LIBRARY

OF THE

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

Ji° ioQa A/

GIFT OF

ALEX. AGASSIZ.

Frontispiece ] .

Journ. R. Micro. Soc. 1898,

OLD ROOM OF THE SOCIETY IN KING'S COLLEGE.

Journal

OF THE

Royal

Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ZOOILOG-^ A 1ST ID BOTANY

(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, cSccj,

Edited by

A. W. BENNETT, M.A. B.Sc. F.L.S.

Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital ;

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND

R. G. HEBB, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P. j J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. F.R.S.E.

Lecturer on Pathology at Westminster Lecturer on Zoology i>i the School of Medicine,

Hospital , I Edinburgh,

FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

FOR THE YEAR

1898.

LONDON:

TO BE OBTAINED AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS,

20 HANOVER SQUARE, W. ;

of Messrs, WILLIAMS & NORGATE ; and of Messrs. DULAU & CO.

UAN 9 1809

THE

Jiopt .pticroscojiirat .poriqt]);.

(Established in 1839. Incorporated by Eoyal Charter in 1866.)

The Society was established for the promotion of Microscopical and
Biological Science by the communication, discussion and publication of observa-
tions and discoveries relating to (1) improvements in the construction and
mode of application of the Microscope, or (2) Biological or other subjects of
Microscopical Research.

It consists of Ordinary, Honorary, and Ex-officio Fellows of either sex.

Ordinary Fellows are elected on a Certificate of Recommendation,
signed by three Ordinary Fellows, setting forth the names, residence, and
description of the Candidate, of whom the first proposer must have personal
knowledge. The Certificate is read at two General Meetings, and the Candidate
balloted for at the second Meeting.

* The Admission Fee is 2 L 2.-?., if paid at the time of election, or 2 l. 10s.
payable in five consecutive annual instalments of 10 *. each ; and the Annual
Subscription is 2 1. 2s., payable on election, and subsequently in advance on
1st January in each year, but future payments may be compounded for at any
time for 3U. 10s. Fellows elected at a meeting subsequent to that in February
are only called upon for a proportionate part of the first year’s subscription.
The annual Subscription of Fellows permanently residing abroad is 1/. 11s. 6d.,
or a reduction of one-fourth.

Honorary Fellows (limited to 50), consisting of persons eminent in
Microscopical or Biological Science, are elected on the recommendation of five
Ordinary Fellows and the approval of the Council.

Ex-officio Fellows (limited to 100), consisting of the Presidents for the
time being of any Societies having objects in whole or in part similar to those of
the Society, are elected on the recommendation of ten Ordinary Fellows, and the
approval of the Council.

The Council, in whom the management of the property and affairs’ ot
the Society is vested, is elected annually, and is composed of the President,
four Yice-Presidents, Treasurer, two Secretaries, and twelve other Ordinary
Fellows.

The Meetings are held on the third Wednesday in each month, from
October to June, at 20 Hanover Square, W. (commencing at 8 p.m.). Yisitors
are admitted by the introduction of Fellows.

The Journal, containing the Transactions and Proceedings of the
Society, and a Summary of Current Researches relating to Zoology and Botany
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia), Microscopy, &c., is published
bi-monthly, and is forwarded post-free to all Ordjpary and Ex-officio Fellows
residing in countries within the Postal Union.

The Library, with the Instruments, Apparatus, and Cabinet of Objects,
is open for the use of Fellows daily (except Saturdays), from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.
It is closed for four weeks during August and September.

Forms of 'proposal for Fellowship , and any further information, may he obtained by
application to the Secretaries , or Assistant-Secretary , at the Library of the Society,
M Hanover Square. *

a 2

HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS
ALBERT EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES,
K.G., G.C.B., F.R.S., &c.

Elec ted

♦Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., D.C.L., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 1840-1

* J ohn Lindley, Pli.D., F.R.S 1842-3

*Thomas Bell, F.R.S 1844-5

*James Scott Bowerbank, LL.D., F.R.S 1846-7

♦George Busk, F.R.S 1848-9

♦Arthur Farre, M.D., F.R.S 1850-1

•"George Jackson, M.R.C.S 1852-3

♦William Benjamin Carfenter, C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. . 1854-5

George Shadbolt 1856-7

♦Edwin Lankester, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S 1858-9

♦John Thomas Quekett, F.R.S 1860

♦Robert James Farrants, F.R.C.S 1861-2

♦Charles Brooke, M.A., F.R.S 1863-4

James Glaisher, F.R.S 1865-6-7-8

♦Rev. Joseph Bancroft Reade, M.A., F.R.S 1869-70

♦William Kitchen Parker, F.R.S 1871-2

♦Charles Brooke, M.A., F.R.S 1873-4

Henry Clifton Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S 1875-6-7

♦Henry James Slack, F.G.S. 1878

Lionel S. Beale, M.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.S 1879-80

♦Peter Martin Duncan, M.B., F.R.S 1881-2-3

Rev. William Hy. Dallinger, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 1884-5-6-7
Charles Thos. Hudson, M.A., LL.D. (Cantab.), F.R.S. 1888-9-90

Robert Braithwaite, M.D., M.R.C.S., F.L.S 1891-2

Albert D. Michael, F.L.S 1893-4-5-6

* Deceased.

COUNCIL.

Elected 19th January, 1898.

Edward Milles Nelson, Esq.

Uicc-|t residents.

Robert Braithwaite, Esq., M.D., M.R.C.S., F.L.S.
Albert D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S.

The Hon. Sir Ford North.

John Jewell Yezey, Esq.

treasurer.

William Thomas Suffolk, Esq.

Semtarus.

Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D., F.R.S.

Richard G. Hebb, Esq., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.

Orbhtaro gltmbtrs of Council.

C. Edmund Aikin, Esq., B.A., M.R.C.S.

Conrad Beck, Esq.

Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A.

Alfred W. Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.So., F.L.S.
Rev. Edmund Carr, M.A., F.R.Met.S.

T. Comber, Esq., F.L.S,

Edward Dadswell, Esq.

George C. Karop, Esq., M.R.C.S.

Thomas H. Powell, Esq.

Charles F. Rousselet, Esq.

John Tatham, Esq., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.

Rev. A. G. Warner.

Curator.

Charles F. Rousselet, Esq.

librarian nub Assistant Sccrctaru.

Mr. F. A. Parsons.

CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

PAGE

I. — The Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. — Part X. Conclusion and
Appendices. By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Plates I.
and It.) 1

II. — The President’s Address. By Edward M. Nelson. (Figs. 14-23) .. .. 149

III. — The Application of the Electric Arc to Photomicrography. By J. Edwin

Barnard, F.R.M.S., and Thos. A. B. Carver, B.Sc. (Figs. 24-27) .. 170*

IV. — A new Form of Photomicrographic Camera and Condensing System. By

E. B. Stringer, B.A. (Fig. 28) 174

V. — On Anchor Mud from the Malay Archipelago. By A. Durrand, F.R.M.S. 255

VI. — Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago collected

by Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S. By Fortescue William Millett, F.R.M.S.
(Plates V. and VI.) 258-

VII. — A few Notes on Micro-Crystallography. By T. Charters White, M.R.C.S.

L. D.S., F.R.M.S 270

VIII. — On Some Organic Substances of High Refractivity, available for Mounting
Specimens for Examination under the Microscope. By H. G. Madan,

M. A., F.C.S., Fellow of Queen’s College, Oxford 273

IX. — Instantaneous Photomicrography. By E. B. Siringer, B.A 282

X. — On a new Apochromatic Objective constructed without the Use of

Fluorite. By Philip E. Bertrand Jourdain, F.R.M.S. (Figs. 72 and 73) 395

XI. — On a Method of Adjusting the Sizes of the Coloured Images yielded bj

the Cooke Lens. By Philip E. Bertrand Jourdain, F.R.M.S 397

XII. — Remarks on the Construction of the Planar Lens and its Use in Low-
Power Photomicrography. By Philip E. Bertrand Jourdain, F.R.M.S.

(Fig. 74) .. .. 399

XIII. — On the Errors to be Corrected in Photographic Lenses. By E. M. Nelson,

Pres. R.M.S. 401

XIV. — Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago collected by

Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S. — Part II. By Fortescue William Millett,
F.R.M.S. (Plates XI. and XII.) .. .. .. .. 499

XV. — Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago collected by
Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S. — Part III. By Fortescue William Millett,
F.R.M.S. (Plate XIII.) ( 607

CONTENTS.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY (PRINCIPALLY INVERTEBRATA AND

Cryptogamia), Microscopy, &c., including Original Communications
from Fellows and Others.* 50, 180, 283, 404, 514, 615

ZOOLOGY.

VERT E BRAT A.

a. Embryology. page

Albrecht — Mechanics of Development 50

Sobotta, J. — Gastrulation in Ampliioxus 51

„ „ Gastrulation in Vertebrates .. 51

Adloff, P. — Development of Rodent Dentition 51

Goppert, E. — Phytogeny of Claws of Vertebrates 52

Platt, J ulia B. — Development of Cranial Region in Necturus 52

Logy, W. A. — Accessory Optic Vesicles in Chicle Embryo 53

Haller, B. — Significance of Hypophysis and Infundibular Organ 53

Tourneux, F., & P. Verdun — Thyroid , Thymus , and Parathyroid Glands .. .. 53

Brachet, A. — Pleural Cavities and Pleuro-Pericardial Membranes 54

Maas, O. — Development of Pronephros and Mesonephros in Myxine . ; 54

Felix, W. — Excretory System of Bdellostoma . . 55

Dean, Bashford — Development of Californian Hag 55

Vincent, Swale — Supra-Renal Capsules 56

Fabre-Domergue & E. Bietrix — Eggs and Law re of Marine Fishes 56

Ikeda, S. — Breeding Habit of a Japanese Tree-Frog 57

Bardeleben, K. yon — Interstitial Cells of Testis 57

Meves, Fr. — Axial Filament of Human Spermatozoa 57

Bardeleben, K. yon — Dimorphism of Spermatozoa in Mammals 57

Frankl, O., & M. Nussbaum — Path of the Spermatozoa m the Frog 58

Suchetet, Andre — Problems of Hybridisation 58

Tornier — Regeneration in Vertebrates 59

Wasmann, E. — Von Baers Philosophy 59

Duncker, Georg — Variation of Fin-Rays of Fishes 59

Hutton, F. W. — Problem of Utility 60

Waite, F. C. — Variations in the Brachial and Lumbo-Sacral Plexi of Necturus

maculosus 60

JiEKEL, O. — Pedigree of Vertebrata 61

Mayer, Paul — Spiral Fold of Selachian Intestine 62

Llano, Louis — Classification of Monstrosities 62

Hill, J. P. — Placentation of Perameles 180

MacBride, E. W. — Early Development of Amphioxus 181

Lankester, E. Ray — Development of Atrial Chamber in Amphioxus 181

Bugnion, E. — Development of Epiphysis in Reptiles 182

Andrews, E. A. — Some Activities of Polar Bodies 182

Hatta, S. — Pronephros of Lamprey 182

Kopsch, Fr. — Egg-laying of Dog-fish .. .. 182

Merkel, Fr. — Formative Forces 183

Hertwig, O. — Influence of Temperature on Development 283

Beard, J. — Birth-Period of Trichosurus vulpecula 283

Caknoy, J. B. — Fertilisation in Ascaris 284

Lenhossek, M. von — Spermatogenesis in Mammals 284

Beissner, Hans — Interstitial Substance of Testis 284

Hacker, V. — Behaviour of Reproductive Cells in Plants and Animals 284

Fulton, T. Wemyss — Maturation of Pelagic Teleostean Eggs 285

Brouha, M. — Development of Liver and Pancreas in Birds 285

Braem, F. — Epiphysis and Hypophysis in Frog 286

CONTENTS.

IX

„ PAGE

Salzer, Hans — Hypophysis of Mammals 286

Rabl, C. — Development and Structure of the Lens .. 286

Kopsch, Fr. — Development of External Form of Trout Embryo 286

McIntosh, W. C. — Fost-Larval Fierasfer 287

Sewertzoff, A. N. — Metamerism of Head in Torpedo 287

Rollinat, R. — Copulation in Ophidians 287

Le Dantec, Felix — Sex and Molecular Dissymmetry 287

Fere, Ch. — Variations in Weight of Hens' Eggs 287

Peter, Karl — Convergence in Development 287

Garbowski, T. — Theory of the Mesoderm 401

Virchow, Hs. — Yolk-Sac of Scyllium 404

Neal, H. V. — Morphology of Vertebrate Head .. .. 405

Hacker, v. — Differentiation of Sex-Cells 405

Guaita, Georg von— Crosses between Different Breeds of House-Mouse 405

Rath, Otto vom — Telegony and Maternal Impressions 406

Babor, J. Fl. — Hermaphroditism 406

Herrera, A. L. — Studies in Consanguinity 406

Gaupp, E. — Development of Lizard’s Skull 406

Fischel, A. — Regeneration of the Lens 406

Kopsch — Neurenteric Canal 407

Beard, J. — Span of Gestation and Cause of Birth 514

Eimer, G. H. Th. — Orthogenesis 515

Iwanzoff, N. — Physiological Import of Maturation 516

Carnoy, J. B., & H. Lebrun — Germinal Vesicle and Polar Bodies in Urodela .. 516

Assheton, R. — Segmentation of Ovum in Sheep 517

Bardeleben, K. von — Spermatogenesis in Man 517

Friedmann, F. — Rudimentary Ova in Frog's Testis 517

Perez, J. — Effect of Mechanical Stimulus on Unfertilised Ova of Silkmoth . . .. 517

Raspail, Xavier— Wind-Eggs 518

Verdun, P. — Fourth Visceral Cleft and Lateral Thyroid in Cat 518

Sprenger, Hs. — Development of Hedgehog’s Spines 518

Prenant, A. — Organ in Embryo Reptiles like a Hypocliorda 518

Gronroos, Hj. — Gastrula and Archenteron of Salamander 518

Winslow, G. M. — Cliondrocranium in Ichthyopsida 518

Jablonowski, J. — Early Stages in the Development of Salmonidse 519

Ussow, S. A. — Development of Teleostean Scales 519

Hahmar, J. A. — Development of Csecum in Amphioxus 519

Pearson, K. — Law of Ancestral Heredity 519

Kohlwey, H. — Formation of Breeds and Species 520

Cohn, L. — Determination of Sex 615

Rath, Otto vom — Telegony 615

Maurer, F. — Respiration in Amphibia during Metamorphosis 616

Smith, A. C. — Multiple Canals in Spinal Cord of a Chick Embryo 616

Dendy, Arthur — Development of Sphenodon 616

Brynes, E. F. — Regeneration in Frog-Embryos 616

5, Histology.

Duval, M. — Pre'cis of Histology 62

Ballowitz, E. — Sickle-shaped Nuclei and Giant-Spheres in Resting Epithelial Cells 62

Kolliker, A. von — Energids of Plants and Animals 62

Flemming, W. — Number of Chromosomes in Somatic Cells of Man 62

Retterer, Ed. — Kpithelium and Reticular Tissue 63

MacCallum, J. B. — Heart Muscle-Cells . • 63

Garnier, Charles — Appearance of Intercellular Bridges between Smooth Muscle-

Cells 63

Wolff, G. — Hypophysis in Health and Disease 63

Apathy, St. — Conducting Element in Nervous Tissue 64

Pugnat, Charles-Amedee — Spinal Ganglion- Cells of Reptiles 64

Smirnow, A. E. — Molecular Layer of Cerebellum 64

Kapelkin, W. — Minute Structure of the Lamprey's Skin 64

Mayer, O. — Ciliated Epithelium in Amphibian Larvse 65

X

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Andeer, J. J. — Ostioles . . 65

Ballowitz, E. — Electric Organs 65

Rose, C. — Hard Tissues of Vertebrates 66

Hoehl, E. — Intercellular Bridges in Muscle 183

Querton, Louis — Cell Membranes 183

Schlater, G. — Minute Structure of the Liver-Cell 183

Bischoff, C. W. — Influence of Cutting on the Growth of Hair 18 1

Ranvier, L. — Regeneration of DescemeVs Membrane 184

Malischeff, N. — Nerve-Endings in (Esophagus and Stomach of Birds 184

Herrera, A. L. — Molecular Attraction in Vital Phenomena 184

Ranvier, L. — Growth of Injured Nerves 288

Berkeley, H. J. — Effect of Poisons on Cortical Nerve-Cells 288

Kolster, R. — Peculiar Ganglion-Cells in Spinal Cord of Perch 288

Krause, K. — Optic Nerves of Fishes • * . . . . 288

Crevatin, Fr. — Electric Organ of Torpedo 288

Houssay, F. — Osmotic Phenomena in Mitosis 288

Hermann, F. — Chromatoid Bodies of Sperm-Cells 289

Michaelts, L.— Lactation 289

Michel, Aug. — Composition of Nucleoli 289

Hoffmann, R. Wolfgang — Cell- Plates and Cell-Plate Rudiments 289

Tomes, C. S. — Classification of Forms of Dentine 289

Spuler, A. — Canaliculi of Bone- Cells 289

Studnicka, F. K. — Histogenesis of Cartilage in Cyclostomes 290

Cohn, Th. — Closing Bands in Epithelium, 290

Sfameni, P. — Nerve-Endings of the Sweat-Glands 290

Ranvier, L. — Process of Cicatrisation 290

Gehuchten, A. van — Structural Changes in Nerve-Cells 290

Catois — Neuroglia of Brain in Fishes 290

Moore, B., & Swale Vincent — Supra-Renal Capsules of Teleostei 291

Farmer, J. B. — Present Position of some Cell Problems 407

Chatin, Joannes — Indirect Division 407

Ballowitz, E. — Annular Nuclei 407

„ „ Superficial Position of Central Corpuscles in Epithelial Cells .. 407

„ ,, Intermediate Body in Cell-Division 407

Henneguy, L. F. — Relation of Centrosomes to Cilia 408

Studnicka, F. K. — Cuticle and Intercellular Bridges 408

„ „ Chondrified Fibres in Connective Tissue 408

Plate, L. — Alimentary Tract of Chelone 408

Tomes, C. S. — Enamel of Elasmobranch Fishes 408

Welsh, D. A. — Parathyroid Glands 409

Studnicka, F. K. — Minute Structure of Notochord 409

Nemec, B. — Centrosomes and Nucleus " 520-

Arnold, J. — Structure of Cytoplasm 520

Buhler, A. — Structure of Nerve-Cells 521

Leydig, F. — Vascular Epithelium .. 521

Joseph, H. — So-called Vascular Epithelium 521

Kolossow, A. — Intercellular Connections in Epithelium . . . . 521

Leydig, F. — Epidermoid Structures in Mammals 521

Zimmermann, K. W. — Minute Structure of Glandular and Epithelial Tissue .. .. 522

Gardner — Histogenesis of Elastic Tissue 522

Gulland, G. Lovell — Digestive Tract of Salmon 522

Claypole, Edith J. — Comparative Histology of Digestive Tract 522

West, G. S. — Buccal and other Glands of Colubridse 523

Brodie, T. Gregor — Phosphorus-containing Substances of the Cell 523

Stilling, H. — Structure of Suprarenal Capsules 523

Reynolds, W. G. — Comparative Study of Hair 524

Loveland, A. E. — Organs of Taste 524

Mahalanobts, S. C.— Muscle-Fat in the Salmon 524

Rohde — Ganglion-cells - 616

Muller, Erik — Histology of Glands 617

Macallum, A. B. — Distribution of Phosphorus in Tissues 618

Schaffer, J. — Connections between Unstriped Muscle- Cells 618

CONTENTS.

XI

c. General. pagk

Andrews, G. F. —The Living Substance 66

Welby, F. A. — Theory of the Functions in Living Matter 66

Friedenthal, Hs. — Functions of White Blood- Corpuscles 67

Werner, Fr. — Melanism in Beptiles and Amphibians 67

Hickson, S. J. — Freshwater Fauna 67

Parker, T. Jeffery, & William A. Haswell — Text-Book of Zoology 184

Ortmann, A. E. — Germinal Variation 184

MacBride, E. W. — Relationship of Ampliioxus and Balanoglossus 185

Nakagawu, H. — A Japanese Ampliioxus 185

Boclenger, G. A. — Tailless Batrachians of Europe 185

Fischer-Sigwart, H. — Habits and Life-History of Frog 185

Reynaud, G. — Sense of Direction 186

Bles, E. J. — Openings in the Wall of the Body-Cavity in Vertebrates 186

Moore, B., & Swale' Vincent— Suprarenal Bodies 186

Hoot — Suprarenal Capsules in Lophobranch Fishes .. .. 186

Haldane, J. S. — Air-Bladder of Fishes 187

Phisalix, C. — HorneVs Venom antagonistic to Viper’s 188

Cuenot, L. — Means of Defence among Animals 291

Emery, C. — Instinct and Intelligence 291

Kronecker, H., & H. Marti — Influence of Chemical and Luminous Stimuli on

Bed Blood- Corpuscles 292

Adolphi, H. — Variations in Spinal Plexus and Sacrum of Newt 292

Phisalix, C. — Cholesterin and Bile-Salts as Vaccines against Viper’s Venom .. 292

„ „ Tyrosin as a Vaccine for Snake-Bite 292

Dastre — Function of the Liver in Delation to Iron 292

Baur, E. — Criticism of Chemical Theory of Life 292

Hesse, R. — Organs of Sight in Ampliioxus 293

Smith, G. Elliot — Origin of Corpus Callosum 293

Linsbauer, L. — Light-Limit in Water 409

Brandt, A. — Bristle-like Structures on a Shark 409

Cyon, E. de — Functions of Hypophysis Cerebri 409

Tornier, G. — Degeneration and Doubling of the Tail in Lizards 410

Moenkhaus, W. J., & C. H. Eigenmann — Studies in Variation 410

Bumpus, H. C. — Variations and Mutations of the Sparrow's Egg in America .. 410

Duncker, G. — Variability in Fishes 411

Tornier, G. — Polydactylism and Syndactylism in Mammals 411

Werner, J. — Polydactylism in Swine 411

McIntosh, W. C. — Intelligence of Fishes 411

Meerwaiith, Hermann — Coloration of Birds 412

Dastre, A., & N. Floresoo — Hepatic Pigments 412

Muller, O. — Adaptations of Bespiratory Organs in Aquatic Mammals 412

Haldane, J. S.— Secretion and Absorption of Gas in the Swimming-bladder and

Lungs 1 413

Burne, R. H. — Porus Genitalis in Myxinidse 413

Krause, W. — Sensitiveness to Light in Ampliioxus 413

Plate, L. — Petromyzont with Large Eyes 413

Vernon, H. M. — Delations betiveen Marine Animal and Vegetable Life 413

Blackwell, Elizabeth — Scientific Method in Biology 414

Morgan, C. Lloyd — Heredity and Instinct 414

Marion, A. F. — Litoral Fauna and Pisciculture at Marseilles 414

Taschenberg, 0. — Bibliotheca Zoologica 415

H^ckel, Ernst — Deaction in Zoology 415

Perrier, V.— Origin of Vertebrata 524

Osborn, H. F. — Origin of Mammals 524

Braus, H. — Theory of Limbs 524

Cole, F. J. — Cranial Nerves and Sense-Organs of Fishes 525

Baton, D. Noel — Biology of the Salmon 525

Zenneck, J. — Markings of Boidse 525

Finn, F. — Warning Colours and Mimicry 526

Newbigin, M. I. — Pigments of Muscle and Ovary in the Salmon 526

Wagner, F. von — Division and Budding among Animals 526

xiv CONTENTS.

PAGE

Bruel, L. — Genital Ducts of Calliphom 71

St. George, v. la Valette — Formation of Sex-Cells in the Silk-Moth 71

Willis, H. G. — Defensive Adaptations of Lepidopterous Larvee 72

Heymons, R. — Abdominal Appendages of Insects 72

Pagenstecher, A. — Arctic Lepidoptera 72

Karawaieyv, W. — Internal Metamorphosis of Ants 72

Verson, E. — Development of Gut in the Silk-Moth 72

Mobusz, A. — Alimentary Canal of Anthrenus Larva 73

Kulagin, N. — Development of Platygaster 73

Montgomery, T. H., Jun. — Chromatin Reduction in Spermatogenesis of Pentatoma 73

Ule, E. — Symbiosis between a Butterfly and a Flower 73

Gillanders, A. T. — Entomology of the Oak 74

Comstock, J. H., & J. G. Needham — Wings of Insects 190

Carpenter. G. H. — Geographical Distribution of Dragon-flies 190

Plateau, F. — How Floivers attract Insects 191

Dixey, F. A. — Mimetic Attraction 191

Trimen, R. — Mimicry in Insects 192

Urech, F. — Experiments as to Coloration of Butterflies 192

Dixey-, F. A. — Temperature and Modification 192

Finn, Frank — Experiments on Warning Colours 192

Pic, Maurice — Myrmecophilous Coleoptera 192

Dolbear, A. E. — Crickets as Thermometers 192

Wilcox, E. V. — Chromatic Tetrads in Spermatogenesis of Grasshopper 193

Petrunkewitsch, A. — Development of Heart in Agelastica Alni 193

Scherbakoyv, A. — Apterygota of Kiew 193

Bordage, Edmond — Lepidoptera injurious to Sugar-Cane .. .. 193

Ingenitzsky, I. — Psyche Helix 193

Marchal, Paul — Remarkable Mode of Reproduction in Encyrtus 299

Miall, L C., & others — Structure and Life-History of Phalacrocera replicata .. 299

Ihering, H. yon — New Colonies and Fungus-Gardens in Ants 299

Janet, Charles — Apparatus for keeping Ants 299

Bordas, L. — Rectum and Rectal Glands of Ortlioptera 300

Georgevitsch, Jivoca — Segmental Glands of Ocypus .. .. 300

Janet, Charles — Articular Membranes in Hymenoptera 300

Griffini, A. — Taxonomic Value of Nervures 300

Radcliffe, A. -Changes in Structure of Butterflies' Wings 300

Marchal, P. — North African Galls 301

Schneidemuhl — Life-History of (Estrid Lame 301

Rengel, C. — Casting and Regeneration of Mid- Gut Epithelium in Water-Beetles .. 301

Kempny, P. — Studies on Plecoptera 301

Wasmann, E. — Studies on Termites 301

Guercio, G. Del — Parasites of Pears 301

Tutt, J. W. — Hybridising Species of Tephrosia 419

Haviland, G. D. — Termites 420

Harris, W. H. — Teeth of Diptera 420

Dubosq, O. — Sensory Nerve- Cells of Insects .. 420

Janet, Charles— Peculiar Gland in Ants 420

Pissarew, W. J. — Heart of Hive-Bee 421

Hamann, O. — Brain of a Cave-Beetle 421

Comstock, J. H., & J. G. Needham — Venation of a Typical Insect Wing .. .. 421

Pictet, Arnold — Growth of Butterflies' Wings 421

Heymons, R. — Composition of Insect' s Head 421

Paui.mier, F. C. — Chromatin Reduction in Hemiptera 421

Heymons, R. — Development of Food-Canal in Lower Insects 422

Comstock, J. H., & J. G. Needham — Wings of Insects 532

Kenyon, F. C. — Daily and Seasonal Activity of Hive-Bees . . 533

Stoll, O. — Geographical Distribution of Ants 533

Bethe, A. — Psychical Qualities of Ants and Bees 533

Fabre,J. H. — An Insect Virus 534

Leon, N. — Cases of Myasis 534

Dixey, F. A. — Recent Experiments in Hybridisation 534

Cuenot, L.— False Homocliromism 534

Griffiths, G. C. — Frenulum of Lepidoptera 535

CONTENTS.

XV

rAGE

Marshall, G. A. K. — Seasonal Dimorphism in Freds 535

Sasaki, 0. — Affinity of Wild and Domestic Silkworms 535

Pictet, Arnold — Metamorphosis of Caterpillars 535

Berlese, A. — Metamorphosis of Muscidx 535

Wandolleck, B., & Dahl — Alleged Phytogeny of Aplianiptera 535

Bordas, L. — Defensive Glands of some Beetles 535

Johnson, W. F., & G. H. Carpenter — Larva of Pelophila 536

Frey-Gessner, E. — Drowning of a Water-Beetle 536

Berlese, A. — Spermatophagous Organ in Bed-Bug 536

Leonardi, G., & P. Buffa — Classification of Coccidx 536

Cannarsa, S. — Bare Dermatosis 536

Bessey, C. A., & E. A. — Thermometer Crickets 536

Froggatt, W. W. — Australian Termitidx 536

Cl aypole, Agnes M. — Cleavage in A pterygota 536

Janet, Charles — Myrmecophilous Animals 537

„ „ Researches of 537

Field, W. L. W. — Individual Variation in Wings of Lepidoptera 625

Sykes, M. L. — Natural Selection in Lepidoptera 625

Karawaiew, W. — Post-embryonic Development in Ants 625

Cockerell, T. D. A. — Development of Mantis 626

Nalepa, Alfred — The Genus Trimerus 626

Comstock, J. H., & J. G. Needham — Wings of Insects .. 626

Grote, A. Radcliffe — Specialisation of Lepidopterous Wing 626

Wandolleck, Benno — New Family of Diptera 627

Grassi, B. — Gnats and Malaria .. . 627

B. Myriopoda.

Verhoeff, C. — Studies on Myriopods 74

Heymons, R. — Segmentation of Myriopod Body 193

Silvestri, F. — Morphological Notes on, Diplopoda 301

„ „ New Myriopods 302

Attems, Carl Grafen— Malayan Myriopods 302

Heymons, R. — Development of Chilopoda 422

Silvestri, F. — Fertilisation in Pachyiulus communis 537

yt Frotracheata.

Willey, A. — New Species of Peripatus 302

Camerano, L. — New Species of Peripatus from Ecuador 302

Bouvier, E. L. — Distribution of Peripatus 537

„ „ New Species of Peripatus 537

5. Arachnida.

Michael, A. D.— Acari from Franz-Josef Archipelago 74

Wasmann, F. — Parasites of Ants 74

Meek, A., & R. Greig Smith— Slieep-Ticks and Louping-Ill 74

Piersig, R.— New German Hydrachnidx 75

Simon & Brielemann — Swiss Arachnids and Myriopods 75

Rywosch, T. — Pigment of Tardigrades 75

Goeldi, E. A. — Remarkable Case of Protective Resemblance 194

Jourdain, S.** — Development of Trombidion holosericeum 194

Megnin, P. — Harvest-Mites 194

Piersig, R.-^-Hydrachnida of Germany . . 194

Scourfield, D. J. — Tardigrada from Spitsbergen . 194

Wasmann, E. — Ant-eating Spider .. 302

Brandes, G. — Argas reflexus as a Human Parasite 303

Trouessart, E. — Distribution of Halacaridx 303

Carruccio, M. — Sarcoptes minor 422

Thomas, Fr. — Heliotaxis of Larval Mites 422

Piersig, R. — German Hydrachnidx 422

Berlese, A. — Agrarian Acarids .. .. .. .. 537

Brecker, A. — Mouth-Parts of Mites . . 538

Pocock, R. I. — Spider and Pitcher-Plant 538

XVI

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Kowalevsky, A. — Lymphoid Glands of Scorpion 627

Molliard, Marin — New Parasitic Mite 627

Loman, J. C. C. — African Opilionidse 627

e. Crustacea.

Garstang, W. — Respiratory Mechanism in Decapods 75

Ortmann, A. E. — Carcinological Studies 75

Bethe, A. — Nervous System of Shore- Crab 76

Pedaschenko, D. — Development of Nervous System and Sex- Cells in Lernrea bran-

chialis 76

Birge, E. A. — Vertical Distribution of Limnetic Crustacea 76

Bohn, Georges — Reversal of Respiratory Current in Decapods 194

Man, J. G. de — Malayan Decapoda and Stomatopoda 195

Scott, T. & A. — Some Rare Crustacea 195

Hansen, H. J. — Isopods of the * Albatross' Expedition 195

Benedict, J. E. — Synidotea 195

Scourfield, D. J. — Entomostraca of Plon f. 195

„ „ Non-Marine Copepoda from Spitsbergen 196

Steuer, A. — Eye of Corycxus 196

Bassett-Smith, P. W. — New Parasitic Copepods 196

Schacht, F. W. — North American Species of Diaptomus 196

Bethe, A. — Nervous System of Crab 303

Sghreiber, W. — Peripheral Nervous System of Crayfish 303

Stebbing, T. R. R. — Amphipods from Copenhagen Museum 304

Scott, T. & A. — New Copepods from the Clyde . 304

Hansen, H. J. — Choniostomatidae 304

Beecher, C. E. — Trilobites and Crustaceans 304

Holmgren, E. — Peripheral Nervous System 422

Milne-Edwards, A., & E. L. Bouvier —Distribution of Deep-Sea Brachyura and

Anomnra 423

Sciiuchert, C. — Fossil Apodidee 423

Bonnier, Jules — New Gall-making Copepod 423

Calman, W. T. — Deep-Sea Crustacea from the South-West of Ireland 423

CoutiIjre, H. — Poecilogony in Alpheus minor 538

Bassett-Smith, P. W. — New Parasitic Copepods on Fishes 538

Lonnberg, E. — Parastacus 538

Sars, G. O. — South African Phyllopods from Dried Mud 539

Kimus, J. — Minute Structure of Gills 628

Woltereck, Richard — Parthenogenetic Cypridse 628

Annulata.

Cuenot, L. — Physiology of Oligochsttes 76

Hepke, Paul — Regeneration in the Naidee 77

Boch, Max von — Budding of Chxtogaster 77

Caullery & F. Mesnil — Branching Annelid 78

Lewis, M. — New Species of Clymene 78

Kowalevsky, A. — Acanthobdella peledina 78

Mesnil, Felix — New Capitellid 79

Kowalevsky, A. — Physiological Experiments with Clepsine 79

Korschelt, E. — Regeneration in Earthworms 196

Michel, Aug. — Origin of Setigerous Bulbs and Nephridia in Annelids 196

Darboux, G. — Cirroplioreof Polynoidse 197

McIntosh, W. O. — Irish Annelids 197

Herdman, W. A., & others — New British Ecliinuroid 197

Lankester, E. Ray — Chxtopterin 197

Michaelsen, W. — Earthworms of Madagascar Region 304

Eisen, G. — Supposed Auditory Cells in Pontoscolex 304

Hacker, V. — Pelagic Polychxte Larvse 305

De St. Joseph — Polychseta of French Coast 305

Fauvel, Pierre — Ampharetidse 305

Caullery, Maurice, & Felix Mesnil — Spirorbis 305

Apathy, S. — Neck- Glands of Leech 306

CONTENTS.

XVII

PAGE

Gamble, F. W., & J. H. Ashworth— Structure of Lug-Worm 424

Gravier, Ch. — Brain of Glycera 425

Darboux, G. — Elytra of Aphroditidx 425

Akira Jizuka — New Species of Litoral Oligochxta 425

Koule, Louis — Annelids of ‘ Travailleur ’ and 6 Talisman ’ Expeditions 425

Schneider, G. — Phagocytic Organs in Earthworms 425

Friedl^nder, P. — So-called Palolo- Worm 426

Incubation of the Skate-Leech 426

Kunstler, J., & A. Gruvel — Urns of Sipunculus 426

Wilson, E. 13. — Cell-Lineage in Annelids and Polyclades 539

Lewis, M. — Nervous System of Polychxta 539

Hamaker, J. J. — Nervous System of Nereis 540

Picton, L. J. — Heart-Body and Ccelomic Fluid in Polychxta 540

Gilson, G. — Owenia 540

M‘Intosh, W. C. — Notes on Annelids 541

Mesnil, F., & Caullery — Epitokous and Polymorphic Forms of Dodecaceria con-

charum 541

Soulier, Albert — Early Stages in Development of Serpulidx 541

Gravier, Ch. — Proboscis of Glyceridx 541

Hescheler, K. — Regeneration in Earthworms 541

Michel, A. — Development of Nephridia of Earthworm in Regeneration and in

Ontogeny 542

Michaelsen, W. — Chilian Earthworms 542

Mesnil, F., & M. Caullery — Viviparity in an Annelid 629

Lambert, Ada M. — Structure of an Australian Land-Leech 629

Bayer, Emil — Histology of Rynchobdellidx 629

Garbini, A. — New Species of Pristina . . 630

Koule, Louis — Abyssal Sipunculids . . 630

Sluiter, C. Ph. — South African Gephyreans 630

N ematohelminthes .

Graham, J. W. — Life-History of Trichina 79

Spengel, J. W. — Excretory Cells of Ascarids 80

Fritsch, G. — Vitality of Young Round- Worms 197

Nassonov, N. — Terminal Organs of Excretory Canals in Ascarids 198;

Jagerskiold, L. A. — (Esophageal Gland of Nematodes 198

Linstow, von — Life-History of Gordius 309-

„ „ Nematodes from Madagascar 309

„ „ New Nematodes from Bismarck Archipelago 427

Metalnikoff, S. — Excretion in Ascaris 427

Nassonow, N. — Endo-Parasites of Hyrax 428

Furst, E. — Centrosomes in Ascaris megalocephala 543

Montgomery, T. H., J un. — American Gordiacea 543

Nassonow, N. — Phagocytic Structures in Strongylus armatus 543

Rotstadt, J. — Eustrongylus gigas in Dogs 543

Cobb, N. A. — Introduction to Study of Nematode Parasites 630

Montgomery, Thos. H. — New Species of Gordiacea 631

Stossich, M. — Filaria and Spiroptera 631

Platyhelminth.es.

Joubin, L. — Nemertea 80-

Fuhrmann, O. — New Tapeworm 80

Ward, H. B. — Txnia confusa 80

Luhe, M. — Bothriocephalus Zschokkei 80

Blochmann, F. — Epithelium of Cestodes .. .. 80

Zykoff, W. — Russian Turbellaria 80

Plessis, G. du — Swiss Turbellaria 80‘

Woodworth, W. McM. — New Turbellaria .. . 81

Haswell, W. A. — New Prorhynchid Turbellarian 198

Muhling, P. — New Parasites 198

Shipley, A. E. — New Tapeworm in a Bird 198

Fuhrmann, O. — Turbellaria of Concarneau 309“

1898 b

xvm

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Sonsino, P. — Larval Trematodes in Gastropod Hosts 310

* „ „ Helminthological Notes 310

Linton, E. — Trematode Parasites of Fishes 310

Sabussow, H. — Minute Structure of Genital Organs in Trixnophorus 310

Linton, E. — Gestodes of Fishes 310

Ward, H. B. — Parasites of Birds 310

Rosseter, T. B. — Tapeworms of Ducks 310

Luhe, M. — Musculature of Dihothria 310

Wolffhugel, K. — Gonads of Tienia polymorpha 311

Mueller, A. — Helminthological Notes 311

Francaviglia, M. C. — Helminthological Notes 428

Muhling, P. — Helminths in Vertebrates of East Prussia 428

Stiles, C. W. — Adult Tapeworms of Hares and Babbits 428

Mrazek, Al. — Archigetes 428

Cerfontaine, Paul — Dactylocotyle 428

„ „ Merizocotyle 428

Rosseter, T. B. — Beproductive Organs of Drepanidotxnia venusta 428

Randolph, H., & O. Fuhrmann — Regeneration in Planarians 429

Woodworth, W. McM. — New Planarians 429

Lonnberg, E. — Phytogeny of Cestodes 543

Francaviglia, M. C., & others —Helminthological Notes 544

Holzberg, F. — Gonads of some Species of Taenia 544

Miura, K, & F. Yamazaki — Taenia nana 514

Guyer, M. F. — Structure of Taenia confusa Ward 631

Odhner, T. — Stichocotyle Nephropis 631

Bohmig, Ludwig — Anatomy and Histology of Nemertines 631

Incertae Sedis.

Harmer, S. F., & Masterman — Notochord of Cephalodiscus 81

Schultz, E. — Development of Mesoderm in Phoronis 81

Simroth, H. — Plankton Brachiopods 82

Wheeler, W. M. — Development of Myzostoma glabrum 82

Willey, A. — New Genus of Enteropneusta 199

Kostanecki, K. — Fertilisation in Myzostoma 199

Beard, J. — Sexual Conditions of Myzostoma glabrum 429

Hill, J. P. — Enteropneusta of Funafuti 544

Calvet, Louis — Larval Development of Cheilostomata 632

„ „ Origin of Polypide in Marine Ectoprocla 632

Rotatoria.

Kellicott, D. S. — Rotifera of Sandusky Bay 83

Bryce, David — Rotifera from Spitzbergen 83

Rousselet, C. F. — Male of Proales Wernecki 83

Weber, E. F. — New Male Rotifers 84

Shephard, J. — Lacinularia elliptica , a new Rotifer 84

Erlanger, R. v., & R. Lauterborn — Early Development of Rotifers .. .. .. 84

Lenssen — Sporozoic Parasites in a Rotifer 84

Sadone — Impregnation of the Ova of Hydatina Senta 199

Zacharias, O. — Researches on the Plankton of Ponds 306

Nussbaum, M. — Determination of Sex in Hydatina senta 306

Lauterborn, R. — Cyclic Reproduction in Rotifers 308

D ad ay— Rotatoria of New Guinea 308

Wesenberg-Lund — Danish Rotifera 309

Stenroos, K. E. — Fauna of the Nurmijdrvi Lake 426

Rousselet, C. F. — Some little-known Pterodinx 4z7

Mrazek, Al. — Development of Asplanchna 427

Calman, W. T. — Asplanchna in Britain 542

Daday, E. v. — Rotifera of Ceylon 542

Calman, W. T. — Reproduction in the Rotifera 543

Weber, E. F. — Rotatoria of the Basin of the Lake of Geneva 630

Skorikow, A. — New Rotifer, Monostyla appendicidata .. .. 630

CONTENTS.

XIX

Echinoderma. pagb

Mitchell, J. — Upper Silurian Palxchinus 85

Loriol, P. de —Fossil Echinoids 85

Stone, Ellen A. — Function of Pyloric Cxca in Starfish 200

Ludwig, H. — Development of Phyllophorus urna 200

Ostergren, Hjalmar — Notes on Dendrochirota 200

Mitsukuri, K. — Sphxrothuria bitentaculata in Japanese Seas 200

List, Th. — Protein Crystalloids in Nuclei of Amcebocytes 200

Erlanger, R. von — Fertilisation and Cleavage of Echinoid Ovum 311

Ludwig, H. — Mediterranean Species of Synapta 311

Ostergren, Hjalmar — Groivth-Changes in Integumentary Skeleton of Holothurians 311

Jaekel, O. — Alimentary Tract of Pelmatozoa t 430

Dendy, A. — Anal Papillae of Caudina coriacea 430

Ostergren, Hjalmar— Classification of Synaptidx 430

Clark, H. L. — Synapta vivipara 430

Cuenot, L. — Protandric Hermaphroditism of Asterina gibbosa 431

Agassiz, A. — Echini of the ‘ Albatross * 544

Perrier, Remy — Holothuroidea of the ‘ Travailleur ’ and ‘ Talisman ’ 545

Ludwig, H. — Chilian Holothuroids 545

Osborn, H. L. — Variation in Ambulacra l System 545

M‘Intosh, W. C. — Larval Stage of Luidia 545

Vernon, H. M. — Hybrid Echinoid Larvae 545

Sluiter, C. Ph. — Amputation of Disc-covering in Ophiurids 632

Coelentera.

Goette, A. — Development of Scyphopolypes 85

Carlgren, Oscar — Development of Mesenteries in Actinix 86

Koch, G. von — Development of Caryophyllia cyathus 87

Potts, E. — American Fresh-water Jelly-fish 201

Con ant, F. S. — Notes on Cubomedusx 201

Duerden, J. E. — Irish Hydroids 201

Hickson, S. J. — Distribution of Millepora 201

Gronberg, Gosta — Tubularia indivisa 201

Ruedemann, R. — Recent Progress in the Study of Graptolites 202

Peebles, H. — Experiments on Hydra 311

Schneider, K. C. — Classification of Siphonophora 312

Driesch, Hans — Regenerative Phenomena in Tubularia 312

Bonnevie, Kristine — New Hydroids 312

Zykoff, W. — Movements of Hydra 431

Wetzel, G. — Grafting Experiments on Hydra 431

Agassiz, A., & A. G. Mayer — Dactylometra 432

Browne, E. T. — Keeping Medusx alive 432

Con ant, F. S. — Cubomedusx 432

Agassiz, A., & A. G. Mayer — Some Medusx from Australia 433

Kwietniewski, C. R. — Actiniaria from East Spitzbergen 433

Bernard, H. M. — Studies on Madrepnraria 433

Fischel, A. — Experiments on Ctenophore Eggs 434

Giard, A. — Peculiar Phenomena of Growth and Reproduction in Campanidaria .. 546

Nutting, C. C. — Sarcosiyles of Plumularidx 546

Chun, C. — Law of Budding in Pliysophora 546

Farquhar, H. — New Zealand Actiniaria 546

Montioelli, F. S. — Larva of Edwardsia claparedii 546

M‘Murrich, J. Pl. — Irregularities in Number of Directive Mesenteries in Hexac -

Unix 546

Gronberg, Gosta — Arctic Hydromedusx 633

Mark, E. L. — New Actinarian 633

May, Walther — Alcyonaria from Spitzbergen 633

Ashworth, J. H. — Structure of Xenia 633

Porifera.

Blackburn, W. — Lacework Sponge . . . . 87

Breitfuss, L. L. — New Calcareous Sponge 87

b 2

XX

CONTENTS.

TA.GK

Garbini, A. — Spongillids of Lago di Garda 202

Minchin, E. A. — Spicules of Clathrinidse 312

Loisel, G. — Fibres of Reniera 314

Petr, Fr. — Parenchyma- Spicules of Spongillidae 314

Lendenfeld, R. von — Zanzibar Sponges 314

Breitfuss, L. L. — Calcareous Sponges of Spitzbergen 434

„ „ Portuguese Calcarea 434

Lindgren, Nils Gustaf — Malayan and Chinese Sponges 434

Thiele, J. — Pacific Sponges 434

Delage, Y., & E. Perrier — Position of Sponges 434

Maas, O. — Germinal Layers in Oscarella 435

Ijima, J. — Classification of Rossellidae 547

Breitfoss, L. L. — Calcareous Sponges from Chili 547

Bidder, G. P. — Calcareous Sponges 033

Breitfuss, L. L. — Calcareous Sponges from the White Sea 634

Protozoa.

Prowazek, S. — Coloration of Living Protozoa 87

Doflein, Fr. — Notes on the Protozoa 87

Frenzel, J. — New Freshwater Protist 87

Jones, T. Rupert, & F. Chapman — Ramulina 88

Borgert, A. — Parasites of Sticholonche and the Acanthometridie 88

Porter, James F. — Protozoan Parasites of 2 er mites 89

Maclallum, W. G. — Haematozoan Infections of Birds and Man .. 89

Delage, Y., & E. Heuouard — Text-Book on the Protozoa " .. 203

Frenzel, J. — Argentine Protozoa 203

Prowazek, S. — Studies on Amoebae 203

Scourfield, D. J. — Fresh-water Rhizopods from Spitsbergen 203

Lauterborn, R. — Two new Protozoa 203

Lindner, G. — Protozoa of Pontine Marshes 204

Caullery, Maurice, & Felix Mesnil — New Ccelomic Gregarine 204

Behla, R. — Amoebae from a Medical Point of View 314

Zschokke, F. — Myxosporidia in Coregonus 314

Sjobring, Nils — Coccidia of Passeres 315

Lowit, M. — Presence of Protozoa in the Blood and Organs of Leuhhaemic Persons.. 315
Piana, G. P., & A. Fiorentini — Pathogenic Protozoa of Foot and Mouth Disease.. 315
Reed, W. — Amoeboid Bodies in the Blood of Vaccinated Monkeys and Children , and 315

in the Blood of cases of Variola 315

France, R. — Protozoa of the Balaton Lake 435

Kunstler, J. — Modifications in Protozoa 435

Chapman, F. — New Genus of Forarninifera 435

Mrazek, Al. — New Sporozoon from Lirnnodrilus 436

Smith, J. C. — Spore-Formation in Amoeba villosa 517

Silvestri, A. — Adriatic Forarninifera 547

Rhumbler, L. — Fertilisation-Processes in Rhizopods 547

Hertwig, R. — Conjugation and Karyokinesis in Actinosphaerium 547

Vinassa de Regny, P. E. — Fossil Radiolarians 548

Dreyer, F. — Peneroplis 548

Sand, R. — New Infusorian Genus 548

Graffe, E. — Deep-water Deposits from the Red Sea 634

Sterki, V. — Classification of Ciliata 634

Garbini, A. — Licnophora 634

Reinke, J.— Luminosity of Ceratium Tripos 634

Caullery. Maurice, & Felix Mesnil — A New Gregarine 635

Grasset, E. — Haematozoon of Goitre 635

Sand, Rene — Fxosporidium marinum 635

CONTENTS. xxi

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. page

Strasburger, E. — Structure of Cytoplasm 90

Kohl, F. G. — Continuity of Protoplasm in Guard-cells and Moss-leaves 90

Mottier, D. M., & others — Nuclear Division in Pollen-mother-cells 90

Kamerling, Z. — Biology and Physiology of the Cell-wall 91

- Guignard, L. — Centrosomes in Plants 205

Arthur, J. C. — Movement of Protoplasm in Coenocytic Hyphse 205

Ewart, A. J. — Relations of Chloroplastid and Cytoplasm 206

Gardiner, W. — Histology of the Cell-wall 206

Dixon, H. N. — Tensile Strength of Cell-walls 207

Webber, H. J. — Blepharoplast and Centrosomes 316

Swingle, W. T. — New Organs of the Plant-Cell 316

NfiMEC, B. — Cytology of the Growing Point 316

Amadei, G. — Fusiform Proteid Substances in the Balsaminese 316

Duggar, B. M. — Archespore and Nucleus of Bignonia 317

Mottier, D. M. — Chromosomes in the Development of the Pollen-Grains of Allium 318

Chodat, R. — Protoplasmic Sac 318

Nemec, B. — Development of the Achromatic Nuclear -division Figure in the Vegeta-
tive and Reproductive Tissues 437

Pirotta, R., & L. Buscalioni — Multinucleated Vascular Elements in the Dios-

coreacese 437

Loew, O. — Protoplasm and Active Albumen 437

Lidforss, B. — Histology of the Vegetable Nucleus 549

Cavara, F. — Structure of the Nucleus 549

Belajeff, W. — Reduction- Division of the Vegetable Nucleus 550

Stevens, W. C. — Kinoplasm and Nucleole in the Division of Pollen-mother-cells . . 550

Belajeff, W. — Blepharoplasts in Spermatogenous Cells 550

Schaefer, K. L. — Reaction of Protoplasm to Thermal Irritation 551

Kohl, F. G. — Form of the Cell-Nucleus 636

Heidenhain, M. — Streaming of Protoplasm 636

Longo, B. — Chromatolysis of the Nucleus 636

Chodat, R., & A. M. Boubier — Plasmolysis and the Protoplasmic Membrane . . . . 637

Strasburger, E. — Structure of the Cell-ioall 637

(2) Other Cell-contents (including1 Secretions).

Hebert, A. — Composition of the Sap 92

Lutz, L. — Localisation of Amygdalin and Emulsin in Eriobotrya 92

Mangin, L. — Production of Gum in the Sterculiacese 92

Vines, S. H. — Proteolytic Enzymes of Nepenthes 207

Macchiati, L., & L. Buscalioni — “ Encapsuling ” of Starch-grains 207

Passerini, N. — Sorghin and Sorgliorubin 207

Rosenberg, O. — Cell- Wall Mucilage 318

Mobius, M. — Wax as an Excretion within the Cell 318

Kohl, F. G. — Chlorophyll and its Derivatives 438

Mirande, M. — Calcium Malate and Malophospliate in Plants 438

Lutz, L. — Gum of Canna 438

Passerini, N. — Gum in Elm-galls 438

Raciborski, M. — Leptomin, a new Cell-content of Leptome 551

Gruss, J. — Oxydases and the Guaiacum Reaction 551

Went, F. A. F. C. — Saccharose and Glucose in Sugar-cane 552

Guerin, G. — New Organic Substance in Woody Tissue 552

Lidforss, B. — Peculiar Cell-contents in Potamogeton prselongus 552

Hahn, M., & L. Geret — Proteolytic Enzyme of Yeast Extract 552

Suzuki, U. — Active Albumin in Reserve-material 638

xxu

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Kruch, O. — Spheroids and Crystalloids in Phytolacca 638

Wallin, G. S. — Tannin-like Drops in the Cell-sap of the Leaves of Bromeliaceae .. 638

Schulze, E. — Distribution of Glutamin in Plants 638

Salter, J. H. — Structure of Starch-grains 639

Stoklasa, J. — Arsenic in Plants 639

Bourquelot, E., & H. Herissey — Ferment in Barley 639

Parkin, J. — Raphids in Monocotyledons 639

Biffen, R. H. — Coagulation of Latex 640

Willox, E. M. — Reserve-material in Deciduous Trees 640

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Kattein, A.. — Central Cylinder of the Root 92

Chauveaud, G. — Development of Primary Sieve-Tubes 93

Le( er, L. J. — Development of the Phloem-Elements in Vascular Bundles . . .. 93

Kunkele, T. — Vascular Bundles in the Pith of Alnus 93

Kolpin-Ravn, F. — Rudimentary Silicified Cystoliths in the Loranthacex .. .. 93

Fedde, F. — Anatomy of Solanacese 93

Baranetzky, J. — Development of the Growing Point in the Stem of Monocotyledons 207

Perrot, E. — Anatomy of the Aquatic Gentianacese 208

„ „ Sieve-Tissue outside the Phloem and Vascular Tissue outside the

Xylem 208

Anderson, A. P. — Effect of JEcidium elatinum on Abies balsamea 208

Bunting, Martha — Formation of Cork-tissue in the Roots of the Rosacex .. .. 318

Thompson, Caroline — Internal Phloem in Gelsemium sempervirens 319

Herbert, H. — Anatomy of the Hippomanese 319

Jeffrey, E. C. — Central Cylinder of Vascular Plants 438

Pirotta, R., & L. Buscalioni — Or/gin of the Vascular Elements in the Growing

Point of the Root of Monocotyledons 439

Vidal, L. — Vascular Bundles in the Receptacle of the Labiatse 439

Chauveaud, G. — Formation of Sieve- Tubes in the Roots of Monocotyledons .. .. 439

Mirande, M. — Laticiferous Tubes and Sieve-Tubes of Cuscuta 440

Nestler, A. — Mucilage- Cells of the Malvaceae 440

Longo -Mucilage-Cells of Opuntia 440

Aresuhoug, F. W. C. — Fundamental Tissue of the Leaf 552

Devaux — Formation and Structure of Lenticels 553

Montemartini, L. — Assimilating Tissue of Polygonum Sieboldii 553

Daguillon, A. — Alterations in the Tissue produced by a Parasite 553

Worsdell, W. C. — Comparative Anatomy of the Cycadese 640

Briosi, G., & F. Tognini — Anatomy of the Hemp 640

Bukgerstein, A. — Wood of Pomeae 641

Parkin, J. — Absciss-layer in the Leaves of Monocotyledons 641

Nottberg, P. — Resin-galls of the Abietineae 641

(4) Structure of Organs.

Lang, W. H. — Microsporange of Stangeria 94

Langdon, F. E. — Pollen of Asclepias 94

Tschiroh, A., & others — Structure of Seeds 94

Chi ster, Grace D. — Stomates on Petals and Stamens 95

Anderson, A. P. — Stomates on the Bud-Scales of Abies 95

Vines, S. H. — Pitcher-Plants 95

Haberlandt, G. — Eydathodes 95

Groom, P. — Leaves and Scales of Lathraea 96

Dingler, W. — Phenomena of Torsion 96

Figdor, W. — Causes of Anisophylly 96

Scott, D. H. — Peduncle of Cycadeae .. .. 96

Trimble, H., & E. S. Bastin — Structure of American Conifers 96

Wachter, W. — Morphology of Aquatic Plants 97

Briquet, .J, — Anatomy of Phrymaceae, Stilbo'ideae, Chloantho'ideae, and Myoporaceae . . 97

Delpino, F. — Dimorphism of Ranunculus Ficaria 97

Gwynne-Vaughan, D. T. — Morphology and Anatomy of the Nymphaeaceee . . .. 97

Holm, T. — Morphology and Anatomy of Obolaria.. 98

Dalmer, M. — Morphology of Ilex and Cakile 98

Heinricher, E., & von Wettstein — Green Ilemi-Parasites 209

CONTENTS. xxiii

PAGE

Ricome, H. — Polymorphism of the Branches of an Inflorescence 209

Lubbock, Sir John — Buds and Stipules 210

Shull, G. H. — Disguises in Bud Arrangement 210

Chatin, A. — Fibrovascular Bundles of Leaves 211

Candolle, C. de — Peltate Leaves 211

Moebius — Leaves of Ficus 211

Gilkinet, A. — Defences of Plants 211

Winter, A. P. — Bulb of Erythronium 211

Janczewski, E. de — Boot of Anemone 212

Chauveaud, G. — Boot of Hydrocharis 212

Hansgirg, A. — Biology and Morphology of Pollen 319

Weberbauer, A. — Capsular Fruits 319

Sohively, Adeline — Fruit of Amphicarpxa 320

Chatin, A. — Fibrovascular Bundles of Leaves 320

Meissner, R. — Size of the Leaves of Conifers 320

Grout, A. J. — Adventitious Buds on Leaves of Drosera 320

Clothier, G. L. — Propagating Boots in Iponuea 320

Wilson, Lucy L. W. — Structure of Conopholis americana 321

Fatta, G. — Flower of Deherainia . . . . 440

Boldt, C. E. — Epiphyllous Flowers of Cliirita hamosa 441

Y idal, L. — Pistil and Fruit of the Caprifoliacex 441

Delpino, F. — Dichroism in Plants 441

Keller, R. — Adaptation of Land-Plants to Existence in Water 441

Poulsen, V. A. — Extra-Floral Nectaries 441

Potonie, H. — Leaf and Stem 442

Reinke, J.— Assimilating Organs of the Asparageec 442

Wollen weber, E. — Floating Leaves 442

Rowlee, W. W. — Lodicules of Grasses 442

Bessey, C. E. — Chimney-shaped Stomates 442

Holm, T. — Pyrola aphylla 443

Yochting, H. — Teratology of Flowers 553

Spanjer, O., & others— Hydathodes . . .. 554

Copeland, E. P. — Size of the Leaves of Conifers 554

Brunotte, C. — Double Boot-cap of Tropseolum 554

Warburg, O. — Structure of Myristicacese 554

Teodoresco, E, C. — Influence of Carbon Dioxide on the Form and Structure of

Plants 641

Thibaut — Male Organs of Gymnosperms 642

Worsdell, W. C. — Sporophyll of Cycadese 642

Ramann, E. — Composition of Pollen 643

Zschokke, A. — Protection of Fruit against Parasitic Fungi 643

Chatin, A. — Fibrovascular Bundles of Leaves . . 643

Lloyd, F. E. — Hypertrophied Bud-Scales in Pinus 643

Wiesner, J.— Aerial Boots of Tseniophyllum 644

Keller, R. — Adaptation of Land-Plants to Existence in Water 644

B. Physiology.

Cl) Reproduction and Embryology.

Strasburger, E., & W. Belajeff — Fertilisation 98

Webber, H. J. — Fertilisation of Zamia and Salisburia 98

Coulter, J. M. — Pollen-Grains and Antipodal Cells 99

Bcsoalioni, L. — Endosperm and Suspensor of Lupinus 99

Meehan, T., & others — Cross-Pollination and Self-Pollination 99

Briquet, J. — Pollination of Erythronium 100

Molliard — Determination of Sex in the Hemp 100

Mottier, D. M. — Behaviour of the Nuclei in the Development of the Embryo-sac

and in Impregnation 212

Tieghem, P. Yan — Embryo of Graminex*and Cyperacese 213

Celakovsky, L. — Homology of the Embryo of Grasses 213

Arcangeli, G. — Germination of Pollen-grains 214

Knuth, P. — Pollination by Bats 214

Gerard, R. — Pollination of Composites, Campanulacex , and Lobeliacese 214

XXIV

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Arcangeli, G. — Flowering of Arum pictum 215

Tieghem, P. van — New Case of Basigamy 321

Coulter, J. M. — Embryology of Ranunculus 321

Longo, B. — Embryogeny of Rosacea and Calycanthacese 322

Pritzel, E. — Embryo and Endosperm in the Parietales 322

Campbell, D. H. — Embryology of Naias and Zannicliellia 322

Wiegand, K. M. — Embryology of Potamogeton 323

Preda, A. — Embryo-sac of Hybrid Narcissi 323

Swingle, W. T. — Theories of Heredity 323

Goldflus, M. — Embryology of Composite 443

Campbell, D. H. — Development of the Embryo in Lilsea subulata 443

Ganong, W, F. — Polyembryony in Opuntia 444

Ikeno, S. — Centrosome-like Body in the Pollen-tube of Cycadeze 444

Ekstam, O., & others — Cross-Pollination and Self-Pollination 444

Saunders, W. — Experiments on Hybridising 445

Linton, E. T. — Hybridisation of Willows 445

Gagnepain, F. — Hybrid between Lychnis diurna and L. vesperiina 445

MacMillan, C. — Orientation of the Plant-Egg 555

Treub, M. — Structure of the Female Organ and Apogamy in Balanophora .. .. 555

Lyon, Florence M. — Embryogeny of Euphorbia :. 556

Smith, W. R. — Embryogeny of the Pontederiacese 556

Knuth, P., & others — How Flowers attract Insects 556

Gerber, C. — Pollination of Cistus 557

Seurat, L. G. — Pollination of the Cactacess 557

Juel, H. O., & E. L. Greene — Parthenogenesis in Antennaria 557

Blackman, V. H. — Fertilisation in Pinus 644

Lotsy, J. P. — Embryology of Gnetum , 645

Peters, C. A. — Embryology of Drosera 645

Rowlee, W. W., & M. \V. Doherty — Embryo of Indian Corn.. .. 645

Johow, J. — Ornithophilous Flowers , .. 646

Webb, R. J., & others — Cross-pollination and Self-pollination 646

Abbado, M. — Hybridism 647

Knuth’s Handbook to the Biology of Floicers 647

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and
Movements of Fluids).

Kny, L. — Dependence of the Chlorophyll-Function on the Chromatophores and the

Cytoplasm 101

Daniel, L. — Mixed Grafts 101

Laurent, J. — Absorption of Organic Matters by Roots .. 101

Atkinson, G. F. — Influence of the Rbntgen Rays on Vegetation 101

Kohl, F, G. — Assimilating Energy of Blue Light 101

Dassonville — Action of Mineral Salts on the Structure of the Lupin 102

Wollny, E. — Influence of Atmospheric Precipitation on the Growth of Plants .. 102

Escombe, F. — Germination of Seeds 102

Czapek, F. — Conduction of Organic Food-Materials in Plants 215

Ewart, A. J. — Effects of Tropical Insolation 215

Townsend, C. O. — Correlation of Growth under the Influence of Injuries .. .. 216

Darwin, F. — Hygroscopic Function of Stomates 216

Heller, R. — Influence of Electric Currents on the Lower Organisms 216

Copeland, E. B. — Relation of Nutrient Salts to Turgor 217

Brown, H. T., & F. Escombe — influence of Low Temperatures on the Germinative

Power of Seeds 217

Thomas, M. B. — Periodicity of Root-Pressure 217

Devaux, M. H. — Aeration of the Trunks of Trees 217

Lopriore, G. — Action of Organic Acids on Groivth 323

Maldiney & Thouvenin — Influence of the Rbntgen Rays on Germination .. .. 324

Wiesner, J. — Germination of the Mistletoe 324

Rosenberg, O. — Transpiration of Halophytes 324

Mayer, A. — Movement of the Sap in Plants 324

Lopriore, G. — Action of the Rbntgen Rays on the Protoplasm of the Living Cell .. 445

Lutz, L. — Nitrogenous Nutrition of Plants 446

CONTENTS.

XXV

PAGE

Jodin, F. V. — Germination of Seeds 44G

Tolomei, G. — Influence of Electricity on Germination 446

Gtjppy, H. B. — Germination of the Seeds of Aquatic Plants 446

Heinricher, E. — Germination of Lathraea 446

Passerini, N. — Effects of Water at different Temperatures on the Germination of

the Olive 446

Bessey, C. E. — Functions of Stomates 446

Haberlandt, G. — Transpiration in a Moist Tropical Climate 447

Dangeard, A. — Influence of Nutrition on the Evolution of Plants 557

Loew, O. — Function of Calcium Salts 558

Kny, L., & A. J. Ewart — Power of Isolated Chlorophyll-grains to give out Oxygen 558

Rimpach, A. — Growth of Lilium Martagon 558

Sokolowa, C. — Growth of Boot-hairs and Rhizoids 558

Dassonville, C. — Influence of Mineral Salts on the Form and Structure of Plants 647

Czapek, F. — Conducting-path of Organic Substances 648

Suzuki, U. — Function of Leaves 648

Ramann, E. — Passage of Food-material into and from the Leaves 648

Darwin, F. — Functions of Stomates 649

Suzuki, U. — Assimilation of Nitrates in the Dark 649

Petersen, 0. G. — Growth of Boots 649

Wacker, J. — Influence of the Surrounding Medium on the Growth of Boots .. . . 649

Daniel, L. — Grafting of the Wild on the Cultivated Carrot 650

Nestler, A. — Exudation of Drops from Leaves 650

(3) Irritability.

Pampaloni, L. — Geocarpism <tf Morisia hypogxa 102

Pollock, J. B. — Curvature of Boo's 102

Czapek, F. — New Property of Geotropically Irritated Boots 324

Celakovsky, L. — Aerotropism in a Saprolegniaceous Fungus 325

Bonnier, G. — Movements of the Sensitive Plant in Water 447

Sohwendener, S. — Sensitive Cushions of Phaseolus and Oxalis 447

Schober, A. — Belationsliip of Secondary Boots to the Vertical 447

Jost, L. — Nyctitropic Movements 559

Schaffner, J. H. — Nutation of the Sunflower 559

Macdougal, D. T. — Tendrils of Entada scandens 560

Yochting, K. — Influence of Low Temperatures on the Direction of Shoots . . . . 560

Steinbrinck, C. — Contraction-Movements of Anther-lobes, Sporanges, and Moss-leaves 560

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Palladine, W. — Formation of Chlorophyll 103

Gerber, C. — Transformation of Saccharine Substances into Oil 103

Suzuri, U., & E. Godlewski — Formation of Proteids by Leaves 103

Godlewski, E., & F. Polzeniusz — Production of Alcohol in Respiration .. .. 104

Puriewitsch, K. — Emptying of the Contents of Beserve-Beceptacles 218

Sablon, Leclerc du — Digestion of the Endosperm of the Date 218

„ „ Oleaginous Beserve- Substances of the Walnut 218

Reinitzer, F. — Enzyme of Barley 218

Green, J. R., & A. Stavenhagen — Alleged Alcoholic Enzyme in Yeast 219

Babcock, S. M., & H. L. Russell — Unorganised Ferments in Milk 219

Zaleski, W. — Formation of Albumen in Plants 325

Newcombe, F. C.— Cellulose-Enzyme 325

Semal, O. — Ammoniacal Fermentation due to Mucedinese 325

Gerber, C. — Ripening of Fleshy Fruits 447

Wieler, A. — Formation of Wood from Reserve-Material 448

Gbuss, J. — Formation of Cane-Sugar out of Dextrose 448

Green, J. R. — Yeast and Alcoholic Fermentation 449

Iensen, O. — Formation of Holes in Emmenthal Cheese 448

Pfeffer, W. — Functional Metabolism in the Plant 561

Coupin, H. — Influence of Sodium and Magnesium Salts on the Growth of Plants .. 561

Brown, H. J., & F. Escombe — Depletion of the Endosperm of Barley during

Germination 561

Escombe, F. — Chemical Processes in the Germination of Seeds 561

XXVI

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Burlakow, G. — Respiration of the Embryo of Wheat 562

Tolomei, G. — Soluble Ferment in Wine 562

Jacobi, B. — Formation of Albuminoids 650

Wehrmann, C. — Action of Diastase on Venom 650

7* General.

Bessey, C. E. — Phytogeny and Taxonomy of Angiosperms 219

Ewart, A. J. — Resistance of Plants to Desiccation 219

Vines, S. H. — Metamorphosis in Plants 325

Bela jeff, W. — Relationship of Phanerogams and Cryptogams 326

Curtis, C. C. — Evolution of Assimilative Tissue in Sporophytes 326

Chamberlain, G. — Winter Characters of Sporanges 326

Chodat, R. — Lacustrine Biology 562

Lemmermann, E.— Flora of Trout-tanhs 562

Coupin, H. — Resistance of Seeds to Immersion in Water 563

Macloskie, G. — Heat of Germinating Seeds 563

Farmer, J. B., & A. D. Waller — Action of Anaesthetics on Vegetable and Animal

Protoplasm 563

Crepin, F. — Application of Anatomy to Classification 651

Chatin, A. — Organic Gradation in the Organs of Nutrition and Reproduction .. 651

Bonnier, G. — Artificial Production of Alpine Characters in Plants 651

Renault, B. — Fructification of Macrostachys 651

Maslen, A. J. — Ligule of Lepidostrobus 651

B. CHYPTOGAMIA.

Lustner, G. — Biology of Spores f. 563

Heald, F. De F. — Germination of Spores 652

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Johnson, D. — Development of Marsilia 104

Belajeff, W. — Spermatogenesis and Secondary Nucleus in Filicinex and Equise-

tinese 104

Gloss, M. E. — Mesophyll of Ferns 105

Bower, F. O. — Sporophyll of Marattiaccse 105

Farmer, J. B. — Hybrid Fern 220

Scott, D. H. — Spencerites, a new Fossil Genus of Lycopodiacex 220

Cornaille, F. — Leaves of Selaginella , . 449

Bruchmann, H. — Selaginella spinulosa 449

Lowe, E. J. — Ferns of Multiple Parentage 449

Hannig, E. — Pits in the Cyatheacex and Marattiacex 450

Johnson, 13. S. — Leaf and Sporocarp of Marsilia 652

„ „ Leaf and Sporocarp of Pilularia 652

Jeffrey, E. C. — Oopliyteof Botrychium 652

Lutz, L. — Mucilage-Canals of the Marattiacex 653

Muscineae.

Correns, C. — Propagation of Mosses by Gemmx 105

Gayet, L. A. — Development of the Archegone of the Muscinex 220

Muller, C. — New Genera of Musci 220

Schaar, F. — Bursting of the Antherid in Polytrichum 326

Braithwaite’s British Moss- Flora 327

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany {Musci) .. 327

Bescherelle, E., & others — New Genera of Musci 450

Massalongo, C. — New Genera of Hepaticx 451

Campbell, D. H. — Systematic Position of Monoclea 451

Goebel, K. — Retrogression in Metzgeria 451

Correns, C. — Propagation of Mosses by Gemmx 564

Greyillius, A. Y. — Gemmx of Aulacomnium androgynum 564

Warnstoff, C. — Dwarf Male Plants of Dicranum 564

Brotherus, V. F. — Indusiella, a new Genus of Musci 653

Beauverie, J. — Modifications of the Thallus of Mar chantia and Lunularia .. .. 653

Campbell, D. H. — Structure and Development of Dendroceros 654

CONTENTS.

XXVll

Characese. page

Migula’s European Characese 327

Giesenhagen, K. — Shoot-Nodes of the Characex 564

Algae.

Phillips, R. W. — Cystocarp in the lihodymeniales .. 106

Brand, F. — Chantransia 106

Batters, E. A. L. — Porphyrodiscus , a new Genus of Floridex 107

Heydrich, F. — Melobesiacese 107

Strasburger, E. — Nuclear Division and Fertilisation in Fucus 107

Swingle, W. T. — Nuclear and Cell-Division in the Sphacelariacex 108

Sauvageau, C. — Conjugation in Ectocarpus 108

Gran, H. H. — Endodictyon , a new Genus of Ectocarpacese 108

Noll, F. — Grafting of Siphonese 108

Joly, J., & H. H. Dixon— Coccoliths 108

De Toni’s Sylloge Algarum .. 109

"Williams, J. Ll. — Antherozoids of Dictyota and Taonia 221

Brebner, G. — Tilopteridex 222

Dixon, H.H. — Structure of Codium 222

Bohlin, K. — Studies in the Confer vales 327

Buscali ini, L. — Phyllosiphon Arisari 328

Hieronymus, G. — Chlamydomyxa lahyrinthuloides 328

Bohlin, K. — Neio Unicellular Algse 329

Strohmeyer, O. — Influence of Algse on the Purity of Water 451

Karsakoff, N. — Vickersia, a new Genus of Floridese' 452

Goebel, K., & E. S. Barton — New Freshwater Floridea 452

Oltmanns, F., & R. Chodat — Reproduction of Coleochsete 452

Kreftling, A. — Economical Product from Seaweeds 453

Church, A. H. — Polymorphy of Cutleria multifida 453

West, W. & G. W. — Conjugatse 453

Mitzkewitsch, L. — Karyolcinetic Nuclear Division in Spirogyra 454

Pennington, Mary E. — Chemical Physiology of Spirogyra 454

Devaux — Dissociation of the Cells of Spirogyra 454

Schmidle, W. — Arboreal Algse 454

Wille, N. — Plankton- Algse of the Freshwater Lakes of Norway 455

Benecke, W. — Food- Materials of Algse 564

Sauvageau, C. — Germination of the Cutleriacese 565

Darbishire, O. Y. — Bangia pumila 565

Wille, N. — Lciminariacex 565

Mottier, D. M .—Centrosome of Dictyota 565

Sauvageau, C. — Sexuality of the Tilopteridex 566

„ „ Sexuality of the Sphacelariacex 566

Kuckuck, P. — Conjugation of Swarm-spores in Scytosiphon 566

Mitzkewitsch, L. — Division of the Nucleus in Spirogyra 567

Gerassimoff, J. J. — Conjugation of Binucleated Cells in Spirogyra 567

Brand, F. — Rhizoclonium .. 9 567

Phillies, R. W. — Cystocarp of Delesseriacese .. 654

Sauvageau, C. — Myrionemacese .. .. 654

Pedersen, M. — Hapters of Laminaria saccharina 665

Kjellman, F. R. — Mgagropilse 665

Fungi.

Harper, R. A., & D. G. Fairchild — Nuclear Division among Fungi 109

Ray, J. — Action of Gravity on the Growth of Fungi 109

Thomas, F., & others — Parasitic Fungi 110

Peglion, Y. — Disease of the Tobacco Plant due to Thielava basicola 110

Avetta, C. — Puccinia Lojkajana 110

Saccakdo, D. — Volutella Ill

Hesse, O. — Lichen- Acids Ill

Wachter, W. — Jenmania , a new Genus of Lichens Ill

Wager, H. — Nucleus of the Saccharomycetes Ill

Peglion, V. — Nematospora, a new Genus of Saccharomycetes 112

XXV111

CONTENTS*

TAGE

Berlese, A. — Insects and Yeasts 112

Beijerinck, M. W. — Schizosaccharomyces octosporus .. 112

Artari, A. — Saccharomyces Zopfii 113

Schiewek, O. — Ferments of Sale 113

Eriksson, J. — Fungus-Par asites of Cereals 222

Yabe, K. — Two new Kinds of Bed Yeast 222

Nakamura, T. — Behaviour of Yeast at a High Temperature 223

Symmers, W. St. C. — Peculiar Movement of Intracellular Particles in Yeast-cells . . 223

Robert — Phalline , a Poisonous Product from Fungi 224

Horrell, E. C. — Sterigmates and Spores of Agaricus campestris 224

Casagrandi, O. — Morphology of Blastomycetes .. 224

Dries, It. van den — Nitrogenous Pigments of Fungi 329

Gunther, E. — Mineral Food-Material of Fungi 330

Schostakowitsch, W. — New Species of Mucor 330

Penzig, O., & P. A. Saccardo — New Genera of Fungi 330

Schroter, C., & others — Parasitic Fungi 331

Golden, K. E., & C. G. Ferris— Pei Yeasts 331

Macfarlane, J. M. — Mycorhiza on the Roots of Pliilesia 332

Cavara, F. — Podaxinex 332

Gramont de Lesparre, A. de — Spores of the Truffle .. .. 332

Fischer, E. — Geopora and its Allies 332

Gartner, A., & C. Fraenkel — Stutzer and Hartley's Nitre Fungi 332

Sanfelice, F. — Experimental Production of Russell's Fuchsia Bodies 333

Johan-Olsen, O. — Cheese-ripening 333

Sabrazes & Brengues — Production of Favus Cups by the Inoculation of a pyogenic

Trichophyton 333

Berlese, A. N. — Impregnation and Development of the Oosphere in Peronosporex 455

Derschau, von, & others — Parasitic Fungi 455

Laborde & P. Carles — “ Casse ” of Wine 456

Darbishire, O. Y. — Roccellex 456

Wilhelmi, A. — Saccharomyces guttulatus 457

Jorgensen, A. — Micro-organisms of the Fermentation Industry 457

Hansen, E. C. — Heliotropism in the Agaricinex 457

Massee, G. — Evolution of the Basidiomycetes 457

Juel, N. C. — Tidasnellacex , a new Family of Fungi 458

Mangin, L. — Structure of Mycorhiza 458

Gerard, E. — Lipase in Fungi 568

Matruchot, L. — Protoplasm of the Mucorinex 568

Klebahn, H. — Biology of Uredinex 568

Nypels, P. — Germination of JEcidiosporcs 568

Mangin, L., & others — Parasitic Fungi 568

M‘Alpine, D., & G. H. Robinson— Parasites of the Vine 569

Wildeman, E. de — Fungus parasitic on Zygnema 569

Zahlbruckner, A. — Stromatopogon, a new Genus of Lichens 570

Peirce, G. J. — Reticidations of Ramalina reticulata 570

Schneider, A. — New Text-book of Lichenology 570

Janssens, F. A., & A. Leblanc— Cytological Researches on the Yeast-Cell .. .. 570

Hansen, E. C. — Vitality of Alcoholic Ferments 571

Berlese, A. — Winter Habitat and Dissemination of the Alcoholic Ferments .. . . 572

Effront, J. — Action of Oxygen on Beer- Yeast 572

Buscalioni, L., & O. Casagrandi — Saccharomyces guttulatus Rob. 572

Bodin, E. — Fungi intermediate between Trichophyta and Achorion 572

Matruchot & Dassonville — Trichophyton producing Herpes on the Horse .. .. 573

Gilchrist, T. C., & W. R. Stokes — Pseudo-Lupus Vulgaris caused by a Blastomyces 573

W isselingh, C. van — Composition of the Cell-wall of Fungi 656

Gunther, E. — Mineral Food-Material of Fungi 656

Katz, J. — Formation of Diastase by Fungi 656

Wehmer, C. — Fungi producing Citric Acid 656

Plowright, C. B. — Calcium Oxalate in Fungi 657

Klebs, G. — Development of Sporodinia grandis 657

Berlese, A. N. — Structure of the Peronosporacex 657

„ „ Division of the Nucleus and Formation of the Conids in Oidium . . 657

Cunningham, D. D. — Parasites of Economic Plants in India 658

CONTENTS.

XXIX

PAGE

Wakkek, H. J., & F. A. F. C. Went — Parasites of the Sugar-cane 658

Stoneman, Bertha — Development of Anthracnoses 658

Potebnia, A. — Exobasidium Vitis 658

Magnus, P. — JEcidium graveolens 659

LamarliIjre, L. Geneau de — Roesteliae producing Mycocecidia 659

Beijerinck, W. — Restoration of Spore- formation in Alcohol Yeasts 659

Ward, H. Marshall — Biology of Stereum hirsutum 660

Patouillard, N. — Polyporoid form of Mushroom 660

Babenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany {Fungi imperfecti) 660

Myxomycetes.

Roze, E. — Pseudocommis Vitis , as a Cause of Disease in Plants 224

Zukal, H. — Ceratification in Myxomycetes and Myxobacteria 661

Protophyta.
a. Schizophyceae.

Tilden, J. E. — Algal Stalactites 113

Spallicci, S. — A Jgas ( Protophyta ) of Hot Springs 114

Schroder, B. — Cohniella, a new Genus of Diatoms 114

Edwards, A. W. — Diatom causing Foulness of Water 114

Schmidle, W. — Cyanothrix, a new Genus of Gyanophycese 114

Bouilhac, R. — Biology of Nostoc 225

Sauvageau, L.— Nostoc punctiforme 225

Kolkwitz, R. — Curvatures and Structure of the Membrane in the Schizophyceae .. 334

Bohlin, K. — New Genera of Protococco idem 331

Tilden, Josephine E. — Thermal Algae 334

Schroder, B.— New Planhton-Forms 334

Castracane, F. — Reproduction of Diatoms 335

Zach arias, O. — Rliizosolenia and Attheya 335

Jackson, D. D., & J. W. Ellms — Cause of Odours and Tastes in Drinlting Waters 335

Klebahn, H. — Gas-Vacuoles of Gloiotrichia 335

Chodat, R. — Stapfia , a new Genus of Palmellacex 458

Kjellman, F. R. — Urospora and Hormiscia 459

Palmer, T. C. — Movements of Eunotia major 459

Beck y. Mannagetta, G. — Germination of Microchsete tenera 459

Schmidle, W. — Cyanothrix and Mastigocladus 459

Burger, J. — Culture-forms of Diatoms 573

Karsten, G. — Changes of Form of Scelelonema costatum 574

Bouilhac, R., & others — Nostoc punctiforme 574

Castracane, F. de — Reproduction of Diatoms 661

Miquel, P. — Decrease and Increase in the Size of Diatoms 661

„ „ & S. Lockwood — Abnormal Diatoms 662

CouvREi’R, E. — White Forms of Euglena 662

B. Schizomycetes.

Schlater, G. — Biology of Bacteria 114

Smith, E. F. — Bacterial Diseases of Plants 115

Guignard, L., & C. Sauvageau — Bacillus chlororaphis sp.n 115

Ewart, A. J. — Bacteria icith Asssimilatory Pigments 115

Rodsewitsch, W. W. — New Pigment-forming Saprophyte 115

Ferran, J. — Transformation of Bacillus tuberculosis into a common Saprophyte .. 116

Grunbaum, A. S. — Blood and the Identification of Bacterial Species 116

Seifert, W. — Physiology and Morphology of the Acetic Acid Bacteria 116

Hankin, E. H. — Relation of Insects and Rats to the Spread of Plague 117

Rideal — Purification of Sewage by Bacteria 117

Kister, J. — Diagnosis of Typhoid-lihe Bacilli in Suspected Water 117

Kern, F. — Capsule of Anthrax Bacillus 117

Martmann, G. — Morphology and Biology of the Tubercle Bacillus 118

Bomstein — Passive Immunity in Diphtheria 118

Hartleb, R. — Bacillus Ellenbacliensis alpha and Alinit 118

Remlinger, P. — Experimental Typhoid Fever 119

Achalme, P. — Bacteriology of Acute Articular Rheumatism 119

XXX

CONTENTS.

TAGE

Sabatier, Ad., & others — Examination of Oysters for Pathogenic Microbes .. . . 120

Dubois, L. — Bacterium pathogenic to Phylloxera and Acarini 120

Meyer, A. — Astasia asterospora 120

Sternberg, G. M. — Microbe of Yellow Fever 121

Freire, D. — Yellow Fever and Micrococcus xantbogenicus 121

Chavigny — Bacillus of Subacute Gaseous Gangrene 121

Crendiropoulo, M. — Pathogenic Bacillus found in the Yemen TJlcer 121

Nicolle, M., & Noury — Streptococcus of the Aleppo Boil 122

Bosso, G. — New Infectious Disease of Cattle 122

Rosa, N. — Effect of Intravenous Injection of Tuberculous Caseous Matter .. .. 122

Kunstler, J., & P. Busquet — Central Body of the Bacteriacex 225

Omelianski, V. — Ferment of Cellulose 225

Woods, A. F. — Bacteriosis of Carnations * .. 226

Montesano, G., & Maria Montessori — Tetanus Bacillus in a Case of Dementia

paralytica . 226

Ledoux-Lebard — Action of Pseudo-tuberculous Serum on the Bacillus of Pseudo -

Tuberculosis 226

Reid, F. J. — Growth of the Tubercle Bacillus at a Low Temperature 227

Freudenreich, Ed. de — Action of Rennet on Pasteurised Milk 227

Emmerling, O. — Fermentation of Fresh Grass 227

Kitt, Th. — Streptothrix Form of the Swine Erysipelas Bacillus .. 227

Czaflewski, E., & R. Hensel — Bacterium found in Hooping Cough 227

Hewlett, R. T., & Edith Knight — Bacilli and Pseudo- Bacilli of Diphtheria .. 228

Nepveju, G. — Bacilli of Beri-Beri 228

Pitfield, R. L. — Streptococcus sanguinis canis .. 229

Freudenreich, Ed. de — Ripening of Emmenthal Cheese 229

Besana, C. — Black Discoloration of Cheese and Cheese-Poisoning . . 229

Hewlett, R. T. — Bacillus Pestis 230

Sanarelli, J. — Bacillus X Sternberg, and Bacillus icteroides Sanarelli . . . . 230

Russell, H. L., & others — Tubercle Bacilli in Butter 230

Andrewes, F. W. — Bacillus enteritidis sporogenes var 231

Klein, E. — Microbes of Vaccinia and Variola 231

Fischer, A. — Lectures on Bacteria 231

Zueal, H. — Myxobacteriacess 335

Gasi erini, G. — Crenothrix and Beggiatoa 336

RtiziCKA, V. — Internal Structure of Micro-organisms 336

Maze — Microbes of Root-tubercles 336

Beck & Schultz — Effect of Monochromatic Light on Bacterial Development .. .. 337

Morris, M. — Production of Sulphuretted Hydrogen, Indol , and Mercaptan by

Bacteria 337

Davidsoiin — Experimental Production of Amyloid 338

Gordan, P. — Putrefactive Bacteria in Fruit and Vegetables 338

Busse, W. — Gummosis of Beet-root 338

Charrin, A., & A. Desgrez — Production of Mucinoid Substance by Bacteria.. .. 338

Lepierre, Ch. — Production of Mucin by a Pathogenic Fluorescing Bacillus .. .. 339

Salimbeni, A. T. — Destruction of Microbes in Ilypervaccinated Animals .. . . 339

Nicolle, O. — Nature of the Agglutinated Substance 339

Cantani, A. — New Cliromogenic Micrococcus 340

Ward, H. M. — Violet Bacillus 340

GRixoNr, G. — Polymorphic Bacillus from a case of Calculous Nephritis 340

Wagner, A ,— Coli and Typhoid Bacteria are Uninuclear Cells 340

Martin, S. — Growth of the Typhoid Bacillus in Soil 341

Cautley, E. — Behaviour of Typhoid Bacilli in Milk .. 341

Klein, E. — Observations on, and Experiments with, the Plague Bacillus 341

Nencki, M. & others — Microbe of Cattle Plague 342

Tavel, E. — Pseudotetanus Bacillus 342

Ciechanowski, S., & J. Nowak — AEtiology of Dysentery 342

Hamilton, Alice — Bacillus capsulatus chinensis sp.n 342

Bataillon & Terre — Tuberculosis and Pseudo-Tuber cidosis 343

Bordas, J., & others — Bacillus of Bitter Wine 343

Laser, H. — Smegma Bacillus 344

Czaplewski — New Bacillus from a case of Leprosy 344

Bosso, G. — Septicaemia hsemorrhagica of Cattle 345

CONTENTS.

XXXI

PAGE

Niessen, Van — JEtiology of Syphilis 345

Bose, F. J. — Parasites of Cancer and Sarcoma 345

Dendy, A. — Remarhable Marine Organism 459

Wolfenden, R. N. — Action of Rontgen Rays on Bacteria 460

Migula’s Bacteriology and the Classification of Bacteria 460

Renault, B. — Micro-organisms of Lignite 461

Behring & others — Microbiology as applied to Hygiene 461

Roze, E. — Chatinella, a new Genus of Scliizomycetes 461

Smith, Erwin F., & H. L. Russell — Bacterial Diseases of Plants 462

Nuttall, G. H. F. — Spread of Infectious Diseases by Biting Insects 462

Malfitano, G. — Effect of High Pressures on Micro organisms 462

Nocard & Roux — Microbe of Peripneumonia of Cattle 463

Koplik, H. — Bacteriology of Pertussis . . 463

Prescott, S. C., & W. L. Underwood — Bacteriology of Sour Corn 463

Petruschky, J. — Excretion of Typhoid Bacilli in the Urine 464

Bordas, F., & others — Micro-organisms of turned Wines 464

„ „ Bacillus of Bitter Wines .. 464

Bose, F. J. — Pathogenesis and Histogenesis of Cancer 465

Ceourmont — New Form of Tuberculosis 465

Schumowski, W. — Mobility of the Tubercle Bacillus 465

Baumgarten, P. — Therapeutic Value of the New Tuberculin 466

Lannelongue & Achard — Immunity of Fowls to Tuberculosis 466

Lax a, H. O. — New Thermophilous Bacillus 466

Stutzer, A., & R. Hartleb — Bacterium of Foot-and-Mouth Disease 467

Issatschenko, B. — New Bacillus Pathogenic to Rats 467

Sanarelli, G. — Myxomatogenous Virus 467

Hunter, W. K. — JEtiology of Beri-Beri 468

Lafar’s Technical Mycology 468

Arthur, J. C., & others — Bacterial Diseases of Plants 574

Rulmann — Pathogenic Streptothrix in Sputum 574

Beet-root Jaundice 575

Bertrand, G. — Biochemical production of Sorbose 575

Craig, C. F. — Branched form of the Tubercle Bacillus 575

Bacillus graminearum 575

Wolstenholme, J. B. — Botriomyces 576

Martin, C. J., & T. Cherry — Nature of the Antagonism between Toxins and Anti-
toxins 576

Ad ami, J. G. — Microbe of Progressive Cirrhosis 576

Migula, W. — Astasia asterospora Meyer 577

Grimbert, L., & L. Ficquet — Bacillus tartar icus 577

Aronson — The Fatty Substance in the Tubercle Bacillus 577

Arloing, S. — Agglutinative Poiver of Tuberculous Serum produced by Chemical

Substances 578

Bordas, F., & others— Microbes of Turned Wine 578

Arloing, S. — Agglutination of the Tubercle Bacillus 578

„ „ Mobile Variety of the Tubercle Bacillus 578

Ferran, J. — Aerobism of the Tetanus Bacillus 579

Arkovy, J. — Bacillus Gangrxnse Pulpee 579

Livingood, L. E. — Growth of Bacteria on Media made from Animal Organs.. . . 579

Schweinitz, E. A. de, & Dorset — Mineral Constituents of Tubercle Bacilli .. . . 580

Boekhout, F. W. J., & J. J. Ott de Yries —New Cliromogenic Bacillus .. .. 580

Bodin, E. — Action of Cider on the Typhoid Bacillus 580

Bruyning, F. F., Jun. — Bacteria of Sorghum Blight 581

Podbelsky — SpoHcidal Action of Normal Rabbit Serum 581

Rieder, H. — Action of the Rontgen Rays on Bacteria 662

Galeotti, G. — Nucleo-proteids of Bacteria 662

Kunnemann, O. — Denitrifying Micro-organisms 662

Rodzewitcii, Y. N.—New Cliromogenic Saprophyte 663

Vincenzi, L. — New Pathogenic Tetracoccus 663

Sames, Th. — Mobile Sarcina 663

Smith, E. F. — Bacterial Disease of the Hyacinth 663

Nocard — Relation between Human and Avian Tuberculosis 663

Nobbe, F., & L. Hiltner — Permanence of the Infection of the Tubercle-bacteria .. 664

XXX11

CONTENTS,

PAGE

Cobbett, L. — Influence of Filtration on Diphtheria Antitoxin 664

Stolz, A. — Aberrant Groivth-forms in Streptococcus and Pneumococcus 664

Mesnil, F. — Method of Action of Preventive Serum against Swine Erysipelas . . 664

Tartakowsky, M. G. — Contagious Pneumonia of Guinea-pigs 665

Sawtcenko, I. — Achalme’s Bacterium and Acute Rheumatism 665

Petridis, A. P. — Dysentery and Abscess of the Liver 666

Bertrand, G. — Action of the Sorbose Bacterium on Wood-sugar 666

Zeidler, A. — Flagella of Termobacterium aceti 666

Nicolle, C. — Bacteriology of Verruca 666

Pane, N. — Capsule of Pneumococcus 666

Simoni, A, de — Sporogenous Pseudodiphtheria Bacillus 667

Whittle:?, D. — Micro-organisms of Rigg's Disease 667

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c.

(1) Stands.

Sir David Brewster’s Microscope (Fig. 1) 123

Some Old Microscopes (Figs. 2-4) 124

Field, W. E. — How to Make a Microscope Stand 126

New Hartnack Microscope (Fig. 42) 347

Brugnatelli’s Large Size Mineralogical and Petrological Microscope (Fig. 43) . . 348

New Attachable Mechanical Stage (Fig. 44) 351

Czapski, S., & W. Gebhardt — Greenough's Stereoscopic Microscope and its Auxiliary

Appliances (Figs. 75-80) 469

Two Old Microscopes exhibited by the President at the last Meeting (Figs. 81 and 82) 473
Kraus, Rudolf — Electrically-Heated and Regulated Warm Stage (Figs. 83 and 84) 475

Sticker, George — Travelling Microscope (Figs. 96 aud 97) 582

Berger’s New Microscope (Figs. 98-100) 583

Messter’s Bacteria Microscope (Fig. 101) 587

„ Compressorium Microscope (Fig. 102) 587

„ Preparation Microscope (Fig. 103) 588

Large Binocular Microscope, designed and made by an Amateur (Fig. 113) .. .. 668

“British Students’” Microscopes (Figs. 114 and 115) 671

“ Fram ” Microscope (Fig. 116) 673

Old French Microscope 674

Microscope by John Cuff (Fig. 117) 675

(2j Eye-pieces and Objectives.

New Hartnack Homogeneous-Immersion Objective 351

Schroeder, Hugo — Improved Huyghens Eye-piece 676

Hartwig, H. — New Microscope Objective for Zoologiccd and other Biological Investi-
gations under Water 677

(3) Illuminating: and other Apparatus-

Kowalski, A. — Repsold's New Self -Registering Micrometer 126

Wadsworth, F. L. O. — Spider-IAnes (Fig. 29) 232

Wicke, W. — Novelties in Polarisation Apparatus (Figs. 30-36) 233

Zeiss’ Combined Horizontal and Vertical Camera (Figs. 45 aud 46) 359*

Schaper, Alfred — New Apparatus for Application of Electric Currents to living

Microscopic Objects (Figs. 104-108) 589

“Newtonian ” Universal Science Lantern (Fig. 118) 678

(4) Photomicrography.

Pretzl, A. D. — Monochromatic Light for Photomicrography 127

Gaylord, H. R. — Wink el’s New Photomicrographic Apparatus 354

Spitta, Edmund J. — Photomicrography 591

CONTENTS.

XXX111

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation. page

Mercer, A. Clifford — Aperture as a Factor in Microscopic Vision (Plates VII.

to X. and Fig. 47) 354

Nelson, E. M. — Microscopic Vision (Figs. 48-52) 362

Zeiss’ New Comparison Spectroscope (Fig. 85) 477

Wright, Lewis — Microscopic Images and Vision 592

(6) Miscellaneous.

Coplin, W. M. L. — Laboratory Dish (Figs. 37 and 38) 237

Jaggar, T. A. — Micro-Sclerometer for Determining the Hardness of Minerals

(Plates III. and IV.) 237

Gebhardt, W. — Immersion-Oil Bottle (Fig. 39) 238

Buscalioni, L. — Vessel for Treatment of Paraffin Sections with Staining and other

Solutions (Figs. 53-57) 367

Fence, E. — New Rapid Filter (Fig. 58) 368

Cantani, A. — Injection Syringe for Bacteriological Work (Fig. 59) 369

Abba, F. — New Autoclave (Fig. 60) 369

Novy, F. G. — New Thermo-Regulator (Figs. 86 and 87) 478

Murrill, P. — New Gas-Pressure Regulator (Figs. 88-90) 480

Ward, H. B. — Paraffin Imbedding Table (Fig. 91) 481

Jeffers, H. Vi.— Circular Colonometer (Fig. 92) 481

Weiss, J. — Circular Colonometer (Fig. 93) 481

Heurck, H. van — New Test-Plate 483

Sturgis, W. C. — Improved Form of Wash-bottle (Fig. 94) 483

Dippel’s (L.) The Microscope and its Application 484

Cruz, G. — Simple Apparatus for Washing Microscopical Objects (Fig. 109) .. .. 595

Stevens, W. C. — Apparatus for Fixing and Hardening Small Objects (Fig. 110) .. 596

Moore, V. A. — Thermo-regulated Water-baths for the Bacteriological Laboratory

(Figs. Ill and 112) 596

Strehl, Karl — Abbe’s Theory of the Microscope 679

B. Technique.

(1) Collecting- Objects, including Culture Processes.

Murray, G. — Plankton Gathering 128

Heurck, H. van — Culture of Diatoms 128

„ „ MiqueVs Cell for Pure Cultures of Diatoms (Figs. 5-7) .. .. 130

Wassermann, A. — Cultivating Gonococcus 130

Forster, J. — Nutrient Gelatin with High Melting-point 131

Beck, M.— Capsule for Anaerobic Cultivation (Figs. 8 and 9) 131

Cantani, A. — Seminal Fluid as a Nutritive Medium , , .. .. 131

Deelemann, M. — Influence of the Reaction of the Medium on Bacterial Growth .. 131

Cobbett, L. — Alkalised Serum as a Culture Medium for Diphtheria Bacilli .. .. 239

Lunt, J. — Preserving Living Pure Cultivations of Water Bacteria 239

Friedrich, P. L. — Actinomycetic Form of the Tubercle Bacillus . . 240

Miller, C. O. — Aseptic Cultivation of Mycetozoa 371

Jensen, O. — Peptonised Milk for the Cultivation of Lactic Acid Ferments . . . . 371

Marpmann, G. — Method for making Anaerobic Roll-Cultures with Gelatin or Agar 484

Morel, A. — Cultivation Media suitable for Tropical Climates 484

Gabritschewsky, G. — Production of Plague Serum .. 485

Pertz, Dorothea F. M. — Culture of Pleurococcus 485

Pacinotti & Municchi — New Medium for Bacteriological Diagnosis 597

Ferran, J. — Use of Acetylene in the Cultivation of Anaerobic Bacteria 598

Burger, J. — Culture of Diatoms 598

Roger, M. — Artichoke as Nutrient Medium 680

C2) Preparing Objects.

Novy, F. G. — Apparatus for Filtering Bacterial and other Fluids 132

„ „ Simple Steam Steriliser 132

Gardiner, W. — Detection of Protoplasmic Threads in Cell-Walls .. 240

Tswett, M. — Use of Permanganate in Microtechnique 241

1898 ‘ C

XXXIV

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Baklanoff, W. — Preparation of Pigments for Depicting Microscopical Preparations 241

Ballowitz, E. — Visibility and Appearance of Unstained Centrosomes 241

Kirkby, W. — Clearing Vegetable Sections 241

Berkeley, H. J. — Preparing Central Nervous System 242

Thoma, R. — Apparatus for Rapidly Fixing and Hardening Tissues 242

D’Arrigo, G., & R. Stampacchia — Demonstrating the Tubercle Bacillus in Tissues 372

Wagner, A. — Demonstrating the Structure of Coli and Typhoid Bacilli 372

Guitel, F. — Examining the Nephrostomes of Selachia 373

Michel, G. — Microscopical Examination of Viscous Urine 373

Rousseau, E. — New Method of Decalcifying 373

Marpmann, G. — Method for Preparing Plankton Organisms . . 485

Wellheim, F. Pfeiffer R. y. — Fixing and Preparing Freshwater Algae .. .. 486

Berlese, A. N. — Preparing Parasitic Fungi, 486

Durham, H. E. — Simple Method for Demonstrating the Production of Gas by

Bacteria (Fig. 95) 487

Demonstrating Pacini's Corpuscles 487

Rossolino, G., & W. Muraview — Fermol-Metliylen-Blue Treatment of Nerve-Fibres 487
Ruzicka, Y. — Demonstrating the Nucleoli of Cells in Central Nervous System .. . . 487

Volk, R. — Peroxide of Hydrogen in Microscopical Research 488

Zielina, A. — Preparing Permanent Blood-Films 488

Coles, A. C. — How to Examine the Blood and Diagnose its Diseases 488

Gardiner, W. — Detection of Protoplasmic Threads in the Cell-wall 598

Ravenel, M. P. — Preparing Agar Media 599

Jordan, H. — Treatment of Celloidin Sections stained with Orcein 600

Laslett, E. E. — Modification of the Weigert-Pal Method for Paraffin Sections .. 600

Janssens, F. A., & A. Leblanc — Method of Demonstrating the Structure of Yeast-

Cells 600

Oltmanns, F. — Preparation and Fixing of Algae 681

Arnold, J. — Isolating Ganglion-cells and unstriped Muscle-fibres 681

Doflein, F. — Methods for demonstrating Myxosporidia 681

Hochstetter, F. — Method for Demonstrating the Shape of Spaces and Passages in

Embryos 681

Jander, R. — Removal of Pigment from Zoological Specimens 682

Ritter, C. — Hardening Blood, Sputum , <kc ., on Slides 682

Smirnow, A. E. — Demonstrating Medullated Nerve-fibres 682

Spronck — Preparation of Diphtheritic Toxin without Meat 683

(3) Cutting-, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Yankawer, S. — New Microtome (Figs. 40 and 41) 242

Groot’s (J. G. de) Improved Lever Microtome 244

Beck, Arno — New Microtome ( System Beck-Becker) (Fig. 61) 374

Nowak, A. — New Microtome by Reichert (Figs. 62-64) .. .. 374

Student’s Microtome (Fig. 65) 377

Pinnock, E. — Two very simple Microtomes (Figs. 66 and 67) 378

Dahlgren, U. — Combination of the Paraffin and Celloidin Methods of Imbedding 489

French, G. H. — Imbedding and Staining Lichens .. 801

Francotte, P. — New Microtome (Fig. 119) 883

(4) Staining' and ^Injecting.

Busse, O. — Staining Yeast Cells 232

Dubois, L. — Method of Treating Bacteria difficult of Staining 133

Andrejew, N. P. — Rapid Staining of Tuberculous Sputum 133

Przesmycki, A. M. — Intra-Vitam Staining 233

Bolton, J. S. — Chrome-silver Impregnation of Formalin-hardened Brain .. .. 244

Bowhill — Staining Flagella of Bacteria with Orcein 244

Giglio-Tos, E. — Staining Blood of Oviparous Vertebrata 245

Lagerheim, G. — Permanent Stain for Starch 245

Frankl, O. — Injection Mass 245

Knaak — Contrast Staining of Bacteria 373

Aujesky, A. — Simple Method, for Staining Spores 378

Reed, R. C. — Dahlia as a Stain for Bacteria in Celloidin Sections 379

CONTENTS.

XXXV

PAGE

Ward, N. G. — Importance of Testing the Reaction of Sputum in Staining for

Tubercle Bacilli 379

Loisel, G. — Action of Pigments on Living Sponges 489

Rubinstein, H. — Staining Blood-Films 489

Narramore, W. — Staining the Envelope of Milk- Globules 490

Kuster, E. — Staining the “ Vacuole- Granules ” in Yeast- Cells 490

Lutz, L. — Double Stain for Gums 490

Farmer, J. B. — -Methylen-Blue for Investigating Respiration in Plants 601

Petri — Testing Butter and Milk, for Tubercle Bacilli . . 602

Janssens, F. A. — Black Hasmatoxylin 602

Rosenberg, O. — Prodigiosin as Staining Reagent for Botanical Specimens . . . . 602

Nestler, A. — Staining the Mucus-Cells of Malvaceae 603

Hewlett, R. T. — Diagnostic Stain for the Diphtheria Bacillus 603

Herrick, C. J. — Weigert Methods of Staining 684

Salter, J. H. — Fixing and Staining Starch-grains 684

Nicholls A. G. — Sudan Hi., a Selective Stain for Fat 684

Chalon, J. — Microchemical Staining of Cell-walls 685

Garcia, R. --New and Rapid Method for double- staining Blood 685

Giglio-Tos, E. — Neutral Red for Staining Haemoglobigenous Granules 685

Stephens, J. W. W. — Modification of Van Ermengem’s Method of Staining Flagella 685

Moller W. — Staining Intestinal Canal by Van Gieson’s Method 686

(5) Mounting1, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Kholodkovsky, N. — Preserving Sea- Anemones 1J3

Mottier, D. M. — Flemming'’ s Fixing Solution 134

Chalon, J. — Preservative Fluids for Botanical Specimens . . 134

Thorn, C. — Method of Preserving Algae 545

Hei rck, H. van — Media for the Study of Diatoms 246

Limpid Colourless Solution of Copal 247

Dixon, H. H. — Gelatin as a Fixative 379

Bioletti, F. T. -Method of Preserving Culture Media . . . . •. 490

Tellyesniczky, K. — Fixative Solutions . . 491

Andrews, G. F. — Method for the Preservation of Protoplasmic Spinnings .. 491

Deeljen, H. — Method for Fixing Leucocytes and Blood-plates . . . .. .. 491

Marpmann, G. — Selenium as a Mounting Medium for Diatoms 492

Graf — Picro-Formalin in Cytological Technique 492

Washburn, F. L. — Preservative for Freshwater Sponge .. .. 492

Baker, C. — Mounted Specimens — a New Departure . . . . . 603

Koninski, K. — New Method for Fixing Paraffin Sections to the Slide 686

(6) Miscellaneous.

Darwin, F. — New Method of Observing Stomates 134

Sterling, S. — Detection of Typhoid Bacilli in Faeces by Eisner’s Method . . 134

Hankin, E. H., & B. H. F. Leumann — Method of rapidly Identifying the Microbe

of Bubonic Plague 134

“ T. K. R.” — Microscopic Study of Alloys (Figs. 10-1 <) 135

Kofoid, C. A. — Sources of Error in the Plankton Method 247

Darwin, F. — Method of Demonstrating Assimilation 247

Scourfield, D. J. — Logarithmic Plotting of Biological Data . . 247

Macfadyen, A., & J. Lunt — Aitken’s Dust- Counter 248

Brodie, T. G., & A. E. Russell — Enumeration of Blood-Platelets 248

Billstein, Emma L. — Cleansing of Slides and Cover-Glasses 24'9

Zielina, A. — Cleaning Used Slides . . 249

Bolas, T. — Glass-Blowing and Working 249

Paste for Labels .. ## 379

Smith, Th. — Test for the production of Indol by Bacteria 380

Marpmann, G. — Method for splitting up Argillaceous Silicates containing Diatoms 380

Rice, F. S. — Making Sections of Steel

Nelson, E. M. — Old Book on Optics (Figs. 68-71) 381

Besson, A. — Microbiological and Serotherapeutical Technique 492

Andrews, G. F. — Camera Drawing 4^3

XXXVI

CONTENT^,

l'ACili.

