwise than in his own words. This author finds
that he is justified in arriving at the following conclusions: —

(1) That the Microscope is of little or no value as a guide in the
study of medicine at the present date, because every known pathologic
condition and change can be recognised microscopically. Pathologic
conditions and changes cannot be differentiated microscopically. Owing
to defects in Microscopes, defects in sights of students, unsuccessful
preparation and manipulation of objects and Microscopes, modern illus-
trated text-books are far superior as object lessons.

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1896, pp. 276 80.
f St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal, lxx. (1896) pp. 201-9.

471

»

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

(2) That the Microscope is of no value as a guide in the practice
of medicine, because, aided by objective and subjective pathognomonic
symptoms, and a few simple instruments and chemical tests, no scientific
physician can possibly fail in diagnosing every known pathologic con-
dition and change. The physical and chemical constitution of abnormal
physiologic or pathologic animal products capable of poisoning the
organism is as yet unknown, but as we have every reason to believe
that they are alkaloidal in character, they, like all tbe known agents
capable of sustaining the physiological or chemical activity of the
organisms, are not visible to the Microscope. Comment is needless !

Red Blood-Corpuscles in Legal Medicine.* — Dr. M. C. White comes
to the conclusion that, in favourable cases, blood-stains can be so treated
that reliable measurements and credible diagnoses of their origin can be
given. If error occurs on account of imperfect restoration of the form
and diameter of the corpuscles, the error, if any, will be to make human
blood appear like that of one of the lower animals, and will never lead
to the blood of any domestic animal being mistaken for human blood.
In general, when a stain has been proved to be blood it may be decided
certainly whether it is or is not mammalian blood ; so also a stain
from the blood of the ox, pig, horse, sheep, or goat may be distinguished
from human blood, thus confirming the claim of an accused person in
many cases that his clothes are not stained with human blood. This
negative testimony is quite as important in many cases as testimony
inculpating a prisoner. Lastly, the expert can say that the average of
a suitable number of corpuscles from blood-stains corresponds with the
average of fresh human corpuscles, that the stain is certainly not from
the blood of the ox, pig, sheep, or goat, and, in every case, he can say with
great certainty that the stain is not human blood.

History of the Microscope.! — A very excellent and useful work
on the history of the Microscope, from its first beginnings up to the
present time. Since the last edition of Harting’s treatise in 1866, which
contained the most complete resume of the development of the instrument
up to the date of its publication, some, perhaps unavoidable, errors in
facts and dates then extant have been corrected, and a good deal of
supplementary information collected on the subject. Although this has,
for the most part, been recorded in this Journal, it is convenient to have
fhe information in a continuous form, as in the present work. The
author lays no claim to have written an exhaustive or final history of
the Microscope, but he observes that, while the modern instrument is
generally fully described in microbiological literature, he finds so little
■or even no mention made of its evolution, that he fears it may come to
be overlooked.

One other point may be mentioned in its favour : instead of the
loosely stitched and paper-covered affair usually issued by Continental
publishers, Dr. Petri’s work is extremely neatly half bound, with
marbled edges, a new departure which, it is hoped, may be generally
adopted abroad.

* Medico-Legal Journal, xii. (1895) pp. 419-38 (12 pis.).

f ‘ Das Mikroskop, von Dr. R. J. Petri.’ Berlin, 18§6, 248 pp., 191 figs, and
2 facsimile portraits.

2 k 2

472

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The late Mr. Slack. — We greatly regret to report the death, on the
16th June last, of one who was long actively engaged in the affairs of
the Society.

Henry James Slack, who was born on October 23rd, 1818, became a
Fellow in the year 1862, and as early as the succeeding year was elected
into the Council. From 1867 to 1877 he acted as one of the Secretaries
of the Society, and in 1878-9 he was President.

The following papers by Mr. Slack have appeared in the Society’s
Journals : —

Notes on the Yinegar Plant. (Trans. R. Micr. Soc., N.S. xiii. 1865,
pp. 10-5.)

On a Microscopic Ferment found in Red French Wine. (Trans.
R. Micr. Soc., N.S. xvi. 1868, pp. 35-9.)

The Patterns of Artificial Diatoms. (Monthly Micr. Journ., iv.

1870, pp. 181-3.)

On an Optical Illusion Slide : Cracks in Silica Films. (Monthly
Micr. Journ., v. 1871, pp. 14-5.)

On the Employment of Colloid Silica in the Preparation of Crystals
for the Polariscope. (Monthly Micr. Journ., v. 1871, pp. 50-2.)

On some Recent Investigations in Minute Organisms. (Monthly
Micr. Journ., v. 1871, pp. 99-112.)

On Crystalline Forms modified by Colloid Silica. (Monthly Micr
Journ., v. 1871, pp. 115-6, 193, pis. lxxvii., lxxviii.)

Optical Appearances of Cut Lines in Glass. (Monthly Micr. Journ.,
v. 1871, pp. 213-5.)

The Silicious Deposit in Pinnularise. (Monthly Micr. Journ., vi.

1871, pp. 71-4.)

Micro-Ruling on Glass and Steel. By J. F. Stanistreet. With
illustrative remarks by H. J. Slack. (Monthly Micr. Journ., vi. 1871,
pp. 151-6, pi. xcvii.)

The supposed Fungus on Coleus Leaves; and also Notes on
Podiosoma fuscum and P. juniperi. (Monthly Micr. Journ., vii. 1872,
pp. 217-21, pi. xviii.)

On the Structure of the Valves of Eupodiscus Argus and Isthmia
enervis , &c. (Monthly Micr. Journ., viii. 1872, pp. 256-9, pi. xl.)

On Organic Bodies in Fire-Opal. (Monthly Micr. Journ., x. 1873,
pp. 105-6, pi. xxvii.)

On certain Beaded Silica Films artificially formed. (Monthly Micr.
Journ., xi. 1874, pp. 237-41, pis. lxiii. lxiv.)

Some Remarks on Bucephalus polymorphus, by J. Badcock ; together
with translations from papers of Von Baer, Lacaze-Duthiers, and
A. Giard on B. polymorphus and Haimeanus, by H. J. Slack. (Monthly
Micr. Journ., xiii. 1875, pp. 141-6, pi. xcviii.)

On Angle of Aperture in Relation to Surface Marking and Accurate
Vision. (Monthly Micr. Journ., xiii. 1875, pp. 233-9.)

Perforating Proboscis Moths. (Monthly Micr. Journ., xiv. 1875,
pp. 235-6.)

Bastian and Pasteur on Spontaneous Generation. (Monthly Micr.
Journ., xvi. 1876, pp. 165-8.)

Microscopic Aspects of Krupp’s Silicate Cotton. (Monthly Micr.
Journ., xvii. 1877, pp. 236-8, pis. clxxx. and clxxxi.)

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

473

On the Visibility and Optical Aspects of Hairs viewed from a
distance. (Journ. R. Micr. Soc., 1878, pp. 318-20.)

The President’s Address. [Progress of Microscopy.] ( Journ.
R. Micr. Soc., 1879, pp. 113-21.)

On Fungoid Growths in Aqueous Solutions of Silica, and their
Artificial Fossilisation. By W. C. Roberts and H. J. Slack. (Trans.
R. Micr. Soc., N.S. xvi. 1868, pp. 105-8.)

Diatomaceous Earth from the Lake of Valencia, Caracas. By
A. Ernst and H. J. Slack. (Monthly Micr. Journ., vi. 1871, pp. 69-70.)

An appreciative notice of our deceased Fellow appeared in the
Daily News for June 27th.

£. Technique.*

Methods of Examining and Staining Living and Read Cells and
Tissues.! — Herr G. Marpmann has made a copious compilation of the
various methods in use for examining cells and tissues. There is nothing
new in the author’s paper, some of the formulae given being more than
a quarter of a century old, and all may be found in works devoted to
this branch of science. Nevertheless, it is a useful paper.

Cl) Collecting- Objects, including Culture Processes.

Cultures of Pneumococcus on Blood.J — MM. Gilbert and Fournier
have found that Pneumococcus thrives well on defibrinated horse-blood,
and that the growth appearances are quite characteristic. After 18 to 20
hours the inoculation streak is surrounded by a brown colour, which
changes to green or to brownish-yellow. The virulence and vegetative
power are well maintained.

Cultivation of Amoebae on Solid Media.§ — Dr. C. Gorini has cul-
tivated Amoeba s on potato with considerable success. The samples were
obtained from Beyerinck’s |] mixed cultivation of Amoeba zymophila and
SaccJiaromyces apiculatus. Transferences were made to potatoes of dif-
ferent kinds, of different ages, and of different reaction. All did well.

Blood-Serum- Agar Medium for Diphtheria. Herr Tochtermann
recommends a medium composed of 2 per cent, agar mixed with 0 • 3-0 * 5
per cent, grape sugar, 1 per cent, pepton, and 0*5 per cent. salt. To
this is added sheep’s serum boiled for half an hour, in the proportion of
2 or 3 to 2. The mixture is then sterilised in the usual way. The
advantage of this medium is that the blood-serum need not be sterile, or
be taken with aseptic precautions.

Bacteriological Examination of old Cholera Dejecta.** — Dr. Zia

* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses ; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

f Zeitscbr. f. angewandte Mikr., i. (1896) pp. 321-30, 353-67.

j La Medecine Moderne, 1896, p. 38, See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
1* Abt., xix. (1896) p. 836.

§ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) p. 785.

|| See this Journal, ante , p. 198.

Centralbl. f. Klin. Med., 1895, No. 40. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasi-
tenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) p. 733. ** Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 334-6.

474

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Bey kept 44 samples of cholera stools, and examined them after periods
of 3 to 22 months. From all the cholera bacillus had been isolated.
The object of the examination was to ascertain what microbes survived.
Cultivations w~ere made on 1 per cent, pepton water, and from this on
gelose. Out of the 44 cases' only four were sterile. The most frequent
organism was the Coli bacillus (22), then came Streptococcus , while
saprophytes, such as Bacillus subtilis , were infrequent.

Cultivation of the Diplobacillus of Conjunctivitis.* — Dr. Y. Morax
describes a diplobacillus which he considers to be the cause of subacute
conjunctivitis, a disorder marked by a mucopurulent discharge, and
lasting some six to eight weeks. In this secretion exists a diplobacillus
5-6 [a long and 1-1 * 5 /x broad. It is easily stained by anilin dyes, but
not by Gram’s method. The cultivation medium used contained 2 per
cent, gelose, 2 per cent, pepton, and ascitic fluid. The reaction was
neutral. The gelose-pepton solution placed in test-tubes was sterilised
at 115°, and when the solution had cooled down to about 60° the ascitic
fluid, obtained with antiseptic precautions, was added. The tubes were
then gently shaken in order to mix their contents. The medium was
allowed to set in the vertical and oblique positions, and then the tubes
were incubated for 48 hours to test their sterility. The media were
inoculated with some of the mucopurulent secretion and incubated at
35°. The greyish colonies became visible in 24 hours.

Another medium which gave excellent results was composed of serum,,
or serous fluid and bouillon, in the proportion of one-third ascitic fluid
and two-thirds bouillon. The medium gets cloudy in 24 hours at 35°,
a deposit falling for 8 to 10 days, after which it resumes its clearness.
This diplobacillus is aerobic, is easily killed by heat (58° for 15 minutes)*
and while non-pathogenic to animals, pure cultivations easily reproduce
the disease in man.

Bacteriological Diagnosis of Glanders, f — Dr. C. Gorini uses a
modification of Chenzinsky’s method for staining the bacillus of glanders,
-both in sections and on cover-glasses. The stain must be prepared
afresh immediately before use (1 part saturated aqueous solution of
methylen-blue, 1 part of \ per cent, solution of eosin in alcohol of 70°,
2 parts of distilled water). Sections are left in this mixture for 30 to
60 minutes and cover-glasses for a few minutes. They are then washed
in water and mounted in the usual way. As cultivation media the
author used glycerin-gelose and potato. The latter was found to be far
superior to the former, which is almost universally used for isolating the
bacillus of glanders. The potato cultures, incubated at 37°, gave a posi-
tive result in 48 to 72 hours, while the growths on gelose did not appear
till the fourth or fifth day, or remained sterile.

The author also records that the bacillus of glanders coagulates
milk at 37° in 10 to 12 days, the reaction being neutral, and no further
changes taking place in the clot.

Bacteriological Examination of Water by Parietti’s Melhod.f —
The bacteriological examination of water by Parietti’s method consists

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 337-45 (1 pi. and 5 figs.).

f Ann. de Micrographie, viii. (1896) pp. 111-7. J Tom. cii., pp. 89-110.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

475

in adding a mixture of hydrochloric acid and carbolic acid to the pepton
bouillon which is used as a nutrient basis for the cultivations. The
principle of the procedure rests on the supposition that certain chemical
substances exert an unfavourable action on certain bacteria, and the
method, like many others, is chiefly intended for the detection of
the bacillus of typhoid fever. M. J. Wittlin is of opinion that this
method affords but little help in the isolation of Bacillus typhosus, yet
it is of great service in finding the various species of bacteria existing
normally in water, as well as pathogenic organisms such as Streptococcus ,
Staphylococcus , B. coli communis , Proteus , Oidium albicans , and others.

Urinous Substrata for Differentiating Bacillus coli communis and
Bacillus typhi abdominalis.* — Dr. Piorkowski finds that the addition of
urine to cultivation media facilitates the diagnosis between the bacillus
of typhoid fever and B. coli com. Three examples are given : — (1) Urine
bouillon. 0*5 grm. pepton are dissolved in 100 of urine; the solution
is then filtered off into test-tubes (10 ccm. to each). These are then
sterilised by heating them two days for 10—15 minutes. (2) Urine
gelatin. Is made like the foregoing, save for the further addition of
10-12 per cent, gelatin. (3) Urine agar. In this medium 2 per cent,
agar replaces the gelatin.

On these media the growth of B. coli was more rapid and luxuriant
than that of B. typh. abd., the development of which seemed tardy.

Simple Apparatus for Gathering Microscopic Objects.! — Mr. G. M.
Hopkins describes a simple device for collecting microscopic objects.
It consists of a tea or dessert spoon having a wire loop round the bowl,
to which is fitted a conical bag. A piece of string is attached to the
bottom of the bag on the outside and extends over the top and down to
the bottom in the inside, where it is again fastened.

In use the spoon is scraped along the surface of objects submerged
in water, and when sufficient material has accumulated, the bag is turned
inside out by pulling the string, and is then dipped several times into
water in the collecting bottle.

C2) Preparing- Objects.

Preparation of Eggs of Toxopneustes variegatus. :£ — Prof. Wilson
took eggs carefully selected from ripe females, fertilised them artificially
in sea water, and preserved them at regular intervals. After testing
many different fixing agents it was found that the best results were
obtained by sublimate-acetic (80 parts concentrated aqueous solution of
corrosive sublimate, and 20 parts glacial acetic acid). When properly
used, this reagent caused no change of form or shrinkage or distortion
of the internal structures ; the finest details are shown with a clearness
and brilliancy which far surpasses the results of pure sublimate, or a
number of fixing reagents.. The eggs were preserved in alcohol, im-
bedded in paraffin, sectioned in the ‘usual manner, and stained on the
slide by Heidenhain’s iron-haematoxylin. The best results were
obtained with sections from 3 to 5 /x in thickness, stained 24 hours in

* Centralbl. f. Bakterioh u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 686-94.

f The Microscope, iv. (1896) pp. 53-4.

X See Wilson’s Atlas, ante. p. 394.

476.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the haematoxylin, and differentiated in 1 per cent, solution of iron-alum
to a bright but delicate blue.

Study of Blood-Corpuscles.* * * § — Prof. P. Owsjannikow, in his study
of the blood-corpuscles of the crayfish and the fresh-water mussel, made
use of some reagents which he is able to recommend. A drop of blood
was placed in one or two drops of iodised serum on a slide. It was
then covered with a cover-glass, which, at all four corners, was provided
with a little wax foot. A drop of anilin solution is gradually intro-
duced into the blood. The addition of glycerin will prevent the drying
of the preparation. A one per cent, solution of osmic acid may have
soluble stains added to it, but such stains as are not soluble in spirit
must be avoided. Corpuscles were well fixed with a 1 or 2 per cent,
solution of formalin. With hypermanganate of potash in a 1 per cent,
solution the deposit is so finely granular that it does not affect the
investigation.

Investigation of Caudina arenata.t — Mr. J. H. Gerould calls
attention to the use of magnesium sulphate as a stupefying reagent.
A specimen of Caudina having been allowed to become well expanded
in a small quantity of sea-water, crystals of magnesium sulphate were
added, a small teaspoonful at a time. If contraction occurs, the salt is
added more slowly, or the use of it suspended entirely until the animal
again expands. Perenyi’s fluid gave better general results in killing
than any other of the reagents which were employed. Previous to
imbedding an object in paraffin, it was often found necessary to remove
bubbles of carbonic acid gas which had gathered in the tissues during
decalcification. This was accomplished, as suggested by Cuenot, by
placing the specimen under the receiver of an air-pump, and exhausting
the air. For staining on the slide nothing was found to surpass Ehrlich’s
haematoxylin followed by eosin.

The author has given what he believes to be a thorough trial to
the rapid method of Golgi, but without the slightest success. However,
the author thinks that the method, which is so fruitful when applied to
other animals, deserves a more extended trial with echinoderm tissues
than has been given it ; for the Golgi method may capriciously fail when
employed in the study of one animal, although it affords excellent results
when applied to a closely related form.

Demonstrating Tubercle Bacilli in Sputum.J — Prof. v. Eindfleisch
moistens an ordinary camel-hair brush with water and then stirs up the
sputum with it. YVhen withdrawn it usually looks as if there were
nothing on it, but if cover-glasses be smeared therewith, the film will be
found to contain a relatively large number of tubercle bacilli. Of
course a new brush must be used each time.

Demonstrating Tubercle Bacilli in Human Sputum.§ — Herr E.
Hacke says that the following procedure will be found to be very simple

* Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, ii. (1895) pp. 367-70.

f Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxvii. (1896) pp. 9-10.

X Deutsche Med. Woehenschr., xlviii. (1895). See Zeitschr. f. angewandte
Mikr., i. (1896) p. 346.

§ Zeitschr. f. angewandte Mikr., ii. (1896) pp. 1-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

477

when tubercle bacilli are very scanty in the sputum. Some of the
sputum is to be shaken up with water and some of the sediment spread
on a slide, and if there be any small but thickish particles of mucus on
the slide the layer is to be squeezed into a film by means of another slide
placed thereon. The slides are best dried on an asbestos plate heated in
the flame. When fixed, carbol-fuchsin is poured on the film and allowed
to act for 8-10 minutes. The solution is composed of fuchsin, 1*0;
alcohol, 20 ; acid, carbol., 5; distilled water, 100. After having been
washed with water the preparation is treated for five minutes with the
following acid solution: — Acid. mur. pur., 10 drops; distilled water,
20 ccm. ; 90 per cent, alcohol, 100 ccm. The slide is again washed, and
if not sufficiently decolorised the acid solution must be repeated. If
sufficiently decolorised the preparation is contrast-stained with malachite
solution, washed again with water and alcohol, and then dried.

C3) Cutting-, including- Imbedding- and Microtomes.

Apparatus for Preserving Celloidin-Blocks on the Microtome.* —
Herr G. Alexander describes an apparatus which he has found useful for
preserving celloidin-blocks, especially when intended for cutting serial
sections. It consists of a quadrangular block with a circular top. The
square portion is fixed by the microtome-screw. The circular top has
an inbevelled edge, to which a glass tube can be adapted. The tube is
3 • 5 cm. high, and has a cover or lid. If it be necessary at any time to
suspend operations, the cylinder is put on and the junction with the
bevelled edge filled up with vaselin. A jar is thus formed, at the bottom
of which lies the celloidin-block. Spirit is poured in and the cover put
on. By this means a celloidin-block is kept not only unimpaired but in
the proper position for sectioning at some future occasion.

New Methods for Paraffin Sections.! — Dr. H. Albrecht and Dr. O.
Stoerk fix paraffin sections to the slide in the following way. The
section is placed on an un warmed slide on some water and then stretched
by simply breathing on it. It is then pressed on the slide with blotting
paper and fixed firmly by pouring on a couple of drops of very thin
celloidin solution. This method is said to be very successful, and quite
avoids any crumpling of the section and also loss of time. For tissues
fixed with osmic acid, however, the foregoing procedure and the albumen-
glycerin method are combined. In this the water drop is placed on the
albumen-glycerin layer; the section is then breathed on and pressed
down on the slide with filter-paper moistened with a few drops of
absolute alcohol. The following rapid method, which avoids crumpling,
is also given. The pieces throughout the procedure are kept at a tem-
perature of 55°, and first come into 95 per cent, alcohol. The thickness
should not exceed 1 cm. After an hour, a piece 1/2 cm. thick is cut off
and transferred to absolute alcohol. In another hour it is put into
absolute alcohol for two hours, and then for three hours into alcohol
kept water-free by means of copper sulphate. It is next transferred to
xylol-paraffin, where it remains for three hours. Finally, it passes into
paraffin with melting-point of about 52° for one hour.

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiii. (1896) pp. 10-12 (2 figs.).

t Tom. cit., pp. 12-18.

478

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Fixation of Paraffin Sections with Distilled Water/ — Prof. J.
Nusbaum praises highly the method of fixing paraffin sections with dis-
tilled water, a method which for its simplicity, elegance, and satisfactory
results deserves to be more widely known and practised. The slide is
covered wfith distilled or spring water, evenly spread by means of a glass
rod. The sections, even large series of sections, are then placed on the
water and the slide held over a spirit-lamp until the sections are stretched
out and look quite smooth, without a trace of a crease or a fold. Care
of course must be taken that the paraffin does not melt. The water is
now poured off, and in doing so the sections may be held by a needle
and afterwards arranged if necessary. The slides are then placed in the
vertical position under a bell jar for 24-36 hours to get rid of all the
water. After this the paraffin is dissolved out in xylol, and the sections
washed in alcohol, stained, cleared up, and imbedded. By this pro-
cedure certainty in keeping the sections fixed to the slide is attainable.

Method for Impregnating the Lacunae and Canaliculi of Bone
with Fuchsin. j- — Herr M. Buprecht has by the following method been
able to confirm and extend the views of Banvier relative to the recurrent
canaliculi of bone. A piece of dry well-macerated bone is filed down to
a thickness of 0*3 mm., and the sides scraped with a scalpel to remove
the dust. The section is next immersed in ether for some minutes, and
after removal heated quickly on a slide and plunged while hot into
ether again. The section is then transferred to a boiling saturated
alcoholic solution of diamond-fuchsin for five minutes. After cooling
down to 34° the staining solution is evaporated to dryness at 70°. The
pigment is then scraped off with a knife, and the section is ground
between two glass plates with pumice-stone in vaselin-oil and benzin
1 to 10. It is next further smoothed down on an Arkansas stone with
vaselin-oil and benzin. After washing off the benzin, the specimen is
dried, and polished between pieces of writing-paper. Finally, it is
mounted in colophonium dissolved in benzol.

New Jung Microtome. £ — Dr. L. Koch describes the new Jung micro-
tome and gives practical hints for its use in preparing botanical sections.
The instrument in its new form does not differ in principle from the
microtome described in this Journal, 1893, p. 264.

(4) Staining- and Injecting-.

Staining Flagella. § — Dr. Y. A. Moore stained the flagella of bacilli
by Loeffler’s method with, modifications. As a mordant he used a
20 per cent, solution of tannic acid 10 ccm., a cold saturated solution
of iron sulphate 5 ccm., and a saturated alcoholic solution of fuchsin
1 ccm. As a staining fluid, he used Ziehl’s carbol fuchsin ; 1 grm. of
fuchsin is dissolved in 10 ccm. of absolute alcohol, to which 100 ccm.
of a 5 per cent, solution of carbolic acid is added. In making the cover-
glass preparation, a large drop of warm water was placed upon each
slide by means of a sterile pipette ; the point of a sterile platinum wire

* Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 52-4.

t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiii. (1896) pp. 21-31 (2 pis.).

X Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot., xxix. See Zeitschr. f. angewandte Mikr., i. (1896)
pp. 373-5. § Proc. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvi. (1895) pp. 220-2.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

479

was gently touched to the culture, and immersed in the water near to
the centre of the cover-glass. A sufficient number of the bacilli were
found to adhere to the wire to make from six to ten preparations. The
tray containing them must next be placed in an incubator at 36°, until
the water has evaporated. After the preparations had dried, they were
fixed by passing them twice through the flame of a Bunsen burner, or
better by heating, for from five to ten minutes, in the hot-air oven at
120° to 140°. The covers were next immersed in 3 or 4 ccm. of the
mordant in a large test-tube, and this was heated until steam began to
come off. If there is a greyish film on the cover after washing in water,
it can generally be removed by rinsing in alcohol, and then again in
water. The staining fluid should now be applied in the same way as the
mordant, and allowed to act for from one to three minutes.

New Contrivance for Staining Sections.* * * § — M. H, Coupon describes
a simple and inexpensive contrivance for staining delicate sections
without touching them. Its principle consists in placing pieces of
bibulous filter-paper in a thin glass tube of water, and moistening the
paper with the required staining solution. The sections are then placed
in contact with the paper and absorb the stain from it.

(5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Notes on Formalin.j — Dr. W. H. Seaman, referring to the interest
taken in this fluid, publishes some particulars which he thinks are not
generally known. After giving some details as to the chemical charac-
ters of the fluid, for which we must refer the reader to the original, he
points out that it appears to be the intermediate substance produced by
the action of the carbonic acid of the air on chlorophyll.

Mr. D. S. Kellicott J appears to have had some doubts as to whether
formalin was to effect all that it promised. The results of his experience
were essentially in accord with the results already published. He has
used it as a preservative for a variety of objects, and also in preserving
animals for dissection. Its advantages appear to be that it is cheaper
than any other method that gives good results. It gives results in much
less time, the colours are better preserved, and there is less change of
form by shrinkage or by swelling. Its penetrating power is excellent,
so that objects preserved in it are fit for work on the internal organs,
but it has its disadvantages, It is extremely volatile, and the jars have
to be sealed with care, but the author has not had it in use long enough
to decide how great an obstacle this will prove in a museum. Again,
the watery solution will freeze, and not all museums are at all times above
freezing point. Dr. Seaman has a high opinion of the fluid for fixing
animal tissues.

Formol.§ — Dr. F. Blum, who along with his father introduced formal-
dehyde as a preservative medium, points out that its virtues depend on
its forming a methyl-combination with albuminoids. He has many
interesting notes on its use, and gives a bibliography of the subject.

* Kev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), viii. (1896) pp. 70-3 (2 figs.).

t Proc. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvi. pp. 238-41.

% The Microscope, iv. (1896) pp. 69-74.

§ Anat. Anzeig., xi. (1896) pp. 718-27.

480

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Herr Fr. Kopsch * * * § gives the results of his use of formaldehyde
antecedent to chrome-silver impregnation. It works well and surely
even for difficult objects, such as the retina, and the impregnation
succeeds on material 24 hours or even 48 hours old.

Retention of the Blood-Colour in Anatomical Preparations by
means of Formalin.j — Herr L. Jores uses saline solutions instead of
water for diluting formalin. This mixture not only keeps the blood-
colour better, but the preparations are also more suited for histo-
logical investigation. The solution recommended for the mixture is : —
common salt 1 part, magnesium sulphate 2 parts, sodium sulphate
2 parts, water 100 parts. In this solution the organs lose their colour
and assume a dirty blue-grey hue. On pouring off the formalin and
replacing it by 95 per cent, alcohol, the natural colour slowly returns.
The objects are then placed in an indifferent preservative fluid, i.e. a
mixture of glycerin and water.

Disinfecting Power of Formalin.^ — Dr. H. Strehl found that for-
malin vapour is not an effective disinfectant when used against a dry
virus (anthrax, staphylococcus). But when formalin spray is used the
test objects are killed, and the same result is arrived at even with the
vapour, if the objects be moistened first.

Herr Schepilewsky § states that the effect of solutions of formalin
tested on anthrax is about equal to that of carbolic acid, and about four-
teen times weaker than sublimate. In the gaseous form the influence of
formic aldehyde is much stronger than in solution. As a disinfectant
for articles of furniture, clothing, furs, and those made of metal, it is
very satisfactory, inasmuch as it does not damage or tarnish them. The
author’s results are quite in agreement with those of other observers,
viz. that while formalin is a valuable and effective disinfectant, its action
may be inoperative on dry material, or where the material is placed in a
position difficult of access, as between the leaves of books.

Disinfection with Formic Aldehyde. || — Experiments as to the dis-
infecting properties of the vapour of formic aldehyde have been made
under practical conditions by MM. G. Roux and A. Trillatt. The
vapour was generated in an autoclave, in which commercial formaldehyde
was heated in presence of a neutral salt. Bardet’s apparatus, by which
the vapour is produced by the oxidisation of methyl-alcohol, was also
used. The size of the rooms exposed to the influence of the vapour
varied from 70 to 1400 cubic metres. The destruction of germs was
found to be complete. Though the vapour is extremely irritating, there
is no fear of poisoning from carbonic oxide.

Dr. F. J. Bose has tested the value of formaldehyde vapour for disin-
fecting the wards of hospitals for contagious diseases. Trillat’s appa-
ratus was used for generating the vapour. A five hours’ exposure was

* Tom. cit., pp. 727-9.

f Centralbl. f. allg. Pathol, u. Pathol. Anat., vii. (1896) No. 4. See Centralbl. f.
Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) p. 629.

% Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 785-7.

§ Diss., Petersburg, 1895. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt.,
xix. (1896) pp. 794-6.

|| Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 283-96. Tom. cit,., pp. 297-30S.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

481

found to be sufficient for destroying pathogenic germs, provided the
vapour had free access, even though the space was large (737 cubic
metres). If too much covered, as by heaping up of cloths, or by con-
cealment in pockets of dresses, &c., the action of the vapour was less
successful. The bacillus of tubercle, either in the wet or dry condition,
were easily killed. No damage was done to any of the articles in the
places disinfected.

Media for Preserving Algae.* — Prof. W. A. Setchell and Mr. W. J.
Y. Osterhout give the results of their experience in the use of the follow-
ing media for preserving algse for class-material: -chrome-alum, formalin,
and camphor-water. The Cyanophyceae are best prepared with a solu-
tion containing 1 per cent, chrome-alum and 1 per cent, formalin ; this
solution renders the gelatinous sheath and matrix firm, and retains in
most cases the colours in their ordinary tints. The Chlorophyceae are
very satisfactorily preserved in any of these media ; chrome-alum is to
be preferred in most cases, but some species, such as Ulva Lactuca , are
rendered very brittle. Such forms are better preserved in formalin.
The Phseophyceae do well if placed immediately in 1 per cent, formalin
in sea- water ; the larger forms are better fixed in the 1 per cent, chrome-
alum for a few hours, and then preserved in 2 per cent, formalin solu-
tion or camphor- water. The coarser forms of the Florideas may be put
into any one of the three solutions, and will be found in very excellent
condition ; chrome-alum preserves the colour better than formalin or
camphor- water. Very delicate species, like Griffithsia Bornetiana , may
be placed in 2 per cent, formalin in sea-water, when the cells keep their
shape, and the whole plant preserves a life-like appearance, though the
colour disappears.

Preserving and Mounting Fluids for Algse and Mosses.f — M. J.
Amann recommends the following fluids for preserving and imbedding
mosses, Ohloro-, and Cyanophyceae :

(1) Lactophenol. Crystal, carbolic acid, 20 grm. ; lactic acid sp.gr.
1*21, 20 grm. ; glycerin sp. gr. 1*25, 40 grm.; distilled water, 20 grm.

(2) Lactophenol-copper solution. Crystal, copper chloride CuCl2,
0*2 grm.; copper acetate CuC4H604, 0*2 grm. Dissolved in lacto-
phenol, 5 grm. ; distilled water, 95 grm.

(3) The foregoing solution concentrated ten times is very useful for
excursion work. The water containing the algse is merely diluted with
5-10 per cent, of the strong solution, the formula for which is copper
chloride, 2 grm. ; copper acetate, 2 grm. ; lactophenol, 96 grm.

(4) Glycerin-gelatin, with lactophenol. White gelatin, 8 grm. ;
distilled water, 44 grm. After the gelatin has been thoroughly soaked,
glycerin sp. gr. 1*25, 30 grm. are added, and the whole boiled in a
water bath ; after filtration 10 grm. of lactophenol are added. This
medium is a better substitute for Canada balsam than the ordinary
phenol-glycerin-gelatin.

(5) Glycerin-gelatin, with copper solution, is prepared like No. 4,
but instead of the lactophenol, 10 per cent, lactophenol-copper solution
(No. 3) is substituted.

* Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 140-5.
t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiii. (1896) pp. 18-21.

482

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(6) Lactoplienol gam. 38 grin, of white gum-arabic are first washed
and then dissolved in 50 gran distilled water. The solution is mixed
with 5 grm. glucose and 6 grm. lactophenol, and the whole filtered
through glass-wool.

(7) Potassium iodide-mercury-glycerin. Potassium iodide-mercury
(KI -f- Hgl2) is dissolved in hot pure glycerin. The solution, which
should be very thick, has a high refractive exponent (%> = 1*78—1*80)
and is more convenient to use than the thin watery solution ; moreover,
specimens, notably diatoms, mounted therein keep much better. For
closing the preparations the arnber-lac advocated by Behrens, or damar-
lac diluted with 2 per cent, boiled linseed oil is recommended.

Antiseptic Value of Sublimate Spray.* — M. P. Chavigny finds from
experiments made with one per thousand sublimate solution used in the
form of spray, that even when continued for periods longer than those
adopted in practice this disinfectant fails to destroy microbic germs or
to diminish their virulence. The author conceives the preventive action
of sublimate to be due to the deposit of a thin layer of the antiseptic on
the surface of the germ, which by cutting off the communication with
the surrounding nutritive medium suspends the vital activity and
development of the germ. Hence, if the ambient layer be removed the
antiseptic property is lost, and the germ becomes free to develope. The
author’s method was to contaminate plaster plates with infected dust,
anthrax, St. py. aureus , potato bacillus, and then spray them with a
freshly-made one per thousand solution of sublimate, to which was
added 1 grm. of sea-salt and 5 ccm. of hydrochloric acid per litre. The
spray was made with the small Geneste and Herscher apparatus at a
■distance of 1*5 m. and maintained for 1-10 minutes. The plates were
then covered with sterilised paper and allowed to dry. When dry
the surface was scraped in places to get some dust, while on other parts
a few drops of sulphate of ammonia solution were poured before the dust
was removed. Cultivations made from the dust and examined at 24 and
48 hours indicated that sprayings of a one per thousand solution of sub-
limate confer merely a temporary protection, and this is likely to fail if
the antiseptic layer be removed or become imperfect, so that a com-
munication between the germ and the medium becomes established.

Allusion is also made as to the effect of the spray on thin dry layers
of tuberculous sputum. Guinea-pigs inoculated with this sprayed sputum
died of tuberculosis in six weeks to two months.

Mounting in Phosphorus.^ — Dr. A. M. Edwards uses the following
method for mounting objects in phosphorus. Some pure phosphorus
is melted under water and then violently shaken while cold water is
added, until it breaks up into a fine sand. A few grains of this sand are
heated with oil of cinnamon and then added to a solution of gum Thus in
:alcohol.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Simple Apparatus for Generating Gaseous’ Formic Aldehyde.^ —

Herr A. Dieudonne employed a soldering lamp filled with aceton-free

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 851-7.

+ The Microscope, iv. (1896) pp. 55-6.

t Arb. a. d. Kaiserl. Gesundheitsamte, xi. (1895) pp. 534-43 (1 fig.). See
Gentralbl. f. Bakteriob u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., i. (1895) pp. 898-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

483

methyl-alcohol for the production of gaseous formic aldehyde. The
horizontal chimney is In two parts ; the vaporising portion, which
contains a Krell’s platinum wire core, being placed on top of the wick-
tube. The wick-tube is heated until the escaping alcohol vapour ignites,
and then the platinum core is inserted into the vaporising tube. Incom-
plete combustion of the methyl-alcohol now ensues, and in consequence
gaseous formic aldehyde is copiously developed, the vapour being dis-
charged at a high pressure. The apparatus is said to work very
efficiently, and to be superior to Tollens’ lamj), as the amount of air is
easily regulated, and the stream of gas can be directed with ease against
any particular point. The apparatus was used for disinfecting small
infected articles and large spaces.

Cocain in the Study of Pond-Life.* — Mr. H. N. Conser calls
attention to the special value of hydrochlorate of cocain as a narcotic
in the study of Bryozoa and the encased Rotifera. Quick-killing
methods cannot be used where the contractile organs are so well pro-
tected as in these forms, neither can the narcotics that kill, for they
allow disorganisation of the tentacles before other parts of the organisa-
tion are sufficiently benumbed. The method the author has found most
satisfactory and certain is as follows : — Several colonies of Bryozoa are
placed in a solid watch-glass with 5 ccm. of water, and as soon as the
animals have expanded, one or two centigrams of cocain are dropped on
the edge of the water at two or three distant points ; in 15 minutes the
narcotic influence is sufficient, as can be tested by touching the tentacles
with a needle. One per cent, chromic acid is now poured in to fill the
watch-glass, and left to act for half an hour or more, when it is nearly
all withdrawn, and water substituted. This process is repeated in half
an hour, and alcohol to form about 25 per cent, added to the water.
The strength of the alcohol must be increased until 80 per cent, is
reached. By this means the chromic acid is washed out, and the
hardening accomplished so gradually that no distortions occur. Swim-
wing Rotifers readily succumb to the influence of cocain, but the
Melicertidae hold out for a long time against it. The method for these
is like that for the Bryozoa, with the exception that only sufficient
water to cover the colony well need be used. The quantity of cocain
must be relatively large, and, when all movements cease, killing may
be done with 20 per cent, formalin, for chromic acid precipitates cocain
when present in any considerable quantity.

Separation of Vegetable Acids.f — M. L. Lindet recommends the
use of methyl-alcohol for the separation of citric and malic acids in
plants, after treating with quinine. In the cold, methyl-alcohol of 95°
per cent, dissolves 8 • 2 per cent, of the acid malate of quinine, but only
0 * 3 per cent, of the acid citrate of quinine.

Microscopical Examination of Cosmetics.^ — Herr G. Marpmann
gives an instance of the value of microscopical examination. Two
samples of almond paste were submitted to him. One was found to
contain two-thirds of fine siliceous earth, the other one-third of an

* Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., xvii. (189G) pp. 95-6.

t Coraptes Rendus, exxii. (1896) pp. 1135-7.

f Zeitschr. f. angewandte Mikr., ii. (1896) pp. 10-11.

484

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

infusorial earth. The first ingredient, owing to its method of prepara-
tion, is harmless to the most delicate skin, while the latter is most
deleterious.

Microscopical Examination of Samples of Meal.* — Dr. Lange
recommends the following method for the determination of the amount
of silica in meals. Instead of by burning, the organic matter is destroyed
by digesting the meal in concentrated sulphuric acid containing some
anhydrous copper sulphate. A teaspoonful of the meal is boiled in a
flask with about 20 ccm. of strong sulphuric acid and a teaspoonful of
anhydrous copper sulphate until the liquid becomes colourless. The
liquid is then slowly added to 250 ccm. of water, and the sediment
containing the silica allowed to settle. The latter is then examined
under the Microscope. The method is particularly useful for the
detection of barley meal in other meals.

Estimation of Lecithin in Plants.*)- — Herr Bela v. Bitto has made
a number of measurements as to the quantity of letliicin in various seeds.
He notes as to methods, that if a vegetable substance be extracted with
ether and then twice with alcohol, with each for an hour, only part of
the lecithin passes into solution. For quantitative measurements the
substance must be boiled at least 30 times with ethyl-, or 20 times
with methyl-alcohol, and each boiling must last 8-10 minutes, but not
above a quarter of an hour. Simplification can hardly admit of less
than 20 boilings with methyl-alcohol.

* Zeitschr. f. angewandte Mier., i. (1896) pp. 369-70.

f Math. Nat. Ber. Ungarn, xil (1895) pp. 36-46.

485

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 17th of June, 1896, at 20 Hanover Squaee, W.,
the Rev. Edmund Caeb, M.A., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 20th May, 1896, were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman.

Surgeon V. Gunson Thorpe, R.N., exhibited a number of slides of
Rotifera, prepared by Mr. Rousselet’s method, which he had collected
in China, Ceylon, Australia, Japan, and the Solomon Islands. Amongst
these were specimens of MegalotrocJia spinosa and semibullata from
China, Ceylon, and Queensland ; Pedalion fennicum from the Solomon
Islands ; Brachionus polycerus from Colombo, Ceylon ; and Floscularia
tenuilobata , which Dr. Hudson, judging from some mutilated specimens,
thought was a variety of F. coronetta ; he hoped, however, to be able to
prove to the Fellows who were interested in the subject that this had a
specific value. It seemed to him that the class was essentially a conti-
nental one, and that on islands rotifers generally were comparatively
rare. China simply swarmed with them, and seemed everywhere to
teem with forms which were quite unknown in other countries, whilst
Japan, on the other hand, had very few. The great island continent of
Australia certainly had some more, but not nearly so many as China.

Mr. C. F. Rousselet said he had not yet had any opportunity of
examining these specimens, but he hoped Mr. Gunson Thorpe would be
able to give them a paper descriptive of them. It was very valuable to
be able to exhibit specimens from these distant parts in so satisfactory a
manner.

Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell was sure the Fellows of the Society would be
glad to see Surgeon Gunson Thorpe amongst them again, and would
congratulate him upon his safe return. Mr. Rousselet had, however,
been too modest to mention that he had himself had a considerable share
in bringing back Mr. Thorpe’s rotifers, through his method of pre-
paration,. so many examples of which he had exhibited to the Society.
The case was comparable to that of caterpillars, which used at one
time only to reach us in a very unsatisfactory condition in spirit, until
Lord Walsingham taught people how to preserve them in the admirable
manner so well shown in his collection at the National Museum ; one
result of this was that a friend of his, a missionary, had sent home a
very fine collection of caterpillars from North India preserved in the
same way. These methods were of universal application, so that whilst
Mr. Rousselet made the beautiful slides and preparations at home which
had so much delighted his friends here, the publication of the details
of his methods had enabled others to do the same in distant places, and
to bring home specimens in the way Mr. Gunson Thorpe had done, so as
1896 2 L

486

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

to be able to exhibit them with all the appearance of their natural forms.
He noticed a remark to the effect that rotifers were largely the inhabi-
tants of continents, and that there were very few upon islands; he
should like to ask what was intended to be understood by the terms
many and few in this respect.

Mr. Thorpe said what he meant was that on continents there were
so many more in variety and species than on islands. When a species
existed on an island the individuals might be fairly numerous, but the
number of species would be comparatively few. On the Solomon Islands
he was only able to find two or three kinds, and one of these ( Pedalion
fennicum) was found in a very curious position. There was no standing
water on these islands, but in a hole made in a cocoanut-tree by the
natives, where rain-water was collected for drinking purposes, he had
found this rotifer.

Prof. Bell inquired what about Japan ? Mr. Hood had reported
having found 225 species in Ireland, and our own country was fairly
wTell stocked. He thought that sufficient distinction had not been made
between an oceanic island and one which at some no very distant
geological period had become separated from the mainland.

Mr. Thorpe said he worked for three months in Japan, but found no
Floscules, no Furcularias, and no Melicertans, whilst in China all these
swarmed. His former paper gave an account of three months’ work
only, but in that time he had collected an enormous amount of other
material which it was quite impossible properly to deal with.

The Chairman thought that Dr. Hudson had said in one of his
addresses to the Society that in regard to distribution the rotifers
seemed to follow the footsteps of man, and that those found in foreign
countries which had been colonised were frequently of the same kind
as those of the countries whence the immigrants originally came. He
should be glad to know if this was so.

Mr. Thorpe said this was most certainly a fact. In Australia he
had found the most abundant material always in ornamental waters in
botanical gardens and in the immediate precincts of civilisation, and the
forms were such as left no doubt that in some way or other they had
been introduced by the agency of man, for, as Dr. Hudson had remarked
a foot of salt water was as great a barrier to rotifers as an ocean.

The thanks of the Society were cordially voted to Surgeon Y. Gunson
Thorpe for his interesting communication.

Lt.-Col. H. G. F. Siddons, R.A., exhibited a small portable Micro-
scope which had a stage made to turn up in the way suggested at their
previous meeting. It was one of Messrs. Swift’s models, but had been
modified in two respects. The two C-springs used to hold down the slide
had been replaced by ordinary stage-clips, inserted in two holes, drilled
in two short arms which were pivoted against the under surface of the
stage, and secured by clamping nuts. For packing, the arms turn out
of the way, while the arrangement admits of the use of a small trough,
as well as a 3 by 1 in. slide. The other modification was a means
of carrying two objectives inside the draw-tube. English objectives
were too large for this purpose, but Nachet’s would go in nicely, the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

487

only difficulty being that the diaphragm came in the way ; this, however,
was got over, and the objective-box now went easily into the draw-tube
and left room for the eye-piece. He thought that portability could
hardly be carried further than it had been in this small Microscope.

The thanks of the Society were given to Lt.-Col. Siddons for his
exhibit.

Mr. Conrad Beck gave a resume of the report of the subcommittee
appointed to consider the subject of the standard screw for objectives
(see ante , p. 389).

Mr. J. E. Ingpen referred to the great inconvenience formerly ex-
perienced owing to the objectives of the principal opticians not being
really interchangeable. This seemed to have been caused by slight
variations in the gauges supplied, and by the different interpretations
put upon the original instructions by various makers. He had always
considered Messrs. Powell and Lealand’s as the most normal size ; while
he well remembered that Messrs. Smith and Beck’s was closer, and Messrs.
Ross and Mr. Baker’s fuller and wider, so that objectives by the last-named
makers would not fit the nose-pieces of the first. There was a similar
difference in the gauges originally employed by Herr Zeiss. Another
variation was caused by the differences in the diameters adopted for the
“ shoulder ” or plain part above the screw. Of late years most opticians
had, to some extent, obviated these difficulties by slight hand-alterations,
but it was a matter of congratulation that they were not likely to occur
in the future.*

The Chairman said they were very much obliged to Mr. Beck for the
manner in which he had brought the matter before the meeting. The
difficulty was one which had troubled most persons, and certainly was
one which he had himself frequently experienced, rendering it necessary
to get adapters made for particular objectives, and when these were
procured it often happened that the centering was not so exact as could
have been wished.

Prof. Bell regretted to have to say that the Journal was again not
ready to its time. It was, not, however, on this occasion so much the
fault of the editor as of one of the contributors who lived in Switzerland ;
this had occasioned considerable delay in revising the proofs ; he hoped,
however, that it would hot be more than a few days late.

He also wished to mention that the Council had not yet fixed the date
for closing the rooms of the Society, but it was probable that this would
take place somewhat earlier than usual, as their Assistant-Secretary was
just now considerably out of health and it was desirable that he should
be released from his attendance as early as could be arranged.

The next ordinary meeting of the Society would take place on
October 21st.

* Mr. T. Curties reminds me that the first sets of Whitworth’s gauges were
passed as satisfactory, but that subsequent supplies differed in some degree from
the originals, and caused much trouble to opticians. As early as 1859, the late
Mr. Brooke (Trans. Micr. Soc., N.S., vol. vii. p. 95) showed how the “three courses”
that could be adopted would affect the fitting. — J. E. I.

488

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited: —

Mr. J. Mason Allen : — Pedalion mirum.

Mr. C. F. Rousselet : — Rotifers stained whilst living ( Asplanchna
Brightwellii ).

Lt.-Col. Siddons : — Portable Microscope.

Surgeon V. G. Thorpe Rotifers from China.

New Fellows. — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows: —
Dr. Edward G. Love and Mr. Lewis Morton-Parry.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

OCTOBER 1896.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

IX.— On the Occurrence of Endocysts in the Genus Thalassiosira.
By Thomas Comber, F.R.M.S.

(Bead 21 st October , 1896.)

Plate XI.

In 1864 Mr. Lander observed the formation, within the frustule of
various species of Bacteriastrum and Chsetoceros, of what he termed
“ a gonidium or sporangium, consisting of a cell with two rounded
ends, and a connecting hoop, one end being smaller than the other.”
He supposed this to be a phase of a special method of reproduction ;
and described it as originating in the condensed endochrome of the
frustule secreting a siliceous envelope, more or less spinous, within
which highly refractive globules were formed. The frustules then
break up, and set free the enclosed bodies. e£ The contents of the
sporangium soon escape ” ; but he was not able to follow out the further
processes they undergo towards the reproduction of the original form.
He suggested that many, if not all, the species in the genera Gonio-
thecium , Omplialotheca , and Hercotheca, and perhaps in Dicladia ,
Periptera, and Syndendrium , would “ turn out to be sporangial bodies
of species of Chsetoceros.”

To some extent this surmise has proved correct. In the ‘ Challenger ’
collections, for instance, Count Castracane found, within the frustules
of a Chsetoceros , the form Dicladia capreolus Ehr., well known from
its frequent occurrence in guano. Other instances of the formation of
these bodies have been recorded by Dr. Cleve, who, however, proposes
for them the term “ endocysts and this appears to be a better name,
as their real function is still quite uncertain.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI.

Fig. 1. — Side view of valve x 1000.

„ 2. ,, ofendocyst x 1000.

„ 3 and 4.— Filament without endocysts x 509.

,, 5 and 6. „ with endocysts X 500.

„ 7. — Front view of cndccyst x 500.

2 M

1896

490

Transactions of the Society.

The subsequent history of the endocysts has not since been traced.
It remains, like so much of the life -history of diatoms, to be yet
observed by those who have ready access to living specimens, or who
possess facilities for cultivating them, that is, if such purely pelagic
genera are capable of cultivation, by the methods adopted by Dr.
Miquel, of Paris, and by our late member, Mr. Haughton Gill.

The object of the present paper is to place on record the occurrence
of endocysts in a genus which, though it resembles the two above-
named in being filamentous and pelagic, is otherwise quite distinct,
viz. Thalassiosira.

This genus was constituted in 1873 by Dr. Cleve, for a single
species, T. Nordenshioldii, which occurs in the Arctic regions in
immense masses, forming a large part of what is known to mariners
as “ whale’s food.” Its main distinction from the genera which most
closely approach it, is that the frustules, of which the filament is
formed, are at some distance from each other, and are connected
together by a thread of mucus, which extends from the centre of the
valve of one frustule to the centre of the valve of the next adjacent
one.

A short time ago I received from a friend, a small tube of a
surface gathering made near the South Shetland Islands in the
Antarctic Ocean. It was composed principally of a Thalassiosira ,
which I propose to name T. aniarctica, differing from the Arctic
species in the characters detailed below. Fig. 3 represents the normal
condition of the frustules forming the filament, except that as they
have been burnt on the cover-glass to better exhibit their silicious
covering, the thread of mucus connecting them together is not shown.
The larger specimens evince a tendency to separate less widely from
each other, and to form such a filament as is represented in fig. 4.
The s.v. of the frustule is shown at fig. 1, X 1000, in order to
exhibit the minute structure. Within the frustules, and much more
strongly silicious than they are, occur the endocysts, sometimes in
every frustule of the filament, sometimes only in a few. The s.v.,
fig. 2, very closely resembles, if it be not identical with, a form
from the Arctic regions described and figured by Prof. Grunow as
Coscinodiscus poly acanthus. In f.v. (figs. 5, 6, and 7) the outlines of
the two valves of the endocyst are different, one valve being always
more convex than the other.

In this respect it agrees with the “ endocysts ” observed by
Mr. Lauder. That gentleman remarked that “ these bodies always lie
with their similar ends towards each other throughout the filament ” ;
and this peculiarity is observable also in the endocysts of T. antarctica.
The convex valve of the endocyst is always turned to the convex
valve of the next adjacent endocyst ; and the flatter valve in like
manner.

Although the endocysts are frequent in the material, I have
observed no instance of their undergoing subdivision.

Endocysts in the Genus Thalassiosira. By Thomas Comber. 491

Dr. Cleve has, I believe, observed endocysts in a new species of
Thalassiosira from Baffin’s Bay, which he is about shortly to figure
and describe. In that case the endocyst closely resembles Coscino-
discus subglobosus, a well-known Arctic form.

From Mr. Grove I have received specimens of the original species,
T. Nordenskioldii, in which endocysts are occasionally present within
the frustules. Their s.v. approaches somewhat closely to that of the
well-known Coscinodiscus excentricus .

Description of Species.

Thalassiosira antarctica. — Filament composed of 3-20 frustules.
Diameter of valve 0*016-056 mm. ; surface slightly convex. Puncta
rounded, of equal size, 20 in 0*01 mm., arranged in radiating, fre-
quently bifurcate rows, about 18 in 0*01 mm. Centre frequently
with one or two large granules, or short spines. Marginal apiculi
small, inconspicuous, numerous, about 8 in 0*01 mm., sometimes
arranged in two rows. Endocyst lenticular. Areoles irregularly
hexagonal, 7 in 0*01 mm., decreasing in size near centre and towards
margin, arranged in radiating rows. Inter-areolar apiculi numerous,
either singly or in groups of two or three. Marginal spines con-
spicuous, about 3 in 0*01 mm.

South Shetland Islands, Antarctic Ocean.

The ordinary valves resemble those of the Arctic species Coscino-
discus hyalinus Grun. and C. bioculatus Grun., although these are
described as having fasciculate markings.

2 m 2

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally inverteerata and cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others .*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.
a. Embryology, f

Mechanics of Development.:): — E. W. M. has a review of Prof.
Roux’s collected works. He points out that, although Prof. Roux must
be regarded as the founder of that branch of zoological research which is
called the Mechanics of Development, his works are comparatively little
known in this country, and the English reader may be surprised to see
the two huge tomes which bear Prof. Roux’s name. Even the writer’s
own countrymen have not been in the habit of reading his publications
with the care which he thinks they demand. One reason for this is the
marked prolixity of the author, and, as the reviewer remarks, it is the
first duty of every writer to put his results as briefly as is consistent
with clearness.

Prof. Roux first shows the extreme difficulty of accounting by simple
natural selection for the numerous adaptations carried out into the
finest detail which are met with in all the organs of the vertebrate body.
The reviewer admits that Prof. Roux has brought together a most
powerful case against the doctrine of the all-sufficiency of natural
selection, and he feels sure that his arguments will awaken a sympathetic
chord in the minds of many — if not most — zoologists, amongst whom
there is a great feeling that we want something more than natural
selection. The reviewer docs not appear to think that Prof. Roux’s
supplementary hypothesis is at all satisfactory, though he confesses
there is much about it which induces one to wish that it were true.
Parts, however, are regarded as absolutely unsupported, and others as

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of tho papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
1 ut also those dealing with Evolution, Development and Reproduction, and allied
subjects. * Nature, liv. (1S96) pp. 217 -9.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

493

breaking clown when we come to consider the question of heredity. In
the second volume, which is devoted to the mechanics of development,
there are replies to the successive publications of Driesch and Hertwig.
It is remarked that Prof. Roux has only himself to thank if more atten-
tion is paid to the publications of these observers than to his work, for
he, as has been said, has carried in this subject theorising and prolixity
to an intolerable excess.

Experimental Embryology.* — Herr Hs. Driesch answers some criti-
cisms brought against the experiments made by him and by T, H. Morgan
on the developing ova of Ctenophora. (1) Roux says that Chun reared
the half-larvae to sexual maturity and then observed post-generation,
while the fact is that Chun inferred post-generation from the appearance
presented by certain Ctenopliore larvae which he captured. (2) Roux
suggests that the third small pocket which Driesch and Morgan ob-
served on most of the products of an isolated blastomere is a post-genera-
tion phenomenon. But this is inconsistent with the fact that when
pouches were clearly developed all the three on one side were equally
so ; nor did the third pouch increase in any way during the next two
days. (3) Roux declares that post-generation remains unknown to
Driesch, who responds that the occurrence of post-generation remains-
non-proven. He goes on to show that he is no “Neo-Darwinist,” that
he is not prejudiced, that his conceptions of development are not domi-
nated by any fundamental hypothesis, and so on.

Herr G. Wetzel | discusses the meaning of the circular cleft in
Schultze’s double forms of frog embryos. It is a rather intricate
matter, but the conclusion come to is that the cleft is formed by the
juxtaposition of two blastopore lips, and is itself neither blastopore nor
primitive groove, but a consequence of the peculiar process of gastrula-
tion. At the same time, so far as it goes, it divides the twin embryos
from one another and represents their ideal plane of division. Herr
Wetzel also concludes that the separation of the black material into two
parts by the interposition of white substauce is the condition of the
separate development of two individuals from one ovum, for it divides
two areas of growth and cell-multiplication which differentiate separately.

Fertilisation.}: — Prof. W. Schimkewitsch recognises in fertilisation
the combination of two plasmas, two centrosomes, and two nuclei, all
implying structural and functional conditions of great complexity. He
compares the degeneration of rapidly dividing, non-conjugating Infu-
soria, with the ageing of Metazoa, as also with the conditions of close
inbreeding and autogamy. The necessary imperfection in each division
of the nucleus implies trophic imperfections in the daughter-cells; as
these mount up, old age sets in and death occurs. Cross-fertilisation is
a counteractive of specific degeneration, but it cannot be more than
approximate. Inbreeding and autogamy increase the risks. Examina-
tion of the observations of Ryder and Pennington, on the conjugation of
somatic cells in Porcellio, did not confirm them, but showed that the
appearances described were artificial.

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 127-32.

t Arcli. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvi. (1895) pp. 651-73 (1 pi. aud 5 figs.).

X Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 177-81.

49 i SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Corpus luteum of Mouse.* — Dr. J. Sobotta comes to the following
conclusions. The ripe follicle, apart from ovum and discus proligerus,
consists of a follicular epithelium of several layers and showing mitoses,
and of the theca folliculi which consists of an abundantly cellular inner,
and a more fibrous outer layer. During or after the bursting of the
follicle there is usually no bleeding. A newly burst follicle is dis-
tinguished from one which is ripe only by the absence of follicular fluid
and the ovum with the discus proligerus.

About an hour after bursting, the cells of the inner theca layer
begin to divide mitotically, while the mitoses in the epithelium cease.
It no considerable bleeding has occurred, there is a gradual exudation
of serous fluid, and migrant cells appear in the inner theca layer.

Some five to seven hours after bursting, the proliferating process in
the theca-cells gives rise to radial connective strands which penetrate
the epithelium, the cells of which gradually increase. In the formation of
the connective-tissue strands the inner theca layer is gradually used up,
and leucocytes now abound in the epithelium.

In the 40-50tli hour there is a finer distribution of the connective-
tissue within the epithelium, which may be accompanied with further
growth of the epithelial cells. The wandering cells and connective
tissue form a network around the central exsudation which is gradually
absorbed. After completed absorption a gelatinous connective kernel
remains wdthin the corpus luteum.

Some 60-72 hours after the bursting of the follicle, the epithelial
cells grow to about ten times their previous volume and are surrounded
by group 3 of anastomosing connective-tissue cells. At the same time
abundant capillaries arise, but leucocytes are absent. The prolifera-
tion of connective-tissue ceases, and the corpus luteum takes its final
form. Fat-granules afterwards appear in the much enlarged epithelial
cells.

Each follicle which bursts forms a true corpus luteum even when
the ovum is not discharged. There is no degeneration of the corpus
luteum in the mouse. The corpora lutea are at first greyish-red, and
subsequently yellow ; they attain to a size many times larger than the
ripe follicle. The characteristic epithelial portion of the corpus luteum
arises by simple hypertrophic increase of the original follicular epithe-
lium, the connective tissue from a proliferation of the inner theca layer,
and partly from leucocytes.

Development of Hypophysis.f — Prof. J. Nusbaum finds, from a
study of dog embryos, that the hypophysis vesicle is connected, on the
one hand, by the stalk with the mouth-cavity, and, on the other
hand, by the modified Sessel’s pouch with that portion of the pharyn-
geal cavity which corresponds to the embryonic pharynx. Thus,
besides the direct communication between pharyngeal cavity and outer
world via the mouth, there is another, indirect, not altogether open con-
nection between the pharynx and mouth by an arch, the limbs of which
are the proper hypophysial evagination and Sessel’s pouch. He com-
pares this discovery with what is known in Myxine, Petromyzon, sturgeon,
opossum, &c.

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii. (1896) pp. 261-308 (3 pis.),
t Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 161-7 (4 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

495

Development of Diaphragm and Liver in the Rabbit.* * * § — M. A.
Brachet has investigated the development of these organs in the rabbit.
He finds that the diaphragm may be divided into two parts, one anterior,
vertical, and transverse, and one posterior, dorsal, and oblique. Both
of these, from the point of view of their origin, may again be divided
into two parts. He looks upon the liver as formed of three principal
lobes, the median, the left lateral, and the right lateral, in addition to
which there are two secondary lobes. This is a view of the origin of
the liver which is not generally taken, but the author gives facts in
support of his view.

Accessory Glands of the Thyroid Region.j — Hr. M. Jacoby finds,
from a study of cat embryos, (a) that the external epithelial bodies
associated with the thyroid arise from the cranial portion of the thymus ;

( b ) that the internal epithelial bodies arise from the thyroid itself ; and

(c) that the “ glandula carotica ” does not arise from epithelium, is not
morphologically a gland, and has primarily nothing to do with either
thyroid or thymus. The carotid gland begins as a connective thickening
of the adventitia of the common carotid in the region of its division,
and gradually increases in vascularisation.

Spermathecse and Fertilisation in American Urodela.f — Dr. B. E.
Kingsbury finds spermathecse containing spermatozoa on the dorsal wall
of the cloaca of the females of Necturus , Amblystoma, Diemyctylus ,
Pleihodon, and Desmognathus. A spermatkeca also occurs in Spelerjpes ,
but no spermatozoa were found in it. Except in Pleihodon and Desmo-
gnathus a ventral cloacal gland occurs in addition to the spermatkeca ;
and in addition to the spennafhecal tubules other tubules occur on the
dorsal side of the cloaca in Amblystoma , Spelerjoes, and Necturus. The
secretion of the cloacal glands is employed at the time of ovulation.
The three glands of the male, as recognised in Triton , the cloacal,
abdominal, and pelvic, occur in the five genera examined. This suggests
that spermatopkores are deposited by all of these, and it seems probable
that the mode of mating and fertilisation is almost uniform in Urodela.
Dorsal and ventral ciliated tracts occur in the males of the five genera
examined. Cilia in the cloaca of the female were detected only in
Amblystoma and Plethodon glutinosus , but the tract was not as extensive
as in the male.

Segmentation of Egg of Amphibia and Teleostei.§ — M. E. Bataillon
has made a study of the relations which exist between the first groove of
segmentation, and the embryonic axis in Amphibia and Teleostei. He
concludes that in spherical eggs with a total segmentation, which have
the first two grooves vertical and the third horizontal, the first plane of
division passes through the plane of symmetry of the future embryo. In
eggs with partial segmentation, which do not have the third groove per-
pendicular to the first two, the first plane of division is perpendicular to
the plane of symmetry of the future embryo.

* Journ. Anat. Physiol., xxxi. (1895) pp. 511-95 (3 pis.).

t Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 152-7.

% Trans. Araer. Micr. Soc., xvii. (1896) pp. 261-301: (4 pis.).

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 1508-11.

496

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

History of Sex-Cells in Cymatogaster.* — Prof. C. H. Eigenmann
gives an account of the history of the sex-cells in the small viviparous
fish Cymatogasler from the time of segregation to sexual differentiation.
An account of the early history was published in the ‘Journal of Mor-
phology ’ for 1893.

The cells became located in the mesentery of the hind-gut in larvae
2*5 mm. long, but did not divide until the 7 mm. stage. They migrate
laterally, and are mixed with a few cells of peritoneal origin, which give
rise to the entire stroma of the reproductive organs. The sexes can
first be distinguished after about eleven segmentations from fertilisation.
A small groove on the outer ventral part of the sex ridge is the first
indication of the ovarian cavity, and is the surest criterion of the female.
The reason for the determination of sex remains unknown.

Transient Hervous System in Skate.f — Dr. J. Beard gives in this
paper an account of some of his investigations into “ the transient nervous
apparatus of certain Ichthyopsida.” The present contribution deals
with a series of about 120 skate embryos ( Baja hatisf from 5 mm. to
19 cm., and is a continuation of previous work on Lepidosteus osseus.
The first part of the paper describes the development and degeneration
— the Werden and Vergehen— of a transient apparatus of ganglion-cells
and simple nerves. Its probable functions and fate are then discussed.
At the close of the paper the question of antithetic alternation of genera-
tions, or “ development by substitution of organisms,” is discussed, and
“ an attempt is made to prove that such an alternation can be traced in
Vertebrate development, more especially in that of lower Vertebrates
like Baja.” We follow the author’s summary of his work.

Development of the ganglion-cells of the apparatus. — When sections
of early embryos (5 mm.) are examined, especially in the region of the
pronephros and for some distance behind this, at a period when the cells
of the future spinal ganglia are wandering out from the lips of the cord,
there appear among these and on the cord itself certain cells in the act
of assuming ganglionic characters. By the time all the gill-clefts are
formed, the region of the cord for about 25-26 somites posterior to the
front of the pronephros has a tesselated roof of ganglion-cells. There
may be 2-8 in a single transverse section, about 20 in a somite, perhaps
500-600 altogether. Most, if not all, of these central ganglion-cells are
multipolar, and lie in a close meshwork of their processes. The portion
first developed is subsequently somewhat reinforced by cells arising
further back, even to the tail-end. The explanation suggested for the
feebleness of this posterior portion is that it is due “ to a carrying-back
of parts of a larva (represented by the blastoderm) into a region far
beyond the blastodermic limits, owing to the raising-up of the embryonic
body from the blastoderm and its growth backwards.”

Peripheral ganglion- cells of the transient system. — This title is used
to describe those ganglion-cells which do not lie at the top of the spinal
cord, but are met with either in the mesoderm or in the myotomes, or
just underneath the epiblast. One frequent feature in those cells which
migrate from among the elements of the future spinal ganglia is their

* Trans. Amer. Micr. See., xvii. (1896) pp. 172-3.

f Zool. Jakrb. (Afith. Anat. Ontog.), ix. (1896) pp. 319-426 (8 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

497

tendency to spin nerve-processes in the course of migration. Many of
the wandering ganglion-cells become applied to, or mixed up with,
nerves of the transient system. Another favourite resting-place is the
epithelium of the myotome-apex. Occasionally two occur directly oppo-
site each other, one in each myotome of the two sides, as if pointing
to a formerly greater symmetry. The peripheral or vagrant ganglion-
cells are usually bipolar with two processes, but some have none. Often
they form chains reaching from the centre to, and even over, the tip of
the myotome.

Transient nerves of the system. — Young embryos also show an early
formation of nerve-processes spun by the ganglion-cells. All the pro-
cesses, whose development is described in detail, tend either in the
direction of the epiblast, or in that of the apex of myotome. It is
doubtful whether the final termination of any of these nerves has been
determined, although many were followed far belowT the segmental duct.
For a long time the nerves are merely naked axis-cylinders, and they
are very seldom made up of more than one fibre. In later stages
“ nuclei ” occur upon them. Most are only processes of single cells, but
others show a plexiform arrangement of ganglion-cells and nerve-pro-
cesses. The whole apparatus is interpreted as sensory. It reaches its
culmination when the embryo is about 43 mm. long ; it has an unusually
long period of functional activity, for it remains normal for two months
or longer of the 17 months of embryonic development within the capsule ;
degeneration begins to set in when the embryo is about 70 mm. long,
and is complete in 12 months.

The degeneration is described in detail. Apart from odd members
of the vagrant ganglion-cells, the nerves appear the first to die. Their
degeneration is followed by the slow atrophy of the ganglion-cells. The
author also discusses the “ degradation of ganglion-cells ” — “ the losing
of specific ganglionic characters and functions, when a cell, whose phy-
logenetic history is ganglionic, sinks to the position of a mere nucleus
in the conducting fibre to which it has given origin.” Permanent giant
ganglion-cells are also discussed. In another section it is briefly shown
that there is no morphological resemblance between the transient and
the permanent nervous systems.

The concluding section of the memoir treats of “development by
substitution of organisms, or antithetic alternation of generations.” In
the development of the skate, a sexual form (the skate embryo) arises
by substitution on an asexual foundation or larva, the former gradually
replacing the latter. The thesis is stated that all metazoan development
from the egg is fundamentally an antithetic alternation of generations,
and that directly or indirectly there is invariably a substitution of
organisms. But this thesis, for the acceptance of which, as the author
suggests, few are yet prepared, must be kept tapart from the embryo-
logical and histological facts of the memoir.

Early Development of Ganoids.* — Dr. Bashford Dean gives a result
of his studies during the past three years on the development of Lepi-
dosteus, Acipenser, and Amia. He thinks that their early developmental
characters present conditions which, although in many ways dissimilar,

* Report of the 3rd International Congress of Zoology, 1896, pp. 336-16.

498

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

are nevertheless comparable in different forms. The range in their
characters appears to point out a broad path leading from the shark-like
type of Lepidosteus to the Teleostean type of Amia. These Teleostean
features of Amia permit no other conclusion than that the Ganoidean
plan of development may become that of the bony-fishes — the sought-for
ground on the side of embryology for the linking of the later evolved
Teleost to the ancient Ganoid. The elasmobranch features of the
embryonic Lepidosteus might, perhaps, be looked upon as suggesting
the line of descent of this ancient Ganoid. The wide range in the
modes of development of the Oyprinodonts, a group which cau be given
no higher rank than that of a family, must be accepted as the clearest
proof of what little phylogenetic importance can be strictly claimed for
differences in ontogeny.

Development of Bdeliostoma.* — Mr. G. C. Price has studied some
points in the development of Bdellostoma Stouti Lockington. The
elongated cylindrical eggs measure about 22 mm. by 8 mm. ; the shell
is brown and liorn-like with liook-bearing polar threads ; there is a
circular lid at the anterior pole.

The first observed embryonic stage was in many ways Teleostean-
like, and showed no external openings. The nario-hypophysial canal
was blind at both ends, and paired olfactory sacs opened into it, as well
as a narrow canal from the front of the gut. Thirteen pairs of unopened
gill-pockets were present, the most anterior being apparently hyo-
mandibular.

In the next stage the paired evaginations of the nario-hypophysial
canal, which form the nose, are secondarily subdivided by three or four
plaits on each side. The connection between the canal and the gut is
lost, and a minute external aperture appears.

The third stage shows four pairs of tentacles, a posterior opening
between nasal canal and gut, and 11 pairs of gill-pockets in the segments
corresponding to spinal ganglia 19-29.

In the first stage the pronephros is seen far forwards and extends
through 69 segments, in the third stage all traces have disappeared in
the first 20 of these. What Weldon distinguished as pronephric and
mesonephric regions are differentiated from a quite continuous and
uniform rudiment.

Egg of Amphioxus.t — Dr. 0. Van der Stricht gives an account of
the early stages of the egg of Amphioxus. He points out that it is
a material in which the study of very many interesting phenomena is
exceedingly difficult. The colouring matter is not only small in quantity,
but stains feebly, and the centrosomes, if they exist, are difficult to
distinguish from the granulations of the yolk. Another difficulty which
one has to encounter is the frequency of polyspermy, which sometimes
gives rise to very embarrassing images. The memoir, which appears to
deal with details only, discusses (1) the structure of the ovarian egg
before it is laid, (2) the appearance of the male and female pronucleus
after oviposition, and (3) the fusion of the pronuclei and the division of
the first segmentation-sphere.

* SB. K. B. Akad. "Wiss. Miinchen, 189G, pp. 69-71.
f Arch, dc Biol., xiv. (1896) pp. 469-95 (2 p’s,).

ZOOLOGtY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

499

/3. Histology-

Morphology of the Ceil.* * * § — The reviewer of this work in * Nature ’
is of opinion that M. F. Henneguy has produced a more complete work
on protoplasm and the nucleus than any of his predecessors. The
work represents, we are told, a course of thirty-one lectures given at
the College de France in the winter of 1893-4, and is an admirable
account of the state of our knowledge to that date. The author deals
both with animal and vegetable protoplasm, with its chemical and
physical constitution, with its structure, as well as with the nucleus, the
change which it undergoes, and its relation to the cytoplasm, and with its
division and its conjugation. There is a chapter on the most important
hypotheses on the constitution of protoplasm. While giving a special
section to the consideration of the effects of different kinds of reagents,
he calls the attention of his readers to the importance of the study of
living protoplasm, and of checking all their results by it. The reviewer,
in dealing with some remarks of the author as to Weissman’s suggestion,
that the Protozoa are immortal, remarks that, with the words death and
individual a philosopher can do much, but it behoves practical men to
keep a sharp look-out on the use made of these convenient terms.

Studies on Cell-Bivision.f — Dr. B. Bawitz devotes the first of these
studies to an investigation of the behaviour of the attraction-sphere in the
division of the salamander’s spermatocytes. He is strong in his conviction
that the attraction-sphere is a morphologically definite structure, and that
it has a definite function. In the beginning of chromosome-formation,
the sphere attracts the first chromosome-rudiments. An important
detailed result is the evidence showing that the polar corpuscles cannot
with any certainty be derived from the centrosomes. An extra-nuclear
spindle is formed (as to its fibrillar portion) from the cell-substance sur-
rounding the sphere, and at the apices of the spindle portions of the sphere
appear as polar-corpuscles. That these arise from the sphere is certain ;
the possibility of their derivation from the centrosome is a moot jroint.

Reducing Divisions.:]: — Prof. J. Riickert replies to recent criticisms
by Hacker and vom Path. He maintains that in the case of Copepods
the matter is fairly clear. There is essentially but one mode of matu-
ration— that namely in which the tetrad groups appear in the form
of transversely dividing double rods, ; in some forms there

is this modification, that the single rods are united for a time by their
free ends, forming a ring, <>. Into Riickert’s discussion with his
critics we cannot, however, enter.

Yolk-Nucleus and Polar Rings.§ — Miss Catherine Foot has pre-
pared the present paper in the hope of proving that the polar rings and
the so-called yolk-nucleus are one and the same substance. These
results differ radically from those obtained by Mr. Calkin, from his study
of the ovarian egg of Lumbricus, since he regards the yolk-nucleus as
chromatin in the form of granules. In Allolobophora feetida, Miss Foot

* ‘ Le9ons sur la Cellule, Morphologie et Reproduction,’ &c. Paris, 1896,
xix. and 541 pp., 362 figs. See Nature, liv. (1896) pp. 193 and 4.

f Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii. (1896) pp. 159-80 (1 pi.).

X Tom cit., pp. 386-407.

§ Journ. of Morpliol., xii. (1896) pp. 1-16 (1 pi.).

500

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

says the yolk-nucleus can be sharply differentiated from the chromatin.
The paper consists so largely of a description of the figures with which
it is supplied, that it is impossible to give a detailed account of the
observations which it reports.

Nuclei of Fat-Cells.* — Dr. Hs. Rabl discusses the investigations of
Unna and Sack, and says that the net result of their work and of his
criticism is that fully developed fat-cells have not merely one large fat-
vacuole, as hitherto described, but also, in many cases, several small ones.
These lie in the closest proximity to the nucleus, and are apparently
secondary formations in the protoplasm.

Photography of Histological Evidence.! — Prof. E. Schafer, in
reviewing an atlas of nerve-cells,! by M. Allen Starr, calls attention
to the remarks of Prof. Weldon on this subject in a recent number of
‘ Nature.’§ The two professors seem to be at one on this subject, for
the present writer says that so far as clearness and facility of compre-
hension is concerned, any and all of the representations might, with the
greatest advantage, have been replaced by a careful drawing of the cells
which it was designed to illustrate. The plates, no doubt, are beautiful
photographs of equally beautiful preparations, but it is difficult to see
with what object they have been published. They do not claim to show
anything new, and as every investigator can more or less readily make
preparations for himself, they cannot be intended to exhibit to other
investigators the results of the author’s investigations. The size
and price of the book show that it cannot have been intended for
students. Moreover, many of the figures lack clearness, for, as Prof.
Schafer says, “ It is the hand which is constantly on the fine-adjustment
of the Microscope that enables the shape of the body of a nerve-cell,
and the course of all its branches to be followed accurately, and it is
only accidentally and imperfectly that these can be shown in a photo-
graph.” As an account of the structure of the nervous system the book
has apparently many faults, but the reviewer freely admits that many of
the reproductions are extremely well done, and may with advantage be
carefully studied by those who have not the opportunity of preparing
for themselves specimens of like nature to those depicted.

7. General.

Deep-Sea Dredgings in the Bay of Biscay.|| — Prof. R. Koehler has
published the first volume of his Report of the Deep-Sea Dredgings of
the French ship c Cauda n ’ in the Bay of Biscay in August and September
1895. The editor himself, after a general introduction, reports first of
all on the Echinoderms, of which eighty-five species were collected.
Several families of star-fishes, which are characteristic of great dej)ths,
were almost or altogether absent. The branched Ophiurids were repre-
sented by one new species of Asironyx. Of the Crinoids there was an
Actinometra remarkable for its polymorphism. Of the Elasipoda, one
of the two species dredged belongs to an interesting new genus. Most

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii. (1890) pp. 407-15.

+ Nature, liv. (1893) pp. 340-1.

X New York and London, 1896, x. and 78 pp. § See this Journal, ante, p. 394.

|i ‘ Re'sultats scientifiques do la campagne du “ Caudan,” ’ fasc. i. 8vo, Paris, 1896,
271 pp., 7 pis., and figs, in text.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

501

of the already known species which were captured by the c Caudan ’ have
not yet been reported from the Bay of Biscay. Amongst these some
were known from the eastern coasts of America and western coasts of
Africa, while others had been met with in the Indian or Pacific Oceans ;
some had been considered as peculiar to the Mediterranean ; of course
there were among them species which in the Arctic Seas live at lesser
depths.

The Mollusca and Brachiopoda are reported on by M. A. Locard
and by Prof. E. Joubin, the latter naturalist limiting himself to the
Cephalopoda. Those who are acquainted with the work of M. Locard
will not be astonished to hear that he has found a number of new species
and varieties.

The last part of the present volume is occupied by a short report on
the Bryozoa by M. L. Calvet. Only one new species appears to have
been found among the thirty-nine forms on which the author reports.
This new species is called Smittia Koehleri.

General Conditions of Existence, and Distribution of Marine
Organisms.* — Dr. John Murray gave a most interesting discourse on
this subject to the zoologists who assembled last September at Leyden.
After pointing out the general chemical and physical characters of sea-
water, and the nature of submarine deposits, he said that the abundant
secretion of carbonate of lime in the warm waters of the tropics is partly
due to chemical, rather than physiological conditions. When neutral
ammonium carbonate is added to sea-water at a high temperature — 80°
to 85° F. — the lime salts other than carbonate present in sea-water are
quickly decomposed, and an immediate precipitate of carbonate of lime
having properties of arragonite is formed, while if the same experiment
be carried out at a low temperature — 40° to 45° F. — the carbonate of
lime separates out very slowly, and, in doing so, takes the form of calcite.
The recent deep-sea researches have shown that not only is life uni-
versally present in great abundance at the surface of the sea, and
probably also, though much more sparsely, in all the intermediate
depths of the ocean, but also that fishes and all the invertebrate groups
are spread all over the floor of the ocean in great numbers. The number
of species per station decreases gradually from 62*8 species per station
in the shallowest zones to 9 • 4 species per station in the deepest zone.
On the whole, the deep-sea fauna resembles that of the shallow waters of
the polar regions much more than that of the shallow waters of the
tropical regions, in so far that the animals of the deep sea have a re-
latively small quantity of carbonate of lime in their shells and skeletons ;
the proportion of genera to species is higher than in the tropics, and
there is an absence of pelagic or free-swimming larvae. The majority
of deep-sea species probably live by eating the surface layers of the mud,
clay, or ooze at the bottom, and by catching or picking up the small
organisms or minute particles of organic matter which fall from the
surface, or are washed away from the shallower parts of the ocean.
These mud-eating species are in turn the prey of numerous rapacious
animals, armed writh peculiar tactile, prehensile, and alluring organs, for
phosphorescent light plays an important part in the deep sea, and is

* Report of the 3rd International Congress of Zoology, 1896, pp. 99-111.

502

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

correlated with the red and brown tints of the majority of deep-sea
organisms.

Some deep-sea species are of gigantic size, when compared with their
shallow- water allies. For example, some of the hexactinellid Sponges
are 3 or 4 ft. in diameter, the hydroid Mondcaulus is 3 ft. high, the legs
of some Pycnogonids extend for over a foot on either side of the body,
and the largest Echini and Isopods are found in deep water. Sir Wy ville
Thomson was of opinion that from the Silurian period to the present day
there had been, as now, a continuous deep ocean wTith a bottom tempera-
ture oscillating about the freezing point, and that there had always been
an abyssal fauna. Dr. Murray thinks, however, that it is much more
probable that in palaeozoic times the ocean basins were not so deep as
at the present, that the ocean had then a nearly uniform high tempera-
ture throughout its whole mass, and that life was either absent through-
out all the greater depths, or represented only by bacteria, as in the
Black Sea at the present day.

Separation and its Bearing on Zoo-Geography.* — Mr. A. E. Ort-
mann has a notice on a recent publication of his f on animal geography.
In this work he points out the importance of the principle of separation
or isolation as affecting the distribution of animals, as well as the origin
of species. Mr. Ortmann is not one of those who believe that natural
selection is sufficient to explain the origin of species. He urges that
the transformation of the species in time is entirely different from the
differentiation into several contemporaneous species. The former
process, known to some as mutation, has not been properly understood
by most zoologists. The author says he cannot enough emphasise that
mutation of one species in time should not be confounded with differen-
tiation into co-existing species. The latter process he thinks he has
demonstrated to be duo to separation or isolation. Separation keeps
particular groups permanently under particular conditions, and thus
they are prevented from migrating from one station of definite conditions
of life into others with other conditions. The chief differences in
districts are due to the conditions of light, medium, and substratum,
which the author distinguishes in this kind of way : — “ (1) Light. The
medium is air; Substratum present — Terrestrial district.” Dealing in
the same way with four others he forms a fluvial district, a littoral
district, a pelagic district, and an abyssal. These are practically the
most important life districts, and, as a rule, every form of animal alive is
restricted to one of them ; they have existed since dry land rose above the
surface of the ocean. Not only the differences of life-districts effect sepa-
ration of the inhabitants, but within each life-district separate parts are
present. The differences here referred to are what is called facies ; this
factor, the author thinks, is not yet considered properly in palaeontology.
Although the geological development of many groups of animals in suc-
cessive strata has been investigated, no attention has been directed to the
influence of the conditions of life upon single forms, and the influence
of separation of these conditions upon the differentiation of particular
directions of development. In more recent geological times another
factor, causing separation, is added — the climatic differentiation of the

* Amer. Journ. Sci., ii. (1896) pp. 63-9.

f ‘Grundziige der maiinen Tiergeographie,’ Jena, 1896.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

503

surface of the earth ; the author points out that it is very interesting
to observe that the present geographical distribution of many animals
points often and clearly to the conditions existing a comparatively short
time ago. Geographical distribution, if regarded under the principle
that species are formed under separation, may give us some hints as
respects the former geological and geographical conditions. Some
principles worthy of notice are here indicated. (1) Each species must
have originated in a separate locality. (2) It is very improbable that
the same species originated in different and separate parts of the earth.

(3) The same species existing in completely separated localities indi-
cates a former connection, which as a rule lies not far back in time.

(4) Nearly allied species in separated localities indicate a former con-
nection, but in a more remote time. The degree of relation may give a
rough estimate of the relative time that has elapsed since separation.

(5) Formerly separated parts of the earth’s surface are difficult to locate,
since a later connection destroys the differences that existed formerly,
and the animals peculiar to each separated part cannot be recognised.

Mr. Ortmann thinks that everybody who has undertaken to study the
origin of species will agree with the views set forth by him, at least as
regards the insufficiency of natural selection for the differentiation of
species, and everybody will concede that a transformation or mutation
of a species is fundamentally different from differentiation into co-
existing species, and that in this respect Weismann’s opinion that
natural selection may explain the mode of formation of the living world
as a whole is truly unwarranted.

Cryptozoic Fauna of Australasia.*— Prof. A. Dendy took, as the
subject of his Presidential Address to Section D of the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science, the subject that workers
even in this country now closely associate with his name. He apologised
for making free use of a term coined by himself, and hardly, he says,
perhaps yet in general circulation among biologists. He can only
plead that he uses the word “cryptozoic” for want of a better. Five
years ago it appeared to him that the assemblage of small terrestrial
animals found dwelling in darkness, beneath stones, roots, logs, and
the bark of trees, was still deserving of study in its entirety, and that
it constituted a section of the terrestrial fauna quite as distinct from
the remainder, as, for example, the littoral or abyssal fauna is from the
remainder of the marine ; of course, however, he recognises that it is
not sharply defined from the rest. The members which compose it have
been derived from nearly all the groups of the animal kingdom, and the
only character which they all possess in common is their hatred of expo-
sure. Some forms evidently prefer one kind of haunt to another ; thus
one may be found beneath stones, but never under fallen logs. Divers
causes have probably impelled different members of the Cryptozoic fauna
to adopt their peculiar mode of life. A large proportion of them are,
doubtless, to be looked upon as refugees. Others, however, on account
of their delicate organisation, are unable to stand exposure to the light
and heat of day. Others are, doubtless, tempted by the presence of
some special food-supply ; decayed logs, for example, are commonly

* Anslralasian Assoc. Advancement Science, 1894, 21 pp. (separate copy).

504

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

infested with, numerous fungi of many kinds. Prof. Dendy takes in
order the various groups of the animal kingdom which send repre-
sentatives to the assemblage, and in conclusion urges that a large
amount of work still remains to be done. Although the animals in
question are small, and to the ordinary observer perhaps extremely
insignificant, they are very far from lacking interest from a biological
point of view. They offer problems of importance to students of every
branch of zoology, while the wholesale destruction of forests which is
now going on in our Australasian colonies makes it important that the
work should be done at once.

Distribution of Southern Faunse.* — Captain F. W. Hutton suggests
some theoretical explanations of the distribution of southern faunae.
While the supposition that the ancestors of certain groups migrated
from the north, where they are now extinct, explains a good deal, it
fails to give a full and satisfactory explanation of the whole of the facts.
A fatal objection, however, is raised to the theory of migration by way
of an antarctic continent. The theory of the former existence of a
south Pacific mesozoic continent, first suggested by Huxley, seems to be
the only theory left ; it not only explains the origin of the Australian and
South American marsupials, but also the almost simultaneous appearance
of different Eutherian Mammals in North and South America. We
must suppose that this continent threw off first New Zealand, then
Australia, then Chili, and finally disappeared under the waves. At a
later date New Zealand must have formed part of a large island joined
to New Caledonia, but not to Australia.

The Machine-Theory of Life.f — Herr Hans Driesch has published
under this title an essay which is intended to explain his position. It
seems to us that he has already explained himself copiously, though not
sufficiently, of course, to obviate misunderstanding. When the subject
is das Lelen, misunderstandings are inevitable. So the author begins
by setting himself right with reference to Roux’s criticisms. Roux has
blamed Driesch for thinking of vital processes and the structure of the
ovum as “ very simple,” as “ coarsely physico-chemical,” but as Driesch
responds that he was never guilty of “such nonsense” we need not
pursue the matter further. In a subsequent paper Roux gives quotations
from Driesch to prove his case.

Driesch is not what might be called a “ respecter of persons,” for,
if we understand him aright, he says that Darwinism, and that other
“curiosum” of our century — the Hegelian philosophy, arealike varia-
tions on the theme “ how one may lead a whole generation by the nose,”
and not calculated to enhance the reputation of the waning nineteenth
century. “ Inhaltlich,” he continues, “ ist die Darwin’sche Lehrc
widerlegt, ware sie aber auch nicht widcrlegt, so wiirde sie nicht
‘ erklaren.’ ” [It seems none the less to have strong vitality, although
inhaltlich mderlecjt, and the proverb is worth remembering that one only
destroys what one replaces.] After these brave words we turn with
interest to Driesch’s Maschinentheorie des Lebens. The processes of life
may be referred to physical and chemical phenomena, if the structure of

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xviii. (1896) p. 120.

f Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 353-68.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

505

the living body has been taken as granted. And in this given struc-
ture Driesch includes the conditions of coherence, adaptability, and
physiological Zweckmassiglceit. What the nature of this “ given living
Urstruktur” may be is not, of course, at present known, but the hypo-
thesis of the nucleus being a mixture of ferments is dangled before the
reader’s eyes. Granted the much-endowed initial order and structure
— the protoplasmic machine, in short — biology may thereafter become a
sort of vital mechanics, but only thereafter ; the essential fact of life,
the structure or “ tektonik,” is only describable, not explicable. The
assumption is that all the processes of development, function, regenera-
tion, &o.9 are implied physico-chemically in the ovum, as the performances
of a machine in its structure ; but the manner of the implication is beyond
our investigation. Ail that Driesch ventures to say is that the vital
force is no specific form of energy. But what is it then ? he asks, and
leaves us to ask.

And so the “ machine-theory of life ” ends up, and we feel ourselves
not much further on. No brief summary can do justice to an essay on
these intricate questions, but we doubt whether the author’s strong words
in regard to Darwin and Hegel are justified by his own performance.
He is not himself quite satisfied, but his answer to the discontented
is obvious from the delightful note, “ Man wolle aus dieser Selbstkritik
nicht entnehmen, dass ich einem andereu zugestehe besser fiber
‘ Entwicklungsmechanik ’ geschrieben zu haben.” An answer from
lioux * saves Driesch from being wholly left to self-criticism.

Physiological Interpretations of Striicture/f — Mr. A. T. Masterman
has an interesting essay “ on some points in the general morphology of
the Metazoa considered in connection with the physiological processes
of alimentation and excretion.” He begins by emphasising the fact that
plants can live on liquid food, while most animals take in solids. Hence
the continuous envelope of the former, the mouth and alimentary area
of the latter. Monocytic ingestion occurs primitively as a specialisation
of locomotor function, and even in Metazoa the same evolution may be
detected. Thus the ingestive mouth-parts of Arthropods are primarily
locomotor ; in some Coeientera half of the external surface forms an
area of polycytic ingestion ; Medusae 4 in. in diameter may have neither
mouth nor manubrium ; the stomodaeum is another case in point.

In the monocytic differentiation, the stage after diffuse ingestion
appears to be the formation of a definite ingestive aperture with stomatic-
ingestion. In a simple spherical pelagic Metazoan a stimulus to hetero-
geneity and to a condensation of the area of ingestion is found in the
dissimilarity in environment between the upper and lower cells. But
monocytic ingestion in the lowest Metazoa involves the mechanical
movement of single cells to the interior, and thus we reach hypoblastic
invagination. Gradually the inwandering of single cells is replaced
phylogenetically by the immigration of a whole tissue. The same
arguments may be applied to the evolution of mesoblastic pouches from
the hypoblast.

The author proceeds to develope the idea that the perfection of
polycytic as opposed to monocytic digestion is the key-note upon which

* Op. cit., pp. 556-8.

f Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1S96) pp. 190-8, 206-21 (13 figs.).

2 N

1896

506

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the Metazoan digestive system is elaborated. He then passes to egestion,
from diffuse monocytic to localised monocytic, and from egestion by
ek-pliorocytes in simple Metazoa (sponges, Echinoderma, &c.) to greater
specialisation in the formation of the proctodeum and nephridia. It is
suggested that “ gonocytes and ek-phorocytes belong primitively to
the same layer (ingestive area), both phylogenetically and ontogeneti-
cally, the one charged with reserve material, the other 'with digestive
residue, and that their subsequent course through the organism is
similar.”

Mr. Masterman gives reasons for holding that the nephrostomes are
originally egestive in function and not excretory, and “ upon this
hypothesis can be explained the separate ontogeny of the nephrostome
from the mesoblast, and its intimate connection with the gonocytic
function.” He then proceeds to discuss the evolution of strictly
excretory function and structures.

Index to the Journal (Zoology) of the Linnean Society.* — Zoolo-
gists at large, as well or perhaps even more than the Linnean Society,
are to be congratulated on the appearance of this general index to the
first twenty volumes of the Zoological part of the Journal of this dis-
tinguished Society. Nothing renders the publications of a learned body
of greater value than the indexing of their publications from time to
time.

Tunicata.

Development of Salpa.f — Prof. A. Korotneff has studied the develop-
ment of Salpa cordiformis-zonaria and S. muscidosa-punctata, two forms
belonging to different types, but with this in common, that their embryos
are not quite hidden in their maternal tissues, as in S. costata and
S. bicaudcita, but project freely into the interior of the respiratory cavity.
The first-named species shows no enveloping fold ( Faltenhulle ), and thus
belongs to the S. democratica-mucronata group, while the second is a
“ thecogonous” form like S. maxima and S. fusiformis.

(1) Salpa cordiformis-zonaria . The ovary consists of several ova,
each of which becomes an embryo, beginning its development on the
course of the oviduct. Korotneff briefly describes the unfertilised ovum,
the polar bodies, the follicular wall, the early cleavages, the multiplica-
tion of the follicle- cells (kalymmocytes) and their penetration into the
follicular cavity and among the blastomeres.

The blastomeres give rise to formative blastocytes and nutritive cells ;
the blastocytes give rise to histogens which form the tissues ; and the
kalymmocytes degenerate. The future ectoderm is formed by a migra-
tion of small histogens through the wall of the follicle into the tunic-
substance, where they form a continuous layer beneath the epithelium
of the respiratory cavity.

A new generation of kalymmocytes fills up the follicular cavity ;
the cloaca and respiratory cavity of the embryo become distinguishable ;
and the future “ placenta ” is formed as a differentiation of follicular
epithelium, embryonic ectoderm, and that protrusion of the follicular
wall which is known as Blutknospe. In this species the placenta is

* London, 1896, 8vo, 437 pp.

f MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xii. (1896) pp. 331-52 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

507

greatly developed, and apparently of much functional (nutritive) im-
portance.

(2) Salpa musculosa-punctata. As in S. zonaria , &c., there seems to
be a characteristic cleavage stage consisting of six blastomeres, two
larger, four smaller. This stage has a follicular envelope, separated
from the blastomeres by a layer of kalymmocytes. The blastomeres
multiply and show two kinds — (a) small and clear, (b) large and dull ;
in the latter yolk-particles become deposited. Korotneff then describes
the so-called amnion-cavity, the origin of the ectoderm, the cloaca and
pharyngeal cavity, the heart and pericardium, &c.

Kemarkable Ascidian.* — Dr. A. Willey has discovered an Ascidian
which, he thinks, throws some light on the form described by Sluiter as
Styeloides abranchiata. In this form, it will be remembered, the branchial
sac and intestine were absent, but the condition of the animal in other
respects was such that Sluiter was led to suppose that this must be the
normal state of things, and he founded a new genus accordingly.
Herdman has observed that this case is so exceptionally remarkable,
that he cannot help suspecting that the single specimen was merely an
individual abnormality. Dr. Willey has found a new species which is
remarkable for the faculty which it possessed of evisceration, and he
calls the form therefore S. eviscerans ; he had had them for a short
time in a vessel where everything was fresh and in good condition, and
he suddenly discovered a number of digestive tracts lying at the bottom.
On inspecting the ascidians he found that they were all living, and in a
healthy condition. Eventually, however, he actually observed the pro-
cess of evisceration taking place ; after it was over, the animal presented
a perfectly normal and healthy appearance. But, so constant is this
ejection of the digestive tract, that if it is desired to preserve specimens
intact, they must be placed in alcohol immediately after capture. On
dissection of an individual which had ejected its sac and intestine no
sign of any laceration whatever was observed, and, undoubtedly, in
ignorance of the habit, one would be tempted to suppose, as Sluiter did,
that the absence of an alimentary canal was the normal condition.

INVERTEBRATA.

Animal Parasites of Chickens, Turkeys, and Ducks.j — Mr. A.
Hassall has prepared lists of the animal parasites of these three domestic
birds. In these lists the author does not commit himself as to the
validity of any species or genus, or to the validity of any specific or
generic name. The names given are those adopted by the most recent
authorities, but it will be years before all of these forms can be properly
studied. Parasites are found among the Protozoa, flukes, tapeworms,
roundworms, mites, and insects.

Phenomena of Fertilization.^ — Dr. 11. von Erlanger has studied
these in the ova of Tardigrada, Echinoids, and Ascaris megalocejphala ,
and has been successful in sectioning the last-named. We cite some of

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxix. (1896) pp. 161-6 (4 figs.).

t U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry Circulars, No. ix.
8 pp., No. xii. 4 pp., No. xiii. 8 pp. (1896).

J Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 136-9 (1 fig.).

2 n 2

508

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

his observations. The centrosome arises exclusively from the spermato-
zoon, as Boveri supposed. When the spermatozoon reaches the centre
of the ovum, its protoplasm begins to break up and the centrosome is
disclosed ; it separates from the rest of the spermatozoon, and comes to
lie between the approximated pronuclei, where it divides into two. At
the time when the pronuclei exhibit the same size and appearance, the
connecting line between the two cenlrosomes is at right angles to the
line connecting the pronuclei.

The cytoplasm of the ovum has an exquisite honeycomb structure,
and the so-called archoplasm of Boveri, or attraction sphere of van
Beneden, is nothing but vacuolar protoplasm free from yolk, and aggre-
gated around the male pronucleus or centrosome. There is a distinct
alveolar layer round the periphery ; the polar and spindle rays are due
to a particular disposition of the honeycomb structure in longitudinal
lines. Even the spermatozoon and the centrosomes show the honey-
comb structure. Nothing was seen of van Beneden’s polra’ or sub-
equatorial circles.

Mollusca.

Archetype of Mollusca.*— Prof. A. E. Yerrill has a short notice on
the Mollusc an archetype considered as a veliger-like form, with a dis-
cussion on certain points in Molluscan morphology. He commences
with calling attention to the well-known schematic mollusc of Bay
Lankester. Prof. Yerrill is satisfied that that diagrammatic form by no
means represents the primitive stage of the Mollusca. Even if Lan-
kester’s type represented the primitive form of true Gastropods, it
would seem impossible to derive from it a Cephalopod or a bivalve, for
the parts are represented as so highly modified and specialised that it
would require us to imagine a backward development in order to find a
starting point from which the groups just mentioned might have been
derived. A large number of Mollusca pass through a veliger stage,
and it is in this that the author thinks we must look for the Molluscan
archetype. The facts, which he summarises very briefly, lead him to
the conclusion that ail Mollusca have been derived from free-swimming
forms similar to modern yeligers and pro-veligcrs ; each of the great
classes and perhaps some of the sub-classes became differentiated while
still having veliger-like forms and modes of life; in other words, the
primitive bivalves, Scaphopods, and Gastropods, when adult, were all
small free-swimming forms furnished with a ciliated locomotive organ
similar to the velum of veligers. Some of thepe swimmers may have
developed directly a swimming foot adapted to a continued free-swim-
ming existence, and thus the primitive Pteropods may have originated.
In others, the primitive foot may have developed directly into a creeping
disc or into a sucker-like disc for adhesion while resting. In the case of the
Ileteropods, which are free-swimming Gastropods, with the foot in the
form of a median fin, we often find a small cup-shaped sucker on the
foot. This may be the survival of a condition that was common among
primitive Gastropod veligers. Indeed, the Ileteropods, as a group, may
be of very ancient origin, and not derived, as is often stated, from normal
Gastropods in comparatively recent times. The primitive Cephalopoda

* Amer. Journ. Sci., ii. (189G) pp. 91-9 (14 figs.)*

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

509

were probably also derived from veliger-likc forms, though no true Ceplia-
lopod veligers are yet known. It is not difficult to understand how a
Ceplialopod could be derived from a pro-veliger, similar to that of some
Pteropods and Gastropods, by a special development of the foot into pre-
hensile processes around the enlarged head. On the other hand, it
seems impossible to derive a Cephalopod from a creeping Chiton-like
archetype, as Lankester has suggested.

a. Cephalopoda.

Opistlioteutlii&ae.* — Prof. A. E. Verrill has a short notice on a
remarkable new family of deep sea Cephalopoda, with remarks on some
points in the morphology of the Mollusca. The genus which forms the
type of this family was first described by Prof. Verrill, but the specimens
were too much decayed internally to be accurately described. This
deficiency has been recently supplied by the description of a closely
related Japanese species, which we owe to Messrs. I. Ijima and S. Ikeda.
In their description the Japanese authors have, Prof. Verrill says, made
rather remarkable efforts to reconcile the position and relations of the
parts with the theoretical, strained, and, as he believes, erroneous views
of the orientation and homologies of the parts of Cephalopoda, advanced
by Huxley and still held by many other authors. He gives examples
of what he regards as very unnatural and strained interpretations, and
thinks that the necessity to make these ought to be sufficient to show
that the theories on which they are based are erroneous. To Prof. Verrill
much of the interest connected with these forms lies in the fact that
they throw much light on the question of the relation of parts in the
Cephalopod body. Comparing his own views with those of Huxley and
others, he urges that the more natural and correct view appears to be
to consider the foot as a ventral appendage, and the visceral dome of a
Gastropod as the true body, whether it be high or low, flat or round,
or twisted, and regardless of the position of the anus. He thinks it is
easy to prove that the body of. a Cephalopod corresponds to that of a
Gastropod, and that the actual dorsal is the true dorsal surface, and that
the pedal organs, arms, web. siphon are anterior and anteroventral in
all ordinary adult forms. In the Opistlioteuthidas the relation of the
parts is such that they stand to other Ceplialopods in the same relation
that the Chitons stand to other Gastropods, and their peculiarities are
quite sufficient to warrant their forming a new family group.

Notes on Nautilus. f — Dr. A. "Willey sends from German New Guinea
a number of interesting notes on the Nautilus. Numerous parasites
belonging to the genus Caligus occur in the mantle chamber. They
were present in nearly every individual examined, and were found attached
to the gills, the internal surface of the funnel, and in other regions of the
mantle chamber. A photograph of a Nautilus in its ordinary swimming
attitude shows that, in swimming, the animal elevates itself to such an
extent that the eyes are raised above the free margin of the mouth of
the shell. Dr. Willey can emphatically confirm the statement of the
late Prof. Moseley that it is a mistake to suppose that a Nautilus ever

* Amer. Journ. Sci , ii. (189G) pp. 74-SO (8 figs.).

f Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxix. (1896) pp. 145-53, 166- 80, 222-30 (1 fig.).

510

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

comes to the surface voluntarily to swim about. When freshly captured
Nautili are placed in aquaria they rise to the surface and sink to the
bottom with the greatest facility. The rising is effected solely by the
muscular activity of the animal, and is in no wray clue to tlio physical
modification of the gases in the air-chambers. The arteries and veins in
the mantle are described in some detail ; the latter are said to simply
riddle the mantle in a manner which defies one’s power of draughts-
manship.

As Dr. Willey desired to obtain experimental evidence as to the
physiological significance of the siphuncle of the Pearly Nautilus, he
made several successful attempts to cut it without otherwise injuring the
animal. His evidence cannot be regarded as conclusive, but it is clear
that the cutting of the siphuncle does not seriously affect the vitality of
the animal, nor does it prevent it from making movements of translation,
or from floating at the surface, or from sinking to the bottom. The
siphuncle would appear then to be of the nature of a vestigial structure,
and it is legitimate to suppose that the course of evolution has led to a
reduction of this organ pari passu with an increase in the efficiency of
the chambers as hydrostatic organs. During the process of reproduction
the female Nautili appear to live in retirement and to practise what the
Germans call Brutpflege. It is almost certain that reproduction takes
place all the year round. The blood is a syrupy fluid with a pronounced
blue tint, which becomes very dark on exposure to the air.

There is a further note on the nepionic shell. From the size of this
shell, which comprises a large number of chambers, there is strong
presumptive evidence that the animal of Nautilus, at the time of hatching,
has the main features of the adult with the possible addition of a yolk-
sac. Attention is also drawn to some variations in the shell of
Nautilus, and these variations may be either single, collective, or
incomplete.

In conclusion, a table is given of the species and varieties of the recent
Nautilus.

y. Gastropoda.

Spermatocytes of Helix.* — Mr. A.Bolles Lee continues his account
of the history of the changes which occur in the spermatocytes of the
snail. He has already shown that at the end of kinesis the equatorial
portion of the spindle undergoes degeneration, and becomes converted
into an intercellular bridge, which unites the two daughter-cells. He
now shows that the polar portion of the spindle undergoes a similar
degeneration, which converts it into the body described by some authors
as the “ Nebenkern,” and by others as the “ attractive sphere.” This
body totally degenerates and disappears in the cytoplasm, during the
prophases of the new kinesis, in which it plays no part. Thus it follows
that the whole of the spindle undergoes a retrogression which causes its
elements sooner or later to be incorporated in the cytoplasm, without its
having played any part in building up the new spindle. The spindle is
formed entirely by and in the nucleus, in consequence of the transforma-
tion of the karyoplasm into a special substance, which the author calls
“ substance fusoriale.”

* La Cellule, xi. (1896) pp. 225-60 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO.

511

Digestive Apparatus of the higher Stenoglossa.* * * § — M. A. Amaudraut
has a contribution to our knowledge of the anterior region of the diges-
tive apparatus of these Mollusca. By most of their characters the
Conidse and the Terebridse are allied to the Stenoglossa, but the anterior
part of their digestive apparatus shows that they form an aberrant and
terminal group in the series of the Prosobranchia. This is the result to
which Bouvier was led by a study of their nervous system.

New British Doris.f — Mr. W. Garstang describes, under the name
of Doris maculata, a small dorid of striking appearance, which has
been several times obtained at Plymouth, and which seems to be quite
distinct from any form hitherto described. The feature which gives it
its most distinctive appearance is the presence, on the back, of a number
of conspicuously coloured tubercles connected with one another by a
network of low ridges. These tubercles are all of different sizes, and
there is a good deal of irregularity in their arrangement.

Maturation and Fertilisation in Physa fontinalis.* — Herren K. v.
Kostanecki and A. Wierzejski have studied in particular the behaviour
of the so-called achromatin substances in the ovum of this Gastropod.
The processes of maturation and fertilisation are carefully described, but
we shall confine our report to the general conclusions.

The authors start from Boveri’s results. Fertilisation is the union
of two cells which are originally alike in protoplasm, nuclei, and centro-
somes. In the course of differentiation the nuclei remain homologous,
and the end of fertilisation is their union. But the other side of fertilisa-
tion, namely, the stimulus to division, depends mainly on the protoplasm
and centrosomes which have been differentiated in opposite directions.
The spermatozoon is poor in protoplasm, the ripe ovum is weak as to
centrosome ; they are physiologically complementary. But while Boveri
lays main emphasis on the centrosome, which for our authors is only “ the
insertion-centre of a system of rays,” they lay the main emphasis on the
differentiation of the plasma. In the ovum the accumulation of deuto-
plasm is so great that the mitotic forces are inhibited, the extrusion of
the polar bodies is a final effort, and in the formation of the second the
archoplasmic material is reduced to a minimum. This lack is supplied
by the plasma grouped around the centrosome in the middle portion of
the spermatozoon. The ray-system arising therefrom constitutes a new
equilibrium in the ovum, re-coordinating around itself the plasmic rays
or network, even including those which connect the nuclear framework.
The sperm-centrosome thus gains in importance, while the ovum-centro-
some dwindles and disappears. After the re-establishment of equilibrium,
the matter is one of ordinary mitoses.

Origin of Mesoderm in Paludina.§ — Dr. C. Tonniges finds from a
study of Paludina vivipara that the formation of the middle layer begins
soon after gastrulation, by a migration of ectoderm cells. The migration
occurs from the ventral wall in a limited area, wdiicli represents the
closure of the blastopore. It lasts during the period of narrowing and

* Comptes Rendus, exxii. (1896) pp. 1424-7.

t Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc., iv. (1896) pp. 167-8.

x Arch. f. Mikr. Anat, xlvii. (1896) pp. 309-S6 (3 pis.).

§ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxi. (1896) pp. 541-605 (2 pis.).

512

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

closing the blastopore, and results in tbe formation of a ventral meso-
dermic layer, which occupies the whole ventral surface and surrounds
the gut on both sides. This unified mesoderm is lost in the course of
development, and in the trochophore stage the elements are irregularly
scattered in the segmentation cavity, without forming any secondary
coelom. Herr Tonniges follows the differentiation of the mesoderm
to the origin of the pericardium, and takes a general survey of what
has been previously observed as to the formation of the mesoderm in
Gastropods.

Experiments on Molinscan Eggs.* — Mr. J. Fujita undertook some
experiments on molluscan eggs, with the hope of determining the exact
fate of an isolated blastomere. A species of Aplysia, common at the
Misaki Marine Laboratory, laid eggs well suited for the purposes of
this research, which, however, the author was unable to complete. The
general conclusion at which he arrives is that isolated blastomeres have
in every case energy to restore the lost portion, and to reassume the
normal shape. Unfortunately, printers’ readers in Japan are not, or
appear to be not, sufficiently well acquainted with English, and the
result is that there are so many misprints in the article that one often
feels difficulty in being certain as to what the author exactly means.

5. Lamellibrancliiata.

Staining in the Oyster.t — M. J. Chatin gives an account of the
staining of the oyster, due to disease. These diseased and stained
oysters have a very different appearance to the ordinary green or brown
oysters ; the coloration is not intense and localised, but pale and
diffused; the retraction of the gills and the softness of the flesh are
sufficient to show that the creatures are diseased. The origin of this
affection is to be found in the organ which is often called the liver. The
general characters of this organ become modified; the pigment-cells
predominate, their protoplasm becomes altered, and, while some remain
intact, others float in a thick liquid. While these modifications are to
be seen in the secreting elements, others happen to the connective tissue.
Here there is considerable increase in the size and number of the glan-
dular cells ; budding and growth are succeeded by degeneration. When
this happens, phagocytosis, which is so frequent and so active in the
oyster, becomes apparent. When migrating cells absorb the free pig-
mented granules or attack the glandular cells and carry off their pigment,
the phagocytes, getting into the blood, disseminate the colouring matter,
which soon impregnates the whole of the mantle. The author directs
particular attention to the difference between these phenomena and that
to be seen in the healthy coloured oyster.

Macroblasts of Oysters.^ — M. J. Chatin has studied the origin and
localisation of the macroblasts of oysters, and finds that they are derived
from connective tissue. The frequency of the presence of these elements
at the tip of the branchial papillae is due to the feebleness of the resist-
ance of the epithelium in that region.

* Zool. Mag., viii. (1896) pp. 47-54 (1 pi.).

f Comptes Kendus, exxii. (1896) pp. 1556-9. X Tom. cit., pp. 796-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

513

Bryozoa.

Catalogue of Fossil Bryozoa in the British Museum/ — Dr. J. W.
Gregory has selected the Jurassic Bryozoa for the first volume of the
Catalogue of the Fossil Bryozoa in the Department of Geology of the
British Museum. The selection of these for the first catalogue may
seem capricious, hut it was, the author tells us, made deliberately. The
two orders of Bryozoa that prevailed in the Palaeozoic era became extinct
or greatly reduced in importance at its close. Jfc is among the Jurassic
deposits that we have to seek for the ancestors of the existing types of
this group. They occur there, Dr. Gregory adds, with the primary
lines of divergence well marked, and not obscured by the extreme
secondary variations of later periods. In an exceedingly interesting
introduction, the author commences with a discussion of the problem of
tubular fossils. He points out that one of the most similar ways in
wdiich aquatic animals seek protection from their enemies is by surround-
ing themselves with a tube. As these tubular shells arc the most easily
acquired of all effective methods of defence, they have been adopted
independently by animals occupying very different zoological positions,
and they may be cither simple tubes or elaborate skeletons. Examples
are given from various groups of the Animal Kingdom, and it is pointed
out how, in these different groups, the same forms of tube may again
and again be met with. Most of the tube-dwelling forms live in shallow
waters, where they are exposed to powerful currents and tides, and need
shelter from the sand and shingle. The study of fossil worm-tubes has
been abandoned in despair, for, so far as we can see at present, they can
give no aid in the classification of the group to which they belong. In
the case of the Bryozoa, however, these fossils cannot be ignored like
the Worms ; their evidence, therefore, must be considered in any attempt
to trace the evolution of the Bryozoa. The author readily admits that
there are no diagnostic characters by which we can positively say
whether a given fossil is a Bryozoon or not. He includes in the present
catalogue certain fossils which have often been assigned to corals, while
he rejects others which have been previously considered as belonging to
the group.

With regard to the affinities of the Bryozoa, we must know more
than we do at j>resent before we can definitely determine their exact
relationships. The author deals in some detail with the characters of
the shells, and goes on to discuss the value of generic divisions in the
Cyclostoma. A consideration of various points raises the question
whether there arc such things as genera and species among the cyclo-
stomatous Bryozoa. Dr. Gregory points out that in the case of the
Echinoidea the term “ genus ” has a fairly definite value. For example,
the two commonest living English Ecliinoids are Echinus esculentus
and E. miliaris. The distinctions between these species were nearly
as well marked in the period of the Crag as they are at present. Kow
if x represents the number of generations which lived in that division
of geological time known as an age, then these two species have been
distinct for at least 5 x generations, and their common ancestor lived
7 x generations ago. Similarly with genera. This is enough to show

* ‘ The Jurassic Bryozoa,’ 8vr>, London, 1896, 239 rp., 11 pis., and 22 figs.

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SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

us that to find the common ancestor of similar closely allied species of
Echinoids, we have to go a very long way back, but in the case of the
cyclostomatous Bryozoa, great structural differences may be produced
in only a few, or even perhaps within a single generation.

The author gives examples which show that variations in this group
are of very different value from those on which genera are based in some
other groups of Invertebrates.

The study of the species with which Dr. Gregory has to do leads
him to doubt the correctness of Mr. Bateson’s views as to discon-
tinuous variation. He finds that, if we compare the forms of Bryozoa
that lived in one particular zone, the species are discontinuous ; but if
we compare the forms that lived in successive zones, the species are
continuous. Variation in this case is therefore continuous in time, and
discontinuous in space. The general evidence of the fossil specimens,
and the great difference of opinion as to the range of specific variation
tend to show that most of the forms of Cyclostoma have arisen by slow,
imperceptible, continuous variation.

The classification of the Cyclostoma is next discussed, and an
arrangement is adopted which may perhaps be only temporary. The
greater part of the catalogue is taken up with the systematic account of
the species. The British Museum contains fine species of Jurassic
Bryozoa, both English and foreign.

Arthropoda,
a. Insecta.

Development of Wing-Scales and their Pigment in Butterflies
and Moths.* — Mr. A. G. Mayer treats of his subject in the following
order : — (1) The general development of the wings and scales ; (2) the
development of the pigment within the scales; and (3) the probable
physical and chemical nature of the pigments. In addition to the known
facts regarding the order of development of the colours, the author has
shown that the transparent condition of the wings corresponds to the
period before the scales are formed, and to the time when they are still
completely full of protoplasm. The white condition is caused by the
withdrawal of the protoplasm from the scales. After the protoplasm
has completely withdrawn, the so-called blood of the pupa enters them,
and soon after this the wing becomes of a uniform dull yellow or light
drab colour. The mature colours are due to chemical changes in the
fluid itself. Proof, which must be taken to be satisfactory, is presented
to show that the scales are formed from modified hypodermis cells, and
are therefore truly homologous with the hairs of Arthropods. The
membrane of the pupal wings exhibits two sets of foldings — one parallel
to the trend of the nervures, and the other at right angles to it. In
either cross or longitudinal sections these foldings appear as a regular
series of ridges, and a single scale arises from the crest of each ridge.
Evidence is adduced tending to prove that the pigments of the scales
are actually derived by chemical processes from the blood, or hremolymph,
of the pupa. The reasons for this belief are that, during the period of
the formation of pigment, nothing but hsemolympli is found within the
scales ; in all butterflies and moths the first colour to appear is a dull

* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xxix. (1896) pp. 209-36 (7 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

515

ochre-yellow, and this is also the colour which is assumed by the
haemolymph when it is removed from the chrysalis and exposed to the
air. The author has succeeded by artificial means in manufacturing
from the haemolymph several pigments which are similar in colour to
various markings upon the wings of the mature insects. Chemical
reagents have the same effect upon these manufactured pigments as they
have upon the similar coloured pigments of the wings. Dull ochre-
yellows and drabs are the oldest pigmental colours in these insects ; the
more brilliant, such as bright yellow, red, or green, are derived by more
complex chemical processes. The former dull colours are at the present
day those that prevail among the less differentiated nocturnal moths ;
the diurnal forms have almost the monopoly of the brilliant colours, but
even in these, dull yellow or drab colours are still quite common in those
parts of the wings that are hidden from view.

Genital Ducts and Glands of Female Silk-Moth.* — Messrs. E. Yerson
and E. Bisson have investigated the post-embryonic development of the
efferent genital ducts and accessory glands in the female Bombyx mori.
During the first larval period there appear, at the side of the eighth and
ninth abdominal segments, two pairs of germinal or imaginal discs, which,
like four similar, but everted, structures in the male, must be derived
from embryonic abdominal appendages. During the fifth larval period
the four ingrowths converge and meet on the ventral median line. In
a somewdiat complex manner they give origin to the copulatory and
seminal pouches, to the cement-glands, and to the tubular uterus, which
is therefore w'holly ectodermic. As in the testicular strand, which
shows a small (ccelomic ?) lumen both anteriorly and posteriorly, so is
it in the female genital strand. The accessory organs in the female are
ectodermic, in the male mesodermic, therefore not homologous. The
muscular envelope of the uterus is derived from the genital strands ;
that of the accessory structures is due to contributions from the inter-
visceral network.

Lateral Organs of the Larvae of Scarabi.f — Dr. F. Meinert finds
that these larvae have nine pairs of well-developed lateral organs, con-
nected with each of the nine pairs of stigmata. This lateral organ
consists of a chitinous plate, of an internal ring, and a spiracular
chamber situated behind this ring, together with a well-developed
collection of nerves and cells. It appears to have the function both of
an organ of respiration and of an organ of sensation. This spiracular
plate has no openings or pores ; it is made up of one or several layers of
cells or chambers, the most external of which, the layer of air-chambers,
is generally full of gas. At each larval eedysis there is produced a
new portion of skin, which serves to form the new lateral organ, inde-
pendently of the old one. The filaments of nerve-substance end in the
stigma by a swelling which has transparent crystals connected with it.
The sensory function of the lateral organs appears without doubt to be of
an auditory nature.

Myrmecophile Lepismids and Ants. £ — It has long been known,
remarks “E. C. K.,” that the plant-lice found in ant-hills have a rela-

* Zeitschr. f. wfiss. Zool., Ixi. (1896) pp. 660-94 (3 pis. and 1 fig.).

f Mem. Acad. Roy. Sci. Copenhagen, viii. (1895) 72 pp. and 3 pis.

t Comptes Rendus, exxii. pp. 799-802. See Amer. Natural., xxx. (1896)
pp. 496-8 (1 fig.).

516

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tion to the ants nearly analogous to that of the cow to man. They are
retained and cared for by their owners for the liquid that they exude
from their bodies when tickled by the milkers’ antennae. Certain
Staphylinids also exude a substance of which the ants seem to be fond,
and in return they are fed by the ants. It will be remembered that
Wasmann has pointed out that, as a consequence of this relation, the
palpi of the beetles have become more or less noticeably reduced in size,
M. Janet finds that in the ant-hills in the neighbourhood of Paris the
dependence of Clciviger testaceus on ants is so complete that the beetles
return when separated from them. M. Janet finds that Lepismids also
live with ants. Twenty-one were separated from their ants, and fed
upon a mixture of honey, sugar, flour, and yolk of egg. At the end of
21- years only nine remained in good condition ; those willingly ate
the drops of food presented to them on the points of fine pincers. Those
left and reared along with the ants were much more extensive than the
separated lot. When the ants were fed with their customary supply of
small drops of honey, the Lepismids, by their agitation, manifested that
they had become aware of the proximity of very desirable food. Mean-
while the ants that had discovered the honey gorged themselves to
fulness ; on returning to the neighbourhood of their companions wrko
had not found a supply, they seemed to be requested by the latter to
give some, a request that was not refused. Soon pairs of ants became
locked together, the one giving, the other receiving a drop of honey.
As quickly as a Lepismid perceived this condition of affairs, he rushed
in between the pair and intercepted the drop or a portion of it in its
passage, and then retreated precipitately, but only to treat another pair
in a similar manner, and so on till its hunger was appeased.

Lepisma, then, is not in the ant-hill for an exchange of services like
some of the Staphylinids, or who offer to be milked, like the aphid, but
is there as a more or less wary freebooter.

Courtship of certain Acridiidse.* — Prof. E. B. Poulton gives an
account of some observations made in the exceedingly favourable weather
in the early autumn of last year. His observations were almost all made
in the neighbourhood of the Weisshorn Hotel. The sombre brown male
of Pezotettix pedeslris did not stridulate audibly, and assumed no remark-
able attitudes, but lay in wait for the female and leapt upon her
unawares. The female almost invariably tried to escape from the male,
but if he succeeded in holding her for a short time she submitted and
pairing took place. Before pairing, the male was seen to nibble the
female gently with liis mandibles, and through the whole time that he
was holding her he continually moved his short legs up and down alter-
nately. Prof. Poulton suggests that this movement is a vestige of true
stridulation, and that it may still perhaps be of value in influencing the
female in some way. The behaviour of Gornphocerus sibiricus was very
different. The males court the females with much ceremony, stretching
out their four palpi, stridulating, and in some cases patting or stroking
the female. In spite of this, a successful courtship was never seen,
although males were continually pursuing females. The author is of
opinion that the habits recorded by him were greatly influenced by

* Trans. Eutomol. See. London, 189G, pp. 233-52.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

517

temperature, and he found that certain phases of courtship could be most
satisfactorily studied when the insects were first roused to activity.

Digestive Apparatus of Brachytrypes.* * * § — M. Bordas gives an
account of the digestive apparatus of B. membranaccus , one of the
Gryllidae. He finds that it presents characters which distinguish it
from that of the Blattidae, Forficulidae, and others, but in which it
resembles that of Gryllotalpa. From the last, however, it is distin-
guished by the atrophy of the oesophagus, the enormous size of the crop,
the reduction of the appendages of the intestines, and, above all, by the
great length and the numerous coils of the true intestine.

Habits of Locustidse.j — M. J. H. Fabre describes in a most vivid
fashion some of the habits of Decticus albifrons Fab. He fed them first
on the weed-grass Setaria glauca, which they ate, though they refused
much else apparently more appetising. Afterwards they greedily at-
tached the half-ripe capsules of Portulaca oleracea, but the chief part of
their diet was found in the fresh fiesh of crickets and allied insects. He
gives a minute description of the copulation, in which connection one
of the most extraordinary facts is that the female chews the empty
spermatophore, which is of relatively immense size (in volume almost
equal to the abdominal capacity of the male). The same was seen in
Ephippiger vitium Serv., and the occurrence of a spermatophore in
Locustidae seems general. The eloquent observer also gives an account
of the musical instruments and capacities of Locustidae.

Spermatogenesis of Calopetenus Femur-rubrum.J — Mr. E. Y.
Wilcox has continued his studies cn this subject. In considering the
work of other observers, he calls attention to the theory of Eismond,
and points out that his argument seems to be considerably coloured by
his general idea of the structure cf protoplasm. He accepts Biitschli’s
soap-bubble theory, and by its aid attempts to explain away both centro-
somes and attraction-spheres. How in Calopetenus the centrosomes arc
just as truly specialised bodies, both chemically and physically, as are
the chromosomes. The figure which the author gives is, he says, not
exaggerated, and no one who looks at it could think the centrosomes
to be simply the points to which the spindle-fibres converge. At the
same time the author must not be thought to maintain that the centro-
some, the “ Nebenkern,” or the spindle-fibres preserve their individuality
indefinitely. They may not be directly concerned in the transmission
of hereditary substance, but they do possess a special chemical nature,
and they arc of some morphological significance.

Power of Resistance of Helophilus Larvae to Killing Fluids.§ —
Hr. E. Y. Wilcox made some experiments on the larvae of a marine
insect which appears to belong to this genus. The larvae are small
and apparently delicate creatures, and so transparent that the form and
movement of the main organs can easily be seen through the integument.
The author thought it best, therefore, to kill them in toto. He soon
found, however, that none cf the killing fluids at his disposal, when

* Comptes Eendus, exxii. (1896) pp. 1553-6.

t Ann. Sci. Nat. Zoo!., i. (1896) pp. 221-44 (1 pi.).

+ Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xxix. (1896) pp. 193-203.

§ Anat. Anzeigw, xii. (1896) pp. 278-80. ‘

518

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

used colei, would kill them, except after so long an exposure that the
natural histological condition was quite destroyed. The first fluid tried
was a saturated watery solution of corrosive sublimate. In this reagent
the lame lived and moved about for 20 hours. At the end of that time
they seemed to be dead, and they were then washed and put into 70 per
cent, alcohol, where they soon revived, and exhibited lively movements
for one hour longer. A table is given of a number of fluids in which
these larvae lived from four and a half hours to ten seconds. In all
cases the larvae were entirely submerged, with the exception of the end
of the tail, which the animal held at the surface of the fluid. It is
through the tail that these larvae breathe, aud therefore they are able
to obtain air freely, while their bodies are exposed to the action of the
killing fluid. This gives us a much better test of the penetrating power
of reagents than we could have in the case of larvae which are entirely
submerged in the fluid. The larvae could be quickly killed by the
standard fluids if a slit were previously cut in the integument.

American Fossil Cockroaches.* — Dr. II. Scudder reports that more
than 300 American specimens of Palaeozoic cockroaches have passed
under his eye. These belong to at least 132 species, belonging them-
selves to 14 genera. The recent extension of our knowledge of these
ancient insects is largely due to investigations in two new localities,
respectively near to Cassville and Richmond. In a period in which the
total number of species has more than trebled, the increase of European
species has been about 50 per cent., while the American have multiplied
nearly eightfold. With regard to the relative size of the ancient cock-
roaches, no one, the author remarks, can handle many specimens without
being struck with the fact that they are of large size. In each genus
the average size decreases with the lapse of time.

Amongst the various subjects with which he deals in the introduc-
tory remarks, attention is drawn to a topic which, as he justly remarks,
is unusual in such a connection. It is the possibility of mimicry in
Palaeozoic cockroaches. It seems to Mr. Scudder to be fairly reason-
able to look upon some forms of carboniferous cockroaches as probably
imitative, and thereby protective. The first fossil cockroach wing ever
described was first described as a fern-leaf, and in all or nearly all the
localities where their remains have been found they are associated with
fern-leaves in immense abundance. In one point only can a cockroach
wing be distinguished at once, but it is a feeble point, and one that
would often be noticed only by an expert. The memoir is made the more
complete by a list of the described European Palaeozoic cockroaches.

Myriopoda.

Classification of Diplopoda/f — Mr. O. F. Cook remarks that the
structure and distribution of the Diplopoda make it advantageous, and
usually easy, to arrange them into species ; an apparent, and probably
sufficient cause for this is the close similarity of the life-histories, habits,
and food of all Diplopoda. All are scavengers, and there has been scarcely
any response to calls for special adaptations. The species are not only

* Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 124, 1895 (17G pp. and 12 pis.).

t Amer. Natural., xxx. (1896) pp. 681-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

519

extremely local, but are generally confined almost to identical habitats,
removed from which they do not long survive. Supposing the group to
be a natural one, descended from a common ancestor, we are compelled
to believe that such differences as appear among them are the results
of accumulated variation, not greatly influenced by external selective
causes. In this respect the Diplopoda offer a most striking contrast to
the Hexapoda, and the results are in accordance. There are more
millions of species of the latter than there are thousands of the former.
In attempting to embody in the classification of the Diplopoda a recog-
nition of certain structural differences found to be invariable, several
natural and distinct groups of families have been recognised as orders.

The author proposes now to divide the orders Diplocheta and Mero-
cheta. From the former it is proposed to separate the true Iulidae and
their allies under the name Zygoclieta, leaving under the Diplocheta
Spirostreptoidea and Cambaloidea. The Merocheta will, in the restricted
sense, contain numerous families allied to the Polydesmidae, with twenty
closed rings. The new order Coelocheta will accommodate the Lysio-
petaloidea and the Craspedosomatoidea.

y. Protracheata.

Peripatus.* — Mr. T. Steel has some very interesting remarks upon
this creature, a number of specimens of which he has from time to time
observed in New South Wales; in favourable summers such as that of
1894—5 he observed no fewer than 579 adults in one district, but in the
summer of 1895-6, which was preceded by a prolonged spell of very
dry weather, Peripatus was very scarce. Dry conditions, such as these,
and the attendant bush fires, must, Mr. Steel remarks, cause an enormous
mortality among lowly land-dwelling creatures, and it is greatly to be
desired that as much information about them as is possible should be
gained, since many local forms are certain to be now rapidly approaching
extermination. In a favourable summer the individual adults range
much larger in size than in an unfavourable one ; the dry conditions
appear to have stunted their growth. The author does not know what
became of the large sized individuals of 1894-5, whether they perished
or whether they shrunk in size. A very noticeable peculiarity is the
intensely local nature of Peripatus ; considerable numbers would be met
with in a very restricted area, and, without any apparent cause, none at
all, or very few, would be found on precisely similar ground adjoining.
After a little experience Mr. Steel got to know the likely-looking parts,
and even the most promising logs uuder which to search.

The colours of the individuals were exceedingly variable, 77J per
cent, were black or blue-black, 6^ per cent, were black speckled with
brown, 10 per cent, were brown but had black antennae, and 6 per cent,
were entirely brown. When a number of specimens of the brown form
are put in spirit together, the spirit has a distinct brown tinge, which
would show that the colour-pigment is to some extent soluble in alcohol.
The author is uncertain whether the species was originally brown or
black. The adult females appear to be invariably larger than the males,
and also a good deal stouter in proportion to their size. They do not

Proc. Linn Soc*. N.S.W., xxi. (1896) pp. 91-103.

520

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

appear to mature before they are over two years of age, and it is possible
that the young arc not born until the mother is at least three years old.

The food of Peripatus consists of insects, woodlice, and such like.
They never seem to eat one another, and oven when kept without food
they do not attack c-acb other or their young. When feeding, the
movements of the animal are very graceful and deliberate. The antennee
arc endowed with a high degree of sensitiveness, and they appear to be
the medium of a sense analogous to that of smell. In securing its prey,
Peripaius does not seem to use the slimy secretion, unless the insect
appears likely to escape, or when it struggles violently. The secretion
is ejected with sufficient force to project at several inches. When freshly
emitted it is rather liquid, but quickly toughens in the air. Peripatus
is a very sociable creature and loves to crowd with its fellows in genial
lurking places. Mr. Steel has observed several of them around one
insect feeding in perfect harmony. The skin is cast at apparently some-
what irregular intervals, and the casting is pure white, the colour-pigment
being situated entirely in the inner skin layer which remains. No
external parasites have ever been noticed.

The kind of vivarium in which Mr. Steel has been most successful
in keeping his specimens alive consists of ordinary glass jam jars, with
metal lids which slip or screw on not quite air-tight ; these are filled
with lumps of moist earth and odd pieces of rotten wood.

5. Arachnida.

Comparative Morphology cf Galeodidse.* — Mr. H. M. Bernard was
induced to undertake the study of this group in the belief that it would
settle the controversy as to the affinities of the Arachnida. The author
gives a detailed account of the anatomy of the various organs of the body,
and, in a summary, attempts to elucidate the phytogeny of the group.
This he does by going in order through the characters of their organs,
and proposing a hypothetical reconstruction of the ancestral form. This
reconstructed ancestral form appears to possess most of the specialisations
common to the group in its least specialised condition. That there is a
resemblance between Scorpio and the Eurypterids is obvious, but it is
due, Mr. Bernard thinks, to convergence. He has shown, he says,
abundantly that Scorpio is a specialised, and not a primitive form. If
we trace it and the Eurypterids backwards, we find that they grow less
and less like one another, instead of growing more and more like one
another, as they should if they have a common ancestor — at last all
resemblance between them completely vanishes. The existing Arachnida
are compared with the hypothetical ancestral form, with the view of
getting a measure of their respective specialisations. These various
specialisations do not lend themselves to any genealogical arrangement.
They diverge entirely from one another, and cannot in any way be
deduced the one from the other.

The author finally discusses the relation of his hypothetical form to
other Arthropods, and comes to the cor elusion that the four great
divisions of the Arthropoda are distinct specialisations of a Chretojmd
type in no way deducible the one from the other.

* Trans. Linn. Soc. London, vi. (189G) pp. 305-417 (8 pis).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

521

Anatomy and Development of Scorpions.* — Prof. M. Laurie lias con-
tinued liis examination of various typical genera of Scorpions, with a
view to the investigation of their bearing on the classification of the
order. He is more than ever convinced of the great value of the mode
of development as a basis for classification, and is inclined to consider
the structure of the lung- hook lamellae of subordinate though considerable
value. The terms Mr. Laurie has hitherto used to define the two chief
types of development will no longer serve, because there are so many
variations from the type in each case, that to speak of Scorpio and
Euscorpio types of development is misleading. The fundamental dif-
ference is, that in the latter the egg early leaves the follicle in which it
is formed, and passes into the cavity of the ovarian tube. In the other
case, the eggs divide in situ, and as the embryo becomes too large for the
follicle, it extends down and occupies a diverticulum from the ovarian
tube, at the distal end of which the egg is originally formed. The
author suggests the terms apoikogenic and katoikogenic as adequately
designating the two methods. So far as observation has gone, the
members of the family Scorpionidee are all characterised by the katoiko-
genic mode of development ; the other families — Iuridse, Bothriuridae,
and Buthidae — are apoikogenic. The latter type of develojnnent appears
to be the more primitive. It is only one step from the laying of the
eggs which is the almost universal custom among Arthropods. With
regard to the structure of the lung-books, Mr. Laurie is inclined to regard
the so-called spinous type as the original. More evidence is wanted
before we can judge of the true relation of the various sub-families of the
Scorpionidae to each other, and the author is afraid that he has perhaps
tried to base too much on a comparatively small number of observations.

e. Crustacea.

Nervous System of Crustacea, f — Mr. E. J. Allen continues his
studies on the nerve-elements of the embryonic lobster. He deals first
with elements arising from cells situated in the thoracic, and next with
those which arise from cells situated in the abdominal ganglia. The
motor elements found in the abdomen in nearly every case supply fibres
to the posterior nerve-roots of the ganglia, while the greater number of
those described for the thorax, in this and the author’s previous paper,
send their fibres to the anterior nerve-roots, a few only supplying the
posterior roots. The probable reason for this difference is not, Mr. Allen
thinks, difficult to find. The anterior roots chiefly supply the appen-
dages, which are well developed in the thorax of the embryo, while in the
abdomen they are wanting. The posterior roots, on the other hand,
supply the muscles of the body itself, which are well developed in the
abdomen, but less so in the thorax.

Abnormal Crab.f — Mr. A. Betheifound at Plymouth a crab with a
large leg on the left side of the fifth segment of the abdomen. This
leg was at once seen to be a real walking leg, and not a left-handed but
a right-handed one ; compared with other walking legs, it was seen to
correspond to the second and third of the thorax. When alive the leg

* Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xviii. (1896) pp. 121-33 (1 pi.),
t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxix. (1896) pp. 33-50 (1 pi.).

X Journ. Mar. Biol. Assoc., iv. (1896) pp. H4-5 (1 fig.).

2 o

1896

522

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

was motionless, but it was sensitive. When Mr. Betlie first saw the
crab he imagined that this surplus leg might be innervated by a nerve
coming from a surplus half ganglion of the right side, and this indee.1
proved to be the case. Dissection showed a big nerve entering the leg,
and starting from the right side of the ventral cord. A theoretical
explanation of this abnormality is promised in a further paper.

Classification and Distribution of Lithodinea.* — M. E. L. Bouvier
recognises two tribes — Hapalogastrica and Ostracogastrica. Diagnoses
are given of the genera and species.

The Lithodinea inhabit cold or temperate waters ; they are therefore
found in deep water in the Tropics, while they are littoral or sub-littoral
in temperate and cold regions, The primitive forms, Hapalogastrica,
are all littoral or sub-littoral ; and the abyssal forms are migrants from
the shore, and less primitive. The original home seems to have been
the North Pacific, for there the majority and all the primitive forms arc
found. Thence some forms, following an abyssal path, have reached
South America, where some have again become sub-littoral. Others
invaded and still invade the Atlantic ; following two opposite routes,
one western from south to north along the American coast, the other
eastern from north to south along European coasts to Africa.

Pelagic Schizopods.j* — Prof. C. Chun begins this chapter of his
‘ Atlantis ’ with some general notes on the share which Schizopods have
in the Plankton. Quantitatively, the Euphauskhe predominate greatly
over the Mysideae. He passes to a description of Stylocheiron mastigo-
phorum Chun, paying particular attention to the secondary sexual
characters. Then follows an account of the internal structure of Stylo-
cheiron. Four forms receive particular description — S. chelifer Chun,
Nematoscelis mantis $ Chun, Arachnomysis Leuckartii Chun, and Bruto-
mysis Vogti g. et sp. n.

Chun suggests the following scheme, showing the relationships of
Euphausidae : —

Ancestral form

Benthcujphausia

I Tltysanopoda

Nyctiphanes

Thysanoessa

Euphausia

Stylocheiron Nematoscelis

The memoir concludes with systematic notes on the following
Mysideae : — Siriella Dana, Euchsetoma G. 0. Sars, Bratomysis Chun,
Csesaromysis Ortm., and Arachnomysis Chun.

Fresh-water Copepods of Germany4 — Dr. 0. Schmeil continues his
account of these, dealing in this, the third, part of his memoir with the

* Ann. Sci. Nat., i. 1896, pp. 1-46.

f Bibliotheca Zoologica (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 19 (1896) pp. 139-89(7 pis.).
% op. cit., Heft 21, pp. 1-72 (6 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

523

Centropagidm. He begins with a discussion of their systematic posi-
tion, and proceeds to the genus Diaptomus , the species of which are
divided into three sets — the casfor-group, the salinus-gvoup, and the
cseruleus- group.

Male Gonads of Cyclops.* * * § — Herr A. Steuer follows Ishikawa in dis-
tinguishing, in the testis of Cyclops, &c., three zones of formation, grow-
ing, and ripening. These are readily observed in the proper season, but
the first cold day of late autumn immediately stops all reproductive
processes, and the organ begins to be reduced. The author describes
the testis, a vas deferens, and spermatophores, and his results are, in the
main, confirmatory of those reached by previous workers.

Parasitic Copepoda of Fish from Plymouth, f — Mr. P. W. Bassett-
Smith, surgeon B.N., at the suggestion of the editor of this Journal, took
up when stationed at Plymouth the study of the Copepods found parasitic
on fish there. A collector is quickly struck by the much greater sus-
ceptibility of some fish over others, and the large number of parasites
found on them individually. It is rare to find a fairly grown cod
without a number of specimens of Anchorella uncinata attached to the
folds about the lips, and in the gill-cavity. In its mouth and on the
palate will be seen frequently half a dozen specimens of Caligus curtus ;
on the gills, deeply imbedded, Lernsea branchialis ; and on the body sore
places where numbers of Caligus muelleri have been fixed. Gurnards,
too, are very prolific, both in variety and number of specimens. After
examining a large number of fish harbouring parasites, the author was
led to the conclusion that in the great majority of cases, their presence
is not prejudicial to the life of the fish, for (1) the fish bearing them
are generally mature ; (2) there were rarely any ulcerated surfaces
found around or near their attachment; and (3) the individual fish
are generally well nourished. To this, however, there are certain,
exceptions : Lernsea branchialis and its allies must be a constant source
of drain of nourishment and also cause great irritation. The author
describes no less than seven new species.

Histology of Muscles of Cirripedia.f — M. A. Gruvel has made a
study of some points in the minute anatomy of the muscles of Cirripedia,
the chief species of which he has examined. He recognises in them
three forms of muscular tissue which he distinguishes as : (1) striated
non-arborescent fibres ; (2) striated arborescent fibres ; (3) smooth non-
arborescent fibres ; that kind of fibre which he and other authors have
distinguished as smooth and arborescent, is not muscular at all, but is
of the nature of connective tissue. A short description is given of each
of the kinds of tissue which the author enumerates.

Early Development of Lepas fascicularis.§— Mr. M. A. Bigelow has
a preliminary notice of his studies on the development of this Cirriped,
which were commenced before the observations of Groom were published.
He finds that the ectoblast is separated from the mesentoblast by four
divisions. The four blastomeres thus formed rapidly divide, and grow

* Yerh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, xlvi. (1896) pp. 242-54 (1 pi.),

t Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., xviii. (1896) pp. 8-16 (4 pis.),

t Comptes Rendus, cxxxiii. (1896) pp. 68-70.

§ Anat. Auzeig., xii. (1S96) pp. 263-9 (9 figs.).

2 0 2

521

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

around the yolk-cell in an epibolic fashion. The divisions of these
blastomeres are in every normal stage approximately synchronous with
the division of the yolk-cell. The successive cleavages occur in a
definite and regular order ; in fact, in all important respects, the
cleavage of L. fascicularis is as regular as that of any other of the
Metazoa. Previous observers have all failed to recognise any definite
order in the cleavage of Cirriped ova. There is undoubtedly some irre-
gularity in the cleavage of the ova of those Cirripeds which have a
great amount of yolk. The author promises, in a future paper, to point
out that the cleavage of these forms, when interpreted by that of
L. fascicularis , follows a much more regular order than has been
supposed.

Annulata.

Fate of the Parent Stock of Autolytus ornatus.*— Mr. P. C. Mensch
describes a specimen of this Syllid, the study of which leads him to think
that in this species there is a conversion of a parent stock into a sexual
individual. Such a conversion of a parent stock has been observed in
several allies of this form, but in these cases the parent stock acquired
the characteristics peculiar to the sexual individual. In the author’s
specimens of A. ornaius no well-marked changes in external appearances
were observed, and with the exception of a very slight difference in the
size of the eyes, the ovule-Ior sperm-bearing individuals do not differ ex-
ternally from those devoid of sexual products. With the exception of
slight changes of doubtful significance, the internal differences observed
were no more than such as would naturally result in the displacement
of the alimentary canal by an accumulation of ovules and sperm-cells in
the body-cavity.

Nerilla antennata. f — Mad. Sophie Pereyaslawzewa has studied
the structure of this remarkable Annelid. It is so remarkable that she
proposes a distinct family — Nerillidae, with the following diagnosis : —
The cephalic lobe bears three frontal antennee and two very short lateral
appendages ; the head is very distinct ; the appendages are undivided,
aud bear two bundles of simple setm ; all the segments except the
cephalic have parapodia ; each parapodium has a minute dorsal cirrus :
there are two long caudal appendages ; the pharynx is simply muscular
without armature ; the sexes are separate; the female has two ovaries in
the fourth segment, and two rudimentary seminal vesicles without an
opening ; the male has much-lobed testes, whence numerous canals lead
to an ejaculatory duct opening medianly between the third and fourth
segments.

The type is represented only by Nerilla antennata 0. Schmidt. Some
of its characteristics occur separately in other Annelids, e.g. the ciliated
rings of each segment in the mature animal are also known in Ophryo -
trocha puerilis, from which, however, Nerilla is very different. Thus,
while Ophryotrocha is hatched as a trochophore, Nerilla has a direct de-
velopment. The ciliated rings are not larval, but aj>pear with maturity.
Another peculiarity is the separation of the two nerve-trunks, which
have only hints of ganglia and no commissures. It resembles Archi-

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 269-71.

t Ann. Sci. Nat., i. (1896) pp. 277-315 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

525

annelids in many ways, but its segmentation is much more pronounced.
The gonads are also remarkable ; thus, the female shows hints of her-
maphroditism in the possession of rudimentary seminal vesicles; and
there are vaguer hints in the male, where spermatozoa arise from two
different tissues, endodermic and mesodermic, at once. The author
concludes her account of this highly interesting form with a comparison
between it and Peripatus.

Notes on Qligochsetes.* — Mr. E. S. Goodrich has an account of a
new species of earthworm which he calls Enchytrseus hortensis. As he
has found it near Oxford, London, and Weymouth, it is probably distri-
buted all over England. When full-grown, it is about 15 mm. in
length, and milky white in colour. He enters with some detail into an
account of the structure of the nephridium, and, as he was able to
observe it in the living animal, he is able to correct some errors into
which he thinks Bolsius fell from employing the method of sections
alone.

The coelomic corpuscles of this worm are most characteristic, and
are of three kinds. One variety is very characteristic of the Enchy-
traeidae in general, and has been described by almost every writer on
this group of the Oligochaeta. A variety of these contains a refringent
body which is found on examination to be formed of a long thread of
transparent homogeneous substance, closely coiled like a rope. On the
function of these threads the author is unable to throw any light. As
in some other forms, the spermatheca of this new worm fuses with, and
opens into the oesophagus.

The author has made a study of the action of chemical reagents on
the coelomic corpuscles of this worm, and of the Vermiculus pilosus which
he described some time since. He finds in them at least four distinct
endoplastic products, aud perhaps three distinct chemical substances,
which are probably of an albuminoid nature. None are mucin or chitin,
nor are they of a fatty or a starchy nature. Mr. Goodrich finds in the
cuticle and setae of the common earthworm three albuminoid substances
distinct from each other, and from those found in the coelomic corpuscles.
In the common earthworm, though not in the two other genera just
mentioned, the setae appear to be chiefly composed of chitin, or of some
substance closely allied to it.

Gigantic Earthworm from the Pyrenees.! — MM. J. de Guerne and
R. Horst give an account of a large earthworm taken near d’Ahusquy.
This station is 920 metres high, and the winters there are both long
and severe. When extended these worms cannot be less than 40 cm.,
and there is little doubt that the species is Allolobopliora gigas , which
was discovered byDuges near Montpellier. The zoologists of that place
should rediscover the worm for themselves, and give us a detailed account
of it.

Supra-CEsophageal Gland of Haementaria officinalis.^ — Herr H.
Bolsius finds in this leech a tubular organ which he has not observed
in any of its allies. This tube lies above and along the proboscis, and

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xxxix. (1896) pp. 51-69 (2 pis.).

t Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxi. (1896) pp. 108-10.

X Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 284-5 (2 figs.).

526

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

is almost as large as it. In structure it recalls a little tlie silk-forming
and many other tubular glands. The tube itself is formed of cells
placed end to end, eacb of which surrounds the lumen of the canal ; the
nuclei of these cells are large, and the protoplasm is strongly striated.
Further details are promised.

Hematohelminth.es.

Development of Ascaris megalocephala.* — Dr, B. Zoja has studied
the cell-lineage in the early development of this Nematode. He fol-
lowed it partly on sections and partly on in toto preparations. His
coloured diagrams make it easy to follow the lineage, but the details are
not so readily put in words. The accompanying diagram, slightly
modified from Boveri, sums up a few of the outstanding results.

Here O represents cells with primitive nuclei, beginning with yd,
the fertilised ovum ; -Q)- represents cells in which a diminution of the
chromatin has occurred ; © represents cells with diminished nuclei.

Nematode Embryos in the Skin of the Dog.f — Dr. J. G. Schneider
has examined the causes of an affection of the dog which has been called
Dermatitis verminosa. This appears to be due to a new species of
Nematode, belonging to the group which is ordinarily found living in
decaying vegetable substances. They no doubt enter the skin by means
of the hair-follicles. They are characterised by the eighteen regularly
alternating preanal ventral papillae, and by the constrictor muscle of
the pharynx.

Filaria Mansoni.f — Dr. P. S. Magalbaes seems, after all, to have
been the first to give a description of the worm to which, nearly twenty
years since, Dr. Cobbold gave the above name. The author’s first de-
scription was published in 1888, in what appears to be an obscure
Brazilian medical newspaper. Correspondence with Dr. Manson showed
him that he had discovered the form for which Cobbold had proposed

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii. pp. 218-60 (2 pis.)

t See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., xx. (1896) pp. 115-6.

% Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xx. (1895) pp. 241-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

527

Manson’s name, and ho now gives in French an account of it, which no
doubt will he useful to those who are occupied with these worms.

New Acanthocephalid.* — Mr. A. E. Shipley describes, under the
name of Arhjnchus hemignatlii, a new genus of this group of parasites
which was found by Mr. Perkins adhering lightly to the skin around
the anus of Hemignathus procerus, a bird found in one of the Sandwich
Islands. Each of these parasites was divided into three regions — a head,
collar, and trunk. Though clearly an Acanthocephalid, the creature
differed from the other members of the group in the absence of what
is perhaps their most characteristic organ, the hooked proboscis. The
absence of so characteristic a structure, and the fact that the parasites
were external and not internal, led to the suspicion that the hooked
proboscis had been left behind in the intestine of the host. Careful
inspection failed to reveal any scar or mark which would justify this
view. The author gives a detailed account of the anatomy of this new
form, and proceeds to discuss its position among the Acanthocephala. He
finds it necessary to form for it a new family, the Aihynchidse, which
may be defined as short forms, with the body divided into three well-
marked regions — the head is pitted, the collar smooth, and the trunk
wrinkled. There is no eversible introvert, and no introvert sheath and
no hooks. The subcuticle and the lemnisci have a few giant nuclei,
and the lemnisci are long and coiled. In the last-mentioned point this
family resembles the Gigantorhynchidas, and in other characters the
Neorhynchidae, but in a number of important characters they stand
alone. It is probable that the second host of this parasite, if such
exists, must be looked for among insects.

Platyhelminth.es,

Polyclads of New Britain.f — Dr. A. Willey finds that the Polyclad
fauna of Blanche Bay, New Britain, is rich both in species and indi-
viduals. One very fine form attained a length of 66 mm. A new
species which the author calls Planocera discoides is of great beauty.
The body was remarkably transparent, so that the branches of the
intestine could be well seen through the walls. It had a circular disc of
egg-capsules. This disc had the appearance of consisting of a series
of concentric circles, but closer examination showed that the rows were
arranged spirally.

Parasites of Egypt.*— Prof. M. Braun has an extended notice of
the first part of Dr. A. Looss’s researches on the parasites of Egypt. He
gives the work high praise, and calls attention to the sixteen beautiful
plates with which it is illustrated. The text is divided into two parts,
the first of which deals with 31 species of Trematodes, 20 of which are
new. The second gives data for the developmental history of some of
the species, and describes the stages of some forms whose history is as
yet incompletely known. The common liver-fluke, as found in Egypt,
differs sufficiently from the European form to be distinguished as a
variety. It has a longer body, a shorter cephalic cone, a more richly

* Quart. Journ. Mikr. Sci., xxxix. (1896) pp. 207-18 (1 pi ).

t j-Tom. cit., pp. 153-9 (6 figs.).

t See Central bh f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., xx. (1896) pp. 107-15,

528

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

branched intestine, and a more extensively ramified testis. A number
of the new species belong to the genus Distomum. With regard to the
human parasite Bilharzia hsematobia, the author corrects numerous errors
which appear in the latest description of this parasite. Dr. Looss has
been able to work out the whole development of Amjpliistomum conicum ,
which is by no means rare in European cattle. Various Cercarise have
been observed in various Molluscs, but their further histories have still
to be worked out.

Endoparasitic Worms from Birds near Warsaw.* — Dr. F. Sinizin
has a report, in Russian, on the birds examined in the neighbourhood
of Warsaw for endoparasitic worms. 120 examples of 51 species were
examined, but in 35 only were parasites found. Some of these are new,
and are described in some detail. Unfortunately, however, the anatomical
details appear to be exceedingly scanty.

Taeniae of Birds.f— Dr. E. Roth has a report on the anatomical
studies of the Tsenise of birds, which Mr. A. Morell has published as an
inaugural dissertation. The scolex is generally rounded, but the form
depends, of course, to some extent on the state of contraction of the
muscles. The number of suckers is nearly always four, and rarely five.
The arrangement and character of the hooks varies greatly, and some-
times they are absent. The excretory system is dealt with in some
detail. The nervous system appears to be always of the same character,
and the muscular system shows but slight variations in its arrangement.
The cuticle in all cases forms a structureless membrane, the thickness
of which varies within narrow limits. The male organs, with one
exception, become mature before the female. Fertilisation is effected
in three different ways. In most cases the vagina becomes a canal for
fertilisation, and the fertilised eggs pass into the uterus. In the sub-
genus Davainea the germ-cells remain at the place where they are
formed, and the sperm and yoke-material are brought to them. The
ovary becomes the uterus. The details of the third method are not
given in the report before us.

Tape-Worms of Poultry.^ — Dr. C. W. Stiles has prepared a report on
the present knowledge of the tape-worms of poultry, and Mr. A. Hassall
has added to it a bibliography of these parasites. Tape-worms infest
domesticated poultry, and have in some cases given rise to serious out-
breaks of disease. Of the 33 species which have been recorded for
poultry, several are doubtful, and probably several forms appear more
than once under different names. Six different tape-worms have been
recorded from pigeons, 2 from turkeys, 11 from chickens, 2 from swans,
7 from geese, 16 from ducks, and 1 from ostriches. These numbers,
however, must be received with caution, as many of the specific accounts
are almost worthless. Fortunately, the life-history of a number of forms
is known, and agrees, as may be expected, with the life-history of other
tape-worms. Chickens are known to have become infected by tape-worm
through eating slugs; they are supposed to have become infected by
eating snails, by eating flies, and by eating earth-worms. Ducks are

* See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol., xx. (1896) p. 107. f Tom. cih, pp. 116-20.

X U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. xii.,
88 pp. and 21 pis.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

529

known to have became infected through two worms, and through swallow-
ing fresh- water Crustacea, and are supposed to have become infected with
three other tape- worms in the same way. Only two of the chicken
tape-worms have as yet been recorded for wild birds. A thorough study
of the parasites of wild birds must be made in connection with those of
our domesticated fowl.

The author describes the symptoms of tape-worm disease, and dis-
cusses methods of prevention and treatment. An analytical key is given
to the families and genera enumerated in the report.

New Taenia.* — Herr C. Ph. Sluiter describes a new Cestode, Tsenia
plaslica sp. n., which was obtained from the intestine of Galeopitliecus
volans. The strobile varies in length from 24 to 220 mm., and is usually
lancet-shaped. The head is conical, and is armed with four suckers ;
the proglottides are short and broad. The peculiar shape is due to the
rapid increase in breadth of the early links, which, after attaining a
maximum breadth of 11 mm,, decrease to about 5 mm. towards the end
of the strobile. The sexual aperture is lateral, but there is no regularity
in its position. The sexual organs become mature at about the fortieth
proglottis, and about ten links further on ripe eggs are found in the
uterus. The cirrus lies in front of the vagina. The ova in utero are
0*025 mm. in diameter. An excretory vessel runs down each side of
the strobile, and at the posterior side of each joint these are connected
by a transverse branch ; at the junction there is an expansion with a
valve above.

The anatomy of the new Taenia, more especially of the sexual organs,
is carefully depicted in the author’s illustrations.

Tsenia fiavo-punctata.f — Dr. P. Sonsino records another case of the
occurrence of Tsenia flavo-pundata Weinland, in man, and maintains
(supported by Zschokke, to whom the specimens were referred), that this
Cestode is identical with T. ( Hymenolepsis ) diminuta R., and also with
T. leptocephala Creplin.

Bothriocephalus rectangulus Rud4— In its general appearance and
in its anatomy BoihriocepJialus rectangulus ( Bothriotsenia Paillet) differs
very materially, says Herr 0. Fuhrmann, from B. ZscholcJcii. It is about
50 mm. long and 15 mm. broad. The bothria vary in shape from oval
to round, according to the degree of contraction. The cuticula is about
0*0034 mm. thick, and the musculature but poorly developed. The
excretory vessels are double, and only unite in the scolex. The nervous
system consists of two long filaments, which join as a ganglion in the
scolex. Indications of the sexual organs are visible in the links close
behind the scolex. The sexual openings are marginal. The anatomy
of the male and female organs is carefully and minutely described ; for
the details the original should be consulted. The eggs are oval,
0*07 mm. long and 0*02 mm. broad.

Nervous System of Cestodes.§ — Mr. W. L. Tower points out that
no previous workers upon the nervous system of Cestodes have been able

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 911-6 (6 figs.).

t Tom. cit., pp. 937-41 (2 figs.). % Tom. cit., pp. 605-8.

§ Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 323-7 (2 figs.).

530

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

to find any transverse connections between tbe large longitudinal nerves
of the two margins of the proglottids. He himself has, by the aid of
Yom Bath’s killing mixture, been able to demonstrate certain well-
defined commissures in Moniezia expansa and 31. pianissimo,. The
lateral nerve-trunk of these worms is elliptical in cross-section. Near
the posterior end of each proglottis the lateral nerve becomes enlarged
and forms a distinct ganglionic mass, consisting of larger central and
smaller outer cells. From the outer side of each of these ganglia there
arises a large nerve which passes off towards the margin of the proglottis.
This is the marginal nerve, and in addition to it there are several small
nerves which are distributed to the hinder marginal portions of the
proglottis ; from the dorsal surface of the ganglion there arises a large
nerve which passes directly across the proglottis to join the corre-
sponding part of the posterior lateral ganglion of the opposite side of
the body. This the author calls the dorsal commissure. A nerve cor-
responding in size, position, and connection likewise unites the ventral
surfaces of the two posterior lateral ganglia. This is called the
ventral commissure. These two commissural nerves are band-like.
Along their whole length occur ganglionic nerve-cells either singly or
grouped into clusters. They are united with each other by means of
two dorsal ventral nerves. In addition to this, which is merely, it
appears, a preliminary notice, the author gives some other interesting
details as to the distribution of nerves in the body of tapeworms.

Gctocotylidse.* * * § — M. P. Cerfontaine has brought together in a col-
lected form the results of his studies on these worms, the preliminary
notices of which we have already reported, j For the details which he
adds to these notices we must refer the student to the original.

Rotatoria.

New American Rotifera.J — Hr. A. C. Stokes describes a number
of Rotifers which were all taken from a shallow clear water pool in a
rocky wood near Trenton, New Jersey, U.S.A. 3Ionostyla bipes is a
somewhat remarkable concoction of names, but Dr. Stokes says that when
the animal was dead he distinctly saw the two claws slightly parted.

Rotifera of Illinois River. § — Mr. A. Hempel has found in or near
Illinois River no less than ninety species of Rotifers ; of these three,
belonging to the genus Brachionus, appear to be new. B. variabilis is
remarkable for losing its posterior spines with age. It is very restless
and active, and occurs only in open water free from vegetation. B. mollis
is peculiar for having a very thin soft lorica, and no spines.

Incertae Sedis.

Sexual Phases of Myzostoma.||— Prof. W. M. Wheeler commences
with a descriptive account of the species which infest in various "ways
Crinoids. Some are migratory, i.e. they move about freely on their
hosts; others are stationary, these are sluggish species which can never

* Arch, de Biol., xiv. (1896) pp. 497-560 (1 ph).

t See this Journal, 1S95, pp. 536-634.

X Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., xviii. (1896) pp. 17-27 (2 pis.).

§ Bull. Illinois State Laboratory, iv. (1896) pp. 309-13 (3 pis.).

|| MT. Zool. Stat. Naples, xii. (1896) pp. 227-302.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

531

leave the spot where they have settled. Then there are cyst-producing
species which form galls or swellings on the discs or arms of their
Crinoid host, and, lastly, some species — the endoparasitic — inhabit the
alimentary tract of their hosts.

All the species of these various groups may be arrauged in a series
of increasing parasitism, from the primitive and most typical forms of
the first group to the very aberrant species of the fourth. The departure
in the adult from the juvenile condition increases in a corresponding
manner. Nine species, representing every one of the groups, are con-
sidered in the present memoir ; three of them are new. Though
parasitic itself, Myzostoma is infested with parasites. Nansen has
already reported the presence of a tapeworm, and Prof. Wheeler has
found an Amoeba and a Distomum.

The author deals at some length with the criticisms of Dr. Beard, and
then proceeds to a consideration of the relationship of the Myzostomata
to the Chaetopoda. He deals with the relations of the reproductive
organs to the body-cavity, the structure of the ovaries, the nephridia,
the segmental sacs (or suckers), the parapodia, and the cirri ; and, lastly,
he urges that the Chaetopod affinities of Mijzostoma are further shown by
their resemblance to the genus Sjpinther.

With regard to the sexual condition of Myzostoma, four distinct
stages may be recognised in their life : — (1) A phase of sexual neutrality,
or indifference ; (2) a protandric phase extending from the appearance
of the first ripe spermatozoa to the appearance of the first ripe ova ;
(3) an androgynous or functionally hermaphrodite phase, extending
from the appearance of the first ripe ova to the disappearance of the last
ripe spermatozoa ; (4) a hysterogynous phase, extending from the dis-
appearance of the last spermatozoa to the disappearance of the last ripe
ova, an event which is very probably not attained at the time of the
animal’s death.

Echinoderma.

New Genus of Liassic Echinoidea.* — Dr. J. W. Gregory describes,
under the name of Archoeodiadema, a new genus of Liassic Echinoids.
The fauna of the English Liassic is not rich in species, and as a rule the
specimens are small, but it is of interest, as its members are primitive
in character, and as they foreshadow many of the main lines of evolution
followed by the rich echinoid fauna of the Oolites. The new genus
appears to be the simplest known form of the Diadematinae ; specimens
seem to be fairly abundant, and are generally about the same size ;
their general appearance suggests that they are adult.

Ophiurids of Recent Expeditions.!— Prof. R. Koehler has a short
notice of the twenty-five species collected by the c llirondelle,’ and the
twenty-three species collected by the ‘ Princess Alice.’ Several of the
species are new, but do not appear to be of any special interest.

Coelentera.

Classification of Alcyonaria.f— Prof. S. J. Hickson called the
attention of the zoologists at Leyden to his proposed classification of

*feGeol. Mag., iii. (1896) pp. 317-9 (1 fig.).

f Mem. See. Zool. France, ix. (1896) pp. 203-13 and 241-53.

X Report of the 3rd International Congress of Zoology, 1896, pp. 352-6.

532

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the Alcyonaria into five sub-orders. With regard to the first, the Proto-
alcyonaria, he remarked that the immense amount of work done in recent
years has produced no confirmatory evidence of the existence of any
sexually mature solitary genus of Alcyonaria, and it seems probable
that this sub-order may have to be abandoned.

He directed attention to characters that should be used with great
care in naming and forming species. The literature of the Alcyonaria
is sufficient to impress the worker with the enormous number of species
that had been founded on very imperfect observations and descriptions,
so that the confusion in the group is now appalling. In many cases
new species have been made on the strength of one character only, such
as the form or number of spicules, or the size of the polypes, or the
power of contractility, or the colour of the tentacles. These characters,
when taken alone, and in spirit specimens, are extremely misleading ; the
form and size of the spicules of Alcyonarian colonies vary much, and
the spicules are no guide to the determination of species, unless it is
distinctly stated from what part of the colony they are taken. More-
over, specimens dredged in shallow water have been found to have much
more numerous spicules than those taken from deep water. The size of
the polypes is a character which by itself cannot be relied on. As to
the power of contractility, it depends very much on the method adopted
for killing and preserving the specimens.

Protozoa.

Protozoa of Illinois.* — Mr. A. Hempel reports that eighty species
of Protozoa have been observed in this locality, four of which appear to
be new. They do not seem, however, to exhibit any characters of
especial interest.

New Ciliata.j — Herr H. S. Wallengren describes Cliilodocliona g. n.,
which he places in a new family, Chilodochonina, and along with Spiro-
chonina, Kentrocliona, Heliochona , Styloc/iona ?, and Spirocliona in a new
section, Chonotricha. He found one species, Ch. Zvennerstedti [sic], as a
commensal on the maxillae and maxillipedes of a small crab, Ebalia
turnefada [sic] Mont., and on the moutli-parts of Portunus depur at or
Leach. Another form — Ch. microchilus — perhaps only a variety, was
found in the maxillipedes of the last-named crab.

Another new Ciliate — Pleurocoptes Hydradinise g. et sp. n. — was
found as an ectoparasite on Hydradinia echinata Johnst. It seems to
belong to the order Trichostomata and sub-order Aspirotricha, near
Lembadion Perty and Pleuronema Djsd.

Phseocystis.f — Herr G. Lagerheim describes an abundant Plankton
Flagellate Phseocystis Poucheli (Har.) Lagerh., which was previously
regarded by Pouchet and by Hariot as an Alga, of the genus Tetraspora.
A more careful study leads, according to Lagerheim, to the conclusion
that the form in question is a Flagellate Infusorian. It is yellowish-
brown in colour, and forms vesicular colonies. These consist of round,
fixed, vegetative cells, with 2-1 parietal chromatophores. Multiplica-

* Bull. Illinois State Laboratory, iv. (1896) pp. 313-6 (2 pis.).

t Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 547-56 (8 figs.).

X Ofversigt K. Yetensk. Akad. Forhandl., liii. (1896) pp. 277-88 (7 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

533

tion occurs by means of bi-flagellate zoospores. Its position is probably
among the Hydrurina, which may be divided into Hydruraceae with
Hydrurus and Phseodermatium , and Phaeocystaceae with Phseocystis.

Myxosporidia of Pike and Perch.* — Dr. L. Cohn first describes
Myxidium Lieberlcuhnii , from the urinary bladder of the pike. About
90 per cent, of the fishes examined were infected, and the infection
seemed to bear no relation to sex or age. It is probable that budding
replaces sporulation in winter.

Fully developed Myxidia are large plasmic masses of very variable
shape, showing three concentric zones, ecto-, meso-, and endoplasm.
The endoplasm is most fluid and richest in granules; the mesoplasm
has greater consistence and a fine granulation ; the ectoplasm is toughest
and quite hyaline. There are processes resembling lobose pseudopodia
or simple and branched bristles, the former consisting partly or mainly
of mesoplasm, the latter of ectoplasm solely. Sometimes the whole
surface is covered with villosities, but there is no external membrane.
There seems little warrant for regarding Myxidia as plasmodial com-
binations. Various enclosures occur in the endoplasm, apparently of
the nature of excretions. The organism multiplies by budding, and
thus further infects the bladder, or by spindle-shaped, binucleate spores
in closed “ pansporoblasts.” It is by the spores that the infection spreads
from host to host. Nutrition is effected by sinking the anterior end
into the epithelial cells.

Cohn proceeds to describe six species of Myxobolus, two of which
are new. The spores are bilaterally symmetrical, with two polar cor-
puscles at the pointed pole and a vacuole in the plasma. Some are
tailed, others not, but this seems of little importance. Except M. medius
and M. brevis , which occur in the ureters of Gastrosteus aculeatus and
Pygosteus pungifins, all are found within the tissues.

Chlamydomyxa montana.t — Prof. E. Ray Lankester gives an ac-
count of this new species of the interesting genus which was first
described more than twenty years ago by Mr. Archer. Whenever suit-
able opportunity — that is to say, his presence in a moorland country
with Sphagnum bogs — has rendered it possible that he might find
Chlamydomyxa , Prof. Lankester has made a point of searching for it, and
he has found it at Pontresina and at Zermatt. Unfortunately, he has
only once seen the creature in an expanded condition, in most cases only
being able to observe the cysts. It is probable that the latter end of
June, or the beginning of July, is the best time for observing Chlamydo-
myxa in an uncysted condition. After giving an account of the charac-
ters and structure of the new species, which is well illustrated by
Prof. Lankester’s own drawings, he proceeds to discuss the affinities of
this remarkable form. He does not think that either his observation or
the progress of our knowledge of the Protozoa in the last twenty-one
years enables us definitely to assign to Chlamydomyxa its position in
relation to other naked Protozoa. The author cannot agree with Prof.
Geddes that it should be regarded as related to the Algae. The most
remarkable feature, in which this organism differs from all other Pro-

* Zool. Jalirb. (Abth. Anat. Ontog.), ix. (1896) pp. 227-72 (2 pis.).

t Quart. Journ. Mikr. Sci., xxxix. (1896) pp. 233-44 (2 pis.).

534

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tozoa, is its encysted phase. It is true that the enclosure of the general
protoplasm in a cyst-wall may be compared with the fruit formation and
other cyst-like productions of the Mycetozoa ; but, on the other hand, it
is to be noted that the physiological character of its cysts, the activities
of the encysted organism, and the great relative duration and importance
of the encysted phase are peculiar to Chlamydomyxa , and may be ex-
plained by the fact that this organism is an inhabitant of fresh water,
and subjected to the changes of temperature and evaporation of the
water which we know are frequently associated with special protective
structures and aberrant phases of growth and activity.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

535

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Division of the Nucleus.* — Further instalments of M. C. Degagny’s
observations — chiefly on Spirogyra setiformis, nitida , and crassa — relate
mainly to the part played by the filament in the division of the nucleus,
and to the phenomena which precede and follow the disappearance of
the nuclear membrane. He claims to have established the fact that the
filament commences its activity from the beginning of the phenomena
of division, before any modification has taken place in the nuclear
membrane. In S. setiformis , as soon as the membrane has disappeared,
the poles approach one another in consequence of the contraction of
the protoplasmic substances which occupy the intermediate space, viz.
the achromatic filaments and the caryoplasm. This contraction results
from the cohesion of the protoplasmic substances of which the filaments
are composed, after having dissolved the caryoplasmic granulations.

In comparing the phenomena which take place in Lilium candidum
with those in Spirogyra , he suggests that the two asters or amphiasters
in the former case, with their centres or directing spheres, correspond to
the suspending cords in the latter case, and that the formation of those
bodies in Lilium is accounted for by the contraction of the spindle.

The phenomena are then described in detail which accompany the
formation of the nuclear plate and of the spindle in Lilium candidum ,
after the disappearance of the nuclear membrane. The knot ( peloton )
formed from the rods after the disappearance of the membrane is sur-
rounded by a remarkably large aster with beautifully clear rays. The
same phenomenon of the approach of the poles, in consequence of the
contraction of the connecting filaments, is exhibited in Lilium as in
Spirogyra.

(2) Other Cell-contents (including: Secretions). 1

Localisation of Active Principles.f — M. L. Sauvan has found the
following to be the distribution of a number of alkaloids and glucosides
in the various tissues of the living plant : —

Strychnine in Siryclinos nux-vomica and other species of the genus.
In the young plant : — in the cortical parencliyme of the root and stem
and in the liber ; also in the same parts of the mature plant. In the
seed : — in all the cells of the endosperm and of the embryo, always in
their interior.

Brucine in different species of Strychnos. This alkaloid accompanies
strychnine in all the organs where it occurs ; and it is also present, in
smaller quantities, in the epiderm of the leaf and of the young stem.

Curarine in species of Strychnos. In the root and stem : — in the
interior of the cortical parenchymatous cells and in those of the liber ;

* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlii. (1895) pp. 635-42 ; xliii. (1896) pp. 12-21, 51— S,
87-96. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 200.

t Joum. de Bot. (Morot), x. (1896) pp. 126-40, 157-62 (3 figs.).

536

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

also in the epiderm of the young stem. In the leaf : — in all the paren-
chymatous cells, in the liber, and in the epiderm.

Gelsemine in Gelsemium sempervirens. In the root and stem : — in
the liber and cortical parenchyme ; also in the pith of the stem. In the
leaf and leaf-stalk : — as in the stem.

Berberine in Berberis vulgaris. In the root : — in the interior of the
cells of the cortical parenchyme, liber, cambium, and medullary rays ;
in the interior and in the walls of the vessels of the xylem ; in the walls
of the ligneous fibres. In the stem : — in the interior of the cells of the
cortical parenchyme, liber, and cambium. In the seed : — in all the cells
of the embryo and endosperm.

Taxine in the yew. This principle occurs in the root, stem, leaf,
and leaf-stalk, and in all the cells of the embryo and endosperm.

Crystalloids of Phytolacca.* — In the conical mucro which forms the
apex of the leaves of Phytolacca abyssinica, Sig. 0. Kruch finds, both in
the epidermal cells and in those which constitute the special tissue of
the mucro, proteinaceous crystalloids of a regular polyhedral form.
They aro insoluble in water and in absolute alcohol, and are frequently
aggregated together in the cells.

Winter-Starch.j — Herr 0. Rosenberg finds that, in the perennial
parts of many herbaceous plants (Spirsea Ulmaria, Scrophularia nodosa )
an increase of starch takes place in the winter — as has already been
shown to be the case in woody plants J — which cannot be due to assimi-
lation ; since the leaves are entirely wanting and the buds inactive.
The amount of starch in the various parts of the rhizome varies from
month to month ; and in other cases ( Plantago major , Potentilla argentea ,
Hepatica triloba) the amount of starch in the underground organs de-
creases, or it entirely disappears, between November and April.

Red Pigments of Plants.§ — According to Herr L. Weigert, there
are only two well-marked classes of red pigments in the vegetable
kingdom — the wine-red ( Ampelopsis , Bhus typhina , Cornus sanguinea , &c.),
and the carrot-red (Beta, Amarantlius , fruit of Phytolacca , &c.). The
mallow-violets ( Coleus , &c.) form another group. In black grapes and
in whortleberries there are two pigments, one of which is a glucoside ;
the colouring matter of yellow vine-leaves is a glucoside ; as is also the
pigment of the mallow. The pigments of the grape and whortleberry
appear to belong to a class of tannins.

Distribution of Tannin in Wood.|| — M. E. Henry has investigated
the distribution of tannins in the wood of various trees, and finds that,
as a rule, the proportion diminishes, both in the bark and in the wood,
from the base to the summit of the tree. The richness in tannin is
generally in proportion to the vigour of growth. In the bark and in the
alburnum the tannin is dissolved in the cell-sap, while in the duramen
it impregnates the cell-walls. The maximum proportion is attained in
the outermost layers of duramen. In trees which have no proper duramen
the proportion of tannin increases to the centre of the trunk.

* Atti It. Accad. Lincei, v. (1896) pp. 364-6.

t Bot. Centralbl., lxvi. (1896) pp. 337-40. J Cf. this Journal, 1891, p. 485.

§ JB. K. K. OEnol. Lehranst. Klosternenburg, 1895. See Bot. Centralbl., lxvi.
(1896) p. 353. || Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xliii. (1896) pp. 124-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

537

Distribution of Cane Sugar.* — -Herron E. Sclmize and S. Frankfurt
have determined the presence of cane sugar in the most various organs
of a great variety of plants, though the quantity is seldom large. . It
occurs in large quantities in the pollen of Gorylus Avellana and Pinns
sylveslris. It may serve either as a direct food-material or as a reserve-
substance. Before passing through the cell-wall it is probably converted
into the more readily diffusible glucose.

Diastatic Ferment in Beet.j — Herr M. Gonnermann finds, as the
result of chemical experiments, clear evidence of the presence of an
enzyme in the root of the beet.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Protoplasmic Connections between Parenchyme-Cells.J — Herr A.
Meyer insists that the statements of Terletzki and Kienitz-Gerloff § of
the existence of broad protoplasm-bands connecting the adjacent cells
of the parenchymatous tissue in Filices and Augiosperms rests on
erroneous observation, due to the use of misleading technical methods.
Meyer maintains that the alleged bands of protoplasm are in reality
detached portions of the closing membranes of the pits.

Dignified CelhWalls.|] — From observations made by Herr H. C.
Schellenberg on a variety of woody plants, it appears that the firmness
of different kinds of woods is by no means dependent on the extent of
lignification of the cell-membranes ; nor does this character determine
the extensibility or the power of absorption of the wood. The lignifi-
cation invariably takes place while the cell still contains protoplasm ;
when the cell is dead, the process ceases. Cell-division can take place
only as long as the cell-wall is not lignified ; the formation of callus
occurs only in unlignified cells ; no increase of surface ensues when the
membrane is once lignified. The purpose of the lignification is, accord-
ing to the author, neither the conduction of water nor increased firmness,
but the stoppage of growth, in order that the plant may permanently
retain the form it has acquired.

Polystely in Dicotyledons.^ — Mr. D. T. Gwynne-Yaughan~adds to
the small number of cases hitherto described of polystely among Dico-
tyledons the runners of certain tropical species of Nymphmacem. Four
or five groups of vascular tissue run through the lacunar fundamental
tissue, each consisting of three or four vascular bundles grouped round
a common centre where their xylems are confluent.

Structure of Myoporacese and Allied Orders.** — M. J. Briquet
describes the structural peculiarities of this natural order of Gamopetake,
viz. : — the peculiar structure of certain trichomes ; the spiral vessels and
tracheids in the secondary wood ; the fact that the periderm is hypo-
dermal in the stem, while it is pericyclic in the root ; the secretion-

* Zeitschr. f. Phys. Cliem., xs. pp. 511-56. See Bot. Centralbl., Beili., vi. (1S96)

p. 111.

f Chem. Zeit., xix. (1895) p. 1806. See Journ. Cliem. Soc., 1896, Abstr., p. 381.

% Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 154-8 (1 pi.).

§ Cf. this Journal, 1891, p. 359.

|| Jabrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger). xxix. (1896) pp. 237-66.

% Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 289-91.

** Ann. Sci. Phys. et Nat., i. (1896) pp. 277-8.

1896 ‘ 2 p

538

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

pockets formed at tlie expense of tlie radical phelloderm ; the presence
of a metaxylem in the radical stele, &c. The structure is compared
with that of the allied orders Phryniaceae, Stilboideae, Chloanthoideae,
and Brunoniaceae.

(4) Structure of Organs.

Variation.* — Dr. W. Haacke has made a detailed study of the
variations, especially numerical, exhibited by Campanula glomerata and
Tanacetum corymbosum, and points out the general occurrence of what he
interprets as correlate variations, or of what are certainly simultaneous
variations in different parts of the plant. He regards cross-fertilisation
as having the great end of restoring the equilibrium which the individual
tends to lose. The variations tabulated are interpreted as due to varying
nutritive conditions in the different localities.

Mechanics of the Dehiscence of Anthers and Sporanges.j — Con-
tinuing his researches on this subject, Herr C. Steinbrinck states that
in the dehiscence of anthers no dynamic function is performed by the
epiderm, nor by the outer wall of the fibrous layer ; the seat of the
process lies entirely in the radial walls and the inner tangential walls of
the fibrous layer.

In the sporange of Equiselum, on the other hand, the spiral cells of
the epiderm constitute the mechanically active tissue. In the sporange
of Ferns the micellar structure of the walls of the cells of the annulus
is of great importance in the hygroscopic phenomena connected with
their dehiscence.

Cones of Coniferae.J — According to Dr. C. v. Tubeuf the statement
that the scales of the cones of Coniferae, when closed after flowering,
have their margins firmly attached to one another by thick- walled
papilla, is true of the Cupressincae only, and not even of all members of
that tribe. In the Abietineae, the closing is effected in other ways.

Structure of Aquatic Plants.§ — After a minute description of the
structure and mode of development of Zannichellia palustris , in which
he calls attention to the tendril-like nature of the roots, M. G. Hochreu-
tiner describes the adaptations to their condition of the aquatic plants
of the Rhone and the Lake of Geneva. The absorption of water and
of soluble salts takes place in the same way as in terrestrial plants, and
is greatly promoted by the large intercellular spaces. Transpiration or
exudation takes place even under water. The stems display, in general,
a well-marked negative geotropism, due to a sensitiveness not specially
localised, but distributed through the tissue. The existence of hydro-
tropism is very difficult to determine in aquatic plants ; but they
certainly display rheotropism, and in some cases a distinct positive
heliotropism.

Oak-leaved Hornbeam.]| — Herr C. Wehmer traces a connection
between the so-called “ oak-leaves ” of Carpinus Betulus, i.e. leaves differ-

* Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 481-97, 529-47.

f Bot. Jaarb. Gent, vii. (1895) pp. 222-356. See Bot. Centralbl., lvi. (1896)
p. 402. t Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 75-6.

§ Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), viii. (1896) pp. 90-110, 15S-67, 188-200, 249-65
(1 pi. and 42 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1892, p. 63.

[] Bot. Ztg., liv. (1896) lte Abt., pp. 81-96 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

539

ing from tlio ordinary leaves in being deeply incised, and tlie attacks of
the parasitic fungus Exoascus Carpini which produces the “ witch-
broom.” Particulars are also given regarding the biology of the
parasitic fungus.

Phyllodes of Acacia.* — M. G. Hochreutiner points out that, in one
species of Acacia, A. leptospermoides, the leaf-like petiolo or pliyllode
does not assume a vertical position, as is the case with all the other
species, but has its two surfaces horizontal, like an ordinary leaf. The
nectariferous gland does not occupy the margin, but is exactly in the
centre of the upper surface. The author regards this as probably an
archaic form.

Laticiferous Hairs of the Cichoriacese.f — Dr. I?. Zander has
investigated tho structure of the laticiferous hairs which are found
on the involucre, and in some cases on the lower bracts, of many
genera belonging to the Cichoriacese ; tho plants specially examined
belong to Sonclius, Mulgedium, Lactuca , Prenanthes, Picris, and Lap-
sana. These hairs burst by contact or concussion, and exude a drop
of latex. The physical and chemical conditions prevent any further
exudation after tho first drop, which rapidly oxidises and forms a solid
substance closing the wound. The exudation is greatly promoted by
a high temperature. The author regards the hairs as a very efficient
protection against attacks of insects on tho adjacent reproductive
organs.

Hoot-Tubers of Isopyrum.J: — Prof. D. T. MacDougal gives the
following as the main results of an examination of the root-tubercles of
Isopijrum biternalum. The tubers are formed by an excessive develop-
ment of the pericycle, which may accompany or follow the formation
of the secondary tissues of the root ; this is associated with a tangential
development of the cortex and endoderm and a radial development of
the cambium. The first product of assimilation is probably cane sugar,
which is converted, when used as a reserve-substance, into a form that
stains reddish-brown with iodine. During the season of greatest ac-
tivity a portion of the cane sugar is reduced into the form of “ red
starch ” by the lcucoplasts which surround the nucleus. The tendency
to form tubers on the roots seems fixed by heredity. The outer cortical
cells of the roots and of tho tubers contain large drops of oil.

The root-tubers of Isopijrum Occident ale are also described by the
same author. § Their structure corresponds to those of I. hiternatum in
its main features, with some noteworthy differences.

Depth of the Underground Portion of Perennial Plants. ||— Accord-
ing to Herr A. Kimpach, the required depth below tho surface of tho
soil is acquired by the hibernating parts of plants in threo different
ways : — (1) By the growth of tho underground portion of the stem
itself ( Colchicum , Orchis, Paris , Pteris aquilina, &c.) ; (2) by the con-

* Ann. Sci. Bhys. ot Nat., i. (189G) pp. 278-80.

t Biblioth. lint., Heft 37, 1800, 44 pp. and 2 pis.

j Minnesota Bot. Studies, 1890, pp. 501-1(5 (2 pis.). Cf. this Journal, 1804
p. 587. § Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1890) pp. 280-2 (1 fig.).

|| Ber. Dcutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (189G) pp. 104-8. Cf. this Journal, 1895,
p. 653.

2 p 2

540

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

traction of tlie root ; eitlier tlie contractile primary root perishes at
an early period, and is replaced by adventitious roots ( Lilium Martagon ,
Fragaria vesca, Crocus verms , &c.), or the primary root persists ( Tarax-
acum officinale , Gentiana lutea, &c.) ; (3) by the growth of the leaf-
stalk ( Oxalis rubella). In the majority of cases more than one of these
forces combine to cause the sinking of the rhizome or bulb to the re-
quired depth.

j8. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Cross-Pollination and Self-Pollination. — Mr. C. Robertson’s* latest
contributions to this subject consist of a list of the insect visitors and a
description of the mode of pollination in species of Polygonum, Dirca,
Euphorbia, Salix, and Iris. All the species of Salix observed by him
are entomophilous. Similar information is given with regard to species
belonging to the Monocotyledonous genera Polygonatum, Smilacina,
Uvularia, Trillium , and Melanthium.

M. J. Briquet | gives some very interesting details regarding the
mode of pollination of 20 species, natives of the Western Alps. While
some are partially or entirely autogamous, he regards none of them as
truly anemophilous ; the majority are entomophilous. In Helianihemum
polifolium, in addition to the ordinary hermaphrodite, there are a small
number of somewhat smaller male flowers, in which the gynoeeeum is
entirely suppressed. The number of stamens in the hermaphrodite
flowers varies greatly ; it is always small in the male flowers.

Herr E. Ule $ gives further particulars respecting the structure and
mode of pollination of the flowers of Purpurella cleistopetala [nom.
emend,]. The unopened corolla appears to be a protection against the
heavy rain which prevails in the district. The pollinating insects are
small ants which find their way into the corolla. Scarcely any Hymeno-
ptera were observed in the region. The structure of other species of
the genus is described, all of which are proterandrous, and of other
species belonging to allied genera.

The same author § describes the adaptations for pollination in another
Brazilian plant, Dipladenia atroviolacea (Apocynacece). The flowers
are here also nearly completely closed. Pollination appears to be
effected by humming-birds.

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Amount of Light which is most favourable to the Growth of

Plants.]’! — Prof. J. Wiesner proposes the expression L = 4 for the

specific light-requirement of any plant, J being the total intensity of the
light which reaches the plant, the full intensity of daylight being unity.

* Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 72-81, 266-74.

t Arch/Sci. Phys. et Nat., i. (1896) pp. 234-62, 332-63 (3 pis.).

X Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 169-78 (1 pi.). Of. this Journal,
ante, p. 328. § Tom. cit., pp. 178-9 (2 figs.).

II SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, civ. (1895) pp. 605-711 (4 pis.). Of. this Journal,
1895, p. 334.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

541

L can, therefore, never exceed unity, and may be reduced to zero. On
the whole, direct sunlight exercises comparatively little influence on the
growth of plants ; diffused daylight is the most favourable condition.
The lower the temperature, the larger is the amount of light required
by the plant. There are comparatively few plants that receive light
equally in all directions. In forests the trees receive it almost entirely
from above ; plants growing against a wall or rock only from one side ;
plants growing by water-side often by reflected light from below. The
average light-requirement of a plant decreases with age. In a forest
the light-requirement of the undergrowth must be less than that of the
trees. The loss of leaves in the winter is of advantage only in those
climates where the intensity of the light is small at the time when the
leaves unfold. Hence in the tropics most trees are evergreen.

Gain and Loss of Leaves.* * * § — As the result of a series of experiments
on Helianthis, Mr. S. Thompson and Mr. W. W. Prendergast estimate
the average loss in dry weight of the leaves during the night, between
July 21st and August 1st, at 1*41 grm. per sq. metre ; the average gain
during the day-time, between July 27th and August 8th, at 1*9 grm.
per sq. metre. The average gain in weight of unshaded was, in the
majority of cases, greater than that of shaded samples.

Latent Life of Seeds. f — M. V. Jcdin states, as the result of experi-
ments, that peas will retain their j^ower of germinating longer if kept
in vapour of mercury, where there is no possibility of their respiring,
than if exposed to the action of oxygen, even when they do not gain in
weight. In the latter case the cause of the loss of the power of ger-
mination is no doubt a modification of the intramolecular reactions of
protoplasmic substances.

Antidromy.f — Mr. G. Macloskie gives several instances of this
mode of growth in Flowering Plants and in Vascular Cryptogams. It is
not uncommon for an'tidromic individuals to spring from the same root-
stock.

Paratenic Trophism.§ — From experiments made on the fir (Pinus),
Prof. J. Wiesner concludes that unequal growth in thickness shows
clearly the influence on growth of the position of the branches in respect
to the horizon — e. g. in the stronger growth of the under side ( hypo-
trophy). This hypotrophy of a horizontal stem may be continued in
the vertical portion, where it passes over into a gradually diminishing
hypertrophy.

Ascent of SapJJ — Prof. E. Askenasy describes an apparatus by means
of which he is able to make water ascend in tubes above the barometric
level, and thus to prove the truth of his theory that the main factor in
the ascent of sap in plants is the imbibing power of the cell- walls of the
leaves.

* Minnesota Bot. Studies, 1896, pp. 575-8.

t Comptes liendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 1319-51. Cf. this Journal, 1S95, p. 655.

x Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxiii. (1896) pp. 202-5. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 204.

§ Ber. Deutsch. L’ot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 180-5 (1 fig.). Cf. this Journal,
ante, p. 326.

|| Verhandl. naturhist.-med. Yer. Heidelberg, v. (1896) 20 pp. Bee Bot. Ccn-
tralbl., lxvi. (1S96) p. 379. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 550.

542

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Effect of Currents of Water on Assimilation.* * * § — As the result of a
series of experiments on aquatic plants ( Anacharis , Hottonia , Potamc-
getori ), Mr. F. Darwin and Miss D. F. M. Pertz find that the energy of
assimilation, as shown by the number of hubbies of gas formed, is
. greatly increased by the setting up of currents in the water, thus bring-
ing the leaves rapidly into contact with fresh layers of water. It is to
this cause, and not to any physical stimulation, that the increased activity
is due when a small proportion of alcohol is added to the water.

Respiration and Assimilation.f — From experiments made in passing
a current of hydrogen through water containing a vigorous leaf of Elodea ,
Prof. J. B. Farmer comes to the conclusion that, as fast as the carbon
dioxide is produced as the result of respiration, it is split up, and the
oxygen liberated by the granules of chlorophyll under the influence
of daylight, and thus rendered available for purposes of continued
respiration.

Relation between Respiration and Nitrogenous Substances.^ —
According to Herr W. Palladine, there is a constant relationship between
the amount of carbon dioxide exhaled by plants and the amount of pro-
teinaceous substances which they contain. If the former is represented

CO

by C02, and the latter by N, then the value of the fraction is con-

stant, subject only to accidental variations due to secondary causes. In-
other words, protoplasm possesses in all plants the same energy. Subject
to the variations already mentioned, the cell disengages the same amount
at different stages of its growth. The experiments on which these state-
ments were founded were made mostly on wheat.

Role of Osmose in Transpiration^ — Mr. H. H. Dixon gives further
evidence in favour of his view that transpiration from the leaves is the
primary factor in the ascent of sap in the plant. The arrangement in
the leaf is a beautiful automatic contrivance by which, in times of exces-
sive evaporation, the osmotic power of the cell is increased by the greater
concentration of the sap contained in it. In addition to the tension
set up by the osmotic cells of the leaves in the water-conducting system
of plants, it seems probable that, under all circumstances, the cells of
the medullary rays must draw the water needed in their metabolism
from the water-conduits by their osmotic properties.

(3) Irritability.

Physiology of Tendrils.|j — Herr C. Correns states that a gradual
rise of temperature up to about 40° C. has the same effect on tendrils
(Passiflora, Cucurbita , &c.) in causing curvature as contact irritation, the
reaction beginning at the apex when the warming is uniform over the
whole tendril. A gradual cooling has also the same effect, as also has
chemical irritation.

* Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., ix. (1896) pp. 76-90.

t Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 285-9.

X Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), viii. (1896) pp. 225-48 (3 figs.).

§ Proc. R. Irish Academy, iii. (1896) pp. 707-75 (1 fig.). Cf. this Journal, ante ,

p 88.

|| Bot. Ztg., liv. (1896) pp. 1-20, and Bot. Centralbl., lxvi. (1S96) pp. 290-1.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

543

Prof. D. T. MacDougal * claims priority for the more important of
these observations.

Movements of Sensitive Leaves. f — Experiments made by Herr A.
J. Schilling on the leaves of Mimosa pudica and other sensitive plants
show that, by attaching weights to the leaves the elastic force of the leaf
can be increased more than fourfold. Under the highest weight which
the leaf could sustain, the cushion of the primary leaf-stalk remained as
sensitive on its lower side as under ordinary conditions.

Irritability of the Calyx and Stamens of Helianthemum poli-
folinm.j; — M. J. Briquet describes the very remarkable phenomena in
this plant. The sepals display a well-marked sensitiveness to light,
closing the flower even during the passage of a cloud across the sun.
The stamens are irritable only during the time that the flower is expanded,
this phenomenon being exhibited by the whole of the filament. The
cortical cells of the filament are connected with one another by fine
threads of protoplasm. The curvature of the filament appears to be due
to an escape of water on the concave side ; this water passes into the
intercellular space, and there ensues immediately a difference between
the turgidity of the cells on the concave and those on the convex side.
The purpose of the irritability of the stamens seems to be closely
connected with the carriage of the pollen by bees.§

Effect of Light on the Ueotropism of Stolons.|] — M. J. Briquet
points out that there are in the genus Mentha two kinds of stolon,
epigasous and hypogeeous. If the latter are exposed to light, they
change their previous horizontal direction of growth, and bend upwards,
at the same time becoming green ; they are transformed, in fact, into
ordinary leafy aerial branches. Light has the effect of transforming
diageotropism into epigeotropism.

Diaheliotropism.H — Mr. A. J. Ewart instances the radial stems of
Pellionia Daveauana as a very good example of a plant in which the
radial stem exhibits well-marked diaheliotropic irritability.

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Physiology of Coloured Leaves.** — Dr. E. Stahl has investigated, the
purpose of the colouring matter of coloured leaves, for which he prefers
the term erythrophyll rather than anthocyan. lie established, in the
first place, that the colour is no protection against the attacks of insects
or snails ; while rodents and ruminants, on the other hand, exhibit a
preference for green leaves. Its main purpose appears to be to act in
connection with transpiration. The absorption of the rays of light by
erythrophyll is complementary to that by chlorophyll ; the absorption
of the red rays is advantageous to the plant by raising its temperature.
This elevation of temperature was determined by experiment. Erythro-
phyll has for its function the assisting of the process of metastasis. It

* Bot. Centralbl., lxvi. (1896) pp. 145-6.

If Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxii. (1895) pp. 416-33. See Bot. Centralbl.,
Bcih., vi. (1896) p. 124. X Ann. Sci. Pliys. et Nat., i. (1896) pp. 248-60 (1 fig.).

§ See also ante, p. 540. || Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., i. (1896) pp. 273-5.

^ Ann. Bot., x. (1896) p. 294.

** Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg. xiii. (1896) pp. 137-216 (2 pis.).

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

644

occurs frequently in extrafloral nectaries, where there are great accumu-
lations of formative materials. Its frequent presence in the stigmas of
entomophilous plants, such as the haze], probably promotes the forma-
tion and growth of the pollen-tubes. It is always entirely wanting in
the guard-cells of stomates, where a low temperature is favourable, in
order to promote the turgor of the cells and the consequent opening of
the stomates.

Physiology of Germination in Maize.* — In the light of a fresh
series of observations on the chemical changes which take place during
the germination of Zea Mays , Herr F. Linz reviews the researches of
previous observers, and comes, on some points, to different conclusions,
especially from those of Brown and Morris, in the case of barley.']' Since
a fresh formation of diastase takes place in the isolated endosperm,
he regards this as necessarily a living tissue. In the dormant condition,
the living scutellum contains about nine times as much diastase as the
endosperm. The quantity of diastase in all the organs increases with
the energy of the transport of starch. Diastase is unquestionably pro-
duced independently in the embryo. The epithele of the scutellum
does not excrete diastase ; it appears to be an apparatus for absorbing
nutrient material.

Chemical Processes of Germination.^ — Herr D. Prianischnikoff
confirms the conclusion of Boussingault that no regeneration of asparagin
takes place in the dark in germinating seedlings. This substance is
probably a product of the oxidation of albumin, like urea in the animal
kingdom.

Formation of Gum. § —According to M. L. Mangin, in the tissues of
the vine in which the formation of gum takes place, the walls between
the vessels and the adjacent parenchymatous cells are distinguished by
the membranes of the pores consisting entirely of pectinaceous sub-
stances. It is here that the formation of gum begins ; it becomes
gradually more soluble in water, and is forced into the vessels, where it
collects into large drops and forms a continuous layer on the inside of
the vessel. A similar phenomenon takes place in other trees, as the
chestnut, lime, elm, maple, AilanthuB , &c.

y. General.

Evolution of the Vegetative Phase of the Sporophyte.|| — Prof.
G. F. Atkinson discusses the probable influence of disturbed nutrition
on the vegetative phase of the sporopliyte. Spore-production in plants
which themselves assimilate carbon dioxide is necessarily preceded by a
greater or less development of chlorophyll-bearing organs. Within the
life-cycle, therefore, chlorophyll-bearing organs or tissues are necessarily
primary, while sporogenous organs or tissues are secondary. Injury to,
or removal of, chlorophyllous organs forces the assimilation of carbon
dioxide into other organs or parts, often dormant. In Angiosperms the

* Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxix. (1896) pp. 267-319.

f Of- this Journal, 1890, p. 633.

X Landwirtli. Versuchs-Stat., xlvi. (1896) pp. 459-70. See Journ. Chem. Soe.,
1896, Abstr., p. 380.

§ Rev. d. Viticulture, 1895, 16 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., lxvi. (1896) p. 389.
Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 81. || Amer. Natural., xxx. (1896) pp. 319-57.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

545

vegetative functions may be assumed, not only by the floral envelopes,
but even by the sporophyllary organs, the stamens and pistil. In Ptcrido-
phytes also ( Onoclea ), the sporophytes cau be made to assume the form
and function of the foliar organs by cutting off the latter. This trans-
formation of sporophylls into foliar organs is, in the opinion of the
author, not a case of reversion, but of an advance of a primary organ
to a secondary organ of the sporophyte. All evidence shows that the
sporophyte was, in its early development, entirely dependent on the
gametopliyte for nutrition. The gradual transference of the assimilating
function from the gametopliyte to a sporophyte was probably associated
with a gradual passage from an aquatic to a terrestrial mode of life.

Heat of Flowers.* — Herr G. Kraus has investigated the extent and
the purpose of the rise of temperature at the time of flowering within
the spathe, of various species of Aracese, CvcadeEe, and Palime. In
Ceratozamia longifolia this elevation takes place only in the daytime,
the maximum attained being 38*5° C., or 11*7° above the temperature
of the air. Similar results were obtained with Macrozamia. In the
Aracese examined the period of maximum elevation is more variable, but
is never at night. In this order the seat of the elevation is not the repro-
ductive organs themselves, but the club-shaped appendix to the spadix,
and it is accompanied by a rapid consumption of starch and sugar. All
the plants in which this phenomenon occurs are entomophilous, and
the author regards it as a contrivance for attracting insects to assist in
pollination.

Fossil Monocotyledons.f — Mr. A. C. Seward describes some fossil
plants, chiefly from the Greensand and Wealden, which he refers to
Monocotylededons, and states his view that we have at present no
sufficient evidence of the existence of this class of plants before the
Cretaceous period.

B. CRYPT OGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Prothalhum and Embryo of Bansea.! — From ati examination of
Dansea simplici/olia , Mr. G. Brebner states that the genus agrees closely
with Angiopteris and Maraitia , both in the gametophyte and in the
embryo sporophyte. One of its chief peculiarities is the occurrence of
multicellular instead of unicellular rhizoids. The number of antherozoid
mother-cells of which the antherid is composed is unusually small. The
growing point of the stem appears to be in a transition stage from a
single apical cell to a group of equivalent initials. The primary root
has an apical cell ; but this is not the case with the subsequent adven-
titious roots, nor with the apical meristem of the cotyledon and of the
subsequent leaves. The stele, both of the stem and of the root, has a
distinct endoderm.

Muscineae.

Peristome of Mosses.§ — Resuming his researches on this organ,
M. H. Philibert now describes several anomalous forms of peristome.

* Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, xiii. (1896) pp. 217-75 (3 pis.),
t Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 205-20 (1 pi.).
t Tom. cit., pp. 109-22 (1 pi.). Cf this Journal, ante, p. 332.

§ Rev. Bryol., 1896, pp. 41-56. Cf. this Journal, 1891, p. 73.

516

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In Distichium Hageni each of the eight lobes of the peristome corre-
sponds to two teeth analogous to those of Distichium capillaceum, each
divided into two or three branches. In Leucodon each tooth includes
normally in the interior of its thickened mass two distinct rows of cells ;
hence its tendency to branch. In the peristome of several species of
Orthotrichum there is a system of accessory plates on the upper surface
of the teeth ; the author proposes to call them, from their position, the
dorsal peristome , their origin being quite different from similar plates
in the Aplolepideae. A remarkable mountain form of Orthotrichum
rupestre is described with a pink or bright-red peristome.

Algae.

Cystocarp of Rhodomelaceae.* — Mr. R. W. Phillips has followed out
the development of the cystocarp in additional species belonging to the
genera Bhodomela, Dasya , Laurencia, Polysiphonia, and Chondria. In
all cases except Dasya the procarp is a modified leaf, the second joint of
which is the fertile joint ; in Dasya the procarp is axial. The carpo-
gonial branch is invariably four-celled, arising from tbe fifth pericentral
cell ; two sterile branches always arise from the pericentral cell. The
development of these sterile branches differs in the different genera. In
Bhodomela , Polysiphonia , and Dasya there is cut off from the pericentral
cell a superior cell which is the auxiliary cell, and conjugates with the
carpogone. In Chondria and Laurencia the pericentral cell itself appears
to act as the auxiliary cell. The cavity of the cystocarp is always lined
with paranematal cells derived from the central cell. The pericarp is
formed chiefly from pericentral cells of the fertile joint ; the degree of
development of the wall varies in the different genera.

Spencerella, a new Genus of Floridese.f — Under the name Spencer-
ella australis g. et sp. n., Herr 0. Y. Darbisliire describes the type of a
new genus of Florideae from Western Australia, with the following
diagnosis: — Frons teretiuscula vel plus minusve compressa, evidenter
distiche pinnatim ramosissima ; stratis fere tribus axim monosiphonium
centralem ambientibus contexta, medullari filis et longitudinalibus
articulatis intricatis (in parte juniore nondum evolutis) et verti-
calibus laxius dispositis in stratum intermedium cellulis rotundatis
constantem transientibus, corticali cellulis minoribus verticaliter seriatis
constante. The cystocarps being still unknown, the systematic position
of the genus is uncertain.

Propagation of Lemanea.J — Herr F. Brand has studied afresh the
structure and mode of propagation of Lemanea jluviatilis. The filaments
of which the thallus is composed are of three kinds, — creeping filaments
or plates of cells, ascending “ Chantransia-filaments,” and descending
rhizoids. Vegetative propagation by tetraspores or non-sexual mono-
spores is entirely wanting. Sexual reproduction takes place by means
of carpospores which are formed within the bristles, and which vegetate
after the decay of the latter. Vegetative propagation is effected by the

* Arm. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 185-204 (2 pis.). Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 553.

f Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1895) pp. 195-200 (1 pi.).

£ Tom. cit., pp. 185-94. Cf. this Journal, 1890, p. 641.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

547

persistent apices of the rhizoids. There is also a mode of rejuvenescence,
not hitherto observed, by means of the cells of the walls of mature
bristles, which have a remarkable power of maintaining their vitality
through long desiccation. The carpospores can also resist drought for
a considerable period while within the bristles, where they not un-
frequently germinate. The carpospores closely resemble the vegetative
propagative cells, but are distinguished by the nature of their contents,
and by the smaller diameter of the base of the germinating filament.

Fertilisation of Bangia.* * * § — Mile. K. Joffe has been able to follow,
in this family, all the stages in the passage of the nucleus of the anthero-
zoid into the ovum-cell, though not the actual fusion of the two nuclei.
Previously to conjugation the anthcrozoid places itself in connection
with the ovum-cell by means of a slender protoplasmic elongation. In
one case the ovum-cell put out a long filiform prolongation, resembling
the ti’ichogyne of Florideae, to the apex of which an antherozoid attached
itself. If the impregnated ovum-cell is very small, it developes itself
into an oosperm ; but more often it divides into from 2-10 oosperms,
the usual number being eight.

Ectocarpus.f — In Edocarpus virescens , M. C. Sauvageau finds two
kinds of plurilocular sporange, smaller and larger, which he calls
respectively meiosporanges and megasporanges, and which are always
found on different individuals. The spores which are formed in both
kinds are zoospores and not gametes.

E. confervoides produces, in addition to the ordinary plurilocular
sporanges (meiosporanges), bodies which at first sight appear comparable
to the megasporanges of E. virescens , but which the author believes to
be meiosporanges more or less altered by the attacks of a parasite.

In E. fulvescens the author describes peculiar organs of attachment,
similar to those of E. pusillus. The cellulose-pectic nature of the cell-
walls f of this seaweed is further described in detail. The zoospores
do not assume their definite form until some time after their escape from
the zoosporange.

Variability of Desmids.§ — Herr 0. Borge briefly discusses the
variability observed in cultures of Closterium moniliferum and a species
of Cosmarium. Schmidtle’s conclusions as to variability are not always
to be relied on ; for the form of the cell varies considerably, and the
apical appearance is not always constant.

Phycopeltis.|| — Under the names Ehycopeltis expansa and P. nigra ,
Mr. A. V. Jennings describes two new species of this genus of Algae
from New Zealand, beth epiphyllous. The former species is constantly
attacked by the kypkm of a true lichen-forming fungus, the result being
the production of a specific fertile lichen, Strigula complanata. In the
case of P. nigra, however, no evidence could be obtained that this species
is ever affected by any fungus-filaments. The author believes that this
is in some way connected with the peculiar black colour of the species.

* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlvi. (1896) pp. 143-6 (1 pi.).

t Journ. de Bot. (Morot), x. (1896), pp. 98-107, 113-26, 140-4, 165-73, 181-7

(15 figs.). Of. this Journal, ante , p. 92. J Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 442.

§ Ofversigt K. Vetensk.-Akad. Forhandl., 1896, pp. 289-94 (4 figs.).

|| Proc. R. Irish Acad., iii. (1896) pp. 753-66 (2 pis.).

548 - SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Carteria.* — Herr R. France lias studied tlie relationship to one
another of the species of this genus of Chlamydomonadineae, of which
he considers three to be well established — C. multijilis , Klebsii , and
minima. He maintains that no good specific character can be framed
from the form of the chlorophore, which is subject to great variation in
the same species ; and this is probably true of all the Chlamydomona-
dineie. The usual position of the pyrenoid is parietal beneath the
nucleus ; but this is also not invariable. The gametes coalesce com-
pletely by their anterior ends into a naked sphere ; the nuclei unite
before the complete coalescence of the gametes.

Ccelastrum.f — Prof. R. Chodat has traced the development of Coelas-
trum splisericum from a protococcoid state. It is certainly nearly related
to Pediastrum , the two genera having a similar origin from unicellular
conditions.

Two new species of Chlamydomonas are described, C. pertusa and
stellata, and a new species of Pteromonas, P. alata.

Fungi.

Oxidising Ferments of Fungi4 — MM. E. Bourquelot and G.
Bertrand find, in a very large number of species of Fungi examined, an
oxidising ferment which has the effect of producing a bright colour in
the tissue on exposure to the air. This is the case with almost all
species of Lactarius, Pussula , and Boletus. The substance was extracted
from Boletus cyanescens by treatment with boiling alcohol.

Formation of Carbon bisulphide by Schizophylium lobatum.§ —
Herr F. A. F. C. Went has established by chemical tests the correctness
of the statement that this fungus, found chiefly on dead bamboo and
sugar-cane stems in Java, has the power of forming carbon bisulphide.
The conditions under which this process does or does not take place
have not yet been determined.

Hew Chytridiace8S.|| — M. E. de Wildeman describes the following
new species of Chytridiaceae : — Olpidium Qillii, parasitic on diatoms,
Olpidium (?) Mesocarpi on Mesocarpus , Cladochytrium cornutum on decay-
ing tissues. He also gives detailed descriptions of several other little-
known species, together with a monograph of the genus Olpidiopsis.

Structure of Peronosporese.^lF — According to M. L. Mangin the cell-
wall of the Peronosporeae consists of an intimate combination of cellu-
lose and callose. The callose, however, only rarely occurs in a form in
which it can be directly stained ; in many cases it must be treated first
with eau-de-javelle or potash or soda lye. The mycele is subject to
very great irregularities ; the same filament often varies very greatly in
diameter in different parts ; the structure cf the filaments also often

* Termeszetrajzi Fuzetek, xix. (1896) pp. 105-13 (1 pi.). See Bot. Centralbl.,
Beih., vi. (1896) p. 87.

f Bull. Herb. Boissier, iv. (1S96) pp. 273-80 (25 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1895,

p. 212.

X Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, 1896, pp. 18 and 27. See Bot. Centralbl., Beih., vi.
(1896) p. 92. § Ber. Deutseh. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 158-63 (1 pi.).

|| Ann. Soc. Beige Micr., xx. (1896) pp. 19-61 (3 pis. and 1 fig.). Cf. tliis
Journal, 1895, p. 460.

Bull. Soc. d’Hist. Fat. d’Autun, viii. (1895) 58 pp. ancl 2 pis. Sec Bot. Ccn-
tralbl., Beih., vi. (1896) p. 97. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 206.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

549

differs widely according to tlie tissue of the host-plant which they
inhabit. The membrane of the mycele-filaments is usually stratified.
They are frequently characterised by the formation of warts, plugs, or
rings of cailose, which sometimes constitute septa ; and in this respect
they display a resemblance to pollen-tubes.

The hausloria are characterised by the presence of a sheath, winch
brings about an immediate contact between the haustorium and the
living cell-contents of the host-plant. The nutrition of the parasite
takes place only by diffusion through this sheath.

The conidiophores and the basids of the Cystopese consist simply of
cellulose, and are never cuticularised. In the basids the cellulose forms
a coating on the inside of the cell-wall. The membrane of the oogone
may resemble that of the mycele, or may be simply enclosed in a very
delicate envelope of pure cellulose. The endospore of the oosperm is
always thick, is composed of an intimate compound of cellulose and
cailose, and breaks up more or less easily into two or more layers ;
while- the exospore is composed entirely of nitrogen-compounds, and is
entirely destitute of cellulose, or contains only a very small quantity of
one or both.

New Genera of Fungi. — Under the name Lasiodiplodia tubericola
g. et sp. n., Miss Ida Clendenin * describes a parasitic fungus found on
the sweet potato, and belonging to the Ascomycetes. The genus agrees
with Diplodia in other points ; but the peritheces arc collected into a
stroma clothed with brown mycele ; the basids and sporules are inter-
mingled with paraphyses.

M. E. de Wildeman f describes the following new genera : — Lageni -
opsis (between Ancylistese and Peronosporese). Thallus furnished with
a membrane, unicellular, filamentous, usually simple; oogone deve-
loped at any point of the thallus, nearly globular, not separated by a
septum ; antherids smaller than the oogones and the same in number •
oospores globular or elliptical, with thick membrane. L. reducta, on
oogones of Cliara.

Achly opsis (affinities uncertain). Thallus filamentous, branched, uni-
cellular, rarely scptated ; oogones globular or elliptical, at the extremity
of branches, and separated by a septum ; antheridial filaments numerous,
sometimes completely surrounding the oogone ; oosperm solitary, com-
pletely filling the oogone. A. entospora, on oogones of Cliara.

P lasmopar opsis (Phycomycetes). Parasitic or saprophytic ; thallus
filamentous, branched, with a rigid dichotomous portion rising above the
substratum ; oosporanges borne on short lateral branches. P. rigida, on
oogones of Cliara.

Parasitic Fungi.— Herr A. Nilsson + describes the ravages com-
mitted in the pine forests of Sweden by the attacks of various species of
Polyporus, — P. Pint, annosus, pinicola) vaporarius, mollis, and borealis.

Herr J. Van Breda de Haan § gives full details of the structure and

* Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) p. 92 (1 pi.),
t Ann. Soe. Beige Micr., xx. (1898) pp. 105-38 (7 pis.).]

X Tidskr. f. Skogsliushallning, 1896, 15 pp. .See Bot. Centralbl., lxvi. (1896)
p. 328. ' v '

§ ‘Die Bibitzichte in de Deli-Talak,’ Batavia, 1896. See Bot. Centralbl., lxvi
(1896) p. 361.

550

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

]ife-liistory of a parasitic fungus which causes great destruction of the
tobacco crop in Sumatra. It is a PhytophtJiora, nearly allied to
P. Phaseoli, and the author names it provisionally P. Nicotianse.

MM. J. H. Wakker and F. A. F. C. Went* * * § give a detailed account
of the diseases of the sugar-cane caused by parasitic fungi.

M. R. Aderhold f describes a disease cf cucumbers caused by the
attacks of Cladosporium cucumerinum ; as also of leaf-spots due to a
possibly new species of Sporidesmium.

A new disease of the almond, which appears on the young fruit, is
described by Sig. U. Brizi,J who attributes it to a hitherto undescribed
parasitic fungus, Gloeosporium amygdalinum sp. n.

The principal diseases of the fruits of Citrus are treated of in detail
by Mr. W. T. Swingle and Mr. H. J. Webber.§ Among those due to
parasitic fungi are scab, caused by a Cladosporium , sooty mould or smut,
and foot-rot, possibly due to Fusisporium Limoni.

Potato Diseases. || — Dr. C. Wehmer discusses the literature, which
has appeared during the past three years, relating to the fungus diseases
affecting the potato. The subject is considered under several sub-
divisions, and deals with (1) the blight (PhytophtJiora), (2) the scab,
(3) the black rot, (4) the stem-rot ( Botryiis ), (5) the leaf-rot ( Macro -
sporium and Phoma , (6) the wet rot (Bacteriosis), (7) the dry rot
( Fusarium ), and other occasional diseases. At the end of the article is
given a list of the works noticed.

Mycorhiza.H — Herr G. F. L. Sarauw gives a very detailed his-
torical account of the observations made by different writers from the
year 1758 downwards, on tbe fungi which infest the roots of various
plants, and on the question of their symbiotic parasitism. It is accom-
panied by an index to the various families of plants in which the
phenomenon has been observed.

Mycorhiza of Listera cordata.** — Prof. R. Chodat and M. A. Lendncr
describe the endophytic fungus which attacks the roots of this plant
growing in marshy heaths. It is found only in those parts of the root
which are covered with root-hairs ; here the mycelial filaments occur
in bundles in hypodermal cells and traverse the root-hairs themselves.
The relationship of the parasite to the host is a symbiotic one, no injury
being sustained by the latter. The fungus produces Fusarium- spores
(chlamydospores), and is regarded by the authors as neaily allied to
Nectria.

Rhizoctonia. jf — M. E. Prillieux has examined the dark hemispherical
bodies found in the tissue of Pliizocton ia violacca, which attacks the roots
of the saffron, beet, and lucerne ; and finds that they are not, as supposed

* Arch. v. d. Java-Suikerindust., I89G Cl pi.). See Hcdwigia, xxxv. (1896) Rep.,
p. 76.

f Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkr., 1896, p. 72. See Hedwigia, xxxv. (1896) Rep., p. 84.

X Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkr., 1896, p. 65 (1 pi.). See Hedwigia, xxxv. (1896) Rep.,
p. 85.

§ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bull. No. 8, 1896, 1 pi.

I| Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 261-71, 295-300.

Bot. Tidssk., xviii. pp. 197-259 (2 pis.). See Bot. Centralbl., 1896, Beih.. p. 21.

** Bull. Herb. Boissier, iv. (1896) pp. 265-72 (5 figs.),
ft Bull. Soc. Bot. Fiance, xliii. (1896) pp. 9-11 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

551

by Sorauer, rudimentary peritlieces. They appear to be special organs,
of the nature of sclerotes, whose purpose is to enable the parasitic
fungus to force its way into the tissues of its host.

Discomycetes.* — Herr K. Starbiick proposes the following ter-
minology for the various parts of the excipule of the Discomycetes : —
The entire outer layer is the pars parietis excipuli ; the portion which
surrounds the hymenium and the epithece is the margo excipuli and pars
marginalis excipuli ; the inner portion lying beneath the hypothece is
thenars fundi excipuli; when the separate hyphse are not distinguish-
able, the tissue is a textura globosa if the cells arc nearly isodiametric,
textura prismatica if the cells are not isodiametric ; when the separate
kyphte are easily distinguishable, the tissue is a textura intricata when
the kyphre run in all directions and their walls are not coalescent, tex-
tura epidermoidea if the walls are more or less confluent ; textura oblita
when the kyphm run nearly parallel and have small cavities with
strongly thickened walls, textura porrecta if the hypliae have large
cavities and their walls not thickened.

The author points out the near relationship of Pezizella to 3Iollisia,
and proposes the division of the former genus into two subgenera,
Eupezizella and Ctenoscypha.

Classification of Lichens.f — Herr J. Reinke regards the Crustaceous
as probably the oldest form of Lichens, from which the Foliaceous and
the Fruticose forms have descended. He proposes the division of the
whole group into 3 sub-classes, viz. : — (1) The Coniocarpi, corre-
sponding to the Caliciaceae of Tuckermann, and derived from the Proto-
caliciaceae among Fungi. It is divided into the two families, Caliciacei
and Acoliacei ; (2) Discocarpi, including by far the greatest number of
the Lichens, characterised by saucer- or disc-shaped apotheces. This is
divided into 4 series — the Grammopliori (Graphidacei and Xylographacei),
Lecideales (Gyalectacei, Lecideacei, Umbiiicariacei, and Cladoniacei),
Parmeliales (Urceolariacei, Pertusariacoi, Parmeliacei, Physciacei, The-
loschistacei, and Acarosporacei), and Cyanophili (Licliinacei, Ephebacei,
Pannariacei, Stictacei, Peltigeracei, Collemacei, and Omphalariacei).
(3) The Pyrenocarpi, with pitcher-shaped apotheces, comprising only
the Verrucariacei. A conspectus of all the known genera follows.

Phylogenetic Adaptations of Lichens.^ — Mr. A. Schneider de-
scribes some of the adaptations which have been fixed by heredity, by
which lichens have adapted themselves to their peculiar biological con-
ditions. A typical epidermal layer is well developed in Stida and
Stidina. For the purpose of aeration, a number of intercellular canals
frequently pass from the algal layer through the cortical and epidermal
layers; in a dry state these canals are practically closed. They are
especially numerous in Nephromium , Solorina, and Parmelia. In other
genera, especially Sticta and Stidina, we find the structures known as
cyphellse, which also probably serve for the aeration of the algal con-

* Bih. Svensk. Vetensk.-Akad. Hand!., xxi. (1895) 42 pp. and 2 pis. See Bot.
Centralbl., lxvi. (1896) p. 345.

f Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger) xxix. (1896) pp. 171-236 (14 figs.).
Of. this Journal, ante , p. 217.

% Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxii. (1895) pp. 494-500.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

stituent, acting somewhat like the lenticels of higher plants. They
occur only on the lower surface of the thallus, and are breaks in the
continuity of the lower epidermal layer.

Rate of Growth of a Saxicolous Lichen.* * * § — According to M. J.
Vallot, Parmelia saxatilis exhibits a remarkable regularity of growth,
the thallus being always nearly circular. This circle does not ordi-
narily attain a greater diameter than 20 cm., after which the lichen
dies; and the rate of growth indicates that the time occupied before
arriving at maturity is from forty to fifty years.

Origin of Saccharomycetes.f — Herr 0. Seiter makes a preliminary
communication of his observations and experiments relative to the im-
portant question of the origin of Saccharomycetes. The conclusion
arrived at is that the derivation of Saccharomycetes from mould-fungi is
not at present proven, though the author does not exclude the possibility
that yeasts may originally have descended from fungi. The complete
treatise, with illustrations, together with studies on Saccharoimjces octo-
sporus , is promised later.

Schizosaccharomyces Pombe.* — Herr F. Rothenbach has made
experiments with the pombe yeast relative to its introduction into prac-
tical brewing. It was found that pombe possesses greater fermentative
action on diastase-free media than yeasts of the Frohberg type. It
produces a relatively large quantity of alcohol. It forms acid, and
suppresses the growth of Schizomycetes. At low temperature it ferments
as a bottom yeast. At high temperatures it becomes a top yeast. In
conjunction with another yeast (Race ii.), the alcohol produced in a
given time is greater than that produced by either yeast alone.

Pathogenic Action of Blastomycetes.§ — Dr. Sanfelice describes a
new pathogenic Blastomycete, which is named Saccharomyces lithogenes on
account of the formation of peculiar calcareous masses in the tissues of
almost all the animals infected with it. The cultivations were obtained
from the lymphatic glands of an ox which had succumbed to primary
cancer of the liver. The calcareous masses were found to be composed of
phosphate of lime. The animals inoculated w ith pure cultivations died
in from one to two months ; in all their organs the calcareous masses
were fouud, and from their viscera the same microbe was re-isolated.

Development of Stropharia.|| — Dr. P. Voglino has followed out the
life-history of Stropharia merdaria, found on horse-dung, which has an
Oospora-iovm as well as an ordinary agaric-form. When the spores of
the ordinary form germinate, they produce a ££ promycele ” with conids
( Oospora ) ; these conids may, on germination, produce new generations
of conids, and finally mycelial branches with the Stropharia fructifi-
cation ; these mycelial branches are produced after the formation of

* Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), viii. (1896) pp. 201-2.

f Central bl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 301-7, 319-21.
Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 218.

% Zeitschr. f. Spiritus-Industrie, 1896, Nos. 8-15. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u.
Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 395-401.

§ Zeitschr. f. Hygiene, xxi. pp. 391-420. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasi-
tenk., ltc Abt., xix. (1896) p. 952.

|| Atti K. Accad. Sci. Torino, xxxi. (1896) pp. 365-76 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

558

eonids on tlie promycele has ceased, develope haustoria on the solid
substratum, and then the organs of fructification ( StropJiaria pileus) on
special branches. The Oospora eonids which germinate on straw in dung-
hills also produce fresh eonids and a mycele with agaric-fructification.

Red Pigment of Amanita muscaria.* * * § — Dr. A. B. Griffiths has
extracted the colouring matters of this fungus ; he assigns to it the
formula C19H1806, and proposes to call it amanitin. It is insoluble in
water, soluble in chloroform and ether. Its solutions give no charac-
teristic absorption hands in the spectroscope.

Coprinus.f — Mr. G. Massee gives a monograph of all the known
species of this genus of Fungi, 169 in number, arranged in six sections,
and including a few new species, one of which, Coprinus gigasporus , has
the largest spores of any known agaric. The only invariable special
characteristic of the genus is the deliquescence of the gills at maturity;
and the author regards this, with other characters, as indicating a
survival of the primitive group of Fungi, from which the entire modern
group of Agaricinem has descended.

Cyclomyces.f — M. N. Patouillard gives a monograph of this genus
of Polyporese. To the five species hitherto* recognised he adds others
previously included under ether genera. Instead of retaining the inde-
pendence of the genus, the author prefers that it should he sunk in
Polystictus.

Protophyta.
a. Schizophyceae.

Recent Advances in the Determination of Diatom Structure.! —
Mr. C. F. Cox directs attention to a mode of interpreting observations
of diatom structure which, according to him, reconciles many divergent
views on this subject. The use of modern high-power objectives of wide
angle enables us to separate visually planes w hich were formerly merged
in one another. In this way the diatom-valve is found to possess a
“ complex structure the nature of which must he deduced from various
appearances at different focal levels.” The so-called “ black dot ” and
the “ white dot ” resolution may thus he correct for different focal planes.

The author does not agree with the view that the valve has a lami-
nated structure. He considers that the alveolar structure is “ the one
invariable and characteristic matter wre have to do with” in both the
finer genera of diatoms and also in the coarser discoid forms.

In a series of diagrams an attempt is made to represent the essential
points in the structure of the diatom-valve. In these the oval alveoles
are shown with the connecting cell-walls, but while in one diagram the
surface-line is represented as straight, in another it is undulating,
owing to the projection of the caps of the alveoles, and in another by
the projection of the cell-walls. In the last case, in focusing upon the
summits of the thickened and projecting cell-walls, “black dot” is
the correct resolution, but in focusing down lou'er upon the crests of
the alveoles, “ black dot ” will change to “ white dot.” These diagrams

* Comptes Rendus, exxii. (1896) p. 1342.

f Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 123-84: (2 pis.).

t Bull. Soc. Myc. France, 1896, p. 45. See Hedwigia, xxxv. (1896) Rep., p. 80.

§ Journ. New York Micr. Soc., xii. (1896) pp. 57-69.

1896 2 q

554 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

serve to explain the different appearances observed in the case of dif-
ferent diatoms. The case of those valves which show the system of
fibrils discovered by Mr. T. F. Smith is illustrated by a diagram, in
which the thick projecting ends of the cell-walls are represented as
detachable. The appearance of spines and complicated rosette patterns
exhibited by some diatoms ( Arachnoidiscus , Isthmia, Coscinodiscus oculus
iridis ) is explained by the author by the cups of the alveoles not being
simple membranes stretched from wall to wall, but being supported
within by a system of converging brackets springing from the sides of
the alveoles.

The paper is illustrated by sixteen of Mr. T. F. Smith’s later photo-
micrographs.

Aphanizomenon flos-aquae.* — According to Herr F. Ahlborn, this
“ flos-aqufe ” is greatly dependent for its sustenance on nutrient material
supplied to it in the form of gas-bubbles; hence in shallow water it
very soon falls to the bottom and there perishes. The filaments are
endowed with two kinds of motion — a spasmodic oscillating movement,
and a gliding motion in a forward direction.

•

B. Schizomycetes.

Action of the Rontgen Rays on Bacilli.f— M. F. Berton confirms
the statement of previous observers that the Rontgen rays have no
inhibitory effect on the toxic properties of the diphtheria bacillus.

Bacterial Infection by Air-sown Organisms.f— Mr. H. T. Brown
and Mr. G. H. Morris were able to trace to its source a case of bacterial
infection in a brewery, the beers of which occasionally became ropy or
viscous. The organism was a small coccus occurring in the dyad and
tetrad forms. Though this organism was invariably found in all
samples of ropy beer, the authors only succeeded once or twice in
making sterile beer become ropy by infecting it with pure cultures.
The production of viscosity would therefore seem to be dependent on
certain conditions of nutriment not present in all beers.

Bacteria and Carbonated Waters.§ — Mrs. G. C. Frankland remarks
that there is considerable divergence of opinion as to the precise
hygienic value with wdiich the carbonation of water can be credited.
Some authorities state that in such waters the number of bacteria
steadily declines, while others again have observed distinct multiplica-
tion of the bacteria present. There is no reason to doubt the accuracy
of either of these results, for widely different types of water have been
used. It is clear that some bacteria have rapidly disappeared in aerated
waters, while others are endowed with fabulous powers of multiplication
and longevity. The researches of Dr. Abba on the use of siphons show
that they may often be a source of real danger ; not only are they left
unsterilised after use, but they are neither washed out nor even com-
pletely emptied; hence a deposit is always present, which furnishes

* Verhandl. Naturwiss. Yer. Hamburg, ii. (1895) pp. 25-36. See Bot. Centralbl.,
Beih., vi. (1896) p. 86.

f Comptes Rendus, cxxiii. (1896) p. 109. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 438.

t Journ. Fed. Inst. Brewing, i. (1895) pp. 14-21. See Journ. Chem. Soc., 1896,
Abs'r., p. 321. § Nature, liv. (1896) pp. 375-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

555

ample material for the bacterial contamination of freshly added water.
It is, however, reassuring to learn that in ordinary seltzer and soda-water
cholera bacilli cannot live longer than three hours. Unfortunately, as
regards typhoid infected water, we cannot rely with any degree of
certainty on carbonated waters, unless we have proof that the manu-
factured article has been stored for at least a fortnight before use. The
practice of storing such waters before distribution was recommended
many years ago by Duclaux, and in the absence of such preliminary
precautions as the removal of all bacteria present by boiling, distillation,
or efficient filtration, it would appear to be a measure of great hygienic
importance.

Fossil Bacteria.* — M. B. Renault has now determined the existence
of bacteria at a still earlier geological period than any previously
established, viz. in the Devonian. They are found in connection with
the remains of Aporoxylon , and in two forms: — Micrococcus devonicus A,
which has the effect of obliterating the punctations in that fossil wood;
and M. devonicus B, which has destroyed the median membranes. They
occur also in the remains of Kalimma and Stigmciria.

Bacteriosis of Carnations.f — Prof. ,T. C. Arthur and Mr. H. L.
Bolley trace this common disease to the attacks of a Schizomycete
which they name Bacterium Bianthi. It enters the plant through the
stomates or through punctures caused by insects. It appears usually to
attack the garden carnation only, but can be transferred also to the
wild form Bianthus Caryophyllus, and to other wild species of the genus, ..
D. plumarius , japonicus, efiinensis, and barbatus , but not to plants
belonging to other natural orders.

Bacillus subtilis.t — According to Mr. A. J. Brown, Bacillus subtilis
cannot grow on either wort or beer having a normal acidity. If the
acidity be neutralised by the addition of calcium carbonate, a growth of
this organism will readily occur, the growth in the neutralised beer
being stronger than that in the wort. Bacillus subtilis was also grown in
neutral hay infusion, to which 5 percent, of dextrose was added; but
when, from the action of the bacillus on the sugar, the acidity reached
0*04 per cent., the growth and action of the ferment entirely ceased.
But by neutralising the acid formed by adding calcium carbonates, the
growth and action continued until the whole of the sugar was decom-
posed. The facts that B. subtilis is an aerobe and that the normal
amount of acid present in wort and beer prevents its growth, show that
this organism is not a source of danger to the brewer.

Osteomyelitis caused by the Bacillus of Typhoid Fever.§ — Dr. C.
Bruni records a case of osteomyelitis, the sequel of an attack of enteric
fever. During convalescence the patient suffered from osteoperiostitis,
and after a lapse of six years the tibia was trephined and pus evacuated
from a cavity in the bone. From the pus was isolated the bacillus of
typhoid fever. Great care was taken to identify the organism, which
responded to the numerous cultural and other tests applied. The

* Comptes Rendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 1226-7. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 344.

f Bull. No. 59 Agric. Exp.-Stat. Purdue Univ., 38 pp. and 4 pis.

X Journ. Fed. Inst. Brewing, i. (1895, pp. 423-6. See Journ. Chem. Soc., 1896,
Abst., p. 321. § Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1S06) pp. 220-7.

2 q 2

556

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

virulence of this particular bacillus was slight. The chief points of
interest in this case are that the typhoid bacillus may give rise to a
latent abscess of bone, and that this particular osteomyelitis was
apyrexial, simulating clinically tuberculosis.

Abnormal Types of Coli Bacilli.* — Dr. Befik has observed five
different types of the coli bacillus in the water of Constantinople and
adjacent parts. Type A ferments a medium containing pepton and
lactose (3 per cent.), and gelose containing glucose 2 per cent. ; it
coagulates milk. Type B ferments lactose and glucose, but does not
coagulate milk. Type C ferments lactose and glucose, but does not
coagulate milk. Type D does not ferment either lactose or glucose, and
coagulates milk. Type E does not ferment either lactose or glucose,
and does not coagulate milk. These five types are all mobile; none
give the indol reaction ; their cultures on potato are typical ; the number
of cilia is small ; and they develope on all media more quickly and
abundantly than the typhoid bacillus. All develope freely on Uschin-
sky’s medium (water, 1 litre ; chloride of sodium, 5 grm. ; biphosphate
of potash, 2 grm.; asparagin, 4 grm.; lactate of ammonia, 6 grm.).
All these abnormal varieties are met with in water that contains the
ordinary coli bacilli.

Staphylococcus pyaemia after Chicken-Pox. | — Dr. C. Brunner de-
scribes a case of general staphylococcous infection following on vari-
cella. Staphylococcus aureus was present in the metastatic abscesses in
the blood, in the urine, and even in the sweat. The virulence of the
cocci cultivated from the blood was considerable, for 0 * 5-1 ccm. injected
under the skin of guinea-pigs resulted in rapid formation of abscesses.
Besides the numerous metastatic abscesses and the blood infection, there
was double parotitis and suppurative otitis, the latter suggesting the
possible original site or starting-point.

Microbe of Distemper. £ — Dr. B. Galli-Valerio makes some further
observations on the micro-organism of distemper ( Hundestaupe ;
cimurro). This disease, says the author, is a malady like that of
measles in children, and the name is often erroneously applied to
various disorders. The microbe is an oval bacillus 1 • 25 to 2 • 25 /x long
by 0*31 /abroad ; it is found in the lungs, brain, and spinal cord. Pure
cultivations from these viscera are able to impart the disease to young
•dogs. Old dogs are always immune. Babbits and guinea-pigs are
refractory. Kecently the author has found the oval bacillus in the
purulent secretion from the frontal sinus and the conjunctiva. In
gelatin the growth is white, with the production of gas and the forma-
tion of a funnel, but without liquefaction. The organism grows well on
agar and potato, and in milk and serum. In old cultures the oval
bacillus is mobile. In a few bacilli the poles are dilated owing to the
formation of spores. The organism stains well with anilin pigments.

Streptococcus peritonitidis equi.§— Herren H. J. Hamburger and
J. A. Klauwers found in the exudation of a horse which died of peri-

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 242-3.

t Deutsche Med.-Zeitung, 1896, Nos. 1-3. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Para-
sitenk., lta Abt., xix. (1896) p. 486.

% Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 694-8 (2 figs.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 882-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

557

tonitis a streptococcus which retained its chain form in bouillon after
repeated transferences. In fresh serum it not only did not develope,
but degenerated in a short time ; while in sterilised serum it retained its
vitality for more than a month. In fresh lymph, ascitic fluid, and aqueous
humour, it developed well. On gelatin and agar the growth was white,
and the gelatin was not liquefied. The optimum temperature was that
of the body, though the coccus grew at room temperature. The microbe
was stainable by all the usual methods and pigments. Subcutaneous
injections of bouillon cultures caused only slight and transitory rise of
temperature in rabbits and dogs, but a considerable swelling in horses.
Intra-peritoneal injection (one horse) caused peritonitis, with rise of
temperature to 40° C.

Behaviour of Pathogenic Bacteria in Living Vegetable Tissue.* —
Dr. K. Kornauth has studied the action of pathogenic bacteria on living
vegetable tissue. Sprouting maize and peas were inoculated with
anthrax and Streptococcus pyogenes, and the young plants tested after
three weeks’ growth. Cultivation and infection experiments were
negative.

The author then made experiments to test the truth of Lemnitzsky’s
results. The latter observer found that when plants were inoculated
with pathogenic bacteria by introducing the microbes through a wound,
the organisms would spread throughout the plant, or at any rate retain
their vitality. The plants selected by the author were onions, hyacinths,
and three species of cactus ; and the bacteria chosen were M. cinnabareus ,
M. pneumonise , Sir. pyogenes, B. coil com., Bad. prodigiosum, B. diphtherise,
B. typhi, B. anthracis (spores and filaments), and Actinomyces.

Snicks were made in the plants, and into the openings portions of
cultures were introduced and the wound closed with collodion. As a
rule the wounds healed well. After eight days, pieces were cut out,
and animals and culture media inoculated therewith. None took, but it
was found on microscopical examination that the anthrax had spored.
Further experiments were then made. From these it was discovered
that anthrax spored again, and that the spores were virulent after a
lapse of four months. Diphtheria and pneumonia bacteria were no
longer infectious after 48 hours, typhoid bacilli after 5 days, and Bad.
coli com. after 8 days. M. cinnabareus and B. prodigiosum dried up,
but were quite capable of development after four months. A further
scries of experiments showed that mould fungi were the greatest enemies
of pathogenic bacteria, for they were capable of destroying even anthrax
spores.

Vibrio tonsillaris. I — Vibrio tonsillaris was first isolated and described
by Klein ; and Messrs. J. W. W. Stephens and R. F. W. Smith have
recently studied the organism afresh. They find that it is non-pathogenic
to guinea-pigs. It is easily stained by anilin dyes, but not by Gram’s
method. It is a pleomorphic organism, cultures showing comma, semi-
circular, and spiral forms. It is extremely mobile. By the methods of
Ermengem and of Pittfield flagella are demonstrable, one of these being
longer than the vibrio itself, and having 4-5 turns.

Cultivations were made on agar, gelatin, serum-agar, potato, and in

* Centvalbl. f. Baliteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 801-5.

t Tom. cit., pp. 929-32 (1 pi.).

558

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

milk, pepton, and bouillon. Milk was not coagulated. On potato the
growth was yellowish-green and moist-looking. Pepton and bouillon
were rendered turbid. On agar and gelatin the growth wras copious.
There was no liquefaction of the gelatin or formation of gas.

Identity of Clostridium fcetidum laetis and Bacillus cedematis
maligni.* — In the course of experiments relative to cheese ripening,
Dr. E. Yon Freudenreich became assured that Clostridium foetidum laetis
and the bacillus of malignant oedema wrere identical. The great dis-
semination of the latter, especially in the excrement of animals, would
explain its presence in milk.

Bacillus saccharobutyricus.f — Dr. V. von Klecki describes a
bacillus which plays an important part in the ripening and inflation of
cheese. Bacillus saccliarobutyricus is 5-7 /x long and 0 * 7 [x broad. It
propagates itself by spores given off usually at one end, though some-
times at both. Free oval spores are also formed. At times it joins to
form filaments some 20 /x long. It is slightly mobile. It is easily
stained by anilin dyes, but not by Gram’s method. It is an essential
anaerobe. It does not liquefy gelatin, and casein is but little affected
by it. It ferments milk-sugar to butyric acid, formic acid, carbonic acid,
and hydrogen. Together with butyric acid it apparently forms a higher
fatty acid (valerianic acid). It developes gas very freely, especially on
media containing lactose or pepton. On analysis these gases were found
to be almost exclusively carbonic acid and hydrogen, in the proportion
of about 32 and 68 per cent.

Bacillus Delbruecki4 — In some remarks on the spontaneously occur-
ring lactic acid fermentation which takes place in the process of distilla-
tion when artificial yeast is used, Dr. G. Deichmann points out that this
lactic acid fermentation is of great importance. According to Delbruck, a
pure lactic acid fermentation takes place only at 40° B. or over ; for when
the temperature sinks volatile acids appear, and various foreign organisms
begin to develope. By the competition of these last the lactic ferment
is sooner or later sujrpressed. The organism which excites this pure
lactic acid fermentation is a thin motionless rodlet of variable length,
existing singly, in pairs or short chains, and its most striking peculiarity
is that it thrives best at an unusually high temperature. The author
then goes on to compare the organism isolated from the yeast used in
distillation, which he calls B. BelbriieJci, with B. laetis acidi, a bacillus
which excites the lactic acid fermentation in milk, both at ordinary and
at high temperatures. These two organisms, both in their morphologi-
cal and physiological characters, presented extraordinary resemblances
to one another ; even the acid produced was the optically active lmvolactic
acid. Yet B. DclbruecJci, when tested with milk-sugar, failed to ferment
it, and in sterilised milk grew very poorly, and that without any change
in the reaction of the medium. In bouillon containing milk-sugar it
did not grow any better than in sugar-free bouillon, but sugar- or
maltose-bouillon was soon acidified and rendered turbid.

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp ‘‘>16-8.

f Tom. cit., pp. 169-84, 249-58, 286-95 (1 fig.). Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 461.

% Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 281-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

559

Cheese Flora.* — Herr Gr. Marpmann gives a list of the fungi affecting
cheese. These are divided into the Saccharomycetes, Schizomycetes,
and Perisporomycetes. Of the Schizomycetes no less than 105 species,
under three subdivisions of Coccogente, Baculogense, and Trichogense,
are enumerated.

Variability in the Form and Characters of Streptococci Cultures, f

• — M. Lemoine has convinced himself that the growth of Streptococci
in different media affords no basis for distinguishing between different
species, inasmuch as the growth of a culture even in the same medium
is in no way constant, nor are any marked differences of growth in
cultures of different origin observable.

Differential Diagnosis between Cholera and other Vibrios.^ — As a
method for making a differential diagnosis between the cholera and other
closely allied vibrios, Herr Dunbar has little but praise for the Pfeiffer
reaction, though he does not go quite so far as Pfeiffer and Sobernheim,
wTho maintain that vibrios which react positively to cholera serum are
true cholera vibrios. The author would prefer the view that those
cultures are not true cholera cultures which react negatively to cholera
serum. After giving in tabular form the results of his numerous experi-
ments, the author proposes a classification of water vibrios on the basis
of their specific reaction. In connection with this proposal, it is stated
that light-giving bacteria isolated in 1894 and 1895 reacted positively
to the serum of light-giving bacteria isolated in 1893, from which it
might be inferred that they were identical in origin.

Vibrio Infection per Os in Young Rabbits.§ — Dr. E. Wiener
records a series of eight experiments made on rabbits with cholera
cultures of different origin in conjunction with cultures of Bacillus coli.
Some of the experiments w’ere checks. It would seem that while the
cholera culture administered per os is fatal, it is more rapid in its effect
when combined with Coli cultures, though the latter are harmless alone.
When the animals died within 48 hours, the intestinal tract was found
to be reeking with vibrios ; but if they survived 4 to 5 days, no vibrios
were found, but B. coli was present in almost pure cultivation. Very
similar phenomena have been observed in human cholera.

Three more experiments relative to B. pyocyaneus are also mentioned.
In the first, rabbits were fed on Pyocyaneus cultures, and killed on the
fifth day. From the blood and all the organs B. jpyocyaneus was culti-
vated, an interesting fact, considering that all the animals seemed per-
fectly well when killed. In conjunction with cholera the animals died,
the post-mortem appearances being very similar to cholera, when death
occurred within forty-eight hours after infection, while later on the
presence of vibrio infection was less marked, or even undisco verable.
From this series the author infers that the presence of B. pyocyaneus has
a slightly inhibitory effect on the development of the cholera vibrio.

* Zeitschr. f. angewandte Mikr., ii. (189G) pp. 68-79.

t Arch. Med. Exper., 1896, No. 2. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
lte Abt,, xix. (1896) p. 891.

f Zeitsclir. f. Hygiene u. Infektions., xxi. p. 295. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u.
Parasitenk., lt0 Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 894-5.

§ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt,, xix. (1896) pp. 595-602.

560

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

(1) Stands.

New Mieroscope.j — The firm of Richards & Co. offer for sale a new
Microscope, the stand of which is made entirely of brass. The stage is
extra large, 9‘5 by 8*5 cm., and consists of vulcanised rubber bolted to
heavy brass stage-bed 5 mm. thick. The condenser is of the double-
lens system, and is fitted with an iris-diaphragm, beneath which is a
ring for the reception of blue or ground glass, &c. The eye-pieces and
objectives furnished with this stand are Reichert’s standard quality.

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Eye-Piece with Graduated Iris-Diaphragm. — Dr. W. Cowl de-
scribes and explains the advantages of an eye-piece provided with an
seen in the figure, the iris-diaphragm takes the
place in the Huyghens’ eye-piece of the usual
fixed diaphragm. It is provided on its edge with
a scale, each division of which corresponds to a
doubling of the diameter of the aperture, begin-
ning with 1 mm. The numbers on the scale cor-
respond to the area of the field of view.

Amongst the advantages of the apparatus are
— a more acute perception of details in the field
of view, owing to the exclusion of neighbouring
parts of the preparation ; the exclusion of un-
necessary light ; the possibility of varying the
magnification by changing the eye-piece without
the necessity of adjusting the Microscope anew,
since the iris-diaphragm only slides in the body-
tube up to the diaphragm, i.e. up to the plane of
the image formed by the objective.