Wadsworth, M. E. — Some Methods of Determining the Positive or Negative Cha-
racter of Mineral Plates in Converging Polarised Light with the Petrographical

Microscope 604

Mez, C. — Microscopical Water Analysis 606

Groot, J. G. de — Cleaning Slides intended for Water-stuck Sections 606

Macallum, A. B. — Microscopic Detection of Phosphorus-containing Compounds .. 686

Barth, H. — Microchemical Demonstration of Alkaloids 687

Peters, G. A. — New Method for making Casts 687

Lee and Mater’s Outlines of Microscopical Technique for Zoologists and Anato-
mists 688

Cement for Glass 688

Stein, S. von — Bone-Corrosion Preparations 688

Our frontispiece 688

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, December 15, 1897 .. 139

Annual Meeting, January 19, 1898 •• 141

Report of the Council for 1897 142

Treasurer’s Account for 1897 145

Meeting, February 16, 1898 250

„ March 16, „ . .. 252

„ April 20, „ 384

„ May 18, „ 392

„ June 15, „ 494

October 19, „ 689

,, November 16, „ 694

Index of New Terms in Zoology and Botany 696

General Index to Volume 697

JUN 1 189^

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

FEBRUARY 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

I. — The Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone .

Part X. — Conclusion and Appendices.

By Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.M.S.

( Read 20 th October , 1897.)

Plates I. axd II.

Sub-family R 0 TALIINjE — con tinned.

Truncatulina d’Orbigny [1826].

Truncatulind mfulgens Montfort sp., plate I. figs. 1 a, b.

Cibicides refulgens Montfort, 1808, Concbyl. Syst., vol. i. p. 122,
31ie genre. Truncatulina refulgens d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci.
Nat., vol. vii. p. 279, No. 5, pi. xiii. figs. 8-11 ; Modele, No. 77.
Carpenter, Introd. Foram., p. 201, woodcut fig. xxxii E. Brady, 1865,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I.

Fig. 1. — Truncatulina refulgens Montfort sp. : a , superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect.
X 60.

„ 2. — T. lobatula Walker sp. : a, superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect, x 45.

„ 3. — T. Wuellerstorfi Sch wager sp. : a, superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect ; c, peri-
pheral aspect, x 60.

,, 4. — Anomalina complanata Eeuss: a, superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect ; e, peri-
pheral aspect, x 60.

„ 5. — A. ammonoides Eeuss sp. : a, superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect ; c, peri-
pheral aspect, x 45.

„ 6. — A. rudis Eeuss sp. : a, superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect ; c, peripheral
aspect, x 45.

„ 7. — Pulvinulina Hauerii d’Orbigny sp. : a , superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect ;
c, peripheral aspect, x 60.

„ 8. — P. elegans d’Orbigny sp. : a, superior aspect ; b , inferior aspect ; c, peri-
pheral aspect, x 60.

,, 9. — P. caracolla Eomer sp. : a, superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect ; c, peripheral
aspect, x 60.

,, 10. — P. reticulata Eeuss sp. : a, superior aspect; b, inferior aspect ; c, peripheral
aspect, x 45.

„ 11. — P. Carpenteri Eeuss sp. : a, superior aspect ; b, inferior aspect ; c, peripheral
aspect, x 45.

1898

B

2

Transactions of the Society.

Nat. Hist. Trans. Northumb. and Durham, vol. i. p. 105, pi. xii. fig. 9.
T. lobatula (passing into refulgens) Parker and Jones, 1865, Phil.
Trans., vol. civ. p. 382, pi. xvi. figs. 18-20. T. ref ulgens Brady, 1884,
Chall. Rep., vol. ix. p. 659, pi. xcii. figs. 7-9. Egger, 1893, Abhandl.
k. Bayer. Ak. Wiss., vol. xviii. p. 401, pi. xvi. figs. 31-33. Planorbu-
lina refulgens Goes, 1894, K. Sven. Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. No. 9,
p. 89, pi. xv. figs. 775, 776. Truncatulina refulgens Rupert Jones,
1896, Monogr. Foraru. Crag, pt. iii. p. 302 ; figured in pt. ii. (1895)
pi. v. figs. 31 a , b.

The solitary specimen from the Folkestone Gault is not quite so
circular in its peripheral contour as in typical specimens, hut in other
respects it is specifically characteristic. The septa in this specimen
are thick, as is also the general structure of the test, in which amongst
other points it differs from T. lobatula .

T. ref ulgens has been recorded from the Middle Marl bed or
Rancocas formation of New Jersey (Bagg) ; it is also known from
the London Clay, and from Pliocene and Pleistocene beds.

Asa living organism it usually occurs in temperate seas at very
varying depths.

'The Gault specimen was found in zone vii. at Folkestone.

Truncatulina lobatula Walker sp., plate I. figs. 2 a,b.

Nautilus lobatulus Walker, 1784, Test. Min., p. 20, pi. iii. fig. 71.
Truncatulina tuberculata d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci., Nat., vol. vii.

Plate II.

Fig. 1. — Pulvinulina spinulifera Reuss sp. : a, superior aspect; b, inferior aspect ;
c, peripheral aspect, x 10.

„ 2. — Rotalia Soldanii d’Orbigny sp., var. nitida Reuse : a, superior aspect ;
b , inferior aspect ; c, peripheral aspect, x 60.

„ 3. — Spiroloculina nitida d’Orbigny. x 30.

„ 4. — Rhizammina indivisa Brady, x 30.

,, 5. — Haplophragmium Terquemi Berthelin. x 120.

,, 6. — Ammodiscus Millettianus sp. nov. : a and b. the lateral surfaces ; c, peripheral

aspect, x 60.

„ 7. — Teztularia complanata Reuss sp. x 30.

8. — Marginulina Parker i Reuss. X 45.

„ 9. — Vaginulina truncata Reuss. An aberrant specimen consisting of two indi-
viduals fused at the apertural borders, x 30.

„ 10. — V. truncata Reuss. A well- grown individual, with an embryonic form
attached to the distal end, on the apertural border. x 30.

,, 11.. — V. recta Reuss. An aberrant specimen, consisting of two individuals of
opposite types (forms B and A) fused together by the distal and proxi-
mal ends respectively, x 30.

,, 12. — Y. recta Reuss. An aberrant specimen, consisting of a perfect individual,
and another more or less broken at the attaching surface : a and b show
the two aspects of the specimen at right angles to one another, x 45.

„ 13. — Vaginulina truncata Reuss var. robusta Berthelin and Chapman (bigeneric
form), x 30.

,, 14. — Sagrina calcarata Berthelin sp. : a, lateral aspect ; 5, oral aspect, x 60.

., 15. — Ramulina Ixvis Jones. (A better specimen than that figured J. R. IMicr.
Soc., 1896, pi. xii. fig. 2). x 60.

„ 16. — Discorbina Vilardeboana d’Orbigny sp. : a, superior aspect; 6, inferior
aspect ; c, peripheral aspect, x 30.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 3

p. 279, No. 1; Modele, No. 37. T. laevigata Beuss, 1845, Yerstein.
Bohm. Kreidef., pt. i. p. 37, pi. viii. fig. 71 ; pi. xiii. fig. 47. T. lobatula
Carpenter, 1862, Introd. Foram., p. 201, woodcut fig. xxxii B and
pi. iv. fig. 5. Brady, 1884, Chall. Iiep., vol. ix. p. 660, pi. xcii. fig. 10 ;
pi. xciii. figs. 1, 4, 5 ; pi. cxy. figs. 4, 5.

This species is very rare in the Gault, only one specimen having
been found in the present collection. This specimen is quite typical,
and possesses the characteristic thin and conspicuously foraminated
test.

As a fossil T. lobatula is known from beds as old as the Carboni-
ferous, and it occurs in nearly all fossiliferous strata of later date.
Amongst other occurrences it has been previously found in “ the Gault
of Kent, probably Folkestone ” (Bupert Jones in Topley’s Memoir on
the Weald, p. 424) ; and has been recorded by Bagg from the Middle
Marl beds of New Jersey.

The living specimens of T. lobatula appear to be unrestricted as
to depth of water, but it attains its best development in fairly shallow
water.

At Folkestone this species was found in zone xi., 35 ft. from the
top.

Truncatulina Wuellerstorfi Schwager sp., plate I. figs. 3 a-c.

Anomalina Wiillerstorfi Schwager, 1866, Novara-Exped., geol.
Theil, vol. ii. p. 258, pi. vii. figs. 105 and 107. Truncatulina
Wuellerstorfi Brady, Challenger Bep., vol. ix. p. 662, pi. xciii. figs. 8
and 9. Planorbulina Wiillerstorfi Goes, 1894, Kongl. Svenska
Vetenskaps-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. No. 9, p. 89, pi. xv. fig. 777.

^ This species is known as a deep-water form from recent deposits.

Fossil specimens have been recorded from the Lower Greensand
(Bargate) beds of Surrey (Chapman) ; from the Middle Marl beds of
New Jersey (Bagg) ; and from the Pliocene strata of Kar Nicobar
(Schwager).

T. Wuellerstorfi was found in the Gault in zone xi., 45 ft. from
the top, very rare ; 35 ft., very rare.

Anomalina d’Orbigny [1826],

Anomalina complanata Beuss, plate I. figs. 4 a-c.

Anomalina complanata Beuss, 1851, Haidinger’s Naturw. Abhandl.,
vol. iv. (1) p. 36, pi. iii. fig. 3. Bosalina complanata var., Id., 1862,
Sitz. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xlvi. p. 86, pi. xi. figs. 3 a-c. Anoma-
lina complanata Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i.
No. 5, p. 66, pi. iv. figs. 12a-13. Planorbulina complanata Sherborn
and Chapman, 1886, Journ. B. Micr. Soc., ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 757, pi. xvi.
figs. 15 a-c.

The test of this species is more regularly and completely involute
than in the other forms of the genus occurring in the Gault.

b 2

4

Transactions of the Society.

It lias been previously noted from the Aptien and Gault beds
proper of Germany (Reuss) ; the Gault of Montcley, Wissant, and the
Dept, of l’Aube, France (Berthelin) ; the Senonien of Lembergr
Galicia (Reuss) ; and the London Clay of Piccadilly (Sherborn and
Chapman).

In the Gault of Folkestone A. complanata occurred in zone ii.
specimen a, rare ; zone ii., specimen h, rare ; zone ii., specimen c, rare ;
zone iii., rare ; zone iv., very rare ; zone vii., very rare ; zone ix., very
rare ; zone xi., 40 ft. from the top, rare ; 12 ft., very rare.

Anornalina ammonoidesTiQwss sp., plate I. figs. 5 a-c.

Bosalina ammonoides Reuss, 1845, Yerstein. Bohm. Kreidef., pt. i.
p. 36, pi. xiii. fig. 66 ; pi. viii. fig. 53. Id., 1850, Haidinger’s Naturw.
Abhandl., vol. iv. p. 36, pi. iv. fig. 2. Nonionina lathy omphala^ Id.,
1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xlvi. p. 95, pi. xiii. figs. 1 a
and b. Anornalina intermedia Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. Geol.
France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 67, pi. iv. figs. 14 a-c. Anornalina
ammonoides Brady, 1884, Chalk Rep., vol. ix. p. 672, pi. xciv .figs. 2
and 3. Blanorbidina ammonoides Sherborn and Chapman, 1886,
Journ. R. Micr. Soc., ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 756, pi. xvi. figs. 14 a-c. Burrows,
Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890, ibid., p. 562, pi. xi. figs. 23 a and b.
Bosalina ammonoides Beissel, 1891, Abhandl. d. k. Preuss. geol.
Landesanstalt, Heft 3, p. 74, pi. xvi. figs. 1-5. Discorbina ammonoides
Perner, 1892, Foraminifery Ceskeho Cenomanu (Palaeontographica
Bohemim, No. 1), p. 64, pi. x. figs. 1 a-c. Anornalina ammonoides
Woodward and Thomas, 1893, vol. iii. of Final Rep. Geol. and Nat.
Hist. Survey Minnesota, p. 44, pi. D, figs. 28 and 29. Perner, 1897
Foraminifery Yrstev Belohorskych (Palseontographica Boliemise,
No. iv.), p. 72.

The compressed test, with its narrow and numerous chambers,
sufficiently distinguishes this species from its congeners. The earliest
figures of the species by Reuss are not very clear, but this is suffi-
ciently atoned for by the later ones of the same author ; and the fre-
quency with which it has since been figured (and, concomitantly, the
amount of variation in its form) may be in some measure conceived by
consulting the above synonymy, which, however, deals principally with
the Cretaceous specimens.

Anornalina ammonoides is the commonest species of the genus
occurring in Cretaceous beds, and has been found in fossiliferous
strata of various ages, and notably from the following : the Lower
Greensand (Bargate) beds of Surrey (Chapman) ; the Gault of Ger-
many (Reuss), of France (as A. intermedia Berthelin), of England
(Rupert Jones in Topley’s Memoir on the Weald) : from the Cre-
taceous Marls of New Jersey (Bagg) ; from the Red Chalk of Speeton
(Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey) ; from the Cenomanian of Bohemia
(Perner) ; and from the phosphate beds of Cambridge (G. R. Yine)-

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 5

It is also of common occurrence throughout the Chalk formation, and
is well known from many horizons of Tertiary age.

As a recent form, A. ammonoides is found both in shallow and
deep water.

This species was found in the Gault of Folkestone in zone i.,
spec, a, very rare ; zone i., spec, h , common ; zone ii., spec, a , com-
mon ; zone ii., spec, b, common ; zone ii., spec, e, common ; zone iii.,
common ; zone iv., common ; zone v., common ; zone vi., common ;
zone vii., common ; zone viii., common ; zone ix., common ; zone x.,
common ; zone xi., 55 ft. from the top, frequent ; 50 ft., common ;
45 ft., common ; 40 ft., common ; 35 ft., common ; 30 ft., very rare ;
25 ft., common ; 20 ft., frequent ; 12 ft., common ; 6 ft., common.

Anomalina rudis Keuss sp., plate I. figs. 6 a-c.

Bosalina rudis Keuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
vol. xlvi. p. 87, pi. xi. figs. 7 a-c. Giimbel, 1868 (1870), Ahhandl.
m.-ph. Cl. k. Bayer. Ak. Wiss., vol. x. p. 657, pi. ii. figs. 99 a-c.
Anomalina rudis - Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3,
vol. i. No. 5, p. 68, pi. iv. figs. 15 a-c. Hiscorbina inflata Perner,
1892, Foraminifery Ceskeho Cenomanu (Palaeontographica Bohemiae,
No. 1), p. 65, pi. x. figs. 4 a-c.

A. rudis appears to he strictly confined to strata of Gault and
Cenomanian ages. It has been recorded from the Gault of N. Ger-
many (Keuss), and of France (Berthelin), and also from the Cenomanian
of Bohemia (Perner).

This species is characterised by its fewer and more inflated cham-
bers as compared with A. ammonoides. It also closely approaches
A. grosser ugosa Giimbel sp., but differs in being less equilateral than
that species, and approximating towards the typical Truncatulinse by
the flattening of the superior face of the test. The last chamber of
A. rudis is often of large size, and greatly inflated. It is possible
that this phenomenon has a connection with the fragile brood-chamber
of the megalospheric form found in many types of the Foraminifera.

From the Gault of Folkestone A. rudis was obtained as follows :
Zone i., spec, b, frequent ; zone ii., spec, a, rare ; zone ii., spec, b,
rare ; zone ii., spec, c, rare ; zone iii., frequent ; zone iv., frequent ;
zone v., rare ; zone vi., frequent ; zone vii., rare ; zone ix., very rare ;
zone x., rare ; zone xi., 20 ft. from the top, rare ; 12 ft., rare.

P ulvinulin A Parker and Jones [1862].

Pulvinulina Hauerii d’Orbigny sp., plate I. figs. 7 a-c.

Botalina Hauerii d’Oibigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne, p. 151,
pi. vii. figs. 22-24. Pulvinulina Hauerii Parker and Jones, 1865,
Phil. Trans., vol. civ. p. 393 ; Brady, 1884, Chall. Rep., vol. ix. p. 690,
pi. cvi. figs. 6, 7. Pulvinulina ( Botalina ) Hauerii Egger, 1893,

6 Transactions of the Society.

Abhandl. k. Bayer. Ak. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. Abth. ii. p. 414,
pi. xvii. figs. 29-31.

By the occurrence of this species in the Gault, its geological range
is considerably extended. It has been previously noted from Oligocene,
Miocene, and Pliocene strata. As a recent form it appears most at
home in moderately shallow water.

At Folkestone P. Hauerii was found in zone iii., very rare ;
zone vi., very rare.

Pulvinulina elegans d'Orbigny sp., plate I., figs. 8 a-c.

Potalia ( Turbinulina ) elegans d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
vol. vii. p. 276, No. 54. Pulvinulina elegans Parker, Jones, and Brady,
1871, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, vol. viii. p. 174, ph xii. fig. 142.
Botalina pleurostomata Schlumberger, 1883, Feuille des Jeunes Nat.,
p. 119, pi. iii. figs. 5, 5a, 5b. Pulvinulina elegans Brady, 1884,
Chalk Bep., vol. ix. p. 699, pi. cv. figs. 4-6. Epistomina elegans
Bzehak, 1888, Ann. k. k. Naturhist. Hofmus., vol. iii. (3) p. 264,
pi. xi. fig. 9. Pulvinulina elegans, Sherborn and Chapman, 1889,
Journ. B. Micr. Soc., p. 487, pi. xi. figs. 30-32. Egger, 1893,
Abhandl. k. Bayer. Ak. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. Abth. ii. p. 210, pi.
xviii. figs. 37-39. Goes, 1894, Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akad.
Handlingar, vol. xxv. No. 9, p. 97, pi. xvi. fig. 808. Id., 1896,
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, vol. xxix. No. 1, p. 76.

This species may be taken as a type around which several of
the so-called species of Cretaceous Pulvinulinse, with nearly similar
conformation, may be grouped. It is well, however, to bear in mind
that the differences of these particular forms are hardly enough in
some cases to warrant their having distinct specific names ; yet, for
the sake of convenience and brevity, they are here retained as species
instead of varieties or sub-varieties ; and at least some kind of dis-
tinction is useful when applied to the study of the zonal distribution
of the foraminiferal fauna.

The typical P. elegans occurs in the Gault along with the closely
allied forms of P. caracolla Bomer sp., P. reticulata Beuss sp., and
P. Carpenteri Beuss sp. ; but the first-named species is distinguished
by the inconspicuous septal lines — unlike P. caracolla, which has
strong surface septation and usually more numerous chambers and
whorls on the superior face.

There is a remarkable feature with regard to the Pulvinulina of the
“ elegans ” type, especially of those found in J urassic and Cretaceous
deposits. They possess a supplementary orifice in addition to the
normal slit situated on the inferior margin between the junction of the
penultimate whorl and the last chamber. This supplementary aper-
ture is a “ long, arched, linear slit immediately within the peripheral
margin of the final segment on the inferior side and parallel to it —
that is to say, an opening between the carinal border and the proper

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. Bg F. Chapman. 7

wall of the terminal chamber.” * * * § The Gault specimens exhibit this
peculiarity in nearly every specimen examined, but owing to the
infilling of the aperture it is sometimes at first difficult to discover.
With regard to this secondary aperture, in most examples it is seen
that only in the last chamber does it remain open, the earlier ones
being closed over by the growth of the shell wall. The transparency
of the shell, however, allows one to trace these slits round an entire
whorl, appearing as a covered and interrupted channel immediately
below the periphery. This peculiar feature in the apertural character
of the shell has been especially noticed by Terquem, who instituted the
genus Epistomina for this type ; f by Uhlig, who found numerous
specimens with the same characters in the Ornatus- clays of Russia
(see references in synonymy of this and the succeeding species) ; and
by Rzehak, who records it from the Oligocene limestones of Nieder-
hollabrunn, Lower Austria.!;

Pulvinulina elegans has been recorded from many formations,
beginning with the Lias. The figures, however, which are given by
Jones and Parker in their Chellaston paper § appear to belong more
properly to P. caracolla, which is also of frequent occurrence in
Jurassic strata. The species has been noted from the Lower Green-
sand of Surrey, and although apparently unrecorded previously from
beds of Gault age, it has been noticed at various horizons in the Chalk,
and it is also a well-known fossil in many Tertiary formations.

As a recent form P. elegans is unrestricted as to depth, and passes
from the typical form in moderately shallow water to the deep-water
variety with a thickened test, known as P. Partschiana d’Orbigny sp.

Pulvinulina elegans was found in the Gault of Folkestone in
zone i., spec, b, rare ; zone ii., spec, a, frequent ; zone ii., spec, b, fre-
quent ; zone ii., spec, c, rare ; zone iii., frequent ; zone iv., rare ; zone v.,
frequent ; zone vi., very rare ; zone vii., rare ; zone ix., frequent ;
zone x., 55 ft. from the top, very rare ; 20 ft., very rare.

Pulvinulina caracolla Romer sp., plate I. figs. 9 a-c.

Gyroiclina caracolla Romer, 1840-41, Verstein. Norddeutsch.
Kreide, p. 97, pi. xv. fig. 22. Rotalia elegans Jones and Parker, 1860,
Quart. J ourn. Geol. Soc., vol. xvi. pp. 452, 455, and 457, pi. xx. fig. 46.
B. caracolla Reuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xlvi.
Abth. i. p. 84, pi. x. figs. 6 a-c. Pulvinula caracolla Crick and
Sherborn, 1892, Journ. Northampton Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. vii. p. 71,
pi. vii. (ii.) figs. 26 a-c.

* H. B. Brady, Chall. Rep., vol. ix. pp. 700, 701.

f Bull. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. xi. 1883, p. 37, pi. iii. figs.wl-20. Also
Terquem, Cinquieme Me'm. Foram. Oolithique, 1883, p. 373.

X Seguenza figures an undoubted EpistominaAike Pulvinulina allied to P. reti-
culata Reuss sp. from the Tertiaries of Calabria under the name of Discorbina vestita
Atti R. Accad. Lincei, ser. 3, vol. vi. 1880, p. 118, pi. xiii. fig. 39.

§ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xvi. (1860) pi. xx. fig. 46.

Transactions of the Society.

This species appears to bo of common occurrence in Jurassic
strata (Jones, Parker, Crick and Skerborn) ; and it has been described
from the Middle Hils formation and the Speeton Clay of North
Germany (Eeuss). The previous records for the Gault are Meux’s
well-boring, London (C. Moore), and Folkestone (.Rupert Jones in
Topley’s Memoir on the Weald). It is somewhat striking that this
form occurs only in the fossil state and never above or below deposits
of secondary age.

P. caracolla , in common with others of the “ elegans ” type,
exhibits the secondary slit-like aperture.

In the Gault of Folkestone P. caracolla was found in zone i.,
spec, a, very rare ; zone i., spec, h, very rare ; zone ii., spec, c, frequent ;
zone iii., common ; zone iv., common ; zone v., rare ; zone vi., very
rare ; zone viii., very rare ; zone ix., frequent.

Pulvinulina reticulata Reuss sp., plate I. figs. 10 a-c.

Botalia reticulata Eeuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
vol. xlvi. Abth. i. p. 83, pi. x. figs. 4 a-c. Epistornina reticulata Uhlig,
1883, Jahrb. k. k. geol. Eeichsansr., vol. xxxiii. p. 768, pi. vii. figs. 8
and 9.

P. reticulata is another of the forms which has been relegated to
Terquem’s quasi-genus Epistornina. The Gault specimens show the
secondary aperture in most of the examples examined.

The geological range of this species is very similar to that of the
preceding. It has been described from the Ornatus clays of Eussia
(Uhlig) ; from the Millettianus- clay at the base of the Albian group
of North Germany (Eeuss) ; and from the Lower Marl bed, Navesink
formation, of New Jersey (Bagg).

P. reticulata was found in the Gault of Folkestone in zone i.,
spec, h, very rare : zone ii., spec, c, very rare : zone xi., 55 ft. from the
top, very rare.

Pulvinulina Carpenteri Eeuss sp., plate I. figs. 11 a-c.

Piotalia Carpenteri Eeuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
vol. xlvi. Abth. i. p. 94, pi. xiii. figs. 6 a-c.

The graduations from the carinate vaiiety of Pulvinulina elegans
to the ornate forms of the group culminate in P. spinulifera , and the
present species occupies an intermediate position, with its finely serrate
or prickly peripheral edge. The secondary aperture is also present
in this species, and is well shown in plate I. figs. 11 h and c.

P. Carpenteri appears to be entirely restricted to the Gault forma-
tion, having been recorded from this horizon by Eeuss and Rupert
J ones. *

In my own collection from Folkestone it occurs in zone ii., spec, c ,
rare ; zone iv., frequent ; zone v. very common ; zone vi., common ;
zone vii., rare : zone viii., frequent : zone ix., common.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 9

Pulvinulina spinulifera Reuss sp., plate II. figs. 1 a-c.

Botalia spinulifera Reuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien,
vol. xlvi. Abtli. i. p. 93, pi. xiii. figs. 3 a and h, 4 a-c, 5 a-c. Epi-
stomina spinulifera Uhlig, 1883, Jakrb. k. k. geol. Reichsanst., vol.
xxxiii. p. 768, pi. vii. figs. 5-7. Pulvinulina spinulifera Prestwicb,
1888, Geology, vol. ii. p. 278, fig. 144 b.

Reuss refers to the extreme variability of this species. The peri-
pheral edge of the test is usually scalloped or notched, and the cusps
are sometimes greatly produced. The septation is very pronounced ;
-that of the superior surface is often prominent with each riblet notched,
in others not so prominent, but with the central areas of the chambers
excavate. On the inferior side of the shell the septal ribs are very
prominent, sometimes forming keel-like projections. The umbilical
boss on the inferior surface is excavated, and has from one to as many
as five or six deep depressions. In P. spinulifera the secondary
aperture is shorter and more gaping than in the preceding species.

On examining the series of specimens of P. spinulifera in their
sequence of distribution through the Gault beds at Folkestone, one is
struck by an evolution in the form. That is to say, from zone i. and
onwards to zone vii. they gradually increase in size and strength of
ornamentation. Here, and in zone viii., they attain their greatest
development; but after this, to zone xi. 55 ft. from the top, they
gradually decrease in size, and appear to be absent from the higher
.zones.

This species was found by Reuss to be the most abundant in the
Gault of Folkestone, and this is more or less the case in a few par-
ticular horizons. But it is seen to be much restricted in its distribu-
tion when the Folkestone Gault is examined throughout.

P. spinulifera has been observed in the Ornatus- clays, Oxfordian
of Russia (Uhlig) ; and was originally described from the Gault of
Folkestone (Reuss)

It occurs at Folkestone in zone i., spec, a, frequent ; zone ii.,
spec, c, very rare ; zone v., frequent ; zone vi., common ; zone vii.,
very common ; zone viii., common ; zone ix., frequent ; zone xi., 55 ft.
from the top, common.

Rotalia Lamarck [1804].

Botalia Soldanii d’Orbigny sp. var. nitida Reuss, plate II. figs.
.2 a-c.

Botalina nitida Reuss, 1844, Geogn. Skizze Bohmen, vol. ii. pt. i.
p. 214. Id., 1845-46, Verstein. Bolnn. Kreideform., part i. p. 35,
pi. viii. fig. 52 ; pi. xii. figs. 8, 20. Placentula nitida Berthelin,
1880, Mem. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 69, pi. iv. figs.
11 a-c. Discorbina oligostegia Perner, 1892, Foraminifery Ceskeho
Cenomanu (Palaeontographica Bohemias No. 1), p. 65, pi. x. figs. 5 a, b.

10

Transactions of the Society.

Botalia umbilicata var. nitida, Id., 1897, Foraminifery Yrstev Belo-
horskych (Palseontographica Bohemise, No. IY.), pp. 54, 55 and 72,
pi. vii. fig. 25 and woodcut p. 53.

The specific type of the above variety was figured by d’Orbigny
from the Yienna Tertiary beds.* The species often recorded from
Cretaceous strata as B. umbilicata f was held by Dr. Carpenter to be
identical with B. Soldanii, % and in this view he was supported by
Dr. H. B. Brady. §

The variety nitida is similar to the type form in general outline,
but is smaller and more delicate in the structure of the test.

B. Soldanii var. nitida has been found in the Gault of France
(Wissant) and the Department of l’Aube (Berthelin) ; and from the
lower Planer-kalk and the Planer-mergel — Cenomanian and Turonian
— of Bohemia (Beuss, Perner).

In the Gault of Folkestone this variety was found in zone i.,
spec, b, rare ; zone ii., spec, a, rare ; zone ii., spec, b, rare ; zone ii.,
spec, c, very rare ; zone iii., rare ; zone iv., rare ; zone v., frequent ;
zone vi., frequent ; zone vii., frequent ; zone viii., frequent ; zone ix.,
rare; zone x., rare; zone xi., 55 ft. from the top, common; 50 ft.,
common ; 45 ft., common ; 40 ft., common ; 35 ft., common ; 30 ft.,
common ; 25 ft., common ; 20 ft., common ; 12 ft., very common
6 ft., common.

ADDENDA.

The following species, which were found subsequently, or which
required further determination, are now added to the foregoing sys-
tematic descriptions : —

Family MILIOLID/E.

Sub-family MILIOL1NINM.

Spiuoloculina d’Orbigny [1826].

Spiroloculina nitida d’Orbigny, plate II. fig. 3.

Spiroloculina nitida d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 298, No. 4 (Soldani, 1795, Testaceographia, vol. i. pt. 3, p. 229, pi.
civ. figs. II , mm?). S. rotunda d’Orb., 1826, ibid., p. 299, No. 14
(Soldani, 1795, Test., vol. i. pt. 3, p. 229, pi. cliv. fig. hh). S. nitida
Parker, Jones, and Brady, 1871, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. iv.
vol. viii. p. 248, No. 140, pi. viii. fig. 24. Spiroloculina sp. indet.,
Hantken, 1875, Mitth. Jahrb. k. Ung. geol. Anstalt, vol. iv. p. 20,
pi. xiii. fig. 1. S. nitida Brady, 1884, Chall. Bep., vol. ix. p. 149,
pi. ix. figs. 9, 10. S. Michalshii Wisniowski, 1890, Mem. Acad.

* Rotalina Soldanii d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Yienne, p. 155, pi. viii.
figs. 10-12.

f Rotalina umbilicata d’Orbigny, 1840, Mem. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 1, vol. iv..
p. 32, pi. iii. figs. 4-6. J Introcl. Study Foram., 1862, p. 213.

§ Chall. Rep., 1884, vol. ix. p. 707.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone, By F. Chapman. 11

Sci. Cracow (Pamiet. Wydz. III., Akad. Umiej. Krak.), vol. xvii. p. 8.
pi. viii. fig. 6. 8. minima , Id., ibid., p. 9, pi. viii. fig. 7. S. difficilis,
Id., ibid., p. 10, pi. viii. fig. 8. 8. tenuiseptatd Egger, 1893, Abliandl.
k. Bayer. Ak. Wiss., Cl. ii. vol. xviii. pp. 218 and 223, pi. i. figs. 48,
49. S. ( Ophthalmidium ) complanata , Id., ibid., p. 225, pi. iii. figs. 7,
8. 8. nitida Jones, 1895, Monogr. Crag. Foram., Pal. Soc., p. 112,

pi. v. fig. 3, woodcuts figs. 5, 6, p. 103 (woodcut fig. 5 is similar in
section to the Gault specimen).

For an extended synonymy of this species see Jones’s Monograph
of the Crag Foraminifera, 1895. The typical form is characterised
by the convex surface of the chambers, which may or may not be
further relieved by subordinate limbation. The whole surface of the
test is more or less flat, since it belongs to the group of which
S. planulata Lam. sp. is the type. The Gault specimen is roundly
ovate, the Jurassic forms are more often elongate.

8, nitida is known from Jurassic deposits (Terquem, Wisniowski) ;
and it is well distributed through the Tertiary series. The variety
from the Crag of Sutton has the outer edges of the last two chambers
limbate. As a recent Foraminifer 8. nitida is found in the shallower
waters of the Mediterranean and the Tropics.

The species was found in the Gault of Folkestone in zone x., one
specimen.

Family ASTRORHIZIDZE.

Sub-family BHABDAMMININM
Bhizammina H. B. Brady [1879].

Bhizammina indivisa Brady, plate II. fig. 4.

Bhizammina indivisa Brady, 1884, Chalk Rep., vol. ix. p. 277,.
pi. xxix. fig. 5-7.

“ Test free, cylindrical, flexible ; consisting of an unbranched
chitino-arenaceous tube, often tapering towards the ends. Apertures
terminal. Length 1/3 inch, more or less.” — H. B. Brady.

The Gault specimen agrees, as far as is possible in a fossil, with
the above description. I have also met with several specimens
closely comparable with this from the Chalk-marl of Charing, Kent.
B. indivisa has also been recorded, in a list of American fossil
Foraminifera, by Dr. Anthony Woodward, from the Pliocene of
Woodford Corners, Peering, Maine.*

Dr. Brady records this species as occurring especially in Globi-
gerina-ooze of moderate depths, so that its appearance in the Gault is
not wholly unexpected. Its natural fragility and shajie would tend
to prevent its ready preservation.

The only specimen was found in zone xi., 50 ft. from the top.

* “ Fossil Foraminifera of North America,” ‘ Practical Microscopy,’ vol. v. No. 10,
1894, p. 201.

12

Transactions of the Society.

Family LITUOLIDJE.

Sub-family L1TUOLINM.

Haplophragmium Eeuss [I860].

Hap l ophragmium Terquemi Berthelin, plate II. iig. 5.

Haplophragmium Terquemi Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. Geol.
France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 22, pi. ii. fig. 1.

This curious little Foraminifer may be easily overlooked, as M.
Berthelin remarks; for it appears like an aggregated mineral flake
rather than an organism, until it is viewed in a medium by trans-
mitted light, when its septate character is easily seen.

By the above author this Foraminifer has been compared with
Spiroplecta as regards the tendency of the chambers to become biserial
in their arrangement after the spiral part is completed ; but it has a
terminal orifice instead of one apically lateral.

H. Terquemi is one of the more or less closely related varieties
of the flattened or foliaceous type of Haplophragmium, such as
H. foliaceum Brady, H. Fontinense Terquem, and H. neocomianum
Chapman ; and such forms are usually to be found in shallow water
deposits which have been laid down with an excess of argillaceous
fine sandy material and a paucity of calcareous matter. In passing,
it is worth noting that foliaceous forms are in great evidence in such
beds as the close-textured fuller’s earth of Surrey, and the clays from
Wedmore Hill in Somerset.

The species now before us, H. Terquemi, was originally described
from the Gault of France, from the Department of i’Aube, by
Berthelin.

In the Gault of Folkestone it occurs in zone i., spec, a, rare;
zone i., spec, b, rare ; zone ii., spec, a , rare ; zone ii., spec, b, common ;
zone ii., spec, c , very common; zone iii., common ; zoneiv., very com-
mon ; zone v., rare ; zone vi., very rare ; zone vii., very rare ; zone
viii., frequent ; zone ix., frequent ; zone x., rare ; zone xi., 55 ft.
from the top, common ; 30 ft., rare ; 25 ft., frequent ; 20 ft., very
common ; 12 ft., very common ; 6 ft., very common.

Sub-family T ROC HA MM ININ2E.

Ammodiscus Eeuss [1861].

Ammodiscus Millettianus sp. nov., plate II. figs. 6 a~c.

Test finely arenaceous, discoidal and flattened; consisting of a
coiled and irregularly constricted tube, making only one or two
convolutions. Externally the suture lines are completely covered by
the later growth, and are only visible at certain parts by slight linear
depressions. When moistened the form of the interior of the test can
be more easily seen, xlperture oblique and slit-like, situated on the

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 13

peripheral edge of the test. Diameter 1/64 in.; thickness of test
1/380 in.

It gives me much pleasure to associate the name of my friend
Mr. F. W. Millett with this species ; and I will take this opportunity
of recording my obligations to him for the many useful notes with
which he has from time to time furnished me.

A. Millettianus was found at Folkestone in zone iii., frequent ;
zone viii., very rare ; zone ix. frequent ; zone xi., 55 ft. from the top,
frequent ; 50 ft., rare ; 45 ft., frequent ; 35 ft., common ; 30 ft., rare ;
25 ft. frequent ; 12 ft., frequent ; 6 ft., frequent.

Family TEXT UL A R I J DiE.

Subfamily TEXTULABIINM
Textularia Defrance [1824].

Textularia complanata Reuss sp., plate II. fig. 7.

Proroporus complanatus Reuss, 1860, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss..
Wien, vol. xl. p. 231, pi. xii. figs. 5 a, b. Textularia complanat a
Burrows, Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890, Journ. R. Micr. S'oc., p. 553r
pi. viii. fig. 16.

This species is apparently characteristic of the older Cretaceous
deposits. It is recorded by Reuss from the Minimus-clay of the Rhine
in Westphalia, and from the Red Chalk of Speeton by Burrows,
Sherborn, and Bailey.

In the Gault of Folkestone this species occurs sparingly, and is
still rarer than the Spiroplecta type which has been previouslv
noticed.*

T. complanata was found in zone v., very rare ; zone xi., 45 ft.,
from the top, very rare.

Family LAGENIDiE.

Subfamily NODOSARIIXM
Marginulina d’Orbigny [1826].

Marginulina Parkeri Reuss, plate II. fig. 8.

Marginulina Parkeri Reuss, 1862, Sitzungsb. d. k. Ak. Wiss..
Wien, vol. xlvi. Abtli. i. p. 59, pi. v. figs. 14 a, b. Berthelin, 1880,
Mem. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 34.

The above species may be regarded as an elongated form of the
type M. glabra d’Orbigny. It was originally described by Reuss from

* Journ. E. Micr. Soc., 1892, p. 7H, pi. xi. fig. 4.

14

Transactions of the Society.

the Upper Hils formation near Brunswick, and was since found in the
French Gault at Montcley (Berthelin).

At Folkestone M. Parker i was found in zone v., frequent.

Vaginulina d’Orbigny [1826].

Vaginulina truncata Reuss (abnormal forms), plate II. figs. 9, 10.

The fusion of two equally well grown individuals of the above
•species is shown in fig. 9. It appears as if a growing hud of a similar
form to the initial one had become attached to the oral end of a
perfect specimen, at the stoloniferous line or apertural border.

In fig. 10 we have a further corroboration of this interpretation
in which a fully grown individual bears, upon the stolon border at
the penultimate and last chambers, an embryonic Vaginulina.

Both specimens were found at Folkestone in zone x.

Vaginulina truncata Reuss var. robusta Berthelin and Chapman
(a bigeneric outgrowth), plate II. fig. 13.

This remarkable example is truly dimorphic (in the old sense of
Ike term) ; * that is to say, it exhibits two distinct generic types
Reginning as Vaginulina and succeeded by Frondicularia.

The vaginuline commencement, after forming four chambers
beyond the primordial, takes on the plan of growth of a Frondicularia
of the F. archiaciana type, but slightly broader, and altogether in
keeping with the coarse texture of the earlier part,

This specimen was found in zone vii. at Folkestone.

Vaginulina recta Reuss (abnormal forms), plate II. figs. 11
and 12 a , b.

The first of the specimens, fig. 11, is singularly interesting on
account of the fusion of two individuals of different forms, namely B
and A (of Schlumberger) ; or of the microspheric and megalospheric
types respectively. The first half of the specimen is a somewhat
twisted Vaginulina recta with a microspheric commencement and
numerous and narrow chambers ; the later half is a perfect megalo-
spkeric form of V. recta, and springs out of the seventh chamber of
the parent test. The primordial sphere of the second half is partially
enclosed in the last chamber of the first form ; and this would lead one
to suppose that here we have an actual generation of a megalosphere
which, failing to break free, continued to grow on in this dual fashion.

Figs. 12 a, b represent a perfect individual of V. recta , to which is
attached, at the apical end, another of the same species slightly broken

* In consequence of the confusion which may he likely to arise from the different
uses of the same term, that is, to mean either a combination of quasi-genera (Jones
and Parker), or a dual form of the same species (according to Munier Clialmas
and Schlumberger), it is here suggested that the earlier term of dimorphism be
.substituted by bigenerism, with hi generic in an adjectival sense.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 15

at the surface of attachment. The second test is turned through
90 degrees in relation to the earlier portion, the narrow back of the
latter being opposed to the lateral surface of the former.

Both specimens were found in zone x. at Folkestone.

Subfamily POL YMOBPHININM.

Sagrina ( Sagrina ) d’Orbigny [1839] ; emend. Parker and Jones

[1865].

Sagrina calcarata Berthelin sp., plate II. figs. 14 a, b.

Bigenerina calcarata Berthelin, 1880, Mem. Soc. Geol. France,
ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 27, pi. i. figs. 14a-16 ; pi. ii. figs. 2 a, b.

This elegant little species is not very common, but it occurs in the
finest washings from several zones in the Gault of Folkestone. The
species approaches Sagrina virgula of Dr. H. B. Brady * in certain
points ; it is, however, distinct from that form in the character of the
commencement, which in S. calcarata is biserial, whilst S. virgula
has the early chamber usually irregularly arranged and sometimes
spiral.

M. Berthelin obtained ’ his specimens from the Gault of Wissant
and Montcley.

S. calcarata occurs at Folkestone in zone xi., 50 ft. from the top,
frequent ; 40 ft., very rare ; 30 ft., rare ; 25 ft., very rare ; 12 ft., very
rare.

Family EOTALIID.E.

Sub-family B 0 TA L IINJE.

Discorbina Parker and Jones [1862].

Bosalina Vilardeboana d’Orbigny 1839, Foram. Amer. Merid.,
p. 44, pi. vi. figs. 13-15. Discorbina Vilardeboana Parker and
Jones, 1872, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxviii. p. 115. Brady,
1884, Chalk* Rep., vol. ix. p. 645, pi. lxxxvi. figs. 9, 12 ; pi. lxxxviii.
fig. 2. Chapman, 1894, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 1. p. 721.

The specimen from the Gault is not very typical nor well
developed, but appears to come nearest to the above species. It is
always found in shallow water deposits at the present day. As a fossil
it has occurred in the Lower Greensand (Bargate Pebble beds) of
Surrey.

The specimen found in the Gault at Folkestone was from zone iii.

* Chall. Rep., vol. ix. 1SS4, p. 5S?, pi. lxxvi. figs. 4-10.

1(5

Transactions of the Society.

APPENDIX I.

The Gault of Folkestone, and its Continental Equivalents,

Tlie Folkestone cliffs offer one of the best opportunities for a sys-
tematic study of tlie Gault Microzoa, with respect to the distribution
at different horizons; chiefly on account of the completeness of the
exposure of the series at this locality. Indeed, it has already been
selected as a basis for zonal subdivision by C. E. De Ranee * * * § and F. G.
H. Price, "f who have rendered this section classic by their researches
into the palaeontologico-zonal subdivision of the series.

The section at Folkestone is by no means of the maximum thick-
ness.J According to the measurements given by Price, it is 99 ft. 4 in.,
measured from the band of sulphide of iron nodules of zone i. — 4 ft.
above the bed containing Ammonites ( Acanthoceras ) mammillatus — up to
the base of the Chloritic (glauconitic) Marl.§

The Gault section exposed in the Folkestone cliffs is not seen com-
plete at any one spot, owing to the number of local landslips caused by
the sliding of the Lower Chalk upon the impervious and wet surface
of the Gault; the latter being often squeezed out and faulted. By
careful observation the whole series of Gault strata can be followed,
from near the Harbour, where it lies upon the Folkestone beds of the
Lower Greensand (Aptian), under Copt Point to the middle of Eastwear
Bay. Just south of Martello Tower No. 3 on Copt Point, the top of
the Gault is well seen, capped by the Chloritic Marl. Here is also
found the curious bed of Greensand (“ Middle Greensand” of Griffiths),
which runs through zone xi. at 17 ft. 6 in. from the top, and having a
thickness of 3 ft. 3 in. below fnis.

With a cliff-section like this one can take the beds in regular
sequence, from the base to the top of the series, noting the various
changes that take place in the lithological structure of each bed, con-
comitantly with the distribution of the microscopic fossil fauna; and
this has been attempted in the present work.

It should be borne in mind that the zones here followed cannot be
expected to hold good in their details over large areas, and the interest
attaching to the distribution of the microscopic organisms will be more
from a local standpoint than in its general bearing on Gault strata.

The beds forming the section of the Gault at Copt Point and East-
wear Bay are very variable in lithological character, and they apparently
constitute an intermediate type compared with the series in other
localities.

The Gault formation becomes more arenaceous towards the west, as
in Dorset and Devon, where it represents a more persistently littoral
or shore-line deposit; whilst the Gault to the north and east of Folke-

* Geol. Mag., vol. v. (1868) p. 163.

t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxx. (1874). Also ‘ The Gault,’ 1879.

% The Gault in Kent and Surrey ranges from about 100 to 200 feet in thickness
but at Caterham it has been proved by a well-boring to be 343 feet thick. See
Woodward’s Geol. of England and Wales, 1887, p. 383.

§ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxx. (1874) p. 343.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 17

stone partakes of tlie nature of a deeper * * * § water deposit, usually con-
sisting of dark blue clays in the lower part, whilst the upper part is
usually a pale grey marl.

We are indebted, as was previously noticed, to the labours of Messrs.
De Ranee and Price for the division of the Gault into zones. These
authors differ in a few details, and in the method of numbering the
zones. In the present work, the latter author’s arrangement is fol-
lowed.f

With regard to the zone xi., in. which the Greensand seam occurs,
it ajipears advisable to make a further division. Hitherto the upper
56 ft. 3 in. of pale-grey marl has been referred entirely to zone xi.,
exceeding in thickness that of all the other ten zones together. Con-
cerning this bed, Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne has suggested to me the
following modification. Zone xi. to be measured from the base given
by Mr. Price, J up to the base of the Greensand seam, and giving a
thickness of 35 ft. 6 in. The Greensand seam (a glauconitic clay)
measuring 3 ft. 3 in. just south of Martello Tower No. 3, to be called
zone xii. From the top of the Greensand seam to the base of the
Chloritic marl, 17 ft. 6 in., constituting zone xiii.

This subdivision of the extensive thickness of zone xi. will probably
facilitate the comparison of their fossil contents, These alterations,
I learn from Mr. Jukes-Browne, are fully endorsed by Mr. Price
himself.

The various seams of Greensand and lines of nodules seen at Folke-
stone can rarely be traced for any distance from the locality. The
base of the Gault is usually formed by a bed of Greensand ; and in the
Isle of Wight, notably at Compton Bay, Sandown Bay, and near Bon-
church, a bed of Carstone is well seen. This Carstone bed occurs about
the horizon of the Ammonites ( Acanthoceras ) mammillatus zone of the
Lower Greensand, together with the basement bed of the Gault, and
these are referred to as the lowest bed of the Gault (Albian Stage) by
French geologists.

The bed of Greensand (zone xii.) at Folkestone has also been
observed at Eastbourne by Mr. Price.

As an instance of the great variability in the character of certain
beds of Gault age, it will only be necessary to refer to the beds of
“ Red Chalk ” at Hunstanton and Speeton, which are probably on the
same geological horizon as the upper zones of the Gault ; and in this
respect it will be instructive to make a comparison between the micro-
zoic faunas of the two deposits.§

With reference to strata of similar age on the Continent, in France
the series to which d’Orbigny gave the name “ Albien,” commences with
a sandy layer containing Am. {Acanthoceras) mammillatus ; which zone is
usually grouped with the Aptian beds of the Lower Greensand by
English geologists. In the eastern part of the Paris basin this bed is

* This is used in a comparative sense.

f It will not be necessary to repeat the diagram and measurements of the zones
at Copt Point ; for this the papers already mentioned by Messrs. De Kauce and
Price should be consulted. Details of the chief points of interest in the zonal dis-
tribution of the Foraminifera are given in the latter part of Appendix IV.

t The seam of phosphatic nodules containing Pecten Baulimcinus.

§ See pp. 22, 40-42.

1898

c

18

Transactions of the Society.

covered by an argillaceous layer corresponding to our Gault, and in
part with the Minimus-cl&j of North Germany.

The following table shows the relation of the Albian beds of France
with those of Germany, as given by M. Barrois.

France.

Zone superieure

Zone moyenne

J Zone of Ammonites splendens — '
( “ Flammenmergel ”

J Zone of Am. interruptus and
| Belemnites minimus. /

Germany.

Upper Gault.

Zone inferieure

j Zone of Am. tarclefurcatus and
( Am. 3Iillettianus.

Middle Gault.

The term Gault .is used in a much broader sense in Germany than
in England. The name was originally applied to the blue clays under-
lying the Chalk and Upper Greensand in this country ; but in Germany,
where blue clays extend downwards to beds of Aptian age, the term
refers to both the Aptian and Albian stages of d’Orbigny’s classification.

The subdivisions of the Gault of North Germany (N. of the West
Harz and Brunswick) have bjen laid clown by von Strombeck as follows,
in descending order.

ALBIAN STAGE.

Upper Gault.

1. Flammenmergel. With Ammonites ( Schloenhachia ) inflatus, Am.

( Hoplites ) lantus , Am. (Hoplites) auritus, anti Avicula cjry-
phseoides.

2. Minimus-Thon. With Belemnites minimus , Am. (Hoplites) lautus ,

and Am. (Hoplites) splendens.

Middle Gault.

1. Clay with Am. (Hoplites) tardefurcaius.

2. Clay with Am. (Acanthoceras) Millettianus.

APTIAN STAGE.

Lower Gault.

1. White marl with Belemnites Ewaldi and Am. (Placenticeras)

nisus.

2. Clay with Am. (Acanthoceras) Martini and Am. (Hoplites)

Beshayesi.

3. Dark blue clay, poor in fossils.

4. Dark blue tenacious clay with Belemnites Brunsvicensis *

The Middle Gault of Germany appears to be entirely unrepresented
in England. The equivalent to our own series is the so-called Upper
Gault of Germany, with the Minimus- clay and the greater part of the
Flammenmergel.

* Neues Jahrb., 1857, p. G39; Zeitsclir. d. deutsch. Gesellsch., 1861, p. 20; also
Kayser-Lake, Text-book of Comp. Geol., 1893, p. 293.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 19

APPENDIX If.

Previous Work on the Foraminifera found in the Gault of
England and elsewhere.

For our knowledge of the Foraminifera of the Gault of England, we
are in the first place indebted to the work of Prof. A. E. Reuss * who
gave, in his monograph on the Foraminifera of the Hils and Gault, a
supplement on these organisms from Folkestone.! His study was the
result of an examination of a sample of clay which Prof, (then Mr.)
T. Rupert Jones had sent for the purpose. In this supplement dealing
with Folkestone, Dr. Reuss enumerated 39 species, and compared them
in detail with the Foraminifera obtained from similar and older strata
(Albian and Aptian) in North Germany. After deducting 4 unnamed
forms and 11 newly described species; of the remaining 24 Reuss found
19 (or nearly 80 per cent.) common to the Folkestone Gault and the
Minimus- clay of North Germany, with which latter formation there is
most agreement in the microzoic contents. Of the 19 species from the
Mhiimus-cl&y, Reuss found 5 peculiar to that stratum, 2 in that and the
beds immediately underlying it, and 1 restricted to the Minimus- clay
and the Flammemnergel. Nine of the species passed into the Upper
Oretaceous series.

From time to time lists of Gault Foraminifera have appeared,
largely based upon the researches of Prof. T. Rupert Jones, and further
augmented by Reuss’s list.*

The Foraminifera of the Gault from Meux’s well-boring, Tottenham
Court Road, London, have been enumerated by Chas. Moore, and 31
species are recorded. §

As regards the Red Chalk of Yorkshire, Norfolk, and Lincolnshire,
the Foraminifera have been carefully worked out by Messrs. Burrows,
Sherborn, and Bailey, || and they will presently be compared with the
Gault facies.

From France we have an elaborate and valuable monograph on the
Foraminifera of the Albian stage of Montcley in the Department of
Doubs, by M. Berthelin.lf This author described many new forms,
most of which I have since met with in the Gault of Folkestone. Alto-
gether there are 98 species enumerated.

For the Gault beds of Northern Germany we have the very complete

* ‘ Die Foraminiferen des Norddeutschen Hils imd Gault,’ Sitzungsb. d. k.
Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xlvi. Abth. 1, 1862, pp. 5-100, pis. i.-xiii.

t Op. cit., pp. 88-95, pi. xii. -figs. 5-14 and pi. xiii.

x See Morris’ ‘ Catalogue of British Fossils,’ 2nd ed., 1854, pp. 32-44, for references
to English Gault Foraminifera, compiled by T. K. Jones. Also ‘Memoir on the
Weald,’ Topley, 1875, Geol. Surv. Mem., pp. 433 and 434, for lists of Gault Fora-
minifera furnished by Prof. T. B. Jones.

§ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxiv. (1878) pp. 917-8.

[| Journ. K. Micr. Soc. for 1890, pp. 549-66, pis. viii.— xi.

% ‘Memoire sur les Foraminiferes Fossiles de l’Etage Albien de Montcley
(Doubs),’ Mem. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, 1880, pp. 1-84, pis. i.-iv.
(xxiv.-xxvii.)

c 2

20

Transactions of the Society.

and exhaustive study by Reuss on the Foraminifera of the Hits clay
and Gault formations, reference to which has already been made ; and
upon the tables given by Reuss, M. Berthelin has made some interesting
analyses of the foraminiferal facies of the various divisions of the two
areas in Germany and France. By the conrparisons there made,
M. Berthelin found twice as many species of the Foraminifera pass into
the Upper Cretaceous beds as into the Aptian beds below the Gault.

Partly coincident in age with the Gault of the above-mentioned
areas are the Greensands of New Jersey. For our knowledge of the
Foraminifera of these beds we are indebted to A. E. Reuss,* * * § A. Wood-
ward,'f and R. M. Bagg.f The last-named author has given a list of 94
species, in -which some noteworthy forms, usually considered peculiar to
the uppermost beds of the Chalk in Europe, have occurred. The same
author has latterly given short lists of the Foraminifera to accompany
the stratigraphical details of New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, by
W. B. Clark. §

Of works dealing with the Foraminifera from strata immediately
below and above the Gault in Europe, it will only be necessary to briefly
mention some of the more important. To that of Reuss, in which he
treats of the Hils formation and the Speeton clay of North Germany
(Aptian), reference has already been made. Dr. R. Haeusler gives the
species found in the Gault (Aptian and Albian) of St. Croix.|| The
present writer has described the Microzoa of the Bargate beds (Aptian)
of Surrey The Foraminifera of the beds above the Gault have been
elucidated by G. R. Vine,** who has published a list of these organisms
from the Cambridge Greensand (possibly derived from an equivalent to
zones x.-xiii. of the Gault) ; whilst the Cenomanian beds of Bohemia
have received very careful attention from Dr. Jaroslav Perner.ff

The literature of the Foraminifera relating to the Upper Cretaceous-
beds of the Turonian and Senonian stages is very extensive, and refer-
ences to the chief works will be found by consulting the previous parts,
of this series of papers.

* ‘Die Foraminiferen des senonisclien Griinsandes von New Jersey,’ Sit4ungsl>.
d. k. Ak. Wiss. Wien, vol. xliv. (1861) pp. 334-40, pi. vii. figs. 3-7, pi. viii.

f ‘Synopsis of the Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey,’ Journ. New York
Micr. Soc., vol. vi. No. 2, 1890 ; vol. x. No. 4, 1894.

% 1 The Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey,’ Johns Hopkins Univ. Circulars,,
vol. xv. No. 121, 1895, pp. 10-12.

§ ‘ Upper Cretaceous' Formations of New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland,’ Bull.
Geol. Soc. America, vol. viii. (1897) pp. 315-58.

|| ‘Die Lageninen der scliweizerischen Jura- und Kreide-formations,’ Neues
Jahrb. fur Min., vol. i. 1887, pp. 177-89, pis. iv. and v.

‘ The Bargate Beds of Surrey and their Microscopic Contents,’ Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc., vol. 1. 1894. The Foraminifera on pp. 693-724, pis. xxxiii. and xxxiv.

** ‘ Notes on the Polyzoa and the Foraminifera of the Cambridge Greensand/
Proc. Yorkshire Geol. and Polytechnic Soc., N.S., vol. ix. pt. i. 1885 (1886) pp. 10-29;.
pis. i. and ii.

tf ‘ Ueber d^ie Foraminiferen des Bohmischen Cenomans [Foraminifery Ceskelio-
Cenomanu Ceska Akad. Cisare Frantiska Josefa, Prague, 1892 (Paleeontographica
Bohemise, No. 1).

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone, By F, Chapman. 21

appendix nr.

Distribution Tables of the Foraminifera from the Gault of

Folkestone.

In drawing up the following tables of species;from Folkestone, a few
additional occurrences have been added to levels in which the species
had not been discovered at the time of publishing the descriptions in
the foregoing parts of this work.

In addition to this, it is necessary to make some alterations in the
determination of a few species, as follows : —

Ophthcilmidium tumidulum Brady, Cornuspira cretacea Reuss, C. in -
volvens Keuss, and C. foliaeea Philippi sp.* The specimens from the
Gault which were referred to the above-named species were thought
originally to be porcellanous in shell structure, since the test appears
of a chalky white colour by reflected light. On submitting them,
however, to conditions which render them translucent, they in each case
proved to be composed of arenaceous material, the component quartz-
grains being of excessive minuteness, averaging * * §004 /x in diameter.
It is this fine arenaceous structure, with its glazed external surface,
which gives the porcellanous appearance to the specimens. Although
in the porcellanous groups these forms have been separated into the
four so-called species, when removed to the arenaceous group they so
fill up gaps in a long series dominated by the same type, that they
cannot reasonably be included under more than one specific form — that
of Ammodiscus incertus d’Orb. sp. So much for the imperfect character
of Rhizopodal nomenclature.

Trochammina concava. f It is interesting to note the close relation-
ship between T. infiata Montagu sp., var. macrescens Brady f and the
above, as has been pointed out to me by my friend Mr. Millett. As far
as I have noticed, the variety macrescens is nearly devoid of arenaceous
material, and consists usually of a chitinous test.

The specimens from the Gault of France and England which have
been placed under Bulimina polystropha Reuss by M. Berthelin,§ and
later by myself, || are without doubt the same form as that described by
Dr. Egger from the Miocene of Lower Bavaria. This discrepancy has
probably arisen from the non-agreement of the original figure and de-
scription of Bulimina polystropha given by Reuss, the figure showing a
smooth test, while the specimen is described as having a rough surface.**

Frondicula'ria pinnseformis If had already been figured and described
by Dr. Perner from the Cenomanian of Bohemia, under the name of

* See this Journal for 1891, pp. 574 and 575, pi. ix. figs. 10-13.

+ See this Journal for 1892, p. 327, pi. vi. figs. 14 a, b.

J Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. iv. vol. vi. 1870, p. 290, pi. xi. figs. 5 ci-c.

§ Mem. Soc. Geol. France, 1880, ser. 3, vol. i. No. 5, p. 30, pi. ii. figs. 3 a, 6.

|| See this Journal for 1892, p. 756, pi. xii. fig. 11.

•ff Bulimina yygmxa Egger, 1857, Neues Jahrb. f. Min., p. 284, pi. xii. figs. 10, 11.

** Yerstein. Bohm. Kreidef., pt. ii. (1845) p. 109, pi. xxiv. figs. 53 a , b. [For
(further details on this point see Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. 1. (1894) pp. 701-2.]
ft See this Journal for 1891, p. 156, pi. iii. figs. 9-11.

22

Transactions of the Society.

F. FritscJiii ; * * * § and therefore the latter name stands by priority. The
species has also been found in the Turonian of Bohemia by Perner.f

Marginnlma aspera.% This name has already been used for another
type by Ter quern ; § it is therefore here proposed to alter the name of
the Gault species to asperula.

Cristellaria nodosa Reuss sp. || Costa has figured a form,^f to which
Mr. Millett draws my attention; it is comparable to Reuss’s species,
and has priority of publication. It will be necessary, therefore, to retain
the form under Costa’s name, as Cristellaria lobata.

In the table of species, the fistulose varieties of the Polymorphinse are
denominated by the new names proposed by Prof. Rupert Jones and
the present writer in a paper on the ‘ Fistulose Polymorphinse,’ published
subsequently to the descriptions of the fistulose varieties given in this
work.**

In the following Tabulation of the Red Chalk Foraminifera (pp. 40-
42) we have 86 species. Of these 52, or a little more than 60 per cent.,
have been found in the Gault of Folkestone. In the Lower Gault
(zones i.-vii.) 38 Red Chalk forms occur ; whilst in the Upper Gault
(zones viii.-xiii.) we find 48 species common to this and the Red Chalk ;
or 44 per cent, and nearly 56 per cent, respectively.

As the result of an examination of Chalk-marl from Eastwear Bay
(Bed ii. of Price), which I have made for this present work, If there are
only 25 species, or 29 per cent, of the Foraminifera from this horizon,
common to the Red Chalk. It therefore seems conclusive that the con-
ditions under which the Red Chalk (speaking of it in a general sense)
was deposited are nearly the same as were existent during the formation
of the Upper Gault of Folkestone. There is a marked absence of
shallow-water and coarsely grown arenaceous Foraminifera in the Red
Chalk, quite unlike the assemblage found in the Chalk-marl.

* Perner, ‘Foraminifery Ceskeho Cenomanu’ (Pal. Boliemise, No. 1), 1892, p. 58,
pi. vii. figs. 1 ci-cJ.

t ‘ Foraminifery Vrstev Belohorskych ’ (Pakeontograpliica Boliemise, No. 4),
1897, p. 68, pi. iv. figs. 13-15 [with vars. pseudocanaliculata and interruptd].

f See this Journal for 1894, p. 162, pi. iv. fig. 18.

§ Mem. Ac. Imp. Metz, vol. xliv. (1863) p. 401, pi. viii. figs. 14o,?>.

|| See this Journal for 1896, p. 4, pi. i. figs. 5 a, b.

Bdbulina lobata Costa, 1856, Atti Accad. Ponteniana vol. vii. fas. 2, pi. xx.
fig. 14.

** Journ. Linn. Soc. London, Zoology, vol. xxv. (1896) pp. 497-516.
tt I have refrained from using the series of Foraminifera from the Chalk detritus
of Charing for comparison here, as it is possible that there may be fossils from higher-
horizons included in it.

Distribution Tables of the Foraminifera from the Gault
of Folkestone.

24

Transactions of the Society.

Zones

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

i

VI.

VII.

No.

Species.

.

| (a) Greensand
1 seam.

(5)

| 5 ft. up.

I (ci) Crushed
band.

ed

co

■

1

Nubecularia depressa sp. n.

2

„ nodulosa sp. n.

r

f

3

Biloculina undulata sp. n.

4

Spiroloculina nitida d’Orb.

5

„ asperula Karrer . . . .

..

v r

6

Miliolina venusta Karrer sp. . .

7

„ tricarinata d’Orb. sp. . .

8

„ Ferussacii d’Orb. sp.

9

„ agglutinans d’Orb. sp. . .

10

Bhizammina indivisa Brady . . . .

”

"

11

Reophax lageniformis sp. n. .. . .

12

„ ampullacea Brady . . . .

13

„ fusiformis Will. sp. .. ..

14

„ . scorpiurus Montfort . . . .

15

• Follcestoniensis sp. n. . .

16

„ cylindracea sp. in.' . . . .

17

Haplophragmium glomeratum Brady . .

-

c

r

18

„ Terguemi Berthelin

r

r

r

G

• v c

c

VC

r

vr

v r

19

„ nonioninoides Reuss

c

"

C

VC

r

VC

vc

f

vc

20

„ elegans sp. n. . .

"

"

••

21

,, acutidorsatum Hant-

ken.

vr

..

f

c

VC

f

f

vr

r

22

, , latidorsatum Born, sp .

vr

vr

c

f

f

r

f

...

23

„ latidorsatum var.

papillosa var. n.

-

••

I

24

„ x quale Romer sp. . .

v r

f

1 f

1*

VC

1 vc

vr

vr

25

26

,, nanum Brady

V 1*

27

., globigeriniforme P.

and S. sp.

r

vr

v r

28

Placopsilina cenomana d’Orb.

29

„ vesicularis Brady

r

30

Haplostiche Sherborni sp. n. . .

31

Thurammina albicans Brady . .

32

Ilormosina globulifera Brady . .

v r

33

Ammodiscus incertus d’Orb. sp.

f

v r

c

V 1*

1 v r

i

Mi mimfera of tie Grnlt of Folkestone. By F. Cltwpmm. 25

'U. x.

o I ^ I 2

rC VC f

XIII.

■f . VO
vr 1 ..

r

Range in Time.

Gault

Mid-Jurassic— Recent
Miocene— Recent
, r I Gault— Recent

Gault

Gault — Recent

Oolite— Recent
Gault

Gault— Recent
Gault

Lower Greensand— Gau
| Gault

Lower Greensand — Recent

Gault— Recent
Gault

Lower Greensand— Upper Chalk
Carboniferous — Recent
Gault— Recent ..

Carboniferous— Recent

Gault— Recent

„ Chalk Marl
Jurassic — Recent ..
Gault— Recent ..

fir! Carboniferous — Recent

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20
21

22

23

24

25

26
27

26

Transactions of the Society.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 27

No.

31

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60
61
62

63

64

65

Species

Ammodiscus tenuis Brady
„ gordialis J. and

„ Millettianus 3p. 1

Trochammina concava sp. n.
Textidaria minuta Berth.

» sagittida Defiance
„ gramen d’Orb.
trocJius d’Orb.
turn's d’Orb.

„ conica d’Orb.

,, cigglutinans d’Orb.

parcdlela Benss
H prselonga Reuss

;> complancita Reuss s

Verneuilina triquetru Miinst. s
,, varictbilis Brady

w pygmxa Egger sp. (non
Bulimina polydropha
Reuss)

Tritaxia tricarinata Reuss
» pyramidata Reuss
Spiroplectci annectens P. and J
complcmata Reuss sp.

■> prolong a Reuss sp.

anceps Reuss sp
Gaudryina filifonnis Berth.

>, pupoides d’Orb.

.. rugosa d’Orb.

„ oxycona Reuss

» dispansa sp. n.

Vcdvidinci conica P. and J.

„ fusca Will. sp.

Bulimina Orbigmji Reuss
j, obliqiia d’Orb.

v Presli Reuss . .

>• v var. sabulosa var. n.

Range in Time.

Gault — Recent

Carboniferous— Recent ..

Gault

Lower Greensand— Gault
Recent

vr I Gault — Recent

Carboniferous— Recent . .

Gault

Lower Greensand— Clialk
Gault — Chalk Marl
Lower Greensand — Recent
Gault— Recent

Lower Greensand— Recent
Gault — Chalk

Lower Greensand— Recent
Gault

Lower Greensand— Recent

Gault— Recent ..

,> Upper Chalk

„ Chalk Marl

Lower Greensand— Recent

Gault — Chalk

Chalk Marl

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57
58'

59

60

28

Transactions of the Society.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By. F. Chapman. 29

Zones . .

I.

ii.

hi

IV

V.

.VI

.. VII

• VIII,

JX.

V.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

No

S

.1

d

a

£

a

a

A.

A

5

Range in Time,

No..

Species.

S

p ^

J

■%

£

%

1 |

r§ 1

6

ir

6 ^

cr

lO

o

1

VO,

<S

o

80

‘CO

A

VO

,40

CO

- 1

^ !

68

Bulimina Murchisoniana d’Orb.

—

v r

C

r ■

v r

’ r

f

r

Lower Greensand — Chalk

68

69

„ ohtusa d’Orb.

vr

v r

..

1

v r

| , „ , ,

69

; 70

,, brevis d'Orb. . .

"

..

r 1

v r i

f

C j

0

„ g *

70

| 71

„ pyrula d’Orb.

r

f

v r

Lias— Becent ..

71

: 72

„ a flints d’Orb.

1 vr

vr

v r

c

’ c j

c

Lower Greensand — Becent

72

j 73

Bolivina lextilarioides Reuss . .

C

VC

f

f

f

T

L f

r

..

f

c

C

f

f

f

V c ’

i-»

f

73

: 74

Pleurostomella obtusa Berthelin

f

v r

v r

f

v r

r

v r 1

v r

f

c

I f j

Gault . .

74

i 75

„ alternans Schwager ..

f

v r

v r

vr

v r

r !

v c

c

I f

„ — Recent

75 -

i 76

Lagena globosa Montagu sp. . .

••

vr

*•

Silurian— Recent ..

76 :

77

» apiculata Beuss

v r

v r

v r

v r

v r

r

; f 1

VC

v r i

r

f

f

v r

Lias — Becent

77

78

» „ var. emaeiata Beuss

r

Gault .. .. ..

78

; 79

"

v r

r

Silurian — Becent ..

79

I 80

„ gracillima Seguenza sp.

v r

v r

Gault — Recent

80 j,

| 81

„ aspera Beuss . .

f

r

Carboniferous — Recent ..

81

82

„ Ms'pida Beuss . .

v r

c

VC

v c

VC

f

v r

v r

r

v r

1*

1

Lower Lias — Becent

82 |

83

» sulcata Walker and Jacob sp.

v r

v r

Silurian — Recent

83 j

84

,, acidicosta Beuss

Lower G reen&ind — Becen t

84 !

85

gracilis Williamson

V 1

v r

Gault — Recent.

85 i

86

„ alifera Beuss . .

v r

1 vr

„ Oligocene..

S6 ;

87

striatopunctata P. and J.

v r

I v r

vr

„ Recent

87 |

j 88

„ marginata Walker and Boys . .

..

..

"

"

vr

jg ” . ; / -

88 ;

: 89

„ quinquelatera Brady var. inflata

••

„

89 j

var. n.

90

Nodosaria ((?.) humilis Bomer

v r

v r

1 Lias — Lower Eocene .

90 |

91

j. (G.) mutahilis Beuss sp. . .

v r

r

v r

Neocomian — Chalk

91 ,

92

„ (G.) cylindracea Beuss

L..

! j

r

I v r

! f

! Gault— Chalk

92

| 93

„ radicula L. sp. var. Joresi

■ vr

j VI*

r

c

vr

: vr

93

Beuss.

•

1 94

)5 oligostegia Beuss . .

v r

v.r.

vr

Lias— Recent

94

95

« (B.) expansa Beuss sp. . .

vr

v r

v r

I v r

Gault— Chalk

95 ,

96

1 (B-) farcimen Beuss after

f.

vr

••

v r

Permian— Recent

96

Soldani.

r

97

» (B.) soluta Beuss sp.

f

vr

1

-

r

f

vr

Lias— Recent

97 1

98

” » var. discrepans

Beuss.

vr

Gault— Chalk

98 !

99

” » var. pulchella

■ vr

>, -

99

var. n.

■ .

1

1

30

Transactions of the Society.

Zones ..

i.

ii.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

j No.

L
1 B

di

tri

§•

o »

<5 J

s

100

Nodosaria (73.) gracilis d’Orb. sp.

vr

P

T-

r

101

„

(73.) Lorneiana d’Orb. sp.

..

v r

102

”

(71.) pauperata d’Orb. sp.

r
V 1*

v r

vr

104

(73.) cylindroules Eeuss sp.

v r

105

„

(D.) hanmlifera Eeuss

106

„

(73.) xiphioides Eeuss

vr

107

„

(73.) legumen Eeuss

108

».

(I>.) Roemeri Neugeboren sp.

vr

vr

109

„

(73.) communis d’Orb.

vr

r

110

„

(73.) mucronata Neug. sp.

■■

v r

111

112

■ ”

(73.) costellata Eeuss
(D.) raristriata sp. n.

113

»

hispida d’Orb.

f

c

f

114

!>

perpusilla sp. n.

r

v r

115

„ '

116

„

(73.) intercellularis Brady . .

-

vr

117

„

118

„

internotata sp, n.

v r

vr

v r

119

„ '

(73.) tubifera Eeuss

f

"

f

v r

v r

r

120

(73. ) Zippei Eeuss . .

v r

121

„

(73.) paupercula

v r

v r

r

c

c

122

„

(73.) Fontannesi Bertkelin sp.

r

••

f

r

v r

r

123

„

(73) obscura Eeuss'

f

v r

1

vr

124

,,

inflata Eeuss

-

v r

125

(73.) tenuicosta Eeuss

f

f

126

„

prismatica Eeuss

r

r

vr j

C

r

c

vr

127

„

orthopleura Eeuss . .

v r

vr

vr

c

VI

128

129

„ tetragona Eeuss

TAnaulina nodosaria Reuss

vr

-

130

s emiornata Eeuss . .

v r

"

v r

v r

v r

131

Frondicularia Loryi Bertlielin

132

„

133

„

134

”

gaultina Eeuss

y r

v r

viii,

Foraviin if evci of the Gault oj Folkestone. By F. Gnapman.

ix. x.

I

v r r
vr v T

I f

f -

f f

f VC

vr vr

vr f

f f | f

r - f

.. .. ••

.. .. f

“

f vr r

v r vr v r

vr vr
. . vr

Range in Time. ’

Mo.

Gault — Chalk .. .. .1

100

„ „ •

101

Lias — Recent

102

Gault — Recent ..

103

Chalk .. ..

104

Neocomian — Gault

105

Lower Greensand— Gault

106

Gault — Chalk

107

Lower Greensand — Recent

108 .

Permian — Recent ..

109

Oolite— Recent

110

Gault — Chalk

111

,,

112

Lias — Recent

113

Gault

114

115

„ — Recent

116

Neocomian— ■ Gault

117

Gault

118

Neocomian — Gault

119

r Gault— Chalk

120

r „ „

121

Lower Greensand — Gault

122

,, ,, Chalk

123

. Gault— Chalk

124

Neocomian — Chalk

125

r „ Gault

126

z Gault

127

r Aptian — Gault "

128

Neocomian — Gault

129

Lower Greensand — Chalk Marl

130

Gault

131

132

Gault— Recent

133

„ (and Red Chalk) ..

134

12

Transactions of the Society.

ix.

55 ft. down.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 33

xii. xiii. !

c a
* S

O I o

f VI

1898

Range in Time.

No.

Gault— Chalk

135

„ Chalk (Turonian)

136

„ .. ..

137

„ Chalk?

138

„ (. lialk

139

„ .. ..

140

„

141

„

142

„

143

,, . . ..

144

„

145

„ . . . . ....

146

Gault — Chalk

147

., . . ... ....

148

Neocomian — Gault (and Red Chalk)

149

Gault— Chalk Marl

150

Neocomian — Gault

151

Rhsetic — Recent . .

152

Gault — Chalk Marl

153

Neocomian — Gault

154

Gault . .

155

Lower Greensand — Gault

156

„ „ „

157

Gault

158

„

159

„

160

Lower Greensand — Gault

161

Neocomian — Recent

162

Lower Greensand— Gault

163

Neocomian — Gault

164

„ Chalk Marl

165

Gault — Chalk Marl

166

167

Lias— Chalk (Turonian) . .

168

D

34

Transactions of the Society.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 35

No.

Zones . .

if

HI.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VIII

-

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

Range in Time.

No.

Species.

(a) Greensand
seam.

(a) Crushed 1
band.

rO

3

CO

a

*

o

T3

vc

iO

%

o

nd

O

iO

d

£

JO

1 40 ft, down.

d

o

CO

o

j 25 ft. down.

I 20 ft. down
| (Greensand).

I 12 ft. down.

I 6 ft. down.

169

Vaginulinc

trunoata Reuss

v r

f

r

r

r

1-

r

f

vc

X

f

v r

r

f

Neocomian — Chalk Marl

169

170

„ vai1. robusta Berth.

v r

c

v r

r

VC

C

C

c

c

c

c

c

c

f

v r

Gault

170

and Chap.

171

„

gaultina Berthelin

v r

v r

r ..

f

vr

r

VC

f

v r

v r

v r

„ —Chalk

171

172

„

r

r

v,r

r

r

r

f

r

„ (and Red Chalk) . .

172

173

striolata Reuss

v r

„

173

174

comitina Berthelin

f

v r

v r

v r

r

r

,, ..

174

175

„

sparsicostata Reuss

v r

Neocomian — Gault

175

176

„

discors F. Koch . .

v r

v r

„

176

177

„

Biocliei Berthelin

vr

v r

Gault

177

178

„

v r

„ . .

178

179

Gristellaria linearis Reuss

r

v r

Neocomian — Gault

179

180

„

striata sp. n.

v r

v r

Gault

180

181

„

exilis Reuss

vr

r

v r

Neocomian — Gault

181

182

var. crispata, var. n.

v r

Gault ..

182

183

Neocomian — Gault

183

184

„

cymboides d’Orb. . .

vr

v r

„ Tertiary

184

185

„

humilis Reuss

y r

v r

„ Gault

185

186

„

crepidula P. and M. sp. . .

v r

vr

r

Lias — Recent

186

187

„

Schloenbachi Reuss

r

vr

vr

vr

vr

Neocomian — Recent

187

188

„

costulata sp. nov. . .

vr

vr

Gault

188

189

„

gladius Philippi sp.

v r

Lias — Tertiary

189

190

„

Bronni Romer sp. . .

v r

v r

v r

r

f

„ Gault

190

191

„

lituola Reuss ..

vr

v r

Gault — Chalk (Turonian)

191

192

„

navicula d’Orb.

v r

v r

vr

„ Chalk

192

193

„

sulcifera Reuss

f

v r

r

Lower Greensand — Gault

193

194

triangularis d’Orb.

v r

vr

v r

vr

v r

Gault— Chalk

194

195

„

trunculata Berthelin

v r

v r

vr

„ . . . .

195

196

„

oligostegia Reuss . .

vr

r

r

vr

vr

vr

vr

Lower Greensand — Chalk

196

197

„

tripleura Reuss

v r

vr

Gault

197

198

r

„

198

199

„

latifrons Brady

vr

„ — Recent

199

200

„

VO

f

vr

vr

r

c

r

f

v r

c

v r

f

r

v r

„

200

201

„

Italiea Defrance sp.

r

v r

v r

vr

v r

v r

v r

Lower Greensand — Recent

201

202

|

vestita Berth.

vr

v r

vr

vr

f

f

1

f

1

r

v r

„ „ Chalk Marl..

202

d 2

36

Transactions of the Society.

Foraminif era of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 37

Zones . .

I.

ii.

in.

IV.

V.

VI.

VII.

VlIIj

IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

No.

Species.

1 i

P "g

p.

p

P

pt

ns

*

o

ns

ps

ns

£

ns

£

o

o fl

p

Range in Time.

No.

d m

o £

CO

<+«

rO

O

O

CO

t

rO

CM

F £

O

<M

d

CM

CO

.

203

Cristellaria complanata Reuss

rr

f

f

Lower Greensand — Chalk (Turo-
nian)

203

204

„

Bradyana sp. u. . .

VC

vr

r

vr

f

vr |

••

Gault

204

205

planiuscula Reuss . .

vr

vr

r

v r

v r

v r

vr

vr

vr

Neocomian — Gault

205

206

turgidula Reuss . .

vr

vr

vr

f

1 Gault

206

207

,,

circumcidanea Berth.

t

vr

r

vr

vr

vr

”

vr

vr

.

207

208

„

eubalata Reuss

v r

v r

vr

Neocomian — Eocene

208

209

secans Reuss, var. cingulosa
var. n.

r

Gault

209

210

„

lobata Costa sp. . .

..

v r

v r

Neocomian — Tertiary

210

211

1

convergent Bornemann . .

v r

r

„ Recent

211

212

„

gibba d’Orb

f

r

vr

f

vr

vr

r

r

r

r

f

r

r

f

r

Lias — Recent

212

213

„

rotulata Lam. sp. . .

r

r i

r

v r

v r

f

c

r

r

vr

v r

v r

f

f

r

Jurassic — Recent ..

213

214

”

„ var. macrodiscus

Reuss

v r

f

v r

r

r

r

v r

vr

r

f

r

r

r

f

r

f

r

Neocomian — Gault (and Red
Chalk)

214

215

„

gaultina Berthelin

; v r

f

r

r

VC

c

r

V C

f

f

c

c

v r

f

f

f

c

f

c

v c

f

c

Gault— Chalk

215

216

„

sternalis Berth.

v r

"

v r

r

r

vr

f

r

r

r

r

v r

f

v r

vr

v r

v r

„

216

217

„

diademata Berth. . .

r

r

V 1*

r

vr

c

r

r

r

c

r

v r

v r

v r

r

f

r

r

r

„ Chalk Marl

217

218

Polymorpliina lacted W. and J. sp. . .

v r

vr

Oolite — Recent

218

219

”

„ var. acuplacenta
Jones & Chapman

v r

v r

Gault

219

220

»

gibba d’Orb.

r

v r

v r

r

c

Oolite — Recent

220

221

”

„ var. acuplacenta
Jones & Chapman

f

v r

Gault — Pliocene ..

221

222

n

vr

• •

v r

Neocomian — Tertiary

222

223

”

„ var. diffusa Jones
and Chapman

f

r

Gault .. .. .. ..

223

224

fusiformis Romer sp. . .

v r

v r

r

f

v r

vr

v r

r

••

f

Lias — Recent

224

225

”

„ var. liorrida

Reuss

v r

r

v r

v r

v r

Gault — Oligocene

225

226

,,

sororia Reuss . .

r

vr

vr

v r

v r

r

r

v r

v r

„ Tertiary

226 ;

227

”

„ var. acuplacenta
Jones & Chapman

v r ;

„ Recent

227 |

228

”

„ var. cuspidata
Brady
angusta Egger . .

v r

r

Neocomian — Recent

228

229

„

v r

vr

vr

.. i

Gault — Recent

229

230

communis d’Orb.

v r

1

f

Lias — Recent

230

231

”

compressa d’Orb.

r

vr

” ”

231

/

38 Transactions of the Society. j Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 39

Zones . .

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

v,.

VII.

VIII. 1

I IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

I

1

No.

! »

r a

P<

d

d

>

a

s

a

a

a

§

- a
a «

d

d

Range in Time.

No.

Species.

D/g

3d

o

-§

r

^ £

HD

to

£

53

d

d

d

d

d

d <

S O.

d

lO

©

m i
CO

©

CO

iO <

CM <

O

s

232

Sagraina asperula sp. n.

c

r

C

vr

. . 1

I

Gault . . . . . .

232

233

„ calcarata Berth, sp. . .

f

v r

r

v r

vr

„ . . . . . . . .

233

234

Eamulina Isevis Jones . .

vr

v r

Gault — Beceut

234

235

„ globulifera Brady . .

v r

r

vr 1

1

f

v r

v r

f

p

f

r

v r

f

Mid- Jurassic — Becent

235

236

„ aculeata Wright

r

v r

0

c

0

r

v r

r

f

r

c

f

Jurassic — Tertiary ..

236

237

„ cervicornis Chapman sp. . .

v r

f

1

f

vr

Gault .. .. ..

237

238

Vitriwebbina Isevis Sollas sp. . .

r

v r

Gault— Chalk (Turonian)

238

239

„ Sollasi Chajiman

v r

v r

f

f

r

f

„ „ „

239

240

i, „ var. gonoidea var. n.

v r

Gault

240

241

„ tuberculata Sollas sp. . .

r

„ — Cenomanian ..

241

242

Globigerina bulloides d’Orb. . .

v r

vr

v r

p

r

v r

c

f

c

Lower Greensand — Becent

242

243

„ cretacea d’Orb.

f

f

f

c

f

C

c

c

0 I

1: c

0

v c.

v c

exc

exc

exc

exc

exc

exc

c

f

» » »

243

244

„ sequilateralis Brady

r

y r

v r

f

r

r 1

I vr

v c

c

v c

v c

c

f

Gault — Becent . . . .

244

245

Sphseroidina bulloides d’Orb. . .

v i

„ ■ ,» .. ■ .v ! :• ..;

245

246

Spirillina tuberculata Brady . .

vr

* .

„ . . . . .

246

247

Discorbina rugosa d’Orb. sp. . .

v r

v r

f

v r

vr

v r

r

v r

Lower Greensand — Becent

247

248

„ globularis d’Orb. sp.

v r

Gault — Becent 1

248

249

„ orbicularis Terq. sp.

r

Lower Greensand — Becent

249

250

,, turbo d’Orb. sp.

...

vr 1

u »

250

251

„ pileolus d’Orb. sp. . .

v r

>i u u

251

252

,, Vilardeboa na d’Orb. sp. ..

v i

)) u »

252

253

Truncatulina refulgens Montf. sp.

v r

Gault — Becent

253

254

„ lobatula Walker sp.

v r

Carboniferous — Becent . .

254

255

„ Wuellerstorfi Scliwager sp.

..

I vr

v r

v r

Lower Greensand — Becent

255

256

Anomalina complanata Beuss..

..

r

r

r

r

y r

vr

r

••

v r

Aptian — Eocene

256

257

„ ammonoides Beuss sp.

v r

c

c

c

c

C !

c

0

c

c

c

1 i c

c

f

c

c

c

c

vr

,c

f *

c

c

Lower Greensand — Becent

257

258

,, rudis Beuss sp.

f

r

r

r.

f

f

r

; £

r.

vr

r

r

r

Gault — Cenomanian

258

259

Pulvinulina Hauerii d’Orb. sp.

..

v r

„ Becent

259

260

„ elegans d’Orb. sp. . .

J.

f

f

r

f

r

f

vr

r

f

v r

v r

Lias — Becent

260

261

„ caracolla Bomer sp.

v r

v r

f

c

c

V

vr

v’r

f

„ Gault

261

262

» reticulata Beuss sp.

vr

vr

Oolite — Gault

262

263

» Carpenteri Beuss sp.

P

f

VO

c

r

f

i °

Gault

263

264

» spinulifera Beuss sp. . ,

f

VI

f

c

VX5

o

f

C

Oolite — Gault

264

265

Rotalia Soldanii d’Orb. sp. var. nitida
Beuss

r

1

r

■'

VI

r

r

f.

f

f

f

r

r

r

c

c

c

c

c

c

1

c

VC

c

Gault— Chalk (Turonian)

265

40 Transactions of the Society.

Comparative Table of the Red Chalk, the Gault, and the
Chalk Marl Foraminifera.

A few emendations in square brackets have been made in the
nomenclature by the author, which will facilitate the correlation of
the two facies.

Red Chalk
of

Gault,

Folke-

stone.

o5

a

o

C/3

o

No.

Sfecies given in the Paper on the
Red Chalk Foraminifera by Burrows,
Sherborn, and Bailey.

Speeton.

Flamborough

Head.

Hunstanton.

Upper.

Lower.

o

u,

ci

c3

6

1

Spiroloculina papyracea Burrows, Sherborn,
and Bailey

••

X

2

„ tenuis (Czjzek) ; also Miliolina

sp. [= young form of same]

X

3

Cornuspirci cretacea Reuss \ probably same
Ammodiscus incertus (d’Orb.)jiormasin Gault

1 X

X

X

4

„ gordialis (Jones and Parker) ..

X

X

X

5

„ tenuis Brady

X

X

j

••

6

Textularia attenuata Reuss ..

X

..

7

„ pygmtea Rss. [altered to T. minutci

Berth.]

••

X

X

X

X

X

8

„ agglutinans d’Orb. . .

X

X

9

„ gramen d’Orb.

X

X

X

10

„ trochus d’Orb.

X

X

X

X

x

11

„ turris d’Orb.

X

x ;

x

X

12

„ complanatci Reuss

X

X

X

X

13

„ sp. [= T. prselonga Reuss]

X

X

X

14

Verneuilina propinqua Brady . .

x

15

„ triquetra (Munster)

X

X

X

16

Spiroplecta biformis P. and J.

X

••

17

Gaudryina pupoides d’Ork ..

X

X

X

X

18

Bulimina affinis d’Orb. . .

X

.*!

••

X

19

„ Presli Reuss . .

X

..

x

X

x

X

20

Bolivina textilarioides Reuss..

X

..

X

x !

21

„ Beyriclii Reuss var. alata Seg. . .

X

. .

22

PleurostomeUa subnodosa Reuss

X

1

23

„ alternan? Schwager . .

x

••

X

X

X

24

Lagena globosa (Mont.)

x

..

• •

X

25

„ Ixvis (Mont.) ..

X

X

X

X

20

„ apicuiata Reuss

X

X

X

X

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 41

Red Chalk
of

Gault,

Folke-

stone.

[ . .

o

No.

Species given in the Paper on the
Red Chalk Foraminifera by Barrows,
Sherborn, and Bailey.

Speeton.

Flamborough

Head.

1

Hunstanton.

Upper.

Lower.

o

£

CC

s

C3

27

Lagena apiculata var. emctciata Reuss

X

! ••

X

.. j

28

„ cincta Seguenza

X

..

■

29

Nodosaria (G.) lievigata d’Orb.

X

..

30

„ (Cr.) obtusissima Reuss

X

.. ]

31

,, (Cr.) cylindracea Reuss

I x

X

32

„ (Cr.) candela Egger . .

X

33

„ simplex Silvestri [iV. oligostegia

Reuss]

X

X

X

34

„ longiscata d'Orb.

X

35

„ calomorphci Rss.

• •

X

1

36

„ limbcita d’Orb.

X

37

„ obscura Rss.

X

X

X

X

38

„ prismatica Rss.

X

..

X

X

x j

39

„ (D.) soluta Rss.

X

* * 1

X

' X

X

40

„ (D.) communis d’Orb.

..

X

! x

X

X

x 1

41

„ (D.) brevis d’Orb. . .

X

..

42

„ (D.) jiliformis d’Orb.

X

! . 1

43

„ (D.) marginulinoides Rss.

X

44

„ (D.) mucronata Neug.

X

X

X

45

„ (jD.) abnormis Rss. .. .. ..

X

46

Lingulina carinata d’Orb. [L. nodosaria Rss.]

x

X

i

47

Frondicularia biformis Marsson . . . .

x

•• j

48

„ Gaultina Rss. . . . . . .

X

••

X

X

49

„ Archiaciana d’Orb. . . . . j

X

••

50

Rhdbdogonium tricarincitum d’Orb. [var.

acutcmgulum Rss.]

X

"

X

j

.. i

-I

a

51

„ minutum Rss. [ R . excavatum 1

Rss.]

X

X

• •

x |

52

Marginulina glabra d’Orb.

X

..

X

••

..

53

54

„ insequalis Reuss . .

„ variabilis Neug. . .

X |
X

X

X

X :|

55

Vaginulina eurynota Rss. [ - V. truncata Rss.] i

X

..

X

x !

X

56

„ recta Rss. . . . . . . . .

X

X

X

X

57

„ arguta Rss.

X

"

X

42

Transactions of the Society.

Red Chalk
of

Gault,

Folke-

stone.

<u

S3

o

in

No.

Species given in the Paper on the
Red Chnlk Foraminifera by Burrows,
Slierborn, and Bailey.

Speeton.

Flamborough

Head.

Hunstanton.

Upper.

Lower.

o

u<

rt

73

6

58

Vaginulina legumen (L.) . . . . . .

1 X

1

59

Cristellaria rotulata (Lam.) [var. macrodiscus
Rss.]

X

X

X

X

X

••

60

„ cultrata (Montf.) [0. gaidtina

Bertkelin]

X

X

...

X

X

X

61

gibba d’Orb.

X

1

X

X

X

62

„ ltalica (Defr.) . . . . . .

*

X

X

X

. .

63

„ lata Rss.

i X

..

61

65

„ variabilis Rss.

,, multisepta Rss.

X

X

••

66

„ crepidula (F. and M.) [C. com-

planata Rss.]

X

X

X

X

67

„ Marcki Rss. . .

x

68

,, cymboides d’Orb. ..

X

X

69

Polymorphina lactea (W. and J.)

X

X

70

„ communis d’Orb. [P. compressa

d’Orb.]

X

X

71

„ amygdaloides Rss. [pi. xi. fig. 12

= P. lactea W. and J. ; pi. xi.
fig. 13 = P.problema d’Orb.]

X

72

„ gibba d’Orb.

X

X

73

,, horrida Rss. [P. fusiformis

(Romer) var. horrida Rss.]

X

X

X

•'

74

,, sp. [P. sororia Rss.] .. ..

X

X

X

X

75

Uvigerina sp. . . . . . . . . . .

X

76

Bamulina aculeata d’Orb. [Wright] .. ..

X .

X

X

X

77

Globigerina bulloides d’Orb. . . . . . .

X

X

X

X

X

X

78

„ cretacea d’Orb. . . . . . .

X

••

x

X

X

X

79

„ Linneana d’Orb. . . . .

X

X

X

80

Orbulina universa d’Orb. . . . . . .

X

81

Sphzeroidina bulloides d’Orb. . . . .

x

X

. .

82

Truncatulina variabilis d’Ovb.

X

83

Planorbulina [ Anomalina ] ammonoides Rss.

X

X

X

X

* !

X

84

Pulvinulina Menardii (d’Orb.)

X

85

Anomalina grosserugosa (Giimbel)

X

x

86

Polystomella macella (F. and M.)

X

•• I

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 43

APPENDIX IV.

Summary of Results on the Zoological and Zonal Distribution
of the Folkestone-Gault Foraminifera.

The Zoological Distribution.

There are 265 species and varieties of Foraminifera herein recorded
from Folkestone, which are distributed, according to Dr. H. B. Brady’s
classification, as follows : —

The Family of the Miliolid^e is represented by 4 genera, viz. Nube-
cularia (2 new spp.) ; Biloculina (1 new sp.) ; Spiroloculina (2 spp.) ;
and Miliolina (4 spp.).

The Family of the Astrorhizid^e, — 1 genus, viz. Astrorhiza (L sp.).

The Family of the Lituolhle, — 8 genera, viz. Beophax (6 spp. —
2 of them new); Haplophragmium (10 spp. and 1 var. — 1 sp. and 1
var. new) ; Placopsilina (2 spp.) ; Haplostiche (1 sp, new) ; Thurammina
(1 sp.) ; Hormosina (1 sp.) ; Ammodiscus (4 spp. — 1 new); and Troch-
ammina (1 sp. new).

The Family of the Textulariid^e, — 9 genera, viz. Textularia (10
spp.) ; Verneuilina (3 spp.) ; Tritaxia (2 spp.) ; Spiroplecta (4 spp.) ;
Gaudryina (5 spp. — 1 new) ; Valvulina (2 spp.) ; Bulimina (8 spp. and 1
var. new) ; Bolivina (1 sp.) ; and Pleurostomella (2 spp.).

The Family of the Lagenid.®, — 13 genera, viz. Lagena (12 spp. and
2 vars. — 1 var. new) ; Nodosaria [including Glandulina and Dentalina~\
(36 spp., 4 of them new, and 3 vars., 1 new); Lingulina (2 spp.);
Frondicularia (17 spp., 4 of them new); Flabellina (1 sp.); Bliabdo-
gonium (2 spp. and 1 var.) ; Marginulina (14 spp., 3 of them new) ;
Vaginulina (11 spp., 1 of them new, and 2 vars., 1 of them new);
Gristellaria (36 spp., 3 of them new, and 3 vars. 2 of them new) ; Poly -
morphina • (8 spp. and 6 vars.); Sagrina (2 spp., 1 of them new);
Bamulina (4 spp.); and Vitriwebbina (3 spp. and 1 new var.).

The Family of the Globigerinid®, — 2 genera, viz. Globigerina
(3 spp.) ; and Sphseroidina (1 sp.).

The Family of the Rotaliid®, — 6 genera, viz. Spirillina (1 sp.) ;
Discorbina (6 spp.); Truncatidina (3 spp.) ; Anomalina (3 spp.) ; Pulvi-
nulina (6 spp.) ; and Potalia (1 var.).

Notes on the Zonal Distribution.

The members of the Family of the Miliolidse are for the greater part
confined to the uppermost beds of the Gault, occasional specimens only
being found in beds lower than zone x. As with nearly all the species
of the Foraminifera herein described, there is no particular sequence

44

Transactions of the Society.

according to age of these small divisions of the strata, the ruling factor
in the distribution being probably the existing conditions under which
the bed was deposited ; and therefore we find a nearly similar repetition
of the facies when the same lithological aspect recurs.

Miliolina venusta Karrer sp. is by far the commonest species of the
porcellanous group occurring in the Gault of Folkestone, and is found
consecutively from zone x. up to the top of zone xiii. at 6 ft. below the
Chloritic marl.

The Family of the Astrorhizidse. The only representative is Astro -
rhiza indivisa Brady, and the solitary specimen occurred in zone xi. at
the level of 50 ft. from the top. The incoherent nature of the tests of
many of these forms possibly explains their general absence from the
older fossiliferous strata.

The Family of the Lituolidse. The genus Reophax appears to bo
restricted to the Upper Gault, and especially favours zone x. The genus
Haplophragmium is a ubiquitous one in the Gault, and many of the
species recorded are well distributed throughout. Some other genera, as
Placopsilina, Haplostiche, Thurammina , Hormosina , and Trochammina ,
are of very occasional occurrence ; but Ammodiscusi represented by four
species, is commonly met with above zone ii.

The Family of the Textulariidse. The genus Textularia comprises,
some species, as T. minuta Berthelin, T. sagittula Defr., T. trochus d’Orb.,
and T. complanata Reuss sp., which are found scattered irregularly
through the Gault ; whilst a few others, as T. gramen d’Orb., T. conica
d’Orb., T. agglutinans d’Orb., T. parallela Reuss, and T. prselonga Reuss,
range through zones xi., xii., and xiii. It is also worth noting that
whilst T. agglutinans is found at three levels only, in zones xi. and xii.,
another form easily to be confounded with it, but having a triserial com-
mencement, namely Gaudryina pupoides d’Orb., has a range extending
throughout the thirteen zones ot the Gault, in some of which, unlike
T. agglutinans , it is very common. The genera Tritaxia, Spiroplecta,
and Bulimina begin to make an appearance in zone v. and continue to
the top of the Gault. Of the Buliminse it is interesting to notice that
B. Presli Reuss, which is perhaps the most characteristic of the Gault
species of the genus, begins at zone v., and continues more or less com-
mon up to the topmost level ; and it is accompanied in the last three
levels of zones xii. and xiii. (12 ft. and 6 ft. down) by a coarsely arena-
ceous variety named sabulosa. The single species of Bolivina , B. texiu -
larioides Reuss, is found commonly throughout the Gault.

The Family of the Lagenidse. This comprises by far the largest
number of the Gault Foraminifera. The genus Lagena is well represented ;
but with the exception of L. apiculata Reuss, and L. hispida Reuss, they
are altogether rare. The genus Nodosaria , in common with Cristellaria ,
comprehends the largest number of species and varieties in any one genus
of the Gault Foraminifera. The most abundant forms of this genus are
N. (Z>.) communis d’Orb., N. prismatica Reuss, and N. orthopleura Reuss..
It is strikingly shown in this genus that there are many more of the Gault
species peculiar to the Upper Gault, and further, generally passing into
the Chalk above, than there are peculiar to the Lower Gault, and passing
downwards. This significant fact was shown by Dr. Reuss in his work

Foraminif era of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 45

on the North German Gault Foraminifera, and was clearly demonstrated
by M. Berthelin in his comparisons between the Rhizopodal faunas of
the several geographical areas. The Nodosarise which I have found only
in the Lower Gault are N. sceptrum Reuss and N. ( D .) xiphioides Reuss ;
whilst those peculiar to the Upper Gault are N. (6?.) cylindracea Reuss,
N. radicula ( L .) var. Jonesi Reuss, N. ( D .) farcimenBe uss, N. (Z>.) soluta
Reuss, and its variety pulchella nov., N. ( D .) costellata Reuss, and
N. (D.) raristriata nov. The Frondicularise are not very conspicuous
before zone v. is reached ; at zone x. they approach the maximum, 12
species being there found out of a total of 17 species. Bkabdogonium
begins to make its appearance in zone ix., and two of the forms continue
to the top. Narginulina is well represented by M. debilis Berth., which
begins in zone iii. and continues to the top of zone xi. at 25 ft. down ;
also M. sequivoea Reuss, with a somewhat extensive range, and the allied
forms M. striatocostata Reuss and M. Jonesi Reuss. The more conspicu-
ous forms of Vaginulina as regards abundance are V. recta Reuss, extend-
ing throughout, with its variety tenuistriata nov., commencing at zone
v., V. truncata Reuss with its variety robusta Berth, and Chap., and
V. gaidtina Berth., the last-named extending from zones iii. to xi. The
genus Cristellaria comprises 39 forms, many of which are found only
sparingly at various levels in the Gault ; but several species call for
special remark. Of the ensiform or elongate Cristellarise , C. Bononiensis
Berthelin is perhaps most frequently met with. On the other hand,
those of the C. rotulata type are often exceedingly common, and as a
rule are generally distributed. Three species, viz. C. rotulata Lam. sp.,
C. gaultina Berthelin, and C. diademata Berthelin, occur.in all the zones
of the Gault, although not in every level examined. The Polymorphinse ,
rilthough found sparingly in the Lower Gault, beginning at zone iii.,
find their particular habitat in the three upper zones. Of the two species
of Sagrina, S. asperula nov. is restricted to zones i., iii., v., and vii.,
whilst S. calcarata Berth, sp. was found only in zones xi. and xiii. The
Bamulinse are sparingly found in the Lower Gault, but attain to some
abundance on reaching zone xi. The remarkable form B. cervicornis
CLapman sp. is found attached to shell-fragments, and appears to be
frequent wherever there are shelly bands in the Gault clay. Vitri-
ivebbina is represented by 3 species and 1 variety, two of which,
V. Sollasi and its variety gonoidea nov., have been newly described from
the Gault.

The Family of the Globigerinidse is an important one on account of
the great abundance of one of its species, G. cretacea d’Orb., which is
found in all zones and at all the levels with two exceptions. From
zone i. this species progressively increases in abundance to zone xi.,
.and then slightly diminishes to the top of the Gault. At no level is
G. bulloide8 d’Orb. so abundant as the preceding species, although it
is common at the top of zone xi., and the top of zone xiii. Sphseroidina
is represented by S. bulloides d’Orb., of which only one specimen was
found, in zone v.

Of the Family of the Botaliidse, Spirillina has only one species, S.
tuberculata Brady, which was found only in zone viii. The Discorbinse ,
as might be expected from deposits of a more or less shallow-water

46

Transactions of the Society .

character, have several representatives, but the genus is by no means-
a strong one in the Gault. The species do not appear until zone iii. is
reached, and after that are not confined to any particular part of the
series. Truncatulina is sparingly represented by three species, first
appearing in zone vii. The next genus, Anomalina , is somewhat difficult
to separate into species. There appear to be three forms, of which
A. amnonoides Reuss sp. is by far the commonest as well as the best
distributed, being found in every sample examined. A. ammonoides is
the only species of the Gault Foraminifera which occurs in every level
from zones i. to xiii. The genus Pulvinulina comprises six species, the
rarest of which, P. Hauerii d’Orb. sp., appears to be restricted to the
Lower Gault. Concerning the remaining five species of Pulvinulinse —
which by the way all possess the curious Epistomine aperture — the com-
monest is P. spinulifera Reuss, of which that author says that it is “ die
haufigste Species unter alien Foraminiferen des Gaults von Folkestone.”
As far as these present studies go to prove, Globigerina cretacea is, how-
ever, the most abundant species, sjteaking for the Gault generally,.
Anomalina ammonoides following somewhat closely upon it.* The
occurrence of Pulvinulina spinulifera is somewhat restricted, and ex-
hibits a peculiarity of rise and fall in its development which has already
been noted on p. 9. Potalia possesses only one form, P. Soldanii
d’Orb. sp. var. nitida Reuss, which increases in abundance towards the
top of the Gault.

The Distribution of the Foraminifera in the Folkestone- Gault, compared
with '.that of the larger fossils enumerated by Messrs. De Fiance
and Price.

The Gault has been divided at Folkestone by Messrs. De Ranee and
Price into two great divisions, the Upper Gault and the Lower Gault,
with a passage bed containing a limit fauna, and also one which is
peculiar to the stratum. The zones of the Lower Gault are from i.-vii.
(according to Mr. Price’s divisions), the passage bed viii. (zone of Am-
monites cristatus or of Am. Beudanti, and the Upper Gault consisting
of zones ix. (with the latest subdivisions mentioned on p. 17) -xiii.

Mr. Price records 240 species of the larger fossils from the entire
series of Gault strata. Out of these “ 124 forms [52 per cent.] become
extinct in zone viii., and 39 forms [16 per cent.] are continued into the
Upper Gault. Bed viii., besides containing the limit fauna, possesses
as many as 18 species which are peculiar to it. 59 new forms [25 per
cent.] occur in the Upper Gault, making their first appearance either
in hio. viii. or in a higher zone.”

With regard to the Foraminifera here recorded, of the 265 spp. and
vars., 23 (9 per cent.) are restricted to the Lower Gault ; 148 forms
(56 per cent.) are common to the Lower and Upper Gault ; whilst-
94 forms (35 per cent.) are peculiar to the Upper Gault.

* This latter species is the only one which I have found common to all the zones,
and levels of the Gault at Copt Point.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 47

The Contents of the Zones of the Gault at Folkestone.

Zone.

No. of Species
found.

Species peculiar to the Zone.

*

62

Hormosina ' globuliferci Brady, Textularici turns d’Or-

i

bigny, Nodosarici sceptrum Reuss, Frondicularici

Arcliiaciana d’Orbigny, Cristellaria exilis Reuss,

var. crispata nov.

ii

61

Lagena quinquelatera Brady var. inflcita n.

iii

S3

Discorbina Vilardeboanci d’Orbigny sp.

iv

56

|

None.

| Lagena acuticosta Reuss, Nodosaria (D.) xiphioides
Reuss, Lingulina nodosaria Reuss, Marqinulina Par-

v

92 ;

heri Reuss, Vaginulina sparsicostata Reuss, Cristel-
laria gladius Philippi sp., Sphseroidina bulloides

[

d’Orbigny.

vi

40

| None.

vii

63 |

Placopsilina vesicularis Brady, Vitriwebbina tubereulata

Sollas sp., Truncatulina refulgens Montfort sp.

viii

14 {

Nodosaria ( D .) soluta var. discrepans Reuss, Discorbina

turbo d’Orbigny sp.

ix

60

[

Bhabdogonium Maertensi Reuss.