Goerz’s New Double Objective. § — The re-
moval of the error of astigmatism in a photo-
graphic objective requires a crown-glass of higher
refractive power than that of the flint-glass con-
nected with it, whereas the condition for the compensation of the spheri-
cal aberration is that the refractive power of the crown-glass must be
less than that of the flint-glass. The Goerz double objective is the
result of a successful attempt to meet these seemingly incompatible
conditions.

Each of the two halves of this double objective consists of three
lenses. Theoretically, these could be either a negative flint-glass b
enclosed between two positive crown-glasses a and a' (fig. 85), of which
a has a higher, and a' a lower refractive index than b; or a crown-glass a

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

T Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., xvii. (1896) pp. 217-S.

% Anat. Anzeig , xii. (1896) pp. 178-80.

§ Oentral-Ztg. f. Optik u. Mech., xvii. (1896) pp. 131-2.

iris-diaphragm. As
Fig. 84.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

561

(fig. 86) enclosed between two flint-glasses b b\ of which b has a higher,
and b' a lower refractive index than a. Practically, however, the first
combination, flint between crowns, is found to be most suitable.

Fig. 85. Fig. 80.

Fig. 87.

As an example, fig. 87 shows in natural size an objective of this kind,
of 240 mm. focal length, and 30 mm. greatest effective aperture.

For the production of this objective the necessary constants are as
follows : —

Eadii of Curvature. Glass -Thickness.

Rj = — Kg = 45-835
R2 = — R7 = 54-324
R3 = — E0 = 19-853
R, = - R5 = 49-088

d,= dG = 7-343
d2 = dl = 1-833
d3 = di = 4*584
A = 11-00 air-distance.

Kinds of Glass.

jiD. nG.

L, = L6: 1-61310 1-62683
Lo = L5: 1-56804 1-58182
Isl = L4: 1-51497 1-52663

562

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The radii, &c. are expressed in mm. The kinds of glass are deter-
mined by the refractive indices for the line D (nD) of the solar spectrum,
and for the line of the hydrogen spectrum (H8[nG1J). The focal di-
stances for rays parallel to the axis in different zones are : —

For central rays {f Dl = 223*275} A = “ °'210

For middle zone, F : 12 {f D1 = 221*36o} A = + 0-040

For marginal zone, F:8 (fD1^ 223*442} A = + 0*053

(3) Illuminating1 and other Apparatus.

New Thermometer for Regulating the Temperature of Paraffin
Baths, &c.* — Most instruments for obtaining a constant temperature
are liable to get out of order, so that it is advisable to use with them
an apparatus which shall give warning when the temperature has risen
above the desired degree. Such an apparatus is the contact-thermometer,
which consists of an ordinary glass thermometer armed with two platinum
wires. One of these wires is in contact with the mercury in the reservoir,
while the other is fused in the tube at the point 50° C., so that the
mercury touches the wire when it rises to this point. When this
happens, an electric circuit containing a bell is closed, and the bell will
continue ringing until, by regulating the flame, the temperature again
falls.

New Rotating Disc for the Preparation of Lacquer Rings.f —
Mr. C. F. Betting has devised a new form of apparatus for making

Fig. 88.

lacquer rings. As seen in fig. 88, it consists of a rotating disc wdiicli is
set in motion by a toothed wheel engaging in a pinion on the axis of

* Zeitschr. f. ang. Mikr., ii. (1896) pp. 35- G. f Tom. cit., pp. 33-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

563

the disc. The whole apparatus is strongly constructed of iron and
brass.

Box for Coiouring-Keagents.* * * § — This box has room for ten stoppered
bottles for the usual colouring-liquids, imbedding material, &c. The
pipette bottles are for methylen-blue, fuchsin, eosin, alcohol, and xylol.
There is also a glass for Canada balsam. A space is also left for
platinum wire, needles, knife, pipettes and other instruments.

Simple Thermostat for Microscopes of different Construction.!—
This apparatus is so constructed that the Microscope can be placed in
the heating chamber from behind. The box is large enough to take all
ordinary stands.

(4) Photomicrography.

Optical Works of C. P. Goerz in Schoneberg, Berlin.]: — Herr J.
Goedicke describes a visit to these works, in which the well-known pho-
tographic objectives, the double anastigmatics, are produced. The firm
now employs 250 workers. The manufactory consists of a large square
building of six stories. In the basement, the first process consists in cut-
ting up the blocks of oj)tical glass into plates of exactly determined thick-
ness. From these plates square pieces are cut out, to which an approxi-
mately circular form is given by cutting down the edges. Then follows
the grinding down with sand on rotating brass forms, which have a
special curvature for each lens. The rough lens thus formed is some
tenths of a millimetre thicker than it must be in its completed state.
This rough lens is then submitted to fine grinding and polishing with
gradually finer emery. For each curvature a very exact pattern glass is
produced, which must be exactly filled by a correctly ground lens.
From time to time during the grinding the lens is fitted into the pattern
until at last no Newton’s rings are observed in any position. For the
double anastigmatic six lenses are required. These are cemented
together with Canada balsam so as to form two symmetrical glasses.
They then pass from the hands of the optician to those of the mechanic,
to be fitted into the frames. Finally, they are submitted to rigorous
optical tests, and if found faultless are engraved with a number and the
name of the firm.

Practical Photomicrography.§ — Dr. W. C. Borden gives a detailed
account of the apparatus and method which, after much experience, he
has adopted in photomicrographical work. The Microscope is used in
the upright position, while the camera is hung on a rackwork attached
to an upright placed on the right of the Microscope. Both the upper
and lower ends of the camera are movable on the rackwork. As illu-
minant the acetylene burner is recommended as te the best artificial light
now obtainable for use in photomicrography.” A good filter for this
light is a solution of 10 grin, of potassium bichromate in 200 ccm. of
water contained in a trough 3 cm. wide. The author gives elaborate
instructions for the adjustment of the apparatus, &c. He recommends

* Zeitschr. f. ang. Mikr., ii. (1896) pp. 34-5.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., xviii. lte Abt., No. 11. See Zeitschr. f.
ang. Mikr., ii. (1896) p. 108.

X Central-Ztg. f. Optik u. Meek., xvii. (1S96) pp. 151-3.

§ Amer. Mon. Micr. Jouru., xvii. (1896) p. 193-208.

564

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tlie Cramer “ isochromatic ” plates. For developing, the following solu-
tions (using equal parts of each) have given him clear negatives of
sufficient contrast and graduation : — No. 1. Water 300 ; sodium sul-
phite 25; potassium bromide 0*5; hydrochinone 1*5; methol 1-5.
No. 2. Water 15 ; sodium carbonate 300.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Arc-Light Dust as an effective Abrasive Material.* — Mr. K. M.
Cunningham has discovered, by microscopic examination, that the black
dust which accumulates in the globes of arc lights consists to a large
extent of opaque and translucent spherules, hard enough to polish carbo-
rundum. He finds that this material is capable of abrading and polishing
the hardest rocks.

Presidential Address.f — Mr. E. Davis, in his annual address to the
Liverpool Microscopical Society, first dealt with the suggestion that
there is no need for a Microscopical Society at all as a separate organisa-
tion. Mr. Davis himself, as may be supposed, does not hold this view,
and he points out in how many various directions a Microscope gives a
means of increasing our knowledge, and affording employment and
delight for our leisure hours. First to be named, as they constitute a
number of the members of a Microscopical Society, are those who
possess a Microscope, who have neither time nor desire to make a
systematic use of it. In the Liverpool Society an arrangement has been
made by which experienced members give the benefit of their knowledge
to those who wish to know how to use the Microscope. Secondly, there
are those who endeavour to ascertain the true nature of the markings of
a diatom or the structure of a podura scale. It is for such as these that
opticians have continually striven to perfect lenses, and to provide
improved illumination, and all the world of microscopy have profited
thereby. Thirdly, there are users of the instrument who find it useful
in their business ; while the fourth class of observers are those who use
the Microscope for investigating the life-history or minute structure of
vegetable or animal organisms. To them is not offered the prize of
pecuniary recompense — their reward is the discovery of the mysteries
of nature. Of late years a fifth class of microscopic workers has brought
to light a class of organisms of whose importance we have as yet only an
imperfect idea. In connection with these the President devoted the
remainder of his discourse to an account of the life-work of Pasteur.

Technique. %

Microtomist’s Vade-mecum.§ — Just as we are going to press we
receive the fourth edition of Mr. Arthur Bolles Lee’s now well-known
work. The fact that another edition is called for three years after the
appearance of the third edition is of itself sufficient evidence that
Mr. Lee’s work supplies a want, but it is needless to say anything in

* Journ. New York Micr. Soc., xii.:(1896) pp. 78-83.

f 27th Annual Report of the Liverpool Microscopical Society, 1893, pp. 10-20.

% This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes;
(4) Staining and Injecting; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous. § London, 4th edition, 1896, xii. and 536 pp.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

565

praise of it to an audience of microtomists. We learn from the preface
that tlie author has most thoroughly revised his book — so thoroughly,
indeed, as in many parts to have completely rewritten it.

He has thought it well to enter more fully than was hitherto done
into the details of the more important processes, to explain more fully
the principles on which they are founded, and to add in many cases an
estimate of their value. In consequence of this the bulk of the work is
considerably increased, though the number of new processes described
is smaller than in any edition since the first. The classification of the
various methods has been in many cases greatly simplified, and a number
of superfluous methods have been rejected. In dealing with the chapters
on staining, the author has had the great advantage of the assistance of
Dr. Paul Mayer. In the three chapters entitled Neurological Methods
the contents have been entirely rearranged by the advice of Prof. Yan
Gehuchten. The author thinks that the new arrangement may fairly
claim to be natural, logical, and easily comprehensible. Perhaps the
best statement as to the differences between this and earlier editions of
the work will be found in a quotation from Mr. Lee’s preface : — “ On
the one hand the book has been lightened by the jettison of much useless
matter, and on the other hand there has been accorded to the matter
that has been retained a far ampler share than before of explanation
and detail. To such an extent, indeed, have the instructions to students
and other explanatory matter been amplified, that I am not acquainted
with any modern work on the subject that contains anything like so
complete an account of the various fundamental operations of histological
technique.”

Cl) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes.

Apparatus for Cultivating Anaerobes.* — Herr Migula describes a
very simple and practical apparatus for cultivating anaerobes. A closed
chamber is made with two glass capsules, and in this, resting on glass
blocks, is placed the culture vessel filled with inoculated agar or gelatin.
The cover rises in the middle, in order to prevent the condensation
water from dropping on the culture. In the middle is an aperture fitted
with a caoutchouc plug and glass tube. Into the outer vessel so much
liquid paraffin is poured as to form a layer about 1 cm. deep, and then,
after having been sterilised, hydrogen is passed through the apparatus.
The air is driven out in bubbles through the paraffin.

Agar Media for Bacteriological Cultures.f — According to Herr
Marpmann, algae belonging to the group Florideae may be used for
making agar. Freshly collected algae are boiled and strained. Among
the kinds suitable for the purpose are Fucus amylaceus, Fucus lichenoides ,
Fucheuma spec., and Sphserococci from the Mediterranean. Sphserococcus
confervoides gives a fine jelly when prepared as follows : — 30 parts of
S. confervoides are macerated in 2 parts hydrochloric acid and 1 litre
of water, and afterwards washed with water until litmus paper is no
longer reddened. The residue is squeezed and to it added 700 parts
of water, 40 parts of glycerin, 20 parts of liquid pepton (Koch), and

* Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschr., 1895, No. 52. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.
u. Parasitenk., l,e Abt., xix. (1896) p. 894.

t Zeitschr. f. ang. Mikr., ii. (1S96) pp. 79-80.

566

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tlie whites of two eggs. The mixture is steamed for 20 minutes, and
then strained through a neutralised syrup-filter.

Relation of Pure Cultures to the Acid, Flavour, and Aroma of
Butter.* — During the past year Prof. H. W. Conn has carried out experi-
ments in butter-making with 55 different species or varieties of bacteria.
The experiments were performed as follows. A lot of milk was passed
through a separator and the cream divided into four equal parts. These
were placed in separate vessels and at once pasteurised at from 69°-70°
for 10 to 15 minutes. After cooling, three of them were inoculated with
a culture of bacteria, each being inoculated with a different species.
The fourth lot was left as a control. The cultures used were two days
old milk cultures, and were added to the cream in the proportion of
about 1 to 15. The four lots of cream were kept under similar condi-
tions, and the butter made from the four lots compared. The general
conclusions arrived at were that the inoculation of cream with a large
culture of one kind of bacteria has a checking influence upon others
present, even though the cream be impregnated with other bacteria at
the start. A pure culture starter of this sort may therefore be of decided
value, not only in developing its own flavour, but in preventing the
growth of injurious flavours. The flavour, acid, and aroma appear to be
independent of each other ; each is a product of bacterial growth, but no
one kind of dairy bacteria produces all the three. Flavour is more
likely to be found as a product of the growth of acid organisms than
those which produce an alkaline reaction in milk, but good flavours may
be found in cream ripened with bacteria which produce no acid. Aroma
is entirely independent of flavour. The acid-producing organisms do
not appear to produce the butter aroma. These aromas are, however,
produced by the bacteria which peptonise milk, and the aroma is,
therefore, probably due to volatile products of albuminous decom-
position.

Influence of Glucose on Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus.t — When
making experiments relative to the influence of glucose on Staphylococcus
pyogenes aureus, M. J. Nicholas used a pure culture from a case of
osteomyelitis. Saturated solutions of grape-sugar were injected sub-
cutaneously or intravenously into rabbits at the same time as the inocu-
lation, or the cocci and the sugar solution were injected both together
into the veins, or the subcutaneous inoculation was preceded and followed
by intravenous injection of St. aureus. No definite result was arrived at
as to the relation between increased suppurative power and diminished
virulence. A tendency to sloughing was noticed about the inoculation
sites, in the case of intravenous injection and subcutaneous inoculation.
It was also remarked that an animal which was injected intravenously
for twenty consecutive days with 5 ccm. of a glucose solution did not
pass sugar in the urine.

Diagnosis of Typhoid Bacilli by means of Serum of Animals
Immunised to Typhoid.^ — Herren R. Pfeiffer and Kolle have found that

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 409-15.

t Arch, de Med. Exp. et d’Anat. Pathol., 1896, No. 3. See Centralbl. f Bak-
teriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 1016-7.

X Deutsche Med. Wochenschr., 1896, No. 12. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u.
Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 957-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

567

typhoid serum even in vitro gives a characteristic reaction with typhoid
bacilli. 2 mgrm. of serum obtained from the goat, which serum is ten
times stronger than that of the typhoid fever patient, is mixed with
bouillon in the proportion of 1-40. When typhoid bacilli were added
(2 mgrm.) to the culture medium and the latter incubated, fine whitish
flakes were thrown down, and only after twenty-four hours was there a
general turbidity. In this the authors see a means for diagnosing the
typhoid bacillus, since the same medium when infected with other organ-
isms, such as cholera, became turbid almost directly.

Method for Rapid Recognition of the Cholera Vibrio and the
Typhoid Bacillus.* — The method devised by Herren M. Gruber and
H. E. Durham is based on the observation of the first-mentioned that
the blood-serum of animals immunised to cholera or typhoid exerts
in vitro a strikingly specific action on these bacteria. If a scraping
from an agar culture be mixed with the protective serum, the bacteria
aggregate into balls and their movements cease. Even with the naked
eye the massing together of the bacteria can be recognised ; for the uni-
form turbidity of the medium first becomes flaky, the flakes becoming
clumps of bacteria, which, as they increase in size, fall to the bottom,
leaving the fluid clear. No such result obtains if other bacteria be used.
The reaction can be carried out in a test-tube by mixing a loopful of a
young agar culture in 1/2 ccm. bouillon, and this with 10 mgrm. of the
serum in 1/2 ccm. bouillon ; or a drop of the serum may be poured on a
cover-glass with a similar sized drop of a bacterial suspension, and, after
mixing the two drops, inverting the cover-glass over a hollow-ground
slide. If the bacteria be true cholera or typhoid, as the case may be,
movement will be found to be extinguished within a minute, and com-
plete bailing set up.

Tochtermann’s Medium for Diagnosis of Diphtheria.f — Herr W.
Kempner made a series of test experiments with four cultivation media
for diphtheria bacilli. These were Loeffler’s blood-serum, Tochtermann’s
blood-serum agar and Deycke’s alkali albuminat agar and glycerin agar.
The last two media failed to come up to the high standard of the first
two, and though Loeffler’s medium took the first place, as far as numerical
success is concerned, yet Tochtermann’s substratum is really awarded
the palm, on the ground of easier manipulation and more rapid diagnosis.

Tochtermann’s medium is made by adding 1 per cent, pepton, 1/2 per
cent, common salt, 0 • 3-0 * 5 per cent, grape-sugar to a 2 per cent, aqueous
solution of agar; this, after filtration, is boiled for 1/4-1/2 an hour with
an equal bulk of unsterilised sheep’s blood-serum, or in the proportion
of 2 to 3. The mass is filtered into test-tubes and sterilised, but should
not be heated too long, as its efficiency as a cultivation medium is thereby
damaged.

Presence of Influenza Bacilli in the Central Nervous System. J —
Drs. A. Pfuhl and Walter made a bacteriological examination of the

* Miinchener Med. Wochensclir., 1896, No. 13. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u.
Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 895-6.

f Hyg. Rundschau, 1896, p. 409. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 1013-4.

X Deutsche Med. Woehenschr., 1896, Nos. 6 and 7. j J3ee Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.
u. Parasitenk., lt9 Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 1004-5.

56S

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

blood and exudation in two cases of influenza which died of cerebro-
spinal meningitis. The influenza bacillus was demonstrated in cover-
glass preparations of the blood and from the meningeal pus. Charac-
teristic colonies of the influenza bacillus were obtained in blood-agar,
and histological investigation of the cord and brain confirmed the presence
of suppurative cerebro-spinal meningitis, and the existence of the
influenza bacilli. As the demonstration of the micro-organism in the
tissues has been rarely successful the author’s results must be regarded
as important, for they show that the nervous phenomena are dependent
on the immediate presence of the bacilli, and there is no need to suppose
the symptoms and morbid appearances are provoked by absorption of
toxins raised at a distance.

The authors advise plate cultures in capsules, in preference to
oblique agar tubes. The agar should be filtered, and after having
been incubated for several days the condensation water should be
removed. The blood should be brushed on shortly before the medium
is inoculated with the material to be examined. The most convenient
and suitable blood for the purpose is pigeon’s. After wringing the
bird’s neck the thorax is opened, and after the large vessels are tied, the
heart is cut out. It is next washed with sterile water, and then one of
the cavities having been opened, the blood is allowed to drop on the
agar surface.

Relations between Chimiotaxis and Leucocytosis.* — Dr. 0. Kowa-
levsky has made experiments relative to the chimiotactic properties of
certain antiseptics, and their action on the number of leucocytes in the
blood after intravenous injection of these substances. The animals used
were rabbits. The authoress found that iodine, iodide of potassium,
tri- and monochlorides of iodine, biniodide of mercury, sublimate, the
chloride and sulphate of zinc excite a greater or less amount of chimio-
taxis, and w hen injected into the blood circulation produce a leucocytosis
marked by augmentation of the granulations. The degree of leucocy-
tosis usually corresponds to that of the chimiotaxis, and is of a purely
chimiotactic nature. The authoress considers it very probable that dis-
infectants exert a favourable action, not only on account of their bacteri-
cidal power, but also in virtue of possessing positive chimiotactic pro-
perties.

The methods adopted for bringing about and estimating the amount
of chimiotaxis and leucocytosis were simple. For the former, capillary
tubes filled with the fluid to be examined were inserted beneath the
skin, and after removal inspected. Leucocytosis was effected by inject-
ing in the vein cf the ear about 2 ccm. of the fluid. The number of
leucocytes was counted in the usual way.

Bifurcated Double-Ended Crystal from Asthmatic Sputum.f — Dr. E.
Cutter describes a peculiar bifurcated crystal found in asthmatic sputum,
and shows how the presence of such crystals in sputum throws light on
the diagnosis of asthma.

New Analytical Process for the Study of Diatomacsous and other
Clayey Deposits.^ — Mr. K. M. Cunningham describes the method he

* Ann. de Micro#., viii. (1896) pp. 185-226.

t Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., xvii. (1896) pp. 242-4. X Tom. cit, pp. 228-40.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

569

employs in eliminating the clay from the organisms in diatomaceous
earths, &c. It consists in triturating and rubbing them down on a
sheet of rubber. The preliminary step in the cleaning is the breaking
down of the clay in a soap-bowl containing water, which is several
times poured off and renewed. The pellet of heavier sediment resulting
from this treatment is then spread out and triturated on the rubber
sheet. Finally the material is again transferred to the soap-bowl, and
the washing with water continued until all the clay has been eliminated
and the diatoms left, only mixed with sand-grains. To remove the
diatoms from the sand, the customary concentration method may be
used. In the case of marine clays, by the concentration method, the
diatoms are left mixed with a large amount of vegetable debris difficult
to reduce in the boiling acids. For such clays the author uses the
following method : — The diatomaceous material, as roughly concentrated,
is transferred to a wooden butter-holder, or hemispherical rubber cup,
which is made to spin round rapidly by a smart flip of the finger. The
contained liquid will rise up and spread round the sides, and the heavier
sand and vegetable debris will settle back at once, leaving a cloud of
diatoms in suspension. The bowl is then tilted to throw the diatoms to
one side, and several pipettes full of liquid are quickly removed. The
diatoms which settle from the liquid thus removed may be dried at once
and mounted without treating with acid.

Long Lines as Zoological Collecting Apparatus.* — Prof. Ijima
gives an account of the use of long fishing lines as a means for collect-
ing zoological specimens. It may be safely asserted that almost all the
hexactinellid sponges hitherto known to inhabit Sagami Bay were brought
to light through the medium of “ dabo lines. There are in the Zoo-
logical Institute of the College at Tokio many still new to zoologists,
some of which are of such exquisite beauty as to fascinate every eye,
while others are of truly handsome dimensions. One is no less than
875 mm. long and 270 mm. broad at the middle. Other kinds of sponges
obtained by the same method are likewise rich in both individuals and
species. A valuable collection of various forms of Hydrozoa and
Anthozoa has been made for the Science College Museum since the
Japanese fishermen have taken to dabo lines. Among Echinoderms,
brittle-stars are the most frequently caught, but such rare and peculiar
genera as Asthenosoma and Pourtalesia have also been dredged. Most inter-
esting holothurians and crinoidshave also been taken. Many crustaceans
have been taken, and for the famous giant crab, dabo lines appear to be
the only apparatus that brings it up from the abyss. Both simple and
compound Tunicates, as well as Brachiopoda, are also fairly well repre-
sented among the trophies of the dabo lines. As may be supposed,
worms and molluscs are the least favourable for dabo lines to catch hold
of, although rare and remarkable specimens have thus been taken.

Although we have not said as much as Prof. Ijima, yet we have
said enough to show that the dabo lines can be of immense service to
zoologists. The process is comparatively simple and inexpensive; it
enables the dredger to reach a tolerably great depth where dredging and
trawling can only be managed by steam power, and where, if the bottom

*

2 R

1806

Z.ol. Mag , viii. (189G) pp. 13-17, 19-23, 39-16.

570

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATINO TO

be rocky, it is hardly possible at all. No doubt, when the method
comes to be more largely used, improvements and alterations will be
made in it.

New Steriliser.* — In this apparatus a double-walled steam cylinder
effects a constant temperature of the interior. The heating is accelerated
by the bottom of the apparatus being bent inwards, so that the water
above the flame is only a few centimetres in depth. The main mass of
the water is in a ring-shaped enlargement of the lower part.

Formic Aldehyde Lamp for Disinfecting Purposes.f — The firm of
G. Barthel, Dresden, have brought out a new formic aldehyde lamp.
In the lamp methyl-alcohol is drawn up into a tube by a wick, is eva-
porated, and burnt with a limited supply of air.

(2) Preparing- Objects.

Method of Preparing Molluscan Eggs.f — Mr. J. Fujita, in his
experiments on Molluscan eggs, studied the normal methods of develop-
ment, thus : — The eggs were stained in toto, and passed through ascend-
ing grades of alcohol as usual ; on a prick being made through the
chorion, the eggs were set free into the alcohol. The latter was then
immediately replaced with clearing fluids, and the eggs were afterwards
mounted in balsam. This method is quite sufficient for tracing all the
history up to the formation of the mesoderm. For the purpose of
experiments the method employed resembled generally that adopted by
Crampton. The eggs were first examined with a low power to determine
the stage to which they had developed. The separation of the blasto-
meres was at first attempted by the use of very fine needles, but, as the
blastomeres are minute in size, the author failed in almost every case,
and, even when successful, the rough treatment resulted in death. At
last the difficulty was got over by trusting to the accidental separation
of the blastomeres in the breaking and piercing of the gelatinous enve-
lope and the chorion ; the egg fragments thus obtained were transferred
to watch-glasses by a jet of steam, and were then ready for observation.

Examination of Polar Rings of Earthworms.§ — Miss K. Foot, after
trying various reagents and stains, made use of lithium-carmine and
Lyons’ blue. The method that has proved most satisfactory for eggs of
Allolobojohora foetida is to stain the sections from one to twenty-four
hours in lithium-carmine, wash in acidulated alcohol for a few seconds,
and double stain with a very dilute solution of Lyons’ blue. The
process must be carefully watched under the Microscope. If the stain-
ing be properly modified to suit the special fixative, all the fixatives
tested give results more or less satisfactory, but the corrosive sublimate,
with or without acetic acid, gives the most brilliant and satisfactory
reaction. However, Miss Foot thinks that the most reliable fixative is
chromo-acetic, for it so fixes the eggs that the subsequent treatment with
alcohols produces scarcely perceptible shrinkage ; with its use all the
structures of the cell may be constantly and sharply defined. The

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lt0 Abt., xviii., No. 25. See Zeitschr. f.
ang. Mikr., ii. (1890) p. 108. f Zeitschr. f. ang. Mikr., ii. (1898) p. 109.

X Zool. Mag., viii. (1896) p. 49. § Jouru. of Morphol., xii. (1896) pp. 3-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

571

structures that are distorted or obliterated by many other fixatives may
be constantly and distinctly defined with cliromo-acetic.

Preparation of Specimens of Spermatobium.* — Mr. G. Eisen, after
trying a dozen or more stains, found the following method to be superior
to any other, and to give by far the finest nuclear images : — (1) Staining
of the hosts in toto — in very weak Delafield’s haematoxylin, or in Ehrlich’s
ammonia-haematoxylin ; (2) hardening and sectioning in paraffin ; (3) the
slide fixing consisted simply of distilled water, or of formalin and
gelatin (one-half per cent, in water). This fixing is used as follows : —
(1) Cover the space of the cover-glass on the slide with several drops of
the fixing so that the sections will float ; (2) warm gently over a plate
until the paraffin becomes slightly transparent, but not so long that it
begins to melt ; (3) let the fixing harden in the air during at least four
hours, or better, during the night. Sections treated in this way never
loosen, and are always straight. They should never be melted, but the
paraffin dissolved in pure turpentine or xylol. When the latter is at
last removed, the slides are stained by a saturated solution of orange G
in 33 per cent, alcohol. The stain should be left on only a few seconds,
and then immediately washed off in 94 per cent, alcohol. If it is found
that the nuclei of the hosts are not sufficiently brightly or too darkly
stained by the haematoxylin, the slide may be again stained by a weak
solution of Ehrlich’s ammonia-hrematoxylin under the Microscope.
Then clear with oil of bergamot and mount in gum Thus ; in xylol such
sections give exceedingly good images. The author calls attention to
the very great advantages of gum Thus in xylol as a mounting medium,
for it gives images far superior to those obtained with Canada balsam or
dammar.

Preparation of Nervous System of Cestodes. f — Mr. W. L. Tower
found in his study of the nervous system of Cestodes that the Golgi and
methylen-blue methods proved of very little value. He has, however,
been more successful in the use of Yom Path’s killing fluid. The
Cestodes examined were taken from the small intestine of the sheep
twenty minutes after the sheep was killed, and placed in warm normal
salt solution, in which they remained for 30 minutes. They were
then put into the following mixture 500 ccm. sat. aq. sol. picric acid,
filtered ; 3 ccm. glacial acetic acid ; 5 grm. platinic chloride in 5 ccm.
dist. water ; 2 grm. osmic acid crystals. After being in this mixture
for ten hours the worms were removed, and cut into pieces from 1 to
3 cm. long. They were then put into fresh crude pyroligneous acid for
6-10 hours, and then into 70 per cent, alcohol for a day. After de-
hydration the pieces were soaked in xylol for 24 hours, and then im-
bedded in paraffin. By this treatment nerve-tissue is differentiated from
muscular and connective tissue, the nerves being coloured greyish-blue,
whereas the more highly refractive muscles become brownish, and the
connective tissue remains paler than either of the two other tissues.

Method for Demonstrating Axis-Cylinders of Nerve-Pibres.l— Dr.

R. Marcliesini recommends the following procedure for demonstrating
axis-cylinders. The freshly removed sciatic nerve of a dog is placed at

* Proc. California Acad. Sci., v. pp. 3-5. f Zool. Anzeig., xix. pp. 323-4.

+ Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 211-5 (2 figs.).

2 R 2

572

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

once in Muller’s fluid, wherein it remains for five months. The fluid is
to be constantly renewed. A piece of the nerve is then cut off, and
cleaned of superfluous connective tissue. After having been carefully
washed in water, the piece is immersed in 1 per cent, corrosive sublimate
for 24 hours. After removal from the sublimate, the piece is dried on
blotting-paper and transferred to a 1 per cent, solution of sulphate of
potash for at least 12 hours. The piece of nerve is then dried on
blotting-paper and immersed in 0*5 per cent, osmic acid for 12 hours.
Should the tissue be too dark, the excess of colour can be removed with
permanganate of potash solution. Examinations of the specimens may
be made from preparations teased out in glycerin, or from mounted
celloidin sections cleared up with creosote.

Specimens prepared by this method show striations parallel to the
short axis of the cylinder, but not equidistant. In some, the appearances
are serpentine, or rather like the worm of a corkscrew. From the
appearances observed by this method of preparation, it would seem that
the axis cylinders of nerves have a spiral course.

Preparation of Nerve-Cells.* — Miss M. Lewis found that her best
and clearest preparations of the nerve cells of a Polychaete were
obtained from material prepared by one of vom Path’s osmic mixtures.
This experience is not in accordance with that of v. Lenhossek and
Dehler, and Miss Lewis therefore took pains to confirm her results by
using the methods of the former, namely, the use of corrosive sublimate,
followed by iron luematoxylin. The conditions obtained by this method
furnished an excellent confirmation of the preparations made with the
vom Path mixture, but were in no respect better. In the first method
employed, the material was allowed to remain in the vom Path mixture
(picric -f- osmic -f- acetic -+* platinic chloride) 8 days. It was then
washed for a short time in methyl-alcohol, followed by pyroligneous acid
for 48 hours. Then it was transferred to absolute alcohol, where it was
allowed to remain for several days, with frequent changes of alcohol.
Further staining was unnecessary. The sections were cut 3*3 fx thick,
were mounted in Canada balsam, and gave most satisfactory results.
Material prepared by the sublimate method sometimes showed shrinkage
of the protoplasm.

(3) Cutting-, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

New Simple Microtome. — Herr G. Marpmann f describes a micro-
tome the general aspect of which resembles the Cathcart. A clairtL to
consideration is raised for the preparation clamp, which is stated to be
“ very practical and apparently new.” This claim is founded on the use
of the ball-and-socket joint. In neither of the illustrations is the novel
arrangement clearly shown. The screw for raising the preparation has
a thread rising 1 mm.

New Fromme Microtomes.* — Prof. J. Schaffer describes the micro-
tomes recently brought out by the firm of Fromme, of Vienna.

I* Anat. Anzeig., xii. ("1836) pp. 292-3.

+ Zeitschr. f. ang. Mikr , ii. (1896) pp. 65-8 (2 figs.).

X Zeitsch. f. wiss. Mikr., xiii. (1896) jp. 1-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

573

The microtome for paraffin series is shown in fig. 89. A heavy cast-
iron frame B, supported on four feet, carries between its projecting ends
E E a massive axis A, which is rigidly connected with a, horizontal
broad arm D. The parallelogram piece has its arms h li at s' s' attached
to the axis A, and at s s to a cross-piece c parallel to the axis A. This
cross-piece c has on the left a screw for fixing the clamp K for the pre-
paration. The arm D carries on its free end two vertical cheeks d d,
between which is the toothed wheel R. The axis of the toothed wheel

Fig. 89.

is a micrometer screw, which engages in a nut of the arm d. The
conical ends of the micrometer screw, one of which is visible at a, abut
against two pieces screwed to the arms li h of the parallelogram. Since
the nut of the micrometer-screw is fixed, a turn of the toothed-wheel will
result in a displacement to right or left of the parallelogram and of the
clamp for the preparation attached to it. The whole apparatus, sup-
ported by the axis A, can be raised and lowered about this axis. This
movement is effected by means of an excentric, which is attached to the

574

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

axis of the wheel r and runs on a steel tongue Z of the arm D The
bMe^framerB *° * “a£sive arm M Pr°Jec<™g from the left side’ of the

. f“5uated/;^c“ of tte object-clamp is effected by means
of the abutting edge N and the two pawls g and /. The pawl a is
hinged to the upper end of the vertical arm of a bent lever, which turns
about the axis of the wheel and has a horizontal arm projecting beyond
Here the projecting arm carries a nickel block, which on raising the
wheel strikes against the abutting edge N. The position of the latter
can be adjusted in the piece F, which projects from the base-frame B
and carries a division When by the action of the excentric the paral-
lelogram and toothed-wheel are raised against the abutting edge, the
pawl engages m the teeth of the wheel so that the latter is moved in the
direction of the arrow, and the parallelogram and clamp connected with
it are displaced towards the knife. At the beginning of the back move-

Fig. 90.

ment the pawl /prevents the wheel from turning back, while the pawl q
is raised above the teeth owing to the nickel block of the lever resting
on the cross-piece 0. The extent of the movement is determined by
the adjustment of the abutting edge N in the piece F; each division of
the scale corresponds to 2 • 5 /x. In order to render the movement as
smooth as possible, a strong spring is brought between the base-frame
and the arm D to counteract the weight of the upper part of the
instrument.

The new celloidin microtome is represented in figs. 90 and 91. Through
a slit m the heavy cast-iron base-plate 6, a stand a , carrying the clamp
or the preparation, can be inserted, and fixed in the desired position by
means of the lever l. The preparation clamp is adjustable by two joints,
and can be raised to the desired cutting plane by means of the rack L
where it is fixed by the screw g.

The arrangement for the movement and gradual lowering of the

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 575

knife are precisely similar to those for the movement of the object in
the instrument for series just described. In the present instrument the
turning axis is vertical. With the heavy cast-iron base-plate b is rigidly
connected the fluted upright support V, between the cover of which and
the base-plate moves the axis A and with it the plate C and the parallelo-
gram h. The end-piece Y of the latter serves for the fastening of the
knife. The plate C carries on its end the double nut S and S', in which
moves the micrometer screw connected with the toothed wheel m. The
arrangement for regulating the thickness of the sections is similar to
that in the preceding instrument.

Fig. 91.

For cutting under liquids a crescent-shaped vessel (fig. 91) is brought
round the stand. In this case the form of the end-piece Y of the
parallelogram is modified as seen in the figure.

(4) Staining- and Injecting-.*

Injection Masses for Lymphatics.* — Dr. Gerota used the following
coloured fluids for injecting lymphatic vessels. The one most recom-
mended is made with Prussian blue. To 2 grm. of this pigment are
added 3 grm. of pure turpentine oil, and the mass carefully rubbed up
in a porcelain mortar. After this 15 grm. of sulphuric ether are added
and the mixture strained through a double layer of linen. The mass is

* Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 216-24 (4figs.).

576

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

preserved in bottles with ground glass stoppers, and the author uses it
chiefly for mucosae and embryonic tissues. Number 2 is made with
Extractum alkannae (Orcanette). 1 grm. of this is dissolved in 3 grm.
of turpentine oil, and after filtration through linen 10 grm. of sulphuric
ether are added. One objection to this mixture is its liability to pass
through the walls of lymphatics and stain the fat. The basis of Number 3
is known commercially as absolute black. Of this 5 grm. are rubbed up
for 10 minutes with 5 grm. of unboiled linseed oil in a porcelain mortar,
and then 10 grm. of turpentine essence and 10-15 grm. of sulphuric
ether are added. The mixture is filtered and preserved in glass-stoppered
bottles ; it must be well shaken each time before being used. Number 4
has a red colour, and is more difficult to make and to preserve. 5 grm.
of very finely powdered cinnabar are rubbed up with 15-20 drops of
unboiled linseed oil in a warmed porcelain mortar until a thin paste is
formed (10-15 minutes). This is then mixed with 3 grm. of turpentine
oil and 5 grm. of chloroform, after which it is filtered and preserved as
before. This injection should always be prepared in small quantity, and
used while quite fresh.

In injecting these coloured fluids special attention is paid to the
syringe, which should be cleaned from time to time with turpentine and
ether, since the leather plug is apt to give off a little dust. The syringe
used by the author is much like an ordinary syringe used for injecting
therapeutic remedies, but is easily taken to pieces, and therefore easily
cleaned.. The only material difference is that the needle is made of
glass drawn out to a fine point. Many of these glass needles are necessary
for working the syringe quickly.

Staining Mucus. * — Dr. Paul Mayer discusses the various reagents
used for staining mucus. He begins with “ the so-called hematoxylins.”
Hematoxylin alone does not stain nuclei or mucus ; the presence of an
inorganic salt is necessary, and then it is not unchanged hematoxylin
but its oxidation stage — hematein — which forms the stain. It is, there-
fore, more exact to speak of “ hsematein-Tlionerde,” “ kemalum,” “ hema-
calcium,” &c. The indispensable “ ripening ” of hematoxylin solutions
depends not merely on an oxidation to hematein, but also on a gradual
weakening of the originally acid reaction of the alum. For rapid and
intense mucus staining, Mayer recommends “ muchaematein,” with the
following composition : — hematein • 2 grm., aluminium chloride * 1 grm.,
glycerin 40 ccm., distilled water 60 ccm., or leaving out the glycerin
and water, an alcoholic solution may be made with 100 ccm. of 70 per
cent, alcohol and 1-2 drops of nitric acid.

The author goes on to discuss metliyl-green, iodine-green, methylen-
blue, methyl-violet, thionin- and toluidin-blue, bismarck-brown, and
safranin. Thionin is equalled or surpassed by mucicarmin, the receipt
for which is as follows : — Carmine 1 grm., aluminium chloride *5 grm.,
distilled water 2 ccm., heated over a small flame for about two minutes
until the mixture is quite dark. Then 100 ccm. of 50 per cent, alcohol
are added. For most cases, to stain the mucus only, the solution should
be diluted to 1/5 to 1/10 with alcohol, or to 1/10 with water. Instead
of fixing the paraffin sections on the slide through a medium of water

* MT. Zool. Stat Nenpel, xii. (1896) pp. 803-30.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

577

or weak alcohol, Mayer sometimes used tlie staining fluid itself, which
acted with unusual rapidity and intensity when the sections were brought
for stretching purposes into warmth. Finally the general theory of
mucus staining is discussed.

Serum-Injection Syringe.* — Dr. Gabritschewsky has devised a
syringe for injecting diphtheria-serum, and one of its chief advantages
is that it can be directly applied to the bottles containing the serum.
Its construction is easily understood from the illustration : a is a metal

Fig. 92.

tube passing through a rubber plug 6, and c a rubber tube connecting
with the needle. After these parts have been disinfected in boiling
water, the plug is inserted into the serum bottle, and the rubber ball d
put on. The syringe is then ready for injecting. Entrance of air
under the skin is easily prevented by pinching the rubber tube as soon
as the last drops of serum are emptied from the bottle.

(5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Use of Formalin in Neurology.t— Dr. P. A. Fish reviews the
various means which have been recommended for preserving nerve pre-

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xix. (1896) pp. 551-2 (1 fig.),
t Proc. Amer. Micr. Soc., xvii. (1895) pp. 319-39.

578

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

parations and others in formalin. The combination of formalin with
other hardening reagents has not as yet apparently received much
attention. Dr. Fish thinks that its use in this connection will un-
doubtedly be of great value in macroscopic as well as microscopic
methods. Good results may be obtained with nerve-tissues when the
following mixture is employed : — Water, 2000 ccm. ; formalin, 50 ccm. ;
sodium chloride, 100 grm. ; zinc chloride, 15 grm. The specific gravity
should be about 1*05; in practice the specimen is left in this mixture
for a week or ten days — it may then be transferred to a mixture of water
2000 ccm. and formalin 50 ccm., and it may remain in this solution in-
definitely, if the jar be kept tightly covered. To prevent the freezing of
formalin solution, it is suggested that alcohol might be mixed with it,
say equal parts of 95 per cent, alcohol and 2^ per cent, formalin.
Material treated in the way described has yielded most satisfactory
results histologically. Formalin may replace osmic acid in the Golgi-
Oajal method. A mixture which was used with very great success was
the following: — Muller’s fluid, 100 ccm. ; formalin 10 per cent., 2 ccm. ;
osmic acid 1 per cent., 2 ccm.

Method of Preserving Nervous Tissue.* — Dr. G. E. Elliott has
some notes on the various methods of preserving nervous tissue. They
seem on the whole to be addressed to the beginner, but there are one or
two points of special interest. He recommends Muller’s fluid, when it
is especially desired to prevent shrinkage of the specimen, to trace nerve
tracks, or , when cheapness is a matter of importance. The time necessary
to harden is considerably reduced by using the fluid hot, say at 75°.
Formalin is looked upon as, perhaps, the most valuable method for
preserving tissues which we possess. If, says Dr. Elliott, you once
prepare your specimen in this, and forget to change it for three months,
you will probably find it preserved all right. The best method for
making dry specimens of the brain appears to be that of Giacomini.
Among the staining methods to which he refers, he finds that one of
the very best of the more recent stains is that of Nissl. Small pieces
of fresh tissue arc placed at once in absolute alcohol and left from two
to six days. After imbedding in celloidin or in paraffin, the specimen
is best stained by placing the sections in a watch-glass which can be
heated over a flame to a temperature of 7 0°. The author has succeeded
in getting excellent results by allowing the sections to remain over-
night in a 25 per cent, solution of methyl-blue. This gave beautiful
staining results of cell-processes together with nerve-fibres. The cells
are apt to be overstained unless a very weak solution is used. As may
be supposed, the Golgi stain is recommended for studying cell structure,
as it brings out magnificently the processes of the cell. A neuroglia
stain which can be recommended, is one modified by Dr. Mallory of
Boston, from one of Weigert’s ; by this method, small bits of tissue are
kept from four to seven days in a solution of formalin 10 c.c. and 90 c.c.
of a saturated solution of picric acid ; transfer to a 2 per cent, solution of
bichromate of ammonia, and leave from one to two weeks, wash in water,
and place in alcohol for 24 hours. Mount in celloidin, and stain lightly
with carmine ; the sections are now to be further stained thus : — Anilin-
gentian for from 5 to 20 minutes, decolorise in a solution of one part

* ‘ The Post Graduate/ xi. (1896) pp. 336-48.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

579

iodine, two parts iodide of potassium, and a hundred parts water ; dry
with blotting-paper, and further decolorise in a mixture of anilin oil
two parts with xylol one part. When sections are sufficiently de-
colorised, they should be washed two or three times and mounted in
xylol-balsam.

The Marchi method is recommended for discovering whether or no
a process of degeneration is going on in the nerve-cell.

Preservation of Marine Animals.* — Mr. E. T. Browne remarks
that the introduction of formaldehyde as a preserving fluid, instead of
alcohol, is of great importance to the marine naturalist, especially when
working in localities where it is difficult to obtain a supply of good
spirit. He first tried formaldehyde for preserving marine animals at
Yalentia last year. The results, both for hydroids and medusae, were
far superior to those obtained by means of alcohol. The colouring,
however, is not permanently preserved. The best results with hydroids
and medusae have been obtained when the specimen has been killed by
a fixing reagent, and then placed first into a 2 * 5 per cent, solution and
finally into a 5 per cent, solution.

Object-Holder for the Observation of Objects enclosed between
Two Cover-Glasses.f — Dr. C. J. Cori uses an object-holder, such as is
represented in fig. 93, when it is necessary to examine small objects
mounted between two cover-glasses on both sides. It consists of an

Fig. 93.

oblong brass plate, 9 cm. long and 4 cm. broad, with a rectangular
aperture of dimensions 30 by 35 mm. This aperture can be diminished
at will by a sliding panel which serves to firmly clamp the cover-glasses
containing the objects to be examiued, which are supported in grooves
on the sides of the aperture.

Preserving Yeast in Saccharose Solution. :J — Herr J. C. Holm men-
tions two modifications of Hansen’s flasks which are used in Jdrgensen’s
laboratory for keeping yeasts. In these flasks the culture remains
unimpaired for many months, and the medium does not deteriorate from
evaporation or contamination. From the verbal description, a bent tube
connected with the cup of the flask is the essential part of the apparatus.
No illustration is given.

* Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1896, pp. 460 and 1.

t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xii. (1896) pp. 300-1.

X Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasiteuk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 313-6.

580

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

New Method for Preserving Succulent Fruit, Fungi, &c.* — Herr
H. Behrens recommends the following process for preserving botanical
specimens so that they shall retain their natural form and colour, &c.
The plants are air-dried, and dipped in a warm 5 per cent, gelatin
solution. In case the gelatin should not adhere, the object is first
immersed in 70 per cent, alcohol, and then in the gelatin solution.
After the layer of gelatin has cooled, the object is dipped into a
mixture of 20 parts of the 40 per cent, commercial formic aldehyde
and 90 parts of water. By this means an insoluble layer of gelatin is
obtained, and at the same time all fermenting organisms, .bacteria, &c.,
are destroyed, and ’the plants (fungi and fruit) arc preserved in their
natural form and colour.

* Zeitschr. f. ang. Mikr., ii. (1896) pp. 36-7.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DECEMBER 1896.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

X. — The Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone . — IX.

By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.

( Read 21 st October , 1896.)

Plates XII. and XIII.

Subfamily FOL YMOPiPHININJE — continued.

Sagrina (d’Orbigny), Parker and Jones [1865].

Sagrina asperula , plate XII. fig. 1.

Test stoutly built, cylindrical, slightly tapering at the aboral end.
l>ne uvigerine commencement has few segments: the succeeding
nodosarine chambers are short, -well-inflated, and with deeply im-
pressed sutural lines. Surface of test covered with numerous small
tubercles. Length of well-grown individuals, 1/36 in.

S. asperula occurs in the Gault of Folkestone in zone i., specimen
h, common ; zone iii., rare ; zone v., common ; zone vii., very rare.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XII.

Fig. 1. — Sagrina asperula sp. nov. x 40.

„ 2. — Ramulina laevis Rupert Jones. X 30.

,, 3-6. — R. globulifera Brady. Chief varieties of Gault specimens, showing the
inflated parts of the test. Fig. 3, an elongate segment, the commonest
type in the Gault. Fig. 4, a specimen more nearly approaching the
form of recent specimens. Fig. 5, a segment giving off four arms or
stolons. Fig. 6, a compressed variety, showing by the short tubular
processes an affinity towards the fistulose Polymorpliinx. All x 45.

„ 7-9. — R. aculeata J. Wright. Fig. 7, a complete segment, with fragment of
another, x 33. Fig. 8, a stolon or cylindrical fragment, witli vestiges of
branches, x 30. Fig. 9, a terminal fragment, giving off short twisted
processes, x 30.

„ 10. — R. cervicornis Chapman sp. Young specimen, showing initial chamber!
and a short cervicorn segment, x 22.

„ 11. — R. cervicornis. A well-grown individual, showing the initial series suc-
ceeded by two nearly equal arms, each with cervicorn terminations, x 15.

„ 12. — Vitriwebbina laevis Solla3 sp. A specimen with an initial polymorphine
series, attached to a fragment of glauconite, x 23.

2 s

1896

582

Transactions of the Society.

Subfamily BAMULININM
Bamulina Eupert Jones [1875].

Bamulina Isevis Eupert Jones, plate XII. fig. 2.

B. Isevis Eupert Jones, 1875, Eep. and Proceed. Belfast Nat. F.
Club, 1873-74; Appendix III. 1875, p. 88, plate iii. fig. 19. B.
brachiata Eupert Jones, 1875, ibid., p. 88, plate iii. fig. 20. B. Isevis
Balkwill and Millett, 1884, Journ. Microscopy, vol. iii. p. 84, plate iv.
fig. 7. B. Bradyi Bzehak, 1895, Ann. k. k. Naturliist. Hofmus.,
vol. x. p. 223, plate vi. fig. 5. B. exigua Id., ibid., p. 223, plate vi.
fig. 4.

Tbe test of B. Isevis is always smooth ; and although distinctive
names have been given to several modifications with globular, pyri-
form, and other variously shaped segments, each with its tubular
extensions, it is difficult to define these differences as specific. This
form, in common with the two succeeding species herein described
from the Gault, is invariably found in a fragmentary state.

B. Isevis has been recorded from the Upper Chalk of Ireland
(Wright) ; the Lower Pliocene of Austria (Bzehak) ; and as a recent
form from Galway (Balkwill and Millett).

t In the Gault of Folkestone this species was found in zone xi.,
50 ft. from the top, very rare ; 40 ft., very rare.

Bamulina globulifera Brady, plate XII. figs. 3-6.

B. globulifera Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. xix. N.S.,
p. 58, plate viii. figs. 32, 33. Marginulina , cf. Bentalina aculeata
Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 35,
plate ii. figs. 10-13. B. globulifera Brady, 1884, Chall. Eep., vol. ix.

Plate XIII.

Fig. 1. — Vitriwebbina Sollasi Chapman. Specimen attached to a rolled glauconite
fragment. X 15.

„ 2. — V. Sollasi var. gonoidea nova. Attached to a glauconite fragment, x 15.

3. — V. tuberculata Sollas sp. Specimen attached to a shell-fragment, x 15.

„ 4. — Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny : a, superior aspect; b, peripheral aspect.
X 60.

5a-c. — G. cretacea d’Orbigny : a, superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect ; c, peri-
pheral aspect, x 45.

„ 6. — G. cretacea. Another specimen. X 45.

„ 7. — G. sequilateralis Brady ; a , lateral aspect ; b, peripheral aspect, x 45.

8. — Sphseroidina bulloides d’Orbigny. Oral aspect, x 45.

9. — Spirillina tuberculata Brady, x 30.

„ 10a-c. — Discorbina rugosa d’Orbigny sp. : a, superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect ;
c, peripheral aspect, x 30.

„ lie— e. — D. globularis d’Orbigny sp. : a, superior aspect; b, inferior aspect;
c, peripheral aspect. X 30.

,, 12a, b. — D. orbicularis Terquem : a, superior aspect ; 6, peripheral outline, x 30.
,, 13a, b. — D. turbo d’Orbigny sp. : a, superior aspect ; b, peripheral aspect, x 30.
„ 14a, 6. — D. pileolus d’Orbigny sp. : a, superior aspect; b, peripheral outline.
X 45.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone . By F. Chapman. 583

pp. 587, 588, plate lxxvi. figg. 22-28. Tinoporus baculatus Skerborn
and Chapman, 1886, Journ. R. Micr. Soc., ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 758,
plate xvi. fig. 24. Lagena protea Chaster, 1892, Rep. Southport Soc.
Nat. Sci. for 1890-91, p. 62, plate i. fig. 14. Ramulina globulifera
Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Ak. Wiss., Cl. ii. vol. xviii. part ii.
p. 310 (118), plate ix. fig. 62. De Amicis, 1895, II Naturalista
Siciliano, anno xiv. p. 48, plate i. fig. 14 a-c.

This species is easily recognised by the thin-shelled globular or
pyriform segments united by slender stolon tubes, and with the surface
of the test hispid. The Gault specimens are not often so regularly
shaped as the recent specimens, the normally globular or pyriform
segments being sometimes greatly compressed or otherwise distorted ;
like the recent specimens, they are always fragmentary. In some
examples the septation of the inflated segments (lately elucidated by
Prof. Rupert Jones and the writer, and shortly to be described in the
Proc. Linn. Soc.) is indicated on the external surface by indistinct
sutural lines.

R. globulifera has been described under various names from strata
dating from the Middle Jurassic of Poland and Switzerland ; it has
also been found in the Neocomian beds of Surrey, in the Gault of
France and England and in various Tertiary beds, including the
London Clay and the Italian Pliocenes. It occurs at moderate depths
in the seas of the present day.

This species occurs at Folkestone in zone i., specimen b} very rare ;
zone iii., rare ; zone viii., very rare ; zone x., frequent ; zone xi.,
55 ft., very rare ; 50 ft., very rare; 45 ft., frequent; 40 ft., rare;
35 ft., frequent ; 20 ft., rare ; 12 ft., very rare ; 6 ft., frequent.

Ramulina aculeata Wright, plate XII. figs. 7-9.

R. aculeata Wright, 1886, Proceed. Belfast Nat. F. Club,
1885-86, Appendix IX., 1886, p. 331, plate xxvii. fig. 11. Lagena
hispida Hausler, 1887, Neues Jahrb. f. Min., vol. i. pp. 185 and 189,
plate v. fig. 12. R. aculeata Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890,
Journ. R. Micr. Soc., p. 561, plate xi. fig. 16. Lagena tuberculata ,
Perner, 1892, Ceska Ak. Cisafe Frantiska Josefa, Prague (Palseonto-
graphica Bohemiae, No. 1), p. 56, plate v. figs. 19 a, b. Ramulina
globulifera var. miocsenica Rzehak, 1895, Ann. k. k. Naturhist.
Hofmus., vol. x. p. 222, plate vi. fig. 6. R. Kitlii Idem, ibid.,
p. 221, plate vi. figs. 7, 9, 11. R. cf'. aculeata Idem, ibid., p. 222,
plate vi. figs. 8, 10.

This species, which is distinguished by the strongly built test,
clothed with strong prickles, is more familiar as an Upper Cretaceous
form ; in which strata the fragmentary remains, generally the cylin-
drical connecting tubes, more rarely with the bulbous portions
attached, are fairly common. The tests are always found in this

2 s 2

584

Transactions of the Society.

fragmentary condition, tlie branching habit of growth rendering them
extremely liable to fracture. In a few instances the commencing
segments have been found ; they consist of a pyriform or globular por-
tion internally septate somewhat after the manner of Polymorphina,
which subsequently gives rise to one or more tubular extensions,
they in turn bearing other inflated segments ; this alternating growth
apparently extending to a remarkable degree. B. aculeata is perhaps
as abundant as the preceding form in the Gault series, but it pre-
dominates, to the exclusion of other types, in the Upper Chalk series.

B. aculeata is known from the Jurassic strata of Switzerland
(Hausler) ; the Gault of England (Williamson and Kupert Jones)
and Switzerland (Hausler) ; the Red Chalk of Yorkshire (Burrows,
Sherborn, and Bailey) ; the Cenomanian of Bohemia (Perner) ; the
Chalk-marl of Kent (Kupert Jones) ; the Upper Chalk of Ireland
(Wright) and of Aix-la-Chapelle (Beissel) ; the Tertiaries of the
Paris Basin (Parker and Jones), of Italy (De Amicis and Terrigi),
and of Austria (Rzehak).

In the Gault of Folkestone B. aculeata was found in zone iv.,
rare ; zone x., very rare ; zone xi., 55 ft. from the top, common ;
50 ft., common ; 45 ft. common ; 40 ft., rare ; 35 ft., very rare ;
30 ft., rare ; 25 ft., frequent ; 20 ft., rare ; 12 ft., common ; 6 ft.,
frequent.

Bamulina cervicornis Chapman sp., plate XII. figs. 10, 11.

Polymorphina Orbignii Zborzewski sp. var. cervicornis Chapman,
1892, Geol. Mag. Dec. III. vol. viii. p. 54, plate ii. figs. 5, 6.

Test always adherent, shell-surface smooth, usually found attached
to shell-fragments. It commences with a compressed polymorphine
series elliptical in outline, followed by extensive prolongations given
off usually from one end of the initial portion (the apical end) but
sometimes from both ends ; these prolongations, in turn, branch off
at intervals and on each side of the main stem, and the ends of the
main branches terminate in bifurcations, after the manner of a stag’s
horn. Apertures at the pointed extremities of the branchlets. Shell-
structure finely perforate.

Various stages of this remarkable Foraminifer were found, from
the commencing series (a polymorphine bud, so to speak) to the
examples having enormously developed cervicorn outgrowths.

It is just possible that Terquem’s Placopsilina rhizomorplia *
and more especially P. cornuta f are related to this form, but
there is a difficulty in drawing comparison between these Liassic forms
and those from the Gault, seeing that the shell-structure of the former
specimens is not clearly defined in the descriptions. It is interesting,
however, to notice the similarity in the habit3 of growth of the

* Cinquieme Memoire sur les Foraminiferes du Lias,’ &c., Metz, 18G6, p. 422,
pi. xvi. figs. 3a-/. f Op. cit., Sixiemo Memoire, p. 491, pi. xx. figs. 8-21.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 585

examples from the Cretaceous and the Jurassic series. Berthelin *
also mentions some specimens from the Gault of France, possibly
identical with B. cervieornis, which he compares with Terquem’s
figures ; and he refers to them under the name of Wehbina irregularis
d’Orbigny.

In connection with the above species, it is also interesting to note
that Dr. Perner has figured f a specimen from the Cenomanian strata
of Bohemia, under the name of Trochammina irregularis ( = Vitri-
webbina tuberculata Sollas sp.) which shows a curious bifurcation of
the terminal chamber, resulting in an antler-like ending, and remind-
ing us of the extremities of the branches in B. cervieornis.

The specimens of B. cervieornis are somewhat difficult to obtain
from the Gault washings in anything like completeness, so that a
large quantity of the clay was carefully washed, beyond the standard-
sized piece from which all the other specimens were obtained, for the
purpose of this present inquiry.

Usually the test is much injured, but its outline can generally be
traced on the object to which it was attached. The cavity of the
test is often filled with pyrites, a common feature with many other
species of the Foraminifera found in the Gault.

B. cervieornis was found in zone iii., very rare ; zone vii., fre-
quent ; zone x., frequent ; zone xi., 20 ft. from tho top, very rare.

Vitriwebbina Chapman [1892].

For comparative notes on this genus and Webbina, see Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. vi., vol. xviii. October 1896, pp. 326-33.

Test adherent, consisting of a series of hemispherical or elliptical
chambers, gradually increasing in size and usually arranged in a
curve. The commencing segment sometimes exhibits a polymorphine
septation. Shell finely perforate, translucent or dull. Surface of
test smooth, dull, or tuberculate. Aperture, a simple crescentic slit
at the termination of the last chamber at its junction with the surface
of attachment.

Yitriwebbina Isevis Sollas sp., plate XII. fig. 12.

Webbina Isevis Sollas, 1877, Geol. Mag., Dec. II. vol. iv. pp. 103
and 104, plate vi. figs. 1-3. Yitriwebbina Isevis Chapman, 1892,
Geol. Mag., Dec. III. vol. viii. p. 53, plate ii. fig. 4. Bagg, 1895,
Johns-Hopkins Univ. Circ., xv. No. 121, p. 12. Chapman, 1896,
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xviii. p. 332, fig. 3.

The test is smooth, transparent, and glassy in texture. Segments
usually hemispherical and closely conjoined ; numbering usually about
three or four, but sometimes five in specimens from the Chalk for-
mation. This species sometimes shows the polymorphine septation of
the initial segment, as in the example herein figured.

* Mem. Soc. Ge'ol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, 1880, p. 20.

t Oeska Ak. Cfsare Frantiska Josefa, Prague (Palceont. Bohemia)), No. 1, 1892,
p. 53, pi. ix. fig. la.

586

Transactions of the Society.

Vitriwebbina Isevis lias been recorded from the middle Marl of
Yincentown, New Jersey (Bagg); from the Folkestone-Gault (Chap-
man) ; and from the Greensand of Cambridge (Sollas). I have also
found several specimens in the “ Chalk detritus ” of Charing, Kent,
from material with which Prof. Kupert Jones has kindly favoured me.

In the Gault of Folkestone, the above species was found in zone
vii., frequent ; zone xi., 50 ft. from top, very rare.

Vitriwebbina Sollasi Chapman, plate XIII. fig. 1.

V. Sollasi Chapman, 1892, Geol. Mag. Dec. III. vol. viii. p. 53,
plate ii. figs. 1-3. Bagg, 1895, Johns-Honkins Univ. Circ., xv.
No. 121, p. 12.

Test adherent, consisting of as many as seven chambers in full-
grown individuals, but usually from one to four in number. Chambers
hemispherical or pyriform. Shell usually of a pale brown or cream
colour, though sometimes white, and always opaque and dull. This
form differs from V. tuber culata in the absence of tubercles which
are scattered over the shell in the latter species, and in having the
surface of the test slightly pitted.

These adherent species, notably this and the following, make a
distinct floor of attachment which covers a considerable area inside
the shell, and which also extends outside as a non-tubulate shell-
flange.

F. Sollasi has been previously recorded from the Folkestone Gault
Chapman) ; and from the middle Marl of Yincentown, New Jersey
Bagg). I have also found many examples in the “ Chalk detritus ”
of Charing, Kent, and the Gault of Merstham. Single embryonic
or septate segments of this species are commonly found adherent to
shell fragments in the Gault.

As regards the Folkestone Gault, this species was found in zone i.
spec, a, very rare ; zone iii., very rare ; zone v., frequent ; zone vii.,
frequent ; zone x., rare ; zone xi., 20 ft. from the top, frequent.

Vitriwebbina Sollasi Chapman var. gonoideaf plate XIII. fig. 2.

This variety differs from the typical specific form in the peculiar
angulate or cuspidate outline of the segments. The shell-texture and
general characters are similar to those of the species. Length 1/6 in.
From the form of the segments one is led to infer that this variety
shows an affinity with Ramulina cervicornis.

Found in zone xi., 20 ft. from the top, of the Gault at Folkestone,
very rare.

Vitriwebbina tuberculata Sollas sp:, plate XIII. fig. 3.

Webbina tuberculata Sollas, 1877, Geol. Mag. Dec. II. p. 104,
plate vi. figs. 4-7 and 9. Trochammina irregularis Perner, 1892,
Ceska Ak. Cfsafe Frantiska Josefa, Prague, Palaeontographica Bo-

Foraminiferd of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 587

hemise, No. 1, p. 53, plate ix. figs. 1-6. Vitriivebbina tuberculata
Chapman, 1896, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xviii. p. 332, fig. 4.

The following description of V. tuberculata is given by Sollas, op.
cit. supra : “ Surface of test ornamented by a number of tubercles

irregularly disposed, generally hemispherical and depressed, resem-
bling the rivet -heads on an iron girder, but sometimes conical
and transversely truncated; average diameter 0-00105 in., height
0 * 0008 in. In some specimens the tubercles appear to be larger
and more numerous than in others.”

This species occurs in the Gault of Merstham (author’s coll.) ; it
has also been found in the Cambridge Greensand (Sollas), and the
Cenomanian and Chalk of Bohemia (Perner).

In the Gault of Folkestone it has occurred only in zone vii., where
it is rare.

Family GLOBIGEBINIDM.

Globigerina d’Orbigny [1826].

Globigerina bulloicles d’Orbigny, plate XIII. fig. 4.

Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 277, No. 1. — Modeles, Nos. 17 and 76. Id., 1816, For. Foss.
Vien., p. 163, plate ix. figs. 4-6. Brady, 1884, Chall. Bep., vol. ix.
pp. 593-5, plates lxxvii., lxxix. figs. 3-7. Burrows, Sherborn, and
Bailey, 1890, Journ. Boy. Micr. Soc., p. 561, plate xi. fig. 17. Jones,
1896, Monogr. Crag Foram. (Pal. Soc.), pt. iii. pp. 280-4 (Synonyms).

G. bulloides is well known as occurring in the Cretaceous strata,
but it does not appear to be anywhere in great abundance in those
deposits ; for G. cretacea plays an important part in the constitution
of a large portion of the Gault clays and marls, just as G. bulloides
does in the formation of some recent deposits. The species is also
well distributed and abundant in the Tertiary strata, and seems to
increase in importance to the present day.

The Gault specimens, although referred without hesitation to the
above species, are not absolutely typical, since the early chambers are
more numerous and not so well inflated as those found in deposits of
later age. The turbinoid spire of the Cretaceous specimens is more
depressed than that of typical examples. It is worth noting that
G. bulloides was also obtained from the Neocomian series (Bargate
beds) in the neighbourhood of Guildford in Surrey,* where it was
found associated with G. cretacea ; but although the latter is so
excessively abundant in the Gault, both species are rare in the Neo-
comian beds. G. bulloides has also been recorded from the Bed Chalk
of Yorkshire (Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey).

G. bulloides was found in the Gault of Folkestone in zone iv., very
rare ; zone vi., very rare ; zone xi., 55 ft. from the top, very rare ;

* Chapman, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1. (1894) p. 71S.

58 8

Transactions of the Society.

45 ft., rare ; 40 ft., rare ; 30 ft., very rare ; 25 ft., common ; 12 ft., fre-
quent ; 6 ft., common.

Gloligerina cretacea d’Orbigny, plate XIII. figs. 5, 6.

' Gloligerina cretacea d’Orbigny, 1840, Mem. Soc. geol. France,
vol. iv. p. 34, plate iii. figs. 12-14. Eeuss, 1845-6, Verst, bohm.
Kreidef., pt. i. p. 36, pi. viii. figs. 55 a, l. Id., 1860, Sitzungsb. d.
k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xl. p. 225. Id., 1862 ; ibid., vol. xlvi. p. 88.
Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. geol. France, ser. 3, yol. i. No. 5, p. 65.
Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. ix. p. 596, plate lxxxii. figs. 10 a-c [?] ;
fossil specimen, figs. 11 a-c. Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890,
Journ. Boy. Micr. Soc., p. 561, plate xi. figs. 18 a, bf c. Perner, 1892,
Ceska Ak. Cisare Frantiska Josefa, Prague (Palseontographica Bo-
hemiae, No. 1), p. 64, plate ix. figs. 7-10. Chapman, 1892, Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., yol. xlviii. p. 517, plate xv. figs. 13 a-c. Wood-
ward and Thomas, 1893, Final Keport Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey
Minnesota, p. 41, plate D, figs. 18, 19.

The above species is almost entirely confined to Cretaceous strata,
where it is usually very abundant. Associated with Anomalina
ammonoides, it constitutes by far the greater . bulk of the washings
from the Gault clays, especially those of zone xi. Berthelin also
remarks on the fact of their extreme abundance in the Gault of
France.

The test of this species is often infilled with pyrites, in common
with many other species from the Gault ; and frequently the casts alone
remain, as is the case with many of the larger fossils from the Gault,
such as Ammonites, Nucula , &c. In those zones where glauconite
abounds, the granules found in the washings are often easily recog-
nisable as casts of Gloligerina cretacea or of Anomalina ammonoides .
In the Upper Chalk I have sometimes found G. cretacea infilled with
crystalline calcite, which is revealed on dissolving away the thin test
with dilute acetic acid, and then quickly arresting the process.

This species has been recorded from the Neocomian of Surrey
(Chapman); the Gault of Folkestone, &c. (Jones); the Red Chalk
of Yorkshire (Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey); the various Cre-
taceous strata of England and Ireland (d’Orbigny, Jones, Wright,
Chapman, and others) ; from the Gault and Chalk of Germany and
Bohemia (Reuss, &c.); and the Cenomanian of Bohemia (Perner).
It also occurs in the Cretaceous marls of New Jersey (Woodward and
Bagg), and abundantly in the Chalk strata of Iowa, Minnesota, &c.
(Calvin, Woodward, and Thomas).

G. cretacea was found at Folkestone in zone i., spec. I , frequent ;
zone ii., spec, a, frequent ; zone ii., spec, c, frequent; zone iii., common ;
zone iv., frequent ; zone v., common ; zone vi., common ; zone vii.,
common ; zone viii., common ; zone ix., common ; zone x., common ;
zone xi., 55 ft. from the top, very common ; 50 ft., very common ;

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 589

45 ft., excessively common ; 40 ft., excessively common ; 35 ft., ex-
cessively common ; 30 ft., excessively common ; 25 ft., excessively
common ; 20 ft., excessively common ; 12 ft., common ; 6 ft.,
frequent.

Globigerina sequilateralis Brady, plate XIII. fig. 7.

Globigerina sequilateralis, Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr.
Sci., vol. xix. N.S. p. 7. Id., 1884, Cliall. Bep., vol. ix. p. 605,
plate lxxx. figs. 18-21. Wright, 1885-6, Proc. Belf. Nat. Field
Club for 1884-5, Appendix, p. 332, plate xxvii. figs. 9 a , h. Chap-
man, 1892, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlviii. p. 517, pi. xv.
figs. 14 a , b.

The Cretaceous specimens of G. sequilateralis differ from the
recent examples in having the early spiral portion of the test closely
coiled. This difference is merely trivial, and it is better to relegate
the Cretaceous examples to the same species. The essential character
of the test is the depression of the spiral in the umbilical area so
that it is apparent on both sides ; hence the equilateralness of the
form.

This species has been noted from the Chalk of Ready Hill
(Wright) ; from the Neocomian beds of Surrey, and the Chalk of
Lewes and Taplow (Chapman) ; and from the Chalk of the Island of
Bugen (by Ehrenberg as Phanerostomum asperum).

G . sequilateralis was found in the Gault in zone i. spec, b, rare ;
zone ii. spec, a, very rare ; zone iii. very rare ; zone iv. frequent ;
zone v. rare ; zone viii., rare ; zone ix., very rare ; zone xi., 45 ft. from
the top, very common ; 40 ft., common ; 35 ft., very common ; 30 ft.
very common ; 25 ft., common ; 20 ft., frequent.

Spmroidina d’Orbigny [1826].

Sphseroidina bulloides d’Orbigny, plate XIII. fig. 8.

Sphseroidina bulloides d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 267, No. 1, — Modele, No. 65. S. austriaca d’Orbigny, 1846, For.
Foss. Yien., p. 284, plate xx. figs. 19-21. S. bulloides Brady, 1884,
Chall. Bep., vol. ix. p. 620, pi. lxxxiv. figs. 1-7. Burrows, Sherborn,
and Bailey, 1890, Journ. Boy. Micr. Soc., p. 562, plate xi. figs. 20,
21.

This species has been recorded from the Bed Chalk of Speeton
(Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey) ; the Chalk of Meudon and of the
Island of Bugen ( hhrenberg) ; and it is a well-distributed form
throughout the Tertiary formations. As a recent organism it appears
to be unrestricted in its bathymetrical distribution.

S. bulloides was found in the Gault of Folkestone in zone v.
very rare.

590

Transactions of the Society.

Family ROTALIIDJE.

Sul-family SPIRILLININ.E.

Spirillina Ehrenberg [1841].

Spirillina tuberculata Brady, plate XIII. fig. 9.

Spirillina tuberculata Brady, 1878 (in Siddall’s Foraminifera of
the Dee), Proc. Chester Soc. Nat. Sci., part ii. p. 50. Id., 1879,
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. xix. N.S., p. 279, plate viii. figs. 28 a, b.
Id., 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. ix. p. 631, pi. lxxxv. figs. 12-16.

This interesting little Foraminifer, of which only a single specimen
was found in the Gault washings, agrees very exactly with the defini-
tion of the species as given by H. B. Brady. In the Gault specimen,
as in the recent ones, the exogenous tubercular growth tends to fill
up the sutural lines with the exception of that of the last whorl.
The tubercles are scattered irregularly over the surface of the test,
in which feature it differs materially from Williamson’s S. mar gar i-
tifera *

S. tuberculata has been found in the fossil condition in the Tertiary
Deposits of Muddy Creek, Victoria (Howchin). The species is essen-
tially a shallow-water form in recent deposits.

This species was found in the Gault of Folkestone in zone viii.,
very rare.

Sub-family ROTALIINJE.

Discorbina Parker and Jones [1862].

Discorbina rugosa d’Orbigny sp., plate XIII. figs. 10 a-c.

Rosalina rugosa d’Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Amer. Merid., p. 42,
plate iii. figs. 12-14. Discorbina rugosa Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep.,
vol. ix. p. 652, plate lxxxvii. figs. 3 a-c ; plate xci. figs. 4 a-c. Sher-
born and Chapman, 1889, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 487, plats xi.
fig. 33. Chapman, 1894, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 1. p. 720.

As a recent form Discorbina rugosa affects moderately shallow
water. The recorded occurrences for this species as a fossil are, the
Neocomian beds of Surrey (Chapman) ; and the London clay (of
Piccadilly — Sherborn and Chapman) (and of Cannon Street — Sherborn
and Burrows).f

This species was found in the Gault in zone iii., very rare ; zone
v., very rare ; zone xi., 55 ft. from the top, frequent ; 50 ft., very rare ;
45 ft., very rare ; 35 ft., very rare ; 20 ft., rare ; 12 ft., very rare.

Discorbina globularis d’Orbigny sp., plate XIII. figs. 11 a-c.

Rosalina globularis d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 271, plate xiii. figs. 1-4 ; — Modele, No. 69. Discorbina globularis
Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. ix. p. 643, plate lxxxvi. figs. 8

* ‘Recent Foraminifera of Great Britain,’ 1858, p. 93, pi. vii. fig. 204.
f Proc. Geol. Assoc., xii. (1891) p. 6.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. Eg F. Chapman. 591

and 13. Jones, 1896, Monogr. Crag Foram. (Pal. Soc.), pt. iii.
p. 292, plate vii. figs. 28 a-c.

It is interesting to note the extended geological range of this
species by its occurrence in the Gault, since it has hut recently been
recorded for the first time from beds as old as the Chalk of Manitoba
(Tyrrell). * D. globularis is also known from the Older Tertiary
strata of Adelaide, and of Muddy Creek, ^Victoria (Howchin). It
occurs in nearly all succeeding formations of later date.

Asa recent form D. globularis is found in shallow waters, usually
in temperate and suh-tropical areas.

This species was found in the Gault in zone xi., 30 ft. from the
top, very rare.

Discorbina orbicularis Terquem sp., plate XIII. figs. 12 a , b.

Rosalina orbicularis Terquem, 1876, Anim. sur la Plage de
Dunkerque, p. 75, plate ix. figs. 4 a, b. Discorbina orbicularis
Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. ix. p. 647, plate lxxxviii. figs. 4-8.
Chapman, 1894, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 1. p. 719. Jones, 1896,
Monogr. Crag Foram. (Pal. Soc.), pt. iii. p. 295, plate vii. figs. 31 a-c.

This species has been previously noted from the Neocomian beds
of Surrey (Chapman) ; and it also occurs in various Tertiary forma-
tions. It is an essentially shallow-water organism in recent deposits.

D. orbicularis was found in the Gault in zone xi., 55 ft. from the
top, rare.

Discorbina turbo d’Orbigny sp., plate XIII. fig. 13 a, b.

Rotalia (Trochulina) turbo d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol.
vii. p. 274, No. 29 ; Modele, No. 73. Discorbina turbo Carpenter
1862, Introd. Foram., p. 204. Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. ix.
p. 642, plate lxxxvii. figs. 8 a-c. Chapman, 1894, Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. 1. p. 719. Jones, 1896, Monogr. Crag Foram. (Pal.
Soc.), pt. iii. p. 291, plate vii. figs. 29 a-c.

This shallow-water species occurs in the Neocomian of Surrey
(Chapman) and the Chalk of Maestricht (Parker and Jones). It is
also a well-known Tertiary fossil.

D. turbo was found in the Gault in zone viii., very rare.

Discorbina pileolus d’Orbigny sp., plate XIII. figs. 14 a, b.

Valvulina pileolus d’Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Amer. Merid., p. 47,
plate i. figs. 15-17. Discorbina pileolus Parker and Jones, 1865,
Phil. Trans., vol. civ. p. 385. Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. ix.
p. 619, plate lxxxix. figs. 2-4. Chapman, 1891, Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., vol. 1. p. 719.

Besides occurring in the Neocomian strata of Surrey, this shallow-
water species is known from various Tertiary strata.

D. pileolus was found in the Gault in zone xi., 12 ft. from the
top, very rare.

* Trans. Roy. S'oc. Canada, vol. viii. section iv. 1890, p. 114.

592

Transactions of the Society.

XI. — A Simplification of the Method of Using Professor Abbes

Apertometer.

By E. M. Nelson, F.R.M.S.

( Read 21s t October , 1896.)

Wben Professor Abbe’s apertometer was first brought out, a difficulty
was experienced in observing the precise point at which images of
the sliding screens indicated the limit of the aperture of the objective.

To overcome this difficulty another way of using the instrument
was devised, which dispensed with the use of the screens altogether.
This is effected by placing the semicircular disc on a Microscope, the
stage of which is fitted with a graduated rotary movement. When
the lens, the aperture of which is to be measured, has been focussed,
and the semicircular disc centred to its axis, the interior lens also
having been attached and adjusted, the image of the edge of the flame
of an ordinary Microscope lamp is caused to travel across the
aperture of the objective by the rotation of the stage until the image
of the flame is extinguished at the limit of the aperture. This
extinction of the image of the edge of the flame affords a nice point
by which to determine the limit of the aperture ; for this reason this
improved method at once became general among microscopists in this
country.

Now, if the adjustments and centring of the lense3 and the lamp
have been properly attended to, it will be found that the stage
must be rotated through equal angles on either side of zero for the
extinction of the image of the elge of the flame. Then, in order to
determine the N.A. of the objective, all that is needed is to multiply
the sine of the angle thus found by the refractive index marked on
the semicircular glass plate, the product being the required N.A. ; of
course, if the angles on either side of zero are not the same, the
sine of their mean value is taken.

The objections to this method are two in number. The first is,
that *a Microscope with a graduated rotating stage is necessary. In
reply to this, we may say that the ordinary student who uses an
elementary Continental form of stand without a graduated rotating
stage, is not likely either to possess or use an apertometer. Those
microscopists who have and use apertometers in all probability possess
also a Microscope with a graduated rotary stage.

The second objection, a more serious one, is that unless the Micro-
scope is of the Powell type with a removable body, it is often a very
difficult, and sometimes an impossible matter, to adapt and adjust the
internal lens. Even when the body is removable, most microscopists
have experienced, for various reasons which it is unnecessary to enter
into here, some trouble in the adjustment of this lens.

Method of Using Abbes Apertometer. By E. M. Nelson. 593

Now all these difficulties may be entirely overcome by simply
discarding the use of the internal lens ; the procedure will then be as
follows. Tlie apertometer is placed on the graduated rotating stage,
and a low-power objective, say l|-in., is attached to the nose-piece ;
the lamp with the edge of the flame towards the vertex of the aperto-
meter is placed 12 or 15 in. in front of the Microscope, and is raised
or lowered until the flame is level with the plane of the apertometer.
The index of the graduated rotating stage is now placed to zero, and
the hole in the silvered centring disc on the apertometer is brought
into the centre of the field. The body of the Microscope is then
racked up> until the apertometer is considerably beyond the focus.
Now, if the image during this process is observed through the eye-
piece, which should be of the lowest power, it will be seen that as the
centring hole in the apertometer goes out of focus, a long stripe,
which is an image of the edge of the flame, will come into focus. If
this bright stripe is coincident with the out-of-focus image of the
centring hole all is well ; but if it is not, the lamp must be moved
either to the right or left hand until it becomes so.

These are all the adjustments that are necessary, and they do not
take a moment to arrange. The lens to be measured is then placed
on the nose-piece, and the centring hole brought into focus, and re-
centred to the field if it requires it, but the position of the lamp must
not be disturbed. The next step is to rotate the stage until it reaches
a point at which a dark shadow will be seen to gradually advance
across the centring hole ; the stage must now be very slowly rotated,
for when the shadow has reached a little more than half across the
centring hole its motion will be greatly accelerated. When thi3
accelerated motion takes place, the rotation of the stage must be
stopped, and the angle through which it has been rotated read off.
It may be as well to check the centring by reading off the angle when
the stage has been rotated in the opposite direction. If the primary
adjustments have been properly attended to, it will be found that the
angle of rotation will be the same in both cases. A 1/4 in. is a
good lens to experiment with in the first instance, and it will be found
that, with a very little practice, the apertures of objectives can be
accurately and quickly determined.

The next step is to take out the sine of the angle thus found, and
multiply it by the refractive index of the apertometer. There is a
very handy little instrument called Boucher’s calculator, which saves
all the labour of multiplication as well as the trouble of looking out
the sine of the angle. The instrument is in the form of a keyless
watch, and the procedure is as follows : —

(1) Bring the refractive index of the apertometer on the outer
circle of figures but one to the fixed index, by rotating the milled
head at the bow. (2) Place the movable index to 1 on the scale, by
turning the milled head at the side. (3) Bring the angle on the outer
circle of figures to the movable index, by rotating the milled head at

594

Transactions of the Society.

the how. The N.A. is then read off at the fixed index on the outer
circle of figures hut one.

It will be observed that when the calculator is once set, the N.A.
of any number of objectives may be read off one after another by
merely bringing their measured angles in a line with the movable
index, by turning the milled head at the how. In brief, to find the N.A.
of the first objective, three movements of the calculator are required,
but for any subsequent objective only one movement of the calculator
is necessary. Two significant figures are given, and a third can be
estimated. By this means, half a dozen N.As. may be computed in
the time required to take out one sine from the tables, let alone the
multiplication sum.*

* It may be of interest to know that Messrs. Zeiss supply a plain apertometer
disc, without the internal lens and other fittings, for 25s.

595

XII. — Photomicrographic Camera , designed chiefly to facilitate the
Study of Opaque Objects, more especially in the Study of
Palseo-Botany.

By J. Butter worth, F.R.M.S.

(Bead 21 st October, 1896.)

Plates XIV. and XV.

In drawing the attention of the Society to this camera, I do not do
so with any idea that any of its parts may be in any way original.
My wish is to draw attention to its application to both opaque and
transparent objects in photomicrography. It was, however, with a
view to adapting the camera to photographing opaque objects that
first led me to experiment in photomicrography, and I have long seen
that a wide field is open to photography in this direction ; in illustra-
tion of this I may instance my own study of ‘ The Fossilised Plants
of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Coalfields.’ Having been engaged
in this study for nearly thirty-five years, most of which time I have
been a colleague of the late Prof. W. C. Williamson, and as such I
have seen not a little of the difficulty of sketching by hand the struc-
ture of these coal plants with a view to their description, and yet I
can vouch for the great accuracy of the above gentleman’s drawings,
knowing as I did hi3 method of procedure, which was by aid of the
camera lucida, micrometer, and paper ruled to scale.

Up to the advent of isochromatic photographic dry plates and the
use of colour screens it had always been a very great difficulty to get
a good photograph from sections of coal plants, owing to the amber
colour of the section, and, though the difficulty of the colour is to
some extent removed by the use of the above plates, still the section
has to be ground so thin to give it sufficient transparency that many

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XIV.

A is the base-board of camera. B, bellows of usual form and size. C is the
foundation-plate, screwed to camera-front, carrying the lens-tube, horizontal bar,
rack, &c. D is the carriage, carrying lamp E, object-stage F, concave reflector G,
and small bull’s-eye reflector H. I is the main lens-tube carrying adapters or other
tubes to suit battery of lenses. J is a bracket carrying a double-forked lever K for
fine focusing, which is actuated by the threaded pulley working on the long screw
L, while said pulley is revolved by the small side-shaft M through the belt N. O is
a support for the outer end of the horizontal bar. The dotted lines show the path
the light takes on its way from the bull’s-eye condenser of lamp to the object.

Plate XV.

Transverse section of Astromyelon cut at the fork where the plant was branching ;
also a transverse section of Cardiocarpon is shown lying near ; from the lower co'al
measures near Oldham, x about 15 diameters. Photographed opaque.

596

Transactions of the Society.

important features of the plant structure are often destroyed. It will
therefore be readily seen that if I cut a section of one of the calcareous
nodules containing our coal plants, and cut the section say I /8 in.
thick (which is not too thick considering the nodules are calcareous),
polishing both sides and fixing one side to a glass slip as I shall show
you, I can grind down the section slowly ; and at various stages, by
my plan of photographing opaque objects, I can get at least six photo-
graphs, each perhaps exhibiting features different to the rest, besides
leaving me a transparent section for microscopic examination. It will
thus be seen that these coal plants can be more fully studied by this
plan, even from very fragmentary material, which is often the
condition in which many of the coal plants are found.

Of my camera I need to say very little ; its construction will be
readily understood from the appended plate (plate XIV.). It has
been built up piecemeal, but has absorbed much of my leisure for
several years. I can use a range of powers from a 5-in. rectilinear
lens down to my 1-in. microscopic objective for opaque photography,
and in photographing transparent objects I can use my microscopic
objectives from 4 in. down to a 1/16. The view (plate XV.) shows
the light as transmitted to an opaque object when the argand or
incandescent burner (which I now use) is raised to its proper height,
and when the burner and condenser are lowered to throw the light
direct through the object ; it is then fixed for transparencies.

I thought it might be necessary to bring a few lantern slides and
a few slides of sections in various stages of preparation to further
illustrate our subject, and if any gentleman would like to ask any
question on the slides or the camera I shall be most pleased to give
further information.

P.S. — I may just add that the stage or object-holder to the
camera is so constructed at the back as to receive or hold all the
substage appliances that I have for my large Microscope, which I
have often used as occasion has required.*

* I ought, to have made the remark in my paper that in preparing sections of our
coal plants each plane or surface intended to be photographed ought to be first
ground to a smooth surface and then flooded with a few drops of dilute hydrochloric
acid (1 part in 6 parts water), and when the effervescence ceases wash and dry the
section, which is then ready to expose in the camera. This procedure is essential to
show up the structure with the boldness that is shown by the view (plate XV.).

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others .*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.!

General Embryology.! — Dr. R. S. Bergb has published a series of
lectures on general embryology. The first four deal with conjugation,
sex-cells, and fertilisation. The others discuss segmentation, the ger-
minal layers, organogenesis, experimental embryology, regeneration,
alternation of generations, and the like. There are two interesting his-
torical chapters on fertilisation and on embryology in general ; and the
work concludes with some practical directions to students. Dr. Bergh’s
lectures are terse and lucid, and are illustrated by some very instructive
diagrams.

Experimental Embryology.§ — Prof. 0. Hertwig gives a short ac-
count of his experiments on the influence of varied temperature on the
development of frog ova. By a simple but effective contrivance he
arranged a series of basins with a constant flow of water at temperatures
from 15°-35° C., and with fluctuations of only • 1° C. For lower tem-
peratures (0° — 10°) the fluctuations were greater, about 2° in a day.
(1) In water at 0°, fertilised eggs did not develope at all, and developing
eggs ceased to make further progress. But even after weeks at 0° eggs
may develope normally if gradually warmed. (2) Normal development
of frog ova may occur between 2° and 33° C. This is markedly con-
trasted with the narrow limits of possibility in the case of the hen’s egg.
(3) There are slight differences between the limits for liana fusca and

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development and Reproduction, and allied
subjects.

+ ‘ Vorlesungen fiber allgemeine Embryologie,’ Wiesbaden, 1895, 8vo, x. and
289 pp., 126 figs. § SB. K. Preuss. Akad., 1896, pp. 105-8.

1896 2 t

598

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

B. esculenta. (4) The degree of development readied in a given time
at a given temperature is very constant, but the differences induced by
altered temperature are very marked. Thus, at the maximum tem-
perature tadpoles may be hatched in six days, at 15° C. in about twenty-
four days, and so on. (5) If the warmth-optimum is exceeded by even
1°, abnormalities and death result. (6) The influence of temperature
is primarily on the chemical processes, e.g. formation of nuclein sub-
stances, and secondarily on the rate of cell-division.

Experimental Embryology.* * * § — Herr Kaestner has made a number of
experiments as to the effect a lowering of temperature has in interrupt-
ing the incubation of hens’ eggs, and thereby inducing abnormalities.
At all stages it is possible, by cooling below 28° C., to interrupt de-
velopment without fatal influence. But the duration of non-fatal inter-
ruption has its limits, varying with the temperature and with the stage
of development. Thus, at 7° or so below the normal minimum of 28° C.,
the maximum of harmless interruption is 3 weeks at the beginning of
the first stage of incubation, thereafter 6 days, after the sixth day
72 hours, on the ninth day "iS hours, and thereafter about 24 hours.
But further development after early interruption is apt to be attended
with malformation.

These malformations seem to be due to partial coalescence of the
blastoderm and vitelline membrane, the yellow-yolk rising and pressing
the blastoderm upwards. It is noteworthy that the disposition to
malformations is restricted to interruptions in the first two days, and to
conditions where the egg is kept horizontal. The malformations affect
either the vitelline vascular system or the embryo. Those affecting the
embryo may be (a) general, (Z>) local (influencing head, heart, or anterior
amnion fold), (c) hydropic, or (d) of the nature of abnormal clefts in
the medullary groove and the like. These malformations are generally
irregular; only in certain cases can definite results be predicted from
the conditions.

Origin of Vertebrates.f — Dr. W. H. Gaskell took as the subject of
his Presidential Address to the section of Physiology, at the British
Association, the origin of Vertebrates, dealing apparently at greater
length with the theory which he put before the Cambridge Physiological
Society some months since.J Those who are inclined to accept the
doctrine that the king-crab is the ancestor of the lamprey will find
probably all the evidence that can be adduced in its favour in Dr.
Gaskell’ s address.

Structure and Development of the Vertebrate Kead.§ — Mr. W. A.
Locy, in his present contribution to the structure and development of
the vertebrate head, deals first with the metamerism of the head, and
secondly with the sense-organs. A great amount of his investigation
was carried on on Acantliias, while supplementary observations were
made on a frog, a chick, and some other animals. He directs his
special attention to the existence of what he calls neural segments.

* Verb. Anat. Ges. X. Anat. Anzeig. Erg.-Heft, xii. (1896) pp. 136-45 (6 figs.).

f Nature, liv. (1896) pp. 551-65 (9 figs.).

X See this Journal, ante, p. 167.

§ Journ. Morphol., xi. (1895) pp. 497-5S8 (5 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

599

These have now been shown to occur in extremely young stages of a
number of animals. This fact gives them a new importance. They
have too definite a history to allow of their being set aside as mere
headings or undulations of no metameric significance. At first the
author attached no particular attention to them either, but a compre-
hensive study has convinced him of their segmental importance ; and,
taking everything into consideration, they furnish, he thinks, a more
satisfactory basis for the interpretation of the metamerism of the head
than we have had before. It is extremely difficult to represent them
on paper just as they look. To observe them successfully is largely a
question of getting shadows. The care with which the specimens have
been prepared makes a great difference in the clearness with which
these structures may be seen. The embryos should be 'washed by a very
gentle jet of the reagent immediately after their immersion, and the
cloudy reagent should be removed and replaced by clear fluid.

The author deals closely with the question — are these neural segments
artifacts ? are they, in other words, produced by the reagents used ?
The evidence of the care which he has taken seems to show that this
question must be answered in the negative. They are constant in their
appearance and general characteristics when different reagents are used.
They are similar in different kinds of embryos, and they have been seen
in fresh material before any reagents at all were used. This neuro-
meric segmentation arises long before there are any segmental divisions
of the mesoderm, and therefore cannot depend upon segmental divisions
of the middle germ-layer. Neuromeric segmentation is more primitive
than mesodermic segmentation. The cells in these segments are charac-
teristically arranged in the earliest stages, and their arrangement and
structure appear to indicate that they are definite differentiations of cell
areas, not merely mechanical undulations. The entire embryo is divided
into similar segments. In Squalus acanthias there are eleven segments
in the brain region in front of the vagus nerve, and fourteen paired seg-
ments in the entire brain region. There is some evidence to show that
the region of the spinal cord is being encroached upon by backward
differentiation early in the history of this segmentation. There are seven
that clearly belong to the hind-brain, and later on two more are added.
These segments are clearest in the epiblast. The other layers are
slightly affected by the segmental influence, the mesoblast least of all.
As to their relation, they are directly related to the cranial and spinal
nerves. The segments are also directly related to the sense-organs
through nerves. The modifications are most extreme in the anterior
part, with the early obliteration of those belonging to the fore* and mid-
brains. Those in the hind-brain region are clearly defined for some
time after the establishment of the cranial nerves, and then they fade
away. The modifications of these segments have not yet been worked
out in detail.

Turning to the sense-organs, the author deals first with the lateral
eyes. Do they, he asks, belong to the same series with the other
sense-organs, or do they occupy a position by themselves ? While
owning that this is a puzzling question which has given rise to much
controversy among anatomists, he thinks there is some reason for
believing that the eyes are closely related to the other sense-organs,
and we are now in the attitude of awaiting further facts. After giving

2 T 2

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SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

a few pages to tlie accessory optic vesicles the author passes to the
pineal sense-organs. The evidence appears to favour the idea that the
pineal sense-organs are multiple, and individually of paired origin.
There appears to be a distinct relationship between the auditory plane,
the branchial sense-organs, and the lateral line.

Mammalian Dentition.* — Mr. M. F. Woodward, in the second part
of his contributions to the study of mammalian dentition, treats of the
teeth of certain Insectivora. As may be supposed, Mr. Woodward begins
with an account of the dentition of the common hedgehog. It would
appear that, in the only living mammals believed to possess unmodified
trituberculate teeth (molars and posterior pre-molars), wdiich have been
examined developmentally, the order of cusp ontogeny is in entire
accord with the supposed order of cusp phylogeny, as advanced by the
supporters of the Cope-Osborn tritubercular theory. This is a very
striking and important fact.

Mr. Woodward comes to the conclusion that the antero-external cone
is the primitive, both in the molars and pre-molars. The protocone is
borne on an internal shelf of secondary origin. The metacone is a
similar backward development of the paracone, rising very early, long
before the protocone. The hypocone stands related to the metacone,
as the protocone does to the paracone. Mr. Woodward thinks that the
evidence advanced in support of the tritubercular theory is insufficient to
prove that the upper molars were primarily evolved on the lines of that
theory. Owing to want of material, trituberculists have been led to
assume that the upper molars of the early Mammalia pass through
similar stages to those which they have determined for the lower teeth,
and consequently they have, in most cases, incorrectly identified the
primary cone. As regards the primary cone its ontogeny recapitulates
its phylogeny. If it be a fact, as is now generally believed, that the
milk dentition preponderates in the early Mammalia and in the living
Marsupials, we must come to the conclusion that the living Insectivora
are specialised forms, tending towards a monophyodont condition, in
which the preponderating dentition is the replacing or permanent set.

Teeth of Marsupials. t — Mr. M. F. Woodward has made a study of
the teeth of marsupials with special reference to the pre-milk dentition.
He points out that recent investigations concerning the ontogeny of the
mammalian dentition have completely revolutionised our conception of
the tooth succession in this group. From a belief in the primitive nature
of the monophyodont condition of many mammals, we have been led to
see that this is a secondary condition derived by reduction from a
diphyodont stage. Still more recent research proves that we must
regard all mammals as potentially polyphyodont, and possessed of traces
of four or five dentitions : firstly, there is the pre-milk dentition ;
secondly, the milk ; thirdly, the replacing or permanent dentition ; and,
fourthly, the post-permanent which is often described as the third
dentition.

For some years past Mr. Woodward has been working at the poly-
protodont marsupials, and has found a set of minute teeth present in

* Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1896, pp. 557-94 (4 pis.).

f Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 281-91.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

601

several genera. As so much interest is attached to the presence of this
set of teeth, he has thought it advisable to publish a preliminary account
of his observations. After giving some details as to the various genera,
he comes to the conclusion that traces of an earlier set are found in a
large number of marsupials. These may be developed in connection
with all the incisor teeth, the canines, and the first pre-molars, but these
last are never calcified.

The Human Tail.* — Prof. W. Waldeyer makes a valuable contri-
bution to our knowledge of the much-discussed caudal appendage in
man. Alike in the mature foetus and in the young child, tail-like out-
growths from the coccyx are of not infrequent occurrence. In embryos
from the first to the third month freely projecting tail-like outgrowths
are well known. After a lucid discussion of what a tail really is,
Waldeyer defines it as a portion of the body which contains caudal
(i.e. post-sacral) vertebrae and sundry other derivatives of caudal seg-
ments, and which is surrounded on all sides by integument.

In 1880, Virchow distinguished, in reference to man, between tails
with vertebrae and soft tails, and the distinction has been generally
recognised. The early human embryo always shows a true or verte-
brated tail, and this may persist even after birth. Yet no case is certain
in which there are more vertebral bodies than in the normal coccyx.
What occurs in tail-possessing human subjects corresponds to the distal
non-vertebrated portion of the tail in other mammals, but there is no
increase in the number of caudal vertebrae. This is true even in those
cases where the caudal appendage is partly bony.

Fixing of Ovum to Wall of Uterus. | — Herr Graf F. von Spee has
studied this in the guinea-pig, where it occurs in the course of the
seventh day after impregnation. The small size of the ovum (’08 mm.
in diameter) renders its discovery by no means easy, and a series was
obtained only after years.

The inner lining of the uterus consists of cylindrical epithelium
and two enslieathing zones of connective tissue — an outer looser and
more fibrous layer surrounding the terminal parts of the glands, and an
inner more compact layer traversed by the ducts of the glands. It is
in this more compact zone that the ovum is implanted. Among its
characteristics may be noted, further, the large number of dividing cells,
the absence of matricial substance, and the abundance of fine intercellular
clefts containing lymph.

Shortly before fixation the ovum appears as a vesicle surrounded by
the zona pellucida, with a germinal disc protruding into the interior,
and with a delicate single-layered surrounding membrane which shows
much thickened cells at the pole furthest from the germinal disc. These
cells send plasmic processes through the zona pellucida, and thus come
into direct contact with the uterine epithelium. In this region the
epithelium disappears and the ovum becomes implanted in the connective
tissue. Then, for the first time, there is a reaction on the part of the
uterus ; for around the egg cell-division ceases, some cells become larger,
the lymph-clefts become wider, and a lymph-space is formed. The

* SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1896, pp. 775-81 (1 fig.).

f Verb. Anat. Ges. X. Anat. Anzeig. Erg.-IIeft, xii. pp. 131-6.

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SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

oedematous swelling of tlie connective tissue also results in the forma-
tion of two cushions, one on the ovarian, the other on the vaginal side.
Soon the placenta begins to be formed.

Spermatogenesis of Mammals.* — Herr C. Niessing has particularly
investigated the share which the central corpuscle and sphere have in
forming the spermatozoon. The animals studied were hedgehog, rat,
and mouse. The most important results are: — (1) That the centro-
some,,with certain parts of the sphere, is taken up into the spermatozoon
and forms an apical knot at the anterior end of the head ; (2) that
certain other parts of the sphere are modified into the head- cap ; and
(3) that the axial thread arises, not from the chromatoid accessory body,
but from the nucleus.

Spermatogenesis in Monotremes and Marsupials.! — Prof. K. von
JBardeleben has found, in a study of the testes of Ornithorliynchm ,,
Echidna , Dasyurus , Phalangista , &c., a confirmation of his previously
expressed conclusion that the two main portions of the spermatozoon
arise from two different kinds of cells. On the one hand, there is the
spermatogonium - spermatocyte - spermatid series, dividing by karyo-
kinesis ; on the other hand, there are the characteristic basal nuclei and
cells, which show no hint of mitosis, but give rise to the axial filaments.
Each filament thickens terminally and appears like a cherry on the end
of a long stalk. After being liberated into the canal, they encounter
spermatids, and unite with these to form spermatozoa.

Accessory Glands of the Thyroid and Carotid.!— Prof. A. Prenant
makes some notes on recent investigations (by Kohn, Schaper, and
Jacoby) dealing with these structures. Jacoby found that the cranial
part of the thymus separates off and forms the external thyroidean
glandule ; that the carotid gland is formed in the adventitia of the
primitive carotid ; and that the lateral lobe of the thyroid encloses an
“ internal epithelial body,” the “ included thyroidean glandule.”

Prenant, on the other hand, found that the third and fourth branchial
pouches produce respectively the thymus and the lateral rudiment of
the thyroid, and also by a thickening of their walls two glandular
nodules, the thymoid and thyroid glandules. The former is the carotid
gland, the other is the internal epithelial body. He adheres firmly to
the general embryological result that the third and fourth branchial
clefts give origin to originally similar and homologous glandular
structures.

Development of Allantois in Lizard.§ — Herr J. Janosik corrobo-
rates Coming’s account of communications between the lumen of the
allantois and the coelom. From what Strahl and others have described
as the canal is amnio-allantoideus there is a fine cleft leading to the
space between the epiblast and the somatopleure of the amnion, and
thence to the coelom. This is distinctly seen in embryos of Lacertct
agilis with 19-21 mesoblast somites, but its morphological import
remains obscure.

* Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlviii. (1896) pp. 111-42 (2 pis.),
f Verb. Anat. Ges. X. Anat. Anzeig. Erg.-Heft, xii. (1896) pp. 38-43 (4 figs.),
i Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 242-4. § Tom. cit., pp. 225-32 (4 figs.).

ZOOBOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

603

Evolution of Muscles.* — Prof. M. Nussbaum calls attention to tlie
specific peculiarities in the musculature of Amphibians. It is not
possible, he says, to understand these by anatomical studies of the
adults alone. Still less does Palaeontology help. The variations have
been embryonic and larval, and must be studied in these stages. If we
understand the author aright (his paper is somewhat too condensed), his
position is that the differences observed in the adult musculature can
only be explained by working upwards from the variations occurring in
the young forms, and not vice versa.

Yolk-Sac and Merocytes in Scyllium and Lepidosteus.j — Dr. J.
Beard calls attention to the lack of precise information as to the history
of the yolk and the merocytes. At the “ critical stage ” in Scyllium (i.e.
when the embryo, about 32 mm. in length, begins definitely to make for
the adult form, suppressing its larval foundation), the genital ducts are
practically established, the sex is defined both internally and externally,
the retina is becoming pigmented, the first rudiments of scales are
present, and for the first time there is a beginning of an internal yolk-
sac containing yolk ; and then, or very soon after, yolk is found in the
gut-cavity.

During the earlier part of the development of Scyllium the yolk is
absorbed solely by the blood-vessels of the sac, after being prepared
for absorption by the yolk-nuclei or merocytes. These aggregate near
to or along the blood-vessels of the sac. Mainly, if not entirely, they
are products of segmentation, and may be regarded as really cells of the
hypoblast. They appear to increase only by direct division until the
critical period, after which they seem to become smaller and fewer.
The yolk-sac circulation, as a means of nutrition of the embryo, becomes
less and less important ; a new mode of nutrition is initiated. An
internal yolk-sac of one thin layer of hypoblastic cells is formed, and
the unmodified yolk is gradually drawn into this sac, and thence into
the gut where it is acted on by digestive juices. The merocytes, still
remaining in the external yolk-sac, degenerate. The internal hypo-
blastic lining of the sac is broken up in situ and absorbed, and the
entire sac — now empty — degenerates.

In Lepidosteus also there is a marked critical period. Beard main-
tains the correctness of his previous observations, as well as those of
Balfour and Parker, as to the segmentation. This is said to show signs
of being holoblastic (eight furrows being traceable to the centre of the
lower pole), though Bashford Dean holds that it is thoroughly mero-
blastic. The difference of opinion is interpreted by the author as duo
to diverse modes of preparation.

By the time the embryo has attained a length of 8 mm., and the
yolk-plates in its cells have mostly been used up, the merocytes form
a fairly even layer over and around the yolk. For a considerable
distance they fill in the floor of the ventral wall of the alimentary canal ;
thus the larval gut has, as its ventral wall, the merocytic layer on the
top of the yolk-sac. At the critical period, when the embryo is about
9 mm. in length, the embryonic gut is closed in except at one point,
where there is a passage or yolk-bay leading to the yolk-sac. As in

* Verb. Anat. Ges. X. Anat. Auzeig. Erg.-Heft, xii. (189G) pp. 61-7.

t Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 334-47.

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SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Scyllium there is now yolk in the gut. But in the emulsion therein
contained numerous nuclear structures are seen, and a comparison of
sections shows that the merocytes gorge themselves with yolk and
thereafter break up in the gut. “ All stages, from the condition of
merocytes of the merocytic layer filled with yolk, to that where after
proliferation from their place of origin they have fallen to pieces in the
gut and sacrificed themselves for the good of the embryo, can be made
out in one or two favourable sections. And ‘ the self-sacrifice of the
merocytes ’ can be established, not in one embryo, but in all embryos
between 9 mm, and 16 mm. or more.”

Disappearance of Transient Nervous System in Elasmobranchs.* —
Dr. J. Beard finds that in those forms of Baja or Scyllium , in which the
development takes place in the sea, there is a considerable transient
nervous apparatus of 600 or more ganglion-cells, while in three forms
with uterine development this transient apparatus disappears. Thus, in
Acanthias some 50 ganglion- cells may be developed, in Mustelus vulgaris
there are 12 or fewer, in Torpedo not one can be seen. The difficulty
suggested by the differences in these last three cases may be explained,
the author suggests, by the fact that Acanthias has a fairly developed
egg-case, while Mustelus vulgaris has an egg-case of extreme thinness,
and Torpedo has none at all.

~ Gastrulation of Amia calva.f — Herr J. Sobotta gives a short account
of this process. Towards the end of segmentation the upper hemisphere
of the egg consists of numerous small cells, extending with gradual
increase of size to near the middle of the egg, and resting on the brown
yolk, which is divided into a number of parts. Suddenly, however, the
blastoderm becomes spread out like a flat cap upon the yolk. There
is no trace of segmentation-cavity. The next step is a differentiation of
the blastoderm into two layers coalescing at the equator. There, in a
short time, the dorsal blastopore-lip appears, three layers are distinct,
and the archenteron begins to be formed. When the egg is about two-
thirds surrounded, the ventral blastopore-lip, also three-layered, appears.
When the archenteron ^first appears, the mesoderm of the dorsal lip is
continuous with that of the ventral lip, but by stretching the continuity
is broken. When the egg is about four-fifths surrounded, the first rudi-
ment of the embryo appears at the dorsal blastopore-lip. The portion
of the archenteron associated with the ventral blastopore-lip atrophies ;
the dorsal part is directly modified into the permanent gut. In the
later stages the yolk shows distinct cells.

Development of the Spiral Intestine in Pristiurus.J — Prof. J.
Biickert begins his discussion of this problem by pointing out that
there are two processes to be distinguished. One is the groove-like
invagination of the endodermic tube, which results in the formation of
a longitudinal fold. The other is a twisting of the endodermic tube on
its long axis within its peritoneal sheath in a right-handed spiral. This
is regarded as a natural result of the longitudinal growth of a tube
fixed at each end. It differs from the winding of the small intestine in

* Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 371-4.

+ Yerh. Anat. Ges. X. Anat. Anzeig. Erg.-Heft, xii. (1896) pp. 108-11 (6 figs.).

t Tom. cit., pp. 145-50.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

605

higher Vertebrates, since it occurs inside the peritoneal sheath, and not
along with it. The spiral fold or valve represents the apposed walls of
adjacent twists, the interior being filled with mesenchyme, and is not
merely a longitudinal fold of mucous membrane twisted in a spiral.

In some Selachians ( Carcliarias , Zygoena, &c.) the fold is straight,
and here, as in the anterior part of the gut in Pristiarus, there has been
spiral coiling without spiral twisting. In Chimsera more than the
anterior half is coiled, the rest twisted. The initial stage of both may
be seen in embryos of Pristiurus.

Sex-Differentiation in Cymatogaster.* — Prof. 0. H. Eigenmann
has endeavoured to trace the history of the reproductive cells in this
viviparous Teleostean from their first appearance until sexual differen-
tiation, noting the changes, if any, from one cell-generation to another.

The sex-cells are segregated very early, before any protovertebrae
are formed. From their size they seem to be of the fifth generation or
thereabout. Their number (9-23) remains unchanged from the time of
segregation until the larva has readied a length of 7 mm., except that
four are lost. The cells migrate backwards in early stages ; the two
sides are not symmetrical. No somatic cells are ever transformed into
sex-cells, nor (except the four which are lost ?) are sex-cells changed into
somatic cells. The sex-ridges are first formed posteriorly, and consist
of two folds of the peritoneum with included elements. A rhythm of
division is kept up for some time by the descendants of each sex-cell.

The ovarian cavity is formed by the union, from in front backward,
of ridges of peritoneum bounding grooves at the upper outer and lower
outer margins of the ovary. The anterior part of the oviduct has a
similar origin, with the difference that the lower outer grooves of the two
ovaries meet, producing a long slit in the thickened part of the meso-
rectum before the upper and lower ridges have had time to unite. The
vas deferens is not homologous ; it is lined with stroma cells of the
testis, from which it arises. The sexes are nearly equally distributed.
Sex cannot be due to position in the ovary, to age of spermatozoa, to
condition (age) of the ovum, to relative amount of nutriment, to kind
of food, to relative amount of oxygen, or to relative rate of growth ; in
fact, the determinants are not known. “ The ultimate sex-cells are due
to the process of histogenesis entailed by the division of labour. They
bear the same relation to the entire corm as any other series of tissues,
and their origin is to be explained in the same way.”

So-called Suprarenals in Cyclostomata.f — Messrs. W. E. Collinge
and Swale Vincent find no satisfactory evidence of suprarenal bodies in
Cyclostomata. The bodies described as such by Ecker are simply con-
nective tissue ; so are the “ white-bodies ” and “ bullet-shaped bodies ”
of Ratkke. The body described by Johannes Muller as suprarenal, and
later as thymus, is the pronephros, present in Myxine and Bdellostoma ,
but absent in the lamprey. There is no evidence of relation between
suprarenal bodies and renal organs. The suprarenals, still undemon-
strated in Cyclostomata and Dipnoi, increase in importance as we ascend
the Vertebrate series, and cannot therefore be regarded as vestigial.

* Arch. Entwickmech., iv. (1896) pp. 125-79 (6 pis. and 1 fig.).

f Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 232-41 (2 figs.).

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SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Formation of Germinal Layers of Amphioxus.* — Mr. E. W. M‘Bride
lias lately undertaken a reinvestigation of the whole subject of the develop-
ment of the lancelet, and hopes to shortly publish his completed results.
He points out that the development of Amphioxus is exceedingly important
from a theoretical point of view, since in it we meet with the only
instance of an unmodified Vertebrate egg, in which the yolk is small in
quantity and evenly distributed, so that the early development processes
are not impeded by its presence. As Mr. McBride points out, it is
necessary to interpret the development of other Vertebrates in terms of
the development of Amphioxus , and not vice versa.

From the facts here briefly related, it is clear that the coelom of
Amphioxus is an undoubted enterocoele, and that the formation of the
mesoblast in this animal is easily referable to the type which Bateson
has described in the case of Balanoglossus. The head-cavities represent
the proboscis-cavity, the first myomeres the collar-cavities, and the great
posterior mesoblastic pouch, which becomes segmented into somites, the
trunk-cavity.

f3. Histolog-y.

Physiological Significance of Direct Cell-Division.f — MM. E.
Balbiani and F. Henneguy remind the reader that histologists are not
agreed as to the physiological significance of direct cell-division or
amitosis. Some look upon it as a phenomenon of degeneration, and state
that the daughter-cells rarely, if ever, divide again ; others think that,
in addition to the degenerative division, there is a regenerative one, in
consequence of which the cells are able to continue to multiply. Our
authors, from experiments made with tadpoles, are inclined to take the
second view. They state that, if in a damp atmosphere one keeps in
contact the ends of the tails of two tadpoles, at the end of an hour or
an hour and a half the fragments are sufficiently attached to one another
not to be separated when placed in water. The fusion is quite super-
ficial, and is effected by epithelial cells which proliferate very rapidly.
There are produced epithelial buds which are formed by a series of
successive and rapid amitoses. From the observations of many histolo-
gists it is clear that a mitosis takes at least three hours, whereas in the
authors’ observations a large number of cellular divisions occurred
within the space of one hour. It is clear that the amitosis which occurs
in the tadpole is not a degenerative but a regenerative process.

Basic Substances of the Nucleus.;}; — Prof. A. Kossel has shown that
the nuclein substances in the nuclei of animal cells frequently occur in
salt-like union with basic substances which have a more or less marked
proteid-like character. Such a basic substance is the histon which
Kossel found in the nuclei of the red blood-corpuscles of birds, or the
protamin which Miescher obtained from the spermatozoa of the salmon.
Kossel estimates the formula of protamin-sulphate as C16H31N9031,

h2so4.

He has studied in particular the sperm-material of the sturgeon, and
has found a substance, sturin, closely resembling protamin, with the

* Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., ix. (1896) pp. 150-3.

f Comptes Rendus, cxxiii. (1896) pp. 269-70.

X SB. K. Preuss. Akad., 1896, pp. 403-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

607

formula C12H24N603,H2S04. Its disruption-products yielded several
bases, of which two were obtained pure, viz. Arginin (which Schulze and
Steiger obtained in seedlings of Lupine), and a second, which he names
Histidin. Sturin differs from all known proteid-like substances in
yielding on disruption little or no trace of monamidic acids. It is
characteristic of these protamin substances that they tend to unite with
proteids, holding these in chemical combination.

Cell-Membrane.* — Prof. F. E. Schulze points out that the term
“ cell-membrane ” is used too vaguely and loosely. He proposes that
the term should be used for any connected membranous peripheral layer
which is distinctly marked off from the plasma of the cell. If the
membrane encloses the cell on all sides, it is a pellicle ; if it lies only
on the free surface, it is a cuticle. A crust, on the other hand, is a
coarse marginal layer of the cell passing gradually into the soft plasma.

Intercellular Union of Epithelial Cells.f — Prof. F. E. Schulze dis-
cusses with his wonted clearness the question of intercellular connections.
He begins with an historical sketch. When epithelial cells were thought
of as surrounded by firm membranes, it was naturally supposed that they
were held together by an intercellular cementing substance. In 1863,
0. Schronn demonstrated the pore-canals in the membranes of the cells
forming the rete Malpighii. In 1864, Max Schultze described the inter-
locking processes which hold epithelial cells together. But Bizzozero
and many others showed that the processes meet but do not interlock.
The notion of plasmic bridges was supported by many, while others — •
e.g. Manille Ide, held the connecting strands to be derivatives of the
primary cell-membrane. The general result has been the recognition
that epithelial cells are connected by numerous strands, between which
there is an intercellular canalicular system filled by a lymph-like fluid.

Prof. Schulze has studied the epidermis of young amphibian larvae
under high magnification, and has formed conclusions somewhat different
from those usually expressed. Even with immersion-lenses, the larvae
of tree-frog, newt, &c„ may be observed in their living state. In all
cases the epidermis consists essentially of two layers of rather large
cells ; the outer with cuticular fringe, the inner apposed to the cutis.
Between two neighbour-cells there is a layer of vacuoles, filled with
lymph-like fluid, and separated by a bridging netwrork connecting the
cells. To begin with, the young membraneless cells are united by a
refractive hyaline layer; in this marginal layer vacuoles appear in
increasing number and size, and thus give rise to the intercellular
network.

Structure of Nerve-Cells. } — Herr M. von Lenhossek says that some
of the discrepancies between his results and those of Flemming, especially
as to the arrangement of the basophilous granules, are due to the differ-
ences in the objects observed. But as to the structure of the ground-
substance in the spinal ganglion cells of Mammals, Lenhossek finds, as
before, that this is a fine granular honeycomb, and not fibrillar.

The basophilous granules are too regular in disposition to be pre-

* Verh. Anat. Ges. X. Anat. Anzeig. Erg.-Heft., xii. pp. 27-32.
t SB. K. Preuss. Akad., 1896, pp. 971-83 (I pi.),
j Verh; Auat. Ges. X. Anat. Anzeig. Erg.-Heft, xii. (1896) pp. 15-21.

608

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

cipitates of a fluid substance, as Held supposes. The author distin-
guishes the strongly cbromatophilous microsomes (Tigroid), from the
pale matricial substance in which these lie.

As to the “fibrillar” appearance— seen, for instance, in the motor
cells of the anterior cornu of the frog’s medulla, it is due not to a direct
differentiation of the ground-substance of the plasma, but to the linear
disposition of a finely granular material, probably the same as that
which connects the tigroid masses.

Lenhossek also notes that, in spite of much search, following his
discovery of centrosomes and spheres in the spinal ganglion cells of the
frog, he has been unable to discover these in the central nervous system
of Mammals.

Granular Leucocytes.* — Dr. G. L. Gulland has studied in a wide
variety of cases the different kinds of leucocytes and their relations to
one another. A few of his general results are the following : — Leuco-
cytes whose finer structure is to be examined must be fixed by reagents,
of which the best is sublimate ; drying is unreliable. It is impossible
to distinguish a haemal and a ccelomic variety, for (1) lymphocytes are
the precursors of all ; (2) leucocytes are not present in the blood in early
foetal life ; (3) they are continually passing from blood to connective
tissue and vice versa ; (4) their mitotic reproduction takes place almost
entirely in adenoid tissue.

Heidenhain’s observations on the relative positions of nucleus and
centrosomes are correct. The “ organic radii ” are not entirely separate,
but connected at every microsome by subsidiary threads. The nucleus
does not lie free in the interfilar spaces, but its linin network is con-
nected with the cytomitoma, and the two are perhaps to a certain extent
interchangeable.

The shape of the nucleus depends on ( 1) the relative sizes of cell-
body and nucleus (Heidenhain’s law) ; (2) the position of the centro-
somes ; (3) the condition of rest or movement of the cell.

All varieties of leucocytes are merely stages in the development of a
tissue. They may be divided for convenience, and with regard to the
presence or absence of granules, into three main groups — the Hyaline,
Acidophile, and Basophile.

Red Blood-Corpuscles of Tadpoles.! — Dr. D. Giglio-Tos has studied
the granulations or rather droplets seen in the red blood-corpuscles of
the tadpoles of frogs and toads. Ranvier regarded them as vitelline
granules, but they appear to consist of a special substance which the
author calls u eritrocitina.” It is a refractive, somewhat viscous albumin-
oid substance — soluble in absolute alcohol, acetic acid and caustic soda ;
insoluble in chloroform or ammonia. The granulations or droplets are
probably the same as those in the lamprey, which appear to arise from
the nucleus, and to be associated with the formation of haemoglobin.

Retina of Selachians.! — Herr L. Neumayer describes the minute
structure of the ten layers of the retina in various Selachians. We note
a few of his general conclusions. There is a general agreement between

* Journ. Physiol., xix. (1896) pp. 385-417 (2 pis.).

f Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 321-34.

J Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlviii. (1896) pp. 83-111 (25 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

609

the Selachian retina and that of Amphibians, but divergence from that
of Teleosteans. Thus in Teleosteans, as in nocturnal birds and in
mammals, the rods have a terminal knob in the external plexiform layer ;
while in Selachians many of the rods have a small conical termination,
giving off horizontal processes, as all do in Amphibians and diurnal
birds.

Again, the Selachian retina is distinguished from that of Teleosteans
by the presence of certain bipolar cells (the internal bipolar cells of
Eamon y Cajal). These occur in Ganoids and Amphibians, less abun-
dantly in reptiles and birds, and even in man, but not in Teleosteans.
It is probable that these cells may act as physiological complements of
the rods and cones whoso numerical proportions are well known to be
variable.

7. General.

Age of the Earth. * — Prof. E. B. Poulton, in his Presidential Address
to Section D of the British Association, took as the subject of his dis-
course the difficulty raised by Lord Salisbury in his Presidential Address
at Oxford in 1894, as to the age of the earth. It will be remembered
that Lord Kelvin has considered one hundred million years as the time
during which the earth has been in a habitable state, while Prof. Tait
concedes only ten million years. Prof. Poulton points out that Darwin,
Huxley, and Herbert Spencer have all independently agreed that the
time during which the geologists concluded that the fossiliferous rocks
had been formed was utterly insufficient to account for organic evolution.
Dealing first with the arguments of the physicists, it is shown that the
objection raised by the evidence afforded by tidal retardations has in it a
flaw so serious as to make it of no import. With regard to the evidence
afforded by the cooling of the earth, physicists themselves appear to be
in complete disagreement. The third argument, which depends on the
life of the sun, would appear to have greater weight, but the astronomers
allow five hundred million years as the maximum life of the sun.
Turning next to the geological argument, it is pointed out that Geikie
demands a period of nearly four hundred million years, and is inclined
to ask for four hundred and fifty million.

The biological evidence as to the age of the earth is next considered,
and it is pointed out that the ancestor of any one of the nine higher
phyla of animals must have passed through an immense evolutionary
history. The changes that have occurred must have taken an immensely
long time, for all available evidence points to the extreme slowness of
progressive evolutionary changes in the Coelentera ; while the relatively
ancestral line, at every stage of its complex history of originating some
higher line, itself continued down to the present day throughout the
whole series of fossiliferous rocks with but little change in its general
characters, and practically nothing in the way of progressive evolution.
Fundamental facts in structure and development may remain changeless,
amid endless changes of a more general character. In trying to get some
conception of the amount of evolution which has taken place in the higher
phyla of the Animal Kingdom during the period the fossiliferous rocks
were deposited, Prof. Poulton deals as briefly as may be with a number

Nature, liv. (183G) pp. 500-9.