Spiroloculina nitida d’Orbigny, Beopliax scorpiurus
Montfort sp., R. Helvetica Haeusler, B. cylindracea
n., Haplophragmium latidorsatum Born. sp. var. pa-
pillosa n., Frondicularia quadrata n., Vaginulinct
striolatus Reuss, Cristellaria latifrons Brady.

X

98 /

/

1 Nubecularia depressa n., Bhizammina indivisa Brady,
I Spiroplecta prxlonga Reuss sp., S. anceps Reuss sp.,
Lagena apiculata var. emaciata Reuss, L. gracillima
1 Seguenza sp., Nodosaria (D.) liamulifera Reus3, N.
( D .) costellata Reuss, Marginulina glabra d’Orbigny,

xi

1S4 <

V

CO {

Vaginulina Priceana n., Cristellaria linearis Reuss,
Polymorphina gutta d’Orbigny, P. compressa d’Or-
bigny, Ramulina lx vis Jones, Discorbina globularis
d’Orbigny sp., D. orbicularis Terquem sp., Trunca-
tulina lobatula Walker sp., T. Wuellerstorji Sch wager-

xii

\ SP*

Haplostiche Sherborni n., Frondicularia lanceola Reuss,,

Vitriwebbina Sollasi var. gonoidea n.

/

| Beopliax ampullacea Brady, Gaudryina oxycona Reuss,
Lagena marginata Walker and Boys, Marginulina
asperula n., Cristellaria scitula Berthelin, C. com-
planata Reuss, C. secans Reuss var. angulosa n., Poly -

xiii i

125 <

morpMna lactea Walker and Jacob sp. var. acupla-
centa Jones and Chapman, P. gutta d'Orbigny var.

diffusa Jones and Chapman, P.sororia Reuss var. acu-

placenta J. and C., Discorbina pileolus d’Orbigny sp.

In bringing to a close this concluding portion of my work on the
Folkestone-Gault Foraminifera, it now only remains for me to express
my obligations to tbe Council of this Society in permitting me to
monopolise so muck of the space allotted to original papers in the
Journal.

The artist, Mr. Eustace Knight, has interpreted my drawings in an
eminently satisfactory manner, and I take this opportunity of thanking

48 Transactions of the Society.

him for the care which he has shown in the preparation of the litho-
graphs.

In addition to those friends to whom, at the commencement of this
series of papers I have acknowledged my obligations, must be added
the name of my friend Mr. Fortescue W. Millctt of Marazion, who has,
by his intimate knowledge of the literature of this subject, greatly
helped to render the foregoing descriptions and lists as free, perhaps,
from errors of nomenclature as is possible in dealing with such a
variable group of organisms ; also to my wife my thanks are due for
much assistance in the selection of the fossils, and in other details in
connection with this work.

CORRIGENDA AND ADDENDA.

Part 1. Journ. B. Micr. Soc., 1891.

P. 567, line 13 from top, et seq., for “ Bolivina textularioide8,, read Boli-
vina textilarioides.

P. 568, line 21 from top, et seq., for “ Textularia pygmsea Reuss” read
Textularia minuta Berthelin (see pt. 2, p. 327).

P. 568, line 2 from foot, for “ Botalia spinulifera ” read Pulvinulina
spinulifera.

P. 569, line 14 from top, for “ Nudosaria simplex Silvestri ” read Nodo-
saria oligostegia Reuss.

P. 569, line 15 from foot, for “ Nodosaria Jonesi Rss.” read Nodosaria
radicula (L.) var. Jonesi Rss.

P. 570, line 10 from foot, for “ Spirillina vivipara Ehrenb.” read Spiril-
lina tuberculata Brady.

P. 572, line 9 from top, for u Pleurostomella eocsena Giimbel ” read
Pleurostomella alternans Scliwager.

Pp. 574 and 575. Ophthalmidium tumidulum Brady, Cornuspira cretacea
Reuss, C. involvens Reuss, and C. foliacea Philippi sp. are trans-
ferred to Ammodiscus incertus d’Orbigny sp. (see p. 21).

Part 2. Journ. B. Micr. Soc., 1892.

P. 324, line 2 from top, delete “and Wealden beds.”

Part 3. Journ. B. Micr. Soc., 1892.

P. 750, line 12 from foot, for “ Spiroplecta annectens ” read Spiroplecta
complanata.

P. 756, line 21 from top, for “ Upper Triassic ? ” read Lias.

P. 756, Bulimina polystropha Reuss is now determined as Verneuilina
pygmsea Egger sp.

Part 4. Journ. B. Micr. Soc., 1893.

On Plate IX. transpose the numbers 15 and 16.

P. 580, in explanation to plate VIII. and p. 587, line 1, for “ Nodosaria
farcimen Soldani sp.” read Nodosaria far cimen Reuss after Soldani.

P. 583, line 5 from foot, for “ Pitspuhl ” read Pietzpuhl.

Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. By F. Chapman. 49s

Fart 5. Journ. B. Micr. Soc., 1891.

P. 156, for “ Frondicularia pinnseformis sp. nov.” read Frondicularia-
Fritschi Perner (see p. 21).

P. 162, alter “ Marginulina aspera ” to Marginulina asperula (see p. 22)>

Part 6. Journ. B. Micr. Soc., 1894.

P. 427, line 10 from foot, for “ parelled ” read parallel.

Part 7. Journ. B. Micr. Soc., 1894.

P. 648, line 12 from top, for “ 1803 ” read 1798.

P. 652, line 23 from top, after “ Cristellaria latifrons ” add Brady.

Part 8. Journ. B. Micr. Soc., 1896.

P. 4, line 9 from top, for “ Cristellaria nodosa Reuss sp.” read Cristellaria
lobata Costa sp. Also between this and the next line insert, Bobulinct
lobata Costa, 1856, Atti Accad. Pontaniana, vol. vii. fas. 2 (not de-
scribed), pi. xx. fig. 14.

P. 10, line 4 from foot, for “ Schlich ” read Schlicht.

139

50

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others *

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBEATA.

a. Embryology* t

Mechanics of Development.^ — Dr. Albrecht gives an account of the
present state of the controversy between Hertwig § and Roux || as to the
value of the “ mechanical *' method in the study of development. Hert-
wig’s criticism of Roux is directed, firstly against the philosophical impli-
cations of the theory, and secondly, against its practical utility. In the
first part of his attack Hertwig accuses Roux of falling into the old error
of converting a statement of observed facts into the effective cause of the
phenomena, i.e. of making laws into fetishes, and on this assumption
reduces Roux’s statements to absurdity. Albrecht maintains that this is
due to a total misapprehension of Roux’s position; and, while admitting
that Weismann’s hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena merely by
converting the facts to be explained into causes, denies that this reproach
is applicable to Roux. His object, Albrecht believes, is primarily to
find methods of analysing phenomena and their causal relations.

The second part of Hertwig’s attack consists of an eloquent justifica-
tion of the observational method in biology, and a protest against what
he calls the over-valuation of the new experimental method, which gives,
he says, pathological and not physiological results. This protest
Albrecht considers to be also in part the result of misunderstanding ; he

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied
subjects. . % Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 769-85.

§ ‘Zeit-und Streitfragen der Biologie, Heft 2, Mechanik u. Biologie,’ Jena, 1897,

211 pp.

|| ‘ Programm u. Forschuugsmethodcn der Entwicklungs-mechanik der Organ-
ismen,’ Leipzig, 1897, 203 pp.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

51

thinks also that Hertwig should allow something for the natural enthu-
siasm of the discoverers of a new and fruitful method in biology.

The paper also includes a brief account of the reply which Roux
himself makes to Hertwig. The aim of the new school, according to
him, is to refer the phenomena of the organic world to the fewest possible
causes ( WirJcungsweisen ), and to explain each particular phenomenon as
the result of a special combination of these general causes. In reply to
Hertwig’s attack upon the experimental method in embryology, he admits
that the method can only yield fruitful results when combined with other
methods, but protests against Hertwig’s dismissal of the results as
“ pathological.” The changes produced are quantitative, and not quali-
tative ; they have their homologues in the so-called “ normal ” organism,
and must therefore be of value in the comprehension of these normal
processes.

Albrecht’s summing up is in favour of Roux; but he so far agrees
with Hertwig that he believes that the terms used by Roux are liable to
misconception, even if Roux himself has not been guilty of a misuse of
them. He strongly pleads, therefore, for a revisal of nomenclature, and
deprecates the rash use of terms like “ formative forces ” ( gestaltendc
Krafte) by a school which has already made good its claim to rank with
the existing schools of morphologists and physiologists.

Gastrulation in Amphioxus.* — Hr. J. Sobotta has worked through
the early stages of the development in Amphioxas , in order to decide
the question at issue between Hatschek and Lwoff. Lwoff dissents from
Hatschek’s well-known description in that he believes that the micro-
meres of the blastospliere form part of the endoderm as well as the whole
of the ectoderm. He believes that certain of the small cells are the
active agents in the process of invagination, and that they form the roof
of the mid-gut. Sobotta’s results confirm those of Hatschek in almost
all particulars, but in two points they support Lwoff. The two points
relate to the method of closure of the blastopore, and the so-called
pole-cells of the mesoderm. Sobotta denies that the blastopore becomes
slit-like and closes from before backwards. He believes that it gradually
diminishes on all sides. He was further quite unable to find the pole-
cells, and believes that they do not exist, certainly not, at least, in those
early stages in v/hich they were described by Hatschek.

Gastrulation in Vertebrates.']* — Dr. J. Sobotta discusses briefly the
discogastrula of Selachii and Teleostei, the amphigastrula of Amphibia,
the epigastrula of Amniota, and the primitive archigastrula of the
lancelet.

Development of Rodent Dentition. i — Herr P. Adloff has studied the
embryos of a number of Rodents, and has got some interesting results,
of which the most important seems to be that the minute rudiments of
front teeth, repeatedly described, are not the deciduous representatives
of the large gnawing teeth, but correspond to a more anterior pair of
incisors — the first incisors in other forms. The large gnawing teeth are
really the second incisors.

* Verhandl. Phys.-Med. Ges. Wiirzbuvg, xxxi. (1837) pp. 1-21 (1 pi. and 20 figs.).

t SB. Phys.-Med. Ges. Wurzburg, 1897, p. 9.

% Zool. Auzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 32-1-9.

E 2

52

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Phylogeny of Claws of Vertebrates.* — Dr. E. Goppert has studied,
by means of sections, the extremities of tlie digits in Amphibia, in order
to contrast the appearances found there with the simple claws of croco-
diles, turtles, and birds. The results show that in the Amphibia the
fingers and toes are either rounded or pointed at the tip. If rounded,,
no structures resembling claws are present ; but in the Urodela, at least,
the rounded condition is derived from the pointed. In the Urodela the
pointed form is frequently retained throughout life, and claws, or rudi-
ments of claws, are of common occurrence. The most primitive condi-
tion is a cap of horn more or less strongly developed round the finger-tip ;
the next stage is the development of a slight curvature of the tip of the
digit, which still retains its primitively circular contour. Such structures
are of obvious use to aquatic animals in enabling them to retain foothold
in the water ; and they attain their maximum development in Onycho -
daclylus, where they have all the parts of the claws of the Amniota. In
the Anura, with the exception of Ddctylethra ( Xenopus ), claws are not
represented. His observations lead Goppert to deny Boas’ homology of
claws and epidermic scales ; he regards them, on the contrary, as struc-
tures sui generis , homologous in Amniota and Amphibia, but having
evolved independently in those cases in the latter group in which they
are well developed.

Development of Cranial Region in Necturus.f — Miss Julia B. Platt
concludes from her investigations that the branchial cartilages and the
anterior part of the trabeculee arise in tissue of ectodermic origin. The
basal plate of the skull, the auditory capsule, and the occipital arch, are
of mesodermic origin.

The plate of prochondral tissue which primarily underlies the brain
is not coextensive with the basal plate of the skull, but includes in its
antero-median part prochondral tissue surrounding the point of the
chorda, which is not converted into cartilage.

Distinctly separate cartilaginous elements, the homologues of the
independent trabecular and occipital plates found in Triton , do not
appear in Necturus in the development of the basal plate, although a
middle region of the prochondral plate chondrifies slightly later than
the anterior and posterior regions of the plate.

The operculum auris arises near the antero-ventral margin of the
fenestra ovalis in cells of the mesencliyma external to the auditory
capsule. The dorsal part of the crista trabeculae arises independently,
and is possibly the rudiment of the large alisphenoid cartilage found in
the Selachii. A rudimentary arch, shown by its relation to the myotomes
to be serially homologous with the occipital arch and the neural arches
of the trunk, is taken into the otic capsule. The cartilage roofing the
posterior part of the brain ( tectum interoccipitale ) arises independently
from paired Anlagen , and becomes connected with the dorsal extremities
of the occipital and prseoccipital arches, as the cartilage roofing the
spinal cord, which also arises from paired Anlagen , is connected with the
neural arches.

Each of the proper branchial muscles may be traced to mesothelial
tissue primarily continuous with the wall of the pericardium, and is

* Morph. Jahrb., xxv. (1896) pp. 1-30 (1 pi. and 19 figs.),
t Tom. cit., pp. 377-464 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

53

consequently formed morphologically in the wall of the coelom. No
branchial muscle in Necturus arises in tissue similar to that composing
the periaxiale Strange described by Goronowitsch as taking part in the
formation of the branchial musculature in the bird. The history of the
various somites is given in detail.

Accessory Optic Vesicles in Chick Embryo.* — Prof. W. A. Locy
finds that there exist in the brain walls of the chick and Acanthias (six)
serial differentiations of epithelium that take the form of accessory
vesicles, closely connected with the optic vesicles. They are very trans-
itory— lasting for three hours in the chick — and disappear before the
true brain vesicles arise, with which they might otherwise become con-
fused. Their existence supports the hypothesis that the Vertebrate eyes
are segmental, and that the ancestors of Vertebrates were primitively
multiple-eyed. Since the optic vesicles in many cases arise before the
brain vesicles, it seems likely that their primitive relation is not that of
diverticula.

Significance of Hypophysis and Infundibular Organ. | — Herr B.
Haller has conducted a very extensive series of investigations on the
hypophysis and related organs, the animals chosen including representa-
tives of all the Vertebrate classes. He concludes that the idea that the
hypophysis is a rudimentary structure is entirely erroneous; it is a
glandular structure, at first simple but afterwards greatly increasing in
complexity, primarily opening into the cavity of the skull, and probably
secreting a substance which serves to keep the brain-membranes moist.
Primitively, the hypophysis is sac-like at the time of its origin, and this
condition persists in Selachians and Amniota ; in Teleosteans, Amphi-
bians, and Cyclostomes, on the other hand, it arises as a solid outgrowth.
The investigation does not support von Kupffer’s theory that the external
opening of the hypophysis represents the primitive mouth of Vertebrates ;
and so far from accepting the correlated theory that the nasal opening
of cyclostomes represents this primitive mouth, the author believes that
the cyclostomes are descended from forms with paired nostrils.

The infundibular gland is entirely distinct in origin and structure
from the hypophysis, and primitively opens into the cavity of the brain.
It occurs in relatively few Vertebrates, and although occasionally attaining
a high development in terrestrial Vertebrates (e.g. Batrachians), has in
the general case already disappeared in Amphibians. The processus
infundibuli , on the other hand, though absent in Selachians and Teleos-
teans, is well developed in most Vertebrates. It has nothing to do with
a gland.

Thyroid, Thymus, and Parathyroid Glands.J — MM. F. Tourneux
and P. Verdun have studied the development of these structures in the
human embryo.

The median thyroid arises from a median bud of the bucco-pharyngeal
epithelium, which grows out so that its anterior end comes into relation
with the aortic bulb.

The lateral thyroids arise from the anterior or ventral walls of the

* Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1897) pp. 113-21 (9 figs.).

f Morph. Jahrb., xxv. (1896) pp. 31-114 (6 pis. and 4 figs.).

% Journ. Anat. Physiol., xxxiii. (1897) pp. 305-25 (3 pis.).

54 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

fourth endoderraic pouches, whose dorsal walls form the thyroidean
glandules. These lateral thyroids separate from the pharynx and from
the thyroidean glandules, and fuse with the median thyroid to form the
final thyroid gland.

The lobes of the thymus are primitively represented by two tubes
formed at the expense of the third endodermic pockets. They have a
somewhat convex history.

The thymic glandules arise on the wall of the third endodermic
pouches, and have a structural development like that of the thyroidean
glandules.

Pleural Cavities and Pleuro-Pericardial Membranes. *— Dr. A.
Brachet has tackled this difficult subject from the embryological side.
We have only space to notice two general conclusions, which may suggest
to those interested the importance of the paper. The diaphragm is
formed by the septum transversum, and two of its extensions — the pleuro-
peritoneal and the peritoneo-pericardial membranes. The pleuro-peri-
cardial membrane properly so-called is formed, in small part, by the
quite anterior portion of the septum transversum , and, in great part, by
the pleuro-pericardial extension of this septum.

Development of Pronephros and Mesonephros in Myxine.j — Herr
0. Maas furnishes an important contribution to tha comparative study
of the excretory systems of the lower Yertebrates. He was fortunate
in obtaining unusually small specimens of Myxine (one of only 8*5 cm.),
and employed them for the investigation of the development and rela-
tions of the pronephros and mesonephros, recently the subject of keen
discussion between Spengel and Semon. His interpretation of his
observations is as follows : — The pronephros consists primitively of a
series of tubules, segmentally arranged, which in the anterior region
open into the pericardium by one or several funnels, and which have
a superficial network of capillaries formed by the dividing up of vessels
from the dorsal aorta. The general similarity to Boveri’s tubules in
AmpMoxus hardly requires emphasis, but a marked difference is dis-
cernible in the absence of external openings, and in the tendency of
the blind ends of the tubules to fuse together. These pronephric
tubules, hypothetically extending throughout the body, undergo dif-
ferent modifications in (1) the region of the true (adult) kidney, in (2)
the intermediate zone, and in (3) the head-kidney of the adult. (1) In
the posterior region of the body the internal openings are lost, the
outer ends fuse together to form the pronephric duct, which however
retains some excretory significance, and the segmental capillary net-
works persist on the surface of the duct. The pronephric tubules of
this region, though in a modified form, are thus functional throughout
life. (2) In the intermediate zone the tubules undergo degeneration,,
but in young forms traces of tubules or of the pronephric duct are
readily perceived. (3) In the region of the head-kidney the outer
ends of the tubules fuse together and with part of the capillary net-
work to form a mass of lymphoid tissue — the adrenal. Certain portions
of the capillary network persist and become specialised to form the

* Journ. Anat. Physiol , xxxiii. (1897) pp. 421-60 (2 pis.).

f Zool. Jahrb., x. (1897) pp. 473-510 (4 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

55

glomi, probably functional during the interval of the development of
the true glomeruli of the mesonephros. Maas thus maintains that the
glomi of the pronephros are wholly secondary structures, not entering
into the definition of the organs. The mesonephros consists of very
simple tubules furnished with Malpighian capsules, and acquiring a
secondary connection with the pronephric duct.

The important general result is that, as regards its excretory system,
Myxine is intermediate between Amphioxus and Fishes, its mesonephros
is simple, and the excretory function is in part discharged by the
modified pronephros. There is no indication of a transition between
pronephric and mesonephric tubules, the two showing marked histo-
logical differences. The observations on the mesonephros lend no
support to Semon’s theory of the coelomic origin of the cavity of the
Malpighian capsule.

Excretory System of Bdellostoma.* — Herr W. Felix has subjected
Price’s work on this subject to a detailed criticism, dealing especially
with three of Price’s conclusions : — (1) that the whole excretory system
of Bdellostoma is pronephric ; (2) that the coelom pouches of the
embryo in stage A 2 arise by a secondary segmentation of the unseg-
mented body-cavity ; and (3) that the urinary system develops in a
caudo-cranial direction. Felix does not think that the facts substantiate
(1). He does not believe in the existence of the coelom pouch, which
is nothing more than the gradually diminishing communication between
urinary tubule and coelom. The development is cranio-caudal, not the
reverse.

Development of Californian Hag.f — Dr. Bashford Dean gives some
account of the development of Bdellostoma Stouti Lockington. It
spawns in the Bay of Monteret, about a mile from shore, in twelve
fathoms of water, but the eggs can very rarely be dredged, probably
because they have been deposited among rock fragments or deep in the
mud. In some cases, however, a hag is caught with an egg-string
entrapped in its encasing slime. From observations made upon em-
bryos reared for a time in aquaria, the author concludes that the eggs
do not hatch within two months.

Some of the more striking features in the development are the
following : —

The neural tract is laid down, nearly in its entire length, before the
appearance of somites, and without any indication of neuromeres. The
tract, as in the lamprey, acquires a lumen by dissociation of cells, pro-
ceeding antero-posteriorly.

The brain is distinctly tubular, and differs little in calibre from the
spinal cord up to the time of the appearance of the paired sense-organs,
of gill-slits, aud of nearly the adult number of somites. The brain
portion is about one-fifth of the entire length of the neural tube at a
stage when nearly the adult number of somites are present.

The numerous (asymmetrical) foldings of the brain-wall, by which
the regions come to appear, indicate a primitive condition of the craniote
brain, i.e. that the latter was originally a tube of many vesicles (eight at

* Anat. Anzeig., xiii. (1897) pp. 570-99 (11 figs.),
t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xl. (1897) pp. 269-79 (1 pi.).

m

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

least between cerebellum and thalamus) which have become merged in
the ontogeny of higher forms. There is scarcely any cranial flexure.

Although the developmental type of Bdellostoma is distinctly mero-
blastic, it is noteworthy that there appears no trace of a germ-ring ;
•except in the immediate region of the tail, the somites arise in situ at
the sides of the neural axis.

The early appearance in each segment of pronephric tubules, similar
to each other in essential characters, demonstrates, as Price has shown,
that the entire excretory system of Myxinoids must, from the stand-
point of ontogeny, be regarded as univalent. If we accept, therefore,
Spengel’s criticisms of the results of Semon on the morphology of the
excretory system in Myxine , we must nevertheless admit Semon’s a
priori view as to its homology as a pronephros.

Supra-Renal Capsules.* — Dr. Swale Vincent finds in a recent paper
by E. Huot a reason for restating the case in regard to supra-renal and
inter-renal bodies. The cortex and medulla of the supra-renal in
Mammals correspond respectively to the inter-renal and paired supra-
renal bodies of Elasmobranchs. In Teleosteans the known supra-renal
bodies (corpuscles of Stannius) appear to consist solely of cortex, the
medullary substance being absent. In the higher Vertebrates the two
parts occur in combination.

Eggs and Larvae of Marine Fishes.f — Fabre-Domergue and E.
Bietrix have made an extensive series of observations on various points
connected with marine pisciculture. They begin with methods of keep-
ing adult mature fish in captivity, the turbot being chosen as the subject
for experimentation. The main difficulty is that there supervenes upon
capture a longer or shorter period during which the fish take no food
whatever, while the rate of mortality is exceedingly heavy. Dissection
showed that the refusal of food is not merely due to lack of appetite, but
that the physiology of nutrition is profoundly modified, the process of
digestion being temporarily suspended. Thus food taken immediately
before capture remains undigested in the gut until death occurs. This
period of acclimatisation is much shorter and less fatal in young fish,
which should therefore only be chosen. The observations upon eggs and
larvae were conducted on a large series of forms. It was found that
larvae respectively with and without eye-pigment behaved very differently
under the action of light. The former were markedly actinotropic,
collecting in the area of greatest illumination, and following a moving
light, while the latter showed themselves indifferent to light. The
authors lay most stress, however, upon their observations on larvae in the
critical stage, namely that which intervenes between the absorption of
the yolk and the assumption of the adult form. Such larvae cannot be
induced to take food in captivity, and, save in rare and isolated instances,
invariably die if not set free. In consequence the habit at marine
stations has been to liberate the larvae before the disappearance of the
yolk-sac, and to assume that it is the lack of suitable food which is
the cause of death. The authors made numerous examinations of the
intestinal contents in larvae caught in the open sea, and supplied their

* Anat. Anzcig., xiv. (1897) pp. 151-2.

f Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.), iv. (1897) pp. 151-220 (18 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

57

artificially reared forms with similar food, but without succeeding in
diminishing the mortality. Further, they find that in highly differen-
tiated larvie like those of Cottus bubalis, a condition of marked anaemia
can be shown to begin before the food-yolk is used up. They believe,
therefore, that it is not wholly want of food which causes death, but
some radical defect in method which acts injuriously upon both eggs
and larvae. They are in consequence unable to assure themselves that
the larvae liberated from the stations do survive even with the environ-
mental change, and express themselves as sceptical not of the utility of
marine pisciculture but of present methods.

Breeding Habit of a Japanese Tree-Frog.^ — S. Ikeda has an in-
teresting note on the breeding habit of Bacophorus Schlegelii Giintb.
They pair in April and May immediately after awakening from hiberna-
tion. The females are always larger than the males. With the male on
her back the female makes a round hole in the muddy banks of paddy-
fields, ponds, and lakes, and spawning may be finished by the next
morning. There is some evidence that the spawning may also take
place on trees.

The eggs, when laid as stated above, are enveloped in a white jelly-
mass full of air-bubbles, and of spheroidal form. This frothy envelope,
like well-beaten white of hen's egg, protects the egg from external
agencies, perhaps prevents overcrowding, but especially facilitates the
respiration of the eggs and embryos. The outer surface dries into a
crust, the air-bubbles within secure aeration. Ikeda gives a detailed
description of the treading and kneading movements of the female which
work the jelly into froth.

Segmentation is unequal and total, but shows a closer approach to
the meroblastic mode than other amphibian eggs. The early develop-
ment has some striking resemblances with that of Ganoids : — (1) the
embryo is greatly flattened over the large yolk-mass, so that the ventrally
observable organs, such as the heart and the liyo-mandibular arches,
appear in front and at the side of the head ; (2) the body of the embryo
in later stages is wedged into the yolk-mass, which is deeply grooved
along the dorso-median line.

Interstitial Cells of Testis. t — Prof. K. von Bardeleben concludes
that the interstitial cells ( Zwischenzellen ) of the Mammalian testis are
originally epithelial elements which, like mesenchyme elements, leave
their original association and become migratory. He regards them as
contributing to the nutrition and liberation of the spermatozoa.

Axial Filament of Human Spermatozoa J — Dr. Fr. Meves finds that
in man, as in the rat and salamander, the axial filament of the sperma-
tozoon has an extra-nuclear origin, from one of the two central cor-
puscles, namely from the one which is nearest the periphery of the
spermatid.

Dimorphism of Spermatozoa in Mammais.§ — Prof. K. von Bardeleben
thinks that the facts of spermatogenesis in Monotremes, Marsupials,

* Annot. Zool. Japon., i. (1897) pp. 113-22 (2 figs )
t An at. Anzeig., xiii. (1897) pp. 529-36.
t Op. ci\, xiv. (1897) pp. 168-70 (2 figs.).

£ Op. cit , xiii. (1S97) pp. 564-9 (6 figs.).

58

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

hedgehog, and man, point clearly to dimorphism. From Sertoli’s cells
there arise by amitosis long, sometimes coiled, chromatin-containing
axial filaments, with a terminal swelling and a plasmic mantle. These
may be (a) parts of spermatozoa, i.e. tails, or ( b ) rudimentary (abortive,
reduced) spermatozoa. The author adopts the latter alternative. He
has also some suggestions to offer in regard to the embryonic hermaphro-
ditism of the epithelial content of the testes, and compares the penetration
of the spermatozoa into the protoplasmic mass of Sertoli’s cells with
fertilisation. He emphasises his conclusion that the axial filament is
formed, not from the chromatin of the nucleus, but essentially from the
centrosomes.

In a subsequent paper * the author recognises that the tail-rudiments
which he confesses to have confused with dimorphic Nebenformen , do
not arise from cells different from those which form the heads. They
arise from the centrosomes, accessory body, and cytoplasm of the
spermatids ; the axial filament in particular is formed mainly from the
central corpuscle.

Path of the Spermatozoa in the Frog.f — Herr 0. Frankl has
studied this subject by means of injections from “ Leydig’s duct,” and by
fixation of the organs in frogs killed during copulation. Both methods
showed that the vasa efferentia are continued through the kidney as
transverse canals opening into the urospermatic duct, and that these
transverse canals are connected by sagittal ducts with the Malpighian
capsules. Although therefore the Malpighian capsules are not in tho
direct path of the spermatozoa, yet a rise of pressure, produced e.g. by an
extremely active flow of semen temporarily blocking the ducts, forces
spermatozoa into the cavities of the capsules. The paper concludes
with a brief discussion as to the relations of sexual and excretory organs
in Fishes and Amphibia.

Prof. M. Nussbaum J points out the morphological interest of the
fact that in adult males of Bana esculentci var. berolinensis and hungaricci
the efferent canals from the testes are connected with renal canals whose
glomeruli persist, while in B. fusca the glomeruli in the same region
have disappeared.

Problems of Hybridisation. § — M. Andre Suchetet, who has devoted
so much attention to hybridism, asks three questions : — (1) What is the
nature of those species which can be successfully crossed ? (2) Are their
progeny fertile or sterile ? (3) What are the causes of the sterility of
many ?

(1) Authentic cases of hybridism in Mammals number about 93, of
which 82 (a) are crosses of species of the same genus; there are 11
doubtful cases (6) of hybridism between members of different genera ;
there is no instance of crossing (c) between members of distinct families
or widely separated genera. Among birds, 262 cases are recorded, 178
of the first category (a), 68 of the second ( b ), and 16 (some doubtful) of
the third (c).

(2) Of the 82 crosses between Mammals of distinct species but of

* Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1897) pp. 145-7.

f Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1897) pp. 23-38 (1 pi.).

X Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 425-7.

§ Journ. Anat. Physiol., xxxiii. (1897) pp. 326-55.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

59*

the same genus, the great majority (62) have resulted in sterile offspring.
In about 12 cases, the offspring have been fertile with one of the parent-
species or with a third species ; in seven or eight cases they have proved
fertile inter se, sometimes for three or four generations.

Among birds, in 78 crosses between distinct species, but of the same
genus, only 22 have resulted in fertile offspring, 8 inter se, the others
with the parent species, or with a third species, or with other hybrids.

Of the 68 crosses between species of different genera, but belonging
to the same family, only one had offspring fertile with one of the parent
species — the male hybrid of Columba livia x Turtur risorius was fertile
with the female of the latter species. The female hybrid seems sterile.
In two other cases a hybrid of this category fertilised a third species ; in
another case it was fertilised by this third species.

(3) As to the causes of sterility, the gonads may be atrophied, the
ducts may be abnormal, and so on ; there is no doubt that the defect is
constitutional ; but little more can be said.

Regeneration in Vertebrates.* — Herr Tornier has two preliminary
notes on the production of supernumerary tails, limbs, and digits in Ver-
tebrates after certain kinds of injury, whether artificial or natural. In
lizards it is easy to obtain double or even triple regeneration of the tail
by injuring two or three vertebras at once. When three tails are present,
the whole three are not usually visible externally, but can be demon-
strated by means of the Rontgen rays. By amputating a limb and tying
a thread in the middle of the wound, it is possible to obtain a duplex
regeneration. Similarly, by successive injuries it is possible to produce
supernumerary limbs or digits. In the case of extra digits in Mammals,
the additional ones are always images of the normal (cf. Bateson), so that
the limb appears to consist of a combination of a right and left limb.
Such supernumerary limbs or digits the author regards as the result of
pressure on the amnion, causing this to grow out into folds, often sym-
metrical, which press against the growing limbs, and stimulate these to
regenerate the part injured.

Von Baer’s Philosophy.! — Herr E. Wasmann briefly reviews Dr. R.
Stolzle’s | new book on Von Baer. He praises its impartiality, and
describes it as containing a full exposition of Von Baer’s views on
biological and other problems.

Variation of Fin-Rays of Fishes. § — Dr. Georg Duncker has made
an extended series of observations on the correlation in the number of
fin-rays in the different fins of Acerina cernua L. The observations were
made in 1900 cases between the vertical fins and their respective seg-
ments ; in 1650 cases between the pectoral fins ; in the same number
between the pectoral fins on the one hand and the dermal rays and the
total number of rays of dorsal and anal fins on the other. The results
show that, in the case of vertical fins, there is negative correlation
between the dissimilar segments, positive between the similar segments
and the total number. Between the pectoral fins there is marked posi-

* Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 356-61 ( 6 figs.), and pp. 362-65 (3 figs.).

f Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 799-800.

t ‘ Karl Ernst v. Baer und seine Weltanschauung,’ by Dr. Rem. Stolzle, Regens-
burg, 1897, 687 pp. § Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 785-94, and 815-31.

60 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

live correlation, yet the symmetry of the two fins is not rigid. The
pectoral fins are in negative correlation to the dorsal fins, in positive
to the anal fins, hut the correlation could not always be demonstrated.

Problem of Utility.*' — Captain F. W. Hutton replies to Mr. A. R.
Wallace’s conclusion that, “ whether we can discover their use or no,
there is an overwhelming probability in favour of the statement that
every truly specific character is or has been useful ; or, if not useful, is
strictly correlated with such a character.” He takes two tests of utility
— adaptation and recognition-marks. Recognition-marks must be re-
stricted to animals with eyes. What then of the colours of the shells of
blind Lamellibranchs, the obscured venation of the wings in Lepidoptera
and Trichoptera, the crabs covered with sea-weeds ? Their marks can-
not be recognition-marks ; are they adaptations ? Adaptations are of two
hinds : those useful to their possessors, and those which have been useful
to former ancestors. We can eliminate the last group by restricting our
attention to the specific characters of a species the habits of which agree
with those of other species of the genus; for in these cases the habits
must have remained the same during the whole of its specific life, and
the specific characters must have been developed by their present pos-
sessors. What, then, of the colours of the arenicolous species of Tellina ,
a spine more or less on a crab’s carapace, the branching of a wing-vein
once or twice, the number and shape of teeth in snails, the ribbing of
the shells, the shapes of the spicules in Holothurians and Sponges, the
skeletons of Radiolarians, the ornamentation of Diatoms, and so on ? As
a particular case, Hutton selects the species of Ptilopus (fruit-pigeon),
thirteen of which arc found isolated on islands or small groups of
islands. The colours are not recognition-marks ; they are not due to
correlation ; they cannot have been useful to ancestors, since they have
only lately developed ; and there is no evidence of adaptation to locality,
since all the islands have practically the same climate, fauna, and flora.
The author concludes that we are forced to look for an origin apart from
utility for many a specific character. “ Just as gravitation does not
express the whole of the relations between inorganic bodies, so, probably,
selection does not express the whole of the relations between organic
bodies.”

Variations in the Brachial and Lumbo-Sacral Plexi of Necturus
niaculosus.t — Mr. F. C. Waite has studied thirty specimens of this large
perennibranch salamander, which were, in the main, procured from one
locality in Lake Erie. The brachial plexus showed a tendency towards
variation in the location of “ strength-centre ” (central with regard to
the combined strengths of the component nerves) ; but this is not
correlated with the variations in the position of the pelvic girdle, or with
displacements of the strength-centre in the lumbo-sacral plexus. The
variations in the lumbo-sacral plexus are grouped under three heads : —
those in which the girdle is attached to the nineteenth vertebra ; those
with the girdle carried by the twentieth vertebra ; and those in which the
constituents of the girdle have an asymmetrical position.

Two theoretical questions are asked : — (1) Does the abnormal posi-

* Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxvi. 1897, pp. 330-4.

t Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxxi. (1897) pp. 71-92 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

6L

tion of the girdle arise by intercalation or excalation of pre-sacral
segments, by slipping of the girdle upon the column towards the head or
towards the tail, or by some other means ? (2) Is there any correlation

between the variations of the plexus and those of the girdle, and if so,
of what sort is it? To the first question the author answers, after dis-
cussion, that neither intercalation, nor escalation, nor slipping is involved ;
the abnormal position of the girdle represents development of a new
girdle at a new point, usually to the tail end of the normal. To the
second question the author answers that the nerve relations show that
variations of girdle and plexus are nearly parallel, but that they are in
some degree independent, as exhibited by the fact that the strength-
centre of the plexus does not have just the same relation to the girdle in
the variant that it had in the normal condition.

Pedigree of Vertebrata.* — Herr 0. Jsekel discusses the origin of
paired limbs, the possible characters of the vertebrate Stamm form, and
the relationships of the various classes. He expresses his concep-
tion of the phyletic relations in the following scheme (slightly modi-
fied) : —

Aves

Reptilia

Mammalia

Amphibia

Teleostei

Ganoidei

Stegocephali

Dipnoi

Placodermi

Acanthodi

Elasmobranchii Older Ostracodermi

-Protochordata

SB. Gcs. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1896, pp. 107-29.

62

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Spiral Fold of Selachian Intestine.* — Dr. Paul Mayer has an in-
teresting note on this subject. Jeffery Parker spoke of that of Baja as
■“ tbe most remarkable case on record of spontaneous variation,” and
distinguished four types. But Mayer shows that these are in part
artefacts and in part functional changes due to the amount of food and
the state of digestion.

Classification of Monstrosities.! — M. Louis Blanc distinguishes : —
(n) those abnormalities which arise from an ovum with one nucleus ;
(6) those which arise from an ovum with two nuclei ; (c) those which
arise from an ovum with multiple nuclei. He also distinguishes
the abnormalities (a) of formation (defect, excess, or malformation) ;
(&) of development (defect, excess, or some other perturbation) ; and
(c) of growth (defect or excess). The detailed classification follows
the different systems of the body.

b. Histology.

Precis of Histology.^ — Prof. M. Duval has published & precis of his
course of lectures on histology, an up-to-date and carefully thought out
introduction to the subject, which is sure to be valued throughout the
wide circle of histologists.

Sickle-shaped Nuclei and Giant-Spheres in Resting Epithelial
Cells. § — Prof. E. Ballowitz describes these in the pharyngeal and cloacal
cavities of Salpa ; each nucleus has an exquisite sickle-shape, and some-
times the ends meet ; each concavity contains a very large sphere with
radiate structure and two or three centrosomes.

Energids of Plants and Animals. || — Prof. A. von Kolliker sums up
the general result of a detailed comparison, as follows. In the organisa-
tion of plants naked energids play no part, being replaced by those
which are surrounded by a cellulose membrane and have become true
cells. Yet the conditions of growth and organisation of the energids
determine the forms of the cells and organs. Cuticular structures and
intercellular substances take little part in the construction of the plant,
and functional alloplasmatic products of energids are almost wanting.

In animals, on the other hand, naked energids play a very essential
part in the formation of many organs, prominent among which are epi-
dermic structures and glands. Moreover the energids produce abundant
intercellular substances, connective tissue, elastic tissue, dentine, carti-
lage, and bone. Especially characteristic of animals is the fact that
functional alloplasmatic energid-products, especially muscle-cells and
nerve-cells, attain dominance, rule the whole life, and form the typical
animal organs.

Number of Chromosomes in Somatic Cells of Man.f — Prof. W.
Flemming points out that this has never been estimated with certainty.
Hansemann gives numbers from 18 to 40 ; Bardeleben in dealing with
spermatogenesis mentions 8 and 16. From preparations of the corneal

* MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xii. (1897) pp. 749-54 (1 pi.).

f Journ, Anat. Physiol., xxxiii|(1897) pp. 100-4.

X 1 Precis d’Histologie,’ 8vo, Paris, 1897, xxxii. and 956 pp., 408 figs.

§ Anat. Anzeig., xiii. (1897) pp. 602-4.

H Yerh. Phys.-Med. Ges. Wurzburg, xsxi. (1897) pp. 202-21.

1 Anat. Anzeig , xiv. (1897) up. 171-4 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 63

•epithelium, Flemming has been led to believe, in the meantime, that 21
is the normal number.

Epithelium and Reticular Tissue.* * * § — M. Ed. Retterer has for many
years made a special study of these tissues. Among his general conclu-
sions we note the following : — (1) the existence of a basilar layer of
elements with homogeneous protoplasm, opaque and coalescent, charac-
terising epithelia in the stage of growth. (2) The homogeneous proto-
plasm of this basilar layer elaborates a reticulum from which there
arises the polyhedric epithelium du sabot or closed amygdaloid follicles.
(3) The closed amygdaloid follicles and the interfollicular bridges arise
entirely from epithelial buds of the pharyngeal mucosa. (4) Each
closed follicle has three stages, epithelial, reticular, and fibrous.
(5) The epithelium of the primitive invaginations, which persists in
part in the adult in the lining of the amygdaloid crypts, is transformed
in part into reticular tissue by a process analogous to that which occurs
in the transformation of the closed epithelial follicle into reticular
tissue.

Heart Muscle-Cells.| — Mr. J. B. MacCallum describes the structure
of the heart muscle-cells in man, dog, cat, pig, rabbit, and mouse, and
their development in the pig. “ It is to be emphasised that in the pro-
toplasm of the adult heart muscle-cell there are columns of fibrils which
run longitudinally, surrounded by sarcoplasm, in such a way that each
bundle is surrounded by a varying number of small sarcoplasmic discs,
the horizontal separating partitions of which are continuous with
Krause’s line on the fibril bundles.” In pig embryos there is a definite
developmental sequence formed by the following five stages : (1) cells
with a simple irregular network ; (2) cells with a regular network con-
sisting of large sarcoplasmic discs ; (3) cells in which the large sarco-
plasmic discs have been broken up with the formation of the small
sarcoplasmic discs ; (4) cells in which fibril bundles have formed at the
junction of the small sarcoplasmic discs with one another ; (5) adult
cells as described above.

Appearance of Intercellular Bridges between Smooth Muscle-
Cells. J — M. Charles Gamier has studied in particular the muscular
sheath of the oesophagus in the Greek tortoise, and the retractors of the
long horns in the edible snail. He has convinced himself that an ap-
pearance of intercellular bridging is often due to the network of
connective tissue which enters into very intimate relations with the
muscle.

Hypophysis in Health and Diseased— Dr. G. Wolff has made some
observations on the minute structure of the human hypophysis, in the
main confirming those of Lothringer and Rogowitsch. What we know
may be briefly stated : — The hypophysis is a blood-gland, without duct,
penetrated by a very thick network of blood-vessels with very thin
walls. There are two kinds of cells, more and less susceptible to
stains. The gland secretes a substance, colloid, which in its chemical

* Journ. Auat. Physiol., xxxiii. (1S97) pp. 461-522 (2 pis.).

t Anat. Anzeig., xiii. (1897) pp. 609-20 (10 figs.).

1 Journ. Anat. Physiol., xxxiii. (1897) pp. 405-20 (1 pi.)

§ Verb. Phys.-Med. Ges. Wurzburg, xxxi. (IS97) pp. 223-35.

64:

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

reactions agrees essentially with the chromophilous cells. Some of the
gland-cells contain red blood-corpuscles, and disruptive products of
these which are taken up and dissolved in the vacuoles discovered by
Rogowitsch. There thus seem to be two functions, secreting colloid
and destroying red blood-corpuscles, but we know nothing of the rela-
tions (if any) between these. The author had intended to compare
with the healthy hypophysis that of cretins and paralytics, and has
done something in this direction, — too little, however, to warrant the
emphasis of a summary.

Conducting' Element in Nervous Tissue.* * * § — Prof. St. Apathy con-
tributes the first part of an elaborate memoir on this subject to which
he has for many years given much attention. The detailed part is
mainly concerned with Hirudinea and Lumbricidae. The general con-
ception may be briefly stated. The nerve cell is analogous to the
muscle-cell, producing conducting substance (primitive fibrils, neuro-
fibrils), as the muscle-cell produces contractile substance (myofibrils).
The primitive fibrils grow inwards into ganglion-cells, outwards into
sensory cells. They form a meshwork in the ganglion-cells, and pass
out, variously grouped, to other ganglion-cells, to muscles, and to gland-
cells. The ganglion-cells must be distinguished from the nerve- cells ;
they have been intercalated into the conducting system, producing what
has to be conducted. The structural units of the conducting system
are the neurofibrils, which can be isolated optically and mechanically.
The present memoir is especially devoted to a consideration of these-
neurofibrils and their topographical relations.

Spinal Ganglion-Cells of Reptiles.! — Charles-Amedee Pugnat has
studied these in Testudo grseca, Uromastix spinipes, Agama colonorum,
and Emys europseus. The cytoplasm has a fibrillar structure, the fibrils
being very distinct peripherally, but disappearing in the clear central
zone. The chromatin substance is generally in the form of very fine
granulations, sometimes pulverulent. The nucleus, itself large, contains
a very large nucleolus and a close network of linin-filaments, with
numerous acidophilous granulations in the meshes. As to the very
small cells found in most, if not all, types of Vertebrates in the spinal
ganglia, the author thinks it most probable that they give rise to
sensory fibres which pass by the rami communicantes to the sympathetic,
ganglia.

Molecular Layer of Cerebellum.! — Prof. A. E. Smirnow finds in
the molecular layer of the cerebellum in various Mammals the following
types of nerve-cells : — (A) nerve-cells with a long neurite (Purkinje’s
cells), and (B) nerve-cells with a short neurite, — including (1) the cells
of Ramon y Cajal, and (2) the cells described in the present paper.
These are of two sorts, some with horizontally disposed neurite, and
others with a neurite which immediately divides into terminal branches.

Minute Structure of the Lamprey’s Skin.§ — Herr W. Kapelkin
gives an elaborate account of the lamprey’s skin, in regard to which

* MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xii. (1897) pp. 495-748 (10 pis.).

t Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1897) pp. 89-96 (4 figs.).

X Op. cit., xiii. (1897) pp. 686-42 (7 figs.).

§ Bull. Soc. Imp. Moscow, 1896 (1897), pp. 481-514 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

65

much diversity of statement prevails. The epidermis is characterised
by two sets of elements, adapted to different ends: — (a) the cuticle
and the granular cells serving to protect the animal from the injurious
influences of the medium ; ( b ) the club-shaped elements and free nerve-
endings with orientating and sensory functions. Between the epidermis
and the cutis there is a very thin basal membrane, perforated by minute
apertures (for nerves ?) and roughened by indentations where the epi-
dermic cells are fixed. The cutis consists of several layers of parallel
connective tissue fibres, running chiefly in two directions. The pigment-
layer of much branched cells lies between the cutis and the subcutaneous
tissue. The latter consists of a loose network of connective tissue
fibres, with fat, lymph-spaces, and nerves. The fibres pass directly into
the connective sheaths of the deeper muscles. It stores fats and gives
the skin a useful mobility.

Ciliated Epithelium in Amphibian Larvae.* — Prof. 0. Mayer de-
scribes the distribution of cilia on the surface and in the interior of
Amphibian larvae. His results, like those of many others, show that
ciliated cells may occur in the endoderm and ectoderm alike. As they
occur also in different parts of the urogenital apparatus, which cannot
be referred to either ectoderm or endoderm, it may be said that any of
the three layers may be ciliated.

Ostioles.f — J. J. Andeer discusses the ostioles found in the lung,
the intestines, the synovial membranes, the peritoneum, &c., and points
out the pathological consequences of their obstruction on the one hand
and of their hyper-secretion on the other.

Electric Organs.* — Hr. E. Ballowitz obtained recently two speci-
mens of Gymnotus electricus , one specimen being in the living condition.
He was able to make very extended observations, both on the general
anatomy and the histology of the electric organ.

The general structure of the organs in Gymnotus essentially resembles
that in Torpedo and Baja. The electric tissue is formed by an extremely
thick finely fibrous framework, which furnishes the substance of the
papillae and villi. The whole plate is surrounded by an electrolemma
which is especially thick on the papillae. Close beneath the electro-
lemma there lies on the surface of the villous layer an extremely dense
layer of delicate minute parallel rods which must number several
millions on each plate. In contrast to Torpedo , the rods are here quite
free from nerve- endings.

The Gymnotus plate has three layers, an anterior papillary layer, a
posterior villous layer, and an ill-defined middle layer between them.
There is great variety of form and length among the villi, the longest
being the prolungamenti spiniformi of Pacini, or the Dornpapillen of
Du Bois-Reymond. The whole villous structure recalls that in some
species of Baja, with this important difference that in the latter the
nerves never extend to this surface, but keep to the smooth anterior
surface of the plate. The nerves do not enter the substance of the villi,

* Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1897) pp. 69-81.

t Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 669-71.

I Anat. Anzeig., xiii. (1897) pp. 643-8 (2 figs). Arch. Mikr. Anat., i. (1897)
pp. 686-750 (3 pis.).

1898

F

66 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

but lie between them, and form terminal expansions on their surfaces.
It may be said that the long villi are mainly, though not exclusively, the
bearers of the terminal nervous expansions. They serve to increase the
superficial extent of the essential electromotor tissue.

Hard Tissues of Vertebrates.* — Dr. C. Rose has a very learned
article on the different forms of hard tissues, which he classifies as
follows : —

A. True hard tissues (arising from odontoblasts and osteoblasts).

(1) True ivory, dentine or orthodentine (including normal

dentine, vitrodentine, and vasodentine).

(2) Trabecular dentine.

(3) Osteoid tissue.

(4) Bone.

(5) Osteodentine.

B. Calcified connective tissue.

Unlike any of the above, whose origin is from connective tissue,
enamel is formed from epithelial cells. It is of much wider occurrence
than used to be supposed. In the much discussed case of the dogfish,
the epithelial sheath forms an enamel cuticle— a superficial protective
mantle — which may be regarded as the first stage in the formation of a
true enamel.

c. General.

The Living Substance. j — Mrs. G. F. Andrews has made a study of
protoplasm, and gives an account of its visible structure, its inclusions,
its areal differentiations, its activities, &c., working gradually up to
reproduction, heredity, habit, and instincts. She sums up her own
observations, several of which have been previously referred to in this
Journal, and insists on the idea of “an infinitely graded series of vesicu-
lations of the protoplasmic foam.” “ Protoplasm is a very complex
emulsion, having the physical arrangement of a very finely subdivided
variably viscid foam, which characters are coextensive with the con-
tinuous element of all visible optical reticula.” Unless we misunderstand,
the book is not so much a treatise on protoplasmic phenomena as an
expression of a certain interpretation which is summed up thus : “ The
facts seem to warrant present belief that the living substance of all
organisms is one physiologically continuous living plasma, homogeneous
throughout in its intrinsic powers and properties, but having vailed local
and temporary habits of self-expression, which are largely and inextri-
cably correlated with physical and chemical conditionings of its form
and composition as complex emulsive foam — yet not to be wholly
identified with, nor wholly explained by these.”

Theory of the Functions in Living Matter.t — Miss F. A. Welby
has done good service in translating Prof. E. Hering’s article (1888) on
the theory of the functions in living matter, in which he expounded his
conception of metabolism as consisting of two closely interwoven pro-
cesses of assimilation and dissimilation.

* Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1897) pp. 21-31, 33-69 (28 figs.),
f ‘ The Living Substance as such and as Organism,’ Boston, 1897, 8vo, 176 pp.
x ‘ Brain,’ 1897, pp. 232-58.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

07

Functions of White Blood-Corpuscles. * * * § — Herr Hs. Friedenthal
gives a useful summary of recent work on this subject, and sums up as
follows. It seems certain that the leucocytes play an important part in
connection with coagulation (both preventing it and causing it), in
phagocytosis, and in the secretion of the protective substance known as
alexine. Their phagocytic activity includes the removal of dust-particles
from the lungs, of pigment from the epidermis, of necrotic portions, and
of intrusions. They play an important part in transporting material
during metamorphosis ; in regeneration they furnish the first material ;
the blood-plates are in part due to their disruption. Requiring confir-
mation, however, are the suggestions which have been made as to the
share of the leucocytes in forming blood-ferments, in absorbing food, and
in forming red blood-corpuscles. In short, they represent a reserve-
power in the organism, helping various tissues in various ways to resist
injurious influences and to respond to special functional demands.

Melanism in Reptiles and Amphibians.f — Herr Fr. Werner has a
stringent criticism of Tornier’s J conclusion in regard to melanism in
reptiles and amphibians. Tornier committed himself to the statement
that melanism is to be regarded as a reversion to the original colour of
the species. Werner gives many reasons why this cannot be accepted,
and discusses in particular the import of the black colour in free-
living amphibian larvae. If every species with melanism was originally
black, then the coloration of all these forms must have evolved inde-
pendently, and all homologies in the coloration of related forms are mere
analogies.

Freshwater Fauna.§ — Prof. S. J. Hickson gives an interesting
statement of the problems connected with the distribution of the fresh-
water fauna. He recognises three groups (1) the Cosmopolitan
group, illustrated by Hydra , Spongillct, Astacus, Anodon , Lymnsea;

(2) the Archaic group, illustrated by Apus, Dipnoi, Limnocodium ;

(3) the Recent group, illustrated by Cordylophora, Pcdsemonetes, and the
prawn in the Tropics.

INVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

Apex of Gastropod Shell. (J — Mr. F. C. Baker has studied the apex
of the shell in 132 species, which, as he notes, is a small fraction of the
total of 15,000 or so. There seem to be three main types, with numer-
ous variations : — (1) whorls numerous, carinated, nucleus prominent ;
(2) whorls numerous, rounded, smooth, nucleus prominent ; (3) whorls
few, rounded, nucleus buried in the coil of the second whorl. Great
changes take place after birth, many of them apparently modifications
due to environment. It would be interesting if the author could in
this case bring out the difference between variation and modification.

* Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 705-19. f Tom. cit., pp. 376-SI.

x ‘ Die Kriechthiere Deutsck-Ostafrikas. Beitrage zur Systematik und Desccn-

deuzlehre,* Berlin, 1897.

§ Trans. Manchester Micr. Soc., 1896 (1897), pp. 88-99.

U Ann. New York Acad. Sci., ix. (1897) pp. 685-704 (3 pis.).

68

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Cell-Lineage of Planorbis.* * * § — Mr. S. J. Holmes gives a preliminary
account of his researches on this subject. Gastrulation is embolic, the
blastopore being elongated and slit-like. It closes from behind forwards,
and the mouth appears later at the final point of closure. For details
as to the origin of the cells, reference must be made to the original.

Worm-like Spermatozoa of Paludina vivipara.j — Dr. R. von
Erlanger describes these remarkable spermatozoa (Carnoy, 1884 ; Auer-
bach, 1896). There is a refractive axial filament of alveolar structure,
a likewise alveolar and transversely striated protoplasmic sheath, and a
terminal tuft of twelve cilia. The author suggests a comparison with
the structure of a muscle-fibre.

Young of Cryptochiton. J — Mr. H. Heath describes the external
features of Cryptochiton stelheri , one of the most modified types of Poly-
placophora. In the adult, no trace of the tegmentum is visible, the
articulamentum alone remains. In the young, there is a series of eight
openings along the median dorsal line, corresponding to the posterior
portion of each valve. They are about 0 * 5 mm. in diameter, and through
them the shell is plainly visible. On carefully dissecting out the valves,
a well-defined tegmentum is visible. The type is not primitive, but re-
presents the last of a series which has undergone successive modification,
by which the tegmentum, originally the same size as the articulamentum,
has gradually disappeared. Palaeontological evidence also supports
this conclusion.

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Experiments on Bivalves.§ — Dr. J. B. Pieri has experimented with
species of Tapes, Venus , Artemis , and other bivalves. They do not be-
come habituated to a diminution of salinity by 1/2 or 1/3, nor to an in-
crease of 2 per cent., nor to an increase of iodide or bromide of potassium ;
in short, they have little power of adaptive reaction to changes in the
medium. Vapours of creosote make the heart-beats slower, and end in
their stoppage; laudanum applied to the heart, or injected, stops the
beats at once, but they may re-commence in 15-25 minutes ; vapours of
laudanum are but slightly injurious ; pure nicotine in contact with the
heart stops it at once ; a weak solution makes the beats slower ; cocaine
acts as a very powerful muscular poison, having an effect even when
diluted to 1/000 ; cyanide of mercury is still more injurious; even when
diluted to 1/30,000 it has an effect.

Head-kidney of Lamellibranchs.|| — Dr. H. Staufiacher has investi-
gated the structure, function, and development of the head-kidney in the
trochosphere of Cyclas cornea. In opposition to Ziegler, he finds that
it is an unpaired organ, and actively functional. It consists of an in-
ternal ciliated portion opening into the primary schizocoele, of a middle
portion formed of two complex cells, and of an external portion consisting
of a vesicle opening to the exterior by a fine canal and pore. The lumen
is wholly intracellular. In development, the inner and middle regions

* Zool. Bulletin, i. (1897) pp. 95-101 (3 figs.),

t Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1897) pp. 161-7 (1 fig.).

X Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1897, pp. 299-302 (1 pi.).

§ Arch. Zool. Exper., v. (1897) pp. 251-79.

j] Zeit. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1897) pp. 43-61 (l pi. and 4 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

69

arise eacli from a single mesoderm-cell, while the vesicle and its canal
are formed from two ectodermic cells. The paper includes a detailed
criticism of Ziegler’s results.

Central Nervous System of Anodonta.* — Herr T. Freidenfelt has
a preliminary note on his researches on the above subject. The paper
is chiefly concerned with histological detail, and the main point of
general interest is the statement that the osphradium of Anodonta has
no definite function, and that, in Acephala in general, the osphradia are
rudimentary organs.

Artbropoda.

Relation of Arthropod Head to Annelid Prostomium. j — Mr. E. S.

Goodrich discusses this morphological problem. The prostomium
(Huxley, = Kopflappen, lobe cephalique') is a median anterior process,
lying above and in front of the mouth, and varying greatly in size and
form. It is attached to the peristomial segment, which is usually
modified in connection with the mouth. It may be (1) a modified
or reduced segment; (2) an incipient segment; (3) not a segment at
all, but a structure of different and special nature. It is the last inter-
pretation which the author seeks to prove.

A typical segment is a region more or less distinctly marked off
from the rest of the body by transverse grooves, surrounding the ali-
mentary canal, containing a special coelomic cavity (more or less com-
pletely separated off from the coelom of adjoining segments by means of
transverse septa), a pair of nephridia and of peritoneal funnels com-
municating with the exterior, a pair of ganglionic enlargements of the
ventral longitudinal nerve-cords, and (in Polychsetes and Arthropods) a
pair of appendages. But such fully equipped segments are rarely found
in nature ; the embryological test is the decisive one. The peristomium
fulfils the test ; but the prostomium presents none of the characters es-
sential to a segment. Goodrich’s views in regard to the homologies of
the head-region in Arthropods are summed up — not dogmatically, of
course — in the following table.

Annelida.

| Peripatoidea.

Insecta.

|

Arachnida.

Crustacea.

Prostomium with or with-

Frontal processes ?

?

?

?

out tentacles, archicerebrum.

Frontal processes.

Segment 1. Peristomium

Procephalic lobes,

' Procephalic lobes,

■ Procephalic lobes,

Procephalic lobes,

antennae, proto-

protocerebrum.

protocerebrum.

protocerebrum.

cerebrum.

2.

Mandibles,

Antenna-, deuto-

Chelicerae, deuto-

First antennae,

deutocerebrum.

cerebrum.

cerebrum.

deutocerebrum.

„ 3.

Oral papillae.

Rudimentary-

Trunk segment.

Second antenna*,

appendage, trito-

tritocerebrum.

cerebrum.

,, 4.

Trunk segment.

Mandibles. j

„

Mandibles.

„ 5.

Do.

First maxillaj. i

First maxillae.

„ 6.

Do.

Second maxillae. |

"

Second maxillae.

* Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 808-15 (2 figs.),
t Quait. Journ. Micr. Sci., xl. (1897) pp. 247-68 (12 figs.).

68

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Cell-Lineage of Planorbis.* * * § — Mr. S. J. Holmes gives a preliminary
account of his researches on this subject. Gastrulation is embolic, the
blastopore being elongated and slit-like. It closes from behind forwards,
and the mouth appears later at the final point of closure. For details
as to the origin of the cells, reference must be made to the original.

Worm-like Spermatozoa of Paludina vivipara.j — Dr. E. von
Erlanger describes these remarkable spermatozoa (Carnoy, 1884 ; Auer-
bach, 1896). There is a refractive axial filament of alveolar structure,
a likewise alveolar and transversely striated protoplasmic sheath, and a
terminal tuft of twelve cilia. The author suggests a comparison with
the structure of a muscle-fibre.

Young of Cryptochiton4 — Mr. H. Heath describes the external
features of Cryptochiton stelberi , one of the most modified types of Poly-
placophora. In the adult, no trace of the tegmentum is visible, the
articulamentum alone remains. In the young, there is a series of eight
openings along the median dorsal line, corresponding to the posterior
portion of each valve. They are about 0 • 5 mm. in diameter, and through
them the shell is plainly visible. On carefully dissecting out the valves,
a well-defined tegmentum is visible. The type is not primitive, but re-
presents the last of a series which has undergone successive modification,
by which the tegmentum, originally the same size as the articulamentum,
has gradually disappeared. Palaeontological evidence also supports
this conclusion.

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Experiments on Bivalves.§ — Dr. J. B. Pieri has experimented with
species of Tapes , Venus, Artemis , and other bivalves. They do not be-
come habituated to a diminution of salinity by 1/2 or 1/3, nor to an in-
crease of 2 per cent., nor to an increase of iodide or bromide of potassium ;
in short, they have little power of adaptive reaction to changes in the
medium. Vapours of creosote make the heart-beats slower, and end in
their stoppage; laudanum applied to the heart, or injected, stops the
beats at once, but they may re-commence in. 15-25 minutes ; vapours of
laudanum are but slightly injurious ; pure nicotine in contact with the
heart stops it at once ; a weak solution makes the beats slower ; cocaine
acts as a very powerful muscular poison, having an effect even when
diluted to 1/000 ; cyanide of mercury is still more injurious; even when
diluted to 1/30,000 it has an effect.

Head-kidney of Lamellibranchs.|| — Dr. H. Stauffacher has investi-
gated the structure, function, and development of the head-kidney in the
trochosphere of Cyclas cornea. In opposition to Ziegler, he finds that
it is an unpaired organ, and actively functional. It consists of an in-
ternal ciliated portion opening into the primary schizocoele, of a middle
portion formed of two complex cells, and of an external portion consisting
of a vesicle opening to the exterior by a fine canal and pore. The lumen
is wholly intracellular. In development, the inner and middle regions

* Zool. Bulletin, i. (1897) pp. 95-101 (3 figs.),

t Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1897) pp. 164-7 (1 fig.).

x Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1897, pp. 299-302 (1 pi.).

§ Arch. Zool. Exper., v. (1897) pp. 251-79.

H Zeit. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1897) pp. 43-61 (1 pi. and 4 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

69

arise each from a single mesoderm-cell, while the vesicle and its canal
are formed from two ectodermic cells. The paper includes a detailed
criticism of Ziegler’s results.

Central Nervous System of Anodonta.* — Herr T. Freidenfelt has
a preliminary note on his researches on the above subject. The paper
is chiefly concerned with histological detail, and the main point of
general interest is the statement that the osphradium of Anodonta has
no definite function, and that, in Acephala in general, the osphradia are
rudimentary organs.

Arthropoda.

Relation of Arthropod Head to Annelid Prostomium.'f — Mr. E. S.

Goodrich discusses this morphological problem. The prostomium
(Huxley, = Kopflappen, lobe cephalique') is a median anterior process,
lying above and in front of the mouth, and varying greatly in size and
form. It is attached to the peristomial segment, which is usually
modified in connection with the mouth. It may be (1) a modified
or reduced segment; (2) an incipient segment; (3) not a segment at
all, but a structure of different and special nature. It is the last inter-
pretation which the author seeks to prove.

A typical segment is a region more or less distinctly marked off
from the rest of the body by transverse grooves, surrounding the ali-
mentary canal, containing a special coelomic cavity (more or less com-
pletely separated off from the coelom of adjoining segments by means of
transverse septa), a pair of nephridia and of peritoneal funnels com-
municating with the exterior, a pair of ganglionic enlargements of the
ventral longitudinal nerve-cords, and (in Polychaetes and Arthropods) a
pair of appendages. But such fully equipped segments are rarely found
in nature ; the embryological test is the decisive one. The peristomium
fulfils the test ; but the prostomium presents none of the characters es-
sential to a segment. Goodrich’s views in regard to the homologies of
the head-region in Arthropods are summed up — not dogmatically, of
course — in the following table.

Annelida.

Peripatoidea. 1

Insecta.

Arachnida.

Crustacea.

Prostomium with or with-
out tentacles, archicerebrum.

: Frontal processes ?

?

?

?

Frontal processes.

Srgment 1. Peristomium

Proceplialic lobes,
ante ante, proto-
cerebrum.

Procephalic lobes,
protocerebrum.

Procephalic lobes,
protocerebrum.

Procephalic lobe6,
protocerebrum.

„ 2.

Mandibles,
deutocerebrum. j

Antennae, deuto-
cerebrum.

Chelicerae, deuto-
cerebrum.

First antennae,
deutocerebrum.

„ 3.

Oral papillae.

Rudimentary
appendage, trito-
cerebrum.

Trunk segment, j
!

Second antennae,
tritocerebrum.

,, 4-

Trunk segment. [

|

Mandibles.

Mandibles.

,, 5.

Do.

First maxillae.

First maxillae.

„ G.

Do.

Second maxillae.

Second maxilla*.

* Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 808-15 (2 figs.),
t Quait. Journ. Micr. Sci., xl. (1897) pp. 247-68 (12 figs.).

70

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

a . Insecta.

Coloration of Insects.* — Dr. Brunner von Wattenwyl has published
a gorgeously illustrated essay on the coloration of insects, which has
been translated by Mr. E. J. Bles. He discusses uniform and rainbow
coloration, stripes, bands, and spots; the line of orientation which
“ indicates the position assumed by the insect on receiving its colora-
tion ; ” strokes and dots ; eye-spots ; spirals ; splash marks ; clouded
markings ; stencil patterns ; erosion ; changes in patterns ; enlargement
and diminution of spots and bands ; dislocation ; diminution of patterns ;
changes due to adaptation ; staining of contiguous parts ; fading in
covered parts ; colouring in relation to position ; and arbitrariness in
coloration.

The particular point of this essay is the evidence ( a ) that the colora-
tion is frequently “ independent of the biology of the insect coloured,
and in nowise connected with its structure ; ” (6) that a utilitarian in-
terpretation cannot be verified throughout. “ The careless splashings,
the defective stencil patterns, or the impairment of vision by a band laid
over the eyes, and many other facts met with in the study of coloration,
cannot be brought into relation with any purposeful tendency.”

The translator points out the difficulty of weighing the possibilities
of advantage and disadvantage, and notes that the Darwinian is quite
prepared to find the occurrence of indifferent characters, or even of dis-
advantageous characters in process of disappearance. He calls attention
to the novelty of some of the facts which the author has brought
together, and to the magnificence of the illustrations.

Compound Eyes of Ephemerids.f — Herr Carl Zimmer prefaces his
paper on this subject with an account of the division of the compound
eyes into two parts which occurs in many different Arthropods. The
phenomenon is seen in many Crustacea, especially Schizopods, and has
been described by Chun. In Schizopods the eyes are divided into
lateral and frontal eyes ; of these the lateral eyes retain their normal
structure, while the frontal eyes show a great elongation of their ele-
ments, and a diminution in amount of pigment. These modified eyes
are adapted for the perception of movement, and for seeing in obscurity.
The division of the eyes has also been noted in insects, but has not pre-
viously been studied there in detail. The Ephemerids were chosen for
the purpose, and especially the genus Cloe , of which several species
were investigated. In this genus the eyes are normal in the female, but
in the male are subdivided into small lateral eyes of the same type as
the eyes of the female, and large prominent frontal eyes of peculiar
structure. Among their chief peculiarities are the reduction of pigment,
and the presence of a thick layer of a homogeneous fluid or jelly, lying
between the outer (nuclear layer) and inner (rhabdome layer) of the
retinulee. Such eyes, according to the views of Exner, are adapted for
seeing in obscurity — they form Superpositionsbilder. . Further, the
arrangement of the scanty pigment especially fits them for the percep-
tion of movement. Their use is probably to enable the male to meet
with the female, both sexes being of active flight, and mating taking

* ‘Observations on the Coloration of Insects,’ by Brunner von Wattenwyl,
translated by E. J. Bles, Leipzig, folio, 16 pp., 9 pis.

t Zeitschr. wiss. Zool,, lxiii. (1897) pp. 236-62 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

71

place after sundown. A comparative study of the eyes of Epliemerids
shows that it is possible to construct a series illustrating the evolution
of these complex frontal eyes.

The point of interest is the similarity in structure to the eyes of
deep-sea Crustacea, where the modified eyes enable the possessor to
seize active prey.

Male Genital Organs of Hydrophilus.* — P. Blatter gives a detailed
description of the male genital organs of this beetle, — the testes, the
efferent ducts with seminal vesicles, and the glandular accessory organs.
The system is highly differentiated ; but like that of other Coleoptera, it
conforms in essentials to the general plan which Escherich worked out
in the Carabicidre. A useful comparative table may be reprinted.

Carabus.

maps.

/ 1. Efferent canals,

1. Efferent canals.

! i.

acting as semi-

Organs

nal vesicles at

arising

the base.

from

2. Accessory glands

! 2.

the 1

(mesadeniae) opening

meso-

into the base of (1).

derm

3.

Organs

A 1. Penis.

1. Penis.

1.

arising

j 2. Genital armature.

j 2. Genital armature.

2.

from

; 3. Ejaculatory duct.

3. Ejaculatory duct.

3.

the {

4. Tubular accessory

4. Scorpioid glands

4.

ecto-

glands (ectade-

(ectadeniae).

derm

v niae).

Hydrophilus.
Efferent canals.

Seminal vesicles.

Accessory glands
(mesadeniae) forming
a 3-branclied tube.

Penis.

Genital armature.

Ejaculatory duct.

Chalk-white accessory
glands (ectadeniae).

Genital Ducts of Calliphora.f — Dr. L. Briiel has made an exhaust-
ive study of the anatomy and development of the genital ducts and the
associated organs in Calliphora erytlirocejphala. His results show that
these are of ectodermal origin, and render it at least probable that this
is also true of some, if not all, of the Diptera, Hymenoptera, and
Hemiptera. In an additional note, the author criticises the work of
B. Thompson Lowne on the Blow-fly.

Formation of Sex-Cells in the Silk-Moth, t — Herr v. la Yalette St.
George discusses this subject, giving an account of some observations of
his own. In 1889 Yerson described the four spermatic tubes in Bornbyx
mori. He found at the apex of each tube a very large cell, with an
eccentric nucleus containing little chromatin, and stated that this cell
is produced by amitotic division daughter-cells, which ultimately become
the spermatozoa. These remarkable results were discussed by Yerson
himself and others in numerous later papers. Toyama, who especially
investigated the subject, found Yerson’s cells in the ovary as well as in
the testes, and believed that they were supporting cells which had

* Arch. d’Anat. Micr., i. (1897) pp. 384-416 (1 pi. and 3 figs.),
t Zool. Jahrb., x. (1897) pp. 511-618 (3 pis.).

J Arch. Mikr. Anat., 1. (1897) pp. 751-66 (3 pis.).

72

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

nothing to do with the formation of the sexual products. The present
author entirely agrees with Toyama. The spermatic tubes at an early
stage consist of a mass of spermatogonia. One of these in each tube
becomes specialised to form Yerson’s cell; the others form spermatocytes
and ultimately spermatosomes. Quite similar appearances can be seen
in the ovarian tubes. Yerson’s cells are probably both supporting and
nutritive.

Defensive Adaptations of Lepidopterous Larvae.* — Mr. H. G. Willis
gives a vivid account of many of the more or less familiar instances of
these adaptations.

Abdominal Appendages of Insects | — Dr. E. Heymons criticises
Yerhoeff’s conclusions as to the appendicular nature of the genital parts
in insects. Yerhoefft rested his argument mainly on the indubitable
appendage nature of the copulatory parts in Myriopods, on the occasional
jointing of the genital structures, and on the musculature. To these
arguments Heymons entirely objects : — (1) One cannot argue from the
copulatory legs of Julus or Lithobius to the analogous structures in
insects. (2) Their jointing is not a proof of genuine appendicular
nature. (3) The argument from musculature is also illegitimate.

Arctic Lepidoptera.§ — Dr. A. Pagenstecher gives an account of what
is known in regard to Arctic Lepidoptera. They are characterised by
their thick covering of hair, pale transparent colouring, great variability,
long larval period, and great power of resistance to cold. There is a
general, but by no means complete, resemblance between the northern
and the Alpine fauna ; thus the characteristic Alpine genus Parnassius
is almost absent in the north.

Internal Metamorphosis of Ants.|j — Herr W. Karawaiew has
studied this in the female larvae of Lasius flavus, particularly as regards
the gut and the musculature. There is no metamorphosis as regards
nervous system, tracheae, or heart. The most remarkable feature is
the entire absence of phagocytosis. Disintegration and chromatolysis
occur, but phagocytes play no part — a fact which may be associated
with the long duration of the metamorphosis in ants.

Development of Gut in the Silk-Moth.lf — Sig. E. Yerson notes the
following results. The mid-gut of Bombyx mori is never a dosed sac ;
the epithelial cells of fore-gut and hind-gut do not multiply after the
beginning of the larval period, they merely grow ; the fully formed
epithelial cells of the mid-gut remain of the same size in all the larval
periods, and lose their power of dividing ; they are all able to secrete,
but are not all alike chemically ; they and the goblet-cells to which
they give rise have a strictly limited length of life. There are, however,
nests or centres of epithelial regeneration where abundant proliferation
occurs before each moult ; at the base of the cardiac and of the pyloric
valve there is a germinal ring which proliferates at each moult, and
enlarges the valves; the firm membranous sheath which forms a sort

* Trans. Manchester Micr. Soc., 1896, issued 1897, pp. 61-72.

t Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 401-4. J Tom. cit., pp. 293-300.

§ JB. Nassau Ver. Naturk., 1. (1897) pp. 179-240. Zool. Centralbl., iv. (1897)
pp. 795-6. 1| Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 415-22. ^ Tom. cit., pp. 301-2.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

73

of sausage-skin-like envelope around tke food in the mid-gut of the
larva is cuticular in its origin.

Alimentary Canal of Anthrenus Larva.* * * § — Dr. A. Mobusz lias an
interesting paper on this subject, which deserves a longer summary than
we can give it. He describes the general and the minute structure,
with some interesting physiological notes by the way. Thus he
advances strong reasons for regarding the Malpighian tubes as more
than excretory; they absorb fluid food from the caecum, pass it to
various parts of the body, and receive waste material in exchange.
There is complete epithelial regeneration of the mid-gut during the
larval moultings. The gut is emptied, the intima of the stomodaeum
is separated off and passes into the mid-gut, the muscularis contracts
energetically several times, the basal membrane of the mid-gut is
hoisted off, the crypts beneath spread out and form a new epithelium.
The metamorphosis in the pupa is to be regarded as an intense moult-
ing, or the moulting as a weakened metamorphosis, the differences being
quantitative, not qualitative.

Development of Platygaster.f — Prof. N. Kulagin has made an
extended series of observations on the development of this important
parasite of Cecidomyia. He finds that it occurs in the larvae of a large
number of Diptera, Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera. The larva inhabits
the fatty body of the host, and pupates at the same time as the host.
If the host has been infected by more than one egg, it does not survive
pupation, but if by only one, the attack is apparently not fatal. The
author gives an account of the formation of the germ-layers, of the
development of the external form, and of the derivatives of the ectoderm,
mesoderm, and endoderm in Platygaster , adding in each case compara-
tive notes to show the relation of his own observations to those of others
on the development of the parasitic Hymenoptera. The result is to
show that Platygaster is most nearly related to the genus Teleas, studied
by Metschnikoff and Ayers. This is shown by the absence of yolk in
the egg, and the consequent formation of a typical blastula, and by the
simple organisation of the larva, which is parasitic throughout life. In
one species of Platygaster it was found that the sex-cells were distinct
at the time of the formation of the mesoblastic somites, that is, before
mesoderm and endoderm were differentiated from one another.

' j Chromatin Reduction in Spermatogenesis of Pentatoma.J — Dr. T.

H. Montgomery, jun., finds 14 chromosomes in the spermatogenetic
mitoses ; they appear in the reduced number (7) in the first spermato-
cyte ; in the succeeding divisions they undergo two transverse divisions
(reducing divisions) ; and at no stage is there any evidence of a longi-
tudinal division (equation division). The author compares his results
with those reached in regard to the allied Pyrrhocoris by Henking.

Symbiosis between a Butterfly and a Flower .§ — Herr E. Ule
describes a singular relationship between a butterfly, Danais Euripus,
and the flower of an asclepiad, Asclepias curassavica, in Brazil. The

* Arch. Naturges., lxiii. (1897) pp. 89-128 (3 pis.),

t Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1897) pp. 195-235 (2 pis.).

t Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 457-60 (9 figs.).

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 385-7.

74

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

eggs are laid on the flower, and the asclepiad gives board and lodging
to the caterpillar. The butterfly appears to live entirely on the nectar
of this flower, and when settled upon it, protects it from enemies ; for
the wings of the butterfly, when spread out, resemble in colour the
umbel in bloom, and, when folded, the umbel in hud. The butterfly
also assists in pollination by dragging out the pollinia.

The author further alludes to a similar relationship between ants
and a species of Cecropia.

Entomology of the Oak.* — Mr. A. T. Gillanders notes that Kalten-
bach catalogues 537 species of insects breeding on the oak, and S. L.
Mosley mentions 272 ; these differ widely in the degree of damage
which they cause. The author furnishes notes on some of these forms,
and briefly discusses galls and alternation of generations.

j8. Myriopoda.

Studies on Myriopods. — Dr. C. Yerhoeff continues indefatigable in
his study of Myriopods. He takes a survey f of the more precisely known
European genera of Chordeumidae. Then follows J an account of the
Polydesmidee of Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Dalmatia. A third paper[§
deals with the Chordeumidas and Lysiopetalidae of the same region. The
list of new forms mounts up steadily.

5. Arachnida.

Acari from Franz- Josef Archipelago. ||— Mr. A. D. Michael reports
on five Acari collected by Mr. Fisher at Cape Flora, Northbrook Island,
Franz- Josef Archipelago, the most northern Acari yet obtained. There
is no hint of a specialised local fauna. The five are : — the common
Glycipliagus domesticus (found far away from the camp) ; Oribata setosa
(common even in S. Europe) ; 0. Fisheri sp. n. (closely allied to 0. antarc -
tied) ; Erythrseus Harmsworthi sp. n. ; and JRhagidia gelosa.

Parasites of Ants. IF — Herr E. Wasmann adds some additional notes
to his former communication on the mites found in the nests of
ants. He asserts that the Hypopus found on Formica sanguinea , and
formerly ascribed to Tyroglyplius Krameri, really belongs to T. Was-
manni. This last species is not only a common parasite of the ant
named, but occurs also on other ants, such as Camponotus ligniperdus and
Lasius fuliginosus. The parasites do not seem to feed upon the host, but
form surface crusts, which injure especially the delicate sense-organs,
e.g. of the antennae, and ultimately cause death. The occurrence of
other mites in other ants’ nests is also described.

Sheep-Ticks and Louping-Ill.** — Messrs. A. Meek and R. Greig
Smith report on some experiments, which corroborate those made by
Williams, as regards the propagation of louping-ill by means of the
sheep-tick. The disease itself is doubtless bacterial, but practically
the tick is responsible.

* Trans. Manchester Micr. Soc., 1896 (1897), pp. 78-88.

f Arch. Naturges., lxiii. (1897) pp. 129-38.

+ Tom. cit., pp. 139-46 (1 pi. and 1 fig.). § Tom. cit., pp. 147-56 (1 pi.).

H Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zooh), xxvi. (1897) pp. 355-7 (1 pi.).

1 Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 346-50.

** Veterinarian, Ixx. (1897) pp. 698-709.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

75

New German Hydrachnidae.* — Herr R. Piersig lias a preliminary
note on some new species. These include two new species of Libertia ,
L. polita and L. rugosa, an Acercus, A. ligulifer , and two new species of
Hydrachna , H. crcissipalpis and H. maculifera. Some of the species are
figured.

Swiss Arachnids and Myriopods.j — MM. Simon and Broelemann
publish respectively faunal lists of the above, collected at Bex. Among
the Arachnids were specimens of the male of the rare Ceto unicolor. The
characters of the male have hitherto been known only from the brief
notes of Bertkau, and are here described more fully.

Pigment of Tardigrades.J— Dr. T. Rywoscli discusses the reddish
pigment in the epithelial cells of Macrobiotus Oberhduseri Doy. and of
species of Milnesium. In the mature individuals of the former species it
is arranged in cross bands, which seem to arise from the confluence of
longitudinal bands. The pigment does not seem to be a lipochrome ; but
what it is remains undetermined. It is brought by the body-fluids to the
cells — which are for some time quite colourless — and gradually accumu-
lates there.

Crustacea.

Respiratory Mechanism in Decapods.§ — Mr. W. Garstang describes
some adaptations of structure subservient to respiration in Decapod
Crustaceans which burrow in sand, and discusses the utility of specific
characters in these forms. Thus, the characters which distinguish the
different species of Calappa are principally the following : — (1) Propor-
tion of length to breadth of carapace ; (2) extent of postero-lateral
clypeiform expansions of carapace ; (3) serrations of carapace on the
antero-lateral margins and on the edges of the clypeiform expansions ;
and (4) the hairiness of the pterygostomial regions. In regard to these
Garstang points out : — (1) that the more elongated species are restricted
to deeper water than the broader species ; (2) that the clypeiform ex-
pansions are largest in the shallow- water species, and smallest in those
which inhabit deep water ; (3) that the denticulations of the antero-lateral
margins have a sieve-like function in British crabs, and may have had
the same in the ancestors of Calappa , while the clypeiform expansions
perhaps present protective resemblance to bivalves; and (4) that the
pterygostomial hairs serve as a sieve for the finer particles of mud. In
Matuta, water seems to enter the orbits and travel backwards through
the orbital gutter into the carpet of hairs (which, when the chelipeds are
flexed, must furnish a most efficient sieve for the finer particles of mud
and sand), through which it no doubt eventually makes its way to the
afferent aperture at the base of the chelipeds. Many of the characters
which distinguish the species of Albunea , both from one another and
from their allies, are very probably correlated with the function of
respiration under arenicolous conditions of life.

Carcinological Studies. || — Dr. A. E. Ortmann continues his studies
on Decapods, and deals in this systematic paper especially with those in

* Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 350-4 (8 figs.).

t Rev. Suisse Zool., v. (1897) pp. 101-5.

1 Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 753-5.

§ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xl. (1897) pp. 211-32 (3 pis.).

|| Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Syst.), x. (1897) pp. 258-372 (1 pi.).

76

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the collection of tlie Philadelphia Academy. Several new genera and
species ai-e established, and [not a few changes in the nomenclature have
been introduced.

Nervous System of Shore-Crab.* — Herr A. Bethe has conducted an
elaborate series of investigations on the anatomy and physiology of the
central nervous system in Carcinus msenas. The paper does not readily
lend itself to the purpose of a summary, but the following may serve to
indicate its scope. The anatomy of the brain and thoracic mass is
described in detail, a complete analysis of their elements being given.
A full description is given of the habits, and movements of the living
normal animal, including some interesting observations on food-taking,
relation to light, and so on. The animals habitually avoid light, and
seek corners where the body is partially concealed ; a strong light will
cause them to leave these lurking-places ; but even blind animals seek
places of concealment — a phenomenon described by the author as “ posi-
tive kalyptrotropism.” The paper also includes an account of numerous
physiological experiments on the crab. The otocysts or statocysts are
regarded as organs having to do with the maintenance of equilibrium, the
relation of the body to the horizontal plane. They are thus contrasted
with the semicircular canals of Vertebrates which have to do with the
perception of the degree and direction of a movement, especially of a
rotatory movement.

Development of Nervous System and Sex-Cells in Lernsea bran-
chialis.f — Herr D. Pedaschenko finds the apical plate to be at first un-
paired ; it becomes divided into two lateral portions, which probably
pass into the frontal sense-organs. A continuation of the apical plate
on the ventral surface forms the “ procerebrum ” ; the “ secondary brain ”
(rudiment of eyes and optic ganglia) arises from paired dorsal thicken-
ings. The two halves of the ventral cord arise independently.

During the epibole four micromeres sink below the ectoderm and
form the primary genital cells.

There are two median dorsal organs, formed of high prismatic ecto-
derm cells. In later stages these are insinuated beneath the ectoderm
and absorbed by the yolk-cells.

Vertical Distribution of Limnetic Crustacea.^ — Mr. E. A. Birge has
studied this in Lake Mendota, Wisconsin, since July 1894. The factors
are numerous and their action is complex. “ The quantity and kind of
food in any stratum of the water constitute a prime factor in determining
its crustacean population. The distribution is also modified by light,
temperature, gravity, wind, and the chemical condition of the water.
These forces act in different ways on different species, and also act
differently on the individuals of the same species at different ages ; and
in many cases have more effect than food on the vertical distribution of
the Crustacea.”

Annulata.

Physiology of 01igochaetes.§— L. Cuenot has made investigations on
the following points : — (1) Deserve substances. The typical reserve is

* Arcli. Micr. Anat., 1. (1897) pp. 460-546, and 589-639 (7 pis.).

t Trav. Soc. Nat. St. Petersbourg, xxvii. (1897) pp. 187-94. See Zool. Centralbl.,
av. (1897) p. 844. f Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 371-4.

§ Arch. Biol., xv. (1897) pp. 79-124 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

77

found to be glycogen stored in certain cells of the peritoneal epithelium ;
in Phreorycies it is replaced by fat. (2) The elements of the coelomic
fluid. These consist of varying stages in the development of amoebo-
cytes, and in rare cases, e.g. Allolobophora rosea , also of motionless
elseocytes. This worm exhibits in addition the remarkable mucocytes
of Rosa, which are ejected by the dorsal pores. The red blood also
contains amcebocytes. (3) As to the function of the dorsal pores, Cuenot
is inclined to regard the occasional ejection of the ccelomic fluid through
them as a protection against desiccation ; they may also be excretory.
(4) Phagocytosis is important and well marked. By means of it waste
substances and degenerating cells are eliminated, and the organism is
protected against the action of parasites. The following cells act as
phagocytes : the young amoebocytes of the coelomic fluid, the special
phagocyte cells of Perichseta , and certain cells of the nephridia. (5) The
process of excretion in the Lumbricidee is carried on by five different
sets of cells: — («) The cells of the nephridia, ( b ) the chloragogenous
cells of the intestine, (c) the peculiar “ bacteroidal ” cells of the connec-
tive tissue, ( d ) the yellow cells, (e) the amoebocytes of the red blood. In
addition the amoebocytes of the coelomic fluid are important in trans-
porting to the nephridia, skin, &c., the products of the chloragogenous
cells.

Regeneration in the Naidse.* — Herr Paul Hepke has studied histo-
logically the origin of new organs in species of Nais which have had
portions of the body amputated. The results serve to emphasise the
great importance of the ectoderm in the regenerative processes. The
epidermis speedily closes over the wound, and forms a many-layered cap of
ectoderm cells from which all the organs ultimately take origin. Thus
the gut originates as a bud of ectoderm growing in towards the old gut.
This acquires a lumen, and becomes stomodseum or proctodaeum as the
case may be. The mesoderm originates from ectoderm cells which arise
at either side of the Anlage of the gut, and go free into the body-cavity.
In general there seems to be a return to the period of the origin of the
germ-layers, the cells exhibiting their primitive marvellous power of
differentiation.

Budding of Chaetogaster.j — Herr Max von Boch’s paper on this
subject affords an interesting comparison with that of Hepke. He found
specimens of Chsetogaster diaphanus Truith., which, as already described
by Semper, formed long chains of zooids. The budding occurs at some
distance from the posterior end of the last worm. Here a proliferating
zone forms a new tail in front, a new head behind, so that two complete
zooids arise from the originally single one. After a period of growth the
process is again repeated. Sections show that at each side of the body
there are gaps in the muscular coat, occurring between dorsal and lateral
muscles and ventral and lateral muscles respectively. At these gaps
the ectoderm grows into the body-cavity, and the four patches unite with
one another and with certain cells budded off from the ventral nerve-
cord, to form a half-moon-shaped band of cells. This band grows
upwards round the gut, and forms the new oesophageal commissure and

* Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Ixiii. (1897) pp. 263-91 (3 pis.).

t Jenaisch. Zeitsclir. Naturwiss., xxxi. (1897) pp. 105-52 (3 pis.).

78 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the “ brain.” The original ventral nerve-eord remains functional and
complete until the separation of the zooids occurs ; it increases partly by
the proliferation of its own cells, partly by the intervention of the
ectodermic cells. The fore-gut originates as an endodermal outgrowth
of the gut, at first unpaired and later paired ; the two branches fuse
with two very small ectodermic invaginations, and form ultimately the
unpaired mouth and gullet. The mid-gut increases by the proliferation
of its own cells, the hind-gut by the fusion of the torn edge of the mid-
gut with the body- wall. The origin of the other organs was not
certainly ascertained.

The author compares these results with those of others, and points
out the following peculiarities : — The endodermal origin of proctodaeum
and stomodaeum, the originally paired condition of the mouth (already
described in some other cases), the fact that the supra-oesophageal
ganglia are formed from ventral and not from dorsal cells. These
peculiarities he explains on mechanical grounds, and, in an interesting
discussion of the germ-layer theory, maintains that they show that in
regenerative processes the organism “ enjoys great freedom, and accom-
plishes these in the way which the physiological, or even the mechanical,
conditions, render most suitable.” He does not believe that nature can
be confined in a scheme in the fashion suggested by the germ-layer
theory.

In the course of some observations on asexual reproduction, the
author emphasises his belief in the essential similarity of division and
budding.

Branching Annelid.* — M. Caullery and F. Mesnil describe an
interesting abnormality in Dodecaceria conchanim Oerst., in which it
seems as if a fragment of four segments had bifurcated anteriorly and
had also given off a posterior branch — a case of regeneration with
heteromorphosis.

New Species of Clymene.f — Miss M. Lewis describes Chjmene jpro-
ducta sp. n., one of the Maldanidse, but with a much larger number of
segments than any known form. It constructs a tube of coarse sand,
similar to that of Axiothea torquata , with which it was found associated
on the sand flats of Vineyard Sound, Mass. There seem to be about
seventy segments, — four to the thorax, five to the abdomen, and about
sixty to the tail. The external characters are fully described.

Acanthobdella peledina.J — Prof. A. Kowalevsky amplifies his pre-
vious description of this interesting animal, which occurs in Lake Onega
as an ecto-parasite on Salmo salvelinus, and probably also on Salmo trutta
and Coregonus albula.

He describes small reserve setae at the base of the large setae, three *
pairs of eyes resembling those of Piscicola , the pigment-cells, the parti-
tions separating the somites, the lateral lines, the ventral and dorsal
blood-vessels, the food-canal, which in many ways recalls that of Oligo-
chaeta, the ventral chain of (20) ganglia, of which the sub-oesophageal
and the most posterior show distinct traces of being composed of several

* Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 438-10 (3 figs.).

f Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xxviii. (1897) pp. 111-5 (2 pis.).

X Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersbourg, v. (1896) pp. 263-74 (7 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

79

fused centres, and the genital organs, which, on the whole, resemble
those of leeches. A full memoir is promised.

New Capitellid.*— M. Felix Mesnil describes Capitellid.es Giardi
g. et sp. n. from the coast of France. The animal is of small size (about
10 mm.) ; the thorax has 9 segments : the first six with biramose capil-
lary setae ; the seventh, eighth, and ninth with hooded hooks. The two
last have, in the adults of both sexes, modified dorsal setae, which form
a copulatory apparatus. This character distinguishes it from Capitella ,
between which and Capitomastus the new genus must be placed.

Physiological Experiments with Clepsine.f— Prof. A. Kowalevsky
injected blue litmus into the gut ; it turned red in the crop, but remained
blue in the intestine, except at the terminal part, where it was red. The
character of the gut-contents is therefore first acid, then alkaline, and
finally acid again. Lymph-cells in the coelomic lacunae and canals take
up injections of Indian ink, carmine, and bacteria, and digest the latter
phagocytieally. But such substances are not taken up by certain large
“ acid ” cells on the walls of the coelomic canals (except the subdermals
and laterals), which absorb litmus and retain it in the form of red
granules. Powdered substances are also taken up by the cells of the
nephridial capsules, which also act as phagocytes. The nephridial
cells themselves do not act thus. After injection of ammoniacal car-
mine, red drops are after a time found in the nephridial capsules, probably
through the mediation of the “ acid cells,” which yield up the pigment
to the leucocytes, or are devoured by them.

Nematohelminthes.

Life-History of Trichina.^ — Mr. J. W. Graham has studied especi-
ally the vexed question of the passage of the Trichinae from the gut
to the muscles. The chief arguments in support of active migration
are : — (1) the occurrence of young Trichinae in the body-cavity ; (2) the
occurrence of the same free in the connective tissue ; and (3) the un-
equal distribution in the different groups of muscles. Graham seeks
to show that these arguments do not prove that active migration is the
normal mode of distribution. The arguments in support of the view
that the parasites are carried by the blood stream are : — (1) the occur-
rence of embryos in the blood ; (2) the occurrence of an embryo in an
artery of the diaphragm ; (3) the occurrence of embryos in the muscle-
capillaries : (4) the lesions and bleeding of muscle-capillaries ; (5) the
occurrence of embryos beside blood extravasations in the heart-muscle ;

(6) the presence of embryos in haemorrhagic clots in the lungs ; and

(7) the rapidity of the distribution.

Not only the sarcolemma, but the destroyed contractile substance
must be recognised as having a share in the encapsuling, though neither
forms the permanent capsule, which is due to the connective tissue. The
connective tissue-cells or leucocytes probably have a fatal action on
many of the Trichinae.

* Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 441-3.

t Mem. Acad. Imp. St. Pe'tersbourg, v. (1897) pp. 1-15 (1 pi.). See Zool.
Centralbl., iv. (1897) pp. 838-9.

X Arch. Mikr. Anat., 1. (1897) pp. 219-75 (3 pis.).

80

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Excretory Cells of Asearids.* * * § — Prof. J. W. Spengel answers tlie
criticisms of Shipley and Nassonow on a previous note dealing with
this subject.

Platyhelminthes.

Nemertea.f — L. Joubin has written the section on Nemerteans in
Blanchard’s ‘ Traite de Zoologie’, discussing external characters, distribu-
tion, structure, development, classification, and affinities. Like Burger,
who reviews the book,:J he places the Nemertea among the Platyhel-
minthes, in closest relationship to the Turbellarians.

New Tap e worm. § — O. Fuhrmann has found in a species of Anas,
a tapeworm of the genus Cittotsenia, which he describes as C. avicola.
The interest of this discovery is that not only has this genus not been
hitherto found in birds, but it has been supposed to be confined to
Rodents. This may be compared with the fact that the genus Davainea ,
formerly supposed to be confined to birds, has been recently found in
man, in different species of Lepus , and in other Mammals. The structure
of the new species is described in detail.

Taenia confusa.|| — Prof. H. B. Ward has a note on the head of this
new tapeworm, which presents a remarkable resemblance to that of
Dipylidium , so remarkable indeed that some confusion is suspected.

Bothriocephalus Zschokkei.lF — Dr. M. Liihe makes a detailed com-
parison of this Cestode (described by Fuhrmann from Ardea stellaris )
and Schistocephalus dimorphus Creplin (from Ardea cinerea , with stickle-
back as intermediate host). The result shows that the distinctiveness
of Fuhrmann’s species has not been substantiated.

Epithelium of Cestodes.** — Dr. F. Blochmann replies to a note by
Bott on the absence of a true epithelium on the bladder-wall of a
Cysticercus. He points out that it is not inconsistent with epithelial
nature for the cells to form a branched network, as in the case men-
tioned. The same modification of epithelium may be seen in the
embryonic fin-spines of Spinax niger or on the horny teeth of the hag.
Moreover, staining reactions clearly differentiate the epithelial from the
subjacent parenchyma-cells.

Russian Turbellaria.tf — Herr W. Zykoff completes his previous list
of the Rhabdoccela of Moscow by the addition of six species. The
paper includes some notes on their external characters.

Swiss Turbellaria4J — Dr. G. du Plessis has an interesting faunistic
study on the Turbellaria of the Cantons of Vaud and Geneva. After
each species he gives a careful account of the localities in which it
occurs, and the best methods of capture.

* Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 427-30.

t ‘Traite de Zoologie’ (Raphael Blanchard), fasc. xi., Paris, lS97,;8vo, 59 pp.,

53 figs. X Zool. Centralbl., iv. (1897) pp. 829-30.

§ Rev. Suisse Zool., v. (1897) pp. 107-17 (1 pi.).

II Zool. Anzeig,, xx. (1897) pp. 321-2. t Tom. cit., pp. 430-4.

** Tom. cit., pp. 460-3 (1 pi.).

ft Tom. cit., pp. 450-2. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 190.

XX Lev, Suisse Zool., v. (1897) pp. 119-40.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

81

Hew Turbellaria.* — Mr. W. McM. Woodworth, in the second part
of his 4 Contributions to the Morphology of the Turbellaria,’ describes
and figures two new species of Planaria , P. unionicola and P. doroto-
•cephala, found at Havana, Illinois, and gives some notes upon the
morphology of some other fresh-water forms from the same region.
The notes are illustrated by figures, some of living forms.

Incertae Sedis.

Notochord of Cephalodiscus.f — Mr. S. F. Harmer has a note upon
Mr. Masterman’s researches on the above subject. Mr. Harmer appears
to accept generally Masterman’s results, but strongly opposes his
homology of the “ notochord,” which he formerly described, with the
proboscis-gland of Balanoglossus , and with the structure called by Mas-
terman the sub-neural gland in Actinotrocha. Harmer is not prepared
apparently to offer suggestions as to the meaning of Masterman’s
“ paired notochords,” so that his criticism is in large part a reassertion
of his own previous position. This he does chiefly on account of the
relation of his notochord to surrounding structures. He believes that
the structure called by Masterman the sub-neural sinus is homologous
with the proboscis-vesicle of Balanoglossus, and opens neither into the
blood-system nor into the anterior body-cavity. The position of this
structure in regard to the “ notochord ” confirms, in his opinion, the view
that the latter is homologous with the Eicheldarm of Balanoglossus.

Mr. Masterman’s reply ^ is, like his opponent’s paper, confused by
the use of terms which involve in themselves the assumptions to be
proved. He believes that his “sub-neural gland” is throughout of
glandular structure ; it certainly has not the structure of a notochord.
His sections show clearly that the sub-neural sinus is merely the swollen
end of the dorsal blood-vessel, and is continuous with it. Further, the
Eicheldarm of Balanoglossus lies between the ventral body-wall and
the anterior body-cavity, while the “ sub-neural gland ” of Cephalodiscus
lies between the dorsal body-wall and the anterior body-cavity ; and
finally, the similarity of the “ sub-neural gland ” of Cephalodiscus to
an epiblastic structure in Actinotrocha is against the view that it has
notochordal significance. Masterman therefore denies that Harmer’s
“ notochord ” can legitimately be described as such, especially on histo-
logical grounds, and reiterates his homology of the pharyngeal dorso-
lateral grooves of Cephalodiscus with “ double notochords.” Apart from
the question of chordate affinities, the paper is interesting as affording
additional evidence of the relations between Phoronis, Cephalodiscus , and
Balanoglossus.

Development of Mesoderm in Phoronis.§— Herr E. Schultz finds
that in the blastula-stage some mesoderm (mesenchyme ?) cells migrate
into the blastocoel. In the first stages of gastrulation many others ori-
ginate from the endoderm. They become massed together in the region
of the future head-lobe and towards the anus. Those lying freely in the
blastoccel become disposed on the ectoderm and the endoderm, forming a

* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxxi. (1897) pp. 1-16 (1 pi.).

t Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 312-6. % Tom- cit., pp. 113-50 (5 figs.).

§ Zool. Centralbl., iv. (1897) pp. 781-2.

1808

a

82

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ccelomic epithelium or peritoneum. In several respects the author’s
results differ radically from Caldwell’s.

Plankton Brachiopods.* — Prof. H. Simroth reports on the sparse
collection of Brachiopod larvae made by the Plankton Expedition. There
were only four — all Ecardinate — possibly belonging to Discina , Lingula ,
and Crania.

Development of Myzostoma glabrum.f — Dr. W. M. Wheeler has
studied in detail the maturation, fecundation, and early cleavage of the
eggs of this form in their bearing upon the problems of modern cytology.
He confirms and amplifies the descriptions of Loven and others with
regard to the structure of the spermatozoon. This has an elongated
contractile head, containing a series of chromatin beads, and a slender,
motionless, and apparently inconstant tail, now described for the first
time. The middle piece with its centrosome is apparently absent, and
the movements are produced by the striated head. Associated with
these peculiarities of the sperm, the author finds that the egg, at the
time of fertilisation, is “ characterised by a certain immaturity and con-
servatism,” an apparent lack of well-marked sexual differentiation. This
is shown, inter alia, by the delay which occurs between the entrance of
the spermatozoon and the response of the egg, by the long persistence of
the nucleolus, and especially by the method of formation of the polar
bodies. With regard to the last, the points of importance are the large
size of the asters and centrosomes of the polar body spindles, the fact
that the first spindle appears near the middle of the egg and not at its
periphery, and that, in the case of the second polar body, the centro-
somes divide early, so that two are found at each pole of the spindle.
Further, the centrosomes at the inner pole seem to become the centro-
somes of the first cleavage spindle.

The general part of the paper is concerned with the following
points : — (1) the polarity of the ovum ; (2) the function of the nucleolus ;
(3) the significance of the polar bodies ; (4) the reduction of the chro-
matin ; (5) the origin of the centrosomes of the first cleavage spindle.

(1) In Myzostoma the polarity of the ovum is established at a very
early stage, and, in spite of the pressure to which the ripening eggs are
subjected, is never lost ; the author is of opinion that this is also true of
the eggs of the majority of animals. (2) The nucleolus of Myzostoma ,
although unusually persistent, takes no part in the formation of the
polar body spindles ; and, similarly, the numerous nucleoli of the pro-
nuclei take no part in the formation of the first cleavage spindle. These
facts, therefore, support Hacker’s views as to the secretory nature of the
nucleolus and its unimportance in cell-division. (3) The size and de-
velopment of the polar bodies seem to support the view that these are
rudimentary or abortive ova. (4) There is no evidence of a reducing
division in the formation of the polar bodies, but the author is inclined
to believe that chromatin reduction occurs during the prophases of the
first cleavage spindle. (5) The author argues strongly against the ex-
istence of Fol’s “ quadrille,” but believes that Myzostoma] shows that
the centrosomes of the first cleavage spindle may originate Neither from
the sperm or from the egg.

* Ergebn. Plankton Exp., ii. (1897) 17 pp. and 1 pi. Zool. Centralbl., iv. (1897)
pp. 784-5. t Arch. Biol., xv. (1897) pp. 1-70 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

83

This important paper is illustrated by beautiful plates, and includes
a copious bibliography.

Rotatoria.

Rotifera of Sandusky Bay.* — In this second paper, Dr. D. S. Kelli-
cott continues his record of the Rotifera found by him near his station
on Lake Erie, extending his list to 106 species. Of particular interest
are a few rare Rotifers only known from one or two localities in other
parts of the world, as Polyclisetus serica Gunson-Tliorpe, known only from
China, Distyla spinifera Western, from Putney, Notogonia ehrenbergi.
from Switzerland and Calcutta. The following four species are described
as new : — Proales algicola, Ploesoma mollis , Sacculus orbicularis , and Mas -
tigocerca multicrinis. The first two are unfortunately not figured, which
is always a great drawback, and almost prevents future identification.
Of Sacculus orbicularis there is a slight sketch which very much re-
sembles that of a contracted Notops pygmseus Caiman, and the imperfect
description, as far as it goes, also agrees with this species. Mastigocerca
multicrinis is figured, and with its six slender frontal appendages and
spine, reminds one of M. capucina Wierz., if it be not identical with it.

Rotifera from Spitzbergen. j — Mr. David Bryce has examined a
quantity of moss brought in tins from Advent Bay, Ice Eiord, Spitzbergen,
by Dr. J. W. Gregory, and collected by him during Sir W. Martin
Conway’s expedition in the summer of 1896. Twenty-six species of
Rotifers were found in the moss, distributed as follows : — 2 Pliilodina ,

1 Rotifer , 13 Gallidina , 3 Adineta , 1 Proales , 1 Furcularia, 1 Diglena ,

2 Stephanops, 1 Colurus , and 4 Metopidia , some of these being moderately
abundant. One species only/ Steplianops tenellus, is described as new,
but not figured, and even this one has been seen before by the author in
England. Gallidina venusta is a new name given to Milne’s Macro-
trachela elegans, which it was necessary to rename. The author points
out the evidence that is afforded of the vitality and endurance of these
minute yet highly organised animals under such exceedingly trying
conditions of life as those obtaining in Spitzbergen. For under the
most favourable conditions, during only three months in the year is the
temperature sufficiently high for active life ; during the remaining nine
months the animals and their eggs, as everything else, are frozen hard
as rock.

Male of Proales Wernecki.J — Mr. C. F. Rousselet gives a short
account and some good figures of this recently discovered male Rotifer,
the female of which has long been known to inhabit the galls found on
various species of Vaucheria. It is of particular interest as being the
second male Rotifer known to possess a fully developed mastax and jaws,
the first having been the male of Rhinops vitrea.

Hew Male Rotifers.§ — Dr. E. F. Weber gives a description and
figures of the following six male Rotifers found in the neighbourhood of

* Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., 1897, pp. 43-51 (3 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1897,
p. 207. t Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1897, pp. 793-9.

X Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, vi. (1897) pp. 415-8 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal, 1897,
p. 7. § Rev. Suisse de Zool., v. (1897) pp. 91-9 (1 pi.).

Cr 2

84 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Geneva and hitherto undescribed : — Copeus labiaius , Dinocharis pocillum ,
Scaridium longicaudum , Diglena f or cipata, Salpina mucronata, and Salpina
brevispina. All these males have the usual characters of their tribe,
being small in size and devoid of manducatory and digestive organs,
excepting however as regards the size of the male of Diglena for cipata,
which is as large as the female.

Lacinularia elliptica, a new Rotifer.* — Mr. J. Shephard figures
and describes this new species from a lagoon near the Yarra river in
Victoria, Australia, where it was found in company with L. natans.
L. elliptica forms large elliptical free-swimming clusters with a substan-
tial axis, and resembles most nearly L. racemovata of Gunson-Thorpe.
It differs from the latter species in the form of the corona, in the trophi,
and by possessing a constricted trunk, and large foot-glands at the junc-
tion with the foot.

Early Development of Rotifers.f — Herr R. v. Erlanger and Dr. R.
Lauterborn give a preliminary note on their researches on this subject in
the case both of the fertilised and parthenogenetic eggs of Asplanchna
priodonta. The object of the research was to investigate the difference
between the centrosome of the fertilised and of the parthenogenetic eggs.
The parthenogenetic eggs are of two kinds, those which develope into
males and those which develop into females. The latter form two polar
bodies, the former only one. This single polar body shows many pecu-
liarities in its origin ; the term polar spindle can hardly be employed, as
the “ spindle ” has only one pole and only one centrosome, and half of
the germinal vesicle is extruded without the previous disappearance of
the nuclear membrane. The single centrosome, which is apparently
present in the immature egg, divides after the extrusion of the polar body,
the two parts forming the poles of the first segmentation spindle. The
first segmentation nucleus only assumes very gradually its typical shape,
as it remains for a long time in connection with the polar body.

The parthenogenetic eggs with two polar bodies were not fully
studied, but apparently the first polar body divides after its formation.

The formation of the polar bodies in the fertilised eggs was also not
fully ascertained, but it was found that the spermatozoon furnishes the
centrosome of the fertilised egg, and this originates as usual from the
middle piece of the spermatozoon. As in Ascaris , there is no single
first segmentation nucleus, but both male and female pronuclei take part
in the formation of the first segmentation spindle. The poles of the
spindle are occupied by the divided centrosomes of the spermatozoon.

Sporozoic Parasites in a Rotifer.J — Dr. Lenssen notes that the
presence of sporozoic parasites in Rotifers has not been hitherto esta-
blished with certainty. He has, however, found indubitable proofs of
their presence in the intestinal cells of Hydatina senta. Certain appear-
ances lead him to suspect that the Euglense present in the intestine may
have some share in the development of the Sporozoa found in the intes-
tinal cells.

* Victorian Naturalist, 1897, pp. 3-4 (1 pi.).

t Zool. Anzeig, xx. (1897) pp. 452-G. J Tom. cit., pp. 330-33 (5 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

85

Echinoderma.

Upper Silurian Palaechinus.* — Mr. J. Mitchell notes that the oc-
currence of Echinoids in Palaeozoic rocks is extremely rare, and that
some palaeontologists doubt whether their occurrence in Silurian rocks
has been satisfactorily established. He therefore describes, from the
Upper Silurian of New South Wales, a fragment of a middle part of an
inter-ambulacral area of Palsechinus sp.

Fossil Echinoids.f — M. P. de Loriol describes a collection of sea-
urchins from Lebanon. The collection includes ten new species.

Ccelentera.

Development of Scyphopolypes. J — Herr A. Goette, under this head-
ing, publishes an important paper, whose contents may be conveniently
considered under three heads : — (1) Observations on the development of
certain Scyphopolypes (Anthozoa); (2) discussion of the principles of
classification ; (3) genealogy of the Ccelentera. Under the first heading
we have an account, based both upon the author’s own researches and
on those of others, of the development of the Cereanthidce, of Cereactis
aurantiaca , and of other Actinias. The result is to show that in the
Actiniae certain peristomial pockets occur which are apparently homo-
logous with the Septaltrichter of the Scyphistoma and the lower Scypho-
medusae. Further, in several not nearly related Scyphopolypes it
is found that the region of gastric pockets and septa is the same as in
the Scyphistoma. In general, therefore, the research confirms the
author’s views as to the relation of Scyphomedusae and Anthozoa, and
makes it probable that the ancestor of both was a polypoid Scyphistome.
Under the second heading the author has some interesting observations
on what he calls the antithesis between genealogy and classification. He
points out that, as a “ natural ” classification is merely an expression of
ignorance, the effect of advancing knowledge must always be to shake
rather than to strengthen it. It is obvious that if any group were com-
pletely worked out, and all its members past and present described, a
classification would be no longer possible. Starting, therefore, from
this conception of classification as dependent rather upon practical con-
venience than upon the known facts of phylogeny, the author proceeds
to explain his views of the inter-relations of the Ccelentera, while re-
fraining from expressing any opinion as to the desirability of making
marked changes in the present classification in accordance with these
views. His views are best explained by the genealogical tree which he
constructs (see overleaf).

The points of importance are the removal of the Hydrozoa from the
primitive position usually assigned to them, the position of the Cteno-
phora, and the separation of the Antipathidse and Cereanthus from the
other Hexacorallia. The letter x marks the position of other probable
derivatives of the tetraradiate form ; Tetraciis should perhaps be placed
here.

* Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxii. (1897) pp. 258-9 (I fig.),
t Rev. Suisse Zoob, v. (1897) pp. 141-78 (3 pis.),
j Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1897) pp. 292-378 (4 pis. and 25 figs.).

86

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Scypliozoa

Corals

Hexactinia

Hydrozoa

Edivcirdsia

Cereanthus

Antipathic!®

Ctenophora

Alcyonaria

Scyphomedusae

4-radiate Scyphistoma

Scyphula

Planula

Development of Mesenteries in Actiniae.* — Herr Oscar Carlgren
describes this process in a peculiar anemone found in the Chinese and
Japanese seas, which he regards as the type of a new genus and a new
family. This peculiar form, to which he assigns the generic name of
Endocoelactis , has both tentacles and mesenteries arranged in circles of
irregular numbers, tentacles 18 + 10-(-16 -f- 8 + 16 = 68, mesenteries
10 (with two directive mesenteries) -f 8 + 16 = 34. In the development
of the mesenteries it was found that for a long time these arise after a
bilateral method. According to the author, in the Actiniae in general the
radial type of development appears sooner in the higher forms than in
the lower. For this and other reasons Endocoelactis must therefore be
placed low among the Actiniae.

* Ofversigt Vctensk.-Akad. Forliandl., liv. (1897) pp. 159-72 (5 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

87

Development of Caryophyllia cyathus.* * * § — Dr. G. von Koch describes
the newly liberated free-swimming larvas, the newly fixed young polyps,
the stages with 4, 6, 8, and 12 parietes, and the gradual growth of the
skeleton.

Porifera.

Lacework Sponge.f — Mr. W. Blackburn gives a description of the
external characters, skeletal system, and canals of Semperella Schulzei.

New Calcareous Sponge.f — Herr L. L. Breitfuss describes under
the name of Axandra liermesi a new sponge from the Adriatic. This
form resembles A. reticulum O. S. very closely, but differs from it in the
size and shape of its rhabdi.

Protozoa.

Coloration of Living Protozoa.§ — Herr S. Prowazek has made a
series of experiments on the staining of living Paramcecia with neutral
red. The first result of the staining is the appearance of a ring of
coloured granules round the margins of the food-vacuoles. Observation
shows that these granules are apparently connected with the process of
digestion, and are perhaps the precursors of ferments. The staining was
also very useful in the study of the rotation of the protoplasm and similar
processes. The results are of some importance in reference to the ques-
tion of the permeability of the outer layer of protoplasm. It has been
stated that this permeability is characteristic of the parasitic Infusoria
as contrasted with the free-living forms, where the mouth region only
is credited with osmotic properties ; but some of the author’s experiments
suggest the possibility of a surface osmosis even in free-living forms.

Notes on the Protozoa. || — Dr. Fr. Doflein publishes some interest-
ing notes on Kentrochona nebalise Bompel, and describes a new appar-
ently closely related form as Kentrochonopsis muliipara . The first-named
occurs in spring as a commensal on Nebalia geoffroyi. It is found
on the gills in connection with the thoracic limbs, and feeds upon the
organic particles contained in the respiratory currents. In the summer
and autumn only females of Nebalia are obtainable ; at these seasons the
respiratory movements are greatly modified owing to the presence of
the eggs, and, in consequence apparently of this, Kentrochona is no
longer present. A similar modification of the respiratory movements
takes place in the mature male, but it is not known by wbat means
Kentrochona is enabled to survive this periodic inability to maintain its
commensalism.

The structure and method of budding of Kentrochona are described
in some detail. The new genus Kentrochonopsis is remarkable for its
curious multiple budding, as many as seven buds being given off at
once.

New Freshwater Protista — Prof. J. Frenzel describes, under the
name Modderula hartivigij a remarkable organism found in the Miiggel

* MT. Zool. Sfcat. Neapel, xii. (1897) pp. 755-72 (1 pi. and 21 figs.).

t Trans. Manchester Micr. Soc., 1896, issued 1897, pp. 57-61 (1 pi.).

1 Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., Ixiii. (1897) pp. 39-42 (2 figs.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 187-94 (1 pi.).

H Zool. Jahrb., x. (1897) pp. 619-46 (3 pis. and 11 figs.) j

1 Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 801-8.

88

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Lake. Tlie bottom of the lake is covered with a slimy substance called
by the fishermen Modeler ; and when this was allowed to stand in
beakers in the laboratory, the new organism appeared. It is elliptical in
shape, without pseudopodia, cilia, flagella, or nucleus, and contains small
colourless particles apparently of sulphur, and usually also large
refracting bodies. Protoplasm is not apparent, but the author believes
that the organic nature is proved by the power of movement, and by
the apparent occurrence of transverse division.

Ramulina.* — Messrs. T. Rupert Jones and F. Chapman discuss the
fistulose Polymorphinre and the genus Ramulina in particular. The
genus is represented from Jurassic to recent times, and can be specifically
divided into five well-marked types. The generic characters are summed
up thus : — Test free or attached, branching, consisting of a calcareous
tube, swollen at intervals, so as to form more or less definite, often
irregular segments, from which lateral stolons or branches are sometimes
given off. The swollen segments have complete or incomplete internal
septa. The one or more apertures in the free forms are circular, being
formed by the open end of the stolon-tube ; in the attached forms the
apertures are usually formed by the protracted terminations of the
stolon-tubes, and are semicircular in outline where the entire test is
adherent to the foreign body. The surface may be smooth, hirsute,
prickly, or tuberculate. An instance is known where Ramulina has
been found within the chambers of another Foraminifer, also on and in
fossil Echinoderm-tests ; but this cannot be true parasitism.

Parasites of Sticholonche and the Acanthometridse.f — Dr. A. Borgert
has an interesting paper on the curious and little-known structures
found in the above Radiolarians, and constituting the “ spiral bodies ” of
Fol, the Amoebophyra of Koffen. The author accepts Koffen’s name, and
considers that the forms inhabiting respectively Sticholonche and the
Acanthometridae are specifically distinct. By means of sections the
author is enabled to describe in more detail than was previously possible
the structure of Amoebophyra as it appears on leaving the host, The
form is elongated and somewhat wormlike, and is marked externally by
a ciliated spiral furrow, with numerous small nuclei following the line
of the spiral. Internally there is a distinct tubular cavity with a
posterior opening. Between the wall of this space and the external
protoplasm there is apparently another cavity whose lumen is traversed
by numerous strands of protoplasm. As to the position of these para-
sites, the author rejects Korotneff ’s suggestion as to Orthonectid affinities,
and accepts that of Koffen, who regards them as Acinetarian Protozoa.
The life-history is probably complex, and is constructed by the author
as follows: — The parasite becomes adult within its host, and then,
escaping from it, becomes sessile, suctorial, and tentacle-bearing. This
form gives rise to ciliated embryos, presumably with a single nucleus,
which again become parasitic. In an additional note the author describes
three mononucleated forms. As these were obviously not very young,
they do not shed any light on the life-history, but rather render this
more puzzling.

* Joum. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxvi. (1897) pp. 334-51 (51 figs.).

f Zeit. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1897) pp. 141-86 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

89

Protozoan Parasites of Termites.* — Mr. James F. Porter has found,
in the intestine of Termes flavipes in Cambridge, U.S.A., the curious
Infusorian parasites already described by Leidy in New Jersey Termites,
i.e. Triclionympha agilis, Pyrosonympha vertens , and Dinenympha gracilis*
The last form the author is inclined to regard as merely the young of
Pyrosonympha ; while he believes that the forms described by Leidy as
the young of Trichonympha agilis are probably specifically distinct both
from this species and from each other. The paper includes numerous
notes on the anatomy and habits of the parasites. They were found in
the gut in large numbers, and were accompanied by Gregarines.

Haematozoan Infections of Birds and Man.f — Dr. W. G. Maclallum
states that the observation of Opie, who pointed out that there are two'
adult forms of Halteridium in crows, may be readily confirmed. The
one is hyaline and non-staining, the other granular and darkly staining
with methylen-blue. The hyaline form becomes flagellated, and the
flagella, on becoming free, act after the manner of spermatozoa. One,
and only one, gains entrance into a non-motile granular sphere, and
by the coalescence of the two, the fusiform body, having a pigmented
appendage and refractive nucleus-like corpuscle, is produced. This is
the vermiculus described by Danilewsky. The author has recently
observed a very similar process in human blood. But in this instance,
after the flagellum had entered the non-motile form, the organism merely
swelled up, and no appearance analogous to the vermiculus was observed.

* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxxi. (1897) pp. 47-68 (6 pis.).

f Johns Hopkins Hosp. Bull., viii. (1897) pp. 235-6.

90

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1)1 Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Structure of Cytoplasm.* — From his investigation of the phenomena
of nuclear division in Fucus,f Prof. E. Strasburger came to the conclu-
sion that there is a difference in structure between the kinoplasm and
trophoplasm when in an active condition. He now gives it as a general
law that active kinoplasm has a filamentous, active trophoplasm a honey-
comb structure. This difference does not, however, extend to the two
kinds of plasm when in an inactive condition ; the whole of the cyto-
plasm having then a honeycomb structure. It is difficult to determine
how the kinoplasm is then distributed within the walls of the network.
In animals, on the other hand, kinoplasm or archiplasm can often he
detected in resting nuclei.

The centrosomes which are a constituent part of the cell in Thallo-
phytes and Bryophytes, have not at present been detected in Pterido-
phytes or Phanerogams. The author concludes that in these higher
branches of the vegetable kingdom the filamentous framework of the
kinoplasm reaches a degree of development which renders possible some
other mode of origin of the spindle ; and this is connected with the
special use of the combining-threads in the completion of cell-division.

Continuity of Protoplasm in Guard-cells and Moss-leaves4 — Herr
F. G. Kohl calls attention to the fact that in the great majority of plants
the starch disappears in the autumn from the guard-cells of the stomates,
while the remaining cell-contents have also either disappeared or become
disorganised. This takes place to a large extent even in those leaves
which remain green in the autumn. This has been supposed hitherto
to be associated with a complete absence of protoplasmic communications
in the guard-cells. The author shows, however, that this anomaly does
not exist. By using the iodine-sulphuric-acid-methyl-violet method, he
has established the presence, in very large numbers, of connecting-
threads between the guard-cells and adjoining cells, in the mistletoe.
In the cortical parenchyme-cells of the same plant he reckons the
number of connecting protoplasm-threads from each cell to amount to
from 7350 to 9600 ; in the guard-cells of the stomates they are pro-
bably somewhat fewer. In the leaves of Catharinea undulata and other
mosses, Herr Kohl has demonstrated the existence of similar connecting-
threads, though in somewhat smaller numbers. He concludes that all
the living cells of a plant are in this way united into a connected whole ;
the most important functions of this connected system being the trans-
port of food-materials and the conduction of irritations.

Nuclear Division in Pollen-mother-cells. — Herr D. M. Mottier§
has studied the mode of division of the nucleus in the pollen-mother-

* Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxx. (1897) pp. 375-405 (2 figs.).

t Cf. infra , p. 107. 1 Bot. Centralbl., Ixxii. (1897) pp. 257-65 (1 pi.).

§ Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxx. (1897) pp. 169-204 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

91

cells of a number of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, and agrees in
the main facts with the results obtained by other observers. He main-
tains that there exists a very close connection between the chromosomes
or the chromatin-ball and the cytoplasm ; in Podophyllum very delicate
threads of cytoplasm appear to pass through the wall of the nucleus, and
to attach themselves to the chromatin-ball. The loose state of the ball
described by Moore as synapsis he believes to be the result of the pro-
cesses employed. The pollen-mother-cells are described by the author
as being connected with one another by fine strands of protoplasm. He
believes the reduction in the number of chromosomes before the hetero-
type division to be an apparent reduction only.

Herr H. O. Juel * has studied the cases (in Hemerocallis fulva ) in
which, instead of the normal tetrads of pollen-grains, more than four
are formed. He agrees with Strasburger in tracing this irregularity to
the first division-process, a chromatin-body remaining attached to the
equator in the diaster-stage, and forming later a small nucleus. These
act as normal nuclei, form spindles, and divide. The author was unable
to detect centrospheres in the pollen-mother-cells of Hemerocallis. Simi-
lar irregularities also occur in the second division, resulting in the
formation of supernumerary nuclei.

In another paper, f Prof. E. Strasburger and Herr D. Mottier, further
discussing the second process of division in pollen-mother-cells, abandon
the view that a reduction-division of the chromosomes takes place in
them similar to that which has been observed in nuclear division in
animals. No such reduction takes place in the embryo-sac, or in the
pollen-mother-cells (of Liliaceae) ; but an ordinary nuclear division of
the heterotype pattern. This description includes the second division
in the embryo-sac, by which the egg-apparatus and the upper polar
nucleus are formed.

Biology and Physiology of the Cell-walLt — Dr. Z. Kamerling dis-
cusses several points connected with the structure of cell-membrane.
He states that in various circumstances bubbles may arise within the
uninjured cell-wall, which may contain either air or aqueous vapour ; as,
for instance, in the cells of the annulus of the sporange of ferns. In
almost all cases cell-walls are, when dry, impermeable to air. There
are three classes of structures in which this impermeability is especially
manifested : viz. in structures connected with motility, such as the
annulus of sporanges, the capsule of Jungermanniacem, the elaters of
Hepaticm ; in structures which absorb water very rapidly after desicca-
tion, such as the xerophytous Marchantiaceae, the testa of many seeds,
&c. ; and in structures which live for a long time in the dry state, such
as Selaginella lepidophylla , the leaves of mosses, &c. Where air does
pass through dry membranes, it is generally through small fissures.

A striking character of cell-membrane is the resistance to moistening
of its outer surface, often the result of a layer of wax or of granules of
resin. The chief purpose of the formation of cork is not that it is im-
permeable to water, but that it allows the passage of air. One impor-
tant object in the lignification of tissues is that it permits a very great

* Tom. cit., pp. 205-26 (3 pis.).

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 327-32 (1 pi.).

x Bot. Centralbl., lxxii. (1897) pp. 49-54, 85-91.

92

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

difference in the degree of tension in elements separated from one another
by a lignified membrane.

(2) Other Cell- Contents (including: Secretions).

Composition of the Sap.* — M. A. Hebert has investigated tho
chemical composition of the sap in a species of Ampelocissus and in Musa
paradisiaca. In the former he finds a comparatively large amount of
iron, the sap becoming blue on long exposure, probably in consequence
of the formation of iron- salts of gallic acid. In the sap of Musa potas-
sium oleate was found, the source of its use for saponification. In the
sap of the wood of black grapes, he found cenotannins, hitherto known
only in the fruit.

Localisation of Amygdalin "and Emnlsin in Eriobotrya. f — In
Eriobotrya japonica M. L. Lutz finds the distribution of these two sub-
stances to correspond with that in other genera of Pomese. Amygdalin
is present in the very minute embryo (i.e. in the hypocotyl, plumule,
and radicle), and in the cotyledons ; emulsin in the cotyledons only.
Amygdalin was found in cells dispersed through the parenchyme of the
cotyledons, and in the parenchymatous cells of the phloem of the vascular
bundles.

Production of Gum in the Sterculiacese.j — According to M. L.
Mangin, the normal production of gum in this order of plants is limited
to canals or lacunae buried in the parenchyme of the pith or of the
cortex. Usually the gum does not escape outside the stem or branch,
but there are some cases in which it does. The formation of this
gum is effected by a special mechanism. The walls of the cells which
border tho canals become gradually thickened and transformed into
gum, while the outermost cell-wall retains its cellulose character with-
out alteration.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Central Cylinder of the Root.§ — Herr A. Kattein describes the spe-
cial structure of the central cylinder of the root in a large number of
Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, and discusses the question whether
it has the same value in the two classes of plants. This question he
answers in the affirmative, and maintains that in these two classes, as
well as in Conifers, it consists of separate xylem- and phloem-bundles,
and of fundamental tissue. As in the embryo the two plerome-cones of
the stem and of the root which face one another by their bases are alto-
gether homologous, so also the whole inner portion of the stem (vascular
bundle and fundamental tissue), and the central cylinder of the root,
which both originate in the plerome-cones, have the same morphological
value. In the stem each phloem-portion, with its xylem-portion, deve-
lops into a closed vascular bundle, both portions lying on one radius.
In the root this union does not take place ; the xylem and phloem-por-
tions lio alternately side by side, each on its own radius. The funda-
mental tissue of the root is homologous to that of the stem.

* Bull. Soc. Chim. Paris, xiii. pp. 927-32; xvii.-xviii. pp. 88-91. See Bot. Cen-
tralbl., 1897, Beih., p. 280.

t Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xliv. (1897) pp. 263-5. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 303.

{ X Comptes Rendus, exxv. (1897) pp. 725-8.

§ Bot. Centralbl., lxxii. (1897) pp. 55-61, 91-7, 129-39 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

93

Development of Primary Sieve-Tubes.* — M. G. Chauveaud defines
what he terms “ the phase of maximum differentiation ” in the develop-
ment of sieve-tubes. When the tube begins to lengthen, the lateral
walls become thicker inwardly, but the thickening is not uniform ; elon-
gated punctations appearing in them, and at the same time rounded
punctations on the transverse walls, these becoming ultimately the pores
of the sieve. This is the period of maximum differentiation; subse-
quently, as the tube elongates, the sieve-structures become thicker, but
the pores less and less distinct.

Development of the Phloem-Elements in Vascular Bundles.^ —
M. L. J. Leger describes the occurrence in young procambial bundles of
“pearly” cells, distinguished by their thick white refringent longi-
tudinal walls, which are shown, by their chemical reactions, to be com-
posed of cellulose. They are first formed, at the expense of the cambial
or procambial cells, in the outermost layers of the bundle, the formation
gradually advancing inwardly. Subsequently these “ pearly ” cells either
disappear altogether, or revert to the condition of ordinary parenchy-
matous cells.

Vascular Bundles in the Pith of Alnus.J — In the pith of an example
of the black alder, Alnus glutinosa, Herr T. Kiinkele finds bundles within
the pith and entirely proper to it, without any union with the normal
vascular bundles. The vessels (or tracheids) have thickened lignified
strongly refractive walls, often with bordered pits. The author regards
them as probably survivals of normal bundles which have originated in
the pith.

Rudimentary Silicified Cystoliths in the Loranthace8e.§ — Herr F.
Kolpin-Ravn finds that the so-called “ mucilage-cell-spheres ” found in
various Loranthacese ( Viscum album and articulatum , Loranthus europseus ,
Phorodendron rubrum and emarginatum) have been inaccurately described,
the cell-walls not responding to the reactions for mucilage. He asserts,
on the other hand, that they show the reactions for silica, and compares
them to the rudimentary cystoliths in the Borragineae, Composite,
and Cucurbitaceae. They differ, however, from the structures in these
orders in containing no calcium carbonate.

Anatomy of Solanace3e.|| — According to Herr F. Fedde, the Sola-
naceae present a number of characters which differentiate them sharply
from all allied orders, while it is very difficult to separate the families
from one another by anatomical characters. The epiderm always con-
sists of only a single layer, it is not lignified, and the cuticle is always
thin. There is always a layer of collenchyme in the herbaceous parts of
the stem. The vascular bundles are always collateral ; they have never
a protecting sheath. The vessels of the secondary xylem and the
tracheids have bordered pits. In most of the genera there are very
minute crystals ( Krystallsand ) in the cortical and medullary parenchyme
and in the leptome. When these are wanting, there are larger crystals

* Comptes Eendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 546-7. f Tom. cit., pp. 619-20.

t Bot. Centralbl., lxxii. (1897) pp. 1-6 (1 pi.).

§ Bot. Tidskr., xxi. (1897) pp. 53-8 (with figs.). See Bot. Centralbl. lxxii
(1897) p. 273. ’

II Beitr. z. vergleich. Anat. d. Solanaceen, Breslau, 1896, 48 dd See Bot
Centralbl., lxxii. (1897) p. 144.

91 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

or a formation of thorns. The pith is usually composed of thin-walled
cells, which, when lignified, have large round pits.

C4) Structure of Organs.

Microsporange of Stangeria.* — From a study of the development
of the male organs in Stangeria paradoxa, Mr. W. H. Lang concludes
that the arrangement of the sporanges in sori, and the mode of develop-
ment of the latter, agree closely with Angiopteris (Marattiacese) ; while,
on the other hand, the origin of the sporogenous cells from the hypo*
dermal layer, a distinct epiderm being present, is quite different from
what takes place in any Vascular Cryptogam hitherto investigated ; and,
except from the small number of sporogenous cells, is similar to their
origin in the pollen-sac of an Angiosperm.

The microsporanges are arranged in sori, the development of which
is similar to that in Ceratozamia ; sometimes the sporanges remain for a
time united in pairs. The sporogenous cells, usually four in number,
are derived by periclinal division from cells of the hypodermal layer ;
the superficial cells take no part in their formation. The tapete arises,
when the sporange has attained a considerable size, from the outer cells
of the sporogenous mass. Isolated cells throughout the sporogenous
mass undergo sterilisation. The structure of the epidermal layer of the
wall and the mechanism of dehiscence present close resemblances to An-
giopteris ; stomates are found on the sporange. In the pollen-grain two
cells are cut off from the large vegetative cell before germination. In
the later stages of development the ovule resembles that of other
Cycads.

Pollen of Asclepias.f — Miss F. E. Langdon states that in the pollen
of Asclepias Cornuti the archespore is composed, as in most Dicotyledons,
of a layer of cells, and not, as has been stated, of a single column. The
tapete is composed, from an early stage, of two or of several layers, never
of a single layer. The outer wall of the pollinium is derived partly
from a secretion from the tapete, partly from the outer walls of the
pollen-cells. The cells of the tapete undergo remarkable changes during
the development of the pollen, forming a secretion which serves as a
protection to the pollen.

Structure of Seeds. — Herr A. Tschirch J states that the ovule of
mustard ( Brassica nigra ) has two integuments, of which, when ripe, the
outer consists of 3, the inner of 6-8 rows of cells. These latter consti-
tute the nutrient layer, giving up their starch, and then more or less dis-
appearing. In cacao-seeds the layer which has generally been regarded
as endosperm is really perisperm. In Melampyrum pratense the appen-
dage at the base of the seed is not a caruncle or a strophiole, but belongs
to the endosperm. The ovule has only one integument, and even this is
partially obliterated in the ripe seed.

Herren A. Nestler and J. Stoklasa § describe in detail the anatomy

* Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 421-38 (1 pi.).

t Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) p. 189.

X Schweiz. Wochensehr. f. Chem. u. Pharm., xxxv. (1897) No. 17. See Bot. Cen-
tralbl., Ixxii. (1897) p. 107.

§ Zeitsckr. f. Zucker-Industrie in Bohmen, xxi. (1897) p. 8S3. Sec Bot. Cen-
iralbl , Ixxii. (1897) p. 120.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 95

of the seed of the beet. The testa consists of two distinct coats, both
containing numerous crystals of calcium oxalate. It contains also a very
large amount of pentosanes. The albuminoids are contained chiefly in
the embryo.

Stomates on Petals and Stamens.* * * § — Miss Grace D. Chester notes
the occurrence of stomates on the petals of about one-half of the species
examined. They occur especially on thick petals or perianth-leaves
( Convallaria , Friiillaria, Lilium, Nuphar, Tulipa , &c.), where they are
frequently not rudimentary, but have open fissures, the guard-cells
being full of chlorophyll and capable of carrying on assimilation. In
IAlium bulbiferum the guard-cells on the perianth-leaves have the normal
irritability of those of foliar stomates. In Nuphar the pore is wanting,
as in those of the foliage-leaves. On anthers stomates are also frequent.
Rudimentary stomates are occasionally found on the filament.

Stomates on the Bud~Scales of Abies, f — The rare occurrence of
stomates on the bud-scales in Conifers is noted by Mr. A. P. Anderson
in the case of Abies pectinata. They are found on all the scales, but
only on the lower surface, and only near the base.

Pitcher-Plants.f — Prof. S. H. Vines gives a resume of what is known
respecting the structure and function of pitchers in plants belonging to
the natural orders Sarraceniacese, Nepenthaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Saxi-
fragaceae, and Lentibulariaceae, including also the subterranean scales of
Lathrsea. The great majority of these structures are insect-traps, while
others have apparently no relation to the capture of insects. Of the
insect-traps the majority (Sarraceniaceae, Utricularia, Genlisea), appear
to be incapable of digesting the animals which they capture, absorbing
only the products of decomposition effected by micro-organisms, and
are, therefore, not correctly described as carnivorous. The pitcher of
Nepenthes , and possibly that of Cephalotus , undoubtedly secretes a
digestive enzyme. Those pitchers which are not insect-traps are re-
lated to the water supply of the plant, either relieving it of an excess
of water which it may have absorbed, or storing it up for future use.

Hydathodes.§ — Ilerr G. Haberlandt has studied the structured the
water-secreting organs in Lathrsea squamaria and Phaseolus muliiflorus.
In the former case he considers — in opposition to the view of Goebel || —
that it is the capitate and not the peltate glands which act as hydathodes,
founding this view on the result of pressure-experiments. The great
efflux of water from these glands helps in the absorption by the parasite
of large quantities of food-material from the host-plant, especially into
the scales of the rhizome. In the case of the scarlet runner, the author
contests the statement of Nestler,^[ that the excretion of water takes
place chiefly through the stomates. As in other plants, the club-shaped
hairs here act as hydathodes.

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 420-31 (1 pi.).

t Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 294-5 (2 figs.).

i Journ. R. Hortic. Soc., 1897, 22 pp.

§ Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxx. (1897) pp. 511-28 (1 \ 1.).

|| Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 406. *[ Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 557.

9 G SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Leaves and Scales of Lathrsea.* * * § — From experiments on the leaves
of Lathraea and allied saprophytic genera ( Pedicularis , Bhinanthus ,
Odontites ), Mr. P. Groom finds a very large excretion of water through
the dome-shaped glands, the cuticle of which is perforated by a pore ;
thus agreeing with the view of Goebel rather than with that of Haber-
landt. There is a close connection between these glands and the
tracheids in the fine vascular bundles. The leaves of Lathraea squa-
maria excrete a certain amount of chalk ; their fleshy mesophyll con-
tains a great quantity of large starch-grains. The pocket-like leaves of
Lathraea are therefore both excretory organs and reservoirs for carbo-
hydrates.

Phenomena of Torsion.! — From a series of experiments made chiefly
on the bamboo, Herr W. Dingier draws the following conclusions. The
process of twisting falls under the general problem of a cylindrical
system which ultimately becomes conical, constructed of material points
arranged in a spiral. The general mechanical processes of such a
system, and their geometrical conditions, are discussed at length. The
vigour of growth of the various sections of the internodal zone of the
lower portion of a twisted stem corresponds to the vigour of growth of
corresponding successive internodes of normal vigorous stems, if it is
assumed that the inappreciable resistances in the twisted stem decrease
in arithmetical progression from below upwards.

Causes of Anisophylly.J — The cause of anisophylly in leaves must,
according to Herr W. Figdor, be sought in the influence of light. In
the course of the later development of a shoot, the unequal growth of
the leaves becomes gradually obliterated, and may finally, under the
influence of light, become reversed, so that the originally small leaves
on the morphologically upper side of the axis become large leaves, and
vice versa.

Peduncle of Cycadese.§ — According to Dr. D. H. Scott, the pe-
duncle of certain Cycads belonging to the genera Stangeria, Boivenia ,
Zamia, and Ceratozamia , have mesarch vascular bundles comparable to
those of the leaves, to which they have hitherto been supposed to be
confined. He regards this as confirming the theory of the descent of
the Cycadeae from the Filicineae rather than from the Lycopodineae.
The Cycadean type of vascular bundles, one of the most ancient of
anatomical characters, was not originally a mere peculiarity of the leaf,
but rather represents the vestige of a primitive organisation which was
once common to the stem also. In recent Cycads the stem has all but
lost this character ; it appears to have survived only in certain pe-
duncles.

Structure of American Conifers. || — Mr. H. Trimble and the late
Prof. E. S. Bastin give a description of a number of the more important
American Conifers, and of the characters by which they may be dis-

* Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 385-98 (1 fig.). Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 406.

t Flora, lxxxiv. (1897) Erganzbd., pp. 249-342 (3 pis.).

t Be*. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) Gen.-vers.-Heft, pp. 70-9.

§ Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 399-419 (2 pis.).

|| ‘Some North American Coniferae,’ Philadelphia, 1897, 124 pp.,2 pis. and

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY* * * § MICROSCOPY, ETC.

97

tinguished from one another, special attention being given to the micro-
scopic structure of the stem and leaves, which are profusely illustrated,
and to the chemical composition.

Morphology of Aquatic Plants.* — Pursuing his investigations on
this subject, Herr W. Wiichter finds that, in the Nymplueacem, the rela-
tionship of the submerged to the floating leaves is the same as that of
the narrow primary leaves to those which have a broad lamina in the
monocotyledonous aquatic plants already examined. Both kinds un-
doubtedly originate from leaf- rudiments which are morphologically alike.
Whether the rudiment develops into a submerged or into a floating leaf
depends on external conditions such as the supply of food-material ; the
submerged leaves represent an arrested stage of growth.

Anatomy of Phrymacese, Stilboideae, Chloanthoidese, and Myo-
poraceae.j* — Dr. J. Briquet gives further details of his researches into
the anatomy of these orders and families. The Phrymaceae agree, in
the general structure of their vegetative organs, with the Labiatae, and
with some families of Verbenaceas with opposite leaves. They differ
widely from the Myoporaceae in the course of the vascular bundles, and
in the presence, in the latter order, of secreting pockets. The Stilboideae
do not differ, in any essential point, from the other tribes of Yerbenaceae.
The Chloanthoi'deae, another tribe of Yerbenaceae, display far less uni-
formity of structure than the Stilboideae. The hairs, when present,
are invariably branched. As regards the classification of the genera
of Myoporaceae, Ofiia must be placed by itself in a separate tribe, dis-
tinguished by the absence of secretory pockets. J

Dimorphism of Ranunculus Ficaria.§ — Prof. F. Delpino calls atten-
tion to the fact that this common plant is dimorphic (gynodioecious),
one form being hermaphrodite, the other female ; and the two are readily
distinguished from one another by the size of the flowers. Besides
having larger flowers (in the proportion of about 3 : 2), the hermaphro-
dite flowers are distinguished by having a larger number of petals
(8-11 instead of always 8 in the female), a larger number of stamens
(those of the female flowers being functionless), and a larger number
of carpels. There do not appear to be intermediate stages between the
two forms.

Morphology and Anatomy of the Nymphaeaceae.l] — Mr. D. T.
Gwynne-Yaughan has investigated several points in the morphology of
the leaf, the anatomy of the mature rhizome and of the seedling, the
apical meristem, the insertion of the adventitious roots, and the occur-
rence of polystely, in various genera of Nymphasaceae. The leaf of the
mature plant passes, in its youth, through stages which are quite parallel
to those permanently retained by the embryonic leaves. The number of
bundles in a stele varies between a large number in Victoria and only
two in Cabomba and Brasenia. The simplicity of the anatomical struc-
ture in these two genera corresponds to the structure of the flower ;

* Flora, Ixxxiv. (1897) Erganzbd., pp. 343-8. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 405.

f Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Geneve, xxxii. (pt. 2), 1G3 pp. (29 figs.). Of. this

Journal, 189G, p. 537. J Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 48.

§ Atti r. Acvad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, 1897, pp. 685-710.

|| Trans. Linn. Soc., v. (1897) pp. 287-99 (2 pis.).

1898

H

98

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

its parts being arranged in whorls of three only, and the gynseceum
being superior and apocarpous.

Morphology and Anatomy of Obolaria.* * * §— Mr. T. Holm gives an
account of the structure of this anomalous genus, which he places in the
Gentianacese. It appears to occupy an intermediate position between
autophytes and saprophytes. It has no primary root nor root-hairs, and
is deficient in stereome; but, on the other hand, it has lignified tissue,
as well as chlorophyll and stomates. It resembles Pleurogyne in having
the inner surface of the carpels entirely covered by ovules.

Morphology of Ilex and Cakile.f — Dr. M. Dalmer points out that
in the holly, as in other spiny plants, the spines on the margins of the
leaves are much more strongly developed on old than on young plants,
and more so on lower than on higher branches ; indicating that their
main function is probably protection against destructive animals.

In Cakile maritima the peculiar umbrella-like arrangement of the
branches appears to act as a protection against violent winds.

/3. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Fertilisation. — Prof. E. Strasburger f discusses and compares the
results obtained in connection with the reduction in the number of
chromosomes which accompanies an act of conjugation or impregnation.
In Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, and Phanerogams, the reduction-process
coincides with the alternation of generations, and appears to present a
typical form. In all Archegoniatae, Bryophytes, and Pteridophytes, the
true generative division is that which takes place immediately before
impregnation in the central cell of the archegone, producing the so-called
ventral-canal-cell and the oosphere.

Commenting on Strasburger’ s various papers on karyokinesis, Herr
W. Belajeff§ charges him with confusing between fission and separation
of the segments. The true fission of the segments takes place in the
knot-stage ; that which is termed fission in the metakinesis stage is not
in reality true fission, but is a separation of previously split segments.

Fertilisation of Zamia and Salisburia.|| — Mr. H. J. Webber gives
further details of the structure and action of the antherozoids of Zamia.
For a considerable time during the development of the pollen-tube
apparatus, the archegone remains in nearly the same stage of develop-
ment, gradually increasing in size. During this period the very large
nucleus remains at the apex of the archegone. Shortly before fecundation
this nucleus divides, and a small cell is cut off at the apex, correspond-
ing to the canal-cell of Conifers. The lower nucleus, which forms the
oosphere, then travels downwards to below the middle of the archegone.
Only one of the antherozoids takes part in the fecundation. It would
appear that shortly after the antlierozoid enters the protoplasm of the
archegone, the nucleus escapes from the body of the antherozoid and

* Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 369-81 (1 pi. and 1 fig.).

t Bot. Centralbl., lxxii. (1897) pp. 6-13.

X Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pteffer u. Strasburger), xxx. (1897) pp. 405-22.

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 345-9.

|| Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 225-35 (1 pi.). Of. tliis Journal, 1897, p. 554.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

99

wanders alone to the oospliere. It is never found in connection with
the spiral ciliiferous band. After fecundation the male nucleus appears
as a small nearly spherical body in the upper portion of the oosphere.
No organ corresponding to the centrosomes of the lower Cryptogams has
been detected.

The “ attractive spheres ” in the male generative cell of Salisburia
( GingJco ) undoubtedly correspond to the “ centrosome-like ” bodies already
described in Zamia, and to the “ subsidiary nuclei ” found in the Equi-
setaceae and Filicinese by Belajeff,* and in the Characeae. But they are
not true centrosomes, and the author proposes for them the term blephciro-
plast. This must be regarded as a distinct organ of the protoplasm of
spermatic (male) cells, having for its primary function the formation of
the motile cilia of the antherozoids. From it is formed the spiral band
on which the cilia are developed.

Pollen-Grains and Antipodal Cells.f — Prof. J. M. Coulter objects to
the view that the pollen-tube is the homologue of the male prothallium.
The not unfrequent occurrence of a small lenticular cell cut off before
the usual divisions of the microspore nucleus, and the occasional direct
division of the vegetative nucleus, support the older view that this len-
ticular cell represents the prothallial cell which constantly appears in
the heterosporous Pteridophytes, and that the pollen-grain without this
cell represents the single antherid. Four types of antipodal develop-
ment may be distinguished in Dicotyledons : — (1) A group of evanescent
cells, usually three in number (Amentiferae) ; (2) Three large antipodal
cells, increasing in size with the embryo-sac, and usually becoming mul-
tinucleate ; (3) A small number (usually three) of comparatively permanent
cells, not notable for size or activity ; (4) An indefinite number of cells
forming a permanent tissue, which often breaks through the bottom of
the sac (Composite).

Endosperm and Suspensor of Lupinus.J — Dr. E. Buscalioni con-
firms the observations of Hofmeister regarding the dissociation of the
cells composing the suspensor of Lupinus. He states that (in L. albus ,
pilosus, and hirsutus) the embryo becomes detached from the suspensor,
and moves to the dilated part of the embryo-sac. At a later period the
cells of the suspensor become dissociated, increase in size, and branch.
The protoplasm of the isolated cells, at first resembling that of the endo-
sperm, soon becomes coarsely granular, with one or two large vacuoles,
the nucleus at the same time increasing in size, and showing itself to be
composed of a dense network of coarse filaments. The neighbouring
portion of the endosperm itself becomes massed into bodies resembling
the isolated cells of the suspensor, and corresponding to the “ pseudo-
cells” of the endosperm of Vicia Faba. The cells derived from the
endosperm are, however, distinguished from those derived from the sus-
pensor by being destitute of a membrane. In the nuclear division of the
endosperm of Lupinus it is not uncommon to find tripolar karyokinesis,
and irregularly placed chromatic and achromatic spindles.

Cross-Pollination and Self-Pollination. — Mr. T. Meehan § records
the remarkable fertility of Eeliophytum ( Heliotropium ) indicum ; the off-

* Cf. infra , p. 104. t Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 181-2.

J Atti r. Accad. Lincei, vi. (1897) pp. 269-76.

§ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1897, pp. 169-72.

H 2

100

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

spring of a single seed producing, in three months, as many as 48,960
seeds, every seed-vessel being fertile. Although freely visited by insects,
the author states that the structure of the flower is such as to render
cross-pollination almost impossible.

The same author * * * § states that, in the form of Lamium purpureum
which has been introduced into N. America, self-pollination takes place
before the opening of the corolla, and the flowers are almost invariably
fertile.

Herr W. 0. Fockej gives the results of a long series of experiments
on the self-fertility or self-sterility of a great variety of species, and on
the production of hybrids.

Brof. P. Knutli J describes the adaptation of the flowers of Antir-
rhinum Orontium, Molucella Isevis (Labiatee), and Melissa officinalis to
cross-pollination by bees.

Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell § states that in New Mexico it is very common
to find species of bees practically confined to particular species of flowers.
This is specially the case with the genus Perdita , of which 80 species
are known, all limited, with a few exceptions, to the arid region. The
honey-bee, however, does not conform to this general rule.

Mr. A. G. Hamilton || describes the remarkable mode of pollination
in the Australian Eupomatia laurina (Anonaceae). A row of staminodes
intervenes between the fertile stamens and the stigmas, rendering self-
pollination almost impossible. Pollination is effected by a beetle,
Elleschodes sp. indes., belonging to the Curculionidae, which visits the
flowers in great numbers. They eat their way through the staminodes,
and in so doing carry the pollen from the outer fertile stamens of the
same or of some other flower to the stigmas. Although very strongly
scented, the flowers appear to be entirely unvisited by all other kinds of
insects.

Pollination of Erythronium IT — Dr. J. Briquet has investigated the
mode of pollination of species of Erythronium , especially E. dens-canis.
He finds the flower to be entomophilous and somewhat proterogynous
the visiting insects are chiefly bees, especially Bonibus terrestris. Tim
attracting organs are the brightly coloured perianth and the nectaroseme,
by which term the author indicates the spotted portion of the perianth-
leaves which indicates the road to the nectary. The nectar-apparatus
consists of three nectaries placed in pits at the bas3 of the sepals, a
nectariferous corridor, composed of the bases of the petals, and com-
municating with the pits by three orifices, and a nectarostege , which
forms the roof of the corridor. The pollination by bees is autogamous,
or more often allogamous.

Determination of Sex in the Hemp.** — According to M. Molliard,
the proportion of male and female plauts in the hemp is, under natural

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1897, pp. 175-7.

t Abhandl. naturw. Yor. Bremen, jciv. (1897) pp. 297-304. See Bot. Centralbb,
lxxi. (1897) p. 235.

t Bot. Centralbb, lxxi. (1897) pp. 433-5 (4 figs.); lxxii. (1897) pp. Sl-4 (6 figs.).

§ Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 104-7.

II Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, xxii. (1897) pp. 48-54 (1 pi.).

1 Mem. Soc. Sci. Nat. Cherbourg, xxx. (1897) pp. 71-90 (1 pi).

** Comptcs Rendiis, exxv. (1897) pp. 792-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

101

conditions, nearly constant, and apparently independent of soil, climate,
and other external conditions; but under exceptional conditions this
proportion can be varied, and in a direction contrary to that which
has usually been the case in other experiments. A transformation
of male into female flowers takes place in conditions which are un-
favourable to the development of the vegetative organs.

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including1 Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Dependence of the Chlorophyll-Function on the Chromatophores
and the Cytoplasm.* — According to Dr. L. Kny, the chlorophyll-pig-
ment has no power of decomposing carbon dioxide when removed from
the living plant, or when its organic matrix — the chromatophore — is
killed. The elimination of oxygen in the light may, however, proceed
when the cytoplasm has lost its motility and withdrawn from the cell-
wall, or when the nucleus has become disorganised. Constant electric
currents and induction currents appear to promote the assimilation of
carbon dioxide in the light.

Mixed Grafts.f — M. L. Daniel uses this term for grafts in which
some of the buds of the stock are still allowed to remain, instead of all
being destroyed. This brings about a certain degree of symbiosis be-
tween the graft and the stock ; the former acquiring some of the pro-
perties of the latter. The process is, therefore, to be used when it is
desired to produce new varieties, rather than when it is the object to
perpetuate existing forms.

Absorption of Organic Matters by Boots.J — From experiments made
on maize grown in a mineral solution containing glucose or invertin,
M. J . Laurent states that the quantity of sugar absorbed is in proportion
to the dry weight of the plant ; and that the saccharine matters thus
absorbed are utilised by the plant, a large portion being oxidised into
carbon dioxide.

Influence of the Rontgen Rays on Yegetation.§— Professor G. F.
Atkinson finds the effect on the higher plants of exposure to the Rontgen
rays to vary according to the time of exposure. In periods varying from
1—10 hours, no perceptible injury resulted ; while an exposure of 45 hours
produced the same effect as total darkness. Species of Mucor, Oscillcitoria ,
and Bacteria were exposed to the action of the rays, but no influence was
observed on their growth or movement.

Assimilating Energy of Blue Light. ||— Herr F. G. Kohl gives fur-
ther evidence in support of his view of the powerful effect of the blue
rays of the. spectrum in promoting assimilation, which is merely an
exemplification of Engelmann’s general law of the coincidence of the
maxima and minima of absorption and of assimilation. The absorption
of the blue rays is effected by the carotin of the chlorophyll, which has
for its function the utilisation of these rays in assimilation.

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 388-403.

t Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 661-4. i Tom. cit., pp. 887-9.

§ Rep. Brit. Ass., 1897 (Toronto). See Nature, lvi. (1897) p. 600.

II Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 361-6 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal,

10Q7 ^ OIA 11 \ / 7

102

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Action of Mineral Salts on the Structure of the Lupin.* * * § — M. Das-
sonville finds that, by growing lupin seeds in a solution of mineral salts
(Knop’s solution), the following changes take place : — The number and
size of the vessels is increased in all the organs, and their lignification
retarded. The formation is promoted of a closed ring of wood both in
tlic stem and in the root. The number of pericyclic fibres is increased,
but their sclerification retarded. The degree of lignification of the
endoderm of the root is reduced, while its cells show increased develop-
ment. The cells of the pith and of the cortex are increased in size.

Influence of Atmospheric Precipitation on the Growth of Plants.f
— According to Herr E. Wollny, plants have no power of absorbing
water through the leaves when these are already charged with moisture ;
and even when they are withered, the power of absorption is very small.
The moistening of the leaves has, however, the effect of reducing trans-
piration. The reason why plants gathered when moist wither more
quickly than those gathered when dry, is that the cell- walls in contact
with water swell, and are stretched by the pressure of the cell-contents ;
hence the micellae of the cell-wall are pressed apart, and the movement
of water facilitated. Even heavy rain has no injurious effect on leaves.
Injury from hail is often compensated, if the plant is in a young con-
dition, by the luxuriant growth of lateral shoots induced by the destruc-
tion of the primary shoots.

- Germination of Seeds.J — Mr. F. Escombe sums up the present state
of our knowledge respecting the power of seeds to resist unfavourable
conditions for germination. In the latent condition he regards seeds as
being, strictly speaking, neither alive nor dead, but as “ hypnotes ” in a
state of “ hypnosis,” the cell-contents being in the condition of “ hypno-
plasm.” The length of time during which seeds may remain in this
condition, but still be capable of awakened life, is at present entirely
undetermined, as also is the degree of cold to which they may be sub-
jected without being killed, certainly as low as - 62° C. in a state of
nature, and artificially probably much lower.

(3) Irritability.

Geocarpism of Morisia hypogaea.§ — Sig. L. Pampaloni describes
the mechanism by which the fruit of this plant, belonging to the Cru-
cifer®, buries itself in the soil. It consists of two distinct successive
movements, one belonging to the lower, the other to the upper half of
the pedicel ; they can be shown to be the result of positive geotropism
rather than of negative heliotropism. The seed-vessels do not all mature
below the surface of the soil ; the plant is amphicarpous, producing two
kinds of fruit, one above, the other below the surface.

Curvature of Hoots. |j — Mr. J. B. Pollock claims to have determined,
as the result of experiment, that the stimulus in response to which cur-

* Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 794-7.

t Borsch, a. d. Geb. d. Agricultur-Physik, xx. See Bot. Centralbl., 1897, Beih.,
p. 306. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 560.

t Science Progress, i. (1897) pp. 585-608.

§ Nnov Giorn. Bot. Ital., iv. (1897) pp. 424-30 (4 figs.).

|| Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 189-90.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

103

vature takes place in roots is transmitted in the cortex either of the con-
vex or of the concave side, and that the root, in curving, takes advantage
of tensions already existing. In an unstimulated root the tensions of
the tissues are such that the tension on each side tends to curve the root
away from that side ; when these tendencies balance each other, the root
grows straight. The elasticity of the cell-walls forces water out of the
cells into the intercellular spaces, and this shortens the cells on that
side ; while, at the same time, the stimulus causes an extension of the
cells on the side which becomes convex.

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Formation of Chlorophyll.* * * § — From a series of experiments, made
chiefly on Vida Faba and Phaseolus vulgaris , M. W. Palladine concludes
that certain substances — saccharose, raffinose, glucose, fructose, maltose,
glycerin, galactose, lactose, dextrin — promote the formation of chloro-
phyll in the green parts of plants ; that others — inulin, tyrosin — appear
to have no sensible effect ; while others, again — mannite, dulcite, aspa-
ragin, urea, alcohol, ammonium chlorhydrate, quinic acid — retard or com-
pletely inhibit the process. A larger amount of oxygen is necessary for
the production of chlorophyll in vegetable tissues than for the process of
respiration.

Transformation of Saccharine Substances into Oil.f — From the fact
CO

that the proportion is less than unity during the earlier, greater

than unity during the later period of the ripening of the olive, M. C. Gerber
argues that oil has been formed at the expense of mannite or some other
carbohydrate.

A further series of observations leads M. Gerber to extend this con-
clusion to fruits and oily seeds generally. The value of the proportion
CO

, dependent on this process, differs materially from that due to fer-
mentation or to the production of acids.

Formation of Proteids by Leaves. — According to observations
made on a number of different plants by M. U. Suzuri,J the decrease at
night of the amount of sugar and other carbohydrates in the leaves is
associated with a decrease also in the amount of proteids. He concludes
that leaves possess the function of facilitating the formation of proteids
in all parts of the plant by assimilating nitrates, yielding thereby amido-
compounds.

M. E. Godlewski § states that proteids are formed from nitrates only
in the light. The process is not, however, a direct one ; non-proteid
compounds are first produced, even without the assistance of light ; these
aro then converted into proteids only in the light.

* Comptes Rendus, exxv. (1897) pp. 827-9; Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), ix.

(1897) pp. 385-91 (1 fig.). f Tom. cit., pp. 658-61, 732-5.

% Bull. Coll. Agric. Imp. Tokyo, 1897, pp. 241-52. See Journ. Cliem. Soc., 1857,
Abstr., p. 580.

§ Ann.' Agron., 1897, pp. 310-24. See Journ. Chem. Soc., 1897, Abstr., p. 583.

104

8UM1IARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Production of Alcohol in Respiration.* — Herron E. Godlewski and
F. Polzeniusz have established the production of alcohol in the intra-
molecular respiration of peas. The process is precisely the same as
the alcoholic fermentation caused by yeast, the difference being quanti-
tative only, and not qualitative. In both cases it consists of a simple
splitting of a carbohydrate into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Up to the
period when the production of carbon dioxide entirely ceases, about 40
per cent, of the dried substance of the peas was converted into alcohol
and carbon dioxide.

B. CRYPT OGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Yascularia.

Development of Marsilia.t — Mr. D. Johnson finds that Marsilia
(M. quadrifolia ) agrees with most other Leptosporangiates in the origin
of the leaf, in its growth by a two-sided apical cell, and in the formation
of the pinnae by the continual activity of the marginal cells in certain
regions. The sporocarp is developed from the marginal cell of one of
the lower segments of the apical cell of the leaf. The sporocarp is
thus a fertile portion or branch of the leaf, but it does not develop any
structure homologous to the lamina of the sterile portion. The tissue
surrounding the sori is a true indusium arising by the outgrowth of the
cells of the ventral surface of the branch ; the microsporanges are
derived from sister-cells of the megasporange mother-cells, and not from
segments of the apical cells of the latter.

Spermatogenesis and Secondary Nucleus in Filicinese and Equi-
setineae.i — Herr W. Belajeff publishes a contribution, to our knowledge
of the development of the antherozoids in Filices and Equisetaceae.
He reasserts his previous statement that the antherozoid is formed
partly from the nucleus, partly from the cytoplasm. No centrosomes
could be detected in the poles of the nuclear spindle. The division
of the internal spermatogenous cells in the antherid of Ferns is accom-
panied by karyokinetic division of the nucleus. In the protoplasm of
each spermatogenous cell the author detected a rounded granule which
took up fuchsin more strongly than the surrounding protoplasm. This
granule passes through a crescent-shaped stage, and ultimately develops
into a thread which surrounds the nucleus. This runs along the edge
of a band which does not stain so strongly, and which is the rudiment
of the body of the antherozoid. It lies in the protoplasm, and is stained
bright red by fuchsin. Both bands now take the form of a spiral, on
which are developed the cilia. During this time changes take place
also in the form of the nucleus of the spermatogenous cell, which
ultimately becomes spiral, the posterior end being much thicker than
the anterior. In the mature antherozoid the posterior part consists of
a thick spiral chromatin-body surrounded by a thin layer of protoplasm.
At the posterior end this forms an appendage, while the anterior end
has a ribbon-like form, and contains the nucleus in its lower portion.

In the spermatogenesis of the Equisetacem a very similar succession

* Anzeig. Akad. Wiss. Krakau, 1897, 5 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., 1897, Beih.,
P- 248. t Johns Hopkins Univ. Giro., xvii. (1897) p. 16 (3 figs ).

+ Eer- Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 337-45.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

105

of phenomena was observed ; but the granules which accompany the
nucleus are not spherical, but crescent-shaped.

Similar bodies accompanying the nucleus aud staining strongly with
fuchsin have been observed also in the Characeae ; and the author points
out their probable analogy to the subsidiary nuclei (. Nebenhorper ) ob-
served in the spermatozoa of the salamander.

Mesophyll of Ferns.'* — Miss M. E. Gloss finds in the structure of
the mesophyll useful generic characters for Ferns. She states that in
any genus the number of cells in thickness of the mesophyll is constant ;
the presence of chlorophyll in the epiderm is characteristic of a genus ;
the relative size and shape of the air-cavities is constant ; the shape and
arrangement of the cells is nearly constant ; the presence of palisade
tissue and the number of cells in its depth are also constant. Those
genera which have no palisade tissue have chlorophyll in the epiderm.
No connection could be detected between the form of the cells and the
intensity of the light. In five species of Adiantum examined there was
no palisade tissue ; the cells of both the lower and the upper epiderm
contain chlorophyll ; the air-cavities are relatively large and numerous ;
the mesophyll is two cells in thickness. In seven species of Nephrolepis
there was a palisade tissue of two layers, no chlorophyll in the epiderm
(except in N. molle ) ; the air-cavities are small ; the mesophyll is usually
six cells in thickness. In three species of Polypodium there was a pali-
sade tissue of two layers, and no chlorophyll in the epiderm ; the air-
cavities are large ; the mesophyll is four cells in thickness. In eight
species of Pteris there was a palisade tissue of one layer (in P. cretica
three layers); the air-cavities are large; the presence of chlorophyll in
the epiderm is variable ; also the depth of the mesophyll. Scolopen-
drium has chlorophyll in the epiderm, and no palisade tissue ; the air-
cavities are large ; the mesophyll is nine layers in thickness.

Sporophyll of Marattiaceae.j — Prof. F. 0. Bower finds, in all the
four living genera of Marattiacese — Angiopteris, Marattia , Dansea, and
Kaulfussia — a substantial unity of type in the form and mode of
formation of the sporanges, corresponding also to that of the fossil
genera. In all of these a single superficial parent cell of prismatic
form is to be recognised imbedded in the massive sporange when young,
not in a central position, but directed obliquely towards the centre of
the sorus. By periclinal division this forms internally the archespore,
externally that part of the wall where dehiscence takes place by a slit
or pore. The tapete arises typically from the cells surrounding the
archespore. An annulus is present only when the sporanges are sepa-
rate, as in Angiopteris.

Muscineae.

Propagation of Mosses by Gemmse.J — Herr C. Correns describes
in detail the various modes of vegetative propagation occurring in
Mosses, and classifies them under four main heads, viz. : — (1) Belonging
to the stem (bulbils) ; either from leafy stems and buds ; or by metamor-

* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxiv. (1897) pp. 432-5.

t Proc. Boy. Soc., lxii. (1897) pp. 26-8 ; Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 488-9.

X Eer. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 374-84. Cf. this Journal, 1896,
p. 332.

106

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

phosis of an entire leafless stem, and germinating by a protoneme ;
(2) From leaves, either deciduous or fragile ; (3) From a protoneme;
the bud-support may have the character either of a protoneme or of a
rhizoid, according to the amount of chlorophyll which it contains ;

(4) From paraphyses, or paraphyse-like hairs. These are again classi-
fied under numerous subdivisions.

The following new terms or limitation of old terms are proposed : —
The term “ bulbil is confined to greatly reduced shoots. When the
gemma becomes detached by the splitting through the middle lamella
between two cells or groups of cells, it is schizolytic; when by the
rupture of a cell and the disorganisation of its contents, rhexolytic.
The cell thus ruptured is a tmema , which may be either a dolichotmema
or a brachytmema , according as it is filiform or disc-shaped.

Algae.

Cystocarp in the Rhodymeniales.* — Mr. R. W. Phillips has studied
the development of the procarp and cystocarp in several genera of Rho-
dymeniales (including the Bonnemaisoniaceee, Rhodymeniaceae, Spheero-
coccacese, and Ceramiaceae), and finds the phenomena in Bonnemaisonia
to differ in several respects from those of the other families of Rhody-
meniales. He does not agree with the view advanced by Davis,'!' that
the mode of reproduction in the Florideee is frequently apogamous.
In the case of Ptilota plumosa he had no difficulty in finding antheridial
plants, and pollinoids were frequently seen attached to the trichogyne.
He believes that in this, and in the allied genera, conjugation takes
place between the carpogone and the auxiliary cell by means of an
ooblastema-filament. In the Rhodymeniales the carpogone and auxiliary
cell are always so situated that conjugation can take place between them
by means of a short tube.

Chantransia4 — Herr F. Brand discusses the relationship of the
Chantransia- forms to the species of Batrachospermum, Lemanea, or
Thorea , with which they are genetically connected, and contests the
accuracy of the term prothallium applied to them by some authorities.
He proposes in its place the term Sohle (sole), and compares them to
somewhat similar structures, creeping and clasping organs, occurring
in some green Algee, such as Stigeoclonium and Cladophora. The infre-
quency of the Chantransia-iorm negatives any idea of a true “ alternation
of generations.”

The following seven forms occurring in Central k Germany are de-
scribed:— (1) C. chalybea vars. muscicola and radians; (2) C. pygmaea
forma typica ; (3) C. pygmaea var. fontana ; (4) C. violcicea forma typica ;

(5) C. violacea forma fasciculata f. n. ; (6) C. sp. indeterm., of a blue
colour and distinguished by the branches thickening towards the apex ;
and (7) 0. Lemanese fluviatilis. Of these, (1), (2), and (3) are un-
doubtedly forms of Batrachospermum , and (7) of Lemanea ; and these
the author proposes to eliminate from the genus and form for them a
new generic term Pseudo-chantransia, retaining the generic term Chan-
transia for those forms, like (4), (5), and (6) which are not yet deter-
mined with certainty to be connected genetically with any higher form.

* Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 347-68 (2 pis.). f Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 148.

X Hedwigia, xxxvi. (1897) pp. 300-19 (5 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

107

Porphyrodiscus, a new Genus of Floridese.* * * § — Under the name
Porphyrodiscus simidans g. et sp. n., Mr. E. A. L. Batters describes a
seaweed from rocks near low water-mark, Berwick. The genus, which
is intermediate between Hildenbrandtia and Hsematocelis , is thus diag-
nosed : — Fronds crustaceous, forming smooth firm cartilaginous roundish
expansions, closely adhering to the substratum by the entire under
surface ; cells small, of nearly the same size in all parts of the frond,
firmly united into a pseudo-parenchymatous layer ; tetraspores regularly
zonate, formed in external hemispherical or flat wart-like protuberances
(nematheces). Paraphyses wanting or not observed ; cystocarp unknown.

Melobesiaceae.t — Herr F. Heydricli replies to the strictures of
Foslie,J and gives further particulars respecting the structure and classi-
fication of these Algos. The genus Sporolithon is maintained, and
several new species are described. It differs further from Lithotliamnion
in the tetrasporanges being divided crosswise instead of in a row.
Another new genus, Fpilitlion, is proposed, founded on Corallina mem-
hranacea , and distinguished from the remaining Meiobesiaceas in the
tetrasporanges being placed in sori and not in conceptacles. The
following is the complete diagnosis : — Thallus crustaceous, epiphytic on
larger Algae ; at first roundish, afterwards confluent, completely coalesoent
by its under side to the substratum, often lobed at the margin, reddish
or whitish ; composed of either a single layer of cells radiating dichoto-
mously, or of two layers, of which the lower one consists of large rect-
angular cells, while the upper layer is but little developed. In the
neighbourhood of the sorus the thallus is composed of from two to four
rows of cells. Cystocarps and antherids in conceptacles ; tetrasporanges
in sori, divided in a row.

Nuclear Division and Fertilisation in Fucus.§ — The examination
of several species of Fucus has demonstrated, according to Prof. E.
Strasburger, that in the oogone-nucleus the reduction in the number of
chromosomes always takes place during the first process of division,
after the pedicel-cell has been cut off. There is always a distinct
eentrosome. After the division of the nucleus into four, which imme-
diately follows the reduction in the number of chromosomes in the
rudimentary oogone, a long period of rest occurs, until the oogone has
attained its full size, when the formation of eight nuclei immediately
takes place. The oospheres, when they escape from the oogone, are
without a membrane. In the process of fertilisation the antherozoid
nucleus is not larger than the nucleole of the oosphere nucleus, but the
latter has a much looser structure, and contains only a small quantity of
chromatin. Shortly after the entrance of the antherozoid, its protoplasm
appears to unite with that of the oosphere, and only the nucleus continues
its passage, coalescing with the nucleus of the oosphere as soon as they
come into contact. The male nucleus probably carries with it a centro-
some, but it is too minute for this to be determined with certainty.
Unimpregnated oospheres of Fucus did not in any case germinate, and

* Journ. of Bot., xxxv. (1897) pp. 439-40.

t Ber. Deutsck. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 403-20 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal,

1897, p. 225. % Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 417.

§ Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeifer u. Strasburger), xxx. (1897) pp. 351-74 (2 pis.).

108

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tlie only hybridisation obtained was the impregnation of oospheres of
Fucus vesiculosus by antherozoids of F. serratus.

Nuclear and Cell-Division in the Sphacelariacese. * — Mr. W. T.
Swingle has followed out these processes in several species of Sphace-
lariacese, especially in Stypocaulon scoparium. The following are the
more important results. The apical cell is frequently of enormous size,
even more than 1000 times that of the smallest tissue-cells. The size
of the nucleus and of the nucleoles and the amount of kinoplasm are
about in direct proportion to the size of the cell, but the chromatin
framework is relatively much more strongly developed in the smaller
nuclei. The cytoplasm is differentiated into two substances, the finely
filamentous kinoplasm at the pole or poles of the nucleus and the foam-
like trophoplasm. The kinoplasmatic radiations collect into a centro-
some, which is always attached to the wall of the nucleus, and which
multiplies by bipartition and remains during the whole period of rest.
The old wall of the nucleus remains during the whole process of
karyokinesis until the daughter-nuclei are formed, and then disappears
suddenly. The formation of the achromatic spindle and of the cell-
plate presents several peculiarities which are described in detail.

Conjugation in Ectocarpus. f — Referring to the doubts cast by
Oltmanns on the accuracy of the observations of Berthold and himself
on theisogamous conjugation of the swarmspores (gametes) of Ectocarpus
siliculosus and criniger , M. C. Sauvageau reaffirms their previous con-
clusions, and maintains that Oltmanns’ explanation of the phenomena is
founded on errors of observation.

Endodictyon, a new Genus of Ectocarpacess.f — Herr H. H. Gran

establishes this new genus of Phaeosporem, nearly allied to Ectocarpus.
E. infestans is parasitic on the Bryozoon Alcyonidium Tiispidum, producing
in it a dark olive-green colour, and forming on its surface irregularly
spherical plurilocular sporanges.

Grafting of Siphonese.§ — Dr. F. Noll has obtained, with one doubtful
exception, only negative results in his attempts to graft or bud into one
another species belonging to different genera of Siphoneae. A complete
coalescence of growth was effected, but never any actual fusion of the
protoplasmic bodies of the two individuals. Neither would portions of
protoplasm from different genera coalesce, like those of the same genus.

Coccoliths.|| — Dr. J. Jolv and Dr. H. H. Dixon find these organisms
abundantly in dredgings from the Irish Channel. Not unfrequently they
are contained within the body of an amoeboid organism, probably a species
of Eifflugia, but the authors do not suggest any biological connection
between the two. The coccolith consists of two very thin funnel-shaped
elliptical valves ; a small valve attached by a central connection within
a wider one, and provided with minute radial striations sculptured ap-
parently on the outer or convex surfaces of both valves ; between forty

* Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger) xxx. (1897) pp. 297-350 (2 pis.)

t Mem. Soc. Nat. Sci. Nat. Cherbourg, xxx. (1897) pp. 293-304. Cf. this
Journal, 1897, p. 418.

X Vidensk. Shrift. Ivristiania, 1897 (2 pis.). See Hedwigia, xxxv. (1897) Rep.,
p. 115. § SB. Niederrhein. Gesell. Natur. u. Heilk., Bunn, 1897, pp. 124-8.

II Nature, lvi. (1897) pp. 468-9 (2 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 318.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

109

and fifty striations going round the valves. The connection attaching
the valves is rounded or slightly oval, and is apparently perforated
axially by two D-shaped apertures, but occasionally a single oval
opening traverses the collar ; or, again, the cross-piece separating the
D-openings appears incomplete, and is represented by projections ex-
tending into an oval opening.

De Toni’s Sylloge Algarum.* * * § — The fourth volume of this most
valuable work commences the enumeration of the Florideae. These are
first divided into the two sub-classes, the Bangioideae and the Euflorideae.
The first includes, besides the Baugiacere, the monotypic family Rhodo
chaetaceae, and doubtfully the Compsogoniaceae and the Thoreaceae. The
Euflorideae are divided into four orders, — the Nemalioninae, Gigartininae
Rhodymeninae, and Cryptoneminae. Of these the first is fully treated,
with its four families, the Lemaneaceae, Helminthocladiaceae, Chaetan-
giaceae, and Gelidiaceae. The Gigartininae comprise three families, — the
Acrotylaceae, Gigartinaceae, and Rhodophyllidaceae, which are also com-
prised within the volume. A most copious bibliography is appended.

Fungi.

Nuclear Division among Fungi. — Mr. R. A. Harper j has studied
the processes of division of the nucleus and free-cell-l'ormation in the
ascus of Erisyphe communis , and points out the close resemblance to the
similar processes observed by several authorities in animals. Through-
out the whole process the nucleus is accompanied by a centrosphere.
At the commencement of the formation of the spindle the chromatin is
collected into a dense net round the centrosphere, with which it appears
to be closely connected ; the chromosomes are united with the centro-
sphere by cytoplasmic threads. When the true formation of spores
commences, the apex of the nucleus is gradually drawn out into a beak.
The boundary wall of the young ascospore is composed of the same
kinoplasmic substance as the polar radiations and spindle fibres. The
true wall of the spore, composed of cellulose, is only formed at a later
period.

Mr. D. G. Fairchild J has investigated the phenomena of nuclear
division and impregnation in Basidiobolus ranarum. The chromo-
somes form a broad equatorial plate in a short barrel-shaped nearly
cylindrical spindle. During division the wall of the nucleus appears
to remain unchanged. In the process of conjugation the two nuclei
fuse completely during the formation of the zygosperm. In the de-
velopment from conids to zygosperms, we have probably the most rapid
alternation of sexual and non-sexual modes of multiplication known
in the vegetable kingdom.

Action of Gravity on the Growth of Fungi.§ — By direct observa-
tion on Sterigmatocystis alba, M. J. Ray has determined that gravitation
has a retarding effect on the growth of the lower fungi.

* Vol. iv., Patavii, 1897, lxi. and 388 pp.

f Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxx. (1897) pp. 249-81 (2 pis.).

j Tom. cit., pp. 285-96 (2 pis.).

§ Comptcs Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 500-1.

110 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Parasitic Fungi. — On Betula verrucosa, Herr F. Thomas* * * § finds a
new species of Exoascus, E. Janus sp. n., intermediate between E. bac-
triospermus and E. carneus.

M. E. Roze f asserts that it is rare to find corms of Crocus sativus
or verms entirely free from the attacks of parasitic fungus, including a
Bhizoctonia and a Pseudocommis. In addition to these, he finds very
frequently a Saccharomyces which he regards as a new species, and names
SaccJiaromyces Croci sp. n. It propagates by budding, and each cell con-
tains a single spore. The diameter of the cells varies between 6 and 2 p.

A disease which is very destructive to the Weymouth pine ( Pinus
Strobus ) is described by Prof. E. Scholz t as due to the attacks of a
hitherto undescribed fungus, Bhizoctonia Strobi, of which, however, only
the mycele is at present known. It differs from Agaricus melleus in the
absence of rhizomorphs, and it has no underground form.

Sig. G. Pollacci § records the following new species : — Macrosporium
Violse on Viola odorata ; Belminthosporium Iberidis on Iberis ; H. Lunarise
on Lunaria biennis ; Leptothyrium parasiticum on Cereus stellatus and
C. triangularis ; Cystosporella Cerei on C. stellatus ; Pirostoma Farneti-
anum on Pandanus utilis ; Phyllosticta Dammarse on Dammara Moorei.

Herr G. Lindau jj records the destruction of immense numbers of
the larva of Porthesia chrysorboea by Empusa Aulicse, and describes in
detail the life-history of the parasite, which varies from other species of
the genus in the mycele occasionally breaking through the body of the
host, while it differs from the true Entomophthorse in never forming
attachment-hyphfe.

M. H. Nomura % attributes a common disease of the silkworm co-
coon in Japan to the attacks of Aspergillus flavus and A. glaucus.

The disease of snowdrops is, according to M. C. A. J. A. Oudemans,** * * §§
due to the parasitic fungus Botrytis galantliina, of which Sclerotinia Gal-
anthi is the sclerote-form ; and that of the peony to Botrytis Pseonise sp. n.

Mr. W. P. G. Ellis ft finds diseased tomatoes from Jersey to be at-
tacked by associated fungi and bacteria, the fungus being identified with
Mucor stolonifer.

Disease of the Tobacco Plant due to Thielava basicola.Jf — Dr. V.

Peglion records the occurrence of a disease affecting the tobacco nurseries
of Italy. The disorder begins in the roots, and rapidly affects the whole
of the plant. Microscopical examination of the black putrid parts dis-
closed the presence of Thielava basicola Zopf, a fungus belonging to
the family of Perisporiaceae, and parasitic on other cultivated plants.

Puccinia Lojkajana.§§ — Sig. C. Avetta has found this rare fungus
parasitic on species of Ornithogalum, and notes the singular fact of the

* Forstl.-natur. Zeitschr., 1897, pp. 305-14. See Bot. Ztg., lv. (1897) 2te Abth.,

p. 329. f Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 730-2.

t Yerhandl. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Gesell. Wien, xlvii. (1897) pp. 541-57 (6 figs.).

§ Atti 1st. Bot. Univ. Pavia, v., 8 pp. and 1 pi. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxii. (1897)
p. 184. || Hedwigia, xxxvi. (1897) pp. 291-6 (11 figs.).

If Tokyo Bot. Mag., 1897, p. 31. See Hedwigia, xxxv. (1897) Rep., p. 138.

** Kon. Akad. Wetenscli. Amsterdam, 1897, p. 455 (1 fig.). See Hedwigia, xxxv.
(1897) Rep., p. 138.

ft Rep. Brit. Ass., 1897 (Toronto). See Nature, Ixv. (1897) p. 601.

tt Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iii. (1897) pp. 580-3.

§§ Malpighia, xi. (1897) pp. 236-40.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

Ill

occurrence of pycnids or spermogones, with pycnospores or spermatia,
accompanying the tufts of teleutospores.

Volutella.* * * § — Dr. D. Saccardo gives some particulars regarding the
life-history of this genus, and claims to have established the specific
identity of V. stipitata with V. ciliata , both parasitic on a Phytolacca.

Lichen-Acids.f — Herr 0. Hesse has isolated from various lichens the
following acids, of which the composition and properties are given : —
Usnic acid and atranorin, from several species ; chrysocetraric acid from
Cetraria juniperina and C. pinastri ; cetrapinic acid from C. pinastri ;
rhizocarpic, rhizocarpinic, and psoromic acids from J Rhizocarpon geographi-
cum ; divaricatic acid from Evernia divaricata ; sordidasic acid from
Lecanora sordida ; caperatic acid from Parmelia caperata ; physcion
from Xanthoria parietina and other lichens.

Jenmania, a new Genus of Lichens4 — Under the name Jenmania
Goebelii g. et sp. n., Herr W. Wachter describes a lichen from British
Guiana belonging to the homoomerous forms, growing in water and with
the habit of an alga. There is no distinct differentiation of cortical and
medullary layers. The algal constituent consists of blue-green gonids
belonging to the genus Chroococcus.

Nucleus of the Saccharomycetes.§ — According to Mr. H. Wager
the nucleus of Saccharomyces cerevisise consists, in the majority of cases,
of a homogeneous substance, spherical in shape, placed between the
cell-wall and the vacuole, and consisting of deeply staining granules
imbedded in a slightly less stainable matrix. The process of budding in
a yeast-cell is accompanied by direct division of the nucleus ; the division
taking place, not in the mother-cell, but in the neck joining it to the
daughter-cell. When a cell of S. cerevisise is about to sporulate, the
nucleus is found in the centre of the cell. When dividing, its outline
becomes irregular, and the granules arrange themselves in the form of a
short rod ; these granules separate into two groups, and each group
becomes a nucleus. The two nuclei thus formed divide again, each of
these four nuclei becoming the nucleus of a spore. A small quantity of
l^rotoplasm accumulates round each nucleus, membranes appear, and
four spores are thus formed, standing in the remainder of the protoplasm,
from which ultimately the thick spore-membranes are produced.

Nematospora, a new Genus of Saccharomycetes.|| — Dr. Y. Peglion
has examined the diseased hazel-nuts known in the South of Italy by
the term ammannate, and finds them to be characterised by the presence
of a large number of lysigenous cavities scattered through the tissue of
the cotyledons. The tissue surrounding these cavities is infected with
spores enclosed in asci, eight in each ascus. The organism to which
these belong can be readily cultivated on the ordinary nutrient sub-
strata. It is described by the author under the name Nematospora
Coryli g. et sp. n., the genus being distinguished from other genera of

* Malpighia, xi. (1897) pp. 225-9 (1 pi.).

f Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Gesell., xxx. (1897) Heft 4. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxii.
(1897) p. 102.

X Flora, lxxxiv. (1897) Erganzbd., pp. 349-51 (3 figs.).

§ Rep. Brit. Ass., 1897 (Toronto). See Nature, lvi. (1897) p. 600.

|| Atti r. Accad. Lincei, vi. (1897) pp. 276-8.

112

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Saccharomycetes by the filiform spores, each asciis containing eight of
them.

Insects and Yeasts.* — Dr. A. Berlcse has made numerous investi-
gations on the manner in which some insects, ants and flies, contribute to
the diffusion, preservation, and multiplication of alcoholic ferments. By
placing ants in a bottle connected with others the contents of which
had been sterilised, it was shown that ants carried about them the germs
of yeasts and moulds. From experiments made by exposing sterilised
meat to flies, it was found that the quantity of yeasts carried by flies is
about 26 times as great as that carried by the air. By inducing flies to
visit sterilised grapes, these grapes were infected with S. apiculatus, and
also with S. pastorianus and ellipsoideus and moulds. Though insects
cany germs on their legs and feet, these germs are more abundant
within their bodies, as was shown by a study of the excrement of meat
flies and cellar midges ; and not only are they more abundant, but they
actually multiply. Thus a droplet of must containing about 500,000
S. apiculatus was given to a fly which eventually produced about
35,000,000 of these yeast cells. Moreover, it was further found that the
conditions inside the intestine of insects greatly influence the develop-
ment of the different yeast germs ; for if an insect was fed on a mixture
of S. apiculatus and S. mycoderma , the excreta at first contained both
yeasts in about equal quantity ; then after a time S. apiculatus gained
the ascendancy ; but if the insect were made to fast, S. mycoderma rapidly
gained the upper hand. It was also observed that the ingluvies or crop
of insects secretes a syrupy fluid suitable for the preservation and mul-
tiplication of yeast cells ; and this gives reason for believing that some
yeasts may be preserved during the cold season by insects. It is inter-
esting to note that in one experiment the ants died promptly from par-
taking of the juice of sour grapes, a fact which is evidence in favour
of the protective character of the acids in fruit juices before maturation.

Schizosaccharomyces octosporus.f — In the course of some further
observations on octosporus-yeast, Dr. M. W. Beijerinck remarks that the
genus Schizosaccharomyces at present embraces three species, S. octo-
sporus, S.pomhe ( tetrasporus ), and S. asporus (arrack yeast). The author’s
recent observations show that S. octosporus is responsible for the presence
in nature of two races, one a sporogenous, the other a non-sporogenous
form, features which might lead to the supposition that these two forms
had some remote connection with S. asporus and S. tetrasporus. The yeast
used in the recent researches was isolated from figs and currants. By care-
ful separation of the ascospores from the vegetative cells, and after having
been cultivated under definite conditions of environment on wort-agar
(plates or tubes), it was found that when perfectly ripe, i.e. when the
medium was exhausted, the colonies were of three kinds : — (1) white, con-
taining only asci and ascospores ; (2) brown, comprising only vegetative
cells and ascoid cells ; (3) pale brown, consisting of all three elements.
On further cultivation of the brown colonies, there was constant repro-
duction of non-sporogenous cells. While the white colonies reproduced

* Rivista di Patologia vegetale e Zimologia, 1897. See Nature, lvi. (1897>
pp. 575-7.

t Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par-, 2 e Abt,, iii. (1897) pp. 449-55, 518-25 (2 pis.). CL
this Journal, 1894, p. 602.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

113

many white ones, there were always also some brown from which the
non-sporogenous form was derivable, and some mixed colonies. The
“ mixed colonies,” when resown on wort-agar, produced brown in the
proportion of 1 per cent, to white colonies.

The cells of the mature non-sporogenous race are round, becoming
somewhat ellipsoidal just before fission ; but in young colonies of both
races the cells are very much alike, being oblong with rounded ends.
The morphological difference between the two races of this yeast finds a
counterpart on the physiological side ; for in the non-sporogenous race
the formation of trypsin is but little evident, while it is strongly marked
in the ascospore form.

Into the proteolytic phenomena of the alcohol yeasts the author enters
at some length, first answering the question whether the enzyme pro-
duced is pepsin or trypsin. The answer is in favour of the latter ; but
though having similar action under similar conditions it is not considered
to be identical with pancreatic trypsin.

Saccharomyces Zopfii.* — Herr A. Artari describes a yeast isolated
from sugar juice and named S. Zopfii , which excretes invertin and
belongs to the group of true Saccharomycetes. The cells are from
3-6 p, and are usually elliptical to spherical in shape. Spore-formation
occurs not only on gypsum block, but in liquid and solid media, the
most favourable temperature being 26°— 29° 0. This yeast exhibits a
great resistance to dry heat, bearing a temperature of 130° C. for 5
minutes, and standing 67° of moist heat. S. Zopfii excites fermentation
in saccharose solution up to 50 per cent. ; also in dextrose, and to a less
degree in dextrin solution. The fermentation products are alcohol, car-
bonic acid, and some acid not determined as to nature or quantity.

Ferments of Sake.f — Herr 0. Schiewek publishes the results of
observations on sake and the fungi effecting its preparation ; and, though
adducing little that is new relative to the physiology and morphology of
Aspergillus Oryzse, is able to show that in the original material, Tane
Koji, there are true yeasts. The fermentation that occurs in the prepa-
ration of sake is therefore due to these yeasts, which have nothing to
do with Aspergillus Oryzse. The author’s observations are of value, not-
withstanding that Kosai and Yabe had previously given a short descrip-
tion of a true yeast which they isolated from sake, and they also sup-
plement the negative results of Klocker and Schionning and others who
failed to obtain true yeasts from pure cultures of Aspergillus.

Protophyta.
a. Schizopliycese.

Algal Stalactites. | — Miss J. E. Tilden describes the formation in
liot-water caves in the Yellowstone Park, U.S.A., of pendent masses of
Algae (Schizophyceae), which she terms stalactites. The species chiefly
concerned in the building up of these stalactites are Schizothrix calcicolay
Gloeocapsa violacei, and Synechococcus seruginosus.

* Abhandl. Naturf. Ges. zu Halle, xxi. (8 figs.). See Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par.,
2te Abt., iii. (1897) pp. 529-30.

f Beilage z. Jahresber. d. Breslauer evangel. Realsclrale, i., Ostern, 1897. See
Bot. Ztg., lv. (1897) 2te Abt., pp. 292-3. Cf. this Journal, 1896, p. 96.

% Bot Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 194-9 (1 pi.).

1898

I

114

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Algse (Protophyta) of Hot Springs.* * * §— Sig. S. Spallicci lias investi-
gated the algal organisms found in all the hot springs in a certain district
in Italy, and states that he finds in none of them any species peculiar to
them, all the organisms found in them being derived either from the
soil or from the air. The following are among the more abundant
species found : — Spirulina Icibyrinthiformis , tenuissima, and subtilissirna,
JDetoniella lutea, Oscillatoria tenuis, Libellus aponinus, Denticulci thermalis,
Cliroococcus membraninus, Hapcilosiphon laminosus, Nitzschia thermalis ,
Anabsena rudis sp. n., and Micrococcus thermalis sp. n.

Cohniella, a new Genus of Diatoms, f — In a freshwater ditch at
Breslau, Herr B. Schroder finds species of Attlieya and Bhizosolenia,
hitherto supposed to be almost exclusively marine genera of diatoms ;
also Cohniella staurogeniseformis g. et sp. n., with the following diagnosis
of the genus : — Cellulm 5-6 /x latae, in coenobium instar Staurogenise
consociatae ; coenobium planum, solidum, semper a 4 cellulis constitu-
tum, quarum margo spinis minutis praeditus est ; divisio asexualis in
duas spatii directiones.

Diatom causing Foulness of Water 4 — Dr. A. W. Edwards records
the occurrence, in a reservoir of drinking water at Brooklyn, N.Y., of
enormous quantities of a diatom which he names Asterionella flavor sp. n.,
causing foulness of the water, giving off a foetid odour, and rendering it
unfit for drinking purposes. The only effective remedy appears to be
the complete exclusion of light.

Cyanothrix, a new Genus of Cyanophyce9S.§ — Under the name
Cyanothrix vaginaia g. et sp. n., Herr W. Schmidle describes an organism
from a hot spring in New Zealand. The genus differs from its nearest
allies, Hapalosiphon and Mastigocladus, in the following points : — The
complete absence of heterocysts ; the segmentation and swelling of the
sheaths in the Anabsena condition of the cells ; and their separation from
the filament, when they may possibly be regarded as resting spores or
conditions of propagation. It is probably allied to Boze’s Clonothrix. |]

0. Schizomycetes.

Biology of Bacteria.^ — Dr. G. Schlater, starting from the assump-
tion that there are in nature independent organisms, devoid of any
demonstrable morphological differentiation, of homogeneous organisation
so to speak, asserts that the large group of Bacteria is arbitrary and
artificial from a systematic standpoint, and according to his view the
Bacteria should be split up into independent groups with appropriate
subdivisions. Following R. Altmann, he would recognise three great
groups, (1) Autoblasts, (2) Monera, (3) Metamonera, according to the
demonstrable amount of organisation and of differentiation of parts.

Instead of the present arrangement by which the living world is
divided into Puotozoa or unicellular organisms, and Metazoa, or multi-

* Riv. d’ Igiene e di Medic. Pratica, x. (1897). See La Nuova Notarisia, 1897,

p. 141. f Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 367-73 (1 pi.).

X Amer. Mon. Micr. Journ., xviii. (1897) pp. 317-23 (1 fig.).

§ Algologisclie Notizen, 1897. See La Nuova Notarisia, 1897, p. 145.

|| Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 63.

1 Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 833-46 (5 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

115

cellular organisms, the author would classify these organisms under
three categories (1) Autoblasts, or free and independently living Bio-
blasts ; (2) Protozoa, or colonies of cytoblasts, of such Bioblasts which
have lost their independent existence ; and (3) Metazoa, i.e. colonies of
cells (or of such Protozoa as have forfeited their independent exist-
ence).

Bacterial Diseases of Plants.* — Mr. E. F. Smith confirms his pre-
vious statement, that a prevalent disease of hyacinth-bulbs in Holland
is due to Bacterium Hyacinthi. Nearly related to this is an organism
described as Bacillus Phaseoli sp. n., pathogenic to beans and other
leguminous plants. It is a short rod with rounded ends, yellow, growing
on various media.

Bacillus chlororaphis sp. n.f — MM. L. Guignard and 0. Sauvageau
describe by this name a new chromogenous microbe obtained in pure
cultures of Isaria densa. It possesses the peculiarity of producing in
many nutrient media needle-like crystals of a green pigment apparently
allied to tyrosin.

Bacteria with Assimilatory Pigments.J — Dr. A. J. Ewart finds in
Java the following bacteria, which have a greenish coloration, and which
show, when exposed to light, a faint evolution of oxygen : — A motile
green bacterium, B. chlorinum ; a non-motile micrococcus form, Strepto-
coccus varians ; two forms closely resembling Yan Tieghem’s Bacillus
virens and Bacterium viride ; a large bacillus form, occurring as short
rods 2 • 5-3 /x broad and from 5 to 20 /x long, forming colourless refrac-
tive endosporous spores. B. photomelricum was also abundant. This
last bacterium resembles the Florideae in containing a pigment, bacterio-
purpurin, which is a compound assimilatory chromophyll. When treated
with hot alcohol it splits up into two different coloured substances,
chlorophyll, and a pinkish-red pigment, which shows a distinct resem-
blance in colour and solubility to the pigment which may be extracted
from red Algae.

New Pigment-forming SaprophyteJ— Herr W. W. Bodsewitscb,
in the course of an examination of wheat affected with “ Schmierbrand ”
( Tilletia Itvis fam. Ustilaginese), discovered the presence of B. mega-
terium, M. tetragenus , M. roseus, and a hitherto undescribed rodlet.
The latter is very thin and about 0 • 5 /x long ; on the ordinary media
it grows well between 20° and 37°, the colonies on agar resembling
yellow wax ; at the same time a yellow pigment is excreted. Especially
luxuriant is the growth on potato and on grape-sugar-agar, which after
1-2 months is stained quite yellow. Even on bouillon the scum growth
and sediment are yellow. Gelatin is liquefied. The rodlets exhibit
characteristic movements when observed in hanging drops ; they stain
well with the usual anilin dyes, and also by Gram’s method. Spore-
formation was not observed, and heating for one hour at 70° kills the
rodlets. The bacillus is not pathogenic to guinea-pigs. Whether the

* Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 188 and 192. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 237.
f CR. Soc. Biol. Paris, 1894 (3 pp.). See Bot. Centralbl., 1897, Beil), p. 244.
t Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 486-7. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 569.

Wratsch, 1897, No. 15, p. 436. See Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iii. (1897)
p. 591.

116

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

rodlet is in any way harmful to wheat, and whether it may have any con-
nection with “ Schmierbrand,” the author leaves undecided.

Transformation of Bacillus tuberculosis into a common Sapro-
phyte.*— Dr. J. Ferran succeeded, by a process of gradual acclimatisa-
tion, in cultivating the tubercle bacillus in simple meat-broth, both at
incubation and at ordinary temperature. Under these conditions the
bacillus assumes cilia and becomes motile. It is thicker and the joints are
longer. By the addition of litmus-blue-milk' sugar it was shown to pro-
duce acid. The specific virulence is diminished so much that it takes
5-10 ccm. to infect a guinea-pig ; the tuberculous pus from these animals
is, however, still highly toxic. The reaction of the modified bacillus to
the Gruber-Pfeiffer reaction shows that, while it is truly of tuberculous
origin, yet it is closely allied to B. coli and B. typhosus. The tubercle
bacillus of birds behaves in a similar way. The author also states that
he has found in the fseces of man, horse, and cow, a B. coli which has the
same staining reactions as the tubercle bacillus. Cover-glass prepara-
tions stained by Lubimow’s method are not decolorised by 20 per cent.
H2S04. The bacillus loses this property on cultivation, and even in the
frcces after some hours.

Blood and the Identification of Bacterial Species*— Dr. A. S.
Griinbaum, in an article on the identification of bacterial species by
means of blood, gives an interesting summary of how serum-diagnosis
was brought about. The chief merit is ascribed to Durham and Gruber,
who were the first to show how valuable Pfeiffer’s reaction might be
made. Pfeiffer first remarked the phenomenon after injecting a mixture
of cholera vibrios together with a small quantity of serum of a cholera-
immunised animal into the peritoneal sac of a normal animal. Durham
and Gruber showed that the reaction occurred, not only in vivo , but also
in vitro, and that it held good for several kinds of organisms. In the
course of his remarks the author points out that the agglutinin is dis-
tinct from the bactericidal and paralysing substances in immune or other
serum ; and in considering the question it must also be borne in mind
that the normal serum of some animals, such as man and horse, possesses
a certain amount of agglutinative power which is approximately equal
for at least three kinds of organisms, B. coli, V. typhosus , and V.cholerse.
Hence it becomes a question whether the normal agglutinin becomes
increased, or whether special ones only are produced as the result of
infection. If the latter, then there must be an accumulation of different
kinds of agglutinin, &c., in the blood. Presumably the latter is the
case, for it is found necessary, in the diagnosis of typhoid, to dilute the
serum, in order to avoid any error due to the presence of normal
agglutinin.

Physiology and Morphology of the Acetic Acid Bacteria.^ — The
researches carried on by Herr W. Seifert as to the morphology and phy-
siology of the acetic acid bacteria are on similar lines to those of A. T.
Brown, who worked with a Bacterium aceti, an organism different in
some respects from that called by the same name by Hansen. The

* Barcelona, 1897. See Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxii. (1S97) pp. 483-1.

t Science Progress, i. (1S97) pp. 616-26.

j Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iii. (1897) pp. 337-49, 385-99,

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

117

author cultivated liis organisms in hay decoction, and those examined
were B. Pasteurianum Hausen, B. Kutzingianum Hansen, B. aceti Brown,
and B. aceti Hansen. The conclusion the author arrived at was that
the oxidation power of acetic acid bacteria with regard to the monatomic
primary alcohols diminishes with an increasing quantity of carbon, and
that B. Pasteurianum , as far as the polyatomic alcohols and glucose are
concerned, has, with the species tested, the weakest fermentative power.

Relation of Insects and Rats to the Spread of Plague.* * * § — Mr.
E. H. Hankin cites some instances of plague which show that there is
no necessary connection between infection of animals and outbreaks of
the disease among human beings. From a long series of researches on
the relation of ants to plague, he has found that these creatures neither
die of the disease, nor retain the infection for any time. Moreover, the
infection of ants from plague rats is variable ; for in some localities
where plague was prevalent, ants were found to be infected, but in others
not. While several cases of plague were known to have been due to
direct infection from rats, other epidemics occurred without a single rat
being affected. On the other hand, an outbreak of plague may occur
among rats that does not affect human beings.

Purification of Sewage by Bacteria.f — Dr. Rideal describes several
methods at present in use for disposing of sewage, the most satisfactory
being that known as the Exeter system ; and one of the chief objects of
the author is to show the importance of the preliminary disintegration
of organic matter before the final oxidation of the elements. This pre-
liminary disintegration is apparently mainly effected through the agency
of anaerobic bacteria such as B. prodigiosus and B. fluorescens liquefa -
ciens, and others, and is not merely a process of oxidation requiring
only air or oxidising chemicals to bring about the purification. The im-
portance of bacteria is further seen in the nitrification and denitrification
which go on during the destruction of putrescible organic matter, and it
is the knowledge of how these organisms act which has made the recent
systems of sewage purification on biological lines possible. The general
principle of self-purification through the^aid of micro-organisms was first
enunciated by Dupre in 1887, and has been worked out both in the
United States and in England.

Diagnosis of Typhoid-like Bacilli in Suspected Water.J — Dr. J.
Kister records the occurrence of a typhoid-like bacillus in well water
suspected of harbouring the Bacillus typhosus. The morphological and
cultural characters were scarcely distinguishable from those of the true
typhoid bacillus, though colonies on potato showed slight, but not con-
stant differences. The deciding test was the serum-reaction. This was
negative, both macroscopically and microscopically : — a good example
of the value of the serum reaction.

Capsule of Anthrax Bacillus.§ — By staining with anilin water —
fuchsin or gentian violet — with phenol-fuchsin, or with Loeffier’s methy-
len-blue solution, Herr F. Kern has been able to demonstrate the

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxii. (1897) pp. 437-8.

f Journ. Soc. Arts, xlvi. (1897) pp. 81-93, 115-6.

X Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxii. (1897) pp. 497-500.

§ Tom. cit., pp. 166-9.

118

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

presence of a capsule in anthrax bacilli cultivated on agar, bouillon,
gelatin, serum, and potato. The preparation covered with the staining
solution was heated 4-6 times at intervals of one minute until the
solution vaporised, then washed with and examined in water. By this
procedure it was found that anthrax bacilli obtained directly from the
animal body or from cultures, were invested with a capsule which is an
integral part of the bacillus. The capsule is more easily demonstrated
in the bacilli taken from the body than in those from cultures. Each
bacillus has its own particular sheath, and the boundary between the
capsules of any two adjacent bacilli is indicated by a thin transverse
line. The shape of the capsule in culture-bacilli varies with the age
of the culture.

Morphology and Biology of the Tubercle Bacillus.* — Herr G.
Marpmann, after alluding to his illustration of a specimen of tubercu-
losis sputum which shows normal bacilli, rodlets with bulbous expan-
sions, branchings, and some long filaments, remarks that the tubercle
bacillus belongs to the cellulose fungi, all of which are aerobes, cellulose
being formed only in the presence of air and never by anaerobes. On
the other hand, anaerobes are prone to form certain gases, H-compounds,
such as carburetted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, and also ammonia
and phosphuretted hydrogen. The author more especially deals with
the production of the last-named gas, and in connection with the
cultivation of anaerobes, and of the tubercle bacillus. Three media
containing phosphorus are mentioned: — (1) gelatin or agar, with phos-
phate of lime and glycerin, (2) agar or gelatin with glycerin-phosphate
of lime, (3) lecithin. The latter is prepared from ox brains by boiling
in alcohol, filtration, and evaporation, the yellowish mass being after-
wards pressed between folds of blotting-paper. The medium is rendered
germ- free by repeated heating to 50° C. Anaerobes and tubercle bacilli
grow luxuriantly on lecithin. The tubercle bacilli give indications of
PHS, they can vegetate in the absence of air, and form both reduction
and oxidation products.

Passive Immunity in Diphtheria.f — The experiments made by Dr.
Bomstein, who injected dogs and guinea-pigs with diphtheria antitoxin,
show that the passive immunity derived from the antitoxin is not only
transitory, but diminishes in the blood in quite a definite and regular
manner. From the dog it disappears altogether by the 18th day, and
from guinea-pigs by the 22nd. The fall, as shown by the curves on the
charts, is greatest to the 6th day, after which the diminution is slower
until its final disappearance. As antitoxin is excreted in the urine only
in quite a minute quantity ; and as it is not to be found in the viscera, the
author infers that it undergoes some chemical change within the body.

Bacillus Ellenbachensis alpha and Alinit4 — Herr R. Hartleb states
that alinit is a yellowish-grey powdery substance containing about
2 • 5 per cent, of nitrogen. It is apparently made from Leguminosse or
potato, and consists of starch and albumen. In the dry powder a microbe
exists as ovoid resting spores, which in liquid media develop into fila-

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 1“ Abt., xxii. (1897) pp. 582-6 (1 pi.).

t Tom. cit , pp. 587-92.

t Bot. Centralbl., Ixxii. (1897) pp. 229-31.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

119

ments, while still later rodlets and spores appear. The microbe was
isolated by Caron, and named by him B. Ellenbachensis alpha. Accor-
ding to the isolator (Caron), the microbe has the power of collecting
nitrogen and converting it into a form assimilable by plants, and to such
an extent that soil inoculated with the organism returns 135 per cent,
without even the necessity of manuring. The s author, in conjunction
with Prof. Stutzer, has examined the morphological and physiological
characters of this bacillus. They find that it belongs to the group of
hay bacilli ; hence its formation of long filaments and endogenous spores.
They further found that in the presence of nitrogenised media there was
a distinct loss of nitrogen, the compounds being split up into amines,
ammonia, and apparently also free nitrogen. They therefore came to
the conclusion that the alinit bacteria would exert no useful effect in
husbandry.

Experimental Typhoid Fever.* — M. P. Remlinger finds that it is
possible to impart to rats and rabbits, by feeding them with infected
material, a disease which, from bacteriological and morbid anatomy
points of view, is extremely like the typhoid fever of man. Out of eight
rabbits fed on contaminated food, four remained free from morbid
symptoms, and did not exhibit the serum reaction. Two recovered after
fever, emaciation, and diarrhoea, their blood giving the typhoid reaction.
Two died ; these in addition to the phenomena just cited, had inflammation
and ulceration of the small intestine, and enlargement of the mesenteric
glands and spleen. From the latter pure cultures of B. typhosus were
procured. Very similar results were obtained with rats.

Bacteriology of Acute Articular Rheumatism.-j* — Dr. P. Achalme
describes an anaerobic bacillus which he has isolated from cases of acute
articular rheumatism. It wTas first detected in the fluids of a person
dead of rheumatic fever, and was afterwards discovered in the blood of
patients suffering from this disease. In the human body it exactly re-
sembles in size and shape Bacillus anthracis ; while in cultures its length
varies with the quality of the medium, being very short in those con-
taining much carbohydrate, while in simple bouillon or serous fluid it is
longer, and almost filamentous in human urine and peptonised gelatin.
It is easily stained by anilin dyes and by Gram’s method. In young
cultures the bacilli exhibit slow inconstant movements which soon cease
and are easily stopped. Terminal spores are formed, and these will
stand boiling for three minutes. They are obtained only with difficulty.

To obtain successful cultures it is absolutely necessary to exclude
oxygen. The optimum temperature is from 30°-38°. Solid media are
useless for isolation’ purposes. The best media are alkaline bouillon,
especially horse bouillon, while the addition of glucose, lactose, or
glycerin increases the proliferation. Milk is a useful medium, and the
culture on human urine is interesting, inasmuch as urates are precipitated.
Salicylate of soda added in the proportion of one gramme to the litre
prevents any development.

During cultivation the bacillus gives off hydrogen and carbonic acid,
and not infrequently odorous products ; it coagulates casein and dilute
serum, and liquefies gelatin. Starch is liquefied without being converted

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xi. (1897) pp. 829-3G (4 figs.), t Tom. cit., pp. 845-59.

120

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

into sugar, and saccharose is fermented without inversion. The microbe
is extremely pathogenic to animals (guinea-pig, mouse, rabbit, frog).
The principal phenomena are scrosanguinolent oedema of cellular tissues,
with sometimes necrosis, pleurisy, endocarditis, myocarditis, and peri-
carditis.

Examination of Oysters for Pathogenic Microbes.* — M. M. Ad.
Sabatier, A. Ducamp and J.-M. Petit have examined for pathogenic
microbes the oysters cultivated at Cette, especially for Bacillus coli com-
munis and B . typhosus. In oysters which had been kept at Cette for
six months, and also in those recently delivered from Marennes, neither
microbe was present. In a second experiment oysters were placed in
a wire cage. The cage was submerged in a canal in front of one of
the main drains of the town, and the oysters examined in from 25 days
to one month. In this series the number of microbes present was found
to be great, but they chiefly belonged to one species, B. fluorescens lique-
faciens, though B. luteus and M. fervidosus were occasionally found. In
a third series oysters were injected with pure cultures of B. coli and
B. typhosus, and, after a sojourn of 4 to 12 days in their natural medium,
were examined bacteriologically. Neither B. coli nor B. typhosus was
found.

Bacterium pathogenic to Phylloxera and Acarina.f — M. L. Dubois
isolated from a mixture of earth and manure a microbe which is patho-
genic to certain Hemiptera. It is found under two forms : — as thin wavy
filaments, 4-7 p long and 0 * 3-0 • 4 p broad, and as a coccus 0 • 2-0 • 3 p in
diameter. It would seem that these cocci are not spores, for in certain
cultures they form almost the whole of the growth. The organism is
stainable, but only with difficulty, by the ordinary methods. It is an-
aerobic, and the optimum temperature lies between 20° and 30°.

Astasia aster ospora.J — From observations made on an endosporous
bacterium, Astasia asterospora, Prof. A. Meyer has obtained results
which, if confirmed, may revolutionise the present views on the position
of the Schizomycetes. From the spore membrane escapes a flagellated
rodlet which forthwith swims away. After having frequently divided
it comes to rest, and, in company with others, forms spherical colonies in
which spore-formation takes place. Each rodlet contains one or two
nuclei demonstrable by means of ruthenium-red and iodopotassic iodide,
which behave quite like the nuclei of Hyphomycetes. The proto-
plast also contains one or more axial vacuoles. When the rodlet is
ready for sporing it begins to swell. At one end appears a vacuole,
close to which the nucleus betakes itself. As the vacuole grows, plasma-
filaments extend into it, the site of the future spore becomes more
highly refractive, and finally becomes sharply defined from the peri-
plasm. The spore-membrane next begins to contract, and as it does so
the nucleus wanders off to the periphery, where it is lost sight of.
Eventually the embryo spore becomes invested with a doubly contoured
membrane. The rodlet has become a sporange.

* Comptes Kendus, exxv. (1897) pp. 685-8. f Tom. cit., pp. 790-1.

t SB. Gesellsch. z. Beforderung d. gesammt. Naturwiss. zu Marburg, No. 5, July-
1897. See Bot. Ztg., lv. (1897) 2te Abth.'pp. 289-91. See also Flora, lxxiv. (1897)
pp. 185-245 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

121

Microbe of Yellow Fever.* — Dr. G. M. Sternberg, wbo some years
ago was engaged in investigating tlie origin and prevention of yellow
fever, now identifies the Bacillus X described by him in 1889, as the
microbe isolated by Sauarelli, and designated Bacillus icteroides. It has
similar morphological appearances, cultural characters, and toxic effects,
to those ascribed to B. icteroides , and it seems extremely probable that
the author just missed being the first in the field from too much diffi-
dence, though, of course, the methods of bacteriology have greatly
advanced since the report was published.

Yellow Fever and Micrococcus xanthogenicus.f — The organism
of yellow fever described by Dr. D. Freire is a micrococcus, M. xantho-
genicus , having a diameter of 1—2 p and two or three cilia. It has no
special arrangement ; it is easily stained and cultivated. It is aerobic,
liquefies gelatin, is reproduced by spores, and in winter becomes encap-
suled. On peptonised gelose the colonies at first are white, but later
yellow or brown. The cultures are at first highly toxic, but repeated pass-
ages diminish their virulence. Intraperitoneal injections are followed by
rapid emaciation, fever, dyspnoea, jaundice and sometimes epistaxis. Tre-
panning infection is still more toxic, the animals dying in 48 hours
with symptoms analogous to those of yellow fever, especially fatty
degeneration of the liver and acute nephritis.

Attenuated cultures of M. xantliogenicus reproduce in animals and
man a mild form of yellow fever which, the author claims, confers
immunity ; for since 1883 he has inoculated more than 13,000 persons,
the mortality being from 4-6 per cent.

Bacillus of Subacute Gaseous Gangrene.J — M. Ohavigny describes
a mobile microbe much resembling B. coli, and which appears to be the
same as that called by San Felice Bacillus pseudo-oedematis maligni.
The bacillus was isolated from a case of wet gangrene of the leg fol-
lowing on a simple fracture. In aerobic bouillon cultures gas is abun-
dantly formed, and solid media (gelatin and gelose) fragmented. When
cultivated in bouillon and in vacuo , the mobility of the bacillus becomes
diminished and there is a tendency to form short chains. The bacillus
is extremely pathogenic to guinea-pigs, mice, and rabbits. Injection into
dogs produces suppuration and sloughing. By mixing cultures of this
coliform bacillus and Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus , the effects were
rendered more severe, though the staphylococcus toxin was found to
interfere with the growth of the bacillus in vitro. Bouillon cultures,
at first alkaline, become acid on the third or fourth day, and from the
eighth regain their alkalinity. Filtered at the latter stage the cultures
are found to contain a substance which gives rise to similar, but less
marked, symptoms to those of living cultures.

Pathogenic Bacillus found in the Yemen Ulcer. § — M. M. Crendi-
ropoulo has found in the Yemen ulcer a small bacillus with rounded
ends, mobile and easily stained. It is easily cultivated on peptonised
bouillon. The medium soon becomes turbid, deposits in flakes, becomes
strongly alkaline, and exhales a foetid odour. Milk is coagulated. On

* Centralbl. Bald. u. Par., lte Abt., xxii. (1897) pp. 145-65 (1 pi.).

t Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 614-6. Cf. this Journal, 1892, p. 535.

% Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xi. (1897) pp. 860-4. § Tom. cit., pp. 784-9.

122

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

gelose the colonies are roundish, humid, and yellowish. Gelatin is
liquefied. On potato the growth is abundant, and yellowish or greyish
in colour. The optimum temperature is 38-40°. The organism, which
is strictly aerobic, is extremely pathogenic to rabbits and pigeons, and
the local manifestations after subcutaneous injection present a certain
resemblance to the tropical ulcer.

Streptococcus of the Aleppo Boil.* — Drs. M. Nicolle and Noury
Bey have isolated a Streptococcus from nine cases of Aleppo boil, and they
are of opinion that this organism is a specific one, partly on the ground
that it is uninfluenced by antistreptococcus serum, and partly from find-
ing it in all the cases examined, and thrice in a pure condition. There
is nothing specially characteristic from a morphological point of view.
On most media the cultures are typical and abundant. Milk is always
coagulated. It does not thrive on potato. To animals it is only slightly
virulent ; for on the average 2 ccm. of a bouillon-serum culture 48 hours
old, at 37°, takes 10 days to kill a rabbit weighing 1500 grm.

New Infectious Disease of Cattle.f — Dr. G. Bosso describes a dis-
ease of cattle, which was diagnosed from the most prominent symptoms
as either an acute infectious nephritis or acute infectious myelitis, and
which belongs to the class of haemorrhagic septicaemias. The chief
morbid appearances were ecchymoses, great enlargement of the spleen,
and acute nephritis. Bacteriological examination of the spleen and
blood showed the presence of oval bacteria with rounded ends and central
constriction. The bacteria are motionless, 1*5/4 long and 0*5-0 *8 /x
broad ; but in the kidney they are often 2 * 7 /x long. They stain easily
with the usual dyes, and also with Gram’s method. On gelatin which
is not liquefied the colonies are small, round, sharply defined, and of a
greyish-yellow hue. On glucose agar the bacteria grew well. Meat-
broth with glucose and glycerin soon became turbid, and much gas
was produced. In milk the bacteria developed freely, but the medium
was not coagulated. On acid potato the development was slight, but
on alkaline potato the growth was luxuriant and of a yellowish-brown
colour. Animals (guinea-pigs, rabbits, mice) inoculated with cultures
died. Histological examination of the kidney showed the presence of the
bacteria in the lymphatic and blood-vessels, and that profound changes
had occurred in the Malpighian glomeruli.

Effect of Intravenous Injection of Tuberculous Caseous Matter .|

— Dr. N. Bosa injected two series of rabbits (15 and 10) with sterilised
caseous matter obtained from tuberculous lymphatic glands. In the first
series the caseous material was sterilised in an autoclave, in the second
by passing it through a Chamberland filter. In both series the results
were entirely negative, the injected material being apparently quite
innocuous, and having none of the toxic effects displayed by sterilised
cultures of tubercle bacilli.

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xi. (1897) pp. 777-83.

t Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxii. (1897) pp. 537-42 (1 pi.).

X Tom. cit., pp. 433-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

123

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

(1) Stands.

Sir David Brewster’s Microscope.f — At the meeting of the Society,
held on November 17, 1897, the President made the following remarks
on a Microscope exhibited by Mr. C. L. Cur ties, which had belonged to
Sir David Brewster (fig. 1).

He said that it was used by Sir David Brewster prior to the year
1838. The owner, Mrs. Brewster Ferguson, had presented it to the
British Museum, and before sending it there, had kindly sent it through
Mr. C. L. Curties for exhibition to the Fellows of the Royal Micro-
scopical Society.

Fig. 1.

At that time Sir David Brewster endeavoured to reduce spherical
aberration by constructing lenses of media possessing higher refractive
indices than glass, by which means a flatter curve was obtained for any
lens of given focus, and for this purpose garnet, sapphire, and diamond
were used.

The President said that the Fellows would have an opportunity of
judging for themselves the quality of the original garnet lens, as it was
exhibited in the room.

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (8) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

t There is no maker’s name on the instrument ; it is similar in construction, and
also in its peculiar fitting in its box-foot, to those made by Dollond. Therefore
Dollond may with reason be presumed to be its maker.

124

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

He had very carefully examined this instrument, and had made
measurements of all its parts and calculated its focal distances, and
thought it would he interesting to give these particulars. Like many
of these older Microscopes, it was fixed to the box, but to the inside
and not upon the outside as was usually the case. It could not be
taken out of the box, as it was fixed to the inside with a compass
joint. Size of box, 12*8 in. long by 5-5 in. wide, by 5 in. deep.

The total length of the body from eye-cap to nose-piece is 7J in.,
and from nose-piece to field-lens 5*3 in.

The stage measures 2J by 3J in., and is fitted with rackwork by
means of which it is adjusted to focus, and there are spring clips pro-
vided for holding the slide.

The concave mirror is 2 in. in diameter, with a focus of 3^ in- ; no
plane mirror is provided.

The pillar is in length 9 J in., and in section \ in. square ; the
limb is fixed, the centre projecting 1*8 in. beyond the pillar.

The eye-piece has a doublet compound eye-lens formed of (1) a
bi-con vex lens with ratio of radii (probably) 1:2, the flatter side being
toward the eye, diameter 0 • 8 in., focus 1*3; (2) placed close to the first,
an equiconvex lens, diameter 0 * 9 in., focus 1 * 5 in. ; (3) a field-lens placed
at a distance of 1 • 5 in. from the inner eye-lens ; this is also equiconvex,
diameter 1*5 in., focus 2#7 in. The joint focus of the two eye-lenses
being 0*9 in., and of the whole eye-piece 1*25 in., giving it a magnifying
power of x 8.

The objectives he found to be as follows : —

No. 1, equal to about a 1 in., power X 50 — achromatism bad — shows
coarse areolations of Triceratium favus, and ribs in main cut suctorial
pipe in blow-fly’s tongue.

No. 2, equal to about a 1/2 in., power X 85 — achromatism good —
will not show T. favus.

No. 3, about a 1/3, power X 120, resolves coarse structure of Eupo-
discus Argus and ribs in main cut suctorial pipe of blow-fly’s tongue ;
achromatism not so good as that of No. 2.

No. 4, about a 1/7, is the garnet lens, power x 280, resolves primary
structures in T. favus , definition very bad.

No. 5, about a 1/9, power x 360, lens equiconvex, achromatism
fairly good, resolves all the bars and small hairs in blow-fly’s tongue,
and primary structure of Coscinodiscus.

No. 6, about a 1/10, the best of the series, a doublet, piano over equi-
convex, power X 400, achromatism fairly good, resolves Cymbella gas -
troides, Actinocyclus Balfsii, and all details of blow-fly’s tongue.

The low power has a large opening, and is consequently very fluffy,
but there is a minute hole only at the back of the higher powers, by
which the aperture is cut down and rendered exceedingly small. The
resolving power is therefore, in the case of the very best lens of the
series, only about equal to a 1^ in. objective at the present day.

Two Old Microscopes. — At the meeting of the Society held on
December 15, 1897, the President drew attention to two old Microscopes
exhibited by Mr. C. L. Curties. The first of these was a Hartnack
model, non-inclinable, push-tube coarse, and direct acting screw fine
adjustments, plain stage with small round hole, concave mirror, and

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 125

metal plate-foot. This instrument had an archaic look on account of
the plate-foot, but it was possible to fix an approximate date by the
names “ Hartnack and Prazmowski ” which were engraved upon the tube,
Mr. Prazmowski having joined the firm of Hartnack in 1862. There
was also another point about this Microscope which helped to fix its date,
and that was the Society’s screw, this screw having been introduced on
November 12, 1857. With regard to the horse-shoe foot, this was
adopted by Oberhiiuser at the instigation of Mr. Abraham, a Microscope-
maker in Liverpool in 1847. This Microscope showed therefore a rever-
sion to the old type.

The next Microscope (fig. 2) possessed a rare form of Powell and
Lealand’s fine adjustment. It would be remembered that the first adjust-
ment introduced by Mr. Powell was a stage adjustment ; a Turrell stage
was raised by means of three
inclined planes below it, which
were moved by a fine screw
with a divided head like that
of a micrometer, each division
equalling the 1/6000 in. The
date of this was 1833. The
Society purchased one of these
Microscopes in 1841, and this
instrument was upon the
table before the meeting. Mr.

Powell then, in 1841, altered
the entire form of his Micro-
scope, by copying the Jackson
model, and by adding a very
perfect form of fine adjust-
ment consisting of a cone ad-
vancing by means of a fine
screw. It was this kind of
adjustment, the slide on the
Jackson limb, which was so
largely employed to-day in the
Microscopes of Messrs. Baker,

Beck, Swift, and Watson. Mr.

Powell’s next idea was to adopt
the bar movement, the fine ad-
justment being a long lever
of the first order as used at present, but it was interesting to note
that the side screw was retained, the Microscope now exhibited being
an example of this rare form. This Microscope was dated 1846. Very
soon after this the fine adjustment screw was placed in the vertical
position it still occupied. He believed that the screw was first placed
in the vertical position on the portable Microscope, and he thought it
would be found so figured in the first edition of Quekett in 1848. The
bayonet-jointed cap to the eye-piece was also a feature of this instrument.

The President also called attention to an interesting old Culpeper and
Scarlet Microscope (fig. 3), which differed slightly from those in the
Society’s collection, three of which were on the table for comparison. The

Fig. 2.

126

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

octagonal form of Marshall’s box foot was retained, but the legs were
slightly scrolled, instead of being straight, as in the form figured by
Smith in his ‘ Optics,’ 1738. Jones, who made a Culpeper Microscope in
1797, placed it on a square box foot, and scrolled the legs more highly,
probably for the purpose of giving more room for manipulating the stage

Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

and the mirror. In the most elaborate form of this kind of Microscope
the body is made of brass, and is fitted with raok-and-pinion coarse
adjustment, a fine example of which was lately presented to the Society
by Mr. More (fig. 4). The instrument now before the meeting was a very
early example with scrolled legs.

How to Make a Microscope Stand.* — Mr. W. E. Field gives instruc-
tions, illustrated by numerous working drawings, for the construction of
a high-class stand ; the various operations, from the making of patterns
to the finishing of the instrument, being described, especially the details
of the metalwork for each part.

(3) Illuminating: and other Apparatus.

Repsold’s New Self-Registering Micrometer.! — A. Kowalski de-
scribes the results of readings taken by an application of this device to
an astronomical transit instrument. The principle of the micrometer is
that a clockwork arrangement releases or arrests a thread movable over
the fixed micrometer threads ; and its great value is the almost complete
elimination of the correction due to personal equation. The author
gives an account of his experience, which seems decidedly favourable.

* English Mechanic, lxvi. (1897) pp. 171, 193, 217, 239, 263, 287 (31 figs.).

f Bull, Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg, May 1897.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

127

(4) Photomicrography.

Monochromatic Light for Photomicrography.* — Mr. A. D. Pretzl
enumerates the chief light-filters thus : — Zettnow’s chromate of copper,
ammonio-sulphate of copper, Fehling’s solution, and potassium bichro-
mate, besides signal green, chromium green, and other coloured glasses ;
although the light they allow to pass is by no means monochromatic,
but practically the whole of the spectrum with certain portions dampened
down. In order to make the action of screens thoroughly understood,
the following tables of reference are necessary : —

Fraunhofer

Wave-

Fraunhofer

Wave-

Lines.

Length.

Lines.

Length.

A

A

A . .

... 759

E . . . .

. 527

B . .

... 687

F . . . .

. 486

C . .

... 656

G . . . .

. 430

D . .

... 589

H . . . .

. 397

Distribution of Colours (after Listing).

a

A

Bed . .

. . 723-647

Bright blue

491-455

Orange

. . 647-586

Blue violet

455-424

Yellow .

. . 586-534

Violet .

424-397

Green .

. . . 534-491

Zettnow’s

cupro-chromate filter allows light from

wave-length

570-550 to pass, and is made by dissolving 160 grains of pure dry
cupric nitrate and 14 grains of chromic acid in 250 c.cm. of water. The
thickness of liquid should be 1 cm. The ammonio-sulphate of copper
allows light from 475-400 wave-lengths to pass, and this is prepared by
dissolving finely powdered sulphate of copper in four times its weight of
liquid ammonia (sp. gr. 0*96). When diluted or with a thin stratum of
solution, light of 515 A will get through.

Fehling’s solution cuts off the extreme red and the ultra-violet.
The potassium bichromate absorbs the violet, blue, and bluish-green,
according to its strength and thickness.

Landolt’s filters, as used for polariscopic work, should be equally
good for microscopic work, and the following directions for making them
may be useful.

Bed filter. — Crystal violet, 5 BO, 0*05 grm. should be dissolved in
a little alcohol and diluted to 1000 c.cm. with water, in a trough 20 mm.
thick ; this gives a red band with a broad blue violet baud, which can
be absorbed by a 10 per cent, solution of potassium chromate. The red
stripe left begins about A 718 and ends abruptly at A 639.

Yellow fitter. — Dissolve 30 grm. of nickel sulphate in 100 c.cm. of
water, and in a thickness of 20 mm. this absorbs the red only ; a 10 per
cent, solution of potassium chromate in 15 mm. thickness absorbs the
blue, and a 15 mm. thickness of 0*025 grm. of potassium permanganate
in 100 c.cm. of water absorbs the greeD, leaving A 614 to A 574.

Breen filter. — Cupric chloride (CuCl2, 2H20), 60 grm. dissolved in
100 c.cm. water, and 20 mm. thickness, passes the green and blue, and a

* English Mechanic, Dec. 1897, pp. 358-9.

128

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

10 per cent, solution of potassium chromate in 20 mm. thickness absorbs
the blue, leaving A. 540 to A 505.

Bright blue filter. — Doppelgriin, SF 0 • 02 grm. dissolved in 100 com. of
water and in 20 mm. thickness, leaves a narrow red band, a broad green
band with blue ; and 15 grm. of cupric sulphate dissolved in 100 c.cm.
of water in 20 mm. thickness, absorbs the red and green, leaving A 526
to A 458.

Dark blue filter. — 0*005 grm. of crystal violet 5BO dissolved in
100 ccm. of water in 20 mm. thickness, and the sulphate of copper solution
as used above, also in 20 mm. thickness, allow A 478 to A 410 to pass.

B. Technique.*

(1) Collecting- Objects, including- Culture Processes.

Plankton Gathering.! — Mr. G. Murray recommends, for use with
deep-sea plankton, a cylindrical silk bag, about 1 J ft. long and 3 or 4 in.
wide. This was tied to the nozzle of the hose, there being a lateral
overflow vent near the top of the bag. On pumping through this with
the donkey engine from an intake pipe 8 ft. below the surface, good
results were obtained. This contrivance enables the operator to work
while steaming, and is often convenient when the weather is too rough
for tow-netting. The fixative and preservative employed was a 0 * 5 per
cent, solution of chromic acid ; good results were also obtained with
Fleming’s solution, and with platinic chloride of various strengths.

Culture of Diatoms.! — Dr. H. van Heurck publishes a resume of
M. Miquel’s admirable methods for the artificial cultivation of diatoms.
The cultures are divided into ordinary and pure, and subdivided into
cultures of fresh-water and salt-water diatoms.

(1) Ordinary cultures of fresh-water diatoms are grown in a
fluid containing salts and organic substances. The saline nutriment
is prepared in two solutions : — A. Sulphate of magnesium 10 grm.,
chloride of calcium 10 grm., sulphate of sodium 5 grm., nitrate of
ammonium 1 grm., nitrate of potassium 2 grm., nitrate of sodium
2 grm., bromide of potassium 0*2 grm., iodine 0*1 grm., water 100 grm.
B. Phosphate of sodium 4 grm., chloride of calcium sic. 4 grm., hydro-
chloric acid 2 c.cm., perchloride of iron liquid at 45° 2 grm., water
80 grm. These solutions are mixed when required for use, in the pro-
portion ’of 40 drops of A and 20 drops of B to 1 litre of tap- water,
and then are added 5 cgrm. of wheat straw and a similar quantity of
earth moss, previously washed in boiling water. Small cultures may be
made in wide-necked flasks plugged with cotton-wool ; large cultures in
crystallisers, or in the square jars formerly used as electric accumulators.
It is useful to sterilise the fluids in a water-bath for a quarter of an hour
at 70°. The medium is inoculated with living frustules. The cultures
should be kept from the sun and exposed to a northern light at 10°— 30° C.
The growth of green algee may be diminished by reducing the light.

* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ;
(4) Staining and Injecting; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous. f Journ. of Bot., xxxv. (1897) pp. 387-8.

+ Zeitschr. f. angevv. Mikr., iii. (1897) pp. 193-8, 225-36.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOKOSOOPY, ETC.

129

Every 10 or 15 days the water lost by evaporation should be replaced by
sterilised water, and if the cultures drag, their growth may often be
stimulated by adding a few drops of solutions A and B.

(2) Culture of marine diatoms is easily done in sea-water. If, however,
natural sea water cannot be obtained, it may be replaced by dissolving
sea-salt 250 grm., sulphate of magnesium 20 grm., chloride of magnesium
40 grm., in a litre of water, and when required for use adding 9 litres
more. To the sea-water are added the solutions A and B, just as for
fresh-water diatoms, and also a little Zostera leaf.

(3) Pure cultures of diatoms are obtained by the fractional method, or
by isolating a single healthy specimen. The former procedure is effected
by mixing one drop of diatomiferous fluid with 100 ccm. of nutritive
fluid, and diluting 1 ccm. thereof with 99 ccm. of fresh fluid. The last
solution is then distributed in ten Freudenreich’s flasks and cultivated.
In this way cultures of a single form may be finally obtained and further
examined in a cell devised by Miquel (see p. 130).

Dr. van Heurck then gives the methods and formulse used by the
late Mr. C. Haughton Gill. The fluid from which Mr. Gill obtained the
best results was composed as follows : — Solution A. Chloride of sodium
10 parts, sulphate of sodium 5 parts, nitrate of potassium 2 • 5 parts, acid
phosphate of potassium 2 • 5 parts, water 100. B. Filtered spring water
100 vols., solution A 0 • 5 vol. To this solution is added a sufficient
quantity of slaked lime to neutralise the acidity of the liquid, and a small
quantity of precipitated silica. Finally, a small quantity of sterilised
grass infusion or diatom broth, obtained by prolonged boiling of a largo
quantity of fresh diatoms in water. After filtering the broth, it is pre-
served in hermetically sealed tubes. Fine bone-scrapings were also
added, and occasionally well washed grass roots.

Though the foregoing gave very excellent results, Mr. Gill, in the
last year of his life, adopted a fluid more like that of Miquel. This was
a mixture of four different solutions : —

Solution i. Pure crystallised phosphate of sodium 2 ; pure crystallised
chloride of calcium 4 ; pure syrupy perchloride of iron 0*5; pure hydro-
chloric acid 1 ; water 100.

Solution ii. Pure crystallised sulphate of magnesium 4 ; pure crys-
tallised sulphate of sodium 4 ; pure crystallised nitrate of potassium 4 ;
common salt 8 ; bromide of potassium 0*2 ; iodine 0#2 ; water 100.

Solution iii. Pure crystallised carbonate of sodium 4 ; water 100.

Solution iv. Silicate of calcium, precipitated and washed, 25 ;
water 75.

Of each of these solutions 3 ccm. were taken and mixed with 1 litre
of tap or sea water, and the mixture distributed in Erlenmayer’s flasks
of 100-200 ccm. capacity, which were filled up to a height of 3 ccm.
The flasks were plugged with cotton- wool, sterilised, and left for at least
one week before being inoculated. Solution iii. has a double action, for
it neutralises the acidity of the fluid and precipitates half of the calcium
as useful carbonate. Mr. Gill was of opinion that the purity of the sub-
stances used was highly important, especially of the perchloride of iron,
the ordinary samples often containing arsenic, one of the most fertile
causes of failure. Direct sunlight was harmful, and the culture flasks
were placed [facing 'W.N.W., a screen of pale-green glass being inter-

1898 K

130

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

posed. The flasks were inoculated with one or more frustules isolated
by means of a capillary tube.

Miquel’s Cell for Pure Cultures of Diatoms.* — Dr. H. van Heurck
describes Miquel’s cell for the pure cultivation of diatoms. To a slide
having a circular hole 2 mm. in diameter towards its upper side is fixed
a ring, and to the ring a circular cover-glass. In this way is made a
cell with a lateral aperture, which can be held vertically or horizontally.
The slide is allowed to rest during the cultivation on the cover-glass
upon which the deposits form, and hence these cultures maybe examined
with the highest powers.

Fjg. 6.

L 0 L

M M

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. — Transverse section of cell: L L, slide; D, aperture of 2 mm.;
c c, ring ; MM, cover-glass ; E, cultivation fluid.

Fig. 6. — Longitudinal section : O, aperture.

Fig. 7. — View of cell from Microscope bent at an angle.

Cultivating Gonococcus.! — Dr. A. Wassermann has found that
Gonococcus grows best on a medium which contains uncoagulated serum-
albumen and pepton. The coagulation of the serum by boiling is pre-
vented by the addition of casein-sodium phosphate (nutrose), a substance
which also promotes the growth of Gonococcus. The medium is made
by putting 15 ccm. of pig’s serum in an Erlenmeyer’s flask, diluting
with 30-35 ccm. of water, and then adding 2-3 ccm. of glycerin, and
finally 0*8 grm. (2 per cent.) of nutrose. The flask is then well
shaken in order to properly mix the ingredients, after which it is heated
to boiling. It is sterilised in 20-30 minutes. The sterilised solution
may be kept in this condition for future use, and suffices for 6-8 plates.
When required for use, a number of 2 per cent, pepton-agar tubes are
liquefied and mixed in equal parts with the serum fluid, and the mixture
poured into Petri’s capsules. When set, the medium is ready for use.
The serum and agar must be mixed at between 50° and 60°. If the
pig’s serum is very rich in albumen, it is advisable to mix the 15 ccm.
with 40 ccm. of water instead of 35 ccm.

* Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., iii. (1897) p. 230.

f Berlin. Klin. Wochenschr., 1897, p. 685. See Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par.. lte Abt.,
xxii. (1897) pp. 486-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

131

Nutrient Gelatin with High Melting-point.* — The three chief
points to be carefully attended to in obtaining a gelatin medium with
high melting-point are, says Prof. J. Forster, the height of the tempera-
ture acting on the gelatin, the duration of the action, and the concentra-
tion of the gelatin. In practice, this amounts to observing that the
temperature should never exceed 100°, and should not be protracted
longer than 40 minutes, and that the gelatin should amount to 5 per
cent. ; for it was found by experiments conducted for the purpose that
the melting-point of gelatin was lowered by protracted boiling, and by
the greater amount of water in the medium. It was further determined
that above 5 or 6 per cent, the melting-point was but little higher
than at these amounts ; consequently on the whole it was more advan-
tageous to compose the medium with 5 per cent. On these lines a
nutrient gelatin is produced which, after standing for 24 hours, has a
melting-point between 29° and 30° C.

Capsule for Anaerobic Cultivation.! — Dr. M. Beck has devised a
modification of Petri’s capsule which renders this apparatus useful as
a moist chamber, and for the cultivation of anaerobic organisms. By
giving an S-bfend to the flange of the cover, two furrows or grooves are

Fig. 8. Fig. 9.

produced, the upper one of which serves for the reception of water
when the capsule is to be used as a moist chamber. By the addition
of a couple of lateral tubes any gas can be introduced. When required
for anaerobic cultures, the lower furrow is filled with paraffin and fixed
to the edge of the capsule by mere pressure. In this way an air-tight
chamber is produced.

Seminal Fluid as a Nutritive Medium.*— Dr. A. Cantani, jun.,
obtained pure seminal fluid by removing the testicle and spermatic cord
and squeezing out the fluid on to the surface of oblique agar. As the
fluid was removed aseptically, sterilisation and antiseptic precautions
were avoided.

Testicular juice which was smeared over the surface of oblique agar
was obtained by cutting through the testicle, and removing the juice
with a platinum loop. The tubes were afterwards incubated for 10
hours.

Though most bacteria grew fairly well on the seminal media, only
influenza bacilli gave really good results.

Influence of the Reaction of the Medium on Bacterial Growth.§
— Herr M. Deelemann has made experiments for the purpose of ascer-

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par , lte Abt., xxii. (1897) pp. 341-3.

t Tom. cit., pp. 343-5 (2 figs.). % Tom. cit., pp. 601-4.

§ Arb. a. d. K. Gesundkeitsamt, xiii. (1897) pt. 3. See Centralbl. Bakt. u Par
1" Abt., xxii. (1897) p. 355. ’

K 2

132

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

taining whether the proportion of alkali advocated by Maassen and used
in the Imperial Laboratory at Berlin is the correct one, viz. 1*035 ccm,
per cent, normal soda solution to 1 litre litmus-blue neutral bouillon, and
also whether the addition of caustic soda or of soda is more advantage-
ous for bacterial growth. Twenty different species of bacteria were
used for the research. The conclusions the author arrived at were : —

(1) The addition of soda for the great majority of the bacteria
examined was found to be more advantageous than caustic soda. In a
small number of bacteria there was no difference between the two.
With diphtheria the growth was usually better with caustic soda than with
soda. With anthrax the growth was invariably better with caustic soda.

(2) A slight addition of alkali beyond the litmus-blue neutral point
was advantageous for most bacteria, only B. pyocyaneus and B. cyano-
genus thriving better on neutral media.

(3) The optimum lay between 0*34-1*7 ccm. per cent, normal
caustic soda solution, and 0 * 39-1 * 95 ccm. per cent, normal soda solution.
The addition of 1*15 per cent, of crystallised soda over the litmus-blue
neutral point, corresponding to 1*05 ccm. per cent, normal caustic soda
solution, as used by Maassen, seems therefore suitable for most bacteria.

(4) The limits for good growth lay generally between 1*7-3 *4 ccm.
per cent, normal caustic soda solution and 1*95-3*9 per cent, normal
soda solution. With diphtheria, however, the limits reached were only
1*0 ccm. per cent, and 1*17 ccm. per cent.; while with B. ruber
Plymouth , B. erythrogenes, V. Miller they were 5 * 1 ccm. per cent, and
5*85 ccm. per cent, respectively.

(2) Preparing- Objects.

Apparatus for Filtering Bacterial and other Fluids.* — Dr. F. G.
Novy describes a filtering apparatus, the principal advantage of which is
that the positive pressure from the compressed air co-operates with the
negative pressure of a pump in filtering the fluid, so that in 3-5 minutes
250 c.cm. of water can be passed through.

The essential parts of the apparatus are a glass cylinder, and a
Chamberland bougie, which is inserted within the cylinder. The latter
has a flange at the lower end, by means of which, through the intermedi-
ation of clamps and caoutchouc rings, it is firmly fixed to the bougie.

Simple Steam Steriliser.^ — Dr. F. G. Novy recommends a simple
apparatus for steam sterilising. The lower part is the ordinary Hoff-
mann’s iron water-batli, 18-20 cm. in diameter. The upper part, made
of copper, has a perforated bottom. Inside are soldered two rings
1J cm. broad, of perforated copper, one about 4 cm., the other about
12 cm. from the bottom. The object of these rings is to prevent the
culture tubes from touching the sides. The lid is furnished with a tube
for the escape of the steam.

(4) Staining: and Injecting:.

Staining Yeast-Cells.J — Herr O. Busse, in his work on }*easts as
causes of disease, recommends the following method for staining these

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxii. (1897) pp. 337-9 (2 figs.).

t 'Pom. cit., p. 340 (1 fig.).

+ ‘Die Hefen als Krankheitserreger,’ Berlin, 1897. See Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par.,
1‘8 Abt., xxii. (1897) p. 349.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

133

organisms. Stain for 15 minutes in alum-haematoxylin, wash in water,
and then stain with very dilute phenol fuchsia (1 part Ziehl’s solution
with about 20 parts of distilled water) for 30 minutes to 24 hours. After
this, decolorise and dehydrate for 15 seconds to 1 minute in alcohol,
then 95 per cent, spirit followed by absolute alcohol, xylol, and balsam.

Method of Treating Bacteria difficult of Staining.* * * § — M. L. Dubois
adopted the following procedure when dealing with bacteria difficult of
staining. To 10 ccm. of a 25 per cent, solution of tannin, a solution of
ferrous sulphate was added until the liquid was of a black colour. The
mixture was heated to 50°, and the cover-glass films immersed therein
for 25 minutes. The cover-glass was next transferred without being
washed to a 1 per cent, solution of potash. After 15 minutes the film
was washed, and finally hot-stained with anilin-oil fuchsin solution, and
the preparation examined in water.

Rapid Staining of Tuberculous Sputum.f — Dr. N. P. Andrejew re-
commends the following method for staining tuberculous sputum. The
cover-glass films are first stained in the usual way with the phenol-
fuchsin solution, and are then treated with the following mixture : —
(1) hot 10 per cent, potassium chlorate solution, 100 ccm. ; (2) acid
green (Griibler) 1 grm. ; (3) 25 per cent, pure sulphuric acid 15 ccm.
The mixture, after having been well shaken and filtered, forms a dark
green fluid in which the stained cover-glass is immersed until the film
becomes of a green or bluish-green hue (about 1 minute). After this
the cover-glass is thoroughly washed with tap-water, and then dried on
blotting-paper. It may be examined at once, or mounted in the usual
way.

The chief advantages claimed by the author for this method are that,
as green is the complementary colour to red, the red stained objects are
better seen, and also that only two solutions are required.

Intra-Vitam Staining4 — Herr A. M. Przesmycki has made a long
series of experiments on intra-vitam staining, and has improved the
methods. His general results are thus summed up : — Different organ-
isms react differently, the various organs differ in their receptivity, even
in the same animal ; different parts of the same organs may be differen-
tiated ; the parts coloured intra vitam lose their colour after death, or
when the organism is placed in fresh water without any pigment ; the
method makes it possible to show certain details which are not demon-
strable in any other way.

(5) Mounting-, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Preserving Sea-Anemones.§ — N. Kholodkovsky recommends douch-
ing sea-anemones (in a little sea-water) with 40 per cent, formol
diluted ten times with fresh water. The animals die uncontracted, and
the colours remain for at least two weeks, when the author — somewhat
prematurely perhaps — communicated his recipe.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) p. 791.

f Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxii. (1897) pp. 593-7.

+ Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) p. 353.

§ Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxii. (1897) p. 161.

134

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Flemming’s Fixing-Solution.* * * § — Herr D. M. Mottier recommends the
following composition for studies in nuclear division in plants : —

1 per cent, chromic acid .. .. 16 ccm.

2 per cent.'osmic acid .. .. 3 ccm.

Glacial acetic acid .. .. 1 ccm.

Preservative Fluids for Botanical Specimens, f — M. J. Chalon re-
commends a saturated or 3 per cent, solution of boric acid for preserving
vegetable specimens. This was the only one out of ten different solu-
tions which gave satisfactory results. The solution is improved if 1 to
5 per cent, sodium sulphate be added.

The other solutions tried were, 2 per cent, calcium chloride ; 0*25
per cent, chromic acid ; chromo-acetic acid ; Muller’s fluid ; salicylic
acid ; carbolic acid ; corrosive sublimate thymol ; sodium sulphite. The
use of formalin in 3 per cent, solution is alluded to, but its advantages
or disadvantages are not mentioned.

(6) Miscellaneous.

New Method of Observing Stomates.J — Prof. F. Darwin thus describes
a new method used by him for observing the opening and closing of
stomates : — “ A strip of horn sheet 8-9 mm. long by 3-4 mm. wide is
fastened by one end to a small block of cork so that the horn lies flat on
any surface on which the instrument is placed ; the horn bearing at
its free end a bristle to serve as index. When it is placed on a damp
surface the index instantly rises to an angle of 20-50°, or even more,
whereas it remains flat on a dry surface. A paper scale being fixed
to the cork block serves to read off the movement ; when applied to
leaves, e.g. a hypostomatal leaf, the reading is zero on the upper
side, and varies on the under side according to the state of the sto-
mates ; 50° means an extreme amount of variation, 30° a fair degree,
10° a small degree.”

Detection of Typhoid Bacilli in Faeces by Eisner’s Method.§ — Dr.
S. Sterling writes in praise of Eisner’s method for the detection of
typhoid bacilli in the faeces. As previously stated, the essential feature
consists of potato-gelatin with 1 per cent, iodide of potassium, v/hich
medium is found to be unsuitable for most of the microbes from faeces,
and has the further merit of distinctly differentiating the colonies of
B. coli from those of typhoid, those of the former being yellowish and
granular and of fast growth, while those of the latter are small trans-
parent droplets. The author states that his percentage of positive
results with Eisner’s method is 66, while other procedures did not give
a higher percentage than 16*5.

Method of rapidly Identifying the Microbe of Bubonic Plague. || —

The method devised by Mr. E. H. Hankin and Surgeon-Captain
B. H. F. Leumann for rapidly identifying the plague bacillus is derived

* Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Sirasburger), xxx. (1897) p. 170.

f Bull. Soc. Boy. Bot. de Beige, xxxvi. (1897) pp. 39-46.

j Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., ix. (1897) pp. 353-8.

§ Cen trail)]. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxii. (1897) pp. 334-6. Cf. this Journal,
1896, p. 357. 1| Tom. cit., pp. 439-40.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

135

from the observation that in old agar cultures large and peculiar invo-
lution forms are common ; and in that about to be described those
involution forms may under favourable conditions be obtained within
24 hours, and thus become a means for rapidly identifying the plague
microbe. The microbe is to be inoculated in agar containing 2 *5-3 *5
per cent, of salt, and incubated at 37°. In 24, and certainly within
48 hours, every single bacillus will be swollen up and altered so that
they resemble spheres, spindle-shaped, or oval bodies, and occasionally
torulae, appearances which cannot easily be mistaken for any other known
microbe. In the case of certain bacilli having a superficial resemblance
to those of plague, isolated involution forms recalling those of plague
may be met with, but it will never occur that the whole culture is
so changed.

In carrying out the test it appears to be necessary to first culti-
vate the microbe on ordinary agar and then transfer it to salt agar.
The authors have also found that potassium bromide or iodide can be
used in the place of sodium chloride in a strength of about 2 per cent.,
but this variation of the method does not seem to present any special
advantage.

Microscopic Study of Alloys.* — The following notice of M. Charpy’s
important work on this subject appears in the issue of * Nature ’ for
November 4, 1897, with the signature “ T. K. R.”

“ The study of metals with the Microscope proceeds apace, and is
now becoming as generally pursued among metallurgists as the deter-
mination of melting-points has been during the last five years. Since
the appearance of Prof. Roberts-Austen’s article on ‘ Micrographic
Analysis ’ of iron and steel, a large amount of work has been done ;
but most observers still devote themselves more or less exclusively to
the study of this metal, attacking unsolved problems which seem to
have great industrial importance. This tendency is unfortunate from
some points of view ; for the complex constitution met with in that
protean element makes it less easy to explain the observed appearances
until, by work on simpler alloys, a better acquaintance with the whole
subject has been obtained. M. Charpy is one of those who has resisted
the temptation offered by the alloys of industry, and in a recent paper
has given some interesting results of his investigations on binary alloys
which are well worth re-statement.

“ It is now fairly established that microscopic examination gives an
immediate analysis of alloys, which is all the more valuable for differing
in its results from chemical analysis, since these differences indicate the
existence of definite compounds, and elucidate the structure in other
ways. The immediate analysis is now made with the aid of a plani-
meter, as Sauveur recommended, by which the ratio of the areas
occupied in the microscopic field by the various constituents can be
measured. The metal or metals forming each of these constituents can
often be indicated by their colour, hardness, and, above all, the effects
on them of various reagents, and thus a full account of the alloy can
be given.

“ In the normal type of constitution of binary alloys, crystals of one

* ‘ Etude Microscopique des AH iagea Metalliques.’ Bull. Soc. d’Encouragement,
ii. (1897) p. 384.

136

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the metals, or of a definite compound of the two, are seen enveloped
in a second constituent, which is generally the eutectic alloy, containing
both elements in a very finely divided state. The composition of the
eutectic mixture remains constant, whilst the amount of isolated crystals
varies with the percentage composition of the alloy. The limiting cases
of a pure definite compound or metal, and of a pure eutectic mixture,
may be grouped with these alloys.

‘£ Eutectic alloys vary in appearance according as they have been
cooled slowly or quickly. In the latter case, the surface is uniformly
striated, but the crystals or crystallites are so small that it is difficult
to obtain satisfactory photographs of them. When the solidification is
slow, however, the separation into lamellae is strongly marked, especially
when viewed under high powers, and this structure is highly character-
istic of eutectic alloys, being easily traced in any of them whatever the

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Alloy of silver, 66 per cent. ; antimony,
34 per cent.

Alloy of tin, 90 per cent. ; antimony,
10 per cent.

metals in the alloy may be. It is well shown in fig. 10, which represents
an alloy containing silver 66 per cent., antimony 34 per cent., magnified
500 times ; the metal has been treated with sulphuretted hydrogen,
which has blackened the silver and left the antimony unchanged. In
the same figure some straight edges can be seen, in which the ramifica-
tions end, and which sketch out shapes resembling those of crystals of
antimony. The presence of these crystallites or incipient crystals in
eutectics constitutes one of the resemblances between them and the
micro-felsitic basis observed in many igneous rocks, and it seems likely
enough that if light transmitted through these alloys could be examined,
it would show that they are on the borderland between crystalline and
amorphous matter.

“ Besides the normal type of binary alloys, in which eutectics are ob-
servable, there is a second type consisting of alloys of metals which form

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

137

isomorplious mixtures with each other. These alloys, whatever may be
their composition, consist of only one species of crystals, which fill the
whole space, the composition and the properties of the alloys usually
varying in a continuous manner in each crystal. The number of metals
capable of forming isomorplious mixtures with each other is small, the
bismuth-antimony alloys being the only ones out of fourteen series in-
vestigated by M. Charpy in which this property was found to exist ; but,
on the other hand, there are many cases of definite compounds of two
metals isomorphous with one of them. Thus, for example, microscopic
study has enabled M. Charpy to detect a compound of tin and antimony
containing about 50 per cent, of tin and isomorphous with antimony,

Fig. 12. Fig. 13.

Alloy of tin, 75 per cent. : antimony, 25 per cent. Pure gold, x 1000 diameters.

although the freezing-point curve, worked out by Roland-Gosselin, and
consisting of three branches having their concavities upwards, and meet-
ing in two angular points or maxima, gives no direct indication of the
relation between these metals.

“ In fig. 11, in which the alloy containing 10 per cent, of antimony is
shown, the cubical crystals appear to consist of the 50 per cent, alloy set in
a eutectic magma. Fig. 12 shows the alloy with 25 per cent, of antimony.
As the proportion of antimony in the whole mass approaches 50 per cent.,
these crystals invade the whole field, and numerous minute cracks appear,
on the edges of which is seen a secondary crystallisation without the
interposition of an intermediate substance. This structure is character-
istic of a pure or homogeneous substance, as in the beautiful micro-sec-

138

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

tions of pure gold prepared by Osmond and Roberts- Austen,* one of
which is reproduced in fig. 13. When the proportion of antimony is in-
creased above 50 per cent., a eutectic magma shows no signs of reappear-
ing. Similarly in the tin-antimony series, there is evidence of a com-
pound containing 20 per cent, antimony and isomorphous with silver,
and in the silver-tin series a compound containing 30 per cent, of tin
also appears to be isomorphous with silver. An investigation of the
triple alloys of these metals would be interesting, as probably affording
fresh examples of isomorphous series.”

* Osmond and Roberls-Austen, 1 On the Structure of Metals, its Origin and
Changes,’ Phil. Trans., clxxxvii. (1896) A, pp. 417-32.

139

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on December 15th, 1897, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,
The President (E. M. Nelson, Esq.) in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 17tli November last were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The President said no doubt most of those present were aware1 of
the loss the Society had sustained by the death of one of their best
known Fellows, Mr. Thomas Curties, who had not only done a great deal
towards advancing microscopy, but had been of great assistance in
many ways both to the Royal Microscopical Society and to the Quekett
Microscopical Club, and especially in reference to the number of Fellows
whom he had induced to join. All who knew him would be very
sorry to hear of the loss they had sustained.

Mr. Measures said he had brought for exhibition a lens which Carl
Zeiss considered to be an advance on his previous lenses for low power
photography. In illustration of its performance he had brought for com-
parison two large photographs, one of which was taken with a projection
apochromatic lens of 35 mm., and the other with the new lens, “planar,”
of the same power, under exactly the same conditions, x 31^, and same
camera extension, viz. 44 in. The photographs being of the same object
(a spider) and of precisely the same size, would speak for themselves.
These lenses were made of 20, 50, 75, and 100 mm., and the price of
any of these was 6Z. Of these the 20 mm. and 50 mm. were fitted with
the Society’s screw to fit the nose of the Microscope in addition to the
usual flange for direct attachment to the camera front.

Mr. T. Comber said he had examined these photographs before the
meeting. Low power photography was not much in his line, although
he had occasionally used a lens of 35 mm. All he could say was that if
the photographs before them showed properly the comparative merits of
the two lenses, there was no doubt in his mind that the new combination
was a very great advance upon the old one ; he thought the prints fully
illustrated this.

The President said he could quite endorse what Mr. Comber had
said with regard to these lenses ; he thought there could be no doubt that
the difference in covering power between these two lenses Was enormous.

The thanks of the Society were, upon the motion of the President,
unanimously voted to Mr. Measures for bringing these lenses to their
notice.

The President said that two very interesting Microscopes had been
kindly lent to him by Mr. C. L. Curties for exhibition that evening.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. C. L. Curties for the
loan of these instruments (see p. 124).

140

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Mr. E. B. Stringer’s paper 4 On a new Form of Photomicrographic
Camera and Condensing System ’ was, in the absence of the author, read
by Mr. F. W. Watson Baker, the apparatus described being exhibited
in the room with oxy hydrogen lamp complete.

Mr. T. Comber said he had only seen the arrangement since he
came into the room. As his work was done by sunlight, artificial illu-
mination was a subject which he did not know much about. He had
consequently very little to say, except that the source of illumination
appeared to him to be a very valuable arrangement for those persons
who were obliged to do their work by artificial light. The method of
obtaining a parallel beam also seemed to be a most excellent one.
Looking at the image projected on the card, however, it did not seem to
be quite flat, so that the picture was sharp in the centre, but fell off
towards the margin of the field. Possibly this might be in some measure
due to the objective, but in any case the apparatus seemed to possess
great potential powers.

Mr. F. W. Watson Baker said that the want of flatness of field was
obviously due to the objective, the one used for the purpose of exhibition
being a 1/6 in. oil-immersion having a numerical aperture of 1*30.

The President said that he had had the advantage of seeing the ap-
paratus at work at Messrs. Watson’s. It was on an entirely different
plan to his own apparatus, because he never used any optical arrange-
ment between the light and the substage condenser,, except a heat inter-
ceptor and screens. There was, moreover, no fixed position for his
Microscope, as he preferred to centre his plate to the axis of the Micro-
scope rather than the Microscope to the plate. It was, however, a case
of tot homines tot sententise, especially with photomicrographers. The
reduction in the pressure of the gas was most important, a low pressure
of gas being necessary to obtain a small and steady light. He had not
used zirconium, but from what he had seen that evening, he thought it
a most excellent form of artificial light. The adjustability of all the
parts was an excellent idea, because they could be quickly and accurately
centered. With regard to the apparent divergence of the beam issuing
from the water trough, it was due to the magnification of the system,
and not to the want of parallelism of the pencils, as had been suggested ;
a Galilean opera or field glass would produce the same effect. He
■would conclude by congratulating Mr. Stringer on his success.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Mr. Stringer
for his paper, and to Mr. Baker for reading it on that occasion.

Prof. Bell said that a selection of slides of sections of Echinus spines
from the Tucker Collection in the Society’s Cabinet, were exhibited
under a number of Microscopes in the room that evening.

Prof. Bell having intimated that the next meeting of the Society
would be its Annual Meeting, read a list of nominations for Officers and
Council to be then submitted for election. He also said that the Council
had appointed Mr. Dadswell to act on their behalf as Auditor of the
Treasurer’s accounts for the past year, and asked the Fellows present
to elect another Auditor to act for them.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

141

Mr. J. M. Allen was then proposed by Mr. J. M. Offord, seconded
by Mr. J. W. W. Baker, and unanimously elected Auditor on behalf of
the Fellows of the Society.

It was announced that the Society’s Booms would be closed from
December 24th to January 3rd, inclusive.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—

The Society : — A selection of slides of sections of Echinus Spines,
principally from the Tucker Collection in the Society’s Cabinet.

An old Culpeper and Scarlet Microscope sent by Mr. George T.
Harris.

A Prazmowski Microscope,* and an old Powell and Lealand Micro-
scope, date 1846, lent for exhibition by Mr. Chas. L. Curties.

Mr. Stringer: — Apparatus illustrating Mr. Stringer’s paper, ex-
hibited by Messrs. Watson and Sons.

Mr. J. W. Measures : — Lenses made by Zeiss for low-power photo-
micrography, with two specimen prints. These lenses are also suitable
for ordinary photography, and have flanges to fit an ordinary camera.

New Fellows: — Ordinary Fellows : — Dr. John W. H. Eyre, Bev.
Walter Fielder, Mr. George Hind.

Honorary Fellow : — Mr. Arthur Bolles Lee.

ANNIVEESABY MEETING

Held on the 19th of January, 1898, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,
The President (E. M. Nelson, Esq.) in the Chair.

The Minutes of the meeting of 15th December last were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

Prof. Bell said they had received three donations for the Library,
which were worthy of some remark. The first of these was a copy of
the ‘ Transactions of the British Institute of Preventive Medicine,’
one of the youngest of their scientific societies, but one which he be-
lieved would prove to be a very important society indeed. It was the
first of their Transactions which was now presented.

The two other works were partly in exchange for the Journal of the
Society, but were of very much greater value, and were presented by
the Trustees of the British Museum ; one was a Catalogue of the
J urassic Bryozoa in the British Museum ; and the other the third
volume of the Catalogue of the Madreporarian Corals in the British
Museum. These were works of undoubted value.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to the donors.

* The following is engraved on the draw-tube of this Microscope : —

Mon. E. Hart & A. Praz
A. Prazmowski, Sucr.

Rue Bonaparte 1,

Paris.

142

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

The President said he had much pleasure in presenting, on behalf
of Mr. G. T. Harris, the old Microscope to the Society which had been
exhibited at the last meeting. It was described on that occasion, and
was upon the table before them ; he felt sure they would unite in giving
a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Harris for thinking of the Society in
this way ^see p. 125).

A vote of thanks for this donation was then put from the chair, and
carried unanimously.

Prof. Bell read a letter which had been received from Mr. Arthur
Bolles Lee, thanking the Society for the honour conferred upon him by
his election as an Honorary Fellow of the Society, at their meeting in
December last.

Prof. Bell then read the Report of the Council for the year 1897,
as follows : —

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR 1897.

FELLOWS.

Ordinary. — During the year 1897, 27 new Fellows were elected,
whilst 10 have died, 42 have resigned, and 19 have been removed from
the list for non-payment of subscriptions, and other causes. The in-
crease by 13 as compared with last year in the number of new Fellows
is very satisfactory, but this is unfortunately outweighed by the con-
siderable increase in the number of resignations.

Honorary. — One Honorary Fellow, Prof. J. J. S. Steenstrup, has died.
In his place, Mr. Arthur Bolles Lee has been elected ; the vacancy
caused by the death of M. Pasteur was filled during 1897, by the
election of Prof. G. B. De Toni.

The list of Fellows now contains the names of 516 Ordinary,
1 Corresponding, 50 Honorary, and 84 ex-Officio Fellows, being a total
of 651.

FINANCES.

Subscriptions. — The Council note with much satisfaction Ihe consider-
able increase in the amount received by annual subscriptions, and they
trust that the punctuality of the Fellows and the efforts of the Finance
Committee will result in a continuance of this very satisfactory condition
of affairs. They have, however, to point out that the total amount for
this year has been considerably increased by the arrears which have
been collected.

Journal. — The financial condition of the Society at the end of last
year compelled the Council to effect some radical changes in the manage-
ment and size of the Journal. To their regret these changes resulted
in the loss of the Editor and of one of the Sub-editors ; the regret of
the Council was expressed in the following Resolution which they be-
lieve the Society will endorse.

“ The Council feel that they cannot accept Prof. Bell’s resignation of
the position of Editor of the Journal of the Society without expressing
their deep regret that he has felt such resignation to be necessary, and
their cordial sincere thanks to him for the skill and care he has so long

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

143

given to the discharge of his duties, to which the present high standing
of the Journal is in great measure attributable.”

The expenses of the Journal are still very considerable in propor-
tion to the total income of the Society, and the Council feel that they
cannot for long expect Mr. Bennett, Dr. Hebb, and Mr. Thomson to abide
by the self-denying ordinances which they have accepted. In other
words, the roll of the Fellows must be increased in numbers.

INVESTMENTS.

The satisfactory appearance of the yearly balance sheet will, on
inspection, be found to be due to a sale of Indian Stock, by which
416Z. 10s. id. was brought into the income account. By dint of severe
economy the Council hope to be able shortly to reinvest part of the
income of the Society.

INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS.

Owing to the generosity of Messrs. Baker, Beck, Ross, and Swift, the
Society’s working Microscopes have been thoroughly overhauled and put
into repair free of cost.

The firm of Mr. Chas. Baker, besides putting in working order a
large binocular and a monocular of their make, were good enough to
see to a small Crouch, a monocular and a binocular (makers’ names
unknown), and to repair the Abbe condenser made by them for the
small Ross binocular.

Messrs. Beck, besides putting in working order two binoculars, a
“ Star ” Microscope, and apparatus, have fitted a substage condenser, with
iris diaphragm and stops, to their small binocular, thus making the in-
strument much more efficient and useful.

Messrs. Ross have put in order two binoculars, and about twenty
pieces of apparatus.

Messrs. Swift and Son put in working order a monocular and two
binoculars of their manufacture, with eye-pieces and three substage con-
densers, and fitted a new diagonal rack-and-pinion coarse adjustment to
one of the binoculars.

CABINET.

The cabinet of slides has during the past two years been examined
by the Treasurer, needful repairs effected, and the slides arranged and
numbered.

The first 4000 slides, representing the original collection of the
Society, exclusive of the diatoms and the Tucker, Farrants, and Wallick
donations, are now registered, and a sufficient index prepared to render
them available for reference.

The diatoms are being examined by Mr. T. Comber ; many will pro-
bably be rejected as being useless, owing to decay and various accidents.

Belonging to the old collection is the cabinet of about 1700 slides
presented by the executors of the lato Admiral B. W. Tucker, of Tre-
maton Castle, Saltash, Cornwall. They consist largely of bone and tooth
sections, and will supplement the valuable collection presented some years
ago by the late Joseph Beck.

The collection of about 900 slides presented by Mrs. Farrants are

144

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

chiefly the work of the late Robert Farrants, and as might be expected
from one so skilled in manipulation, are fine examples of the prepara-
tions made some thirty or forty years ago.

The cabinet of Dr. Wallich has not yet been thoroughly examined.
It contains over 900 slides representing much of the donor’s work in
India, during voyages, and elsewhere. These slides are one of the most
valuable portions of the Society’s collection.

The new series commences with over 400 slides of radulae of Mollusca,
presented by Mr. Charles Rousselefc. This is a valuable collection, and
with nearly 100 slides already in the Society’s possession, makes this
subject well represented.

Other large groups are the Marine Algee by Mrs. Clarke of Whitby,
about 200 Polyzoa by Miss Jelly, and the collection of Oribatidre, illus-
trating his monograph, presented by Mr. Michael.

LIBRARY.

Mr. F. A. Parsons was early in 1897 appointed Assistant-Secretary.

Mr. J. J. Vezey, in the absence of Mr. W. T. Suffolk, read the
Treasurer’s Report and Audited Balance Sheet for the year 1897 (see
opposite page).

Mr. Vezey said that, in the absence of the Treasurer, it would not be
expected that he should say much as to the accounts now presented, but
he should like to explain that the total sum received under the head of
subscriptions was nearly double the amount for the same item in the
previous year. This was owing to the collection of a large number of
arrears ; a great effort had been made during the past year to get these
in, and the result was that about 340Z. had been received under this head.
Another very satisfactory feature he should like to point out, was that for
the first time within his memory the whole of the liabilities of the Society
had been met and included in the year’s accounts, and indeed there was
not a single item owing at the end of the year. It must not be forgotten,
however, that the result had only been arrived at by selling out some of
the Society’s investments, and it was earnestly hoped that these would be
restored before long. Mr. Yezey desired to impress on Fellows the
necessity of increasing their numbers if the Society was to go on satis-
factorily in the future.

Mr. J. M. Allen moved that the Report of the Council, and the
Statement and Balance Sheet presented by the Treasurer, be received and
adopted, and that they be printed and circulated in the usual way. He
felt sure those present w’ould regard these reports as satisfactory, and
would feel that they were greatly indebted to the Treasurer for the result
of his special efforts during the year.

Mr. C. L. Curties having seconded the motion, it was put to the meet-
ing by the President and carried unanimously.

The President said their next business would be the election of
Officers and Council for the ensuing year. Ballot papers containing the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

145

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146

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

names of the Fellows nominated at the last meeting of the Society were
distributed in the room. He would ask Messrs. J. M. Allen and C. L.
Curties to act as Scrutineers on that occasion.

The President then read his Annual Address, in which he epitomised
the history and work of the Society during the past year, concluding
with an explanation of the practical construction of achromatic doublets
and triplets, the formulas for which he illustrated by diagrams drawn
upon the board. (The address will be printed in extenso.')

Mr. A. D. Michael felt sure that everyone present would wish to join
in returning a very hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Nelson for the address
to which they had just had the pleasure of listening. With regard to
the latter portion of the address it was perhaps hardly possible at the
moment to fully appreciate its value, because of the difficulty felt by
most persons in grasping lines of figures as they were read out, but
there could be no doubt that when they had the matter before them in
print, and it was possible to read it in full, they would find it to be a
most valuable and instructive communication. That a portion of it
should have to be passed over at the time was not at all an unusual
occurrence, as many of the most valuable papers brought before the
various learned societies were frequently taken as read for similar
reasons ; but he believed he was right in saying that when this address
was printed in extenso it would be a most valuable addition to their
Journal, and would be of great assistance to all who desired to construct
lenses upon correct principles. He had great pleasure in moving that
the best thanks of the Society be given to the President for the address
which he had delivered to them that evening.

Mr. G. 0. Karop said it was his privilege to second this vote of
thanks ; there could be no doubt that this address would be of inesti-
mable value to many of those who were interested in the problems of
optical construction.

Mr. Michael said that as this motion was obviously one which could
not be put from the chair, he had great pleasure in putting it, “ That
this meeting returns its hearty thanks to the President for the address
which they have just heard.

Carried by acclamation.

The President said that he must thank Mr. Michael for proposing,
Mr. Karop for seconding, and the Fellows present for the very kind way
in which they had received his address, and for the vote of thanks they
had passed. It was always a pleasure to him to do what he could in the
interest of the Royal Microscopical Society.

The President announced that the Scrutineers had handed in their
report, from which it appeared that all those gentlemen whose names
were printed on the list had been duly elected. For his own part he
could only again thank them for their renewed confidence, as shown by his
election for a further term of office as President of the Society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

147

The following is the list of Officers and Council elected : —

President — Edward Milles Nelson, Esq.

Vice-Presidents — Robert Braithwaite, Esq., M.D., M.R.C.S., F.L.S. ;
A. D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S. ; *The Hon. Sir Ford North J. J. Vezey,
Esq.

Treasurer — William Thomas Suffolk, Esq.

Secretaries — Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D., F.R S ; *R. G. Hebb,
Esq., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.

Twelve other Members of Council— C. Edmund Aikin, Esq., B.A.,
M.R.C.S. ; Conrad Beck, Esq. ; *Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A. ; Alfred
W. Bennett, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. ; *Rev. Edmund Carr, M.A.,
F.R.Met.S. : *T. Comber, Esq., F.L.S. ; Edward Dadswell, Esq.; George
0. Karop, Esq., M.R.C.S. ; Thomas H. Powell, Esq.; Charles F. Rousselet,
Esq. ; *John Tatham, Esq., M.A., M.D., M.R.C.P. ; *Rev. A. G. Warner.

Curator — Charles F. Rousselet, Esq.

Mr. J. J. Vezey said that a resolution had been entrusted to him to
move, and he accepted the duty with very great pleasure ; it was “ That
a hearty vote of thanks be given to the Treasurer and Honorary
Secretaries of the Society for their services during the past year. The
Treasurer had during the year been doing, as they had already heard,
invaluable service in the rearrangement of tho Cabinet, as well as
attending to his other duties. Reference had already been made to the
work of one of the Secretaries, and he was sure the Fellows of the
Society would wish to accentuate what had fallen from the President
with regard to Prof. Bell. He had been rarely absent from his post,
and had managed the Society’s meetings with great ability. With regard
to Dr. Dallinger, it was universally regretted that his health has not
permitted him to attend all the meetings during the past year, but it
was satisfactory to know that his absence was not due to any want of
interest in the Society, and he was sure the Fellows would agree with
him that it was an honour to the Society that so distinguished a man as
Dr. Dallinger should remain one of its Honorary Secretaries.

Mr. Ersser having seconded the motion, it was put to the meeting by
the President, and carried unanimously.

Prof. Bell said that, as on former occasions, the retiring nature of his
colleagues again rendered it necessary for him to return thanks for them.
In doing so he should like to add liis testimony to the extraordinary
amount of time which the Treasurer had given not only to his own special
duties, but also to the cabinet of the Society upstairs, and he should like
to echo the words of Mr. Vezey with reference to Dr. Dallinger — it was
a great honour to have him as a Secretary to the Society. References
had been made very kindly to himself ; it was Dr. Johnson who had said
that no man ever did anything consciously for the last time without a
feeling of regret ; but when a man had been going on with the same thing
for fifteen years, he thought this feeling might be altered, and some sense
rather of relief might be associated with it. Fifteen years was a long
time to look back upon, and as he had inflicted himself upon them so

* Those with an asterisk (*) have not held during the preceding year the office
for which they are elected.

148

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

often during that period, he would refrain from doing so further on that
occasion, except again to thank them.

Mr. T. Comber said that another vote of thanks had been placed in
his hands, and this was to the Auditors and Scrutineers. The Scrutineers
had no doubt performed a duty which was responsible, if not altogether
arduous ; but the duties of the Auditors must have been both responsible
and arduous. He had great pleasure in moving that the best thanks of
the Society be given to the Auditors and Scrutineers for their services.

This motion having been seconded by Mr. Beck, was put to the
meeting from the chair and unanimously carried.

New Fellows. — The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary
Fellows of the Society : — Mr. Philip E. B. Jourdain and Mr. Edward
Larmer.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

APRIL 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

II. — The President's Address.

By Edward M. Nelson.

( Bead January 1977?, 1898.)

My first and pleasing duty at tlie close of my year of office as your
President is to publicly thank the Officers and Council for their loyal
support, and to acknowledge the unremitting and cordial assistance I
have received from every one of them throughout the year.

The work of the Council during the past session has been con-
siderably greater than that of any preceding session within my
remembrance, and probably greater than that of any previous session
since the foundation of the Society ; and this quite apart from any
consideration of the work of the various sub-committees appointed for
special duties.

In this connection I ask the Society to signify its high appreciation
of the valuable services which have been, and still are being, rendered
to it by Mr. J. J. Yezey. Although an exceedingly busy man, he
has found time to work here day after day and often late at night in
the interests of the Society. Only those who are familiar with the
inner life of the Society are in a position to adequately appreciate the
value of his labours ; but I can assure you that without fee or reward
Mr. Yezey has placed his rare tact, sound judgment, and thorough
knowledge of business, as well as much of his valuable time, freely at
the disposal of this Society.

The subject of Finance has received the serious consideration of
the Council during the past year, and a Sub-Committee has been
appointed to assist the Treasurer in rearranging the accounts. I am
glad to be able to state that the result of their labours has been the
introduction of some useful reforms. The list of Fellows has been
thoroughly revised, the names of a large number whose whereabouts
had not been known for some years have been removed ; and although
by this process of revision the roll of Fellows seems to have been
considerably reduced, yet the names which are still retained are such
as may be relied on to fulfil their duties to the Society.

1898

M

150

Transactions of the Society .

It is with great satisfaction that I call your attention to the fact
that in the cash statement for this year all the known liabilities have
been met ; and, so far as I know, it is the first time for many years
that the Treasurer has been able to state that there is not a single
unpaid account owing by the Society. This result has been reached
by painful effort ; investments have] been sold and expenses cut down
in all directions, but I believe that the Society is now on a more
satisfactory basis than has been the case for a long time past.

It has been one of the chief aims of your Council during the past
year to promote a real and lively interest in Microscopy at the several
meetings of the Society. The marked improvement in the attendance
of Fellows at the monthly meetings would seem to show that the
endeavours of your Council have not been wholly in vain.

Conjointly with the increased attendance at the meetings there
has been an increase in the number of new Fellows elected during the
past year ; but I wish nevertheless to urge on you that it is of the
utmost importance that all should do what they can to swell the roll
of Fellows, as the very existence of the Royal Microscopical Society
depends upon it.

All Microscopists, whether Fellows of this Society or not, will bo
glad to hear that the gauge of the “ Society’s Screw ” has been per-
fected and placed on a satisfactory and permanent basis. For the
future, therefore, in the manufacture of screw tools it will be impos-
sible to vary the gauge except between very small limits, and all
accumulation of errors will be entirely prevented.

The thanks of the Society are specially due to Mr. Conrad Beck
for the trouble he has taken in this matter.

I have to thank those Fellows who, in answer to my request of
last year, have written expressing their views to me with regard to
the future management of our Journal. The Journal has been a
source of grave anxiety to the Council ; indeed it would have been
financially impossible to continue the abstract index of Zoological and
Botanical literature had not Mr. Bennett, Prof. Thomson, and Dr.
Hebb generously come to the assistance of the Council. Even under
the present more favourable circumstances, you will observe, if you
will examine the balance sheet, that not only is the abstract index
above referred to the largest item in our expenditure, but that it
absorbs almost the whole of our income. It is, however, right to
point out that much of the amount charged for printing in this year’s
account ought really to have been included in the accounts for last
ye*ar. Through the kindness of the gentlemen whom I have named,
the annual cost of the Journal has been considerably reduced, but
the Council will still have to consider in the immediate future how far
they are justified in expending so much of the Society’s income on the
one item of the Journal. It is not an easy question to determine
what proportion of each number shall be devoted to Zoology and
Botany, so that sufficient room shall be left for dealing adequately

The President's Address . By E. M. Nelson.

151

with Microscopy proper, which subject is, after all, the raison d'etre of
this Society. While we are anxious to provide Fellows residing
outside London with a Journal wdiich shall keep them au courant
with what is going on in our special subject, we must remember that
this Society was founded, and that it still exists, for other purposes
beside those of Journal publication.

We have serious responsibilities to discharge with regard to our
Cabinet of Objects, to our Cabinet of Instruments, and to our Library.
With the exception of a small sum for the repair of our Slide Cabinet,
nothing has been expended on it for years, and our collection would
now be in a deplorable condition had not Mr. W. T. Suffolk kindly
come to our assistance with his time and special knowledge of slide
mounting. You have already been informed of the manuscript
catalogue of 4000 objects which Mr. Suffolk has written and gene-
rously presented to the Society ; this represents but a small portion of
his work. I am sure the Fellows will appreciate his untiring efforts
for the preservation and rearrangement of our collection of Micro-
scopic Objects.

On our Cabinet of Instruments the Society has spent scarcely
anything for many years past. At the present time this valuable and
representative collection of Microscopes is, as you are aware, in a very
unsatisfactory condition. During the past year an effort has been
made to rearrange the entire collection, and for the better preserva-
tion of this valuable portion of the Society’s property your Council
have appointed a Curator. Mr. Rousselet, whose practical methods
and knowledge in regard to Microscopy are known to many of you,
has kindly accepted the post. The Council feel sure that under his
able management this important department will not be neglected in
future. During the past session the more modem instruments have
been repaired and put in order by their respective makers free of
charge. I am sure that the Society will accord to Messrs. Baker,
Beck, Ross, and Swift their hearty thanks for their generous action in
this matter.

Our Library cannot be said to be in a satisfactory state while so
many books and publications of purely Microscopical interest still
remain unbound. Your Council have had this matter under their
consideration, but have not felt justified in authorising any expendi-
ture upon the Library during the past year.

As several Fellows have both written and spoken to me with
regard to the commercial value of the advertising space in our Journal,
I may say that the Council have been dealing very carefully with this
subject, and a new arrangement has been entered into which it is
hoped will bring a larger income to the Society under this head.

Before leaving this part of my address let me point out that the
number of papers read last year was only eight, while the average
number appearing in the last ten volumes of the Monthly Microscopi-
cal Journal had been 28 per annum. I am aware that as the sciences

m 2

152

Transactions of the Society.

of Botany, Zoology, Geology, Ac., progress, there arises an increasing
tendency to what is known as specialisation. And thus it comes to
pass that many original biological investigations, which not very long
ago would have been discussed before our Society and recorded in our
columns, now find their way to the Proceedings of other Societies
which division of labour has called into existence in recent years, and
this notwithstanding the fact that the true solution of the problems
involved frequently depends on critical examinations with the widest
apertures and the most perfect appliances of modern Microscopy. If
this Society is to live a vigorous life an improvement must take place
in this respect ; let me therefore urge that those F ellows who are
doing original microscopic work will contribute at least some of their
papers to this Society.

Finally, the thanks of the Society are due to our Assistant-Secretary
Mr. Parsons, who assumed office at a period of exceptional difficulty,
and who has fulfilled his duties entirely to the satisfaction of your
Council. This concludes what may be called the official part of my
address, which relates to the work of the Council as well as to the
management and control of the Society ; but before beginning the
second part let me say a few words on the changes that have taken
place among our staff of officers in the course of the year just closed.
Prof. Bell, who has been an abstractor for the Journal for the last
eighteen years, one of our Secretaries for fifteen, and our Editor for
seven years, has now resigned these posts. During these years the
zoological abstract has been conducted with such marked ability as to
have elicited commendation, not only in this country, but abroad. The
Society has already becomingly expressed its thanks to him for his
valuable services in these several capacities during such an extended
period, and I feel sure the Fellows will most willingly accord their
tribute of appreciation of the work he has done.

Considerable activity has been displayed in the department of
Microscopy during the past year. First, with regard to the theory of
the Microscope, there has been another contribution to the literature
of the cf Abbe theory,” by the President of the American Microscopi-
cal Society, Dr. A. Clifford Mercer, who is a Fellow of this Society,
and well known to many of us. The pamphlet, which consists of
7 6 pages, 35 photos, and several woodcuts, is entitled ‘ An Experi-
mental Study of Aperture as a factor in Microscopic Vision.’ In it
the author combats the Abbe idea of microscopic vision being a thing
sui generis, and regards the laws of undulatory light, as already enun-
ciated for the telescope and photographic camera, as applicable to the
Microscope; he utterly condemns the narrow cone and oblique light,
and considers the 3/4 axial cone as the most suitable method for
Microscope illumination, and bases his resolving limit accordingly.
iSorne important experiments are described which demonstrate the
correctness of Lord Bayleigh’s limit of resolution for circular apertures
.as contrasted with that calculated by Sir George Airy. With regard

The President's Address. By E. M. Nelson

153

to the Abbe theory, Dr. Mercer says, “ Eesolution in the Abbe theory
may be said to increase by jumps. So long as the central image of
the source of light alone is to be seen at the back of the objective
resolution is not present. The aperture may be increased without
change in the contraction of the diffraction pattern, and in accompany-
ing resolution, so long as the central image alone is to be seen at the
back of the objective. But the moment the increase in aperture is
sufficient to uncover, or admit, one flanking spectrum image resolution
is present. With greater increase in aperture no improvement in the
picture as to the contraction of the diffraction pattern, and as to ac-
companying resolution, is to be seen until another spectrum image is
uncovered or admitted. On the other hand, with full cone illumina-
tion, resolution increases continuously, and not by jumps or by peri-
odic accessions.” With regard to the use of oblique light the author
says, “ Photos 2, 3, and 4 are a pictorial warning for a second time,
now a warning against the use of oblique illumination in ordinary
work as a means of increasing, or of attempting to exhaust, the resol-
ving power of the Microscope. At the same time it becomes evident
that every substage should be provided with a means by which its
condenser may be accurately centered, and that every student using
the Microscope should be familiar with a method of centering his sub-
stage condenser. These general rules should be accompanied by
another : the substage condenser should be as well made as the best
objective, and should be used with an ever present appreciation of its
power to improve or injure the picture of microscopic vision.”

It is plain, therefore, that American Microscopy as enunciated by
the President of its most influential Society has rebelled against the
Abbe theory. Let me recommend all interested in this subject to
read this important paper.

Apparatus. — There is a dissecting Microscope stand with a very
well arranged polariscope described in the Journal ;* it is an instrument
that will commend itself especially to petrologists. At the March
meeting, Prof. Wright exhibited his adaptation of a ghost micrometer
for the purpose of counting blood-corpuscles ; f this admirable plan
will no doubt greatly assist those who have this kind of computations
to make. The ghost micrometer for linear measurements was the inven-
tion of Dr. Goring ; J it has however been reinvented several times, §
but this adaptation of Prof. Wright’s is original. We next have a
new mechanical stage with an extended transverse movement, j]

And then there are six kinds of photomicrographic apparatus, of
which two are simple, one for daylight, one for lamp, one for electric,
and one for limelight illumination.

Passing over the simpler forms of apparatus which do not call for
any special notice, we come to Mr. J. E. Barnard’s for electric illumi-

* Journal R.M.S., 1897, p. 163. f Tom. cit., p. 215.

1 ‘ Micrographia ’ (Pritchard and Goring), 1837, p. 51.

§ M.M.J., ix. (1873) p. 2. || Journal R.M.S., 1897, p. 185.

151

Transactions of the Society.

nation.* This has an arc lamp fitted with mechanism for hand control
of the carbons ; there is also a subsidiary image of the carbons cast on a
side screen for the purpose of assisting regulation ; by these means a
perfectly steady light can be maintained. The drawback in the use
of the arc light for photomicrography seems to he that unless a bull’s
eye is employed it is hardly possible to cover any ordinary object,
because the image of the incandescent crater as minified by the sub-
stage condenser presents such an exceedingly small surface.

Mr. E. B. Stringer’s photomicrographic camera f is very elaborate,
being fitted with a powerful condensing apparatus, each portion of
which is capable of being independently centred. The specially
interesting feature in this instrument is the control of the gas and the
beautiful and uniformly illuminated disc of zircon, -which is about
1 /4 in. in diameter.

Next we have a binocular dissecting Microscope by Zeiss t fitted
with two objectives ; the eye-pieces having Forro erectors by which
an ortho-stereoscopic image is obtained. This apparatus is only suit-
able for low powers, but yields very beautiful effects.

Finally, two ancient Microscopes have been presented to the
Society. The first being a second contribution to our cabinet by
Mr. James More, jun., of a Microscope of the Culpeper type ; § this,
which is fitted with a rackwork adjustment, was probably made by
Jones (joost 1797). The other, the gift of Mr. George T. Harris, is
an older example of the same pattern ; || in this the octagonal box foot
is retained, the legs are slightly scrolled, and the body is covered with
shagreen ; its date may be put back to circa 1750.

Those about to name new diatoms should, before doing so, read
Mr. T. Comber’s excellent paper H on ‘ The Limits of Species in the
Diatomaceae.’

Two interesting old Microscopes have been lent for exhibition.
One formerly belonged to Sir I). Brewster,** with which he worked
until the year 1838. This contained the garnet lens which was con-
structed for the purpose of reducing the spherical aberration, but
which in reality introduced greater errors than it was intended to
remove.

The second old instrument was a Powell and Lealand,tt which was
important, inasmuch as it possessed a transitional form of fine adjust-
ment.

With regard to Microscope objectives, while apochromatism remains
for the most part where it was, considerable progress has taken place
during the past few years in the improvement of semi-apochromats.
The colours of the uncorrected dispersed rays have become less violent,

* Journal R.M.S., 1897, p. 600. An extended account of this is in press.

t An account of this is in press.

+ Journal R.M.S., 1897, p. 602. § Tom. cit., p. 181, and 1898, p. 126, fig. 4.

|| Op. cit., 1898, p. 126, fig. 3. f Op. cit., 1897, p. 455.

** Made by Doliond, Journal R.M.S., 1898, p. 123, fig. 1.
ft Journal R.M.S., 1898, p. 125, fig. 2.

The President's Address. By E. M. Nelson . 155

and the apertures have been correspondingly increased. This is a
promising field, but for the future we must look to the chemist and
glass manufacturer, rather than to the optician, for further improve-
ment. Durable glass possessing more favourable optical qualities than
any as yet catalogued is required for the production of better lenses.

The semi-apochromat.ic oil 1/12 has had its aperture enlarged, so
that its Optical Index is now 10 ‘8 against 10' 4. Messrs. Leitz have
made lately a fine oil 1/10 for the long tube with an O.I. of 13*0.
Their No. 5 (formerly known as P 7) which is a 1/4 with an O.I. of
18*6, is a remarkably fine lens. Unfortunately it requires a tube
only 4J or 5 inches long to obtain correction on a common balsam-
mounted object with a thickish cover-glass.

It is high time to speak out against this modern craze for objec-
tives corrected for very short tubes, such as 100-120 mm. I suppose
the supply is equal to the demand, and if the truth were known, the
demand is occasioned by purchasers who have not the very slightest
idea when their objectives are in or out of correction, and who regard
and use a Microscope merely as if it were an enlarged magnifying
glass. Probably the best results are to be obtained when objec-
tives are corrected for a 10-in. optical tube, which is equivalent to
about 8f-in. (222 mm.) mechanical tube.

Coming to more recent times, Messrs. Swift have issued a series
of semi-apochromats of very fine quality. It is neither the rule nor
the custom here to enter into the question of the cost of apparatus,
but the exceptional fall, which every one must have observed, in the
price of Microscope objectives of high quality, possessing large optical
indices, has been so remarkable that it cannot be passed over. For
example, the above-mentioned oil-immersion 1/10 is about the same
price as a first class 2/3 in. was when I took up Microscopy in 1866.
Messrs. Swift, who were the pioneers in this country of cheap objec-
tives which had optical indices worth speaking of, have issued their
latest series at prices quite on a par with those which obtain on the
Continent. Nor is this reduction of price confined to semi-apochro-
mats, for both Messrs. Powell and Swift make fluorite apochromats
at prices which I believe opticians on the Continent have not yet
reached.

Semi-apochromatic condensers also have been greatly improved;
both Messrs. Beck and Watson make excellent condensers at a price
hitherto unheard of. With regard to condensers, it must be borne in
mind that the finest condenser can be reduced to the level of a most
inferior one unless the slip, the object under examination is mounted
upon, be of a certain thickness. There has been a fashion among
mounters for a long time past of putting up selected and test speci-
mens on “ extra thin ” slips. This was done in order to facilitate the
employment of a very oblique beam of illumination in one or more
azimuths. The fallacy underlying this kind of illumination has been
pointed out ad nauseam.

156

Transactions of the Society.

Therefore the raison d'etre for the “ extra thin ” slip has gone, hut
the mischief that it does with the wide-angled cone of axial illumina-
tion remains, which is, that it prevents an aplanatic wide-angled cone
being obtained. I have always been of opinion that there should be
a gauge for the thickness of slips as well as for their size. One-
fifteenth of an inch is a very common size for ordinary slips, and would
make an excellent standard. The “ extra thins ” are about half that
amount, and must he regarded as quite useless ; for if an object, such as
a diatom^ which possessed interesting fine secondary structure, were
mounted on such a slip, the probability is that the secondary structure
would for ever remain invisible.

On the Construction of Achromatic Doublets and Triples.

The above is the title of my own paper, which I am about to
present for your kind acceptance to-night. As you have already been
listening to me long enough, you will be glad to hear that a large
part of the paper is mathematical, and consequently unreadable ;
therefore I propose merely to go over a few points dealt with in the
paper, and leave the mathematics for the Journal. The subject is a
large one, far too large for any single address, consequently only a
portion of the ground can be traversed ; the portion chosen for to-
night may with propriety be called the middle portion ; for dispersion,
which necessarily is the beginning of the matter, will be dismissed
in a few words, and the end of the subject will not be reached by a
long way.

By the term “ achromatic lens ” a lens is meant that is capable of
bringing two separated portions of the spectrum to the same focus,
while an apochromatic lens brings three separated portions to the
same focus. To-night, however, we shall deal with the achromatic
lens.

If we take any equiconvex lens, we shall find that it possesses an
amount of a certain kind of chromatism, and that this amount of
chromatism depends on the focal length of the lens, its diameter, and
the substance of which it is composed. Now, if we take an equi-
concave lens made of similar substance and of the same diameter and
focal length, we shall find that it possesses an opposite kind of chro-
matism, but of the same amount as that in the first lens. If, there-
fore, we place these two lenses together, we shall have an achromatic
doublet of the simplest construction, the chromatism of the one lens
being destroyed by an equal amount of an opposite kind of chromatism
in the other. The achromatism of this doublet will be of a very
perfect kind, because all the portions of the spectrum are united
at the focus. But the combination is of no practical value, owing to
the great length of its focus, which is infinite, because the whole of
the convergence obtained with the convex lens has been exactly
neutralised by the diverging power of the concave.

The President's Address. By E. M. Nelson.

157

Now, if we can obtain a different substance for the concave that
will yield a greater quantity of opposite chromatism for a given focus,
then we need not make its focus so short. In other wTords, a concave
of a longer focus will supply the requisite quantity of opposite
chromatism to neutralise the chromatism in the convex.

A useful achromatic combination can therefore be constructed by
uniting a short focus converging lens made of a less dispersive sub-
stance with a long focus diverging lens made of a higher dispersive
substance. The object, therefore, of this paper is to show how useful
achromatic combinations of any given focal length can be made.

In the first place, we must have two glasses possessing different
optical qualities, called dispersive powers. Tn order to determine the
dispersive power of any glass, we must know the refractive indices of
that glass for three different portions of the spectrum. For our pur-
poses, the three portions indicated by the three Frauenhofer lines C,
D, and F will suit. C and F are called the extremes and D the
mean. When these data are known the dispersive power can be found
by dividing the difference of the refractive indices of the extremes by

that of the mean, less one. This is written — — ~ ; its reciprocal

/xD - l

or — is known by the symbol v.

H'-p ~~ H'g

Method I. — Let v be the reciprocal of the dispersive power of the
less dispersive medium, and v that of the higher dispersive medium.
(In the Jena glass catalogue the values of v are printed in heavy
type.) Then v' is the focus of the positive lens, and v that of the
negative lens ; these when combined will make an achromatic doublet.

(It will be noted that the v of the crown glass denotes the focus
of the flint lens, and vice versa ; in other words, they are crossed
over.)

Example * J. — Taking the glasses in the Jena catalogue marked
No. 23 and 39, we find v =32-0 = the focus of the positive lens,
and v = — 51*2 = the focus of the negative lens. We have now to
find F the focus of this combination ; it will be

v'v _ 32-0 x - 51-2 _ - 1638*4 _ OQ
v' + v 32-0-51-2 -19-2

It will be of material assistance if we reduce this to a combination
whose focus = 1*0; we must therefore divide the foci of the lenses
forming the combination by the focus of the combination.

Thus :

/ = Si - •*»> /' - iftl - - •» ; and F = 1*0.

* A Fellow of tlie Royal Astronomical Society (also a Fellow of this Society)
who, by publishing for so many years a fortnightly article in the ‘ English Mechanic,’
has done so much to enkindle the scientific spirit in this country, has expressed a
strong opinion that all formulae should be accompanied by examples worked out.
This recommendation of his will be adopted throughout this paper.

158

Transactions of the Society.

As these two division sums can be performed by slide rule, and the
combined focus 85*33 found by Mr. Tamblyn- Watts’ calculator,* the
above is a simple as well as rapid method, as the values can be found
by inspection without having recourse to any arithmetical process
whatever.

Method II, which is the simpler for arithmetical calculation. We
have the following well known two equations for finding the values of
/and/', viz.

111. 1 . 1 _

/ / I vf V J

Putting F = 1 * 0 and combining, we have

Let nf = —; and n = its reciprocal $ or — ; then / = 1 — n;
f = 1 — n' ; and F = 1*0.

Example 2. — Using the same glasses as before, we have v = 51*2,

and v — 32*0; then n — = * 625.

51*2

The reciprocal of *625 = 1*600 — n! — o.y q 5*

Then / = 1 - *625 = *375; and f = 1 - 1*600 = - *600;
F = 1*0, which is the same result as obtained above.

We now have to find the radii ; but as they will depend on the
form of lens we wish to construct, it will be better to give a general
formula that will be suitable for every case. First, however* we must
agree to the convention employed with regard to the signs of the
radii. The radii of all surfaces which are convex towards the left
hand will be considered positive, and of all those which are concave
towards the left hand negative. Example, the radius of the first
surface of a biconvex lens will be positive, and of its second surface

* Journal K.M.S., 1897, p. 1.

t In 1827 Sir J. Herschel wrote his work on Optics (published inEncy. Metrop.,
art. ‘Light’), and in 1829 Henry Coddington’s celebrated book appeared. These
two books are still regarded as standard works, and have never been surpassed.
Both these eminent mathematicians use a convention of signs which makes the focus
of a converging lens positive and that of a diverging one negative, and the symbol a>
to denote the dispersive ratio. W. N. Griffen wrote a treatise on Optics (2nd ed.,
1 842) in which he reversed this convention, by making the focus of a converging
lens negative, &c., and w to denote the dispersive power. (The Gauss method is given
in this book.) In Parkinson’s ‘ Optics,’ which is a reprint of Griffen’s work omitting
Gauss’ method, this altered convention is maintained. It surely is a great pity
to introduce such confusion of signs and symbols without obtaining any commen-
surate advantage. In this paper the refractive index will be denoted by n, the term
commonly adopted by English authors ; but owing to the above mentioned confusion
with regard to the dispersive ratio , n will be used for it.

X The reciprocals of all numbers from 1 to 10,000 are given in Barlow’s Tables
(Spon, price 4s. 6d.), a most useful book for opticians.

The President's Address. By E. M. Nelson.

159

negative ; similarly, the radius of the first surface of a biconcave is
negative, while that of its second surface is positive. A meniscus,
whether converging or diverging, when it is turned so that its surfaces
are convex towards the left hand, will have both its radii positive ; but
when it is turned the opposite way they will both be negative. All
distances measured from left to right are positive, in the contrary
direction negative.*

The type of lens that we shall select for our general formula will
be a biconvex doublet, having its contact curves of the same radii.

Case 1. — Let r, s be the radii of the positive lens, and r\ s’ those
of the negative lens (fig. 14). Then r’ = s.

Let /Jj be the refractive index of the glass of which
the positive lens is composed, and y! that of the negative
lens.

Let W be the ratio of the radii of the exterior sur-
faces r and s’ ; then W = > let / be the focus of the

positive, and f that of the negative lens.

Let a = (fju - 1) / and b = {y! — 1) /'.

Then

Fig. 14.

r s'

(W + l)ab
s ~ W a - b~

as

= r

r =

a +- s

s =

bs

b — s

or

= — W r.

Example 3. — It is required to construct an achromatic doublet
(F = 1*0), using the same glass as above, which shall have the
radius of the exterior surface of its negative lens twice that of the
exterior surface of its positive lens ; thus — s’ = 2 r ; then W = 2.

Glass No. 23 ; yu = 1*5368 ; /= *375 as above.

Glass No. 39 ; y! = 1*6734 ; /' = — *600 as above.
a = (p - 1)/ = *2013 ;& = (/- 1)/' = - *4040 ;

(2 + 1 )ab ab — — *08133; 3 ab = - *244.

S~ 2a- b ' 2a= -4026; 2a - b = -8066.

s =

- *244

"7MM~

3025

r .

r =

s =

s =

a s

a + s'

- *06089

- • 1012

b s

b — s'
•1222
- *1015 :

as = — *06089 ; a + s = — * 1012.

= *6017.

bs = *1222 ; b — s = - *1015.

= - 1*204 = - 2 r. F = 1*0.

9

* These conventions are the same as those employed by Sir J. Herschel.

160

Transactions of the Society.

The lens has therefore been constructed, and it fulfils the required
condition that its posterior surface has twice the radius of its anterior
surface.*

If it was required that the doublet should be equiconvex, then
W = 1, and s — ^ a ^ ; the other radii being found as before, thus

r =

as

; and s' = — r ; and r' = s ; and similarly with any
other ratios of r and s'.

We will now investigate the other cases which are
included in our general formula.

Case 2. — Let the negative lens have a plane ex-
terior surface (fig. 15). Then s' = co , and W = go .

Therefore s = h, and r =

a s

a + s

; r' = s; and s' = go .

Example 4. — We found above that h= - '4040;
this then is the radius of the contact curve, s ; r can be found by

putting this value for s in the formula

•2013 x - '4040

a s

, a being '2013
a + s &

All the radii are therefore deter-

r = ------ - = *4012.

•2013 - '4040

mined, and it will be observed that the crown is practically an equi-
convex. F, the focus of the ’combination, = 1 • 0. The lens is there-
fore constructed.

Case 3. — Let the positive lens have a plane exterior surface (fig. 16).

Then r — go and W = 0. Therefore s = — a; and s' = s . ;

b - s

r' = s as before.

Example 5. — We found above that a = • 2013 ; the radius of the

contact curve s is therefore - '2013; this is also the value of r’ ;

7 a c\a c\ u, , -4040 x - '2013

i= - -4040; therefore s — ^ + ,2Q13 = - -4012;

F = 10.

* When Barlow’s Tables are at hand, the following is a simple method of finding
the radii. Let c be the reciprocal of a, d that of b , and e that of s.

Then - = c + e, and - = e — d.
r s

Thus c = 4-968, d = — 2-475, and e — — 3-306 :

and - = 1-662; r=-6017: - = - *831 ; s' =- 1-203.
r s'

The reciprocal method has not been inserted in the text, because it is not so
rapid for computing by means of a slide rule.

It may be as well to state here that Prof. Fuller’s spiral slide rule, which reads
to 4 significant figures, is very suitable for optical computations. If logarithms are
employed, a capital 5-place table of numbers by Sang is published by Blackwood,
price 6d. Chambers’ new ‘ Mathematical Tables,’ price 4s. 6d., which contains a
7-place logarithmic table of numbers, and natural and logarithmic canons of trigono-
metrical functions to 1' of arc, is an excellent work.

161

The President's Address. By E. ill. Nelson.

The lens is therefore constructed. It will he seen that s' has the
same numerical value as r, and s half the value of s, in the preceding
example.

Case 4 . — Let it be required to construct a triple consisting of two
biconvex lenses enclosing an equiconcave (fig. 17).*

Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18.

This is composed of two precisely similar doublets of the form in
Case 2 (fig. 15), placed with their plane surfaces in contact. But as two
doublets each of F = 1*0 would make a combination whose F = 1/2 it
is necessary in order to keep the focus of the triple 1 • 0 to multiply all
the radii by 2.

Case 5. — To construct a Steinheil triple (fig. 18).

Here we have two doublets with their plane surfaces in contact, of
the form in Case 3 (fig. 16).

The procedure in order to make the focus of the triple 1 • 0 is pre-
cisely similar to the preceding case, viz. to double all the radii.

Therefore w ith the above mentioned glasses a triple of the form in
fig. 17 of 1 * 0 in. nominal focus can be constructed by making all the
radii *8 in., and one of the form in fig. 18 by making the radii of
the exterior surfaces * 8 in., and those of the contact surfaces half as
much, or * 4 in.

Example 6. — It is required to construct a triple of the form in
fig. 17 of Chance’s Hard Crown and Dense Flint (Jena catalogue
Nos. 8 and 36 respectively). Here we have for No. 8, /x = 1*5179

and v = 60 * 2, and for No. 36, // = 1*6202, v = 36*2. n = 5^?

iJU * iL

= *6013; n = reciprocal =

6013

1*663 ; / = 1 -

= *3987 and f = 1 - 1*663 = - *663. a = *3987 x *5179
= *2065; b = - *663 x *6202 = - “4112.

Let r" s", r s, r' s' be the radii ; then as in Case 2 we have s" = b

= - -4112 ; and r" = - -S"
a -j- s

— *8401

as" = - -8491; a + *" = - -2047; r" = — = -415.

* A solid eye-piece for a telescope formed by a lens of this construction was
exhibited in London at the Great Exhibition, 1851, by Mr. Reade.

162

Transactions of the Society .

Doubling these radii, we have r" = * 830 and s" = — • 822.

Our lens is therefore constructed, and the values of the radii are as
follows (fig. 17).

r" = + *830 r = — -822 r' = + *822

F = 1-0.

s" = - *822 s = + -822 s' = - -830

Example 7. — It is required to construct a Steinheil triple of the
same glass. Let the radii be r" s", r s, r’ s' as in fig. 18. a = * 2065
and b = — *4112 as above.

Then taking the posterior half of the triple we have, by Case 3
(fig. 16),

s — — a = — *2065 ; and s' = 7 ^ ; b s = *8491 ;

b — s

l - s = - -2047; s' = --ty-L = - -415.

Doubling these radii we have s = — *413 and s' = — *830.

The lens is therefore constructed, and the radii * are (fig. 18)

r" = + *830 r = + *413 r' = - -413

F = 1-0.

s" = + -413 l = - -413 s' = - *830

It is now necessary to point out that in all the above examples no
account has been taken of the thickness of the lenses ; therefore the
foci of these achromatic combinations will be only approximately
correct ; therefore the quantity F, which in these cases is shorter than
the true focus, may be termed the Nominal Focus of the combination.
We will next investigate the method of ascertaining the True Focus
of a combination ; but first rules for determining the thickness of a lens
must be given.

There are several methods by which the thickness of a lens may
be determined. The first and most usual is to draw the lens out to
scale and measure it ; the second is easily performed by the help of
Barlow’s tables in which are given the squares and square roots of all
numbers from 1 to 10,000. Let t be the thickness, d the diameter of

/ dF

a plano-convex lens, and r its radius, then t = r — .

If the lens is biconvex it will be necessary to treat it as consisting

* The radii r” in Example 6 and s' in Example 7 might easily be found with the
assistance of a reciprocal table, as in the previous examples. Thus in Example 6 we

have c = 4 = 4*843; e = 4- = — 2*432; then 4- = c + e = 2*411 ; t" — *415, as
a s r

before.

For the Steinheil in Example 7 we have d = ^ = — 2*432; e = - = — 4*843;

b s

then 4 = e — d = — 2*411; s' = — *115.

s

The President's Address. By E. M. Nelson.

163

of two plano-convex lenses having their plane surfaces in contact ; the
thickness of each must be found and the results added together. If
the lens is a converging meniscus its thickness will be the difference
between the thickness of the two pianos.

Examine 8. — Let the lens be biconvex, the radii being 1*16 and
2, the diameter d being 2.

* = 1*16-^1:346-1 = 1*16- Vt3460* = 1*16- *588= *572.
t' = 2 - */4 ~ 1 = 2 - 1-732 = -268.
t + t' = *572 + *268 = *840 = the thickness of the lens.

The third method is to divide the diameter by twice the radius.
This quotient is a natural sine, which must be looked out in the
column of natural sines in Chambers’ Tables ; the line in which this
figure occurs must be followed across, the page until the column of
versed sines is reached. Take this versed sine and multiply it by the
radius ; the product will be the thickness of the plano-convex. A
biconvex or a meniscus must be divided up into pianos as in the
previous case.

As the division and multiplication can be performed by slide rule,
this method is very rapid.

Example 9. — Find the thickness of a plano-convex lens whose
diameter d = 2, and radius r = 1*5.

Here = • 6666 = natural sine of 41° — 48'. The natural
2 r

versed sine of this angle is • 255. Then * 255 x 1 * 5 = * 382, the
thickness.

When the radius is large in proportion to the diameter, an increase
in the diameter will only cause a small relative increase in the thick-
ness, but as the radius approaches the diameter in equality a small
increase in the diameter will add considerably to the thickness. In
achromatic combinations the limit of utility is reached when the
diameter of the combination is equal to 2 r sin 60° = 1 *732 r.

Example 10. — The radius of the contact curve of the Steinheil
triple (Example 7) is '413. What is the greatest diameter that
ought to be given to the combination? Ans. '413 X 1'732 = *715.
But this is a maximum, in practice it would be better to use 1 * 6 r,
the diameter in this case would be * 66.

Having by one of the above plans determined the thicknesses of
the lenses, we must proceed by the Gauss method to find the focal
lengths of the combination. The data are the refractive indices /x, /x',

* Note, great care must be exercised in looking out the square root ; for the
square root of 346 is 18*60, while that of 3460 is 58*82. Now, as the square root (4’
*346 is *5882, it is necessary to look it out in the four figure columns as 3460, and
then alter the decimal place. If, on the other hand, the figure had been 3 '46, it
must be looked out as 346, and the decimal place altered to 1*860.

164 Transactions of the Society.

tlie radii r" s", r s} r s, the thicknesses t", t, l', and the foci /", /, f of
the lenses.

Example 11. — Taking then for an example (Case 5, Example 7,
fig. 18) of two diverging menisci of flint enclosing an equi-convex of
crown, we have r" = • 830, s' = • 413, &c. : /i = 1 • 5179, f = 1 • 6202,
we may call the thicknesses of the menisci t" = • 1 = t', and determine
t, the thickness of the eqni-convex, by calculation (see Example 9) as
*387, assuming the diameter of the lens to be *7.

We first have to find the principal points p" and q" of the flint
diverging meniscus, and its focus f" ; this is accomplished by going
through the following arithmetical computation, which is quite
straightforward, and may be quickly accomplished by the help of a
slide rule. Great care must be exercised with regard to the signs of
the quantities throughout. In fig. 19 the lenses have been separated
for the sake of clearness.

Fig. 19.

0 Q F

r" = -830 r = -413 r' = - -413 t" = -3

s" = -413 s = - -413 s' = - -830 t = -387

fj = 1-6202 /t = 1*5179 t' = • 1

«1= 'I

9 // 1-B202

•06172;

(jj! - 1) g" = -6202 x '06172 = -03828;
- g" r" = - -06172 x -830 = - -05123 ;
-rj" s"=- -02549; r"s"=-3428;

s" - r" 4- O’ - 1) g" = - -3787 = h" ;
O' - 1 )h" = - -2319 = k" ;

165

The President’s Address. By E. M. Nelson.

~^Sw- •*»>

g = -= ' 255; (/j. - \)g = '1321 ; - <7?- = - '1053 ;

A1

— gs= *1053; rs = — *1706;
s — r + (/x — 1) £/ = — * 6939 = h •

(/i- l)h= - *3594 =k; p = ^j^= -1517;

2 = ~f~ = ~ '1517 ; /='-£=• 4747.

<Z = -0844 ; elf = -04006 ; /"/= - -6026 ;

/"+ f — d = — 1-0687;

Q = 1- JTT

df _ *04006 n- AQ_.Q

/" + / - d _ ? _ “F0687 “ ? + 03748 ;

</>

/"/ _ - *6926

f'+f-d - 1-0687

= -6481.

D = -01692 ; Df = - -06846 ; </>/'=- '9456

<£ +/' - D = - -8578 ;

F

= 1-102.

Working distance = distance of the focal point from last surface
of lens = * 887.

Magnifying power ^ — 1 = 8 * 07.

We see that the first principal point p" is * 1353 distant from the
vertex of r”, it is positive and therefore it is measured towards the
right hand; the second principal point a" is *0673, also measured

1898 * ' N

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towards the right hand from the vertex of s". The true focus/" =
— 1*459. Next we have to find p and q the principal points of the
crown equi-convex. This is done in precisely the same manner, but
s being negative makes — g s positive, and r s negative ; h being also
negative, p is positive and q negative ; the first is therefore measured
to the right, and the second to the left, and both points are situated
within the lens. The true focus, which is *4747, is positive.

We have next to combine the left-hand diverging meniscus with
the equi-convex lens, and to find the second principal point of this
combination, which we will call Q, and its true focus <£. Now,
although these lenses are in physical contact, yet, optically speaking,
they are not so ; we must therefore first determine the optical distance
cl between the lenses ; this is the distance between the second prin-
cipal point q" of the diverging meniscus and the first principal point
p of the equi-convex ; this obviously is *1517 — *0673 = *0844.

By going through another arithmetical calculation, we find that
the second principal point Q of the combination is situated at a point
*03748 to the right hand of q, and therefore *1142 to the left of the
posterior surface of the equi-convex lens ; the focus of the combination
is *6481 and is positive.

This doublet combination must now be combined with the second
diverging meniscus. It will be unnecessary to calculate the principal
points p' c[ and focus f of the second meniscus, as the lens is perfectly
symmetrical with the first lens, all we have to do is to put p' = — q’,
f — *— p ”, and f = f" ; both ,the radii being negative, p' and / will
also be negative, and therefore will be measured from the proper
vertices to the left.

The optical distance D, between the doublet and the right hand
diverging meniscus, must now be determined, it is the distance Q p'}
both these points lie inside the equi-convex crown lens, Q being
*1142 and p' *0673 from its posterior surface; D therefore is
*1142 — *0673 = *0469; it is positive because measured towards
the right.

The last computation, which is similar to the one preceding it,
shows us that the posterior principal point Q' is *0798 to the left of
q' ; now as ql is • 1353 to the left of the vertex of s' (see p" in the
first meniscus) Qr is *2151 to the left of the posterior surface of the
triple ; the true focus of the triple is 1*102; this is measured from
Q', it therefore is situated * 887 from the last surface. Consequently,
the magnifying power of the combination is 8 * 07, and its working
distance is * 887.

Example 12. — We will now go through the same process with the
other triple (in Example 6, Case 4, fig. 17), consisting of two bi-con-
vexes enclosing an equi-concave.

There is nothing needing any special explanation with regard to
the principal points and foci of the separate lenses, but when the two
first are combined you will notice that the second principal point Q

The President's Address. By E. M. Nelson.

167

is. situated about 2*3 in. to the right of the posterior surface of
the equi-concave lens. Careful attention is required when the doublet
combination is combined with the other bi-convex, for you will observe
that the distance D from the second principal point Q of the doublet
to the first principal point p of the second bi-convex is measured from
left to right, it is therefore negative, and its sign has to be changed
in the expression </> -j- f" — D.

Fig. 20.

Q F 0

I

j

r" = *830 r = - *822 / = *822 f = *4

s” = - *822 s = *822 s' = - *830 t = -1

y = 1-5179 y! = 1-6202 t’ = -4

g" = — = • 2635 ; O - \)g" = -1365;

f1

- g" r" = - * 2187; - g" s" = • 2166 ;

r" s" = — * 6823 ; s" - r" + (y - 1) g" = - 1 ■ 5155 = h" ;

0-1 )h" = - -7849 = F; p" = = -1443;

_ n" <' r" t"

q" = — = - -1429 ; /' = — = -8693.

g = -, = -06172 ; O' - 1) <7 = '03828;

f1

-gr= -05073; - gs = - -05073;

n 2

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Transactions of the Society.

rs= — • 6757 ; s — r -4- (fi — 1) g = 1 * 6823 = h ;
- 1 )h = 1 • 0434 = h ; p = = *03016;

q = = - -03016; f=T4= ~ *6476.

d = *1731;

/" + /_ d = *0486;

<#> =

df= - *1121 ; /"/ = - *563;

Q = 7 “ -0486 = 2 + 2-307 ;

•0486

ttt = - 11-584.

D = - 2-1339;

D/' = - 1*855; cj>f=- 10-07;

<£+/' - D = - 8*581;

Q' = ?'-^Si = ?'-,2162>

F =

- 10*07

- 8-581

1-174.

Working distance = *8135

Magnifying power = 7*52

We may here notice that owing to the greater thickness of this
lens its true focus differs more from its nominal focus than the focus
of the Stenheil did in Example 11. Its magnifying power for this
reason is also less, being 7 * 5.

Loups are often found to possess less power than they are
stated to have, the power being calculated on the nominal, instead of
on the true focus.

Before passing on we must complete our examination of the Gauss
method by considering the cases when one of the surfaces is plane.
In a plano-convex or plano-concave lens, when r = oo , h = co ,

■p = g = - and q = 0. This means that p lies within the lens at a
distance of - from the plane surface, and q is at the vertex of s ; the

focus / =

— s

IM- 1

Turning the lens round, we have s = co
t

p is at the vertex of r.

q = — , and / =

We now come to the consideration of the various forms that can
be given to the achromatic doublet represented in Case 2 (fig. 15).

The President's Address. By E. M. Nelson.

169

First the bi-conyex lens may be cut in two, fig. 21, and the exterior
plano-convex may be placed with its plane side in apposition to the
plane side of the plano-concave ; this forms the triple front of old
achromatic objectives (fig. 22).

Fig. 21. Fig. 22. Fig. 23.

Secondly, the exterior plano-convex that was cut off in the previ-
ous example is equivalent to two equal plano-convex lenses of double
the radius ; one of these may be left in its original position, and the
other placed against the plano-concave as in the previous example.
This will form an equi-convex triple (fig. 23).

The advantage gained by these forms is that the conditions which
affect the spherical aberration and the curvature of the field, are
altered, while those which control the achromatism are undisturbed.

Setting aside the smaller error of spherico-chromatic aberration it
matters not in what order the component lenses are placed, so far as
the achromatism is concerned, but it makes a very great difference
with respect to spherical aberration and curvature of the image.
Therefore, by suitable alterations in the form of the achromatic doublet,
considerable control in these respects can be secured, without appre-
ciably disturbing the achromatism.

I must now bring this unfinished subject to a close, with many
apologies for the imperfect manner in which it has been dealt with,
and with many thanks for the patient attention you have given me.

170

Transactions of the Society.

III. — The Application of the Electric Arc to
Photomicrography.

By J. Edwin Barnard, F.R.M.S., and Thos. A. B. Carver, B.Sc.

{Bead 11th November, 1897.)

In its application to photomicrography the electric arc presents many
important advantaged. In addition to its inherent simplicity, the
high degree of intensity and the smallness of the area of the incan-
descent source, effect corresponding improvement of the image, and
render short exposures practicable. Photographic results which
would not he available with other sources of illumination can further
be obtained from nearly opaque objects. It has, however, hitherto
been employed with small success ; and it was with the object of
localising the difficulty, and if possible rectifying it, that the investi-
gation to be described was undertaken.

The result of numerous trials of the best form of automatic lamp
available showed that, although the arc was working under constant
conditions so far as the most careful adjustment could secure, the
photographs obtained were subject to wide variation. Not only did
the results of equal exposure demonstrate fluctuations in the intensity
of the light, but shadows and diffraction phenomena were produced
which were only to be attributed to decentration of the illuminant.
The difficulty was even accentuated by the fact that at times the most
perfect results were obtained ; but their reproduction was a matter
entirely of chance. Our first experiments were therefore devoted to
the analysis of the behaviour of the arc when thus controlled. The
method we adopted was to project an image of convenient size upon
a screen provided with lines, in reference to which the movement of
the image could be referred.

Our observations showed that, although working under apparently
constant conditions, the arc was subject to wide fluctuations, on account
of the movement of the carbon points due to the feeding mechanism,
and of the incandescent point travelling round the carbon as the
result of the variations in the length of the arc. In order to test the
true effect of these variations, the automatic mechanism was replaced
by a simple form of hand-fed apparatus, in which absolute positive-
ness and steadiness of movement was secured, so that the conditions
observed could be reproduced and studied at length.

No further experiment was, however, necessary to show that in
the unsteadiness of the feeding motion of the carbons lay part at least
of the decentering action to which were to be ascribed the variations
we had observed in the photographic result.

Application of the Electric Arc to Photomicrography. 171

With regard to the effect of inconstancy of the length of the arc,
our results showed that so long as the carbons were maintained at a
C3nstant critical relative distance the intensely incandescent crater,
from which practically the whole of the useful light is derived,
remained absolutely motionless and of constant intensity, affording
from a photomicrographic point of view an almost perfect illuminant.
So soon, however, as the slightest lengthening of the arc occurred,
the incandescent crater is lost, owing to the arc at once travelling
round the positive carbon, playing successively upon different parts,
and never remaining long enough in one place to allow the high
incandescence and constancy of position secured when running under

Fig. 24. Fig. 25.

the critical condition we have described. In order to more directly
test the effect of the small variations we had observed, two photo-
graphs were taken : one with the crater of the positive carbon truly
central (fig. 24), and the other (fig. 2’5) with the crater decentred by
an amount, indicated by projection, corresponding to the fluctuations
of the automatic lamp.

We were thus led to realise the importance of higher accuracy in
the adjustment of the position and length of the arc ; and to consider
means whereby it could be secured. The necessarily intermittent
action of any automatic mechanism, the action of which can only be
started as the result of the very factor it was our object to avoid,
viz. lengthening of the arc, forced us to the conclusion that such

172

Transactions of the Society.

constancy and accuracy of movement could only be attained by such a
simple positive band-fed apparatus as that to which we have alluded.
The form we designed to meet the condition is shown in fig. 26.

The carbons are held in V-clamps sliding upon two rigid vertical
rods, and their relative positions can be varied by the right and left
handed screw A; the position of the pair, that is of the arc as a
whole, being controlled by the screw B. The lamp is mounted upon
a boss sliding upon a tube, and has movements through the angle of
inclination and in a line at right angles to the line of collimation.

Fig. 26. Fig. 27.

With such mechanism the arc was fed to maintain its truly central
position and constant condition, in reference to the graduations upon
the screen, and any difficulty in its use entirely disappeared, and the
reproduction, even with the highest powers, of the best photographic
results became a matter of ease.

It remained to design means whereby the indications of the pro-
jected image could be observed in a smaller compass, and we were
ultimately led to adopt a pin-hole casting an image upon a screen of
ground glass provided with the necessary reference lines. Such an

Application of the Electric Arc to Photomicrography . 173

apparatus we designed as part and parcel of the feeding mechanism,
providing it with a universal motion and a clamp, so that, the light
having been adjusted to be truly central, the indicator can be placed
in a position to then read correctly upon the ground glass. In fig. 27
the lamp is shown, with pin-hole camera attached, at right angles to
the optical axis.

The question of inclination of the carbons to the vertical was
investigated by means of an apparatus giving revolution of the arc
about a horizontal axis passing through itself.

The critical inclination is obviously the greatest at which none
of the light from the crater is cut off by the negative carbon, when
the length of arc has been adjusted to the greatest that gives con-
stancy in the position of the crater.