610

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of important facts. The consideration of their history leads to the
irresistible conclusion that the whole period in which the fossiliferous
rocks were laid down must he multiplied several times for the later
history alone. The period thus obtained requires to be again increased,
and perhaps doubled, for the earlier history.

Anlage and Variation.* — Prof. R. Virchow begins a lecture on this
subject by pointing out that the pathologists, since Morgagni’s time at
least, have been more setiological than most of their brethren. Inquiry
into causes, external and internal, has never been far from them. After
considering the distinction between external causes, such as Bacteria,
and internal causes (viz. Diatheses or Anlagen), Virchow distinguishes
three kinds of Anlage : — (1) Those appearing in extra-uterine life or
after birth ; (2) those appearing during intra-uterine or foetal life ; and
(3) those inherited in the strict sense, i.e. dating from conception.
Moreover, the Anlagen may have a visible structural expression, or they
may be visibly expressed only in altered function. Variations may be
distinguished (1) as primary and individual, and (2) as secondary and
inherited. The former are modifications due to external causes; the
latter, though evoked under appropriate environment stimuli, are of
germinal origin. After a brief historical survey of cellular biology,
Prof. Virchow proceeds to give pathological illustrations of his posi-
tion, showing how Anlagen are induced by variation, metaplasis, and
heterotopy.

Hereditary Polydactylism.t — Dr. Gregg Wilson has collected a
number of very interesting cases of polydactylism. Thus one family
history shows a persistence of the abnormality through six generations,
an increase of the abnormality in the first four generations, and a change
in position of the abnormality from the post-axial to the pre-axial side
of the limb. In another case a man with extra minimi on both feet had
one son with extra great toes, and another son with extra minimi on the
hands and a double middle toe on one foot. In most cases the abnor-
mality is very constant in position, though not in degree.

The author discusses the leading theories suggested in explanation.

(1) To the atavistic theory the objections appear insurmountable.

(2) The possibility of accounting for ordinary polydactylism by the
action of external influences, such as mechanical pressure of the amnion,
may account for some facts, but it does not explain, for instance, the
gradual and symmetrical increase of the abnormality in successive
generations. (3) It remains to fall back upon a theory of germinal
variation. Weismann supposes that excessive local nutrition causes the
duplication of the group of determinants representing the part that is
doubled. This Dr. Wilson modifies slightly by assuming that there is
variation in the determinants that affect the nutrition of the parts involved.
Thus, what is transmitted is the nutritive variation. Two figures taken
by Rontgen’s process illustrate the paper.

Chemical Basis of Specific Characters.! — Prof. Huppert directs at-
tention to the specific chemical peculiarities which distinguish organ-

* SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Berlin, 1896, pp. 515-31.

t Journ. Anat. and Physiol., xxx. (1896) pp. 437-49 (2 figs.).

X ‘Ueber die Erhaltung der Art-Eigenschaften,’ Prag, 1896; Biol. Ceniralbl..
xvi. (1896) pp. 750-2.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

611

isms. Thus, the htemoglobins of different animals are different, and as
the lirematin is the same, the difference must be in the albuminoid sub-
stance. Differences in the products of metabolism are illustrated by
the bile and the fat in different animals. So cynuric acid is only fouud
in the dog, thiosulphuric acid in dog and cat. Different reactions to
morphin, toxins, &c., are well known. From such evidence the author
concludes that each species is characterised by chemical peculiarities,
especially in its albuminoids.

Pigmentation of Salamander.- — Dr. A. Fischel begins an interest-
ing paper by relating how Prof. Rabl and he divided a collection of
larval salamanders (S. maculata), the professor placing his set in running
water, while the author kept his in porcelain dishes and gave them fresh
water several times a day. Those in the running water acquired the
usual dark coloration, while those in the dishes were predominantly
light yellow. The details of the differences are stated ; thus the gills
of the first set were brownish-black, while those of the second set had a
minimum of pigment, and therefore showed the red colour of the blood.

An inquiry into the causes of difference led to the conclusion that
temperature was an important factor. In the running water it was
6°-7° C., or less on cold days ; in the dishes it was 15°-18° C., i.e. about
three times as much. This was experimentally confirmed by placing
dark larvae in warmed running water. They became gradually lighter,
to a degree varying with the age of the larvae at the commencement of
the experiment. Thus newly born larvae became very light in colour ;
but the susceptibility to external influence decreased with age. The
converse experiment of making the larvae darker by cooling the water
also succeeded. But, as before, the result was more or less marked
according as the larvae had been for a short time or for a long time pre-
viously subjected to conditions with an influence opposite to that of the
experiment. In other words, the effects of cold or warmth tend to
become fixed. The light-coloured larvae were in no way pathological,
in fact, their vigour was rather above the average.

Previous investigators of the effect of external conditions on colora-
tion have dealt mainly with adults. But L. Hermann showed that frog
tadpoles reared in the dark became lighter, and that they became darker
again when subjected to light. The author found that the same was
true, but to a less degree, of his salamanders. He notes, at this point in
his paper, a few previously recorded facts to the effect that warmth
tends to lighter coloration.

As i§ well known, pigment occurs in three ways in the skin of the
salamander larva : — (1) As minute brownish-black spherules in the epi-
thelial cells ; (2) in branched pigment-cells whose processes pass between
the epithelial cells : and (3) most of all, in the ramified pigment-cells of
the cutis. In the light larv?e there is very little pigment in the epithelial
cells, and it is usually confined to the periphery ; the pigment-cells of
both kinds are almost spherical and without processes. Not only is the
pigment concentrated, but the whole cell is contracted and all the pro-
cesses are drawn in. This is true even of the visceral pigment-cells.
Moreover, in the light larv®, the pigment-cells with light yellow

♦ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., xlvii. (1896) pp. 719-48 (1 pi.).

612

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

grannies, which are hidden in the dark larvae, are seen to be abundant
and much ramified, and apparently unaffected by the warmth.

Fischel’s account of the development of the pigment is briefly as
follows. Within the cells which become chromatophores abundant
granules are formed. These granules are at first light, and may be
called “ Pigment-bildner,” for they assume a dark colour as the cells
become larger and more branched. The characteristic dark granules
arise either by a specific change in their predecessors or by the pene-
tration of these by a new pigment. The varieties observed seem to
show that the chromatophores can change their content of pigment, in
short, that the pigmentation is involved in the metabolic changes.

At the end of the paper there is a useful bibliography.

Distribution of Pelagic Animals.* — Prof. Fr. Dahl devoted 2-4 hours
a day, on his voyage to the Bismarck Archipelago, to counting the animals
visible from aboard ship. He gives tabular summaries of his observa-
tions, which related to dolphins, birds, sea-snakes, flying-fish, Janthina,
Pelagia , and Porpita, and suggests that much useful information would be
gained if the method were carefully and systematically pursued. Thus
more might be readily discovered in regard to the occurrence of animals
in swarms. From Dahl’s notes we select the following : — During seven
days on the Mediterranean (in March) no animals were seen except
Delphinidie and birds. During the whole voyage there was no observa-
tion of Physalia or Velella. One day flying-fish were seen at the rate of
sixty per minute ; the vibration of their fins only occurs when the tail
strikes the water.

Tunicata.

Budding in Compound Ascidians.j — Mr. W. E. Bitter commences
with the account of a new species which he calls Goodsiria dura, found
by him at Santa Barbara, California, where specimens were obtained in
abundance, and in a perfectly free condition. He finds that in this
form the budding is pallial, and that the buds arise far forward on the
parent zooid. In no case was more than one bud found on the same
parent. These buds became wholly separated from their parent at a
very early stage, that is to say, before any differentiation of the organs
begins ; at a considerably later time they become secondarily connected
with the vessels of their parent. The formation of the branchial and
peribranchial sacs and of the digestive tract does not differ in any
essential particular from that of all other Compound Ascidians. The
common rudiment of the pericardium and heart is derived from the wall of
the endodermic vesicle by an imperfect evagination that does not become
fully separated until the ventral folds which separate the peribranchial
sacs from the branchial sac have reached back to the region where the
heart is forming. The ganglion in this species, as in Botryllus , lies
ventrally to the hypophysial duct. The youngest sexual cells observed
were found free in the body-space of the buds, so that in all probability
they pass from parent to bud, as is the case in Botryllus.

Mr. Ritter has also made a study of the budding in Peropliora
annedens. The general conclusions to which he is led by his observa-

* SB. K. Pieuss. Akad., 189G, pp. 705-14.
t Journ. Morphol., xii. (189G) pp. 149-238 (6 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

613

tions may be summarised as follows : — “ It is now established beyond
doubt that in some at least of the Compound Ascidians the outer layer of
the bud contributes much less to the structure of the adult blastozooids
than it does to the adult embryozooids.” This is most conspicuously
seen in the case of the nervous system, for this is certainly produced
from the outer layer of the embryo, while it is as certainly produced
from the inner layer of the bud. Whatever name we give to this inner
layer, the fact of chief importance remains that the same layer produces
most of the organs of the zooid, among which are included the digestive
tract and the nerve-ganglion. The anomalous course of development
of the bud is due to the fact that the ectoderm is at no time in the life
of the bud an undifferentiated embryonic layer ; it is from the very
outset and always a fully formed organ. The inner vesicle of the bud
is, on the other hand, in the completest sense, an undifferentiated or
embryonic layer. This is the reason why the inner layer has been made
to produce structures, and, most important of all, the nervous system,
which, in the embryo, are produced by the ectoderm.

As illustrations of the potency of physiological influences to pro-
foundly change the usual course of development, Mr. Hitter calls
attention to the budding of other animals ; of these, one of the most
instructive is the jelly-fish, Bathlcea octojpundata , where the change has
been in the opposite direction, for here the endoderm takes no part in
the formation of the bud. The evidence now to hand drawn from the
blastogenesis strongly tends to the conclusion that the budding of Good-
siria and Botryllus represents a typo that is independent of that repre-
sented by Perophora, and would appear to have originated independently
of it. The budding of Goodsiria greatly strengthens the conclusion,
justified by adult structure, that the Polystyelidae and Botryllidae are
very closely related.

Hibernation of Clavelina lepadiformis.* — MM. A. Giard and
Caullery find that this Ascidian has become very abundant in Boulogne,
since the establishment of the new port. The colonies, which are some-
times as large as one’s fist, disappear entirely during the winter, to
reappear about the month of June in the succeeding year. They re-
appear so rapidly that one cannot attribute their growth to the budding
of oozooids. If towards the end of September or October, or even at the
equinoctial tides of the succeeding spring, one examines with care the
place occupied by the disappeared colonies, one finds attached to the
rocks numerous stolons, which appear here and there like small whitish
bodies, the whole looking not unlike Bryozoa. This is the form under
which Clavelina hibernates, reduced to stolonial tubes which are packed
at certain points with reserve-substances. The colony of Clavelina ,
then, is reconstructed after the winter by budding, which is similar to
normal budding; reserve-material begins to be accumulated in July,
and it increases as the activity of sexual reproduction diminishes (August
and September), and reaches its maximum in the autumn, when the
whole of the individuals in the colony have disappeared. The process
of hibernation is comparable to that which the authors have already
described in the Polyclinidee.

*

2 u

1896

Comptes Rendus, cxxiii. (1896) pp. 318-20.

614

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Development of Salpa fusiformis.* — Dr. K. Heider gives tlie fol-
lowing summary of liis results. The segmentation is total and unequal
(Todaro, Salensky). There is no segmentation-cavity (Salensky).
During the cleavage, follicle-cells or kalymmocytes migrate into the
embryo-sac, surround the embryo, and insinuate themselves between
the blastomeres, by which they are finally assimilated (Todaro, &c.).
It does not seem to have been satisfactorily proved that they have a
formative as well as a nutritive role.

At an early stage the embryo shows large and small cells. The
large blastomeres represent the meso-endoderm ; the small cells are in
part kalymmocytes, in part ectodermic. The epithelial elevation and
the embryo-sac take no share in forming the embryo (Barrois and
Todaro), but give origin to the primary placenta and the Faltenhulle.
A provisional ectodermic or amnion-fold connects the embryo with the
placenta; its cavity is subsequently filled up by proliferation, and
the ectodermic basal plate is formed at this spot.

The cloacal cavity arises early as an unpaired ectoderm-invagination
from the lower basal surface of the embryo ; the opening of this invagi-
nation is soon closed ; the cells near the opening form a plug, around
which the rudiment of the pharynx arises ; the plug persists as an endo-
pharyngeal cell-strand.

The pharyngeal cavity developes independently of the cloacal cavity
(Todaro, Brooks). It is formed by certain w blastomeres ” which arrange
themselves in the vicinity of the above-mentioned cell-plug, and produce
the endodermic epithelium. The gill, first represented by Kiemenwulste ,
arises from the septum between the pharyngeal and cloacal cavities
(Brooks), by the formation of the two gill-clefts.

Those blastomeres which are not used in forming the endodcrm
produce by continued division a mesenchyme which fills the primary
body-cavity of the embryo. This mesenchyme forms inter alia the paired
muscle-plates. The cloacal cavity sends forwards a narrow diverticulum
lying under the rudiment of the central nervous system. This diver-
ticulum seems to open at the spot where the neural canal communicates
with the pharynx (the rudiment of the ciliated groove). In later stages
a secondary portion of the placenta is formed by a development of the
parietal layer ( Mauerblait ). The supra-placentar cavity is filled up by
a tissue formed by proliferation from the upper wall of the placenta and
from the blood-forming bud.

Slollusca.
a. Cephalopoda.

Cephalopods of the Gulf of Naples.f — Sig. G-. Jatta gives a system-
atic account of the ^ Cephalopods found in the Gulf of Naples. It is
prefaced by a short essay on the general habits of these animals ; by some
account of the head, arms, funnel, and mantle ; by a short history of
different classifications ; and by a series of very useful comparative
tables contrasting orders, sub-orders, families, and genera. The classi-

* Abh. Senckenberg. Gesellsch., xviii. (1895), received Oet. 1896, pp. 367-455
(6 pis., figs. A-S).

t ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel,’ 23. Monographie, Berlin, 4to, xi.
and 264 pp., 64 figs, and atlas (not to hand) of 31 pis.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

615

fication followed is practically the same as that used by Mr. Hoyle in
his * Challenger’ Report. Twenty-four genera with thirty-eight species
are dealt with in the monograph.

y. Gastropoda.

Revision of North American Slugs.* — Messrs. H. A. Pilsbry and
E. G. Yanatta have made a revision of the genera Ariolimax and Aphal-
larion. They remark that the genera of slugs inhabiting North America
have hitherto been diagnosed by external characters, and by those of the
jaw and teeth. They purpose to indicate in a series of papers, of which
this is the first, some of the more important of the internal features,
particularly the genitalia and alimentary canal. With regard to the
genera selected, we are told that no correct figures or descriptions of
their genitalia have yet been published. The authors now, for the first
time, make known the true structure of the male organs of Ariolimax .
Aphallarion is proposed for a new, perhaps the largest American slug,
which is remarkable for lacking a penis. The two genera selected
appear to be both closely allied to Avion , but this last, of course, has
only been introduced into the American fauna. The details of this
paper will be of interest and importance to those who are specially
engaged in the study of slugs.

Insular Land Shell-Faunae.f — Mr. W. H. Dali has an interesting
essay on insular land shell-faunae, especially as illustrated by the data
obtained by Dr. G. Baur, in the Galapagos Islands. After some account
of the general characteristics of the islands of the archipelago, Mr. Dali
reports that twenty-seven forms which can be defined from one another
were collected from seven out of the twelve principal islands by Dr.
Baur. The results of this naturalist leave little room for doubt that a
thorough examination of all the islands would add materially to the
number of distinct forms, and therefore that the time for finally discuss-
ing or speculating upon the distribution of the species among the
several islands has not arrived. Nearly all the land-shells of the Gala-
pagos are more or less arboreal, and pass much, if not the whole of the
dry season attached to branches of trees by a deposit of tough dry
mucus forming a hermetic seal to the aperture as well as a means of
fixation. The distinctively American type of the land shell-fauna
indicates its point of origin. The author summarises his general results
in the following way : —

(a) Given a region of volcanic origin and mountainous character,
with local or seasonal aridity, more or less arboreal vegetation as well as
herbage, and a tropical or nearly tropical climate, moderate isolation,
and safety to propagate and increase.

(b) Into this region let land shells of the principal continental types
be introduced, and allowed the necessary time to become dispersed over
the region, multiply abundantly, and respond to the environment.

(c) What results in the shape of dynamic modifications may be
anticipated? The first result of room to spread, safety, and plenty of
food, would be to release the species from the shackles of the environ-
ment from which they have been transplanted, and to promote variability.

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Pliilad., 1896, pp. 339-50 (3 pis.),
f Tom. cit., pp. 395-459 (3 pis.).

2 u 2

616

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

An an example, the author cites the wonderful variability of insular
shell-faunae such as those of Madeira and St. Helena Islands. The
particular features likely to indicate local dynamic influence under
the assumed conditions would be wrinkling, corrugation, shagreening on
the surface, more or less rhythmical plaiting or wrinkling at the
suture, loose coiling or dimpling of the nuclear coil at the vertex.
The axis would exhibit a tendency to irregularity, corkscrew twist, or
outward grooving, resulting in a tendency to form an angle or keel at
the anterior edge of the pillar. The margin of the aperture would
tend to thicken, and there would be a tendency to contraction at the full-
grown aperture during or after hibernation. Of these characters, some
are more likely than others to be selected as beneficial to the species,
and these relate chiefly to general form and coloration.

The author concludes with a summary of the land shell-fauna of the
Galapagos Islands. A complete study of this archipelago should be
made before occupation, especially by sheep, will render it impossible
for ever to get complete data.

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Mouth-Parts of Insects.* — Mr. C. L. Marlatt has an abstract of a
memoir on the mouth-parts of insects, with particular reference to
Diptera and Hemiptera. He urges that it is incorrect to separate
insects into the two groups of mandibulata and haustellata, since insects
of all orders are, strictly speaking, mandibulate. Westwood’s division
into biting and sucking forms is correct. The view which is generally
held as to the construction of the mouth-organs appears to be correct,
and there is said to be a total lack of evidence for the recent effort to
show that the mouth-parts of the Diptera and Hemiptera are wholly
maxillary.

Pigments of Pieridae.j — Mr. F. Gowland Hopkins has published in
full his memoir on the pigments of these insects, of which we gave a full
account when the abstract of the paper was published.};

Mimicry in Hypolimnas.§ — Col. C. Swinhoe, after studying and
thinking over the general theory of protective mimicry, conceived that
the subject would be advanced by the special study of a small group of
widespread mimetic species, throughout the different countries included
in its range. While the Bolina group of Hypolimnas contains, according to
systematists, a number of species, they can all be merged into two, and
it was these that he selected for his purpose. He describes in detail
the appearances of these widely spread forms, and comes to the conclu-
sion that the facts afford the strongest support to the theory of mimicry
as originally suggested by H. W. Bates; a variety of changes which
occur are explained by this theory, and by no other yet propounded.
Local changes may be explained by many theories, but that they should
invariably be in the direction of a superficial resemblance to one butter-
fly, and that one a specially defined species, is only to be explained by

* Proc. Amer. Assoc. Advancement of Science, xliv. (1896) pp. 154 and 5.

f Phil. Trans., B. 186 (1896) pp. 661-82.

X See this Journal, 1895, p. 168.

§ Journ. Linn. Soc., xxv. (1896) pp. 339-48 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

617

the theory of mimicry. Although much support has been afforded to
this theory since Bates propounded it in 1862, Col. Swinhoe states that
no evidence is so complete and convincing as that supplied by the genus
Hypolimncis. If we are right in believing that the results are deter-
mined by the range and abundance of mimetic forms, it is clear that
selection, rather than unguided variation, is the essential cause of the
phenomena.

Habits of Carrion-Eating Insects.* — Prof. Fr. Dahl calls his in-
vestigation a study in Ethology or “ Biology in the narrower sense ”
— a use of the term “ Biology ” which seems to us extremely undesirable.
The point of his study is that it combines in natural conditions the two
methods of experiment and statistics; and the author submits it not
merely on its own account, but as an illustration of a method which
deserves to be more frequently pursued.

His experiment was simple enough. A dead sparrow, bereft of head
and tail, and not too dry, was placed in a glass beaker and sunk in the
soil, in different localities, at different seasons. Over the beaker was
placed a glass fly-trap of bell-glass form with spirit at the base, and a
simple contrivance by which carrion-insects might creep up from the
carcass and land in the spirit. The contents were examined every week
at least.

As Megnin showed, the visitors vary according to the stage of
decomposition, First, while the corpse is still without “ smell,” come
Musca vomitoria , Cyrtoneura stabulans , Callipliora vomitoria (properly
C. erythrocephala ) if the corpse is in a house, and others if it is in
the open country. A second stage is characterised by Lucilia csesar
(perhaps latifrons) and Sarcophaga carnaria , both from the open fields.
Much later come species of Phora and Conicera and others. Besides
insects, it may be that snails, mites, worms, and even a frog occur
beside the corpse, but those who come for the carrion must be distin-
guished from those who come for the sake of other visitors.

Dahl gives a list of 54 species, noting their occurrence at different
times of year, and their distribution in house, wood, marsh, field, dune,
&c. He also discusses the factors which determine the occurrence of
species at particular times. His observations show that there is more
than temperature involved, and suggest that in the course of time
periodicities at first directly environmental have now become organic.
Some animals are always associated with special conditions ; others seem
less sensitive and more independent ; for these two sets the terms
“ stenotop ” and “eurytop”are suggested. The author confirms from
his study of the carrion- visitors what is so familiar in regard to higher
animals, that each organism has its distinct role in the economy of nature.
He also notes the correlation between wide distribution of food and the
wfide distribution of its consumers, and between irregular distribution
of food and the development of sensory and locomotor organs on the
part of the consumers.

Changes of the Intestinal Epithelium in the Metamorphosis of
Mealworm. f — Herr C. Rengel has studied these changes in Tenebrio

* SB. K. Akad. Preuss., 1896, pp. 17-30 (2 figs.).

t Zeitsclir. f. wiss. Zoo]., lxii. (1896) pp. 1-60 (1 pi.).

618

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

molitor , and compared them with those occurring elsewhere. Regenera-
tive colls, from which the new epithelium is derived, appear as sub-
epithelial islands in very young larvae, but it is only when the meta-
morphosis begins that they give rise to the elements which form the
imaginal epithelium. As in Muscidae the disruptions begin with an
energetic contraction of the muscular layer, and the old mid-gut
epithelium is raised off. Its disintegrating cells are held together in
a “ cyst ” by their membrana propria, and form “ the yellow body.”
The muscles undergo gradual disruption without active invasion by
phagocytes as occurs in Muscidae. Korotneff compared the two modes
to chronic and acute pathological processes. As soon as the larval
muscular layer has been disrupted, nuclei arc seen surrounding the
epithelial cylinder. Whether these nuclei are old or new elements is
doubtful, but the small cells of which they form the centres become the
fibrils. Rengel’s opinion is that many muscle-cells survive the general
revolution, just as a large number of epithelial-regeneration-cells persist.
The latter give origin to the epithelial cylinder, the former to the
muscular layer.

Digger-Wasps.* — Dr. A. Handlirsch supplies an appendix to the
monograph which he published eight years ago on the digger-wasps
related to Nysson and Bembex. The appendix includes descriptions of
many new forms and a general discussion of the geographical distribu-
tion of digger-wasps. The author finds it most convenient to recognise
three main regions: — (1) the Old World, with pakearctic, Ethiopian,
and Indo-Malayan divisions ; (2) the New World, with neotropical and
nearctic divisions ; and (3) the Australian regions. Apart from ento-
mology the general discussion of distribution is of importance.

Diptera of St. Vincent, West Indies.t — Prof. S. W. Williston, as-
sisted by Prof. J. M. Aldritch, has drawn up a report on the Diptera of
St. Vincent, collected by Mr. H. II. Smith, who was sent to that island
to assist the committee appointed for investigating the flora and fauna
of the West Indies. The collection described in the present memoir is
the first of any extent that has been studied from the West Indian
Islands. Scattered species, or small collections, chiefly of the larger
forms, have been studied by various authors, but no collection has ever
represented nearly so fully as this the smaller flies. The West Indian
Dipterous fauna is essentially a common one, with a strong South
American facies. Very few of the species will, it is believed, be found
restricted to any single island or group of islands. Few, however, will
be found to occur in North America, and they, for the most part, are
either widespread 'species, or else confined to the southernmost portions
of the United States. With a naivete which is somewhat amusing in
an entomologist, Prof. Williston remarks that “ it may perhaps occasion
some surprise that so large a portion of the foregoing species are deter-
mined as new.” The fact is due to the small size of most of the species
in the collection, and the difficulty of distinguishing small obscure
species from South American forms already described.

* SB. Ak. Wiss. Wien, civ. (1895) pp. 801-1079 (2 pis.).

f Trans. Entomol. Soc. Lond., 1896, pp. 253-446 (7 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

619

Masticatory Armature of the Gizzard in Blattidae and Gryllidse.*

— M. Bordas has made a study of the variations which are to be found
in this organ in different genera in these two families. The modifica-
tions, which are often very considerable, are always related to the mode
of life of the animal. Moreover, the arrangement of the numerous spines
or teeth which compose its internal chitinous armature is so well
marked as to serve as an excellent specific character. The author gives
a number of details as to the modifications which are found in various
forms.

Scatoconehs.f — M. A. Lecaillon has lately applied the terra scato-
conch to the elaborate shell formed for their larvae by certain insects
from their excrement. Ovular scatoconchs protect the egg, larval
scatoconchs protect the larvae. The presence of the former, at any rate,
is connected with the existence in the female of complicated organs,
which do not exist in the male, and which serve for the construction of
the test. Gene, who was the first to observe the production of these
curious coverings, remarked that the oviposition lasted from five to six
hours, and that during this time the insects ate several times. He
ascribes this to the necessity of procuring faecal matter to surround the
eggs. The present writer fiuds, however, that twelve minutes is suffi-
cient to make an ovular scatoconcli, and that several eggs may be laid
in succession without the insect taking any food. Moreover, the rectum
of females which have laid naked eggs always contains some excretory
remains. There are connected with the rectum special organs consist-
ing of chitin, muscles, and glands. Around the anal orifice there is a
small chitinous apparatus which consists essentially of two kinds of half
rings ; muscles attached to the chitinous pieces regulate the form of the
excretory matter deposited on the egg, and cause them to be arranged in
a mosaic pattern. In addition to this and other chitinous pieces, there
is a double, well-developed, glandular mass which empties its deposits
into the rectum ; the liquid agglutinates the excretory matters which are
destined to enter into the constitution of the scatoconch.

jS. Myriopoda.

Blood-Vessels of Scolopendrid^.J — M. 0. Duboscq has a preliminary
notice of his investigation of the termination of the blood-vessels and
the corpuscles of Kowalevsky in the Scolopendridse. The new term of
corpuscles of Kowalevsky is applied to the bodies discovered by that
author in the fatty tissue of Scolopendridas, and called by him lymphatic
glands. The results of the author, which appear to be new, were
obtained by the method of self-injections. He used commercial china
ink diluted with an equal quantity of water, and he killed the animal
within five hours after the injection. The circulatory system of Scolo-
pendridm consists essentially of a dorsal and of a ventral vessel united
by an aortic ring. The branches of these vessels are described, and the
conclusion is come to that, in Scolopendridee, the dorsal vessel irrigates
all the parts that are innervated by the brain and the sympathetic
nervous system, while the ventral vessel irrigates all that is innervated

* Comptes Rendus, cxxiii. (1896) pp. 271-3. f Tom. cit., pp. 258-60.

X Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 391-7 (5 figs.).

620

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

by the subintestinal chain. This generalisation loses much importance
from the fact that it certainly is not applicable to all Arthropods, but it
corresponds almost exactly to the fundamental distribution of the vessels
in the Annulata. Coming to the question as to whether or no the vessels
are closed at their extremities, he finds a proof that they are, in the
structure of the corpuscles of Kowalevsky. That author, when describing
these corpuscles, regarded them as a mass of epithelial cells. Histo-
logical investigation shows that the corpuscles of Kowalevsky are only a
particular case of the termination of the vessels. The vessel which
furnishes one of these corpuscles ends suddenly in a very dense mass
of reticulated cells. We have then to do with a reticulated tissue which
is stuffed with amcebocytes. Some of these last are globular and trans-
parent, while others have an irregular outline and a delicate layer which
stains well. All kinds of transitional forms are found between these
two. The author comes to the conclusion that the corpuscles of
Kowalevsky are true lymphatic ganglia ; they differ from those of Verte-
brates in the absence of a capsule ; although there is a vessel to them,
there is none from them, for the ganglion is truly a small sponge, whence
the amcebocytes can emerge by every pore.

Structure and Distribution of Myriopods.* — Dr. C. Verhoeff de-
scribes twelve species collected in Asia Minor by Dr. K. Eschericli.
The collection shows a close resemblance with the European fauna,
especially with that of Dalmatia.

The most important anatomical results are the following : — The
genital segments of the male and female forms of Bothriogaster are very
different. In its tracheal system this genus is highly organised, con-
taining two very strong longitudinal stems running the whole length
of the body, connected for each segment with two stigmata on each side,
namely with the stigma proper to the segment and with that belonging
to the segment in front. The terminal claws of the legs are very strong,
the poison claws and glands are weak ; the animals seem to crush their
prey.

The complementary segments of Geophilidm are not reduced seg-
ments, but differentiations of the primitive segments, as is shown by the
musculature. The longitudinal and transverse musculature of the dorsal
double-rings of Diplopoda belongs to the posterior segments only ; in the
anterior segments it has been produced in consequence of the fusion of
segments in pairs.

The antennse of Scolopendra show anamorphosis. In the various
species of Lysiopetalidm the number of segments is constant. The
copulatory apparatus of Lysiopetalidse is formed from a modification of
the appendages and ventral plates of both segments of the seventh
thoracic double-ring ; it consists of three pairs of arms or lamella
except in Brolemannia subgen. n., where there are only two pairs. The
fourth joint of the tarsus of Lysiopetalidae is without joint-muscles and
therefore passive.

In another paper f Verhoeff classifies Palsearctic Diplopoda in ten
groups according to habitat — field animals on hard ground, field animals
on sandy ground, stone-animals, leaf-animals, bark-animals, plant-
climbers, littoral forms, cave-forms, alpine forms, and imports.

* Arch. f. Naturges., lxii. pp. 1-26 (2 pis.). f Tom. cit., pp. 27-38.

ZOOLOGY .AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

62L

Diplopoda.* — Sig. F. Silvestri begins a monograph of Diplopoda
dealing first with the taxonomy of the class. After giving a history of
classifications he states his own, which is partly after Bollman, partly
after Pocock, with various additions and modifications. His view of the
general systematic position of Diplopoda is thus indicated : — -

PROTRACHEATA

A third chapter is devoted to a consideration of the copulatory
organs, a fourth to a synonymy of parts, a fifth to a list of genera. Then
follows the systematic description, ending with a bibliography of nearly
fifty pages.

Eye of Scutigera.j — Herr B. Kosenstadt points out that the eye of
Scuiigera, which differs from the simple eyes of other Myriopods in look-
ing as if it were facetted, and differs from facetted eyes in having two
superposed rows of retinule cells, may be justly regarded as an inter-
mediate stage between simple and compound forms.

5. Arachnida.

Variations in Limulus Polyphemus.* —Prof. W. Patten gives an
account of some very remarkable variations in the king-crab. The
principal value of his material lies, he says, in the large number of
abnormal embryos, and in their range of variation from those that wrere
nearly normal to those that wrere so modified as to leave a hardly
recognisable being behind. The amount of material was so great that
the author had in no case to use for illustration embryos, if there was
the least doubt of their abnormality being real and not due to post-
mortem abrasion, shrinkage, or other causes of like nature.

The author has not entered into a critical discussion of prevalent
theories of heredity and development in the light of these new facts,
for it seems to him that everything of value in the way of argument has
already been said, and re-said on the various phases of epigenesis versus
evolution. When the smoke from the volleys of words discharged in
the last few years has cleared away somewhat, Prof. Patten thinks that
it will probably be found that the rival disputants are in closer agree-
ment than they suspect.

With regard to the appendages, it is pointed out that the three
anterior pairs of thoracic and the abdominal appendages are most fre-
quently absent. Indeed the absence of the latter is a very common
phenomenon. When present they may exhibit want of symmetry. On

* Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, xvi. (1896) pp. 121-251 (26 figs.).

t Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 369-75 (2 figs.).

X Journ. Morphol.. xii. (1896) pp. 17-148 (10 pis.).

622

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tlie other hand the appendages as well as other organs may be multi-
plied. Another form of variation is the fusion of the right and left halves
of the embryo, or an antero-posterior degeneration. The abdomen is
unusually perfect and well developed in embryos whose anterior portion
is greatly reduced by median fusion and degeneration. In some cases the
specimens exhibit what the author calls general progressive degeneration.
This is probably due, not to external conditions, but to either a general
or a local lack of formative energy. Four varieties are distinguished : —
(1) reduction in rate of development ; (2) reduction in size of embryo ;
(3) local reduction of organs ; (4) reduction in range of development
of the entire organism, or parts of the same, followed by complete retro-
gressive degeneration. The result of this is a new kind of death for
highly organised animals — one, namely, in which the component cells
gradually decrease in number and in specialisation till nothing remains
of a once complete organism but a few indifferent cells which, 'in turn,
themselves disappear by a continuation of the same process. In the
ease of organs near the apex of the body, such as the olfactory organs
and the eyes, those on the most anterior segment show the greatest
amount of median fusion.

The author next discusses the results of fission, which may be either
transverse or longitudinal. The former appears to be due to local
degeneration and median fusion, while the latter is consequent on the
intercalation of new organs. Double embryos are due to the inter-
calation of new halves, and new and old halves always match each other
exactly. It is pointed out that new organs appear in the reverse order
of their disappearance by median fusion. When new parts are added,
organs which are morphologically the oldest appear first in the ordinary
growth, but in the .reverse direction, that is, from before backwards.
Triple embryos are due to the addition of four new halves to the old
embryo. Prof. Patten says that various classes of facts and explanations
have to be harmonised before we can arrive at any explanation of the
phenomena observed in triple embryos. There is variation in the
duration of the growth-period of the whole or a part of the organism.
We may assume this to be due to variations in the inteusity of growth
or differentiation forces, but not to the lack of formative material.
There may be an entire absence of certain organs at the outset, and a
subsequent failure to regenerate the same. This we may assume to be
due to the absence of specific formative material. General or local
structural weakness of the embryo is indicated by median fusion of its
organs in the reverse order of their age and specialisation. The existence
of large abnormal embryos may indicate forced growth, or an excess of
formative material ; multiple embryos may be explained in the same way.

In either case excess of material or excessive growth gives rise to
the formation of new organs in reverse order of that in which they
disappeared by median fusion and degeneration. When the formation
of new organs is followed by degeneration we assume that the multiple
parts are formed not from an excess of formative material, but by a kind
of forced growth obtained by drawing from a fixed capital. Multiple
embryos are probably due to abnormally rapid growth. It is pointed
out that variation in the growth force is merely a convenient term to
express the results which follow internally from variations in internal

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

623

conditions. It is not a direct expression of variation in tlie quantity
of some particular kind of energised matter. Variations in the internal
conditions produce an apparent increase, diminution, or subdivision of
the growth force, because those conditions determine the possibilities
for a longer or shorter or different sequence of chemical changes that
express themselves to us in change of form. In treating of the de-
generation and death of IAmulus embryos, Prof. Patten urges that the
structure and function of the organism is a resultant of (1) production ;
(2) specialisation; (3) longevity; (4) death-rate of cells. The death
of Limulus embryos is due to a greater reduction in numbers and in
specialisation of the constituent cells, till only very few and very simple
cells remain. These also finally disappear. There is no necessity for
assuming that there is an essential difference between body and germ-
cells. “ Mortality ” is not necessarily inherent in any living organism.
It is rather the result of an imperfect organism in which growth, repair,
and waste continually produce new conditions unfavourable to the con-
tinuation of the same, to which the organism cannot adapt itself.

To this somewhat complex and difficult paper Prof. Patten has
prefixed an analysis which the student will find of considerable assis-
tance.

e. Crustacea.

Indian Crabs.* — Dr. A. Alcock in the second part of his memoir,
entitled ‘ Materials for a Carcinological Fauna of India,’ deals with the
Brachyura oxystoma. He adopts as his classification of this tribe, the
groups originally established by De Haan, that is to say, in opposition
to some writers, he recognises the Raninidae as true oxystomes. He
points out that some of the deep-sea forms give the clearest evidence of
the close relation of the Banina type to the Dorippe type, and afford
quite sufficient justification for accepting De Haan’s scheme of the oxy-
stomes almost without modification.

Thirty-two genera of oxystomes are known to inhabit the Indian
Seas. Two of these, Heteronucia and Pariphiculus , are new. The
author gives diagnoses of the tribes of these animals, with keys to the
genera and to the species. The species are fully described and their
synonymy is given in detail. Of course, it is difficult for one who is not
a specialist to judge, but it strikes us that Dr. Alcock has been a little
too generous in describing new species.

Habits and Respiratory Mechanism of Corystes Cassivelaunus.f —
Mr. W. Garstang deals, in the first of his contributions to marine
bionomics, with the habits of this Masked Crab, as it is popularly
called. Common all round the coasts of the British Isles in deep water,
and often in many of the sandy pools on the seashore, its position, as
systematic studies show, has been much discussed. This Mr. Garstang
thinks is partly due to the fact that the structure of these animals is
remarkably modified in relation to sand-burrowing habits. Some of
the adaptive modifications seen in this crab reappear in others, and have
led to the supposition that there is a relationship between the two. The
case, Mr. Garstang remarks, affords a new illustration of the inadequacy

* Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Ixv. (1896) pp. 134-216 (3 pis.).

t Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., iv. (1896) pp. 223-32.

624

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of tlie purely morphographic method when unchecked by a consideration
of the facts of functional adaptation.

Describing next the structural peculiarities of this form, he draws
attention to the great elongation of the second pair of antennae which, by
their apposition, give rise to an organ which the author calls the antennal
tube. The first writers who appear to have given a real explanation of the
use of the antennae were David Eobertson and P. IT. Gosse, who independ-
ently gave explanations which are not far from the truth. Mr. Garstang
has himself made a number of personal observations and experiments.
The crabs in question have a marked habit of burrowing, and during the
daytime they remain concealed from all observation. At night, however,
they move about actively as though in search of food. If a little Chinese
ink or finely powdered carmine be added to the water in the neighbour-
hood of the antennal tube of a masked crab, it will be invariably found
that the current which goes through the antennal tube is from above
downwards and not vice versa. The direction of this current through the
branchial chamber is the reverse of that which has hitherto been recog-
nised in all other decapod Crustacea, where it is from behind upwards.
The current of the buried Corystes may therefore be spoken of as a reversed
current. The author describes and explains the causes for the currents
of respiration, and points out that the burrowing habit is useful as a
method of concealment from enemies. The elongation and smoothness
of the carapace and the elongated claws of the hinder legs are all features
usefully correlated with the specialisation of the crab for a sand-
burrowing existence. The elongation of the antennoe and the arrange-
ment of the hairs upon them, the double bend of their basal joints, the
structure of the parts bounding the mouth-chamber, and the arrange-
ment of hairs upon them are characters which, in conjunction with the
reversal of the respiratory current, adapt the respiratory mechanism of
the crab to a sand-dwelling mode of life. The antennal tube enables
the crab to draw its supplies of water from that above, while the
arrangement of hairs is such as to constitute a sieve, which keeps the
sand away from the respiratory organs. The upright position of the crab
is a most unusual feature, but may be easily correlated with the forma-
tion of an elongated antennal tube.

Cleavage of Egg of Virbius zostericola.* — Mr. F. P. Gorham has
a short notice on the history of the egg of the green shrimp, which,,
unlike most of its allies, is remarkably favourable for the study of early
cell-lineage. Females bearing eggs in all stages of development can be
obtained throughout the summer months, and eggs removed from the
females will continue their development in watch-glasses under the
Microscope, if the water is occasionally renewed. The early segmenta-
tion of the egg is total and regular, and at first it is impossible to
distinguish between the animal and vegetable poles.

In the great majority of cases, the first cleavage plane cuts the egg
at its equator. The second cleavage takes place in one of two ways ;
the spindles either lying parallel or perpendicular to each other. This,
of course, gives rise to two radically different methods of arrangement
of the later blastomeres. Three types of different segmentation are
distinguished, and the invaginating cells are found to arise from different
* Journ. Morphol., xi. (1895) pp. 741-5 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

625

parts of the egg, and by entirely different methods of segmentation.
If the four cells are to be regarded as equivalent cells in each of the
three types, we must conclude that in the egg of Virbius the prospective
value ot the cells is not at all a function of their position, hut that the
value of each cell is determined as early as the two-cell stage by some
process of qualitative division of the nuclei.

Malayan Decapoda.* * * § — Dr. J. G. de Man continues his description of
a collection of Decapoda and Stomatopoda from the western coasts of
Malacca, Borneo, and Celebes, and from the Java Sea. He deals first
with the genus Itemizes , describing seven previously recorded species
and B. celseno sp. n. Thereafter he describes species of Eiconaxius,
Arctus, Palinurus, &c.

Terrestrial Isopods from Greece.! — Herr G. Budde-Lund reports
on a collection made by E. von Oertzen in Greece and in Grecian
islands. The collection included thirty species, of which six were new,
viz. Armadillo cinctus, A. piger , Armadillidium Oertzenii, A. hybridum ,
Porcellio cibdellus, and Metoponorthus nigrobrunneus. These new forms are
described and compared with related species.

Entomostraca of North Wales.j — Mr. D. J. Scourfield, in a pre-
liminary account of the fresh and brackish water Entomostraca of North
Wales, records 30 Cladocera, 10 Ostracoda, and 27 Copepoda, of which
three, Ceriodaplinia pulchella , Alona affinis, and Laophonte Mohammed
are new to the British fauna. To the detailed list of species are added
a short comparison with the Entomostracan fauna of the south-east of
England, the complete records from two typical lakes (Llanberis lakes),
and some notes on the general character of the Welsh lakes and the
methods of collecting.

Entomostraca of the Solway Districts —Prof. G. S. Brady com-
mences his paper with some interesting observations on the general
character of the shores of the Solway. In many parts there are muddy
expanses which are covered with mounds thrown up by innumerable
lugworms. So closely are these packed that there is rarely a space of
an inch unattacked by this worm. There can be little doubt that these
worms, passing through their bodies substances laden with decomposing
organic matter, which they absorb and assimilate, exert a most powerful
sanitary influence in purifying what would otherwise become a reeking
pestiferous swamp. Prof. Brady seems to have found some very inter-
esting crustaceans. The most interesting are ltunella subsalsa, which
is a new genus, and Canthocamptus subsalsus sp. n. ltunella is allied
to, and might also have been included under the genus Cletodes.

Freshwater Copepods.|| — Dr. 0. Schmeil completes his monograph on
the free-living freshwater Copepods of Germany. This final part deals
with Diaptomus (in part), Heterocope, and Eurytemora, and includes the
bibliography.

* Zool. Jalirb. Abth. Syst., ix. (1896) pp. 459-514.

f Arch. f. Naturges., lxii. (1896) pp. 39-48.

X Joum. Quekett Micr. Club, vi. (1895) pp. 127-143 (1 pi.).

§ Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumberland, &c., xiii. (1896) pp. 19-33 (3 pis.).

|| Bibliotheca Zoologica (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 21 (1896) pp. 73-143
<6 pis.).

626

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Regeneration in Lower Crustacea.* — Herr Hs. Przibram points out
that regeneration in Crustaceans is known only in Decapods and in the
Isopod Ligea. He was thus led to try Asellus aquaticus, Cyclops , and
three Daphnids. With Cyclops he got only negative results ; in Asellus
he observed the regeneration of antennae and other appendages, just as
Herrick states for Ligea ; in Daphnia the regeneration took a quite novel
form. Removal of the eyes yielded no results.

Annulata.

Centrosome and Sphere in Nerve-Cells of an Invertebrate.f — Miss
M. Lewis, while studying the finer anatomy of the nervous system of a
worm belong to the family Maldaniae, found that it exhibited a very
primitive condition, for it lies in the hypodermis, and in each segment
gives off on either side of the body a large number of nerves, 35 or
more. In these there are, among others, some giant-cells which are
arranged without any discoverable regularity along the cord. They are
usually elongated in one axis and have large and distinct nuclei. On
the side of the nucleus which tends to be flattened or concave there are
found the structures which may be called centrosome and sphere. We
do not seem yet to have sufficient evidence with regard to the function
of this central corpuscle and sphere of nerve-cells, but several facts
plainly indicate that the body has a mechanical influence upon the
protoplasm of the cell :

(1) The concentric arrangement of the protoplasm around the central
corpuscle.

(2) The radiations which extend from this corpuscle.

(3) The excentric position of the nucleus.

(4) The flattening of the nuclear membrane on the side toward the
sphere.

(5) The outer band of protoplasm near the periphery.

These facts all tend to prove that the central corpuscle is a
mechanical centre, and therefore an active element in the cell. We can
only determine whether it is truly homologous with the centrosome of
actively dividing cells by tracing its previous history. If it can be
shown that it has remained over from the last cell-division, then the
presence of such a body as a true centrosome in a cell so conservative
as a nerve-cell would be a matter of great theoretical interest, and
Miss Lewis thinks that a strenuous effort should be made to solve the
problem.

Arenicola.f — Mr. H. M. Kyle has made a study of the renal and re-
productive organs and post-larval stages of this worm. Arenicola is
found on the sands of St. Andrews Bay in great abundance, and in all
stages, from the young forms (three to four inches in length) to the
older and larger (fourteen inches or more). The larger forms seem to
vary in external appearance, according to the conditions in which they
live. From clean dry sand a form is got of a fine golden colour, with
a smooth and glossy exterior ; from the muddy clay flats a form is pro-

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 424-5 (2 figs.).

t Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1896) pp. 291-9 (11 figs.).

X Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., xviii. (1896) pp. 295-301 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

627

cured which has a rough and coarse appearance, and is of a dark dirty
brown colour.

Mr. Kyle’s observations on the nephridia appear to confirm in all
important particulars the observations of Benham, and the same seems
to he true of the reproductive organs.

Sense-Organs of Lumbricus agricola.* * * § — Miss F. E. Langdon has
made a study of the sense-organs of this earthworm. She comes to the
conclusion that its epidermis contains a sensorial apparatus composed
of definite groups of sense-cells, the outer ends of which pass through
the cuticle, as sense-hairs, while their inner ends give origin to nerve-
fibres which pass directly to the central nervous system.

The large number of these sense-organs, their distribution over the
whole of the body, and their great abundance at certain points account
for the well-known and extreme sensitiveness of earthworms. The
sense-cells are the only cells with which the nerve-fibres are connected.
They are, therefore, the nutrient centres of the sensory fibres and
true ganglion cells ; if there is any differentiation in function between
sense-organs in different regions it does not appear to be correlated
with any pronounced differences in structure. The efferent nerve-cells
which pass from the nervous system to the epidermis are not in con-
tinuity with any cells in the latter. They form a subepidermal network
which gives rise to intra-epidermal nerve-fibres, which end freely between
the epidermal cells.

Earthworms from Sumatra.^ — Dr. D. Rosa describes a collection
made by E. Modigliani in Sumatra. It includes Moniligaster Modigli -
anii sp. n., Benhamia Modiglianii sp. n., and eight new species of Peri-
chseta.

A further collection J from the Mentawei Islands^ included another
new species of Perichseta.

Leeches from Tojoland.§ — Dr. R. Blanchard has had an opportunity
of examining some leeches from Tojoland in the possession of the Berlin
Natural History Museum. He forms for these specimens a new genus
which he calls Praobdella, two species of which can be recognised. It
must be owned that the diagnosis of the genus which is given is not
very elaborate. However, the study of it has enabled the author to
suggest the division of the sub-family Hirudininm into two smaller
groups. One he calls Distichodonta and the other Monostichodonta.
In the former the jaws are armed by two rows of a few obtuse teeth,
while in the latter there is one row of many acute teeth. The new
genus and Hsemopis belong to the former, Hirudo and Limnatis and
Hirudinaria to the latter.

N ematohelminthes .

New Singhalese Nematodes. jj — Dr. A. Meyer describes the follow-
ing new forms: — Filaria Zschokkei from Manis pentadactyla, Strongylus

* Journ. Morpliol., xi. (1895) pp. 193-232 (2 pis.),

f Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, xvi. (1896) pp. 502-32 (1 pi.).

X Tom. cit., pp. 607-9.

§ Arch. f. Naturg., 1896, pp. 49-53 (1 pi.).

1| Tom. cit., pp. 54-82 (2 pis.).

628

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

costatus from the same host ; Filaria Sarasinorum from Stenops gracilis ;
and Oxijuris longicaudata from a Singhalese species of Julus. His paper
includes not only diagnoses of these new species, but a fairly detailed
account of their structure.

New Gordiid.* — Prof. L. Camerano describes Chordodes Balzani
sp. n. found by Prof. L. Balzan in Bolivia. It is readily distinguished
from other species of Chordodes recorded from S. America, but shows
in the structure of its cuticle some affinity with Ch. verrucosus Baird
from Equatorial Africa.

Platylielmintbes.

Habitat Rich in Turbellaria.t — Hr. E. Sekera describes a forest
pool near Pilgram in S.E. Bohemia, which proved to be very rich in
Turbellaria. He records Macrostoma hystrix, Stenostoma leucops , St.
unicolor , St. agile , Microstoma lineare, Catenula lemnse, Mesostoma rostra-
tum , M. viridatum, M. productum, Castrada radiata, Gyrator herma -
phroditus , four species of Vortex, three species of Prorhynchus, and
Botlirioplana alacris. On these forms Dr. Sekera has brief notes, but
the chief interest of his paper is perhaps the evidence of great abun-
dance in one locality. It also shows how carefulness of search is
rewarded.

Development of Drepanophorus.J — Herr J. Lebedinsky has studied
the direct development of Drepanophorus spectabilis. The ovum is large,
with a double membrane ; two polar bodies are formed, and one, probably
the first, may again divide. Segmentation is total and almost equal,
and there is a segmentation-cavity at the eight-cell stage. A bipolar
blastula results, and it exchanges a radial for a bilateral symmetry. On
the ventral surface, near the posterior end, the endodermic area is seen.
At its anterior and posterior margin two large oval cells occur. The
two anterior cells pass in gastrulation between ectoderm and endoderm,
exhibit mitoses, and form the paired anterior mesoderm-bands. These
extend along the anterior surface of the arcbenteron, form somatopleure
and splanchnopleure, and enclose a body-cavity. The two posterior
cells are invaginated along with the endodermic area, lie for a time on
the dorsal wall of the archenteron, but afterwards migrate from the
enteric wall to between the layers and form the posterior mesoderm-
bands.

In the gastrula stage, some cells migrate from the ectoderm into the
segmentation cavity and become the mesenchyme. This is used in
forming the basal membrane, and probably in forming blood-vessels and
blood. The mesoderm of the proboscis has a separate origin ; near the
invagination, a proliferation of ectoderm occurs, and forms the meso-
dermic sheath aided by the mesenchyme of the anterior end of the
embryo.

The gut-cavity is for a time much narrowed by transverse division
of the endoderm cells, but in later stages it reacquires its original
character, and appears as a tubular single-layered epithelium which
communicates by a process with the blastopore. The blastopore gradu-

* Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, xvi. (1896) pp. 9-10.

t Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 375-8.

X Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 577-86.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

629

ally narrows and is shunted forwards. In the anterior third of the body
it closes. Thereafter the endodermic process forms the caecum.

The head-groove arises as a group of much vacuolated ciliated cells,
which sink in a little around a cavity. The head-gland arises dorsally
near the groove as a slightly insunk plate, the anterior part of which
forms a small invagination.

The first hint of the proboscis is in a few much elongated cells,
which are invaginated, and divide longitudinally. (Esophagus and
rectum arise as invaginations. The brain appears as two pairs of
I* ectodermic thickenings, which form the dorsal and ventral lobes. In
connection with the latter, the longitudinal nerves arise as two ecto-
dermic strands. The dorsal nerve arises separately but similarly. The
cerebral organs arise as two thickenings of the ectoderm, which are
subsequently invaginated to form ciliated cavities.

Epithelium of Tapeworms and Flukes.* — Mr. A. E. Shipley calls
attention to a recent work on the histology of these two groups of
parasites. Prof. Blochmann has pointed out that if they have no
external epithelium, we must invent a new name for the cuticle, since
it is of the essence of cuticle that it should be formed from the free ends
of epithelial cells. The external glands which are common in flukes,
and also occur in tapeworms, are as a rule, produced by the modification
of some of the cells of an epithelial layer. Lastly, absorption, which
takes place all over the body of a tapeworm, is usually in other animals
effected by an epithelium. It is probable, therefore, that an epithelium
exists in these parasites.

According to this writer, the external epithelium has, to some extent
sunk into the parenchyma, so that we do not find a sheet of contiguous
epithelial cells on the inner side of the cuticle. The lateral separation
of the epithelial cells is caused by the intrusion of the parenchyma.
This parenchyma, like other connective tissues, consists of cells and a
ground-substance ; the cells are very richly branched, and stretch
through the body in all directions ; they unite with those of other cells
so that the parenchyma cells are able to play a large part in the
nutrition of the parasite.

Nervous and Muscular Systems of Ligula.t — Dr. M. Liihe notes
the close resemblance between the musculature of Ligula and that of
Boihriocephalus ; both have subcuticular, external, and internal longi-
tudinal muscles, but the distinction between the subcuticular and the
external longitudinal muscles is by no means sharp. As Niemiec pointed
out, there are in Ligula numerous accessory longitudinal nerves between
the external and internal longitudinal muscles. These are all connected
by commissures running parallel to the surface, and the two main nerves
also give off branches to this commissural plexus. Thus the system is
more complicated and more like that of Trematodes than was supposed.
Apart from those in the scolex, commissures have been previously re-
corded in Moniezia expansa (by Koehler), M. planissima (by Tower), and
in Anoplocephala magna (by Scheibel). Their discovery in Ligula sug-
gests the probability that they will soon be found in others.

2 x

1896

* Science Progress, i. (1896) pp. 78-81 (1 fig.),
t Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 383-4.

630

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Proliferating Cysticerci.* — Prof. M. Braun found in the axillary
region of the zizel ( Spermophilus citillus) a large number of proliferating
cysticerci, showing external posterior buds. By infecting three foxes he
proved that these bladderworms were the cysticerci of Tsenia crassipes,
and this was confirmed by some observations of Bremser and others,
which a search into the literature brought to light.

Echinoderma.

How do Starfishes open Oysters P f — Dr. P. Scliiemenz calls atten-
tion to a fact which ought to be well known, that enormous injury is
caused by starfishes to the oyster beds. Oysters, as we know, can close
their shells quite tightly, and an interesting question arises, how is a
starfish able to exert sufficient force to open them ? Starfishes which
attack oysters may be divided into two groups ; those of the first have
conical shaped arms ; in the second group the arms are far from being
so conical in shape, but they are more or less cylindrical. The former
live in sandy, the latter in rocky places. As the starfish cannot get the
prey into his stomach he sends his stomach into his prey, that is to say,
he throws his stomach out like a proboscis, either wrapping it round
or forcing it within the shell of his victim. This throwing out of
the stomach has been often described. An example which the author
gives will show how cleverly an Asterias can force his stomach through
openings which appear little adapted for the purpose ; for example, one
wrould imagine that a sea urchin would be safe from the attacks of a
starfish, but in the Naples Zoological Station a moderately large sea
urchin was attacked by two starfishes, one on either side. One had
thrown its stomach through the narrow places between the urchin’s
spines until it reached the skin, which, together with the muscles that
attach and move the spines it devoured, so that the spines by degrees
fell off. For the second starfish a way had been prepared, and with its
stomach it reached the mouth of the urchin through this ; in spite of
the urchin’s strong teeth it inserted its proboscis and so sucked out its
victim like an oyster.

As to attacking molluscs, the starfish might take them by surprise,
or it might beset the oyster so long that it would be compelled by
hunger and want of air to open. It has been suggested that the star-
fish might hypnotise the molluscs, or might make an opening in the
shell with the help of a boring apparatus, or an acid. Or yet there is
another possibility, that the starfish pours a poison over, or rather within
the shell of its victim, whereby the muscular force of the latter is en-
feebled and the shell is opened. There remains yet one more possibility,
namely, that the shell is opened by force. The author’s own observa-
tion leads him to think that this last is the method which is really
adopted, and he proceeds to bring forward proof that the animal does
actually possess sufficient strength for the purpose. Some experiments
which were made show that the pulling power may be estimated at
1350 grm. Experiments were made with a species of Venus, and it
was found that a weight of 900 grm. is quite sufficient to open a Venus
in, on an average, fifteen minutes. It hardly requires to be stated that

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 417-20.

t MT. Deutsch. Seefischver., xii. (1896) No. 6 ; translated in Journ. Marine Biol.
Aesoc., iv. (1896), pp. 266-85 (9 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

631

every starfisli cannot open every bivalve, and that the size and strength
of the two must be in suitable proportion.

Continuity of Mesenchyme-Cells in Echinoid Larvae.* — Mr. E. W.
M‘Bride reminds the reader of the view of Mr. Adam Sedgwick that
free stellate mesoblast-cells, such as are often figured, are not to be
found in the elasmobrancli embryo, but that the appearances thus inter-
preted were really only the thickened nodes of a protoplasmic network.
The examination of numerous larvae of Echinus esculentus enables
Mr. M'Bride to support the observations of Sedgwick in a very striking
manner. The larvae referred to were in the gastrula stage, and pos-
sessed a comparatively narrow alimentary tract, outside which was a
wide primary body-cavity. In this latter there were numerous mesen-
chyme-cells. These cells were of two main kinds ; some were aggre-
gated masses of rounded cells, which formed the matrix of the future
larval skeleton, while others were wandering cells or amoebocytes. Of
these latter there were two varieties, of which the first were obviously
stellate in form, and connected with each other and with the walls of the
cavity by long processes. The second kind of wandering cell is rounded
in form, and has always been described and figured as if it were per-
fectly free. If, however, one examines a slightly compressed living
gastrula of Echinus esculentus , one observes that these rounded cells,
which at first sight look as if they were completely free, are in every
case connected, either with neighbouring cells, or with the walls of the
cavity by excessively fine threads, along which they appear to travel.

Without wishing to go as far as Mr. Sedgwick in denying reality to
the conception of the cell, Mr. McBride is inclined to hold that the cell-
structure of the Metazoa is largely due to secondary differentiation, and
that a multinucleate Protozoon like Actinosph&rium is to be compared to
the Metazoan body, and not to a single unit of the same.

Spermatozoa of Echinoderms.f — Prof. G. W. Field began at Naples,
and has carried on elsewhere, an investigation of the morphology and
physiology of the Echinoderm spermatozoa. Many of the facts found
range themselves with a large mass of details which are being accumu-
lated from all branches, not only of the animal, but also of the vegetable
kingdom, and tending still more to strengthen the theory first advanced
by Mark, and lately confirmed by 0. Hertwig and others, that the polar
bodies are aborted eggs ; that the egg, the spermatozoa, and the polar
bodies are strictly homologous, and that any difference apparent is to be
regarded as a specialisation for specific purposes. The accumulation of
all the food-yolk in one of the ova results in the uselessness of the other
three (polar bodies). The modification of the four spermatids derived
from the spermatogone by differentiation of the cytoplasm into a vibratile
tail, the separation and subsequent extrusion of the no longer useful
material of the nuclear spindle, in the form of the mitosome, are modi-
fications merely of parts of the cell.

The author calls attention to the following points : — The size and
shape of the spermatozoa differ in the various classes; in Holothurians,
Ophiurids, and Asterids the head is spherical; in Crinoids andEchinids

* Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., ix. (1896) pp. 153-4.

f Journ. Morphol., xi. (1895) pp. 235-70 (2 pis.).

2x2

632

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

it is conical. A cell-membrane completely surrounds the spermatozoon.
The tail is in connection with the cell-membrane, and not attached
directly to the nucleus or to the middle piece. The number of sperma-
tozoa formed from a spermatogone is four, by means of two mitotic
divisions. Each of these divisions is a reducing division. The number
of chromosomes in the spermatozoa is nine. This number is charac-
teristic for Echinoderms. When the nucleus of a spermatozoon in the
process of fertilisation has passed the outer denser cytoplasmic portion
of the ovum it increases in size. The small refringent body seen by
various investigators at the apex of the head of the spermatozoon is the
centrosome. It is extranuclear in position in the spermatid and sper-
matozoon, possibly intranuclear in the spermatogone and spermatocyte.
It seems probable that the centrosome and mitrosome are differentiations
of one and the same substance ; they represent the material of the
nuclear spindle. The differentiation of these bodies may be a device for
overcoming the mechanical difficulties of transferring a large quantity
of spindle-forming substance through the egg-membranes and denser
outer portion of the egg.

Development of Echinoderm Larvae.* — Mr. H. M. Vernon has made
a study of the effect of environment on the development of Echinoderm
larvae. He finds that, if the ova of Strongylocentrotus lividus be placed
in water at about 8° or 25° for an hour, or even for a minute, at the time
of impregnation, the resulting plutei, after eight days’ development, are
some 4*4 per cent, smaller than those of ova impregnated at from 17° to
22°. If kept at the abnormal temperature for only ten seconds during
impregnation, the resulting larvae are only 1 • 7 per cent, smaller, pro-
bably because the time is too short for all the ova to become impregnated
under the abnormal conditions. Larvae obtained from artificial fertilisa-
tions made in the middle of August are about 20 per cent, smaller than
those obtained in April, March, and October, while those obtained in Juno
and July are intermediate in size. This is probably due to the com-
parative immaturity of the ova and spermatozoa in the off-breeding
season. Larvas allowed to develop in water containing 50 ccm. of distilled!
water per litre are 15 * 6 per cent, larger than those grown under normal
conditions. Larvae developed in water more concentrated than the normal
remain practically unchanged, but those grown under normal condition^
from ova impregnated in concentrated water, are 1 • 6 per cent, larger.
Larvae grown in semi- darkness are 2*5 per cent, larger than those grown
under normal conditions, while those grown in absolute darkness are
1 • 3 per cent, smaller. The body -lengths of the larvae are not influenced
by the number of larvae developing together in a given quantity of water,
if they be kept below 30,000 per litre. Larvae grown in water contain-
ing an additional amount of carbonic acid gas are slightly larger than
the normal. On an average, the aboral and oral arms of larvae grown
in water containing 4000 larvae per litre are, respectively, 13*4 and 15*9
per cent, shorter than those in water containing 500 per litre. The body-
lengths of larvae developed in diluted sea- water is, on an average, in-
creased by 9 * 1 per cent, while the arm-lengths are decreased by 7 • 7 per
cent, and 10*5 per cent. Hence, as the arm-lengths are percentages of
the body-lengths, the absolute arm-lengths are not affected at all. The

* Phil. Trans., B. 186 (1896) pp. 577-632.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

633

variability of tbe larvae in respect of the body-length steadily declines
as the period of development proceeds from the fifth day. The variability
reaches a maximum at 18° to 20°, the temperature most favourable for de-
velopment. These, we may add, are some only of the interesting conclu-
sions to which Mr. Yernon was brought by his laborious experiments.

The conclusions arrived at have some bearing upon the problems of
variation and natural selection. The larvte evidently showed a consi-
derable amount of variation in size, quite apart from any influences
caused by conditions of environment. This variation may be consider-
ably increased by the operation of changes in the environment during
development. Other things being equal, the greater the variation in any
group of organisms, the greater chance have the organisms as a whole of
becoming modified by natural selection. As probably no organisms are
as perfectly adapted to their surroundings as it is possible for them to
be, it is important to them that they should be as variable as possible, so
as, by the action of natural selection, to become still better adapted.
Though it has not been conclusively proved that the ovum is specially
sensitive at the time of impregnation to other conditions than that of
temperature, yet the probability is that this is the case, and other con-
ditions, such as the salinity of the water, also have a more powerful
influence. Changes of environment were found to produce different and
opposite effects upon different parts of the same organism. For example,
as we have already seen, a fall in the temperature, or a decrease in the
salinity of the water, produced a decrease in the arm-length of the larvae
and an increase in the body-length. It is thus possible, Mr. Yernon
points out, for parts of an organism to become modified, though they
may be entirely unoperated upon by the action of natural selection, or
may even serve some useful purpose to the animal. If, for instance, it
is of greater utility to the larvae that their body -lengths should increase
rather than their arm-lengths, and if, by the operation of a fall in the
temperature of the water, larvae with greater body-lengths and smaller
arm-lengths are produced than on an average, the larvae exhibiting these
characteristics of the most marked extent will survive, and the race will
be modified in that direction.

Egg of Sea Urchin.* — Prof. E. B. Wilson has made a study of the
archoplasm, centrosome, and chromatin in the egg of Toxopneustes. The
general results of his observations may be thus summed up. The sperm-
aster arises by the morphological rearrangement of the general cyto-
reticulum under the influence of a central mass derived from tbe middle
piece of the spermatozoon. The astral rays arise by the linear arrange-
ment and fusion or close union of the granules of the reticulum. The
spindle-fibres are entirely formed within the nucleus. At the close of
karyokinesis the spindle-fibres break up into granules. The asters
persist after cell-division, and finally themselves divide to form the
daughter-asters, which persist through the ensuing “ resting stage.” The
amount of chromatin largely increases during the pause which follows
the fusion of the nuclei. At the close of the pause a large part of the
chromatin appears to be converted into linin, and from this the spindle-
fibres are largely derived. The staining power of chromatin is at a
minimum immediately after the reconstruction of the daughter-nuclei.

* Journ. Morphol., xi. (1895) pp. 443-78 (12 phototypes).

634

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

It rapidly increases during tlie pause, and reaches a maximum when in
the form of chromosomes. The central mass of the sperm-aster derived
from the middle-piece forms the centrosome in the sense of Boveri, and
at first contains no distinguishable centriole. The centrioles first appear
in the daughter-asters derived by the fission of the sperm-aster, and are
probably formed by endogenous differentiation. The centrioles repre-
sent the first stage in the form of a large reticulated erythrophilous
centrosphere. It is not certain whether this body represents the entire
substance of the original central mass, or only a part of it.

Autotomy in Cucumaria planci.* — Dr. F. S. Monticelli describes
remarkable processes of complete autotomy seen in that variety of
Cucumaria planci Br. which occurs at Naples on a sandy bottom mixed
with mud. The more typical form of the species is not known to show
these. Three modes are described : — (a) by stricture, the least frequent
case ; ( b ) by torsion, the most frequent case ; and (c) by stretching, as
the result of which three individuals may arise from one. A period
of preparation and initiation may be distinguished from the shorter
period of division. The process is more leisurely than that in Synapta ,
and it also differs in giving rise to equivalent parts, each of which forms
a new individual. Moreover, it is a defensive adaptation in Synapta, a
reproductive process in Cucumaria. Monticelli has also made experi-
ments in which, by cutting, ligaturing, and stretching, he artificially
induced “ mecotomy,” and demonstrated the great power of regeneration
exhibited by these Holothurians.

Viviparous" Synapta ofithe West Indies.| — Mr. H. L. Clarke has
recently had the opportunity of studying the anatomy and development
of a Synapta found in Kingston Harbour, Jamaica, which is very pro-
bably the species which Oersted described, in 1850, under the name of
Synaptula vivipara. Of this species practically nothing is known, and
the author gives, what will be useful, an account of its external cha-
racters and internal anatomy. The eggs, which are unusually large, are
set free in the body-cavity of the adult, but the author was unable to
determine whether self-fertilisation takes place or not. The gastrula,
which is formed by invagination, is well covered with cilia. It soon
escapes from the membrane, is very active, and swims about freely in
the body-cavity of the mother. Development takes place directly without
any metamorphosis. The young remain in the body-cavity of the adult
for an indefinite period. These animals live more or less in clusters of
seaweed, on the roots of mangroves. They are very delicate, sensitive
to changing conditions, and do not thrive in aquaria. Although differing
in its manner of life from other members of the genus, this species,
Mr. Clarke thinks, is a true Synapta. Probably the species described
by Theel from Bermuda as S. picta is identical with it.

Ccelentera.

Nervous System of Ccelentera.f — Prof. S. J. Hickson gives an
aocount of recent work on this subject. He tells us that the facts of the

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 398-400.

t Rend. Accad. Lincei Roma, v. (1896) pp. 231-9 (3 figs.).

X Science Progress, i. (1896) pp. 101-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

635

Coelenterate nervous system which may now he established are these : —
A plexus of fibres and cells occurs in both ectoderm and endoderm,
similar in structure, and probably similar in function. In some, such as
the Scyphozoa, the Ctenophora, many Hydroids, and the Sea-Anemones,
the ectodermic nervous system is the predominating one, as it is in the
higher animals, but in some of the colonial Anthozoa, such as Alcyonium ,
it is the endodermic nervous system which predominates. In the
Anthozoa there is a communication between the two nervous systems
by means of a loose plexus of cells and fibres, but to what extent this
occurs in other Coelenterates we hardly know at present.

Actiniaria of Ternate.* — Mr. C. R. Kwietniewski has worked out
the Actiniaria collected by Prof. Kiikenthal. The number of species
found was very small, but the four forms that were found belong to
very different groups. The collector reports that the littoral fauna of
Ternate was extremely poor, both in species and individuals of Acti-
niaria. Of Phellia a new species was found which is called P/j.
ternatana. Of the Discosomidee a new genus was found, which is
called BadiantJms, while the specific name is taken from the name
of the collector. The author suggests an alteration in the systematic
position of the Thalassianthidse, for he makes of this a tribe — the
Thalassianthse — with the characters of the family.

British Hydroids and Medusae.! — Mr. E. T. Browne has lately
devoted himself to a study of British Medusae. He very rightly declares
his intention of no longer using the double system of classification with
one name for the hydroid and another for the medusae. In cases where
the hydroid form and medusa are known, he has used both the generic
and specific names of the hydroids without any alteration, but in cases
where the medusa only is known, he has given the generic names as used
by Haeckel in his monograph, but not always his specific name. The
memoir, of course, consists largely of details into which it is impossible
for us to enter, but we should like to call attention to the case of Lar
sabellarum, the medusa of which is as interesting as the hydroid is
remarkable. It appears to be a transitional stage between the Antho-
medusse and Leptomedusse. As Mr. Browne rightly remarks, the natu-
ralists who studied marine life at the end of the last and the beginning
of the present century, worked under many difficulties which have now
passed away. In consequence of this, the descriptions and figures of
the jelly-fishes given by the pioneers of marine zoology usually lack
the details necessary at the present day for the identification of the
species.

The early workers on medusae do not appear to have recognised the
fact that medusae, like many other animals, pass through various stages
of growth, and that the early stages are often unlike the adult forms.
The early stages were consequently described as distinct species, and
this, added to vague descriptions and inaccurate drawings, has led to
much confusion.

Mr. Browne’s work ought to do' a good deal to remedy these dis-
advantages to the study of a very interesting group.

* Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 388-91.

t Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., 1896, pp. 459-500 (2 pis.).

636

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Life-History of Gononemus.* — Mr. L. Murbach lias a preliminary
note on the life-history of this jellyfish, which occurs in large numbers
at Woods Holl during July and August. Nothing seems to have been
done in advancing our knowledge of this form since it was discovered by
Prof. Agassiz in 1862. The largest specimens taken were 3 cm. in
diameter and had sixty-four tentacles. The eggs are spherical, granular
bodies of a light brown colour, the nucleus is large, and no egg-membrane
could be demonstrated in the eggs until some time after fertilisation.
Segmentation begins about 1J hours after the deposition of the eggs. It
is total and equal, especially in the earlier stages ; later on, it is not so
regular. The cells become columnar, and are arranged around a small
cavity, giving rise to a blastula. This becomes ciliated, and rotates in
the egg-membrane. Soon it becomes a pear-shaped free-swimming
planula. It may persist in this stage for several days or for only forty
hours, then it elongates, loses its cilia, and becomes attached by the
end which corresponds to the larger end of the planula. This jellyfish,
therefore, passes through a hydrula stage, and there appears to be true
alternation of generation.

Oogenesis in Tubularia.f — Herr F. J. Th. Doflein finds that the
ovum of Tubularia larynx is formed by the coalescence of a number of
germ-cells. The nucleus of the strongest cell dominates over the others,
retains its individuality, and becomes the germinal vesicle. As to the
other nuclei, they degenerate, often exhibit amitotic division, but die
and are assimilated. The plasma of the various coalescent cells becomes
the plasma of the ovum, and before cleavage begins the ovum is strictly
a single cell. The resemblance to the oogenesis of Hydra is obvious.

Porifera.

Diplodal Sponge-Chambers.i — Prof. F. E. Schulze observed, in 1877,
that the flagellate chambers of Oscarella lobularis and some other
sponges had afferent as well as efferent ducts, prosodi as well as aphodi.
In 1888 Sollas corroborated this, and called such chambers diplodal.
Lendenfeld, too, while acknowledging the difficulty of demonstrating
the ducts which connect the inhalent canal system and the chambers,
did not seem to doubt their existence. Recently, however, Topsent, in
his monograph of French sponges (1895), has absolutely denied the
occurrence of diplodal chambers.

In answer, Prof. Schulze has reinvestigated Corticium candelabrum
O. Schmidt, Chondrilla nucula O. Schmidt, and Oscarella lobularis, and
confirms his previous results. The chambers have an entrant and an
exit aperture ; they are diplodal. Three microphotographs accom-
panying the paper show this clearly.

Northern Calcispongise.§ — Herr L. Breitfuss gives an account of a
collection of Calcispongiae obtained, in 1889, during the Bremer Expe-
dition (Kiikenthal and Walter) to East Spitzbergen. He describes five
new species — Lcuccsolenia Nanseni, Sycetta ascono ’des, Ebnerella Schulzei ,
Eh. KuTcenthali, and Pericharax Polejaevi.

* Journ. Morphol., xi. (1895) pp. 493-6.

f Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxii. (1896) pp. 61-73 (1 pi.).

X SB. K. Preuss. Akad., 1896, pp. 891-7 (1 pi.).

§ Zool. Anzeig., xis. (1896) pp. 426-32.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOP T, ETC.

637

Protozoa.

Infusoria Aspirotricha.* — Those of our readers who are interested
in this group of Infusorians, the Holotricha of many authors, may be
glad to know that a monograph of the group has been prepared
by a Russian naturalist, whose name wre are too ignorant to decipher ;
the text being wholly in Russian is beyond our powers, but we may be
allowed to admire the figures.

Regeneration of Stentor.f — Mr. F. R. Lillie has a memoir on the
smallest part of Stentor capable of regeneration, as a contribution on
the limits of divisibility in living matter. After citing the observations
of those who have addressed themselves to this subject, he tells us that
the numerous experiments which he made, and which involved the use
of many hundreds of S. polymorphus, showed that the smallest parts
capable of regeneration possess the volume of a sphere of about 80 p
in diameter. Fewer experiments on a smaller number of S. cseruleus
yielded results almost identical. The main results hitherto reached on
the merotomy of the Protozoa are summarised as follows : — A large
number of authors have shown that cytoplasm without nucleus is in-
capable of regeneration. This Mr. Lillie is able to confirm, as also
the statement that a nucleus without cytoplasm is incapable of regener-
ation. To the accepted statement that portions of the body consisting
of nucleus and cytoplasm are capable of regeneration, the author would
add the rider, provided that the amount of cytoplasm exceed a certain
minimal volume. This, the author thinks, amounts to a demonstration
of Yerworn’s view that regeneration in the Protozoa is due to the
reciprocal interaction of nucleus and cytoplasm. Organisation resides
in the cytoplasm as well as in the nucleus. How otherwise, he asks, arc
we to explain the fact that a difference in the amount of cytoplasm alone
determines the occurrence of regeneration ?

With regard to the limits of divisibility in living matter, Mr. Lillie
was not concerned with the question of the ultimate constitution of
protoplasm, but merely with the question, what is the order of magnitude
of the smallest particle that can show the phenomena of life ? In the
case of the animal ovum, it has been noted to be about one-fourth of its
volume, but in Stentor the volume is relatively considerably less. In
the case of the animal ovum, parts slightly smaller than the minimal
necessary for complete development may undergo partial development,
and parallel phenomena are to be found in Stentor. It is probable that
there is for each species of animal a minimal mass of definite size,
consisting of nucleus and cytoplasm, within which the organisation of
the species can find its latent expression.

Conjugation of Actinophrys sol.J — Hr. Fr. Schaudinn points out
that no one has hitherto satisfactorily demonstrated the fusion of nuclei
in conjugating Rhizopods, and that only Wolters has proved this for
Gregarines ( Monocijstis ). Now, however, Schaudinn has succeeded with
Actinophrys sol Ehrbg., which he fixed with hot alcohol-sublimate and
stained with ammoniacal-iron oxide and haematoxylin according to the

* Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersburg, iv. (1896) 395 and 13 pp. (7 plates),
t Jouru. Morphol., xii. (1896) pp. 239-49.

SB. K. Preuss. Akad., 1896, pp. 83-9 (6 figs.).

638

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Benda-Heidenhain method. Before describing the conjugation he has
some notes on the mitosis, pointing out that in this process the pseudo-
podia are always retracted, which they certainly are not in the figures
given by previous investigators. There seems to have been confusion
between forms in act of dividing and forms separating off from plastogamy.
From 2-30 individuals may unite loosely in plastogamy, but even then
they conjugate (with nuclear fusion) only in pairs. Before the forma-
tion of the fused or cleavage nucleus there occurs in each cell a mitotic
reduction-division, half of each nucleus being got rid of. Dr. Schaudinn
promises to return to a fuller discussion of this interesting discovery.

Parasitic Rhizopod in Ascitic Fluid in Man * — Drs. E. von Leyden
and F. Schaudinn report on the interesting discovery of amoeboid para-
sites in the abdominal fluid of two patients suffering from ascites.
The medical aspects of the cases are described by von Leyden ; the
organism has been particularly studied by Schaudinn, who names it
Leydenia gemmipara.

When contracted, the Rhizopod is spherical or irregularly polygonal,
and usually with superficial protuberances ; the diameter varies from
3 ijl to 36 /x ; the plasma shows very abundant yellowish refractive gran-
ules and a hyaline peripheral layer. Both hyaline and granular pseudo-
podia are formed, and are connected by lamellar plasmic plates as if
webbed. Their resemblance to those of Placopus is very striking.
Plasmodial aggregates of as many as forty individuals were observed.
The movements are relatively sluggish.

The enclosures in the plasma are in part fatty, in part crystal-like
and excretory (?), in part remains of food. Numerous vacuoles occur,
and a slowly pulsating contractile vacuole is also present. The general
structure of the plasma is alveolar. Schaudinn repeatedly observed the
engulfing of red and white blood-corpuscles.

Only one nucleus is present, a simple clear vesicle, almost always
one-fifth the diameter of the cell. Multiplication may be either by
fission or budding, and shows direct nuclear division. In some cases
the reproduction was very rapid, and great variety of size and aggrega-
tion occurred.

The authors emphasise the fact that they refrain at present from
any conclusion as to the connection between the parasite and the dis-
eased conditions of carcinoma, &c.

Webbina and Vitriwebbina.f — Mr. F. Chapman has made an in-
vestigation of these two genera of Rhizopods. Webbina , when first
made a genus, appears to have been ill defined, and it is necessary to
follow the definitions of Jones, Parker, and Brady, who in I860 placed
the genus upon a substantial basis. Those examples of adherent
Foraminifera which resemble Webbina externally but have a tabulate
shell-wall, should be retained in the genus Vitriwebbina. The
typical arenaceous Webbina, so far as Mr. Chapman is acquainted with
them, have simple non-septate chambers. Vitriwebbina appears to. be
closely related to Pamulina in having similar septate, i polymorphine,
commencements.

* SB. K. Preuss. Akad., 1896, pp. 951-63.
t Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., xviii. (1896) pp. 326-33 (4 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

639

Life-history of Paramceba eilhardi.* — Dr. Fr. Schaudinn found in
the salt-water aquarium of the Berlin Zoological Institute a new amoeboid
organism to which he gives provisionally the title Paramoeba eilhardi
g. et sp. n.

I. The amoeboid stage. The organism measures from 10-90 /x, is
usually disc-like with blunt pseudopodia, is often yellowish-brown in
colour, has a vacuolar honeycombed plasma with many granules in the
endoplasm, and possesses a central vesicular nucleus with alveolar
structure, and beside the nucleus a remarkable refractive accessory
body unlike anything in any other Amoeba. In the process of division
this accessory body seems to divide before the nucleus.

II. The encysted stage. The vacuolar structure of the endoplasm is
lost ; the pseudopodia are retracted ; a cyst-membrane is formed ; the
accessory body, the nucleus, and the plasma divide successively.

III. The flagellate stage. From the cyst there emerge oval swarm-
spores with two flagella, an ingestive aperture, two chromatophores,
and an accessory body beside the « nucleus. Except in the last point,
they closely resemble species of Cryptomonas. They divide longitudin-
ally, and eventually lose their chromatophores and become amceboid.
Schaudinn is unable to decide in regard to the nature of the remarkable
accessory body, but thinks the suggestion legitimate that it may have
affinities with pyrenoids, centrospheres, and Nebenherne , without being
any one of the three.

* SB. K. Preuss. Akad., 1896, pp. 31-41 (12 figs.).

610

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Elementary Organisms of the Cell.* — Continuing his researches on
the ultimate structure of the vegetable cell, Herr E. Crato classifies its
constituents into the four following groups : — The lamellar plastin-
system (protoplasm), including the pliysodes ; the nucleus ; the chromato-
phores; and the cell- fluid or enchylema. The physodes are vesicular
structures, having an intimate connection with the plastin, the contents
of which have a free power of motion within the lamellae. They must
be regarded not only as transport-organs for plastic building-materials
and as reservoirs for specialised substances, but also as important chemical
constituents, being the sole respiring organs. They include by far the
larger portion of the structures which have been termed microsomes and
protoplasm-granules. Their envelope consists of portions of the enclos-
ing lamellae.

The author then describes in detail the structure of these various
ingredients in a large number of representatives of different families,
cryptogamic and phanerogamic. The apical cells of Ghsetopteris plumosa
are particularly favourable objects for their observation. In Sphacelaria
the amoeboid motion of the chromatophores is especially noticeable.
The author regards intramolecular as the primary mode of respiration ;
it is the property exclusively of living protoplasm. The chromatophores
appear to have the function of a condensing apparatus, transforming the
easily decomposed normal carbon dioxide into carbon compounds with
six atoms of carbon.

Formation of the Sexual Nuclei in Lilium Martagon. f— In com-
paring the divisions which take place in the nucleus of the embryo-
sac and the pollen-mother-cells with those of the vegetative cells in
Lilium Martagon, Miss E. Sargant states that the nucleus passes
through four stages, — the resting-stage, synapsis, spirem- stage, and seg-
mentation. The resting-stage is the same in both descriptions of cells.
The condition of synapsis is peculiar to the primary embryo-sac nucleus
and to that of the pollen-mother-cell. Its characteristic features are,
contraction of the chromatic thread to one side of the nuclear cavity,
partial solution of the nucleole, and partial disappearance of the nuclear
membrane. The structure of the spirem- stage in the embryo-sac nucleus
is very different from that of the vegetative spirem. Segmentation of
the spirem-ribbon, that is, its division into lengths by transverse fission,
occurs in every karyokinesis. The characteristic features of the first
division of the embryo-sac nucleus are: — (1) The long period of growth
and development before the formation of the spirem-thread, and its divi-
sion into chromosomes; and (2) certain peculiarities of form which

* Beitr. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen (Cohn), vii. (1896) pp. 407-535 (4 pis. and 4 figs.).
Of. this Journal, 1894, p. 359.

t Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 445-77 (2 pis.). Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 322.

641

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

characterise the chromosomes while separation of the segments is taking
place.

Hypertrophy of the Nucleus caused by a Parasite.* * * § — Sig. F.
Cavara describes the changes produced in the cells of the root of Vanilla
plamfolia by a parasitic mycele which attacks the cortical parenchyme.
The activity of the protoplasm and of the nucleus in these cells is
increased, the protoplasm becomes granular, while the nucleus in-
creases greatly in size and exhibits various abnormalities. The effect
of the parasite is not confined to the cells which it actually attacks, but
extends also to the neighbouring cells, showing that the irritation is not
of a purely mechanical, but also of a chemical character.

Chromatophily of the Nucleus.t — From observations made chiefly
on the root of the hyacinth, Herr T. Rosen concludes that the ground-
substance of the nucleus is nucleoplasm ; the nucleoles, cytoplasm, and
pure cellulose-membrane are erythrophilous, while only certain por-
tions of the nucleus are cyanopliilous. The substance which fixes the
blue stain appears to be nuclein. The power of the nuclei to multiply
goes pari passu with an accumulation of nucleolar substance, the loss of
this power with its reduction. The old view is not correct, that the
nucleoles are completely absorbed before the formation of the nuclear
spindle ; they have seldom entirely disappeared when the very short
chromosomes have united into the nuclear plate.

(2) Other Cell-contents (including: Secretions).

Organic Acids of Mesembryanthemum. J — By the use of new
chemical methods, MM. Berg and Gerber come to a different conclusion
from that of Aubert, that the predominant organic acid in Mesembryan -
themum is oxalic. In M. crystallinum citric and malic acids are present
in much larger quantities ; in M. linguseforme malic, and in M.perfoliatum
citric is the predominant acid ; while in M. edule no oxalic acid at all
could be detected.

Acid Excretion of Roots. § — Dr. F, Czapek gives a more detailed
account of his experiments on this subject. The drops often found on
the root-hairs are the result of pressure from within the hair-cells when
they are in a turgid condition. The inorganic substances found in them
are — salts of calcium, potassium, magnesium, hydrochloric acid, sul-
phuric acid, and phosphoric acid, primary potassium phosphate being
the most abundant. Acetic and lactic acids were not found in any
root-excretion, oxalic acid only in that of the hyacinth ; potassium
formate is not uncommon. The acid salt which takes the greatest share
in the chemical changes which these excretions bring about in the soil
is primary potassium phosphate. Diastatic or inverting ferments were
not detected with certainty.

* ‘Ipertrofie ed anomalie nucleari in seguito a parassitismo veg.,’ Pavia, 1896,
8 pp. and 1 pi. See Bot. Centralbl., 1896, Beili., p. 278.

f JB. Schles. Gesell. Yaterl. Cultur, lxxii. (1895) Zool.-Bot. Sect., pp. 3-10. Cf.
this Journal, 1895, p. 618.

X Rev. Ge'n. de Bot. (Bonnier), viii. (1896) pp. 295-303. Cf. this Journal, 1893,
p. 505.

§ Jalirb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxix. (1896) pp. 321-90. Cf. this
Journal, ante, p. 432.

642

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Pockets of Calcium Oxalate.* * * § — Dr. J. Wittlin lias investigated
the mode of formation of the pockets of calcium oxalate (Rosanoff’s
clusters) in a number of different plants and in different organs. As
a rule, the crystals found in the cell-cavity are formed in the primordial
utricle; each crystal becomes invested with a separate envelope of a
similar nature to the cell-wall ; and this is true whatever the size of the
crystals, even when they assume the form of raphides. In Citrus only
were crystals found imbedded in the cell-wall. When the crystals are
suspended from beams in the cell, the beams are derived from the
envelopes of the crystals, and it is only at a later period that they coalesce
with the cell-wall. The separate crystals occur in an especially charac-
teristic form in the root-tubercles of Bobinia Pseudacacia, and in species
of Qlycyrrhiza. Raphides never occur in pockets, and the structure of
their envelope is of a different character, presenting the greatest resem-
blance to fungus-cellulose. The crystals of calcium oxalate found within
aleurone-grains have no visible envelope.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Wood of Pomeae.'f — An examination of the structure of the wood in
the various genera of Pomeae by Dr. A. Burgerstein shows a great
uniformity in essential points. The most important differences are in
the presence or absence of tertiary thickening layers in the vessels and
tracheids ; in the radial width of the vessels ; in the height of the cells
of the medullary rays ; and in the number of the rows of cells in the
medullary rays. In the xylem of the root, the vessels are much larger
than in that of the stem and branches ; the tracheids and wood paren-
chyme-cells are broader, while the number of the medullary rays is
smaller. Tertiary thickening layers are found in the xylem of the root
as well as in that of the stem.

Red Wood of Pines. :£ — Prof. R. Hartig has investigated the nature
and the cause of the “ Roth-holz ” or “ bois rouge ” that is not uncommon
in pine-wood. Red wood is produced especially when a tissue in process
of formation is exposed to strong pressure in the direction of the longi-
tudinal axis of the organ, this pressure being generally the result of a
continuous wind. The tissue of the red wood is characterised, among
other points, by the greater thickness of the walls of the tracheids ;
and the chief purpose of the structure appears to be to increase the
firmness of the stem.

Secondary Growth in Thickness in Palms.§ — Herr H. Potonie
confirms the conclusion arrived at by previous observers, that when any
secondary increase in thickness takes place in the stem of palm-trees, it
is always due to an increase in size of the cells of the fundamental
parencliyme, and of the sclerenchymatous layer of the vascular bundles,
never to any new formation.

* Bot. Centralbl., lxvii. (1896) pp. 33-41, 65-73, 97-102, 129-33 (1 pi.).

t SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, civ. (1895) pp. 723-72.

X Forstl.-naturw. Zeitschr., 1896, 3ter Heft (6 figs.). See Bot. Ztg., liv. (1896)
2te Abth., p. 197.

§ Naturwiss. Wochenschr., 1895, No. 4. See Bot. Centralbl., lxvii. (1896) p. 337.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

643

Canal-Cells in Cycas.* — Prof. S. Ikeno contests tlie statement made
by previous observers that canal-cells are entirely wanting in the
archegone of the Cycadeae. In Gycas revoluta the central cell of the
archegone closely resembles that iu Coniferse, being prolonged in its
upper part into a long beak. Some days before impregnation, the
nucleus is found at the apex of this beak. Immediately after the di-
vision of this nucleus, the upper and smaller canal-cell separates com-
pletely from the larger and lower oosphere, but soon becomes completely
disorganised.

Action of Salts on Vegetable Tissues.-]* — M. Ch. Dassonville has
experimented on the effect on the growth of plants (chiefly lupin), of
Knop’s salt (1 gr. calcium nitrate, 0*25 gr. potassium jfliosphate, 0*25 gr.
potassium nitrate, 0 * 25 gr. magnesium sulphate, a trace of iron peroxide
phosphate, in 1 litre water). It increases the number and size of the
vessels and retards their lignification. It determines the formation of
a closed ring of xylem, both in the stem and in the root. It thickens
the inner face of the pericycle, and decreases the lignification of the
endoderm of the root. It increases the size of the cells of the pith and
of the cortex. Similar results were obtained with rye. With regard to
the influence of the different salts, — the magnesium sulphate appears at
first to retard the development of the plant, but afterwards becomes
indispensable ; the nitrates of calcium and potassium are useful in the
early stages, but later appear to become inefficacious ; potassium
phosphate is absolutely indispensable.

(4) Structure of Organs.

Euthymorphosis.J — Prof. T. Caruel applies this term to the rapid
succession of members of different form on the same stem, such as differ-
ent forms of leaves ; the sudden appearance of buds differing from those
previously formed ; and the polymorphism of flowers. In opposition to
the theory of natural selection, he attributes this law to a force inherent
in the organism.

Structure of Alpine Plants.§ — Herr W. von Lazniewski points out
that it is impossible to lay down any general laws respecting the bio-
logical adaptations of alpine plants, seeing that the conditions in which
they grow vary so greatly, even within the same genus, as e.g. in Saxi-
fraga. The following types may be distinguished : — (1) Plants with
leaf-rosettes, often forming dense cushions : many Cruciferse and Caryo-
phyllacese, species of Primula , Androsace , Saxifraga , &c. ; the position
and direction of the palisade-cells are arranged so as to enable the light
to penetrate the leaves as much as possible. (2) Plants whose leaves
are rolled up at the margin : Erica carnea, Empetrum nigrum , Azalea
procumbens. (3) Plants with deposits of mucilage in the mesophyll or
epiderm : Primula Auricula, P. minima, Gentiana acaulis, G. imbricata ;
the mucilage acts as a protection against excessive transpiration. (4)
Plants with a covering of hairs : Potentilla nitida, Leontopodium alpinum,

* Bot. Centralbl., lxvii. (1896) pp. 193-4.

f Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), viii. (1896) pp. 284-94, 326-36 (4 pis. and 2 figs.).

X Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., iii. (1896) pp. 84-5.

§ Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 224-67 (35 figs.).

644

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

species of Gnaphalium , Achillea, Artemisia, &c. (5) Dwarf plants with

woody prostrate stems : Azalea procumbens, species of Salix, &c.

Production of Seed on Cut Inflorescences.* * * § — According to Herr H.
Lindemuth there are plants which rarely produce fertile seed under
ordinary circumstances, but which do ripen their seed on inflorescences
which are cut off from the plant and dried. This is the case with
Lachenalia lutea, and very often with Lilium candidum.

Inflorescence of Urticacese and Moraceae.f — As the result of an
examination of the nature of the inflorescence in 0; number of genera
of Urticaceae and Moraceae, M. M. Golenkin states that it is of two
kinds: — (1) Dichasial ; the development of the axis may vary greatly;
but the dichasia have always two primary bracts at their base, and are
always formed in the axil of ordinary or of reduced leaves. (2) Dorsi-
ventral ; the development of the axis varies also in this case, and the
inflorescence may be composed of dorsiventral racemes or spikes. In
both cases the inflorescences are axes of the third, or rarely of the
second order.

Vegetative Organs of Papaveraceae and Fumariaceae.J— On ana-
tomical grounds M. L. J. Leger unites these two orders, and gives a
detailed account of their anatomical structure, especially in relation to
the laticiferous apparatus. Laticifers occur throughout the two orders ;
they are always composed of cellular elements, isolated, or united into
longitudinal rows, often collected into islets ; in the longitudinal rows
the transverse walls are sometimes more or less entirely resorbed. Both
transverse and longitudinal walls are often perforated, and may become
sclerotised without losing their original function; they have no com-
munication with the vascular tissue. The latex varies greatly in its
character in the different genera, and, in some genera, has disappeared
in the mature plant.

Hydathodes.§ — Dr. G. Haberlandt classifies these structures, which
have for their function the absorption and secretion of water, under
two general heads, hydathodes with, and hydathodes without, any direct
connection with the water-conducting system. The former may be
unicellular, and are then always transformed epidermal cells, or multi-
cellular, when they are also trichomic, and consist, in their simplest
form, of three cells, a basal or foot-cell, a stalk-cell, and an apical cell,
which is always the secreting cell. The second type of hydathode is
again divided into those with and those without water-clefts, the latter
being the fern-type. The former kind may be with or without an epi-
theme, the excretion depending, in the latter case, on pressure-filtration.
In the former case the epitheme-tissue may or may not take a direct part
in the excretion of the water. All hydathodes which actively excrete
water are distinguished by an abundant protoplasm, and by a relatively
large nucleus, resembling, in this respect, other glandular organs. The

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 244-6.

t Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 1896, pp. 1-24 (1 pi. and 8 figs.)J(G(rman).

% Mem. Soc. Linn. Normandie, xxviii. (1895) pp. 193-624 (10 pis. and 38 figs.).
See Bot. Centralbl., 1896, Beih., p. 253.

§ SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, civ. (1895) pp. 55-116 (4 pis.). Cf. this Journal,
ante, p. 204.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

645

purpose of these structures is obviously the regulation of the amount of
water contained in the plant.

Opening and Closing of Stomates * — According to Dr. F. G. Kohl,
the guard-cells of the stomates generally possess a greater turgor than
the other epidermal cells. An opening and closing of the stomates was
observed in some plants where they have been hitherto regarded as
functionless. Only in Salvinia natans were they found to bo entirely
non-motile. Closed stomates, when treated with diastase, open and
remain open under all conditions. The dark heat-rays have the same
effect as light in causing an opening of the stomate. Of the light-rays,
only the red and blue possess this power, apparently because they are
the most readily absorbed by the chloroplasts.

Floating Leaves.f — Herr E. Jahn formulates the following four
structural conditions which enable leaves to float on the surface : —
A low specific gravity (but not sufficiently low to interfere with the
firmness of the leaf ) ; as large a surface as possible ; the fixing of the
leaf-stalk as near as possible to the centre of the leaf (this is often se-
cured by the cordate or peltate form of the leaf ) ; the great length
of the leaf-stalk, which must be fixed to the lamina at a high angle.

Epiderm of the Leaf of Grasses. J — From an examination of a very
large number of species of Graminese, Dr. A. Grob distinguishes the
following classes of elements in the epiderm of grasses : — (1) elongated
epidermal cells ; (2) bast-shaped epidermal cells ; (3) transverse cells ;
(4) vesicular cells ; (5) short silicified cells; (6) short cork-cells; (7)
intermediate cells; (8) spiny hairs; (9) hooked hairs; (10) bristle-
hairs ; (11) soft hairs ; (12) bieellular hairs bent at a right-angle ; (13)
stomates (6-celled in Sesleria coerulea). The elongated epidermal cells,
the short silicified cells, the short cork-cells, the unicellular spiny hairs,
the bieellular bent hairs, and the 4-celled stomates of peculiar structure,
are especially characteristic of the order. The extent to which these
characters can be used in the classification of the species is pointed out.

Leaves of Euphorbia buxifolia.§ — Prof. E. Warming describes the
arrangement of the leaves in this species which present a remarkable
example of anisophylly. They are opposite, and are arranged in two
orthosticliies, a very unusual arrangement in Phanerogams. They are
provided with small intrapetiolar stipules. Either only one leaf of each
pair produces an axillary bud, or one of the buds is much more vigorous
than the other.

Production of Bulbils by Lachenalia and Hyacinthus. || — Herr H.
Lindemuth states that stems of Lachenalia luteola and Hyacinthus orien-
talis can be induced to produce bulbils even when entirely destitute of
leaves, if cut off and placed in water. In Lachenalia they are of exo-
genous origin, being derived from the epiderm and the underlying
cortical layers. Adventitious roots of endogenous origin are also pro-
duced, originating from the peripheral vascular bundles. In Hyacinthus

* Bot. Beibk z. Leopoldina, 1895, 4 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., lx'vii. (1896) p. 52.

f Beitr. z. wiss. Bot. (Fiinfstuck), i. (1896) pp. 281-94 (1 pi.).

t Biblioth. Bot. (Luerssen u. Frank), Heft 23, 1896, 123 pp., 10 pis. and 1 fig.

§ Overs. K. Danske Yidensk. Selsk. Forhandl., 1896, pp. 326-34 (2 figs.) (French).

II Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 247-52 (2 figs.).

1896 2 y

646

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the bulbils are produced close to the flower-stalks, and are apparently
the result of the removal of the flower. The author believes that the
removal of sterile stems weakens the bulbs instead of strengthening
them.

Trichomes of Coniferse.* — Contrary to the statements of other ob-
servers, Freih. C. von Tubeuf finds hair-structures of various kinds in
all the organs of conifers. Ail the species which have an ectotrophic
mycorhiza — i.e. all Abietineae — form also root-hairs ; and this is the
case also with the Taxaceae and Podocarpese, which have an endotropliic
mycorhiza. In some Coniferae no root-hairs could be detected.

Hairs on Tubers of Cyclamen.^ — Herr F. Hildebrand finds certain
species of Cyclamen — C. ibericum, Coum3 repandum — to differ from the
majority of the genus in the following respect. In all species the tubers
are, when young, covered with a felt of club-shaped usually brauched
hairs, which are found also on all other parts of the plant except the
petals and stamens ; those on the tubers fall off, in most species, at an
early period, and are replaced by a layer of cork. In the species in
question, on the contrary, the hairs are persistent, and no layer of cork
is formed. The terminal cell of each hair usually undergoes further
longitudinal division, so that they form tufts. This difference appears
to be associated with difference of habit, the species in which the hairs
are persistent blossoming in the early spring instead of in the summer
or autumn.

j8. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Basigamy and Homceogamy4 — M. P. van Tieghem adduces a num-
ber of additional examples of basigamous impregnation in no less than
14 genera belonging to the Loranthaceac, Balanophoraccae, Nuytsiaceae
( Nuytsia ), and Opiliacese (Olacaceae). Nnytsia has a unilocular ovary
and a free central placenta destitute of ovules. The mother-cells of the
endosperm spring from the base of the placenta, and become elongated
at their base to meet the pollen-tube. The same is the case in several
genera of Yiscaceae (Loranthaceae). It is in the basal triad of the
endosperm that the oosphere, or cell which is impregnated by the
pollen-tube, is differentiated from the others. Other examples are given
(Loranthaceae, Balanophoraceae, Opiliaceae), which possess rudimentary
ovules, and in which the mode of impregnation is basigamous.

Balanophora indica possesses the smallest known pistil, the ovary
measuring 0 * 20 by 0 • 15 mm., the length of the style being 0 * 4 mm., and
the whole resembling the archegone of a moss. The central cell of the
ovary becomes directly the mother-cell of the endosperm. The nucleus
of this cell divides longitudinally, and gives birth to two branches
shaped like a horseshoe, one branch being longer than the other. The
oosphere and the synergids are found in this longer branch, and it is
usually the oosphere in this branch that is impregnated by the pollen-
tube. But in the other branch the protoplasm is differentiated into
antipodals ; and the pollen-tube may reach the summit of this branch

* Foratl.-Naturw. Zeitschr, 1896, 51 pp. and 12 pis. See Bot. Centralbl., Ixvii.
(1896) p. 50. f Bot. Zt g., liv. (1896) lte Abtheil., pp. 133-9 (1 pi.).

X Journ. de Bot. Morot, x. (1896) pp. 245-50. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 206.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

617

and impregnate one of the antipodals. To this phenomenon the author
applies the term homceogamy.

Embryogeny of Sequoia.* — Mr. W. R. Shaw describes the develop-
ment of the male and female flowers in Sequoia sempsrvirens. The
integument of the young megasporange consists of the inner and outer
epiderm and two layers of liypodermal cells. When the flower closes,
the integument is about twice as long as the sporange. The micropyle
then begins to close, enclosing the pollen-grain in a subconical cavity.
The gradual development of the sporogenous cells in the megasporange
is described in detail ; each produces four megaspores. These at once
begin to develope female prothallia. A number of embryo-sacs are
produced, each containing many nuclei. The archegones are numerous,
and are usually arranged radially on the upper half or third of the pro-
thallium. The central part of the upper half of the prothallium bears
several intertwined tubular suspensors, each with an 8- or 12-celled
embryo.

At the time when the pollen is shed, each grain consists of two cells
— a larger vegetative cell with a large nucleus, and a smaller lenticular
parietal cell with a smaller nucleus. The vegetative nucleus passes
into the pollen-tube. The pollen-tube branches and penetrates the wall
of the sporange at several paints at a considerable distance from the
micropyle, presenting therefore, in this respect, a resemblance to the
chalazogamous Angiosperms.

Fertilisation of Loranthacese.j — Mr. F. W. Keeble states that the
Cingalese species of Loranthacese which have tubular flowers are orn:-
thophilous, the bird most effective in their pollination being a honey-
sucker {Nectar inia). In the large-flowered species, especially in Loran-
thus loniceroides, the flower-buds remain closed ; but when tapped, the
corolla-lobes fly open with an explosion, and the pollen is scattered.
The closing of the flower-buds appears to serve the purpose of protecting
the pollen against rain ; while the violent expulsion of the pollen aids in
its carriage by the visiting birds, their beaks being frequently found to
be covered with pollen after visiting the flowers. In many species the
corolla is slit longitudinally, and the anthers are then placed in a row
behind the style, instead of in a ring round it ; and this greatly facilitates
the carriage of the pollen by birds in search of the nectar.

Homology of the Pollen and Ovule. :f — From observations made
largely on abnormal structures in Torilis Anthriscus and Sinapis arvensis ,
M. M. Molliard supports Celakovsky’s conclusion that the anther corre-
sponds to a simple leaf, the limb of which is doubled on each side of the
median vein, each part giving rise to a mass of pollen ; but the two
halves are not of equal value ; one contains the median fibrovascular
bundle, while the other is an emergence of the first, and contains only
very small bundles.

The study of a number of cases of transformation of stamens into
carpels ( Sedum , Petunia , Narcissus, &c.) has led the author to the con-
clusion that the entire pollen-mass of an anther is the homologue of a

* Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1806) pp. 332-9 (l pi.).

t Trans. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), v. (1896) pp. 91-6 (2 pis. and 2 figs.).

X Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), via. (1896) pp. 273-83 (19 figs.).

2 y 2

648

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

row of ovules, the integument of the ovule corresponding to the in-
vaginated epiderm. The degree of coalescence between nucellus and
integument varies greatly in different classes of plants. The naked
ovule of the Santalace£e and Balanophoracese corresponds to a pollen-
mass. The number of rows of ovules in a carpel may vary, correspond-
ing to the variation in the number of pollen-masses in each anther-lobe.
The non-marginal placentation of Papaver and Nymphsea may be com-
pared to the distribution of the pollen-masses over the whole upper
surface of the staminal leaf in Viscum.

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Propagation by Buds.* — Prof. F. Delpino discusses the relative im-
portance to plants of propagation by means of buds and by intercrossing,
with especial reference to the former phenomenon in Pemusatia vivipara
(Aroideae). He regards one great value of reproduction by seeds to be
that they are frequently carried to a considerable distance from the
mother plant before they germinate. While it is of advantage for the
product of two different parents to be carried to a distance before ger-
minating, this is not the case when the offspring traces its origin to
one parent only, whether reproduced by buds or by seeds.

Germination of Loranthacese.f — According to Mr. F. W. Keeble
the statement that the seeds of the Loranthaceae pass through the bodies
of birds before germinating is not in all cases correct. At all events,
with the species of Lorantlius which are natives of Ceylon, the birds eat
the succulent portion of the fruit only, wiping out the seeds with their
beak on to a branch of a tree ; or, if swallowed, the seeds are frequently
digested and destroyed. In some species the free end of the hypocotyl
or sucker by which the seedling is attached to the branch puts out one
or more aerial roots, which reach other branches, or even the soil, and
enable the young plant to carry on a semi-parasitic existence. The
hypocotyl exhibits negative heliotropism, but no geotropism. The curva-
ture of the hypocotyl is assisted by a decided nutation. The general
surface of the hypocotyl does not respond to contact ; contact, however,
favours the outgrowth of the root. The hypocotyl curves away from
inert bodies, and even from its natural host, when reached at unfavourable
times.

Growth in Length of the Organs of Aquatic Plants.; — Pursuing
his observations on the growth of the leaf-stalk of water plants, especially
of Euryale ferox , Prof. G. Arcangeli adduces further arguments in
support of the theory that it is the result of the traction due to the lower
specific gravity of the leaf as compared to that of water ; and this dif-
ference is often not inconsiderable.

Growth of Pine-Leaves. § — Contrary to the statement of previous ob-
servers, M. S. Honda asserts that the leaves of pines ( Pinus longifolia

* Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Bologna, v. (1895) pp. 271-9 (1 pi.). See Bot. Centralbl.,
lxvii. (1896) p. 389.

f Trans. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), v. (1896) pp. 96-117 (2 pis. and 5 figs.).

t Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1896, pp. 116-9. Cf. this Journal, 1890, p. 630.

§ Bull. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, Coll, of Agric., ii. (1896) pp. 390-1.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

G49

and some other species), although they may attain a length of 50 cm.
and live for several years, cease to grow after the first year.

Growth of Banana-Leaves.* * * § — Mr. W. Maxwell gives tables of the
rate and mode of growth of the leaves of the banana at Honolulu. The
total daily increase in length was in some cases as much as 8 in. The
action of direct sunlight, and the direction and force of the wind appear
to be more potent factors in increasing or arresting growth than small
variations of temperature.

Assimilation of Elementary Nitrogen and of Lecithin by Plants. —
Herr J. Stoklasaj states that, in unsterilised soil, in which algm and
bacteria increase the amount of nitrogen used up in the first develop-
ment of the plant, lupins assimilate an equal quantity of elementary
nitrogen, whether they have root-tubers or not. In sterilised ground,
the amount assimilated is increased eightfold by infection. At the
time of flowering, the root-tubers of Leguminosae were found to contain
3 ‘99 per cent, nitrogen in the form of proteids, 0*35 per cent, in the
form of amides; after the ripening of the fruit only 1*54 per cent, in
the form of proteids, 0 • 15 per cent, in the form of amides. From the
leaves the amides are carried to the tubers, where they are transformed
into proteids by the action of glucose, these proteids accumulating there
in great quantities, and forming the food-material for the bacteria. In
Polygonum Fagopyrum he states that the quantity" of nitrogen contained
in the seeds is not sufficient for the normal development of the assimi-
lating organs. The organ for the assimilation of nitrogen is the
chlorophyll-granules.

In another paper f the same author establishes the importance of the
formation of lecithin for the vital processes of plants, and demonstrates
apparently for the first time the assimilation of phosphoric acid in an
organic form (oat). The formation and destruction of chlorophyll
proceed pari passu with the appearance and disappearance of lecithin.
This substance is produced in green leaves exposed to light ; disappearing
again in the dark ; in other words, the formation of lecithin is connected
in several ways with the assimilation of carbon dioxide.

Herr J. H. Aeby § confirms the conclusions of Pfeiffer, Franke,
Nobbe, and Hiltner, that white mustard differs from leguminous plants
in being unable to fix the free nitrogen of the atmosphere.

Arrest of Assimilation,|] — Mr. A. J. Ewart has performed a series
of experiments on the power of certain agencies — dry and moist heat,
cold, desiccation, partial asphyxiation, etherisation, treatment with acids,
alkalies, and antipyrin, accumulation of the carbohydrate products of
assimilation, immersion in very strong plasmolytic solutions, prolonged
insolation — to arrest assimilation in a number of green plants. The
inability to assimilate is, if the cell remains living, only temporary.
During the whole time of the arrest of assimilation, the cell continues
to respire. In the great majority of cases no visible change in the

* Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 365-70.

f Landwirtk. Jahrb., 1895, pp. 827-63. See Bot. Centralb!., xlvi. (1896) p. 17.

% SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, civ. (1895) pp. 712-22 (1 pi.).

§ Lanclwirtli. Vers.-Stat., xlvi. (1896) pp. 410-39. See Journ. Chem. Soc., 1896,
Abstr., p. 381. || Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), xxxi. (1896) pp. 364-461.

650

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

chlorophyll is associated with the stoppage of assimilation. Cells in
which the green colour of the chlorophyll is quite masked by the
presence of a brown or reddish-brown pigment, may show a distinct
power of assimilation. In certain cases isolated chlorophyll-bcdies may
continue to assimilate for a short time after removal from the cell to
which they belong.

Suction-Force of Transpiring Branches.* * * § — From experiments made
on the transpiration of leafy and of leafless branches by means of
Bourdon’s vacuum gauge, Prof. S. H. Vines has come to the conclusion
that the imbibition-force of wood plays a more important part in the
conduction of the transpiration-current than is at present generally
admitted. On the whole, lie considers that Sachs’s imbibition-theory
furnishes some, at least, of the essential elements of a complete explana-
tion of the phenomenon.

Influence of Temperature on Osmose.f — A series of experiments by
the late Herr G. Krabbe, chiefly on the pith of the elder and of the
sunflower, and on roots, lead to the conclusion that the rapidity of the
osmotic process in living cells is materially affected by the temperature.
The living parietal layer of protoplasm appears to possess the remark-
able property of changing the size of the interstices between its micellae
with changes of temperature.

Influence of Climate and Soil on the Variation in Seeds f — As the
result of a number of experiments, chiefly on wheat, M. E. Gain has
established the law that it is by no means the richest soil that produces
the most abundant crops. The optimum conditions for the species are
not necessarily the most favourable for the individual. Both the number
and the weight of the seeds will decrease when a plant is perpetuated
year after year in the same locality. A change of soil is necessary for
a permanent high rate of fertility.

(3) Irritability.

Mechanism of the Curvature of Tendrils.§— Mr. D. T. Macdougal
gives the following as the more important results of his observation on
a number of plants. The phenomenon is not due in all cases to the
same cause. The curvature of stems, petioles and peduncles, in response
to heliotropic and geotropic stimuli, is believed to be due to elongation
of the convex sides of these organs ; while the movements of pulvini,
of the tentacles of Drosera , and of the leaves of Dionsea are due to the
action of cells on the side which becomes convex. The curvature of the
tendrils of the Passifloraceae is due to the contraction of the tissues on
the concave side. The curvature of a tendril round a support, as a
direct reaction to irritation, and the coiling of a free portion, are distinct
and independent processes. The region of maximum growth (in Passi -
flora ) lies between the middle and the tip of the tendril, and never coin-

* Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 291-2, 429-44 (1 fig.).

t Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxix. (1895) pp. 441-98.

X Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), viii. (1896) pp. 303-5. Cf. this Journal, 1895,
p. 657.

§ Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 373-402 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 512.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 651

cides with the region of greatest irritability. The attachment of a
tendril to a support influences only in a minor degree the growth and
formation of coils of the free portion of the organ. Such influence is
due primarily to the traction exerted upon the organ by the weight of the
shoot, not to a conduction of the contact stimulus. There are marked
differences in the structure of the protoplasm of the convex and concave
sides. The protoplasm of the concave side is richer in granules, and
occupies a greater proportion of the cell-cavity, than on the convex side.
The density of the protoplasm of the convex side increases from the base
towards the tip, and apparently corresponds with the degree of irritability
to contact. The parenchymatous cells of the concave side are markedly
different in outline, structure, and form from those of the convex side.

Motile Cushions of the Marantacese.* — Prof. S. Schwendener de-
scribes the aquiferous tissue in the cushions which are found in the
upper portion of the leaf-stalk of the Marantacese, and which often
attain a considerable size. They are distinguished from similar organs
in other plants by the possession of a peculiar tissue composed of cells
which are elongated radially, or which have an oblique position. They
are living cells with a nucleus and a contractile protoplasmic utricle,
and contain cell-sap, which readily evaporates and is replaced by air.
The motion of the leaf is dependent on the passage of water into and
out of the cells. These cushions display also heliotropic curvatures,
which bring the leaf into the most favourable position towards the in
cident rays of light. This curvature does not appear, however, to
originate in the aquiferous tissue, which bends only passively, the active
seat of the curvature being the cortical parenchyme. The cushion
possesses also an assimilating tissue and abundance of stomates.

Turgor of Motor Organs.f — From experiments made on the motor
organs of the leaves of some tropical plants, Dr. D. D. Cunningham asserts
that their motility is not dependent on any specific contractility of their
protoplasm, but on simply physical causes. It is connected with the
composition of the cell-sap ; turgor may be manifested in cells where
the cell-sap is not enclosed in a continuous protoplasmic sac, or where
the protoplasm has been killed. The protoplasm has, however, an
indirect influence on turgor, by bringing about the production of osmotic
conditions in the cell-sap. The simplest examples of nvctitropic
movements are the opening and closing of the stomates. Ordinary
nyctitropic movements are determined, not only by the conditions of
illumination, but also by the daily varying relationships between the
absorption of water and transpiration.

Geotropism and Heliotropism.J — Dr. F. Czapek gives the result of
a series of experiments on the combined effects of geotropism and helio-
tropism on plants. He finds that when strongly sensitive plants or
organs (seedlings of Avena or Lepidium) are placed horizontally for 60
or 80 minutes, until an upward geotropic curvature of the apex has

* SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Beilin, 1896, pp. 535-46 (1 pi.). Cf. this
Journal, ante , p. 439.

f Ann. R. Bot. Garden Calcutta, vi. (1895) 161 pp. and 7 pis. See Bot. Gen-
tralbl., Ixvii. (1896) p. 141. % SB. Iv. Akad. Wfis. Wien, civ. (1895) pp. 337-75.

652

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

manifested itself, and are tlien put in an erect position and illuminated
on the previously lower side, they will be affected by the light as
rapidly as jdants which have stood erect. On the other hand, plants
which were first stimulated by light were much more slowly affected by
geotropism acting in an opposite direction. This law applies, however,
only to plants or organs that are strongly heliotropic. The “heliotropic
angle,” i.e. the angle of incidence at which light has the most stimulating
effect, varies with the species. When an orthotropic organ is acted on
by both stimuli — light and gravitation — the resultant curvature will
depend not only on the relative force of the two stimuli, but also on the
position of the organ.

Sensitiveness of Plants.'* * * § — Dr. F. Noll gives a resume of the present
state of our knowledge with regard to the sensitiveness of plants to stimu-
lation from external forces, — light, heat, gravitation, contact, chemical
forces, &c.

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Physiology of Germination.! — Dr. J. Griiss adduces further evidence
in favour of the view that, in germination, a diastase passes from cell
to cell, a new reagent having been employed for the detection of this
diastase, viz. : — guiacum-hydrogen-peroxide. By its use three different
kinds of diastase can be discriminated, viz. : — translocation-diastases,,
secretion-diastases, and glucase ; cytase forming a doubtful fourth class*

A peculiar change in the cell-wall by the action of diastase is de-
scribed under the name alloolysis, which was followed out in the date-
seed. The first stage in this process consists in the ferment penetrating
the cell-wall, this being usually followed by a transformation of the
cellulose. The hydrolytic change in the hemi-celluloses which compose
the cell-wall may be recognised by the following characters : — the
refringency decreases, the cellulose becoming hyaline ; the double re-
fraction in polarised light is reduced ; the behaviour towards staining
reagents undergoes a change ; the solubility on addition of acids is
decidedly increased.

Vegetable Digestion.! — As the result of experiments made on the
residue left after extracting the root-hairs of plants with water, M. V*
Poulet states that they invariably contain iron, and he believes this to
be the essential element in the process of digestion, thus establishing a
close analogy with the same process in animals. But, while the iron
in the gastric fluid of animals is in the form of peptonate, that present
in the roots of plants occurs as tartrate. The aqueous extract has
sometimes a neutral, sometimes a feebly acid reaction.

Disappearance of the Contents from Reserve - Receptacles. § —
According to Herr K. Puriewitsch, the disappearance of starch and
other carbohydrates from reserve-receptacles is not necessarily due to a

* Ber. Senckenberg. Naturf. Gesell., 1896, pp. 169-257.

f Landwirthsch. Jakrb., xxv. (1896) pp. 385-452 (2 pis. and 1 fig.). See Bot.
Central bl., lxvii. (1896) p. 364. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 544.

X Comptes Rendus, cxxiii. (1896) pp. 356-8.

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiv. (1896) pp. 207-12.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY3 MICROSCOPY, ETC.

653

ferment, but may take place spontaneously through the action of the
receptacle itself. This is true not only of cotyledons and endosperms,
but also of bulb-scales, rhizomes, roots, and stems. In the endosperm of
the maize the disappearance begins in the cells which are adjacent to the
scutellum. In the rhizome of Budbeclcia digitata the inulin disappears
first, then the starch.

Penetration of Diastase into Starch-Grains.* * * § — From experiments
made chiefly on starch-grains from the rhizome of Canna , Dr. J. Griiss
contests the statement of Meyer that diastase or any other insoluble
substance can penetrate into the interior of starch-grains. The destruc-
tive action appears to be exclusively a superficial one.

Swelling of Starch.j — According to Herr E. Rodewald, the average
pressure to which the water is subject that enters into the composition
of starch-grains, is 2137 atmospheres.

y. General.

Ar chi types. J — Prof. J. Sachs proposes to apply the term architype
to a series of forms ascending from the simplest to the most complicated,
displaying a common type of structure, and manifestly connected with one
another phylogenetically. Such a series he finds in the Archegoniatae,
to which belong the Coleochasteoe, and possibly also the (Edogoniaceae as
their lowest members, and ending in the Cycadeae and Coniferae as their
highest forms. With this architype are connected the Monocotyledons
and Dicotyledons as lateral branches. No genus or family of an archi-
type is directly connected genetically with any genus or family belonging
to another architype. Neither the Algae nor the Fungi are architypes
in this sense. The following groups are probably architypes : — (1) The
Cyanophyceae (including the Schizomycetes) ; (2) the Phaeophyceae ;
(3) the Rhodophyceae, including the Florideae, from which are probably
descended the Ascomycetes; (4) the Conjugatae, including the Diatoms*
(5) the Siphoneae, from which the Phycomycetes have sprung. The
genetic position of the Basidiomycetes, Uredineae, Ustilagineae, Chytri-
diaceae, and Myxomycetes is obscure.

Fossil Gymnospenns of the Wealden.§— The second part of Mr.
A. C. Seward’s ‘Fossil Plants of the Wealden’ consists of an enumera-
tion of the Cycadeae and Coniferae in the British Museum, chiefly from
the Rufford collection. The author considers that the evidence of
palaeobotany favours the inclusion of the Wealden rocks in the Jurassic
series, there being but very little essential difference between the plant-
life of the two periods. He points out the unsatisfactory nature of many
of the characters which have hitherto been used in distinguishing the
genera of Cycadeae, which are very numerous in the Wealden. Two
new genera are established. With ami a and Becklesia.

* Beit. z. wiss. Bot. (Fiinfstuck), i. (1896) pp. 295-315 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal,

ante, p. 80.

t ‘ Unters. lib. d. Quellung d. Starke,’ Kiel, 1896, 87 pp. See Bot. Centralbl.,
lxvii. (1896) p. 283. J Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 173-223.

§ Cat. of the Mesozoic Pis. in the Dptmt. of Geology, Brit. Mus. : — The Wealden
Flora, pt. ii., London, 1895, 259 pp., 20 pis. and 9 figs.

C54

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Cell-Wall of Vascular Cryptogams and Mnscineae.* — In Asjpidium
Filix-mas and A. Filix-femina, as well as in several species of Bryaceae,
Herr E. Winterstein finds mannose and glucose as constituents of tlie
cell- wall.

Apogamy in Ferns.f — Herr C. Helm describes a process of apo-
gamous growth of the sporophytes of the prothallium of Doodya caudatci.
It possesses two different kinds of antherid, and impregnation of the arche-
gones frequently takes place in the ordinary way. But not unfrequently
the full development of both kinds of sexual organ is suppressed, and they
become transformed into cellular structures from which new fern-plants
arise directly. Plants thus produced non-sexually are formed on the
same prothallium as normal antherids and archegones. Nearly all the
cells of the prothallium are able to produce new plants in this way ; but
the faculty is possessed to the fullest extent by those near the growing
point. With regard to the influence of light on the phenomenon.: —
exclusion of the ultra-violet rays has no effect on the mode of reproduc-
tion ; while prothallia grown under yellow glass exhibit a tendency to
the suppression of the sexual organs, and the production of adventitious
prothallia.

The author then discusses the extent to which differences in the
structure and habit of the prothallium are characteristic of different
classes of Ferns.

Bulbs of Cystopteris bulbifera.* — Herr E. Heinricher does not
confirm the statement of Matouschek that the adventitious buds of this
fern are incapable of germinating after long-continued desiccation.
When again moistened they reassume their original form and their
green colour.

Pecfic Substances in the Root of Equisetum.§ — In the root of a
number of species of Equisetum M. 1 . Vidal describes a peculiar struc-
ture of the endoderm of the root. The inner cortex contains a number
of lacunae, and that part of the wall of the endodermal cells which
bounds these lacunae is furnished with a very large number of minute
rod-like excrescences, resembling bacilli, which are very refringent, and
which disappear as the root becomes older. Chemical manipulation
showed that the portion of the wall of the endodermal cell where these
excrescences are situated consists^ of a mixture of cellulose and pectic
substances, and that these bodies themselves are entirely of a pectic
constitution.

Muscineae.

Nanomitrium.|| — Herr F. Muller confirms Goebel’s observation of
the absence of a columel in the sporogone of Nanomitrium tenerum.
The wall of the capsule consists of only a single layer of cells. Each

* Zeitschr. f. Phys. Chemie, xxi. (1895) pp. 152-4. Si e Bot. Centralbl., Ixvii.
(1896) p. 262. f Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 329-73 (16 figs.).

I Ber. Deutscli. B jt, GeselL, xiv. (1896) pp. 232-44. Cf. this Journal, 1894,

p. 595. § Journ. de Bot. (Morot), x. (1896) pp. 236-9 (2 figs.).

II Hedwigia, xxxv. (1896) pp. 179-85 (7 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 660.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

655

capsule contains from 400 to 500 spores ; and tlieir dispersion appears
to be effected both by drops of rain and by aquatic animals.

Antherid of Targionia.* * * § — Miss Effio B. M'Fadden describes the
development of the antherids of Targionia hypophylla. They arise in
acropetal succession from single superficial cells of the dorsal segment
of the apical cell. The first division of the primary cell is transverse,
separating the antherid proper from the stalk-cell. The wall-cells of
the antherid are very large and distinct, and fill the whole cavity between
the body of the antherid and the wall of the cavity.

Dixon’s British Mosses.f— Mr. H. N. Dixon and Mr. H. G. Jameson
publish a monograph of British Mosses. The classification and the
nomenclature are founded on those of Schimper. Every species and
sub-species described is represented in the plates, the drawings having
been made from nature by means of the camera lucida. To the syste-
matic portion is prefixed a general sketch of the structure of Mosses, to
which is appended a glossary.

Algae.

Life-History of Rhabdonia.J — Mr. W. J. Y. Osterliout has followed
out the life-history of Hhabdonia tenera , belonging to the Floridese.
The procarp is usually a three-celled branch borne on one of the lateral
branches of the cortex. The terminal cell of the branch produces an
abruptly recurved trichogyne, which makes its way to the surface, and
the antlierozoid (pollinoid) unites with it at the tip. The trichogyne
then loses its connection with the trichophore, and the latter puts out
one or two conjugating tubes, which make their way through the medulla
toward the tip of the frond, and unite with the auxiliary cells. The
auxiliary cell, after the conjugating tube reaches and conjugates with
it, gives rise to a mass of radiating filaments which bear at the ends
short branching filaments of cells ; these become the spores.

Like others of the larger Florideee, Bhabdonia tenera produces
numerous proliferations, which are independent plants arising from tbe
germination of tetraspores ; but the whole contents of a tetrasporange
is required for the production of one of these plants. The young plants
produced in this way often bear antherids, and occasionally tetraspores
and cystocarps ; but two kinds of reproductive organ never occur on the
same proliferation.

Cystocarp of Griffithsia.§ — Miss A. A. Smith describes in detail the
formation of the cystocarp in Griffiths' a Bornetiana and G. corallina. The
fruiting branch arises from the apex of a joint in the upper portion of
a shoot, other fruiting branches being then formed from the succeeding
joints. The carpogone is the terminal cell of a carpogenic branch nearly
triangular in outline, and is prolonged into the trichogyne from the
pointed apex. Fusion of a pollinoid with the contents of the trichogyne
was not observed, nor between the contents of the carpogone aud of the
supporting cell. The clusters of spores (favellse) are derived from a
cell cut off from the supporting cell, and are surrounded by a gelatinous

* Bull. Torrey Bnt. Club, xxiii. (1896) pp. 242-4 (1 pi.).

t ‘ Students Hand-Book of British Mosses,’ London, 1896, xlvi. and 520 pp. and

60 pis. + Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 403-27 (2 pis.).

§ Bot. Gazeite, xxii. (1896) pp. 35-47 (2 pis.).

656

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

membrane. The growth of the involucral branches begins immediately
after fertilisation. The later stages in the development of the cystocarp
are obscured by the formation of a coating of hairs.

Development of Uemalion.* * * § — Miss Grace D. Chester describes the
germination of Nemalion multijidum from the carpospore. The first
product is a prostrate row of rounded cells comparable to the protballus
or protoneme of BatracTiosjpermum. From this arises a branched plant,
corresponding to the chantransia-stage in Lemanea and Batracliosjoermum 9
which bears the sexual organs of reproduction. Tetraspores were not
observed.

Fertilisation and Segmentation of the Spore in Fucus.f — Prof. J. B.
Farmer and Mr. J. LI. Williams give some details respecting the mode
of segmentation in the spores of several species of Fucacese — Ascojphyllum
nodosum , Fucus vesiculosus , F. platycarpus — and point out that, as
regards the number of chromosomes, the Fucus- plant resembles the
sporopliyte of the higher plants ; while the gametophyte of the latter,
with its reduced number of chromosomes, finds its analogue in the
maturing sexual cells of Fucus.

Heterogamy in Ectocarpus.f — M. C. Sauvageau has observed in
Ectocarjous secundus a distinct differentiation between the male and
female sexual elements. They differ greatly in form, and no tendency
to conjugation is observable while they are both in motion. But as soon
as an oosphere comes to rest, several of the antherozoids approach it, and
one of them becomes completely absorbed into it, the portion of the
antherozoid which bears the eye-spot being always the last to penetrate
the oosphere. Unfertilised oospheres can germinate, but the process
differs in some respects from the germination of impregnated oospheres.

Fungi.

Cell-Wall of Fungi. § — Herr E. Winterstein confirms his observation
of the frequent existence of a substance identical with cliitin, or very
closely allied to it, in the cell-wall of fungi. He found it in Agaricus
camjoestris and in several Polyporete. The carbohydrate which accom-
panies the chitin gave chemical reactions which indicated its identity
with para-iso- dextran, differing from ordinary cellulose in being soluble
in dilute lyes ; it is coloured blue by iodine and sulphuric acid. It was
investigated specially in Polyjoorus betulinus and Pachyma Cocos. Glucose
was also found in various fungi.

Oxidising Ferment of Fungi. — M. E. Bourquelotjj gives further
chemical details respecting the nature of the oxidation brought about by
the ferment which he finds in many fungi. The presence of an acid or
of an alkali plays a very important part in this process. The colouring
reactions produced by the ferment vary greatly in different cases.

M. G. Bertrand finds that laccase and tyrosinase may both exist at

* Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 340-7 (2 pis.).

t Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 479-87.

% Comptes Itendus, cxxii. (1896) pp. 360-1. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 547.

§ Zeitsclir. f. pliys. Chemie, xxi. (1895) pp. 134-51. See Bot. Centralbl., lxvii.
(1896) p. 269. Of. this Journal, 1895, p. 460.

|1 Comptes Kendus, cxxiii. (1896) pp. 260-3, 315-7. Cf. this Journal, ante,
pp. 430, 548. Tom. cit., pp. 463-5.

657

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

the same time in the juices of certain fungi, e.g. Russula cyanoxanthci
and R. delica.

Importance of Potassium and Magnesium for the Growth of
Fungi.* — Herr W. Benecke gives the details of a large series of experi-
ments, which confirm the conclusion, at which he had previously arrived,
of the absolute necessity of these elements for the development and
growth of the lower fungi. The species chiefly experimented on was
Aspergillus niger.

Saprolegniacese, Ancylistese, and Chytridiaceae.f — Herr A. Maurizio
gives a monograph of the Swiss species of these families of Fungi, to-
gether with a description of a new species belonging to the last, Olpidi-
opsis major , parasitic on Saprolegnia Thureti. The author agrees with
Fischer in the statement that the hyphse of the Chytridiaceae cease to
grow after infection ; but does not confirm his observation that the spores
are in general produced only where the hyphm enter the host-plant.
The sporanges (in 0. major ) are developed only at the thickened ends
of the liyphae, to which there is a strong current of protoplasm from
their lower portion and the contents of which display a plasmode-like
movement.

Leptomitaces.J — Mr. B. Thaxter describes this family of Sapro-
legniaceae, composed of the genera Gonapodya , Leptomilus, Apodachlya ,
Rhipidium, distinguished by its enormously large basal cell, Sapromyces,
and a new genus Araiospora, intermediate between Rhipidium wad. Sapro-
myces, with the following diagnosis : — Plant consisting of a greatly
enlarged basal cell attached by rhizoids from its base, and similar in
character to the segments of the filaments which arise, often in consider-
able numbers, from its distal extremity. Filaments repeatedly umbel-
lately branched, cylindrical or nearly so. Zoosporanges arising from
the distal end of the segments, in whorls or umbels of two kinds, the
one smooth, the other differently shaped and furnished with prominent
spines* Zoospores finely granular, biciliate, monoplanetic, emerging in
a mass at first surrounded by a thin membrame which ruptures almost
immediately. Ooogones in whorls or umbels, often associated with the
zoosporanges, spherical, separated from the segment, like the zoo-
sporanges, by a constriction. Oosperms solitary, thick-walled, sur-
rounded by an envelope derived from the periplasm. Antheridial
branches arising from special segments, simple or branched, the small
rounded antherids applying themselves close to the base of the oogone.

The following new species are also described : — Rhipidium ameri-
canum, Araiospora pulchra, Sapromyces androgynus.

Structure and Reproduction of Cystopus.§ — Mr. H. Wager has
studied in detail the life-history of Cystopus candidus, belonging to the
Mucorini. The gonidanges are produced on basids, which are formed
in large numbers beneath the epiderm of the stem, leaf, and seed-vessel
of the host-plant. The formation of conids is not jneceded either by
fusion or by division, as is the case in the Basidiomycetes and Ascomy-

* Bot. Ztg., liv. (1896) lte Abt., pp. 97-132. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 545.

f JB. Naturf. Gesell. Graubiioden, 1895, 30 pp. and 1 pi. See Bot. Centralbl.,
lxvii. (1896) p. 134. % Bot. Gazette, xxi. (1896) pp. 317-31 (3 pis.),

§ Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 295-342 (2 pis.). Of. this Journal, ante, p. 335.

658

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

cetes. The gonidange contains from four to eight nuclei, each of which
becomes the nucleus of a zoospore. The oogones contain a very large
number of nuclei, all of which are found in the oosphere when this has
become differentiated, nearly all of the rest of the protoplasm of the
oogone being condensed into the periplasm. Then each nucleus divides
into two by karyokinesis ; the process being almost identical with that
in the higher plants. Previous to fertilisation the antherid also con-
tains a large number of nuclei ; and a fertilising tube is put out, which
reaches to the central mass of dense protoplasm in the oosphere. As
soon as the tube comes into contact with the nucleus of the oosphere
the male nucleus is expelled, and the tube at once collapses ; fusion then
takes place between the two nuclei. There is no essential difference
between this process and that which takes place in Angiosperms,
except in the part played by the centrospheres, which was not observed
in Cystojous.

Choanephora.* — Dr. D. D. Cunningham describes a new species of
this genus of Mucorini, C. Simsoni , parasitic on Ipomsea and Zinnia,
and saprophytic in various vegetable infusions. He regards the genus
as presenting affinities with the Basidiomycetes, Ascomycetes, Perono-
sporeae, and Rhizidieae. The sporangial spores present a remarkable
resemblance to the conids in their form and markings. The zygospores
have, like the sporangial spores and the conids, an epispore with longi-
tudinal striation.

Penicillium cupricum.* — M. J. de Seynes has determined that the
fungus called by this provisional name is but a form of P. glaucum , the
ordinary appearance of which it assumes when transferred to a different
medium. In a 9 • 5 per cent, solution of cupric sulphate the production of
the pink hypliae is greatly retarded, while that of the conids undergoes
no diminution.

Morphology and Biology of Lichens.* — Herr H. Zukal describes in
great detail the structure of lichens according to the present state of
our knowledge. Under the general term hypothallus he includes the
prothallus, the mycelial margin of the thallus, the lichen-mycele, and
the liypothalline appendicular organs, from all of which a new thallus
may spring. In contrast to this he bestows the term epitliallus on all
the modifications of the cortical hyphae at the margin or apex of the
thallus which serve as a protection for the gonids, or for other secondary
purposes. In by far the larger number of lichens, the fungus-element
is an ascomycetous fungus; and neither Ascomycetes nor Ascolichenes
possess any true sexual organs. The ascus-receptacle is merely a differ-
entiated portion of the mycele, and may produce conids on its outer
wall or within it. The algal element of lichens may belong to eight
different classes : — the Sircsiphoneae, Rivularieae, Scytonemeae, Nosto-
caceae, Chroococcaceae, Confervaceae, Chroolepidcas, and Palmellaceas.

The gonids are always motionless, and the author regards their loss
of reproductive power as an adaptation for the nutrition of the fungus.

* Ann. R. Bot. Garden Calcutta, vi. (1895) 10 pp. and 2 pis. See Bot. Cen-
tralbl., Ixvii. (1896) p. 56.

t Bull. See. Bot. France, xlii. (1895) pp. 451-5, 482-5. Cf. this Journal, 1895,
p. 556. % SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, civ. (1895) pp. 529-74, 1303-95 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

659

The thickening and strengthening of the thallus is also an adaptation
for a saprophytic mode of life. The thallus may be endogenous or
exogenous ; the latter including the myceliform, corticate, areolate,
squamose, foliaceous and fruticose thalli ; but there are intermediate
conditions between the two principal forms.

The cortex serves as a protection against excessive transpiration,
and as a storehouse for the characteristic secretions and excretions. It
is of various forms — pseudo-parenchymatous (the most common), pali-
sade-like, or fibrous ; or it may consist of only one or two laj^ers of
hyphoe ; or the whole thallus may consist of a simple mycele in which
are enclosed a few nests of gonids. The acids, salts, and oily sub-
stances which the cortex secretes are a protection against the attacks
of animals. The mode of absorption and disengagement of water in
the different classes of lichens is described in detail ; in the fruticose
forms it is absorbed directly from the atmosphere, and not from the
soil.

Lichens have a very strong power of respiration, even at very
low temperatures ; this does not take place, as a rule, over the whole
extent of the thallus; the portions vhich are especially characterised
by the power of respiration are the lower portion of the cortex
and the cyphellte. The gonids are necessarily the organs of assimi-
lation.

Function of Lichen-Acids.* — Prof. W. Zopf contests the theory of
Zukal that the purpose of the acids contained in lichens is their pro-
tection against the attacks of animals, especially snails. The chief
enemies of the crustaceous and foliaceous lichens are not snails, but
much smaller animals, Podurida and Acarina, and to these the lichen
acids appear to be perfectly innocuous. The author carried out, more-
over, a series of experiments in feeding snails on slices of potato soaked
in artificially prepared lichen -acids ; and found that, with the exception
of vulpinic acid, they were greedily devoured, and appeared to produce
no injurious results.

New Coenogonium.f — Dr. H. Gluck finds, in several situations in
Germany, a new species of this chiefly tropical genus of Discolichenes,
which he names C. germanicum. The constituent alga is, as in other
species of the genus, a Trentepohlia, but a new species, T. germanica.
The lichen occurs on rocks and on the leaves of mosses and liverworts.

Human Saccharomycosis.t — Prof. F. Curtis has worked out a case
of Saccharomyces infection, the source of which was a myxomatous
tumour in the thigh of a young man. From this tumour was isolated
the Saccharomyces suheutaneus tumefaciens. The parasite exists in two
forms, the one a free, the other an encapsuled cell. The former is
peculiar to cultures ; the latter to the living tissues and to old cultures
in saccharated media. S. subcut. tumefaciens grows well in acid and
neutral media ; it inverts saccharose, forming ethylic alcohol and acetic
acid. On beer-wort it has a similar action. It attacks glucose if dissolved
in yeast-water, but has no action on maltose or lactose. The tumours

* Biol. Centralbl., xvi. (1896) pp. 593-610.

t Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 268-85 (1 pi. and 15 figs.).

X Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 449-68 (2 pis.).

660

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

produced in man and animals by this parasite have tlie naked-eye
appearance of a degenerated myxosarcoma. Microscopical examination,
however, shows them to consist merely of a parasitic infiltration accom-
panied by abundant leucocytic invasion.

The animal most susceptible to the influence of cultures of this
yeast was the white rat ; and an illustration shows the appearance and
size of a tumour on the neck of one of these animals. In some cases
there were numerous secondary deposits. Both in man and in animals
the histological appearances were those of a culture of micro-organisms
and not those of a neoplasm.

Fermentation Experiments with Different Yeasts.* * * § — Herr I. Schu-
kow records the results of numerous experiments made with pure cultures
of certain yeasts, alone and in combination, in media of different com-
position. The media used were (1) sweet unhopped wort ; (2) wort
acidified by Pediococcus acidi lactici and Bacillus acidi lactici ; (3) hopped
wort with and without pepton. The chief results were that Pombe, Logos,
and Odosporus were found to possess higher fermenting power than
yeasts of the Frohberg type, and that two or more of the former were
more effective in combination than when acting alone. In acid wort the
presence of different species of bacteria affected the results very little.
The presence of pepton in the wort had the effect of accelerating fer-
mentation. Competitions between three kinds of yeasts (Nos. 128, 129,
and 130) showed that in unhopped sweet wort yeast 128 drove out 129.
In unhopped acid wort of 11*3° Bllg. yeast 129 cleared out 128 in
36 days ; while in wort of 17*7° Bllg. the reverse obtained in seven days.
The acid, expressed in cubic centimetres of normal soda per 20 ccm. of
wort, was in the first case 0-7 ccm., in the latter 1*2 ccm.

Importance of Lime to Yeast Cultures and in Brewing.f — Accord-
ing to Herr H. Seiffert, the deterioration of pure yeast cultures may
depend upon a deficient quantity of lime in the wort. This conclusion
was arrived at from analysis of yeast-ash, and was confirmed by experi-
ment. The presence of calcium salts, moreover, seems to be needed not
only for nutrition, but for an important part in the stages of brewing.

Blue-Staining of Spores of Saccharomyces octosporus by Iodine-! —
Dr. P. Lindner has found that the spore-bearing cells of Saccharomyces
octosporus are extremely sensitive to the action of iodine. These cells
stain blue, the spore membrane being the first part to show the reaction.
This reaction was 'remarked in the course of some observation as to the
effect of iodopotassic iodide solution on old yeast cultures. This effect
was found to be very variable. The author also remarks that many
yeasts lose the power of forming spores after prolonged cultivation.

Lactic Acid Barm.§ — For some fifty years it has been the practice
to submit beer-yeast to a special treatment in order to increase its
fermentative power. This is done by the lactic process, a process which

* AVochenschr. f. Brauerei, 1896, p. 302. See Bot. Centralbl., vi. (1896) Beih.,
pp. 306-8.

t Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1896, p. 318. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u.
Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) p. 465.

X Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 537-9.

§ Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 524-44.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY* ETC.

661

results in the acidification of the wort. To the mechanism of this
process, or in other words, the explanation of why an acid reaction
should be favourable to fermentation, Prof. J. Effront has devoted con-
siderable attention. It has been found that the acid reaction is due to
the lactic ferment, and acidimetric analysis has shown the optimum per-
centage to be from 0*9 to 1. Moreover, it is necessary that the leaven
be not only decidedly acid, but it must have a fresh taste and an agree-
able odour. After negativing two hypotheses, the peptonisation and the
antiseptic, the author lays it down that the practical method of yeast-
making influences the physiological character of the leaven, the cells
reproduced under these conditions possessing great activity. As, under
practical and industrial conditions, reproduction is not a marked
feature, the activity of the leaven is the consequence of the feeble
reproduction.

Indian Wheat Rusts.* — Dr. D. D. Cunningham and Mr. D. Prain
discuss various problems, which cannot yet be regarded as settled,
respecting the connection of the “ rusts ” which attack the wheat and
barley crops in different parts of India with one another, and with the
assumed species Puccinia graminis and P. rubigo-vera. There appears
to be a distinct connection between them and the parasitic fungus on
Launea asplenifolia (Composite), a common weed among crops.

Peridermium and Cronartium.j — Dr. J. Eriksson considers that the
three forms of Peridermium , P. Cornui , Strobi, and Pini, which occur in
Sweden, are rather forms of One species, than distinct species, as they are
usually considered. P. Strobi , parasitic on the Weymouth Pine, is
undoubtedly connected genetically with Cronartium ribicolum , parasitic
on Bibes nigrum ; but the latter form appears to be able to propagate
itself independently from year to year, without the intervention of the
Peridermium- form ; since it perpetuates itself in districts where there is
no Pinus Strobus ; and the same is true of C. asclepiadeum in relation to
P. Cornui.

Presence of Mould-Fungi in Syphilis, Carcinoma, and Sarcoma. :f —
Dr. J. Kremer has found in the lesions of syphilis a fungus resembling,
in many respects a Penicillium. It is very pleomorphic, and in its
highest development is most like Aspergillus. This SypJiilis-aspergillus
is possessed of a mycele on which appear fruit-hyphae, both aerial and
submerged. Its polymorphism is exhibited by transition forms resem-
bling Oidium, Dematium, and Botrytis. This fungus has been cultivated
from seven cases of syphilis, from cases of Carcinoma linguae and Melano-
Sarcoma of the skin. Aspergilli were also obtained ; in both instances
the fungi presented considerable likeness to the Aspergillus of syphilis,,
but were distinguished therefrom by some well-marked differences.

The microscopical appearances are depicted and described from fresh
preparations only.

Development of Mutinus.§ — From a study of the development of
Mutinus caninus, Dr. E. A. Burt comes to the conclusion that the two

* Kecords of the Bot. Survey of India, i. No. 7, ] p. 90-124, Calcutta. Cf. this
Journal, 1892, p. 402.

t Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (189G) pp. 377-94.

1 Op. cit , lte Abt., xx. (1896) pp. G3-85 (15 figs.).

§ Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 343-72 (2 pis.).

1895 2 z

632

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

sections of the Phalloideae, the Phalleae and the Clatlireae, are not
directly related, but may be regarded as two parallel series of forms.
In Mutinus , both the receptacle and the glebe are differentiated from the
early sheaf-like head of medullary tissue, but the pseudo-parenchyma-
tous walls of the former appear to have nothing immediately in common
with the liymenium, either in origin or in mode of formation. In its
earliest recognisable stage, the “ egg ” or fructification consists of the
cortical and medullary tissues of the mycelial strand. The cortical
layer becomes the outer wall of the volva, its sheaf-like head gradually
differentiating into all the other parts of the older “egg.” The final
elongation of the stipe and the elevation of the glebe are brought about
through the straightening out of the folds in the chamber-walls of the
stipe.

Protophyta.
a. Schizopliycese.

Elos-Aquae.* — Herr II. Klebahn finds the “ flos-aquae ” of the Lake of
Plon to consist of the following species of Schizopliyceae, — Coelusphserium
Kutzingianum , Polycystic seruginosa, Trichodesmium lacustre, Gloiotrichia
echinulata , Anabsena flos-aquae, A. anspiroides, A. macrospora, A. solitaria ,
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Botryococcus Braunii. The red bodies which
Pichter regarded as composed of sulphur, are, according to Klebahn,
“ gas-vacuoles ” ; resembling ordinary vacuoles, except that they contain
a gas instead of water. Other aquatic algae and Schizophyta contain
similar gas-vacuoles. The “ flos-aquae ” is by no means confined to
fresh water.

Conjugation of Diatoms.f — Herr G. Karsten describes the formation
of auxospores and of zygotes in Navicula peregrina, N. scopulorum, and
Iiibellus constrictus ( Ampliiprora constrida).

Surirella4 — An incomplete conspectus by the late Mr. J. Deby of
this genus of diatoms is published. He regards the essential characters
of the genus as consisting in the absence of the characteristic raphe,
and of the central and terminal nodules of the Naviculeae — the raphe
being replaced by a simple line or by a narrow hyaline longitudinal
space without any appearance of nodules, which may be called a pseudo-
raphe— and in the presence of lateral wings. Some of the species are
exceedingly variable in form. They may be arranged under two groups,
according as the rays or canaliculi do or do not present the form of a
funnel.

Structure of Cyanophycese and Bacteria.§ — Herr 0. Biitschli, as
the result of a fresh series of observations on the structure of the
Cvanophyceae (chiefly Oscillatoria princeps and the larger sulphur-
bacteria), confirms his previous observations, both as to the existence of
a central more strongly stainable region, and as to the honeycomb
structure of both the outer layer and the inner layers. He combats
Fischer’s view that the outer layer is merely the result of contraction
and plasmolysis ; its honeycomb structure was demonstrated in the

* Forscliungsber. aus d. Biol. Stat. zu Plon, pt. iv. 1896, pp. 189-206. Cf. this
Journal, ante , p. 554. t Flora, lxxxii. (1896) pp. 286-96 (1 pi.).

X Bull. Soc. Bot. Beige Micr., xxii. (1896) pp. 147-77.

§ ‘ Weitere Ausfiihrungen iib. d. Bau d. Cyanophyceen u. Bukterien,’ Leipzig,
1896, 87 pp., 3 pis. aud 6 fig*. See Bot. Centralbl., lxvii. (1896) p. 164.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

663

living plant. He dissents also from the statement of Palla,* * * § that the
bodies which are coloured red by heematoxylin are not found in the central
body. The author was able to extract the colouring matter of Chroma-
tium and Oscillatoria in the form of serpentine threads or small lumps,
by digesting in artificial digestive fluid.

The author’s views as to the chemical constitution of the dark
granules found in the sulphur-bacteria were fully confirmed.

Notwithstanding the absence of a nucleole, the author regards the
central body of the Cyanophyceae and of the larger bacteria as the
origin from which has sprung the more complicated true cell-nucleus of
the higher plants.

In only a few of the smaller bacteria could a differentiation into
central body and outer layer be detected. In Spirillum undula the
polar portions were less strongly stained than the rest of the cell-contents;
the former correspond to the outer layer, the latter to the central
portion, in the Cyanophycem and larger bacteria.

B. Schizomycetes.

Penetrability of the Intestinal Wall to Bacteria.f — According to
Herr M. Neisser, who has recently made experiments relative to the passage
of bacteria through the walls of the intestines, normal chyle is free from
bacteria and devoid of bactericidal properties; the normal intestine
consequently does not permit the passage of corpuscular elements. Just
as little can bacteria be found in healthy lymph-glands or in the blood
circulation.

The author then deals with the question whether saprophytic bacteria
under pathological conditions, or pathogenic germs under normal circum -
stances, can pass through the intestinal wall. A generally valid rule
can hardly be made ; for while there are bacteria which, if they emigrate
from the intestine, are capable of exciting a general infection, there are
also extremely pathogenic germs which may remain in the intestine
without harmful consequences for a day or so.

Physiological Conditions of Spore-formation in Aerobic Bacteria. I
- — Herr 0. Schreiber has found that the physiological conditions which
determine endogenous spore-formation in Bacillus anthracis, subtilis, and
tumescens are as follows : — Prolonged and active growth occurring
under favourable conditions never excites spore-formation. Insufficient
nutriment and unfavourable external conditions are either detrimental to
spore-formation or arrest it altogether. Sudden stoppage of growth pre-
ceded by good nutrition at once provokes rapid and perfect spore-forma-
tion. The substances which inhibit growth, and, in consequence, favour
spore-formation, are — carbonate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, chlorate
of soda, and distilled water. The presence of atmospheric oxygen is a
specific and necessary condition of spore-formation of aerobic bacteria.

Two Filament-forming Bacilli.§— Dr. L. Catiano describes two
chromogenic bacteria which are obtained from vaginal secretion. Bacillus

* Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 383.

T Zeitschr. f. Hygiene u. lnfektionskr., xxii. p. 12. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.
u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xx. (1896) p. 458.

x Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xx. (1896) pp. 353-74, 429-37.

§ Beitr. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen (Cohn), vii. (1896) pp. 537-41 (2 pis.).

2 z 2

664

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

nibiginosus is a mobile rodlet 1-1 * 5 jx long. It is easily stained with
the ordinary pigments, but is decolorised by Gram’s method. On
gelatin the young colonies resemble dewdrops ; but as they grow older a
brick-red pigment is developed. This only occurs in the presence of
oxygen, for deep colonies are colourless. The bacillus grows well on
agar, potato, sterilised milk, and in Uschinsky’s medium, though in the
last no pigment is formed. B. coccineus is a mobile bacillus, 1*5-2 ^
long. It is stainable by Gram’s method. It grows well on the usual
media. On glycerin-agar (8 per cent.) it forms a crimson-red pigment,
while on potato the pigment is orange-yellow.

Both these bacilli possess long flagella, easily demonstrated by
Loeffler’s method. In old cultures both form long filaments. Besides
the points already noticed, these bacilli are further distinguished by the
following criteria. B. rubiginosus has no action on milk, while B. coc-
cineus coagulates and turns it sour ; in the former the pigment seems to
be confined to the centre of the colonies, while in the latter it is more
uniformly distributed.

Microbiology of nitrification.* — Prof. S. Winogradsky defends his
position on the theory of nitrification, which would have been turned had
the observations of Stutzer and Burri on a nitrate-forming bacillus been
substantiated. The latter stated that their bacillus throve on a gela-
tinous medium, whereas the author had laid it down as an axiom that the
nitrite and nitrate-forming bacteria do not flourish on organic media.
It was also determined by Stutzer and Burri that the oxidation of nitrites
was a very transient function. The author obtained a sample of the
material used by Stutzer and Burri (earth from Northeim), and isolated
therefrom several organisms, among which was the specific nitrate-former.
The latter, when tested in bouillon, meat-pepton-gelatin, and agar, failed
to grow, showing not only that the colony was pure, but also its specific
character. Morphologically and culturally, there was little difference
between the nitrate-former and three kinds of bacteria, which are de-
scribed in detail. The views of Stutzer and Burri are therefore erroneous,
and are to be ascribed to errors of manipulation. ^

Inhibitory Action of Air on Nitrate -destroying Bacteria, f —
Herren A. Stutzer and R. Maul have submitted cultures of Bacterium
denitrificans i. mixed with B. coli to the influence of constant currents of
atmospheric air, and found that, in artificial media which are devoid of
organic nitrogenous compounds, neither B. denitrificans nor B. coli de-
veloped, though both did so in bouillon. In the course of two days the
bouillon became turbid, and by the fourth day the nitrate had quite
disappeared, as shown by the absence of reaction with diphenylamin.
When a constant stream of air was passed through the medium, the fluid
became turbid as before, though even on the tenth day a considerable
quantity of nitrate and some nitrite were present. It would seem,
therefore, that the copious supply of air inhibits the fermentative action
of mixtures of B. denitrificans i. and B. coli, just as it does those of
B. denitrificans ii. and B. coli.

* Ceniralbl. f. Baldciio1. u. Parasiteuk., 2tc Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 415-28, 449-58
t Tom. cit., pp. 473-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

665

Alleged Conversion of the Tyrothrix tenuis Duclaux into a Lactic
Acid Bacterium.* — Dr. J. Wittlin has failed to be convinced that
Tyrothrix tenuis may be converted into a lactic acid bacterium. The
experiments were made with a sample obtained originally from Duclaux ;
and after many cultivations on gelatin no evidence was forthcoming
to support the conversion contended for. The author supposes that
Winkler’s results were due to contamination.

Branched Diphtheria Bacilli.f — Dr. A. A. Kanthack points out that
the fact that diphtheria bacilli not infrequently exhibit true branching has
been known in England for some time ; for in 1890 Klein stated in a report
to the Local Government Board that “ many bacilli had become threads,
some of considerable length, characterised by intermediate or terminal
buds or swellings.”

Vitality of Diphtheria Bacilli on Textile Fabrics, t — In order to
test how long the diphtheria bacillus could retain its vitality on dried
articles of clothing, Dr. A. Golowkow made experiments with square
pieces of washed linen, frieze, cashmere, and grey satin (a material used
for lining overcoats in the Russian army). These were placed in Petri’s
capsules, and sterilised at 120°— 130° in a Papin’s digester. The pieces
were then infected with bouillon cultures of diphtheria bacilli. Part
of the capsules were exposed to the light, part kept in the dark, and all
at room temperature. After a certain time the pieces were transferred
to bouillon and incubated in a thermostat at 37°. It was found that
diphtheria bacilli kept in the dark on dried linen lost their power of
developing between the 16th and 23rd day, on frieze after the 13th,
while on grey cashmere they were still alive on the 26th day.

The bacilli on linen and on frieze exposed to the light were dead by
the 20th day. On grey satin, unwashed before infection, the bacilli died
in 21 hours; but if the fabric was infected after having been washed,
the bacteria retained their vitality for 20 days. Hence some chemical
substance which is in the dye or the dressing seems to play an important
part. The virulence of the bacteria was found to be diminished by
drying.

Penetration of Cholera Vibrios into Hens’ Eggs.§ — Dr. A. Golowkow
repeated Wilm’s experiments. Undamaged eggs, the shells being steri-
lised by Hueppe’s method, or even without being sterilised, were placed
in bouillon cultures of cholera vibrios for two to ten days. It was found
that the vibrios got through the shell in two days, and passed into the
white. In the whites of unsterilised eggs other micro-organisms besides
the cholera vibrios were found. The vibrios were not discovered in the
yolk till the fourth day.

Bactericidal Action of the Waters of the' Jumna and the Ganges
on the Cholera Vibrio. || — Dr. H. Hankin states that, notwithstanding

* Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., 2te Abt., ii. (1896) pp. 475-7. Cf. this
Journal, ante, p. 228.

f Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xx. (1896) pp. 296-7.

X Militarmedizin. Journal (Russian), ix. (1895). See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u.
Parasitenk., l‘« Abt., xx. (1896) pp. 319-20.

§ Wratsch, 1896, No. 7. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xx.
(1896) pp. 314-5. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 576.

|| Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 511-23.

666

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the extraordinary quantity and quality of the contaminations to which
the Jumna and Ganges rivers are constantly liable, they contain some
volatile substance, the nature of which the author has not been able to
determine, which rapidly destroys the cholera vibrio. It would seem
that the Jumna water possesses more effective antiseptic qualities than
the waters of the Ganges, and that both lose their bactericidal properties
if they be boiled. Moreover, as experiments with Jumna water in her-
metically closed tubes showed that this water did not lose its faculty of
annihilating the vibrio, it seems a plausible inference that the antiseptic
substance is of a volatile nature, either developed in the water itself or
acquired in situ. But whatever the explanation may be, there seems to
be no doubt that the waiters of these rivers have special qualities, which
enable them to disinfect very rapidly the cholera-stricken corpses and
dejecta with which they are constantly contaminated.

Action of Metabolic Products of Staphylococcus and Pneumococcus.*
— Dr. S. Wolf made a series of experiments relative to the method of
action of the toxins of Staphylococcus and Pneumococcus , for the purpose
of ascertaining if the metabolic products of these microbes possess the
same fatal action on the animal organism as is observed after infection
with pure cultures. Into the peritoneal sac of rabbits (7) wras inserted
a collodion bag containing some bouillon-culture of virulent Staphylo-
coccus. Cultivations from the peritoneal exudation found after death
showed the presence of S. py. aureus , and thrice that of B. coli. In
three cases Staphylococcus wras found in the heart-blood, and B. coli once.

In the peritoneal sac of four rabbits a collodion bag filled with Pneumo-
coccus was successfully introduced. The toxic effect was in two cases a
rise of temperature to 40°, in the other two not exceeding 39° *2. All
these animals succumbed to 0 • 1 ccm. subcutaneous injection, while the
control survived. The previous toxic action would therefore seem to
have a predisposing effect.

Bacillus of Rheumatoid Arthritis.! — Dr. F. R. Blaxall (in conjunct-
ion with Drs. Bannatyne and Wohlmann) has demonstrated in the
synovial fluid of eighteen cases of rheumatoid arthritis an organism with
constant characteristics. It is a bacillus, 2 /x long by 0*6 /m broad,
exhibiting marked polar staining. It is difficult to stain, and is easily
decolorised. Cultivated in beef broth it gives the appearance of gold-
dust ; while on agar and serum its growth is almost invisible. It does
not grow on gelatin at ordinary temperature. It is present in the blood
in severe cases. With the organism described by Schuller as occurring
in this disease the bacillus discovered by Bannatyne and Wohlmann has
nothing in common, save the polar staining and the ease of decolorisa-
tion.

Presence of Typhoid Bacilli in Water, Earth, and Faeces of Persons
unaffected with Typhoid Fever.! — MM. Remliuger and Schneider have
been able to identify the bacillus of typhoid fever in 8 out of 36 samples
of water, and in 6 out of 10 samples of earth, by means of Gruber’s

* Centralbl. f, Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xx. (1896) pp. 375-86.

t Lancet, 1896, i. pp. 1120-1 (1 pi.).

t La Scmaine Med., lb 96, p. 284. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk. 9
lte Abt., xx. (1S96) p. 459.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

667

typhoid serum test (“ balling ”). Bacilli presenting analogous reactions
were found in the stools of persons suffering from leukhaemia, Bright’s
disease, and malaria. Most of these bacilli were pathogenic to guinea-
pigs. Typhoid serum was found to have a protective effect against the
infection.

Antistaphylococcus Serum.* — M. Capman obtained serum effective
against the culture and toxin of Staphylococcus by immunising dogs
with the toxin obtained by filtration. The degree of immunisation was
directly as the total quantity of the toxin injected. The serum of dogs
thus immunised possessed bactericidal and antitoxic qualities more or
less active, according to the degree of vaccination. The serum must,
however, not be drawn too soon ; for it was found that at first the serum
was more toxic than the toxin itself. This hypertoxicity (attributed to
some peculiar action of the liver) is merely a temporary condition, and
passes off in from 14 to 21 days.

The phenomena of toxin poisoning enumerated by the author are : —
oedema, suppuration, necrosis, septicaemia, cachexia, arthritis, paraplegia,
and osteomyelitis.

Bacillus Smegmatis and Tubercle Bacillus.f — Dr. Grethe points out
that errors in diagnosis appear to have occurred from the confusion of the
Bacillus smegmatis with that of the tubercle. Reliable diagnostic re-
sults may be obtained by staining with concentrated alcoholic methylen-
blue. This stains the Bacillus smegmatis well ; and if the preparation
be first stained with carbol-fuchsin, the tubercle bacillus, when present,
is easily identified by its red colour, which contrasts with the blue of
the rest of the preparation.

The Middle Ear and Microbes. £ — Dr. Lannois is reported to have
made investigations on the middle ear of dogs and rabbits killed for
other purposes. When all precautions were taken to avoid accidental
inoculation, the cultures made were absolutely inactive. The middle
ear of mammals may therefore be regarded as free from microbes, and
as a closed aseptic cavity. It is known that the nasal mucus possesses
a strong bactericidal property, and the author is inclined to attribute a
similar property to the mucous membrane which lines the tympanic
cavity.

Bacteriology of Infantile Diarrhoea. §— Dr. Allan MacFadyen ex-
plains why it is that we have no positive knowledge regarding the cause
of infantile diarrhoea, though everything points to a bacterial origin to
this complaint. The author calls attention to the work of various ob-
servers, and comes to the conclusion that there can be little doubt that
in hot weather milk undergoes a profounder decomposition than usual ;
the changes are due to bacteria, and may occur without visible alteration
in the appearance of the milk. Milk, therefore, furnishes a more favour-
able field for investigation than the intestine. If the living agents in
the milk were accurately known, we should be in a position to determine
the best methods for their extinction. Further research may determine
more accurately the nature of the toxic products, and of the bacteria
that produce them.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxiii. (1896) pp. 549-51.
f See Brit. Med. Journ , 1896, No. 1865, p. 52.

X See p. cit. § See tom. cit., No. 1863, p. 628.

668

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Phagocytosis and Immunity.* * * § — The results and experiments by
Dr. Liakhovetsky are interesting in that they oppose Metschnikoff’s
phagocytic theory of immunity. They lead to almost the same con-
clusions as those of Leber, by which was shown that, in cases of
recovery, the leucocytes are not the cause of the destruction of the cocci.
Although the author recognises the existence of phagocytosis in animals
susceptible to anthrax, and grants that it plays a great part in the
recovery of the infected individual from the inoculation with the virus,
yet he must assert that immunity is in no wise solely brought about by
phagocytosis. This is, on the contrary, independent of the suscepti-
bility or insusceptibility of the organism to anthrax, and does not run
parallel with the degree of immunity.

Specific Immunity Reaction of Cholera Vibrios in the Animal
Body and in vitro. f — Some further researches as to the specific immu-
nity reaction of cholera vibrios have been made by Prof. R. Pfeiffer and
Dr. W. Kolle. As has been shown already by several observers, cholera
serum obtained from immunised animals possesses, besides the specific
bactericidal properties which are brought into evidence in the animal
body, a certain effect on cholera vibrios in vitro. From the present
experiments the authors have determined that the specific bactericidal
protective substances which in animals cause the phenomenon of bac-
terial dissolution must be different from those bodies present in cholera-
immune serum, and possessing an inhibitory action which leads in vitro
to the “ balling” or “clumping” of the vibrios. Either of these bodies
can be separated from the other, and it must therefore be admitted that
at least two kinds of specific bodies take a share in cholera immunisation.

The inference from these facts is difficult ; but the authors are inclined
to consider that there are two modifications of the cholera anti-bodies,
a passive and an active one, for which they suggest the term Paralysina.

Vibrio Infection of Young Animals per os.J — Dr. J. Karlinski
records his experience of attempts to infect young animals with vibrios
per os. The experiments, lasting over a period of six years, lead him
to believe that not only young rabbits and cats, but puppies, are liable
to infection by this route. But it is only with certain “ races ” of the
cholera vibrio that positive results are to be obtained. Moreover, there
are races which at one time are virulent, and at another not.

Disinfecting Power of Kresol and Metakresol.§ — Herr H. Schiitz
made experiments as to the disinfecting powers of kreolin, lysol, solveol,
phenol, kresol, and metakresol, using as tests Streptococci , Staphylococci ,
typhus and cholera bacilli, and Anthrax spores. To 5 ccm. of 24 hours’
old bouillon cultures of these micro-organisms a similar bulk of a 2 per
cent, solution of the disinfectant was added, and after O’ 5, 1, 2, 5, 10,
and 20 minutes some of the mixture was inoculated on bouillon. Obser-
vations as to growth showed that kresol and metakresol killed the
bacteria in 0*5 minute. Next came lysol and kreolin, while carbolic

* See Brit. Med. Journ., 1896, No. 1866, p. 56.

f Centralbl. f, Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xx. (1896) pp. 129-47.

j Tom. cit., pp. 150-60.

§ Inaug.-Diss. Halle a. S., 1896. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol u. Parasitenk.,
lu Abt., xx. (1896) pp. 122-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY* MICROSCOPY, ETC.

669

acid and solved possessed the least disinfecting power. Experiments on
animals showed that metakresol was less poisonous than carbolic acid ;
for the animals bore 0* * * §79 grm. per kilo, of metakresol, while 0*3 grm.
was the fatal dose of carbolic acid. Metakresol has not a strong odour,
it forms a clear transparent solution, and irritates the skin but little.

Catgut Disinfection. — Herr Saul * sterilised catgut by the following
procedure : — In a specially devised apparatus containing the disinfecting
fluid — alcohol absolute 850, acid carbolic liq. 50, aq. dest. 100 — is placed
the catgut. The apparatus is heated to boiling-point (78°-80°) for
15 minutes.

According to Dr. Hofmeister f the foregoing method is not perfect ;
for he has found the potato bacillus and two kinds of Staphylococcus in
catgut sterilised according to Saul’s method.

Spraying Experiments.^ — Mr. H. H. Lamson has found, by spraying
fruit-trees with Bordeaux mixture, the chief ingredient of which is sul-
phate of copper, that the gatherings are much increased, e g. the pear-
trees yielded 47 per cent, as against 16 per cent., and apple-trees 21 per
cent, as against 16 per cent. The same treatment prevents the scab,
Fusicladium pyrinum and dendriticum , as well as the growth of algte and
mosses on the stems. Early blight of the potato ( Macrosporium Solani)
was so much diminished by spraying, that an increase of 33 bushels an
acre was obtained.

Belative Growth of Bacterium typhi abdominalis and B. coli
commune in Gelatin Media.§ — The results obtained by Dr. J. Klie,
who has made researches as to the growth of Bacterium typhi abdominalis
and B. coli commune in nutrient media containing different percentages
of gelatin and at different temperatures, may be summarised as follows.
At a high temperature, both in typhus and coli cultures, in 10 per cent,
gelatin variable forms of colonies appear at times. There are four kinds
of colony: — (1) Those with a smooth margin, i.e. the ordinary form ;

(2) those from the edge of which bacterial filaments are growing out ;

(3) colonies from which small collections of bacteria are emigrating ;

(4) colonies the bacteria of which are in an active state of diffusion
through the medium. All these four kinds of colony occur both
w’ithin and on the surface of the medium. Under suitable conditions
the colonies form spirals, and the presence or absence of spirals is no
diagnostic criterion.

At the same age the colonies of B. coli are larger than those of
B. typhi abd., but the filaments are less numerous. This difference is
best seen in 24-36 Tours’ old cultures in 3 per cent, gelatin at a tem-
perature of 18°-19° C.

Meningococcus intracellularis.|| — Dr. J. Kister records two cases
of cerebrospinal meningitis from which Meningococcus intracellular is

* Langenbeck’s Archiv, lii. pt. i. See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk.,
lte Abt., xx. (1896) p. 123.

f Centralbl. f. Chirurgie, No. 9, 1896. See ibid.

j New Hampshire Agricultural College Experiment Station, Bull. 27, 1895.
See Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xx. (1896) p. 440.

§ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt, xx. (1896) pp. 49-63 (14 figs.).

ij Tom. cit., pp. 148-50.

670

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

was cultivated from fluid obtained by puncturing the spinal canal in tbe
lumbar region. The cocci were roll-shaped, arranged in pairs or fours,
some without, others with a more or less definite capsule, and for the
most part within the cells, so that they presented a considerable resem-
blance to Gonococcus. The preparations were best stained with plienol-
fuclisin or phenol-gentian-violet. The most suitable media for their
cultivation were bouillon and blood-serum, with ascites, either fluid or
solid.

Cultures were also obtained on the foregoing media with which agar
was mixed, but glycerin-agar was a total failure. The colonies were
white or yellowish-white. Positive results were obtained from inocu-
lating rabbits and guinea-pigs by injecting pure cultures into peritoneal
and pleural sacs and into veins, but no results ensued from subcutaneous
injection.

Capsules of Bacteria.*' — According to Prof. W. Migula, all or most
bacteria possess a capsule which is external to and part of the cell mem-
brane. It behaves differently to pigments, is of different dimensions,
and if very thin may escape observation. It is composed of albumen, and,
like flagella, is very difficult to stain, and then only after special mor-
danting. When dried it parts with its fluid, and thus escapes observation.
Notzel has also detected capsules in the cadaver and anthrax bacilli, and
has found that in anthrax cultivated on artificial media the capsule may
be demonstrated by treating the preparation with 1 per cent, caustic
potash, then staining with gentian-violet, and finally decolorising with
acetic acid solution. Capsules are also demonstrable in artificially
cultivated Streptococcus pyogenes , Friedlaender’s Pneumobacillus , and
some others.

Disinfection of the Hands. f — Mr. C. Leedham-Green has prepared
an exceedingly interesting essay under the title of ‘ A bacteriological
inquiry into the relative value of various agents used in the disinfection
of the hands.’ There can be no doubt that the surgical operator conveys
infection more often by the hands than by any other means. In testing
the sterility of the hands, sharpened pieces of hard wood have been
sterilised and used to scrape underneath the nails of the operator, and
were afterwards dropped into a culture medium. This method has been
replaced by the use of thin flat slips of ivory with broad angular ends
and roughened surface ; the ivory can be sterilised with greater certainty
than the wood, and the broad angular end is much superior to a sharp
point for scraping the nail fold. For the culture medium the author
used sterilised agar-agar-glycerin-pepton in tubes. Tubes are preferred
to plates, as with the latter there is always the danger of accidental
infection. All the culture tubes were separately sterilised, and tested
in the incubator before they were used, and the greatest possible care
was taken to prevent their accidental infection ; everything that came
into contact with the operators’ hands was subjected to at least ten
minutes boiling. Water, soap, brushes, antiseptic lotions, and other
agents were boiled from ten to fifteen minutes. The ivory slips were
sterilised by repeated prolonged boiling. Control experiments were

* Deut. Tierartzl. Wochenschr. See Zeitsekr. f. ang. Mikr., ii. (1896) pp. 114-5.

f See Brit. Med. Journ., 1896, No. 1868, pp. 1109-13.

Z30L0GY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC.

C71

repeatedly made to test the slips, tlie water, brushes, and so on ; in
every case they proved to be sterile.

Experiments were first of all made with the hands in a normal state,
that is, not artificially infected, and with a simple washing with hot soap
and water, together with the use of the nail-brush and the nail-cleaner,
spending from five to fifteen minutes in the operation of washing. Mr.
Leedham-Green found that his hands proved to be sterile in only two
cases. In all the other experiments the tubes were strongly infected.
In one of the sterile cases it is to be noted that the hands had been
disinfected an hour previously with soap, water, and turpentine, and as
much as eighteen minutes had been spent in washing. Experiments
were made with alcohol, as Furbringer has found that unless the fatty
secretion of the skin be first removed, it is useless to attempt to kill
the germs by antiseptic means, because the micro-organisms, protected
by a thick layer of fat and epithelial debris , never came into actual
contact with the antiseptics. In twelve experiments made, in some of
which ten minutes were spent in washing, and four minutes with
absolute spirit, the hands twice proved absolutely sterile, and once
almost so; but in two of these cases the operator had not been actively
engaged in his profession for some days previously.

Mr. Leedham-Green’s results are as a whole so strikingly dissimilar
from those of a number of other investigators, that the possibility of the
accidental infection of his tubes was a point to be considered. However,
he states that the whole of his control experiments remained sterile, and
he gives other reasons also. If his experiments may be depended upon,
it appears that the difficulty in sterilising the hands and skin has been
very greatly underestimated. It cannot be said that any of the methods
at present in use can be relied upon for absolute sterilisation. Although
the use of alcohol will not accomplish all that has been claimed for it,
it is nevertheless a valuable, if not the most valuable agent that we
possess. Mr. Leedham-Green’s paper affords one of the most striking
proofs of the fact that we are surrounded by countless hosts of microbes.

Text-Book of Bacteriology.*' — Prof. E. M. Orookshank has just
produced the fourth edition of his now well-known text-book, which,
we learn from the title-page, has been reconstructed, revised, and greatly
enlarged. Though nominally a fourth edition, the book is, the author
says, practically speaking a new work. The progress of bacteriology
has been so rapid that it has been necessary to entirely recast the text
of the third edition. Prof. Orookshank points out that the most impor-
tant researches conducted in bacteriology laboratories are those relating
to the contagium. In many diseases of man and animals it has not been
possible to identify the contagium with a bacterium, or indeed with any
micro-organisms ; but when virus is chemically examined or investigated
with a view to protective inoculation such researches are within the
province of the bacteriologist. We have no doubt that the author is
justified in his hope that the work will continue to be of use as a text-
book for the bacteriological laboratory, and that it will be not only of
scientific interest, but of practical value to medical officers of health and
veterinary inspectors.

* ‘A Text-Book of Bacteriology, including the Etiology and Prevention of
Infective Diseases, &c./ 4th ed.. Loudon, 1896, xxx. and 715 pp., 273 figs.

672

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The work is divided into three parts, the first of which is mainly
technical, and contains the most recent methods of study ; the second
deals with infective diseases and the bacteria associated with them;
while part iii. contains descriptions of about 500 bacteria. There
is given what appears to be an excellent bibliography. It is, of course,
impossible for us to go through the wealth of material to be found in
the work before us ; but so much has been lately said as to the use or
abuse of photography that it is of interest to note that Prof. Crookshank
is convinced that “ if the employment of photography is encouraged in
bacteriological and other research laboratories for depicting micro-
scopical preparations and cultivation of bacteria, the results of increasing
experience and practice all lead to its being made more general use of
as a faithful and graphic method, valuable alike for class demonstrations
and for illustrating publications.”

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

673

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

(1) Stands.

Horizontal Microscope.^ — Mr. C. R. Barnes describes a horizontal
Microscope for the measurement of the vertical growth of plants, &c.
The arrangement is, on the whole, similar to that illustrated in Pfeifer’s
‘ Physiologie,’ ii. p. 85, fig. 8, which is the form used in the Leipzig
laboratory. For the present instrument, however, the author claims
several points of superiority. The base is a large lead-filled brass tripod
with levelling screws. From this rises a tube 3 cm. in external dia-
meter, sawed at the top, where it is pinched by a screw collar. A nickel
draw-tube, 22 cm. long, slides in the outer tube, and can be adjusted in
height by means of the screw collar. At the upper end of the draw-tube
is a pinion which engages a rack on a triangular slide. This rack and
pinion serve to accurately ndjust the Microscope after it has been roughly
brought to the required height by means of the draw-tube.

At right angles to the triangular slide is a tube in which the body-
tube for focusing slides by means of a rack and pinion. Above the
pinion is a spirit-level accurately parallel to the body-tube, so that the
latter can be set horizontal by means of the levelling screws.

The optical parts consist of a 2-in. eye-piece, 1-in. and 3-in. objec-
tives. A micrometer divided into tenths of a millimetre is fixed in the
focus of the ocular lens of the eye-piece.

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Demonstration Eye-piece4 — Dr. M. Kuznitzky describes a modified
form of the eye-piece devised by Prof. Pfitzner, in which the end of a
pointer can be brought into the centre of the field
in order, for demonstration purposes, to mark a
certain spot in the preparation. In Prof. Pfitzner’s
apparatus the movement of the pointer was effected
by a lever actuated by a knob on the side of the
eye-piece. In the modified apparatus, as seen in
fig. 94, the side knob and lever are replaced by
a vertical rod, at the lower end of which is the
pointer projecting horizontally as far as the centre
of the field of view. The upper end of the rod
passes through the upper plate of the eye-piece
and carries a knob, by turning which the pointer
can be brought at will into the field of view or
beneath the diaphragm. The knob projects so
little above the eye-piece as not to interfere with ob-
servation through the Microscope. Many English
workers will here recognise an old friend.

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. f Bot. Gaz, xxii. (1896) pp. 55-6.

X Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiii. (1896) pp. 145-6.

Fig. 94.

674

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Fig.

i3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

New Thermostat heated without the use of Gas.3" — Dr. W. Kara-
waiew gives a detailed description of the thermostat which he has found
very serviceable for histological purposes. The regulator for the thermo-
stat depends in its construction upon a new principle, viz. the cutting off
from the thermostat of the heat of the flame by means of a rotating metal
plate. In fig. 95, A B C D represents
the section of the thermostat and EFG
that of the plate, at right angles to
the axis of rotation which passes through
F and is parallel to the edge of the ther-
mostat from front to back through C. At
first tho position of the plate is such
(E F G) that the heat of the flame F l acts
without hindrance on the bottom of the
thermostat C D. This will be the case
until the temperature of the thermostat
rises above a certain point, when the plate,
by an automatic arrangement to be cx-

Fig. 95.

plained later, moves into the position K F L, and the heat of the flame
is cut off from the thermostat.

The thermostat consists of a cubical copper box with double
walls, the interval between which is filled with water. As source
of heat the author uses the benzine lamp of Pusclikareff. The in-
ternal construction of this lamp is seen in half natural size in fig. 96.
The brass tube of the lamp has a length of 21 cm. Its upper part a is

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr , xiii, (189G) pp. 172 -83.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

G75

thin and of diameter 6*5 mm., the lower part b is thicker and is
soldered into the massive fastening c, which screws into the benzine
reservoir. The lower part of the fastening is provided with a fine

Fig. 97.

passage d for the admission of air to the reservoir. In the interior of
the tube is a wick extending from the top down into the reservoir. The
upper end of the tube is provided with two extremely small holes x x,
and is surrounded by a second short tube e, which carries two projecting

676 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

pieces. By means of the wire /, the tube e is connected with a screw
arrangement at the base of the tube, so that by turning the milled rim K
the tube e , with its projecting pieces, can be adjusted in height above
the end of the tube a. The two projecting pieces serve to conduct the
heat of the flame, when the lamp is lit, to the tube a, and thence to the
benzine, so that by adjusting the height of these the heat of the flame is
regulated. The advantages of the lamp are : — (1) It needs no chimney,

so that only a very slight move-
Fig. 98. Fig. 99. ment of the plate of the regu-

lator is required ; (2) it gives
no soot ; (3) the size of the
flame can be easily regulated ;
(4) the size of the flame once
regulated remains the same.

In fig. 97 is shown the
arrangement of the whole ther-
mostat. The movable plate,
13 X 22 cm., rotates about a
horizontal axis through its
centre of gravity. The frame
* on which the thermostat rests
is supported on four iron feet,
38 cm. long. The front side
of the stand is of glass, the
three others of iron. A space
at the top of the left side is
left for the plate, and the right
side is cut away below for the
insertion of the lamp. On the
left side, at a height of 22 cm.,
is a horizontal platform for the
electromagnet which serves to
regulate the position of the
rotating plate. The electro-
magnet C, with its connections
with the battery A and current transmitter B, is seen in fig. 98. When
the current passes the armature D, which is attached to a very flexible
spring E, is attracted to the magnet. To the free end of the spring is
attached a thread which passes round a small pulley F, and is fastened
to the movable plate of the thermostat (fig. 97), above the axis of rota-
tion. When the armature is drawn towards the magnet, the thread pulls
the plate so that its lower half covers the flame of the lamp. The tem-
perature of the thermostat then falls, the current is again broken by the
automatic regulator B, and the plate is brought back to its original
position by means of the weak spiral spring beneath the axis (fig. 97).

The automatic current transmitter is shown in fig. 99. It consists of
a test-tube containing some mercury, and closed by a good cork, through
which passes a small tube. The small tube passes down to the bottom
of the test-tube, and is enlarged at the upper end, where it is closed (but
not air-tight) by a cork. Through this cork the + wire from the battery-
passes down to a certain point of the small tube, while the - wire goes
through the cork of the test-tube down to the mercury at the bottom.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

677

As the temperature rises the air inside the test-tube expands and presses
the mercury up the small tube until it makes contact with the wire,
and the current passes. The position of this current regulator in the
thermostat is seen in fig. 98.

For the battery, four or five Meidinger elements are sufficient.

In using the thermostat the flame of the lamp is gradually raised
until the desired temperature is reached, when the platinum wire of the
current regulator must be brought just into contact with the mercury.
According to the author, the variations of temperature do not then ex-
ceed 0*25° duriDg twelve hours’ work.

Fig. 100.

v

Median longi- I
tudinal section

O-z/)-

Median cross-section.

Object-Holder of Aluminium for observation of Objects on both

sides.* Dr. M, Heidenhain describes a new object-holder of aluminium,

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiii. (189G) pp. 16G-72.

1896

G78

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which in some respects is similar to tho slide devised by Dr. C. J. Cori,
and figured in the last number of this Journal (p. 579). The advantage
of an aluminium slide over the brass one of Cori is that it can be used
in staining sections on the object-holder.

The slide, seen in fig. 100, is of the English shape, and in its thickest
part is not more than 3 mm. thick. The aperture in tho centre is suffi-
ciently large to take a cover-glass of 20 X 30 mm. The object-plate is slid
in from the side along grooves in the sides of the aperture, and can be
fixed in position by inserting small pegs in two holes on opposite sides
of tho aperture.

New Cover-Glass Clip.* — Herr D. C. Wessel uses a new form of clip
for picking up cover-glasses in blocd investigations. It consists of a cross-
wise spring clip, the two ends of which are provided with small plates
12 mm. long and 2 mm. broad. The lower plate is quite thin so that
it can be easily pushed under the glass, while it has a raised piece
1 • 5 mm. from the edge against which the cover-glass stops.

Simple Arrangement for Drawing Microscopic Preparations
under very low Magnifications.f — Hr. 0. Kaiser describes a simple

* Zeitsclir. f. wiss. Mikr., xiii. (1896) pp. 184-5. t Tom. cit., pp. 163-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

679

apparatus by which it is possible to draw microscopic preparations
quickly, and without the need of any complicated mechanism. The
principle of the apparatus depends on the fact that most microscopic
preparations are transparent, and that a bright white drawing paper can
serve as source of light with low
magnifications.

On a simple stand, an eye-piece
diaphragm a (fig. 101) and an object-
stage b can be adjusted in height one
above the other. Under this, on the
table, is the drawing paper. The
effect of the fine opening in the eye-
piece diaphragm is that object and
drawing appear to the eye always ex-
actly in the same position above one
another. In this diaphragm a lens
can be placed. Lenses (c) as well
as diaphragms ( d ) can also be in-
serted in the object-stage. As lenses,
the author has used spectacle
glasses +5, + 10, —5, —10, — 20 D,

&c.

Without lenses and with the dis-
tance between a and the drawing
paper (e.g. 30 cm.) double the dis-
tance between a and b, a double mag-
nification of the drawing is obtained.

For higher magnification, the object-
stage must be brought nearer to the
eye-piece, or the drawing paper re-
moved further. Both can be effected
by the use of lenses ; the apparent
separation of the drawing plane is
produced by placing concave lenses
in the object-stage, while the object
itself can be magnified and brought
nearer to the eye by placing convex
lenses in the eye-piece diaphragm.

In the latter case, a concave lens in
the object-stage, at least double as
strong as the convex lens in the eye-
piece, is indispensable.

New Form of Dissecting-Stand
and Lens-Carrier. — Lt.-Col. H.G. F.

Siddons, at the October meeting of
the Society, exhibited and described
a portable dissecting-stand and lens-
carrier. V/hen opened out, a bent
metal plate with large aperture bridged the space between the (folding)
hand-rests, and upon this, either a transparent or a blackened plate
could be clamped by four spring clips, while a mirror was erected below,

3 a 2

680

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(fig. 102). The ends of the stand fold downwards on the central
joint c.

The whole of the above was contained (with the stand) in a compass
of 7 X 4 X If in.

For use with this apparatus the lens-carrier of Baker’s Tank Micro-
scope was well adapted, as it can be clamped to a table edge, has rack-
and-pinion adjustment, and a long jointed arm, which is here partly re-
placed by a ball-jointed arrangement.

The position of the lens-carrier should be at right angles to the
dissecting-stand, and not as in the figure, where it is shown for con-
venience in illustration.

For dissecting with higher powers, a small Microscope can be
placed between the hand-rests, for which purpose the base of the appa-
ratus has been recessed to receive the feet of such an instrument.

(4) Photomicrography.

New Photomicrographic Apparatus.* — Dr. E. Czaplewski has sought
to combine in this apparatus great stability with ease of adjustment
and convenience of regulation of the illumination. A feature of the
apparatus is that the Microscope is enclosed in a box so as to be pro-
tected from all extraneous light.

A heavy wooden plate, weighted with lead and supported on four feet,
serves as base-plate. On this rise two side walls, 47 cm. high, 4 cm.
thick, 28 cm. wide and 28 cm. apart, between which the Microscope
stands. On the inside of these side-walls and projecting above them
are two iron plates, 60 cm. long, 6 cm. broad, and 7 mm. thick, which
serve to support the upper part of the apparatus.

In front, the two side walls are connected together by a wooden plate
in which is an aperture 6 cm. in diameter, for the admission of light.
This can be closed by a side shutter, sliding in a frame and having a
large round opening of 7 cm. The frame carries a horseshoe groove, in
which ground or coloured glasses can be placed. In one position of the
shutter, all light is cut off from the Microscope. The apparatus is
closed behind by a door. In the base-plate, holes are cut for the feet of
the Microscope, so that the latter may always occupy the same position.
The photographic part of the apparatus is made as light as possible.
The camera-bag is 22 cm. in length when drawn out ; its upper aperture
is about 10 cm., while underneath, it carries a brass socket of 3*2 cm.
aperture, which fits over the eye-piece of the Microscope. The camera-
bag fits into a corresponding opening in a plate, 36 cm. X 28 cm., which
forms a cover for the box enclosing the Microscope. This cover-plate
slides in the iron plates attached to the side walls, and can be adjusted
in height and fixed by a clamping screw.

In order that the body-tube of the Microscope shall not be pressed
by the weight of the camera-bag, the latter is supported by two bars
attached to the cover-plate, and has grooves in which slide two pro-
jecting pieces from the lower plate of the camera-bag. By means
of a screw, the lower plate can be fixed in any position on the bars. The
arrangements for the light-proof connection of Microscope and camera-
bag consist of a double socket similar to that in Zeiss’ apparatus.

* Zuit&elir. f. wiss. Mikr., xiii. (1896) pp. 117-56.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

681

The cover-plate, to which the camera-bag is glued, has a depression
in its upper surface, 18 X 18 cm. and 2 mm. deep, in which fits (not
slides) the slide-holder. The slide-holder consists of a wooden plate
with a thin brass plate on its upper surface. The wooden plate has a
central round aperture of 7 cm., the brass plate on which rests the
photographic plate, one of 6 cm. In the wooden plate is a shutter
15 cm. long and 8 cm. broad. The photographic plate is held in a
frame on the slide-holder, and is protected above by a light-proof cover
carrying a spring which presses it down upon the metal plate of the
holder.

The author describes in detail the process of taking a photograph
with the apparatus. As source of light he prefers the Auer incandescent
gas-flame.

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Tests for Microscope Objectives.* — Mr. E. M. Nelson enumerates
for “ Beginner ” some useful test-objects for microscopic objectives.
With a 3/4 axial cone a “ spread slide” of P. angulatum , dry on cover,
is a good test for lenses from 1/2 in. upwards. One of the best diatoms
for higher powers is the large N. rhomboides found in “ Sozodont” tooth-
powder. The best test for low-power lenses is a balsam-mounted
diatom with dark-ground illumination by Abbe condenser and central
stop.

“ The golden rule for the resolving power of any objective with a 3/4
axial cone of illumination, is that they should show a fineness of
structure equal to 70,000 multiplied by their N. A.”

On the Theory of Optical Images with special reference to the
Microscope. f — Lord Bayleigh remarks that the theory of optical images
has been treated from two distinct points of view. The method adopted
by Helmholtz consists in tracing the image representative of a mathe-
matical point in the object, the point being regarded as self-luminous ;
while in the method of Abbe the typical object is not a luminous point ,
but a grating illuminated by plane waves. In the latter method, it is
argued that the complete representation of the object requires the co-
operation of all the spectra which are focused in the principal focal
plane of the objective ; when only a few are present, the representation
is imperfect, and wholly fails when there is only one. From these con-
siderations the resolving power can be deduced as follows : — In fig. 103,
A B represents the axis, A being in the plane of the object (grating)
and B in the plane of the image. S0 S15 &c. represent the diffraction
spectra. From the central one S0 the rays diverge and illuminate a
circle C D in the plane of the image. The first lateral spectrum Sx is
due to rays diffracted from the grating at a certain angle ; and in the
critical case the region of the image illuminated by rays from Sx just
includes B. Since the extreme ray Sx B proceeds from A, the condition
that S: shall co-operate at B is that the angle of diffraction do not
exceed the semi-angular aperture a. But the sine of the angle of
diffraction is X / e, where X denotes the wave-length and e the smallest
resolvable distance. The above condition then requires that e exceed
X / sin a. With oblique incidence the limit becomes ^ X/ sin a.

* English Mechanic, lxiv. (1896) p. 187.
t Phil. Mag., xlii. (1896) pp. 167-95 (4 figs.),

682

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In criticising the Abbe spectrum theory the author observes that,
although the image ultimately formed may be considered to be due to
the spectra focused at S0, Sx . . the degree of conformity of the
image to tho object is another question. Consideration of the case of
a very fine grating, which might afford no lateral spectra at all, shows
the incorrectness of the usually accepted idea that if all the spectra are
utilised the image will be complete. The author considers that the
theory needs a good deal of supplementing. It is also inapjdicable
when the incident light is not parallel and when the object is, for

Fig. 103.

example, a double point and not a grating. Even in the case of a
grating, the spectrum theory is inapplicable if the grating is self-
luminous ; for in this case no spectra can be formed since the radiations
from the different elements of the grating have no permanent phase-
relations. For theso reasons the author thinks it a desideratum that
the matter should be reconsidered from the older point of view accord-
ing to which the typical object is a point and not a grating. Such a
treatment shows that the theory of resolving power is essentially the
same for all instruments. The peculiarities of the Microscope, arising
from the divergence-angles not being limited to be sm all, and from tho
different character of the illumination, are theoretically only differences
of detail. The investigation can be extended to gratings, and the results
so obtained confirm for the most part the conclusions of the spectrum
theory.

The author commences the discussion by a simple investigation of
the resolving power for a self-luminous double point. In fig. 104, as
before, A B represents the axis, A being a point in the (bject and B a
point in the image formed by the object-glass L L1. The limit to
definition depends upon the fact that owing to diffraction the image
thrown even by a perfect lens is not confined to a point, but distends
itself over a disc of light, and that two points in the object can only
appear fully separated when the representative discs are nearly clear of
one another.

In fig. 104, B is the centre of the diffraction disc representative of A.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

683

At this point all the secondary waves from A agree in phase, but the
waves from a neighbouring point P will arrive at B with discrepancy of
phase. For a very small interval A P this discrepancy produces no
practical effect, and A and P will not be separated in the image. The
question is, to what amount must A P be increased in order that the

Fig. 104.

difference of situation may make itself felt in the image ? Simple calcu-
lation shows that the illumination at B due to P becomes practically
evanescent when the relative retardation of the extreme rays P L and
P L' amounts to a wave-length on their arrival at B. The limit of re-
solution, then, is reached when P L - P L' = X. But since A P is very
small, A L' - P L' and PL — A L are each equal to A P sin a where a
is the semi-angular aperture L' A B. Therefore

A = PL - PL' = 2 AP.sin a,

and the condition of resolution is that A P or c should exceed J X / sm a.

In the above discussion the points to be discriminated are supposed
to be self-luminous. The author considers that the function of the
condenser in microscopic practice in throwing upon the object the image
of the lamp-flame “ is to cause the object to behave, at any rate in somo
degree, as if it were self-luminous, and thus to obviate the sharply
marked interference-bands which arise when permanent and definito
phase- relations are permitted to exist between the radiations which issue
from various points of the object.”

Preparatory to the actual mathematical calculation of the images in
the various cases, the author gives the following instantaneous proof of

Fig. 105.

Lagrange’s theorem, which is similar to the one given many years ago by
Hockin.* In fig. 105, A and B are conjugate points on the axis A B ; P
is a point near A in the plane through A perpendicular to the axis; and

* This Journal, 1884, p. 337.

684

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Q is its image. The optical distance between the conjugate points A and
B is the same for all paths — e.g. for ARS B and ALMB, and the
optical distance from P to Q is the same as from A to B. Consequently,
the optical distance P R S Q is the same as A R S B, i e. /x . A P . sin a =
/x' . B Q . sin /?, where /x, y! are the refractive indices near A and B
respectively, a and /3 the divergence angles R AL, SBM for a given
l ay, and A P, B Q denote the corresponding linear magnitudes of the two
images.

The author then proceeds to the actual calculation of the images to
be expected upon Fresnel’s principles in the various cases. The origin
of co-ordinates (£ = 0, rj — 0 ) is the geometrical image of the radi-
ant point. Representing the vibration incident upon the lens by
cos (2 7r Y t / X), where Y is the velocity of light, the vibration at any
point £, y] in the focal plane is

V<-/ +

^j^Xdxdy,

in which / denotes the focal length, and the integration for x and y is to
be extended over the aperture of the lens.

In the case of a rectangular aperture of width a , b parallel to x and y
respectively, the expression giving the diffraction pattern along the axis

sinw

£ can be simplified to the form , where u is equated to tt $ a / Xf.

Values of the amplitude

sin u

and the intensity

sim u

for different

values of —

7 T

are given

in a table. The illumination first vanishes

when u = 7r, i.e. when £ = X / af.

The author has shown, in a previous paper, * that a self-luminous
point or line at u — — tt is barely separated from one at u = 0. He
now considers the case under three different conditions as to phase : —
(i.) when the phases are the same ; (ii.) when the phases are opposite ;
and (iii.) when the phase-difference is a quarter-period. In the first case
the resultant amplitude is represented by

sin

in (ii.) by
and in (iii.) by

u

U -f- 7T

sin u

sin (u -f 7r) #

u

U + 7T ’

'jsin2 u

j sin2(w + 7r)|

of

A table gives the values of these three functions for different values
— . The graphs of the three functions in fig. 106 show that in i.

* Phil. Mag., viii. p. 2GG.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

685

there is no duplicity, and in iii. only an attempt, while in ii. the
separation may be regarded as complete. For case ii. the same result
follows, even when the points or lines are twice as close as before, for
in this case the resultant amplitude is

sin u siu (u -f- J tt)

U U -j- \ TT 5

and this vanishes when u = — \ tt. The maximum value of the resultant
amplitude which takes place at a point near u = ^ 7r is much less
than before. The image, in fact, very incompletely represents the
object ; “ but if the formation of a black line in the centre of the
pattern be supposed to constitute resolution, then resolution occurs
at all degrees of closeness.” The author has illustrated these results
experimentally by the observation through a telescope of two parallel
slits in films of tinfoil or silver. The distance is chosen so that when
backed by a neighbouring flame the double part of the slit is just mani-
fested by a faint shadow. On replacing the flame by sunlight through a
distant vertical slit, w'hen everything is in line no sign of resolution of
the double part of the slit is observed. A slight sideways movement of
the telescope then suffices to bring in the half-period retardation, and a
black bar down the centre is at once seen. In accordance with theory,
this blafck bar is still seen when the distance is increased much beyond
that at which duplicity disappears under flame illumination.

The calculations for a circular instead of a rectangular aperture in the
case of a double point lead to similar results in the three cases i., ii., iii.,
as before, except that the jmrtial separation, indicated by the central
depression in curve iii. (fig. 106) is here lost.

The author then extends the calculation from the consideration of a
double point or line to the case where the series of points or lines is
infinite, constituting a row of points or a grating. First taking the case
where the various centres radiate independently, as if self-luminous, if
the geometrical images are situated at n = 0, u = ± v, u =■ ± 2 v, &c.,
by the preceding the expressions for the intensity at any point u may
be written as an infinite series,

i oo

sin2 (to -f- v ) f sin2 (u — v )

v2 r '

( u + vy

(u — vy

+

sin2 ( u + 2 sin2 (u — 2 v)

+ 2 vf + (u - 2 v)2 + *

which may be expanded by Fourier’s theorem in a series of cosines.
Thus

I (w) = I0 + Ii cos

2 7T u

V

+ . . . .

_ 2 7r r u

-f- lr COS

V

in which, as shown by calculation,

according as v exceeds or falls short of r tt.

086

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

This expression for Ir shows that when v is largo, a considerable
number of the terms in the Fourier expansion are important, so that
the discontinuous character of the luminous grating or row of points is
fairly well represented in the image ; but as v diminishes, the higher
terms drop out in succession until v is equal to 2 7 r, in which case I2 is
zero, and only I0 and I, remain. When v drops below 7 r, Tt also dis-
appears. The field is then uniformly illuminated, and shows no trace
of the original structure. This is the case of fig. 106, and curve iii.
shows that when an infinite series shows no structure, a pair of luminous
points or lines of the same closeness are still in some degree separated.

Fig. 106.

The case of a grating or row of points perforated in an opaque
screen and illuminated by plane waves of light incident perpendicularly
is next considered. In this case amplitudes and not intensities have to
be superposed. If A be the resultant amplitude,

sin u sin (w + 0) , sin ( u — v)

( ' ~ u u - {- 0 u — v ^

which, by calculation, becomes equal to

7T ,
V \

, _ 2 7TU . ~ 4 TTll

1+2 cos f- 2 ccs [-

V V

the series being continued so long as 2 irr •< v.

I

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

087

As before, the image will correspond accurately with the object
when v is very great, so that the series iucludes a large number of terms.
As v diminishes the higher terms fall out, until when v is less than 2 7 r
the series is reduced to its constant term, and the field becomes uniform.
The resolving power in this case is therefore only half as great as when
the object is self-luminous.

These conclusions accord with Abbe’s theory. The first term of
the series represents the central image, the sec md term the two spectra
of the first order, and so on. Resolution fails when the spectra of the
first order cease to co-operate.

The more complex case when the incident plane waves are inclined
to the grating is next taken. Calculation shows that the image of the
grating or row of points can be represented by the sum of terms

it I v [eimu -f- e':("l + si)“ -f -f- ei(-m + t^u -f . . .

where = 2 ir / v, s2 = 4 ir / v, &c.

Each of these terms corresponds to a spectrum of Abbe’s theory.

With this the author concludes the discussion of the theory of a
rectangular aperture. The consideration of a circular aperture for the
case of parallel waves and perpendicular incidence leads to results similar
to those obtained in the case of a rectangular apeiturc, with one important
difference. In this last case the spectra do not enter suddenly and
with their full effect, as in the case of a rectangular aperture, but the
effect of a spectrum which has just entered is infinitely small.

The author concludes with a general method of investigation,
in which the form of the aperture is supposed to remain symmetrical
with respect to both axes, but is otherwise kept open, the integration with
respect to x being postponed. In the case where the illumination is
such that each point of the row or of the grating radiates independently,
the limit to resolution is shown to depend only on the width of the
aperture, and thus to be the same for all forms of aperture as for the
case of tho rectangular aperture previously considered.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Microchemical Reaction for Nitric Acid.*— Prof. R. Brauns re-
commends the use of barium chloride as a microchemical test for nitric
acid, since barium nitrate is soluble with difficulty. A drop of barium
chloride is added to a drop of the solution to be tested, and warmed over
the water-bath. On cooling, sharp colourless octahedra of barium nitrate
separate out of a solution which contains a nitrate.

Sublimation and the Determination of Melting-Points in Micro-
chemical Investigations.t — Prof. H. Behrens, in his introduction to the
microchemical analysis of the most important organic compounds,
describes a simple heating arrangement for experiments on sublimation
and the determination of melting-points under the Microscope. In
fig. 107 the apparatus is seen in natural size. Beneath the Microscope

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr, xiii. (1896) pp. 207-8.
t Zeitschr. f. aug Mikr., ii. (18 J6) pp. 161-4.

688

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

stage, in the place of the Abbe condenser or nicol, is inserted a socket
with the small burner gh. The mouth of the burner is so small that
the height of the flame never exceeds 15 mm. Two millimetres above
the stage, a mica plate m-m , 0*3 mm. thick, is supported by strips of

cardboard d-d. The object-holder o—o is separated from the mica plate
by a layer of air, tbe thickness of which can be determined by paper
strips.

The late Mr. F. C. S. Roper. — We greatly regret to record the death
of Mr. Freeman C. S. Roper, F.L.S., &c., a Fellow of this Society since
1852, which occurred at Eastbourne in July last. Mr. Roper in former
years was a recognised authority on the Diatomaceae, and contributed
several valuable papers on this subject in the Trans. Mic. Soc. of London
and the Q. J. Micr. Sci. He was also an ardent botanist and published in
1875 a ‘ Flora of Eastbourne and the Cuckmere district of East Sussex/
which the late H. C. Watson, a severe critic in such matters, pronounced
a model of what a local Flora should be. Mr. Roper was the possessor
of an extensive library, mainly botanical and of works on the Micro-
scope. Of the latter, he printed a list for private circulation in 1865.

Besides this and the Flora, his chief papers are : —

Some observations on the Diatoms of the Thames. T.M.S., ii.

(1854) p. 67.

On three new species of Diatomaceae. Q.J.M.S., ii. (1854) p. 283.

Notes on new species and varieties, Brit. Mar. Diatomaceae. Q.J.M.S.,
vi. (1858) p. 17.

On the genus Biddulphia and its affinities. T.M.S., vii. (1859).

Notes on Actinocyclus and Eupodiscus. Q.J.M.S., vi. (1859).

On Triceratium arcticum. T.M.S., viii. (1860).

On the genus Licmophora. T.M.S., xi. (1863).

Notes on the Flora of East Surrey. Jour, of Bot., 1881.

Note on Ranunculus lingua. Jour, of Bot., xxi.

He was Secretary of this Society from 1861-6 ; his collection of
diatoms (some 4000 specimens) has passed to the Botanical Department
of the British Museum, and his herbarium to the Brighton Museum.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

689

£. Technique.*

Hints on Bacteriological Technique.! — Dr. Czaplewski gives a few
practical hints on certain points often occurring in bacteriological work.
Pipettes for obtaining samples of pus or other juices free from con-
tamination with blood, faeces, &c., are often required. They may be
made out of a piece of glass tubing a little longer than the ordinary
test-tube, and from 3 to 4 mm. thick. One end is drawn out to a fine
open point and then stopped with cotton-wool. The pipette wrapped
round with cotton-wool is placed in a test-tube, and then dry or steam
sterilised.

Pieces of tissue should first be washed with water and then with
1 : 1000 sublimate for about one minute, after which they are plunged
in spirit for about half a minute. The alcohol is then burnt off so that
superficial impurities are removed and the internal portions opened up
by tearing or cutting for examination.

Knives and syringes are freed from contamination by immersing them
in caustic potash solution to soften the albuminous matters. These are
then wiped off, the instrument dipped in spirit and the spirit burnt off.
Gelatin should be boiled in a porcelain lined vessel, and this placed
inside another saucepan filled with water, care being taken to prevent
the gelatin pan from wobbling.

Before inoculating birds their feathers should be wetted with spirit
dabbed on with Cotton-wool.

Infectious material and apparatus used in bacteriological work should
be disinfected by boiling them for a good hour in a closed vessel, say a
Papin’s digester, about half filled with water. This procedure is more
trustworthy than the use of chemicals.

Platinum loops should be of a definite size or sizes. These can be
made by winding thin platinum wire round “standard” (1/2— 5 mm.)
wires of definite thickness. In this way, not only is the loop circular,
but holds a definite quantity.

For inoculating eggs, the egg-borer used for blowing birds’ eggs is
very convenient. To obtain samples of blood for bacteriological exami-
nation, the skin should first be wiped over with strong caustic potash
solution, and then washed with spirit. After this it is further disinfected
with sublimate, followed by alcohol and ether ; after the evaporation of
the latter the skin may be pricked.

For imbedding small pieces for sectioning on a freezing microtome,
cacao-butter is convenient as its setting point is 20°, while it is quite
fluid at 37°. After removing the piece from alcohol it is placed in a
mixture of cacao-butter and chloroform, which contains so much of the
latter that it is fluid at room temperature. In this it remains for 1—24
hours, according to the size of the piece ; it is then transferred to lique-
fied cacao-butter (37°), and after a few to 24 hours sectioned. The
cacao-butter is removed with turpentine, after which the sections are
placed in alcohol.

* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes;
(4) Staining aud Iujecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative lluids, &c. ;
(G) Miscellaneous.

t Central!)], f. Bukteriol. u. Parasitenk., lte Abt., xx. (189G) pp. 307-13.

690 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Small pieces of tissue, secretions, or deposits may be conveniently
transported between two watch-glasses placed one on top of the other,
and held together by a rubber band or by adhesive plaster.

Certain fluid nutritive media may be conveniently preserved in her-
metically sealed glass tubes, such as pepton and pepton-glucose blood-
serum. These sealed tubes are obtainable from the usual agents.

Microtechnique of Animal Morphology.* — Prof. S. Apathy has just
brought out the first half of an exhaustive treatise on the microtechnique
of animal morphology. The subject is dealt with, not only from a
practical but a critical standpoint, and the keynote may be gathered
from a quotation in the introduction : — “ We heartily agree with Lionel
Beale, who said that no man ever did perform real work until he had
himself mastered minute practical details.” The work is divided into
a general and special part, and these into sections. The first section
is devoted to preliminary considerations, such as the reasons and
objects of preparatory treatment of the specimen to render it capable
of being examined microscopically, the inherent difficulties that have
to be overcome, and so on, and finally fixation, imbedding, staining, and
mounting.

The second section treats microtechnique from a historical aspect.
The third section gives advice as to the choice of methods, how to
observe the preparation, and so on. The fourth section, which is the
first of the special part, is concerned with the treatment of animal
organisms without the aid of chemical substances. Not the least useful
and interesting is a chronological review of the literature and advances
marie in the last 50-60 years in microtechnique.

Prof. Apathy has produced a work on quite original lines, and one
which is a very valuable contribution to the now difficult subject of
microscopical technique. It is, however, not a text-book in the narrow
sense of the word, though at the same time it is quite suitable for the
use of the student, and is especially adapted for the wants of the
zoologist, histologist, and embryologist.

The second half is to be published in the course of the next twelve
months.

(1) Collecting- Objects including- Culture Processes.

Proper Reaction of Nutrient Media for Bacterial Cultivation.! —
In a synoptical commentary on the reaction of nutritive media, Mr. G.
Fuller points out that the terms alkaline and acid have only a relative
signification. He found that the reaction was most accurately deter-
mined by titration, and that of the different aromatics in use, the safest
results were obtained from phenolphthalein. Caustic soda was used for
alkalinising, and the media were alkalinised while hot, in order to pre-
vent the absorption of carbonic acid from the air. With regard toother
indicators, litmus paper proved more satisfactory than litmus tincture,
though the reaction with the papers was found to vary, both with their
age and method of preparation.

Comparative experiments on alkaline media showed that water

* Braunschweig und London, 8vo, 1896, 320 pp. and 10 figs.

f Journ. Amer. Public Health Assoc., x. 1895. Sec Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u.
Parasitenk., lte Abt., xx. (1896) p. 333.

691

ZOOLOGY ANS) BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC,

bacteria throve best on those which contained 15-20 ccm normal alkali
per litre.

Influence of Glycerin in Culture Media on Diphtheria Bacillus.*—
Dr. A. M. Gossage finds that the addition of 9 per cent, glycerin to the
culture medium gives very favourable results for the cultivation and
staining of the diphtheria bacillus. Glycerin-serum is preferable to
glycerin-agar, as the growth is usually greater, and the appearance of
the bacilli more characteristic. Cultivated on glycerinised media diph-
theria bacilli exhibit an increased affinity for alkaline methylen-blue,
and also a specific metachromatism. On these media each bacillus shows
a deep violet dot at each pole, with frequently one or more dots between
them, whilst the remainder of the bacillus is colourless or deep blue.
Other bacteria in the same culture stain blue.

Dr. A. A. Kanthackj’ states that metachromatism with alkaline
methylen-blue is not dependent on the presence of glycerin in the
cultivation medium, and that as a staining phenomenon it is not only
well known, but common to numerous bacilli.

(2) Preparing- Objects.

Preparation of Embryos of Limulus Polyphemus.]: — Prof. W. Patten
found that surface views of opaque embryos were useful for some pur-
poses. In order to make out many important details it was, however,
absolutely essential to stain the egg, and clear in clove-oil, balsam, or oil
of cedar. The last often gave the best pictures, and the eggs could be
kept longer in this fluid without discolouring the yolk. To obtain the
best surface view the embryos should be stained and mounted as soon as
possible after hardening, or preserved in perfectly clean alcohol in
glass-stoppered bottles. The use of glass stoppers is necessary as the
tannin or other substances in cork stoppers are dissolved out by alcohol
and discolour the yolk. Either picronitric or undiluted picrosulphurio
acid, or Perenyi’s fluid may be used for hardening. The eggs should be
immersed in the cold solution from 10-21 hours. After the eggs are
shelled they are rinsed in the hardening fluids, and transferred to a
large quantity of alcohol of about 94 per cent., which is changed fre-
quently the first few days. The most beautiful surface views are
obtained by staining the whole egg in borax-carmine or almost any
haematoxylin for a very short time, and then wash in acid alcohol. This
method gives very sharp and luminous contours. If the eggs are to be
mounted after clearing in oil of cloves they should be split in halves
with a sharp knife, made by grinding the end of a needle down to a
very thin blade.

Examination of the Sense-Organs of Lumbricus.§ — As Miss F. E.
Langdon has discovered sense-organs in the epidermis of the earthworm,
which have been so often overlooked by competent observers, she thinks
it well to give an account of the methods employed by herself, although
the account contains little that is new. To ensure successful cutting of
sections, it was found best to feed the worm on wood-pulp, in the pre-
paration of which no chemicals had been used. In killing, great care

* Lancet, 1896, ii. pp. 458-9. f Tom. cit., pp. 531-2.

% Jouru. Morphol., xii. (1896) pp. 23-7. § Op. cit. xi. (1896) pp. 194-6.

692 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

must be taken to avoid contortion, or an excessive discharge of mucus
from the gland-cells of the epidermis. Seventy per cent, alcohol was
used, and it was made to drop on the filter-paper at the rate of sixty
drops a minute. This is a modification of the method suggested in
1890 by Cerfontaine. In about an hour the worms are so stupefied by
this method that all the paper may be removed except the small piece
on which the alcohol drops, and the alcohol may be made to drop more
rapidly. At the end of two hours the worms were placed in 50 per
cent, alcohol for an hour, in 70 per cent, alcohol for 24 hours, in 96 per
cent, alcohol for the same time, and they were then preserved in fresh
alcohol of the same strength. Parts of worms chosen for study were
run through absolute alcohol, cedar oil, soft paraffin, one half hard and
one half soft paraffin, and finally imbedded in the last. Each change
from one reagent to another must be made gradually, and the temperature
of the paraffin bath must not rise above 54°. The minute structure
of the sense-organ did not show well in sections more than 10 /x thick.
Dr. Huber suggested to the writer two changes in the published method
of using silver nitrate. The first was to leave the turpentine for 15
minutes instead of five, and the second was to use pure balsam instead of
turpentine balsam.

Examination of the Spermatozoa of Echinoderms.* — Prof. G-. W.
Field very rightly thinks that, owing to the extreme delicacy of the
cells involved, and the extraordinary distortion caused by most killing
fluids in common use for other tissues, he should report with great care
the methods which he found best adapted for his examination of the sper-
matozoa of Echinoderms. Dealing first with fresh material on the
slide, he describes the use of neutral dahlia and methyl-green. To a
watchglassful of sea-water add a small quantity of concentrated aqueous
solution of dahlia, filter very carefully several times. Place the living
spermatozoa in a drop of this liquid on the slide. After three minutes,
add a drop of a dilute solution of methyl-green prepared in the same
way. This method gives a minimum distortion, but unfortunately the
results are very transitory. The value of this method lies in its delicacy,
and for that reason very clean and very dilute, as well as freshly pre-
pared, stains are necessary. A very weak solution of tincture of iodine
in sea-water, very carefully filtered, preserves the shape and size very
well. The author found that a method which was remarkably good for
use in studying the mode of formation of the tail of the spermatozoa,
was to take a 10 per cent, solution of chloride of manganese, and add
to it a concentrated aqueous solution of dahlia ; acetic acid combined with
dahlia and methyl-green gave fair results. Osmic acid was found very
useful for demonstrating the centrosome.

Prolonged fixation was found to be valuable for studying the details
of the development of the spermatozoa. A piece of the testis was teased
in a small quantity of water, fixed in Flemming’s chrom-osm-acetic for
24 hours, then washed for 24 hours or more in distilled water, frequently
changed and shaken. After, treat with some aqueous stain ; the moun-
ting may be made in dilute glycerin or in dammar. The cells become
separated by tapping the cover-glass gently with the point of a needle.

Journ. Morphol., xi. (1895) pp. 238-41.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO.

C93

Other methods are given, for which wo must refer tho student to the
original.

Spermatogenesis.* — In investigating the part which central cor-
puscle and sphere play in forming the spermatozoon, Herr C. Messing
got best results with Hermann’s platinum chloride-osmio-acetic acid
mixture, .and similar mixtures used by G. Messing, e.g. 25 parts 10 per
cent, platinum chloride, 20 parts 2 per cent, osmic solution, 5 parts
glacial acetic acid, and 50 parts distilled water or concentrated aqueous
solution of corrosive sublimate.

Dilute Sulphuric Acid in Preparing Fish Skeletons.! — Dr. 0. Thilo
recommends the following procedure for preparing fish skeletons. Wash
the fish thoroughly with soap and brush, leave for a day in water, immerse
in a cooled mixture of English sulphuric acid and water (1 : 10), and
leave for 8—10 days. Then cleaning is easy. To remove the sulphuric
acid, place in water (once changed) for 12 hours, then in soda solution
(1 : 30) or in saturated baryta hydrate. The cartilage becomes a beauti-
ful white colour. In 4-5 weeks the branchial skeleton falls apart. If
this is to be avoided, 8 days in the baryta solution will suffice. A skull,
like that of the sturgeon, should remain about three weeks in tho sul-
phuric acid solution. To avoid any softening of tho skeleton, 70 to 80
per cent, alcohol may be used instead of water. The cleaned cartilages
may be placed in 30-50 per cent, alcohol, or in Wickersheimer’s solution,
for a couple of weeks, and then kept dry in securely closed glass vessels.

Demonstrating the Structure of the Human Heuroglia4 — Prof.
C. Weigert devotes no inconsiderable portion of an elaborate monograph
on the normal human neuroglia to the methods necessary for demon-
strating its structure. The general course of procedure was to take
small pieces of central nervous system, which should be quite fresh and
of “ good consistence,” and immerse them for eight days in a fluid having
mordant and fixative properties. This was composed of formalin, neutral
acetate of copper, and chrome-alum. The pieces were then got ready for
section by the celloidin method. The sections were then treated with
reducing agents, i.e. permanganate of potash, chromogen, and sulphurous
acid solutions. The next step was to increase the staining affinity of
tho neuroglia by means of an aqueous solution of chromogen. The
sections were stained by the fibrin method.

The mordant-fixative is composed of 5 per cent, neutral acetate of
copper, 5 per cent, acetic acid, and 2’5 per cent, chrom-alum in water.
To make this solution, it is necessary first to dissolve the chrom-alum in
boiling water, then add the acetic acid, and lastly the finely powdered
copper salt. If made in any other way there is a copious green pre-
cipitate.

Reduction is effected by immersing the sections for about 10 minutes
in * 33 per cent, solution of permanganate of potash ; they are now care-
fully washed in water, and then, the water having been poured away, the
reducing solution is poured in. This fluid is made by dissolving 5 per
cent, chromogen and 5 per cent, formic acid in water and filtering. To
90 ccm. of this solution 10 ccm.. of a 10 per cent, solution of ordinary

* Arch. Mikr. Anat., xlviii. (1898) pp. 111-42 (2 pis.).

t Anat. Anzeig., xii. (1898) pp. 244-7.

X Abhandl. d. Senckenb. Gt s., xix (1895) pp. 65-213 (13 ids.).

1896 3 b

691

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Bodium hyposulphite are added. The sections are decolorised in a few
minutes, but the solution may be allowed to act for 2-4 hours.

The sections are next washed once or twice in water, and then"im-
mersed in a saturated aqueous solution of chromogen (chromogen is a
naphthalin derivative, the acid sodium salt of 3-6 disulphoacid of 1-8
dioxynaphthalin). In this solution, which is prepared by filtering a
5 per cent, solution of chromogen, the sections remain all night or
longer. After washing once or twice in water the sections are ready to
be stained. If the staining cannot be carried out at once, the sections
must be kept in acid-alcohol (90 ccm. of 80 per cent. C2H60 plus 10 ccm.
of 5 per cent, oxalic acid).

The rest of the procedure must be carried out on the slide. The
staining solution is dropped on, this is immediately followed by iodine
solution. The section is at once washed and then treated for 15-30 or
more minutes with anilin-oil-xylol. The last fluid is carefully removed
by means of xylol before mounting in xylol-balsam.

The staining solution is composed of 100 ccm. of an alcoholic^solution
of methyl-violet and 5 ccm. of a 5 per cent, aqueous solution of oxalic
acid. The iodine solution is made of a saturated solution of iodine in
5 per cent, iodide of potassium solution. The anilin oil solution is
composed of two parts of anilin oil to one part of xylol.

Prepared and stained by this method the neuroglia fibres are blue,
while the connective-tissue elements are colourless. The plasma of the
nerve-cells is brownish-yellow.

Rapid and Convenient Method of Preparing Malarial Blood-Films.*
— Dr. P. Manson has devised the following elegant method for preparing
blood-films. Well-cleaned slides are placed in rows on a table near the
patient. Three or four oblong slips of fine tissue-paper*lj by 5/8 in.
are also prepared. The droplet of blood, about 1/16 in. in diameter, is
then taken up by touching it with one of the papers about l/2*in. from
the end of the paper. The charged surface is then placed upon a slido
rather towards one end. When the blood has run out .into a film, but
not before, the paper is drawn along the surface of the glass. The
same paper is usually sufficient for several glasses, and when exhausted
should be recharged. In this way 50-60 films may be prepared in
5 or 6 minutes. Labels may then be attached and the slides stored
away. Before proceeding to stain, the blood is fixed by dropping a
little absolute alcohol on the films. After drying they are stained with
borax 5 per cent., methylen-blue 1/2 per cent., for about half a minute.
They are then washed and dried, and mounted in balsam.

Examination of Sputum in Sections.^ — According to Herr A.
Schmidt, sputum is best examined in sections. Lumps of sputum are
fixed in sublimate and further hardened in alcohol of increasing strength.
The material may then be imbedded in paraffin or celloidin. Staining
is best performed on the slide.

Cursclimann’s spirals are easily found and studied by this method.
In the sputum of asthmatics eosinopbilous cells are frequently met
with, while in the expectoration of pneumonia their occurrence is rare.

* Brit. Med. Journ., 1896, ii. p. 122.
t D. A. Ztg. See Zeitschr. f. ang. Mikr., ii. (1896) p. 115.

695

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

Plasma-cells are occasionally found in asthmatic sputum, and giant-oells
in tubercular.

By this method microbes of all sorts may bo demonstrated and
enumerated.

Negative Test for Blood-Spots.* — It is well known, says Herr F.
Gantter, that it is not always possible to obtain lnemin crystals from
old blood-spots on rusty iron. It is, however, possible to prove tho
absence of blood. The action of peroxide of hydrogen on the merest
traces of blood produces a scum of bubbles of oxygen. This reaction
may be observed under the Microscope by placing on a slide a scraping
of the suspected substance, and, after softening it by the application of
weak alkaline water, adding some peroxide of hydrogen solution. If no
gas-bubbles appear after the lapse of a short time, it is distinct evidence
that there is no blood. The appearance of gas-bubbles, however, is not
to be taken as a proof of the presence of blood, as other animal fluids,
such as pus, give the same reaction.

(3) Cutting*, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Handbook of Histology, f — Dr. W. S. Colman has issued a second
edition of his work, which is intended as a practical introduction to
histological methods for students and practitioners. This edition is
enlarged, and has been in great part rewritten. The author says that
he has selected for description those methods which have been found to
work well in practice, and he has thought it better to describe a few in
detail rather than give a short account of many similar methods.

Those who have already found this book useful will no doubt bo
glad to have this new edition of the author’s work.

Microtome with new Device for f Raising and 3 Lowering! the
Object.f — Dr. J. Nowak has sought to obviate the troublesome and

* Zeitschr. f. analyt. Chemie, ii. (1895) p. 159. See Zeitechr. f.'ang. Mikr., ii.
(1896) pp. 111-2.

t ‘Section Cutting and Staining,’ 2nd edition, London, 1896, 8vo, viii. and 160
pp. and 8 figs. X Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiii. (1896) pp. 157-60. "

3 B 2

696

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tedious process involved in regulating the position of the object in
ordinary microtomes. With this object he has devised the mechanism
shown in figs. 108-10. In the micrometer* screw there is a second

Fig. 109.

screw^wliich can be raised or lowered, and with it the object-clamp,
independently of the micrometer-screw.

In fig. 109 the second screw b is seen inside the spindle a of the
micrometer-screw. In this it slides smoothly, and is prevented from
being drawn out too far by the little screw e.

Fig. 110. The milled head / has a nucleus of steel and

serves as nut to the screw-thread c on b, so that
on turning it to and fro the screw b , and with
it the object-clamp, can be adjusted in height.

In the Reichert microtome the slide of the
object-clamp is pressed downwards by a spring
(a, fig. 108). In this case the milled head /
need simply rest upon the spindle b. In other
microtomes, however, which do not possess such a spring, / must be
attached to a plate Z on the toothed wheel li , in such a way that it can
turn, but cannot rise or sink on the spindle b.

Fig. 110 shows how this is effected by two hooks mv from the nut /
engaging in a groove on the edge of the plate Z.

Section-Stretcher for Paraffin Sections with the Gathcart Im-
proved Microtome.* — Dr. K. Kornauth remarks that with the Cathcart
microtome, in the case of objects imbedded in paraffin, there is such a
tendency for the sections to roll up together, that the production of a

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiii. (1896) pp. 160-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

G97

series is almost impossible. For his work on Psilura rnonacha L., in
order not to have to give up the use of the convenient Cathcart micro-

Fig. 111.

Fig. 113.

tome, ho has devised two section-stretchers which have been made by
the firm of Eeichert and have proved very serviceable.

698

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In tbo first and simple form shown in figs. Ill and 112 the cutting
blade is provided with two holes A A, in which are screwed two double
clamps serving to fasten the brass wire B. By bending the wire and
altering its position in the clamping screws, the distance between wire
and blade can be regulated.

In the more complicated form shown in figs. 113 and 114 the rais-
ing or lowering of the stretcher c is regulated by the screw b, while the
small handle a allows the wire to be raised so as to remove the sections
from the knife.

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Application of Aniiin Mixtures for the Tinctorial Isolation of
Tissue-Elements.* — Dr. P. G. Unna recommends Weigert’s method for
staining fibrin and bacteria as being specially suitable for dermatological
specimens. While in this method the decolorising effect of the aniiin
was modified by the presence of xylol, and thus certain tissue-elements
were preserved from altogether losing their colour, the author has
employed the decolorising effect in a new direction. The pigments
used were gentian-violet, metliylen-blue, and polychrome methylen-blue ;
and for decolorising, six groups of aniiin mixtures were employed : —
(1) mixtures of aniiin with acids ; (2) with salts and double salts ;
(3) with acid pigments ; (4) with acid pigments and acids ; ' (5) with
iodine ; and (6) with carbolic acid. The effect of these mixtures as
regards their staining or decolorising action on the various normal and
pathological tissues, and also on agar and blood-serum, are fully dis-
cussed. The more important formulae for staining Hyphomycetes and
Schizomycetes, and sections of normal and pathological cutaneous tissues,
are also given.

Retina of Selachian s.f — Herr L. Neumayer has followed Ramon y
Cajal’s example in trying methylen-blue coloration as well as chrom-
osmic-silver impregnation in his study of the retina in Selachians. But
after some entirely negative results with the former method, he adhered
to metallic impregnation.

Staining of Sexual Nuclei.:]: — Miss E. Sargant has adopted with
success the following methods ( Lilium Martagon). For fixing : Flem-
ming’s solution, viz. : — 3 ccm. of 10 per cent, chromic acid in water,
8 ccm. of 1 per cent, osmic acid, 2 ccm. glacial acetic acid, 27 ccm.
absolute alcohol. The ovaries were then placed in 0*5 percent, aqueous
solution of chromic acid for 18-24 hours ; then washed and placed
successively in 30 per cent., 50 per cent., and 70 per cent, alcohol, at
intervals of 24 hours, and finally removed to methylated spirit. For
imbedding and cutting, bergamot oil was used as a penetrating agent
(Heidenhain’s process). For staining : — (1) Flemming’s orange method
for material fixed in Flemming’s solution. The sections were left about
30 hours in 1 per cent, solution of safranin in absolute alcohol diluted
with its own bulk of water ; then washed out in 50 per cent, alcohol,

* S.A. aus Monatshefte f. prakt. Dermatologie, xxi. (1895). See Centralbl. f.
Bakteriol. u. Parasitenlc., xx. (1896) p. 406.

t Arcli. f. Mikr. Anat., xlviii. (1896) pp. 83-111 (25 figs.).

% Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 473-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

699

slightly acid, then in neutral SO per cent, alcohol, and transferred to dis-
tilled water. They were then transferred to 0*25 per cent, solution of
gentian-violet in water for 2-4 hours ; then washed out successively in
2 per cent, aqueous solution of Griibler’s orange G, 1 per cent, solution
of orange G in 50 per cent, alcohol, and methylated spirit ; dehydrated,
and cleared in clove oil. (2) Renaut’s hsematoxylic eosin for alcohol
material. The sections were left all night in a solution of 2-3 drops
orseillin extract diluted with 100 ccm. of water ; then rinsed, and placed
in a very dilute solution of Renaut’s hrematoxylic eosin in 0 * 1 per cent,
aqueous solution of potash-alum, washed with tap-water (to keep them
alkaline), and the orseillin stain washed out slowly by dilute alcohol.

Staining of Fungi.* — Mr. H. Wager recommends the following
methods, especially for observing the sexual organs ( Cystopus ). The
most useful fixing and hardening reagent is corrosive sublimate. The
pieces of tissue are then well washed in water, transferred to 30 per
cent, spirit, 50 per cent, spirit, and 70 per cent, spirit, and finally to
90 per cent, spirit, about 2 or 3 hours in each. They may now be
saturated en bloc and imbedded in paraffin, or they may be first imbedded
in paraffin and the sections stained on the slide (the latter preferable).
For imbedding previously to staining they are transferred to absolute
alcohol for half an hour, then to a mixture of alcohol and xylol, and are
finally placed in melted paraffin. The staining solutions used are as fol-
lows : — (1) 50 percent, spirit, 4 vols. ; glacial acetic acid, 1 vol. ; (2) to
solution (1) enough nigrosin is added to make it opaque in the bottle
and transparent in a half-in. layer; (3) to solution (1) enough nigrosin
is added to make it blue, but transparent, in a layer 2 in. thick;
(4) 50 per cent, spirit, to which a small quantity of (2) is added to
make it quite light blue; (5) Mayer’s alcoholic solution of carmine.
The sections are placed for 5 or 10 minutes in the mordanting solution
(4). They are then placed in Mayer’s carmine for a few minutes until
they become stained distinctly red, then washed in 30 per cent, spirit
in solution (3). If a deep stain is required, use solution (2).

(5) Mounting1, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Preserving Embryological Material.! — Prof. A. A. W. Hubrecht
adopted the following method for collecting and despatching embryo-
logical material from the Dutch East Indies to Utrecht. The animals
were killed with chloroform and then cut up. The uterus was removed
and placed in picrosulphuric acid, prepared according to the following
formula : 100 volumes of saturated aqueous picric acid were mixed with
2 volumes of sulphuric acid. The solution was filtered and mixed with
Water in the proportion of 1 part of the solution to 3 parts of water.
In this mixture the parts cut out were placed ; after 10 to 15 minutes,
the fluid having become cloudy, fresh acid solution was used. In this
the preparations remained not less than 8 and not more than 24 hours.
They were then transferred to 70 per cent, alcohol, and after 1 or 2 days
to 90 per cent, alcohol.

* Ann. Bot., x. (1896) pp. 312-4.

t Naturk. Tijdschrift voor Nederl.-Indie, Deel 54, p. 90. See Zeitsehr. f. ang.
Mikr., ii (1896) p. 111.

700

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Preservation of Urinary Deposits.* * * §' — Dr. Gumprecht first obtains a
deposit with a centrifuge. This deposit is then placed in a saturated
solution of sublimate and centrifuged again. It is then washed and
preserved in a solution of formol (2 to 10 per cent.) If no red blood-
corpuscles be present the sublimate stage may be omitted. If there be
much albumen the deposit should be washed with normal saline solution.
If there be urates the deposit should be washed with warm water or
saturated solution of boric acid. If permanent preparations of the
deposit be desired it is well to wash off the formol. Preserved in this
way, the deposit can hardly be told from those of fresh specimens.

Preserving Museum Specimens.! — Dr. 0. Kaiserling describes a
process for preserving, and at the same time retaining the colour of
museum specimens. The organ is placed for 24-36-18 hours in the
following solution: — Formalin 750 ccm., distilled water 1000 ccm.,
nitrate of potash 10 grm., acetate of potash 30 grm. The specimen is
then transferred to 80 per cent, alcohol for 12 hours, then for 2 hours
to 95 per cent, alcohol, and is subsequently preserved in a mixture
composed of equal parts of water and glycerin with the addition of
30 parts of acetate of potash.

Delicate tissues, such as intestine, are best kept in equal quantities
of glycerin and water with the addition of 1 part of absolute alcohol to
10 of the mixture.

Disinfection with Formalin Vaponr.J — M. M. L. Vaillard and
G. H. Lemoine found that formic aldehyde is a far superior disinfectant
to atomised sublimate. It is extremely effective on all bacteria, but its
action on spores is inconstant. For obtaining a quite certain effect, the
vapour must be disengaged not only rapidly, but in large quantity.
Owing to the fact that it polymerises rapidly, becoming converted into
an inert body, formol must bo considered as a surface disinfectant ;
from experiments this was found to be the case, for with infected articles
lightly covered by it the deeper layers of dust were found to be unaffected
by the antiseptic, even after prolonged exposure to its action. With
this reservation, the authors think that as a disinfectant formol is of
incontestable utility and certainly superior to sublimate spray.

Experiments with Porcosan.§ — Dr. Deupser has made experiments
with porcosan, a preparation which is advertised as being an infallible
preventive of swine-fever. The fluid was tested in the usual way, the
animals used for the purpose being mice, rabbits, and pigeons. As a
preventive against swine-fever, porcosan was a complete failure.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Microscopical Examination of Meal.|) — It is possible, says Dr.
Lange, to distinguish barley-meal from the flour of rye and wheat,
owing to the fact that the first contains 2 to 4 per cent, of silica, while
the two latter contain only small quantities. And as the silicated plant-

* Centralbl. f. inn. Med, July 25, 1896. See Brit. Med. Journ., Epit.,i. (1896)

p. 48. t Berliner Klin. Wochensehr., xxxiii. (1896) pp. 775-7.

t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, x. (1896) pp. 481-7.

§ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol. u. Parnsiienk., lte Abt., xx. (1896) pp. 421-8.

|| Zeitschr. f. ang. Mikr , i. (1896) pp. 369-70.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

701

cells, such as the husk of seeds, epidermis, and even hairs retain their
appearance after combustion and treatment with mineral acids, it is
possible to detect their presence even under low powers. The author’s
method is to put a teaspoonful of the meal to be examined in a flask of
hard glass, together with 20 ccm. of strong sulphuric acid, and a tea-
spoonful of anhydrous copper sulphate. Energetic oxidation takes
place on boiling, and after complete reduction, a colourless fluid is
obtained. The fluid is poured slowly into 250 ccm. of water in a conical
glass, and after having been stirred with a glass rod, is allowed to stand
for some hours. Some of the sediment may then be pipetted off and
examined under the Microscope. This method is said to be quite certain
for the detection of barley-meal when mixed with flour and other meals.
Of course it can be used for baked articles.

Detection of Starch in Meat Preparations.* — For determining the
presence and amount of starch in sausages, Herr J. Mayrhofer follows
the method devised by Dragendorff who treated the material with
alcoholic solution of potash, in which sugar, albumen, fat, &c., are
soluble, the starch being left as residuum on the filter. Finely minced
sausage is digested in 8 per cent, alcoholic solution of caustic potash in
a water-bath until the meat is quite dissolved. The insoluble residue,
placed in a paper or asbestos filter, is then treated with hot alcohol and
washed therewith until the reaction is no longer alkaline. The residuum
is then dissolved in aqueous solution of caustic potash, and the starch
afterwards precipitated by the addition of alcohol. The precipitate is
separated by filtration and then washed in turn with alcohol and ether.

The starch thus obtained is nearly always mixed with a greater or
less amount of carbonate of potash, to get rid of which it is necessary
to treat the mass with dilute acetic acid, for acetate of potash is easily
soluble in alcohol. Though the method is satisfactory as far as ascer-
taining the quantity of starch in the sample used, it gives no idea of
the total quantity of meal in the sausage from which it was taken, as
the distribution of the meal in the sausage is very irregular.

Microscopical Examination of Jams-t — Herr G. Marpmann con-
tributes some practical though lengthy observations on the adulterations
of jams and the means of detecting them partly by chemical and partly
by microscopical investigation. It seems that conserves manufactured
in Germany are adulterated with gelatin, agar, algrn, arabinose, &c.,
coloured with anilin pigments and preserved by means of salicylic acid,
boric acid, &c. Instead of cane-sugar, starch-sugar is used, saccharin
or dulcin being employed to impart the wanting sweetness.

* Forschungs-Bcrichte, 1896, p. 141. See Zeitachr. f. ang. Mikr., ii. (1896)
pp. 112-3. See Zeitschr. f. ang. Mikr., ii. (1896) pp. 112-3.

f Zeitschr. f. ang. Mikr., ii. (1896) pp. 97-107 (11 figs.).

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on the 21st of October, 1896, at 20 Hanoveh Square, W.,
Dr. R. G. Hebb, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 17tli June last were read and con-
firmed, and were signed by the Chairman.

The List of Donations to the Society (exclusive of exchanges and
reprints) received since the last meeting was read, and the thanks of
the Society were voted to the Donors : —

From

E. M. Crookshank, Bacteriology. 4tli ed. (8vo, London, 1897) {(] K ^Lewis)
A. B. Lee, Microtomist’s Vade-Mecum. 4th ed. (8vo, London,

1896) The Author.

Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell called the attention of the Fellows of the
Society to the two books presented. One of these was a copy of the fourth
edition of Mr. A. B. Lee’s ‘ Microtomist’s Vade-Mecum,’ a notice of
which he had inserted in the October number of the Journal, pp. 564-5.
The first edition of this work was published in 1885, and the fourth in
1896 — a fact which would be in itself the best testimony to the value of
its contents to students and others. The other book, also in its fourth
edition, was Prof. Cruikshank’s text-book on Bacteriology. The ad-
vances made since the previous editions were issued had necessitated the
re-writing of a considerable portion of both these books ; so that each
would be found much more than simply a new edition of an old book.

The Chairman remarked that the Society was greatly indebted to
the donors of these useful works, and he took the opportunity of stating
that he had derived considerable benefit from the earlier editions of both.
The present editions were great improvements on the previous ones,
both works having been not only revised, but practically re-written.

Prof. Bell said that the Fellows of the Society would no doubt re-
member that, thanks to the endeavours of Mr. E. M. Nelson, Mr. T.
Charters White, and Mr. Andrew Pringle, the Society was very well

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

703

represented at the Chicago Exhibition, the authorities of which had
shown their gratitude by presenting them with a handsomely designed
and engraved diploma, and also with a bronze medal. They had already,
at the time when the award was announced, expressed their thanks to
the authorities for these marks of distinction ; but the diploma and tho
medal were now upon the table for the Fellows to examine.

Lieut.-Col. H. G-. F. Siddons exhibited and described a new portable
dissecting stand and lens-carrier (see ante , p. 679).

Mr. Conrad Beck said it would be remembered that at the last meet-
ing he had explained that the Council of the Society have in course of
preparation new standard gauges for standardising the Society screw of
Microscope object-glasses. It was hoped that these would have been
ready by this time, but the unavoidable delays of manufacture have
made this impossible. They will probably be ready next month, and
when the new gauges have been adopted by the various makers tho
Standard Screw will have been placed upon a thoroughly sound basis.

Prof. Bell said that a Conversazione of the members of the Patho-
logical Society had been held on the previous evening, and, permission
having been given for the use of the rooms of the Royal Microscopical
Society on the occasion, the historic and some other instruments be-
longing to their Society had been displayed. One of the Fellows had
remarked that he had never seen so much of the Society’s possessions
before, and it had been suggested that the exhibition should remain
open that evening, so that after the meeting any persons present who
wished to do so could go upstairs and see this very interesting collec-
tion. He thought it was very satisfactory to find that these instruments
had been examined with much interest by those who were present at
the Conversazione.

Mr. J. E. Ingpen said the interest in these historic instruments was
almost world-wide, and he only wished there were more of them, es-
pecially as he knew there were many more which might be obtained.
As far as they went, however, they were very interesting.

Prof. Bell said that one of the visitors of the previous evening told
him that thero was an old Microscope of a type which the Society did
not possess exposed for sale for 1Z. somewhere in the slums of Padding-
ton, but he was not able to get anything more definite than this as to
its pattern or locality. Perhaps any Fellows who frequented that district
would keep a look-out in the hope of discovering it.

Mr. E. M. Nelson said that it was with great pleasure he had seen
the capital exhibition of old Microscopes and apparatus on that occasion.
He could not help saying how much he regretted that the Society should
have parted with one of the three historical Microscopes that had been
purchased in 1841. It appears that the Society exchanged the Andrew
Ross Microscope for what in those days was considered a superior in-
strument by the same maker. However superior in those early days the

704

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

improved model may have been, the original Microscope would now be
of far greater value to us.

Mr. Ingpen said he well remembered being taken by his father many
years ago to the Society’s rooms in Sackville Street, and there, upon
three brackets, were the Microscopes which Mr. Nelson had referred to.
He also recollected the exchange being made of the lloss Microscope for
one which was accepted by the Council of that time as being more useful
to the Society for working purposes. The historical value of these
things was greater than was generally supposed.

Mr. J. Butterworth. read a paper c On a Pliotomicrographic Camera
designed chiefly to facilitate the study of opaque objects,’ exhibiting
upon the screen a diagram of the apparatus referred to, and a series of
photographs of opaque mineral sections. Specimens in further illustra-
tion of the subject were also exhibitedrunder the Microscope. In answer
to inquiries from Fellows of the Society, it was explained that the light
used was that of an incandescent gas-burner. This was reflected from a
concave mirror to another concave mirror in front of the object, and
thence upon the object itself, which was fixed upon the stage of a Micro-
scope having the tube in a horizontal position ; the photograph being
taken by a camera in the usual way. Greater distinctness of differentia-
tion was obtained by acting upon the polished surface of the object by
hydrochloric acid. In this way photographs taken at successive stages
of grinding down were made to furnish views equivalent to a series of
sections, which were of great value in determining structure.

Mr. Nelson thought they ought to express their admiration of these
photographs, which were certainly the best he had seen of opaque sec-
tions. The subject had always been regarded as a very difficult one,
but the method described to them that evening went far towards over-
coming the difficulties.

Mr. George Murray said the great trouble in satisfactorily examining
these substances was the impossibility of cutting thin successive sec-
tions ; but the method which had been explained to them that evening
enabled students by the aid of photography to produce results equivalent
to such sections, and to place this key to their study within their grasp.
He thought it was possible to predict that great good might come from
this new method of research.

The thanks of the Society were, upon the motion of the Chairman,
cordially voted to Mr. Butterworth for his paper and the interesting ex-
hibition he had given.

Mr. T. Comber read his paper * On the Occurrence of Endocysts in
the Genus Thalassiosira .’ The subject was illustrated by photomicro-
graphs shown upon the screen.

Mr. George Murray detailed some observations made in connection
with the subject in the month of March, which had enabled him to de-
termine how these endocysts arose. In illustration of the subject he
exhibited some photographs upon the screen showing Coscinodiscus which

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

705

had begun to divide within the mother-cell, also groups of 8 and 16
young diatoms, which he inferred might have originated in a similar
way. He thought these were imperfectly silieified.

Votes of thanks were unanimously passed to Mr. Comber and
Mr. Murray for their communications.

Mr. F. Chapman read a further communication (the ninth of the
present series) ‘ On the Foraminifera of the Gault.’