The critical angle we found to be about 27° to the vertical, and
at this angle the two essential conditions are secured, viz. the greatest
amount of light was thrown forward from the crater of the positive
carbon and the light from the negative is thrown to the back, and
consequently eliminated as a second and harmful source.

It is of course understood that the current employed throughout
these experiments has been a continuous one. It remains to state
how ill the alternating current adapts itself to such an application.

None of the conditions which our experiments with continuous
current showed to be so primarily essential are present. In the first
instance, the arc can never be adjusted to give that constancy of one
incandescent source which we were led to place at the root of any
success in the use of the arc. Again, the carbons are equally incan-
descent, so that it is impossible to regard the arc as a single source
of illumination. These essential difficulties are further regardless of
minor physical inconveniences, such as the noise, which, although
they might not form barriers to its use, are nevertheless absent with
continuous current.

We venture to think that, could the electric arc be regarded as a
reliable source of light, it would be much more largely employed in
optical apparatus where constancy of position and intensity of the
source of light are essential, and can only express the hope that our
results demonstrate the ease with which these conditions can be
accurately secured.

174

Transactions of the Society .

IV. — A new Form of Photomicrograjohic Camera and
Condensing System.

By E. B. Stringer, B.A.

{Bead loth December, 1897.)

The apparatus which Mr. Watson Baker has kindly undertaken to
submit to the Society on my behalf, is an attempt to facilitate the
work of photomicrography, especially with high powers, and to afford
an illuminating system more perfectly corrected, more powerful, and
more under control, than has hitherto been available.

The baseboard is confined to that part of the apparatus which
carries the illuminating system and Microscope, the further end of
the camera being supported by a massive wooden block. To this are
attached two long brass tubes, on which slide the supports for the
bellows, and which themselves slide in slightly larger tubes attached
to each side of the baseboard. By drawing out these inner tubes with
the block, and sliding the bellows supports the other way, the camera
can be extended to 40 inches, or it may be closed up to 11 inches ;
but at whatever length it may be used, there is no baseboard pro-
jecting beyond the end of it, and the focusing screen is always in
the most convenient and accessible position, namely at the end of the
bench, where the worker can be comfortably seated. Also the firm
support of the massive wooden block is always immediately beneath
it, conferring the greatest possible solidity and freedom from vibra-
tion.

A door is provided at the side of the camera for the examination
and adjustment of the image in situ , when a white card is substituted
for the ground glass or other screen.

If it should be necessary, though in practice it very seldom is, to
look down the Microscope when it is in position, the camera can
readily be drawn backwards altogether out of the way of the observer’s
head. And it will be seen that the whole camera can in a moment
be entirely removed, and the Microscope used, if so desired, for screen
projection.

I have found that the secret of avoiding vibration is to clamp
down nothing, but to let everything rest by its own weight on as
large a surface as possible. To increase this effect, and to bring the
apparatus into firm and intimate contact with the bench (and also to
help to absorb vibration), it has underneath it a layer of sheet cork
one-eighth of an inch thick, below which is another layer of felt also
one-eighth of an inch thick ; on these it rests with great firmness,
and at the same time slides easily enough when pushed.

176

Transactions of the Society.

At the end of the baseboard next the camera is a triangular plate
of brass, having three holes into which the round feet of the Micro-
scope (Watson’s H Edinburgh stand) accurately fit, the feet passing
completely through the holes and resting on the board beneath, which
is here covered with cloth. At the three angles of the plate are three
milled screws, passing through holes which (when the screws are un-
damped) are large enough to allow about a quarter of an inch of free
movement in each direction. When the Microscope is first put down,
these screws are released, and the Microscope shifted until it is found
to be exactly centered. The screws are then firmly clamped, and are
never again touched. The Microscope can now be instantly put down in
an accurately central position into the holes which receive the feet, and
as easily taken up again. This enables the Microscope used for ordi-
nary observation to be employed for photography with as much ease
and accuracy as the permanently fixed instrument found in some
arrangements.

The small model instrument is preferred, not only because it is
lighter and more convenient to move about, but also because its optic
axis when in the horizontal position is lower ; thus the optic axis of
the whole apparatus, and consequently its centre of gravity, is lower,
and its stability and freedom from tremor the greatest possible. The
small light body-tube also confers a greater sensitiveness on the fine
adjustment than can be obtained in the full-sized instrument ; and it
will be shown farther on how the small tube may be used, without
any danger of flare from internal reflection.

The “turn out” device is dispensed with as being unnecessary
where the Microscope is not fixed down. All adjustments are easily
made, with the powerful illumination provided, by projecting the
image on to a screen of white card.

The front of the camera has sliding movements in both directions,
by which the connecting flange can be once for all adjusted to exactly
meet the eye-piece of the Microscope. Behind it is the usual flap
shutter for making the exposures, worked by a large milled head out-
side the camera.

The focusing arrangement adopted is the one in which an endless
cord passes over the fine adjustment screw and round two other pul-
leys below and on each side of it, by which any lateral drag on the
Microscope is altogether avoided. These pulleys can be changed, and
used of various sizes, those for high power work being as small as it
is possible to make them, so that a very slow movement is easily ob-
tained. The focusing rod passes through the block at the end of the
camera, and terminates in a large milled head, which, whatever length
of camera may be in use, is always close to the focusing screen and
the left hand of the worker.

In extending or closing up the camera there is only one screw to
be released, namely, the small one which clamps the focusing pulley
on to the focusing rod. The clamping screws on the ends of the

New Form of Photomicro graphic Camera. By E. B. Stringer. 177

lateral tubes and those on the bellows supports are adjusted to a con-
venient tightness, and are not afterwards touched.

The condensing system, the oxyhydrogen jet, and a small lantern
of sheet iron, are all carried on the optical bench, which I have found
it a great improvement to make square in section, instead of prismatic
as has been usual heretofore. With the condensing system many dif-
ficulties were at first experienced, until Mr. E. M. Nelson very kindly
interested himself in the matter, and computed a new set of conden-
sers, following the same general plan as I had done, but making them
larger (4J inches in diameter) and employing the new Jena glasses.
These, after one or two final alterations, proved entirely successful,
and the result (the perfection of which is due to Mr. Nelson’s optical
knowledge and skill) is an illuminating system perfectly achromatised,
and almost perfectly aplanatic, and moreover of much greater power
than has hitherto been available, affording a beam of great intensity,
and of that slight divergence which is best suited to the working of
the substage condenser.

The working of the whole system is as follows : — The light from
the jet is first parallelised by the doublet condenser, which consists of
two plano-convex lenses having their plane sides turned towards the
radiant, the one next the radiant being a quarter of an inch less in
diameter than the other, and the focal length of the combination
being 2f inches, taking up an angle of 70°.

The parallel beam passes across an interval of about 10 inches,
through the screen or trough of coloured solution carried by the inter-
vening support, and enters the plano-convex lens 4^ inches in diameter
(having its convexity turned the other way to minimise the aberra-
tions), by which it is converted into a converging cone. This, after
passing through the water in the chamber between the lenses, is
again parallelised by the much smaller plano-concave lens, and emerges
from it as a parallel, or more strictly speaking a slightly divergent
pencil, rather less than an inch in diameter, and enters the substage
condenser. The plano-concave lens is of highly dispersive glass, and
perfectly achromatises the whole system.

The converging arrangement is clamped at such a distance from
the substage condenser as to throw a spot of light rather larger than
the opening in the condenser diaphragm. The smaller the radiant
point, or the larger the opening in the diaphragm, the greater this
distance should be. The best average distance is about 2 J inches from
the substage ring as it stands at present. This also allows ample
room for putting down and taking up the Microscope, and for using
the mirror when the Microscope is in place, if it should be necessary
to do so. For “dark ground” work, or in using the Lieberkuhn,
the small iris may be removed, and the nose of the converging system
slid right up into the substage ring, so that there is no loss of light
whatever.

The small weighted cone regulator, attached either to the main

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Transactions of the Society.

or to a tube of compressed hydrogen, supplies gas to the “ mixed ” jet
(which has a much smaller nipple than usual) at a pressure of 2 inches
of water ; so that, with the hydrogen tap full open, the light is always
of the same power, and exposures may be timed with certainty. The
oxygen is better taken at a higher pressure direct from a tube
having only the usual spring regulator, and controlled by the screw
tap of the jet ; but it is as well that the spring should be a weak one.
The zirconia cylinder which is used, with the jet directed on to the
end of it, gives an incandescent point almost as" small as the electric
arc, and is at the same time much more manageable, and in every
way superior to lime for the present purpose. With it the beam
emerging from the first combination is almost perfectly parallel. If
#a larger radiant such as a lamp-flame or Welsbach burner be used,
it is much better to bring up the back combination as near to the
other as the intervening support will allow’.

It will be noticed that not only is the emergent beam entirely
robbed of its heat by passing through so large a depth of water, but
the jet is, in virtue of the whole arrangement, removed to so great a
distance from the Microscope, that there can be no indirect communi-
cation of heat, such as might affect the focal adjustment in high
power work. The illumination is also of such power that very deep
and approximately monochromatic screens may be used, with moderate
exposures ; and excellent work may thus easily be done with objec-
tives which are not apochromatic.

The device of the parallelising plano-concave lens is of course
originally due to Kingsley, who first employed it in a Microscope for
screen projection about the middle of the present century, and it has
since been used by Mr. Lewis Wright in his oxy hydrogen lantern
Microscope, now so well known.

The large iris in front of the combination next the light is an
important feature. By it the substage condenser is focused and
centered, and when it is shut down to the right extent, it will be
found (besides rendering the whole system perfectly aplanatic) to en-
tirely cut off that surplus light, which when reflected from the inside
of the Microscope tube and objective mount, causes so much trouble
and so many failures in photomicrography. So that it is no longer
necessary to use a specially large tube, and the small tube, with the
greater sensitiveness it confers upon the fine focal adjustment, can be
retained. If no light whatever is to strike the sides of the tube
(though a little does not of course matter) the diaphragm of the sub-
stage condenser must not be opened beyond its full aplanatic aper-
ture.

There is, besides, a small iris beyond the plano-concave parallelising
lens which cuts off any remaining stray light, and is also used for
centering.

The whole system is provided with centering screws, and it, like
the Microscope, is centered once for all and never again touched. The

New Form of Pliotomicrographic Camera. By E. B. Stringer. 179

only adjustment that has to be made with each fresh exposure is the
centering of the light itself (which is for this purpose provided with
very sensitive centering screws), and the adjustment of its distance
from the condensers, which will he found to vary a little when
different objectives and suhstage condensers are used. The small
sheet-iron lantern slides in grooves on each side of the optical bench,
and, when slid backwards, gives easy access to these screws.

Finally, it must he said, that to employ this illuminating arrange-
ment to the greatest advantage, it is necessary that the suhstage
condenser be proportioned in power as well as in aperture to the
objective. The more nearly the power of the substage condenser
approaches that of the objective, the wider can the large iris he
opened, and the greater is the intensity of the illumination ; but it is
the intensity alone which is affected ; the aperture of the substage
condenser, whatever it may happen to be, remaining unaltered. The
best results appear to be obtained when the condenser is about one-
half the power of the objective.

If this proportion he pretty closely maintained, and the other
conditions are fairly equal, as is often the case in the general run
of work, the exposure varies but little with varying magnifications,
averaging about two seconds with a light yellow screen and a plate
of medium rapidity.

The apparatus was made for me by Messrs. Watson in the summer
of 1896, and I must, in concluding, express my thanks to them for the
care and thoroughness with which they have carried out my design.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others .*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology. f

Placentation of Perameles.J — Ml J. P. Hill has discovered an
allantoic placenta in Perameles obesula and P. nasuta , and gives a con-
nected account of the successive stages.

I. The changes in the uterine wall are briefly the following : — The
mucosa undergoes hypertrophy ; the uterine glands increase in trans-
verse diameter and in length ; the interglandular connective tissue forms
a loose network permeated by lymph ; the vessels of the mucosa increase
greatly in size and number ; the whole epithelium becomes a vascular
syncytium ; maternal capillaries pass up between the syncytial lobules
(formed of nests of nuclei), penetrate the syncytial protoplasm, and form
a network on and just beneath its surface.

IT. Fixation of the embryo . The embryo becomes attached to the
maternal syncytium by means of the enlarged ectoderm cells over the
discoidal area or true chorion with which the allantois fuses. In cor-
relation with the close adherence of the chorionic ectoderm, the corre-
sponding area of the uterine syncytium is markedly thicker than the
remainder, and forms the allantoic placental area. In the allanto-
chorionic mesenchyme, and in close relation to the inner surface of the
chorionic ectoderm, run the allantoic capillaries.

Outside the discoidal allanto-chorionic area a somewhat annular
zone of the yolk-sac wall is also brought into intimate relation with
the maternal syncytium, and represents a yolk-sac placental formation,
functional at a time when the allantoic placenta is being formed.

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied
subjects. \ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xl. (1897) pp. 385-416 (5 pis.).

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

181

Tlie formation of the functional allantoic 'placenta is brought to pass
through the gradual degeneration and resorption of the enlarged cho-
rionic ectoderm cells over the placental area proper. The allantoic
capillaries can now directly reach the vascular surface of the allantoic
placental syncytium, with which they become intimately attached. The
foetal and maternal blood-streams are now separated only by their thin
endothelial walls, and perhaps by a thin layer of syncytial protoplasm.

III. Parturition. There is no decidua at birth, but the vesicular
portion of the allantois remains persistently attached to the placental
syncytium, and is gradually absorbed in situ along with the latter by
the maternal leucocytes.

The foetus, while still connected with the placental area by the
lengthened allantoic stalk, passes out, not by the lateral vaginal canals,
but by breaking through a median track leading backwards from a
posterior common portion of the two uteri.

Early Development of Amphioxus.* — Prof. E. W. MacBride has
re-investigated this, and draws the following conclusions : — (1) The
primitive gut or archenteron is formed in Amphioxus by a typical process
of embolic invagination, the endoderm being at first not sharply marked
off from the ectoderm. The blastopore is at first posterior, but subse-
quently becomes dorsal by the preponderant growth of the ventral

(2) The mesoderm originates in Amphioxus as a series of true gut-
pouches, viz. one anterior unpaired pouch and two pairs of lateral
pouches. The first divides to form the two head-cavities ; the anterior
pair give rise to the first pair of myotomes, and, in addition, to two long
canals extending back ventrally ; the posterior pair, gradually separated
from the gut, form the series of myotomes.

(3) Hatschek’s nephridium is the persistent connection of the left of
the pair of collar-pouches with the gut. (4) The metapleural “ lymph-
canals ” found in the atrial folds are the persistent ventro-lateral exten-
sions of the “ collar- pouches.”

He also concludes that all attempts to explain the formation of the
nervous system of Vertebrates by the coalescence of the two halves of
a nervous ring lying in the lips of a long slit-like blastopore must be
given up ; and that the theory of the descent of the Vertebrates from
a form somewhat like Balanoglossus receives strong support from the
early developmental history of Amphioxus.

Development of Atrial Chamber in Amphioxus.f — Prof. E. Ray
Lankester makes some corrections on MacBride’s paper in regard to the
atrial chamber. Instead of confirming Kowalevsky’s conclusions, as
MacBride says, Lankester and Willey showed that there are no atrial
folds. What Kowalevsky mistook for “ atrial folds ” are really the
metapleura. These do not grow round and meet in the middle line, but
a very small in-sinking is formed between them, and is covered in by a
minute horizontal growdh right and left (the subatrial ridges or folds),
their union resulting in the formation of what is, at first, a very narrow
“ subatrial floor ” lying between the two upstanding metapleura.

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xl. (1898) pp. 589-612 (3 pis,). 1
t Tom. cit., pp. 6t7-50.

1898

o

182

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Development of Epiphysis in Reptiles.* * * § — Prof. E. Bugnion has
studied this in Iguana , Lacerta , and Coluber , and finds that the epiphysis
has not a separate origin from the parietal organ. The epiphysial
diverticulum arises dorsally in front of the posterior commissure, and
forms distally the parietal organ, which is gradually detached. The
nerve destined for this organ is formed, not in the stem of the epiphysial
diverticulum, but on a small swelling of the ganglionic wall in front of
the latter. The so-called paraphysis is a simple epithelial structure in
connection with the choroid membrane and its plexus.

Some Activities of Polar Bodies, j — Prof. E. A. Andrews remarks
that the acceptance of the view that polar bodies are but imperfect ova
incapable of fertilisation and without any role in development, has
naturally tended to lessen interest in their fate. Yet their behaviour
after extrusion shows some interesting phenomena. He has studied
those of Asterias , Cerebratulus, the nudibranek Tergipes , the lamelli-
branchs Nucula and Angulus , and other forms. He finds that the polar
bodies in these cases (representative of Echinoderms, Nemertines, and
Molluscs) show marked activities, chiefly of an amoeboid nature. In
some cases the polar bodies behave like Heliozoa. They may also
remain vitally connected with one another, and with the developing
embryo for some time after extrusion. “ How far these phenomena are
normal, and how much may prove to be pathological, cannot be at
present decided ; but, in any event, it has been shown the protoplasm of
polar bodies has powers hitherto unsuspected.” Perhaps the last word
should rather read “ undescribed,” or “ inadequately described.”

Pronephros of Lamprey .+ — S. Hatta gives a preliminary account of
his observations on the development of the pronephros in the lamprey.
These lead to the following conclusions : — Both the pronephric tubules
and the segmental ducts are purely organs of the lateral unsegmented
portion of the mesoblast. The Anlagen of the tubules follow the same
segmental arrangement as the mesoblast somites. The maximum num-
ber of pronephric tubules is six pairs, of which the first, second, and
sixth degenerate one after the other. The persistent tubules are, there-
fore, the third, fourth, and fifth, of which the third pair is not so well
developed as the next two. The first and second pairs originate in the
region where the gill-slits are afterwards formed, and they disappear as
the slits arise.

The facts closely agree with Price’s observations on Bdellostoma ,
and there is strong reason to believe that the pronephros of Cyclostomata
is homologous with Boveri’s Nierencanalchen in the lancelet, and that the
persistent tubules of the lamprey are homologous with those of Selachii,
Teleostei, Amphibia, &c.

Egg-laying of Dog-fish.§ — Herr Fr. Kopsch has studied the egg-
laying of Scyllium canicula in the aquarium at Rovigno. The chief
spawning time seems to be from the beginning of March to the end of

* Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., cii. (1897) pp. 489-90.

t Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., i. (7th series) 1898, pp. 109-116 (5 figs.). Johns
Hopkins Univ. Circ., 1897, pp. 14-16.

% Annot. Zool. Japon., i. (1897) pp. 137-40.

§ Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 885-93 (3 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

183

May, but winter-spawning is also lmown. Two eggs are laid almost at
the same time ; the blunter end emerges first ; the mother fish seems by
her movements to secure the entangling of the tendrils of the egg-case.
When the egg is laid the blastoderm is in a morula stage, and the dis-
position of the blastoderm disc has no constant relation to the main axes
of the egg.

Between the temperatures 11° and 16° C. the stage reached is a
function of time and temperature ; thus if a stage x be reached in six
days at 10° C., the same will be reached in four days at 15° 0.

Formative Forces.* — Prof. Fr. Merkel discusses the forces which
give shape to the animal body. He distinguishes the vegetative forces
which sustain metabolism and growth from the formative forces which
regulate structure. He supposes that both are resident throughout the
cell and in every minute part. He refuses to accept the famous “ Igno-
rabimus ” of Hu Bois Keymond, believing that Biology is really making
some progress towards an understanding of the mysteries of growth and
development.

b. Histology.

Intercellular Bridges in Muscle.t — Herr E. Hoehl has followed
some others in pointing out that the intimate association of connective
tissue and muscular tissue may give rise to a false appearance of inter-
cellular bridges. In smooth muscle this seems particularly clear,
though the existence of bridges is not denied. He also contends that
the connective tissue sheath in the striped muscular tissue of the ex-
tremities and heart is in all probability identical with the sarcolemma.

Cell-Membranes.* — M. Louis Querton has written an interesting paper
on the mode of formation of cell-membranes. The most important part
is that which deals with the formation of the chitinous cuticle in in-
sects ( Tenebrio molitor ) and in Crustaceans ( Garcinus meenas). There is
nothing to warrant the conclusion that a peripheral plasmic layer is
directly transformed into chitin. Vacuoles appear in the hypodermic
or epidermic cells ; these open on the surface, and disappear. There is
evidently a process of cellular secretion.

Minute Structure of the Liver-Cell.§ — Dr. G. Schlater finds that
the liver-cell has an extremely complicated structure. The nucleus and
the cell-substance form an inseparable unity, “ a true organism.” There
are several different kinds of differentiated elements or cytoblasts which
produce the intercytoblastic substance (the plasmic network -f- the linin-
framework). The various cytoblasts, distinguishable by physico-chemical
peculiarities, have a definite topographical distribution in the cell, like
organs in fact, and even the intercytoblastic substance seems hetero-
geneous. It is different in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm ; and the
cytoblasts of the nucleus differ in nature and disposition from those
outside. The real elemental parts of the cell are these said cytoblasts.

* Nadir. Iv. Ges. Gottingen, 1897, pp. 84-97.

t Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1 898) pp. 253-6 (3 figs.).

% Ann. Soc. Belg. Micr., xxii. (1897) pp. 61-74.

§ Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1897) pp. 209-23 (11 figs.):

o 2

184 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

* #

Influence of Cutting on Growth of Hair.* * * § — Herr C. W. Bischoff
has investigated this interesting question. In 1893, E. Rcmesow sought
to show (on dog and rabbit) that cutting the hair induced stronger
growth. He described various changes in the bulb ; the bulb thickened,
the cells became larger and more full of sap, a large number of mitoses
occurred, and so on. Bischoff has followed the same methods, and tried
various modifications, but without finding what Remesow described.

It is therefore probable, he says, that the cutting of the hair has no
influence on its growth. It also follows that the hair is not capable of
transmitting a stimulus of the kind discussed.

Regeneration of Descemet’s Membrane. j — Prof. L. Ranvier asks
whether there is in histogenesis anything analogous to the influence of
the original crystal on a process of crystallisation. His observations on
the regeneration of a partially destroyed Descemet’s membrane (on the
posterior surface of the cornea of the eye) lead him to answer the ques-
tion in the affirmative. The old membrane has a histogenetic influence
on the formation of the new one.

Herve-Endings in (Esophagus and Stomach of Birds.; — N. Mali-
scheff finds that the nerve-endings in the glands of these regions are free,
and exhibit relations to the cells similar to those seen in the case of
smooth muscle. Pericellular networks, as described by Dogiel, Fusari,
Panasci, Korolkoff, were not seen, though an impregnation of the inter-
cellular substance might produce a similar appearance.

Molecular Attraction in Vital Phenomenal — Prof. A. L. Herrera
thinks that molecular attractions play an important role in vital phe-
nomena, e.g. in protoplasmic movements, inter-relations of nerve-cells,
phagocytosis and chemotaxis, amoeboid movements, arrangement of red
blood-corpuscles in rouleaux, conjugation and reciprocal movements of
nuclei.

c. General.

Text-Book of Zoology. || — Our welcome to the new Text-book of
Zoology by Professors T. Jeffery Parker and William A. Haswell is
shadowed by the regret that Parker did not live to see the work appre-
ciated. The work is clear in its method and exposition, full and
explicit in its descriptions, and altogether such as an advanced student
wishes. It is illustrated profusely and beautifully, and on the whole
with freshness. The work rises at once to a first place among text-
books of Zoology.

Germinal Variation.^ — Dr. A. E. Ortmann has made a critical study
of the origin of variations — of those variations which, fixed by inherit-
ance and preserved by natural selection, may give rise by separation to
distinct species. He sums up in four propositions : —

(1) Every new deviation of an individual from the norm of the species

* Arch. Micr. Anat., li. (1S98) pp. 691-703.

+ Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 23-6.

X Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 1897, pp. 278-89 (8 figs.).

§ Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxii. (1897) pp. 235-6.

U ‘A Text-Book of Zoology,’ by T. Jeffery Parker and W. A. Haswell. Vol. i.,
xxxv. and 779 pp., figs. 1-663. Vol. ii., xx. and 683 pp., figs. 664-1173. 8vo, Mac-
millan & Co., London, 1897. Tf Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 139-57.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

185

is to be referred to a reaction of the organism to external influences
(bionomic conditions) to which the individual was exposed during its
life-time.

(2) Similar parents produce similar offspring.

(3) If there are differences already present in the germs, the cause
must be found in the parents ; it is a case of inheritance. A spontaneous
germinal variation, without a corresponding influence on the parents, is
impossible.

(4) The possibility of the inheritance of acquired changes must be
granted.

Relationship of Amphioxus and Balanoglossus.* * * § — Mr. E. W.
MacBride compares the threefold origin of the coelom in Amphioxus
with that in Balanoglossus. The trunk coelom becomes divided into
separate muscle segments, which are differentiated into a dorsal mus-
cular and a ventral thin-walled portion. The “ collar coelom ” undergoes
a similar differentiation, but the two portions do not for a long time
become constricted off from one another ; and even when this occurs, the
ventral part does not become confluent with the ventral part of the trunk
coelom. “ The ventral part of the collar coelom grows back externally to
the trunk coelom, forming two ventral lateral ridges, which reach some
little distance behind the last gill-slit which is formed.” These ridges
are really the first rudiments of the atrial folds, and the contained coelom
gives rise to the ventral muscle of the atrial cavity. “ Now in Balano-
glossus the hinder end of the collar extends over and covers the first gill-
slit, and the suggestion of Bateson that this represents the first beginning
of the formation of an atrium like that of Amphioxus is borne out by
the facts just narrated.” Mr. MacBride also criticises very adversely
Lwoff’s contention that only certain cells of the gastrular invagination
are truly endodermic.

A Japanese Amphioxus.f — 'H. Nakagawu describes a species of
Amphioxus found in abundance at Amakusa, Kyushyu. Its “formula”
as to segments does not agree with that of any of the nine species noted
by E. A. Andrews.

Tailless Batrachians of Europe. t — Mr. G. A. Boulenger has pub-
lished through the Ray Society the first part of a description of the
tailless Batrachians of Europe. There is a very interesting introduction,
dealing with the classification, external characters, integument, dermal
secretion, skeleton, viscera, habits, voice, pairing and oviposition, sper-
matozoa, eggs, development and metamorphosis, tadpoles, hybrids, and
geographical distribution. The rest of the volume discusses the Disco-
glossidae and Pelobatidse. There are charming plates by Mr. P. J. Smit,
and abundant excellent figures by Mr. J. Green. The second part of
this valuable addition to zoological literature is to follow in a few
months.

Habits and Life-History of Frog.§ — H. Eischer-Sigwart has pub-
lished his note-book of observations on Bana fusca. He discusses the

* Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., ix. (1897) pp. 309-13.

t Annot. Japon. Zool., i. (1897) pp. 125-32.

X Ray Society, 1897, part i., 210 pp., 10 pis., and 76 figs.

§ Vierteljahrsckr. Nat. Ges. Zurich, xlii. (1898) pp. 238-316 (1 pi.)-

186 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

spawning, development, diet, enemies, diseases, hibernation, &c., and
gives some carefully compiled statistics.

Sense of Direction.* — G. Reynaud has made observations and ex-
periments on pigeons, which lead him to the conclusion that the sense
of direction from a distance is located in the semicircular canals, and
has the effect of leading the animal to reverse the path over which it has
been transported. More precise details as to the experiments are, how-
ever requisite.

Openings in the Wall of the Body-Cavity in Vertebrates, f — Mr.

E. J. Bles finds that there is an interesting and compensating correlation
in the adult Elasmobranchii, Ganoidei, Dipnoi, some Teleostei, Amphibia,
certain Ohelonia and Crocodilia, in the development of nephrostomes
and of abdominal pores.

Only in some Elasmobranchs are both present ; in most Elasmo-
branchs, and in all other groups, they are mutually exclusive. In the
higher Teleostei, in Hatteria, and in some Crocodiles and Chelonians,
both have been lost.

Anura hold an intermediate position in so far as the nephrostomes are
present, but they are not connected with the renal system. The body-
cavity communicates with the vascular system (1) by the nephrostomes and
(2) through stomata. The latter alone form a communication between
the body-cavity and the lymphatic system in the Saurii and Mammalia,
which have neither abdominal pores nor nephrostomes.

If stomata were not present in those Teleostei and Saurii which
have no abdominal pores or nephrostomes, these would form the only
cases of a closed body-cavity.

The function of the abdominal pores, like that of the nephrostomes,
is to void waste products from the body-cavity. In Pisces and the
lower Amphibia the body-cavity is to a great extent excretory.

The evidence does not on the whole favour the view that the abdomi-
nal pores represent a pair of segmental tubes. They seem to be simple
perforations, and are not necessarily homologous.

Suprarenal Bodies.f — MM. B. Moore and Swale Vincent describe the
colour-reactions of the chromogen in the medulla of mammalian supra-
renal capsules, and show that a chromogen having the same chemical
nature is present in the paired segmental suprarenal bodies of Elasmo-
branch fishes. This is an interesting chemical corroboration of the
conclusion, otherwise arrived at, that the paired suprarenal bodies of
Elasmobranchs correspond structurally and functionally with the medulla
of the mammalian suprarenal capsules.

Suprarenal Capsules in Lophobranch Fishes.§ — M. — . Huot makes
a preliminary note o.n this subject which he has studied in young
embryos of Syngnathus Dumerilii. He finds that the structures in
question arise from two diverticula which appear as external buds on
the posterior part of the Wolffian duct. The author does not as yet
make any reference to the fact that the suprarenals of Teleosteans are in

* Comptes Rendus, exxv. (1897) pp. 1191-4.
f Proc. Roy. Soc , lxii. (1898) pp. 232-47. J Tom. cit., pp. 280-3.

§ Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 49-50.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

187

all probability only partially homologous with those of Elasmobranchs
or higher animals.

Air-bladder of Fishes.* — Dr. J. S. Haldane gives an account of what
has been ascertained with regard to the conditions which determine the
separation and absorption of gas in the swimming- or air-bladder. The
belief which has long been current is that the chief function of the air-
bladder is to enable its possessor, by compressing or relaxing its muscles,
to increase or diminish its specific gravity, and thus to alter the depth at
which it swims. Delaroclie (1809) supposed that the muscles were in a
state of tonic contraction which becomes more or less rigorous as the
animal rises or goes down, so that the specific gravity is kept constant.
But the careful investigations and experiments of Moreau •f showed that
the fish makes no use of its muscles in regulating the volume of its air-
bladder. When the fish descends, the air in the bladder is compressed,
and the specific gravity of the body increases, so that it tends to sink
farther and farther ; and, conversely, if the fish ascends the air expands,
and if it goes too far it may be carried helplessly to the surface, unless
it has a permeable air-duct. It thus behaves like the toy known as the
“ Cartesian Diver,” and its position is at best one of unstable equilibrium
which the smallest movement upwards or downwards could disturb.
Compression of the air-bladder, even when it is very muscular, seems
accidental and momentary, as by a sudden and violent movement.
Moreau’s further experiments show that the swimming-bladder may
assist the fish in balancing itself at any depth, but that the action is a
very slow one. Thus, he determined the specific gravity of a fish which
had lived at the surface for some time, sank it in a cage to a greater
depth, and tested it again at the same pressure as before. The fish was
much lighter, because air had been gradually secreted into the bladder
until its specific gravity corresponded with that of the water. Again,
when an air-bladder was artificially emptied, the fish sank at once to
the bottom, but in a few hours was able to swim about again. A float
was attached to one fish and a sinker to another, with the result that the
first could not leave the surface, the second could not leave the bottom ;
but a few hours later both were swimming about together, one having
absorbed, the other having secreted sufficient gas to readjust matters. The
absorption and secretion would therefore appear to be in some sense
under voluntary control, and a fish will be able to live comfortably at
any depth if the change be made gradually enough.

Early in the century Biot and others discovered that the gas in the
swimming-bladder is not air, but a variable mixture of oxygen and
nitrogen with about 1 or 2 per cent, of carbonic acid, and that the per-
centage of oxygen is higher the greater the depth at which the fish is
caught. Moreau confirmed this, and showed that, if the bladder be
artificially emptied, the gas secreted gradually into it is richer in oxygen
than before, and much richer than air. Therefore, apparently, pure or
nearly pure oxygen is secreted. In some fishes, however, such as
Coregonus Acronius , the air-bladder is sometimes filled with pure nitro-
gen. The theory of diffusion of gases does not meet the case ; for the

* Science Progress, *vii. (1897) No. 6, pp. 120-30. ]

f ‘ Memoires de Physiologic,’ Paris, lS77.

188 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

oxygen tension of blood passing through the wall of the air-bladder is
less than that of air, owing to the using up of oxygen for respiratory-
purposes. Hence the blood will absorb oxygen from the air-bladder, the
percentage of nitrogen will be increased, and it too will be absorbed.
Thus, on the diffusion theory, all the gas would disappear from the air-
bladder, whereas it may even increase in quantity. Section of the sym-
pathetic nerve-fibres to the walls of the air-bladder hastens the secretion
of gas into the empty bladder ; section of the vagus branch stops it
entirely. It is not probable that the “ retia mirabilia,” discs of finely
divided vessels in the walls of the swim-bladder, are directly connected
with the secretion of gas, since they are under the epithelial lining. The
epithelium itself is often differentiated into gland-like structures, as
described by Coggi. These may be real air-glands, but they have never
been fully investigated. It seems probable that molecules of gas are
liberated from some form of combination within the cells lining the air-
bladder, and that the process is continually going on. Some diffusion
outwards must be constantly occurring, and when a fish is asphyxiated it
quickly uses up the oxygen in the air-bladder.

If the gas be thus liberated from combination within the cells,
Mr. Haldane concludes, we have in the animal kingdom a process
analogous to the liberation of oxygen from the green parts of plants, and
the fixation of free nitrogen by the parasitic* organisms in Leguminosae,
and it would seem that life is not so essentially an oxidation process as
is commonly supposed.

Hornet’s Venom antagonistic to Viper’s.* — M. C, Phisalix has
made a number of experiments which go to show that the venom of
hornets acts as a vaccine against the venom of vipers. The immunising
substance is not destroyed by being heated at 120° C. ; it is soluble in
alcohol ; it is neither an albuminoid nor an alkaloid ; but its real nature
remains obscure.

Tunicata.

South African Tunicata. | — Dr. C. Ph. Sluiter describes a collection
of thirty-two Ascidiacea collected on Prof. M. Weber’s South African
expedition. In his introduction he discusses the vexed question of the
classification of Ascidiacea, and gives his reasons for following this
arrangement : —

A. Ascidiacea socialia (Clavelinidae).

B. Ascidiacea merosomata (== Aplousobranchia Garstang excL

Clavelinidae).

C. Ascidiacea holosomata.

I. Phlebobranchiata (= Phlebobranchia Lahille and Gar-
stang excl. Clavelinidae).

II. Stolidobranchiata ( = Stolidobranchia Lahille and Gar-
stang).

The collection of thirty-two species includes twenty-eight which are
new.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897)*pp. 977-9.
f Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Syst.), xi. (1897) pp. 1-61 (7 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

189

INVERTEBRATA.

Potamoplankton.* * * § — Dr. O. Zacharias discusses the plankton which
he has demonstrated in many rivers. It consists of Protozoa, Rotifers,
and Crustacea (lists of which are given), accompanied by many minute
plants, — Phycochromacese, Chlorophycem, and Diatoms.

Earthworms and Moles. f — Prof. J. Ritzema Bos corroborates very
circumstantially the often asserted, but often doubted, fact that moles
store earthworms for winter and wound them so that they are unable
to escape. About 300 were got from one mole’s nest, all decapitated.
Three to five segments had been bitten off. This prevents burrowing,
and the cold weather probably prevents rapid regeneration.

Mollusca.

Abyssal Molluscs.J — M. Arnould Locard points out that, besides
the various littoral areas peopled by Molluscs, there is in the Atlantic,
as in the Mediterranean, an abyssal area, inhabited by a “ polybathic ”
Molluscan fauna, the members of which are able to live and develop at
depths of 2000 m. or more. This fauna is rich in Gastropods, and also
includes Scaphopods and many Lamellibranchs.

a. Cephalopoda.

Posterior Salivary Glands of Octopoda.§ — Dr. R. Krause has inves-
tigated the structure and function of the posterior salivary glands of the
Octopoda. He concludes, contrary to the opinion of most investigators,
that these glands have a considerable functional significance. The name
‘•'pharyngeal mucous glands,” proposed by Krukenberg, and accepted,
among others, by Vogt and Jung, he regards as quite unsuitable, for
these glands do not secrete mucus, at least not in appreciable quantities.
On the other hand, their secretion is rich in albuminates, and has a
powerful fibrinolytic effect. To many animals the secretion is a deadly
poison, probably operating on the central nervous organs, and it is used
by Octopus for killing the animals required for food. The glands show
a singular kind of secreting mechanism, which is conditioned by the
peculiarities of their blood-supply.

y. Gastropoda.

Nerve-Cells of Gastropods. || — Mr. C. F. W. McClure finds that the
nerve-cells of Helix , Avion, and Limax contain a large number of small
bodies, which appear granular in character and are arranged in rows.
Their staining affinities make it probable that they are essentially
homologous with the chromophilous substance found in the nerve-cells
of Vertebrates.

Fibrils were found in the axis-cylinder processes and cell-bodies of
these nerve-cells. Their arrangement in the cell-body showed con-
siderable diversity. In the majority, a concentric arrangement of fibrils

* Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 41-8.

t Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 63-4.

X Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 275-7.

§ SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1897, pp. 1085-98.

|| Zool. Jahrb., xi. (1897) pp. 13-60 (2 pis ).

190

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and granular rows was marked. In other cells the fibrils wound about,
like those figured by Flemming in the spinal ganglion-cells of Mammals.
The arrangement of the small “ chromophilous granules ” in rows was
found to be due to the fact that they are situated on and between the
fibrils. In the nerve-cells of Helix the author found structures which
undoubtedly correspond to the centrosomes and spheres commonly found
in other cells.

Notes on Radulae.* * * § — Mr. F. C. Baker describes a number of radulaa
which he has studied in preparing a report on the Molluscs of the
Chicago area. He has also made some observations on the way in which
the radula is used. In Limnsea , Planorbis , Pleurocera , Gampeloma, &c.
the motion of the tongue is precisely that of a cat lapping milk. Land
snails, on the contrary, use the jaw for cutting a piece of leaf, &c., and
the ribbon is pressed against the jaw and assists in cutting the lower
part of the piece selected.

Structure of Prosobranchs.j — M. Alex. Amaudrut distinguishes
three areas of growth in the anterior region of the Prosobranch body : —
— (a) Terminal elongation in front of the tentacles; ( b ) intercalary or
post-tentacular elongation ; and ( c ) dorsal intercalary elongation. These
elongations may be isolated or combined. The object of this paper is
to show their influence on the arrangement, form, and structure of the
anterior organs, particularly in connection with the alimentary canal.

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Wings of Insects.^ — MM. J. H. Comstock and J. G-. Needham discuss
the importance of a study of the homologies of the wing- veins, and de-
scribe their method. In this preliminary chapter they hardly advance
beyond the sentence that “ although there is no doubt that the courses
of the principal wing-veins of primitive insects were determined by the
position of the principal tracheae of the wings, the wing-veins have
been more or less modified to meet the needs of adult life ; while at
the same time the tracheae of the immature wing, serving the purpose
of respiration, and lying more or less free within the wing-sac, have not
been forced to follow closely the changes in the cuticular thickenings of
that sac.”

Geographical Distribution of Dragon-flies. §— Mr. G. H. Carpenter
has a learned essay on this subject. We cannot do better than quote
from the last paragraph : — “ The largest and most dominant sub-families,
the Libellulinae and Coenagrionidae, have the largest percentage of widely
ranging genera. These groups, it will be remembered, are better repre-
sented in Tertiary than in Secondary rocks, and are clearly the most
vigorous and flourishing branches of the order. The iEschinae, a group
which seems to have passed its zenith, and the Corduliinae, show a
larger proportion of forms peculiar to various regions. Lastly, in the
Gomphinae and the Agrioninaa, with an excessively large percentage of

* Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., xix. (1897) pp. 81-92 (2 pis.).

t Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 259-62.

X Amer. Naturalist, xxxii. (1898) pp. 43-8 (3 figs.).

§ Proc. R. Dublin Soc., viii. (1897) pp. 439-68 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

191

genera of restricted range, we see the evidence of their geographical dis-
tribution strongly confirming the opinion of students of their structure,
that they are the most primitive of the dragon-fly sub-families.”

How Flowers attract Insects.* — Another contribution by Prof. F.
Plateau to our knowledge of this subject treats of anemophilous flowers,
and of such as have but little natural colouring ; and he draws from his
observations conclusions favourable to his view already expressed, that
insects are but little attracted to flowers by the sense of sight, chiefly by
that of smell.

In all the species of strictly anemophilous flowers observed, 17 in
number, all of some green or brown tint, and not visited at all by insects
in nature, it was sufficient to place on them fragrant artificial nectar in
order to attract numbers of insects of different kinds, chiefly Diptera and
Hymenoptera. The author enumerates moreover 91 species, belonging
to a great variety of natural orders, which are entomophilous, but in
wrhich the flowers are inconspicuous, either bright green, very pale green,
or brown.

In summing up his conclusions in the concluding part of his paper,
Prof. Plateau recapitulates his reasons for regarding the sense of sight
as only a secondary one in attracting insects to flowers. If the con-
spicuous parts of flowers are removed insects still continue to visit them,
and they are at once attracted to flowers which they do not ordinarily
visit if these are smeared with honey. Where a species varies in the
colour of its flowers, they exhibit neither preference nor antipathy to one
colour over another. Artificial flowers made of paper or calico, and very
closely resembling real flowers, do not attract insects, while they do if
made of leaves which have a vegetable scent. Inconspicuous flowers
completely hidden by foliage are still abundantly visited by insects if
scented.

Mimetic Attraction.! — Dr. F. A. Dixey has shown that the process
of mimetic assimilation may start from a given form and proceed along
several divergent paths. Thus from Pieris phaloe five divergent series of
mimetic modifications could be traced, each passing through a graduated
series of closely allied forms until it terminated in a Pieris or Mylothrix ,
bearing a more or less intimate relation with some protected form or
forms of entirely different affinities. In these instances the model to-
wards which the series tended was a member of a “ Mullerian group ” —
an association of inedible species sharing a common notoriety of colour-
ing. The ordinary Batesian mimicry between edible and inedible can
exist only when the numbers of the mimic are insignificant compared
with those of the model, whilst a Mullerian group gains in strength with
every fresh accession. The attractive power in Batesian mimicry acts
only from model towards mimic, whereas in Mullerian association the
attraction is mutual and tends to produce reciprocal changes. This
reciprocal mimetic attraction is probably the more important of the two.
As a consequence of the keen struggle in the Neotropical fauna, scarcely
any conspicuous form is completely isolated. If edible, it is generally

* Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belgique, xxxiv. (1897) pp. 601-44, 847-80. Cf. this
Journal, 1897, p. 121. f Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1897, pp. 317-31 (1 pi.).

192

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

a Batesian mimic ; if nauseous, it tends to be drawn into the vortex of
one of the great Mullerian groups.

Mimicry in Insects.* * * § — Mr. R. Trimen, in his Presidential Address to
the Entomological Society of London, discusses the evidence in relation
to (a) persecution of insects by insectivorous foes ; ( b ) possession of
malodorous and distasteful juices by certain groups ; (c) rejection or
avoidance of the insects provided with offensive juices ; and ( d ) loss
occasioned to distasteful species by the attacks of young and inex-
perienced enemies. It is admittedly on the co-operation of these factors
that the theory of mimicry depends.

Experiments as to Coloration of Butterflies.f — Dr. F. Urech used
a thread to constrict the wings of Vanessa urticse in the pupa state, and
observed the results. Some parts of the wing were free from or very
poor in scales. The coloration was changed, but unequally, and never
so as to render the species unrecognisable. It seemed as if the colouring
was more changed outside the area of constriction than within it. In
what way the alteration of pressure results in a change of coloration
remains obscure. We shall, however, doubtless hear more of this in-
genious experiment.

Temperature and Modification.^ — Mr. F. A. Dixey gives a very
useful summary of the important experimental researches made by
Mr. Merrifield during the last ten years on the relation of temperature to
modification in Lepidoptera. The changes induced were mainly of three
kinds: — (1) general change, often striking, in the colouring, without
material alteration in the markings ; (2) change caused by the substitu-
tion of scales of a different colour, either singly and scattered, or so
grouped as to cause a material change in pattern ; (3) change in general
appearance caused by imperfection in the development of the scales or
of their pigment.

Experiments on Warning Colour s.§ — Mr. Frank Finn has made
some interesting experiments with a Tree-shrew ( Tupaia ferruginea ),
which showed that this animal has a very strong objection to the “ pro-
tected ” Danainac and to Papilio aristolochise. It constantly refused them,
the former absolutely, unlike the babblers previously experimented with,
which generally showed their dislike of the Danainae merely by prefer-
ring other forms. Further experiments with a bull-frog were not so
satisfactory. The Amphibian appeared to object to Danais chrysippus
more than to _D. eucharis, yet not very seriously to either. But sufficient
opportunity for choice was not given.

Myrmecophilous Coleoptera.|| — Maurice Pic gives a long list of
myrmecophilous Coleoptera collected in Algiers, and describes Oxysoma
sefrensis sp. n.

Crickets as Thermometers.1T — Mr. A. E. Dolbear finds that, while a
single cricket chirps with no great regularity, when great numbers are

* Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1897, pp. lxxivT.-xcvii.

t Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 487-501.

X Nature, lvii. (1897) pp. 184-8 (13 figs.).

§ Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, lxvi. (1897) pp. 528-33.

|| Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxii. (1897) pp. 230-3.

IT Amer. Naturalist, xxxi. (1897) pp. 970-1.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC.

193

chirping together they keep time as if led by the wand of a conductor.
The rate of chirp, he says, seems to be entirely determined by tempera-
ture ; so much so that the temperature may be easily computed if the
number of chirps is known. Thus at 60° F. the rate is 80 per minute,
at 70° F. it is 120; this gives a change of four chirps for each degree.
Below 50° F. the cricket has no energy to waste, and the rate is only 40
chirps per minute.

Chromatic Tetrads in Spermatogenesis of Grasshopper.* — Dr. E.
Y. Wilcox answers Dr. E. B. Wilson’s criticism of his account of the
spermatogenesis in Calopterus , and adheres to his previous conclusions.
The doubling of the normal number of chromosomes in the prophases
of the first maturation division is not due to a longitudinal splitting of
the chromosomes. In the spireme of spermatocytes of the first order
the chromosomes arise separately and independently, but afterwards
become associated in pairs, and then by conjugation form tetrads, the
components of which are all unlike.

Development of Heart in Agelastica Alni.f — Herr A. Petrunke-
witsch describes the origin of the heart from a closure of the mesoderm
on the dorsal median line of the embryo. Thus there is formed a canal,
which Tichomiroff called gastro-vascular, with walls consisting exter-
nally of mesoderm, and internally (but only in part, i.e. ventrally) of
cndoderm. But it is perhaps enough to say that the author confirms
what Tichomiroff described in Bombyx mori and Sphinx ocellata.

Apterygota of Kiew.| — A. Scherbakow gives a list of the Collembola
and Thysanura of the Kiew district, enumerating 67 species and 19
varieties. He describes a new genus Mesira , and three new species.

Lepidoptera injurious to Sugar-Cane.§ — M. Edmond Bordage dis-
cusses Diatroea striatalis and Sesamia noncigriodes whose larvae, known as
“ Borers,” do injury to the sugar-cane in Reunion and Mauritius. The
identity and synonymy of these two forms seems to have got strangely
jumbled, and the note is intended to put matters straight.

Psyche Helix. || — Herr I. Ingenitzsky has some notes on the life-
history and habits of Psyche ( Epichnopteryx ) helix Sieb., whose larvae,
pupae, and female imagines live in earth-like coiled tubes like snail-
shells. It occurs very abundantly in Central Asia, sometimes damages
even cultivated plants, and appears to be sometimes parthenogenetic.
Its state in the different seasons is described.

Myriopoda.

Segmentation of Myriopod Body.T — Dr. R. Heymons points out the
close resemblance between the development of Chilopoda and Hexapoda.
On the head-region of the Scolopendra-hlsiStodeTm the following seg-
ments are seen: — (1) Antennary, (2) intercalary, (3) mandibular,
(4 and 5) two maxillary segments. Then follows, as in all Chilopods, a

* Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1897) pp. 194-8.

I Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 140-3 (3 figs.). % Tom. cit., pp. 57-65 (9 figs.).

§ Comptes Eendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 1109-12.

II Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 473-7 (1 fig.).

SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1897, pp. 915-23 (2 figs.).

194

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

post-oral segment witli tlie foot-jaws or maxillipedes. It is not
improbable that the clypeus of Insects and Myriopods may be referable
to the pre-oral head-lobes of Annelid-like ancestors.

The posterior maxillae of Chilopoda and Hexapoda are not homolo-
gous with the most anterior pair of limbs in Diplopoda. The exact
homologues are wanting in Diplopoda, the corresponding segment being
more or less rudimentary and without appendages. This is seen clearly
in Julus and Glomeris , and is probably true for Polydesmus and other
forms.

The gnathochilarium of Diplopoda is to be interpreted as a fusion of
the hypopharynx with a maxillary pair split in two halves.

S. Arachnida.

Remarkable Case of Protective Resemblance.* — Dr. E. A. Goelai
describes a Brazilian species of Cyclosa which illustrates a remarkable
protective resemblance. On the web there hangs a tube of detritus,
apparently no random structure ; the spider forms as it were part of
this tube ; lying horizontally it exactly fills up a gap ; its dorsal and
lateral markings correspond most deceptively with the irregular mark-
ings of the particles composing the tube of debris.

Development of Trombidion holosericeum.f — S. Jourdain describes
the successive stages : — (1) The embryonic form within the egg-shell ;
(2) the hatched hexapod parasitic larva ; (3) the sedentary nymph ; and
(4) the 8-limhed sexual adult.

Harvest-Mites.f — P. Megnin calls attention to the numerous species
with red hexapod larvae ( Pougets ), parasitic on insects and mammals —
dogs, hares, wild rabbits, man, &c. He instances Trombidion Gymno-
terorum, T. holosericeum, and T. fuliginosum , abundant in various
localities.

Hydrachnida of Germany.§ — Dr. R. Piersig has published another
part of his magnificent monograph on the Hydrachnids of Germany.

Tardigrada from Spitsbergen. || — Mr. D. J. Scourfield records Macro-
biotus hufelandii C. Schultze, M. tuberculatus Plate, Echiniscus arctomys
Ehrbg., and E. spitsbergensis sp. n., from mosses collected during the
Conway expedition to Spitsbergen in 1896. Two further species were
also seen, but were not specifically determined. The only previous
record of a Water-bear (? M. dujardini Doy.) from the island was made
by Dr. A. von Goes in 1862.

e, Crustacea.

Reversal of Respiratory Current in Decapods.^ — Georges Bohn re-
cently showed that the reversal of the direction of the current of water
in the branchial chamber, which has long been known in Corystes, also
occurs in Carcinus msenas, the common shore-crab. Garstang has shown

* Zool. Jahrb., x. (1897) pp. 563-8 (1 pi.).

f Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 965-6. f Tom. cit., p. 967.

§ Zoologica (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 22 (1897) Lief. 3, pp. 161-240 (8 pis.).

|| Proc. Zool. Soc., 1897. pp. 790-1 (1 pi.),

'-If Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 539-42: and Ann. Nat. Hist., i. 7th series
(1898) pp. 20-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

195

that in Portumnus nasutus the reversal also occurs. Bolin has now
proved its occurrence in twenty-one species selected from various
families. He discusses its advantages and disadvantages in connection
with the parasitic Crustaceans often found in the branchial chamber.

Malayan Decapoda and Stomatopoda.* * * § — Dr. J. G. de Man com-
pletes his report on a collection from Malacca, Borneo, Sumatra, and
the Java Sea. He has dealt witli 185 species, many of them new.

Some Rare Crustacea. Messrs. T. and A. Scott describe Sunaristes
paguri Hesse, of which they have obtained several British specimens.
The notes and drawings show the more important points of difference
between this parasitic copepod and Canuella , and also the close relation-
ship between these two and the genus Longipedia Claus. The authors
have also notes on Remigulus tridens T. and A. Scott, which turns out to
be synonymous with Synatipliilus luteus Canu and Cuenot ; on Diaptomus
laciniatus Lilljeborg from Loch Doon, Ayrshire (new to Britain) ; and
on Lathonura rectirostris Lilljeborg from the same loch (new to Scot-
land.

Isopods of the ‘Albatross ’ Expedition.^ — Herr H. J. Hansen reports
on this collection. There were fifteen species — one terrestrial and well-
known, fourteen marine and new. Of the marine species, eight are
free-living, and one is parasitic on fishes ; these nine are easily referred
to well-established genera. The remaining five are new Bopyrinae (four
new genera), and are the more interesting since heretofore no Bopyrinee
have been found on truly deep-sea animals.

Synidotea.§ — Dr. J. E. Benedict has made a useful revision of
this genus of Isopods, which was instituted in 1878 by Harger to
receive Idotea bicuspida Owen and I. nodulosa Kroyer, two species
which now represent the two sections of the genus. The improved
diagnosis reads : — Antennae with an articulated flagellum. Epimeral
sutures not evident above on the first four segments ; on the last three
the lines of demarcation are more or less distinct. Pleon apparently
composed of two segments, united above but separated at the sides by
short incisions. Operculum with a single apical plate. Palpus of
maxillipeds three-jointed. Thirteen species are described and figured ;
seven being new.

Entomostraca of Plon.|] — Mr. D. J. Scourfield gives a list of 36
species of Cladocera, 10 of Ostracoda, and 18 of Copepoda, collected by
him in the Grosser Ploner See and neighbouring pieces of water in July
1896. The list includes several rare and interesting species, e.g.
CeriodapJmia setosa Matile, Alonopsis f latissima Kurz, Candona stagnalis
Sars, Heterocope appendiculata Sars, Canthocamptus vejdovshji Mrazek,
&c., and shows that the Entomostracan fauna of the district immediately
surrounding the Plon Fresh-water Biological Station is exceptionally
rich.

* Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Syst.), x. (1898) pp. 677-708 (11 pis.).

f Ann. Nat. Hist., xx. (1897) pp. 489-94 (2 pis.).

% Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxxi. (1897) pp. 95-129 (6 pis. and a map).

§ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1897, pp. 889-404 (13 figs.).

|| Forschungsberichte Biol. Station Plon, v. (1897) p. 180 and table.

196

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Non-marine Copepoda from Spitsbergen.* — Mr. D. J. Scourfield
obtained, from mosses collected during the Conway expedition to Spits-
bergen in 1896, a specimen of a Harpacticid, which, however, was
damaged and could not be determined, and a few examples of Cyclops
bisetosus Reliberg. Two of the latter exhibited peculiar abnormalities.

Eye of Corycaeus.j — Dr. A. Steuer describes the structure of the
eye in Corycseus anglicus Lubbock, confirming in general what has been
observed in the allied Sappliirina and Copilia, but also furnishing more
intimate details, especially in regard to the pigment-rod. His experi-
ments led him to the conclusion that, in spite of its complexity of struc-
ture, the eye is functionally very imperfect, admitting of little more
than perceptions of light and shade.

New Parasitic Copepods.if — Surgeon P. W. Bassett-Smith has
found a large number of new parasitic Copepods on fishes at Bombay.
He erects a new genus Helleria for a member of the family Dichelesthina
taken from the gills of Cybium guttatum, and describes thirteen new
species of other genera.

North American Species of Diaptomus.§ — Mr. F. W. Schacht gives
a descriptive list of these, with diagnostic keys, and data as to distribu-
tion. Although the genus is the most cosmopolitan of its family, no
species is known to be common to the mainlands of Europe and America,
—a fact the more remarkable since almost the direct opposite is true of
the companion genus Cyclops , of which only one or two species can be
called peculiar to America.

Annulata.

Regeneration in Earthworms. || — Prof. E. Korschelt experimented
with Lumbricus rubellus, Allolobophora terrestris , &c., and observed
regenerative phenomena of much greater magnitude than Morgan and
Hescheler saw. It seems that a small piece of 10-20 segments or so re-
generates more successfully than a long piece. One piece of L. rubellus ,
consisting of 23 segments, regenerated 25 segments in front, and 62
behind. Pieces from the middle of the body are most regenerative ; the
process seems more difficult in the regions of head, gonads, clitellum,
and tail. Yet no part can be said to be incapable of regeneration.

Origin of Setigerous Bulbs and Nephridia in Annelids.^ — M. Aug.

Michel has studied this in the regeneration of Nephthys and Allolobophora
foetida , &c. In the caudal regeneration, the setigerous bulbs are ecto-
dermic, the setigerous sacs mesodermic , and the nephridia ectomesodermic.
Thus the results agree on the whole with those of the normal organo-
genesis, and favour the idea of parallelism between regenerative and
embryonic processes.

* Proc. Zool. Soc., 1897, p. 792.

| Zool. Jalirb., xi. (1897) pp. 1-12 (1 pi. and 1 fig.).

t Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., i. 7th series (1898) pp. 1-17 (7 pis.).

$ Bull. Illinois Lab. Nat. Hist., v. (1897) pp. 97-207 (15 pis.).

|| SB. Ges. Nat. Marburg, 1897, pp. 72-105. See Zool. Centralbl., v. (1898)
pp. 50-2. H Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 50-2.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

197

Cirrophore of Polynoidae.* — G. Darboux fils distinguishes on the
dorsal cirrus of Polynoidae the cirrophore and the cirrostyle. The cirro-
phore is a protrusion formed by an evagination of the whole musculo-
cutaneous envelope. At the base of this there is a glandular pocket
where the cirrostyle is inserted on the cirrophore by a delicate annular
epidermic membrane. The delicacy of this membrane explains the
caducous nature of the cirrostyles. Moreover, when the animal is irri-
tated the pocket is filled with mucus which strains the line of insertion
between cirrophore and cirrostyle. A simple figure would have made
the paper more readily intelligible.

Irish Annelids.f — Prof. W. C. McIntosh gives an annotated list of
collections from the Museum of Science and Art in Dublin, and from
Prof. A. G. Haddon. Two new forms, Harmothoe Fraser- Thomsoni and
Sthenelais sp. (imperfect) are recorded.

New British Echinuroid.if — Prof. W. A. Herdman describes Thalas-
sema Lankesteri sp. n., female specimens of which were dredged in fifty
fathoms off the Isle of Man. The specific diagnosis runs : — Length about
20 cm. ; proboscis nearly as long as trunk, and in most of its extent
wider ; tip of proboscis truncated and slightly indented ; surface evenly
tuberculated all over ; colour apple-green on the trunk, paler on the
proboscis ; longitudinal musculature not divided into bundles ; a single
pair of anterior nepliridia ; nephrostomes spirally twisted ; cloacal ne-
phridia branched, with numerous ciliated funnels on the ends of the
branches.

Herdman’s new species agrees with Hamingia in having branched
cloacal nephridia, while in all other respects it either agrees with or
comes nearer Thalassema.

The green pigment has been examined by Prof. Sherrington, Dr.
Noel Paton, and Miss Newbigin, with the result that the substance,
which may be appropriately called thalassemin, is shown to be unre-
lated to haemoglobin or chlorophyll, not a respiratory pigment, but on
the whole nearer to bonellein than to any other known pigment.

Ch8etopterin.§ — Prof. E. Kay Lankester gives an account of what is
known in regard to this pigment, which he discovered in 1861 in the
intestinal wall of Chseiojpterus. He describes its mode of occurrence
and its optical properties. After discussing the colour and absorption
spectra of bonellein, which is widely different from chaetopterin, he
records the measurements of the absorption spectra of both pigments
recently made by Prof. Engelmann.

Nematobelminthes.

Vitality of Young Round- Worms. || — Herr G. Fritsch made an
osmic acid preparation of a mature female of Anguillula aceti , and sealed
it up with asphalt. For fourteen days the embryos showed signs of
life. This is another striking illustration of the extraordinarily small
respiratory demands of these organisms.

* Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 257-9.

t Proc. R. Dublin Soc., viii. (1897) pp. 399-401.

j Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xl. (1897) pp. 367-84 (2 pis.).

§ Tom. cit , pp. 447-68 (4 pis.). |j Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 110-2.

1898 P

198

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Terminal Organs of Excretory Canals in Ascarids.* * * § — Prof. N. Nas-
sonov discusses Hamann’s description of tliese structures, and states his
own observations. The terminal unicellular lymphatic gland is associated
with a gigantic partially phagocytic cell of very complex structure.

(Esophageal Gland of Nematodes.! — L. A. Jagerskiold describes (in

Strongylus armatus and Dochmius duodenalis ) a gland which lies along
the dorsal surface of the oesophagus, and has a duct opening on the
anterior margin of the mouth-cavity.

Platyhelminthes.

New Prorhynchid Turbellarian.J — Prof. W. A. Haswell describes
a remarkable Turbellarian found by Dr. Chilton in deep wells in
Canterbury, New Zealand. It agrees with von Graff’s Prorhynchus in
having a ciliated groove, anterior mouth, and chitinous copulatory
organ. But it differs in several important points. Such are the more
complex pharynx, the bifurcate posterior vessel of the excretory system,
the rod-like chitinous supports of the penis sheath, the laterally placed
vitello-ovary, and the unpaired laterally placed testis. The disposition
of the reproductive organs is probably unique. Also very remarkable is
the mode of copulation, for there is strong evidence that the sperms of
one individual are conveyed into the interior of the ovary of another by
the penis piercing the body-wall and penetrating to the ovary. The
structure of the penis and vesicula seminalis suggests a hypodermic
syringe, with a compressible ball instead of a cylinder and piston.

In view, however, of the necessity for a more thorough knowledge of
structure of the described species of Prorhynchus, Prof. Haswell thinks
it best to regard this New Zealand form provisionally as a member of
the genus, and proposes the name P. putealis.

New Parasites.§ — Herr P. Miihling describes the following new
species : — Urogonimus Bosittensis from the bursa Fabricii of Turdus
pilaris ; Distomum exiguum in the bile-duct of Circus rufus ; D. imitans in
the intestine of Abramis brama ; D. refertum from the gall-bladder of
Cypselus apus ; D. nematoides from the intestine of Tropidonotus natrix ;
D. simillimum from the intestine of Fuligula nyroca ; P. spiculigerum from
the same ; and Monostomum alveatum (named but not described by Mehlis)
from Fidigula marila. He has also notes on some forms which, though
not new, are but little known ; on the “ cysts ” of Fchinostommi ferox and
D. turgidum ; and on some parasites in unusual hosts, e.g. Schistocephalus
solidus in the edible frog.

New Tapeworm in a Bird.|| — Mr. A. E. Shipley describes Drepani-
dotsenia hemignathi sp. n. from the intestine of Hemignathus procerus ,
Sandwich Islands. The diagnosis reads : — Length 1-2*2 cm. ; breadth,
in the middle of the body, 2 mm. Head flattened and compressed,
rostrum with a crown of ten hooks ; each hook 18-23 [x in length, and
with but a slight trace of the inner limb of the forked base. Neck short.

* Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 48-50.

t Biliang. K. Svensk. Yet. Akad. Handl., xxiii. (1897) Afd. iv. No. 5, 26 pp.

and 2 pis. % Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,;xl. (1898) pp. 631-45 (1 pi.).

§ Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 16-24.

|| Quart. Journ. Mier. Sci., xl. (1898) pp. 613-21 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

190

The first segments are short, but they very soon (eighth or tenth) show
traces of reproductive organs. Genital pore unilateral. The posterior
limit of each segment is sharply defined, and forms an angle of about
45 degrees with the sides. Egg spherical, diameter about 40-50 /x. The
three pairs of embryonic hooks measure about 20 /x each in length.

Incertae Sedis.

New Genus of Enteropneusta.*— Dr. A. Willey describes Spengelia
porosa g. et sp. n., from Lifu, Loyalty Islands : — “ If it were not for
the presence of vestigial roots in the collar nerve-cord, Spengelia (apart
from its own peculiar features, e.g. dermal pits, splanchnic layer of
Punldsubstanz, accessory genital pores not perforating the longitudinal
musculature, &c.) might almost be defined as a Glandiceps, with synap-
ticula between the branchial bars.”

The genera of Enteropneusta fall naturally into three groups : —
Group I., including Ptychodera, briefly characterised by the presence of
an outer layer of circular muscles in the integument of the trunk, the
occurrence of dorsal roots putting the fibrous layer of the collar nerve-
cord in connection with the fibrous layer of the epidermis ; and the pre-
sence of liver-saccules and of synapticula between the branchial bars.

Group II., including Schizocardium, Glandiceps , Spengelia , charac-
terised by the presence of an inner layer of circular muscles (inside the
longitudinal layer) and by the occurrence of a long vermiform process
extending forwards from the anterior end of the notochord or proboscis
caecum.

Group III., including Balanoglossus, characterised by the absence
of circular muscles in the integument of the trunk, and by the absence
of synapticula.

Fertilisation in Myzostoma.f — Herr K. Kostanecki has investigated
the maturation and fertilisation phenomena in Myzostoma glabrum. His
main conclusion is a corroboration of Boveri’s generalisation that the
centrosomes of the first cleavage spindle arise from the sperm-eentro-
some. It was thought that Myzostoma was exceptional in this respect ;
but Kostanecki has shown that it is normal. There need be little
hesitation, he says, in extending the generalisation to all Metazoa.

Rotifera.

Impregnation of the Ova of Hyaatina Senta.J — According to
Dr. Sadone’s observation, the spermatozoa of the male Hydatina, which
are injected into the body-cavity of the female, reach the totally enclosed
eggs by boring through the thin membrane of the ovary at a point where
the mature ova are situated, a process which is not known in any other
class of animals. The oval head of a spermatozoon was seen to attach
itself to the membrane of the ovary, while the tail continued to make
lashing movements in the body-cavity until the head was gradually
forced through the membrane followed by the tail ; the whole process
taking eight to ten minutes. It is probable that this process is the same
in other Rotifers.

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xl. (1898) pp. 623-30 (1 pi.).

f Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1898) pp. 461-80 (2 pis.).

X Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 515-7.

p 2

200

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Echinoderma.

Function of Pyloric Caeca in Starfish.* — Ellen A. Stone finds that
the pyloric caeca of Asterias vulgaris have a definite pancreatic function.
Their abundant secretion contains three ferments : —

(1) A proteolytic ferment, comparable to trypsin, which acts best
in a slightly alkaline medium, to good advantage in a neutral solution,
but scarcely at all in an acid medium ; converting proteids into diffusible
peptones, and breaking down some of these even further into amido-
acids, such as leucin and tyi’osin.

(2) A diastatic ferment, acting rapidly upon starch, converting it
through the dextrins into maltose.

(3) A fat-splitting ferment, comparable to that of the pancreas, which
breaks fats into their fatty acids and glycerin. But this is surely not
quite so new as the authoress indicates (p. 1040) ; since even in such an
elementary text-book as Thomson’s £ Outlines of Zoology,’ 2nd edition
(p. 232), we read “these glands secrete tryptic, peptic, and diastatic
ferments.”

Development of Phyllophorus urna.f — Prof. H. Ludwig makes a
preliminary communication in regard to the development of this Medi-
terranean Holothuroid. He confirms Kowalevsky’s observation that the
young are found within the body-cavity of the mother, but he has not
yet succeeded in finding the earliest stages. It is doubtful whether the
development normally occurs in the body-cavity, or in the ovarian tubes
which might be readily ruptured. One of the interesting features of the
young stages is their abundant equipment with calcareous bodies, of
which there is hardly a trace in the adults.

Notes on Dendrochirota.J — Hjalmar Ostergren describes some of
the differences among Dendrochirota ; — (a) as regards the disposition of
the coils of the gut and the associated mesentery, ( b ) as regards the
respiratory trees. He also describes some new species, — Cucumaria i
longicauda , Thy one anomala , &c.

Sphaerothuria bitentaculata in Japanese Seas.§ — Prof. E. Mitsukuri
found this interesting Holothurian, looking externally like some simple
Ascidian, at about 350 fathoms in the Sagami seas. Both specimens
were caught by a long fishing line, and found attached to the jelly-mass
which Bdellostoma secretes. Agassiz described its occurrence near the
Galapagos Islands, and the discovery of this rare species at two places
separated by the entire width of the Pacific is, to say the least, very
interesting, and goes once more to establish the comparative uniformity
of the deep-sea fauna. The discovery of the animals at intermediate
localities would not now be surprising.

Protein Crystalloids in Nuclei of Amoebocytes.|]— Dr. Th. List
describes the occurrence of crystalloid aggregates of a proteid nature
within the nuclei of the wandering amoeboid cells of Sphser echinus

* Amer. Naturalist, xxxi. (1897) pp. 1035-41.

t Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 95-9. % Tom. cit., pp. 102-10 (3 figs.).

§ Annot. Zool. Japon., i. (1897) p. 149.

|| Anat. Anzeig , xiv. (1897) pp. 185-91 (4 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

201

granularis. They are products of the nuclear substance, and possibly
become pigment-granules.

Ccelentera.

American Fresh-water Jelly-fish.* * * § — Mr. E. Potts has observed the
budding and separation of free-swimming Meduste from Microhydra
ryderi. The jelly-fish was about 1/32 in. in diameter, of a somewhat
prolate dome-shape, with a quadrate manubrium, four radial canals, and
.eight tentacles. The author found Microhydra ryderi among colonies
of Bryozoa, on stones collected from the rocky bed of Tacony Creek,
ti rapidly flowing mill-stream near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a small
affluent of the river Delaware, but far above tide-level. He observed the
Medusoids in a tank in August. Details are promised.

Notes on Cubomedusse.y — Mr. F. S. Conant found in Kingston
Harbour, Jamaica, two very abundant Cubomedusm — C/iaryhdea xayma-
xana sp. n. and Tripedalia cys'ophora sp. n. — the latter requiring a new
family Tripedalidae between Charybdeidae and Chirodropidae, the two
families hitherto recognised. After a description of the two new species
und some notes on their unusual occurrence in shallow water, this prelimi-
nary communication contains an account of the eye and the otolithic sac.
The occurrence of a free unsuspended otolith in a ciliated sac is probably
unique among Medusae. The mature eggs of Tripedalia pass from the
ovaries into the stomach-pouches, and there develop up to the stage of
free- swimming planulae. The young are set free from the parent as
-ciliated planulae, with posterior pigment-spots : they swim about on the
surface for a day or two ; they gradually lose their forward motion and
2’otate on their own axis in one spot. At this point they settle down, the
pigment-spots migrate into the interior, tentacles are budded out, and in
this condition they lived in the aquaria for three weeks without further
development. Search for scyphistomas in the region where the jelly-fish
were found was fruitless.

Irish Hydroids.J — Mr. J. E. Duerden gives a list of the Hydroids of
the Irish Coast, including 101 species, — 35 Athecata, and 66 Thecata.
His examinations made an addition of about 23 species to the Irish
Hydroids, including two new species, and one new to Britain.

Distribution of Millepora.§ — Prof. S. J. Hickson notes the absence
of evidence that Millepora existed further back in history than what
may be called geologically recent times, and the consequent difficulty of
accounting for its present wide distribution in the West Indies, Red
Sea, Indian Ocean, and the Pacific.

Tubularia indivisa. || — Gosta Gronberg describes the structure of the
hydranth-head and the stalk of Tubularia indivisa, amplifying, and in
some particulars correcting Allman’s description. The “ pendulous
lobes ” of the endoderm described by Allman are probably the “ tseniolae.”
A specific peculiarity is found in minute endodermic canals in the oral

* Amer. Naturalist, 1897, pp. 1032-5.

f Jolins Hopkins Univ. Circ., 1897, pp. 8-10 (2 figs.); Ann. Nat. Hist., i.
7th series, 1898, pp. 31-40 (2 figs.).

X Proc. R. Dublin Soc., viii. (1897) pp. 405-20.

§ Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 70-1.

.11 Zool. Jahrb., xi. (1897) pp. 61-76 (2 pis.).

202

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

region passing obliquely outwards and downwards from the gastro-
vascular cavity, and equal in number to the proximal tentacles. No
external pores were seen, but the canals probably correspond to those in
AmaJthsea vardoensis described by Loman. The canals in the stalk,
described by Wrigbt and Allman, are separated by true septa, but these
are not regarded as of any phylogenetic importance. In regard to the
oogenesis, the author differs from Doflein ; the ovum does not arise from
a syncytium of equivalent cells in which the best nucleus — primum inter
pares — becomes the germinal vesicle ; the ovarian cells are previously
differentiated into ova and nutritive cells. The relationships of the
Tubularidre are thus indicated : —

Hypocodonkhe Tubular idee

Monocaulidee

! Corymorphkke

Hydroida

Recent Progress in the Study of Graptolites.* — Dr. R. Ruedemann
gives a useful synopsis of recent work in which he has himself had an
important share. “ Whatever the relations of the graptolites may be, it
certainly is necessary for the understanding of the life-history of the indi-
viduals of the colonies to compare the graptolites with some class of
living animals, and there is undoubtedly no other class available but the
order of Campanularise. It also should not be forgotten that the virgula
which always has been considered as constituting one of the principal
differences between graptolites and campanularians, has been proved to
be comparable to the hydrocaulus of the first theca of the Campanulariee.’*
“ It is highly probable that many graptolites were indeed pseudo-
planktonic, while some may even have gone further and have become free-
floating or planktonic, and others are known to have been sessile at
the bottom.”

Porifera.

Spongillids of Lago di Garda.j — Sig. A. Garbini has found four
Spongillidae in this locality — Euspongilla lacustris Liebk., Ephydatia
fluviatilis Liebk., Ephydatia robustci Potts, and Carterius tubisperma
Potts. The particular interest of this note is that the two last-named
species are new to Europe.

* Amer. Nauralist, xxxii. (1898) pp. 1-16 (28 figs.),
t Zool. Anzeig., xx. (1897) pp. 477-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

203

Protozoa.

Text-Book on the Protozoa.* * * § — MM. Y. Delage and E. Herouard
have published a large work on the Cell and the Protozoa. It combines
a detailed description of types with a systematic account of the genera,
and with a discussion of protoplasm and the cell as a sort of back-
ground. Four classes of Protozoa are distinguished : — Bhizopodia,
Sporozoaria, Elagellia, and Infusoria. The book is adorned wTith great
abundance of illustrations, many of which are coloured.

Argentine Protozoa. I — The fourth part of the late Prof. J. Frenzel’s
studies of Argentine Protozoa contains descriptions of many new Bliizo-
pods. Four forms — Gringci filiformis, Aboenia angulata, Eichenia rotunda ,
Microhydrella tentaculata — represent new genera. There is also a
general discussion of the classification and geographical distribution of
fresh-water Bhizopods. More than half the European species are known
outside Europe ; and, although much has still to be done in the way of
description and recording, the majority may be already called cosmo-
politan. The talented author lost his life through an accident on the
Miiggelsee.

Studies on Amoebae.:]: — S. Prowazek observed a small amoeba in an
aquarium with very concentrated sea-water, and saw a peculiar behaviour
of the contractile vacuole. In its diastole it was protruded on the
periphery of the ectoplasm, and almost constricted off ; in its systole it
emptied itself inwards. As the process seemed to be normal, the observer
suggests that the fluid in the vacuole was aerated or oxidised by the
exposure, and that the process was really respiratory. In another note
he describes the transformation of a small organism from a flagellate
to an amoeboid phase.

Fresh-water Bhizopods from Spitsbergen.§ — Mr. D. J. Scourfield
has found, in mosses collected during the Conway expedition to Spits-
bergen in 1896, about twenty-one species of Bhizopods. None of these
appear to be new to science, but they are nearly all new to the known
fauna of Spitsbergen, as the only information about these animals pre-
viously published was a record of three species by Ehrenberg in 1874.
The commonest form Mr. Scourfield found to be Difflugia constricta
Ehrbg., but Euglypha ciliata Ehrbg. and Trinema enchelys Ehrbg. were
also very abundant. The genera Arcella , Glathrulina , and Gromia , on
the other hand, were each represented by only a single specimen.

Two new Protozoa. || — Dr. B. Lauterborn, continuing his faunistic
studies on the Upper Bhine, describes Chromulina mucicola sp. n., a
flagellate Infusorian, living in large groups surrounded by a gelatinous
secretion ; and the ciliated Infusorian Tr ichor Jiynchus Erlangen sp. n.,
which, besides being interesting in itself, is noteworthy in connection

* ‘ Traite de Zoologie concrete. Tome i. La cellule et les Protozoaires,’ Paris,

1897, 8vo, xxx. and 584 pp., 870 figs.

t Bibl. Zoologica (Leuckart and Chun). Heft 12, Lief. 4 (1897) pp. 115-66
(4 pis.). % Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 878-85.

§ Proc. Zool. Soc., 1897, pp. 786-89.

11 Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 145-9 (2 figs.).

204 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with distribution, since the only other known species is Tr. tuamoiuensis
from the South Sea Islands. The generic name will have to be changed,
since Tricliorhynchus was previously given by Schneider to a Gregarine ;
the new name Mycterothrix is proposed.

Protozoa of Pontine Marshes.* — Dr. G. Lindner describes some of
the forms he observed in water from the malarial marshes — numerous
Flagellata, the ciliate Colpoda cucullus, and a few amoeboid forms.

New Ccelomic Gregarine.f — Maurice Caullery and Felix Mesnil de-
scribe an addition to the not very long list of coelomic Monocystidea.
They call it Gonospora longissima ; it occurred in the general cavity of
Dodecaceria concharum CErst., one of the Cirratulid Annelids. It is
remarkable (for a Gregarine) in exhibiting a phase of asporulate or
endogenous multiplication, comparable to that in Coccidia.

* Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 865-78 (3 figs.),
f Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 262-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

205

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Centrosomes in Plants.* — Reviewing tlie present state of our know-
ledge on this subject, M. L. Guignard insists on the improbability that
these bodies, present in animals and in the lower divisions of the vege-
table kingdom, should be absent from the higher plants. In animal
cells the centrosome is regarded as the most important part of the
centrosphere ; it is a refringent corpuscle, often exceedingly minute.
The centrosphere itself is composed of a substance which may be differ-
entiated into two zones — the internal one hyaline, the external granular.
In cells in a state of repose it is formed of the substance which some
authors term archoplasm or kinoplasm, to distinguish it from nutritive
protoplasm or trophoplasm. In this state there is sometimes one,
sometimes there are two centrosomes, sometimes a considerable number
lying side by side, constituting what may be called a micro-centre .

The author then proceeds to point out the variation in the structure
and form of the centrosome in different families of Tliallophytes : — round
in the Fucaceae, rod-shaped in the SphacelariaceaB.f In these groups it
appears never to be surrounded by a sharply differentiated sphere,
while this is the case in certain Muscineae. From observations made on
nuclear division in the pollen-mother-cell of Angiosperms (. Nymphsea ,
Nuphar , Limodorum), the author concludes that the formation of multipolar
spindles, whether normal or accidental, is not a valid argument against
the existence of dynamic centres in the division of the nucleus. There
exist in the cytoplasm, at a certain moment, bodies distinct from ordi-
nary granulations. It is probable that the higher plants are provided
with differentiated kinetic elements the function of which is the same as
that of the analogous bodies in animals and in the lower plants.

Movement of Protoplasm in Ccenocytic Hyphae.J — Mr. J. C. Arthur
finds the streaming of protoplasm to be a universal phenomenon in
the hyphao of all Mucoraceae examined, — Mucor Mncedo, M. racemosus ,
Bhizopus nigricans, B. elegans, Phycomyces nitens , Sporidinia Aspergillus,
Thamnidium elegans, Pilobolus crystallinus. In this streaming movement
it would appear that all the contents — cytoplasm, microsomes, food-
bodies, nuclei, vacuoles — participate. There is sometimes an evident
ectoplastic layer lining the cell-wall which does not take part in the
movement ; but this is often so thin that it is no longer visible. All
kinds of granules are borne along in the current. The vacuoles, how-
ever large, are also swept along ; and, at the right stage of growth for
movement, the protoplasm is usually highly vacuolated. The movement
is usually fitful. It does not take place in all the hyphse of an indi-
vidual plant at the same time, but occurs in some of the main filaments

* Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 1148-53; Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898)
pp. 158-64. f Cf. this Journal, 1897, pp. 107, 108.

J Anu. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 491-507 (4 figs.).

206

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and in some of the branches leading from them. It continues for a time
and then ceases without apparent reason. The rate of movement varies
greatly, and is quicker than the rotation of Nitella or the circulation of
Tradescaniia ; 3*3 mm. per minute was measured.

The author does not find, in the phenomena observed, any support
for the theory of an autonomy of the vacuoles or of a special vacuolar
membrane, advocated by De Vries and others. Return currents were
occasionally seen, always occupying the periphery of the hyphal cavity ;
they never carry vacuoles. He considers the origin of the movement
to be rather in osmotic absorption and exudation of water than in the
vitality of the protoplasm itself.

Relations of Chloroplastid and Cytoplasm.* — Dr. A. J. Ewart con-
tests the adequacy of the bacterium method employed by Kny and
Kolkwitz to detect the assimilating energy of chlorophyll-grains. He
states that the inhibition of the power of assimilation in chlorophyll-
bodies contained in a living cell, which may persist for a time after the
injurious agency has been removed, is due to a pathological condition
which may be induced in the chloroplastids of many plants by the pro-
longed operation of almost any injurious agency of sufficient intensity to
depress the functional activity of the chlorophyllous cells to the lowest
possible ebb consistent with the preservation of vitality. From this
pathological condition recovery may or may not be possible.

Histology of the Cell-wall.f — Mr. W. Gardiner has pursued his in-
vestigations on this subject, especially in relation to the threads of pro-
toplasm which pass from cell to cell. He has been able to demonstrate,
in a large number of cases, the presence of threads of undoubtedly pro-
toplasmic nature, often of exquisite delicacy, which pass in large numbers
through the walls of adjacent cells, not only where they are thinned by
the presence of pits, but elsewhere also. He thinks there can be little
doubt that such connecting threads occur universally in the cells of all
the tissues of all plants. From this arises the fundamental conception
that the plant-body must be regarded as a connected whole. It goes far,
also, to explain the transmission of impulses and of nutrient material
from one part of the vegetable organism to another.

In the case of pitted tissue, the author finds the pit-closing membrane
to be invariably traversed by what he terms “ pit-threads.” But the
threads are by no means confined to the pits ; they often perforate the
walls of the cells themselves, when he calls them “ wall- threads.” When
pit-threads and wall-threads coexist in one and the same cell, the former
are stouter and more readily stainable than the latter. The pit-threads
are necessarily arranged in groups, and in each group the threads are
arranged in bundles. The threads appear to be present ah initio ; it
would seem that in a given cell the whole system of connecting threads
arises at an early stage, and that no subsequent development occurs.
The theory of a system of open pits connected with one another is alto-
gether discarded by the author.

The following is a list of the tissues in which the author has at
present detected these connecting threads : — Cotyledons of Trojpseolum

L. * Bot. Centralbl., Ixxii. (1897) pp. 288-96. Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 101.
f Proc. Roy. Soc., lxii. (1897) pp. 100-12 (8 figs.). For Technique, see p. 240.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

207

majus ; endosperm of Lilium Mar tag on, Fritillaria imperialis, and Hor-
deum vulgare ; root of Ranunculus asiaticus ; leaf-stalk of Tamus com-
munis, Viscum album, Marattia elegans, Aucuba japonica, Prunus Lauro-
cerasus, Neriurn Oleander, Lilium Martagon, L. candidum, Salisburia
adiantifolia , Asplenium rutsefolium ; flower-stalk of Taraxacum dens-
leonis ; pulvinus of Mimosa sensitiua, Robinia Pseudacacia ; tendril of
Cucurbita Pepo.

Tensile Strength of Cell-walls.* — From experiments made on vari-
ous vegetable fibres, Mr. H. N. Dixon concludes that the tensile strength
of cell-walls is very much more than sufficient to resist the osmotic
pressure of the cell-sap, which frequently ranges between 20 and 30
atmospheres. In the cases experimented on there was a coefficient of
safety varying between 14 and 25. The tenacity of cellulose is stated to-
be greater than 50,000 grs. per sq. mm.

(2) Other Cell-Contents (including: Secretions).

Proteolytic Enzymes of Nepenthes.l — Prof. S. H. Vines has made
a careful examination of the fluid secreted by the pitchers in several
species of Nepenthes, especially N. Mastersiana, and has determined
that its digestive powers are due to the action of a true proteolytic
enzyme in the presence of an acid, and not to the presence of bacteria.
He states that the liquid will digest fibrin in the presence of 1 per cent,
hydrocyanic acid, and that it is possible to prepare active glycerin-
extract from the pitcher-tissue. The enzyme is clearly allied to the
peptic group, and is apparently tryptic in its action. The proteid-
product of digestion appears to be not peptone, but deutero-albumose.
One peculiarity of the enzyme is its great stability ; it is antiseptic, and
resists decomposition.

“Encapsuling” of Starch-grains. — Prof. L. Macchiatif gives ad-
ditional reasons for doubting Buscalioni’s statement with regard to the
“ encapsuling ” of starch-grains in the integument of the seed of Vicia
narbonensis.

In reply Dr. L. Buscalioni § adduces the opinion of various distin-
guished Italian botanists in favour of his view.

Sorghin and Sorghorubin.|| — Sig. N. Passerini has extracted from
the red-spotted leaf-sheaths of Sorghum vulgare and saccharatum, and of
Zea Mays, a pigment which he terms sorghin , which is, however, a
product of transformation of the natural pigment sorghorubin. The red
colour of the spots is due, in the first place, to this pigment, and not
directly to bacteria, as has been stated.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Development of the Growing Point in the Stem of Monocotyle-
dons.— From the study of a number of species belonging to several
different orders of Monocotyledons, M. J. Baranetzky states that a very
characteristic feature is the presence in the growing point of one or

* Ann. of Bot , xi. (1897) pp. 585-8. t Tom. cit., pp. 563-84.

x Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1897, pp. 268-71. Cf. this Journal, 1S97, p. 544.

§ Tom. cit., pp. 303-10. Malpighia, xi. (1898) pp. 469-90.

|| Tom. cit., pp. 195-7.

If Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), iii. (1897) pp. 311-65 (3 pis.).

208

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

even of two well differentiated generative zones. The permanent tissues
of the stem of Monocotyledons are rarely formed in the primitive
meristem ; in their formation a part is usually taken by the secondary
meristem produced by one or both of the cambial zones. The order of
formation of the bundles is sometimes strictly centrifugal, but more
often they make their appearance in the stem in centripetal sequence ;
or mixed types are formed by a combination of the two. No primary
cortex, consisting of a layer of tissue distinct from the embryonic con-
dition, exists in the stem of Monocotyledons. When the leaves have a
sheathing character, the cortex of the stem is, in its origin, simply a
prolongation of the tissue of the foliar sheaths.

Anatomy of the Aquatic Gentianacese.* — M. E. Perrot gives a
general account of the peculiarities of structure of the genera Menyantlies,
Neplirophyllidium, Villcirsia, Limncintliemum, and Liparophyllum, making
up the tribe Menyanthoideao of Gentianaceas. The vascular bundles are
collateral, without internal phloem ; the secondary xylem is absent, or
but feebly developed ; in the latter case it is composed of scalariform
vessels ; sclerites occur in nearly all of the species ; the mesophyll is
bifacial ; the stomates are formed simply by the division of an epi-
dermal cell ; the mechanical tissue is scanty ; there is but little starch,
except in the endoderm ; crystals of calcium oxalate do not occur.

Sieve-Tissue outside the Phloem and Vascular Tissue outside the
Xylem.| — In certain species of Gentianacese belonging to the genera
Gentianci and Sivertia, M. E. Perrot finds, in the root, sieve-fascicles
within the xylem, resulting from the segmentation of one or more cells
of the secondary xylem-parenchyme. In the stem there are always
sieve-fascicles in the pith, especially in its periphery, but sometimes
throughout its whole extent. Some species have sieve-islands within
the xylem ; others possess in the pith, in addition to the sieve-fascicles,
cribro-vascular bundles, the vessels of which are simply tracheae. In the
leaf are peri medullary sieve-fascicles proceeding from the stem, and
strongly developed in the periderm of the bundles of the veins.

Effect of JEcidium elatinum on Abies balsamea. J — Mr. A. P.

Anderson has studied the anatomical changes which are the result of the
“ witch-broom ” produced on the balsam pine by the attacks of JEcidium
elatinum. There are fewer stomates on the diseased leaves, but their
distribution is normal. The hypodermal strengthening cells are more
irregular in form and size ; they are often found in nests and groups.
Transfusion-tissue is nearly always present, often in from one to three
small areas on the dorsal side of the phloem. The diseased buds are
covered with a greater number of bud-scales, which are smaller than the
normal ; they are covered by resin in the winter, and are fringed with
marginal hairs. Resin canals are fewer in the diseased scales, but are
always present in the wood of the tumour, and nearly always in the
wood of older diseased branches above the tumour ; resin vesicles begin
to form even in diseased shoots of the first and second year. Epidermal

* Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xliv. (1897) pp. 340-51 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal, 1897,
p. 405.

f Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 1115-8 ; Jouin. de Bot. (Morot), xi. (1897)
pp. 374-90 (1 pi. and 6 figs.). J Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 309-44 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

209

hairs are rarely present on the diseased shoots ; when present they are
usually one-celled.

(4) Structure of Organs.

Green Hemi-Parasites. — From a detailed study under cultivation
of several species of Eujphrasia, Odontites , and Orthantha, Herr E.
Heinricher * comes to the following general conclusions as to the para-
sitism of these genera of Rhinantheae. The seeds of Odontites Odontites
(and probably those of all chlorophyllous parasitic Rhinantheae) are
capable of germinating independently of any chemical irritation result-
ing from a nutrient root or from a second living seed, or from living
tissue. The haustoria of Odontites Odontites (and probably those of all
parasitic Rhinantheae) are the result of the chemical irritation exercised
by a nutrient object on the root of the parasite. The parasitism develops
in a different way in different genera and species. In the case of all
the species examined ( Odontites Odontites , Euphrasia strict a, Orthantha
lutea ) single individuals may produce flowers and fruits, when thickly
sown, without any host-plant. Under these conditions haustoria are
always formed, but in the presence of a different nutrient plant the
individuals attain three or four times as strong a development. In the
case of Odontites Odontites , single individuals sown separately were
brought to the flowering stage under conditions which excluded the
possibility of parasitic or saprophytic nutriment. This species is
characterised by a relatively strong development of root-hairs. It
reached the flowering stage when grown on two distinct dicotyledonous
host-plants, Vida sativa and Trifolium pratense , a large number of
haustoria being formed ; Euphrasia stricta also formed haustoria on the
roots of Vida saliva. An injurious influence of the parasite on the
host-plant could be distinctly detected. The seeds of all the green
parasitic Rhinantheae appear not to germinate before the following
spring, the spring being the usual time for their germinating. The
seeds of both Odontites and Euphrasia retain their power of germinating
for two or even three years, but the period of their actual germination
varies greatly.

In the course of his observations, Heinricher criticises unfavourably
some of the statements of von Wettstein, especially with regard to the
parasitism of Euphrasia on dicotyledonous plants, and to the retention
by the seeds of their power of germination. To these criticisms von
Wettstein replies ; j and in another paper J details further experiments
with regard to Euphrasia , which lead to the same conclusion, viz. that
although parasitism is necessary for their full development, individuals
may produce flower and fruit without parasitism, though their develop-
ment is then always feeble.

To the former of these papers Heinricher again replies §

Polymorphism of the Branches of an Inflorescence.]! — According to
M. II. Ricome, in a radially branched inflorescence such as that of the
Umbelliferae, Sambucus , Viburnum, Sedum Fabaria, &c., the different
branches do not present the same anatomical structure. Those branches

* Jalirb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1897) pp. 77-124 (1 pi.).

t Tom. cit., pp. 197-206. % Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlvii. (1897) pp. 319-24.

§ Tom. cit., pp. 442-3. || Comptes Rendus, exxv. (1897) pp. 1046-8.

210

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which, have a more or less nearly vertical position have a normal
symmetry of structure, from which there is a deviation in those which
are placed at various angles, the supporting, the assimilating, and even
the vascular tissues having a bilateral structure, and the branches being
flattened dorsiventrally.

Buds and Stipules.* — The structure and position of the leaf-buds
and stipules is described in a very large number of additional instances
by Sir John Lubbock, the observations confirming his previous conclu-
sion that the most usual purpose of stipules is to protect the leaves
while in the bud, sometimes their own leaf, but, as a rule, the younger
one. In some cases they themselves perform the function of leaves,
replacing them entirely in a few cases ( Lathyrus Aphcica). In others
they serve to hold water ; in some they develop into spines ; in some
into tendrils ; in others they become glandular. The outer scales which
protect the winter-buds may be classed under seven heads, viz. : —
(1) Pedestals of last year’s leaves ( Pyrus Aria) ; (2) modified bases of
leaves (maple, horse-chestnut); (3) leaf-blades (Viburnum Lantana);
(4) modified leaves ( Viburnum Opulus, willows); (5) stipules (poplar,
oak, beech); (6) connate pairs of stipules belonging to the same leaf
(elm, Castanea ) ; (7) connate pairs of stipules belonging to different
leaves (hop, Gardenia, and other liubiacens).

Disguises in Bud Arrangement.}- — Mr. G. H. Shull has attempted
to trace to deviations from a general law some of the more striking
variations from the normal arrangements of organs in the bud. He
concludes that most cases of branch and flower arrangement may be
explained by the law that a bud, real or potential, occurs in the axil of
every leaf, and terminates every axis. If a bud is removed from the
axil of a leaf by adnation or by development into a branch, a secondary
axillary bud may form in the axil of the leaf ; and if that is also removed,
a tertiary axillary bud may be formed. Bud pressures explain reduction
of bracts and their failure to appear, as well as many modifications in
the normal order of anthesis.

Fibrovascular Bundles of Leaves.}; — M. A. Chatin discusses the
number and symmetry of the fibrovascular bundles of the appendicular
organs as an indication of perfection of organisation. Among Corolli-
florae the number of bundles that enter into the composition of the petiole
is very rarely more than one. The exceptions are chiefly non-chloro-
phyllous parasites or plants with very large leaves. The Apocynaceae,
Jasminaceae, Gesneracea3, and Labiatiflorae are especially noteworthy for
the constancy of the unital structure. When the bundles are numerous,
they’ are arranged either in a single circle, or in two or more circles, or
are scattered through the thickness of the petiole. Among the perigynous
Gamopetalaa the unital type of bundles in the petiole is not nearly so
universal. They may be divided into two grouj)S, — one, represented by
the Rubiaceae and Caprifoliaceae, with only one ; the other, comprising
the Compositae and allied orders, with numerous petiolar bundles.

* Journ. Linn. Soc., xxxiii. (1897) pp. 202-69 (4 pis. and 133 figs.). Cf. this
Journal, 1895, p. 653.

t Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 427 32 (2 figs.).

t Comptes Rendus, exxv. (1897) pp. 343-50, 415-20, 479-84, 997-1004. Cf.
this Journal, 1897, p. 306.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

211

As respects tlie group of perigynous Dialypetalae, M. Chatin finds, at
all events in the two largest orders, the Leguminosae and the Rosacese,
a very general difference between the woody and the herbaceous species ;
the former having, as a rule, only one, while the latter have several
vascular bundles in the petiole.

The hypogynous Dialypetalae are divided into 6 classes, according to
the number of vascular bundles in the petiole, whether 1, 3, 5, 7, 9-11,
or a larger number, some natural orders having representatives in nearly
all the classes; hut the complete union of the vascular bundles into one,
a sign of the highest development, is much less common than in the
Corolliflorae or the perigynous Dialypetalae Climbing plants, as a rule,
have a large number of vascular bundles in the petiole.

Peltate Leaves.* * * § — M. C. de Candolle distinguishes two kinds of
peltate leaves, “ epipeltate ” and “ hypopeltate.” In the former the
lamina is, in the growing state, intercalated between the petiole and
the upper region of the stem ; while in the latter it is the outer or lower
face of the growing point of the future leaf which produces the base of
the lamina, and the petiole is thus intercalated between the lamina and
the upper region of the stem. M. de Candolle believes that the forma-
tion of the hypopeltate leaves can always be traced to a law of compen-
sation, in virtue of which a great development of the upper portion of
the growing point excludes the possibility of a secondary increase at the
base of the lamina.

Leaves of Ficus.j — Prof. M. Moebius describes the structure of the
leaves of various species of Ficus , especially in relation to the thickness
of the epiderm, the cystoliths, and the pits ; each species has a charac-
teristic structure on these points. The epiderm of the upper is always
thicker than that of the under surface, either from the cells being larger,
or from their being arranged in a larger number of rows. The cysto-
lith- cells are modified trichomes. They are of two kinds : either
modified specially enlarged or ordinary epidermal cells. The presence
of pits is not connected with the external nature of the leaf ; they are
derived from triclioniic structures. Ficus australis has mucilage-cells,
but the nature of the cell-contents has not been accurately ascertained.

Defences of Plants.:]: — M. A. Gilkinet gives a succinct account of
the various modes of defence exercised by plants against herbivorous
and ’other enemies : — The production of spines, especially on young
plants and young organs ; the formation of alkaloids, glucosides, oxalic
acid, essences, and other poisonous or unpalatable substances ; the exu-
dation of viscid secretions ; myrmecophily, &e.

Bulb of Erythronium.§ — Dr. A. P. Winter describes the structure
and biology of the bulb of the dog’s-tooth violet, Frytlironium dens-canis.
The flower-stalk obtains its nourishment from a fleshy “ nutrient leaf” by
which it is surrounded ; the lower part of the flower-stalk swells up into
the rudiment of next year’s bulb. The plants are of two kinds ; — annual,

* Bull. Trav. Soc. Bot. Geneve, 1897. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xliv. (1897)
Kev. Bibl., p. 378.

t Ber. Senckenberg. Naturf. Gesell., 1897, pp. 117-38 (2 pis.).

t Bull. Acad. R. Sci. Belgique, 1897, pp. 1120-38.

§ Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlvii. (1897) pp. 331-5.

212

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with a single radical long-stalked foliage-leaf ; and biennial, with two
opposite leaves above the level of the soil.

Root of Anemone.* — M. E. de Janczewski classifies the roots of the
different species of Anemone under 5 groups, viz. : — (1) The primary-
root is thick and perennial, serving as a storehouse for food-material
{A. rivulciris, Pulsatilla ) ; (2) the primary root and the adventitious
roots are altogether alike, and attain a medium thickness, while the
rootlets are very slender (A. Knowltonia) ; (3) the primary root, adven-
titious roots, and rootlets are altogether alike and are all moderately
slender (A. sylvestris, japonica , virginiana, multifida, pennsylvanica ) ;
(4) all the roots are very slender ( A . Hepatica, nemorosa, ranunculoides ,
trifolia, Jlaccida, baikalensis') ; (5) all the roots are filiform and fugitive,
the only living organ during the repose of vegetation being a tuberous
rhizome (A. appenina, coronaria, hortensis).

Hoot of Hydro char is. | — M. G. Chauveaud has made a detailed study
of the root of the frog’s bit, Hydrocharis morsus-ranse, and notes the
peculiarity, not hitherto recorded in any plant, that, of the internal or
medullary sieve-tubes which form part of the central cylinder, one
usually occupies the axis of the root. The successive appearance of
bundles in the central stele is a further peculiarity as contrasted with
the simultaneous formation of the primary sieve-tubes in the roots of
other Monocotyledons. The vascular system of the root is, in fact,
greatly reduced, the primary vessels having disappeared, and being re-
placed by supernumerary vessels. This is accompanied by an unusual
development of root-hairs for the root of an aquatic plant.

13. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Behaviour of the Nuclei in the Development of the Embry o-sae
and in Impregnation.^ — Mr. D. M. Mottier gives details of further
observations on this point, chiefly in the cases of species of Lilium and
of Helleborus foetidus. These establish beyond doubt that neither in the
pollen-cells nor in the rudiment of the embryo-sac are there any centro-
spheres. In both cases the spindle-fibres are entirely of cytoplasmic
origin. In the first process of division the lower nucleus (the one in the
chalaza end) is larger, and its chromatin-thread is much longer and
more coiled than the upper nucleus (the one in the micropylar end of
the embryo-sac). The second nuclear division in the embryo-sac follows
immediately on the first, without the daughter-nuclei having entered
into a complete state of rest. Between the second and third nuclear
divisions there is, on the other hand, a considerable interval.

In the formation of the egg-apparatus, the planes in which the divi-
sions of the two upper nuclei take place may be either parallel or some-
what oblique, or even at right angles to one another. The cytoplasm
which surrounds the polar nucleus is not limited by a membrane. The

* Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), ix. (1897) pp. 337-54 (2 pis.).

t Tom. cit., pp. 306-12 (5 figs.).

X Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1897) pp. 125-58 (2 pis.).
Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 91.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO.

213

oosphere is somewhat larger than the nuclei of the synergids, and often
contains three or four nucleoles of different sizes.

The author then compares in detail the vegetative and the heterotype
modes of cell-division. The structure of the resting nucleus is in both
cases the same. The differences relate to the distribution of the chromo-
somes, and to the connection between them and the spindle-fibres.

Embryo of Gramineae and Cyperaceae.* — In the structure and de-
velopment of the embryo in these two natural orders, M. P. Van Tieghem
finds additional reasons for a wide separation between them in a natural
system of classification.

In the Gramineae, belonging to the Inseminatae, the fruit consists of
embryo, endosperm, and a pericarp closely concrete with the latter ; there
is no true seed. The embryo lies laterally and below in the endosperm,
which completely surrounds it ; but at the point where the embryo
comes very near the pericarp, the nutrient tissue forms only a very thin
sheath. The embryo is straight, and consists of an endogenous radicle,
and a plumule which bears the scutellum, usually an epiblast, the closed
germinal sheath known as the coleoptile or pileole, an open green sheath
on the other side of the scutellum, and the first green leaf above the
pileole. The stem may lengthen between the scutellum and the germinal
sheath, the plumule being then elevated on a stalk — the epicotyl or
pedicle. Grasses with a sessile plumule are comparatively few — Triti-
cum, Hordeum, Secale, &c. ; those with a stalked plumule are again
divided into the Plagiodesmae and the Prenodesmae, dependent on the
structure and course of the vascular bundle.

The fruit of the Cyperaceae contains a true triangular seed, in the
axis of which is the embryo, surrounded by a layer of endosperm, which
is here very thick in the neighbourhood of the embryo. The embryo is
straight or curved. It consists of an exogenous radicle, a plumule, a
club-shaped foliar organ which remains enclosed in the seed, and a
closed sheath, which often opens at a later period. The anatomy of the
leaves and the structure and arrangement of the vascular bundles differ
greatly from those in grasses. The sheath and the club-shaped leaf
must be regarded as the two halves of one and the same organ, viz. the
single cotyledon, and the bud enclosed in the germinal sheath is the
plumule.

Van Tieghem points out the very great separation from one another
which these differences in structure indicate. The Cyperaceae must
retain their place among the Monocotyledones ; while the Gramineae
occupy a transitional position between the Monocotyledones and the
Dicotyledones; and the author proposes to erect them into a new
class, the Anisocotyledones. They were originally Dicotyledones, in
which one of the two cotyledons has gradually aborted, but still remains
in some cases in a rudimentary condition, the epiblast. This organ is
never present in the Cyperaceae.

Homology of the Embryo of Grasses.f — Herr L. Celakovsky dis-
cusses the various theories that have been advanced respecting the
homology of the different parts of the embryo of grasses, and sums up

* Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., iii. (1897) pp. 259-309. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 313.

t Bot. Ztg., lv. (1897) lte Abt., pp. 141-74 (1 pi.).

1898

Q

214

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in favour of Van Tieghem’s that the scutellum and the coleoptile (the
first leaf-sheath) represent two different portions — the lamina and the
ligule— of a single cotyledon, the epiblast being an outgrowth on the
margin of the scutellum. Hanstein has established that the coleoptile
arises at the base of the terminal scutellum, and can therefore not be an
independent foliar organ. The interval which frequently occurs in the
ripe seed between the plumule which is invested by the coleoptile and
the insertion of the scutellum is not an internode, but an elongated
leaf-node, and the author proposes for it the term mesocotyl. In all
Monocotyledons, therefore, with the exception of the Dioscoreaceae and
the Commelynaceae, the single cotyledon is terminal to the embryo.

The development of the embryo in Monocotyledons takes place in
three different ways : — In the simplest, the lamina is the direct terminal
prolongation of the sheath, the cotyledon assuming more or less thu
function of a sucking organ. In the second mode, the lamina is not
terminal to the sheath, but lateral. In the third (grasses) the lamina
and sheath have completely lost their connection, and are separated by
a distinct mesocotyl. In the third and fourth modes the cotyledon
is completely modified into a sucking organ, and no longer has assimi-
lating functions.

The course of the vascular bundles confirms the view of a connection
between coleoptile and scutellum. The ligule represents an axillary
sheathing double stipule, the lamina being transformed into the scutellum
and the ligule into the coleoptile. On a mature leaf of Oryza sativa the
author detected a structure corresponding to the epiblast.

Germination of Pollen-grains.* — Prof. G. Arcangeli has observed
the length of time before germination commences in the case of the
pollen-grains of a number of plants belonging to different natural orders.
The nutritive medium employed was a solution of saccharose of 5, 10, or
20 per cent., and the commencement of germination was regarded to be
the first appearance of the protuberance caused by the germinating
pollen-tube. The average period before germinating was from. 20 to
30 minutes ; the pollen-grains of Canna indica required a whole
hour.

Pollination by Bats.f — Dr. P. Knuth gives another instance, ob-
served by Mr. J. H. Hart in Trinidad, of the pollination of flowers by a
bat, viz. of Eperna falcata by Glossonycteris Geoffroyi. He also calls
attention to the fact that a similar phenomenon had been observed in
1892 by Herr W. Burck in Java, viz. in the visits of P ter opus edulis to a
species of Freycinetia.

Pollination of Composite, Campanulaceae, and Lobeliaceae.J —
Prof. B. Gerard points out the similarity in the mode of pollination in
these nearly allied orders. The flowers are, as a rule (when hermaphro-
dite) proterandrous. The hairs on the style do not, as is generally
stated, perform the function of collecting the pollen for the purpose of
self-pollination, but assist rather in its dissemination for cross-pollina-

* Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1897, pp. 26*2-6.

t Bot. Centralbl., lxxii, (1897) pp. 353-4. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 309.

X ‘ Sur la pollination chez les Composees, Campanulacees, et Lobeliace'es,’ .Lyon,.
1897, 11 pp. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xliv. (1897) Rev. Bibl., p. 408.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

215

tion. The stigmas are developed only after the hairs on the style, which
have collected the pollen, have withered and fallen.