Prof. Bell said they would not receive with unbounded regret the
announcement that Mr. Chapman’s next paper would be his last, because
another Fellow of the Society had intimated his willingness to com-
mence a fresh series as soon as Mr. Chapman had finished. One great
point of interest to a philosophical mind was that the study of a
subject like that under consideration seemed to lead to such extra-
ordinary results. Sir Wyville Thompson, for instance, had told them
that they were still living in the Cretaceous epoch. It struck him, how-
over, as something remarkable that Mr. Chapman should tell them that
Globigerina bulloides was so rare in the Chalk, because, so far as he knew,
exactly the opposite was stated by every other writer. They would, no
doubt, thank Mr. Chapman for this communication, but would reserve
their serious thanks until the appearance of his tenth paper.

Mr. E. M. Nelson gave a brief resume of his paper c On a Method of
Measuring the Apertures of Objectives.’

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Nelson for his paper.

New Fellows. — The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary
Fellows : — Mr. W. D. Colver and Dr. D. F. Gamber.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited : —

The Society : —

Diploma and Medal awarded by the Columbian Exhibition at
Chicago.

Microscope believed to have been made by John Marshall about tho
year 1700.

Culpeper’s Compound Microscope, date about 1738.

The first Patent Microscope, invented by George Lindsay in 1742.

Three Microscopes made by Messrs. Culpeper and Scarlet about
1750.

Dellebarre’s “ Microscope Universel,” date about 1777.

Microscope made by Benjamin Martin about the year 1780, formerly
in the possession of the late Prof. John Quekett.

Solar Microscope made by Messrs. Jones, date about 1790.

Compound Microscope by Cary, date about 1800.

70G

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Cutbbert’s “ Amician Reflecting Microscope,” date about 1827.

Two Microscopes made by G. Oberhaeuser of Paris, about 1830.
(These stands represent the original form of the Continental Micro-
scope.)

Two Microscopes made by Georges Chevalier of Paris, between 1833
and 1834.

Simple Microscope by Tulley and Sons, date about 1835.

Microscope designed by Mr. Edwin J. Quekett, and made by Messrs.
Smith and Beck about 1840.

Microscope by Messrs. Dollond, made previous to 1840.

Microscope by Hugh Powell, made by order of the Society in 1841.
(The fine-adjustment is fitted to the stage of the instrument. The
binocular body was added in 1861.)

Microscope made by James Smith for this Society in 1841.

Machine for Microscopic Writing, invented by Mr. W. Peters in
1855.

Pathological Slides mounted by the late Mr. R. J. Farrant, F.P.C.S.,
previous to 1856.

Mr. J. Butterworth : — Calcareous Nodules from the Lancashire Coal
Measures near Oldham, showing Plants in situ. — Photograph of Coal. —
Lantern Slides.

Mr. F. Chapman : — Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone, illus-
trating his paper.

Mr. T. Comber : — Lantern Slides, illustrating his paper.

Mr. G. Murray : — Lantern Slides, illustrating his remarks.

Lt.-Col. H. G. F. Siddons : — New form of Dissecting Stand and
Lens-Carrier.

MEETING

Held on the 18th op November, 1896, at 20 Hanover Square, W.
A. D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 21st of October last were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman.

The List of Donations to the Society (exclusive of exchanges and
reprints) was submitted, and the thanks of the Meeting were given to
the donors.

From

Claikson, A., Text-Book of Histology. (8vo, Bristol and London, \ The Publishers

1896) / ( Messrs . Wright).

Geological Survey of Canada, Annual Report, N.S., vii. 1894.1 Geol. Survey of
(8vo, Ottawa, 1896) / Canada.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

707

Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell called attention to a volume wliicli had only been
presented to them that day, ‘ A Text-Book of Histology,’ by Mr. Arthur
Clarkson, a gentleman whom, he regretted to say, he did not know, and
whose name did not appear upon the list of the Fellows of the Society.
The book, as they would see, was a large one, and contained 174 coloured
illustrations, but it had so recently arrived that he Had not been able to
look into it, and was therefore not in a position to say anything as to its
merits.

Mr. T. Charters White said he had only been able to glance through
Mr. Clarkson’s 4 Text-Book of Histology ’ before the meeting, but thought,
judging from the full manner in which the various studies in histology
had been treated, that the work would prove a very valuable aid to those
who were working in this direction. He thought that the illustrations
were perhaps a little too diagrammatic, but no doubt they would suffi-
ciently indicate the chief features of the various structures shown, and
would serve to teach the student the characters to be sought for in them.
Judging from the index, so far as he could see, the work seemed to treat
of every subject the histologist would be likely to require.

The President said, as regarded the illustrations, they certainly
were, as Mr. White had pointed out, somewhat diagrammatic, but dia-
grammatic illustrations seemed to be the fashion of the day, and there
were some people who thought that they were the most useful and best
kind of illustrations. He did not say that he himself was of that way
of thinking, but there were many persons who thought so. The book
itself seemed one upon which a great deal of trouble had been expended,
and their thanks were certainly due to the publishers for this valuable
donation.

Prof. Bell said there was one other donation to the Library to
which he might call attention, the 4 Report of the Geological Survey of
Canada,’ a subject which could hardly be said to fall within the scope
of the Society’s operations, and, considering the crowded state of their
shelves, they were beginning to feel rather overcharged with literature
of this kind, and might have to place some limit to it.

The President said that their brethren on the other side of the
Atlantic were much more generous in their distribution of literature of
this kind than we were ourselves. Sometimes the reports received were
of very great value to the Society ; but, of course, as might be expected,
they did at other times receive publications which were not particularly
suited to the wants of microscopists. In any case, however, they could
but admire the generosity with which these reports were distributed.

The thanks of the Society were, on the motion of the President,
specially voted to the donors of the books to which attention had been
particularly called.

The President regretted that a paper by Mr. E. M. Nelson, which
they hoped would have been read that evening, was obliged to be post-
poned to the next meeting, owing to the unavoidable absence of the
author. A note on another subject by Mr. Nelson would, however, ho
read by their Secretary.

Prof. Bell then read the following, by Mr. Nelson, on the old
“Powell” Microscope in the Society’s collection — the instrument in

708

PROCEEDINGS OP THE SOCIETY.

question being placed upon the table. The stand bore the date 1841,
and in 1861 it was fitted with Wenham’s binocular arrangement.

“An interesting point has cropped up with regard to the original
Powell’s Microscope in the Society’s possession. It appears that the three
Microscopes were ordered by the Microscopical Society on June 24, 1841,
and that James Smith was the first of the three makers to deliver his
Microscope in November 1841. Powell was the next, and did so in
December 1841. This Microscope is figured by Cooper, but it is not
the instrument at present in the Society’s possession. For the Micro-
scope figured in Cooper a silver medal was awarded to Hugh Powell by
the Society of Arts in 1841. See vol. liii. of their Transactions, p. 78.
The question is, was this Microscope, which was delivered to the Micro-
scopical Society in December 1841, changed for the present one at some
subsequent date, and the date which it bears, viz. 1841, put on it to
show that it was ordered in 1811 ? The Turrell stage raised by a wedge
movement for fine -adjustment focusing, which is the form on the instru-
ment at present in the Society’s possession, obtained a silver medal from
the Society of Arts in 1833. See their Transactions, vol. xlix. (1833)
pi. 3, and for letterpress description see vol. 1. (1836) p. 108.”

Mr. J. E, Ingpen fancied that Mr. Perigal would be almost the only
one who could give them information upon the points raised. His own
memory did not carry him back to 1841, but he thought that the original
“ Powell ” was not as large as the one on the table.

Mr. J. J. Vezey said he feared it was not of much use troubling
Mr. Perigal on the matter, for that gentleman had recently complained
to him, that his memory for details failed him a good deal, except on
the subjects in which ho specially worked ; the Microscope not being
one of these.

The President said it struck him that the binocular arrangement
must in any case have been a later addition.

Mr. T. Powell said there was no doubt at all as to that, the bino-
cular arrangement was certainly not a part of the original Microscope,
but was added to it when Mr. Wenham brought it out.

Mr. Ingpen referred to a somewhat similar question that had arisen
with reference to the original Ross Microscope. He had not his notes
with him, but was under the impression that it had been exchanged for
a more complete instrument some years later. Messrs. Ross & Co. had
promised to search for any record of this that there might be in their
books.*

Prof. Bell read an extract from “ Cooper,” according to which these
Microscopes were originally purchased out of the funds of the Society.

Mr. Ingpen explained that, according to his recollection, the “ Ross ”

* Upon reference to the Trans. Micr. Soc., N.S. xvi. p. 55, I find that my
memory does not agree with Mr. Glaisher’s report on the Microscopes at the Annual
Meeting, Feb. 12, 1868. There must, I think, have been some other changes besides
those he mentions. At the Annual Meeting in 1863 (Trans. Micr. Soc , N.S. xi.
p. 21), it is stated that the new instrument was to be in exchange for the old one. If
so, it could hardly have been in possession of the Society in 1868. The exchange,
or donation, is referred to in the President’s Address for 1861 (Trans., N.S. xii. p. 67).
Perhaps Mr. Shadbolt could help us in this interesting bit of the Society’s history. —
J. E. I.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

709

and “Powell” must have been exchanged for larger and improved
instruments. He thought that the “ Smith ” might possibly be nearly
in its original condition.

The President said, no doubt the types at the time the exchange was
made had become old, but not sufficiently antiquated to be of historical
interest, as they undoubtedly would be at the present time.

Mr. Conrad Bock said that the first Microscope ever made by James
Smith, under the direction of Joseph Jackson Lister, was given by the
late Joseph Beck to Mr. Crisp. From the appearance of the one in
the possession of the Society, he was inclined to think it was the Micro-
scope purchased by the Society originally ; but as it was stated that the
number of this Microscope was 43, he thought he should be able to tell
by reference, whether it was the original one purchased by the Society
or not.

Lieut.-Col. H. G. F. Siddons exhibited a portable case of mounting
apparatus, designed to contain all that was requisite in the smallest
possible compass. In the bottom of the case was a rack to receive
dissecting knives, scissors, razor, and writing diamond. Above this was
a deep drawer containing a section cutter, small lamp, turntable, and
various dissecting troughs ; besides cells, glass slides, needles, Ac.
Above the drawer was a rack containing a dozen small bottles and jars,
with a sliding receptacle for wet brushes and dipping tubes. Over all
was a brass mounting table with screw legs. The whole of these were
included in a case measuring 8x7 X 4 in. This case served as
a stand for the turntable, of which the spindle passed through a bushed
aperture in the lid, to a metal bearing let into the back of the case.
The turntable is made by Mr. Parkes of Birmingham, from whose models
the general idea of the whole exhibit was derived.

The President thought all would be pleased with the arrangement
they saw before them, who had any experience of how convenient it was
to have something portable which would supply all their wants in this
direction when travelling. No doubt, most of those who had carried
a Microscope with them over distant parts of the world had tried some
scheme of this kind for themselves. As regarded the apparatus con-
tained in the case, the usefulness would, of course, depend upon a man’s
wants for the particular kind of work in which he was engaged. Few
persons would want all the things which were there, but any one could
easily modify the contents to suit his own requirements.

The thanks of the meeting were, on the motion of the President,
unanimously voted to Colonel Siddons for his exhibit.

The President said that all the papers sent in to the Society, since
the Vacation, having been taken at the last meeting, there was no further
matter to bring before them that evening in the absence of the com-
munication which they had expected from Mr. Nelson.

3 o

1896

710

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—

The Society : — Microscope by Hugh Powell.

Lieut-Col. H. G. F. Siddons : — Portable Cabinet for Mounting
Apparatus.

New Fellow The following gentleman was elected an Ordinary
Fellow: — Mr. H. Rowe-Jeremy.

711

INDEX OF NEW BIOLOGICAL TERMS, OR OLD TERMS WITH
NEvV MEANINGS, RECORDED IN THIS VOLUME.

«. ZOOLOGY.

Ad j ungen tidse. Rhumbler, 320
Aeolotropy, Ryder, 30
Aeromorphosis, Herbst, 29
Autotliecalia, Bourne, 74
Baryomorphosis, Herbst, 29
Coenothecalia, Bourne, 74
Epibatic, Ahlborn, 299
Eritrocitina, Giglio-Tos, 608
Eurytop, Dahl, 617
Fibrilloplast, Lohraann, 301
Hind-kidney, Felix, 39
Hydromorphosis, Herbst. 29
Hypobatic, Ahlborn, 299

Mechanomorphosis, Herbst, 29
Membranoplast, Lohraann, 301
Nuditestidse, Rhumbler, 320
Oxygenomorphosis, Herbst, 29
Pliotomorphosi-, Herbst, 29
Protodiplopoda, Kenyon, 406
Protrudentidse, Rhumbler, 320
Revolventidse, Rhumbler, 320
Spirocysts, Bedot, 399
Stenotop, Dahl, 617
Substance fusoriale, Lee, 510
Thigmomorphosis, Herbst, 29
Thjrostome, Macgillivray, 402

B. BOTANY.

Acrogamous, Van Tieghem, P., 206
Alloolysis, Griise, J.

Amanitin, Griffiths, A. B , 553
Antipodal cell-body, Westermaier, M., 436
Architype, (sens, nov.), Sachs, J.,
Autoliemibasidii, Brefeid, O., 93
Basigamous, Van Tieghem, P., 206
Canal -raphe, Mii ler, O., 452
Couidial oogone, Maurizio, A., 445
Conidial sporange, Maurizio, A., 445
C<>niocarpi, Reinke, J., 551
Discocarpi, Reinke, J., 551
Dolichonema-stage, Rosen, F., 200
Epithallus, Zukal, H., 658
Euthymorphosis, Caruel, T., 643
Geophilous, Areschoug, F. W. C., 324
Geophyte, Areschoug, F. W. C., 324
Geotrophy, Wiesner, J., 326
Heliotropic angle, Czapek, F., 652
Heterocarpy, Huth, E., 433
Homceogamy, Van Tieghem, P., 646
Hydrotrophy, Wiesner, J., 326
Margo excipuli, Star hack, K., 551

Meiosporange, Sauvageau, M. C., 547
Oxydase, Bertrand, G., 430
Pars fundi excipuli, Starbaek, K., 551
Pars marginalis excipuli, Starbaek, K., 551
Pars parietis excipuli, Starbaek, K., 551
Phototrophy, Wiesner, J.. 326
Phycoporphyrin. Lagerheim, G., 213
Protohemibasidii, Brefeid, O., 93
Protrophy, Minx, A., 439
Paeudocommideae, Debray, J., 215
Pyrenocarpi, Reinke, J., 551
Ramillary, Massart, J., 434
Sarmentary, Massart, J., 434
Sporangial rudiment, Maurizio, A., 445
Textura epidermoidea, Starbaek, K, 551
Textura globosa, Starbaek, K., 551
Textura intricata, Starbaek. K., 551
Textura oblita, Starbaek, K., 551
Textura porrecta, Starbaek, K., 551
Textura prismatica, Starbaek, K., 551
Trichite, Meyer, A., 80
Trophy, Wiesner, J., 326
Tyrosinase, Bertrand, G., 430

3 c 2

.

713

INDEX.

A.

Abba, F., Demonstrating Presence of
Bacillus coli in Water, 250
Abbe’s Apertometer, 247

— Spectroscopic Eye-Piece, 241
Abdomen in Coleoptera, Morphology, 57
Abdominal Appendages of Insects, 402
Abel, R., Holder for Slides and Cover-

Glasses, 263

— Specific Properties of Protective Bodies
in Blood of Animals immune to Typhoid
and Coli Bacteria, 228

Abnormal Types of Coli Bacilli, 556
Abnormalities in Human Development, 33
Abnormality in Crab, 309, 521
Abortive Sexual Organs, 437
Abrasive Material, Arc-Light Dust
effective, 564

Abrolhos Islands, Marine Fauna of Hout-
man’s, 47

Acacia, Formation of Gum, 81

— Phyllodes, 539
Acanthocephala in Reptiles, 66
Acanthocephalid, New, 527
Acarina, Anatomy, 15

— Marine, 409

Accessory Glands of Thyroid Region, 495,
602

of Carotid, 602

Acetylene and Photomicrography, 353

— Gas Generator, Walmsley’s, 354
Acbard, C., Invasion of Body by Intestinal

Bacteria, 109

Achenes of Anthemideaa, 325
Acid-Bacterium, Alleged Conversion of
Turothrix tenuis Duclaux into a Lactic,
665

— Excretion of Roots, 432

— Hydrocyanic, in Pangium edule, 431

— in Preparing Fish Skeletons, Dilute
Sulphuric, 693

— -Litter for Infectious Diseases of Cattle,
348

— Microchemieal Reaction for Nitric, 687

— of Butter, Relation of Pure Cultures
to the, 566

Acids, Organic, of Mesembryanthemum, 641

— Uric, Fermentation by Microbes, 457
Acidity of Root-Sap, 432

Acids, Separation of Vegetable, 483
Acinetse, Freshwater, 426
Acquired Characters, Origin and Inherit-
ance, 27

— Immunity, Heredity, 345
Acridiidae, Courtship of certain, 516
Acrogamous Fertilisation, 206
Actiniaria of Tern ate, 635
Actinomycosis, 221
Actinophrys sol , Conjugation, 637
Actinotrocha , Anatomy, 420

Action of Air on Nitrate-destroying Bac-
teria, Inhibitory, 664
Aderhold, R., Parasitic Fungi, 550
Adjustment of Nicol’s Prism, Method for
Exact, 463

uEcidia, Uredineae with Repeated Forma-
tions, 342
Aerenchyme, 323

Aerobic Bacteria, Physiological Condition
of Spore-Formation, 663
./Esthetic Aspects of Animals, 298
^Estivo- Autumnal Fever, Mode of Origin
of Different Varieties of Malaria Para-
sites, 197

JEtbionema , Heterospermy of, 84
Agar, Blood-Serum-, Medium for Diph-
theria, 473

— Media for Bacteriological Cultures, 565

— Serum, Easy Method of Preparing, 255
Age of Earth, 609

Agriculture, Board of, Contagious Diseases
of Animals, 462

Ahlborn, F., Aphanizomenon flos-aquse,
554

— Use of Heterocercal Tails, 299
Air-breathing “ Prosobranchs,” 180

— of New York, Bacteria, 456

— on Nitrate-destroying Bacteria, Inhibi-
tory Action, 664

sown Organisms, Bacterial Infection,

554

‘ Albatross,’ Comatulidae, 72

— Foraminifera, 426

Albrecht, H., New Method for Paraffin
Sections, 477

Alcock, A., Indian Crabs, 623

— New Species of Viviparous Fish, 40
Alcohol- Yeasts, Origin, 96
Alcyonaria, Classification, 531

714

INDEX.

Aldehyde, Formic, Disinfection with, 480

— Gaseous Formic, Simple Apparatus for
Generating, 482

— Lamp, Formic, for Disinfecting Pur-
poses, 570

Ahssandrini, G., Larva of Sarcophaga
affinis in Man, 184

Alexander, G., Apparatus for Preserving
Celloidiu-Blocks on Microtome, 477
Algae, Media for Preserving, 481

— New and Interesting Freshwater, 149,
266

— Preserving and Mounting Fluids, 481
Alimentary Canal of Forticulidae, 806
AUsma, Embryo-Sac, 436

Alizarine, 133

Alkali, Influence on Microbic Metabolism,
108

Alkalies, Yalue for Fungi, 445
Allantois, Development, in Lizard, 602
Allen, E. J., Growth of Sponges, 319

— Nervous System of Crustacea, 521
Alnus glutinosa. Physiology of Root-

Tubercles, 329

Aloi, A., Effect of Electricity on Vegeta-
tion, 87

Alpine Plants, Structure, 613
Altmann’s Granula, 396

— Granules, Fat-Formation, 45
Aluminium in Plants, 81

— Object- holder for Observation of Objects
on both sides, 677

Alveoli, Demonstrating Pores of Pul-
monary, 358

Amanita muscaria , Red-Pigment, 553
Amann, J., Cultivation Medium for Diph-
theria Bacilli, 250

— Preserving and Mounting Fluids for
Algae and Mosses, 481

Amaudraut, A., Buccal Cartilages of Gas-
tropods, 303

— Digestive Apparatus of Highest Steno-
glossa, 511

Amboyna, Bay of, Echinoderms, 72

Siphonophora, 318

Ambronn, H., Appearances of Colour on
the Boundaries of Colourless Objects
under Microscope, 468
American Birds, Mallophaga of North, 404

— Cirripedia, South, 63

— Crayfish, Breeding Habits, 61

— Fossil Cockroaches, 518

— Lobster, 410

— Nemcrteans, South, 418

— Rotifera, 268, 269, 530

— Slugs, Revision of North, 615

— Tsenise, South, 68

— ITrodela, Spermathecse and Fertilisation,
495

Amia calva, Gastrulation, 604

— Early Development, 173
Amicis. See De Amicis
Amitosis, 44

Ammonia, Production in Soil by Microbes,
104

Amoeba coli, Biological and Clinical Re-
searches, 429

Amoebae Cultivated on Solid Media, 198,
356, 473

Amoeboid Movements in Neurodendrites,
175

Ampharetinae, French, 64
Amphibia, Segmentation of Egg, 495

— Taeniae, 191

Amphibian Embryos, Ciliation of Ecto-
derm, 171

Amphioxus, Egg, 498

— hmceolatus. Fertilisation of Egg, 39

— Formation of Germinal Layers, 6 )6

— Maturation and Fecundation of Egg,
175

Anaerobic Bacteria, Conditions under
which they exist in presence of Oxygen,
454

New Essentially, 105

Anaerobes, Apparatus for Cultivating, 565
Anagyrine, Localisation, 81
Anatomical Preparations, Retention of
Blood-Colour by Means of Formalin,
480

Anatomy of Acarina, 15
Ancylistese, 657

Andrd, E., Melanie Pigment of Limnxa ,

303

Andrews, E. A., Breeding Habits of
Americm Crayfish, 61

— F. M., Embryo-Sac of Jeffer sonia, 86

— R. R., Structure of Dentine, 177
Anemones, Sea-, Studies, 75

Angina, Streptococcus anti Noil-Diphtheri-
tic, 227

Angiopteris, Embry ogeny, 440
Angiosperms, Development of Embryo, 86

— Ovules, 436

Ang-khak, a Chinese Fungus Pigment for
Colouring Edibles, 449
Anguillulidse in Orcliids, 66
Anilin Mixtures for Tinctorial Isolation of
Tissue-Elements, Application, 698
Anilocra mediterranean Glandular Cells, 61
Animal Body and in vitro, Specific Im-
munity Reaction of Cholera Vibrios, 668

— Cells, Investigation of Presence of
Iron Compounds in, 130

— Morphology, Microtechnique, 690

— Parasites of Chickens, Turkeys, and
Ducks, 507

Animals, Centrifugal Apparatus for Volu-
metric Estimation of Food-Supply of
Aquatic, 470

— Contagious Disease, 462

— Immunised to Typhoid, Diagnosis of
Typhoid by means of Serum, 566

— in Sea- Water, Method for Collecting
I and Estimating Number of Small, 256

— Monochromatic Colours among, 178

INDEX.

715

Animals, per os, Vibrio Infection of Young,
668

— Preservation of Marine, 579
Anisophylly, 204, 326
Anlage and Variation, 610
Annelid, Orthonectid in, 316
Antennae of Diptera, 58

— of Trilobites, 31 1
Anthemideae, Achenes, 325
Anther id ot Targionia , 655
Antherids of Floridese, 443
Anthers, Mechanics of Dehiscence, 538
Anthocyan, Function, 209
Anthrax, Anti-, Serum, 230

— in Fox, 108

— in Man, Metastatic, 226

— in Swine, 348
Antidromy, 83, 204, 541
Antileucocidine, 460
Antipathidae, Classification, 317
Antiseptic Value of Sublimate Spray, 482
Antistaphylococcus Serum, 667
Antistreptococcus Serum, 230
Ants, Ergatogynous Forms and their

Explanation, 183

— Myrmecophile Lepismids and, 515
Aoyama, T., Microbes of Plague, 224
Apdthy, S., Microtechnique of Animal

Morphology, 690
Apertometer, Abbe’s, 247
Apertures of Objectives, Method of Mea-
suring, 705

Apes, Two new Taeniae, 419
Aphanizomenon flos-aquse, 554
Apochromatics, Zeiss’, 118
Apodidae, Hermaphroditism, 309
Apogamy in Ferns, 654
Appellof, A., New Hexactinian, 72
Appendiculariae, New, 300
Apsilus bipera, 274
• — bucinedax, 270

— Notes on the Genus, 268, 269
Aquatic Animal, Centrifugal Apparatus

for Volumetric Estimation of Food-
Supply, 470

— Forms of Stichococcus, 444

— Plants, Structure, 538
Arachnactis albida , 75
Arc-Light Dust as Effective Abrasive

Materia], 564

Arceuthobiaceae, Characters, 327
Arcangeli, G., Growth in Length of Or-
gans of Aquatic Plants, 648
Archespore ofVascular Cryptogams, 211
Architypes, 653
Arenicola, 626

Areschoug, F. W. C., Geophilous Plants,
324

Armature, Masticatory, of the Gizzard in
Blattidae and Gryllidae, 619
Armour of Cicada septendecim, Terminal,
404

Arthritis, Bacillus of Rheumatoid, 666

d’Arsonval’s Thermostat, Regulating, 468
Arthur, J. C., Bacteriosis of Carnations*
555

— Germination of Xanthium, 438
Artocarpws, Anatomy of, 432

Ascaris megalocephala as cause of Death
417

— — Development, 526
Ascent of Sap, 541

Ascidian Ovum, Cell-Line jge in Segmen-
tation, 299

— Remarkable, 507

Ascidians, Budding in Compound, 612

— Digestive Gland in Simple, 179

— Formation of Follicular Investments,
300

— “Sub-neural” Gland in, 52

Ascitic Fluid in Man, Parasitic Rhizopod,
638

Ascochyta Pisi , Parasitism and Saprophy-
tism, 448

Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, Fungus
intermediate between, 343

— Division of Nucleus and Formation of
Spores in Ascus, 338

Ascus of Ascomycetes, Division of Nucleus
and Formation of Spores, 338

— of Fungi, Division of Nucleus and
Formation of Spores, 214

Askenasy, E., Ascent of Sap, 541
Asparagin, Formation and Assimilation,
330

Aspergillous Tuberculosis in Hair-
Combers, 449
Aspergillus Oryzse, 339

Supposed Conversion into Saccharo-

myces, 218

— Wentii, 338

Asperococcus, Plurilocular Sporanges, 92
Aspidiotus Nerii , Parasites, 186
Aspirotriclia , Infusoria, 637
Assheton, R., Ciliation of Ectoderm of
Amphibian Embryos, 171
Assimilation, Arrest, 649

— and Respiration, 342
Asterina gibhosa, Development, 421
Asthmatic Sputum, Bifurcated Double-

ended Crystal from, 368
Astrorhizidse, New Genus, 320
Atavism, Homology aud, 398
Atkinson, C. F., Evolution of Vegetative
Phase of Sporophyte, 544

— Vegetation and Fertile Leaves of
Onoclea, 211

Attractive Sphere in Fixed Cells of Con-
nective Tissue, 53
Auricularia , Study, 71
Australia, Crustacea of Central, 410

— Mollusca of Central, 400

— New Earthworms from Central, 415

— Spiders of Central, 407
Australian Peripatus, 59
Australasia, Cryptozoic Fauna, 503

710

INDEX.

Austrian Deep-Sea Expeditions, Mollusca,
400

“ Autograph ” Camera, Walmsley’s, 354
Autolytus ornatus , Fate of Parent Stock,
524

Autotomy in Cucumaria planci, 634
Autumn Wood, 82

Auxospores of Epitliemia, Behaviour of
Cell-Nucleus in Formation, 221
Axial Images, Zeiss’ Eye-piece for Ob-
serving, 119

Axis-Cylinders of Nerve-Fibres, Method
for Demonstrating, 571
Axolotl, Gastrulation, 38
Azygospores, Production in Zygnema , 444

B.

Bacearini, P., Crystalloids in Flowers of
Leguminosse, SO

— Parasitic Fungi, 94
Bacillar Disease of Vines, 100
Bacilli, Action of Rontgen Rays, 554

— Branched Diphtheria, 665

— Cholera, Luminosity, 105

— Coli, Abnormal Types, 556

— Diagnosis by means of Serum of Animals
iminuue to Typhoid, 566

— Diphtheria, Varieties, 458

— in Water, Earth, and Faeces of Persons
unaffected with Typhoid Fever, Presence
of Typhoid, 666

— Influenza, Presence in Central Nervous
System, 567

— on Textile Fabrics, Vitality of Diph-
theria, 665

— Tubercle, Demonstrating in Human
Sputum, 476

in Sputum, 476

Microscopical Examination of Meat,

258

— Two Filament, 663

— Typhoid-like, and Diagnosis of B.
typhosus, 106

Immigration into Hens’ Eggs, 348

Bacillus, Blaek-Pigment-forming, 3^7

— botulinus, 346

— coli communis , Demonstrating Presence
in Water, 128

and B. typlii abdominalis, Urinous

Substrata for Differentiating, 475

and Related Forms, 460

in Water, Demonstrating Presence,

250

— Diphtheria, Increasing Toxin Produc-
tion, 249

— cyaneo-fluorescens , 227

— lJelbruecki, 558

— Diphtheria, Cultivation Medium, 249,
250

— fxcalis alcaligenes, 346

Bacillus, Fluorescent, 110

— Influence of Glycerin in Culture-Media
on Diphtheria, 691

— New Nitrate-forming, 105

Pathogenic, 345

— cedematis maligni, Identity of Clostri-
dium fcetidum lactis and, 558

— of Rheumatoid Arthritis, 666

— of Typhoid Fever, Osteomyelitis caused
by, 555

— pyocyaneus and its Functions, 108

— saccharobutyricus, 558

— Saltpetre Decomposing, 458

— Smegmatis and Tubercle Bacillus, 667

— subtilis, 555

— typhi abdominalis. Urinous Substrata
for Differentiating B. coli communis
and, 475

— Typhoid, Method for Rapid Recog-
nition, 567

— viridis, 459

Bacteria, Action of High Pressures on
Certain, 453

— Aerobic, Spore-Formation, 663

— Anaerobic, Condition under which they
can exist, even in Presence of Oxygen,
454

New Essentially, 105

— and Carbonated Waters, 554

— Animal Life without, 178

— Capsules of, 670

— Coli and Typhoid, Diagnostic Medium,
357

— Constant Occurrence in Cells, 221

. — Filtering Fluid containing, 254

— Formation of Gall-stones, 457

— Fossil, 344, 555

— from Air of New York, 456

— Influence of Induced Currents on
Orientation, 454

— Inhibitory Action of Air on Nitrate-
destroying, 664

— Intestinal, Invasion of Body, 109

— Method for Hermetically Sealing Cul-
tures, 128

— Morphology, 453

— Mucogenous, 455

— of Cheese Ripening, 224

— of Conjunctiva and Eyelid, 227

— of Hot Springs, 456

— of Leguminosae, Root-Tubercle, 344

— of Permian Epoch, Coprophilous, 223

— Pathogenic, Behaviour in Living Vege-
table Tissue, 557

— Penetrability of Intestinal Wall to, 663

— Physiological Conditions of Spore-
formation in Aerobic, 663

— Sputum as a Nutrient Medium for, 129

— Structure of Cyanophycese and, 662

— Typhoid and Coli, Specific Properties
of Protective Bodies in Blood of Animals
immune to, 228

— Variations in Biological Characters, 343

INDEX.

717

Bacteria, Water, Influence of Variations in
Composition of Gelatin on Development,
251

Bacterial Cells, Structure, 313

— Cultivation, Proper Reaction of Nu-
trient Media for, 690

— Flora of Intestinal Tract, 108

— Germs, Resistance to Dry Heat, 318

— Infection by Air-Sown Organisms, 551

— Non-, Nutrition, 223

— Variation, 313
Bactericidal Action of Metals, 129

of Waters of Jumna and Ganges on

Cholera Vibrio, 665

— Influence of Hydrogen Peroxide, 101
Bacteriological Cultures, Agar-Media for,

565

— Diagnosis of Glanders, 171

— Examination of Graveyard Soil, 105

of Old Cholera Dejecta, 173

of Water, 129

by Parietti’s Method, 171

— Technique, Hints on, 689
Bacteriology, Hueppe’s Introduction, 231

— of Infantile Diarrhoea, 667

— Text-Book, 671
Bacteriosis of Carnations, 555
Bacterium, Alleged Convert-ion of the

Tyrothrix tenuis Duclaux into a Lactic
Acid, 665

— coli commune in Gelatin Me lia, Relative
Growth of B. typhi abdominalis and, 669

Spore-Formation, 315

— False, 311

— gelatinosum Bette, 229

— typhi abdominalis and B. coli commune
in Gelatin Media, Relative Growth,
669

Baffin Bay, Malacostraca, 109

Baker, C., New Portable Microscope, 351

— F. C., New Classification of Muricidse,
101

Balbiani, E., Physiological Significance of
Direct Cell-Division, 606
Ballance, C. A., Cultivation of Parasitic
Protozoa from Malignant Tumours, &c.,
198

Ballowitz, E., Double Spermatozoa of
Dyticidse, 306

Bambeke, C. van, Grouping of Pigment-
Granules during Segmentation in Frog,
176

Banana-Leaves, Growth, 619
Bangia , Fertilisation, 517
Barbagallo-Rapisiardi, P., Biological and
Clinical Researches on Amoeba coli, 129
Bardeleben, K. von, Spermatogenesis, 395,
602

Barnes, C. R., Horizontal Microscope, 673
Barrois, J., Bodo urinarius , 126

— Development of Clielifer , 106
Basic Substances of Nucleus, 606
Basidiobolus, 117

Basidiomycetes, Fungus intermediate be-
tween Ascomyoetes and, 313

— Sexual Reproduction, 93
Basigamous Fertilisation, 206
Basigamy, 616

Basle, Cladocera, 62

Bassett- Smith, P. W., Parasitic Copepods,
310

Copepoda of Fish from Plymouth,

523

Bataillon, E., Segmentation of Egg of
Amphibia and Teleostei, 195
Bateson, W., Colour Variation of Beetle,
103

Bath, W. H., Origin of European Butter-
flies, 103

Bather, F. A., Syzygy of Crinoids, 122

— Uintacrinus, 122
Batrachospermum, Fertilisation, 333
Bats, Embryology, 35

Batters, E. A. L., New Genera of Florideae,
332

Bay of Amboyna, Echinoderma, 72
Siphonophora, 318

— of Biscay, Deep-Sea Dredging, 500
Bay, J. C., Is the Red Torula a genuine

Saccharomyces ?, 119
Bdellostoma, Development, 198
Beaks of Cephalopods, 101
Bean, Soja-, Root-Tubercle, 205
Beans, Mimicry of Pebbles by, 140
Beard, J., Disappearance of Transient
Nervous System in Elasmobranchs, 601

— Phenomena of Reproduction, 10

— Transient Nervous System in Skate,
196

— Yolk-Sac and Merocytes in Scyllium
and Lepidosteus, 603

Beaumont, W. I., Nemertines of Port Erin,
67

Beaver, New Mite from, 409
Beck’s “ Continental Model ” Microscopes,
116

Beck, C., 136, 267, 370, 703, 709

— Standard Screw-Thread for Microscopes,
389, 187

Beclere, A., Immunising Power of Serum
of Vaccinated Heifer, 225
Beddard, F. E., New Species of Earth-
worms, 65, 115

Bedot, M., Siphonophora of Amboina, 318

— Stinging Cells, 399

Bee, Queen-, unable to lay Drone Eggs,
307

Beecher, C. E., Respiration of Trilobites,
111

Beer, Demonstrating Wild Yeasts in New,
251

Beet, Diastatic Ferment, 537

Root, Accumulation of Sugar in, 210

Occurrence of Encliytrxida , 116

Beetle, Colour Variation, 403
Beggiatoa, Coccus Conditions, 455

718

INDEX.

Behrens, H., Mucogenous Bacteria, 455

— New Method for Pieserving Succulent
Fruit, Fungi, &c., 580

— Sublimation and the Determination of
Melting-Points in Microchemical In-
vestigations, 687

— W., Meyer’s Microscope-Stage with Iris-
Diaphragm, 248, 350

Bdla v. Bitto, Estimation of Lecithin in
Plants, 484

Bell, F. J., 142, 485, 487, 702, 703, 705, 707
Benecke, W., Importance of Potassium
and Magnesium for the Growth of
Fungi, 657

— Mineral Food-Materials of Fungi, 215
Benham, W. B., New Earthworm— Kynotus

cingu'atus, 187
Bennett, A. W., 265

Berg, — ., Organic Acids of Mesembry-
anthemum , 641

Bergh, R., Strombidae, 54 ,

Bergh, R. S., General Embryology, 597
Bernabeo, — Fraenkel’s Pneumococcus,
462

Bernard, F., New Lamellibranch Com-
mensal with an Echinoderm, 55

— H. M., Catalogue of Madreporarian
Corals in British Museum, 424

— Comparative Morphology of Galeodidse,
520

— Hermaphroditism in Apodidse, 309
Berthel, G., Formic Aldehyde Lamp for

Disinfecting Purpose, 570
Berton, F., Action of Rontgen Rays on
Bacilli, 554

Bertrand, C. E., Coprophilous Bacteria of
Permian Epoch, 223

— G., Oxidising Ferments of Fungi, 548,
656

— Pectase and Laccase in Plants, 202, 430

— Tyrosinase, a new Oxidising Diastase,
430

Bescherelle, E., Calymperes, 332
Belhe, A., Abnormal Crab, 309, 521
Bey. See Zia Bey

Beyerinck, W., Amoebae Cultivated on
Solid Media, 198

— Cultivation Medium for Nitrite Fer-
ment, 251

— Spirillum desulfuricans, 225
Bidder, G., Growth of Spong s, 319
Biel, W., Black-Pigment-forming Bacillus,

347

Bigelow, M. A., Early Development of
Lepas fascicularis, 523
Bilharzia hasmatobia, 68
Binocular for Dissecting, Use, 463
Biological Action of Rontgen ’s Rays, 398
Biology, Experimental, 393
Biourge, P., Honeydew, 323
Birds, Development of Musculature, 170

— Mallophaga of North American, 404

— near Warsaw, Endoparasitic Worms, 528

Birds, Operculum, 294

— Spermatogenesis, 41

— Taeniae, 316, 528

Biscay, Deep-Sea Dredgings in Bay of,
500

Bisson, E., Genital Ducts and Glands of
Female Silk Moth, 515

— Post-Embryonic Development of Vasa
deferentia and Accessory Organs in
Male of Bombyx mori, 305

Bladder, Development, 35
Blanchard, P., Leeches from Tojoland, 627
Blandford, W. F. H., Tsetse Flv Disease,
428

Blastocladia , 446

Blastodermic Margin in Salmonidae, 39

— Vesicle of Pig, 293

Blastomeres in Egg of Sea-Urchin, Con-
nection between, 317
Blastomycete, New Pathogenic, 220
Blastomycetes in Sarcoma, 99

— Pathogenic, 99

Action, 552

Blastopore of Frog’s Eggs, 396
Blattidae and Gr}llidse, Masticatory Ar-
mature of Gizzard, 619

Blaxall, F. R., Bacillus of Rheumatoid
Arthritis, 666

Blood-Colour, Retention in Anatomical
Preparations by Means of Formalin,
480

— -Corpuscles, 399

Development of Red and White,

169

in Legal Medicine, Red, 471

— - — of Embryo Chick, Red, 296
Study, 476

— Cultures of Pneumococcus, 473

Films, Rapid and Convenient Method

of Preparing Malarial, 694

— -Forming Organs in Larva of Magelona ,
64

— of Animals immune to Typhoid and
Coli Bacteria, .Specific Properties of
Protective Bodies in, 228

— of Dog, Endoglobular Parasites, 196

— Red, Corpuscles of Tadpoles, 608

Serum-Agar Medium for Diphtheria,

473

Spots, Negative Test for, 695

Vessels of Scolopendridae, 619

Blue, Methylen-, Staining, 259
Subcutaneous Injections, 133

— -Staining of Spores, 660

— Yeast, 449

Blumenthal, F., Influence of Alkali on
Microbic Metabolism, 108
Blum, F., Formol, 479
Board of Agriculture. See Agriculture
Bodo urinarius , 426

Bolley, H. L., Bacteriosis of Carnations,
555

— Cheese Curd Inflation, 224

INDEX.

719

Bolsius, H., Supra-CEsophageal Gland of
Hxmentaria officinalis , 525
Bolton, M., Bactericidal Action of Metals,
129

Bombyx mori , Post-Embryonic Develop-
ment of Vasa deferen ia and Accessory
Organs in Male, 305

Bone, Method lor Impregnating _with
Fuehsin l acunae and Canaliculi, 478

— Sections, Preparing, 131

Bonnier, G., Effect of Electric Light on
Vegetation, 87

— Honeydew, 322
Books, Contagion, 222

Bordas, — Alimentary Canal of Forficu-
lidae, 306

— Digestive Apparatus of Brachytrypes,
517

Bordas, L , Male Genital Apparatus of
Hymenoptera, 403

— Masticatory Armature of the Gizzard
in Blattidse and Gryllidse, 619

Borden, W. C., Practical Photomicro-
graphy, 563

Bordet, J., Phagocytosis, Chimiotaxis,
and Eosinophilous Microbes, 349
Borer, Earth-, Stewart’s, 263
Borge, C , Variability of Desmids, 547
Boring of Membranes by Fungi, 92
Borneo Crustaceans, 186
Borzi, A., Conjugation in Nostochinese, 100

— Hydrophorous Apparatus in Xerophi-
lous Plants, 435

Bose, F. J., Disinfection with Formic Al-
dehyde, 480

Bothrioceplialus rectangularis , 529

— Zscliolckei sp. n., 419

Bougie Filters, Cold Sterilising, 252
Bourquelot, E , Laccase in Plants, 202

— Oxidising Ferments of Fungi, 548, 656
Bourne, G. C., Structure and Affinities of

Heliopora cxrulea, 73
Bouvier, M. E. L., Classification and Dis-
tribution o! Lithodinea, 522
Bovine Hsematuria, 197
Bower, F. O., Archespore of Vascular
Cryptogams, 211

— Sporophyte of Ophioglossacese, 331

— Spores of Danxa, 332

Box for Colouring-Reagents, 563
Boyce, R W., Oysters and Typhoid, 54
Brachet, A., Development of Diaphragm
and Liver in Rabbit, 495
Brachytrypes, Digestive Apparatus, 517
Brady, G. S., Entomostraca of the Solway
District, 625

— Monograph of Ostracoda, 310
Branches, Absorption of Water by Leaf-
less, 830

Branch! obclella , Nephridia, 417
Brand, F., Propagation of Lemanea , 546
Brandt, C., Bacteria of Conjunctiva and
Eyelid, 227

Brandt, K., Hydrostatic Apparatus of
Radiolanans, 194

— New Tiutinnidse, 319

Braun, M., Parasites of Egypt, 527

— Proliferating Cysticerci, 630
Brauns, R., Microchemical Reaction for

Nitric Acid, 687

Brebner, G., Prothallium and E.ubryo of
Danxa , 332, 545

Breda de Haan. See Van Breda de Huan
Breeding Habits of American Crayfish, 61
Brefeld, O., Infection of Ustilaginese, 217

— Rust of Orijza and Setaria, 337

— Ustilaginese, 93, 336

Breitfuss, L., Northern Calcispongise, 636
Bremer, L., Paranuclear Corpuscle and
Centrosome, 176

Bretscher, K., Oligochseta of Zurich, 416
Brezina, E., Veins of Head and Neck in
Reptiles, 295

Brick-red Gland in Limulus, 186
Briquet, J., Cross- Pollination and Self-
Pollination, 540

— Effect of Light on Geotropism of
Stolons, 543

— Irritability of Calyx and Stamens of
Heliantliemum poli/olium , 543

— Structure of Myoporacem and Allied
Orders, 537

British Doris , New, 511

— Hydroids and Medusae, 635

— Museum, Catalogue of Fossil Bryozoa,
513

of Stony Corals, 424

Brittany, Reputed Organic Remains in
Precauibriau Rocks, 321
Britton, E. G , Hybrid Moss, 212
Brizi, U., Parasitic Fungi, 550
Bro-celiaceae, Stem, 83
Brown, A. J., Bacillus subtilis , 355
Brown. H. T., Bacterial Infection by Air-
sown Organisms, 554

Browne, E. T., British Hydroids and
Medusae, 635

— Medusae of Liverpool Marine District, 76

— Preservation of Marine Animals, 579
Bruni, C., Osteomyelitis caused by Bacillus

of Typhoid Fever, 555
Brunner, G., Staphylococcus pyxmia after
Chicken-Pox, 556

Brunotte, C , Root of Tmpatiens , 435
Brush for Inoculating Culture Media with
Diphtherial Matter, Platinum Wire, 250
Bruyne, C. de, Attractive Sphere in Fixed
Cells of Connective Tissue, 53

— Investigation of Attractive Sphere, 130

— Phagocytosis in Lamellibranchs, 181
Buccal Cartilages of Gastropods, 303
Buchanan, F., Blood-forming Organs in

Larva of Magelona, 64
Budde-Lund, l'errestiral Isopods from
Greece, 625

Budding in Compound Ascidians, 612

720

INDEX.

Budding in Corals, 425

— Laws in Medusae, 76
Buds, Accessory, 434

— Flower-, Preparation, 132

— Morphology, 434

— Polymorphism in Colella , 399

— Protection, 84

Buffhain, T. H., Antherids of Flo ride ae,

443

Bujwid, O., Anthrax in Fox, 108

— Filtering Fluid containing Bacteria,
254

Bulbs of Cystopteris bulbifera . 654
Bull’s-eye Condenser, New Form of Double,
365

Burger, 0., Monograph of Nemertines, 313

— New Nemerteans, 189, 316

— South American Nemerteans, 418
Burgerstein, A., Vitality of Seeds, 208

— Wood of Pomeae, 642

Burkill, J. H., Cross- and Self-Pollination,
208

— Variation in Number of Stamens and
Carpels, 325

Burri, R., Acid Litter for Infectious Dis-
eases of Cattle, 348

— New Nitrate-forming Bacillus, 105

— Nitrification in Soil, 457

Burt, E. A., Development of Mutinus , 661
Buscalioni, L., Deposition of Calcium Ox-
alate, 431

Butler, A. G., Synonymy of Uuphina Ici-
nessa, 306

Biitschli, O., Structure of Cyanophyceae
and Bacteria, 662

Butter, Relation of Pure Culture to Acid
Flavour and Aroma, 566
Butterflies, Development of Wing-scales
and their Pigment, 514

— Fossil, 403

— Origin of European, 403

— Seasonal Dimorphism, 55
Butterworth, J., Photomicrographic Ca-
mera, 595, 704

C.

Cactaceae, Mucilage, 431
Calabrese, A., Strong Natural Virus of
Rabies, 348

Calanidae of Michigan Lakes, 414
Calcareous Pebbles formed by Algae, 91,

444

Calcispongiae, Northern, 636
Calcium Oxalate, Deposition, 431
Pockets, 643

— Relation between Conduction of Carbo-
hydrates, 331

Calderwood, W. L., Fishing-Grounds and
Fishes of W. Coast of Ireland, 299
Calopetenus Femur - rubrum, Spermato-
genesis, 517
Calothrix parietina, 163

| Calvet, L., Deep-sea Dredging in Bay of
j Biscay (Bryozoa), 501
i Cnlymperes, 332

j Calyx of Helianthemum polifolium, Irrita-
I bility, 543

— Water-carrying, 325
Cambarids from Florida, 411

Cambier, R., Resistance of Bacterial Germs
to Dry Heat, 348

Cambridge. See Pickard-Cambridge
Camellia, Idioblasts, 324
Camera, Photomicrographic, 704

— Walmsley’s “ Autograph,” 354
Camerano, L., New Gordiid, 628
Campbell, D. H., Geothallus , a new Genus

of Hepaticse, 441

Oampenhausen, B. von, Hydroids of Ter-
nate, 425

Camusat, — ., Silicon and Aluminium in
Plants, 81

Canada Balsam, 134

Canal, Alimentary, of Forficulidae, 306

— of Man, Flagellata in Intestinal, 196
Canaliculi of Bone, Method for Impreg-
nating with Fuchsin, 478

Caue-Sugar, Distribution, 537

Propagation, 330

Capranica, S.,; Biological Action of Ront-
gen’s rays, 398
Caprification of Fig, 208
Capsules of Bacteria, 670

— of Micro-organisms. Demonstrating,
351

Cardbus , Wound-healing in, 184
Carbohydrates, F»elation between Calcium
and Conduction, 331

Carbon Bisulphide, Formation by Schixo
phyllum lobatum , 548

— Dioxide, Action on Protoplasm of Liv-
ing Cell, 439

Carbonated Waters, Bacteria and, 554
Carcinoma and Sarcoma, Presence of Mould
Fungi in Syphilis, 661
Carex, Monopodial Ramification, 433
Carnations, Bacteriosis, 555
Carotid, Accessory Glands, 602
Carpellary Venation, 434
Carpels, Variation in Number, 325
| Carr, E., 145, 486, 487
Carrington, G., Muscle-Fibre, Electric Disc,
and Motor Plate, 298
Carrion-Eating Insects, Habits, 617
Carteria, 548

Cartilages of Gastropods, Buccal, 303
Caruel, T., Euthymorphosis, 643
Casagrandi, O. G. V., Biological and Clin-
ical Researches on Amoeba coli , 429
Castle, W. E., Cell-lineage in Segmenta-
tion of Ascidian Ovum, 299
Castracane, F., Sporulation of Diatoms,
452

Catalogue of Fossil Bryozoa in British
Museum, 513

INDEX.

721

Catalogue of Stony Corals in British Mu-
seum, 424

Catgut Disinfection, 669
Cathcart Improved Microtome, Section-
Stretcher for Paraffin-Sections with, 696
Cathelineau, H., Bacillus viridis, 459
Catiano, L., Two Filament-Forming Ba-
cilli, 663

Catrin, — Contagion from Books, 222
Cats, Vibrio Infection per os of Young,

347

Cattle, Acid-Litter for Infectious Diseases,

348

Candina arenata , 423, 476
Caullery, M., Double Larva of Diplosoma ,
179

— Genus Sigillina, 179

— Polymorphism of Buds in Colella , 399
Cavara, F., Idioblasts of Camellia, 324

— Hypertrophy of Nucleus caused by a
Parasite, 641

Cazal, — du, Contagion from Books, 222
Celebes, Crustaceans, 186
Cell, Action of Carbon Dioxide on Proto •
plasm of Living, 439

Division, Mechanism, 396

Studies, 499

Direct, Physiological Significance,

606

— Elementary Organisms, 640

— Epithelial, Absorptive Paths, 176

Lineage in Segmentation of Ascidian

Ovum, 299

— -Membrane, 607

— Morphology, 499
Nuclei of Fungi, 214

Nucleus, Behaviour in Formation of

Auxospores of Epiihemia, 221
Demonstrating Structure and Com-
position, 358

— -Studies, 44

Theory, Further Remark, 30

Wall of Algse, 442

of Fungi, 656

of Muscinese, 211

of Vascular Cryptogams and

Muscinese, 654

Walls, Lignified, 337

Celli, A., Cultivation of Amoebae on Solid
Media, 356

Celloidin-Blocks, Apparatus for Preserving
on Microtome, 477
Cells, Canal-, in Cycas, 643

— Cleavage-, Independence of Paternal
and Maternal Chromatin in, 67

— Constant Occurrence of Bacteria in,
221

— Fat-, Nuclei, 500
Vacuolation, 296

— Follicle, in Molgula , 180

— Ganglion-, Nucleus, 297

of Frog, Centrosome and Sphere

in Spinal, 43

Cells, Intercellular Union of Epithelial,
607

— Iron Compound in Animal and Vege-
table, 45, 130

— Making and Finishing Wax, 261

— Methods of Examining and Staining
Living and Dead, 473

— Nerve-, of an Invertebrate, Centrosome
and Sphere, 626

of Invertebrates, 186

Preparation, 572

Structure, 607

in Spinal and Central Ganglia,

296

— of Anilocra mediterranea , Glandular, 61

— of Connective Tissue, Attractive Sphere
in Fixed, 53

— of Elasmobranchs, Study of Reproduc-
tive, 131

Structural Changes in Reproduc-
tive, 42

— Parenchyme-, Protoplasmic Connec-
tions, 537

— Progressive Differentiation in Course
of Development, 32

— Sex-, History in Cymatogaster, 496

— Stinging, 399

— Structure of 'Bacterial, 343

— Sympathetic Ganglion-, of Frog, 397

— Variation of Yeast-, 341

— Yeast-, Granules, 218

Cellulose, Reserve, in Seeds of Liliacese,
79

Centrifugal Apparatus for Volumetric Es-
timation of Food Supply, 470

— Machines, Use in Zoological Technique,
354

Centrosome, 176

— aud Sphere in Nerve-Cells of an Inver-
tebrate, 626

— in Spinal Ganglion-Cells of Frog, 43
Cephalopoda. See Contents, xi.

Cerata of Dendronotus, 54, 131
Ceratium, Genus, 426

Cerebratulus lacteus , Histology, 418
Cerfontaine, P., Octoeotylidse, 530
Ce&aris-Demel, A., Fat-Formation and Alt-
mann’s Granules, 45
Cestoda, Histology, 190
Cestode, New, 68

Cestodes, Investigation of Minute Struc-
ture, 257

— Nervous System. 529

— Preparation of Nervous System, 571
Chadwick. H. C., Notes on Synapta, 72
Chalara, Spores, 96

Chalazogamy in Walnut, 85
Chambon, — ., Immunising Power of
Serum of Vaccinated Heifer, 225
Champia, Cystocarp, 443
Chapman, F., Foraminifera of Gault of
Folkestone, 1, 581, 705

— Webhina and Vitriwebbina , 638

INDEX.

Chapman, M., Antistaphylocoecus Serum,
667

Characters, Origin and Inheritance of Ac-
quired, 27

Charrin, — ., Experimental Embryology,
203

— Oidiurn albicans as Pathogenic Agent,
451

Chatin, J., Macroblasts of Oysters, 512

— Staining in Oyster. 512
Chauveaud, G., Phloem-Bundles in Root

of Cyperacese, 83

Chavigny, P., Antiseptic Value of Subli-
mate Spray, 482

Cheatle, G. L., Apparatus for Dehydrating
Tissues, 266

Cheese-Curd Inflation, 224

— Flora, 550

— Ripening, Bacteria, 224
Process, 461

Cheinisse, — Role of Fever in Infectious
Disease, 346

Chelifer , Development, 406
Chemical Basis of Specific Characters,
610

— Examination of Graveyard Soil, 105

— Processes of Germinatiqp, 544
Cheney, L. S., Demonstrating Leucoplasts,

359

Chermes, New Species, 183
Chester, G. D., Development of Nemalion ,
656

Chevreux, E., Gammcirus Berilloni, 309
Chick, Red Blood-Corpuscles of Embryo, I
296

Chicken-Pox, Staphylococcus Pyaemia after,
556

Chickens, Animal Parasit s, 507
Cliimiotaxis, 349

— Relation between Leucocytosis and, 568
Chinese Fungus Pigment for Colouring

Edibles, 449
Chlamydomonas , 213

— grandis and C. Kleinii, 444
Clilamydomyxa montana, 533
Chlorophyll, New Micro-Chemical Reac-
tion, 363

Clioanepliora , 658
Chodat, R., Coelastrum , 548

— Hariotina , 92

— Kirchneriella , 100

— Mycorhiza of Listera cordata , 550
Cholera and other Vibrios, Differential

Diagnoois between, 559

— Bacilli, Luminosity, 105

— Dejecta, Bacteriological Examination
of Old, 473

— Diagnosis by means of Cholera Anti-
bodies, 357

— Immunity to, 458

— Notes, 107

Serum, Nature of Specific Substances,

459

Cholera Vibrio, Bactericidal Action of
Waters of Jumna and Ganges, 665
— Method for Rapid Recognition, 567
— Vibrios in the Animal Body and in
vitro, Specific Immunity Reaction of,
669

into Hens’ Eggs, Penetration of, 665

Cholesterins of Cryptogams, 203
— Test for, 258

Cholodkovsky, M., New Species of Chermes.
183

Chromatin in Cleavage-Cells, Independ-
ence of Paternal and Maternal, 67

Reduction in Maturation of Ova and

Spermatozoa, 41
Chromatophily of Nucleus, 641
Chromosomes of Mai iria Parasite, Inde-
pendent Movements, 428
Chrysophlyctis, a new Genus of Chytri-
diacese, 445

Chun, Li., Laws of Budding in Medusae, 76
— Nauplii of Lepa lidae, 62

— Study of Auricularia, 71
— Pelagic Schizopods, 522

— Secondary Sexual Characters of Male
Phronima, 62

Church, A. H., Thallus of Neomeris, 213
Chytridiacese, New, 445, 548, 657
Cicada septendecim, Mouth-parts and Ter-
minal Armour, 404
Ciclioriaceae, Laticiferous Hairs, 539
Ciliata, New, 426, 532
Ciliation of Ectoderm of Amphibian Em-
bryos, 171

Cirripedia, Gills, 186

— Histology of Muscles, 523

— South American, 63
Cludobotryum, P< lymorpliism, 339
Cl idocera of Basle, 62
Cladosporium, 337

Cludothnx odorifcra, 345
Clark, J. P., Otocysts of Crustacea and
Equilibrium, 409

Clarke, H. L., Viviparous 8ynapta of West
Indies, 634

Classification of Alcyonaria, 531

— of Antipathidse, 317

— of Diplopoda, 518

— of Lichens, 551

— of Muricidse, New, 401

— of Pauropoda, 406

— of Tunicata, New, 48
Clautriau, G., Glycogen in Fungi, 445
Clavelina lepadiformis, Hibernation, 613
Clayey Deposits, New Analytical Process

for Study, 568

Cleavage-Cells, Independence of Paternal
and Maternal Chromatin in, 67

— of Echinoid Ova, 70

Cleavage of Egg of Virbius zostericola, 624
Cle'ment, A., Metastatic Authrax in Man,
226

| Clendenin, I., New Genera of Fungi, 549

INDEX.

723

Cleve, P. T., Naviouloid Diatoms, 368, 453 j
Climate, Influence of Mediterranean, on
Plants, 324

on Seeds, 650

Climbing Plants, Twining, 210

— Powers of Millepedes, 185

Clip for Holding Cover-Glasses, 125

— New Cover-Glass, 678

Clitocybe odora, Minute Structure, 220
Closterium calosporum f. major , 152

— Ehrenbergii, 151

— gracile , 151

— lanceolatum, 150

— parvulum , 151

— prxlongum f. brevior, 151

— Trockiscosporum, 151

Clostridium fcetidum lactis and Bacillus
cedematis maligni , Identity, 558
Clubb, J. A., Cerata of Dendronotus, 54

— Investigation of Cerata of Dendronotus ,
131

Cocain in Study of Pond Life, 258, 483
Coccus Condition of Beggiatoa, 455
Cockerell, T. D. A., Genus Perdita, 306
Cockroaches, American Fossil, 518
Cocoa-nut, Germination, 438
Ccelastrum, 548

Ccelentera. See Contents, xvii.

— Nervous System, 634
Coelomic Fluid of Earthworms, 416
Ccenogonium, New, 659

Cohn, L., Myxosporidia of Pike and Perch,
533

Coincy, A. de, Heterospermy of JEthio-
nema , 84

Cole, M., Modern Microscopy, 127
Colella, Polymorphism of Buds, 399
Coleochsete, 333

Coleoptera, Morphology of Abdomen, 57
Coleosporium , 220

Collar-Adjustment of Objective as affected
by Change of Eye-Pieces, 127
Collecting Apparatus, Long Lines as
Zoological, 569

Collinge, W. E., So-called Suprarenals in
Cyclostomata, 605
Collozoum, Nuclear Division, 195
Colman, W. S., Handbook of Histology,
695

Colour, Appearance on Boundaries of
Colourless Objects under Microscope, 468

— Contrast, New Way of Optically produc-
ing, 369, 373

— Variation of Beetle, 403

Colours among Animals, Monochromatic,
178

Colurus agilis, 275
Comatulidse of “Albatross,” 72
Comber, T., 145

— Cleve’s Synopsis of Naviculoid Diatoms,
368

— Occurrence of Endocysts in Genus
Thalassiosira, 438, 704

Combers, Hair-, Aspergillous Tuberculosis
in, 449

Commensal with an Echinoderm, Lamelli-
branch, 55

Composites, Hygroscopic Tissue of Pappus,
82

Condenser, New Form of Double Bull’s-
eye, 365

Cones of Coniferee, 538 ;

Conferva undulata, 150
Congo, Filariosis in Negroes, 417
Coniferse, Cones of, 538

— Trichomes, 646

— Resin Passages, 432

Conjugatse, Phyeoporphyrin a new Pig-
ment, 213

Conjugation in Nostochinese, 100

— of Actinophrys sol, 637

— of Diatoms, 662
Conjunctiva, Bacteria, 227

Conj uncti vitis, Cultivation of Diplobacillus,
474

Conn, H. W., Relation of Pure Cultures to
Acid Flavour, and Aroma of Butter,
566

Connective Tissue, Attractive Sphere of
Fixed Cells of, 53

Conser, H. N., Cocain in Study of Pond
Life, 258, 483
Contagion from Books, 222
Contagious Diseases of Animals, 462
Convolvulus , Dimorphism, 433
Cook, O. F., Classification of Diplopoda,
518

— New Diplopod Fauna in Liberia, 406
Cooley, G. E., Reserve Cellulose in Seeds

of Liliacese, 79

Copepoda of Fish from Plymouth, Parasitic,
523

Copepods, Free Swimming, from W. Coast
of Ireland, 310

— Freshwater, 625

— Notes, 62

— Parasitic, 310

— Red Sea, 413

Copeus quinquelobatus, 277
Coprinus, 553

Coprophilous Bacteria of Permian Epoch.
223

“ Corallia Baltica ” of Linnseus, 194
Corals, British Museum Catalogue of
Stony, 424

— Budding, 425

— Microscopic ami Systematic Study of
Madreporarian Types of, 317

Cori, C. J., Object-holder for Observation
of Objects enclosed between two Cover-
glasses, 579

— Use of Centrifugal Machines in Zoo-
logical Technique, 354

Corini, C., Bacteriological Diagnosis of
Glanders, 474

Corpus luteum of Mouse, 494

724

INDEX.

Corpuscle, Paranuclear, 176
Corpuscles, Blood-, 399

Development of Red and White,

169

in Legal Medicine, Red, 471

of Embryo Chick, Red, 296

of Tadpoles, Red, 608

Study, 476

— Evolution in Silkworms’ Eggs, 195
Correns, C., Gemmae of Mossrs, 332

— Irritability of Drosera , 439

— Physiology of Tendrils, 542
Corselli, G., Pathogenic Blastomycetes, 99
Coast of Ireland, Fishing Grounds and

Fishes of West, 299

Corystes Cassivelaunus, Habits and Respi-
ratory Mechanism, 623
Cosmarium canaliculatum, 154

— confusum v. regularius , 156

— inconspicuum, 154

— Iseve, 154

— Lusitanicum, 155

— pseudoprotuberans, 155

— Regnesii, 155

— tenue, 154

Cosmetics, Microscopical Examination, 483
Coste, F. H. P., Acidity of Root-Sap, 432
Cotyledons of Lupinus, Cell-Wall, 430

— of Monocotyledons, 434
Council, Report for 1895, 143

Coupon, H., New Contrivance for Staining
Sections, 479

Courtship of certain Acridiidae, 516
Couton, — Cold Sterilising Bougie Filters
and other Apparatus, 252
Cover-Glass Clip, New, 678

Holder, 263

New Clip for Holding, 125

Object-holder for Observation of

Objects enclosed between two, 519
Cox, C. F., Recent Advances in Determi-
nation of Diatom Structure, 553
Cow, Malignant (Edema, 459
Cowl, W., Eye-Piece with Graduated Iris
Diaphragm, 560
Crab, Abnormal, 309, 521
Crabs, Indian, 623
Cramer, C., Halicoryne Wrightii , 334
Crato, E., Elementary Organisms of the
Cell, 640

Crayfish, Breeding Habits of American, 61
Crema, C., Tertiary Decapoda, 61
Crinoids, Syzygy of, 422
Cristellaria, Peculiarly Abnormal Form,
78

— circumcidanea, 2

— convergens, 4

— diademata , 8

— gaultina, 7

— gibba, 4

— nodosa , 4

— rotulata , 5

var. macrodiscus , 6

Cristellaria secans var. angulosa , 3

— stern a/is, 8

— subalata , 3

— turgidula , 1

Crocodile, Mullerian Duct, 396
Cronartium and Peridermium , 661
Crookshank, E. M., Text-Book of Bacteri-
ology, 671

Crops, Parasites of Cultivated, 94
Cross, M. I., Modern Microscopy, 127
Cross- and Self-Fertilisation, 328

Pollination, 207, 540

Cruciferae, Flower of, 433
Crustaceous Lichens, 340
Cryptogams, Cholesterins, 203
Cryptozoic Fauna of Australasia, 503
Crystal, Bifurcated Double-ended, from
Asthmatic Sputum, 568
Crystalline Lens, Regeneration in Triton ,
295

Crystallisation of Xanthophyll, 363
Crystallographic Investigation, Micro-
scopes and their most important Acces-
sories for, 232

Crystalloids in Flowers of Leguminosae, 80

— of Phytolacca, 536
Ctenophora, Greenland, 77
Ctenotxnia denticulata , 191

Cuboni, G., Germination of Lodoicea
Seychellarum, 88

Cucumaria planci, Autotomy in, 634
Cuenot, L., Lacuuar System of Starfishes,
192

— Physiology of Orthoptera, 182
Cunningham, D. D., Choanephora, 658

— Indian Wheat Rusts, 661

— Turgor of Motor-Organs, 651

— K. M., Arc-Light- Dust as effective

Abrasive Material, 564

— New Analytical Process for Study of
Diatomaceous and other Clayey Deposits,
568

Curd, Cheese-, Inflation, 224

Curtis, F., Human Saccharomycosis, 659

Curvature, Mechanism in Plants, 210

— Movements, Mechanics, 89

— of Tendrils, Mechanism, 650

Curves, Variation, and Surfaces in Plants,
205

Cut Inflorescences, Production of Seed on,
644

Cutter, E., Bifurcated Double - ended
Crystal from Asthmatic Sputum, 568
Cyanophyceae and Bacteria, Structure,
662

Cycas, Canal-Cells, 643
Cyclamen, Hairs on Tubers, 646
Cyclomyces, 553

Cyclopidze of Michigan Lakes, 414
Cyclops, Male Gonads, 523

— Paternal and Maternal Nuclear Sub-
stances in Development, 187

Cyclostomata, So-called Suprarenals, 605

INDEX.

725

Cylinder, Perforated Porcelain, as Washing
Apparatus, 355

Cymatogaster, History of Sex-Cells, 496

— Sex-Differentiation, 605
Cyperacem, Phloem-Bundles in Root, 83
Cysticerci in Dog’s Heart, 419

-7- Proliferating, 630
Cytisine, Localisation, 81
Cystocarp of Champia, 443

— of Griffithsia , 655

— of Rhodomelacem, 546
Cyxtopteris bulbifera, Bulbs, 654
Cystopus , Fertilisation, 335

— Structure and Reproduction, 657
Cytology of Saprolegniacem, 335
Czapek, F., Acid Excretion of Roots, 432,

641

— Geotropism and Heliotropism, 651
Plagiotropic Position of Lateral Roots,
89

Czaplewski, E., Hints on Bacteriological
Technique, 689

— New Photomicrographic Apparatus,
680

Czapski, S., 369

Czapski’s Ocular Iris Diaphragm with
Eye- Piece, 120

Czermak, N., Absorptive Paths in an
Epithelial Cell, 176

D.

Dadav, E. v., Striped Muscle in Ostracoda,

412

Dadocrtnus gracilis , Development, 192
Dahl, A., Distribution of Pelagic Animals,
612

— Habits of Carrion-Eating Insects, 617
Dali, W. H., Deep-sea Brachiopoda, 401

— Deep-water Mollusca, 400

— Insular Land Shell-Faunae, 615
Dallemagne, J., Bacterial Flora of Intes-
tinal Tract, 108

Dallinger, W, H., 135, 369, 370

Danxa , Prothallium and Embryo, 332, 545

— Sorus, 332

Dangeard, P. A., Nuclei of Uredineae, 97

— Parasites of Nucleus and Protoplasm,
446

— Parasitic Fungi, 94

— Reproduction in Pliycomycetes, 447

— Sexual Reproduction in Basidiomy-
cetes, 98

— Symbios s among Fungi, 92
Daphnids, Postembryonal Development,

413

Darbishire, O. F., Dendrographa , new
Genus of Lichens, 95

— Spencerella, a new Genus of Florideae,
546

Darwin, F., Effect of Currents of Water on
Assimilation, 542

Dassonville, Ch., Action of Salts on Vege-
table Tissues, 643

Daveau, J., Proterandry in Palm, 437
Davenport, C. B., Preliminary Catalogue
of Processes concerned in Ontogeny, 168
Danilewsky, B., Influence of Lecithin on
Growtii. 299

Davis, B. M., Cystocarp of Champia , 443

— Fertilisation of Batrachospermum, 333

— E., Presidential Address, 564
Dawson, C. F., Method for Hermetically

Sealing Cultures of Bacteria, 128
De Amicis, G. A., New Pliocene Fora-
minifera, 195

Dean, B., Early Development of Amia , 173

— Early Development of Ganoids, 497
Death, Ascaris megalocephala cause, 417
Debierre, C., Development of Occipital

Segment, 33

Debray, J., New Family of Cryptogamic
Parasites, 215

Debski, B., Movements of Leaves of Ma-
rantaceaB, 439
Deby, J., Surirella, 602
Decagny, p. 200, read Degagny
Decapoda, Malayan, 625

— Movements, 61

— Tertiary, 61

Degagny, C., Division of Nucleus, 535

— Division of Nucleus in Spirogyra , 200
Degeneration of Tissue in Tadpole’s Tail,

37

Dehiscence of Anthers and Sporanges,
Mechanics, 538

Dehler, A., Red Blood-Corpuscles of Em-
bryo Chick, 296

— Sympathetic Ganglion-Cells of Frog,

397

Dehydrating Tissues, Cheatle’s Apparatus
for, 266

Dejecta, Bacteriological Examination of
old Cholera, 473

Delacroix, G., Bacillar Disease of Vines,
100

Delpino, F., Propagation by Buds, 648
Dematium, 339
Demel. See Cesaris-Demel
Dendrographa, new Genus of Lichens, 95
Dendronotus, Cerata, 54

— Investigation of Cerata, 131
Dendy, A., Australian Peripalus, 59

— Cryptozoic Fauna of Australasia, 503
Dental Enamel, Formation and Structure,

398

Dentine and Enamel, 297

— Structure, 177
Dentition of Dog, 169

— of Mammals, 33, 600

— Questions concerning, 34
Denys, J., Antileucocidine, 460
Dervieux, E., Peculiarly Abnormal Form

of Cridellaria, 78
Desmids, Variability, 547

3 D

1896

726

INDEX.

Destruction of Mosquitos, 405
De Toni’s Sylloge Algarum (Fucoidese),
91

Deupser, Experiments with Porcosan,
700

Devaux, H., Porosity of Woody Stems,
203

Development, Formative Stimuli in, 28

— Hertwig’s Theory, 29

— Mechanics, 492

Dewevre, A., Physiology of Drosophyllum,
329

Diagnosis of Cholera by means of Cholera
Anti-bodies, 357
Diaheliotropism, 543
Diaphragm, Development in Rabbit, 495

— Iris-, Czapski’s Ocular, 120

Eye-Piece with Graduated, 560

Meyer’s Microscope-Stage, 248, 350

Diarrhoea, Bacteriology of Infantile, 667
Diastase in Leaves, 2()2

— New Oxidising, 430

— Penetration into Starch-Grains, 653
Diastatic Ferment in Beet, 537
Diatomaceous Deposits, New Analytical

Process for Study, 568
Diatom Structure, Recent Advances in De-
termination, 553

— Cleve’s Synopsis of Naviculoid, 368,
453

Diatoms, Conjugation, 662

— Movements, 100, 451

— New Genus, 452

— Sporulation, 452
Dicotyledons, Polystely in, 537

Dietel, P„ New Genera of Uredinese, 450

— Parasitic Fungi, 94

— Simple Method for Demonstrating Ger-
minal Pore in Spore of Rust Fungi,
257

— Uredinem with Repeated Formation of
iEcidia, 342

— Urediaopsis, 95

Dieudonne, A., Bactericidal Influence of
Hydrogen Peroxide, 104

— Simple Apparatus for Generating Gas-
eous Formic Aldehyde, 482

Digestion and Micro-Organisms, 462

— of Gelatinous Endosperm, 89

— Vegetable, 652

Digestive Apparatus of Brachytrypes , 517
of Higher Stenoglossa, 511

— Gland in Simple Ascidians, 179
Digger-Wasps, 618

Dill, E. C., Chlamydomonas, 213
Dimorphic Flowers in Gentianaceoe, 84
Dimorphism of Butterflies, Seasonal, 55

— of Convolvulus , 433

— Seasonal, 83
Dinard, Polychaeta, 414
Dinophilus, 69

Dioxide, Carbon, Action on Protoplasm of
Living Cell, 439

Diphtheria Bacilli, Branched, 665

Cultivation Medium, 250

on Textile Fabrics, Vitality of, 665

Varieties, 458

— Bacillus, Cultivation Medium, 249

Increasing Toxin Production, 249

Influence of Glycerin in Culture

Media on, 691

— Blood-Serum Agar Medium, 473

— Culture Test, Improvements in Tech-
nique, 249

— Tochtermann’s Medium for Diagnosis,
567

— Toxin, Method of Preparing very Ac-
tive, 250

Diphtherial Matter, Platinum Wire Brush
for Inoculating Culture Media with, 250
Diphtheritic Angina, Non-, 227

— Serum, Anti-, Effect of Injection of
Solution, 230

Diplobacillus of Conjunctivitis, Cultiva-
tion, 474

Diplodal Sponge- Chambers, 636
1 'iplograptus, Structure, 193
Diplopod Fauna in Liberia, New, 406
Diplopoda, 621

— Classification, 518
D\plosoma, Double Larva, 179*

Dippel, — Microscope and its Applica-
tion, Part II., 210
Diptera, Antennae, 58

— Flower-haunting, 307

— of St. Vincent, West Indies, 618

Disc for Preparation of Lacquer Rings,
New Rotating, 562
Discomycetes, 551
Disease of Vines, Bacillar, 100

— Researches relating to Specific Agent
of Small-Pox, and Production of Arti-
ficial Immunity from, 461

— Role of Fever in Infectious, 346

— Tsetse Fly, 429

Diseases among Turkeys, Infectious, 429

— of Animals, Contagious, 462

— of Cattle, Acid-Litter for Infectious,
348

— Potato, 550
Disinfectant, Catgut, 669
Disinfecting Power of Formalin, 480
of Kresol and Metakresol, 668

— Purposes, Formic Aldehyde Lamp for,
570

Disinfection of the Hands, 670

— Sun, 223

— with Formalin Vapour, 700

— with Formic Aldehyde, 480
Disorganisution-Phenome a of Cells, 439
Dispersal of Marine Animals by means of

Seaweeds, 47
Dispira , 336

Dissecting-Stand and Lens-Carrier, New
Form, 678

Dissecting, Use of Binocular for, 463

INDEX.

727

Distemper, Microbe, 556
Distomum, New Species, 316

— Westermanni, 191
Distribution of Cane Sugar, 537

— of Hippidea, Geographical, 411

— of Lithodinea, 522

— of Marine Organisms, 501

— of Myriopods, Structure and, 620

— of Pelagic Animals, 612

— of Southern Faunae, 504

— of Tannin in Wocd, 536

— of Terrestrial Invertebrates, 301
Division, Direct Cell-, Physiological Sig-
nificance, 606

Divisions, Reducing, 499
Dixey, F. A., Relation of Mimetic to
Original Form, 305

Dixon, H. H., Abnormal Nuclei in Endo-
sperm of Fritillaria imperial is. 201

— Nuclei of Lilium longifloriiiu, 2ul

— Path of Transpiration Current, 88

— Role of Osmose in Transpiration, 542

— Vegetative Organs of Vanda , 205
Dixon, H. N., British Mosses, 655
Dixon-Nuttall, F. R., Male of Steplianoceros

Eichliorni, 166, 267

Doflein, F. J. Th., Oogenesis in Tubular iat
636

Dog, Dentition, 169

— Nematode Embryos in Skin, 526
Dog’s Heart, Cysticerei, 419

Dogiel, A. S., Structure of Retint, 296,
359

— Sympathetic Ganglia of Mammals, 44
Dolley, C. S., Planktonikrit. Centrifugal

Apparatus for Volumetric Estimation of
Food-Supply of Oysters aud other
Aquatic Animals, 470
Dollfus, A., Mexican Terrestrial Isopods,
309

Doris , New British, 511

— New Species, 304
Dorylus, Genus, 58

Double Bull’s-Eye Condenser, New, 365
Drawing Eye-Pieces, Leitz new, 351

— Microscopic Preparations under very
low Magnification, Simple Arrangement
for, 678

Dredgings in Bay of Biscay, Deep Sea, 500
Drepanophorus , Development, 628
Driesch, H., Experimental Embryology,
393, 493

— Machine-Theory of Life, 504

Drone Eggs, Queen Bee unable to lay, 307
Drosera, Irritability, 439
Drosophyllum, Physiology, 329
Dry Heat, Resistance of Bacterial Germs,
348

Duboscq, M. O., Blood-Vessels of Scolo-
pendridae, 619

Ducks, Animal Parasites, 507
Duclaux, E., Evolution of Corpuscles in
Silkworm’s Eggs, 195

Duclaux, E., Non-Baeterial Nutrition, 223
Duct of Crocodile, Miillerian, 396
Ducts in Silk-Moth, Development of Male,
57

— of Female Silk-Moth, Genital, 515
Dunbar — ., Differential Diagnosis between

Cholera and other Vibrios, 559
Dungern, — . von, Increasing Toxin Pro-
duction of Diphtheria Bacillus, 249
Duramen, Formation, 323
Durham, H. E., Method for Rapid Recog-
nition of Cholera Vibrio and Typhoid
Bacillus, 567

— Special Action of Serum of Highly
Immunised Animals, 456

Dust, Arc-Light, as effective Abrasive
Material, 56

Dutil, A., Nerve • Endings in Striped
Muscle, 176

Duval, M., Embryology of Bats, 35
Dyar, H. G., Bacteria from Air of New
York, 456

— W. G., Variations in Biological Cha-
racters of Bacteria, 343

Dynamical Hypothesis of lnkeritance, 29
Dyticidae, Double Spermatozoa, 306

E.

Ear, Middle, and Microbes, 667
Earth, Age, 609

— Presence of Typhoid Bacilli iu, 666
Earth-Borer, Stewart’s, 263
Earthworm, Coelomic Fluid, 416

— from Pyrenees, Gigantic, 525

— Living in Ice, 187, 312
Earthworms, Examination of Polar Rings,

570

— from Central Australia, New, 415

— from Sumatra, 627

— Minute Structure of Testis, 311

— Neotropical, 312

— New, 65, 187, 415

Ebner, V. v., Optical Reaction of Con-
nective Substances to Phenol, 177
Echinoderm Larvae, Development, 632

— New Lamellibranch Commensal with,
55

Echinoderms, Examination of the Sperma-
tozoa, 692

— Spermatozoa, 631

Eehinoid Larvae, Continuity of Mesen-
chyme-Cells, 631
Echinorhynchits clavula, 67
Ectocarpus , 92, 547

— Heterogamy, 656

Ectoderm of Amphibian Embryos, Cilia-
tion, 171

Ectoparasites of Ligidium, 427
Edgeworth, F. G., Statistics of Wasps,
58

3 d 2

728

INDEX.

Edibles, Ang-khak, a Chinese Fungus
Pigment for Colouring, 449
Edwards, A. M., Mounting in Phosphorus,
482

Egg-Cases of Port Jackson Sharks, 295
Egg, Hen’s, Strange Enclosure in, 37

— in Amphioxus , Maturation and Fecun-
dation, 175

— -laying Mechanism in Frog, 173

— of Amphibia and Teleostei, Segmen-
tation, 495

— of Ampldoxus, 498

lanceolotus, f ertilisation, 39

— of Sea Urchin, 633

Connection between Blastomeres,

317

— of Virbius zostericola, Cleavage, 624
Eggs, Drone, Queen Bee unable to lay,

307

— Frog’s, Blastopore, 396

— Hen’s, Immigration of Typhoid Bacilli
into, 348

Penetration of Cholera Vibrios into,

665

— Molluscan, Experiments, 512
Method for Preparing, 570

— of Toxopneustes variegatus, Preparations,
475

— Silkworms’, Evolution of Corpuscles in,
195

Egypt, Parasites, 527
Eigenmann, C. H., History of Sex-Cells in
Cymatogaster , 496

— Sex- Differentiation in Cymatogaster, 605
Eisen, G., Caprification of Fig, 208

— Development of Spermaiobinm , 427

— Pacific Coast Oligochseta, 312

— Preparation of Specimens of Spermato-
bium, 571

Eisenscliitz, S., Granules in Yeast-Cells,
218

Elasmobranchs, Structural Changes in
Reproductive Cells, 42

— Disappearance of Transient Nervous-
System, 604

— Study of Reproductive Cells, 131
Elbe Vibrios, Phosphorescence, 105
Electric Disc, 298

— Light, Effect on Vegetation, 17
Electricity, Effect on Vegetation, 87
Electrolysis under Microscope, Apparatus

for, 243

Elementary Organisms of the Cell, 640
Elliott, G. F. S., Flower-haunting Diptera,
307

— G. R., Method for Preserving Nervous
Tissue, 578

Eisner, — ., Diagnostic Medium for Coli
and Typhoid Bacteria, 357
Embryo, Development in Angiospcrms, 86

— of Dawea, 332, 545

— -Sac of Alisma, 436
of Jeffer sonia, 86

Embryo-Sac of Lilium Martagon, Direct
Nuclear Division, 322
Embryogeny of Angiopteris and Marrattia,
440

— ot Ginkgo biloba, 328

— of Sequoia , 647

Embryological Material, Preserving, 699

Embryology of a Tardigrade, 60

Embryonic Post-Development of Vasa de-
ferentia and Accessory Organs in Male
of Bombyx mori, 305

Embryos, Ciliation of Ectoderm of Amphi-
bian, 171

— in Skin of Dog, Nematode, 526

— Intercellular Spaces, 323

— of Limulus Polyphemus, Preparation,
691

Emery, C., Genus Dorylus, 58

— Homology and Atavism, 398
Enamel and Dentine, 297

— Formation and Structure of
398

Dental,

— Structure and Phylogeuy, 45
Enchytraeidse. Notes, 311

— Occurrence in Beetroot, 416
Endocysts in Genus Thalassiosira, Occur-
rence, 489, 704

Endoglobular Parasites of Blood of Dog,
196

Eudoparasitic Worms from Birds near
Warsaw, 528

Endosperm, Gelatinous, Digestion, 89

— of Fritillaria imperially, Abnormal
Nuclei in, 201

Endospurous Red Yeast, 219
Energids and Cells, 199
Enteric Fever and Oysters, 110
Enteropneuston, New, 69
Entomology, Speculative Method, 181
Entomostraca of North Wales, 625

— of Solway District, 625

Enzymes of Schizo- Saccharomyces octospo-
rus and Saccharomyces Marxianus, 341
Eosinophilnus Microbes, 349
Eozoonal Structure, 321
Epidermic Envelope in Developing Ova
of Teleosteans, Superficial, 38
Epigenesis and Evolution, 393
Epithelial Cell, Absorptive Paths, 176

— Cells, 607

Epithelium in Metamorphosis of Meal-
worm, Changes of Intestinal, 617

— of Tapeworms and Flukes, 629
Epitliemia, Behaviour of Cell-Nucleus in

Formation of Auxospores, 221
Equilibrium, Otocvsts of Crustacea and,
409

Equisetum Root, Pectic Substances, 654
Ergatogynous Forms in Ants, and their
Explanation, 183

Eriksson. J., Peridermium and Cronartium,
601

Erin, Port, Nemeriines, 67

INDEX.

729

Erlanger, R. von, Accessory Nucleus in
Spermatogenesis, 184

— Japanese Method for Sticking on
Paraffin Sections, 261

— Larval Kidney of Flanorbis and Lim-
nxus, 181

— Minute Structure of Testis in Earth-
worms, 311

— Morphology and Embryology of Tardi-
grade, 60

— Phenomena of Fertilisation, 507
Ermengem, E. van, Bacillus botulinus , 346

— Formalin as a Disinfectant, 261
Ersser, T. D., Method of Showing Multi-
plied Images formed by Compound Eyes
of Insects, 140

Esmarch, — . von, Sun Disinfection, 223
Espine, A. d’, Streptococcus of Scarlatina,
107

Euastrum pectinatum, 153
Euylena, Nuclear Division, 77
Euphorbia^buxifolia , 645
Euphorbiacese, Stem and Leaf, 326
Europe, Geophilidse of Central, 308
European Butterflies, Origin, 403
Euthymorphosis, 643
Evolution and Epigenesis, 393

— of Corpuscles in Silkworm’s Eggs, 195

— of Muscles, 603

— of Vegetative Phase of Sporophyte,
544

— Theory, Thomson’s Address, 46
Ewart, A. J., ArresGof Assimilation, 649

— Diaheliotropism, 543

— Structure and Growth of Pollen-Tube,
206

Excretion of Roots, Acid, 432
“ Excretory Organ ” of Freshwater Poly-
zoa, 304

— System of Trout, 39

Exhibition, Lubeek 1895, Optics and
Mechanics at N. German Commercial
and Industrial, 127
Exoascem, Parasitic, 340
Exobasidium, 448

Expeditious, Ophiurids of Recent, 531
Experimental Embryology, 597
Eye, Filaria loa in Human, 189

— of Scutigera , 621
Eyelid, Bacteria, 227

Eye-Piece, Abbe’s Spectroscopic, 241

Czapski’s Ocular Iris-Diaphragm,

120

Demonstration, 673

for Observing Axial Images, Zeiss’,

119

with Graduated Iris-Diaphragm,

560

with Iris-Diaphragm, Zeiss’, 242

Zeiss’ Screw Micrometer, 119

Pieces, Collar Adjustment of Objec-
tive as affected by Change, 127
Leitz new Drawing, 351

F.

Fabre, J. H., Habits of Locustidae, 517
Fabrics, Vitality of Diphtheria Bacilli on
Textile, 665

Faeces of Persons unaffected with Typhoid
Fever, Presence of Typhoid Bacilli in
Water, Earth, and, 666
Fairchild, W. G., Perforated Porcelain
Cylinder as Washing Apparatus, 355
False Bacterium, 344

Familler, J., Abortive or Transformed
Sexual Organs, 437

Farmer, J. B., Fertilisation of Spore of
Fucus , 656

— Respiration and Assimilation, 542

— Spore-Formation and Nuclear Division
in Hepaticae, 90

Fat-Cells, Nuclei, 500
Vacuolation, 296

— -Formation and Altmann’s Granules,
45

Fauna in Liberia, New Diplopod, 406

— of Australasia, Cryptozoic, 503

— of Houtman’s Abrolhos Islands, Marine,
47

— of Wells, 301

Faunae, Distribution of Southern, 504

— Shell-, Insular Land, 615

Faurot, L., Studies on Sea-Anemones, 75
Fauvel, P., French Ampharetiuae, 64
Fecundation, 48

— of Egg in Amphioxus, 175

Felix, — ., Excretory System of Trout, 39
Female Silk-Moth, Genital Ducts and
Glands, 515

Ferenczy, M., Optics and Mechanics at
N. German Commercial and Industrial
Exhibition at Lubeek, 1895, 127
Ferment, Diastatic, in Beet, 537

— Nitrite, Cultivation Medium, 251
Fermentation Experiments, 660

— of Uric Acid by Microbes, 457
Fermentations excited by the Pneumo-
bacillus of Friedlaender, 109

Ferments, Oxidising, of Fungi, 548

— Valpantena Wine, 219

Fermi, C., Immunity to Cholera, 458
Ferns, Apogamy, 654
Ferrero, F., Flowers and Fruit of Trapa ,
84

Ferry, R., Fungus intermediate between
Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, 343
Fertilisation, 48, 493

— Cross- and Self-, 328

— in American Urodela, 495

— in Physa fontinalis , 511

— of Ba7igia, 547

— of Batrachospermum, 333

— of Cystopus, 335

! — of Echinoid Ova, 70
| — of Ovum, Atlas, 394

— of Uredineso, 342

730

INDEX.

Fertilisation, Phenomena, 507
Fever, Enteric-, Oyster, 110

— Mode of Origin of Different Varieties
of Malaria Parasites of Irregular or
iEstivo-Autumnal, 197

— Osteomyelitis caused by Bacillus of
Typhoid, 555

— Presence of Typhoid Bacilli in Water,
Earth, and Faeces of Persons unaffected
with Typhoid, 666

— Bole in Infectious Disease, 346
Fibres, Course in Wounds, 83

— Nerve-, Method for Demonstrating
Axis-Cylinders, 571

Ficus , Extra-floral Nectaries, 327
Field, G. W., Examination of Spermatozoa
of Echincderms, 692

— Spermatozoa of Echinoderms, 631
Fig, Caprification, 208

Figdor, W., Tropical Saprophyte, 85
Fi /aria labiala , 189

— loa in Human Eye, 189

— Mansoni , 526

Filament-forming Bacilli, Two, 663
Filariosis in Negroes of Congo, 417
Filarsky, F., Function of Anthocyan, 209
Films, Blood-, Rapid and Convenient
Method of Preparing Malarial, 694
Filter, Microscopic, 125
Filtering Fluid containing Bacteria, 254
Filters, Cold Sterilising Bougie, 252
Fins, Development of Teleostean, 174
Firket, C., Filariosis in Negroes of Congo,
417

Fischel, A., Development of Musculature
in Birds and Mammals, 170

— Pigmentation of Salamander, 611
Fischer, E., Coleosponum, 220

— Enzymes of Schizo-Saccharomyces octo-
sporus and Sacclia> omyces Marxianus,
341

Fish, P. A., Use of Formalin in Neurology,
577

Fish, New Species of Viviparous, 40

— Freshwater, Parasitic Worms, 420

— from Plymouth, Parasitic Copepoda of,
523

Fish-Skeletons, Dilute Sulphuric Acid in
Preparing, 693

Fishes, Notes on Trematodes, 69

— of W. Coast of Ireland, 299
Fishing-Grounds of W. Coast of Ireland,

299

Fixatives, 134
Flagella, Characters, 461

— Staining, 133, 478

Flagellata in Intestinal Canal of Man, 196
Flax Retting, Microbe, 226
Flemming, W., Mechanism of Cell-Divi-
sion, 396

— Structure of Nerve-Cells in Spinal and
Central Ganglia, 296

JHetcher, J. J., Australian Peripatus, 59

Floating Leaves, 645

Floderus, M., Formation of Follicular
Investments in, 300
Flora, Cheese, 559

— of Intestinal Tract, Bacterial, 108
Florida, Cambarids from, 411
Florideae, Antherids, 443

— New Genera, 332, 546

— Species, 443
Flos- Aquae, 662
Flower-Buds, Preparation, 132
haunting Diptera, 307

— of Cruciferse and Fumariaceae, 433

— of Trapa, 84
Flowers, Heat of, 545

— in Geutianacese, Dimorphic, 84

— of Leguminosae, Crystalloids, 80

— of Lemna , 204

— of (Enotliera, Opening, 330

Flovd, R., Formaldehyde and Formol,
262

Fluids, Power of Resistance of Helophilus
Larvae to Killing, 517
Flukes, Epithelium, 629

— Preparing for Investigation, 131
Fluorescent Bacillus, 110
Flustra biseriata , 290

— crassa, 290

— Notes on, 279, 366

— oblonga, 289

— papyrea , 287

— reticulum, 289

— tenella , 288

Flustridae, Interzocecial Communication
in, 279, 366

Fly Disease, Tsetse, 428
Focal Length of Objectives, Determination,
242

Folkestone, Foraminifera of Gault, 1, 581
Follicle. Cells in Molgula , 180
Follicular Investments, Formation in
Ascidians, 300
Food-Materials of Algae, 212

— Reactions of Metridium , 425

Supply of Oysters, Volumetric Estim-
ation, 470

Foot, C., Yolk-Nucleus and Polar Rings,
499

— Examination of Polar Rings of Earth-
worms, 570

Foote, C. J., Oysters and Enteric Fever,
110

Foraminifera, New Pliocene, 195

— of Gault, 705

of Folkestone, 1, 581

— of Voyage of ‘ Albatross,’ 426

— Wright’s Method of Mounting, 262
Forticulidae, Alimentary Canal, 306
Forgan, W., Method of Photographing

Large Microscopic Sections, 249
Formaldehyde and Formol, 262
Formalin as a Disinfectant, 261

— Disinfecting Power, 480

INDEX.

731

Formalin in Zoological and Histological
Laboratory, 262

— Notes on, 479

— Retention of Blood Colour in Anatomi-
cal Preparations by, 480

— Use in Neurology, 577

— Vapour, Disinfection with, 700
Formic Aldehyde, Disinfection, 480

Lamp for Disinfecting Purposes, 570

Simple Apparatus for Generating

Gaseous, 482
Forniol, 479

— and Formaldehyde, 262
Foslie, M., Lithothamnion, 443
Fossil Bacteria, 314, 555

— Bryozoa in British Museum, 513

— Butterflies, 403

— Cockroaches, American, 518

— Gynmosperms of Wealden, 653

— Halimeda , 214

— Monocolyledones, 545

Fournier, L., Cultures of Pneumococcus on
Blood, 473

— Formation of Gallstones by Bacteria,
457

Fox, Anthrax in, 108
Fox, C. F., Walmsley’s “Autograph”
Camera and Acetylene Gas Generator,
351

Fraenke, S., Thyroantitoxin, 349
Fraenkel’s Pneumococcus, 462
Francaviglia, C., Filaria labiata, 180
France, Sp mges of, 194
Francotte, P., Determination of Focal
Length of Objectives, 242
Franke, E., Absorption of Free Nitrogen
by Plants, 209

Franke, M., Morphology of Stellatm, 435
Franci, R., Carteria , 548
Frankfurt, S., Distribution of Cane Sugar,
537

Frankland, G. C., Bacteria and Carbonated
Waters, 554

Frazer, A., Sliding Microtome, 259
French Ampharetinse, 64
Free-Swimming Copepods from West Coast
of Ireland, 310

Fremont, C., Microscopes for Opaque Ob-
jects, 120

Freshwater Acinetse, 426

— Algse, New and Interesting, 149, 266

— Copepods, 625
of Germany, 522

— Fish, Parasitic Worms, 420

— Polyzoa, “ Excretory Organ,” 30 1
Freudeureich, E. von, Bacteria of Cheese

Ripening, 224

— identity of Clostridium fcelidum lactis
and Bacillus oedematis maligni, 558

Friedlaender, B., Criticism of Golgi’s
Method, 260

Friedlander’s Pneumobacillus, 277
Fermentations excited by, 109

Frisco, B., Pathogenic Blastomycetes, 99
Fritillaria imperialism Abnormal Nuclei
in Endosperm, 201

Froembling, W., Stem and Leaf of Euphor-
biacese, 326

Frog, Centrosome and Sphere in Spinal
Ganglion Cells, 43

— Gastrulation, 38

— Grouping of Pigment-Granules during
Segmentation, 176

— Mechanism of Egg-laying, 173
Frogs’ Eggs, Blastopore, 396

— Skin-Glauds, 297

— Sympathetic Ganglion-Cells, 397
Fromme Microtomes, New, 572
Fructification of Lachnea, 448

Fruit, .New Method for Preserving Suc-
culent, 580
Fruit of Trapa , 84
Fuchs, T., Fossil Halimeda , 214
Fuchsin, Method for Impregnating Lacunae
and Canaliculi of Bone, 478
Fucoideae, 91

Fucus, Fertilisation and Segmentation of
Spore, 656

Fuess’ Crystallographic and Petrogra-
phical Microscopes and Accessories, 232
Fuhrmann, O., Bothriocephalus rectangulus ,
529

— Bothriocephalus Zschoikhei , 419

— Taeniae of Amphibia, 191
Birds, 316

Fujita, J., Experiments on Molluscan
Eggs, 512

— Method for Preparing Molluscan Eggs,
570

Fuller, G., Proper Reaction of Nutrient
Media for Bacterial Cultivation, 690
Fumago , 339

F umariaceae, Flower, 433

— Vegetative Organs, 644

Fiinfstiick, M., Secretion of Oil by Lichens,
95

Fungi, Cell-Wall, 656

— Importance of Potassium and Magne-
sium for, 657

— New Method for Preserving, 580

— Oxidising Ferment, 656

— Simple Method for Demonstrating
Germinal Pore in Spore Membrane of
Rust. 257

— Staining, 699

G.

Oabelli, L., Doubling of Leaves, 434
Gubritschewsky, Serum Injection Syringe,
577

Gain, E., Influence of Climate and Soil on
the Variation of Seeds, 650
Galeodidae, Comparative Morphology, 520
Galli-Valerio, B., Endoglobular Parasites
of Blood of Dog, 196
Gall Microbe of Distemper, 556

732

INDEX.

Galloway, B. T., Parasitic Fungi, 338
Galls, 331

Gallstones, Formation by Bacteria, 457
Gammarus Berilloni , 309
Ganges, Bactericidal Action of Waters of,
on Cholera Vibrio, 665
Ganglia of Mammals, Spinal, 296
Sympathetic, 44

— Structure of Nerve-Cells in Spinal and
Central, 296

Ganglion-Cells, Nucleus, 297

of Frog, Centrosome and Sphere in

Spinal, 43

Sympathetic, 397

Ganoids, Early Development, 497
Gantter, F., Negative Test for Blood-
Spots, 695

Garbini, A., Nemerteans of Lake of Garda,
418

Garbowski, T., Phylogeny of Lithobiidse,
405

Garda, Nemerteans of Lake of, 418
Garstang, W., Habits and Respiratory Me-
chanism of Corystes Cassicelaunm, 623

— New British Doris , 511

— New Classification ot' Tuuicata, 48

— New Species of Doris , 304

Gas Generator, Walmsley’s Acetylene,
354

— New Thermostat heated without the
use of, 674

Gaseous Formic Aldehyde, Simple Appa-
ratus for Generating, 482
Gases, Movements in Rhizomes, 88
Gaskell, W. H., Origin of Vertebrates,
167, 578

Gasperini, G., Actinomycosis, 221
Gasser, — ., Cold-Sterilising Bougie Filters
and other Apparatus, 252
Gastropoda. See Contents, xi
Gastr illation in Axolotl and Prog, 38

— in Reptiles, 37

— of Amin calva, 604

Gathering Microscopic Objects, Simple
Apparatus, 475

Gatterina, G., Structure of Nucleus, 396
Gault, Foramiuifera, 705

— of Folkestone, Foramiuifera, 1, 581
Geerligs, P., Ang-khak, a Chinese Fun-
gus Pigment for Colouring Edibles, 449

Gehucliten, A. v., Rohon’s Cells in Spinal
Cord of Trout, 175

Gelatin, Influence of Variation in Com-
position on Development of Water
Bacteria, 251

— Media, Relative Growth of Bacterium
typhi abdominalis and B. coli commune
in, 669

Gelatinous Endosperm Digestion, 89
Gem mm of Mosses, 332
Generator, Walmsley’s Acetylene Gas, 354
Genital Apparatus of Hymenoptera, Male,
403

Genital Ducts and Glands of Female Silk-
Moth, 515

— Organs of Male Wasp, 57
Gentianacese, Dimorphic Flowers, 84
Geographical Distribution of Hippidea,

411

Geography, Zoo-, Separation and its Bear-
ings on, 502

Geophilidce of Central Europe, 308
Geophilous Plants, 324
Geothallus , a new Genus of Hepaticae, 441
Geotropism, 651

— of Roots, 89

— of Stolons, Effect of Light on, 543
Gerard, E., Cholesterins of Cryptogams,

203

— Fermentation of Uric Acid by Microbes,
457

— Test for Cholesterins, 258

Gerber, — ., Organic Acids of Mesembry-
antliemum , 641

German Exhibition, Lubeck. 1895, Optics
and Mechanics at North, 127
Germanos, N. K., New Cestode, 68
Germany, Freshwater Copepods of, 522

— Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora, 212,
448

Germinal Layers of Amphioxus , Formation,
606

— Pore in Spore Membrane of Rust Fungi,
Simple Method for Demonstrating, 257

Germination, Chemical Processes, 544

— of Phanerogamia. See Contents, xxi

— of Spores of Penicillium glaucum, 338

— Physiology, 652
in Maize, 544

Germs, Bacterial, Resistance to Dry Heat,
348

Gerota, D., Improvement in Mercury
Injection Apparatus for Lymphatics, 361

— Injection Masses for Lymphatics, 575
Gerould, J. H., Investigation of Caudina

arenata , 423, 476

Gerstener, R., New essentially Anaerobic
Bacteria, 105

Gestation of Vespertilio murinus , 36
Giacomini, C., Abnormalities in Human
Development, 33

Giard, A., Hibernation of Clavelina lepadi -
formis, 613

Gibelli, S. G., Flower and Fruit of Trapa ,
84

Gibson, R. J. H., Ligule of Selaginella ,
331

Giesbrecht, W., Notes on Copepods, 62

— Red Sea Copepods, 413
Giesenhagen, K., Parasitic Exoascese, 340
Gigantic Earthworm from Pyrenees, 525
Giglio-Tos, E., Red Blood-Corpuscles of

Tadpoles, 608

Gilbert, A., Cultures of Pneumococcus on
Blood, 473

' — Formation of Gallstones by Bacteria, 457

INDEX.

733

Gill-bearing “ Pulmonates,” 180
Gills of Cirripedia, 186
Gilson, E., Chemical Composition of Cell-
Wall, 202

Gilson, G., Septal Organs of Owenia
fusiformis , 64

Gingko biloba, Fertilisation and Embryo-
geny, 328

Gizzard in Blattidae and Grillidae, Masti-
catory Armature, 619
Gjokic, G., Cell-Wall of Muscineae, 211
Gland, Brick-Red, in Limulus, 186

— Digestive, in Simple Ascitlians, 179

— “ Sub-neural,” in Ascidians, 52

— Supra - (Esophageal, of llsementaria
officinalis , 525

— Thyroid, in Nccturus, 172
Glanders, Bacteriological Diagnosis, 474
Glands, Accessory, of Thyroid Region, 495,

602

— Genital, of Female Silk Moth, 515

— Lymphatic, of Myriopods, 184

— Pharyngeal, of Hipperinse, 412

— Skin, of Frog, 297

— Spinning, Branching of Tracheae in
Lepidopterous Larvae, 182

— Stomach, of Vertebrates, 295
Glandular Cells of Anilocra mediterranean

61

Glaser, F., Bacterium gelatinosum Belie, 229
Glass, Cover-, Holder, 263
New Clip, 125, 678

— Watch-, Imbedding Method, 359
Improved Solid, 255

Gley. — ., Experimental Embryology, 293

Gliocladium, 95

Globigerina lequ ilater alis, 589

— bulloides, 587

— cretacea, 588

Gluck, H., Musk Fungus, 95

— New Ccenogonium, 659

Glucose, Influence on Staphylococcus pyo-
genes aureus , 560

Glycerin in Culture Media on Diphtheria
Bacillus, Influence, 691
Glycogen in Fungi, 445
Goebel, K., Dependence of Form of Leaf
on Intensity of Light

— Hecistopteru, 441

— Morphology of Grasses, 85
Goedicke, J., Optical Works of C. P. Goerz,

563

Goerz’s New Double Objective, 560

— Optical Works, 563

Goes, A., Foraminifera of Voyage of
‘ Albatross,’ 426

Golden, K. E., Movement of Gases in
Rhizomes. 88

Golenkin, M., Inflorescence of Urticaceae
&c., 644

Golgi’s Method, Criticism, 260
Golowkow, A., Penetration of Cholera
Vibrios into Hens’ Eggs, 665

Golowkow, A., Vitality of Diphtheria
Bacilli on Textile Fabrics, 665
Gonads of Cyclops, Male, 523

— of Lumbriculus variegatus, 65
Gonnermann, M., Diastatic Ferment in

Beet, 537

Gonococcus, Cultivating, 355
Gononemus , Life-History, 636
Goodrich, E. S., Notes on Oligochaetes, 525
Gordiid, New, 628
Gordiidae, New, 66

Gorham, E. P.. Cleavage of Egg of Virbius
zostericola, 624

Gorini, C., Cultivation of Amoebae on Solid
Media, 473

Gosio, Decomposition of Saccharated Media
by Vibrio choleras asiaticas, 106
Gossage, A. M., Influence of Glycerin in
Culture Media on Diphtheria Bacillus,
691

Grains, Pollen-, 433

— Starch-, 80
Granula, Altmann’s, 396

Granular Character of Umbilical Vesicle,
396

— Leucocytes, 397, 608

Granules, Fat-Formation and Altmann’s,
45

Grasses, Epiderm, 645

— Morphology, 85

Greece, Terrestrial Isopods from, 625
Graveyard Soil, Bacteriological and
Chemical Examination, 105
Green, J. R., Diastase in Leaves, 202
Greenland Ctenophora, 77
Gregory, J. W., Catalogue of Fossil Bryozoa
in British Museum, 513

— Eozoonal Structure, 321

— New Genus of Liassic Echinoidea, 531
Gredot, P., Carpel lary Venation, 434
Grethe, — ., Bacillus Smegmatis and Tu-
bercle Bacillus, 667

Griffiths, A. B., Red Pigment of Amanita
muscaria , 553
Griffiths, W., Starches, 81
Griffithsia, Cystocarp, 655
Grimbert, L., Fermentations excited by
Pneumobacillus of Friedlaender, 109

— Pneumobacillus of Friedlander, 227
Grob, A., Epiderm of Leaf of Grasses, 645
Grobben, C., Queen Bee unable to lay

Drone Eggs, 307

Groom, P., Relation between Calcium and
Conduction of Carbohydrates, 331

— Saprophytic Orchideae, 325

Grosser, O., Veins of Head and Neck in
Reptiles, 295

Grove, E., Calcareous Pebbles formed by
Algae, 91

Growth, Influence of Lecithin, 299

— of Aquatic Plants, 648

— of Phanerogamia. See Contents, xxi

— of Pine Leaves, 618

734

INDEX,

Growth of Sponges, 319
Gruber, M., Method for Rapid Recognition
of Cholera Vibrio and Typhoid Bacillus,
567

Gruber, T., Species of Sarcina , 102
Griiss, J., Penetration of Diastase into
Starch-Grains, 653

— Physiology of Germination, 652
Gruvel, A., Anatomy of Tetraclita porosa,

414

— Gills of Cirripedia, 186

— Histology of Muscles of Cirripedia, 523

— Pharyngeal Glands of Hipperinse, 412
Grvllidae, Masticatory Armature of Gizzard

in Blattidae arid, 619

Guerin, P., Localisation of Anagyrine and
Cytisine, 81

Guerne, J. E., Gigantic Earthworm from
Pyrenees, 525

Gulf of Naples, Cephalopoda, 614
Gulland, G. L., Granular Leucocytes, 397,
608

Gum, Formation, 544
in Acacia , 81

Gumprecht, Preservation of Urinary De-
posits, 700

Gwynne-Vaughan, D. T., Polystely in Di-
cotyledons, 537
Gymnosperms, Fossil, 653

— Lacunse in Tissue, 323

H.

Haacke, W., Variation, 538
Haan. See Van Breda de Haan
Haas, K., Apparatus for Demonstrating
Effects of Lenses, 353
Haberlandt, G., Hydathodes, 204, 644

— Spring and Autumn Wood, 82
Habits and Respiratory Meehan isn of

Corystes Cassivelaunus , 623

— of Carrion-eating Insects, 617
Hacke, E., Demonstrating Tubercle Ba-
cilli in Human Sputum, 476

Hacker, V., Paternal and Maternal Nuclear
Substance in Development of Cyclops ,
187

H&matin, Modified Use, 133
Hgematoxylin Solutions, Very Dilute, 260
Hsematuria, Bovine, 197
Hsementaria officinalis, Supra-cesophageal
Gland, 525

Hair-Combers, Aspergillous Tuberculosis
in, 449

Hairs of Cichoriacese, Laticiferous, 539

— of Myristicaceae, 3‘27

— on Tubers of Cyclamen , 646
Hulicoryne Wrightii, 334
Halimeda, Fossil, 214

Hall, C. M., Cheese-Curd Inflation, 224

— T. S., Crustacea of Central Australia,
410

Hallas, E., Production of Azygospores in
Zygnema, 444

Halted, B. D., Spores of Chalara , 96
Hamburger, H. J., Streptococcus peritoni-
tidis equi, 5o6

Hammar, J. A., Connection belween
Blastomeres in Eirg of Sea-Urchin, 317
Hammer, — ., Cultivating Gonococcus , 355
H andbook of Histology, 695
Handlirsch, A., Digger-Wasps, 618
Hand-Microscope, Zeiss’, 114
Hands, Disinfection, 670
Hanitsch, R., Sponges from W. Coast of
Portugal, 77

Hankin, — ., Microbes of Indian Rivers,
317

Hankin, H., Bactericidal Action of Waters
of Jumna and Ganges on Cholera Vibrio,
665

Hansemann, D., Demonstrating Pores of
Pulmonary Alveoli, 358
Hansen, E. C., Variation of Yeast-Cells,
341

Hapalosiphon Hibernicus, 163
Hares, Strongylus retortseformis, 189
Hariotina, 92

Harmer, S. F., Development of Licheno-
pora verrucaria, 401

Harper, R. A., Division of Nu< leus and
Formation of Spores in Ascus of Asco-
mycetes, 33S

— Division of Nucleus and Formation of
Spores in Ascus of Fungi, 214

— Perithece of Sphasrotheca Castagnei , 339
Harrison, R. G., Development of Teleos-

tean Fins, 174

Hartlaub, C. R., Comatulidse of ‘ Alba-
tross,’ 72

Hartnack’s Illuminating Apparatus for
Monochromatic Light, 247
Hartig, R., Red Wood of Pines, 642
Hartog, M., Cytology of Saprolegniaceae,
335

— Stauridium productum and Perigonimus
repens , 318

Ha.'sall, A,, Animal Parasites of Chickens,
Turkeys, and Ducks, 507

— Ctenotxnia denticulata , 191
Hauptfleisch, P., Movement of Diatoms, 100
Haustoria of Lailireea, 205

Head, Metamerism of Vertebrate, 32

— Region, Development of Veins, 294

— Veins in Reptiles, 295

— Vertebrate, Structure and Development,
598

Healing of Wounds, 324
Heart, Cysticerci in Dog’s, 419
Heat of Flowers, 545

— Resistance of Bacterial Germs to Dry,
348

Hecistopteris , 441

Hedley, C., Mollusca of Central Australia,
401

INDEX.

735

Hegelmaier, F., Development of Embryo
in Angiosperms, 86

Hegler, — Mitosis and Fragmentation,
200

Heidenhain, M., Object-Holder of Alumi-
nium for Observation of Objects on botb
sides, 677

Heider, K., Development of Salpa fusi-
f or mis, 614

Heifer, Immunising Power of Serum of
Vaccinated, 22o

Heinricher, E., Bulbs of Cystopteris
bulbifera , 654

— Haustoria of Lathrsea, 205
Helianthemum polifolium , Irritability of

Calyx and Stamens, 543
Heliopora cxrulea, Structure and Affini-
ties, 73

Heliotropism, 651
Hcliozoa, Synopsis, 427
Jritlix, Spermatocytes, 510
Helleborus , Leaves, 326
Helm, C , Apogamy in Ferns, 654
Helopliilus Larvae, Power of .Resistance to
Killing Fluids, 517
Hempel, A„ Protozoa of Illinois, 532

— Rotifers of Illinois Rivers, 530
Henneguy, F., Physiological significance

of Direct Cell-Division, 606
Hens’ Egg, Strange Enclosure in, 37

— Eggs, Immigration of Typhoid Bacilli
into, 348

Penetration of Cholera Vibrios, 665

Henneguy, F , Morphology of Cell, 499

— L. F., Technique of Microscopical
Anatomy, 263

Hennings, P., New Genera of Fungi, 215
Henry, E., Distribution of Tannin in Wood,
536

Hepaticae, New Genus, 441

— Spore Formation and Nuclear Division
in, 90

Hepburn, D., Papillary Ridges of Monkeys
and Men, 296

Herbst, C , Formative Stimuli in Develop-
ment, 28

Herdman, W. A., Oysters and Typhoid,
54

Hereditary Polydactylism, 616
Heredity, 27

— an<l Acquired Immunity, 345
Herfeldt, E„ Acid-Litter for Infectious

Diseases of Caltle, 348
Hering, F., Correlation in Growth of Dif-
ferent Oigans, 438

Herlizka, — ., Experimental Biology, 394
Hermaphroditism in Apodidae, 309
Herrick, F. H., American Lobster, 410
Hertwig, C., Experimental Embryology,
597

Hertwig’s Theory of Development, 29
Herzberg, P., Ustilago Carbo, 448
Hess, C., Function of Retina, 179

Hesse, R., Nervous System of Rhizostoma,
318

Heterocarpy, 433
Heterocercal Tails, Use, 299
Heterogamy in Ectocarpus , 656
Heterospermy of JEihionema , 84
Heterotrophy and Anisophylly, 326
Heurck. See Van Heurck
Hexactinellida, New, 425
Hexactinian, New, 72
Heymons, H., Abdominal Appendages of
Insects, 402

— R., Development of Pulmonata, 53
Hibernation of Clavelina lepadiformis ,

613

Hibler, E. v., Constant Occurrence of Bac-
teria in Cells, 221

Hickson, S. J., Classification of Alcyonaria,
531

— Nervous System of Coelentera, 634
Hildebrand, F., Hairs on Tubers of Cy-
clamen, 646

Hildebrand, H. E., Practical Remarks on
Microscope Construction, 111
Hill, J. P., Embryo of Platypus , 37

— New Enteropneuston, 69

— M. D., Fecundation, Maturation, and
Fertilisation, 48

— Investigation of Ova, 130

Hiltner, L., Absorption of Free Nitrogen
by Plants, 209

— Physiology of Root-Tubercles of Alnus
glutinosa, 329

Hipperinae, Pharyngeal Glands, 412
Hippidea, Geographical Disti ilmtion, 411
Hira^e, S., Fertilisation and Einbryogeny
ot Ginkgo biloba ( Salisburia ), 328
Hirudo , Nephridial Funm 1, 65
Histogenesis of Pancreas, 35
Histology, Handbook, 695

— of Vertebrata. See Contents, ix
History of Microscope, 471
Hochreutiner, M. C., Phyllodes of Acacia ,

539

— H. G., Structure of Aquatic Plants,

538

Hofmeister, — ., Catgut Disinfection, 669
Hogg, H. R., Spiders of Central Australia,
407

Holder for Slides and Cover- Glasses, 263

— Object-, for Observation of Objects
enclosed between two Cover-Glasses, 579

Holm, T., Monopodial Ramification of
Carex, 433

— J. C., Preserving Yeast in Saccharose
Solution, 579

Holmgren, E., Branching of Tracheae in
Spinning- Clands of Lepidopterous
Larvae, 182

Holocrinus Wagneri , Development, 192
Homoeogamy, 646

Holst, A., Retention of Virulence by
Streplococ i, 317

73a

INDEX.

Holt, C. W. L., Fishing-Grounds and
Fishes of W. Coast of Ireland, 299
Homology and Atavism. 398
Honda, S., Growth of Pine-Leaves, 648
Honeydevv, 322

Hood, J., Rotifera of County Mayo, 420
Hopkins, F. G., Pigments of Pieridse, 616
Hopkins, G. M., Simple Apparatus for
Gathering Microscopic Objects, 475
Hormodendron , 339

Horn, H., Malignant CEdema in Cow, 459
Hornbeam, Oak-leaved, 538
Hornell’s Microscopical Studies in Botany,
440

Horst, R., Gigantic Earthworm from
Pyrenees, 525

Houtman’s Abrolhos Islands, Marine
Fauna, 47

Howard, L. O., Destruction of Mosquitos,
405

Huber, F., Hariotina, 92
Hubrecht, A. A. W., Preserving Embryo-
logical Material, 699

Hueppe, F., Introduction to Bacteriology,
231

Human Development, Abnormalities, 33

— Embryos, Normal Hyperthely in, 395

— Eye, Fdaria loa in, 189

Human Neuroglia, Demonstrating Struc-
ture, 693

— Sputum, Demonstrating Tubercle
Bacilli, 476

— Tail, 601

Humphrey, J. E., Constituents of Cell, 201

— Seed of Scitaminese, 325
Hungary, Cliaracese, 442

Hunter, J., New Method of Illumination
for Photomicrography, 248
Huplrina lanessa , Synonymy, 306
Huppert, — Chemical Basis of Specific
Chaiacters, 610
Huth, E., Heterocarpy, 433
Hutton, F. W., Distribution of Southern
Faunae, 504

Hyacinthus , Bulbils, 645
Hyatt, J. D., Mouth-Parts and Terminal
Armour of Cicada septendecim, 404
Hybrid Moss, 212
Hydathodes, 204, 644
Hydrocyanic Acid in Pandium edule , 431
Hydrogen peroxide, Bacterial Influence,
104

Hydroids, British, 635

— of Ternate, 425

— Plymouth, 319

Hydrophorous Apparatus in Xerophilous
Plants, 435

Hvdrostatic Apparatus of Radiolarians,
194

Hygroscopic Tissue of Pappus of Com-
positae, 82

Hymenoptera, Male Genital Apparatus,
403

Hymenoptera Muscles, 183
Hypertrophy of Nucleus caused by a Para-
site, 641

Hyperthely in Human Embryos, Normal,
395

Hypolimnas, Mimicry in, 616
Hypophysis, Development, 494
Hypostomaceae, new Family of Parasitic
Fungi, 447

I.

Ice, Living Earthworm iu, 187, 312
Idioblasts of Camellia , 324
Idiosepium Picteti, 302
Ijima, I., Long Lines as Zoological
Collecting Apparatus, 569

— New Hexactinellida, 425

— New Oc-topod, 302
Ikeda, S., New Octopod, 302
lkeno, S., Canal-Cells in Cycas, 643
Illinois, Protozoa, 532

— River, Rotifera, 530

Illuminating Apparatus. See Contents,

XXX

Illumination for Photomicrography, new
Method, 248

Imbedding. See Contents, xxxiii
Immigration of Typhoid Bacilli into Hens*
Eggs, 318

Immunised Animals, Special Action of
Serum of Highly, 456

— to Typhoid, Diagnosis of Typhoid
Bacilli by Means of Serum of Animals,
566

Immunising Power of Serum of Vaccinated
Heifer, 225

Immunity, Heredity of Acquired, 345

— New Theory, 458

— Phagocytosis and, 668

— Reaction of Cholera Vibrios in Animal
Body and in vitro. Specific, 668

— Researches Relating to the Specific
Agent of Small- Pox and Production of
Artificial, 461

— to Cholera, 458
Impatiens, Root, 435

Index to the Journal (Zoology) of Linnean
Society, 5u6
Indian Crabs, 623

— Rivers, Microbes, 347

— Wheat Rusts, 661

Indies, West, Dipteraof St. Vincent, 618
Infautile Diarrhoea, Bacteriology, 667
Infection, Bacterial, by Air-sown Organ-
isms, 554

— Experiments with Sarcosporidia, 197

— of Young Animal per os, Vibrio, 668

— of Ustilaginea?, 217

— Vibrio, per os of Young Cats, 347

in Young Rabbits. 559

Infectious Disease among Turkeys, 429
of Cattle, Acid-Litter, 348

INDEX.

737

Infectious Disease, Role of Fever, 346
Influenza Bacilli, Presence in Central
Nervous System, 567
Infusoria Aspirotricha, 637
— . See Contents, Protozoa, xvii
Ingpen, J. E.. 136, 368, 371, 487, 703
Inheritance, Dynamical Hypothesis, 29

— of Acquired Characters, 27
Injecting. See Contents, xxxiv
Insecta. See Contents, xii
Insectivora, Development of Teeth, 34
Insects, Habits of Carrion -eating, 617
Insular Land Shell- Faunae, 615
Intercellular Body, Platner’s, 176

— Spaces in Embryos, 323

— Union of Epithelial Cells, 607
Interzocerdal Communication in Flustridae,

279, 367

Iutestinal Bacteria, Invasion of Body, 109

— Canal of Man, Flagellata, 196

— Epithelium in Metamorphosis of Meal-
worm, Changes, 617

— Tract, Bacterial Flora, 108

— Wall to Bacteria, Penetrability, 663
Intestine, Spiral, Development, in Pris-

tiurus, 604

Invertebrata. See Contents, xi
Invertebrate, Centrosome and Sphere, in
Nerve-Cells, 626

Ireland, W. Coast, Fishing-Grounds and
Fishes, 299

Free-Swimming Copepods, 310

Iris-Diaphragm, Czapski’s Ocular, 120

Eye-Piece with graduated, 560

Meyer’s Microscope-Stage with, 248,

350

Zeiss’ Eye-Piece with, 242

Iron, Absorption and Physiological Import,
46

— Compounds in Animal and Vegetable
Cells, 45

Investigation of Presence in Animal

and Vegetable Cells, 130

Value for Fungi, 445

Irritability of Phanerogamia. See Con-
tents, xxiii

Ishikawa, C., Phyllopod Crustacea of
Japan, 62, 187, 310
Isopods fram Greece, Terrestrial, 625

— Mexican Terrestrial, 309

Israel, O., Very Dilute Hminatoxylin
Solution, 260

Istvantfi, G. von, Cell-Nuclei of Fungi, 214

— Function of Nucleus in Fungi, 334

— Secretion Receptacles of Fungi, 214, 334
Iwanzoff, N., Structure, Action, and De-
velopment of Nematocysts, 192

J.