Flowering of Arum pictum.* — Prof. Gr. Arcangeli has noted the
elevation of temperature which takes place within the spathes during
the flowering of this species ; the maximum elevation observed being
8*1° C., at 9.80 a.m. The insects which find their way into the spathe
and assist in the transport of the pollen to the female flowers are very
numerous, by far the greater number being Diptera. In one case, out
of 149 insects captured, 120 belonged to one species of Diptera, Lirno-
sina simplicimana ; in another case, out of 200, 191 were Diptera, the
remainder being Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. The author altogether
disbelieves the alleged carnivorous habit of this or of other species of
Arum, such a phenomenon being, in fact, inconsistent with the part
played by the insects in pollination.

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Conduction of Organic Food-Materials in Plants.! — Observations
made by Dr. F. Czapek on leaf-stalks lead to the following conclusions.
The carbohydrates find their way from the leaf to the stem through
the leptome-bundles, and not through the parenchyme of the petiole.
The conducting tissues of the leptome-bundles are exclusively the
sieve-tubes and the cambiform cells ; the leptome-parenchyme and the
medullary rays serve no other function than that of storing-up of food-
materials. In addition to starch, sucroses are a widely distributed con-
tent of the sieve-tubes. Protoplasm-threads and the streaming of pro-
toplasm are not essential factors in the transport of formative materials
through the leptome ; the most active factor in the process is the absorp-
tion and excretion of the transported substances through living proto-
plasm. The independent life of detached portions of a plant, and their
development into new individuals, are, in general, the results of a sen-
sitive reaction, caused by the cessation of the interchange of formative
substance with the mother-plant.

Effects of Tropical Insolation.^ — Dr. A. J. Ewart gives the result
of a large number of observations on exposure to the direct rays of
the sun in the case of plants grown at Buitenzorg. He finds that, if
prolonged, the insolation may markedly affect, or temporarily inhibit,
the functional activity of the assimilating parts. If the stoppage is
temporary, it is generally accompanied by but little change in colour;
but if permanent, the chlorophyll-grains may become completely
bleached. The leaves are protected against the injurious effects of ex-
cessive exposure by the presence of a red pigment and by active or
passive paraheliotropic movements. The active movements are best
shown in the motile leaves of the Leguminosa3, the pulvini being the
motile and irritable perceptive organs. The red pigment acts mainly
and primarily as a protective shield against the more refrangible green
and blue solar rays. It has also a feeble heat- absorbing power, which

* Bull. Soc. Bot. Ilal., 1897, pp. 293-300.

t SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, cvi. (1897) pp. 117-70.

X Ann. of Bot.,xi. (1897) pp. 439-80 and 585. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 311.

Q 2

216

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

may, in a few cases, possibly be of considerable, or even of primary, im-
portance.

Correlation of Growth under the Influence of Injuries.* — From
experiments, made chiefly on seedlings and on Phycomyces , Mr. C. 0.
Townsend draws the following general conclusions : — A single irritation
produced by cutting or splitting the shoots or roots, or removing the
leaf-tips of seedlings, tends to produce a change in the rate of growth of
the injured and of the uninjured parts. If the injury is slight, signs of an
acceleration in the rate of growth will be apparent in from 6 to 24 hours,
and will continue for from one to several days. If the injury be severe,
the acceleration will be preceded by a period of retardation of longer
or shorter duration, depending upon the severity of the injury and upon
the condition of the plant injured. The growth of the stem of older
plants is accelerated by the removal of a number of the roots or leaves,
but is not affected by a slight injury to the root. The roots of older
plants, as well as of seedlings, are more independent than are the stems
and shoots. The change in the rate of growth of higher plants under the
influence of a single irritation begins gradually, reaching its maximum
in from 12 to 96 hours, and gradually diminishes until the normal rate
is resumed. The total variation in the growth of higher plants due to
the influence of a single irritation, is from zero to 70 per cent, of the
normal growth for the same period. The growth of sporangiopliores
of Phycomyces is suddenly and strongly retarded by cutting either the
mycele or another sporangiophore on the same plant. The growth does
not entirely cease, and gradually recovers its normal rate in from 30 to
60 minutes. The influence of an irritation due to cutting or other injury
is capable of acting through a distance of several hundred millimetres.

Hygroscopic Function of Stomates. f — By the method described on
p. 134, Prof. F. Darwin has arrived at the following conclusions with
regard to the action of stomates. When leaves have stomates on the
under surface only (hypo-stomatal), there is a low degree of transpiration
for that surface. On the under surface of floating leaves ( Nymphsea )
there is active transpiration when exposed to the air. In a terrestrial
leaf with stomates on both surfaces, those on the upper surface are more
sensitive to external conditions, and are frequently shut when those on
the lower surface are open. The typical stomate closes either wholly
or partially in darkness, the process being a gradual one ; the nocturnal
closure is a periodic phenomenon. When a leaf is removed from the
plant, the stomates close, owing to the diminished turgescence of the
guard-cells. The opening of stomates must be due to the loss of turgor
in the other elements of the leaf, especially of the ordinary epidermal
cells, the final closure being due to the withering of the guard-cells.

Influence of Electric Currents on the Lower Organisms.:]: — Ac-
cording to Dr. K. Heller, a continuous electric current exercises a pre-
judicial effect on filaments of Cladophorci and Spirogyra , ultimately
killing them. On the diatoms the effect was but slight, as was also
the case with Oscillatoria. Mucor stolonifer displayed strong powers of

* Ann. of Bot , xi. (1897) pp. 509-32.

f Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., ix. (1897) pp. 303-8.

t Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlvii. (1897) pp. 326-31, 358-61 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

217

resistance to the electric current, spores not being killed in the course
of an hour ; while Bacillus subtilis and vulgaris showed a much greater
sensitiveness. It is, however, not proved that this is universally the
case with bacteria.

Relation of Nutrient Salts to Turgor.* * * §— Mr. E. B. Copeland has
experimented on the effect on the growth of plants of various solutions
of mineral salts ; the plants employed being Phaseolus vulgaris , Pisum
sativum , Sinapis alba , Polygonum Fagopyrum, Zea Mays. He finds that
potassium presented to the roots of plants causes the cells of both root
and stem to exhibit a higher turgor than they can do when it is replaced
by sodium. Potassium is therefore a factor, direct or indirect, in the
turgor of the plant ; and there is no experimental ground for attaching
this significance to any other constituent of the mineral food. From
the analysis of the sap the author further concludes that the influence
of potassium on the turgor of the plant is direct.

Influence of Low Temperatures on the G-erminative Power of
Seeds.j* — Mr. H. T. Brown and Mr. F. Escombe have subjected a
number of air-dried seeds (containing from 10 to 12 per cent, of natural
moisture), belonging to different natural orders — Graminese, Cucur-
bitaceae, Leguminosae, Geraniaceas, Compositae, Umbelliferas, Convol-
vulaceae, Liliaceae — for 110 consecutive hours to a temperature of from
— 183° to —192° C., subsequently thawing them very slowly. Their
germinative power showed no appreciable deterioration ; the resulting
plants grew to full maturity, and were healthy. Of the seeds some
contained endosperm, others did not ; the reserve-material consisted in
some cases cf starch, in others of oil or mucilage.

Periodicity of Rool-Pressure.t — From the facts recorded on this
subject, Mr. M. B. Thomas concludes that the measure of the root-
pressure is the osmotic activity of the root-hairs, due to the presence in
them of organic acids and other substances which show a great affinity
for water. The root-pressure does not seem to have any relation to the
previous periodicities of the vital activities of the plant. The author
believes the periodicity of root-pressure to be inherent in the plant, and
to have been acquired either by previous adaptation to environment or
as the result of the action of some constant or periodic changes in the
plant.

Aeration of the Trunks of Trees.§ — As the result of a series of
experiments on a large number of different kinds of forest-trees, M. H.
Devaux finds that the permeation of the air into the interior of the stem
is effected mainly through the agency of the lenticels, which are for
the most part open, even in the main trunk. He finds, moreover, that
the crustaceous lichens which frequently cover the trunks of trees do
not sensibly prevent the access of air to the lenticels or impede the
exchange of gases which takes place through them.

* Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 399-416.

t Proc. Boy. Soc., lxii. (1897) pp. 160-5. Nature, Ixii. (1897) pp. 138-9,! 150.

Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 102.
a ; X Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., 1896, pp. 143-7.

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 979-82.

218

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Emptying of the Contents of Reserve-Receptacles.* — Herr K. Purie-
witsch has investigated this subject in detail, especially in relation to the
endosperm of grasses. In a long series of experiments he found the
consumption of the food-materials to take place in all cases without the
introduction of any enzyme from outside. The author considers it as
proved that the endosperm of grasses and other plants is a living organ
in which each individual cell has the power of forming diastase indepen-
dently of the embryo and scutellum. The same conclusion was arrived
at with respect to cotyledons, bulbs, roots, and rhizomes, whenever the
conditions are such that the resulting products of dissolution can be
carried away.

The emptying of the reserve-receptacles is promoted by a rise of
temperature. In the case of objects which do not contain chlorophyll,
light appears to produce no effect. The products of the processes which
take place are chiefly carbohydrates ; but the exact composition was
difficult to determine owing to the very small quantities produced.

Digestion of the Endosperm of the Date.j* — M. Leclerc du Sablon
confirms, in the case of the date, the accepted statement that the endo-
sperm does not itself produce any diastase capable of digesting its food-
materials ; and moreover, that the diastase supplied by the cotyledon
which attacks the cellulose does not penetrate into the endosperm. Its
action is confined to those portions where the endosperm and the coty-
ledon are in contact ; it is only the diastase which gives rise to the
production of fatty acids that passes from the cotyledon into the endo-
sperm, and commences the digestion of its oily substances. The reserve
food-material of the endosperm is contained entirely in the very thick
cell-walls composed of cellulose ; in the interior of the cells is a small
quantity of oil and of aleurone mixed with protoplasm.

Oleaginous Reserve-Substances of the Walnut.J — M. Leclerc du
Sablon finds the general course of digestion of the oil to be the same in
the walnut as in other oily seeds. It displays also a similar increase in
acidity during germination. Glucose, the assimilable form of carbo-
hydrate, is always found in the seed when in a state of activity, but is
wanting in the dormant condition. The quantity of saccharose, on the
other hand, is continually increasing ; it forms a reserve-material in
the ripe seed ; during germination it is digested and transformed into
glucose. It is, in fact, an intermediate substance between oily matters
and glucose.

Enzyme of Barley.§ — Herr F. Reinitzer does not find in germinating
barley the cytase stated to occur there by Browne and Morris. The
diastase of germinating barley has the power of easily dissolving hydro-
lytic hemi-eelluloses, which are abundantly distributed in plants. But
there are numerous hemi-celluloses which are not attacked by diastase.
Seeds in which these are stored up as reserve-substances probably pro-
duce in germinating a peculiar enzyme which may be called cytase.

* Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1897) pp. 1-76.

t Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), ix. (1897) pp. 395-8. J Tom. cit., pp. 313-7.

§ Hoppe-Seyler’s Zeitschr. f. Phys. Chemie, xxiii. (1897) pp. 175-208. See
Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlvii. (1897) p. 303.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

219

Alleged Alcoholic! Enzyme in Yeast.— From a series of experiments
made on a variety of English yeasts, Prof. J. R. Green * has been unable
to obtain any evidence of the presence in them of a substance capable of
setting up alcoholic fermentation in a solution of cane-sugar, as alleged

by Buchner.

Herr A. Stavenhagen f has come very much to the same conclusion.

Unorganised Ferments inlvMilk.i — Messrs. S. M. Babcock and
H. L. Russell have found that milk, kept in contact with an excess of
chemical substances that destroy the metabolic activity of micro-organisms
but do not suspend entirely the action of unorganised ferments, will
undergo a series of chemical changes, similar to those that occur in the
normal ripening of cheese, and the authors conclude from the experi-
ments they have made that the enzymes present in milk — i.e. used in the
manufacture of cheese, and undoubtedly inherent in the milk itself — are
very important factors in the breaking down of the casein in the normal
ripening of cheese. In any case, it must be admitted that the trans-
formation of the casein in this process is not entirely due to the action of
micro-organisms, but is shared in a large degree by the action of these
ferments whose presence and effect have heretofore not been recognised.

y. General.

Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Angiosperms.§ — Prof. C. E. Bessey
discusses at length the probable genetic connection of the main divisions
of Angiosperms. He believes that the angiospermous phylum parted
very early into two sub-classes, the Monocotyledons and the Dicotyledons ;
this separation taking place while the flower-strobilus (pistil) was still
apocarpous, and before any of the carpellary leaves had undergone much,
if any, modification. These modifications have been chiefly in two
directions, viz. a fusion and a suppression of parts, which the author
terms respectively symphysis and aphanisis. That the Dicotyledons
represent a higher type of structure than the Monocotyledons is indicated
by the difference in the constitution of the vascular bundles, and by the
structure of the stem and root. The author then explains in detail his
views respecting the descent and genetic connection of the various groups
of Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.

Resistance of Plants to Desiccation.|| — As the results of a further
eeries^of experiments on this subject, Dr. A. J. Ewart states that the
assertion often made, that seeds, spores, and mosses can withstand com-
plete desiccation without their vitality being destroyed, is incorrect. In
no case can anything of a vital nature be deprived of all water without
its vitality being destroyed. The minimum percentage of water which
is sufficient to maintain vitality was found to be from two to three per
cent, of the dried weight of the object. Dry protoplasm (i.e. protoplasm
with the minimum amount of water necessary to maintain vitality) is
perfectly dormant ; it can neither respire nor assimilate ; can neither add
to its substance nor diminish it.

* Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 555-62. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 414.

t Ber. Deutsch. Cliem. Gesell., xsx. (1897) pp. 2422-33. See Journ. Chem.
Soc., 1898, Abstr., p. 88. J Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iii. (1897) pp. 615-20.

§ Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) pp. 145-78 (3 figs.).

, || Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., xi. (1897) pp. 151-9. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 219.

220

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

B. CBYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Hybrid Fern.* — Prof. J. B. Farmer describes the structure of a
hybrid obtained between Polypodium aureum and P. vulgar e elegantissi -
mum. In its general habit of growth and in the scaly rachis, the hybrid
has a closer resemblance to the former ; in the general appearance of the
frond a closer resemblance to the latter species. Attempts to germinate
the spores were unsuccessful.

Spencerites, a new Fossil Genus of Lycopodiacese. f — From
Lower Coal Measures near Halifax, Dr, D. H. Scott has obtained some
Lycopodiaceous cones, from which he establishes the new genus Spen-
cerites, separated from Lepidostrobus mainly on account of the very
different mode of insertion of the sporanges, a character which is accom-
panied by differences in the form of the sporophvlls, the structure of
the sporangial walls and of the spores, and in the whole habit of the
strobilus.

Muscineae.

Development of the Archegone of the Muscinese.l — M. L. A. Gayet
has examined the structure and the development of the archegone in the
various orders of Muscineae, and has arrived at the following general
conclusions : — The archegone of the Hepaticse develops not only by
intercalary, but also by terminal growth. In the Musci this terminal
growth contributes greatly to the elongation of the female organ. The
terminal or “ lid-cell ” does not give rise to neck-canal-cells, either in
the Hepaticas or in ths Musci ; the neck-canal-cells have all the same
origin, always proceeding from an initial detached from the mother-cell
of the oosphere.

The mode of development of the archegone in the Anthoceroteae
differs so widely from that of other Muscineae that the author proposes
to erect them into a family co-ordinate with the Hepaticae and Musci, and
intermediate between the latter and the Pteridophyta. It has four canal-
cells which may be compared to the single canal-cell of Pteris with four
nuclei. The archegone opens simply by separation of the terminal cells,
not by their destruction and rupture.

In Sphserocarpus the archegone has five rows of neck-cells, but is
sessile, indicating an intermediate position between the Jungermannieae
and the Biccieas ; two ventral canal-cells were sometimes observed. In
the Marchantiaceae the number of canal-cells is eight. In exceptional
cases the ventral canal-cell may be impregnated instead of the oosphere.
The Andreseaceae present no variation from other families of Musci in the
development of the archegone, notwithstanding the difference in the
dehiscence of the capsule.

New Genera of Musci. — In addition to a large number of new
species, Herr C. Muller describes the following five new genera of

* Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 533-44 (2 pis.),
f Phil. Trans. K.S., clxxxix. (1897) pp. 83-106 (4 pis.).
t Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), iii. (1897) pp. 161-258 (7 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

221

Mosses : — (1) Teichodontium.* * * § Caulis leptodontioides ; folia vaginata
canaliculato-subulata, angustinervia, e cellulis basi longis angustis in
membranam luteam conflatis, superne rotundis viridibus crassiusculis
areolata; theca majuscula, ovalis, macrostoma, pedunculata, operculo
brevirostri ; peristomium duplex ; externum membrana papillosa, e
dentibus dense approximatis et dense trabeculatis medio abruptis com-
posita, internum dentes 16 simplices, lineari-lanceolati, dilute flavi
glaberrimi, bomogenei. From Bolivia.

(2) Vlea: f Cespites weissiacei ; folia weissiacea, e basi laxe reticulata,
latiuscule lanceolata, obtusata v. obtuse brevissime acuminata, nervo
crasso carinato ante apicem evanido, e cellulis parvis rotundatis superne
areolata ; theca in pedicello tenui medio erecta parva ovalis, evacuata
cylindracea truncata ochracea, operculo breviter oblique subulato
annulo latiusculo revolubili, peristomium simplex ; dentes externi octo
distantes, breves, late lanceolati, e dentibus binis articulatis conjugati,
pallide ochracei, intra orificium siccitate inclinantes ; calyptra miuuta
dimidi ata, operculum solum detegens glaberrima.

(3) Venturiella, belonging to the Erpodiacese.^ Peristomium simplex ;
dentes externi 16, per paria approximata, refuscentes, lanceolati-acumi-
nati interdum apice bifidi et irregulariter articulati, ob papillas obscuri ;
calyptra Erpodii , longitudinaliter plicata, mitriformis, nuda ; sporee
majusculse, virides ; reticnlatio folii laxa, pellucida, hookerioides ; folium
in subulam basi reticulatam ubique hyalinam protractum. From China.

(4) Triquetrella , belonging to the Zygodontese.§ Caulis tri stick aceo-
foliosus ; folia dense imbricata, madore subrecurva ; peristomii simplicis
dentes 16, externi breves, filiformes, simplices, homogeneo-hyalini, nec
transversim striati nec trabeculati, interdum paulisper fissiles, cornei,
solitarii v. aggregati. From Eastern Tropical Africa.

(5) Thysanomitriopsis. |j Habitus Campylopodis capitoflori alicujus, sed
foliis piliferis, i.e. surculus fertilis coma ditissime fructifera terminatus ;
capsulas breviter pedicillatse, minutae, cylindricae, perangulataa, leves ;
calyptra dimidiata, basi fimbriata ; peristomii dentes 16, conum sistentes^
piliformes, indistincte articulati, stricti, pallidi, Pilopogonis ; inflores-
centia dioica. From New Zealand.

Algae.

Antherozoids of Dictyota and Taonia.^F — Mr. J. LI. Williams
gives further details respecting the motile antherozooids of Dictyota
dichotoma and Taonia atomaria. In the former species each antherid
is divided into a large number of small cells, the contents of each cell
forming a single antherozoid. Each has a small round globule situate
either at the centre or near the periphery ; they do not appear to be
eye-spots. The antherozoids escape by the dissolution of the walls of
the antherids. Their motility continues only for a short time (usually
about ten minutes) ; and under unfavourable conditions they are com-

* Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., 1897, p. 119.

t Hedwigia, xxxvi. (1897) pp. 84-144.

flNuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., 1897, pp. 245-76.

§ Oester. Bot. Zeitsclir., xlvii. (1897) pp. 420-1.

1! Hedwigia, xxxvi. (1897) p. 363.

Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 545-53 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 563.

222

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

pletely passive. Each antherozoid lias only a single very long flagellum,
which may be six times as long as the diameter of the head, and is often
spiral. The greater part of the head is hyaline, one side being occupied
by a thin layer of denser protoplasm ; and the cilium arises from about
the centre of this denser protoplasm. In Taonia atomaria similar
phenomena were observed.

Tilopteridese.* * * § — Mr. G. Brebner reviews the genera of this small
order of Pliaeosporese, and considers that the genus Scaphospora Kjellm.
must be entirely suppressed, S. speciosa being but a stage of Haplospora
globosa. Choristocarpus does not properly belong to the Tilopteridese ,
which are thus limited to the two genera, Tilopteris and Haplospora, and
to only two well-established species, T. Meriensii and H. globosa, with
two other doubtful ones, H. arctica and H. Kingii. In Haplospora five
different conditions have been found with regard to the reproductive
organs, viz. sporo-hermaphrodite, hermaphrodite, sporo-antlieridic, sporo-
oogonic, and non-sexual.

Structure of Codium4 — Mr. H. H. Dixon finds, in many of the
branches of the coenocyte of Codium tomentosum, a stout axial strand
which stains violet with Delafield’s haematoxvlin. It is thin and more
delicate in the narrow intervening parts of the coenocyte, and thickens
gradually as it passes into the enlarged terminations which form the
surface of the plant. These processes have a club-shaped head, and are
often tubular. They are composed of some form of cellulose.

Fungi.

Fungus-Parasites of Cereals. if — Prof. J. Eriksson gives a resume of
the facts at present known respecting the diseases of cereals in Sweden
produced by Fungi. He states that there are, at most, ten species or
specialised forms which attack corn-crops ; a list is given of the species
of cereals and of other grasses infested by them. Only one species,
Puccinia simplex, is confined to a single host-plant, the barley. The
appearance of the various kinds of rust depends, in the first place, on a
pathological substance ( Krankheitsstojf ) present in the host-plant, some-
times inherited from the mother-plant, and maintaining a latent life as
mycoplasm ; secondly, on infection from neighbouring diseased plants.
The intensity of the disease depends, firstly, on the energy by which
external conditions are able to develop the mycoplasm- stage of the
parasite into the visible mycele-stage ; and, secondly, on fresh infection
from without.

Two new Kinds of Red Yeast.§ — M. K. Yabe obtained two new
•species of yeast from the soil of rice-fields and from rice-straw. Both
resemble S. rosaceus in not forming ascospores.

S. japonicus. The cells are elliptic, but approach a more globular
form when nourished with meat extract. Size, in Pasteur’s solution,

* Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc., viii. (1897) pp. 176-87 (1 pi.).

t Ann. of Bot., xi. (1897) pp. 588-90 (2 figs.).

t Bot. Centralbl., lxxii. (1897) pp. 321-5, 354-62. Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898)
pp. 26-38.

§ Bull. Coll. Agric. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, 1897, iii. pp. 233-6. See Journ. Chem.
Soc., 1897, Chem. Abst., p. 578.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC,

223

6 X 3 /t; in meat extract, 9 -2 X 5*1 p, to 10*3 X 6*1 /a. It grows
well on potato, and acquires a brilliant red tint. It does not produce
alcohol from glucose or cane-sugar, and its development is retarded by
3 per cent, alcohol, and altogether stopped by 7 per cent. A temperature
of 45° for 15 minutes destroys the cells.

S. keiskeanus. Globular cells, 5 * 1 /x-9 fx in diameter. It forms a
faintly pink deposit in Pasteur’s solution, but the colour, probably
owing to free oxygen, is brighter on potato. A moderate growth is ob-
tained in starch culture or on sugar-gelatin, but the cells remain colour-
less, whilst those on the surface gradually acquire a pink tint. The
cells are killed by heating for 15 minutes at 50°, but not at 46°.
Development is retarded by 5 per cent., and stopped by 7 per cent, of
alcohol.

Behaviour of Yeast at a High Temperature.* — According to M.
T. Nakamura yeast is not destroyed by exposure for 1J hours at 46°, or
for 2 hours at 48°, but is completely destroyed at 52° in 20 minutes.
Exposure to 50° destroyed the yeast in 30 minutes, but not in 29 minutes.
The results of other observers who found that yeast is destroyed at 40°
are attributed to the fact that, after being heated, the fermentation pro-
duced in Pasteur’s solution is retarded for several days.

Experiments were made for the purpose of ascertaining the effect
of different compounds in enabling yeast to resist the action of heat
(50° for 30 minutes). With distilled water, cane-sugar (10 per cent ),
sodium sulphate (1—10 per cent.), and sodium diphosphate (1-10 per
cent.), there was no fermentation. With sodium chloride (1-10 per cent.)
there was fermentation only after heating in 3 per cent, solution. With
sodium nitrite (1-10 per cent.) there was fermentation only in the case
of the 2 per cent, solution ; with meat extract there was normal fermenta-
tion. Only the last three solutions had therefore the effect of increasing
the resistance towards heat.

Peculiar Movement of Intracellular Particles in Yeast-Cells.f —
Dr. W. St. O. Symmers describes certain peculiar motile bodies which
he first observed as far back as 1893 in a yeast. The particles and
their movements were rendered visible when a culture was treated with
a 4 or 5 times diluted solution of gentian -violet. Under these circum-
stances certain yeast-cells were observed to contain a multitude of minute
point-like bodies in a state of extremely active movement. After a while
the particles decrease in number and increase in size from coalescence ;
the increased size is associated with retarded movement. The process
is continued until all the particles have fused into a single mass, almost
filling the cell, and having only a sluggish movement. When the
movement ceases, the pigment rapidly overspreads the cell and precludes
farther observation of its contents.

Since 1893 the author has observed the phenomenon in the follow-
ing yeasts : — Saccharomyces anomalus ; ellipsoideus ; membranifaciens ;
Pastorianus i. and ii. ; exiguus; litogenes (Sanfelice) ; a red yeast; and
in others the exact identity of which is not established.

* Bull. Coll. Agric. Imp. Univ. Tokyo, 1897, iii. pp. 227-30. See Journ. Chem.
Soc., 1897, Chem. Abst., p. 577.

t Trans. Brit. Inst. Preventive Med., 1st series, 1897, pp. 33-9 (3 figs.).

224

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Phalline, a Poisonous Product from Fungi.* — Prof. Robert gives
the name phalline to the poisonous substance present in Amanita phal-
loides. It is a toxalbumen, and, even in very minute quantities, causes
dissolution of the red corpuscles of the blood, followed by the liberation
of certain ferments. It occurs also in other species of the same genus,
viz. in Amanita virescens , viridis, citrina, virosa. mappa, recutita , and
porphyria.

Sterigmates and Spores of Agaricus campestris.f — Different state-
ments having been made by different writers as to the number of sterig-
mates and spores ordinarily borne on each basid of the common mush-
room, Mr. E. C. Horrell has re-investigated the subject, with the result
that, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the number is two, three
being comparatively very rare, and four still rarer.

Morphology ofsBlastomycetes.ij: — Dr. 0. Casagrandi finds that the
investing membrane of Blastomycetes is not single, but is composed
of two or more layers, present not only in the old but also in young
yeast-cells.

In its chemical nature this membrane is allied to pectose, but is not
identical with the intercellular substance of the Papilionaceae.

It does not give the cellulose reaction with iodine, either applied
directly or after treatment with acid or alkali. It is soluble in chromic
acid and in strong sulphuric acid. It is insoluble in Schweizer’s reagent,
with or without previous treatment with hydrochloric or acetic acid
alcohol. It is not easily stained with carmin or anilin solutions, but
methylen-blue and Hanstein’s anilin are exceptions if used hot and after
previous treatment with 4 to 6 per cent, hydrochloric acid alcohol, or
2 per cent, acetic acid. Not infrequently it stains with carbol-fuchsin
or carbol-safranin.

The cell-granules of Blastomycetes are considered by the author to
be formed of protoplasmic vesicles, which in their early stages are filled
with a solid fatty substance. When the cells get older, or if acted on
by chemical reagents, the fatty substance is fluid. The granules exhibit
reactions indicative on the one hand of fatty principles, on the other of
proteid and nuclear substances.

Of the presence of a nucleus the author is assured. In cells actually
budding the nucleus presents certain forms which may possibly serve to
explain the different opinions of observers as to the fission being mitotic
or amitotic. This question is reserved for a future communication.

Myxomycetes.

Pseudocommis Vitis, as a Cause of Disease in Plants. — M. E. Roze §
has determined experimentally that this myxomycetous parasite is the
cause of the anthracnose or brunissure of the vine. Infection was obtained
from the brown spots produced by the parasite on the leaves of the cherry.

The same author || finds the same organism accompanying Aspergillus
glaucus, as a frequent cause of disease in the sweet chestnut and other

*^Lehrb. d. Intoxicationen, 1897, p. 457. See Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., 1896, 97
p. 27. f Journ. Linn. Soc., xxxiii. (1897) pp. 168-71 (1 pi.).

t Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., 1897, pp. 563-75, 634-9, 718-21.

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 453-5. 23 211 Tom. cit., pp. 982-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

225

Amentiferae. He states, moreover,* that in both the dry and moist
gangrene of the potato — both known under the name of pourriture — one
of the main elements is the same parasite.

Protophyta.
a. Schizophyceae.

Biology of Nostoc.f — M. R. Bouilhac states the following as the
conditions of growth of Nostoc punctiforme in a solution containing
mineral salts and microbes which have the power of fixing nitrogen.
Growth will proceed in sufficient light ; but when the light is insufficient
growth ceases, unless glucose or some other organic substance is present
in the solution. Green colouring matter is produced under the influence
of strong light, which does not become yellow in the dark, like the
chlorophyll of higher plants.

Nostoc punctiforme.J — In addition to the two ordinary modes of
propagation of the heterocyst Nostocaceae, by cysts and by hormogones,
M. L. Sauvageau finds, in Nostoc punctiforme , a third mode, viz. by
isolated cells distinct from the cysts, which the author terms cocci ,
forming a brown pellicle on the surface of the water. The cocci vary
in their longer diameter from 3 to 7 p; they multiply by dividing into
two equal halves, and these again divide into two, thus forming a colony
of four cells enclosed in a common membrane ; or the division may
continue until as many as twenty cells are enclosed in a common jelly.

B. Schizomycetes.

Central Body of the Bacteriacese.§ — MM. J. Kunstler and P. Bus-
quet are of opinion that the central body of bacteria which has an areolar
or reticulate structure, and is enveloped in a special membrane, is not to
be regarded as a morphological entity. It merely represents the sub-
tegumentary mass of the body, having chromophilous properties more
marked than those of the tegumentary layer. It is in this central body
that those red granules are found which the authors had discussed in a
previous communication. By some, these red granules were supposed to
be of a nuclear nature, a view which would lend support to the notion
that the central body should be regarded as a nucleus. The authors,
however, give reasons for their belief that the characteristics of the red
grains were purely physical phenomena.

Ferment of Cellulose. |] — M. Y. Omelianski, who, some two years
ago, isolated a ferment of pure cellulose, now gives further characters of
this microbe. When young it is a straight very thin rodlet (0 • 3-0 * 5 p
by 4-8 p) ; it elongates with age (10-15 p), and then acquires a uni-
polar swelling, which eventually becomes a spore, 1*5 p in diameter.
These spores will stand heating up to 90°, but are killed at once at
100°. The bacillus is never blued by iodine. It grows not at all or
badly on the ordinary media. The author used paper, cotton, or an
amorphous precipitate of cellulose immersed in a mineral solution and
protected from the action of air. The mineral solution contained

* Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 1118-20. f Tom. cit., pp. 880-2.

X Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), iii. (1897) pp. 367-78 (1 pi.).

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 1112-5. || Tom. cit., pp. 970-3.

226

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

sulphate of ammonia, to which pepton (0* * * §1 per cent.) or asparagin
(0* 5 per cent.) was added. The results of fermenting 5 grm. of paper
for three months showed the presence of carbonic acid and hydrogen, of
volatile acids, chiefly acetic and butyric, and faint traces of valerianic
acid. The presence of one of the higher alcohols was also determined,
but not in quantity sufficient for analysis. The fermentation excited by
this bacillus belongs to the class of butyric fermentations.

Later,* the author showed that the products of cellulose fermentation
are fatty acids, carbonic acid, and hydrogen. The amount of fatty acid
produced is relatively large, being 70 per cent, of the total product, the
remainder, 30 per cent., being gas.

Bacteriosis of Carnations.t — Mr. A. F. Woods confirms in all essen-
tial particulars the description of the disease affecting carnations. This
observer, however, does not agree as to the cause ; for infection experi-
ments with bacteria failed to reproduce the disease ; and from the fact
that neither fungi nor bacteria were found in connection with the earlier
stages of the malady, he was led to look for other agencies. These he
found in aphides and thrips, by which the young leaves are punctured.

Tetanus Bacillus in a Case of Dementia paralytica.* — Drs. G.
Montesano and Maria Montessori describe a case of dementia in which
atrophy of the frontal lobes, &c., was found. During life the spinal
canal was tapped and some cerebro-spinal fluid drawn off. A guinea-pig
injected with 2 ccm. of the fluid died with the phenomena. of tetanus.
Cerebro-spinal fluid was afterwards again withdrawn on two occasions,
and B. tetani demonstrated in all three samples. In addition to B. tetani,
B. olivaceus and Streptococcus were found.

Action of Pseudo-tuberculous Serum on the Bacillus of Pseudo-
Tuberculosis.§ — Dr. Ledoux-Lebard has observed numerous spontaneous
cases of pseudo-tuberculosis in the guinea-pig. The animals emaciate
and die with disseminated tubercles. In the liver the deposit is in the
miliary form ; in the spleen the size is variable, some of the tuberculous
masses being of the size of peas and filled with caseous pus. Cultiva-
tions from the blood and viscera on gelose showed in 24 hours the dif-
ference between pseudo-tuberculosis and the tuberculosis of Koch. The
colonies consist of an ovoid motile bacillus, which is easily stainable with
aqueous solutions of anilin dyes, does not stain by Gram’s method, and
when inoculated kills the animal more quickly than does the bacillus of
Koch. In the rabbit pseudo-tuberculosis is much rarer ; the animal is
more resistant, and even gets well after subcutaneous inoculation. When
rabbit serum is tested after the manner of typhoid serum and typhoid
bacilli, the pseudo-tubercle bacilli agglutinate and lose their motility ;
yet, though the serum excites the agglutination phenomenon, it does not
prevent the growth of the culture. But it modifies the development ; for,
instead of becoming free and wandering about the medium, the bacilli,
under the inhibiting effect of the serum, grow into filaments and form a
network. In order to produce this effect, the proportion of serum must

* Tom. cit., pp. 1131-3.

t Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iii. (1897) pp. 722-7 (3 figs.). Cf. this Journal,.

1896, p. 555. % Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt,, xxii. (1897) pp. 663-7.

§ Ann. Inst, Pasteur, xi. (1897) pp. 909-15 (6 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

22 T

be equal to that which gives a well-marked agglutinating reaction in an
undiluted bouillon culture.

Growth of the Tubercle Bacillus at a Low Temperature.* * * § — Mr.
F. J. Reid states that a broth culture of the tubercle bacillus a month
old was filtered through a sterilised Birkefeld filter. The filtrate
having been ascertained to be sterile, was then sown with a trace of
B tuberculosis and incubated at 18°-20°. The bacillus developed well.
The growth had not the usual flocculent appearance, but was granular.
Microscopically the organism was unchanged.

Action of Rennet on Pasteurised Milk.f — M. Ed. de Freudenreich,
who has made experiments as to the action of rennet, finds that milk
which has not been heated too long at 68° coagulates perfectly well
under the action of rennet. Heated longer, or when the temperature
exceeds 70°, the property of coagulation is in a measure lost. Hence in
practice it would be possible to pasteurise milk destined for cheese-
making, provided that after the pasteurisation the bacteria necessary
for the maturation of the cheese were added.

Fermentation of Fresh Grass. — Herr O. Emmerling fermented
freshly cut grass for four weeks, and found at the end of that time that
the hay produced possessed a somewhat pleasant ethereal odour, and at
the same time a pungent odour, which was found to be due to quinone.
Among the organisms isolated were small quantities of moulds, chiefly
species of Mucor ; and besides hay bacteria, granulobacter, and coccus
species, Bacillus mijcoides was found. It has been shown that the latter
organism is capable of fermenting glucose, yielding inactive lactic acid,
and that it is also capable of hydrolysing cane-sugar, maltose, and gly-
cogen. No other lactic acid bacterium could be isolated.

Streptothrix Form of the Swine Erysipelas Bacillus.§ — Prof. Th.
Kitt records an instance of the bacillus of swine erysipelas assuming the
streptothrix form when cultivated on a medium composed of blood-
serum and bouillon. This observation recalls those made on the bacillus
of tubercle by Coppen Jones and others. The author’s remarks are con-
firmed by four photographs, three of which exhibit very strikingly the
streptothrix appearance.

Bacterium found in Hooping Cough.|| — Drs. E. Czaplewski and
R. Hensel describe a bacterium which they have detected in the expec-
toration of numerous cases of hooping cough. The microbe is a bacillus
with rounded ends. It is extremely small and has some resemblance to
the bacillus of influenza. It is non-motile and is easily stained, especi-
ally at the ends. This polar staining suggests the name, Polar bacte-
rium. The bacilli have no special distribution, are usually scattered
about irregularly, are mostly free, but occasionally are found within
cells. The polar bacillus grows on the usual media, but its cultivation
does not seem particularly easy. The optimum temperature was found
to be 37° ; and though it grows best with free access of air, the organism

* Nature, Jan. 6, 1898, p. 221. f Ann. de Micrographie, ix, (1897) pp. 345-60.

% Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Gesell., xxx. (1897) pp. 1869-70. See Journ. Chem.

Soc., lxxi. and lxxii. (1897) Chem. Abst., p. 579.

§ Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., I10 Abt., xxii. (1897) pp. 726-32 (1 pi.).

|| Tom. cit., pp. 641-63, 721-6 (1 pi.).

228

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

is a potential anaerobe. The addition of glycerin to the medium seems to
«xert a favourable effect. Gelatin is not liquefied. Attempts to repro-
duce the disease in animals failed. During the investigation one of the
authors caught a “ cold and cough,” and found the microbe in the
discharge.

Bacilli and Pseudo-Bacilli of Diphtheria.* — Drs. R. T. Hewlett and
Edith Knight thus sum up the results of their investigations into
the relations of the pseudo-diphtheria bacillus and the Klebs-Loeffler
bacillus.

(1) At least two forms have been described under the term pseudo-
diphtheria bacillus : (a) one in morphology a K.-L. bacillus but non-
virulent (Roux, Yersin, &c.), and ( b ) another, shorter, plumper, and
more regular in form, and staining more uniformly than the K.-L.
bacillus (Loeffler, von Hoffmann, &c.).

(2) The term pseudo-diphtheria bacillus should be reserved for the
latter form.

(3) This pseudo-bacillus differs from K.-L. bacillus in morphology
and staining, by producing an alkaline and not an acid reaction, by
giving a visible growth on alkaline potato, by not growing anaerobically,
and by being non-virulent.

(4) The pseudo-bacillus may occur in healthy throats, and in certain
mild forms of angina.

(5) The pseudo-bacillus sometimes seems to replace the diphtheria
bacillus towards convalescence.

(6) Pseudoforms may occur in cultures of the bacillus.

(7) K.-L. or diphtheritic forms nearly always occur s ome time or
other in cultures of the pseudo-bacillus.

(8) In a number of cultures it is possible to obtain a series of organ-
isms which form a connecting link between the K.-L. and the pseudo-
bacillus.

(9) By careful heating it has apparently been possible to convert a
typical virulent K.-L. into a typical non-virulent pseudo-bacillus.

(10) By cultivation and incubation and passage through an animal, a
pseudo has apparently been converted into a K.-L. bacillus.

The authors therefore consider the pseudo is sometimes a modified
K.-L. bacillus.

Bacilli of Beri-Beri.| — M. G. Nepveju describes three forms of
bacilli which he has found in diseased tissues sent from Senegal. The
largest are most frequent in the kidneys ; here they measure 6-10 /x in
length by 0*3-0 *4 /x in breadth. They are straight or slightly curved,
with rounded ends. The rodlet is marked by alternations of light and
dark spaces. The best method of demonstrating this long form is to
mordant the sections in a bath of ammonia-alum and sesqui-oxide of iron
(0*1 per cent.), overstain with Roux’s blue, and then decolorise strongly.
The dark spaces are coloured blue, the rest of the cell, including the
thin marginal contour, being pale rose.

In the medium sized form the bacilli are from 3-4 /x long, by 0*3 /x
broad. These are found in large numbers in the blood-vessels of the

* Trans. Brit. Inst. Preventive Med., 1st series, 1897, pp. 7-32 (1 pi.),
f Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 236-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

229

kidney. They are best stained with fuclisin and methylen-blue. The
third form is extremely small, and they are met with in considerable
numbers in the blood. They are barely as thick as the tubercle bacillus,
and their length is about double their breadth. They have the appear-
ance of a small oblong, and they impart to the red corpuscles on the
surface of which they are scattered a milled appearance. The author
regards the first two kinds as being of the same nature, and analogous
to the bacilli of fowl cholera and of rabbit septicaemia.

The last two forms were found in the blood of all the viscera.
Whether the first form is derived from the third form seems doubtful.

Streptococcus Sanguinis Canis.* — Dr. K. L. Pitfield found in the
blood of dogs a coccus which is actively motile, usually single, but
occasionally in pairs. On agar or on bouillon it forms long chains, and
examined in hanging drops, these chains can be seen to move about
slowly. The coccus is easily stained, and is not decolorised by Gram’s
method. Flagella could not be stained, but were seen occasionally.
The organism grows well on the normal media, and does not liquefy
gelatin. The growth is white. The streptococcus was found in
healthy and diseased animals ; and while harmless to dogs, only causing
a local abscess which healed rapidly, it was found to be pathogenic to
rabbits and guinea-pigs.

Ripening of Emmenthal Cheese.f — M. Ed. de Freudenreich finds
that the microbic agents which effect the ripening of Emmenthal cheese
are chiefly the lactic ferments. These organisms exist in ripenin g cheese
in enormous numbers, while other bacterial species such as Tyrothrix
are comparatively rare. The legitimate conclusion from this is that
cheese-ripening is due to lactic acid bacteria, and that there is reason to
hope that the art of cheese-making may be facilitated by the use of
artificial cultures in the same way that bacteria are used for ripening
cream.

In the ripening of soft cheeses, however, Oidium lactis and yeasts
appear to act in concert with the lactic ferments, for they certainly play
some part in the ripening of these cheeses.

Black Discoloration of Cheese and Cheese-Poisoning.J — The note
of C. Besana on a sample of Parmesan cheese covered with black spots
and smelling of garlic allows Herr G. Marpmann to indicate the causes
of these conditions. The black spots are due to the presence of ferro-
philous bacteria which form sulphides. The bacteria are motionless
rodlets 2-3 /x long and 0* 8-1*0 /x broad. The ends are rounded, and
the cells are distinguished by black polar chromatophores and grey
granules ; many cells are black throughout. The pigment is produced
only when the media contain iron, and the presence of iron and sulphides
is easily demonstrable by the ordinary chemical tests.

The garlicky odour is common to decomposing organic matter which
contains phosphates, and is due to the presence of phosphuretted
hydrogen. The presence of this compound can be demonstrated, and
distinguished from sulphuretted hydrogen by the reaction to test-papers

* Micr. Bulletin, xiv. (1897) p. 44.

t Ann. de Micrographie, ix. (1897) pp. 385-409.

% Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 21-6.

1898

R

230

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

moistened with silver nitrate and lead acetate solutions. The former is
stained by the phosphuretted hydrogen, the latter by the sulphur com-
pound.

Bacillus Pestis.* * * § — Dr. R. T. Hewlett was able to study the general
characters of the plague bacillus from a case which occurred recently in
London. Some of the original material was inoculated in a guinea-pig,
the animal dying on the seventh day. The spleen and lymphatic
glands were much enlarged, and in them were found enormous numbers
of a short thick ovoid bacillus with rounded ends, and generally in pairs,
the average size being 2 * 3 /x by 1 * 7 p. In young cultures the bacilli are
extremely short, almost coccoid in fact ; in older cultures, rod, thread,
and involution forms are frequent. In broth chains are formed. On
gelatin and agar the growth is cream-coloured ; gelatin is not liquefied ;
there is no growth on potato, and milk is not coagulated. There is pro-
duction of indol, and with neutral litmus-sugar-agar a well-marked acid
reaction after two days’ growth.

Cultures retain their vitality for at least a month. Guinea-pigs die
in from three to seven days ; if in three days, the enlargement and
nodulation of the spleen may not be marked. Mice die in two to three
days, and rats in about a week.

The organism is met with in all parts of the body, the chief tissue
changes being cloudy swelling, liyperaemia, and minute haemorrhages.

Bacillus X Sternberg, and Bacillus icteroides Sanarelli.j — Recently
Sternberg made an attempt to show that these two bacilli had certain
points in common, and claimed that they were identical. This view is
hotly disputed by Prof.M. Sanarelli, who is unable to find any ground for
assuming that these microbes are identical. He states that he is well
acquainted with Sternberg’s report, and has not met with a single bacil-
lus amid the numerous microbic flora described in the report which has
any resemblance to B. icteroides.

Tubercle Bacilli in Butter.J — The prevalence of tubercle bacilli in
market butter has, says Mr. H. L. Russell, been made the subject of
special investigation by numerous workers. Groening § found that a
large percentage of samples of butter produced in guinea-pigs patho-
logical lesions similar to tuberculosis. Smear-preparations showed the
presence of bacilli with staining reaction similar to that of the tubercle
bacillus.

Oberm filler || found tubercle bacilli in every sample (14) examined.
Lydia Rabinowitsch % examined thirty samples in Berlin and fifty in
Philadelphia. In 28 per cent, she found an organism which macro-
scopically and microscopically closely resembled the genuine tubercle
bacillus. Cultures, however, showed slight but distinct differences.
The butter bacillus is mildly pathogenic to guinea-pigs, but not to other
animals. Culturally and in its reaction to tuberculin it is readily dis-
tinguishable from Bacillus tuberculosis .

* Trans. Brit. Inst. Preventive Med., 1st series, 1897, pp. 136-41 (2 pis.).

t Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abb, xxii. (1897) pp. 668-74.

j Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) p. 442.

§ Centralbl. f. Yet. Viehmarkt. u. Scklacht., 1897, Nos. 14, 15.

1| Hyg. Rund., 1897, No. 14. f Zeitschr. f. Hvg., 1897.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

231

Bacillus enteritidis sporogenes var.* — Dr. F. W. Andrewes de-
scribes a variety of the bacillus isolated by Klein from cases of epi-
demic diarrhoea. It is a long straight bacillus, often forming long-jointed
threads; it varies in length from 4 to 30 p, and is about 0*8 p thick.
Spontaneous movements were not observed, and flagella were not de-
monstrable. It probably forms spores, since the organism was in all
cases obtained from material which had been heated to 80° C. for 10
minutes. It is a strict and essential anaerobe. In grape-sugar-gelatin
gas is formed and the medium slowly liquefied. Milk is coagulated,
and a strongly acid reaction produced.

Subcutaneous inoculation of guinea-pigs produces in some cases
intense spreading haemorrhagic, oedema and necrosis, and death in 24
hours. In other cases it is not pathogenic.

Microbes of Vaccinia and Variola.j — Dr. E. Klein has cultivated
from small-pox crusts the following organisms: — (1) Streptococcus
erysipelatis, (2) Bacillus or Leptothrix epider midis, (3) Bacillus xerosis
variolse, (4) Bacillus albus variolse. Particular notice is called only to
this last, which morphologically belongs to the group of diphtheria and
pseudodiphtheria bacilli. On agar it forms pure white colonies. The
bacilli are from 0 • 8-1 p in length, the thickness of the rods being about
one-third or one-fourth of the length. The ends are rounded ; the
bacilli are grouped together by a homogeneous interstitial substance.
After two or three days’ growth on agar the bacilli look knobbed, and
some are markedly thicker than the rest. This thickening is due to the
sheath which, owing to some change, stains more deeply. In broth
cultures knobs, clubs, and segmented forms appear. These apparently
are not involution forms, but more probably are to be regarded in the
light of spores, inasmuch as these deeply-staining thick forms behave
like spores on staining with hot fuchsin, followed by alcohol and methyl-
blue. Subcutaneous injection of agar cultures into guinea-pigs produced
no effect.

The results from inoculating calves with this bacillus were not very
satisfactory, though they gave sufficient encouragement to warrant
further study; in only one calf was there anything approaching a
condition of antagonism to subsequent vaccination.

Lectures on Bacteria4 — Dr. A. Fischer has recently published a
text-book on Bacteriology, in which the matter is put forward in a con-
cise and comprehensive manner. Considered as an introduction to
Bacteriology, the work will be found useful, not only to the botanist,
but also to the medical man and brewer. The author is well known for
his researches on plasmolysis, flagella, aud cell-contents, and these in-
vestigations receive full attention in the work.

* Twenty-sixth Ann. Rep. Local Govt. Board, 1896-7, Appendix 4 B
pp. 255-62.

t Twenty-sixth Annual Rep. Local Govt. Board, 1896-7, Appendix B No. 6
pp. 267-86 (21 figs.).

t Jena, 1897, 29 illustrations. See Hedwigia, xxvi. (1897) Rep., p. 111.

232

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

MICROSCOPY.

[An abstract of Dr. Clifford Mercer’s important paper on “ Aperture,”
referred to in the President’s Annual Address, is unavoidably postponed
to the next number. — Editor, Journ. R.M.S.]

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

(3) Illuminating and other Apparatus.

Spider-Lines.f — Mr. F. L. 0. Wadsworth reports very favourably
on his experience of quartz-fibres instead of silk or spider threads in the

cross lines of optical instruments. The transparency of the quartz-fibres
is removed by silvering them by any of the ordinary methods. The
difficulties arising from the hygroscopicity and semi-translucency of both

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

f The Microscope, December 1897, p. 157.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

233

silk and spider threads are thus overcome, and the quartz, while equalling
these other materials in fineness, surpasses them in strength. Mr. Wads-
worth asserts that anybody, after a little practice, can easily make the
fibres, the only essential apparatus being an oxyhydrogen blow-pipe
which must be fed by compressed oxygen and fairly pure hydrogen (coal
gas is unsatisfactory). He has found no method for “ shooting” the fibres
superior to the bow and arrow method first used by Prof. Boys. Previous
to immersion in the silvering solution, the fibres should be chemically
cleaned by successive immersions in (1) strong nitric acid ; (2) distilled
water ; (3) strong caustic potash ; (4) distilled water. He finds it con-
venient to mount a dozen fibres in a glass rod frame, fastening them
with fused shellac which resists both hot acid and hot alkali. The frame
can then he laid aside and the fibres removed for use when required.

Novelties in Polarisation Apparatus.* — W. Wicke classifies sac-
oharimeters into: — (1) Apparatus for circular polarisation requiring
under all circumstances homogeneous illumination — usually sodium
light ; and (2) apparatus with wedge compensation and linear scales
which can be used with white light.

(1) This includes the old forms of: — Mitscherlich, Wild, Halb-

Fig. 30.

schatten-Laurent, and Lippich. The best is that of Lippich, which
excels in accuracy and certainty; its advantage depending upon a
tripartition of the field of view.

(2) This includes Soleil’s saccharimeter depending on a now
antiquated colour system, with the improvements by Yentzke and by
Scheibler, as well as applications of the half shadow ( Halbschatten )
system. Soleil, although still much used, is unsatisfactory, both in

* Berichte der Deut. Pharm. Gesells., 1898, pp. 7-15 (7 figs.).

234

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

cases of colour-blindness and on account of tbe variation in colour
sensation.

Fig. 31 shows the external form of the simple half-shadow apparatus
with wedge compensation, as specially constructed for urine analysis ;
and fig. 32 shows the method of arranging the lenses. The advantages
of Laurent’s half-shadow are larger dimensions, greater delicacy of
reading, and better mechanical arrangement.

; Fig. 31.

In Lippich’s tripartition of the field of view, a much greater im-
provement of the half-shadow results, securing a very high degree of
accuracy. Whilst in the simple Lippich polariser only one sharp-edged
so-called half-prism is placed before the large nicol, and the field of view
bisected, in the tripartition system two of these sharp-angled. half-prisms
are employed, as shown in fig. 30. The effect of this application is to
produce as great an improvement in the wedge compensation as in the
circular apparatus.

With the Landolt-Lippich apparatus the investigation of substances
in strongly heated or cooled media is possible (fig. 33). For such
purposes a metal box with asbestos casing and an inner observation tube

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 235

gilded inside (fig. 34) are used. Nickel scales take the place of ivory,
as they are found not to bulge with changes of temperature. A mirror

Fig. 32.

S adjusted by a ball-and-socket joint K allows the light from the lamp
to be reflected from a mirror L on to the nickel scale B (fig. 35).

The lamp has also been much improved. For circular apparatus a
grooved platinum ring has been substituted for the platinum net,

236

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

formerly used for the sea-salt ; this gives a very bright uniform yellow
flame. For white light the improvements include two and threefold

flat burners on the cylinder. Electric and incandescent lamps have also
been used with good effect.

To avoid optical activity in the liquid, the observation tube is
enlarged in its centre and filled so as to permit the enclosure of an air-
bubble, which, when the tube is in situ, does not interfere with observa-
ion (fig. 36).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

237

(6) Miscellaneous.

Laboratory Dish.* — Prof. W. M. L. Coplin describes the dish used
in his laboratory in the manipulation of paraffin sections. As the illus-
tration (fig. 37) shows, the vessel is made of glass; it has the following
measurements : 3J in. high, 1 in. square at bottom, If in. square three

Fig. 37.

inches from bottom, If in. in diameter at top, which is round and covered
with'an air-tight cover; the base is nearly 2 J in. in diameter. The inside
is ridged on two opposite sides (fig. 38), so that five grooves are formed
in which eight slides may be packed, three pairs back to back and one
at each end.

Micro-Sclerometer for Determining the Hardness of Minerals.f —
Mr. T. A. Jaggar, jun. (Camb. Mass.) describes an instrument which
appears to give a new and valuable method of determining the hardness
of minerals, whether simple, compound, amorphous, or crystalline. The
quality which it is proposed to measure is the resistance offered by a
body to the removal of particles of its substance by a defined diamond
point moving in contact with it under uniform conditions. The instru-
ment is applied to the Microscope, so that it may be used for either thin
sections or crystal faces. The adjustments of the instrument are such
that any of the variable elements in the process of abrasion may be made
functional while the others are maintained constant. The principle is
as follows : — A diamond point of constant dimensions is rotated on an
oriented mineral section under uniform rate of rotation, and uniform
weight to a uniform depth. The number of rotations of the point, a
measure of the duration of the abrasion, varies as the resistance of the

* Journ. New York Micr. Soc., xiii. (1897) pp. 87-9 (2 figs.).

t Arner. Journ. Sci., Dec. 1897, pp. 399-112 (1 pi. and 2 tigs.).

238

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

mineral to abrasion by diamond : this is the property measured. The
instrument (plates III. and 1Y.) consists of the following parts : —

1. A standard and apparatus for adjusting to Microscope.

(i) foot adjustments ; (ii) rotating adjustments ; (iii) lifting
adjustments ; (iv) fixing adjustments.

2. A balance beam and its yoke.

3. A rotary diamond in its end.

4. Apparatus for rotating uniformly.

5. Apparatus for recording rotations.

6. Apparatus for locking and releasing.

7. Apparatus for recording depth.

The instrument admits of measurements with any of the four vari-
ables,— rate, weight, depth, duration. The last has been found most
practical, because it gives the highest values, and hence admits of the
most delicate gradation.

Weights (e.g. 10 grm.) are placed on the pans iv (plate IV.), and a
micrometer scale at m; D is the diamond, which has to be carefully se-
lected, and has a perfect point. The plate m is rotary on a horizontally
pivoted ring, so that it may be turned in any azimuth. This device is so
adjusted that the micrometer scale is visible in the field of the Microscope
at the point exactly 10 mm. from the axis of rotation of the diamond point ;
this is one-sixth of the distance from the diamond axis to the beam pivots
a, hence any downward movement at the diamond point is magnified by
one-sixth at the micrometer. The reading is therefore seven-sixths of
the actual depth bored. If now it be rotated until the micrometer scale
stands at right angles to the beam, and be then tipped gently, an inclina-
tion may be found where, under a high power, only one line of the
micrometer scale is in focus at a time, and a downward focus of precisely
• 01 mm. is necessary to bring the next lower line on the slope into
focus. Conversely, if we focus on the lower line and allow the diamond

to bore its way down *01 mm., the next
higher line of the micrometer glass will come
into sharp focus only when that depth is
reached. We thus have here an extremely
sensitive measure of depth.

The author gives a preliminary series of
tests with the minerals of the Molis scale to
show the efficacy of the method. The im-
provement of certain details is under con-
sideration. The instrument seems to be
applicable to the determination of the amount
of double refraction, and to the measurement
of the thickness of mineral thin sections.

Immersion - Oil Bottle.* — Dr. W. Greb-
hardt describes a new form of bottle for hold-
ing cedar oil for immersion purposes. As the
illustration (fig. 39) shows, the bottle is much like a small Erlenmayer’s
ask with a side tube S and a fairly broad neck T, the latter being

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1897) pp. 348-50 (1 fig.), f

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

239

prolonged downwards to near the bottom of the bottle, and being
narrowed so as to form an elongated funnel. The neck T is closed by
a metal cap K, from inside of which passes a wire ending in a loop.
The loop picks up just the necessary quantity of oil, provided that the
bottle be not filled too much. Owing to its broad base the bottle is
very steady, and if S be closed with a cork there is no fear of any over-
flow, as the bottle then acts as a siphon. For travelling, the metal cap
must be replaced by a cork.

B. Technique.*

(1) Collecting- Objects, including- Culture Processes.

Alkalised Serum as a Culture Medium for Diphtheria Bacilli.f —
Dr. L. Cobbett prepares alkalised ox-serum in the following way. To
every 100 ccm. of the serum 2 grm. of glucose and 1 * 75 ccm. of a 10 per
cent, solution of NaHO are added. The mixture is then put into tubes
and sterilised in an autoclave at a higher pressure than usual. This is
effected by closing the exit tap of the autoclave before the air which it
contains has been expelled, and thus the pressure of the heated air is
added to that of the steam. The medium is of a rich brown hue, and
should be perfectly transparent by transmitted light. On it the colonies
are discrete, flat, grey, or almost colourless, and after several days’
growth their margins usually became indented and radially fissured.

Alkalised horse-serum, from which more rapid results are obtained,
is prepared as follows. To every 100 ccm. of serum 2 grm. of glucose
and from 1 • 25 to 1*2 ccm. of a 10 per cent, solution of NaHO are added.
The mixture is then poured into tubes and Petri’s dishes, and sterilised
at a temperature of 90° C. on 2 successive days in a chamber surrounded
by a jacket containing boiling water. Thus prepared the medium is
bright, transparent, and almost as light in colour as gelatin. Colonies
may be seen on it after from 6 to 8 hours’ incubation ; the colonies are,
however, not so radially striated (daisy-shaped) as with ox-serum.

The impression method of examining the growth is recommended, as
thereby a large number of colonies can be examined at once.

Preserving Living Pure Cultivations of Water Bacteria 4 — Mr. J.
Lunt finds that water bacteria can be preserved in sterilised tap water
for considerable periods without impairment of vitality or of their cha-
racteristic and specific features. This simple method has the following
advantages. (1) It obviates the necessity of frequently transplanting
cultures to fresh media; such cultures remain in good condition for
periods during which they would have died on the ordinary media.
(2) The cultures are preserved in their natural habitat, and, when re-
sown, grow vigorously. (3) The method serves also to differentiate
those organisms which may properly be classed together as water bac-
teria from those outside the water group.

The experiments were made with B. fluorescens liquefaciens ; fluores -

* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses ; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous. t Lancet, 1898, i. pp. 362-3.

X Trans. Brit. Inst. Preventive Med., 1st series, 1897, pp. 152-63.

240

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

cens fuscus sp. n. ; violaceus ; nubilus ; iridescens; prodigiosus ; giganticus
sp. n. ; coli communis.

Actinomycotic Form of the Tubercle Bacillus.* — Herr P. L. Fried-
rich injected rabbits with 0 ■ 2-6 * 5 ccm. of a suspension of young tubercle
culture in salt solution. The injection was made into the left ventricle.
The animals died in 24 to 86 days with tuberculous deposits in kidneys,
iris, lungs, and brain. By special methods the author succeeded in
staining preparations from kidneys, lungs, and iris which showed appear-
ances very similar to those characteristic of actinomycosis. Paraffin sec-
tions were first treated for one minute with Bohmer’s hsematoxylin, washed
in water, and then with Victoria blue. They were next heated over a
flame until vapour arose, and afterwards decolorised with hydrochloric
acid alcohol. After having been washed with water they were treated
for one minute with 4 per cent, aqueous solution of eosin, and then
washed again. Next they were transferred to alkaline metliylen-blue for
30 seconds ; then washed with alcohol until no more eosin was given
up, and after this immersed for 5 minutes in water slightly acidulated
with acetic acid. They were then immersed successively in water,
alcohol, xylol, and balsam. The tubercle bacilli are deep blue, the
clubs red, and the rest of the tissue blue-violet.

The formula for the Victoria blue solution is, — Alcohol 90 per cent.
30 ccm., anilin 1 ccm., H20 70 com., saturated alcoholic solution of
Victoria blue 10 ccm.

For the hydrochloric acid alcohol, — Alcohol 70 per cent. 70 ccm.,
HoO 30 ccm., HC1 1 ccm.

For the alkaline methylen-blue solution, — Saturated solution of
lithium carbonate 5 ccm., II20 50 ccm., alcohol 90 per cent. 20 ccm.,
saturated alcoholic solution of methylen-blue 2 * 5 ccm.

(2) Preparing Objects.

Detection of Protoplasmic Threads in Cell-Walls.f — The following
are the principal points in the method of preparing, staining, and mount-
ing sections of vegetable tissue employed by Mr. W. Gardiner to obtain
the results described on p. 206.

The method depends upon the use of two principal reagents, viz.
the osmic-acid-uranium-nitrate mixture of Kolossow as a fixative, and
safranin as a dye. Thymol water is used as a preservative. In material
such as that of young endosperms (e.g. Tamus communis ), no swelling is
required, and the tissue, cut into small pieces, may be both killed and
fixed at one and the same time by Kolossow’s reagent, and then preserved
in thymol water. Where only slight swelling is necessary, treatment
with water may precede that of Kolossow’s reagent. In certain classes
of tissue, where the walls are swollen with comparative ease — such as
the ordinary vegetative tissue of Phaseolus vulgaris , Tamus communis ,
Nerium Oleander , Salisburia adiantifolia , Ac. — small pieces are killed
and swollen in an aqueous solution of picric acid, and then fixed in
Kolossow’s reagent. Finally, where the tissues are more resistant— e. g.
in Pobinia Pseudacacia , Prunus Laurocerasus, Aucuba japonica — treat-

* Deutscli. Med. Wochenschr., 1S97, p. 653. See Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv.
(1897) pp. 413-5. t Proc. Roy. Soc., lxii. (1897) pp. 102-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

241

ment with picric acid may be followed by more severe swelling by means
of zinc chloride or sulphuric acid.

With regard to staining, it is possible, in certain special cases, to
stain the connecting protoplasmic threads either with safranin alone, or
by introducing safranin by means of a somewhat intricate substitution
method, the sequence being Hofmann’s blue (or soluble water-blue),
raethylen-blue, safranin. The safranin may then be succeeded by gentian-
violet or by eosin ; with gentian-violet Gram’s method is the best. In
all cases the staining is practically limited to the protoplasmic threads.

But with ordinary tissues this method is not applicable ; since the
whole of the wall becomes deeply stained, and the threads are no longer
visible. To avoid this, the method was adopted of staining and washing
out, using for the purpose orange G or acid fuchsin. With ordinary
tissue the staining appears to be more easily accomplished than with
the thick mucilaginous walls of endosperm-cells. Excellent results
may be obtained by staining at once with safranin and washing out with
orange G. This may be followed by staining with gentian-violet, suc-
ceeded by treatment with acid fuchsin, or the sequence of staining
may be safranin, gentian-violet, acid fuchsin. Substitutions in which
safranin, gentian- violet, and eosin are included give good results.

Use of Permanganate in Microtechnique.* — M. M. Tswett finds
potassium permanganate a useful reagent for causing swelling of the
protoplasmic structures, and thus assisting in the observation of the
structure of the chromatophores. The same reagent may also be
employed as a macerating substance ; beautiful preparations were thus
obtained of the sieve-tubes of Vitis.

Preparation of Pigments for Depicting Microscopical Prepara-
tions.| — Herr W. Baklanoff rubs up anilin pigments in a mortar with
strong gum arabic solution until the mixture is of the consistency of
paste. Glycerin in the proportion of 1 drop to 1 ccm. of the mixture
is then added. The paste is then incubated at 37-38° until hard. In
this way pigment-masses are made which, when used for depicting micro-
scopical preparations, reproduce the original colours very faithfully.
Pigments made in this way form masses which are compact, homo-
geneous, and do not run or soak through the paper. Haematoxylin may
be prepared in a similar wray.

Visibility and Appearance of Unstained Centrosomes.f — Prof. E.
Ballowitz maintains that centrosomes are more easily examined and
clearly seen in the unstained condition when merely fixed with Flem-
ming’s solution than when treated with sublimate and specific stains.

Clearing Vegetable Sections. § — Mr. W. Kirkby recommends the
following procedure for treating sections of vegetable tisssue, as it leaves
the sections in a condition suitable for mounting in liquid, gelatinous,
or resinous media : — Place the sections in a fresh clear solution of
chlorinated lime until they are quite bleached (2.-5 minutes). Warm
gently in a test-tube for a few seconds, then quickly replace the solu-

* Bull. Lab. Bot. Univ. Geneve, i. (1897) pp. 13-5.

t Zeitschr. f wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1897) pp. 366-8.

X Tom. cit., pp. 355-9. § The Microscope, v. (1897) pp. 151-2.

242

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tion with distilled water, boiling for 2-3 minutes ; repeat the last treat-
ment thrice. Wash with 1 per cent, solution of acetic acid, and finally
with distilled water. The sections are then quite ready for staining.
The author advises alkaline glycerin as a mounting medium, the mixture
recommended being composed of glycerin 2 oz., distilled water 1J oz.,
solution of potash (B.P.) 1/2 oz.

Preparing Central Nervous [System.* — Mr. H. J. Berkeley, when
studying the lesions produced by the action of certain poisons on the
cortical nerve-cell, adopted the following method of preparing and
examining the brains. The cerehra are hardened in Muller’s fluid
until the tissue is of sufficient consistency to admit of fairly thin sec-
tions (about two weeks at room temperature). Pieces not more than
3 mm. thick are then immersed in a mixture of 3 per cent, solution
bichromate of potash 100 parts, and 1 per cent, osmic acid 30 parts, for
2 or 3 days. On removal, the pieces are mopped up on blotting-paper,
washed for a few moments in weak silver nitrate, and then transferred
to a solution composed of 2 drops of 10 per cent, phospho-molybdic acid
to 60 ccm. of 1 per cent, silver nitrate solution.

This last solution must be prepared the moment before placing the
brain tissue in it, and the pieces remain therein for 2 or 3 days ; if
longer, a few drops of nitrate of silver solution must be added to prevent
precipitation. Light does not affect the process unfavourably, though it
is better to keep the jars covered up. In winter the solution should
be kept at a uniform temperature of about 25° C. By this procedure the
individual details of the component parts of the neuron are finer than
in Golgi sections ; each element stands out clearly and distinctly ; the
axons and their collaterals are clear, and not too numerously tinged ;
and the gemmulce on the protoplasmic processes are fully and equally
impregnated, and appear in their proper relations to the parent dendrite.

Apparatus for Rapidly Fixing and Hardening Tissues.f — Prof. R.
Thoma describes a simple apparatus made of tin-plate for rapidly hard-
ening pieces of tissue, provided that their structure is not too fragile or
delicate. It consists of an overshot wheel, the interior of which has six
compartments for preparation glasses. The latter are fixed tightly by
means of cotton-wool packing. The wheel is driven by water from a
dropping apparatus capable of holding 10 litres of water. The author
mentions a dropper of his devising which can be fitted on to the ordinary
water-tap.

(3) Cutting-, including: Imbedding- and Microtomes.

New Microtome.* — The instrument invented by Dr. S. Yankawer
consists of two parts, a stand and a movable right-angled piece. The
stand is a triangular piece of metal across the base of which an oblong
piece of glass is fixed. At the apex of the triangle is a , a small elevation
with an excavation 1/8 in. in diameter and 1/8 in. deep. The bot-
tom of the hole is on a level with that of the glass plate. One arm of
the sliding piece e, /, g , is 7J in. long, the other 12 J in. long*

[T * Johns Hopkins Hospital Rep., vi. (1897) pp. 1-108 (15 pis.),
t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1897) pp. 333-4.

% The Microscope, v. (1897) pp. 145-8 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

243

The angle and both ends are perforated for capped interchangeable
screws, each having ten turns to the inch, one of these being the micro-
meter screw. The blade, fig. 40, 7j, is fastened to the long arm by the
screw l, so that its edge is parallel to the short arm fg. The sliding
piece moves along the glass plate, carrying the knife over the specimen
to be cut, and the knife is lowered by turning the micrometer screw. The

Fig. 40.

thickness of section is obtained as follows : as one turn of the micrometer
screw lowers the long arm 1/10 in., and as the distance between knife
and short arm is one-fifth the length of e /, the knife is lowered
1/50 in. for a complete revolution. Hence one division of the micro-
meter screw represents 1/5000 in.

By bending the long arm at the joint n the knife can be placed in
position to cut specimens from 1/2 in. upwards. As the knife always

Fig. 41.

^noves in a plane parallel to that of the glass plate, the sections are of
even thickness and are not wedge-shaped.

For cutting frozen specimens or specimens imbedded in paraffin, the
edge of the knife must be placed perpendicular to the direction of
the motion. For this purpose a small blade, fig. 41, h , is used, and the
1898 s

244

SUMMARY OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

position of the screws arranged as in fig. 41. From what has been said,
it will be gathered that the microtome is well adapted for celloidin
sections, which may be cut as thin as 10 micromillimetres.

Groot’s Improved Lever Microtome.* — M. J. G. de Groot states
that the advantages of his recently improved microtome are that the
instrument is very strong ; the knife cannot wobble, and may be fixed at
any angle. Movement is imparted by the oscillation of a lever. The
paraffin block slides easily and smoothly under the knife ; it is easy to
fix or unfix the object. The thickness of the section is easily regulated.
The size of the section may amount to 4-5 cm. square. Celloidin sections
are also easily cut by this machine ; it is only necessary to immerse the
block in paraffin so that it can be fixed to the object-holder in the usual
way.

C4) Staining- and Injecting.

Chrome -silver Impregnation of Formalin-hardened Brain.f — Dr. J.
S. Bolton has obtained excellent results from brains hardened in forma-
lin for periods of 5 weeks to 12 months according to the size. Pieces
of cortex 1/8 in. thick with a base of about 1/4 in. are then immersed
in 1 per cent, ammonium bichromate for a few hours to five days. The
pieces are then rinsed in distilled wTater and placed in a bath of 1 per
cent, silver nitrate for 16-24 hours or even longer. The pieces
are next hardened by immersion in 60 per cent, alcohol for a few
hours, and having been mopped up with blotting paper, imbedded without
soaking in paraffin. The sections are placed successively in methylated
spirit, absolute alcohol, chloroform and xylol, and mounted in xylol
balsam without cover-slip.

The author also states that for some time he has passed the Golgi
sections into water and developed and fixed them by the method of
Kallius, afterwards treating them as above and mounting under a cover-
slip.

Staining Flagella of Bacteria with Orcein.f — Prof. Bowhill stains
flagella in the following way. Two stock solutions are required, one a
saturated alcoholic solution of orcein (the solution improves by keeping
for about 10 days) ; (2) a 20 per cent, solution of tannin. When re-
quired for use the foregoing are mixed in the following way : — 15 ccm. of
orcein solution, 10 ccm. of tannin solution, and 30 ccm. H20, and then
filtered.

Young agar cultures are recommended as affording the best results.
The film is prepared in the usual way from a suspension in distilled
water, and the cover-glass dropped film side downwards on the orcein
solution in a watch-glass. The fluid is then gently warmed, and the
preparation allowed to float for 10-15 minutes. The cover-glass is
then washed and examined in water. If satisfactory, it is dried and
mounted in balsam. The bacteria are stained a bluish-purple colour,
the flagella being of a somewhat paler hue. A list of nineteen bacteria
stained by this method is given, among them being Sp. cholerse asiaticse ,
B. typhi abdominalis , and B. coli communis.

* Ann. Soc. Beige de Microscopie, xxii. (1897) pp. 77-80 (1 fig.),
t Lancet, 1898, i. pp. 218-9. f S.A. Hygienischen Rundschau 1898, No. 3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY^ ETC.

245

Staining’ Blood of Oviparous Vertebrata.* — Dr. E. Giglio-Tos re-
commends the following method for staining blood-films. The film
should be dried quickly in the flame and immediately stained. The
stain recommended is a saturated aqueous solution of methylen-blue B.X.
One or two drops are placed on the film and left there for one minute.
The preparation is then washed with distilled water, afterwards covered
with a cover-glass, and luted with olive oil. In this way the preparation
will keep for four or five days, and the results for observation are excel-
lent. Attempts to make permanent preparations by means of glycerin
and resin were failures.

Permanent Stain for Starch.f— Prof. G. Lagerheim describes the
following method for imparting a permanent brown stain to starch-grains.
The material is first fixed with alcohol, and should it contain chlorophyll,
must be left in the spirit until colourless. Eau de Javelle may be advan-
tageously substituted for alcohol, as that fluid rapidly destroys the proto-
plasm of the cells, leaving the starch-grains intact. The specimen,
having been washed, is placed still wet on a slide, and then treated with
an iodine solution of the following composition, — water 15 grm., potas-
sium iodide 1*5 grm., iodine 0*5 grm. One drop or so of this solution
usually suffices to stain the starch-grains blue. The preparation is next
washed with distilled water until the cell-membranes and the plasma have
lost their iodine staining, and is thereupon treated with one or more drops
of a solution of nitrate of silver (? strength). The silver iodide precipi-
tated in the starch-grains is now reduced by a developer of the following
composition, — distilled water 100 grm., sodium sulphite 10 grm., hydro-
chinon 2 grm. To one cubic centimetre of the developer is added a
drop of 10 per cent, solution of potassium carbonate ; and the prepara-
tion is treated with a few drops of this freshly made solution immediately
after it has been washed with distilled water. The preparation now
gradually becomes brown, and is mounted in glycerin.

A brown staining of the starch-grains is also obtainable by treating
the preparations, after the iodo-potassic iodide solution, with 1 per cent,
solution of palladium chloride for a few minutes, and then carefully
washing with water.

Injection Mass.J — Herr O. Frankl uses a mass for injecting the
kidney of frogs which was prepared of the following ingredients and in
the following manner. Ten to fifteen plates of white gelatin were soaked
in water for 24 hours ; the superfluous fluid was then poured off, and the
mass boiled with an equal bulk of glycerin, and then, after the addition
of 4-5 ccm. of sublimate water (coned.), was filtered. The mass, stained
with 1-20 Berlin blue or 1—20 carmin, is injected warm. It keeps well
if a thymol crystal be added.

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Method of Preserving Algae. § — Mr. C. Thorn recommends the
following method of preserving algae for demonstration purposes without
shrinking. Fix in Flemming’s weaker formula ( 10 ccm. 1 per cent, osmic

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1897) pp. 359-65. f Tom. cit., pp. 350-2.

+ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoologie, 1897, p. 63. See Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., iii. (1897)
p. 265. § Bot. Gazette, xxiv. (1897) p. 373.

s 2

246

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

acid, 10 ccm. 1 per cent, acetic acid, 25 ccm. 1 per cent, cliromic acid, 55
ccm. distilled water). Next drop 10 per cent, glycerin directly into tho
fixative, each drop being allowed to diffuse before adding more. Continue
adding drop by drop until enough glycerin has been put in to cover the
specimens when evaporated. The fixative and water should now be allowed
to evaporate in a watch-glass where a large surface is exposed. The speci-
mens may now be handled with a needle or knife, and arranged on the
slide under a dissecting Microscope. A drop of pure glycerin or of
glycerin-jelly makes a very satisfactory mount. Glycerin-jelly has to
be used very carefully, but it is the more satisfactory when it can be
used with success. The method was found especially useful for demon-
strating swarm- spores and the formation of zygosperms.

Media for the Study of Diatoms.* — Dr. H. van Heurck, in an
excellent description of the media used for mounting diatoms, divides
these media into resinous and chemical. Of the first, three are discussed,
viz. Canada balsam, now but little used, storax, and liquid amber.
Storax should be purified by dissolving in chloroform and then filtering
it. Liquid amber is prepared by heating the raw material in a water-
bath together with equal parts of benzin and absolute alcohol. The
solution is filtered and evaporated down until the mass becomes slightly
brittle at about 10°. The mass is then redissolved in the same solvents.
The chemical media are monobromide of naphthalin, iodide of methyl,
and Smith’s arsenical fluid. As monobromide of naphthalin dissolves
most resinous bodies, the preparation must be closed with strong liquid
glue. Its refractive index is 1 • 658, and hence its visibility is 22. This
latter is calculated by taking the difference between the index of the
silica of the diatoms, 1*43, and the refractive index of the medium.

Iodide of methyl has a refractive index of 1*743, and therefore a
visibility of 31. If saturated with sulphur its index is raised to 1*787.

Prof. H. L. Smith’s arsenical medium has an index of 2*4, and con-
sists of realgar dissolved in bromide of arsenic. This medium is prepared
by melting together in a retort 1 part of sulphur and 1 * 7 parts of arsenious
acid, and raising the temperature until the product distils. The realgar
thus obtained is, together with some tribromide of arsenic, also obtained
by distillation, heated in a test-tube, the resulting liquid being of a
syrupy consistence and of a greenish-yellow hue. The diatoms, fixed to
the cover-glass, are covered with a drop of the medium and then placed
on the slide. Tho slide is then heated over a spirit-lamp until the
bromide of arsenic is volatilised. When the gas bubbles cease to be given
off, the heating is stopped and the preparation allowed to cool slowly.
During the heating the colour of the medium is red, but as the slide cools
it becomes yellow.

This method is subject to two grave objections *. the medium rapidly
deteriorates even in sealed tubes, and two-thirds of the preparations spoil
without any obvious reason. The best way to preserve the preparations
is to make them when the air is dry and the weather sunny. The slides
and cover-glasses should be warm when the medium is applied. The
manipulation should be quick and the cover-glass ringed round at once.
The slides should be kept in a dry place.

Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., iii. (1898) pp. 285-97.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

247

Limpid Colourless Solution of Copal.* — Dissolve 1 part of gum
camphor in 12 parts of sulphuric ether, and to the solution add 4 parts
of gum copal. Allow to stand until the copal is thoroughly softened,
then add 4 parts of absolute alcohol and 1/4 of a part of rectified
turpentine oil, and shake well. Set aside for a few days, agitating
occasionally the while ; in about a week the liquid will have^separated
into two layers, the upper being a limpid colourless solution of copal.
Decant or siphon off the upper layer, and then treat the residue with
more alcohol and oil of turpentine to obtain another limpid layer, and
so on. If the solution be too thin it can be easily thickened by evapora-
tion. The liquid can be made to dry more slowly by the addition of a
small amount of Canada balsam.

C6) Miscellaneous.

Sources of Error in the Plankton Method. f — Mr. C. A. Kofoid has
determined that the ordinary method of collecting plankton by drawing
a net made of silk bolting cloth vertically through the water is subject
to error, owing to the leakage of organisms through the openings in
the silk. The leakage has hitherto been minimised or ignored, and the
author has made experiments to ascertain the amount of the escape.
The leakage has been tested by means of the Sedg wick-Rafter sand-
filter ; by hard pressed filter-paper ; by the centrifuge ; and by the
Berkefeld filter.

It was found that in a general way the order given is that of increasing
efficiency. The silk retains from 5 per cent, to less than 0 • 1 per cent,
of the total number of the organisms present (excluding bacteria), as
contrasted with the catch of the Berkefeld filter. Examination of the
sand filtrate showed that 40 per cent, to 65 per cent, of the organisms
present were captured, while the filter-paper method yielded 75 per cent,
to 85 per cent, of the planktons. By the aid of the centrifuge 98 per
cent, were sometimes captured. The Berkefeld filter method was found
to be very satisfactory as far as the catch was concerned, but subject
to a serious drawback, viz. the presence in considerable amount of
infusorial earth, owing to the softness of the filter.

Method of Demonstrating Assimilation.^ — Prof. F. Darwin has
adopted the following modification of Farmer’s method for demon-
strating assimilation in green leaves, A leaf of Elodea canadensis is
mounted in water, and the preparation sealed by carefully ringing it
with “wax-mixture” (15 parts resin, 50 parts vaseline, 35 parts bees-
wax). The preparation is then placed in the dark, and the observer
waits until the available oxygen has been absorbed and the circulation
has come to rest, which takes place in from 3 to 6 hours. It is easy to
show that the cessation of circulation is due to want of oxygen, by lifting
the cover-glass with a needle and adding a drop of fresh water, when
the protoplasm will begin to stream in a few minutes.

Logarithmic Plotting of Biological Data.§ — Mr. D. J. Scourfield
suggests that for plotting certain classes of data, such as those connected

* National Druggist, xxvii. (1897) p. 371.
t Science, vi. (1897) pp. 829-32.
j Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., ix. (1898) pp. 338-40.

§ Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, vi. (1897) pp. 419-23 (1 pi.).

248

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with the development of the lower animals and plants, the variation in
the number of plankton organisms, &c., biologists should use sectional
paper ruled logarithmically, or should use the ordinary sectional paper
as if the distances at which the lines are drawn represented the logarithms
of numbers, and not the numbers themselves. For most purposes it is
sufficient if the paper be ruled or taken logarithmically in one direction
only, the ruling in the other direction proceeding arithmetically as usual.

Logarithmic plotting has two great advantages over the ordinary
method, viz. : — (1) it allows of the graphic representation of an enor-
mous range in the numbers dealt with ; and (2) it shows the same pro-
portionate changes by lines having the same angle of slope, which
implies that similarly shaped curves denote the same relative course of
events. Some data relating to six species of diatoms, a rotifer, and
two species of Entomostraca, taken from Apstein’s ‘Das Susswasser-
plankton’ are plotted on the plate accompanying the paper in illus-
tration of the method.

Aitken’s Dust-Counter.* — Dr. A. Macfadyen and Mr. J. Lunt de-
scribe the apparatus devised by Dr. Aitken for counting particles of
dust in samples of air. The dust particles are rendered visible by
supersaturating the air with vapour, whereby each particle becomes a
centre of condensation. The essential parts of the apparatus are a metal
box, in the top of which is a pair of biconvex lenses, and in the bottom
a micrometer-plate etched into squares. The box is lined with bibulous
paper moistened with water. The bottom of the box has a couple of
perforations, one on each side of the micrometer-scale. Into one is
fitted an air-pump, and into the other a tube supplied with three taps,
which regulate the quantity and quality of the air allowed to pass into
the box. The cooling of the vapour is effected by the air-pump, which
rarefies the air. If no dust be present no dew-drops fall, while, when
dust-laden air is allowed to enter, a fine rain of dew-drops is deposited
on the micrometer. Though extremely ingenious and of great scientific
value, the instrument does not appear to be of much practical use, at
present at least, for hygienic purposes.

Enumeration of Blood-Platelets, f — Drs. T. G. Brodie and A. E.
Russell have made an elaborate series of experiments to ascertain the
best way to enumerate correctly the number of platelets in a given
quantity of blood. The chief difficulties in this examination are due to
the fact that the platelets have a great tendency to stick together, and
that the red corpuscles become invisible from the action of reagents.
The method adopted by the authors was to obtain blood from the finger,
either puncturing through a layer of the diluting fluid, or dropping the
blood into a glass vessel containing the fluid. The fluids selected after
numerous trials were solutions of dahlia in strong glycerin or diluted
glycerin ; but excellent results were obtained from equal parts of glycerin
saturated with dahlia and 2 per cent. NaCl. These solutions have the
disadvantage of dissolving out the haemoglobin from the red-cells, so that
the stroma eventually becomes invisible ; but as this action takes some
time, it is easily possible to complete the enumeration. By adding

* Trans. Brit. Inst. Preventive Med., 1st series, 1897, pp. 142-51 (1 pi.).

f Journ. Physiology, xxi. (1897) pp. 390-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

249

oxalates (Na, K, NH4) it was also found possible to stain the stroma. A
great many other solutions were tried, but for these the original should
be consulted. In performing the manipulation it is necessary that the
blood should flow freely, and in all cases it must be ascertained that the
platelets are distributed uniformly over the field of th£ Microscope, and
that they do not form groups or clumps. The results the authors
obtained are that the ratio of the platelets to red corpuscles is as 1 to
85, or 635,300 per cubic mm.

Cleansing of Slides and Cover-Glasses.* — Dr. Emma L. Billstein
advocates the use of acid alcohol for cleaning slides and cover-glasses.
The mixture recommended consists of alcohol 70 per cent. 99 ccm., and
hydrochloric acid 1 ccm. ; in this the glasses should be immersed for
about 5 minutes, transferred to plain alcohol, and then dried.

For removing anilin stains the authoress uses “ silver ends,” a fossil
earth, sold in the form of a greyish-white powder. This mixed with
water makes a turbid solution, alkaline on reaction and soapy to the
touch, which cleans quickly and imparts a brilliant polish. The glasses
should be afterwards washed in water or spirit, to prevent the possibility
of any of the microscopic fossils adhering to the surface.

Cleaning Used Slides.! — Herr A. Zielina cleans used slides in the
following way. After the cover-glasses have been removed, the slides are
left until the balsam is dry, and they are then placed in water for a
few days. The balsam is then scraped off with a smooth piece of wood,
and the slides washed and dried with a cloth.

Glass-Blowing and Working.^ — This little volume by Mr. T. Bolas
is intended for amateurs, experimentalists, and technicians, and is based
on a course of lecture-demonstrations delivered by the author, whose aim
has been to make the present work a laboratory and workshop guide to
the various phases of glass-working at the blowpipe. Amongst those
who will find the instructions useful is the Microscopist. In the little
volume will be found descriptions of the necessary tools and utensils
and how to work them, the various methods of making glass of different
composition so as to be suitable for special purposes, the methods for
working and blowing glass, how to colour and modify materials, &c., and
remarks on the disintegration and decay of glass.

The volume concludes with a chapter on the bibliography of glass ;
and this contains a short list of works which are of interest either from
intrinsic or historical importance or from their ready accessibility.

* Micr. Bulletin, xiv. (1897) p. 45.

t Zeitsckr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1897) pp. 368-9.

% Dawbarn & Ward, London, 1898, 212 pp. and 104 figs.

250

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on February 16th, 1898, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,

A. D. Michael, Esq., F.L.S., Vice-President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Anniversary Meeting of January 19th last were
read and confirmed, and were signed by the Chairman.

The following Donation was announced : —

R. Braitliwaite, British Moss Flora, pt. xviii. (4to, London, 1898)

From

The Author.

The Chairman moved that a vote of thanks be given to Dr. Braith-
waite for this new part of the great and valuable work upon which he
had so long been engaged. This was a special copy, so far as the print-
ing of the plates was concerned, as they were upon specially prepared
paper. He thought they might well congratulate Dr. Braithwaite upon
the progress which he had made in this extremely laborious work.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Dr. Braith-
waite for this donation.

Mr. J. E. Barnard said that when he gave his demonstration at the
meeting of the Society in November last, on the application of the
electric arc light to photomicrography, Mr. E. M. Nelson suggested that
it would be of interest to the Fellows if he would bring down to a future
meeting some slides taken in that way, so as to show what results could
be obtained. He had accordingly brought with him a few specimens
for exhibition on the screen, and by way of giving some definiteness to
the series, he proposed first to show a number of slides of Ringworm
Fungi ( Ectothrix trieTiophyta, Endotlirix trichophyta, and Microsporon},
which would, he thought, be found to have some interest, apart from the
method by which the photographs had been produced.

A number of these slides were then shown, illustrating the appear-
ance of the fungi in various stages, and under conditions in which the
external portions or internal structure of the hair of man and animals
had been attacked, and their appearance when cultivated artificially.
The essential differences in the various species were pointed out, and
also the variations in the appearance of the cultivations, due to slight
differences in the culture media. The photographs were from micro-
scopical preparations, kindly lent by Dr. T. Colcott Fox.

Other slides were shown of the bacilli of anthrax, tuberculosis,
typhoid fever, and bubonic plague. A photograph of the proboscis of
a fly and one of a portion of Podura scale were also exhibited.

Dr. Hebb, in reply to the Chairman, said he was unable to say more
upon this subject than Mr. Barnard had done, for bacteriology had now
become so specific a study that there were men nowadays who spent their

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

251

whole time upon branches of it. He was aware of much that had been
done in this particular subject by Dr. Blaxall and others, so that the
facts which Mr. Barnard had mentioned were not altogether new to him,
but he did not know that he had ever seen them so beautifully illustrated
as they had seen them that evening.

Mr. T. C. White could quite endorse all that Dr. Hebb had said.
For high amplification he did not know that he had seen anything so
sharply defined, especially in the case of a Podura scale magnified 6000
diameters.

The Chairman was sure they would thank Mr. Barnard very heartily
for, what had been to him, an extremely interesting exhibition. No one
could fail to be struck by the clear manner in which these minute objects
had been shown. It had certainly been a very excellent demonstration
as to what the process was capable of.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Mr. Barnard
for the exhibition.

Mr. T. C. White read a paper on * Micro-Crystallography,’ which he
illustrated by the exhibition on the screen of a number of slides of the
crystals described, many of the photographs having been taken by
polarised light. He had selected these to show how large a number of
beautiful forms might be obtained from the same salt by causing it to
crystallise under different conditions.

Mr. White further illustrated the subject by exhibiting the formation
of crystals under the Microscope at the close of the meeting.

The Chairman thought they might fairly congratulate Mr. White
upon his success in devising means for producing these beautiful forms.
He thought it quite possible that when they came to examine these
groups of crystals very carefully, they would find that the ultimate form
did after all agree with the typical form ; but it was remarkable to see
how other forces could modify these forms, and how puzzling it might
be to recognise what might be called the basal substance. Some of
those present would probably recollect the beautiful slides which were
produced by Mr. Waddington, by the gradual admixture of one sub-
stance with another, either whilst the crystals are forming, or other-
wise. It would be a most interesting study for any one to endeavour to
ascertain the nature of these modifying forces.

The thanks of the Society were, upon the motion of the Chairman,
cordially voted to Mr. T. C. White for his interesting paper and
exhibition.

The Chairman said they had another paper on the Agenda, on Fora-
minifera, taken chiefly from shallow water in the Malay Archipelago by
Mr. Durrand. The author was not present that evening, but the paper
had been handed to Dr. Hebb, who would give them the substance
of it.

Dr. Hebb said he found it scarcely possible to give a resume of a
paper like this, as it was for the most part highly technical, and would
not form by any means interesting reading. He therefore only read the
introduction, from which the general scope of the paper could be under-
stood. Appended to the paper was a report, by Mr. F. W. Millett, but

252

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

this was simply a description of species intended rather for reference
than reading.

The Chairman said that papers of this kind were not of much in-
terest as read at a meeting, but they were very valuable contributions to
the Proceedings of the Society, and were extremely useful for reference.
This paper would, of course, appear in the Journal, and would, he hoped,
be a worthy successor to the series of papers on the Foraminifera of the
Gault by Mr. Chapman, which had been so recently concluded.

The thanks of the meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Durrand
for his communication.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—

Mr. J. E. Barnard: — Lantern slides produced by the aid of the elec-
tric arc, as described at the meeting in November last.

Mr. T. C. White : — Lantern slides illustrating his paper on Micro-
Crystallography, with preparations showing the formation of micro-
crystals under the Microscope.

New Fellow: — The following was elected an Ordinary Fellow: —
Dr. George May Lowe.

MEETING

Held on the 16tii of March, 1898, at 20 Hanover Square, W.
E. M. Nelson, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 16th of February last were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The following Donation was announced :

Annual Report of the Local Government Board,

1891-95. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1896.)

Annual Report of the Local Government Board,

1895- 96. (8vo, London, 1896.)

Annual Report of the Local Government Board,

1896- 97. (8vo, London, 1897.)

The Secretary said the only donation to the Library since the last
meeting (with the exception of exchanges and reprints) consisted of four
volumes of reports from the Local Government Board. These would
not perhaps at first sight be regarded as very useful to microscopists or
as entertaining literature ; but inspection of them would prove that they
contained much that was of considerable value, especially on pathogenic
microbes, and that was well worth perusal.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to the Local
Government Board for their donation.

From

The Local Government Board.
Do.

Do.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

253

Mr. C. L. Curties exhibited and briefly described a new removable
mechanical stage which had been suggested by Mr. Allen, which he
thought would be found to possess some advantages over others now in
use. One of these was that, being attached to the side of the stage,
there was a clearer space for the slide than if fixed on the top. It had a
movement of one inch in each direction, which was ample for all ordi-
nary purposes, and being divided, the position of a specimen could be
quickly logged. The way in which it was attached, viz. by one screw
above and one below the stage, rendered it very steady, but easy to
remove. The construction was simpler than in the usual Mayall stages,
and this would reduce the cost. He placed it in the hands of the Fellows
to be passed round for their personal inspection.

The President thought this arrangement might be regarded as a
simplification and an improvement upon the well-known Mayall mechani-
cal stage. One of these improvements was its increased steadiness ; in
using the Mayall stage, he found that when the milled heads were moved
there was always a little shake which made the slide jump on the stage ;
but in this new form the bearing of the vertical movement was very long,
which made the movement quite steady. A further advantage also arose
from the method of fastening the mechanical to the edge of the ordinary
stage ; this increased the breadth of the stage, and enabled an extra long
slip to be used if desired.

The thanks of tbe meeting were voted to Mr. Curties for bringing
this stage for exhibition.

The President said they had also received from Mr. Philip Jourdain,
for exhibition that evening, two lenses which were known as Cooke
lenses for photography ; their chief use was for making enlargements of
comparatively large objects. They were not, properly speaking, Micro-
scope lenses, because in comparison with these their aperture was
small, but regarded as photographic lenses their aperture was large. He
had no doubt that they would be very valuable in taking low-power
photographs, and were certainly worth the attention of persons who did
work of this kind. He was sure the Society would appreciate the
kindness of Mr. Jourdain in sending these new lenses for exhibition.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. Jourdain for sending
these lenses for exhibition.

Mr. C. F. Rousselet read a short note with reference to his method
of mounting Rotifera, a process which he had carried out with such suc-
cess that he now had a collection of about 400 slides comprising nearly
300 different species. He had been induced to attempt the mounting of
these creatures in such a way as to preserve their natural form and ap-
pearance, from the felt want of reliable specimens with which to com-
pare those which were obtained from time to time by microscopists ; all
previous attempts in this direction having resulted only in failure to
preserve the objects in such a way as to retain any resemblance to the
natural aspect of the living creature. The details of the process of
killing, preserving, and mounting having been already published, Mr.
Rousselet made only a brief reference to these, but he called special

254

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

attention to tlie difficulties met with in obtaining a cement for the
covers of his cells, which would prevent the evaporation of the watery
preservative fluid ; as Clark’s spirit-proof cement, which had been at first
relied upon, had proved faulty in this respect. He believed, however,
that a cement made of a mixture of half gold size with a solution of gum
dammar in benzol would be found to answer the purpose, if this, when
dry on the outside, was coated with another varnish, such as Ward’s
brown cement, which is impervious to the solvents of the first cement, to
keep the cement from losing all its moisture and becoming porous in
consequence.

Mr. Rousselet also recommended a variety of gold size known by the
makers as “ extra stout,” which is thicker and less fluid than ordinary
gold size, and will never dry hard and brittle.

The President expressed the great indebtedness of the Society to
Mr. Rousselet for bringing together so many beautiful examples of
mounted rotifers for their inspection, and moved a hearty vote of thanks
to him for having done so. This was put from the Chair and carried
by acclamation.

The meeting was then resolved into a Conversazione whereat the
beautiful collection of preparations of Rotifera by Mr. Rousselet at-
tracted special attention. The specimens exhibited were shown under
about thirty Microscopes kindly lent for the occasion by Mr. C. Baker
and Messrs. Ross. Many of the specimens were life-like in all respects
but that of movement, and the admirable way in which such difficult
objects as Melicerta, Stepkanoceros, Floscularia, Limnias, &c., were
shown, in apparently natural condition, was a matter of general remark.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—

The President : — Two “ Cooke ” lenses made by Taylor, Taylor, and
Hobson.

Mr. Chas. Baker : — A new Mechanical Stage.

Mr. Chas. Rousselet : — A collection of about 80 Rotifers, mounted.

New Fellows The following gentlemen were elected Ordinary
Fellows of the Society : — Mr. H. D. Kyrle Money Bellew, Mr. George
Shields Eckford, Mr. Alfred Herbert Marsh, Mr. William Pearl,
Rev. Jas. Thos. Pinfold, Mr. William Pinkney, Mr. F. Shillington
Scales.

JUl 27 183*

JOURNAL

OP THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

JUNE 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

V. — On Anchor Mud from the Malay Archipelago.

By A. Durrand, F.R.M.S.

( Read 1 6th February , 1898.)

Narrative.

Ever since perusing A. R. Wallace’s 4 Malay Archipelago,’ which so
attractively and graphically depicts the terrestrial life of the islands,
curiosity about the denizens of the deep thereabouts existed in my
mind ; dredgings I had made in Western Australia, Port Jackson,
and at various stations within the Great Barrier Reef, Queensland,
from Townsville to Cape York and Thursday Island, led me to expect
richer hauls on the north coast of Australia and in the warm shallow
seas about the islands of the Archipelago.

In 1884, and several times subsequently, in passing from Torres to
Sunda Straits, I had stray opportunities of obtaining small samples of
bottom which showed traces of a rich foraminiferal fauna ; and in
1886, in steaming from Java to Singapore, I sounded at Muntok,
Banka, and Rhiouw, with good results in Foraminifera and Diatoms,
the latter station furnishing Navicula Durrandii .

These casual results led to my getting the Netherlands India
Steam Navigation Company, then (1889) controlled by the British
India Steam Navigation Company, to instruct the commanders of
their fleet plying about the islands of the Archipelago, to collect
bottom from each port of call, the results of which are now submitted.

The cleaned material was picked over first by me, and then by
Mr. Fortescue W. Millett, who finally determined species, and whose
careful elaboration speaks for itself.

When it is remembered that all this series of material was taken
from shallow water, more or less close inshore, in about 12 or 14
fathoms generally, some idea of the richness of this great area in
minute marine life may he formed, and what awaits those who can
systematically conduct series of soundings or dredgings from shallow
to deep water at the most typical stations indicated in this paper.

1898 T

256

Transactions of the Society.

Stations.

A number of the labels on flasks had become illegible through
getting soaked by leakage ; but the flasks were so packed that I could
pretty well determine the section of the Archipelago whence they
came. Each flask contained about four pounds of solid matter.

The material as a whole represented very shallow water gatherings
from two leading areas : namely, Area 1, from Celebes in the north
and west, to Java in the south and New Guinea, Aru, and the Islands
in the east, including such stations as Banda, Amboina, Flores,
Sumbawa, and Timor ; Area 2, Singapore in the north, Banka in the
south, Sumatra in the west, and Borneo in the east.

Stations 1 to 16 are in Area 1.

Stations 17 to 31 are within Area 2.

Where name of station is not mentioned, the label has become
illegible.

Area 1.

Station 1. Dcbbo Aru Islands, yielding almost nothing.

„ 2. Plastic mud, brownish tinted, rich in floatings.

„ 3. Brownish mud with lumps of blueish clay throughout,

residue about one quarter-pound and floatings small.
„ 4. Black heavy mud, with lumps of pumice and fine

pumice throughout, practically sterile.

„ 5. Blue ooze, residue and floatings small.

„ 6. Blue ooze, fair residue and rich floatings.

„ 7.

„ 8. Results nil.

„ 9. Results poor.

>)

?>

»

33

33

33

33

10.

11.

12.

13. Segaar, New Guinea, coral sand and mud, residue

about six ounces, floatings rich.

14. Similar to Station 13.

15.

16.

Area 2.

Station 17. JVJuntok Banka, blue mud, residue eight ounces, float-
ings rich.

„ 18. Asjahan, north-east coast of Sumatra, rich in diatoms,

but poor in Foraminifera.

„ 19. Earthy coloured, river-looking mud, few Foraminifera.

„ 20.

„ 21. Paney, north-east coast of Sumatra.

., 22. Bawean Roads, between Java and Borneo, fourteen

fathoms, light blue mud, rich in deposit and float-
ings.

On Anchor Mud from the Malay Archipelago. By A. Durrand. 257

Station 23. Soglie, north coast of Sumatra.

„ 24. Edie, east coast of Sumatra.

„ 25. Rich deposit and floatings, twelve fathoms.

)>

if

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

Note. — Where the material showed volcanic sand, as in Station 4,
results were more or less barren. Other stations, not described above,
furnished ordinary looking mud and sand, with fair show of Foramini-
fera.

It is important to bear in mind that all this series was obtained
from shallow water close inshore, with the exception perhaps of
Station 22, Bawean Roads, apparently a roadstead well off shore, to
judge by the comparative cleanliness of crude material and the absence
of vegetable fragments so often present in other stations.

Of course one required to be present at each station to understand
the real nature of such ; and it is my desire to personally visit the
Malay Archipelago to investigate matters, and to take lines of sound-
ings or dredgings from shallow gradually into deep water, when I
can find any qualified person to accompany me, or when I can arrange
for a portion of expenses or cost of such exploration to be borne by
others who participate in results, as I am not at present disposed to
defray the whole cost myself.

258

Transactions of the Society.

VI. — Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago
collected by Mr. A. Durr and, F.R.M.S.

By Fortescue William Milleti, F.R.M.S.

( Bead 1 Qtli February, 1898.)

Plates Y. and VI.

Dealing with material from nearly thirty stations, which form an
unbroken chain extending from the north coast of Australia to the
Malay Peninsula, Mr. Durrand’s collection is of great importance, and
this not only from the extraordinary variety of the forms contained in
it, and their deviation in many instances from the ordinary structure
of the Foraminifera, but because the rhizopodal fauna of this great
region has hitherto been much neglected.

Mr. Durrand’s Area 1 was not touched by the ‘ Challenger ’ Ex-
pedition ; and, although the ‘ Challenger’ Stations 188 to 195a may
be considered to come within Area 2, neither in Dr. H. B. Brady’s

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate Y.

Fig. 1,2. — Nubecularia fusiformis sp. n. x 75.

„ 3. „ tibia Jones and Parker, x 90.

„ 4. „ divaricata Brady, x GO.

„ 5. „ dubia sp. n. x 90.

,, G. „ Brady i nom. nov. x 60.

,, 7. ,, lucifuga Defranee. x 60.

,, S. — Bilocidina ringens Lamarck sp. var. striolata Brady, x 90.

„ 9-12. — Spirolocidina nitida d’Orbigny. Figs. 9-11 x 40, tig. 12 x 45.
„ 13. „ „ var. x 40.

,, 14. — Miliolina oblong a Montagu sp. x 40.

„ 15. ,, rotunda d’Orbigny sp. x 45.

„ 16. „ „ Biloculine form, x 45.

Plate YI.

Fig. 1. — Miliolina Bosciana d’Orbigny sp. x 75.

,, 2. „ „ Alveolate var. x 75.

„ 3. „ „ Costate var. x 75.

„ 4. „ „ Agglutinate var. x 75.

„ 5. „ transversestriata Brady, x 75.

„ 6. — Biloculina coronata sp. n. X 75.

„ 7. — Miliolina Durrandii sp. n. x 40.

„ 8. „ „ Biloculine form, x 40.

,, 9. ,, ,, ,, ,, x 60.

„ 10. „ „ „ „ From a specimen mounted in balsam.

X 40.

N.B. — In this diagram the sutural lines and some other details have
been omitted in order to show more clearly the form of the earlier
chambers.

„ 11. — Miliolina cultrata Brady (passage form), x 40.

„ 12. „ „ X 40.

„ 13. „ Bupertiana Brady, x 40.

259

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett.

‘Report on the Foraminifera,5* * * § nor in the ‘Summary of the
Scientific Results ’ by Dr. John Murray ,t is there to be found any
detailed list of the Foraminifera of these stations. This is the more
to be regretted, as a comparison of the deep-water forms of the
4 Challenger 5 dredgings with the shallow-water forms of Mr. Durrand’s
collection would have been of great interest.

Of other researches in this region the following may be noted.

In 1863, Hartingt described and figured a few species of Forami-
nifera from a deep-sea sounding in the Banda Sea.

In 1872, F. W. 0. Rymer Jones § reported on some interesting
Lagense from a sounding (1080 fathoms) in the Java Seas, and
alluded to some other genera of Foraminifera which accompanied
them.

Ehrenberg has several scattered notes on Foraminifera from
Singapore, Batavia, and other localities in or adjoining the Malay
Archipelago.

In 1881, || Prof. Otto Btitschli, in describing the geographical dis-
tribution of the Foraminifera, devotes a column of the table to the
Malay Archipelago. Unfortunately the species are there represented
only by numerals ; but Prof. Btitschli has with great kindness allowed
me the use of his manuscript notes which contain the key to these
numerals, and I am therefore in a position to make use of the list.

About ten years ago Mr. W. H. Harris, then of Cardiff, obtained
from the late Capt. Seabrook some dredgings from the Java Seas.
These were distributed among various rhizopodists, and excited much
interest from the number of remarkable forms contained in them. It
was from these dredgings that Mr. Harris procured the specimens of
the new genus Seabrookia which forms the subject of a paper by the
late Dr. H. B. Brady, published in this Journal in the year 189(3.

In 1893 appeared Dr. J. E. Egger’s report on the Foraminifera
contained in the soundings made by the German exploring ship
‘ Gazelle.5 Some of the sounding stations were in or about Mr.
Durrand’s Area 1, and the results, as tabulated by Dr. Egger, are avail-
able for comparison.

To economise space it has been deemed inexpedient to give the
full synonymy of each species. This has been so fully dealt with of
late years by Goes, Brady, Rupert Jones, Fornasini, de Amicis, and
others, in works easily accessible, that it will suffice here to give only

* H. B. Brady, ‘Reports on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S.
Challenger,’ vol. ix. (Zoology ), 188-f.

t John Murray, ‘A Summary of the Scientific Results obtained at the Sounding,
Dredging, and Trawling Stations of H.M.S. Challenger,’ 1895.