Jack, J. B., Pellia, 91

Jackson, Port, Shark’s Egg Cases, 295

Jacobi, A., Anatomy of Malayan Pulmo-
nates, 304

Jacoby, M., Accessory Glands of Thyroid
Region, 495

Jahn, E., Floating Leaves, 645
Jameson, H. G., British Mosses, 655
Jams, Microscopical Examination, 701
Janet, C., History of Wasps’ Nest, 57

— Muscles of Hymenoptera, 183
Jankelowitz, A., Development of Pancreas

in Man, 169

Janosik, J., Development of Allantois in
Lizard, 602

Japan, Phyllopod Crustacea, 62, 187, 310
Japanese New Land Leeches, 312

— Method for Sticking on Paraffin
Sections, 261

Jarius, M., Parasitism and Saprophytism
of Ascochyta Pisi, 448
Jatta, G., Cephalopods of Gulf of Naples,
614

Java Sea, Crustaceans, 186
Jaworowski, A., Development of Spinning
Apparatus, 59

— Fauna of Wells, 301
Jeffersonia, Embryo-Sac, 86
Jeffrey, E. C., Polyeinbryony, 207
Jennings, A. V., Genus Ourozeuldes , 309

— New Genus of Astrorhizidse, 320

— Phycopeltis, 547

— Trentepoliliacese and Lichens, 213

— True Nature of “ Mcebiusispongia para-
sitica,” 320

Jodin, M. V., Latent Life of Seeds, 541
Jonsson, B., Growth of Orobanche , 209
Jorgensen, A., Fungi which form Transi-
tion Group between Moulds and Sac-
charomyces Yeast, 311

— Origin of Alcohol-Yeasts, 96
Jorgensen, E., Jungermannia orcadensis ,

442

Joffe, R., Fertilisation of Bangia, 547
Johannessen, A., Effect of Injection of
Solutions of Common Salt and of Anti-
Diphtheritic Serum, 230
Johnson-Lavis, H. J., Eozoonal Structure,
321

Joly, J., Path of Transpiration Current,
88

Jonkman, H. F., Embryogeny of Angiop -
teris and Marattia , 440
Jores, L., Retention of Blood-Colour in
Anatomical Preparations by means of
Formalin, 480

Jorge, R., New Water Vibrio, 346
Jost, L., Coleochsete, 333
Joubin, E., Deep-Sea Dredging in Bay of
Biscay (Cephalopoda), 501
Joubin, L., Loligo Picteti and Idiosepius
Picteti, 302

— New Cephalopods, 302

Journal (Zoology) of Linuean Society,
Index, 506

738

INDEX.

Juel, H. O., Parasitic Fungi, 94
Jumna and Ganges, Bactericidal Action of
Water on Cholera Vibrio, 665
Jung, Microtome, New, 478
J anger mannia orcadensis, 442
Junius, P., Skin-Glands of Frog, 297

K.

K. (F. C.), Myrmecophile Lepismids and
Ants, 315

Kaestner, Experimental Embryolagy, 598
Kaiser, O., Nuclear Division in Characeae,
442

— Simple Arrangement for Drawing
Microscopical Preparations under very
Low Magnification, 678

Kaiser, W., Apparatus for Electrolysis
under Microscope, 243
Kaiserling, C., Preserving Museum Speci-
mens, 700

Kamen, L., Cholera Notes, 107
Kanthack, A. A., Branched Diphtheria
Bacilli, 665

— Easy Method for Preparing Serum- Agar,
255

Karawaiew, W., New Radiolarian, 427

— Now Thermostat heated without the
TJse of Gas, 674

Karliuski, — ., Bacteria of Hot Springs,
456

Karlinski, J., Disinfecting Power of Kresol
and Metakresol, 668
Karop, G. C., 268, 367, 370
Kirsten, G., Conjugation of Diatoms, 662
Karyokinesis of Ovum, Atlas, 394
Karyokinetic Problems, 79
Karyology of Saprolegni a, 216
Kasparek, T., Infection Experiments with
Sarcosporidia, 177

Kedrowski, W., Conditions under which
Anaerobic Bacteria can exist even in
Presence of Oxygen, 454
Keeble, F. W., Fertilisation of Lorantha-
ceae, 647

— Germination of Loranthacese, 648
Keibel, — ., Development of Bladder and

Urinogenital Sinus, 35
Keller,! I. A., Cross- and Self-Fertilisation,
329

Keller, J., Turbellaria of Zurich, 67
Kellner, C , Sake, Shoyu, and Miso-
Making, 96

Kellicott, D. S., Formalin in Zoological
and Histological Laboratory, 262

— Notes on Formalin, 479

Kellogg, V. L., Mallophaga of N. American
Birds, 404

Keng, L. B., Ccelomic Fluid of Earthworm,
416

Kempner, W., Tochtermann’s Medium for
Diagnosis of Diphtheria, 567

Kenyon, F. C., Morphology and Classifi-
cation of Pauropoda, 406
Keuten, J., Nuclear Division of Euglena,
77

Kidney of Planorbis and Limnxue , Larval,
181

Killing Fluids, Power of Resistance of
Helophilus Larvae, 517
Kingsbury, B. F , Examining Spermatheca
in Newts and Salamanders, 256

— Spermathecae and Fertilisation in
American Urodela, 495

Kirchner, C., Root-Tubercles of Soja-Bean,
205

Kirch neriella, 100

Kister, J., Meningococcus intracellular is,
669

Klauwers, J. A., Streptococcus peritonitidis
equi , 556

Klebahn, H., Behaviour of Cell-Nucleus in
Formation of Auxospores of Epithemia ,
221

— Flos- Aquae, 662

Klebs, G., Physiology of Reduction, 206
Klecki, V. von, Bacillus saccharobutyricus ,
558

— Ripening Process of Cheese, 461
Klein, C., Universal Apparatus for Inves-
tigation of Thin Slices in Liquids, 467

Klemm, P., Disorganisation-Phenomena of
Cells, 430

Klercker, J. af, Aquatic Forms of Sticho-
coccu8 , 444

Klie, J., Relative Growth of Bacterium
typhi abdominalis and B. coli commune
in Gelatin Media, 669
Klocker, A., Supposed Conversion of
Aspergillus Oryzse, into Saccharomyces,
218

— Various Yeasts, 96

Kluge, M. II. E., Genital Organs of Male
Wasp, 57

Knoblauch, E., Dimorphic Flowers in
Gentianaceae, 84

Knuth, P., Cross- and Self-Pollination, 207
Kny, L., Absorption of Water by Leafless
Branches, 330

— Cross- and Self-Pollination, 208
Koch, G. v.. Budding in Corals, 425
Koch. L., New Jung Microtome, 478
Koehler, R., Deep-Sea Dredgings in Bay of

Biscay (Ecninoderma), 500

— Echiuoderms of Bay of Amboyna, 72

— Ophiurids of Recent Expeditions, 531
Kdlliker, A. v., Amoeboid Movements in

Neurodendrites, 175

Koenen, A. v., Development of Dadocrinus
gracilis and Holocrinus Wagner i , 192
Kohl, F. G., Opening and Closing of
Stomates, 204, 645

Kolkwitz, R., Mechanics of Twining, 330

— Plasmolysis and Growth of Medullary
Tissues, 439

INDEX.

739

Kolle, R., Diagnosis of Typhoid-Bacilli by
means of Serum of Animals Immunised
to Typhoid, 566

Kolle. VV., Specific Immunity Reaction of
Cholera Vibrios in the Animal Body and
in vitro, 668

Kopsch, F., Formol, 480

— Gastrulation in Axolotl and Frog, 38
Kornauth, K., Behaviour of Pathogenic

Bacteria in Living Vegetable Tissue, 357

— Section-Stretcher for Paraffin Sections
with the Cathcart Improved Microtome,
696

Ivorotneff, A., Development of Salpa , 506

of Salpa democratica ( mucronata ) 49

Korschelt, E., Maturation and Fertilisation
in Opliryotrocha puerilis, 188
Kossel, A., Basic Substances of Nucleus,
606

Kostanecki, K., Maturation and Fertilisa-
tion in Physa fontinalis, 511
Kowalevsky, A., Biology of Leeches, 417

— Lymphatic Glands of Myrinpods, 184
Kowalevsky, O., Relation between Chimio-

taxis and Leucocytosis, 568
Krabbe/ G., Influence of Temperature on
Osmose, 650

Kramer, — ., New Mite from Beaver, 409
Kraus, G., Growth in Tropics, 88

— Heat of Flowers, 545

— Water-carrying Calyx, 325

Kremer, J., Presence of Mould-Fungi in
Syphilis, Carcinoma and Sarcoma, 661
Kresol and Metakresol, Disinfecting
Power, 668

Kretz, R , Apparatus for Removing definite
Quantities of Fluid Cultivation Media,
252

Kroskauer, B., Nature of Specific Effective
Substances in Cholera-Serum, 459
Kruch, O., Crystalloids of Phytolacca, 536
Kuckuck, P., New Phaeosporese, 91

— Swarmspores of Tilopterideae, 212
Kuhlman, C. G., Microscope as Guide in

Medicine, 470

Kallmann, — Cladothri x odor if era, 345
Knnstier, J., Pharyngeal Glands of Hip-
peri me, 412

Kutscher, — ., Phosphorescence of Elbe
Vibrios, 105

Kuznitzky, M., Demonstration Eye-Piece,
673

Kwietniewski, C. R., Actiniariaof Ternate,
635

Kyle, H. M., Arenicola, 626
Kynotus cingulatus, 187

L.

Laboratory, Formalin in Zoological and
Histological, 262
Laboulbeniaceae, 218
Laccase in Plants, 202

Lachenalia, Bulbils, 645
Lachnea , Fructification, 448
Lacquer Rings, New Rotating Disc for
Preparation of, 562

Lactic Acid Bacterium, Alleged Conver-
sion of Tyrothrix tenuis Ducluux into,
665

Barm, 660

Lacunae in Tissue of Gymnosperms, 323
— - Bone, Method for Impregnating with
Fuchsin, 478

Lacunar System of Starfishes, 192
Lagerheim, G., Pliseocystis , 532

— Pliycoporphyriu, New Pigment of
Conjugatae, 213

Laguesse, E., Histogenesis of Pancreas, 35
Lake of Garda, Nemerteons, 418
Lakes, Cyclopidae and Culanidse of
Michigan, 414

Lamellibranchiata. See Contents, xii
Lamp for Disinfecting Purposes, Formic
Aldehyde, 570

Lamson, H. H., Spraying Experiments, 669
Land-Leeches, New Japanese, 312
Land Shell-Faunae, Insular, 615
Langdon, F. E., Examination of Sense-
Organs of Lumbricus, 691

— Sense-Organs of Lumbricus agricola,
627

Lange, — ., Microscopical Examination of
Samples of Meal, 484, 700
Lankester, E. R., Chlamydomyxa montana,
533

Lannois, — ., The Middle Ear and Mi-
crobes, 667

Lantern Slides, Mounting Marine Animals
as Transparent, 134
Larva of Diplosoma, Double, 179

— of Magelona, Blood-forming Organs in,
64

— of Sarcophaga affinis, in Man, 1 84
Larvrn, Echinoderm, Development, 632

— Helophilus, Power of Resistance to
Killing Fluids, 517

— Insect, Proteid-digesting Saliva, 184

— Glands, Lepidopterous, Branching of
Tracheae in Spinning-, 182

— of Scarabi, Lateral Organs, 515
Larval Kidney of Planorbis and Limnxus,

181

Lateral Organs of Larvae of Scarabi, 515
Lathrxa, Haustoria, 205
Laticiferous Hairs of Cichoriaceae, 539
Laurie, M., Anatomy and Development of
Scorpions, 308, 521
Lauterborn, R , New Protozoa, 191
Lavdowsky, M., Metliyleu-Biue Staining,
259

Lazniewsky, W. von, Structure of Alpine
Plants, 643

Leaf, Dependence of Form on Intensity of
Light, 326

— of Eupliorbiaceae, 326

740

INDEX.

Leafless Branches, Absorption of Water,
330

Learning, E., Wilson’s Atlas of Fertilisation
and Ivaryokinesis of Ovum, 394, 468
Leaved, Oak-, Hornbeam, 538
Leaves, Diastase, 202

— Doubling, 434

— Gain and Loss, 511

— Movements of Sensitive, 543

— of Marantacem, Movements, 439

— of Onoclea, Vegetative and Fertile,
211

— of Ranunculus and Helleborus , 327

— Physiology of Coloured, 543

Lebed insky, J., Development of Drepano-
phorus , 628

Lecaillon, M. A., Scatoconchs, 619
Leche, W., Dentition of Mammals, 33

— Questions concerning Dentition, 34
Lecithin, Estimation in Plants, 484

— Influence on Growth, 299

Leclerc du Sablon, — ., Digestion of
Gelatinous Endosperm, 89
Lee, A. B., Japanese Method for Sticking
on Paraffin Sections, 261

— Microtomist’s Vade-mecum, 564

— Platner’s Intercellular Body, 176

— Spermatocytes of Helix , 510

— Technique of Microscopical Anatomy,
263

— Watch-Glass Imbedding Method, 359
Leeches, Biology, 417

— from Tojoland, 627

— Land-, New Japanese, 312
Lcedham-Green, C., Disinfection of the

Hands, 671

Legal Medicine, Red Blood- Corpuscles in,
471

Leger, L. J., Vegetative Organs of Papa-

veracese, 644

Leger, M., Zygosperm of Sporodinia, 336
Leguminosse, Crystalloids in Flowers, 80

— Root-Tubercle Bacteria, 344
Leiehmann, G., Bacillus Delbrueclci , 558
Leiss, C., Microscopes and Important

Accessories for Crystallographic and
Petrographical Investigations, 232
Leitz Microscopes, 463

— New Drawing Eye-Pieces, 351
Lemanea , Propagation, 546
Lemna , Flowers, 204

Lemoine, G. H., Disinfection with Forma-
lin Vapour, 700

— Streptococcus and Non-Diphtheritic
Angina, 227

Lemoine, — ., Variability in Form and Cha-
racters of Streptococci Cultures, 559
Lendner, A., Mycorhiza of Listera cordata ,
550

Lenhossek, M. v., Centrosome and Sphere
in Spinal Ganglion Cells of Frog, 43

— Histology of Optic Lobes in Cephalo-
pods, 301

Lenhosse'k, M. von, Structure of Nerve-
Cells, 607

Lens-Carrier, New Form, 679

— Crystalline, Regeneration in Triton , 295
Holder, Zeiss’ new, 122

Lenses, Apparatus for Demonstrating Ef-
fect, 353

Lepadidse, Nauplii, 62
Lepas fascicularis, Early Development,
523

Lepidopterous Larvae, Branching of Tra-
cheae in Spinning-Glands of, 182
Lepidosteus , Yolk-Sac and Meroeytes, 603
Lepismids, Myrmecophile, 515
Leptomitacem, 657

Lesage, P., Germination of Spores in
Penicillium glaucum, 338
Leucocytes, Granular, 397, 608
Leucocytosis, Relation between Chimio-
taxis, 568

Leucoplasts, Demonstration, 359
Lewis, M., Centrosome and Sphere in
Nerve- Cel Is of an Invertebrate, 626

— Preparation of Nerve-Cells, 572
Leyden, E. von, Parasitic Rhizopod in

Ascitic Fluid in Man, 638
Liakhovetsky, — Phagocytosis and Im-
munity, 668

Liassic Echinoidea, New Genus, 531
Liberia, New Diplopod Fauna, 406
Lichen-Acids, 659

— Rate of Growth of Saxicolous, 552

Thallus, Morphology, 217

Lichenopora verrucaria. Development, 401
Lichens and Trent.epohliaceae, 2J3

— Classification, 551

— Crustaceous, 340

— Injurious Symbiosis, 218

— Morphology and Biology, 658

— New Genus, 95

— Phylogenetic Adaptations, 551

— Secretion of Oil, 95

Lidforss, B., Biology of Pollen, 437
Life-History of Gononemus , 636

of Sijmplocarpus foetidus, 324

of Par amoeba eilhardi , 639

of Rhabdonia , 655

— Machine Theory, 504

— of Seeds, Latent, 541

— Pond, Cocain in Study, 483

— without Bacteria, Animal, 178
Light, Action on Disengagement of Per-
fumes, 331

— Amount most favourable to Growth of
Plants, 540

— Dependence of Form of Leaf on Inten-
sity, 326

— Dust, Arc-, as Effective Abrasive Ma-
terial, 564

— Effect on Geotropism of Stolons, 543

— Electric, Effect on Vegetation, 87

— Ilartnack’s Illuminating Apparatus for
Monochromatic, 247

INDEX.

741

Ligidium , Ectoparasites, 427
Lignier, 0., Flower of Cruciferae and Fu-
mariaceae, 433
Lignitied Cell-Walls, 537
Ligula, Nervous Muscular Systems, 629
Ligule of Sdaginella, 331
Liliaceae, Reserve Cellulose in Seeds, 79
Lilium longiflorum, Nuclei, 201

— Martagon , Direct Nuclear Division in
Embryo-Sac, 322

Formation of 8exual Nuclei, 610

Lillie, F. R., Regeneration of Stentor, 637
Limngea , Melanie Pigment, 303
Limnxus , Larval Kidney, 181
Limnanthemum , Morphology, 327
Limulus. Brick-Red Gland in, 186

— Polyphemus, Preparation of Embryos,
691

Variations, 621

Lindaus, G., Crustaceous Lichens, 340
Lindemann, W., Cysticerci in Dog’s Heart,
419

Lindemuth, H., Production of Bulbils by
Lachenalia and Hyacinthus, 645

— Production of Seed on Cut Inflores-
cences, 644

Linden, M. von, Development of Shell-
Ornamentation in Marine Gastropods,
303

Lindet, L., Separation of Vegetable Acids,
483

Lindmann, C. A. M., Cross- and Self-Fer-
tilisation, f28

Lindner, P., Blue-Staining of Spores, 660

— Enzymes of Schizo-Saccharomyces octo-
sporus and Saccliaromyces Marxianus,
341

- — Parasites of Aspidiotus Nerii, 186
Lindstrom, G., “ Corallia Baltica ” of
Linnaeus, 194

Lines, Long, as Zoological Collecting Ap-
paratus, 569

Linnaean Society, Index to Journal (Zoo-
logy), 506

Linnaeus, “ Corallia Baltica ” of, 194
Linstow, — . v., Echinorliynchus clavula, 67
Linz, F., Physiology of Germination in
Maize, 514

Lipoma Protozoon, 197

Tissue, Preparing, 259

Liquids, Universal Apparatus for Investi-
gation of Thin Slices in, 467
List, T., Movements of Decapoda, 61
Listera cordcita, Mycorhiza, 550
Litliobiidae, Phylogeny, 405
Litliodinea, Classification and Distribution,
522

Lithothamnion, 443

Litter, Acid-, lor Infectious Disease of
Cattle, 348

Liver and Adjacent Parts, Development,
395

— Development iu Rabbit, 495

Liverpool Marine District, Medusae, 76

— Microscopical Society, Presidential Ad-
dress, 564 •

Lizard, Development of Allantois in, 602
i Lobes in Cephalopods, Histology of Optic,
301

| Lobster, American, 410
Locard, A., Deep-Sei Dredgings in Bay of
Biscay (Mollusca and Brachiopoda), 501
Locustidae, Habits, 517
Locy, W. A., Structure and Development
of Vertebrate Head, 598
Lodoicea Seychellarum, Germination, 8S
Loeffler, F., Specific Properties of Protec-
tive Bodies in Blood of Animals immune
to Typhoid and Coli Bacteria, 228
Lonnberg, E., Cambarids from Florida, 411
Losener, Typhoid- like Bacilli and Diag-
nosis of Bacillus typhosus, 106
Loew, O., Formation and Assimilation of
Asparagin, 330

Lohmann, H., New Appendicularia, 300
Loi, L., Bovine Haematuria, 197
Loligo picteti, 302

Loman, J. C. C., Secondary Spiracles of
Opilionidae, 407

Longo, B., Mucilage of Cactaceae, 431
Looss, A., Bilharzia hsematolia, 68
Lopriore, G., Action of Carbon Dioxide on
Protoplasm of Living Cell, 4:i9

— Parasitic Fungi, 338
Loranthaceae, Fertilisation, 647

— Germination of Seeds, 208, 648
Lortet, L , Influence of Induced Currents

on Orientation of Bacteria, 451
Love, E. G., Micrometry, 245
Lowitt, M., Morphology of Bacteria, 453
Lubeck, Optics and Mechanics at N. Ger-
man Commercial and Industrial Exhibi-
tion, 127

Ludwig, H., Filaria loa in Human Eye,
189

— F., Variation-Curves and Surfaces in
Plants, 205

Ltihe, M. S., American Taeniae, 68.

— Nervous and Muscular Systems of
Ligula, 629

Lumbricidae, Notes, 310
Lumhriculus variegatus, Gonads, 65
Lumbricus agricola, Sense-Organs, 627

— Examination of Sense-Organs, 691
Luminosity of Cholera Bacilli, 105
Lundbeig, R., Postembryonal Development

of Daphnids, 413

Lupinus, Cell -Wall of Cotyledons, 430
Lutz, L,, Active Principles of Senecio, 202

— Formation of Gum in Acacia , 81
Lutz, G., Oblito-Sehizogenous Secretion-

Receptacles of Myrtaceae, 203
Lutz, K. G., Physiology of Woodv Plants,
440

— Production, Transport, and Consump-
tion of Reserve-Starch and Oil, 209

1896 :j e

742

INDEX.

Lutz, K. G., Spring and Autumn Wood, 82
Lymph, Sporozoa of Vaccine, 196
Lymphatic Glands of Myriopods, 184

— Vessels, Development, 294
Lymphatics, Improvement in Mercury In-
jection Apparatus, 361

— Injection Masses for, 575

M.

M‘Alpine, D., Parasitic Fungi, 338
M‘Bride, E. VV., Continuity of Mesen-
chyme-Cells in Echinoid Larvae, 631

— Development of Asterina gibbosa, 421

— Formation of Germinal Layers of
Amphioxus, 606

Mnccallum, A. B., Investigation of Pres-
ence of Iron Compounds in Animal and
Vegetable Cells, 45, 130
Maecallum, W. G., Notes on Trematodes of
Fishes, 69

— Preparing Flukes for Investigation, 131
Macdougal, D. T., Mechanism of the

Curvature of Tendrils, 650

— Physiology of Tendrils, 543

— Root-Tubers of Isopyrum , 539

— Transmission of Irritation in Mimosa ,
89

McFadden, E. B., Antherid of Targionia ,
655

MoFadyen, A., Bacteriology of Infantile
Diarrhoea, 667

Machine-Theory of Life, 504
McKim, W. D., Nephridial Funnel of
H/rudo, 65

Macloskie, G., Antidromy, 83, 201, 541
MacMillan, C., Metazoan and Metaphytic
Reproductive Processes, 169
Macroblasts of Oysters, 512
Macmcystis, Sori, 91

Madreporarian Types of Corals, Micro-
scopic and Systematic Stud}’, 317
Maule, C., Course of Fibres in Wounds, 83
Magalhaes, P. S., Filaria Mansoni, 526
Magelona , Blood-forming Organs in Larva,
61

Magnification, Simple Arrangement for
Drawing Microscopic Preparations under
very low, 678

Magnus, P, New Genera of Uredine®, 450

— Setchellia, 337

Maize, Physiology of Germination, 544
Malacca, Crustaceans, 186
Malacostraca of Baffin Bay and Smith
Sound, 409

Malaria Parasite, Independent Movements
of Chromosomes, 428

— Parasites of Irregular Fever, Origin of
Different Varieties, 197

Malarial Blood- Films, Rapid and Con-
venient Method of Preparing, 694
Malayan Decapod a, 625

Malayan Pulmonates, Anatomy, 304
Mai •olmson, — ., Wright’s Method of
Mounting Foraminifera, 262
Male Ducts in Silk-Moth, Development,
57

— Genital Apparatus of Hymenoptera, 403

— Gonads of Cyclops, 523

— of Bombyx mori , Post - Embryonic
Development of Vasa deferentia and
Accessory Organs, 305

— of Stephanoceros Eichhorni, 166, 267

— Phronima, Secondary Sexual Characters,
62

— Wasp, Genital Organs, 57
Malevre, A., Pectase in Plants, 202, 430
Malignant (Edema in Cosv, 459

— Tumours, Cultivation of Parasitic
Protozoa, 198

Mallophaga of North American Birds,
404

Malme, G. O. A., Achenes of Anthemide®,
325

Malme, G. O., Injurious Symbiosis of
Lichens, 218

Mammals. See Contents, Vertebrata, vii

— Dentition, 33

— Development of Musculature, 170

— Spinal Ganglia, 296

Man, Development of Pancreas, 169

— Flagellata in Intestinal Canal, 196

— Larva of Sarcopliaga affinis in, 184

— Metastatic Anthrax in, 226

Man, J. G. de, Anguillulid® in Orchids,
66

— Crustaceans of Malacca, Borneo, Celebes,
and Java Sea, 186

— Malayan Decapoda, 625

— New Pen®id, 411

Mangin, L., Formation of Gum, 544

— Structure of Peronospore®, 518
Manipulation, Microscopical. See Con-
tents, xxx i

Maquenne, L., Accumulation of Sugar in
Beetroot, 210

Marantace®, Motile Cushions, 651

— Movements of Leaves, 439
Marattia, Embry ogeny, 440
Marchal, E., New Genera of Fungi, 215

— Production of Ammonia in Soil by
Microbes, 104

Marchal, P., Habits of Polistes, 307
Marehantiace®, New Genus of, 441
Marchesini, R., Method for Demonstrating
Axis Cylinders ot Nerve-Fibres, 571
Marchoux, E., Anti-Anthrax Serum, 230
Mar. y, — ., Microscope for Opaque Objects,
120

Marine Acarina, 409

— Animals, Dispersal by Means of Sea-
weeds, 47

Mounting as Transparent Lantern

Slides, 134

Preservation, 579

INDEX.

743

Marine Fauna of Iloutmann’s Abrolhos
Islands, 47

— Gastropods, Development of Shell
Ornamentation, 3t»3

— Medusa) of Liverpool District, 76

— Organisms, General Condition of Exist-
ence and Distribution, 501

Methods fur Mounting and Exhibit-
ing, 136

Marktanner-Turneretscher, G., Advances
in Photomicrography, 126
Marlatt, C. L., Mouth-Parts of Insects,
616

Marpmann, — ., Agar-Media for Bacterio-
logical Cultures, 565
Marpmann, G., Bine Yeast, 449

— Canada Balsam, 134

— Cheese Flora, 559

— Methods of Examining and Staining
Living and Dead Cells and Tissues,
473

— Microscopical Examination of Cos-
metics, 483

of Jams, 701

— New Simple Microtome, 572
Marmorek, A., Antistreptococcous Serum,

230

Marriott, G., 266

Marsh, C. D., Cyclopidte and Calanidae of
Michigan Lakes, 414
Marsupials, Spermatogenesis, 602

— Teeth, 600

Marlin, C. J., Embryo of Platypus, 37
Massalongo, O., Dimorphism of Convol-
vulus, 433

Massart, J., Morphology of Buds, 434
Massee, G., Coprinus , 553
Masterman, A. T., Anatomy of Actino-
trocha , 420

— Physiological Interpretations of Struc-
ture, 505

Masticatory Armature of the Gizzard in
Blattidse and Gryllidse, 619
Maternal Nuclear Substance in Develop-
ment of Cyclops , 187
Matruehot, L., Gliocladinm , 95

— Polymorphism of Cladobotryum , 339
Matschinsky, M., Preparing Bone Sections,

131

Mattirolo, C., (Edomyces leproides , 448
Maturation, 48

— in Ophryotroclia puerilis, 188

— in Physa fontinalis, 511

— of Egg in Amphioxus, 175

— of Ova and Spermatozoa, Chromatin
Reduction in, 41

Maul, R , Inhibitory Aclion of Air on
Nitrate-destroying Bacteria. 664
Maurizio, A., Culture of Saprolegniacese,
446

— Saprolegniaceao, &c., 657

— Sporangial Rudiments in Saproleg-
niacese, 445

Maxwell, W., Growth of Banana- Leaves,
649

Mayer, A., Anatomy of Artocarpus , 432
Blayer, A. G., Development of Wing-Scales
and their Pigment in Butterflies and
Blot 1 is, 514

Blayo, Rotifera of County, 420
Blayrhofer, J., Detection of Starch in Bleat
Preparations, 701

BTeal, Blicroscopical Examination, 484, 700
Mtalworm, Changes of the Intestinal Epi-
thelium in the Metamorphosis, 617
Bleasuring Apertures of Objectives, Ble-
thod, 705

Bleat, Microscopical Examination for
Tubercle Bacilli, 258

— Preparations, Detection of Starch in,
701

Blechanios at North German Exhibition,
Luheck, 127

Medicine, Blicroscope as Guide, 470

— Red Blood-Corpuscles in Legal, 471
Blediterranean Climate, Influence of

Plants, 324

Bledullary Tissues, Plasmolysis and
Growth, 439
Bledusm, British, 635

— Laws of Budding, 76

— of Liverpool Blarine District, 76
Mehnert, E., Gastrulation in Reptiles, 37
Meinert, F., Lateral Organs of Larvm of

Scarabi, 515

— Structure of Strepsiptera, 404
BTelanic Pigment of Limnfea, 303
Meldola, R., Speculative Blcthod in

Entomology, 181

Blelnikow-Raswedenkow, BL, Regulating
d’Arsonval’s Thermostat, 468
Blembrane, Cell-, 607

— of Rust Fungi, Simple Blethod for
Demonstrating Germinal Pore in Spore,
257

BTembranes, Boring by Fungi, 92
Men, Papillary Ridges, 296
Blenard, — ., Immunising Power of Serum
of Vaccinated Heifer, 225
Meningococcus inter cellulaf is, 669
Blenseh, P. C., Fate of Parent Stock of
Autolytus ornatm, 524
Bier, E., Formation of Duramen, 323
Blercer, A. C., Improved Solid Watch-
Glass, 255

Blercury Injection Apparatus for Lympha-
tics, Improvement, 361
Blerismatic Tissues, Nuclei and Nucleoles
in, 199

Bleristem, Fixing-Mateiial, 258
Blerocytes in Scylliuni and Lepidosteus, 603
Mesembryantliemum, Organic Acids, 641
Mesenchyme-Cells in Echiuoid Larvae,
Continuity, 631

Blesnard, E., Action of Light on Dis-
engagement of Perfumes, 331

3 e 2

744

INDEX.

Mesoderm, Origin in Paludina, 511
Messing, C., Spermatogenesis, G96
Metabolic Products of Staphylococcus and
Pneumococcus, Action of, 666
Metabolism, Elective, 87

— Influence of Alkali on Microbic, 108
Metakresol, Disinfecting Power of Kresol

and, 668

Metals, Bactericidal Action, 129
Metamerism of Vertebrate Head, 32
Metamorphosis of Mealworm, Changes of
the Intestinal Epithelium in, 617
Metaphytic lteproductive Processes, 169
Metastatic Anthrax in Man, 226
Metazoan Reproductive Processes, 169
Metcalf, M. M., Notes on Tunicate Mor-
phology, 49

— “ Sub-neural ” Gland in Ascidians,
52

Method of Using Abbe’s Apertometer,
Simplification, 592
Methylen-Blue Staining, 259

Subcutaneous Injections of, 133

Metridium , Reactions to Food and other
Substances, 425

Mexican Terrestrial Isopods, 309
Meyer’s Microscope-Stage with Iris-Dia-
phragm, 248, 350

Meyer, A., New Singhalese Nematodes,
627

— Protoplasmic Connection between
Partnchyme-Cells, 537

— Starch-Grains, 80

Meyer, S., Subcutaneous Injections of Me-
thylen-Blue, 133

Meyner, R., Two new Taeniae from Apes,
419

Michael, A. D. (President), 136, 147, 365,
368, 369, 371, 767, 708, 709

— Anatomy of Tyas petrophilus, 60

— President’s Address : — Sketches from
Auatomy of Acarina, 15, 147

Michigan Lakes, Cyclopidae and Calanidae,
414

Micrasterias denticulata , 153
Microbe of Distemper, 556

— of Flax Retting, 226

— of Rinderpest, 462

Microbes and the Middle Ear, 667

— Eosinophilous, 349

— Fermentation of Uric Acid by, 457

— Morphological and Physiological Varia-
bility of, 101

— of Indian Rivers, 348

— of Plague, 224

— Production of Ammonia in Soil, 104
Microbic Metabolism, Influence of Alkali,

108

Microbiology of Nitrification, 664
Micro-Chemical Investigations, Sublima-
tion and the Determination of Melting-
Points in, 687

— - — Reaction for Nitric Acid, 687

Micro-chemical Reaction of Chlorophyll,
New, 363

Micrococci, New Pathogenous, 455
Micrococcus tetragenus citreus, 226
Microcoleus delicatulus , 164
Micrometry, 245

Micrometer Eye-Piece, Zeiss’ Screw, 119

— Zeiss’ Stage Screw, 216
Micro-Organisms and Digestion, 462

Demonstrating Capsules, 357

Micropolariscope for Projection, 123
Microscope and its Application, Part II.,

Dippel’s, 210

— Apparatus for Electrolysis, 213

— Appearances of Colour on Boundaries
of Colourless Objects, 468

— as Guide in Medicine, 470

— Construction, Practical Remarks, 111

— for Opaque Objects, 120

— History, 471

— Horizontal, 673

— Objectives, Test, 681

— On the Theory of Optical Images, with
special reference to, 681

— Powell, 708

— Richards’ new, 566

Stage with Iris-Diaphragm, Meyer’s,

248, 350

— Zeiss’ Hand, 114

Microscopes, Beck’s “ Continental Model,”
114

— for Crystallographic and Petrographical
Investigations, Fuess’s, 232

— Leitz’s, 463

— R.M.S. Standard Screw-Thread for,
389

— Swift’s Portable, 135, 486

— Simple Thermostat for, 253, 563
Microscopic Filter, 125

— Objects, Simple Apparatus for Gather-
ing, 475

Microscopic Preparations under very low
Magnifications, Simple Arrangement for
Drawing, 678

— Sections, Method of Photographing
Large, 249

— Study of Madreporarian Types of Corals,
317

Microscopical Anatomy, Lee and Henne-
guy’s Technique, 263

— Examination of Cosmetics, 483
of Jams, 701

of Meal, 4S4, 700

— Manipulation. See Contents, xxxi

— Optics. See Contents, xxxi

— Preparations, New Case, 124

— Research, Addition to Methods, 373

— Society, Liverpool, 561

— Society’s, Royal, Standard Screw-
Thread, 389

— Studies in Botany, Hornell’s, 440

— Technique. See Contents, xxxii
Microscopy. See Contents, xxx

INDEX.

745

Microtechnique of Animal Morphology,
690

Microtome, Apparatus for Preserving
Celloidin Blocks, 477

— Automatic, 132

— Improvement to Reichert, 359

— New Fromme, 572

— Jung, 478

— Section-Stretcher for Paraffin Section
with Cathcart Improved, 696

— Simple, 522

— with new Device for Raising and
Lowering Object, 695

Microtomes. See Contents, xxxiii
Microtomist’s Vade-mecum, Lee’s, 564
Migula, W., Apparatus for Cultivating
Anaerobes, 565

— Capsules of Bacteria, 670

— Rabenliorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of
Germany (Characeae), 212

Millipedes, Climbing Powers, 185
Mimetic Relation to Original Form, 305
Mimicry in Hypolimnas , 616

— of Pebbles by Beans, 440
Mimosa , Transmission of Irritation, 89
Mineral Food-Materials of Fungi, 215
Minot, C., Heredity and Rejuvenescence,

27

Minx, A., Protrophy, 439
Mirabella, M. A., Extrafloral Nectaries of
Ficus , 327
Miso-Making, 96
INI ite from Beaver, New, 409
Mitosis and Fragmentation, 200
Mitrophanow, P., Nuclear Division in
Collozoum , 195

— Photoxylin, 259

Mitsukuri, K., Oviposition of Snapping
Turtle, 396

Miyosbi, M., Boring of Membranes by
Fungi, 92

Mcebius, J. M., Pithophora , 334
Mbbius, K., iEathetic Aspects of Animals,
298

Mobius, M., Sexual Reproduction in
Plants, 328

liMoebiusispongia parasitica,” True Nature,
320

Muller, A., Protobasidiomycetes, 98
Molgula , Follicle Cells in, 180
Molliard, M., Homology of Pollen and
Ovule, 647

Molisch, H., Demonstration and Crystalli-
sation of Xanthophyll, 363

— Food-Materials of Algae, 212

— New Microchemical Reaction of Chloro-
phyll, 363

Molliard, M., Formation of Pollen within
Ovules, 437

— Galls, 331

Mollusca. See Contents, xi
Molluscan Eggs, Experiments, 512
: Method for Preparing, 570

Monascus purpureas, 340
Monkeys, Papillary Ridges, 296
Monoblepharideae, 93
Monochromatic Colours among Animals,
178

— Light, Hartnack’s Illuminating Ap-
paratus for, 247

Monocotyledons, Cotyledons, 434
— • Fossil, 545

Monopodial Ramification of Carex, 433
Monotremes, Spermatogenesis, 602
Montgomery, T. H., Histology of Cerebra-
tulus lacteus, 418

— Stichostemma Eilhardi, 67
Monticelli, F. S., Autotomy in Cucumaria

planci, 634

Moore, J. E. S., Spermatogenesis in Birds,
41

— Structural Changes in Reproductive
Cells of Elasmobranchs, 42

— Study of Reproductive Cells of Elas-
mobranchs, 131

Moore, V. A., Characters of Flagella, 461

— Staining Flagella, 478
Moraceae, Inflorescence, 644

Morax, V., Cultivation of Diplobacillus of
Conjunctivitis, 474

Morgan, A. P., New Genera of Fungi, 216
Morgan, T. H., Experimental Biology,
393

Morini, F., Fructification of Lachnea, 448

— Rhizopliidium and Phycomyces, 450
Morphology, Microtechnique of Animal,

690

Morsy, — Microscopical Examination of
Meat for Tubercle Bacilli, 258
Mosquitoes, Destruction, 405
Mosses, Preserviug and Mounting Fluids,
481

Mosses. See Contents, Muscine/e, xxiii
Moths, Development of Wing-Scales and
their Pigment, 514

Moth, Silk-, Development of Male Ducts,
57

Genital Ducts and Glands of

Female, 515

Motor Organs, Turgor, 651
— Plate, 298

Mould-Fungi in Syphilis, Carcinoma, and
Sarcoma, Presence, 661
Moulds and Saceharomyces Yeast, Fungi
which form Transition Group, 341
Mounting. See Contents, xxxiv

— Apparatus, Portable Case, 709
Mouse, Corpus luteum, 494
Mouth-Parts of Cicada Septendecim, Ter-
minal Armour, 404

— - — of Insects, 616
Movement of Diatoms, 100, 451
Movements of Fluids of Phanerogamia.

See Contents, xxi

— of Leaves of Marantacese, 439

— of Sensitive Leaves, 543

746

INDEX.

Mucilage of Cactaceae, 431
Mucogenous Bacteria, 455
Mucor and Trichoderma , 335
Mucus, Staining, 576
Muller, E., Regeneration of Crystalline
Lens in Triton , 295
Muller, F., Nanomitrium, 654
Muller, O., Movements of Diatoms, 452

— Bhopalodia , a new Genus of Diatoms,
452

Mullerian Duct of Crocodile, 396
Murbaeh, L., Life-History of Gononemus,
636

Muricidae, New Classification, 401
Murray, G., 704

— Calcareous Pebbles formed by Algae, 91
Murray, J., General Conditions ol' Exis-
tence and Distribution of Marine Organ-
isms, 501

Muscineae. See Contents, xxiii

Muscle-Fibre, 298

Muscle in Osiracoda, Striped, 412

— Nerve-Endings in Striped, 176
- — Spindles, 397

Muscles, Evolution, 603
• — of Cirripedia, Histology, 523

— of Hymenoptera, 183
Musculature, Development in Birds and

Mammals, 170

Muscular System of Li gala, 629
Museum, British. See British Museum

— Specimens, Preserving, 700
Musk-Fungus, 95

Mutinus , Development of, 661
Mycorhiza , 550

— of Listera cordala, 550
Myoporaceso, Structure, 537
Myriophylliu, 322
Myriopoda. See Contents, xiii
Myristica , Root, 435
Myristicaceae, Hairs, 327
Myrmecopliile Lepismids and Ants, 515
Myrtacem, Oblito-Schizogenous Secretion-

Receptacles, 203
Myxophyceee, new Genus, 92
Myxosporidia of Pike and Perch, 533
Myzostoma, Sexual Phases of, 530
Myzostomata, Reproduction. 70

N.

Nagel, W.t Proteid-Digesting Saliva in
Insect Larvae, 184

Nandor, F., Charaoeae of Hungary, 442
Nanomitrium , 654
Naples, Cephalopods of Gulf, 614
Nassonow, N., Operculum of Birds, 294
Nathusius, W. v., Strange Enclosure in
Hen’s Egg, 37

Neumann, 6., Tannin of Fungi, 335
Nauplii of Lepadidae, 62

Nautilus , Notes on, 509
Naviculoid Diatoms, Clove’s, 368, 453
Nawaschin, S., Chalazogamy in Walnut,
85

Neck, Veins in Reptiles’, 295
Nectaries of Ficus , Extrafloral, 327
Necturus, Development of Peripheral Ner-
vous System, 171

— Thyroid Gland and Supra pericardial
Bodies, 172

Neger, F. W., Parasitic Fungi, 94
Negroes of Congo, Filariosis in, 417
Neisser, M., Penetrability of the Intestinal
Wall to Bacteria, 663
Nelson, E. M., 266, 370, 703, 704

— Dr. Ross’s New Portable Microscope,
351, 368

— Method of Measuring Apertures of Ob-
jectives, 705

— New Form of Double Bull’s-eye Con-
denser, 365

— New Optical Rule by Stanley, 135, 464

— Powell Microscope, 708

— Simplification of Method of using
Abbe’s Apertometer, 592

— Swift’s Portable Microscope, 135

— Tests for Microscope Objectives, 681
Nemalion, Development, 666
Nematocvsts, Structure, Action, and De-
velopment, 192

Nematode Embryos in Skin of Dog, 526
Nematodes, First Stages of Development,
312

— New Singhalese, 627

— Parasitic, 313

Nematohelminthes. See Contents, xv
Nemec, B., Ectoparasites of Ligidium , 427
Nemerteans, New, 189

— of Lake of Garda, 418

— Soutli American, 418
Nemertines, Monograph, 313

— New, 316

— of Port Erin, 67

Nencki, — ., Micro-Organisms and Diges-
tion, 462

Neotropical Earthworms, 312
Neomeris, Thallus, 213
Nephridia of Branchiobdella , 417
Nephridial Funnel of Hirudo, 65
Nephrocytium ecdysiscepanum, 161
Neri, F., Beaks of Cephalopods, 401
Nerilla antennata , 524
Nerve-Cells of an Invertebrate, Centrosome
and Sphere, 626

of Invertebrates, 180

— - - — Preparation, 572

— Structure, 607

in Spiual and Central Ganglia,

296

— -Endings, 397

in Striped Muscle, 176

— -Fibres, Method for Demonstrating
Axis-Cylinders of, 571

INDEX.

747

Nervous and Muscular Systems of Ligula ,
629"

— System in Skate, Transient, 496
Transit nt Disappearance in Elasmo-

branehs, 604

of Cestodes, Preparation, 529, 571

■ -of Ccelentera, G34

of Crustacea, 521

of Necturus, Development of Peri-
pheral, 171

of Rhizostoma, 318

Presence of Influenza Bacilli in

Central, 567

— Tissue, Method of Preserving, 578
Nestler, A., Leaves of Ranunculus aud

Htlleborus, 327
Nest, History of Wasps’, 57
Net, Effectiveness in excluding Insects,
305

Nenmayer, L., Ketina of Selachians, 608,
698

Neurodendrites, Amoeboid Movements, 175
Neuroglia, Demonstrating Structure of
Human, 693

— Nucleus of Ganglion-Cells, 297
Neurology, Use of Formalin, 577
New Britain, Polyclads, 527
Newcombe, F. C., Regulatory Formation

of Mechanical Tissue, 82
New York, Bacteria from Air, 456
Newts, Examining Spermatheca in, 256
Nicol’s Prisms, Method for Exact Adjust-
ment, 463

Nicholas, J., Influence of Glucose on Sta-
phylococcus pyogenes aureus , 566
Nichols, M. A., Life-History of Symplocar-
pus fcctidus , 324

Nicotra, L., Cross- and Self-Fertilisation,
328

Nielsen, J. C., Development of Spores of
Saccharomyces, 96

Niessiug, C., Spermatogenesis of Mammals,
602

Niessing, G., Cell Studies, 44
Nilsson, A., Parasitic Fungi, 547
Nitrate-forming Bacillus, 105

destroying Bacteria, Inhibitory Action

of Air, 664

Nitric Acid, Micro-chemical Reaction for,
687

Nitrification in Soil, 457

— Microbiology, 664

Nitrite Ferment, Cultivation Medium for,
251

Nitrogen, Assimilation by Fungi, 334

— Free-, Absorption by Plants, 209
Nitrogenous Substances, Relation between

Respiration, 542

Noetzel, W., Degeneration of Tissue in
Tadpole’s Tail, 37

— Demonstrating Capsules of Micro-Or-
ganisms, 351

Nolf, P., Gestation of Vespertilio murinus, 36

Noll, F., Mechanics of Curvature Move-
ments, 89

— Sensi tiveness of Plants, 652

— Twining of Climbing Plauts, 210
Norman, A. M., Monograph of Ostracoda,

310

North, Sir F., 145
Northern Calcispongi®, 636
North Wales Entomostraca, 625
Nose-Piece, the R.M.S. Standard Screw-
Thread for, 389
Nostochine®, Conjugation, 100
Nowak, J., Apparatus for Stretching Pa-
raffin Sections, 359

— Microtome with New Device for Raising
and Lowering Objective, 695

Nuclear Division, Direct, in Embryo-Sac
of Lilium Martagon, 322

in Charace®, 442

in Collozoum , 195

Substance in Development of Cyclops ,

Paternal and Maternal, 187

in Hepatic®, 90

of Euglena , 77

Nuclei, Cell-, of Fungi, 214

— in Endosperm of Fritillaria imperialis ,
Abnormal, 201

— in Merismatic and Sporogenous Tissues,
199

— of Fat-Cells, 500

— of Lilium longijlorum , 201

— of Uredine®, 97

— Sexual, Formation in Lilium Martagon,
640

Staining, 698

Nucleoles in Merismatic and Sporogenous
Tissues, 199

Nucleus, Basic Substances, 606

— Behaviour in Growing Cells, 322

— Cell-, Behaviour in Formation of Auxo-
spores of Epithemia , 221

Demonstrating Structure and Com-
position, 358

— Chromatophily, 641

— Division, 535

in Ascus of Ascomycetes, 33S

of Fungi, 214

in Spirogyra, 200

— Form, Structure, and Division, 176

— Function in Fungi, 331

— Hypertrophy caused by a Parasite, 641

— in Spermatogenesis, Accessory, 184

— of Ganglion-Cells and Neuroglia, 297

— Parasites, 446

— Structure, 396

— Yolk-, and Pular Rings, 499

Nu baum, J., Development of Hypophysis,
494

— Fixation of Paraffin Sections with Dis-
tilled Water, 478

Nussbaum, M., Evolution of Muscles, 603

— Mechanism of Egg-laying in Frog,
173

748

INDEX.

Nussbaum, M , Progressive Differentiation
of Cells in Course of Development, 32
Nutrient Media for Bacterial Cultivation,
Proper Reaction, 690
Nut, Cocoa-, Germination, 438
Nutrition, Non- Bacterial, 223

— of Phanerogamia. See Contents, xxi
Nuttall. See Dixon-Nuttall

Nuttnll, — Animal Life without Bacteria,
178

Nuttall, G. H. F., Simple Thermostat
applicable to any Microscope, 253
Nutting, C. C., Plymouth Hydroids, 319

O.

Oak-leaved Hornbeam, 538
Object-Glasses, Standard Screw-Thread,
389

Object-Holder, Aluminium, for Observa-
tion of Objects on both sides, 677

— - — for the Observation of Objects
enclosed between Two Cover-Glasses, 579

Objective, Collar-Adjustment, as affected
by change of Eye-Piece, 127

— Modern Microscopic, 241

— New Double, 560
Objectives. See Contents, xxx

— Determination of Focal Length, 242

— Method of Measuring Apertures, 705

— R.M.S., Standard Screw for, 487
Oblito-Schizogenous Secretion-Receptacles

of Myrtacem, 203

O’Brien, M., Proteids of Wheat, 202
Occipital Segment, Development, 33
Oclithera , 404
Octocotylidae, 530
Octopod, New, 302

Ocular Iris-Diaphragm with Eye-Piece,
Czapski, 120

OCdema in Cow, Malignant, 459
CEdomyces leproides, 448
CEuothera, Opening of Flowers, 330
Oesophageal Gland, Supra-, of Hxmentaria
officinalis, 525

Ogata, M., Sp >rozoa of Vaccine Lymph, 196
Ogilvie, M. M., Microscopic and Systematic
Study of Madreporarian Types of Corals,
317

Ohlin, A., Malacostraca of Baffin Bay and
Smith Sound, 409

Ohlmacher, A. P., Improvements in Tech-
nique of Diphtheria Culture Test, 249
Oidinm albicans as Patnogenic Agent, 451
Oil-Production, Transport and Consump-
tion, 209

— Secretion by Lichens, 95

Oka, A., Budding in Syllis ramosa, 63

— “Excretory Organ” of Freshwater
Polyzoa, 304

— New Japanese Land-Leeches, 312
Oligochset i of Zurich, 416

-— Notes, 525

Oligoehmta, Pacific Coast, 312
Omori, J., Parasitic Fungi, 450
Onoclea, Vegetative and Fertile Leaves,
211

Ontogeny, Preliminary Catalogue of Pro-
cesses concerned, 168
Oocystis ciliata v. radians , 161
Oogenesis in Tubularia, 636
Opaque Objects, Pbotomicrographic
Camera designed chiefly to facilitate
Study, 595

Operculum of Birds, 294
Ophioglossaecse, Sporophyte, 331
Opldurans, New, 423
Opliiurids of Recent Expeditions, 531
Ophryotrocha puerilis, Maturation and
Fertilisation, 188

Opilionidse, Secondary Spiracles of, 407
Opisthoteuthkke, 509
Oppel, A., Stomach Glands of Vertebrates,
295

Optic Lobes in Cephalopods, Histology, 301
Optical Images, with special reference to
the Microscope, On the Theory of, 681

— Reaction of Connective Substances to
Phenol, 177

— Rule, Stanley’s, 135, 464

— Works of C. P. Goerz in Berlin, 563
Optically, New Way of producing Colour-

Contrast, 373

Optics at the North German Exhibition,
Lubeck, 1895, 127

— Microscopical. See Contents, xxxi
Orclridese, Saprophytes, 325
Orchids, Abnormal Structures in, 85

— Anguillulidae, 66

Orford, H., Modern Microscopic Objective,
241

Organs of Phanerogamia. See Contents,
xx

Origin of Acquired Characters, 27

— of Vertebrates, 167, 598
Ornamentation, Shell, Development, in

Marine Gastropods, 303
Orobanche, Growth, 209
Orthonectid in Annelid, 316
Orthoptera, Physiology, 182
Ortmann, A. E., Geographical Distribu-
tion of Hippidea, 411

— Separation and its Bearings on Zoo-
Geography, 502

Oryza , Rust, 337

Oscillatoria splendida v. attenuata, 165
Osmose. Influence of Temperature, 650
— - Role in Transpiration, 542
Osteomyelitis caused by Bacillus of
Typhoid Fever, 555

Osterhout, W. J. V., Life-History of Rhab-
donia , 655

— Media for Preserving Algae, 481
Ostracoda, Monograph, 310

— Striped Muscle in, 412

Otocys'ts of Crustacea and Equilibrium, 409

INDEX.

749

Ourozeuktes , Genus, 309
Ova, Chromatin-Reduction in Maturation,
41

— Fertilisation and Cleavage of Echinoid,
70

— Investigation, 130

— of Teleosteans, Superficial Epidermic
Envelope in Developing, 38

Oviposition of Snapping Turtle, 396
Ovule and Pollen, Homology, 647
Ovules, Formation of Pollen within, 437

— of Angiosperms, 436

Ovum, Atlas of Fertilisation and Karyo-
kinesis, 394

— Cell-Lineage in Segmentation of Asci-
dian, 299

• — Fixing to Wall of Uterus, 601
Oivenia fusiformis, Septal Organs, 64
Owsjannikow, P., Blood-Corpuscles, 399

— Study of Blood-Corpuscle, 476
Oxalate, Calcium, Deposition, 431
Oxidising Diastase, new, 431

— Ferments of Fungi, 548, 656
Oxygen, Conditions under which Anaero-
bic Bacteria can exist even in presence
of, 454

Oyster, Staining, 512
Oysters and Enteric Fever, 110

— and Typhoid, 54

— Centrifugal Apparatus for Volumetric
Measurement of Food-Supply, 470

— How do Starfishes open, 630
■ — Macroblasts, 512

P.

Pacific Coast Oligochseta, 312
Palseo-Botany, Photomicrographic Camera
designed chiefly to facilitate the Studv,
595

Palladini, W., Relation between Respira-
tion and Nitrogenous Substances, 542
Palm, Proterandry, 437
Palms, Secondary Growth in Thickness,
642

Paludina, Origin of Mesoderm, 511
Pamrnel, L. H., New Pathogenic Bacillus,
345

Pancreas, Development in Man, 169

— Histogenesis, 35

Pangium edule, Hydrocyanic Acid, 431
Papaveraceae, Vegetative Organs, 644
Papillary Ridges of Munkey and Men,
296

Pappus of Compositse, Hygroscopic Tissue,
82

Paraffin Baths, New Thermometer for
Regulating Temperature, 562

— Sections with Cathcart Improved Micro-
tome, Section-Stretcher for, 696

Apparatus for Stretching, 359

Fixation with Distilled Water, 478

Paraffin Sections, Japanese Method for
Sticking, 261

New Method, 477

Par amoeba eilhardi, Life-History, 639
Paranuclear Corpuscle and Centrusomo,
176

Parasite, Hypertrophy of Nucleus caused
by, 641

— Malaria, Independent Movement of
Chromosomes, 428

Parasites, Animal, of Chickens, Turkeys,
and Ducks, 507

— Cryptogamic, New Family, 215

— Eudoglobular, of Blood of Dog, 196

— Malaria, of Irregular Fever, Mode of
Origin of different Varieties of, 197

— of Aspidiotus Nerii, 186

— of Cultivated Crops, 94

— of Egypt, 527

— of N ucleus and Protoplasm, 446
Parasitic Copepods, 310

— Copepoda of Fish from Plymouth, 523

— Exoascese, 340

— Fungi, 94, 328, 447, 450, 549

— Nematodes, 313

— Protozoa from Malignant Tumours, &c.,
Cultivation, 198

— Rhizopod in Ascitic Fluid in Man,
638

— Worms of Freshwater Fish, 420
Parasitism of Ascochyta Pisi , 448
Paratonic Trophism, 541
Parenc.hyme- Cells, Protoplasmic Connec-
tions, 537

Parietti’s Method, Bacteriological Exami-
nation of Water, 474

Parker, C. H., Formaldehyde and Formol,
262

Parker, G. H., Reactions of Metridium tc
Food and other Substances, 425
Paternal Nuclear Substance in Develop-
ment of Cyclops , 187
Pathogenic Action of Blastomycetes, 552

— Agent, Oidium albicans as, 451

— Bacillus, New, 345

— Bacteria in Living Vegetable-Tissue,
Behaviour, 557

— Blastomycete, New, 220

— Blastomycetes, 99

— Micrococci, New, 455
Patouillard, N„ Cyclomyces, 553
Patten, W., Preparation of Embryos of

Limulus Polyphemus , 691

— Variations in Limulus Polyphemus , 621
Patterson, F. W., Parasitic Fungi, 94
Pauropoda, Morphology and Classification,

406

Pebbles formed by Algie, Calcareous, 91,
444

— Mimicry by Beans, 440
Pectase in Plants, 202, 430

Pectic Substances in Root of Fquisetumj
654

750

INDEX.

Peglion, V., Valpantona Wine Ferments,
219

Pelagic Animals, Distribution, 612

— Schizopods, 522
Pellia , 91

Pelseneer, P., Air-breathing “ Proso-
branchs ” and Gill-bearing “ Pulino-
nates,” 180
Penseid, New, 411

Penliallow, D. P., Calcareous Pebbles
formed by Algse, 444
Penicillium cupricum , 658

— glaucum. Germination of Spores, 338
Penium cuticulare, 153

— Didymocarpum , 153

Penzig, O., Abnormal Structures in
Orchids, 85

Perch, Myxosporidia, 533
Perditci, 306

Perennial Plants, Depth of Undergrowth
Portion, 539

Pereyaslawzewa, S., Nerilla antennata,
524

Perfumes, Action of Light on Disengage-
ment, 331

Peridermium and Cronartium , 661
Perigonimus repens, 318
Peripatus, 519

— Australian, 59

Peiipheral Nervous System of Necturus ,
Development, 171
Peristome of Mosses, 545
Perithece of Spluerotheca Castagnei, 339
Permian Epoch, Coprophilous Bacteria,
•v 223

Peronosporese, Structure, 548
Peroxide, Hydrogen, Bactericidal Influ-
ence, 104

Pertz, D. F. M., Effect of Currents of Water
on Assimilation, 542

Peters, E. A., Varieties of Diphtheria
Bacilli, 4 ‘8

Petit, L., Distribution of Stomates, 84
Petri, R. J., History of Microscope, 471
Petrographical Investigations, Microscopes
and Accessories for, 232
Petruschky, J., Bacillus fsecalis alcaligenes ,
sp, n., 346
Teuzig, read Penzig

Pfaffenholz, Improvement in Plate-Culti-
vation Method, 128

— Platinum- Wire Brush for Inoculating
Culture Media with Diphtherial Matter,
250

Pfeffer, W., Elective Metabolism, 87
Pfeiffer, R., Diagnosis of Cholera by Means
of Cholera Anti-Bodies, 357

— - — of Typhoid Bacilli by Means of Serum
of Animals Immunised to Typhoid, 566

— Nature of Specific Effective Substances
in Cholera Serum, 459

— Specific Reaction of Cholera Vibrios in
Animal Body and in vitjo, 668

Pfeiffer, — ., New Theory of Immunity, 458
Pfeiffer, T., Transpiration of Free Nitrogen
by Plants, 209

Pfitzer, E , Anatomy of Artocarpus, 432
Pflaum, M., Making and Finishing Wax
Cells, 261

Pfliicke, M., Nerve-Cells of Invertebrates,
180

Pfuhl, A., Presence of Influenza Bacilli in
Central Nervous System, 567
Pliseocystis , 332
Phaeosporeae, New, 91

— New Genus, 444
Phagocytosis, 349

— and Immunity, 668

— in Lamellibranchs, 181
Phanerogamia. See Contents, xix
Pharyngeal Glands of Hipperinae, 412
Phenol, Optical Reaction of Connective

Substance to, 177

Phenomena, Disorganisation-, of Cells, 430
Philibert, H., Peristome of Mosses, 545
Phillips, R. W., Cystocarp of Rhodome-
laceae, 546

Philosophical Aspects of Zoology, 298
Phloem-Bundles in Root of Cyperaeeae, 83
Phosphorescence of Elbe Vibrios, 105
Phosphorus, Mounting in, 482
Photographic Technique of Wilson’s Atlas,
468

Photographing Large Microscopic Sections,
Method, 249 _

Photography of Histological Evidence, 500
Photomicrographic Camera, 704

designed chiefiy to facilitate Study

of Opaque Objects, 595
Photomiciography. See Contents, xxxi
Photoxylin, 259

Phronima , Secondary Sexual Characters of
Male, 62

Phulpin, E., Invasion of Body by Intes-
tinal Bacteria, 109
Phycomyces, 450
Phycomycetes, Reproduction, 447
Phycopeltis, 547

Phycoporphyrin, new Pigment of Conju-
gata*, 213

Phyllodes of Acacia , 539
Phyllopod Crustacea of Japan, 62, 187, 310
Phylogenetic Adaptations of Lichens, 551
Phylogeny, Enamel Structure and, 45

— of Lithobiidm, 405

Physa fontinalis , Maturation and Fertili-
sation, 511

Phvs ological Conditions of Spore-Forma-
tion in Aerobic Bacteria, 663

— Interpretations of Structure, 505

— Significance of Direct Cell-Division, 606
Physiology of Phanerogamia. See Con-
tents, xviii

Phytolacca , Crystalloids, 536
Piana, G. P., Endoglobular Parasites of
Blood of Dog, 196

INDEX.

751

Piccoli, E., Spore-Formation of Bacterium
coli commune, 845

Piekard-Cambridge, F. C., Stridulating
Organs of Scytodes, 61
PieridiB, Pigments, 616
Pig, Blastodermic Vesicle, 293
Pintner, — ., Morphology of Proboscis in
Tetrarhy nchi, 4 1 9

Pigment-Granules, Grouping, during Seg-
mentation in Frog, 176
Pigmentation of Salamander, 611
Pigments of Pieridae, 616
Pike, Myxosporidia, 533
Pilsbry, H. A., Revision of North Ame-
rican Slugs, 615
Pine-Leaves, Growth, 648
Pines, Red Wood, 642
Piorkowski, Immigration of Typhoid Ba-
cilli into Hens’ Eggs, 348

— Urinous Substrata for Differentiating
Bacillus coli communis and B. typhi ab-
dominal is, 475

Pitfield, — Flagella Staining, 133
Pithophora , 334

Pizon, A., Follicle Cells in Molgula, 180
Pizzigoni, A., Parasitic Fungi, 450
Plagiotrupic Position of Lateral Roots, 89
Plague, Microbes, 221
Plancken. See Van der Plancken
Plankton ikrit, a Centrifugal Apparatus for
Volumetric Estimation of Food-Supply,
470

Planorbis, Larval Kidney, 181
Plants, Assimilation of Elementary Nitro-
gen and of Lecithin, 649

— Estimation of Lieithin in, 484

— Recording Apparatus for Study of
Transpiration, 264

— Sensitiveness, 652

Plasmol^sis and Growth of Medullary
Tissues, 439

Plate, L. H., Collection and Preservation
of Zoological Specimens, 257
Plate-Cultivation Methods, Improvements,
128

Plateau, F., Effectiveness of a Net in ex-
cluding Insects, 305

Platiuum Wire Brush for Inoculating Cul-
ture Media with Diphtherial Matter,
250

Platner’s Intercellular Body, 176
Platt, J. B., Development of the Peripheral
Nervous System of Necturus, 171

— Thyroid Gland and Suprapcricardial
Bodies in Necturus, 172

Platvhelminthes. See Contents, xv
Platypus, Embryo, 37
Pleurococcus nimbatus, 161
Plimmer, H. C., Microscopical Diagnosis
of Uterine Growths, 256
Pliocene Foraminifera, New, 195
Plurilocular Sporanges of Asperucoccus, 92
Plymouth Hydiv.ids, 319

Plymouth, Parasitic Copepoda of Fish
from, 528

Pneumobacillus of Friedlauder, 227

Fermentation excited by, 109

Pneumococcus, Action of Metabolic Pro-
ducts of Staphylococcus and, 666

— Cultures on Blood, 473

— Fraenkel’s, 462

Pockets of Calcium Oxalate, 642
Poirault, M. C., Nuclei of Uredinea), 97
Polar Rings, Yolk-Nucleus and, 499
Polistes, Habits, 307

Poljanec, L., Transpiration of Potato, 209
Pollen and Ovule, Homology, 617

— Biology, 437

— Formation within Ovules, 436
Grains, 433

Tube, Structure and Growth, 206

Pollination, Cross- and Self-, 207, 540
Polyclads of New Britain, 527
Polydactylism, 610
Polyembryony, 207
Polymorpliina angusta, 13

— communis, 13

— compressa, 14

— fusiformis , 11

— gibba, 9

— gutta, 10

— luctea, 9

— sororia, 12

var. cnspidata, 13

Polymorphism of Buds in Colella, 399

— of Cladobotryum, 3 9
Polystely in Dicotyledons, 537
Polyzoa. See Contents, Buyozoa, xii
Polychseta of Dinard, 414

Pome®, Wood, 642
Pond-Life, Cocain in Study, 258, 483
Porcelain Cylinder, Perforated, as Washing
Apparatus, 355

Porcosan, Experiments with, 700
Pore in Spore Membrane of Rust-Fungi,
Simple Method for Demonstrating Ger-
minal, 257

Pores of Pulmonary Alveoli, Demonstra-
tion, 358

Porifera. See Contents, xvii
Port Erin, Nemertines, 67
Port Jackson Sharks, Egg-Cases, 295
Portugal, Sponges from W. Coast, 77
Postelsia, Sori, 91
Potato Diseases, 550

— Scab and its Cause, 451

— Transpiration, 209

Putouie', H., Secondary Growth in Thick-
ness in Palms, 642

Poulet, V., Vegetable Digestion, 652
Poulsen, V. A., Root of Myristica, 435
Poulton, E. B., Age of the Earth, 609

— Courtship of certaiu Aeridiidce, 516
Poultry, Tape-Worms, 528

Pox, "Chicken-, Staphylococcus Pyaemia
after, 556

752

INDEX,

Polar Rings of Earthworms, Examination,
570

Powell, J., 708
Powell Microscope, 708
Plain, D., Indian Wheat Rusts, 661
Precambrian Rocks of Brittany, Reputed
Organic Remains in, 321
Preiswerk, G., Enamel-Structure and
Phylogeny, 45

Prenant, A., Accessory Glands of Thyroid
and Carotid, 602

Prendergasc, W. W., Gain and Loss of
Leaves, 541

Preparing Objects. See Contents, xxxiii
Preservative Fluids. See Contents, xxxiv
President. See Michael, A. D.

Preston, — ., Influence of Variations in
Composition of Gelatin on Development
of Water Bacteria, 251
Prianischnikotf, D., Chemical Processes of
Germination, 544

Price, G. C., Development of Bdellostoma ,
498

Prillieux, E., Bacillar Disease of Vines, 100

— Rhizostoma, 350

Prisms, Method for Exact Adjustment of
Nicol’s, 463

Pristiurus, Development of Spiral Intes-
tine, 604

Proboscis in Tetrarhynchi, Morphology,
419

Proliferating Cysticerci, 630
Proscher, F., Myriophyllin, 322
Propagation of Lemanea , 546
“ Prosobranchs,” Air-breathing, 180
Pioteid-digesting Saliva in Insect Larvae,
184

Proteids of Wheat, 202
Proterandry in Palm, 437
Prothallium of Daneea, 332, 545
Protobasidiomycetes, 98
Protopliyta. See Contents, xxvii
Protoplasm of Living Cell, Action of
Carbon Dioxide, 439

— of Phanerogamia. See Contents, xviii

— Parasites, 416

Protoplasmic Connection between Paren-
chyme-Cells, 537

Protozoa, Cultivating, on Solid Media,
356

— See Contents, xvii
Protracheata. See Contents, xiii
Protropby, 439

Prouho, H., Reproduction of Myzostomata,
70

Pulfrich Refractometer 464
Pulmonarv Alveoli, Demonstrating Pores,
358

Pulmonata, Development, 53
Pulmonates, Anatomy of Malayan, 301
“ Pulmonates,” Gill-bearing, 180
Puriewitsah, K., Assimilation of Nitrogen
by Fungi, 334

Puriewitsch, K., Disappearance of Contents
from Reserve-Receptacles, 652
Pyaemia after Chicken-Pox, Staphylococcus ,
556

Pyrenees, Gigantic Earthworm from, 525
Przibram, Regeneration in Lower Crus-
tacea, 626

Q.

Quartz-Spectograpli, Use, for Vegetable
Pigment, 363

Queen-Bee unable to lay Drone-Eggs, 307

R.

Rabbit, Development of Diaphragm and
Liver, 495

Rabbits, Vibrio Infection per os in Young,
559

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Ger-
many, 212, 448

Rabies, Strong Natural Virus, 348
Raid, H., Nuclei of Fat-Cells, 500
Raciborski, M., Basidioholus , 447

— Nuclei of Uredinese, 97

— Preparation of Flower-Bud3, 132

— Protection of Buds, 84

Radaisia , a new Genus of Myxophycese, 92
Radiolarian, New, 427
Radiolarians, Hydrostatic Apparatus, 194
Raffaele, F., Superficial Epidermic Enve-
lope in Developing Ova of Teleosteans,
38

Railliet, A., Parasitic Nematodes, 313
Ramulina aculeata , 583

— cervicornis , 584

— globulifera, 582

— laevis, 582
Ranunculus , Leaves, 327

Ranvier, L„ Development of Lymphatic
Vessels, 294

Rapisiardi. See Barbagallo-Rapisiardi,
Raswedeukow. See Melnikow-Rasweden-
kow

Rath, O. vom, Amitosis, 44

— Chromatin-Reduction in Maturation of
Ova and Spermatozoa, 41

— Fixatives, 134

— Glandular-Cells of Anihcra mediter-
ranean 61

Ratz, S. von, Anthrax in Swine, 348
Rauff, H., Reputed Organic Remains in
Precambrian Rocks of Brittany, 321
Ravaz, M. L., Bacillar Disease of Vines,
160

Rawitz, B., Alizarine, 133

— Modified Use of Hsematein, 133

— Studies on Cell-Division, 499
Ray, J., Mucor and Triclioderma, 335
Rayleigh, — ., On the Theory of Optical

images, with special reference to the
Microscope, 681

INDEX.

753

Rays, Rdntgen, Action on Bacilli, 554

Biological Action, 398

Effect on Germination, 438

Reaction of Nutrient Media for Bacterial
Cultivation, 690

Reagents, Colouring-Box for, 563
Recording Apparatus for Study of Tran-
spiration of Plants, 364
Red Blood- Corpuscles in Legal Medicine,
467

of Tadpoles, 608

— Sea Copepods, 413

— Torula a genuine Saccliaromyces ? 449

— Yeast, Endosporous, 219

— Wood of Pines, 642

Retker, H., Living Earthworm in Ice,
187

Refik, — ., Abnormal Types of Coli Bacilli,
556

Regeneration in Lower Crustacea, 626

— of Stentor , 637
Refractometer, Pulfrich, 464

Rehm, H., Rahenhorst’s Cryptogamic
Flora of Germany (Fungi), 448
Reichert Microtome, Improvement to,
359

Reid, F. G., Fluorescent Bacillus, 110
Reinke, F., Fertilisation and Cleavage of
Echinoid Ova, 70

— Histology of Testis, 298

— Japanese Method for Sticking Paraffin
Sections, 261

Reinke, J., Classification of Lichens,
551

— Morphology of Lichen-Thallus, 217
Rejuvenescence, 27

Remlinger, — Presence of Typhoid Ba-
cilli in Water, Earth, and Faeces of
Persons Unaffected with Typhoid Fever,
666

Renault, B., Coprophilous Bacteria of
Permian Epoch, 223

— Fossil Bacteria, 344, 555

Rengel, E., Changes of the Intestinal Epi-
thelium in the Metamorphosis of Meal-
worms, 617

Renon, M., Aspergillous Tuberculosis in
Hair-Combers, 449
Report of Council for 1895, 143

— of Sub-Committee of Council. (R.M.S.
Standard Screw-Thread), 389

Reproductiou in Pliycomycetes, 447

— of Phauerogamia. See Contents, xxi

— Phenomena, 40

Reptiles, Acanthocephala in, 67

— Development, 170

— Gastrulation, 37

— Veins of Head and Neck, 295
Reserve-Receptacles, Disappearance of

Contents, 652

Starch, Production, Transport, and

Consumption, 209
Resin-Passages of Coniferse, 432

Resistance of Bacterial Germs to Dry Heat,
348

Respiration and Assimilation, 542

— and Nitrogenous Substances, Relation
between, 542

Respiration of Phanerogamia. See Con-
tents, xxii

— of Trilobites, 414

Respiratory Mechanism of Corystes Cassi-
velaunus, 623
Retina, Function, 179

— of Selachians, 608, 698

— Structure, 296, 359
Retting, Microbe of Flax, 226
Revision of North American Slugs, 615
Rliabdonia , Life-History, 655
Rheinberg, J., Addition to Methods of

Microscopical Research ; new way of
optically producing Colour-Contrast
between object and its background, or
between definite parts of object itself,
369, 371, 373

Rheumatoid Arthritis, Bacillus of, 666
Rhizoctonia , 550

Rhizomes, Movement of Gases in, 88
Rhizopod, Parasitic, 638
Rliizophidium and Pliycomyces, 450
Rhizopods, Shell-making, 320
Rhizostoma, Nervous System, 318
Rliodomelacese, Cystocarp, 546
Rhopalodia , a new Genus of Diatoms, 452
Rhumbler, L., Shell-making in Rhizopods,
320

Richards’ New Microscope, 560
Richards, H. M., Exobasidium, 448
Rimpach, A., Depth of Underground
Portion of Perennial Plants, 539
Rinderpest, Microbe, 462
Rindfleisch, v., Demonstrating Tubercle
Bacilli in Sputum, 476
Rings, New Rotating Disc for Preparation
of Lacquer, 562

Ripening Process of Cheese, 461
Ritter, W. E., Budding in Compound As-
cidians, 612

Rivers, Microbes of Indian, 347
Roberts, L., Physiology of Trichophyton
99

Robertson, C., Cross- and Self-Pollination,
540

Rocks, Precambrian, of Brittany, Reputed
Organic Remains, 321
Rodet, A., Morphological and Physiologi-
cal Variability of Microbes, 101
Rodewald, E., Swelling of Starch, 653
Romer, — ., Ascaris megalocephala as Cause
of Death, 417

Romer, F., New Gordiidse, 66
Eontgen Rays, Action on Bacilli, 554

Biological Action, 398

Effect on Germination, 438

Roger, II., Action of High Pressuro on
certain Bacteria, 453

754

INDEX.

Rohde, E., Nucleus of Ganglion-Cells and
Neuroglia, 297

Rohde, F., Present State of Question as to
Origin and Inheritance of Acquired
Characters, 27

Rohou’s Cells in Spiual Cord of Trout,
175

Roncali, D. B., Blastomycetes in Sarcoma,
99

— Pathogenic Blastomycetes, 99
Root, Acid Excretion, 432

Beet-, Accumulation of Sugar, 210

— of Cyperacese, Phloem Bundles in, S3

— of Impatiens, 435

— of Myristica, 435
Sap, Acidity, 432

Tubercle Bacteria of Leguminosae, 344

Tubercles of Alnus glutinosa, Physio-
logy, 329

of Soja-Bean, 205

Tubers of Isopyrum, 539

Roots, Acid Excretion, 64

— Geotropism, 89

— Plagiotropic Position of Lateral, 89
Rosa, D., Earthworms from Sumatra, 627

— Neotropical Earthworms, 312

Rosen, F., Nuclei and Nueleoles in Meris-
matic and Sporogenous Tissues, 199
Rosen, G., Fixing-Material for Meristem,
358

Rosen, T., Chromatophily of Nucleus, 641
Rosenberg, O., Winter Starch, 536
Rosenstadt, B., Eye of Scutigera , 621
Ross’ new Portable Microscope, 351
Ross, H., Stem of Bromeliaceae, 83
Rotatoria, Preserving, 260

— Species in, 191

— ■ See Contents, xvi
Roth, E., Taeniae of Birds, 528
Rothenbach, F., Schizosaccliaromyces
I’ombe , 552

Rothert, W., Mechanism of Curvature in
Plants, 210

Rotifera, American, 268, 269, 530

— from China, &c., 485

— of County Mayo, 420

— of Illinois River, 530

— See Contents, xvi
Rousselet, C. F., 268, 485

— Preserving Rotatoria, 260

Roux, — ., Mechanics of Development, 492

— Machine-Theory of Life, 505

Roux, G., Disinfection with Formic Alde-
hyde, 480

Rowlee, W. W., Life-History of Symplo-
carpus foetidus, 324
Boya obtusa v. moniana , 152
Roze, E., New Pathogenous Micrococci,
455

— Opening of Flowers of (Enotliera , 330

— Potato Scab and its Cause, 451
Riickert, J., Development of Spiral Intes-
tine in Prist iurus , 601

Riickert, J., Reducing Divi.-ions, 499

Ruedemann, R., Structure of Diplograptus,
193

Rule, Stanley’s new Optical, 135, 464

Rumpel, T., Luminosity of Cholera Bacilli,
105

Ruprecht, M., Method for Impregnating
Lacunae and Canaliculi of Bone with
Fuehsin, 478

Russell, J. B., Blastopore of Frogs’ Eggs,
396

Russell, W., Influence of Mediterranean
Climate on Plants, 324-

Rust Fungi, Simple Method for Demon-
strating Germinal Pore in Spore Mem-
brane, 257

— of Oryza and Setaria, 337

Rusts, Indian Wheat, 661

Ryder, J. A., Automatic Microtome, 132

— Dynamical Hypothesis of Inheritance,
29

Rywosch, A., Biology of Tardigrades,
185

Rywosch, S., Lacunae in Tissue of Gymno •
sperms, 323

— Resin-Passages of Coniferae, 432

S.

Sabatier, A., Philosophical Aspects of
Zoology, 298

Sabbatini, A., Acanthocephala in Reptiles,
66

Sablon. See Leclerc du Sablon
Sac, Yolk-, in Scyllium and Lepidosteus ,
603

Saccardo, P. A., GEdomyces leproides, 448
Saccharated Media, Decomposition by
Vibrio ehol erse asiatiae, 106
Saccharomyces, Development of Spores,
96

— Is the Red Torula a genuine ? 419

— Supposed Conversion of Aspergillus
Oryzse into, 218

— Marxianus, Enzymes, 341

— octosporus , Blue-Staining of Spores, 660

— Yeast, Fungi which form Transition
Group between Moulds and, 341

Saccharomyeetes, Origin, 552
Saccharomycosis, Human, 659
Saccharose Solution, Preserving Ytast in,
579

Sacharoff, N., Movements of Chromosomes
of Malaria Parasite, 428

— Mode of Origin of Different Varieties of
Malaria Parasites of Irregular or iEstivo-
Autumnal Fever, 197

Sachs, J., Energids and Cells, 199
Sack, A., Vacuolation of Fat-Cells, 296
Saemisch, T., Filaria lo:i in Human Eye,
189

Sa grina asperula, 581

INDEX.

755

Saint Joseph, — . de, Orthonectid in Anne-
lid, 316

— Polychseta of Dinard, 414

St. Vincent, West Indies, Diptera, 618
Sake-Making, 96

Salamander, Examining Spermatlieca, 256

— Pigmentation, 611

Salemky, W., Development of Synascidiaa,
50

Salisburia, Fertilisation and Embryogeny,
328

Saliva in Insect Larvae, Proteid-Digesting,
, 184

Salnionidae, Blastodermic Margin, 39
Salomon, H., Spirillum found in Stomach
of certain Mammals, 459
Salpa, Development, 506

— democrcdica (mucronata), Development,
49

— fusiformis, Development, 614

Salt, Effect of Injection of Solutions of
Common, 230

Salto, A., Immunity to Cholera, 458
Saltpetre-decomposing Bacillus, 458
Salts, Action on Vegetable Tissues, 643
Salzer, H., Development of Veins in Head-
Region, 294

Samassa, P., Evolution and Epigenesis,
393

Sand, R., Freshwater Acinetae, 426
Sanfelice, F., Bovine Haematuria, 197

— Pathogenic Action of Blastomycetes,
552

Sap, Ascent, 541

— Root-, Acidity, 432
Sappin-Trouffy, — Fertilisation of Ure-

dineae, 312

— Nuclei of the Uredincae, 97
Saprolegniaceae, 657

— Culture, 446

— Cytology, 335

— Sporangial Rudiments, 445
Saprolegnia, Karyology, 216
Saprophyte, Tropical, 85
Saprophytic Orchideae, 325
Saprophytism of Ascocliyta Pisi, 148
Sarauw, G. F. L , Mycorhizci , 550
Sarcina, Species, 102

Sarcoma, Blastomycetes in, 09

— Presence of Mould-Fungi in Syphilis,
Carcinoma, and, 661

Sarcophaga affinis in Man, Larva, 184
Sarcoptid, New, 309

Sarcosporidia, Infection Experiments with,
197

Sargant, E., Direct Nuclear Division in
Embryo-Sac of Lilium Martagon, 322

— Formation of Sexual Nuclei in Lilium
Martagon , 640

— Staining of Sexual Nuclei, 698
Saul, — Catgut Disinfectant, 669
Sauvageau, C., Cell- Wall of Algae, 442

— Ectocarpus , 92, 547

Sauvageau, C., Heterogamy in Ectocarpus,
656

— Strepsitlmlia , a new Genus of Pliseo-
spori ae, 444

— Plurilocular Sporanges of Asperococcus,
92

— Radaisia , new Genus of Myxophyccse,
92

Sauvan, L., Localisation of Active Prin-
ciples, 535

Saville-Kent, W., Marine Fauna of Hout-
man’s Abrolhos Islands, 47
Saxer, F., Development of Red and White
Blood-Corpuscles, 169
Saxicolous Lichen, Rate of Growth, 552
Scab and its Cause, Potato, 451
Scales, Wing-, Development in Butterflies
and Moths, 514

Scarabi, Lateral Organs of Lame, 515
Scarlatina, Streptococcus, 107
Scatoconchs, 619

Schafer, E., Photography of Histological
Evidence, 500

Schaffer, J., New Fromme Microtome, 572
Schafther, J. H., Embryo-Sac of Alisma ,
436

Sehardinger, F., Cultivating Protozoa on
Solid Media, 356

Schaudinn, F., Conjugation of Actinophrys
sol, 637

— Life-History of Paramceba eilhardi ,
639

— Parasitic Rhizopod in Ascitic Fluid in
Man, 638

— Synopsis of Heliozoa, 427
Schellenberg, H. C., Lignified Cell-Walls,

537

Schepelewsky, — ., Disinfecting Power of
Formalin, 480

Schiemenz, P., How do Starfishes open
Oysters ? 630

— L.eitz’s New Drawing Eye-Piecrs, 351
Schiffner, V., Wiesnerella, a new Genus of

March antiaceaj, 441

Schilbersky, K., Bacillar Disease of Vines,
100

— Chrysopldyctis , a new Genus of Chitri-
diaeeae, 445

— Movements of Diatoms, 451

— Polyembryony, 207

Schilling, J. A., Movement of Sensitive
Leaves, 543

Schimkewitsch, W., Dinopliilus , 69

— Fertilisation, 493

Schirokikh, J., Saltpetre-decomposing Ba-
cillus, 458

Schizogenous, Oblito-, Secretion-Recep-
tacles of Myrtaceae, 203
Schizomycetes. See Contents, xxvii
Scliizophyceae. See Contents, xxvii
Schizopliyllum lobatum, Formation of Car-
bon, 548

I Scliizopods, Pelagic, 522

756

INDEX.

Schizo-Saccharomyces octosporus , Enzymes,
311

Pombe, 552

Schizothrix cuspidata, 164

— funalis, 164

Schlickum, A., Cotyledons of Monocotyle-
dons, 434

Schlonning, H., Supposed Conversion of
Aspergillus Oryzx into Saccharomyces ,
218

Schmeil, O., Freshwater Copepods, 522,
625

Schmidle, W., Chlamydomonas grandis and
Kleinii , 444

Schmidt, A., Examination of Sputum in
Sections, 694

Schmidt, F., Development of Stylommato-
phora, 52

Schmidt, H., Normal Hyperthely in Hu-
man Embryos, 395

Schmitz, F., Species of Floridese, 443
Schneider, — , Presence of Typhoid Bacilli
in Water, Earth, and the Faeces of Per-
sons unaffected with Typhoid Fever,
666

Schneider, A., Phylogenetic Adaptations
of Lichens, 551

Schneider, J. G., Nematode Embryos in
Skin of Dog, 526

Schneider, R., Absorption and Physiolo-
logical Import of Iron, 46
Schober, A., Effect of Rontgen Rays on
Germination, 438

Schostakowitsch, W., Clcidosporium, Hor-
modendron , Fumago , and Dematium, 339
Schreiber, O., Physiological Condition of
Spore-Formation in Aerobic Bacteria,
663

Schrenk, H. von, Aerenchyme, 323
Sehukow, I., Fermentation Experiments,
660

Schultze, L., Classification of Antipathidse,
317

Schulze, E., Cell-Wall of Cotyledons of
Lupinus, 430

— Distribution of Cane Sugar, 537
Schulze, F. E., Cell-Membrane, 607

— Diplodal Sponge-Chambers, 636

— Intercellular Union of Epithelial Cells,
607

Schiirmayer, — ., Bacillus pyocyaneus and
its Functions, 108

Schiirmayer, B., Flagellata in Intestinal
Canal of Man, 196

Schutz, H., Disinfecting power of Kresol
and Metakresol, 668
Schwendener, S., Motile Cushions, 651
Schwere, S., Embryology of Taraxacum,
435

Scitamineae, Seed, 325
Sclavunos. G., Spinal Ganglia of Mammals,
296

ScolopendridcC, Blood-Vessels, 619

Scorpions, Anatomy and Development,
308, 521

Scourfield, D. J.,' Entomostraca of North
Wales, 625

Screw Micrometer Eye-Piece, Zeiss’, 119

Thread, R.M.S. Standard, 389, 487

Scudder, S. H., n erican Fossil Cock-
roaches, 518

— Fossil ButtertPes, 403
Scutigera , Eve, 621

Scyllium , Yolk-Sac and Merocytes, 603
Scytodes, Stridulating Organs, 61
Scytonema ambiguum, 1 63
Sea-Anemones, Studies, 75

— Deep-, Brachiopoda, 401

Dredging in Bay of Biscay, 500

Expeditions, Mollusca of Austrian,

400

Urchin, Connection between Blasto-

meres in Egg, 317
Egg, 633

— -Water, Method for Collecting and
Estimating Number of Small Animals
in, 256

Sealing Cultures of Bacteria, Method for
hermetically, 128

Seaman, W. H., Notes, on Formalin, 479
Seaweed, Dispersal of Marine A nimals by,
47

Secretion-Receptacles of Fungi, 214, 334

of Myrtacese, Oblito-Schizogeuous,

203

Secretions of Phanerogamia. See Con-
tents, xix

Section-Stretcher fur Paraffin Sections with
Cathcart Improved Microtome, 696
Sedgwick, — ., Influence of Variation in
Composition of Gelatin on Development
of Water Bacteria, 251
Sedgwick, A., Further Remarks on Cell
Theory, 30

Seed of Scitamineae, 325

Seeds, Influence of Climate and Soil on, 650

— Latent Life, 541

— of Liliaceae, Reserve-Cellulose in, 79

— of Loranthacese, Germination, 208

— Vitality, 208

Segerstedt, P., Protecting Tissue of
Shrubby Plants, 323

Segmentation of Ascidian Ovum, Cell-
Lineage in, 299

— of Egg of Amphibia and Teleostei, 495
Seiffert, — ., New Clip for holding Cover-

Glasses, 125

Seiffert, H., Importance of Lime in Brew-
ing, 660

Seiter, O., Origin of Saccharomycetes, 552
Sekera, E., Habitat Rich in Turbellaria,
628

— More Earthworms in Ice, 312
Selachians, Retina, 608, 698
Selaginella , Ligulc, 331

Self- and Cross-Fertilisation, 328

INDEX.

757

Self- and Cross- Pollination, 510
Senecio, Active Principles, 202
Sensitive Leaves, Movements, 513
Sensitiveness of Plants, 652
Separation and its Bearing on Z>o-Geo-
grapliy, 502

Septal Organs of Owenia fusiformis, 64
Sequoia, Embryogeny, 647
Serum-Agar, Blood-, Medium for Diph-
theria, 473

Easy Method of Preparing, 255

— Anti Anthrax, 230

— Antistaphylococcus, 667

— Antistreptococcous, 230

— Cholera-, Nature of Specific Effective
Substances in, 459

— Effect of Injection of Solutions of Anti-
Diphtheritic, 230

Injection Syringe, 577

— of Animals, Immunised to Typhoid,
Diagnosis of Typhoid Bacilli, 566

— of Highly Immunised Animals, Special
Action, 456

— of Vaccinated Heifer, Immunising
Power, 225

Setaria, Rust of, 339

Setchell, W. A., Media for Preserving
Algae, 481
Setcliellia , 337

Seward, A. C., Fossil Gymnosperms of the
Wealden, 653

Sewertzoff, A., Metamerism of Vertebrate
Head, 32

Sex-Cells, History, in Cymatogaster , 496

— -Differentiation in Cymatogaster , 605
Sexual Characters of Male Plironima ,

Secondary, 62

— Nuclei, Formation in Lilium Martagon ,
640

Staining, 698

— Organs, Abortive or Transformed, 437

— Phases of Myzostoma , 530

— Reproduction in Basidiomycetes, 98
in Plants, 328

Seynes, J. de, Penicillium cupricum, 658
Sharks of Port Jackson, Egg- Cases, 295
Shattock, S. G., Cultivation of Parasitic
Protozoa from Malignant Tumours, &c.,
198

— Healing of Wounds, 324

Shaw, W. R., Embryogeny of Sequoia,
647

Shell-Faunx, Insular Land, 615

— -making in Rhizopods, 320

— -Ornamentation, Development in
Marine Gastropods, 303

Sherzer, W. K., Mimicry of Pebbles by
Beans, 440

Shimer, P. W., Microscopic Filter, 125
Shipley, A. E., Epithelium of Tapeworms
an i Flukes, 629

— New Acanthocephalid, 527
Shoyu-Making, 96

Shrubby Plants, Piotecting Tissues, 323
Shull, G. H., Accessory Buds, 434
Siddous, H. G. F„ 703

— New Form of Disseeting-Stand and
I.ens-Carrier, 679

— Portable Case of Mounting Apparatus,
709

— S wifi’s Portable Microscope, 486
Sigillina , Genus, 179

Sillier, C., Muscle-Spindles and Nerve-
Endings, 397
Silicon in Plants, 81

Silk-Moth, Development of Male Ducts,
57

Genital Ducts and Glands of

Female, 515

Silkworm’s Eggs, Evolution of Corpuscles,
195

Silveslri, F., Diplopoda, 621
Simpson, W. J., Microbe of Rinderpest,
462

Simroth, — ., Monochromatic Colours
among Animals, 178
Singhalese Nematodes, New, 627
Sinizin, F., Endoparasitic Worms from
Birds near Warsaw, 528
Sinus, Development of Urinogenital, 35
Siphonophora of Amboina, 318
Skate, Transient Nervous System in, 496
Skeletons, Fish-, Dilute Sulphuric Acid in
Preparing, 693
Skin-Glands of Frog, 297

— of Dog, Nematode Embryos, 526
Slack, the late H. G., 472

Sleen, — ., Van der, Qualitative Bacterio-
logical Examination of Water, 129
Slices in Liquids, Universal Apparatus
for Investigation of Thin, 467
Slide-Holder, 263

Slides, Mounting Marine Animals as
Transparent Lantern, 134
— . See Contents, xxxiv
Slugs, Revision of North American, 615
Sluiter, C. P., New Tamia, 529
Small-Pox and Production of Artificial
Immunity from that Disease, Researches
Relating to the Specific Agent of, 461
Smegmatis, Bacillus, and Tubercle Bacillus,
607

Smith, A. A. Cystocarp of Griffithsia , 655
Smith, A. L., Sori of Macrocydis and Pos-
telsia, 91

Smith, R. F. W., Vibrio tonsillaris, 557
Smith, T., Bacillus coli communis and
Related Forms, 460

— Demonstrating Presence of Bacillus coli
communis in Water, 128

— Infectious Diseases among Turkeys,
429

Smith, T. F., Recent Advances in Deter-
mination of Diatom Structure, 554
Smith Sound, Malacostraca, 409
Snapping Turtle, Oviposition, 396

3 F

1896

758

INDEX.

Sniezelr, J., Species in Rotatoria, 191
Sobotta, J., Corpus Lufeum of Mouse, 494

— Fertilisation of Egg of Amphioxus
lanceolatus , 39

— Gastrulation of Amia calva, G04
Society’s, Royal Microscopical, Standard

Screw-Thread, 389

Soil, Graveyard, Bacteriological and Che-
mical Examination, 105

— Influence on Seeds, 650

— Nitrification in, 457

— Production of Ammonia in, by Microbes,
104

Soja-Bean, Root Tubercle, 205
Sonsino, P., Distomum Westermcinni, 191

— Taenia flavo-punctata , 529

Sorby, H. C., Method for Collecting and
Estimating Number of Small Animals
in Sea-Water, 256

— Methods for Mounting and Exhibiting
Delicate Marine Organisms, 136

— Mounting Marine Animals os Trans-
parent Lantern Slides, 134

Sorel, E., Aspergillus Oryzae , 339
Sori of Macrocystis and Postelsia, 91
Sorus of Danxa , 332
Southern Faunae, Distribution, 504
Spectograph, Quartz-, Use, for Vegetable
Pigment, 363

Spectroscopic Eye-Piece, Abbe’s, 241
Spee, — ., Glandular Character of Umbili-
cal Vesicle, 396

Spee, F. von, Fixing of Ovum to Wall of
Uterus, 601

Spemann, H., Development of Strong ylus
paradoxus , 66

Spencer, B., Crustacea of Central Australia,
410

— New Earthworms from Central Aus-
tralia, 415

— Tertiary Polyzoa of Victoria, 402
Spencerella, a new Genus of F lor idem 546
Spermathec®, Examining, in Newts and

Salamanders, 256

— in American Urodela, 495
Spermatobium , Development, 427

— Preparation of Specimens, 571
Spermatocytes of Helix , 510
Spermatogenesis, 375, 693

— Accessory Nucleus, 184

— in Birds, 41

— in Monotremes and Marsupials, 602

— in Spiders, 408

— of Calupetenus femur-rubrum , 517

— of Mammals, 602

Spermatozoa, Chromatin Reduction in
Maturation, 41

— Double, of Dyticid®, 306

— of Echinoderms, 631, 692
Sphseroidina bulloides , 589
Sphaerotheca Castagnei, Perithece of, 339
Sphere in Nerve Cells of an Invertebrate,

626

Sphere in Spinal Ganglion-Cells of Frog,
43

— Investigation, Attractive, 130
Spiders, Habits, 185

— of Central Australia, 407

— Spermatogenesis, 408

Spinal and Central Ganglia, Structure of
Nerve-Cells, 296

— Cord of Trout, Rohon’s Cells in, 175

— Ganglia of Mammals, 296

Cells of Frog, Centrosome and

Sphere, 43

Spindles, Muscle-, 397
Spinning-Apparatus, Development, 59

— -Gland of Lepidopterous Larva?,
Branching of Tracheae, 182

Spiracles of Opilionid®, Secondary, 407
Spiral Intestine, Development in Prisli-
urus , 601

Spirillina tnberculata, 590
Spirillum desulfur! cans, 225

— found in Stomach of certain Mammals,
459

— undula majus , Cultivating, 355
Spirlas, A., Spinal Ganglia of Mammals,

296

Spirogyra , Division of Nucleus, 20
Sponge- Chambers, Diplopodal, 636
Sponges from W. Coast of Portugal, 77

— Growth, 319

— of France, 194

Sporanges, Mechanics of Dehiscence,
538

— of Asperococcus, Plurilocular, 92
Sporangial Rudiments iu Saprolegniace®,

445

Spore-Formation in Aerobic Bacteria, Phy-
siological Conditions, 663

in Ascus of Ascomycetes, 338

— in Hepatic®, 90

— - — of Bacterium coli commune , 315
— of Fungi, 214

Membrane of Rust-Fungi, Simple

Method for Demonstrating Germinal
Pore in, 257

— of Chulara , 96

— of Penicillium glaucum , Germination,
338

— of Saccharomyces, Development, 96
Spores, Blue-Staining, 660
Sporodinia , Zygosperm, 336
Sporogenous Tissues, Nuclei and Nucleoles

in, 199

Sporophyte, Evolution of Vegetative
Phase, 544

— of Ophioglossacc®, 331
Sporozoa of Vaccine Lymph, 196
Sporulation of Diatoms, 452

Spray, Antiseptic Value of Sublimate,
481

Spraying Experiments, 669
Spring Wood, 82
Springs, Bacteria of Hot, 456

INDEX.

759

Spronck, C. H. H., Method for Preparing
very Active Diphtheria Toxin, 250
Sputum as Nutrient Medium for Bacteria,
129

— Bifurcated Double-Ended Crystal from
Asthmatic, 568

— Demonstrating Tubercle Bacilli, 476
in Human, 476

— in Sections, Examination, 694
Squires, R. W„ Temperature of Trees,

210

Stage, Meyer’s Microscope, with Iris-
Diaphragm, 248, 350

— Screw Micrometer, Zeiss’, 246

Stahl, E., Physiology of Coloured Leaves,
543

Staining in Oyster, 512

— Mucus, 576

— See Contents, xxxiv

Stamens of Htlianthemum polifolium ,
Irritability, 513

— Variation in Number, 325
Standard Screw Thread, R.M.S., 389, 487
Stanley’s new Optical Rule, 135, 464
Staphylococcus , Action of Metabolic Pro-
ducts of, 660

— Pyaemia after Chicken-Pox, 556

— pyogenes aureus , Influence of Glucose,
566

Starback, K., Discomycetes, 551
Starch-Grains, 80

Penetration of Diastase, 653

— Reserves, Production, Transport and
Consumption, 209

— Swelling, 653

— Winter, 536

— in Meat Preparations, Detection, 701
Starches, 81

Starlishes, Lacunar System, 192

— New, 423

— Opening of Oysters by, 630
Starlinger, J., improvement to Reichert

Microtome, 359
Staurastrum Dieneanum , 158

— brachiatum, 159

— corniculatum , 157

— cuspidatum v. divergent, 157

— Kjelmanni v. rotundatum , 158

— margaritaceum , 160

— micron , 159

— Picurn , 159

— sibiricum f. trigona , 157

— suboibiculare , 158
Staundium productum, 318
Steel, T., Peripatus, 519

Steffen, W., Sputum as a Nutrient Medium
for Bacteria, 129

Steinbrinck, C., Mechanics of DehisConce
of Antlieis and Sporanges, 538
Stellata, Morphology, 435
Stem of Bromeliaceaj, 83

— of Euphorbiaceoe, 326
Stems, Porosity of Wood 203

Stenoglossa , Digestive Apparatus of higher,
511

Stentor , Regeneration, 637
Stephanoceros E ichor ni, Male, 166, 267
Stephens, J. W., Easy Method of Prepar-
ing Serum Agar, 255

Stephens, J. W. W., Vibrio tonsillaris , 557
Steriliser, New, 570

Sterling, S., Micrococcus tetragenus citreus ,
226

Sternberg, G. M., Researches relating to
Specific Agent of Small- Pox, and Pro-
duction of Artificial Immunity from that
Disease, 461

Steuer, A., Male Gonads of Cyclops , 523
Steward, A. C., Fossil Monocotyledons,
545

Stewart’s Earth-Borer, 263
Stichococcus, Aquatic Forms, 444

— variabilis, 162
Stivhostemma Eilhardi, 67
Stictei, 95

Stiff, A., Occurrence of Encliytrxida in
Beetroot, 416
Stigonema hormoides , 164
Stiles, C. W., Ctenotsenia denticulata, 191

— Tape-Worms of Poultry, 528
Stimuli in Development, Formative, 28
Stingelin, T., Cladocera of Busle, 62
Stinging Cells, 399

Stizcnberger, E., Stictei, 95
Stoerk, O., New Methods for Paraffin
Sections, 477

Stokes, A. C., New American Rotifera,
530

— Notes on Genus Apsilus and other
American Rotifera, 268, 269

— Collar Adjustment of Objective as
affected by a change of Eye-pieces, 127

Stoklasa, J,, Assimilation of Elementary
Nitrogen and of Lecithin by Plants
649

Stoll, O., Distribution of Terrestrial In-
vertebrates, 301

Stolons, Effect of Light on Geotropism,
543

Stomach-Glands of Vertebrates, 295

— Spirillum found in certain Mammals,
459

Stornates, Distribution, 84

— Opening and Closing, 204, 645

Stony Corals, British Museum Catalogue,
424

Strasburger, E., Ivaryokinetic Problems, 79
Strehl, H., Disinfecting Power of Forma-
lin, 480

Strepsiptera, Structure, 404
Strepsithalia , new Genus of Phaoosporere,
414

Streptobacillus ulceris mollis , 1 07
Streptococci Cultures, Variability in Form
and Characters, 359

— Retention of Viiulence, 342

3 4' 2

760

INDEX.

Streptococcus and non-Diphtheritic Angina,
227

— of Scarlatina, 107

— peritonitidis equi, 556

Stretcher, Section-, fur Paraffin Sections
with Cathcart Improved Microtome, 696
Stricht. See Van der Stricht
Stridulating Organs of Scytodes, 61
Striped Muscle in Ostracoda, 412

Nerve- findings in, 176

Strombidae, 54

Strongylus paradoxus , Development, 66

— retoriscfornds in Hares, 189
Stropharia, Development, 552
Structure, Physiological Interpretations,

505

Stummer-Traunfels, R. von, Thusanozoon,
189

Sturany, R., Mollusca of Austrian Deep
Sea Expeditions, 1890-94,400
Stutzer, A., Acid-Litter for Infectious
Diseases of Cattle, 348

— Inhibitory Action of Air on Nitrate-
destroying Bacteria, 664

— New Nitrate-Forming Bacillus, 105

— Nitrification in Soil, 457

Stutzer, — Root-Tubercle Bacteria of
Leguminosse, 344

Stylommatophora, Development of, 52
Sublimate Spray, Antiseptic Value, 482
Sublimation and Determination of Melt-
ing-Points in Microchemical Investiga-
tions, 687

“ Sub-neural ” Gland in Ascidians, 52
Suction-Force of Transpiring Brandies, 650
Sugar, Accumulation in Beet-root, 210

Cane, Propagation, 330

Distribution, 537

Sugg, — ., Formalin as a Disinfectant, 261
Sulphuric Acid, Dilute, in Preparing Fish-
Skeletons, 693
Sumatra Earthworms, 627
Sun Disinfection, 223
Supino, F., Experimental Teratogeny, 394
Supra- (Esophageal Gland of Hsemtnlaria
officinalis, 525

Suprapericardial Bodies in Necturus, 172
Suprarenals in Cyclostomata (so-called),
605

Surirella , 662

Swaen, A., Development of Liver and Ad-
jacent Parts, 395

Swan, A. P., Endosporous Red Yeast,
219

Swarmspores of Tilopterideae, 212

S wifi’s Pui table Microscopes, 135, 486

Swine Anthrax, 348

Swingle, W. T., Parasitic Fungi, 550

Swinhoe, C., Mimicry in Iiypolimnas, 616

Syllis ramosa, Budding, 63

Symbiosis among Fungi, 92

— in 7 eiraplodon, 211

- — of Lichens, Injurious, 218

Sympathetic Ganglia of Mammals, 44
Symplocarpus fcetidus, Life-History, 324
Syuapta, Notes, 72
— of West Indies, Viviparous, 634
Synascidise, Development, 50
Synonymy of Huphina lanessa, 306
Syphilis, Carcinoma, and Sarcoma, Pre-
sence of Mould-Fungi, 661
Syringe, Serum-Injection, 577
Syzygy of Crinoids, 422

T.

Tadpoles, Red Blood-Corpuscles, 608

— Tail, Degeneration of Tissue, 37
Tsenia flavo-punctata, 529
Taenia, New, 529

Taeniae from Apes, Two new, 419

— of Amphibia, 191

— of Birds, 316, 528

— South American, 68

Tail, Degeneration of Tissue in Tadpole’s,
37

— Human, 601

Tails, Use of Heterocercal, 299‘

Takahashi, J., Parasitic Fungi,

Taliew, W., Hygroscopic Tissue of Pappus
of Composite, 82

Tannin in Wood, Distribution, 536

— of Fungi, 335

Tapeworms and Flukes, Epithelium, 629

— of Poultry, 528
Taraxacum, Embryology, 435
Tardigrade, Morphology and Embryology

of, 60

Tardigrades, Biology, 185

Targionia, Antherid, 665

Tarnani, J. K., Structure of Thelyphonus,

308

Tate, R., Mollusca of Central Australia,
400

Tatham. J., Use of Ordinary Binocular for
Dissecting, 463

Technique, Microscopical. See Contents,
xxxii

Teeth, Development in Insectivora, 34

— of Marsupials, 600
Teleostean Fins, Development, 174
Teloosteans, Superficial Epidermic Enve-
lope in Developing Ova, 38

Teleostei, Segmentation of Egg, 495
Temperature Changes, Influence on
Growth, S7

— Inlluence on Osmose, 650

— of Paraffin Baths, &c., New Thermo-
meter for Regulating, 562

— of Trees, 210

Tendrils, Mechanism of Curvature, 650

— Physiology, 342
Teratogeny, Experimental, 394
Ternate, Actiniaria, 635

— Hydroids, 425

INDEX.

Terrestrial Invertebrates, Distribution,
300

— Isopods from Greece, 625

Mexican, 309

Tertiary Decapoda, 61

— Polvzoa of Victoria, 402
Tetraplodon, Symbiosis, 211
Testis, Histology, 298
Tetraclita porosa, Anatomy, 414

Testis in Earthworms, Minute Structure,
311

Tests for Microscope Objectives, 681
Tetragonum lacvstre, 160
Tetrarhynchi, Morphology of Proboscis,
419

Textile Fabrics, Vitality of Diphtheria
** Bacilli on, 665

Thalassiosira, Occurrence of Endocysts in,
387, 704

— antarctica , 491

Thallus, Lichen-, Morphology, 217

— of Neomeris , 213
Thaxter, R., Blastocladia, 446

— Dispira, 336

— Laboulbeniacese, 218

— Leptomitaceae, 657

— Monoblepharideae, 93
Thelyphonus , Structure, 308
Theory, Machine, of Life, 504

— of Development, Ilertwig’s, 29

— of Evolution, Thomson’s Address, 46

— of Immunity, New, 458
Thermometer for Regulating Temperature

of Paraffin Baths, &c., New, 562
Thermostat applicable to any Microscope,
253

— for .Microscopes, Simple, 253, 563
Heated without the Use of Gas, 674

— Regulating, D’Arsonval’s, 468
Thierfelder, — ., Animal Life without Bac-
teria, 178

Thilo, O., Dilute Sulphuric Acid in Pre-
paring Fish-Skeletons, 693
Thompson, I. C.. Free-Swimming Cope-
pods from West Coast of Ireland, 310
Thompson, S., Gain and Loss of Leaves,
541

Thomson, J. A., Address : Theory of Evo-
lution, 46
Thorpe, V. G., 485

Thread, Screw-, R.M.S. Standard, 389
Thyas petrophilus „ Anatomy, 60
Thyroantitoxin, 319
Thyroid, Accessory Glands, 602

— Gland in Nee turns, 172

— Region, Accessory Glands, 495
Thysanozonn , Genus, 189

Tieghem, P. van, Acrognmous and Basi-
gamous Fertilisation, 206

— Basigamy and Homceogamy, 616

— Characters of Arceuthobiaceae, 327
Tilopteridere, Swarm-Spores of, 212
Tims, H. W. M., Dentition of Dog, 169

761

Tinctorial Isolation of Tissue-Elements,
Application of Amlin Mixture for, 698 -
Tintiuuidae, New, 319
Tissue, Attractive-Sphere in Fixed Cells
of Connective, 53

— Behaviour of Pathogenic Bacteria in
Living Vegetable, 557

— Degeneration, in Tadpole’s Tail, 37
Elements, Application of Anilin Mix-
tures for Tinctorial Isolation, 698

— Method for Preserving Nervous, 578

— Preparing Lipoma, 2o9

Tissues, Heath’s Apparatus for Dehy-
drating, 266

— Methods of Examining and Staining
Living and Dead, 473

— Nuclei and Nucleoles in Merismatic
and Sporogenous, 199

— Pkanerogamia. See Contents, xix

— Plasmolysis and Growth of Medullary,
439

— Vegetable, Action of Salts on,
643

Tochtermann, — ., Blood-Serum-Agar

Medium for Diphtheria, 473

— Cultivation Medium for Diphtheria
Bacillus, 249

Tochtermanu’s Medium for Diagnosis of
Diphtheria, 567
Tojoland Leeches, 627
Tonniges, C., Oiigin of Mesoderm in
Paludina , 511

Tornquist, S. L., Antennae of Trilobites,
311

Toni. See De Toni

Tokishige, H., New Pathogenic Blastomy-
ctte, 220

Tomes, C. S., Dentine and Enamel, 297
Topsent, E., Sponges of France, 194
Torula, Red, a new genuine Succharo-
myces ? 419
Tos. See Giglio-Tos.

Tower, R. W., Brick-Red Gland in
Limulus, 186

— Nervous System of Cestodes, 529

— Pieparation of Nervous System of
Cestodes, 571

Texin, Method for Preparing very Active
Diphtheria, 250

— Production of Diphtheria Bacillus, In-
creasing, 249

Toxopneustes variegatus , Preparation of
Eggs, 475

Tracheae, Branching, in Spinning Glands
of Lepidopterous Larvae, 1^2
Transpiration of Plants, Recording Appa-
ratus for Study, 364

— Role of Osmose in, 542
Transpiring Branches, Suction-Force, 650
Trapa, Flower and Fruit, 84
Trauufels. See Stummer-Trauufels
Treasurer's Account, 145

Tret, s, Temperature, 210

762

INDEX.

Trematodes of Fishes, Notes, 68
Trentepoliliace® and Lichens, 213
Treub, M., Hydrocyanic Acid in Pangium
edule , 431

T richoderma and Mucor, 335
Trichomes of Conifer®, 646
Trichophyton, Physiology, 99
Trillatt, A., Disinfection with Formic
Aldehyde, 480
Trilobites, Antennae, 311

— Respiration, 414

Triton, Regeneration of Crystalline Lens
in, 295

Trophism, Paratonie, 541
Tropical Saprophyte, 85
Tropics, Growth, 88
Trouessart, E., Marine Acarina, 409

— New Scarcoptid, 309
Trouffy. See Sappin-Trouffy
Trout, Excretory System, 39

■ — Rohou’s Cells in Spinal Cord, 175
Trow, A. H., Kuryology of Saprolegnia , 216
True, R. A., Influence of Sudden Changes
of Turgor and of Temperature on Growth,
87

Tschirch, A., Use of Quartz-Spectograph
for Vegetable Pigments, 363
Tsetze Fly Dicease, 428
Tubercle Bacilli, Demonstrating, in Human
Sputum, 476

in Sputum, 476

Microscopical Examination of Meat,

258

— Bacillus, Bacillus Smegmatis , 667

- — Root-, Bacteria of Legumiuos®, 344
Tubercles, Root-, of Alnus glutinosa , Phy-
siology, 329

ol Soja-Bcan, 205

Tuberculosis in 11 air-Combers, Asper-
gillous, 449

Tubers, Root-, of Isopyrum, 539
Tubeuf, C. v., Cones ot Conifer®, 538

— Trichomes of Conifer®, 646
Tumours, Malignant, Cultivation of Para-
sitic Protozoa, 198

Tunicata. See Contents, x
Tubular ia, Oogenesis, 636
Turbellaria, Habitat Rich in, 668

— of Zurich, 67

Turbellarians, Comparative Anatomy. 67

— New, 418

Turgor, Influence of Sudden Changes on
Growth, 87

— of Motor Organs, 651
Turkeys, Animal Parasites, 507

— Infectious Diseases among, 429
Turneretschcr. See Marktauner-Tur-

neretscher

Turtle, Oviposition of Snapping, 396
Turning, Mechanics, 336

— of Climbing Plants, 210

Types of Coral, Microacopic and Systematic
Study of Mudreporariun, 317

Typhoid Bacilli, Diagnosis, by means of
Serum of Animals Immunised to
Typhoid, 566

iu Water, Earth, and Freces of Per-
sons unaffected with Typhoid Fever,
Presence, 666

Immigration, into Hens’ Eggs, 348

— Bacillus, Method fur Rapid Recog-
nition, 567

— Bacteria, Diagnostic Medium for, 357
Specific Properties of Protective

Bodies in Blood of Animals immune to,
228

— F'ever, Osteomyelitis by Bacillus, 555
Presence of Typhoid Bacilli in

Water, Earth, and F®ces of Persons un-
affected with, 666

— -like Bacilli and Diagnosis of Bacillus
typhosus, 106

— Oysters and, 54

Tyrosinase, a new Oxidising Diastase, 431
Tyrothrix Duclaux, Character and Varia-
bility, 228

— tenuis Duclaux, Alleged Conversion of,
into a Lactic Acid Bacterium, 665

U.

Ude, H., Notes on Enchytr®id® and
Luinbrieid®, 311
Uintacrinus, 422

Ule, E., Cross- and Self-Fertilisatiun, 328

— Cross- and Self-Pollination, 540
Umbilical Vesical, Glandular Character,

396

Underground Portion of Perennial Plants,
Depth, 539

Unna, P. G., Application of Anilin Mix-
tures for Tinctorial Isolation of Tissue-
Elements, 698

— Staining by Preoccupation and Sub-
traction, 362

— Streptobacillus ulceris mollis, 107
Urchin, Sea- Connection between Blas-

tomeres in Egg, 317
Uredine®, Fertilisation, 342

— New Genera, 450

— Nuclei, 97

— with Repeated Formation of ^Ecidia,
312

Uredinopsis, 95

Uric Acid, Fermentation by Microbes, 457
Urinary Deposits, Preservation, 700
Urinogenital Sinus, Development, 35
Urinous Substrata for Differentiating
Bacillus culi communis and B. typhi
abdominalis, 475

Urodela, Spermathcc® and Fertilisation
in American, 495
Urticace®, Inflorescence, 614
Ustilaginc®, 93, 336

— Infection, 217

INDEX. 763

Ustilcigo carbo , 448

Uterine Growths, Microscopical Diagnosis,
256

Uterus, Fixing of Ovum to Wall, 601
V.

Vaccinated Heifer, Immunising Power of
Serum, 225

Vaccine Lymph, Sporozoa, 106
Vacuolation of Fat-Cells, 206
Vade-Mecum, Lee’s Microtomist’s, 564
Vagedes, — ., Diagnosis of Cholera by
means of Cholera Anti-Bodies, 357
Vuillard, L., Heredity of Acquired Im-
munity, 345

Vaillard, M. L., Disinfection with For-
malin Vapour, 700
Valerio, — . See Galli-Valerio
Vallentin, R., Dispersal of Marine Animals
by means of Seaweeds, 47
Vail >t, J., Rate of Growth of Saxicolous
Lichen, 552

Valpantena Wine Ferments, 210
Vanatta, E. G., Revision of North Ameri-
can Slugs, 615

Van Breda de Haan, J., Parasitic Fungi,
540

Vanda, Vegetative Organs, 205
Van de Velde. See Velde
Van der Plancken, Hom ydew, 323
Van der Stricht, O., Egg of Amphioxus ,
408

— Form, Structure, and Division of
Nucleus, 176

— Maturation and Fecundation of Egg in
Amphioxus, 175

Van Dyck, F. C., Mioropolariscope for
Projection, 123

Van Heurck, H., Acetylene and Photo-
micrography, 353

Vanhotfen, E., Arachnarfis albida , 75
— .Genus Ceratium,426

— Greenland Ctenophora, 77
Van Tieghem. See Tieghem
Variation, 53S

— Anlage and, 610

— Curves and Surfaces in Plants, 205
Variations in Limulus Polyphemus , 621
Vasa deferentia in Male of Bombi/x mori,

Post-Embryonic Development, 305
Vedeler, — ., Lipoma Protozoon, 197

— Preparing Lipoma Tissue, 259
Vegetable Acids, Separation, 4S3

— Cells, Investigations of Presenco of
Iron Compound in, 45, 130

— Pigments, Use of Quartz-Spectograph,
363

Vegetation, Effect of Electricity, 87
Veins in Head Region, Development, 294

— of Head and Neck in Reptiles, 295
Vejdovsky, F., Comparative Anatomy of

Turbellarians, 67

Vejdovsky, F., Gonads of Lumbriculus
variegatus, 65

— New Turbellarians, 418

Velde, H. van do, Antileueocidino, 460
Venation, Carpellary, 434
Verhoeff. C., Climbing Powers of Mille-
pedes, ls5

— Geophilidse of Central Europe, 308

— Morphology of Abdomen in Coleuptera,
57

— Notes on Myriopods, 405

— Structure and Distribution of Myrio-
pods, 620

— Wound-Healing in Carubus, 181
Verrill, A. E., Archetype of Mollusca,

508

— New Starfishes and Ophiurans, 423

— Upisthoteuthidse, 509

Vernon, H. M., Development of Eehino-
derm Larvfe, 632

Verson, E., Development of Male Ducts in
Silk-Moth, 57

— Genital Ducts and Glands of Female
Silk- Moth, 515

— Post-Embryonic Development of Vasa
deferentia and Accessory Organs in Male
of Bombyx mori , 305

Vertebrata. See Contents, vii
Vertical Illuminator, Zeiss’, 121
Vesicle, Glandular Character of Umbilical,
396

— of Pig, Blastodermic, 293
Vespertilio murinus , Gestation, 26

. Vezey, J. J., 147

Vibrio choleras asinticas, Decomposition of
Saccharated Media by, 106

— Bactericidal Action of Water of Jumna
and Ganges on Cholera, 665

— Infection of Young Animals per os,
668

per os of Young Cats, 347

in Young Rabbits, 559

— Method for Rapid Recognition of
Cholera, 567

— New Water, 346

— tonsillaris , 557

Vibrios, Differential Diagnosis between
Cholera and, 559

— in the Animal Body and in vitro
Specific Immunity Reaction of Cholera,
668

— into Hens’ Eggs, Penetration of Cholera,
665

— Phosphorescence of Elbe, 105
Victoria, Tertiary Polyzoa, 402

Vidal, L., Pectic Substances in the Root of
Equisetum, 654

Vincent, S., So-called Suprarenals in
Cyclostomata, 605

Vincent, St., West Indies, Diptera, 618
Vines, Bacillar Disease, 100
Vines, S. H., Suction-Force of Transpiring
Branches, 650

764

INDEX.

Virbius zoster icola. Cleavage of Egg, 624
Virchow, H., Blastodermic Margin in
Salmonidse, 39

Virchow, R., Anlage and Variation, 610
ViruL nee, Retention by Streptococci, 347
Virus of Rabies, Strong Natural, 348
Vitality of Diphtheria Bacilli on Textile
Fabrics, 665

— of Seeds, 208
Vitriwebbina , 638

— he vis, 585

- — Sollasi, 586

. var. gonoidea, 586

■ — tuberculata . 5 '6

Vitro, Specific Immunity Reaction of
Cholera Vibrios in the Animal Body and
in, 668

Viviparous Fish, New Species, 40

— Synapta of We-t Indies, 631
Voglino, P., Development of Stropharia ,

552

— Minute Structure of Clitocnbe od ra,
220

Voiuov, D. N., Ncphiidia of Branchio-
bdella , 417

Volumetric Estimation of Food-Supply of
Oysters, 470

Voyage of ‘Albatross,’ Foraminifera, 426
Vuillemin, P., Assimilation and Activity,
177

— Ilypostomacese, a new Family of Para-
sitic Fungi, 447

— Mncor and Trichoderma , 336

— Parasitic Fungi, 338

Vuyck, L , Flowers of Lemna, 204

W.

"Wachtel, M., Geotropism of Roots, 89
Wager, H., Fertilisation of Cystnpus , 335

— Staining of Fungi, 699

— Structure and Reproduction of Cystopus,

657

— Structure of Bacterial Cells, 343
Wagner, F. v., Hertwig’s Theory of

Development, 29

Wagner, J., Spermatogenesis in Spiders,
4u8

Wagner, P., Morphology of Limnanthe-
mum, 327

Wagner, W., Habits of Spiders, 1S5
Waite, E. R., Egg-Cases of Port Jackson
Sharks, 295

Wakker, J. H., Parasitic Fungi, 550

— Propagation of Sugar-Cane, 330
Waldeyer, W., Human Tail, 601
Wall of Uterus, Fixing of Ovum, 601
Wallengren, H., New Ciliata, 42, 532
Walmsley’s Acetylene Gas Generator,

354

— “ Autograph ” Camera, 354

Wnlmslcy, W. II., Some new Points in
Photomicrography, 126
Walnut, Chalazogamy, 85
Walter, — ., Presence of Influenza Bacilli
in Central Nervous System, 567
Walter, J. E., Pollen-Grains. 433
Wandolleck, B., Antennae of Diptera, 58
Warburg, O., Hairs of Myristicacese, 327
Ward, F. II , 145

Ward, H. M., Bacterial Variation, 343

— False Bacterium, 344

Warming, E., Leaves of Euphorbia buxi-
folia , 645

Warsaw, Endoparasitic Worms from Birds
near, 528

Washing Apparatus, Perforated Porcelain
Cylinder as, 355

Wasmann, E., Ergatogynous Forms in
Ants and their Explanation, 183
Wasp, Genital Organs of Male, 57
Wa.-p’s Ne st, History, 57

— Statistics, 58
Wasps, Digger-, 618
Watch-Glass-Imbedding Method, 359
Improved Solid, 255

Water, Absorption by Leafless Branches,
330

Bacteria, Influence of Variations in

Composition of Gelatin on Development,
251

Carrying Calyx, 325

— Demonstrating Presence of Bacillus
coli communis in, 128, 250

— Earth, and Faeces of Persons unaffected
with Typhoid Fever, Presence of Ty-
phoid Bacilli in, 666

— Effect of Currents on Assimilation,
542

— • Examination, Bacteriological, by
Parietti’s Method, 474

— Fixation of Paraffin Sections with
Distilled, 478

— Qualitative Bacteriological Examina-
tion, 129

— Sea-, Method for Collecting and Esti-
mating Number of Small Animals in,
256

— Vibrio, New, 346

Waters, A. W., Interzooecial Communica-
tion in Flustridae and Notes on Flustra ,
279, 366

Waters, Bacteria and Carbonated, 554
Waters of Jumna and Ganges, Bactericidal
Action on Cholera Vibrio, 665
Wax Cells, Making and Finishing, 261
Wealden, Fossil Gymnosperms, 653
Webber, H. G., Parasitic Fungi, 550
Webbina and Vitriwebbina , 638
Welimer, C., Aspergillus Wentii , 338

— Oak-leaved Hornbeam, 538

— Parasites of Cultivated Crops, 94

— Parasitic Fungi, 450
Potato Diseases, 550

INDEX.

76o

Wehmer, C., Value of Alkalies and Iron
Compounds for Fungi, 445
Weigert, C., Demonstrating Structure of
Human Neuroglia, 693
Weigert, L., Red Pigment of Plants, 536
Weinland, G. F., Function of tlie Retina, !
179

Weinschenk, E., Method for Exact Adjust- ;

ment of Nicol’s Prisms, 463
Weismann, A., Seasonal Dimorphism of
Butterflies, 55

Weiss, F. E., Symbiosis in Tetraplodon,
211 !
Weiss, G., Nerve-Endings in Striped
Muscle, 176

Weldon, W. F. R., Wilson’s Atlas of Ferti-
lisation and Karyokinesis of Ovum, 394
Wells, Fauna, 301

Weltner, W., South American Cirripedia, j
63

Went, F., Monascus purpureus, 340
Went, F. A. F. C., Formation of Carbon j
bisulphide by Schizophyllum lobatum, |
548

— Parasitic Fungi, 550

Wessel, D. C., New Cover-Glass Clip, 678
West, G. S., New Species of Bistomum,
316

West, W. and G. S., New and Interesting ;

Freshwater Algae, 149, 266
Westermaier, M., Ovules of Angiosperms,
436

West Indies, Dipteraof St. Vincent, 618

Viviparous Synapta of, 634

Wettstein, R. v., Seasonal Dimorphism,
83

Wetzel, G., Experimental Embryology,
493

Weysse, A. W., Blastodermic Vesicle of
Pig, 293

Wheat, Prcteids, 202
Wheat Rusts, Indian, 661
Wheeler, W. M., Ochtliera , 404

— Sexual Phases of Myzostoma, 530
White, M C., Red Blood-Corpuscles in

Legal Medicine, 471
White, T. C., 148, 266, 707
Whitting, F. G., Sori of Macrocystis and
Postelsia, 91

Wiegand, K. M., Intercellular Spaces in
Embryos, 323

Wiener, E., Vibrio Infection per os of
Young Cats, 347

— Vibrio Infection per os in Young
Rabbits, 559

Wierzejski, A., Maturation and Fertilisa-
tion in Physa fontinalis , 511
Wiesner, J., Amount of Light most favour-
able to Growth of Plants, 540

— Anisophylly, 204

— Germination of Seeds of Loranthaceae,
20S

— Heterotrophy and Anisophylly, 326

Wiesner, J., Paratenic Trophism, 541
Wiesner ellci, a new Genus of Marcliantia-
ceae, 441

Wilcox, E. V., Power of Resistance of
Hehphilus Larvae to Killing Fluids,
517

— Spermatogenesis of Calopetenus Femur-
rubrum , 517

Wildeman, E. de, Attachment of Cell-
Walls, 79

— Leitz’s Microscopes, 463

— New Chytridiaceae, 548

— New Genera of Fungi, 549

Will, H., Demonstrating Wild Yeasts in
Trade Yeasts and New Beer, 251
Will, L., Development of Reptiles, 170
Willey, A., Notes on Nautilus , 509

— Polyclads of New Britain, 527

— Remarkable Ascidian, 507
Williams, J. L., Fertilisation of Spore of

Fucus, 656

— - Formation and Structure of Dental
Enamel, 398

Willis, J. C., Cross- and Self-Pollination,
208

Williston, S. W., Diptera of St. Vincent,
West Indies, 618

Wilson, E. B., Atlas of Fertilisation and
Karyokinesis of Ovum, 394, 468

— Egg of Sea-Urchin, 633

— Preparation of Eggs of Toxopneustes
variegatus, 475

Wilson, G., Mullerian Duct of Crocodile,
396

— Hereditary Polydactylism, 610
Wine Ferments, Valpantena, 219

, Wing-Scales, Development in Butterflies

j and Moths, 514

: Winkler, W., Character and Variability of
Species of Tyrothrix Duclaux, 228
Winiwarter, H. von, Digestive Gland in
Simple Ascidians, 179
Winogradsky, S., Microbe of Flax Retting,
226

— Microbiology of Nitrification, 664
Winter-Starch, 536

Winterstein, E., Cell- Wall of Fungi, 656

of Vascular Cryptogams and

Muscinem, 654

Wire Brush for Inoculating Culture Media
with Diphtherial Matter, Platinum, 250
Wittlin, J., Alleged Conversion of the
Tyrothrix tenuis Duclaux into a Lactic
Acid Bacterium, 665

j — Bacteriological Examination of Water
by Parietti’s Method, 474

— Pockets of Calcium Oxalate, 642
Wittmack, L., Germination of the Cocoa-

j nut, 438

Wolf, S., Action of Metabolic Products of
Staphylococcus and Pneumococcus , 666
Wolff, G., Regeneration of Crystalline Lens
in Triton , 295

3 G

1896

INDEX.

7 00

Wood, Distribution of Tannin in, 536

— of Pines, Red, 642

— of Pomese, 642

— Spring and Autumn, 82

Woods, A. F., Recording Apparatus for
Study of Transpiration of Plants, 364
Woodward, M. F., Development of Teeth
in Inseclivora, 34

— Mammalian Dentition, 600

— Teeth of Marsupials, 600
Woody Plants, Physiology, 440

— Stems, Porosity, 203

Worms from Birds near Warsaw, Endo-
parasitic, 528

— of Freshwater Fish, Parasitic, 420

— Tape-, of Poultry, 528
Wound-Healing in Cardbus, 184
Abounds, Course of Fibres, 83

— Healing, 324

Wright’s Method of Mounting Foramini-
fera, 262

X.

Xanthidium antilopreum, 156

— Ilobinsonianum, 156

— Smith ii v. var labile, 156
Xanthium, Germination, 439
Xanthophyll, Demonstration and Crystal-
lisation, 363

Xerophilous Plants, Hydropliorous Ap-
paratus in, 435

Y.

Yeast, Blue, 449

— -Cells, Granules, 218
— Variation, 341

— Endosporous Red, 219

— Fungi which form Transition between
Moulds and Saccharomyces, 341

— Preserving in Saccharose Solution, 579
Yeasts, Alcohol-, Origin, 96

— Demonstrating Wild, in Trade Yeasts
and New Beer, 251

— Various, 96

Yolk-Nucleus and Polar Rings, 499
— ■ -Sac in Scyllium and Lepidosteus, 603
Young, J. B., Bacteriological and Chemical
Examination of Graveyard Soil, 1 05

— Stewart’s Earth-Borer, 263

Yung, E., Strongylus retortseformis in
Hares, 189

Z.

Zacharias, E., Behaviour of Nucleus in
Growing Cells, 322

Zacharias, Q., Zeiss’ Eye-Piece with Iris-
Diapliragm, 242

Zander, R., Laticiferous Hairs of Cichori-
acese, 539

Zangemeister, W., Bacillus cyaneo - fluo -
rescens , 227

Zauier, G., Altmann’s Granula, .396

Zeiss’ Apochromatics, 118

— Eye-Piece for Observing Axial Images,
119

with Iris Diaphragm, 242

— Hand-Microscope, 114

— New Lens- Holder, 122

— Pulfrich Refractometer, 464

— Screw Micrometer Eye-Piece, 1 1 9

— Stage Screw Micrometer, 246

— Stand IX., 114

— Vertical Illuminator, 121

Zeltnow, — ., Cultivating Spirillum undula
majus, 355

Zernecke, E., Histology of Cestoda, 190

— Investigation of Minute Structure of
Cestodes, 257

Zia Bey, — ., Bacteriological Examination
of old Cholera Dejecta, 473

Ziegler, H. E., First Stages of Develop-
ment in Nematodes, 312

Zimmermaun, A., Demonstrating Structure
and Composition of Cell-Nucleus, 358

— Zeiss’ new Lens-Holder, 122

Zoja, R., Development of Ascaris megalo-
cephala, 526

— Independence of Paternal and Maternal
Chromatin in Cleavage-Cells, 67

Zoo Geography, Separation and its Bearing
on, 502

Zoological Collecting Apparatus, Long
Lines, 569

— Specimens, Collection and Preservation,
257

— - Technique, Centrifugal Machines in,
354

Zopf, — ., Function of Lichen-Acids, 659

Zopf, W., Coccus-Condition of Beggiatoa,
455

Zschokke, F., Parasitic Worms of Fresh-
water Fish, 420

Zukal, Ii., Morphology and Biology of
Lichens, 658

Zurich, Oligochreta, 416

— Turbellaria, 67

Zygnema , Production of Azygospores in,
444

Zygosperm of Sporodinia, 336

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l

CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

PAGE

X. — The Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. — VIII. By

Frederick Chapman, F.K.M.S. (Plates I. and II.) .. .. 1

II. — The President’s Address : Sketches from the Anatomy of

the Acarina. By A. D. Michael, F.L.S., &e. .. .. ,. 15

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES
ZOOLOGY.

YERTEBKATA.

a. Embryology.

Rohde, F. — Present State of the Question as to the 0: igin and Inheritance of

Acquired Characters 27

Minot, -C. — Heredity and Rejuvenescence 28

Herbst, Cukt — Formative Stimuli in Development . 29

■Wagner, F. v. — Hertwig's Theory <f Development *. 2!)

Ryder. J. A. — Dynamical Hypothesis of Inheritance .. .. 30

Sedgwick, A. — Further Remarks on the Cell-Theory 32

Nussbaum — Progressive Differentiation of Cells in the Course of Development .. .. 32

Sewertzoff, A. — Metamerism of Vertebrate Head 32

Debierre, Gh. — Development of the Occipital Segment 33

Giacomini, C. — Abnormalities in Human Development 33

Leo he, W. — Dentition of Mammals 33

„ Questions concerning Dentition .. .. 34

Woodward, M. F. — Development of Teeth in Insectivora 34

Laguesse, E. — Histogenesis of the Pancreas 35

Keibel — Development of Bladder and Urinogenital Sinus .. .. .. 35

Duval, M. — Embryology of Rats 35

Nqlf, P. — Gestation of Vespertilio murinus 36

Hill, J. P., & C. J. Martin — Embryo of Platypus 37

Nathusius, W. von — A Strange Enclosure in a Hen's Egg 37

Mehnekt, E. — Gastrulation in Reptiles 37

Noetzel, W. — Degeneration of Tissue in Tadpole's Tail 37

Kopsch, F. — Gastrulation in Axolotl and Frog 38

Raffaele, F. — Superficial Epidermic Envelope in the Developing Ova of Teleosteans 38

Felix — Excretory System of the Trout 39

Virchow, Hs. — The Blastodermic Margin in Scdmoniddc 39

Sobotta, J. — Fertilisation of Egg of Amphioxus lanceolatus 39

Alcoce, A. — New Species of Viviparous Fish 40

Beard, J. — Phenomena of Reproduction 40

Moore, J. E. S — Spermatogenesis in Birds 4t

Rath, O. vqm — Chromatin-Reduction in the Maturation of Ova and Spermatozoa 41
Moore, J. E. S. — Structural Changes in Reproductive Cells of Elasmobranchs .. 42

{}. Histology.

Lenhossek, M. v. — Centrosome and Sphere in the Spinal Ganglion-Cells of the Frog 43

Rath, O. vom — Amitosis 44

Dogiel, A. S. — Sympathetic Ganglia of Mammals .. .. 44

Ni-essing, G. — Cell-Studies .. 44

Cesaris-Demel, A. — Fat-formation and Altmann’s Granules 45

Preiswerk, G. — Enamel Structure and Phytogeny .. .. ,. 45

A

2

y. General. page

Macallum, A. B. — Iron Compounds in Animal and Vegetable Cells 45

Schneider, R. — Absorption and Physiological Import of Iron 46

Thomson’s (J. A.) Presidential Address 46

Saville-Kent, W. — Marine Fauna of HoutmarCs Abrolhos Islands 47

Yallentln, R. — Disposal of Marine Animals by means of Seaweeds 47

Invertebrata.

Mill, M. D. — Fecundation , Maturation , and Fertilisation 48

Tunicata.

Garstang, W. — New Classification of Tunicata 48

Metcalf, M. M. — Notes on Tunicate Morphology 41)

Korotneff, A. — Development of Salpa democratica ( mucronata ) 40

Salensky, W. — Development of Synascidiie 50

Metcalf, M. M. — “Sub-neural ” Gland in Ascidians 52

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

Schmidt, F. — Development of Stylommatopliora 52

II eymons, R. — Development of Pulmonata 58

1)e Buuyne, C. — Attractive Sphere in Fixed Cells of Connective Tissue 58

Bergh, R. — Strombidse 54

Clubb, J. A. — Cerata of Dendronotus 54

5. liamellibrancMata.

Boyce, R. W., & W. A. Herdman — Oysters and Typhoid 54

Bernard, F. — New Lamellibranch Commensal with an Echinoderm 55

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta,

Weismann, A. — Seasonal Dimorphism of Butterflies 55

Verson, E. — Development of Male Ducts in Silk-Moth 57

Veriioeff, C. — Morphology of the Abdomen in Coleoptera 57

Kluge, M. H. E. — Genital Organs of Male Wasp 57

Janet, Ch. — History of a Wasp’s Nest 57

Edgeworth, F. G. — Statistics of Wasps 58

Emery, G. — The Genus Dorylus 58

"Wandollek, B. — Antennae of Diptera 58

y. Prototracheata.

Fletcher, J. J., & A. Dendy — Australian Peripatns 59

8. Arachnida.

Jaworowskt, A. — Development of Spinning Apparatus 55)

Ehlanger, R. v. — Morphology and Embryology of a Tardigrade ( 0

Michael, A. D.~ Anatomy of Thy as petroplnlus 60

Pickard-Cambridge, F. (J. — Stridulating-Organs of Scytedes 61

6. Crustacea.

List, Th. — Movements of Decapoda 61

Crema, C. — Tertiary Decapoda 61

Andrews, E. A. — Breeding Habits of American Crayfish 61

Rath, O. yom — Glandular Cells of Aniloera mediterranea 61

Chun, C. — S< condary Sexual Characters of Male Phronima 62

Giesbrecht, W. — Notes on Copepods 62

Stingelin, T. — Cladocera of Basle 62

Ishikawa, C. — Phyllopod Crustacea of Japan 62

Chun, C. — Nauplii of Lepadidx 62

Weltner, W. — South American Cirripedia 63

Annulata.

Oka, Asajiro — Budding in Syllis ramosa 68

Fauvel, P. — French Ampharetinae 64

Gilson, G. — Septal Organs of Owenia fusiformis 64

Buchanan, F. — Blood-forming Organs in Larva of Magelona 64

Beddard, F. E. — New Species of Earthworms 65

Vejoovsky, F. — Gonads of Lumbriculus variegatus 65

McKim, W. D. — Nephridial Funnel of Hirudo 65

3

Nematohelminthes. - page

Man, J. G. de— Anguillulidx in Orchids 6G

Spemann, Hs. — Development of Strongylus paradoxus 66

Romer, F. — New Gordiidx GG

Sabbatini, A. — Acantliocephala in Reptiles .. .. GG

Linstow, von — Echinorhynchus clavnla 67

Zoja, R. — Independence of Paternal and Maternal Chromatin in Cleavage-Cells . . G7

Platyh.elminth.es.

Montgomery, T. H. — Stichostemma Eilhardi g. et sp. n 67

Beaumont, W. J. — Nemei tines of Port Erin 67

Keller, J. — Turhellaria of Zurich G7

Vejdovsky, F. — Comparative Anatomy of Turbellarians 67

Luhe, M. — South American Taeniae 68

Germanos, N. K. — New Cestode 68

Looss, A. — Bilharzia haematobia 68

Maccallum, W. G. — Notes on Trematodes of Fishes 69

Incertae Sedis.

Schjmkevttsch, W.—Dinophilus 69

Hill, J. P.--iYew> Enteropneuston 69

Pkouho, H. — Reproduction of My:ostomata 70

Echinoderma.

Reinke. F. — Fertilisation and Cleavage of Echinoid Ova 70

Chun, C. — A Study of Auricularia 71

Ivcehler, R. — I.chinoderms of the Bay of Amboyna 72

Hartlaub, C. R. — Comatulidse of the * Albatross * 72

Chadwick, H. C .—Notes on Synapta 72

Coelentera.

Appellof, A. — New Hexaclinian 72

Bourne, G. C. — Structure and Affinities of Heliopor a carulea 73

F aurot, L. — Studies on Sea- Anemones 75

Vanhoffen, E. — Arachnactis albida Sars .. .. 75

Chun, C. — Laws of Budding in Medusa} 76

Browne, E. T. — Medusae of Liverpool Marine District 76

Vanhoffen, E. — Greenland Ctenophora 77

Porifera.

Hanitsch, R. — Sponges from the West Coast of Portugal 77

Protozoa.

Keuten, J. — Nuclear Division of Euglena 77

Dervieux, E. — A peculiarly Abnormal Form of Cristellaria 78

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including* the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

d) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Strasburger — Karydkinetic Problems 79

Wildemann, E. de — Attachment of Cell-ucdls 79

(2) Other Cell-contents (including* Secretions).

Cooley, Grace E. — Reserve-Cellulose in the Seeds of Liliacex 79

Baccarini, P. — Crystalloids in the Flowers of Leguminosae 80

Meyer, A.— Starch- Grains 80

Griffiths, W. — Starches 81

Guerin, P. — Localisation of Anagyrine and Cytisine 81

Lutz, L. — Formation of Gum in Acacia 81

Camusat — Silicon and Aluminium in Plants 81

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Newcombe, F. C. — Regulatory Formation of Mechanical Tissue 82

Taliew, W. — Hygroscopic Tissue of the Pappus of Composiiae 82

4

PAGE

Lutz, K. G — Spring and Aufumn Wood 82

Maule, C. — Course of the Fibres in Wounds 83

Ross. H. — Stem of Bromeliacex 83

Chauveaud, G. — Phloem-Bundles in the Boot of Cyperaceas S3

(4) Structure of Organs.

Macloskie, G. — Antidromy 83

Wettstein, R. v. — Seasonal Dimorphism 83

Knoblauch, E. — Dimorphic Flowers in Gcntianaceae 81

Gibelli, G., & F. Ferrero — Flower and Fruit of Trapa 84

Coincy, A. de — Heterospermy of AEthionema 84

Raciborski, M. — Protection of Buds .. 81

Petit, L. —Distribution of Stomates 81

Goebel, K. — Morphology of Grasses 85

Figdor, W. — Tropical Saprophyte 85

Peuzig, O. — Abnormal Structures in Orchids 85

)8. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Nawaschin, S. — Chalazogamy in the Walnut 85

H egelmaieh, F. — Development of the Embryo in Angiosperms 86

Andrews, F. M. — Embryo-sac of Jeff er sonia 86

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Germination, and Movements
of Fluids).

Pfeffer, W. — Elective Metabolism 87

Bonnier, G. — Effect of the Electric Light on Vegetation 87

Aloi, A. — Effect of Electricity on Vegetation 87

True, U. H. — Influence of Sudden Cluing s of Turgor and of Temperature on Growth 87

Kraus, G. — Growth in the Tropics 88

Cuboni, G. — Germination of Lodoicea Seychellarum •» .. .. 88

Dixon, H. H., & J. July — Path of the Transpiration Current 88

Golden, K. E. — Movement of Gases in Bhizomes 88

(3) Irritability.

Noll, F. — Mechanics of Curvature-Movements 89

MacDougal, D. T. — Transmission of Irritation in Mimosa 89

Watchel, M. — Geotropism of Boots 89

Czapek, F. — Plagiotropic Position of Lateral Boots 89

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).
Sablon, Leclerc du — Digestion of Gelatinous Endosperm 89

B. CRYPTOGAIOA.

Muscineae.

Farmer, J. B. — Spore-Formation and Nuclear Division in the Eepaticae .. .. 90

Jack, J. B. — Pellia 91

Algae.

Murray, G.. & E. Grove — Calcareous Pebbles formed by Algae 91

De Toni’s Sylloge Algnrum ( Fucoideae ) 91

Smith, A. L., & F. G. Whitting — Sort of Macrocystis and Postelsia 91

Kuckuck, P. — New Pliaeosporeae 91

Sauvageau, C. — Ectocarpus 92

„ „ Plurilocular Sporanges of Asperococcus 92

„ „ Badaisia, a new Genus of Myxophyceae 92

Chodat, R., & F. Huber— Uariotina 92

Fungi.

Dangeard, P. A. — Symbiosis among Fungi .. 92

Miyoshi, M. — Boring of Membranes by Fungi 92

Thaxter, R. — Monoblepharideae .. .. 93

Brefeld, O.— Uslilagineae 93

Neger, F. W., & others — Parasitic Fungi 94

Wehmer, C. — Parasites of Cultivated Crops 94

Dietel, P. — Uredinopsis 95

Matruchot, L. — Gliocladium 95

Gluck, H. — Mush- Fungus 95

t unfstuck, M. — Secretion of Oil by Lichens 95

Darbishire, 0. Y. — Dendrographa , a new Genus of Lichens 95

5

PAC.F,

Stizenberger, E. — Slictei 95

Nielsen, J. 0. — Development of the Spores of Saccharomyces 9(5

Klocker, A. — Various Yeasts 9(5

Jorgensen, A. — Orig in of Alcohol- Yeasts 9(5

Kellner, O. — Sake , Shoyu, and Miso-Making 9(3

Halsted, B. D.— Spores of Chalara 9*5

Poirault, G., & others — Nuclei of the Uredinex 97

Dangeard, P. A. — Sexual Reproduction in the Basidiomyetes 98

Moller, A. — I'rotobasidiomyeetes 98

Koberts, L. — Physiology of Trichophyton 99

Roncali, D. B. — Blastomycetes in Sarcoma 99

„ „ & others — Pathogenic Blastomy/etes 99

Protophyta.

a. Schizophyceae.

Chodat, R. — Kirchneriella 100

Borzi, A. — Conjugation in the Nodochinex 100

Hauptfleisch, P. — Movement of Diatoms 100

B. Schizomycetes.

Prillieux, E., & others — Bacillar Disease of Vines 100

Rodet, A. — Morplioloqical and Physiological Variability of Microbes 101

Gruber, Th. — Species of Sarcina 102

Dieudonne — Bactericidal Influence of Hydrogen peroxide 104

Marchal, E. — Production of Ammonia in the Soil by Microbes 101

Rumpel, Th. — Luminosity of Cholera Bacilli 105

Kutscher — Phosphorescence of Elbe Vibrios 105

Young, J. B. — Bacteriological and Chemical Examination of Graveyard Soil.. . . B'5

Bukri, R., & A. Si'U'i zeu — New Nitrate-forming Bacillus 105

Gerstner, R. — New essentially Anaerobic Bacteria 105

Gosio — Decomposition of Saccharuted Media by Vibrio Cholerx asiaticx . . .. 10(5

Losener — Typhoid-like Bacilli and the Diagnosis of the Bacillus Typhosus . . . . 100

d’Espine, Ad. — Streptococcus of Scarlatina 107

Unna — Streptobacillus Ulceris Mollis 107

Kamen, L. — Cholera Notes 107

Bujwid, O. — Anthrax in a Fox 108

Schurmayer— Bacillus pyocyaneus and its Functions 108

Dallemagne, J. — Bacterial Flora of the Intestinal Tract 108

Blumenthal, F. — Influence of Alkali on Microbic Metabolism 108

Grimbert, L. — Fermentations excited by the Pnmmobacillus of Friedlaender . . 109

Achard, Ch , & E. Phulpin — Invasion of the Body by Intestinal Bacteria .. .. 109

Foote, C. J. — Oysters and Enteric Fever 110

Rei.*, F. J. — Fluorescent Bacillus HO

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.

Cl) Stands.

Hildebrand, H. E. — Practical Remarks on Microscope Construction (Figs. 1-7) .. Ill

Zeiss’ Hand-Microscope ( Kig. 8) HI

„ Stand IX. (Fig. 9) 114

Beck’s Large “ Continental Model ” Microscopes (Figs. 10 and 11) 110

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives-

Zeiss’ Apochromatics (Fig. 12) 118

„ Screw Micrometer Eye-piece (Fig. 13) 119

„ Eye-piece for Observing Axial Images (Fig. 14) 119

Czapski’s Ocular Iris-Diaphragm with Eye-piece (Fig. 15) 120

Fremont, C. — Microscope for Opaque Objects (Fig. 10) 120

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

Zeiss’ Vertical Illuminator (Fig. 17) 121

„ New Lens-holder (Figs. 18-20) 122

Van Dyck, F. G. — Micropolariscope for Projection (Fig. 21) .. 1-3

New Case for Microscopical Preparations (Fig. 22) 124

Seiffert — New Clip for holding Cover-glasses (Fig 23) 125

Shimer, P. W. — Microscopic Filter (Figs. 24 aud 25) 125

6

(4) Photomicrography. page

Walmsley, W. H. — Some New Points in Pl'Momicrography 126

Marktanner-Turneretscher, G. — Advances in Photomicrography 126

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Stokes, A. 0. — Collar- Adjustment of the Objective as affected by a Change of Eye-
pieces 127

C6) Miscellaneous.

Modern Microscopy 127

Ferenczy, Max — Optics and Mechanics at the North German Commercial and

Industrial Exhibition at Lubech , 1895 127

(3. Technique.

Cl) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes.

Pfaffenholz — Improvement in the Plate-Cultivation Method 128

Smith, Th. — Demonstrating the Presence of Bacillus coli communis in Water .. .. 128

Dawson, C. F. — Method for Hermetically Sealing Cultures of Bacteria 128

Steffen, W. — Sputum as a Nutrient Medium for Bacteria 129

Sleen van der — Qualitative Bacteriological Examination of Water 129

Bolton, Meade — Bactericidal Action of Metals 129

(2) Preparing Objects.

Hill, M. D. — Investigation of Ova 130

De Bruyne, 0. — Investigation of the Attractive Sphere 130

Maccalldm, A. B. — Investigation of the Presence of Iron Compounds in Animcd

and Vegetable Cells 130

Matschinsky, M. — Preparing Bone Sections 131

Moore, J. E. S. — Study of Reproductive Cells of Elasmobranchs 131

Clubb, J. A. — Investigation of Cerata of Dendronotus 131

Maccalldm, W. G. — Preparing Eluhes for Investigation 131

Raciborski, M. — Preparation of Flower Buds 132

(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Ryder, J. A. — Automatic Microtome (Fig. 26) 132

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Meyer, S. — Subcutaneous Injections of Methylene-Blue .. .. . . "** 133

Rawitz, B. — Alizarine 133

„ Modified Use of Hsematein 133

Pitfield — Flagella Staining 133

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Rath, O. vom — Fixatives 134

Marpmann, G. — Canada Balsam 134

Sorby, H. C. — Mounting Marine Animals as Transparent Lantern Slides .. .. 134

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, 18th December, 1895 135

Annual Meeting, 15th January, 1896 112

Eepoet of the Council for 1895 113

Balance Sheet for 1895 113

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CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

PAGE

III. — On some New and Interesting Freshwater Alga:. By

William West, F.L.S., and G. S. West, A.B.C.S., Scholar
of St. John’s College, Cambridge. (Communicated by
A. W. Bennett, M.A., F.R.M.S.) (Plates III. and IV.) .. 149

IV. — On the Male of Stephanoceros Eichhorni. By F. R. Dixon-

Nuttall, F.R.M.S. (Plate V.) 166

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

ZOOLOGY.

VEBTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.

Gaskell, W. H. — Origin of Vertebrates 167

Davenport, C. B. — Preliminary Catalogue of the Processes concerned in Ontogeny 168

Saxer, Fr. — Development of Red and White Blood- Corpuscles 169

MacMillan, Conway — Metazoan and Metaphytic Reproductive Processes . . . . 169

Jankelowitz, A. — Development of Pancreas in Man 169

Tims, H. W. Marett — Dentition of the Dog 169

Fischel, A. — Development of Musculature in Birds and Mammals 170

Will, L. — Development of Reptiles 170

Assheton, R. — Ciliation of the Ectoderm of Amphibian Embryos 171

Platt, J. B. — Development of the Peripheral Nervous System of Necturus .. . . 171

„ „ Thyroid Gland and Suprapericardial Bodies in Necturus .. .. 172

Nussbaum, M. — Mechanism of Egg-laying in Frog 173

Dean, B. — Early Development of Amia 173

Harrison, R. G. — Development of Teleostean Fins 174

Schaffer, J. — Thymus Rudiments in the Lamprey 174

Stricht, O. van der — Maturation and Fecundation of the Egg in Amphioxus .. 175

/3. Histology.

Kolliker, A. von — Amoeboid Movements in the Neurodendrites 175

Gehcchten, M. A. van — Rohon’s Cells in the Spinal Cord of the Trout 175

Weiss, G., & A. Dutil — Nerve-Endings in Striped Muscle 176

Lee, A. Bolles — Plainer s Intercellular Body 176

Bremer, L. — Paranuclear Corpuscle and Centrosome 176

Stricht, O. van der — Form , Structure , and Division of the Nucleus 176

Bambeke, Ch. van — Grouping of Pigment- Granules during Segmentation in the

Frog 176

Czermak, N. — Absorptive Paths in an Epithelial Cell., 176

Andrews. R. R. — Structure of Dentine 177

Hebner, V. v. — Optical Reaction of Connective Substances to Phenol 177

7. General.

Vuillemin, P. — Assimilation and Activity 177

Nuttall & Thierfelder — Animal Life without Bacteria '.. .. 178

Simroth — Monochromatic Colours among Animals 178

Hess, C. — Function of the Retina 179

Tunicata.

Catjllery, Maurice — Double Larva of Diplosoma 179

Winiwarter, Hans von — Digestive Gland in Simple Ascidians 179

Catjllery, Maurice — The Genus Sigillina 179

Pizon, Antoine — Follicle Cells in Molgula 180

A

2

INVERTEBRATA. page

Pflucke, M. — Nerve-Cells of Invertebrates .. .. 180

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

Pelseneer, Pai l — Air-breathing i: Prosobranchs” and Gill-bearing “ Pulmonates*' ISO
Erlanger, R. von — Larval Kidney of Planorbis and Limnxus 181

5. Lamellibrancliiata.

Bruyne, C. de — Phagocytosis in Lamellibranchs 181

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Meldola, R. — Speculative Method in Entomology 181

Cuenot, L. — Physiology of the Orthoptera 182

Holmgren, Emil — Branching of the Tracheae in the Spinning-Glands of Lepidop-

terous Larvae 182

Wasmann, E. — Ergatogynous Forms in Ants and their Explanation 183

.Tanet, Ch. — Muscles of Iiymenoptera 183

Cholodkovsky, M. — New Species of Chermes 183

Alessandrint, G. — Larva of Sarcophaga affinis in Man 181

Nagel, Wilibald — Proteid-digesting Saliva in Insect Larvae . . 181

Erlanger, R. von — Accessory Nucleus ( Nebenltern ) in Spermatogenesis 181

Verhoeff, C. — Wound-Healing in Cardbus 181

J3. Myriopoda.

Kowalevsky, A.— Lymphatic Glands of Myriopods .. 181

Verhoeff, 0. — Climbing Powers of Millepedes 185

§. Arachnida.

Wagner, W. — Habits of Spiders 185

Rywosch — Biology of Tardigrades 185

Lindner, P. — Parasites of Aspidiotus Nerii ISO

Tower, R. W. — Brick-red Gland in Limulus 18G

e. Crustacea.

Man, J. G. de — Crustaceans of Malacca, Borneo, Celebes, and the Java Sea .. .. 18G

Gruvel, A. — Gills of Cirripeclia 186

Hacker, V. — Paternal and Maternal Nuclear Substance in Development of Cyclops 187
Ishikawa, C. — Phyllopods of Japan 187

Annulata.

Benham, W. B. — A new Earthworm — Kynotus cingulcitus 187

Reeker, H. — Living Earthworm in Ice 187

Korschelt, E. — Maturation and Fertilisation in Ophryotrocha puerilis 1S8

Nemathelminthes.

Yung, E. — Strongylus retortaeformis in Hares .. 180

Ludwig, H., & Th. Saemisoh — Filaria loa in the Human Eye 180

Franca viglia, M. C. — Filaria labiata ISO

Plathelminthes .

Burger, 0. — New Nemerteans 180

Stummer-Traunfels, R. von — The Genus Thysanozoon 180

Zernecke, E. — Histology of Cestoda 100

Fuhrman, O. — Taeniae of Amphibia 101

Stiles, C. W., & A. Hassall — Ctenotaenia denticulata 101

Sonsino, P. — Distomum Westermanni 101

Hotatoria.

Sniezek, Johann — Species in Botatorici 191

Echinoderma.

Cuenot, L. — Lacunar System of Starfishes 192

Koenen, A. von — Development of Dadocrinus gracilis v. Buck and Holocrinus

Wagner i Ben. 192

3

Coelentera. page

Iwanzoff, N. — Structure, Action, and Development of Nematocysts 192

Ruedemann, R. — Structure of Diplograptus 193

Lindstrom, G. — The * Corallia Baltica' of Linnaeus .. 194

Forifera.

Topsent, E. — Sponges of France 194

Protozoa.

Lauterboen, R.— New Protozoa 194

Brandt, R. — Hydrostatic Apparatus of Radi olarians 194

Miteophanow, P. — Nuclear Division in Collozoum , 195

Amicis, G. A. de — New Pliocene Foraminifera 195

Duclaux, E. — Evolution of the Corpuscles in Silkworm's Eggs 195

Piana, G. P., & B. Galli- Valerio — Endoglobular Parasites of Blood of Dog .. 19G

Schurmayer, B. — Flagellata in the Intestinal Canal of Man 196

Ogata, M. — Sporozoa of Vaccine Lymph 196

Kasparek, Th. — Infection Experiments with Sarcosporidia 197

Sanfeltce, F., & L. Loi — Bovine Hxmaturia 197

Vedeler — Lipoma Protozoan 197

Sacharoff, N. — Mode of origin of the different varieties of the Malaria Parasites of

the Irregular or JEstivo- Autumnal Fever 197

Beyerinck, ]\]. W. — Amoebae Cultivated on Solid Media 198

Shattock, S. G., & C. A. Ballance — Cultivation of Parasitic Protozoa from

Malignant Tumours , &c 198

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.
a. Anatomy-

(11 Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Sachs, J. — Energids and Cells 199

Rosen, F. — Nuclei and Nucleoles in Merismatzc and Sporogenous Tissues .. .. 199

Hegler — Mitosis and Fragmentation 200

Decagny, C. — Division of the Nucleus in Spirogyrci 200

Dixon, H. H. — Abnormal Nuclei in the Endosperm of Fritillaria imperialis .. .. 201

„ „ Nuclei of Lilium longiflorum 201

Humphrey, J. E. — Constituents of the Cell 201

Gilson, E. — Chemical Composition of the Cell-wall 202

(2) Other Cell-contents (including- Secretions).

Green, J. R. — Diastase in Leaves 202

O’Brien, M. — Proteuls of Wheat 202

Bertrand, G., & others — Pectase and Lciccase in Plants 202

Lutz, L. — Active Principles of Senecio 202

Gerard, E. — Cholesterins of Cryptogams 203

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Lutz, G. — Oblito-Schizogenous Secretion-Receptacles of the Myrtacese 203

Devaux, H. — Porosity of Woody Stems 203

(4) Structure of Org-ans.

Vuyck, L. — Flowers of Lemna 204

"Wiesner, J. — Anisophylly 201

Macloskie, G. — Antidromy 204

Kohl, F. G. — Opening and Closing of Stomates 201

Haberlandt, G. — Hydatliodes 201

Heinricher, E. — Haustoria of Lathrxa 205

Dixon, H. H. — Vegetative Organs of Vanda 205

Kirchner, O. — Root-Tubercles of the Soja-Bean 205

Ludwig, F. — Variation-Curves and Surfaces in Plants 205

4

.8. Physiology.

Cl) Reproduction and Embryology. page

Tieghejj, P. van — Acrogamous and Basigamous Fertilisation 20G

Klebs, G. — Physiology of Reproduction 206

Ewart, A. J. — Structure and Growth of the Pollen-Tube 206

Schilbersky, K., & C. E. Jeffrey — Polyemhryony 207

Knuth, P., & others — Cross-pollination and Self-pollination 207

Eisen, G. — Caprification of the Fig 208

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Germination, and Movements
of Eluids).

Burgerstein, A. — Vitality of Seeds 20S

Wiesner, J. — Germination of Seeds of Loranthacese 208

Jonsson, B. — Growth of Orobanche 200

Filarsky, F. — Function of Anthocy an 200

Lutz, K. G. — Production, Transport, and Consumption of Reserve- Starch and Oil . . 200

Poljanec, L. — Transpiration of the Potato 200

Pfeiffer, T., & others — Absorption of Free Nitrogen by Plants 200

(3) Irritability.

Noll, F. — Twining of Climbing Plants 210

Botiiert, W. — Mechanism of Curvature in Plants .. 210

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Maquenne, L. — Accumulation of Sugar in the Beet-root 210

7. General.

Squires, R. W. — Temperature of Trees 210

Dippel’s Microscope and its Application , Part II. 210

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Bower, F. O. — Archespore of Vascular Cryptogams 211

Atkinson, G. F. — Vegetative and Fertile Leaves of Onoclea 211

Muscineae.

G jokic, G. — Cell- Wall of Muscinese .. .« 211

Weiss, F. E. — Symbiosis in Tetraplodon 211

Britton, E. G. — Hybrid Moss 212

Rabenhorsts Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Musci) 212

Characeae.

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany ( Characese ) 212

Algae.

Molisch, H. — Food-Materials of Algse

Kuckuck, P. — Sivarmspores of Tilopteridese #

Lagerheim, G. — Phycoporphyrin,a new Pigment of the Conjugate

Jennings, A. Y. — Trentepohliacesc and Lichens

Church, A. H. — Phallus of Neomeris

Dill, E. O. — Chlamydomonas ••

Fuchs, ,T. — Fossil Halimeda ••

Fungi.

Harper, R. A. — Division of the Nucleus and Formation of the Spores in the Ascus

of Fungi

Istvanffi, G. — Cell-Nuclei of Fungi

„ „ Secretion-Receptacles of Fungi

Benecke, W. — Mineral Food-Materials of Fungi

Debray, J. — New Family of Cryptogamic Parasites

Marchal, E., & others — New Genera of Fungi

Trow, A. H. — Karyology of Saprolegnia

Brefeld. O. — Infection of Ustilaginene

Reinke, J. — Morphology of the Lichen-Thallus

Malme, G. O. — Injurious Symbiosis of Lichens

Thaxter, R., & G. Istvanffi — Laboulbeniacese .. • ••

Klocker, A., & H. Schlonning — Supposed Conversion of Aspergillus Oryzx into
Saccharomyces

212

212

213

213

213

213

211

214

214

214

215
215

215

216
217

217

218
218

218

o

5

PAGE

Eisenschitz, S. — Granules in Yeast-Cells 218

Swan, A. P. — Endosporous Bed Yeast 219

Peglion, Y. — Valpantena Wine Ferments 219

Fischer, E. — Coleosporium ... .. 220

Voglino, P. — Minute Structure of Clitocybe odora 220

Tokishige, H. — New Pathogenic Blastomycete 220

Gasperini, G. — Actinomycosis 221

Protophyta.
a. Schizophyceee.

Klebahn, H. — Behaviour of the Cell-nucleus in the Formation of the Auxospores of

Epithemia 221

B. Schizomycetes.

Hibler, E. y. — Constant Occurrence of Bacteria in Cells 221

Du Cazal & Catrin — Contagion from Boohs 222

Esmarch, von — Sun Disinfection . . . . 223

Duclaux — Non-Bacterial Nutrition 223

Renault, B., & C. E. Bertrand — Coprophilous Bacteria of the Permian Epoch . . 223

Bolley, H. L., & 0. M. Hall — Cheese-Curd Inflation 224

Freudenreich, E. yon — Bacteria of Cheese Ripening 224

Aoyama, T. — Microbes of the Plague 224

Beclere, A., Ciiambon, & Menard — Immunising Power of the Serum of the

Vaccinated Heifer 225

Beyerinck, M. W. — Spirillum desiilfuricans 225

Sterling, S. — Micrococcus tetragenus citreus . . 226

Clement, A. — Metastatic Anthrax in Man 226

Winogradsky, S. — Microbe of Flax Retting 226

Zangemeister, W .—Bacillus cyaneo-fluorescens 227

Brandt, C. — Bacteria of the Conjunctiva and Eyelid 227

Grimbert, L. — Pneumobacillus of Friedldnder 227

Lemoine, G. H. — Streptococcus and non-Diphtheritic Angina 227

Winkler, W. — Character and Variability of Species of Tyrothrix Duclaux . . .. 228

Loeffler, F., & R. Abel — Specific Properties of the Protective Bodies in the

Blood of Animals immune to Typhoid and Coli Bacteria 228

Glaser, F. — Bacterium gelatinosum betee 229

Marchoux, E. — Anti-Anthrax Serum 230

Marmorek, A. — Antistreptococcous Serum 230

johanessen, Axel — Effect of Injection of Solutions of Common Salt and of Anti-

Diphtheritic Serum 230

Huepfe, F. — Introduction to Bacteriology 231

MICROSCOPY*

a. Instruments, Accessories, See.

(1) Stands.

Leiss, C. — Microscopes and their most important Accessories for Crystallographic

and Petrographical Investigations (Figs. 27-43) .. * 232

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Orford, H. — A Modern Microscopic Objective 241

Abbe’s Spectroscopic Eye-piece (Figs. 44 and 45) 241

Francotte, P. — Determination of the Focal Length of Objectives 242

Zacharias, 0. — Eye-piece with Iris-Diaphragm 242

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

Kaiser, W. — Apparatus for Electrolysis under the Microscope (Figs. 46-48) .. .. 243

Love, E. G. — Micrometry (Fig. 49) 245

Zeiss’ Stage Screw Micrometer (Fig. 50) 246

Abbe’s Apertometer (Fig. 51) 247

Hartnack’s Illuminating Apparatus for Monochromatic Light (Fig. 52) .. .. 247

Behrens, W. — Microscope-Stage with Iris-Diaphragm 248

(4) Photomicrography.

Hunter, J. — New Method of Illumination for Photomicrography 248

Forgan, W. — Method of Photographing Large Microscopic Sections 249

6

/3. Technique.

Cl) Collecting- Objects, including- Culture Processes. page

Dungern, v. — Increasing the Toxin Production of the Diphtheria Bacillus . . . . 249

Tochtermann — Cultivation Medium for Diphtheria Bacillus 24S

Ohlmacher, A. P. — Improvements in the Technique of the Diphtheria Culture Test 249
Spronck, C. H. H. — Method for Preparing very active Diphtheria Toxin . . . . 250

Pfaffenholz — Platinum Wire Brush for Inoculating Culture Media with Diph-
therial Matter 250

A mann. J. — Cultivation Medium for Diphtheria Bacilli 250

Abba, F. — Demonstrating the Presence of Bacillus Coli in Water 250

Sedgwick & Preston — Influence of Variations in Composition of Gelatin on Develop-
ment of Water Bacteria 251

Will, H. — Demonstrating Wild Yeasts in Trade Yeasts and new Beer 251

Beyerinck, M. W. — Cultivation Medium for Hitrate Ferment 251

Colton & Gasser — Cold Sterilising Bougie Filters and other Apparatus . . . . 252

Kretz, E. — Apparatus for removing definite Quantities of Fluid Cultivation Media

(Fig. 53) 252

Nuttall, G. H. F. — Simple Thermostat applicable to any Microscope (Figs. 54

and 55) 253

Bujwid, 0. — Filtering Fluid containing Bacteria 254

Kanthack, A. A., & J. W. Stephens — Easy Method of Preparing Serum Agar .. 255

Mercer, A. C. — Improved Solid Watch-Glass (Figs. 50 and 57) .. .. .. 255

Sorby, H. C. — Methods for Collecting and Estimating the Number of Small Animals

in Sea- Water 256

(2) Preparing Objects.

Kingsbury, B. F. — Examining Spermatheca in Neivts and Salamanders 256

Plummer, H. G. — Microscopical Diagnosis of Uterine Growths 256

Plate, Ludwig H. — Collection and Preservation of Zoological Specimens .. .. 257

Zernecke, E. — Investigation of Minute Structure of Cestodes 257

Dietel — Simple Method for Demonstrating the Germinal Pore in the Spore Mem-
brane of Bust Fungi 257

Eosen, G. — Fixing-Material for Meristem 258

Gerard, E. — Test for Cliolesterins 258

Morsy — Microscopical Examination of Meat for Tubercle Bacilli 258

Conser, H. N. — Cocain in the Study of Pond Life 1 258

(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Mitrophanow, P. — Pliotoxylin 259

Vedeler— Preparing Lipoma Tissue 259

Frazer, A. — Frazer’s Sliding Microtome 259

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Lavdowsky, M. — Metliylen-Blue Staining 259

Friedlaender, B. — Criticism of Golgi’s Method 260

Israel, O. — Very Dilute Esematoxylin Solutions 260

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c-

Eousselet, C. F. — Preserving Botatoria 260

Pflaum, M. — Mahing and Finishing Wax Cells 261

Eeinke,F., & others — Japanese Method for Sticking on Paraffin Sections .. .. 261

Ermengem & Sugg — Formalin as p Disinfectant 261

Parker, G. H., & E. Floyd — Formaldehyde and Formol 262

Kellicott, D. S. — Formalin in the Zoological and Histological Laboratory .. .. 262

Malcolmson — Mr. Wright’s Method of Mounting Foraminifera 262

Abel, E. — Holder for Slides and Cover-Glasses (Fig. 58) 263

(6) Miscellaneous.

Lee, A. B., & L. F. Henneguy — Technique of Microscopical Anatomy 263

Young, J. B.— Stewart’s Earth-Borer (Fig. 59) 263

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, 19th February, 1896 265

„ 18tli March, 1896 267

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CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS ON THE SOCIETY.

PAGE

Y. — Notes on the Genus Apsilus and other American Rotifera.

By Dr. Alfred C. Stokes. (Plate VI.) 269

VI. — Interzoiecial Communication in Flustrid^, and Notes
on Flustra. By Arthur Wm. Waters, F.R.M.S., F.L.S.
(Plates VII. and VIII.) .. 279

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology. page

Charrin & Gley — Experimental Embryology . . 293

Weysse, A. W. — Blastodermic Vesicle of Pig 293

Ranvier, L. — Development of Lymphatic Vessels 294

Salzer, H. — Development of Veins in the Head Region 294

Nassonow, N. — Operculum of Birds 294

Grosser, O., & E. Brezina — Veins of Head and Neck in Reptiles 295

Muller, Erik — Regeneration of Crystalline Lens in Triton 295

Waite, E. R. — Egg- Cases of Port Jackson Sharks 295

j8. Histology.

Oppel, A. — Stomach Glands of Vertebrates 295

Hepburn, D. — Papillary Ridges of Monkeys and Men 296

Dehler, A. — Red Blood- Corpuscles of Embryo Chick 296

Sack, A, — Vacuolation of Fat-Cells .. 296

Dogiel, A. S. — Structure of the Retina 296

Flemming, W. — Structure of Nerve-Cells in Spinal and Central Ganglia . . 296

Spirlas, A., & G. Sclayunos — Spinal Ganglia of Mammals 296

Rohde, Emil — Nucleus of Ganglion- Cells and Neuroglia 297

Junius, Paul — Skin-Glands of Frog 297

Tomes, 0. S. — Dentine and Enamel 297

Purvis, G. Carrington — Muscle-Fibre , Electric Disc , and Motor-Plate 298

Reinke, Fr. — Histology of Testis 298

y. General.

Mobius, K. — 1 Esthetic Aspects of Animals 298

Sabatier, A. — Philosophical Aspects of Zoology 298

Danilewsky, B. — Influence of Lecithin an Growth 299

Holt, E. W. L., & W. L. Calderwood — Fishing- Grounds and Fishes of the West

Coast of Ireland 299

Ahlborn, Fr. — Use of Heterocercal Tails . . 299

Tunicata.

Castle, W. E. — Cell-Lineage in the Segmentation of the Ascidian Ovum . . . . 299

Floderus, M. — Formation of Follicular Investments in Ascidians 300

Lohmann, H. — New Appendicularise 300

A

2

INVERTEBRATA. PAGE

Jaworowski, A.— Fauna of Wells 301

Stoll, O. — Distribution of Terrestrial Invertebrates . 301

Mollusca.
a. Cephalopoda.

Lenhossek, M. v. — Histology of Optic Lobes in Cephalopods 301

Joubin, L. — New Cephalopods 302

„ „ Loligo Picteti and Idiosepius Picteti 302

Ijima, I., & S. Ikeda — New Octopod 302

y. G-astropoda.

Linden, Maria von — Development of Shell Ornamentation in Marine Gastropods.. 303

Amaudrit, A. — Buccal Cartilages of Gastropods 303

Andre, E. — Melanie Pigment of Limnaea 303

Jacobi, A. — Anatomy of Malayan Pulmonates 304

Garstang, W. — New Species of Doris 304

Bryozoa.

Oka, Asajiro — “ Excretory Organ ” of Fresh-water Polyzoa 304

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Plateau, F. — Effectiveness of a Net in excluding Insects 305

Dixey, F. A. — Relation of the Mimetic to the Original Form 305

Verson, E., & E. Bisson— Post-Embryonic Development of Vasa deferentia and

Accessory Organs in Male of Bornbyx mori 305

Butler, A. G. — Synonymy of Huphina lanessa 306

Ballowitz, E. — Double Spermatozoa of Dyticidse 306

Bordas — Alimentary Canal of Forficulidae .. .. 306

Cockerell, T. D. A. — The Genus Perdita .. 306

Marchal, P. — Habits of Polistes 307

Grobben, C. — Queen-Bee unable to lay Drone-Eggs 307

Elliott, G. F. Scott — Flower -haunting Diptera 307

B. JVCyriopoda.

Verhoeff, C. — Geophilidae of Central Europe 308

5. Arachnida.

Laurie, Malcolm — Anatomy of Scorpions 308

Tarnani, J. K. — Structure of Thelyphonus 308

Trouessart, E. — New Sarcoptid ' .. .. . . 309

e. Crustacea.

Bettie, A . — Abnormality in Crab 309

Chevreux, E. — Gammarus Berilloni 309

Jennings, A. Vaughan— The Genus Ourozeuktes 309

Dollfus, A. — Mexican Terrestrial Isopods 309

Bernard, H. M. — Hermaphroditism in Apodidse 309

Ishikawa, C. — Phyllopod Crustacea of Japan 310

Thompson, I. C. — Free-swimming Copepods from West Coast of Ireland 310

Bassett-Smith, P. W. — Parasitic Copepods 310

Brady, G. S., & A. M. Norman — Monograph of Ostracoda 310

Tornquist, Sv. Leonk.— Antennae of Trilobites 311

Annulata.

Ude, H. — Notes on Enchytraeidae and Lumhricidx 311

Erlangeb, R. v. — Minute Structure of Testis in Earthworm 311

Eisen, G. — Pacific Coast Oligochaeta 312

Rosa, D. — Neotropical Earthworms 312

Sekera, E. — More Earthworms in Ice .. 312

Oka, Asajiro — New Japanese Land-Leeches 312

N ematohelmintlies.

Ziegler, H. E. — First Stages of Development in Nematodes 312

Railliet, A. — Parasitic Nematodes ... 313

3

Platyh.elminth.es. page

Burger, 0. — Monograph of Nemertines 313

„ ,, New Nemertines 316

Fuhrmann, O— Taeniae of Birds 316

West, G. S. — New Species of Distomum 316

Incertse Sedis.

Saint-Joseph, Baron de — Orthonectid in an Annelid 316

Echinoderma.

Hammar, J. Aug. — Connection between Blastomeres in the Egg of the Sea Urchin . . 317

Ccelentera.

Ogilvie, Maria M. — Microscopic and Systematic Study of Madreporarian Types of

Corals 317

Schultze, L. — Classification of Antipathidae 317

Bedot, M. — Siplionophora of Amboina .. 318

Hesse, R. — Nervous System of Rhizostoma 318

Hartlaub, Cl. — Stauridium productum and Perigonimus repens 318

Nutting, C. C. — Plymouth Hydroids .. .. 319

Porifera.

Allen, E. J., & G. Bidder — Growth of Sponges 319

Protozoa.

Brandt, K. — New Tintinnidx 319

Jennings, A. Vaughan — New Genus of Asirorhizidae 320

„ „ True Nature of “ Moebiusispongia parasitica ” .. .. 320

R humbler, L. — Shell-making in Rhizopods 320

Johnston- La vis, H. J., & J. W. Gregory — Eozoonal Structure 321

Rauff, Hermann — Reputed Organic Remains in the Pre-Cambrian Rocks of

Brittany 321

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Zacharias, E. — Behaviour of the Nucleus in Growing Cells 322

Sargant, E. — Direct Nuclear Division in the Embryo-Sac of Lilium Martagon . . 322

(2) Other Cell-contents (including- Secretions).

Proscher, F. — Myriophyllin 322

Bonnier, G., & others — Pfoneydew 322

(3) Structure of Tissues,

Segerstedt, P. — Protecting Tissues of Shrubby Plants .. 323

Mer, E. — Formation of Duramen 323

Schenk, H. von — Aerenchyme 323

Rywosch, S. — Lacunae in the Tissue of Gymnosperms 323

Wiegand, K. M. — Intercellular Spaces in Embryos .. .. 323

Cavara, F. — Idioblasts of Camellia 324

Shattock, S. G. — Healing of Wounds 324

Rowlee, W. W., & M. A. Nichols — Life-History of Symplocarpus fcetidus .. .. 324

(4) Structure of Organs.

Areschoug, F. W. C. — Geophilous Plants 324

Russell, W. — Influence of the Mediterranean Climate on Plants 324

Kraus, G. — Water-carrying Calyx 325

Burkill, J. H. — Variation in the Number of Stamens and Carpels 325

Malme, G. O. A. — Achenes of Anthemideae 325

Humphrey, J. E. — Seed of Scitamineae 325

4

PAGE

Groom, P. — Saprophytic Orchidese 325

Wiesner, J., & A. Weisse — Heterotrophy and Anisophylly 32(5

Goebel, K. — Dependence of the Form of the Leaf on the Intensity of the Light . . 326

Froembling, W. — Stem and Leaf of Euphorbiacese 326

Nestler, A. — Leaves of Ranunculus and Eelleborus 327

Mirabella, M. A. — Extrafloral Nectaries of Ficus 327

Warburg, O. — Hairs of Myristicacese 327

Tieghem, P. Yan — Characters of Arceuthobiacese 327

Wagner, R. — Morphology of Limnanthemum 327

0. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Mobius, M. — Sexual Reproduction in Plants 328

Hirase, Sakugrio — Fertilisation and Embryogeny of Ginkgo biloba ( Salisburia ) . . 328

Ule, E., & others — Cross-Fertilisation and Self- Fertilisation 328

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Germination, and Movements
of Fluids).

Dew^vre, A. — Physiology of Drosophyllum 329

Hiltner, L. — Physiology of Root-Tubercles of Alnus glutinosa 329

Kny, L. — Absorption of Water by Leafless Branches ... 330

Wakker, J. H. — Propagation of the Sugar-Cane 330

(3) -Irritability.

Kolkwitz, R. — Mechanics of Twining 330

Roze, E. — Opening of the Flowers of (Enotliera 330

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Loew, O. — Formation and Assimilation of Asparagin 330

Groom, P. — Relation between Calcium and the Conduction of Carbohydrates .. .. 331

7. General.

Molliard, M. — Galls 331

Mesnard, E. — Action of Light on the Disengagement of Perfumes 331

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Gibson, R. J. Harvey — Ligule of Selaginella 33 L

Bower, F. O. — Sporophyte of the Ophioglossacese 331

Brebner, G. — Prothallium and Embryo of Dansea 332

Bower, F. O. — Sorus of Dansea 332

Muscinese.

Correns, C. — Gemmse of Mosses 332

Bescherelle, E. — Calymperes 332

Algae.

Batters, E. A. L. — New Genera of Floridese 332

Davis, B. M. — Fertilisation of Batrachospermum 333

Jost, L. — Coleochsete 333

Mcebius, J. M. — Pithophora] 334

Cramer, C. — Halicoryne Wrightii 334

Fungi.

Istvanffi, G. von — Function of the Nucleus in Fungi 334

Puriewitsch, K. — Assimilation of Nitrogen by Fungi 334

Istvanffi, G. von — Secretion-Receptacles of Fungi 334

Naumann, O. — Tannin of Fungi 335

Wager, H. — Fertilisation of Cystopus .. ,, 335

Hartog, M. — Cytology of the Saprolegniacese 335

. Ray, J., & P. Vuillemin — Mucor and Trichoderma , 335

Leger, M. — Zygosperm of Sporodinia 336

Thaxter, R.— Dispira 336

Brefeld, O. — V stilaginese 336

„ „ Rust of Oryza and Setaria 337

I

5

PAGE

Magnus, P. — Setchellia 337

Harper, R. A. — Division of the Nucleus and Formation of the Spores in the Ascus

of the Ascomycetes 338

Vuillemin, P., & others — Parasitic Fungi 338

Lesage, P. — Germination of the Spores of Penicillium glaucum 338

Wehmer, C. — Aspergillus Wentii sp. n 338

Sorel, E. — Aspergillus Oryzx 339

Harper, R. A. — Perithece of Sphxrotheca Castagnei 339

Matruchot, L. — Polymorphism of Cladohotryum 339

Schostakowitsch, W. — Cladosporium , Hormodendron , Fumago, and. Dematium .. 339

Went, F. — Monascus purpureus sp. n 340

Lindau, G. — Crustaceous Lichens 340

Giesenhagen, K. — Parasitic Exoascex 340

Fischer, E., & P. Lindner — Enzymes of Schizo-saccharomyces octosporus and

Saccharomyces Marxianus . . . . 341

Jorgensen, A. — Fungi which form a transition group between Moulds and Saccha-
romyces Yeast 341

Hansen, E. C. — Variation of Yeast Cells 341

Sappin-Trouffy — Fertilisation of the Uredinex 342

Dietel, P. — JJredinex with Repeated Formation of JEcidia 342

Ferry, R. — Fungus intermediate between Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes . . . . 343

Protophyta.

B. Schizomycetes.

Wager, H. — Structure of Bacterial Cells 343

Dyar, H. G. — Variations in the Biological Characters of Bacteria 343

Ward, H. M. — Bacterial Variation 343

Renault, F. B. — Fossil Bacteria 344

Stutzer — Root-Tubercle Bacteria of Leguminosx 344

Ward, H. M. — False Bacterium 344

Piccoli, E. — Spore-formation of Bacterium coli commune 345

Pammel, L. H. — New Pathogenic Bacillus 345

Vaillard, L. — Heredity of Acquired Immunity 345

Kullmann — Cladothrix odorifera • . . . 345

Jorge, R. — New Water Vibrio 346

Petruschky, J. — Bacillus fxcalis alcaligenes sp. n 346

Ermengem, E. van — Bacillus botulinus 346

Cheinisse— Role of Fever in Infectious Disease 346

Wiener, E. — Vibrio Infection per os of Young Cats 347

Hankin — Microbes of the Indian Rivers 347

Biel, W. — Black- Pigment-forming Bacillus 347

Holst, Axel — Retention of Virulence by Streptococci 347

Ratz, St. von — Anthrax in Swine 348

Stutzer, A., & others — Acid-Litter for Infectious Diseases of Cattle 348

Cambier, R. — Resistance of Bacterial Germs to Dry Heat 348

Piorkowsk i — Immigration of Typhoid Bacilli into Hens’ Eggs 348

Calabrese, Al. — Strong Natural Virus of Rabies 348

Bordet, J. — Phagocytosis , Chimiotaxis , and Eosinophilous Microbes 349

Fraenkel, S. — Thyroantitoxin * 349

MICKOSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, See.

Cl) Stands.

Behrens, W. — Meyer’s Microscope Stage ivith Iris-Diaphragm 350

Nelson, E. M. — New Portable Microscope (Fig. 60) 351

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Schiemenz, P. — Leitz new Drawing Eye-pieces (Figs. 61-65) 351

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

Haas, K. — Apparatus for Demonstrating the Effect of Lenses (Fig. 66) 353

6

(4) Photomicrography. page

Heurck, H. van — Acetylene and Photomicrography (Fig. 67) 353

Fox, C. F. — Walmsley’s “ Autograph ” Camera, and Walmsley , Fuller , & Co.’s

Acetylene Gas Generator 354

(3. Technique.

Cl) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes.

Cori, C. J. — Use of Centrifugal Machines in Zoological Technique (Figs. 68 and 69) 354

Fairchild, W. G. — Perforated Porcelain Cylinder as Washing Apparatus (Fig. 70) 355

Hammer — Cultivating Gonococcus 355

Zeltnow — Cultivating Spirillum Undula majus 355

Celli, A. — Cultivation of Amcebse on Solid Media 356

Schardinger, F. — Cultivating Protozoa on Solid Media 356

Elsner — Diagnostic Media for Colt and Typhoid Bacteria 357

Pfeiffer, K., & Vagedes — Diagnosis of Cholera by means of Cholera Anti-Bodies 357
Noetzel, W. — Demonstrating Capsules of Micro-Organisms 357

(2) Preparing Objects.

Hansemann, D. — Demonstration of the Pores of the Pulmonary Alveoli 358

Zimmermann, A. — Demonstrating Structure and Composition of Cell-Nucleus .. 358

Dogiel, A. S. — Structure of Retina 359

Cheney, L. S. — Demonstration of Leucoplasts 359

(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Starlinger, J. — Improvement to the Reichert Microtome (Fig. 72) 359

Lee, A. B. — Watch-Glass Imbedding Method 359

Nowak, J. — Apparatus for Stretching Paraffin Sections (Fig. 71) 359

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Gerota, D. — Improvement in Mercury Injection Apparatus for Lymphatics (Figs.

73 and 74) * 361

Unna, P. G. — Staining by Preoccupation and Subtraction 362

(6) Miscellaneous.

Molisch, H. — New Microchtmical Reaction of Chlorophyll 363

Tschirch, A. — Use of the Quartz-Spectograph for Vegetable Pigments 363

Molisch, H. — Demonstration and Crystallisation of Xanthophyll 363

Woods, A. F. — Recording Apparatus for the Study of the Transpiration of Plants . . 364

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, 15th April, 1896 365

„ 20th May, 1896 368

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CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

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ZOOLOGY 1ST 3D BOTAISTY

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MICROSCOPY, <3cc-

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I !

CONTENTS.

SEP 1

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

YII. — On an Addition to the Methods of Microscopical Research,
by a new Way of Optically producing Colour-Contrast
between an Object and its Background, or between
Definite Parts of the Object itself. By J. Rheinberg
(communicated by E. M. Nelson, F.R.M.S.). (Plates IX.

and X.)

VIII. — The Royal Microscopical Society’s Standard Screw-
Thread for Nose-Piece and Object-Glasses of
Microscopes. Being the Report of a Sub-Committee
of tlie Council, drawn up by Conrad Beck, F.R.M.S.,
Secretary to the Sub-Committee (Fig. 75)

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.

Samassa, P. — Evolution and Epigenesis

Morgan, T. H., & others — Experimental Biology

Supino, F. — Experimental Teratogeny

Wilson, E. B., & others — Atlas of the Fertilisation and Karyokinesis of the

Ovum

Bardeleben, K. von — Spermatogenesis

Swaen, A. — Development of Liver and Adjacent Parts

Schmidt, H. — Normal Hypertliely in Human Embryos

Spee — Glandular Character of Umbilical Vesicle

Wilson, Greg — Mullerian Duct of Crocodile

Mitsukuri, K. — Oviposition of the Snapping Turtle

Russell, J. B. — Blastopore of Frogs ’ Eggs

0. Histology.

Flemming, W. — Mechanism of Cell-Division

Zanier, G. — Altmann’s Granula

Catterina, G. — Structure of Nucleus

Gulland, G. L. — Granular Leucocytes

Sihler, Chr. — Muscle- Spindles and Nerve-Endings

Dehler, A. — Sympathetic Ganglion- Cells of the Frog

Williams, J. L. — Formation and Structure of Dental Enamel

y. General.

Emery, C. — Homology and Atavism

Capranica, S. — Biological Action of Rontgen's Rays

Tunicata.

Caullery, M. — Polymorphism of Buds in Colella

INVERTEBRATA.

Owsjannikow, P. — Blood- Corpuscles

Bedot, M. — Stinging Cells

Mollusca.

Dall, W. H. — Deep-Water Mollusca

Sturany, R. — Mollusca of Austrian Deep-Sea Expeditions, 1890-94

Tate, R., & C. Hedley — Mollusca of Centred Australia

a. Cephalopoda-

Neri, F. — Beales of Cephalopods

y. Gastropoda.

Baker, F. C. — New Classificcdion of Muricidw

Brachiopoda.

Dall, W. H. — Deep-Sea Brachiopoda

1096

PAGE

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395

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396
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396

397
397

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398

398

398

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399

400

400

400

401

401

401

A

2

Bryozoa. page

Harmer, S. F. — Development of Lichenopora verrucaria 401

Spencer, Baldwin — Tertiary Polyzoa of Victoria 402

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Heymons, H. — Abdominal Appendages of Insects 402

Scudder, S. H. — Fossil Butterflies 403

Bath, W. H. — Origin of European Butterflies 403

Bateson, W. — Colour Variation of a Beetle 403

Bordas, L. — Male Genital Apparatus of Hymenoptera 403

Hyatt, J. D. — Mouth-Parts and Terminal Armour of Cicada septendecim .. .. 404

Wheeler, W. M. — Ochthera 404

Meinert, Fr. — Structure of Strepsiptera 404

Kellogg, V. L. — Mallophaga of North American Birds 404

Howard, L. — Destruction of Mosquitoes 405

B. Myriopoda.

Garbowski, T. — Phytogeny of Lithobiidse - .. 405

Verhoeff, C. — Notes on Myriopods 405

Cook, O. F. — New Diplopod Fauna in Liberia 406

Kenyon, F. C. — Morphology and Classification of Pauropoda 406

5. Arachnida.

Barrois, J. — Development of Chelifer 406

Hogg, H. R. — Spiders of Central Australia 407

Lomann, J. C. C. — Secondary Spiracles of Opilionidse 407

Wagner, J. — Spermatogenesis in Spiders 408

Kramer — New Mite from Beaver 409

Trouessart — Marine Acarina 409

e. Crustacea.

Clark, J. P. — Otocysts of Crustacea and Equilibrium 409

Ohlin, Axel — Malacostraca of Baffin Bay and Smith Sound 409

Spencer, Baldwin, & T. S. Hall — Crustacea of Central Australia 410

Herrick, F. H. — American Lobster 410

Man, J. G. de — New Penseid 411

Lonnberg, E. — Cambarids from Florida 411

Ortmann, A. E. — Geographical Distribution of Hippidea 411

Kunstler, J., & A. Gruyel — Pharyngeal Glands of Dipperinse 412

Daday, E. y. — Striped Muscle in Ostracoda 412

Giesbrecht, W. — Red Sea Copepods 413

Lundberg, R. — Postembryonal Development of Daphnids 413

Marsh, C. D. — Cyclopidae and Calanidae of Michigan Lakes 414

Gruvel, A. — Anatomy of Tetraclita porosa 414

Beecher, C. E. — Respiration of Trilobites 414

Annulata.

Joseph, de St. — Polychaeta of Dinar d 414

Spencer, Baldwin — New Earthworms from Central Australia 415

Beddard, F. E. — New Earthworms 415

Lim Boon Keng — Coelomic Fluid of the Earthworm 416

Bretscher, K. — Oligochseta of Zurich 416

Stift, A. — Occurrence of Enchytrseida in Beetroot 416

Voinov, D. N. — Nephridia of Branchiobdella 417

Kowalevsky, Alex. — Biology of Leeches 417

Nematohelminth.es.

Romer — Ascaris megalocephala as Cause of Death 417

Firket, Ch. — Filariosis in Negroes of the Congo 417

Platyhelminth.es.

Garbini, A. — Nemerteans of the Lake of Garda 418

Burger, O. — South American Nemerteans 418

Montgomery, T. H. — Histology of Cerebratulus lacteus 418

Vejdoysky, F. — New Turbellarians 418

Meyner, R. — Two new Taeniae from Apes 419

Fuhrmann, O. — Bothriocephalus Zschokkei sp. n. 419

Lindemann, W. — Cysticerci in a Dog's Heart 419

Pintner, Th. — Morphology of Proboscis in Tetrarhynclii 419

Zschokke, F. — Parasitic Worms of Fresh-water Fish 420

Incertae Sedis.

Masterman, A. T. — Anatomy of Actinotroclia 420

s

Rotatoria. page

Hood, J. — Rotifera of County Mayo 420

Echinoderma

MacBride, E. W. — Development of Asterina gibbosa 421

Bather, F. A. — Uintacrinus 422

„ „ Syzygy of Crinoids .. 422

Gerould, J. H. — Caudina arenata 423

Verrill, A. E. — New Starfishes and Opliiurans 423

Coelentera.

Bernard, H. M. — British Museum Catalogue of Stony Corals . . . . 424

Koch, G. y. — Budding in] Corals 425

Parker, G. H. — Reactions of Metridium to Food and other Substances 425

Campenhausen, B. yon — Hydroids of Ternate 425

Porifera.

Ijima, I. — New Hexactinellida 425

Protozoa.

Vanhoffen, E. — The Genus Ceratium 426

Wallengren,Hs. — New Ciliata 426

Barrois — Bodo urinarius 426

Sand, R. — Freshwater Acinette 426

Goes, Axel — Foraminifera of Voyage of 1 Albatross ’ 426

Schaudinn, F — Synopsis of Heliozoa 427

Karawaiew, W. — A New Radiolarian • • • • 427

Nemec, B. — Ectoparasites of Ligidium 427

Eisen, G. — Development of Spermatobium 427

Blandford, W. F. H. — Tsetse Fly Disease 428

Sacharoff, N. — Independent Movements of the Chromosomes of the Malaria Parasite 428

Smith, T. — Infectious Diseases among Turkeys 429

Casagrandi, O. G. V., & P. Barbagallo-Rapisiardi — Biological and Clinical

Researches on Amoeba Coli Losch . • " 429

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including* the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.
a. Anatomy.

ex') Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Klemm, P. — Disorganisation- Phenomena of Cells

Schulze, E. — Cell- Wall of the Cotyledons of Lupinus

(2) Other Cell-contents (including* Secretions).

Bertrand, G. — Tyrosinase , a new oxidising Diastase

„ „ & A. Malevre — Pectase in Plants

Treub, M. — Hydrocyanic Acid in Pangium edule

Longo, B. — Mucilage of the Cactacese

Buscalioni, L. — Deposition of Calcium Oxalate

Czapek, F. — Acid Excretion of Roots

Coste, F. H. Perry — Acidity of Root-Sap

(3) Structure of Tissues,

Rywosch, S. — Resin-Passages of Coniferse

Pfitzer, E., & A. Mayer — Anatomy of Artocarpus

(4) Structure of Organs.

Lignier, O. — Flower of Crucifer se and Fumariaceae

Massalongo, O. — Dimorphism of Convolvulus

Walter, J. E. — Pollen-Grains

Holm, T. — Monopodia l Ramification of Carex

Huth, E. — Heterocarpy

Grelot, P. — Carpellary Venation

Schlickum, A. — Cotyledons of Monocotyledons

Gabelli, L. — Doubling of Leaves

Massart, J. — Morphology of Buds

Shull, G. H. — Accessory Buds

Borzi, A. — Hydrophorous Apparatus in Xerophilous Plants

Brunotte, C. — Root of Impatiens

Poulter, Y. A. — Root of Myristica

Franke, M. — Morphology of the Stellatse

430

430

430

430

431
431

431

432
432

432

432

433

433

433

433

433

434
434
434
434

434

435
435
435
435

4

8. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology. page

Schwere, S. — Embryology of Taraxacum 435

Schaffner, J. H. — Embryo-Sac of Alisma 436

Westermaier, M. — Ovules of Angiosper ms 436

Familler, J. — Abortive or Transformed Sexual Organs 437

Daveau, J. — Proterandry in a Palm 437

Lidforss, B. — Biology of Pollen 437

Molliard, M. — Formation of Pollen within Ovules 437

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Germination, and Movements
of Fluids).

Schober, A. — Effect of the Rontgen Rays on Germination 438

Wittmack, L. — Germination of the Cocoa-nut 438

Arthur, J. 0. — Germination of Xanthium 438

Hering, F. — Correlation in the Growth of Different Organs 438

Minx, A. — Protrophy 439

Kolkwitz, R. — Plasmolysis and Growth of Medullary Tissues 439

(3) Irritability.

Debski, B. — Movements of the Leaves of the Mar antacese .. .. 439

Correns, C. — Irritability of Drosera 439

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).
Lopriore, G. — Action of Carbon Dioxide on the Protoplasm of the Living Cell . . 439

JjBtz, K. G. — Physiology of Woody Plants 440

7. General.

Hornell’s Microscopical Studies in Botany 440

Sherzer, W. K. — Mimicry of Pebbles by Beans 440

B. CHYPT OGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Jonkman, H. F. — Embryogeny of Angiopteris and Marrattia 440

Goebel, K. — Hecistopteris 441

Muscineae.

Campbell, D. H. — Geothallus, a new Genus of Hepaticse 441

Schiffner, Y. — Wiesnerella, a new Genus of Mar chantiacese 441

Jorgensen, E. — Jungermannia orcadensis 442

Characese.

Kaiser, O. — Nuclear Division in the Characese 442

Nandor, F. — Characese of Hungary 442

Algse.

Sauvageau, C. — Cell- Wall of Algse 442

Buffham, T. H. — Antherids of Floridese 443

Schmitz, F. — Species of Floridese 443

Davis, B. M. — Cystocarp of Champia 443

Foslie, M. — Lithothamnion 443

Sauvageau, C. — Strepsithalia, a new Genus of Phseosporese 444

Hallas, E. — Production of Azygospores in Zygnema 444

Schmidle, W. — Chlamydomonas grandis and Kleinii 444

Penhallow, D. P. — Calcareous Pebbles formed by Algse 444

Klercker, J. af — Aquatic Forms of Stichococcus 444

Fungi.

Clautriau, G. — Glycogen in Fungi 445

Wehmer, C. — Value of Alkalies and Iron- Compounds for Fungi 445

Schi lbersky , K. — Chrysophlyctis, a new Genus of Chytridiacese 445

Maurizio, A. — Sporangia 1 Rudiments in the Saprolegniacese 445

Thaxter, R. — Blastocladia 446

Maurizio, A. — Culture of Saprolegniacese 446

Dangeard, P. A. — Parasites of the Nucleus and of the Protoplasm 446

,, „ Reproduction in the Pliycomycetes . . 447

Raciborski, M. — Basidiobolus 447

Yuillemin, P. — Hypostomacese, a new Family of Parasitic Fungi 447

Herzberg, P. — Ustilago Carbo ! 448

Saccakdo, P. A., & O. Mattirolo — (Edomyces leproides _ .. .. 448

Richards, H. M. — Exobasidium 448

Morini, F. — Fructification of Lachnea 448

Jarius, M. — Parasitism and Saprophytism of Ascochyta Pisi 448

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Fungi) 448

Renon, M. — Aspergillous Tuberculosis in Hair-Combers 44 9

Bay, J. C. — Is the Red Torula a genuine Saccharomyces ? 44

5

TAGS

Marpmann, G. — Blue Yeast 449

Geerligs, Peinsen — Ang-hhah, a Chinese Fungus Pigment for Colouring Edibles . . 449

Dietel, P. — New Genera of Uredinese 450

Pizzigoni & othebs — Parasitic Fungi 450

Moeini, F. — Rhizopliidium and Pliycomyces 450

Roze, E. — Potato Scab and its Cause 451

Charrin — Oidium albicans as a Pathogenic Agent 451

Protophyta.

a. Schizophycese.

Schilbeesky, K., & O. Muller — Movements of Diatoms 451

Casteacane, F. — Sporulcition oj Diatoms .. .. 452

Mullee, O. — Rhopalodia, a new Genus of Diatoms 452

Cleve, P. T. — Naviculoul Diatoms 453

j8. Schizomycetes.

Lowit, M. — Morphology of Bacteria 453

Rogee, 11. — Action of High Pressure on Certain Bacteria 453

Lobtet, L. — Influence of Induced Currents on the Orientation of Bacteria .. . . 454

Kedbowski, W. — Conditions under which Anaerobic Bacteria can exist even in

Presence of Oxygen 454

Zopf, W. — Coccus- Condition of Beggiatoa 455

Roze, E. — New Pathogenous Micrococci 455

Beheens, H. — Mucogenous Bacteria 455

Kaelinski — Bacteria of Hot Springs 456

Dyab, H. G. — Bacteria from the Air of New York 456

Durham, H. E. — Special Action of Serum of Highly Immunised Animals .. .. 456

Gilbebt, A., & L. Fournier — Formation of Gallstones by Bacteria 457

Burri, R., & A. Stutzer — Nitrification in the Soil 457

Gerard, E. — Fermentation of Uric Acid by Microbes 457

Pfeiffer — New Theory of Immunity 458

Fermi, C-, & A. Salto — Immunity to Cholera 458

Schirokikh, J. — Saltpetre-decomposing Bacillus 458

Peters, E. A. — Varieties of Diphtheria Bacilli 458

Horn, H. — Malignant (Edema in the Cow 459

Salomon, H. — Spirillum found in Stomach of certain Mammals 459

Pfeiffer, R., & B. Kroskauer — Nature of the Specific Effective Substances in

Cholera-Serum • 459

Oathelineau, H. — Bacillus viridis 459

Denys, J., & H. van De Velde — Antileucocidine 460

Smith, Th. — Bacillus coli communis and Related Forms 460

Klecki, Val. yon — Ripening Process of Cheese 461

Sternberg, G. M. — Researches Relating to the Specific Agent of Small-Pox , and the

Production of Artificial Immunity from that Disease 461

Moore, V. A. — Character of Flagella 461

Contagious Diseases of Animals 462

Simpson, W. J. — Microbe of Rinderpest 462

Nencki — Micro-Organisms and Digestion 462

Bernabeo — Franltel's Pneumococcus 462

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.

(1) Stands.

Wildeman, E. de — Leitz's Microscopes 463

Tatham, J. — Use of Ordinary Binocular f or Dissecting 463

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

'VVeinschenk, E. — Method for the exact Adjustment of the Nicols Prisms 463

Nelson, E. M.— Optical Ride ^ 464

Pulfrich Refractometer (Figs. 76-80) 464

Klein, C. — Universal Apparatus for the Investigation of Thin Slices in Liquids

(Figs. 81 and 82) 467

Melnikow-Raswedenkow, M. — Regulating d’Arsonval’s Thermostat 468

(4) Photomicrography.

Leaming, E. — Photographic Technique of Wilson's Atlas 468

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Ambronn, H. — Appearances of Colour on the Boundaries of Colourless Objects under

the Microscope (Fig. 83) 468

6

(6) Miscellaneous. page

Dolley, C. S. — The PlanMonikrit, a Centrifugal Apparatus for the Volumetric

Estimation of the Food Supply of Oysters and other Aquatic Animals .. .. 470

Kuhlman, C. G. — The Microscope as a Guide in Medicine 470

White, M. C. — Bed Blood-Corpuscles in Legal Medicine 471

History of the Microscope 471

The late Mr. Slack 472

/ 3 . Technique.

Marpmann, G. — Methods of Examining and Staining Living and Dead Cells and

Tissues 473

Cl) Collecting- Objects, including Culture Processes.

Gilbert & Fournier — Cultures of Pneumococcus on Blood 473

Gorini, C. — Cultivation of Amcebse on Solid Media 473

Tochtermann — Blood Serum- Agar Medium for Diphtheria 473

Zia — Bacteriological Examination of old Cholera Cultures 473

Morax, Y. — Cultivation of the Diplobacillus of Conjunctivitis 474

Gorini, C. — Bacteriological Diagnosis of Glanders 474

Wittlin, J. — Bacteriological Examination of Water by Parietti’s Method .. . . 474

Piorkowski — Urinous Substrata for Differentiating Bacillus coli communis and

Bacillus typhi abdominalis 475

Hopkins, G. M. — Simple Apparatus for Gathering Microscopic Objects 475

C2) Preparing Objects.

Wilson — Preparation of Eggs of Toxopneustes variegatus 475

Owsjannikow, P. — Study of Blood- Corpuscles 476

Gerould, J. H. — Investigation of Caudina arenata 476

Rindfleisch, Y. — Demonstrating Tubercle Bacilli in Sputum 476

Hacke, E.— Demonstrating Tubercle Bacilli in Human Sputum 476

(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Alexander, G. — Apparatus for Preserving Celloidin-Blocks on the Microtome . . 477

Albrecht, H., & O. Stoerk — New Methods for Paraffin Sections 477

Nusbaum, J. — Fixation of Paraffin Sections with Distilled Water 478

Ruprecht, M. — Method for Impregnating the Lacunae and Canaliculi of Bone with

Fuchsin 478

Koch, L. — New Jung Microtome 478

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Moore, V. A. — Staining Flagella 478

Coupon, H.— New Contrivance for Staining Sections 479

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Seaman, W. H., & E. S. Kellicott — Notes on Formalin 479

Blum, F., & Fr. Kopsch — Formol .. 479

Jores, L. — Detention of the Blood-Colour in Anatomical Preparations by means of

Formalin 480

Strehl, H. — Disinfecting Power of Formalin 480

Roux, G., & others — Disinfection with Formic Aldehyde 480

Setchell, W. A., & W. J. V. Osterhout — Media for Preserving Algae 481

Amann, J. — Preserving and Mounting Fluids for Algae and Mosses . . 481

Chavigny, P. — Antiseptic Value of Sublimate Spray 482

Edwards, A. M. — Mounting in Phosphorus 482

(6) Miscellaneous.

Dieudonne, A. — Simple Apparatus for Generating Gaseous Formic Aldehyde .. 482

Conser, H. N. — Cocaine in the Study of Pond- Life 483

Lindet, L. — Separation of Vegetable Acids 483

Marpmann, G. — Microscopiccd Examination of Cosmetics 483

Lange — Microscopical Examination of Samples of Meal 484

Bela v. Bitto — Estimation of Lecithin in Plants 484

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, 17th June, 1896 485

Authors of Papers printed in the Transactions are entitled to 20 copies of their
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JAN 4 1897

^ Royal
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MICROSCOPY, <3cc-

EditecL by

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Abba, F. Manuale di Microscopia e Batteriologia applicate all’ igiene.

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Jahresbericht fiber die Fortschritte in der Lehre von den Pathogenen
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CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

PAGE

IX. — On the Occurrence of Endocysts in the Genus Thalas-

siosira. By Thomas Comber, F.B.M.S. (Plate XI.) .. 489

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES .

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.

E. W. M. — Mechanics of Development 492

Driesch, Hs., & G. Wetzel — Experimental Embryology 493

Schimkewitsch, W. — Fertilisation 493

Sobotta, J. — Corpus luteum of Mouse 494

Nusbaum, J. — Development of Hypophysis 494

Brachet, A. — Development of Diaphragm and Liver in the Rabbit 495

Jacoby, M. — Accessory Glands of the Thyroid Region 495

Kingsbury, B. F. — Spermathecse and Fertilisation in American Urodela .. .. 495

Bataillon, E. — Segmentation of Egg of Amphibia and Teleostei 495

Eigenmann, C. H. — History of Sex-Cells in Cymatogaster 496

Beard, J. — Transient Nervous System in Skate .. 496

Dean, Bashford — Early Development of Ganoids 497

Price, G. C. — Development of Bdellostoma 498

Stricht, O. Van der — Egg of Amphioxus 498

j8. Histology.

Henneguy, F. — Morphology of the Cell 499

Bawitz, B. — Studies on Cell-Division 499

Ruckert, J. — Reducing Divisions 499

Foot, Catherine — Yolk-Nucleus and Polar Rings 499

Rabl, Hs. — Nuclei of Fat- Cells 500

Schafer, E. — Photography of Histological Evidence 500

y. General.

Koehler, R. — Deep-Sea Dredgings in the Bay of Biscay • • 500

Murray, John — General Conditions of Existence , and Distribution of Marine

Organisms 501

Ortmann, A. E. — Separation , and its Bearing on Zoo-Geography 502

Dendy, A. — Cryptozoic Fauna of Australasia 503

Hutton, F. W. — Distribution of Southern Faunae 504

Driesch, Hans — The Machine-Theory of Life 504

Masterman, A. T. — Physiological Interpretations of Structure 505

Index to the Journal ( Zoology ) of the Linnean Society 506

Tunicata.

Korotneff, A. — Development of Salpa 506

Willey, A. — Remarkable Ascidian 507

INVERTEBRATA.

Hassall, A. — Animal Parasites of Chickens , Turkeys , and Ducks 507

Erlanger, R. von — Phenomena of Fertilisation 507

2

Mollusca.

'fAGE

Verrill, A. E. — Archetype of Mollusca 508

a. Cephalopoda-

Verrill, A. E. — Opisthoteutliidse 509

Willey, A. — Notes on Nautilus 509

y. Gastropoda.

Lee, A. Bolles — Spermatocytes of Helix 510

Amaudraut, A. — Digestive Apparatus of the Higher Stenoglossa 511

Garstang, W. — New British Doris 511

Kostanecki, K. v., & A. Wierzejski — Maturation and Fertilisation in Physa

fontinalis 511

Tonniges, C. — Origin of Mesoderm in Paludina 511

Fujita, J. — Experiments on Molluscan Eggs 512

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Chatin, J. — Staining in the Oyster , 512

„ „ Macrohlasts of Oysters 512

Bryozoa.

Gregory, J. W. — Catalogue of Fossil Bryozoa in the British Museum 513

Arthropoda.

a. Insecta.

Mayer, A. G. — Development of Wing-Scales and their Pigment in Butterflies and

Moths 514

Verson, E., & E. Bisson — Genital Ducts and Glands of Female Silk-Moth .. .. 515

Meinert, F. — Lateral Organs of the Larvae of Scarabi 515

“ F. C. K.” — Myrmecophile Lepismids and Ants 515

Poulton, E. B. — Courtship of certain Acridiidae 516

Bordas — Digestive Apparatus of Brachytrypes 517

Fabre, J. H. — Habits of Locustidae- 517

Wilcox, E. V. — Spermatogenesis of Calopetenus Femur-rubrum 517

„ „ Power of Resistance of Helopliilus Larvae to Killing Fluids .. .. 517

Scudder, H. — American Fossil Cockroaches . .. 518

B. 'Myriopoda.

Cook, O. F. — Classification of Diplopoda 518

y. Protracheata.

Steel, T. — Peripatus 519

8. Arachnida.

Bernard, H. M. — Comparative Morphology of Galeodidae 520

Laurie, M. — Anatomy and Development of Scorpions .. 521

e. Crustacea.

Allen, E. J. — Nervous System of Crustacea 521

Bethe, A. — Abnormal Crab 521

Bouvier, E. L. — Classification and Distribution of Lithodinea 522

Chun, C. — Pelagic Schizopods 522

Schmeil, O. — Fresli-water Copepods of Germany 522

Steuer, A. — Male Gonads of Cyclops 523

Bassett-Smith, P. W. — Parasitic Copepoda of Fish from Plymouth . 523

Gruvel, A. — Histology of Muscles of Cirripedia 523

Bigelow, M. A. — Early Development of Lepas fascicularis 523

Annulata.

Mensch, P. C. — Fate of the Parent Stock of Autolytus ornatus 524

Pereyaslawzewa, Sophie — Nerilla antennata 524

Goodrich, E. S. — Notes on Oligocliaetes 525

Guerne, J. de, & K. Horst — Gigantic Earthworm from the Pyrenees 525

Bolsius, H. — Supra-cesophageal Gland of Hsementaria officinalis 525

/

3

Nematohelminthes.

PAGE

Zoja, R. — Development of Ascaris megalocephala 526

Schneider, J. G. — Nematode Embryos in the Shin of the Dog 526

Magalhaes, P. S. — Filaria Mansoni .. .. 526

Shipley, A. E. — New Acanthocephalid 527

Platyh.elminth.es.

Willey, A. — Poly dads of New Britain.. 527

Braun, M. — Parasites of Egypt 527

Sinizin, F. — Endoparasitic Worms from Birds near Warsaw . . 528

Roth, E. — Taeniae of Birds 528

Stiles, C. W. — Tapeworms of Poultry 528

Sluiter, 0. Ph. — New Taenia 529

Sonsino, P. — Taenia flavo -punctata 529

Fuhrmann, 0. — Bothriocephalus rectangulus Bud . . 529

Tower, W. L. — Nervous System of Cestodes 529

Oerfontaine, P. — Octocotylidae 530

Rotatoria.

Stokes, A. 0. — New American Botifera 530

Hempel, A. — Botifera of Illinois Biver 530

Xncertae Sedis,

Wheeler, W. M. — Sexual Phases of Myzostoma 530

Echinoderma.

Gregory, J. W. — New Genus of Liassic Echinoidea 531

Koehler, R. — Ophiurids of Becent Expeditions 531

Coelentera.

Hickson, S. J. — Classification of Alcyonaria 531

Protozoa.

Hempel, A. — Protozoa of Dlinois 532

Wallengren, Hs. — New Ciliata 532

Lagerheim, G. — Phaeocystis 532

Cohn, L. — Myxosporidia of Pike and Perch 533

Lankester, E. Ray — Chlamydomyxa montana 533

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.
a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Degagny, C. — Division of the Nucleus 535

(2) Other Cell-contents (including' Secretions).

Sauvan, L. — Localisation of Active Principles 535

Kruch, 0. — Crystalloids of Phytolacca 536

Rosenberg, O. — Winter-Starch 536

Weigert, L. — Bed Pigments of Plants 536

Henry, E. — Distribution of Tannin in Wood 536

Schulze, E., & S. Frankfurt — Distribution of Cane Sugar 537

Gonnermann, M. — Diastatic Ferment in Beet 537

(3) Structure of Tissues,

Meyer, A. — Protoplasmic Connections between Parenchyme- Cells 537

Schellenberg, H. C. — Dignified Cell-Walls 537

Gw ynne- Vaughan, D. T. — Polystely in Dicotyledons 537

Briquet, J. — Structure of Myoporaceae and Allied Orders 537

4

(4) Structure of Organs.

PAGE

Haacke, W. — Variation 538

Steinbrinck, C. — Mechanics of the Dehiscence of Anthers and Sporanges . . . . 538

Tubeuf, 0. v. — Cones of Coniferx 538

Hochreutiner, G. — Structure of Aquatic Plants 538

Wehmer, 0. — Oak-leaved Hornbeam 538

Hochreutiner, G. — Phyllodes of Acacia 539

Zander, R. — Lacticiferous Hairs of the Cichoriacex 539

MacDougal, D. T. — Root-Tubers of Isopyrum 539

Rimpach, A. — Depth of the Underground Portion of Perennial Plants 539

0. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Robertson, C., & others — Cross 'Pollination and Self-Pollination 540

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Germination, and Movements
of Fluids).

Wiesner, J. — Amount of Light which is most favourable to the Growth of Plants .. 540

Thompson, S., & W. W. Prendergast — Gain and Loss of Leaves 541

Jodin, V. — Latent Life of Seeds 541

Macloskie, G. — Antidromy 541

Wiesner, J. — Paratonic Trophism 541

Askenasy, E. — Ascent of Sap 541

Darwin, F., & D. F. M. Pertz — Effect of Currents of Water on Assimilation . . . . 542

Farmer, J. JB. — Respiration and Assimilation 542

Palladine, W. — Relation between Respiration and Nitrogenous Substances .. .. 542

Dixon, H. H. — Role of Osmose in Transpiration 542

(3) Irritability.

Correns, 0., & D. T. MacDougal — Physiology of Tendrils 542

Schilling, A. J. — Movements of Sensitive Leaves 543

Briquet, J. — Irritability of the Calyx and Stamens of Helianthemum polifolium . . 543

„ „ Effect of Light on the Geotropism of Stolons 543

Ewart, A. J. — Diaheliotropism 543

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Stahl, E. — Physiology of Coloured Leaves 543

Linz, F. — Physiology of Germination in Maize 544

Prianischnikoff, D. — Chemical Processes of Germination 544

Mangin, L. — Formation of Gum 544

7. General.

Atkinson, G. F. — Evolution of the Vegetative Phase of the Sporophyte j 544

Kraus, G. — Heat of Flowers 545

Seward, A. C. — Fossil Monocotyledons 545

B. CBYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Brebner, G. — Prothallium and Embryo of Dansea 545

Muscineae.

Philibert, H. — Peristome of Mosses 545

Algae.

Phillips, R. W. — Cystocarp of Rhodomelacex 546

Darbishire, O. Y. — Spencerella, a new Genus of Floridese 546

Brand, F. — Propagation of Lemanea 546

Joffe, R. — Fertilisation of Bangia 547

Sauvageau, C. — Ectocarpus 547

Borge, O. — Variability of Desmids 547

Jennings, A. V. — Phycopeltis 547

France, R. — Carteria 548

Chodat, R. — Coelastrum 548

5

Fungi.

Bourquelot, E., & G. Bertrand — Oxidising Ferments of Fungi *548

Went, F. A. F. C. — Formation of Carbon bisulphide by Schizophyllum lobatum . . 548

Wildeman, E. DE — New Chytridiacex ‘ 548

Mangin, L. — Structure of Peronosporex 548

Clendenin, Ida, & E. de Wildeman — New Genera of Fungi 549

Nilsson, A., & others — Parasitic Fungi 549

Wehmer, C. — Potato Diseases 550

Sarauw, G. F. L. — Mycorhiza 550

Chodat, R., & A. Lendner— Mycorhiza of Listera cordata 550

Prillieux, E. — Rhizoctonia 550

Starback, K. — Discomycetes 551

Reinke, J. — Classification of Lichens 551

Schneider, A. — Phylogenetic Adaptations of Lichens 551

Y allot, J. — Rate of Growth of a Saxicolous Lichen 552

Setter, O. — Origin of Saccharomycetes 552

Rothenbach, F. — Schizosaccharomyces Pombe . . 552

Sanfelice — Pathogenic Action of Blastomycetes 552

Voglino, P. — Development of Stropliaria 552

Griffiths, A. B. — Red Pigment of Amanita muscaria .. 553

Massee, G. — Coprinus 553

Patouillard, N. — Cyclomyces 553

Protophyta.

a. ScMzophycese.

Cox, C. F. — Recent Advances in the Determination of Diatom Structure 553

Ahlborn, F. — Aphanizomenon flos-aqux . 554

B . ScRizomycetes.

Berton, F. — Action of the RSntgen Rays on Bacilli 554

Brown, H. T., & G. H. Morris — Bacterial Infection by Air-sown Organisms .. .. 554

Frankland, G. C. — Bacteria and Carbonated Waters 554

Renault, B. — Fossil Bacteria 555

Arthur, J. C., & H. L. Bolley — Bacteriosis of Carnations 555

Brown, A. J. — Bacillus subtilis 555

Bruni, C. — Osteomyelitis caused by the Bacillus of Typhoid Fever 555

Refik — Abnormal Types of Coli Bacilli 556

Brunner, C. — Staphylococcus pyxmia after Chicken-Pox 556

Galli- Valerio, B. — Microbe of Distemper 556

Hamburger, H. J., & J. A. Klauwers — Streptococcus peritonitidis equi 556

Kornauth, K. — Behaviour of Pathogenic Bacteria in Living Vegetable Tissue . . 557

Stephens, J. W. W., & R. F. W. Smith — Vibrio tonsillaris 557

Freudenreich, E. von — Identity of Clostridium fcetidum lactis and Bacillus

cedematis maligni . « 558

Klecki, Y. von — Bacillus saccharobutyricus 558

Leichmann, G. — Bacillus Delbruecki 558

Marpmann, G. — Cheese Flora 559

Lemoine — Variability in the Form and Characters of Streptococci Cultures . . .. 559

Dunbar — Differential Diagnosis between Cholera and other Vibrios 559

Wiener, E. — Vibrio Infection per Os in young Rabbits 559

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, See.

(1) Stands.

New Microscope 560

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Cowl, W. — Eye-Piece with Graduated Iris-Diaphragm (Fig. 84) 560

Goerz's New Double Objective (Figs. 85-87) 560

6

(3) Illuminating: and other Apparatus.

PAGE

New Thermometer for Regulating the Temperature of Paraffin Baths, &c 562

Betting, C. — New Rotating Disc for the Preparation of Lacquer Rings (Fig. 88) 562

Box for Colouring-Reagents 563

Simple Thermostat for Microscopes of Different Construction 563

f(4) Photomicrography.

Goedicke, J. — Optical Works of C. P. Goerz in Schoneberg, Berlin 563

Borden, W. 0. — Practical Photomicrography 563

(6) Miscellaneous.

Cunningham, K. M. — Arc-Light Dust as an effective Abrasive Material 564

Davis, E. — Presidential Address 564

J3. Technique.

Lee, A. B. — MicrotomisVs Vade-mecum 564

(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes.

Migula — Apparatus for Cultivating Anaerobes 565

Marpmann — Agar Media for Bacteriological Cultures 565

Conn, H. W. — Relation of Pure Cultures to the Acid, Flavour, and Aroma of Butter 566

Nicholas, J. — Influence of Glucose on Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus 566

Pfeiffer, R., & Kolle — Diagnosis of Typhoid Bacilli by means of Serum of Animals

Immunised to Typhoid 566

Gruber, M., & H. E. Durham — Method for Rapid Recognition of the Cholera Vibrio

and the Typhoid Bacillus 567

Kempner, W. — Tochtermann’ s Medium for Diagnosis of Diphtheria 567

Pfuhl, A., & Walter — Presence of Influenza Bacilli in the Central Nervous System 567

Kowalevsky, O. — Relations between Chimiotaxis and Leucocytosis 568

Cutter, E. — Bifurcated Double-Ended Crystal from Asthmatic Sputum 568

Cunningham, K. M. — New Analytical Process for the Study of Diatomaceons and

other Clayey Deposits 568

Ijima — Long Lines as Zoological Collecting Apparatus 569

New Steriliser 570

Barthel, G. — Formic Aldehyde Lamp for Disinfecting Purposes 570

(2) Preparing Objects.

Fujita, J. — Method of Preparing Molluscan Eggs 570

Foot, K. — Examination of Polar Rings of Earthworms 570

Eisen, G. — Preparation of Specimens of Spermatobium 571

Tower, W. L. — Preparation of Nervous System of Cestodes 571

Marohesini, R. — Method for Demonstrating Axis-Cylinders of Nerve-Fibres .. .. 571

Lewis, M. — Preparation of Nerve-Cells 572

(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Marpmann, G. — New Simple Microtome 572

Schaffer, J. — New Fromme Microtomes (Figs. 89-91) 572

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Gerota — Injection Masses for Lymphatics 575

Mayer, P. — Staining Mucus 576

Gabritsghewsky — Serum-Injection Syringe (Fig. 92) 577

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Fish, P. A. — Use of Formalin in Neurology 577

Elliott, G. R. — Method of Preserving Nervous Tissue 578

Browne, E. T. — Preservation of Marine Animals 579

Cori, 0. J. — Object-holder for the Observation of Objects enclosed between two Cover-

Glasses (Fig. 93) 579

Holm, J. C. — Preserving Yeast in Saccharose Solution 579

Behrens, H. — New Method for Preserving Succulent Fruit, Fungi, &c 580

Authors of Papers printed in the Transactions are entitled to 20 copies of their
communications gratis. Extra copies can be had at the price of 10s. 6d. per half-sheet
of 8 pages, or less, including cover, for a minimum number of 50 copies, and 6s. per
100 plates, if plain. Prepayment by P.O.O. is requested.

The Journal is issued on the third Wednesday in
February, April, June, August, October, and December.

1896, Part 6.

DECEMBER.

jTo Non-Fellows, ^

1 Price 6s.

K.7J 0 U R N A L

11 Royal
Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Z O O Ij O Gr ■'2” -A. 1ST ID BOTANY

(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, cScc.

Edited by

F. JEFFREY BELL, M.A.,

One of the Secretaries of the Society
and Professor Emeritus in Kings College , London ;

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND

A. W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S.,

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CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

rAoa

X. — The Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. — IX. By
Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Plates XII. and

XIII.) 581

XI.— A Simplification of tiie Method of Using Professor Abbe’s

Afertometeu. By E. M. Nelson, F.R.M.S 592

XII. — Photomiorographio Camera, designed chiefly to facilitate
the Study of Opaque Objects, more especially in the
Study of Pal2eo-Botany. By J. Butterworth, F.R.M.S.
(Plates XIV. and XV.) 595

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.

Bergh, R. S. — General Embryology 597

Her twig, O. — Experimental Embryology 597

Kaestner — Experimental Embryology 598

Gaskell, \V. H. — Origin of Vertebrates 593

I.ocy, W. A. — Structure and Development of the Vertebrate Head 598

Woodward, M. F. — Mammalian Dentition 600

„ „ Teeth of Marsupials 600

Waldeyer, W. — The Human Tail 601

Spee, F. von — Fixing of Ovum to Wall of Uterus 601

Niessing, C — Spermatogenesis of Mammals 602

Bardeleben, K. von — Spermatogenesis in Monotremes and Marsupials 602

Prenant, A. — Accessory Glands of the Thyroid and Carotid 602

Janosi'k, J. — Development of Allantois in Lizard 602

Nussbaum, M. - Evolution of Muscles 603

Beard, J. — Yolk-Sac and Merocytes in Scyllium and Lepidosteus 608

., „ Disappearance of Transient Nervous System in Elasmobranchs .. .. 604

Sobotta, J. — Gastr ulation of Amia calva 604

Ruckert, J. — Development of the Spiral Intestine in Pristiurus 604

Eigenmann, C. II. — Sex- Differentiation in Cymatogaster 605

Collinge, W. E. — So-called Suprarenals in Cyclostomata 605

M*Bride, E. W. — Formation of Germinal Layers of Amphioxus 606

/3. Histology.

Balbiani, E., & F. Henneguy — Physiological Significance of Direct Cell-Division 606

Kossel, A. — Basic Substances of the Nucleus 606

Schulze, F. E. — Cell-Membrane 607

„ „ Intercellular Union of Epithelial Cells 607

Lenhossek, M. von — Structure of Nerve-Cells 607

Gulland, G. L. — Granular Leucocytes 608

Giglio-Tos, E. — Bed Blood-Corpuscles of Tadpoles 608

Netjmayer. L. — Retina of Selachians •• 60S

y. Genera’ .

Poulton, E. B. — Age of the Earth 609

Virchow, R. — Anlage and Variation 610

1

2

PAC®

Wilson, Gregg — Hereditary Polydactylism r. .. 610

Huppert — Chemical Basis of Specific Characters 610

F.schel, A. — Pigmentation of Salamander 611

Dahl, Fk. — Distribution of Pelagic Animals 612

Tunicata.

Ritter, W. E. — Budding in Compound Ascidians 612

Giard, A., & Caullery — Hibernation of Clavelina lepadiformis 613

Heider, K. — Development of Salpa fusiformis 614

Mollusca.
a. Cephalopoda.

Jatta, G. — Ccplialopods of the Gulf of Naples 614

y. Gastropoda.

Pilsbry, H. A., & E. G. Vanatta — Revision of North American Slugs 615

Dale, W. H. — Insular Land Sliell-Faunx 615

Arthropoda.
a. Inse eta,

Marlatt, C. L. — Mouth-Parts of Insects 616

Hopkins, F. Gowland — Pigments of Pieridse 616

Swinhoe, C. — Mimicry in Hypolimnas 616

Dahl, Fr. — Habits of Carrion-Eating Insects .. .. 617

Rengel. C. — Changes of the Intestinal Epithelium in the Metamorphosis of Meal-

Worm 617

Handlirsch, A. — Digger-Wasps 618

Williston, S. W., & J M. Aldritoh — Diptera of St. Vincent , West Indies .. .. 618
Bordas — Masticatory Armature of the Gizzard in Blaitidce and Gryllidx .. .. 610

Lecaillon, A. — Scatoconchs 619

B. Myriopoda.

Duboscq, O. — Blood-Vessels of Scolopendridx 619

Vkrhoeff, C. — Structure and Distribution of Myriapods 620

Silvestri, F. - Diplopoda 621

Rosenstadt, B. — Eye of Scutigera 621

8. Arachnida.

Patten, W. — Variations in Limulus Polyphemus 621

6. Crustacea.

Alcock, A. — Indian Crabs 623

Garstang, W. — Habits and Respiratory Mechanism of Corystes Cassivelaunus .. 623

Gorham, F. P. — Cleavage of Egg of Virbius zostericola 624

Man, J. G. de — Malayan Decapoda 625

B code- Lund, G. — Terrestrial Isopods from Greece .. 625

ScouRFiELD, D. J. — Entcmostraca of North Wales 625

Brady, G. S. — Entomostra<a of the Solway District 625

Schmeil, O. — Freshwater Copepods €25

Przibram, Hs. — Regeneration in Lower Crustacea 626

Annulata.

Lewis, M. — Ctntrosome and Sphere in Nerve-Cells of an Invertebrate 626

Kyle, H. M. — Arenicola 626

Langdon, F. E. — Sense-Organs of Lumbricus agricola 627

Rosa, D. — Earthworms from Sumatra 627

Blanchard, R. — Leeches from Tojoland 627

Nematohelminthes.

Meyer, A. — Neiv Singhalese Nematodes 627

Camerano, L. — New Gordiid 628

Platyhelminthes.

Sekera, E. — Habitat Rich in Turbellaria 628

Lebedinsky, J. — Development of Drepanophorus 628

Shipley, A. E. — Epithelium of Tapeworms and Flulces 629

Luhe, M. — Nervous and Muscular Systems of Ligula .. . 629

Braun, M. — Proliferating Cysticrrci , , , 6110

3

Echinoderma.

TAOR

Schiemenz, P. — Hoiv do Starfishes open Oysters ? <>30

M‘Bhide, E. W. — Continuity of Mesenchyme- Cells in Echinoid Larvae 631

Field, G . W. — Spermatozoa of E-hinoderms 631

Vernon, H. M. — Development of Echi noderm Larvae. 632

Wilson, E. B. — Egg of Sea Urchin 6313

Monticelli, F. S. — Autotomy in Cucumnria Planci 634

Clarke, H. L. — Viviparous Synapta of the West Indies 634

Ccelentera.

Hickson, S. J. — Nervous System of Ccelentera 634

Kwietniewski, C. R.—Actiniaria of Ternate 63.5

Browne, E. T. — British Hydroids and Medusas . .. 635

Murbach, L. — Life- History of Gononemus .. 636

Doflein, F. J. Th. — Oogenesis in Tubularia 636

Porifera.

Schulze, #F. E. — Diplodal Sponge-Chambers 636

Hreitfuss, L. — Northern Calcispongise 636

Protozoa.

Infusoria Aspirotrvha 637

Lillie, F. II. — Degeneration of Stentor 637

Schaudinn, Fr. — Conjugation of Actinophrys sol 637

Leyden, E. von, & F. Schaudinn — Parasitic Bhizopod in Ascitic Fluid in Man 638

Chapman, F. — Webbina and Vitriwebbina 638

Schaudinn, Fr. — Life- History of Par amoeba eilhardi 630

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including* the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.
a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Crato, E. — Elementary Organisms of the Cell 640

Sargant, E. — Formation of the Sexual Nuclei in Lilium Mar logon 64<>

Oavara, F. — Hypertrophy of the Nucleus caused by a Parasite 64 l

Bosen, T. — Chromatophily of the Nucleus 611

(2) Other Cell-contents (including* Secretions).

Berg & Gerber — Organic Acids of Mesembryanthemum .. .. 611

Czapek, F. — Acid Excretion of Boots 641

Wittlin, J. — Pockets of Calcium oxalate 612

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Burgerstein, A. — Wood of Pomeae 612

Hartjg, E. — Red Wood of Pines 6 12

Potonie, 11. — Secondary Growth in Thickness in Palms 642

Ikeno, S. — Canal-Cells in Cycas 643

DassONVILLe, Ch. — Action of Salts on Vegetable Tissues 643

(4) Structure of Organs.

Caruel, T. — Euthymorphosis 643

Lazniewski, W. v. — Structure of Alpine Plants 643

Lindemuth, H. — Production of Seed on Cut Inflorescences 644

Golenkin, M. — Inflorescence of Urticaceae and Moraceas .. •• 614

Leger, L. J. — Vegetative Organs of Papaveraceee and Fumariaceae 644

Haberlandt, G. — Hydathodes 644

Kohl, F. G. — Opening and Closing of Stomalcs 615

Jahn, E. — Floating Leaves , 615

Grob, A. — Epiderm of the Leaf of Grasses 645

Warming, E. — Leaves of Euphorbia buxifolia 615

Lindemuth, H — Production of Bulbils by Lachenalia and Uyacinthus 64.)

Tubeuf, C. von — Trichomes of Conifer ae 616

Hildebrand, F. — Hairs on tubers of Cyclamen 646

4

fi. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology,

TAOn

Tieghem, P. van — Basigamy and Homceogamy 646

Shaw, W. R. — Embryngeny of Sequoia 647

Keeble, F. \V. — Fertilisation of Loranthaceze 647

Molliard, M. — Homology of the Pollen and Ovule 647

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and Movements
of Fluids).

Delpino, F. — Propagation by Buds 648

Keeble, F. W. — Germination of Loranthacese 648

Arcangeli, G. — Growth in Length of the Organs of Aquatic Plants 648

Honda, S. — Growth of Pine-Leaves 648

Maxwell, W. — Growth of Banana Leaves 649

Stoklasa, J;, & J. H. Aeby — Assimilation of Elementary Nitroqen and of Lecithin

by Plants 649

Ewart, A. J. — Arrest of Assimilation 649

Vines, S. H. — Suction-Force of Transpiring Branches 650

Krabbe, G. — Influence of Temperature on Osmose 650

Gain, E. — Influence of Climate and Soil on the Variation in Seeds 650

(3) Irritability.

Macdougal, D. T. — Mechanism of the Curvature of Tendrils 650

Schwendener, S. — Motile Cushions of the Marantacese 651

Cunningham, D. D. — Turgor of Motor Organs 651

Czapek, F. — Geotropism and Heliotropism 651

Noll, F. — Sensitiveness of Plants 652

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Gruss, J. — Physiology of Germination 65 2

Poulet, V. — Vegetable Digestion 652

Puriewitsch, K. — Disappearance of the Contents from Reserve-Receptacles }.. .. 652

Gruss, J. — Penetration of Diastase into Starch-Grains 653

Rodewald, E. — Swelling of Starch 653

7. General.

Sachs, J. — Architypes 653

Seward, A. C. — Fossil Gymnosperms of the Wealden 653

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Winterstein, E. — Cell-Wall of Vascular Cryptogams and Muscineze 654

Helm, C. — Apogamy in Ferns 654

Heinricher, E. — Bulbs of Cystopteris bulbifera 654

Vidal, L. — Pectic Substances in the Root of Equisetum 654

Muscinese.

Mi ller, F. — Nanomitrium 6M

M‘Fadden, Effie B. — Antherid of Targionia 655

Dixon, H. N., & H. G. Jameson — Dixon's British Mosses 655

Algae.

Osterhout, W. J. V. — Life-History of Rhabdonia 655

Smith, A. A. — Cystocarp of Grijflthsia 655

Chester, Grace D. — Development of Nemalion 656

Farmer, J. B., & J. Ll. Williams — Fertilisation and Segmentation of the Spore in

F'ucus 6^6

Sauvageau, C. — Heterogamy in Ectocarpus .. .. .. 656

Fungi.

Winterstein, E. — Cell-Wall of Fungi 656

Bourquelot, E., & G. Bertrand — < ’xidising Ferment of Fungi .. 656

Benlcke, W. — Importance of Potassium and Magnesium for the Growth of Fungi 657

Maurizio, A. — Sapruhgniacese , Ancylisteze, and Chytridiaceze 657

Thaxter, R. — Leptomi acese 657

W ager, H. — Structure and Reproduction of Cystopus 657

Cunningham, D. D. — Choanephora 658

Seynes, J. de — Penicillium cupricum 658 '

Zi kal, H. — Morphology and Biology of Lichens 658

Zopf, W. — Function of Lichen- Acids 659

Gluck, H. — New Ccenogonium 659

Curtis, F. — Human Saccharomycosis 659

Schukow, I. — Fermentation Experiments with Different Yeasts 660

Seiffert, H. — Importance of Lime to Yeast Cultures and in Brewing 660

5

f>A«9

Lindner, P. — Blue-Staining of Spores of Saccharomyces octosporus by Iodine .. GOO

Effront, J. — Lactio Acid Barm 660

Cunningham, D. D., & D. Prain — Indian Wheat Busts 661

Eriksson, J. — Peridermium and Cronartium 661

Kremer, J. — Presence of Mould-Fungi in Syphilis , Carcinoma , and Sarcoma.. . . 661

Burt, E. A. — Development of Mutinus 661

Protophyta.

a. Schizophycese.

Ki ebahn, H. — Flos-Aqux 662

Karsten, G. — Conjugation of Diatoms 662

Deby, J. — Surirella 662

Butschli, O. — Structure of Cyanophycex ond Bacteria 662

B. Schizomycetes.

Neisser, M. — Penetrability of the Intestinal Wall to Bacteria 663

Schreiber, O. —Physiological Conditions of Spore- format ion in Aerobic Bacteria . . 663

Catiano, L. — Two Filament- forming Bacilli 663

Winogradsky, S. — Microbiology of Nitrification 661

Stutzer, A., & R. Maul — Inhibitory Action of Air on Nitrate-destroying Bacteria 661
Wittlin, J. — Alleged Conversion of the Tyrothrix tenuis Duclaux into a Lactic Acid

Bacterium 665

Kanthack, A. A. — Branched Diphtheria Bacilli 665

Golowkow, A. — Vitality of Diphtheria Bacilli on Textile Fabrics 665

„ ,, Penetration of Cholera Vibrios into Hens' Eggs 665

IIankin, H. — Bactericidal Action of the Waters of the Jumna and the Ganges on the

Cholera Vibrio 665

Wolf, S. — Action of Metabolic. Products of Staphylococcus and Pneumococcus . . 666

Blaxall, F. R , & others — Bacillus of Rheumatoid Arthritis 666

Rem linger & Schneider — Presence of Typhoid Bacilli in Water, Earth , and Feeces

of Persons unaffected with Typhoid Fever 666

Capman — Antistaphylococcus Serum 667

Grethe — Bacillus Smegmatis and Tubercle Bacillus 667

Lannois — The Middle Ear and Microbes 667

MacFadyen, Allan — Bacteriology of Infantile Diarrhoea 667

Liakhovitsky — Phagocytosis and Immunity 668

Pfeiffer, R., & W. Kolle — Specific Immunity Reaction of Cholera Vibrios in the

Anim>d Body and in vitro 668

Karltnski, J. — Vibrio Infection of Young Animals per os 668

Schutz, II. — Disinfecting Power of Kresol and Metakresol 668

Saul & Hofmeister — Catgut Disinfection 669

Lamson, H. H. — Spraying Experiments 669

Klie, J. — Relative Growth of BacUrium typld abdorninalis and B. coli commune in

Gelatin Media 6^9

Kister. J. — Meningococcus intracellularis •• 669

Migula, W. — Capsules of Bacteria 676

Leei ham-Green. C. — Disinfection of the Hands 670

Ckookshank, E. M. — Text- Book of Bacteriology 671

MICROSCOPY.

a. Instruments, Accessories, &c.

Cl) Stands.

Barnes, C. R. — Horizontal Microscope 673

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Kuznitzky, M. — Demonstration Eye-piece (Fig. 91) 673

(3). Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

Karawaiew, W. — New Thermostat heated without the use of Gas (Figs. 95-99) . . 671

Heidenhain, M. — Object- Holder of Aluminium for Observation of Objects on both

sides (Fig. 100) 677

Wessel, D. C. — Neio Cover-Glass Clip 678

Kaiser, O. — Simple Arrangement for Drawing Microscopic Preparations under very

low Magnifications (Fig. 101) 678

Siddons, H. G. F. — New Form of Dissecting-Stand and Lens-Carrier (Fig. 102) .. 679

r(4) Photomicrography.

Czaplewski, E. — New Photomicrograpliic Apparatus 680

(5) Microscopical Objects and Manipulation.

Nelson, E. M. — Tests for Microscope Objectives 681

6

r*G«

Rayleigh — On the Theory of Optical Images tvith special reference to the Microscope

(Figs. 103-106) 681

(6) Miscellaneous.

Brauns, R. — Microchemical Reaction for Nitric Acid 687

Behrens, H. — Sublimation and the Determination of Melting-points in Micro-
chemical Investigations (Fig. 107) 687

The late Mr. F. C. S. Roper 688

/S. Technique.

Czaplewski — Hints on Bacteriological Technique 680

Apathy, S. — Microtechnique of Animal Morphology 600

Cl) Collecting- Objects, including Culture Processes.

Fuller, G. — Proper Reaction of Nutrient Media for Bacterial Cultivation .. .. 690

Gossage, A. M., & A. A. Kanthack — Influence of Glycerin in Culture Media on

Liphthcria Bacillus C91

(2) Preparing Objects.

Patten, W. — Preparation of Embryos of Limulus Polyphemus 691

Langdon, F. E. — Examination of the Sense-Organs of Lumbricus 691

Field, G. W. — Examination of the Spermatozoa of Echinoderms 692

Messing, C. — Spermatogenesis 693

Thilo, O. — Dilute Sulphuric Acid in Preparing Fish Sheletons 693

Weigert, C. — Demonstrating the Structure of the Human Neuroglia 693

M anson, P. — Rapid and Convenient Method of Preparing Malarial Blood-Films . . 694

Schmidt, A. — Examination of Sputum in Sections 694

Gantter, F. — Negative Test for Blood-Spots 695

(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Colman, W. S. — Handbook of Histology 695

Nowak, J. — Microtome with new Device for Raising and Lowering the Object

(Figs. 108-110) 695

Kornauth, K. — Section- Stretcher for Paraffin Sections with the Cathcart Improved

Microtome (Figs. 111-114) 696

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Unna, P. G. — Application of Anilin Mixtures for the Tinctorial Isolation of

Tissue- Elements .. 698

Neumayer, L. — Retina of Selachians .. 698

Sargant, E. — Staining of Sexual Nuclei 698

Wager, H. — Staining of Fungi 699

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Hubrecht, A. A. W. — Preserving Embrynlogical Material 699

Gumprecht — Preservation of Urinary Deposits 700

Kaiserling, C. — Preserving Museum Specimens 700

Vaillard, M. L. — Disinfection with Formalin Vapour 700

Deupser — Experiments with Porcosan 700

(6) Miscellaneous.

Lange — Microscopical Examination of Meal 700

Maykhofer, J. — Detection of Starch in Meat Preparations .. 701

Marpmann, G. — Microscopical Examination of Jams 70 L

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, 21st Oct., 1896 702

„ 18th Nov., 1896 706

Index of New Biological Terms 711

General Index to Volume 713

Contents of Volume vii

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