X R. Harting, ‘ Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Mikroskopische fauna en flora van de
Banda-Zee,’ Verb. Koninkl. Akad. Wetensch., vol. x. 1864.

§ F. W. O. Rymer Jones, ‘On some Recent Forms of Lagena from Deep-sea
Soundings in the Java Seas,’ Trans. Linn. Soc. London, vol. xxx. 1872.

|| Otto Biitschli, in Bronn’s ‘ Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs,’ vol. i.
(Protozoa), 1880, 1881.

260

Transactions of the Society .

such synonyms as may be considered necessary for the elucidation of
the species. At the same time attention will be called to the forms
figured by authors under other names, when those forms have charac-
ters differing in some respects from those of the type.

In selecting synonyms, preference has been given to those works
in which the species are illustrated by figures, as so many of the
forms given by authors prove to be wrongly diagnosed, that a mere
list of names must be always regarded with a certain amount of
suspicion.

The well-known tendency of the various types of Foraminifera to
gravitate towards one another from every direction, although setting
at defiance all strict rules of classification, can yet be made useful by
observing in any given locality or formation the direction in which
the different types tend to vary. To take an illustration : Discorbina
turbo may in one locality approach D. rosacea, and in another Botalia
Beccarii. Attention to these variations serves to indicate the par-
ticular facies of a locality, and to show its distinguishing characters
in a way which attention to the type forms only would fail to ex-
press.

For much assistance in the determination of species I am indebted
to Prof. T. Rupert Jones and] Messrs. Chapman and Sherborn of
London, Dr. Axel Goes of Sweden, and M. Schlumberger and the late
M. Berthelin of Paris.

Sub-kingdom PROTOZOA.

Class RHIZOPODA.

Order Foraminifera (Reticularia).

POBCELLANEA vet IMPEBFOBA TA.

Family II. MILIOLIDiE.

Sub-Family I. Nubecularinse.

Nubecularia Defrance.

Nubecularia fusiformis sp. n., plate Y. figs. 1 and 2.

Test free or (?) adherent, monothalamous, elongate, fusiform, more
or less flexed, with a circular aperture at each extremity. Length
0*7 mm.

This is a porcellanous isomorpli of Lagena gracillinia, and bears
the same relation to N. tibia that the Lagenee bear to the Nodosariae,
but it does not seem necessary on that account to create a new genus
for it. It shows no tendency to become jointed, but some specimens
have a lateral supplementary aperture, and sometimes one of the ter-
minal apertures has a thickened margin. It occurs sparingly in both
areas.

Report on Forctminifera. By F. W. MiJIett.

261

Nubecularia tibia Jones and Parker, plate Y. fig. 3.

N ubeculaD'ia tibia Jones and Parker, 1860, Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc., vol. xvi. p. 455, pi. xx. figs. 48-51. N. tibia Brady, 1884,
Chalk Kept., p. 135, pi. i. figs. 1-4. N. tibia Chapman, 1892, Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlviii. p. 516, pi. xy. fig. 1.

The typical form is not numerously represented, and most of the
Stations where it occurs are in Area 1. The figured specimen
curiously resembles the restoration of the specimens as indicated by
dotted lines in the figures given by Jones and Parker, loe. cit., pi. xx.
figs. 50, 51.

Nubecularia lucifuga Defrance, plate Y. fig. 7.

Nubecularia lucifuga Defrance, 1825, Diet. Sci. Nat., vol. xxv.
p. 210, Atlas Zooph., pi. xliv. fig. 3. N. lucifuga Brady, 1884,
Chalk Piept., p. 134, pk i. figs. 9-16. N. lucifuga Egger, 1893,
Abhandl. d. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 250, pi. xxi.
figs. 4-7.

Occurs in various forms, attached as well as free, but the spiral
form is not represented. Most of the specimens are elongate, with a
tendency to approach N. tibia. Egger has a somewhat similar form
from near Kerguelen Island. The figured specimen (from Station 2)
shows little signs of septation ; the shell is thick, and has agglutinated
to it grains of sand and organic matter. The species is most plenti-
ful in Area 1.

•

Nubecularia divaricata Brady, plate Y. fig. 4.

Sagrina divaricata Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. xix.
n.s., p. 276, pi. viii. figs. 22-24. N. divaricata Brady, 1884, Chalk
Kept., p. 136, pk lxxvi. figs. 11-15.

This is a rare form, and has hitherto been recorded from only three
‘Challenger’ Stations, viz. Humboldt Bay, Papua; off Kaine Island,
Torres Strait ; and off Tongatabu, Friendly Islands. It occurs but
very sparingly at Mr. Durrand’s Stations 2 and 14 in Area 1, and
Station 22 in Area 2.

Nubecularia Bradyi jnom. nov., plate Y. fig. 6 a, b.

Nubecularia inflata Brady, 1884, Chalk Kept., p. 135, pk i. figs.
5-8.

Occurs in the normal form at several stations, mostly in Area 1.
From my friend Mr. H. Sidebottom I have many specimens dredged
by Mr. C. H. Nevill in the Gulf of iEgina, where it seems to be
abundant ; and Mr. Nevill tells me it is common off the Island of
Delos. Amongst published figures of fossil Foraminifera resembling
this form, are N. novorossica type nodida Karrer and Sinzow,* and
* Sitz. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. lxxiv. 1876, p. 281, pi. figs. 16-18.

262

Transactions of the Society .

the form placed by Terquem * amongst the Testae incertee sedis and
assigned provisionally to Guttulina. It should be mentioned, how-
ever, that Jones and Chapman | attribute the latter form to Boly-
morphina, and name it var. circularis. The specific name given by
Brady is so appropriate that it is unfortunate that it should have to
be given up, but priority must be given to Terquem who used the
same name for a Nubecularia in 1876. J

Nubecularia dubia sp. n., plate Y. fig. 5 a-c.

Test free, monothalamous, oviform, concave on two opposite sides
which are smooth, the remaining sides being convex and wrinkled,
aperture small, circular, situated in a cup-like depression at the apex
of the test.

A doubtful form, which may be claimed by the algologists, and
have to go the way of Daclylopora. Somewhat analogous forms,
bearing a superficial resemblence to this, occur in the Eocene of the
neighbourhood of Paris, and are usually considered to be unicellular
calcareous algae. In these, however, the cell-walls are thick and porous,
whilst those of N. dubia are thin and imperforate. The specimens are
remarkably uniform in size and shape. It is found only at Station 2,
where it is not uncommon.

Sub-Family II. Miliolininse.

Biloculina d’Orbigny.

Bilocidina ringens Lamarck sp.

Miliolites ringens Lamarck, 1804, Ann. du Museum, vol. v. p. 351 ;
vol. ix. pi. xvii. fig. 1. Biloculina ringens Brady, 1884, Chalk Kept.,
p. 142, pi. ii. figs. 7, 8.

A few small specimens, normal, and generally distributed.

Biloculina ringens var. denticulata Brad}7.

Biloculina ringens var. denticulata Brady, 1884, Chalk Bept.,
p. 143, pi. iii. figs. 4, 5.

Found sparingly in Area 1.

Bilocidina ringens var. striolata Brady, plate Y. fig. 8.

Biloculina ringens var. striolata Brady, 1884, Chalk Bept>,
p. 143, pi. iii. figs. 7, 8.

Found only at Station 22 in Area 2. The specimens are small,
and approach B. elongata, whilst those figured by Brady resemble
B. depressa. Its geographical range is much restricted, as it was

* Mem. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. 1878, p. 48, pi. ix. fig. 41.

t Journal Linnean Society (Zoology), vol. xxv. 1896, p. 505, fig. 24.

t ‘ Essai sur le Classement des Animaux qui vivent sur la plage et dans les
environs de Dunkerque,* fasc. 2, 1876, p. 73.

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett. 263

found only at three or four £ Challenger ’ Stations, all off the southern
shores of Papua.

Biloculina bulloides d’Orbigny.

Biloculina bulloides d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 297, No. 1, pi. xvi. figs. 1-4. B. bulloides (d’Orbigny) Brady,
1884, Chall. Bept., p. 142, pi. ii. figs. 5, 6.

Found only at Station 14, very rare. It occurs at only five
‘ Challenger ’ Stations, two of which are amongst the islands south
of New Guinea. In the ‘ Gazelle ’ soundings it is recorded from
Kerguelen Island and New Guinea, rare in both localities.

Biloculina elongata d’Orbigny.

Biloculina elongata d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 298, No. 4. B. elongata (d’Orbigny) Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept.,
p. 144, pi. ii. fig. 9 a , b.

Found sparingly in both areas; specimens small, but characteristic.

Biloculina coronata sp. n., plate VI. fig. 6 a-c.

Test fusiform, chambers few and inflated, sutures depressed, aper-
ture circular, surmounted by a series of incurved lamellae, which
approach or inosculate over the centre of the aperture. Shell sub-
stance thin, translucent, and much wrinkled. Length 0 * 58 mm.

Apertures of the same type, but of a more complex character, are
to be found in some specimens of Idalina antiqua and Lacazina
compressa Munier-Chalmas and Schlumberger.* It is very rare,
being represented by a solitary specimen from Station 18.

Biloculina depressa d’Orbigny.

Biloculina depressa d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 298, No. 7. B. depressa (d’Orbigny) Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept.,
p. 145, pi. ii. figs. 12, 15-17 ; pi. iii. figs. 1, 2.

Occurs at Station 13, very rare. Found in New Guinea amongst
other ‘ Gazelle ’ Stations.

Biloculina Isevis Defrance sp.

Pyrgo Isevis Defrance, 1824, Diet. Sci. Nat., vol. xxxii. p. 273,
Atlas, pi. lxxxviii. fig. 2. Biloculina Isevis (Defrance sp.) Brady,
1884, Chall. Kept., p. 146, pi. ii. figs. 13, 14. B. Isevis (Defrance)
Goes, 1894, Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv.
p. 119, pi. xxiv. figs. 914-918.

A solitary specimen of the depressa type from Station 22 in
Area 2. Occurs at three ‘ Challenger ’ Stations, one of which is at
Humboldt Bay, Papua, shallow water. Found by Goes at Spitz*
bergen, in deep water.

* Bull. Soc. Geol. de Fiance, ser. 3, vol. xiii. pp. 273 et seq.

264 Transactions of the Society.

Biloculina ventruosa Reuss. (See Miliolina circularise
Spiroloculina d’Orbigny.

Spiroloculina planulata Lamarck sp.

Miliolites planulata Lamarck, 1805, Ann. du Museum, vol. v.
p. 532, No. 4. Spiroloculina planulata (Lamarck sp.) Brady, 1884,
Chall. Rept., p. 148, pi. ix. fig. 11 a-b. S. planulata (Lamarck),
T. Rupert Jones, 1895, Palmontographical Soc., p. 103, pi. iii. figs.
37, 38 ; woodcut, fig. 1.

Spiroloculina excavata d’Orbigny.

Spiroloculina excavata d’Orbigny, 1846, For. Foss. Vienn.,
p. 271, pi. xvi. figs. 19-21. S. excavata (d’ Orb.) Brady, Chall. Rept.,
p. 151, pi. ix. figs. 5, 6. S. excavata (d’Orb.) T. Rupert Jones,
1895, Pal. Soc., p. 106, pi. y. fig. 2; woodcuts, figs. 2a, 2b.

Spiroloculina dorsata Reuss.

Spiroloculina limbata Bornemann, 1855, Zeitschr. deutsch. geol.
Gesell., vol. vii. p. 348, pi. xix. fig. 1. S. dorsata Reus3, 1866,
Denk. k. Akad. "Wiss. Wien, vol. xxv. p. 123. S. limbata (d’Orb.)
Brady, 1884, Chall. Rept., p. 150, pi. ix. figs. 15-17 ; var. pi. x. figs.
1, 2. S. dorsata (Reuss) T. Rupert Jones, 1895, Pal. Soc., p. 110 ;
woodcuts, figs. 4, 8a, Sb.

Spiroloculina impressa Terquem.

Spiroloculina impressa Terquem, 1878, Mem. Soc. Geol. Fr.,
ser. 3, vol. i. p. 53, pi. x. fig. 8. S. impressa (Terq.) Brady, 1864,
Chall. Rept., p. 151, pi. x. figs, 3, 4.

These four forms, with the exception of S. planulata, are well
represented, the specimens being large as well as numerous, and form
an unbroken series from one to another. They are found in both
areas. S. planulata appears in Biitschli’s list of Foraminifera from
the Malay Archipelago.

Spiroloculina acutimargo Brady.

Spiroloculina acutimargo Brady, 1884, Chall. Rept., p. 154,
pi. x. figs. 12-15. S. acutimargo (Brady) Balkwill and Wright,
1885, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. xxviii. p. 323, fig. 1. S. acuti-
margo (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. d. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss.,
Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 222, pi. i. figs. 26-28.

A few small specimens from both Areas.

265

Beport on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett .

Spiroloculina tenuiseptata Brady.

Spiroloculina tenuiseptata Brady, 1884, Chall. Bept., p. 153,
pi. x. figs. 5, 6. S. tenuiseptata (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abliandl. d.
k. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 223, pi. i. figs. 48, 49.

Found only at Station 2, and there very rare and poorly de-
veloped. Brady lias it from the Ki Islands and two other localities, all
over 500 fathoms. Egger’s rather doubtful form is from the West
Coast of Africa, about 10° north of the equator, depth about 370
fathoms.

Spiroloculina crenata Karrer.

Spiroloculina crenata Karrer, 1868, Sitz. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien,
vol. lviii. Abth. i. p. 135, pi. i. fig. 9. S. crenata (Karrer) Brady,
1884, Chall. Kept., p. 156, pi. x. figs. 24-26. S. crenata Murray
and Benard, 1891, Chall. Kept., pi. xiv. fig. 217. S. crenata (Karrer)
Egger, 1893, Abliandl. d. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii.
p. 225, pi. i. figs. 42, 43.

Found in both Areas, but most abundantly in No. 1.

Spiroloculina nitida d’Orbigny, plate Y. figs. 9-13 a, b.

Spiroloculina nitida d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci, Nat., vol. vii.
p. 298, No. 4. S. nitida (d'Orb.) Brady, 1884, Chall. Bept., p. 149,
pi. ix. figs. 9, 10. S. complanata Egger, 1893, Abhandl. d. k. bayer.
Akad. d. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 225, pi. iii. figs. 7, 8. S. nitida
(d’Orb.) T. Bupert Jones, 1895, Crag Foraminifera, Pal. Soc.,
p. 112, pi. v. fig. 3, and woodcut fig. 5.

One of the commonest forms ; the shell is usually thin and trans-
lucent, and slightly rugose. It is a wild-growing form often deviat-
ing from the normal plan of growth, as shown by the figures on
plate Y. A form closely resembling the arenaceous Ammodiscus
gordialis is represented by fig. 12. Terquem and Berthelin, in their
Beport on the Foraminifera of the Middle Lias of Essey-les-Nancy ,*
under the name of S. lonyiscata, S. concentrica , Ac., and Terquem,
in his Monograph of the Foraminifera from the Fuller’s-Earth of
Warsaw,! under the name of “ Agathistegues irreguliers*” figure a
large number of wild-growing specimens, most of which may be
assigned to this species. That a peculiarity of this character should
have survived for so vast a period of time, is an interesting fact in
biology.

Brady, in his 4 Challenger ’ Beport,! assigns to this species a form in
which the peripheral margin of the last formed chamber is acute or
carinate, whilst that of the penultimate is square or even slightly
excavated. A similar form occurs at several of the Malay Stations,

*

t

Mem. Soc. Geol. de France, ser. 2, vol. x. 1875, p. 78, pi. xvi. &c.
Op. cit., ser. 3, vol. iv. 1880, p. 77, pis. xv, xvi.

266

Transactions of the Society.

but the test is thinner, and the chambers have not the inflation
characteristic of S. nitida. It is associated with the thin form of
Spiroloculina from the coast of Papua, which Brady, loc. cit., describes
as a variety of S. limbata* and is distinguishable from it chiefly by
the partially acute periphery. Prof. T. Rupert Jones says of Brady’s
form, “ It is evidently a limbate sub-variety of nitida d’Orb., which
is a sub-type or variety of the type Spirtloculina planidata
(Lamarck).” | The S. nitida of the same monograph, pi. v. fig. 3,
is carinate. It should be mentioned that the wildness of growth is
confined to the form which has cylindrical chambers.

S. nitida when striate, is the S. grata of Terquem ; when reticu-
late, the S. foveolata of Egger ; and when arenaceous, the S. asperula
of Karrer.

Spiroloculina nitida (Striate variety.)

Spiroloculina grata , Terquem, 1878, Mem. Soc. Geol. Fr., ser. 3,
vol. i. p. 55, pi. x. figs. 14, 15. S. grata (Terquem) Brady, 1884,
‘Chabenger’ Kept., p. 155, pi. x. figs. 16, 17, 22, 23. S. grata
Terquem, Egger, 1893, Abhand. d. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., Cl. II.
vol. xviii. p. 224, pi. i. fig. 39.

This common coral-reef species is found abundantly at most of the
Stations in both areas. In a large proportion of the specimens the
chambers are square in transverse section, like S. planidata.

Spirolocidina nitida (Reticulate variety).

Spiroloculina foveolata Egger, 1893, Abhandl. d. k. bayer. Akad.
d. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 224, pi. i. figs. 33, 34.

This may be described as a large thick-shelled S. nitida , which
has the surface markings of Miliolina reticulata. It attains its ex-
treme development in the coral sands of the South Pacific. Egger ’s
figured specimen was from the Mauritius, and is an immature example
of the species. It occurs only at Station 1, and is very rare.

Spiroloculina (?) convexiuscula Brady.

Spiroloculina (?) convexiuscula Brady, 1884, ‘ Challenger 5 Rept.,
p. 155, pi. x. figs. 18-20.

Assigned by Brady, with some hesitation, to this genus, it is more
probably an arrested form of Articulina. It is remarkable for its
uniformity, specimens from all localities being almost identical in size
and structure. It occurs only at two 4 Challenger * Stations, both on
the coast of Papua. In the Malay Archipelago it is common and
widespread over Area 1, but rare in Area 2.

Spiroloculina (or Hauer ina) frag ilissima Brady. (See Hauerina.)

* P. 150, pi. x. figs. 1,2. f Pal. Soc., 1S95, p. 114.

267

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett.

Miliolina Williamson, 1858.

Group of Miliolina oblonga.

Aperture dentate.

Miliolina oblonga Montagu sp., pi. V. fig. 14 a, b.

Vermiculum oblongum Montagu, 1803, Test. Brit., p. 522, pi. xiv.
fig. 9. Miliolina oblonga (Montagu) T. Rupert Jones, 1895, Pal.
Soc., p. 120, pi. iii. figs. 31, 32, and pi. v. fig. 5.

The type is rather rare, but several varieties and passage forms
are represented at most of the Stations.

Miliolina rotunda d’Orbigny sp., pi. V. figs. 15, 16.

Triloculina rotunda d’Orbign}7, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
No. 4, p. 299. T. rotunda (d’Orb.) Sclilumberger, 1893, Mem. Soc.
Zool. de France, vol. vi. p. 206, pi. i. figs. 48-50.

This is a variety of M. oblonga with inflated chambers and a large
circular aperture. It is as common in the Biloculine as in the Tri-
loculine condition, but the former is slightly the larger. Forms
closely allied or identical are Triloculina laevigata, d’Orb., Quinque-
loculina vulgaris d’Orb., Miliolina anconensis Schultze, and M.
cuneata , Biloculine variety, Brady.* The form from Humboldt
Bay, Papua, assigned by Brady to M. gracilis ,| appears to be an
elongate form of this variety, and is common in the Malay Archipelago.
M. rotunda is recorded from several parts of the Mediterranean, and
occurs plentifully in several of Mr. Durrand’s Stations in both Areas.
As a fossil it attains a large size in the Pliocene (?) clay of St. Erth,
Cornwall. If the form’ ascribed by A. Silvestri to M. cuneata J is
identical, it also occurs of great size in the Pliocene of Siena, Italy.

Miliolina Bosciana d’Orbigny sp., plate Y I. fig. 1.

Quinqueloculina Bosciana d’Orbigny, 1839. De la Sagra, Hist.
Physique de File de Cuba, Foraminiferes, p. 191, pi. xi. figs. 22-24.

A form of M. oblonga, in which the chambers are more numerous
and the sutures oblique. Worthy of notice from the diversity of its
surface ornamentation.

Alveolate var., plate YI. fig. 2.

In this variety the aperture has not the thickened margin charac-
teristic of the other forms, thus more nearly approaching d’Orbigny’s
specimens from the Antilles. The markings are very variable, rang-
ing from a few scattered shallow depressions to striato-punctate as in
M. Rupertiana.

* ‘ Challenger’ Report, 1884, p. 139, pi. i. figs. 19, 20.

t Torn, cit., p. 160, pi. v. fig. 3.

X Mem. Tontif. Accad. dei Nuovi Lincei, vol. xii. 1896, p. 35, pi. i. fig. 12.

268

Transactions of the Society.

Costate var., plate VI. fig. 3.

In this form the markings are more uniform, varying only in size.
Becoming more robust, it develops in the direction of M. licornis.

Agglutinate var., plate VI. fig. 4.

Closely resembles M. fusca. The surface is beset with minute
glittering scales and very small grains of sand attached to, but not
enclosed within, the porcellanous shell-substance.

All the foregoing varieties are common and widespread in both
areas.

Treating of the Miliolinse with surface ornaments, Brady writes,
“ A few varieties may be disposed of by referring them to the smooth-
shelled species having the same general contour.” * Holding this
opinion, Brady might with advantage have carried the process a little
further than he did. Taking, for example, the species M. tricarinata
and its varieties, the terms striate variety and reticulate variety are
self-explanatory, whilst Brady’s names for the same forms, M. Ter-
quemiana and M. Bertheliniana, give no idea of their character and
affinities.

In these Malay gatherings, so numerous are the transition forms
that much light is thrown by them on the affinities of the Miliolinse ,
although unfortunately not sufficient to enable us to link together the
whole of the species.

Miliolina transversestriata Brady, plate VI. fig. 5.

Miliolina transversestriata Brady, 1881, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,
vol. xxi. n.s. p. 45. M. transversestriata Brady, 1884, Cliall. Kept.,
p. 177, pi. iv. fig. 6.

Hitherto recorded only from the ‘ Challenger ’ dredgings, and in
them in but two localities, Kaine Island, Torres Strait, 155 fathoms,
and in harbour-mud from Port Louis, Mauritius.

It is rather rare, but occurs at Stations in both Areas.

Aperture edentate.

Miliolina Durrandii sp. n., plate VI. fig 4. 7-10.

Test broadly elliptical, much depressed, chambers few, periphery
acute or carinate, sutures slightly excavated, aperture large, elliptical
or fusiform, surrounded by a thickened lip, edentate. Length 0*77
to 0*99 mm.

This is one of an interesting group in which the aperture is a
large elliptical or fusiform opening without teeth. As in M. rotunda ,
the Biloculine form (figs. 8-10) is the larger. The costae represented
in fig. 7 are confined to the anterior portion of the test, and are

* ‘Challenger’ Report, 1884, p. 172.

269

Report on Foraminifera, By F. W. Millett.

remarkably uniform both in number and position. They are not
present in all of the specimens, and are entirely wanting in the
Biloculine form. The earlier chambers, as shown in fig. 10, are
elongate, much resembling M. Rupertiana in contour. Elongate
specimens of the Biloculine form as represented by fig. 9 are very
common. Probably this is an arrested form which does not develop
the final enclosing chambers.

Of the two forms, the Biloculine is the more numerous. The
species is abundant at several Stations in both Areas.

Miliolina cultrata Brady, plate YI. figs. 11, 12.

Miliolina cultrata Brady, 1881, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. xxi.
n.s. p. 45. M. cultrata Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 161, pi. v.
figs. 1, 2. M. cultrata (Brady) Egger. 1893, Abhandl. d. k. bayer.
Akad. d. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 231, pi. ii. figs. 29-31.

This is an edentate form, although it is not so described by Brady
or Egger. Its affinity with both M. Burrandii and M. Rupertiana
is shown by the passage form fig. 11. Brady records it from two
localities only, Papua, and off Calpentyn, Ceylon. Egger found it
at three ‘ Gazelle * Stations, Mauritius, New Amsterdam, and West
Australia.

In the Malay Archipelago its distribution is co-extensive with
that of M. Burrandii , and it is just as abundant.

Miliolina Rupertiana Brady, plate YI. fig. 13.

Miliolina Rupertiana Brady, 1881, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,
vol. xxi. n.s. p. 46. M. Rupertiana Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept.,
p. 178, pi. vii. figs. 7-12.

The carinate variety is not represented in this collection by any-
thing nearer than the smooth passage form fig. 11, nor is there the
variation of aperture figured by Brady.

The ‘ Challenger ’ specimens are from the islands off the south
shores of Papua, west of Torres Strait ; but Brady names a few other
localities from which it has been procured.

It occurs at several Stations in both Areas, but only in very small
numbers.

(To be continued .)

270

Transactions of the Society.

VII. — A few Notes on Micro-Crystallography .

By T. Charters White, M.R.C.S., L.D.S., F.R.M.S.

( Bead 1 6th February , 1898.)

Every member of a corporate body ought, in my humble opinion, to
do something to further the objects for which that body is incorporated.
I regret I can do but little in forwarding the progress of our Society,
but <l I do my diligence to give gladly of that little,” in offering the
small contribution of this evening. I must ask you to consider it
simply as a casual communication, being as it is a brief record of a
few experiments made with a view of producing pretty polarising
objects, which I thought might interest my fellow members as a
relief from more arduous investigations.

When I use the term “ pretty ” as applied to these objects, I do
so because I think at present that is the only attribute to which they
are entitled ; but as great events often spring from small beginnings,
so these experiments and illustrations may be utilised by others, and
may prove the threshold of something more important as years roll on.

The subject of crystallisation in its larger aspect is outside the
sphere of microscopy ; but we are all familiar with the fact that a hot
and saturated solution of some saline substance will deposit crystals
on cooling, and that these crystals assume definite shapes peculiar to
the salts dissolved. Watts in his Manual of Chemistry says, “ Almost
every substance, simple or compound, capable of existing in the solid
state, assumes under favourable circumstances a distinct geometrical
figure, usually bounded by plane surfaces and having angles of con-
stant value.” However correct this definition may be when applied
to the crystallographic systems under which we find grouped the
cubic form, the rhombohedra, and so forth, we must remember that
in a solution the crystals are free to build up the system to which
they rightly belong ; but in the method of crystallisation it is my
privilege to call your attention to this evening, the forces of crystal-
lisation are locked up in a hard and attenuated film, instead of being
free to act as in a solution, and are only set free when the hygroscopic
character of the surrounding atmosphere gradually liberates them.
Hence the presence of much or little moisture will modify the forms
produced ; as will also the character of the surrounding air, whether
it be gaseous, alcoholic, or ammoniacal ; so will varying degrees of
temperature ; and it will be an almost endless source of entertainment
to try and produce varying conditions under which micro-crystals
may be formed. But it will be found, after you have tried the
three or four chemicals that I shall introduce to your notice, that
you will have come to the end of your tether in the production of
pretty crystals ; and it will save a great deal of time and trouble in
making experiments, if I name those I have found successful, and

A few Notes on Micro-Crystallography. By T. C. White. 271

that have been so much pleasure to me. They are hippuric acid,
hydroquinone, picric acid alone and in combination with hippuric
acid, and an aqueous solution of bichromate of potassium crystallised
in a tolerably thick emulsion of gum arabic. This is the only aqueous
solution ; the other solvents have been methylated spirit, acetone, and
absolute alcohol, taking these three solvents as types of the greatest
volatility, because in making these crystals it is necessary that the
solvent should evaporate very quickly, or else the crystals will assume
to a great extent their natural forms. It is desirable to make satu-
rated or even super-saturated solutions of the three chemicals named,
as the colours produced under polarised light are of a deeper and
richer character than they are if made from weaker solutions.

It will be found that of these three, hippuric acid is the most
manageable, allowing of more time being taken in modifying the
forming crystals. To produce these varying forms it is advisable to
have the microscopical slide slightly warmed so that it is not unbear-
ably hot if placed on the back of the hand, as the evaporation of the
spirit is accelerated thereby, and as it spreads it leaves a clean thin
film on the glass. Should there be moisture in the air of the room,
a number of dots appear in this film, marking the commencing forma-
tion of centres of crystallisation. If now the slip is alternately warmed
and cooled, these centres will be seen surrounded by concentric rings
formed by the alternations of temperature to which they have been
subjected. If they are blown upon while under the Microscope, an
advancing wave of a fringe-like character may be watched as it
increases the diameter of the growing crystal ; if it now be sharply
breathed upon, a star-like radiation will surround each centre, and
the crystallisation will be completed. Now this is the physical
history of one such formation, but the modifications in the character
of these crystals may be made very numerous by changing the con-
ditions under which they are formed. I shall have an opportunity
afforded me of showing you by means of the lantern some of the
forms assumed by this salt.

Hydroquinone crystallises fairly well out of an alcoholic solution,
but its best effects are produced from a solution in acetone ( =
pyro-acetic spirit, C3H30) ; this quickly dissolves the hydroquinone,
especially if it is boiled ; and as it boils at 132° F., this method ot
getting a saturated solution can be readily accomplished ; but, owing to
the extremely rapid evaporation, it is not possible to modify the re-
sulting crystalline forms ; but these are so beautiful that one does not
seek to modify them to any great extent. Unlike hippuric acid,
which crystallises in round characters, hydroquinone resolves itself
into very decided curvilinear forms, whose only chance of modification
arises from the degree of warmth to which you subject the slide before
putting on the solution ; but with these modifications most charming
designs can be obtained. These salts are generally employed in single
solutions unmixed with any other salt.

1898

u

272

Transactions of the Society.

The third chemical I have experimented with is picric acid dis-
solved in alcohol ; but this, while giving a variety of crystals that were
rather peculiar, inasmuch as it gathered itself up in strange Japan-
esque designs, induced me to believe that by combining with it a
solution of hippuric acid I might produce a modification of this char-
acter, and it produced a conformation quite different from any I had
ever previously obtained. I will call your attention to it when thrown
on the screen. There is no difficulty in obtaining the very curious
crystals obtained by the use of bichromate of potassium in gum arabic.
An aqueous solution of the bichromate is incorporated with some gum
arabic, and this is placed upon the slide and warmed. As soon as a
pellicle is seen to form around the margin of the drop of solution, it is
put aside to cool, when crystallisation takes place, giving a peculiar
twisted appearance to the crystals ; and these, taking up the bulk of the
solution, leave a thin layer of fluid which results in a fine feathery
spray in the interspaces left between the larger crystals. This salt is
not capable of any great modification.

I have photographed any particular form that struck me as being
curious or out of the ordinary character, as I have experienced great
difficulty in preserving the specimens when mounted. No difficulty
is met with in mounting hippuric acid crystals if mounted as a dry
object, but hydroquinone will not stand even that treatment, but
breaks up under the cover-glass when shut in ; I have therefore gene-
rally kept it on an open slide. Neither hippuric acid nor hydro-
quinone bears mounting in any of the usual fluid media, or in balsam,
as hydroquinone disappears altogether, and hippuric acid breaks up
and becomes a disfiguration instead of a thing of beauty and a joy for
ever. But these solutions may be made and will keep indefinitely,
so that they are always ready for a demonstration, the hydroquinone
crystals being very attractive for dark-ground illumination.

273

VIII. — On some Organic Substances of High Refractivity, available
for Mounting Specimens for Examination under the
Microscope.

By H. G-. Mad an, M.A., F.C.S., Fellow of Queen’s College,

Oxford.

( Read 20 tli April , 189S.)]

In the course of experiments made with a view of obtaining some
cement having the same index of refraction as Iceland spar for the
ordinary ray (viz. 1*66), and therefore suitable for use in certain
forms of polarising prism made of that material, I have had occasion
to prepare, or procure, and examine several of the less known organic
compounds of high refractivity. One or two of these do not seem
as yet to have attracted the notice of microscopists, and I am induced
to bring them before the Society, in the hope that they may be con-
sidered worth a trial by some who have had more experience than
myself in the mounting and critical examination of specimens.

I must say at once that I have not yet been successful in finding
an entirely satisfactory material ; but I have thought it worth while
to give a short account of what I have done up to the present time,
in the hope of stimulating others in the search and of receiving
suggestions for future experiments.

In the first place, let me state clearly and definitely what we
want ; the requirements of physicists and microscopists being in
this matter pretty nearly identical. We want an irreproachably
colloidal substance, with no tendency whatever to crystallise under
any conditions, colourless, transparent, solid and tough at ordinary
temperatures, but easily liquefied (or at any rate rendered viscous) by
a gentle heat, stable under ordinary conditions of light and tempera-
ture, with no tendency to act upon or injure even delicate preparations,
and — most important point of all — possessing a very high refractive
power on light.

Perhaps we may consider Canada balsam (and one or two other
similar gum resins) to have all the properties referred to except the
last ; and we may state our aim to be the discovery of a balsam-like
substance, with a refractive index for rays of mean wave-length of
not less than 1*66.

I do not propose to consider now any of the compounds of metals,
such as arsenic tribromide, thallium chloride, mercury-potassium
iodide, &c., which have been tried. Such substances, though useful
for special purposes, and fulfilling excellently the requirement of high
refractivity, have not the permanency and harmlessness which are
desirable ; they would quickly ruin, for instance, a polished surface
of Iceland spar. I shall only draw attention to a few organic bodies

u 2

274 Transactions of the Society.

which seem to possess, in a greater or less degree, the qualities above
mentioned.

1. Meta-cinnamene, or meta-styrol (formula of molecule, C8H8).
This is a body obtained by Blyth and Hofmann in 1845,* from
cinnamene, the essential oil prepared by distillation of styrax, a
substance used occasionally as a mounting medium itself. When
cinnamene is either (a) exposed to sunlight for three weeks, or (b)
heated to 100° C. for three days, or ( c ) heated in a sealed tube to
200° C. for half an hour, it is converted, without change of chemical
composition, into a polymeric form, a transparent, glass-like solid, viz.
meta-cinnamene. The specimen I exhibit was prepared by the last-
mentioned method, and retains the shape of the tube in which it was
made. It is quite colourless and transparent, permanent under all
ordinary conditions, and without the slightest tendency to crystallisa-
tion even after twelve years’ keeping. It is remarkably tough, like
horn, at ordinary temperatures, but is softened by a moderate heat,
becoming flexible like gutta-percha, but not a viscous fluid like Canada
balsam, except at a temperature slightly above 200° C., at which it
begins to volatilise and change back into the liquid form, — ordinary
cinnamene. It shows no considerable adhesiveness to glass, and its
coefficient of expansion differs so much from that of glass that a
layer of it spread, while hot, upon a glass plate separates from it on
cooling. In order to determine its refractivity, I constructed a small
hollow prism of brass, open at the top, with sides of thin glass plates,
and having a refracting angle of 51° 7' 0". This was heated in an
air-bath, and some meta-cinnamene was placed in it, the heat being
raised until the body melted down into close contact with the sides
of the prism. The angle of minimum deviation for several rays
was then determined by a spectrometer, and the indices of refraction
calculated by the usual formula. Thus the index of refraction for
yellow sodium light (Fraunhofers line D) was found to be 1*597
(at 15° C.). This is decidedly higher than that of most other resins ;
and although meta-cinnamene itself is hardly adapted for a cement
or mounting material, it is likely to be very useful, from its toughness,
transparency, and permanency, for giving body and strength to other
cements, as I shall have occasion to notice further on.

2. Quinidine (formula of molecule, C20II24N2O2). This is one
of the group of alkaloids occurring in cinchona bark, and is so
essentially crystalloidal in character that I never thought of examin-
ing it until a few weeks ago, when my attention was kindly drawn
to it by Mr. Lewis Wright and Mr. Nelson. I believe that it has
pleased and plagued microscopists for several years, the conditions for
ensuring its permanency in the colloidal form not having been satis-
factorily made out.

As ordinarily obtained, quinidine is a hydrated salt (one molecule
associated with two molecules of water), crystallising in colourless
* ‘ Memoirs of the Chemical Society,’ ii. p. 334.

Mounting Media of High Bef r activity. By II. G. Madan. 275

monoclinic prisms. The associated water of crystallisation is readily
given off at temperatures between 120° and 130° C., and the crystals
break up into a white powder, which, on being heated to a temperature
of 170° C., melts into a nearly colourless liquid. At 200° C. the
liquid begins to darken in colour, owing to incipient decomposition
and liberation of carbon ; hence in dealing with the substance as a
“ mountant ” it is important not to raise the temperature more than
necessary above the melting point. On cooling the liquid it solidifies
into a light yellow resinous mass, having so slight a cohesion and
so low a conductivity for heat that a block of it cracks up into small
fragments under a slight stress or change of temperature, almost like
unannealed glass ; nor does very slow cooling appear to prevent this.
I have also tried the effect of quick cooling by pouring liquid quini-
dine into cold water, but the only result seemed to be to make it more
like a “ Rupert’s drop ” than before.

When this resinous solid is again heated gradually, it changes
into a mass of interlacing prismatic crystals and rosettes, forming
a very beautiful polariscopic object. The change certainly begins
below 90° C., but proceeds more rapidly at a few degrees higher.
On further heating, the crystals melt, passing into the resinous
colloidal condition mentioned above. I think it likely that the
tendency to crystallisation complained of by those who have mounted
objects in quinidine is mainly due to the slides having been exposed
to a rather high temperature, such as that of a very hot room.

Also it should be noted that the presence of a few nuclei, such as
particles of dust or of one or two minute unconverted crystals in the
resin, would materially promote crystallisation. It would be advis-
able to filter the liquid, if practicable, before placing any upon the
slide.

The fragility and unstable equilibrium of the colloidal form of
quinidine caused me considerable difficulty in making a prism of it
for the purpose of determining its refractivity. I was anxious, how-
ever, to do this, as the index of refraction was reported to be as high
as 1*7 (for what wave-length I do not know). I am disappointed to
find that the index for yellow sodium light is no higher than 1*802.
Its coefficient of dispersion, moreover, is not particularly high ;
(fiH - = ) 0 * 048 (that of a-monobromonaphthalene between the

same wave-lengths is 0*051).

From the above observations on the effect of heat cn quinidine, it
would seem advisable, in using the substance as a mounting material,
to cool the slide pretty quickly, in order to get the resin past the
turning point of 90° before it has time to take the wrong turn. But
in this and similar substances there must, I fear, always remain the
inherent tendency to revert to the crystalline condition, which is
obviously the condition preferably assumed by the molecules when
they are free to do as they like.

276

Transactions of the Society,

The parallel case of sulphur will occur to the mind of everyone.
This substance takes three allotropic forms, two of them crystalline.
When either of these latter forms is heated to 150° C., it passes into
a plastic colloidal condition, but can only be retained even tempo-
rarily in this form by being poured suddenly into cold water. In a few
days it inevitably reverts to the crystalline condition ; and the same
change (as with quinidine) takes place quickly on heating the colloid
to 100° C. Mr. Lewis Wright suggested to me that admixture with
Canada balsam might prevent this ; but on trial I do not find it answer.

8. Naphthyl-phenyl-ketone (formula of molecule, Ci6H12CO).
This was discovered by Grucarevic and Merz,* and seemed at first
likely to be an unexceptionable cement for polarising prisms. I pre-
pared it by a method given in the paper referred to, which I need not
describe here, as the details might not be intelligible without previous
study of organic chemistry. It is a light yellow substance, viscous
like Canada balsam at ordinary temperatures, but becoming more
liquid when moderately heated, almost odourless, with little or no
tendency to act on or injure other substances. The index of refrac-
tion for yellow sodium light I found to be 1 * 669 (at 15°), almost
exactly that of Iceland spar for the “ ordinary ” ray. If there was no
doubt as to its permanency, it would be very valuable for the pur-
poses both of physical optics and of microscopy. The first specimen
which I prepared remained for months quite unchanged (although
tested by exposure to a temperature as low as — 20° C.), but eventually
turned into a mass of yellow crystals ; and a fine polarising prism
made for me in Paris on M. Bertrand’s principle, in which this cement
was used, after lasting for four or five years at least, has now become
useless from the same cause. The ketone may be easily restored to
the colloidal condition by re-distillation, but the change is not perma-
nent. Hence, while I think the substance worth the attention of
microscopists for temporarily mounting objects, my recommendation
cannot extend further.

4. a-monobromonaphthalene (formula of molecule, C10H7Br), dis-
covered by Laurent f in 1835. This substance is so well known to
microscopists that I need not say much about it.

The index of refraction for sodium light is 1*66 (at 23° C.), and
its dispersive power is almost exactly the same as that of carbon di-
sulphide (yaH — yaHa=) 0*051. It has a very high boiling point

y

(285° C.), and is more stable than such bromo-compounds usually are.
Hence it would be well adapted for filling hollow spectroscope-prisms
but for its incurable yellow colour, which implies of course loss by
absorption of the more refrangible part of the spectrum. It seemed
possible that this yellow colour might be due to the presence of a
trace of free bromine, and I have digested the liquid with zinc, sodium,

* ‘ Bericlite der deutschen cliemischen Gesellschaft,’ vi. p. 1238.
t 4 Annales de Cliimie et de Physique,’ lix. p. 216.

Mounting Media of High Befractivitg. Bg H. G. Madan. 277

and mercury in the hope of removing this if present. I have also re-
distilled it under greatly reduced pressure (-^ atmosphere), and
filtered it through animal charcoal, but the yellow colour, though
much reduced in intensity, still remains.

5. Phengl-thiocarbimide (formula of molecule, C6H5CNS), a
substance belonging to the class of mustard oils, one of the many
discoveries of Dr. A. W. Hofmann.* I need not go into the details
of its preparation, which are of more interest to chemists than to
physicists, especially as I find that it can now be obtained commer-
cially from Schuchardt, of Gorlitz (English agents, Messrs. F. E.
Becker and Co., 33 Hatton Wall, London, E.C.).

It is a perfectly colourless liquid, practically unalterable by light
(I have exposed some to sunlight for a whole summer without more
than a trace of yellow colour appearing). It has a characteristic but
not disagreeable smell like that of ordinary mustard oil ; when warmed,
however, rather pungent vapours are given off. Its boiling point is
very high (222° C.), and it is not readily inflammable, — in fact, a
lighted match may be thrown into it without setting it on fire.

I have determined carefully the indices of refraction for the prin-
cipal Fraunhofer lines. For sodium light, /^D = 1 * 654 at 10° C. ; and
its dispersive power is rather higher than that of carbon disulphide,
viz. (/biH — fjiH = ) 0 • 060. These high refractive and dispersive powers
x a

are attributed by Dr. Gladstone f to the presence of the phenyl radicle
and the sulphur atom in it, both of which have a very high specific
refractive energy.

It is evident from what has been said that phenyl-thiocarbimide
possesses all the good qualities of a-monobromonaphthalene and of
carbon disulphide, without the yellow colour and doubtful permanency
of the first, and the dangerous inflammability and volatility of the
second. I have used it in a prism belonging to my spectrometer for
many years, and found it very satisfactory in every way, giving
excellent definition (especially in the more refrangible part of the
spectrum), and being much less liable to disturbance by internal con-
vection currents than carbon disulphide. I have also made a polarising
prism on Jamin’s principle, — a thin plate of Iceland spar placed
obliquely in a cell filled with phenyl-thiocarbimide, — and found it to
answer well ; though of course a solid prism is preferable, as long as
pieces of Iceland spar of sufficient size can be obtained.

Phenyl-thiocarbimide readily dissolves meta-cinnamene, forming,
when equal weights of the substances are taken, a viscous mass like
Canada balsam, having an index of refraction about the mean of the
two constituents (/aD = 1*63 at 15° C.). This does not harden so
readily as balsam, but in all other respects it seems excellently fitted
for use in mounting microscopic objects.

* ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ ix. p. 25o.
t ‘ Journal of the Chemical Society,’ xlv. p. 241.

278

Transactions of the Society.

I have tried the solubility of phosphorus in phenyl-thiocarbimide,
hut I find it to be very slight, except while the solvent is hot ; on
cooling, the greater part of the phosphorus is precipitated again.

6. Piperine (formula of molecule, 017H19"N03). This, like quini-
dine, is a substance so strongly imbued with what perhaps I may call
the “ original sin ” of crystallisability, that until lately I never thought
it worth examination.

It is, as its name implies, the alkaloid existing in ordinary pepper,
from which it may be extracted by alcohol. It occurs in commerce
as yellowish -white monoclinic prisms, isomorphous with those of
quinidine, but containing no water of crystallisation. When heated,
the crystals begin to melt at 135° C., forming a yellowish slightly
viscous liquid, which solidifies into a light yellow tough transparent
resinous mass, soft enough to be easily indented with the finger-nail,
and rather “tacky.” This resin-form of piperine when heated to
100° C. is converted (like quinidine, but not quite so readily) into a
white mass of crystals, which on further heating melt at 135° C.,
passing into the resinous condition. If the temperature is raised still
further, at about 200° the substance begins to decompose, and the
liquid becomes dark yellow or brown, owing to separation of carbon.

Eesinous piperine has, unlike quinidine, very strong cohesive
properties, and does not give the slightest trouble by cracking under
mechanical stress or thermal changes, even when in thick pieces. I
find its refractivity to be remarkably high, its index of refraction
for yellow sodium light being 1 • 681 at 18° ; but its dispersive power
is more remarkable still, the coefficient of dispersion being no less than
(/ uH — fiH =) 0*141. I have not yet determined the indices for a

y . a

sufficient number of wave-lengths to enable me to state exactly where
the greatest extension of the spectrum takes place, but it is certainly
in the part including the shorter waves, corresponding to green and
blue (as in the case of carbon disulphide).

It will be seen from the above-mentioned properties that piperine
would serve admirably for a cement and mounting material, if it were
not for its suspicion of crystallisability and its abnormal dispersion.
Both of these defects seem likely to be lessened by admixture with
other more orderly materials, and the most promising which I have
tried at present is Canada balsam. A mixture of four parts (by weight)
of piperine with one part of balsam has a refractive index for yellow
sodium light of 1 *657 at 16°, and a coefficient of dispersion of 0*130.
The tendency to pass into the crystalline condition when heated to
100° seems greatly lessened, though not removed altogether.

One other point I would notice with regard to piperine (and quini-
dine also) for the purj)ose of eliciting the experience of others. I am
inclined to think that the tendency towards crystallisation becomes
greater wdien the resin-form has been once or twice re-melted. It is
well known that some kinds of glass, especially the German " soft

Mounting Media of High Refractivity. By H. G. Madan. 279

soda-glass,” behave in a similar way, becoming semi-opaque or “ de-
vitrified ” when heated to the softening point and retained long in
that condition, owing to the formation of crystalline silicates in the
colloidal mass.

7. Methylene di-iodide (formula of molecule, CH2I2), discovered as
long ago as 1858 by Butlerow.*

This is in several respects a very remarkable substance, and I am
surprised that, while it has been known and used for many years by
mineralogists on account of its high density, t it does not appear to
have attracted the notice of microscopists.

It is, when pure, a pale yellow liquid with a slight sweetish smell,
boiling at 181° C., freezing at 5° C., and hardly at all inflammable,
at any rate at ordinary temperatures. Its density is no less than 3 * 34
times that of water, so that nearly all kinds of glass, as well as most
minerals (even fluor spar and hornblende) float in it.

Its refractive and dispersive powers have been accurately deter-
mined by Dr. J. Id.. Gladstone,! who finds its index of refraction for
yellow sodium light to be 1 ’756 at 10 ’5° C. My own examination
of a different sample gives 1'743 at 15° C., — a very close agreement
when the correction for decrease of refractivity with temperature is
made. This, it will be observed, is exceptionally high, in fact the
highest of any single organic substance I have met with, and induces
me to recommend methylene di-iodide (which is easily procured com-
mercially) as a temporary mounting medium. I regret that I must
say “ temporary ” only ; for like many other iodides it has a slight
tendency to decompose, especially when exposed to light, with libera-
tion of iodine, which colours the liquid red, and would act upon and
damage some delicate tissues and crystals. I find that after one
hour’s exposure to direct sunlight the liquid becomes perceptibly
darker, and four hours’ exposure turn it a light orange about the
tint of “ golden sherry.” Another day’s exposure to ordinary day-
light only deepens the colour slightly, and after a -week’s exposure
the liquid is still only light red, a tint hardly perceptible in thin
films. In the dark it may be kept for years without alteration, and
the free iodine may at any time be readily removed by shaking up
the liquid with dilute solution of potassium hydrate (“ caustic pot-
ash ”), allowing it to stand, decanting off the potash, and removing
the last traces of moisture by leaving a lump of calcium chloride in
the liquid for a short time. Most of the colour may be removed
more simply, but more slowly, by placing a strip of zinc in the
liquid for a day or two.

One drawback to the use of methylene di-iodide is that it freezes,
as already mentioned, at a point a little above the freezing point of
water. This, however, can be prevented by adding to it about one-

* Comptes Rendus, xlvi. p. 595.

t ‘Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie,’ 1886, ii. p. 72; 1888, i. p. 213; 1889, ii.
p. 185. X ‘ Journal of the Chemical Society,’ lix. p. 293.

280

Transactions of the Society .

third its volume of phenyl- thiocarbimide. The refractivity is, of

course, slightly lowered thereby, but the mixture remains liquid at
a temperature at least as low as — 12° C.

The coefficient of dispersion of methylene di-iodide is (/* — pH = )

■y > «•

0 *062, nearly the same as that of phenyl-thiocarbimide, and decidedly
higher than that of carbon disulphide.

8. Solution of sulphur in methylene di-iodide. — When heated,
methylene di-iodide dissolves a considerable quantity of sulphur,
but much of this crystallises out on cooling. Sufficient, however,
remains in solution at ordinary temperatures to raise the index of
refraction of the liquid to 1*778 (at 16° C.) for yellow sodium light.

9. Solution of phosphorus in methylene di-iodide. — This solution
seems worthy of special attention as a substitute for the solution in
carbon disulphide sometimes employed. I find that methylene di-
iodide dissolves phosphorus very freely, in fact it will dissolve its
own weight of the element without reaching the point of saturation.
The refractivity of the light yellow solution thus obtained is, as
might be predicted, very high indeed. I find the index of refraction
for yellow sodium light to be 1 * 95 * at 18J C., and the coefficient
of dispersion is (/iH — yuH = ) 0 * 092.

. y a

The solution is far safer and pleasanter to deal with than phos-
phorus itself or its solution in carbon disulphide. I have poured some
on filter paper and left it freely exposed for hours and even days,
without its catching fire. I have left some similarly exposed in a
watch-glass for a week without inflammation taking place. The
scarcely inflammable solvent seems to form a kind of varnish over
the phosphorus which protects the latter from rapid oxidation. Still
the precaution of having a basin of water and a wet cloth at hand
should not on any account be neglected in dealing with the solution.

Light acts strongly and inevitably on this medium, as on phos-
phorus itself and other preparations containing it, causing the con-
version of the phosphorus into the allotropic form known as “ red
phosphorus,” which is insoluble and nearly opaque. Hence such
substances can only be considered available for temporary purposes,
where their very high refractivity enables critical points of structure
to be made out with greater distinctness. In the dark they keep
fairly well, but a slight red deposit is liable to form.

I have now brought before the Society the principal substances
which I have examined at present. None of them, it will seen, come
up to a high standard of excellence as mounting and cementing
media; but I still hope that I or others may discover something

* I do not give the third decimal place owing to a remarkable and not easily
explicable difficulty which occurs in getting a sharp image of the spectrometer slit
through the solution. The same difficulty was noticed by Dr. Gladstone and Mr.
Dale in examining the refractivity of solutions of phosphorus in carbon disulphide.
(‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ [4] xviii. p. 30.)

Mounting Media of High Befr activity. By H. G. Madan. 281

better. The most hopeful direction in which to look is towards
compounds containing either or both of the radicles naphthyl and
phenyl, in which, as Dr. Gladstone’s researches have shown, the
carbon-atoms are so situated in the molecule as to cause exceptionally
high refractivity in the resulting compound.

Table of Optical Constants of some Highly Refractive
Organic Substances.

Name of Substance.

*

u

Ha

%

%

y

Temp.
Cent. J

Coefficient of
Dispersion

Meta-cinnamene (or Metastyrol)

1-592

1-597

1-612 |

1-624

■ °

15

0*032

Quinidine

1-596

1-602

1*621

1*639

15

0-043

Phenyl thiocarbimide

1-646

1*654

1-681

1-706

10

0-060

o-Monobromonaphthalene f

1-649

1-658

1-682

1*704

20

0-051

Naphthyl-phenyl-ketone..

1-659

1-669

1-697

■ t

15

..

Piperine

1*665

1-681

1-734

1*806

18

0-141

Methylene di-iodide

1-732

1-743

1*767

1*794

; 15 !

0-062

Solution of sulphur in methy-l
lene di-iodide . . . . . . . . /

••

1-778

••

16

••

Solution of phosphorus in me-1
thylene di-iodide (equal l
weights of each) )

: 1-929

1*944

1-984

j 2-021

18

0-092

* The observations of the hydrogen liues were made with an “ end-on * ’ vacuum
tube, a form which was first proposed by Prof. Piazzi Smyth, and which gives a
remarkably brilliant hydrogen light.

f B. Walter, Ann. Phys. und Cliem. [N.F.], 1891, p. 511.

X It was found impossible to observe Hy, owing to the strong absorptive power
of the substance for the more refrangible part of the spectrum.

282

Transactions of the Society.

IX. — Instantaneous Photomicrography.

By E. B. Stringer, B.A.

{Bead 20 th April, 1898.)

I have now adapted the apparatus described in this Journal, ante ,
p. 174, and figured on p. 175, in the following way.

To the nose T of the converging system or cone is fitted an
ordinary drop shutter with pneumatic release. This, at the “ set ”
position, has an opening, in which is placed a piece of ruby glass.
Now, when the shutter is “set,” a red non-actinic image is projected
by the Microscope, which may safely be allowed to fall upon the
plate.

The door N at the further end of the camera is opened, and into
the opening is slid a piece of yellow glass, through which the image
may be watched, and adjusted and focused upon the plate itself, up
to the instant of exposure.

Upon pressing the pneumatic ball the shutter falls, a flash of
white light passes through the Microscope, and the exposure is made.

It is better that the^ room should be partly darkened ; the red
image on the plate can then be seen clearly enough for the most
accurate focusing.

In order that the focal point of the red and actinic (or blue) rays
may coincide, the objective must be apochromatic ; and the plate
must be an ordinary and not an isochromatic one. But, seeing that
the living objects which it is necessary to photograph in this way are
of course unstained, these would in any case be the best conditions.

It will be seen that the above arrangement can be used without
in any way permanently altering the apparatus employed for ordinary
work ; the shutter is, moreover, in such a position that it cannot
possibly shake either the camera or the Microscope.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others .* * * §

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.!

Influence of Temperature on Development.^: — Prof. 0. Iiertwig
has made a beautiful series of experiments showing that the rate of
development of frogs’ eggs is within limits (15°-240), a function of the
temperature. Above the upper limit monstrosities result ; below the
lower limit growth ceases. By means of curves the parallelism between
“ the developmental work ” (cell-divisions, &c.) and the temperature is
very clearly shown. It seems likely that this correlation depends in
part on the influence of temperature on chemical reactions concerned
with the production of nuclein and the like, increased warmth promoting
their more rapid occurrence, lowered temperature having the opposite
effect. But Iiertwig does not believe that this is by any means the
only, though it may be tho most important, influence of alterations in
temperature.

Birth-Period of Trichosurus vulpecula.§ — Dr. J. Beard describes
the uterine embryo and newly-born young of this marsupial, and finds
that the “critical phase” must begin immediately before birth takes
place, and must end soon after the animal is born, with the initiation of
mammary nutrition. The critical and birth-periods coincide.

He gives a fuller definition of the critical period than in his previous
papers. “ The critical period in a morphological sense is that epoch
of the development when all parts of the organism are first present
as the foundations or Anlagen of all the organs ; it is that state when
epigenesis is ended, and evolution or unfolding is beginning; it is that

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “we,” and they do

not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Keproduction, and allied
subjects. X Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1898) pp. 319-81 (2 pis. and 36 figs.).

§ Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Anat.), xi. (1897) pp. 77-96 (1 pi.).

284

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

point where the individuality of the organism is first attained, when it
has acquired a something setting it down as the embryo of some par-
ticular form, and — the wording is important — when it is first beginning
to resemble its progenitors. It then bears no absolute likeness to them,
but it is just beginning to look like them.”

In the final part of his paper Beard argues that the mammary appa-
ratus of Eutheria is, as compared with that of Metatheria, arrested in
its development.

Fertilisation in Ascaris.* — Prof. J. B. Carnoy replies to criticisms
by the late von Erlanger and by Flemming, and argues in support of
the conclusions which he has elsewhere f sought to establish along with
his colleague H. Lebrun.

The spermatozoon does not furnish either the alleged spheres or the
central corpuscles seen before the first cleavage. These are part and
parcel with the conjugated nuclei, and are the nucleoli. At the moment
of segmentation they leave the nucleus and form the first kinesis. They
only serve once, and are formed anew in the daughter-nuclei. Far
from being permanent organs, the corpuscles are transitory structures
associated with division. As to the spheres, they do not exist, except
as transitory modifications of the ordinary cytoplasm. Carnoy protests
against the theoretical prejudices which seem to him to be vitiating the
observation of facts.

Spermatogenesis in Mammals.J — Herr M. von Lenhossek has made
a detailed investigation of spermatogenesis in mammals, especially in the
rat. He lays most stress upon two conclusions : — (1) that the sperma-
tozoon is to be regarded as an entire cell, as an element in which all
the three characteristic components of the cell are to be found, viz.
cytoplasm, centrosome, and nucleus ; and (2) that the second of these
components, the centrosome, lies in the middle portion of the spermato-
zoon in the form of Jensen’s terminal knob.

Interstitial Substance of Testis. § — Herr Hans Beissner agrees
with Herr Plato and others that the interstitial substance is constant
in the functioning testis of the cat. But its distribution is not uniform
throughout the organ, and its granular content varies considerably. It
cannot be regarded as essential to spermatogenesis.

Beissner did not find any preformed canals in the walls of the tubules,
nor do the interstitial cells directly touch the membrana propria of the
tubules. If there is an absorption of fat from the interstitial substance
by Sertoli’s cells, it must be by means of fine pseudopodia from these
cells. It is possible . that pseudopodia from Sertoli’s cells penetrate the
walls of the tubules and come into relations with the fat.

Behaviour of Reproductive Cells in Plants and Animals. || — Prof.
Y. Heecker has made a detailed comparison of the phenomena of growth
and maturation in the reproductive cells of plants and animals. The
following common phenomena are emphasised; we use m. and f. as
contractions for male and female.

* La Cellule, xiv. (1898) pp. 7-25.

t Verb. Anat. Ges., xi. Vers. (1897) pp. 65-9 ; La Cellule, xiii. (1897) pp. 63-195
(2 pis.). X Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1898) pp. 215-318 (3 pis. and 1 fig.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 794-820 (1 pi.).

|| Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 689-705, 721-45 (about 40 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

285

(1) Early passage of the nucleus into the coil state and long per-
sistence therein, often associated with early longitudinal splitting; e.g.
Canthocamptus m., Pristiurus f., Larix m., Lilium f.

(2) Transitory concentration of the coil at one side of the nuclear
space, Moore’s “ synapsis ” ; e.g. Ascaris m., Canthocamptus f., Lilium
m. and f., P ter is.

(3) Relatively early appearance and long duration of a phase cor-
responding to the “segmented coil” stage. The chromatin elements
may be loosely distributed, inclining to be peripheral, forming ring and
cross figures ; e.g. Pristiurus f., Copepoda f., Lilium m. and f. The
chromatin elements may be densely massed together in the older stages ;
e.g. Selacliii m., Copepoda f., Larix m., Lilium m. and f., Eqiiisetum ,
P ter is.

(4) Appearance of a “ main nucleolus ” in the earlier phases, with
accession of paler adventitious “ accessory nucleoli ” in the later phases ;
e.g. Selachii m., Copepoda f., Larix m. Individual differences in the
state of the nucleolar substance ; e.g. Selachii f., Ophryotrocha f.,
Phanerogams m. Persistence of the nucleolar body during division ;
e.g. Myzostoma f., Lilium m.

(5) Multipolar spindles as transitional stages to the bipolar form ;

e. g. Ascaris f., Cyclops f., Lilium m., Larix m., Equisetum.

(6) Relations to the heterotypic mode of division, — either , a long
duration of the equatorial plate stage with much thickened and shortened
chromatin elements (the animal type) ; e.g. Gryllotalpa m., Cyclops strenuus

f. , Allium m., Pteris ; or , a longer duration of the metakinetic phases
with double V and cross figures (the vegetable type) ; e.g. Pristiurus m.,
ProstJiecerseus f., Thysanozoon f., Diaulula f., Larix m., Lilium m.

It does not seem possible as yet to generalise the results ; but Hsecker
has done service in gathering together the evidence of close parallelism.

Maturation of Pelagic Teleostean Eggs.* — Dr. T. Wemyss Fulton
has studied the marked changes which occur in the maturation of the
ovarian eggs of Teleostei. “ The final stage is characterised by the
comparatively rapid imbibition of a watery and probably saline fluid
of low density, which seems to be secreted by the follicle, and is asso-
ciated with the dissolution of the germinal vesicle and the rearrangement
of the chromatin. In eggs which become pelagic the volume of fluid
imbibed is relatively very large, dissolving also the yolk-spherules, and
reducing the specific gravity of the whole ovum below that of sea water.
It is in virtue of this change that the eggs of certain marine species
become buoyant or pelagic (those of fresh-water species could not by this
device be enabled to float) ; but inasmuch as it also occurs in demersal
eggs, it is clear that its signification lies deeper. It is probable that
not only among Teleosteans, but among some other groups, the apparent
vanishing of the germinal vesicle and the rearrangement of chromatin is
due to the absorption of fluid from without, and that this is the primary
and essential meaning of the process.”

Development of Liver and Pancreas in Birds.j — Dr. M. Brouha
finds that in the chick the liver develops as usual from a hepatic groove

* Zool. Anzeig., xxi."(1898) pp. 245-52 (2 figs.),
f Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 234-42 (6 figs.).

286

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

on the ventral wall of the gut in front of the umbilical aperture. From
this groove there arise in succession, a dorsal or cephalic bud, a ventral
or caudal bud, a posterior hud to the right, and the bile vesicle. The
peculiarities are the close relation between the hepatic groove and the
intestinal umbilicus, and the successive appearance of the various out-
growing buds, the cystic part being formed last.

The triple origin of the pancreas is suggested in the adult only by
the three ducts. In the chick the two ventral diverticula form the
final pancreas. In Larus and Sterna there is only one diverticulum ;
in Reptiles there are two rudiments, but one of them atrophies.

Epiphysis and Hypophysis in Frog.* * * § — Dr. F. Braem has made a
fresh study of these structures. The epiphysial upgrowth is differen-
tiated into a terminal vesicle (the parietal organ), a solid stalk which
elongates into a thin strand, and a tubular basal portion (the epiphysis
proper). The parietal organ does not undergo fatty degeneration, as is
often said. It measures 0 * 1 mm. in diameter in the larva with internal
gills, 0 • 25 mm. in the sexually mature frog. The original nervous con-
nection between the parietal organ and the epiphysis also persists in
some measure, but this is a complex matter.

The hypophysis of the frog consists of three parts, two being
glandular and the third nervous. The two glandular parts, arising
from the mucus epithelium of the mouth, are quite separate in the adult,
but connected in the young. A short nerve-strand connects the nervous
part of the hypophysis with the anterior surface of the infundibulum.
Braem makes reference to the figures which he has recently executed
for Leuckart’s “ Wandtafeln.”

Hypophysis of Mammals.f — Dr. Hans Salzer has studied this in the
pig and guinea-pig. What marks his paper is that he gives a continuous
account of the gradual transformation of the organ. He starts where
so many leave off, with the establishment of the infundibular process
and of the hypophysial saccule from the oral epithelium, and follows
the differentiation onwards. Moreover, he compares the two mammals^
and finds that, though there is much in common, there are also marked
peculiarities in each case.

Development and Structure of the Lens.J — Prof. C. Rabl has
published the first part of a detailed comparative account of the develop-
ment and structure of the lens. This part deals especially with (1) the
development in Pristiurus melanoslomns , (2) the structure in various
Selachians, (3) the development in Siredon piscifonnis , and (4) the
structure in various Amphibians.

Development of External Form of Trout Embryo.§ — Herr Fr>
Kopsch describes a series of twelve stages in the development of the
trout, and gives beautiful drawings of the successive superficial appear-
ances. He seeks to find “ the typical form ” for each stage, and to relate
to this the numerous deviations.

* Zeitschr. wiss. Zoo!., lxiii. (1898) pp. 433-9 (1 pi.),

t Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1897) pp. 55-68 (1 pi.).

% Zeitsclir. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1898) pp. 496-572 (4 pis., 14 figs.).

§ Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1897) pp. 181-213 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

287

Post-Larval Fierasfer.* — Prof. W. C. McIntosh describes a post-
larval stage of this interesting fish, captured by Miss Delap at Yalentia,
on the south-west coast of Ireland. It probably belonged to Fierasfer
acus, a form not hitherto known off British coasts.

Metamerism of Head in Torpedo. f —Herr A. N. Sewertzoff finds
that the Squaloid head ( Pristiurus , &c.) and the Batoid head (Torpedo)
are segmented after the same type. He concludes that the occurrence
of more segments in the Batoid head is secondary, and is probably associ-
ated with the general shortening of the body.

Copulation in Ophidians.^ — R. Rollinat gives a preliminary account
of egg-laying and copulation in Tropidonotus viperinus. The species
appears in March and disappears in November, passing the winter in a
hole. The eggs are laid in June or July, and the young hatched in
September or October. Rollinat invariably found that the oviducts of
females which had already laid eggs contained abundant living sperma-
tozoa in November, while those of females of full size whose organs
showed no trace of previous egg-laying, contained none. He concludes
that in fully mature females copulation takes place before the hibernating
period, and not in March or April as has hitherto been supposed. In
females laying for the first time, copulation probably takes place in
early spring.

In Goronella Isevis , a less common ovoviviparous species, pairing
occurs very shortly after egg-laying ; in Vipera aspis in March.

Sex and Molecular Dissymmetry.? — M. Felix le Dantec hazards the
hypothesis that some of the plastic substances of the germ-cells have
dextral and sinistral (dissymmetrical) molecules, and that the sex of the
offspring depends on the preponderance of the one or the other under
the influence of nutritive and other stimuli. M. Edmond Perrier appends
some account of recent observations bearing on the determination of
sex.

Variations in Weight of Hens’ Eggs.]] — Dr. Ch. Fere has weighed
over a thousand eggs, the average being GO grammes. The number
weighed was not sufficient to warrant a conclusion ; but so far as the
statistics go, they suggest (1) the inferiority in weight of the first egg in
a laying, and (2) a progressive increase in mean weight in successive
layings.

Convergence in Development.^]* — Dr. Karl Peter has studied the
structure and development of the chondrocranium, and the subsequent
formation of the skull in Ichthyophis glutinosus , one of the “ blind worms.”
His general result is of much interest, that almost every peculiarity in
the skull of Ichthyophis , which makes it divergent from that of the
Urodele-type, is also seen in the skull of AmphisbasnidEe. The re-
semblance is often very striking. He concludes that the deviations are
not expressions of old-established characters, but are adaptive phenomena.

* Irish Naturalist, vii. (1898) pp. Gl-4 (1 pi.),
f Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 278-82.

X Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxiii. (1898) pp. 59-63.

§ Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 26!-7, 267-72.

(i Journ. Auat. Physiol., xxxiv. (1898) pp. 123-7 (1 fig., curves).

Morphol. Jahib.,’ xxv. (1898) pp. 555-628 (3 pis. and 1 fi°\).

1898

x

288 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The likeness between the Amphibian and Reptilian type illustrates
homoplasty or convergence. This leads the author to a short essay on
convergence, in which he distinguishes (a) direct convergence, in relation
to similar function, e.g. the worm-like shape of burrowers ; ( b ) indirect
convergence, in relation to similar bionomic conditions, e.g. the white-
ness of many arctic animals ; and (c) mimicry.

b. Histolog-y.

Growth of Injured Nerves.* — Prof. L. Ranvier has studied the modi-
fications produced in the nerves of the cornea by superficial cuts, and
corroborates a conclusion which he formulated in 1880, that nerves
exhibit jjersistent growth. The nervous fibres of the cornea, divided by
section, but still in continuity with their originative cells, vegetate with
a rapidity and activity which was unsuspected.

Effect of Poisons on Cortical Nerve-Cells, f — Dr. H. J. Berkeley has
made an important research on the lesions produced by the action of
certain poisons (alcohol, serum, ricin, &c.) on the cortical nerve-cells.
What he has to say in regard to the pathological alterations in the
nuclei and nucleoli is of some general histological interest, and so is his
discussion of the intra-cerebral nerve-endings.

Peculiar Ganglion-Cells in Spinal Cord of Perch.t — Dr. R. Kolster
has studied the minute structure of the spinal cord in numerous Teleostei,
and has found peculiar nerve cells in Perea fluviatilis, which he suspects
may be associated with the raising and sinking of the dorsal fin. They
seem to be absent from other Anacanthini, but there are somewhat
similar elements in the angler.

Optic Nerves of Fishes-§ — Dr. K. Krause has studied these nerves
experimentally in the gold-fish ( Cyprinus auratus), and finds that there
are several kinds of fibres. The main mass arises from retinal cells,
and atrophies when the eye is removed. These fibrse ocular es perhaps
end in small part in the ganglion geniculatum laterale, but for the most
part they end in the external and internal tract in the median grey
matter of the tectum opticum. From cells in this region, especially from
the most dorsal portion between the two tracts of optic fibres, there arise
some fibrse tectales , which may be followed into the chiasma and form a
small part of the optic nerve.

Electric Organ of Torpedo. || — Dr. Fr. Cre vatin discusses the so-
called Stabchennetz in the electric organ of Torpedo marmorata, — an
organ which has been the fruitful source of histological controversy for
forty years, since Remak’s description in 1856. The author worked with
the quick Golgi method, and has been forced to deny the existence of
the Stabchennetz ; it is nothing but the nervous terminal network, faintly
coloured.

Osmotic Phenomena in Mitosis.^T — Prof. F. Houssay argues in favour
of the hypothesis that the attractive sphere is the centre of osmosis, as

* Comptcs Benclus, exxv. (1897) pp. 1001-8.
f Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports, vi. (1897) pp. 1-108 (15 pis.).

X Anat. Anzeig , xiv. (1898) pp. 250-3 (1 fig.).

§ Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1898) pp. 820-39 (1 pi.).

|| Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 213-50 (2 figs.),
ii Tom. cit., pp. 305-10 (7 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

289

was suggested by Eismond. It has a double power, attracting in endos-
mosis, repelling in exosmosis. Its position, combined with the changes
in osmosis, determines the movements in mitosis.

Chromatoid Bodies of Sperm-Cells.* — Dr. F. Hermann maintains
that the stainable granular structures described by Benda and von
Lcnliossek in sperm-cells have nothing to do with the genuine “ chro-
matoid accessory bodies ” which represent the centrosome of the sperma-
tid and give rise to the apical knob of the fully formed spermatozoon.

Lactation.-j- — Dr. L. Michaelishas studied this in guinea-pig, mouse,
and cow. From the facts disclosed by a study of the guinea-pig’s mam-
mary glands, he draws the following conclusions. (1) The change in the
form of the epithelial cells is partly due to a filling of the alveoli with
secretion, which causes the cubical cells to flatten ; but the assumption
of a papilla-like form is quite independent of this. (2) Epithelial nuclei
pass out into the milk and undergo chromatolysis, helping to form
casein. They are replaced by direct constriction of epithelial nuclei.
(3) The leucocytes do not share in forming the milk, though they migrate
through the epithelium. They grow in the alveoli, and either break up
there, or take up fat-globules and form colostrum corpuscles. (4) The
fat of the milk is a true secretion, not a result of epithelial disruption.
These results were confirmed more or less by the author’s study of mouse
and cow.

Composition of Nucleoli.J — M. Aug. Michel finds that the nucleoli
of Neplithys and Spiophanes consist of two substances, — a main substance
staining with safranin and carmine, and probably equivalent to pyrrhenin,
and an accessory substance, perhaps excretory and equivalent to the
paranuclein of List.

Cell-Plates and Cell-Plate Rudiments.§ — Herr R. Wolfgang Hoff-
mann gives a very full discussion of this subject. There is no doubt
that cell-plates occur very widely among animal cells, but they are very
variable and rudimentary in character, and have a very subordinate role.
In a few cases they may prepare the way for cell-division, and may even
be sufficiently developed to be comparable to those in plants ; usually,
however, their presence seems more or less indifferent, though they may
delay the mechanism of division and the final separation of the daughter-
cells.

Classification of Forms of Dentine.|| — Mr. C. S. Tomes has some
critical notes on Rdse’s proposed classification of the forms of dentine.
Even Rose’s definition of true dentine is open to criticism. True den-
tine, according to Rose, is a hard tissue with a smooth surface, which
grows on one side only, and is developed under an epithelial sheath.
Mr. Tomes shows how this definition breaks down in application, for
instance, to the teeth of CarcJiaricis and Lamna.

Canalicuii of Bone-Cells.^— Herr A. Spuler finds that tbe walls of
the cell-cavities and canalicuii in bone are quite well differentiated,

* Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 311-6.

t Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1898) pp. 711-47 (2 pis.).

t CO. Soc. Biol. Paris, x. (1897) pp. 190-2. See Zool. Centralb!., y. (1S98)
p. 69. § Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1898) pp. 379-432 (2 pis. and 7 figs.).

H Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 343-8. Tom. cit., pp. 289-92 (2 fig-.)

x 2

290

8UMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

probably of an elastoid nature, staining dark with orcein, and resisting
the action of alkalies and acids. The canaliculi do not arise secon-
darily by absorption, but are there from the first as the bone is formed.

Histogenesis of Cartilage in Cyclostomes.* — Prof. F. K. Studnicka
shows that the origin of cartilage does not imply occurrence of special
cells. In the post-embryonic life of Cyclostomes, cartilage may arise
from (1) the dense connective-tissue of perichondrium and fascia ;
(2) the loose connective-tissue ; (3) the so-called Schleimlcnorpel ; (4) the
Vorknorpel (vesicular supporting tissue of Schaffer) ; (5) the axial con-
nective-tissue of the caudal fin ; (6) highly specialised tissue, such as
fatty tissue ; and (7) the epithelium of the notochord.

Closing Bands in Epithelium.^ — Dr. Th. Cohn has studied the
bands or strands (, Schlussleisten ) which close up epithelium super-
ficially. He has found them of very wide occurrence in embryos and in
adults, endodermic as well as ectodermic, even in epithelial-like connec-
tive-tissue cells of the mesoderm. Their general ^occurrence, and the
constancy of their structural character, suggest some important function,
such as closing the intercellular spaces, but this is as yet uncertain.

Nerve-Endings of the Sweat-Glands.:]: — Dr. P. Sfameni finds that
the terminations of secretory nerves in connection with the sudorific
glands lie in the membrana propria of the secretory tube, in the form of
a network, in direct and intimate relation to the secretory epithelium.
It is very probable that the amyeline nervous network described by
Tomsa, Hermann, Ficatier, Coyne, and Ranvier, is formed by vasomotor
nerve-fibres distributed on the capillaries of the glands.

Process of Cicatrisation § —Prof. L. Ranvier has made some inter-
esting observations on the process of healing in the cornea of the rabbit.
Incisions made on the epithelium may be closed by direct re-union of
the severed cells, helped by the intercellular “ cement,” but apart from
any proliferation. The same is true of incisions in the conjunctival
part. The cells give off prolongations which cross the gap and ana-
stomose to form a protoplasmic cicatrix. In this case there is no cement,
but simply a growth of the protoplasm and a fusion of its prolonga-
tions.

Structural Changes in Nerve-Cells.||— Prof. A. van Gehuchten finds
that there is a dissolution of cliromatophilous elements in the protoplasm
of a nerve-cell whenever the cell is injuriously affected either in its
structural or functional integrity. This chromatolysis occurs within
limits, and is not produced spasmodically ; it does not appear to be in
any way a serious disorganisation ; it remains to be seen whether it is or
is not compatible with normal functioning.

Neuroglia of Brain in Fishes.T — M. — Catois finds that the support-
ing or ependym cells, which are primitively disposed with their internal
ends on the walls of the ventricular cavities, may in the adult migrate

* Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1898) pp. 452-60.

t Yerh. Phys. Med. Gesell. Wiirzburg, xxxi. (1897) pp. 171-200 (1 pi.).

X Atti R. Accad. Torino, xxxiii. (1898) pp. 321-8 (1 pi.).

§ Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 308-10.

*|| La Cellule, xiii. (1S97) pp. 315-90 (1 pi.).

% Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 433-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

291

from this position. The displaced elements have their terminal expan-
sions, whether peripheral or central, more or less modified or atrophied.
Even in the white matter of the brain these spider-cells or astrocytes
may be found, and in the cerebellum and medulla as well as in the
fore-brain. Their distribution suggests an isolating or insulating role,
j>reventing useless contacts between the nervous elements.

Supra-Renal Capsules of Teleostei.* — Messrs. B. Moore and Swale
Vincent have continued their investigation of these bodies. The known
supra-renal bodies of Teleosts resemble anatomically and histologically
the inter-renal of Elasmobranchs and the cortical portion of the supra-
renal capsules of higher Vertebrates. An extract made from them does
not contain the physiologically active principle characteristic of supra-
renal medulla, nor the characteristic chromogen. The same is true
of the lymphoid head-kidney. Removal of the cortical gland of eels
showed that the organ was not absolutely essential to the life of the
animal. One survived 28 days, another 64, and a third was killed on the
119th day.

c. General.

Means of Defence among Animals.f — L. Cuenot, in an address
delivered before the Zoological Society of France, gives a graphic and
popular account of the means of defence among animals. He classifies
these means of defence, and gives some examples under each heading.
He describes first those animals which save themselves by flight and by
autotomy ; those which are protected by a coat of mail, whether formed
by an exoskeleton or by a calcareous envelope, as in molluscs, or borrowed
entire, as in the case of the hermit-crab, or constructed of materials
taken from the outside world, as in many tube-making larvae. Here too
are included those animals which are defended by spines, passively like
the porcupine or hedgehog, or actively as in TJromasiix. Electric fishes
are next treated of, and then follow those which are defended by a chemical
product, from the simply adhesive mucus of the snail and the acrid se-
cretion of the toad to the sting of the bee, the poison of the snake, and
the nauseous fluid ejected by the skunk. Animals which feign death,
which assume terrifying attitudes, and whose colour harmonises with
their environment ; mimicry, commensalism, and the setting apart of
special individuals for the defence of a colony, are all discussed, and the
lecture ends with a brief account of how some of these means of defence
may have been acquired, and a note on the necessity for very precise and
critical experiment to obviate the danger of estimating their value from
the point of view of human instead of animal sensations and apprecia-
tions.

Instinct and Intelligence.* — Prof. C. Emery criticises Wasmann’s
position. Unlike Wasmann, he thinks it very probable that animals
form general and abstract ideas. Many of their activities not only show
the adaptation of means to ends, but conscious purposefulness. It is the
power of speech which gives distinctiveness to man’s position ; it is at
once a product of reason and a factor in its development.

* Prcc. Roy. Soc. London, lxii. (1898) pp. 352-6.

t Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxiii. (1898) pp. 37-58 (6 figs.).

X Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 17-21.

292

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Influence of Chemical and Luminous Stimuli on Red Blood-Cor-
puscles.*— Prof. H. Kronecker and Dr. H. Marti have experimented
■with rats, and reach the following conclusions.

(1) Slight chemical irritations of the skin promote the formation
of red blood-corpuscles, but have a variable effect on the formation of
haemoglobin.

(2) Strong chemical irritations of the skin diminish the number of
red blood-corpuscles, and in a less degree the content of haemoglobin.

(3) Darkness lessens the number of blood-cells, which in about two
weeks sinks to a minimum.

(4) Exposure to intense and persistent light stimulates the formation
of red blood-corpuscles, and in less degree that of haemoglobin.

Variations in Spinal Plexus and Sacrum of Newt.j — Dr. H.
Adolphi, continuing his studies on this subject, finds that in Triton
tseniatus , the sacral and the brachial plexus tend to be shifted in the
same (a proximal) direction. The sacrum also moves towards the head.

Cholesterin and Bile-Salts as Vaccines against Viper’s Venom.i —
Dr. C. Phisalix calls attention to Prof. Fraser’s discovery that minimal
doses of bile, whether of snake or mammal, can neutralise a fatal dose
of venom. For some years Phisalix has studied the subject, and has
obtained the same results as Fraser. Moreover, he has shown that the
biliary salts and cholesterin have, like the intact bile, a neutralising or
immunising effect.

Tyrosin as a Vaccine for Snake-Bite.§ — Dr. C. Phisalix has already
showrn that cholesterin, whether animal or vegetable, makes animals
immune to the viper’s venom. He now shows that tyrosin, abundant
in the tubers of the dahlia and in the genus of Fungi Russula , may also
be considered as a vaccine against the same poison. This is the first case
in which a vegetable juice (freshly squeezed from the dahlia) has been
shown to have immunising properties.

Function of the Liver in Relation to Iron.|] — M. — Dastre gives
an account of observations, made along with M. Floresco, on the livers
of many different animals, Invertebrates as wrell as Vertebrates, in
regard to what he calls their “ martial function,” i.e. their relation to
the iron in the organism.

The quantity of iron fixed by the liver is greater than in other parts
of the body, sometimes, as in Ceplialopods, twenty-five times greater.
This elective fixation is peculiar to iron ; it is not true of copper, which
is common in the blood of many Invertebrates. The quantity of iron
present in the liver varies within narrow limits. In Mammals the blood
and spleen are more ferruginous than the liver. The author regards
the store of hepatic iron as a reserve on which the organism can draw.

Criticism of Chemical Theory of Life.^T — Dr. E. Baur draws a dis-
tinction— surely a legitimate one — between what is at present chemically
explicable and what may be at some future time chemically explicable.

* Atti ft. Accad. Lincei, vi. (1897) pp. 315-20.

t Morphol. Jahrb., xxv. (1898) pp. 544-54 (8 figs.).’

X Comptes Rendus, cxxv. (1897) pp. 1053-5.

§ Op. cit. cxxvi. (1898) pp. 431-3. || Tom. cit, pp. 37G-9.

T[ Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 239-40.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

293

There are, he says, processes of metabolism of which a chemical account
can be given, but this is not true of the adaptive power of protoplasm,
of its power of adjustment to new conditions, of the peculiar striving
of living material towards a maximum of stability. Perhaps, as Prof.
Mach says, our chemical ideas may in time deepen and broaden so as
to include the phenomena of organic growth ; but this is not true as yet.

Organs of Sight in Amphioxus.* — Dr. R. Hesse gives an account
of his investigations on the pigment-spots in the spinal cord of im-
pliioxus. He found these spots grouped together in a definite order
corresponding obviously to the segmentation. Each individual pigment
spot was cup-shaped, and contained a cell, one portion of which filled
the hollow of the pigment-spot, while the other, containing the nucleus,
was prolonged into a nerve, which could be traced for some distance
among the fibres of the spinal cord. These organs closely resemble
in structure the cup-eyes of Planaria torva. They lie on each side of,
and below the central canal of the spinal cord, beginning in the third
muscle segment, where there are only two on each side. From the
fourth segment onwards there may be as many as twenty-five such cup-
eyes grouped on each side, but from the middle of the body they decrease
rapidly in number, and in the posterior segments they may be entirely
wanting. Those on the right side lie about half the length of a
segment behind those on the left. The cup-eyes lying underneath the
central canal have their openings directed downwards ; those on each
side have the openings directed upwards, but while the former are
symmetrical in structure, the latter have one wall of the cup higher
than the other — on the right side the inner, on the left the outer wall,
so that the organ is turned towards the right. There is, however, not
sufficient evidence to prove a connection between this arrangement and
the animal’s habit of lying on the right side. Those underneath the
central canal are probably functional when the lancelet lies on its back
in the sand.

Dr. Hesse’s physiological experiments yielded results similar in
the main to those of Nagel, and corroborated his morphological in-
vestigations. It might be suggested that “ cup-eye ” is too big a name
for these little spots.

Origin of Corpus Callosum.j — Dr. G. Elliot Smith has studied the
brain in Percimeles nasuta , in the bat Nyctophilus , and other forms.
£- The great feature which far more than any other distinguishes the
mammalian brain from that of all submammalia is the possession of
a definite pallium — distinct alike in its histological features and its
morphological relations — giving rise to a definite internal capsule of
projection-fibres, and well-defined and fully- medullated commissural
fibres. At first, in the Monotremata and Marsupialia, this pallium (like
the parent mass of the basal ganglion from which it appears to have
sprung) is united to its homologue of the opposite hemisphere by means
of the ‘ commissura ventralis’ — ‘the commissure of the cerebral hemi-
sphere ’ par excellence.

“ But the rapid growth in extent and complexity of this general

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1S98) pp. 456-62 (1 pi.).

t Trans. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vii. (1897) pp. 47-69 (2 pis. and 8 figs.).

294

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

cortex or pallium is accompanied by a richer and more abundant com-
missural system. This growing commissural system from the dorsal
part of the enormous pallium not only finds in the £ commissura dorsalis ’
a shorter path, but a clearer scope for longitudinal extension than the
ventral commissure provides ; and thus we have pallial fibres invading
and subsequently superseding the dorsal limb of what was previously
the hippocampal commissure.

“ Pallial commissural fibres probably first make their appearance in
Beptiles, and form a very insignificant constituent of the ventral com-
missure. In Monotremes and Marsupials these fibres become extremely
abundant, and swell the proportions of the ventral commissure enor-
mously. But in Eutheria a rapidly increasing proportion of these fibres
forsake the commissura ventralis, and form the new £ dorsal commissure
of the pallium ’ — the corpus callosum — which throws the £ parent ’ com-
missure into insignificance. The remnant of the commissura ventralis
is known in man by the somewhat misleading name £ anterior com-
missure.’ ”

INVERTEBRATA.

Sources of Error in Plankton Method.'" — Prof. C. A. Kofoid dis-
cusses the Hensen method, which consists essentially in drawing a silk
net vertically through the water. Its accuracy depends upon the
efficiency of the silk in really catching the organisms. Experiments at
the Illinois Biological Station show, however, that the leakage is great.
The method is satisfactory only for the larger forms, such as the Entc-
mostraca and the larger Botifera and Protozoa. For the smaller and
often very abundant “ planktonts,” such as Melosira, Peridmiim, Dino-
bryon, Pajoliidium , Scenedesmus, Euglena , TracTielomonas, and Chlamydo-
monus , the Hensen method is wholly inadequate. From water in which
these smaller forms were not extremely abundant the silk retained
218,200 organisms per cubic metre, while the catch of the Berkefeld filter
indicated 767,556,000 planktonts in the same amount. “The plankton
lost by leakage is of prime importance, for it is composed very largely
of minute Algae, which constitute a fundamental link in the cycle of
aquatic life. Any attempt to unravel the complex interrelation of the
constituents of the plankton, or to correlate its ever-progressing changes
with the factors of its environment, must be based upon reliable data.
Biological theory and aquiculture alike demand improvement in the
plankton method.”

Heleoplankton.f — Dr. O. Zacharias uses this term for the plankton
of ponds and pools, which is in some ways different from that of lakes.
It is, so far as is known, richer in species. There are fewer Diatoms,
but a larger number of Desmids and Protccoccacese ; and there is a
much more abundant occurrence of Botifers and CeriodaphniaB. Detailed
lists are given.

Freshwater Fauna of Canary Islands.;— M. Jules Bichard gives a
list of the Phyllopoda, Cladocera, Copepoda, Ostracoda, Polyzoa, and
Botifera which he observed in the freshwater pools of the Canaries.

* Science, vi. (1897) pp. 829-32. f Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 24-32.
t Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (189S) pp. 4S9-41.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

295

The list is not a long one ; it includes Artemia salina ; Daphnia similis ,
otherwise known only from Syria and Palestine ; a large local variety
of this species ; Alona alluaudi , a large new species ; the remarkable
Calanid, Diaptomus alluaudi ; Canthocamptus palustris, hitherto found in
much higher latitudes ; and millions of Pedalion mirum.

A s the islands are volcanic, the freshwater animals must have been
borne thither by winds and birds. Most of them are doubtless to be
found in the adjacent parts of Africa.

Fauna of Vallombroso.* * * § — Dr. G. Cecconi gives a faunistic list of
the earthworms, crustaceans, arachnids, and insects of Vallombroso.

Lacustrine Fauna.j — Dr. O. E. Imhof gives a summary of some
recent researches. Thus F. Steindachner and J. Richard have co-
operated in studying the pelagic fauna of Turkish lakes, hitherto un-
known. The results show agreement with those obtained in Alpine
lakes, e.g. in the occurrence of Asplanehna helvelica , Daphnella bracli-
yura, Leptodora hyalina , and Cyclops Leuclcarti. Also of interest is
the occurrence of Diaptomus Steindachneri, hitherto known only from
the Jauina lake. Imhof also gives a summary of investigations by
R. Blanchard and J. Richard on the fauna of high-lying lakes in the
Alps of Savoy.

Mollusca.

Abyssal Molluscs.^ — M. Arnould Locard maintains that the abyssal
molluscs of the North Atlantic have a wider distribution than is usually
supposed. On the results of the £ Travailleur ’ and 4 Talisman ’ expeditions
especially, he bases the conclusion that the fauna in question extends
over a vast triangle, the apex of which is near Iceland, while the sides
extend to the European and American continents, and the base line runs
between Africa and America, about 15° north of the Equator. The apex
represents a depth of about 50 metres, the African basal angle about
2000 m., the American angle about 800 m.

a. Cephalopoda.

Spindle-Formation in Cephalopod Blastoderm. § — The late Prof. R.
von Erlanger was led, by his observations on this subject, to the conclu-
sion that the whole spindle-figure arises in consequence of the influence
of the central corpuscles on the cytoplasm and karyoplasm. Around
each central corpuscle the polar radiation arises. Physically or chemi-
cally the central corpuscle influences the surrounding cytoplasm so that
the alveoli are arranged in rows converging towards the corpuscle.
Soon there collects around the central corpuscle a sheath of very finely
alveolar protoplasm which then attracts fluid out of the nucleus, and
thus causes all the achromatin substance that is not used in the consti-
tution of the chromosomes to take the form of the so-called spindle-
fibres. The centroplasms certainly play an important part in mitosis,
and even if they are not actually spherical, still deserve their more
familiar title of attraction spheres.

* Bull. Soc. Entom. Ital., xxix. (1898) pp. 145-224.

t Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 169-73.

X Comptes Eendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 441-3. H

§ Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 745-52 (4 figs.).

296

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

y. Gastropoda.

Spermatogenesis of Snail.* * * § — Hr. A. Bolles Lee lias made a detailed
study of the spermatogenesis in Helix pomatia. The basal cells — the
male ovules of Duval, the blastophoral cells of Blomfield — do not produce
the spermatogenetic cells which they bear ; in fact they are wholly sup-
porting and nutritive elements. The spermatogenesis concerns three
categories of cells, the spermatogonia and two sets of spermatocytes.
In the kinesis of the spermatogonia, there is a peculiar phase with scat-
tered nuclear segment — la phase cle V eparpillement — intercalated between
the stage of regular corolla-like distribution (de peloton secjmenle) and
the equatorial corona. It is possible that there is in this intercalated
phase a qualitative reducing division.

The kinesis of the first set of spermatocytes resembles the kinesis
a batonnets droits of Carnoy, the heterotypic division of Flemming, the
essential feature being that the segments resulting from the longitudinal
splitting of a primary nuclear segment fuse into a single chromosome.
Thereafter ensues a resting stage, followed by the kinesis of the second
set of spermatocytes in which there is a qualitative and quantitative, but
not a numerical reduction. Indeed, there is no numerical reduction
throughout the whole process. What various authorities call centrosomes
are really “ siderophilous corpuscles ” produced by and expelled from the
nuclei, but quite devoid of any mechanical role in kinesis. Both karyo-
plasm and cytoplasm show a reticular structure. The cytoplasm is not
centered in relation to a centrosome, and has no “ organic radii ” nor
“ attraction spheres.”

Repeated Bipolar Mitoses in Mother-Sperm-Cells of Snail. f — Herr
E. Godlewski, jun., finds evidence of 2, 4, 8, and perhaps more bipolar
mitoses in one cell. Sixteen spermatozoa may thus arise from one
mother-cell. Unlike Bolles Lee, he always finds centrosomes at the
spindle-poles. The details of the change from spermatid to spermato-
zoon are given, and the author substantiates the generally accepted view
that the centrosome enters into the middle portion of the sperm.

Asymmetry of Gastropods.! — Prof. H. Simroth concludes that the
oldest molluscs had paired copulatory organs, corresponding to the
jirimitively paired disposition of the gonads and nephridial ducts. But
the increase of sedentary habits, on rocks (where the shell arose) and in
the mud (Scaphopods and bivalves), led to the disappearance of copula-
tory organs. The mobile Cephalopods retained them, on both sides
or on one. The Gastropods kept them or re-acquired them on one
side only. It seems to Simroth that the evolution of the asymmetry of
the Gastropods is wrapped up with the history of the copulatory appa-
ratus. A review of other theories is given.

Connective Tissue of Paludina.§ — M. Joannes Chatin has studied
the behaviour of the connective tissue elements in Paludina vivipara ,
when this mollusc is affected with Cercariae. The general result of his

* La Cellule, xiii. (1897) pp. 199-27S (3 pis.).

t Anzeig. Akad. Wiss. Krakau, 1897, pp. 68-81 (2 pis.), pp. 263-7 (3 figs.) See
Zool. Centralbl., iv. (1897) pp. 880-3.

% Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 54-63.

§ Comptes Kendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 659-62.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

297

investigation is to show the extraordinary polymorphism of these ele-
ments and the existence of transitions between the different forms.
What have been called “ ramified,” “ vesicular,” “ plasmatic,” “ stellate,”
“ multipolar ” cells, and by many other names according to their forms,
are all reducible to one type.

Tylodinidse.* — Dr. G. Mazzarelli describes the structure of Tylo-
dinella Irinchesii g. et sp. n., for which, along with the two known species
of Tylodina Raf., he proposes to establish a new Tectibranch family
Tylodinidjs. Of this a full diagnosis is given. After discussing the
affinities, the author agrees with Pelseneer that the type represents the
stock from which the Pleurobranchidse are derived.

Parasitic Prosobranchs.l — Prof. W. Kukenthal describes six species,
two new, which he found associated with Echinoderms at Ternate. He
discusses their structural peculiarities in relation to their mode of life.
They belong to two distinct series, the one having its nearest relatives
in the Eulimidee, the other in Capulus and Hipponyx. An extreme is re-
presented by Stilifer , whose peculiarities, such as the false mantle, are
made more intelligible by a study of Mucronalia eburnea and other
species.

Freshwater and Terrestrial Gastropoda from Halmahera, &c.J —
Dr. W. Kobelt gives an account of Kiikenthal’s collection from Hal-
mahera, Batjan, Celebes, and North Borneo, and establishes numerous
new species.

Opisthobranchs of Ternate.§ — Prof. R. Bergh describes Kukentlial’s
collection, including Kentrodoris maculosa , Asteronoius cespitosus, Phyl-
lidia varicosa, and Doridium alboventrale sp. n.

Species of Vaginula.jl — Prof. H. Simroth describes three of these
slugs collected by Kukenthal, — Vaginula Strubelli from Java, V. djilolo-
ensis sp. n. from Halmahera, and V. borneensis sp. n. from Borneo.

Degenerative and Regenerative Processes in Breathing Tubes of
J anellidse.lT — Prof. L. Plate has been studying the remarkable New
Zealand slugs ( Janella schauinslandi and Aneitella berghi) of the family
J anellidas, in which the proper mantle-cavity is reduced and non-vascular,
but gives off a large number of arborescent thin-walled tubules project-
ing into a blood-sinus surrounding the cavity. In these tubes there is
an intense cellular disruption, perhaps due to the fact that the respira-
tory cells have also to keep the tubes moist by secreting mucus. The
dying cells are for the most part extruded into the sinus dorsalis , where
they are destroyed by phagocytic blood-corpuscles and plasma-cells, or
partly dissolved. In both species described the nuclei of the cells in
question are remarkable in being much lobed. The most interesting
fact, however, is that the replacement of these used-up cells occurs by
direct division. Here we have a clear case of a specialised tissue in
which direct nuclear division is regenerative.

* Zool. Jahrb. (Abtli. Syst.), x. (1897) pp. 596-608 (2 pis.),
t Abh. Senckenberg. Nat. Gesell., xxiv. (1897) pp. 1-14 (3 pis.),
f Tom. cit., pp. 19-92 (8 pis.). § Tom. cit., pp. 97-130 (2 pis.).

H Tom. cit., pp. 137-44 (1 pi.).

1 Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1898) pp. 839-56 (1 pi.).

298

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Chitonidae.* — Prof. L. II. Plate has published the first part of a
memoir on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Chitonidae, based on
his Chilian collection. He has been able, on some of the larger forms,
to clear up certain points concerning the excretory and circulatory
systems, which are difficult to study in the European species. The
comparative and phylogenetic considerations are to be discussed in a
general part; the present publication includes the first half of the
special part, and deals with the two families Toniciinae and Liolo-
phurinae. The gigantic Acanthopleura echinata is described in special
detail.

S. Lamellibranchiata.

Phylogeny of Lamellibranchs.f — H. Douville adopts Neumayr’s
classification : — Taxodonts, Dysodonts, Desmodonts, Heterodonts, and
the imperfectly known Cryptodonts, an arrangement based essentially
on the structure of the cardinal apparatus. He maintains that the
Taxodonts represent the primitive source from which the Heterodonts
are derived by simplification of the hinge and acceleration of develop-
ment ; that the Dysodonts are Taxodonts progressively modified by their
byssal fixation ; and that the Desmodonts are Heterodonts originally
transformed by imprisonment within the cavity which they excavate.

Yoldia.J — Mr. Gilman A. Drew gives an account of the development,
structure, and habits of Yoldia limatiila Say, a member of Pelseneer’s
order Protobranchia.

The chocolate-brown eggs are laid free in the water ; cleavage results
in sub-equal blastomeres; an epibolic gastrula is formed. Some of
the ectoderm-cells wander into the interior, the endoderm-cells divide,
and at one side of the resulting cell-mass a narrow tube appears, which
opens to the exterior through the blastopore. As it has not been deter-
mined whether this tube is ectodermic or endodermic, it may be called
the ventral tube. About 42 of the ectoderm-cells become ciliated test-
cells, and inside this a new ectoderm is formed. Some ectoderm-cells
form the shell-gland, which is never a distinct invagination. The mid-
gut is formed, as it were, as a continuation of the anterior end of the
ventral tube. Two thick- walled ectodermic pouches are formed an-
teriorly, as the rudiments of the cerebral ganglia, and the other ganglia
soon appear. An anus breaks through into the upper part of the blasto-
pore. At about the age of 105 hours, the embryo stops swimming and
settles to the bottom ; the cilia shrivel, the test-cells break up, the
animal is left in its clear white shell. The most striking peculiarities
arc connected with the formation and disappearance of the locomotor
test, which resembles that in Dondersia , but is otherwise unique. The
condition presented by the mouth and anus both opening through the
blastopore, and the formation of cerebral ganglia from invaginations,
are also of much interest. The sensitive burrowing foot, the food-
collecting palp-appendages, the muscular membranes suspending the
gills from the body-wall, and other features of interest, are briefly
described.

* Fauna Chilensis. Supplementheft iv. Zool. Jahrb., 1897, pp. 1-243 (12 pis.
and 8 figs.). f Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 916-9.

t Ann. Nat. Hist., i. (7 tli series) 1898, pp. 267-77 (6 figs.). Johns Hopkins
Univ. Circ., Nov. 1837, pp. 11-14 (6 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

299

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Remarkable Mode of Reproduction in Encyrtus.* — M. Paul Marchal
lias studied Encyrtus fuscicollis , one of the parasitic Hymenoptera, which
lays its eggs in those of Hyponomeutes. The remarkable peculiarity is
that the ovum of Encyrtus gives rise, not to one embryo, but to “ a legion
of small morulae,” which form a chain of 50-100 embryos. The amniotic
envelope loses its vesicular form, and becomes a long flexible tube, within
which lie the embryos surrounded by granular material apparently de-
rived from a disruption of part of the original egg. As the author says,
this is a mode of reproduction unique among Arthropods, if not among
animals.

Structure and Life-History of Phalacrocera replicata.f — Prof. L.
C. Miall and Mr. E. Slielford have studied the larva of these Dipterous
insects, locally abundant upon submerged mosses and aquatic plants.
The authors describe the structure of the larva and pupa.

A very peculiar feature is described in connection with the heart.
Two cellular epidermic cords pass into the heart and traverse it from end
to end. In the pupa the cords become beaded, break up, and disappear.
They perhaps represent reserve nutritive masses.

Baron C. R. Osten Sacken adds an appendix on the literature of the
earlier stages of the Cylindrotomina, a section of the Tipulidae, including
Phalacrocera , Cylindrotoma, &c.

New Colonies and Fungus-Gardens in Ants.i — Dr. H. von Ihering
describes the foundation of new colonies and new fungus-gardens by
the leaf-cutting ants of Brazil. The winged insects of Atta sexdens
make repeated short flights between the end of October and the middle
of December ; apparently, however, not for the purpose of pairing,
for all the females examined by the observer were already fertilised.
The females rid themselves of their wings, and seek out a bare spot of
ground to begin boring operations. A tube so small that the ant is
unable to turn round in it is bored to a depth of 20-40 cm., and enlarged
at the end into a chamber. Then the tube is closed up at a short distance
from the entrance. In many chambers examined the females were found
to have died, apparently from exhaustion ; in others a packet of 20-30
eggs was found, and beside it were the first beginnings of a fungus-
patch. Dr. Ihering’s great difficulty was to find out in what way the
necessary material for starting the garden was carried into the hole ;
and his investigations have shown him that each mother-ant carries from
the old nest, in the posterior part of the mouth-cavity, a tiny ball con-
sisting of the hyphae of Bhozites gongylophora mixed with pieces of
bleached leaf remains.

Apparatus for keeping Ants.§ — M. Charles Janet gives those inter-
ested in observing ants in captivity the benefit of his experience, which
is great. He describes and figures horizontal and vertical cases in which
a normal life may be secured for the tenants.

* Comptes llendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 662-4.
t Trans. Eutomol. Soc. London, 1897, pp. 343-66 (4 pis.).
t Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 238-55.

§ Mem. Soc. Zool. France, x. (1897) pp. 302-23 (1 pi. and 3 figs.).

300

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Rectum and Rectal Glands of Orthoptera.* * * § — M. L. Bordas has
studied the structure of these parts in forty species belonging to diverse
families. There is great uniformity. The rectum is an ovoid rect-
angular or fusiform region, with thick musculature, and six glandular
ridges parallel to the longitudinal axis. In Forficulidse the glands are
somewhat divergent, being spherical and disposed in two alternating
tiers. As in Hymenoptera, these glandular ridges consist of groups of
unicellular glands.

Segmental Glands of Ocypus.f — Dr. Jivoca Georgevitsch has
studied the integumentary glands on the young stages of the Staphy-
linid Ocypus olens Mull. He distinguishes the more regular segmental
glands from others which he calls globiform. Of the former there are
14 pairs, one in the head, three in the thorax, and ten in the abdomen.
Each consists of a large number of digitate glandular tubes. While the
segmental glands occur both on larvae and embryo, the globiform glands
seem to be exclusively embryonic. Apart from the head, each segment
has normally four globiform glands, each consisting of a giant glandular
cell. As both sets of glands appear to he ectodermic, there is no warrant
for comparing them with the nephridia of Annelids.

Articular Membranes in Hymenoptera.J — M. Charles Janet has
made a careful study of the articular membranes and the morphological
limits of the segments in adult ants ; but his results are not readily sum-
marised. The articular membrane is situated in the vicinity of the
morphological boundary between two segments, but almost entirely on
the relatively less mobile segment. Thus the prothoracic and meso-
thoracic segments in ants bear their articular membrane towards the
anterior border, while the post-thoracic segments bear their articular
membrane towards their posterior border.

Taxonomic Value of Hervures.§ — Dr. A. Griffini, after describing
the wings of Haliplidee ( Cnemidotus and Haliplus), notes that the taxo-
nomic value of the nervures in Coleoptera is not great. In Dytiscidae,
for instance, the disposition of the nervures changes from genus to genus.
Thus, as to nervures, Hydroporus differs from Dytiscus and Acilius , and
the two last differ from the Haliplidee, while Dytiscus , Gybister , and
Acilius are identical with Calosoma among the Carabidse.

Changes in Structure of Butterflies’ Wings.|| — Mr. A. Radcliffe
Grote finds that the changes in the veins of the wings, as deduced by
comparative study, ‘ take a direction which stands probably in relation
to the mode of flight, and that the processes themselves may be distin-
guished as follows : — firstly, the reduction by absorption of the radial
veins ; secondly, the disintegration of the median series ; and thirdly,
the reduction and suppression of veins above the radius and below the
cubitus.” The changes appear to have their origin in the hind wings,
on which there is a greater strain in flight.

* Comptes Rendus. exxvi. (1898) pp. 911-2.

t Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 25G-61 (4 figs.).

X Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 435-9 (3 figs.).

§ Ex Miscellanea Entomologica, No. 9, 1897 (2 pp., 2 figs.).

|| Trans. Entomol. Soc. London, 1897, pp. 333-42.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

301

North African Galls.* — Dr. P. Marchal gives an account of eleven
galls, new as regards tlieir substratum, found on Quercus MirbecJci,
and due to Biorhiza terminalis, various species of Cynips , and other
forms. Various cecidomyid galls on Quercus cocciferci and Atriplex
halimus are described, and others due to Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, and
Phytoptidae.

Life-History of (Estrid Larvee.j — Prof. Schneidemiihl discusses in
particular the life-history of Hypoderma ( (Estrus ) bovis, which is still in
some respects puzzling. His general conclusions are that the ova, or in
some cases the larvae, are licked up by the cattle, partly from the skin,
partly with the fodder from the ground ; that the larvae pass from the
pharynx into the submucosa connective tissue of the oesophagus ; that
they creep in this tissue into the vicinity of the diaphragm, where they
bore through the wall of the oesophagus, and thence pass to the skin
often, but not necessarily, via the vertebral column and neural canal.

Casting and Regeneration of Mid-Gut Epithelium in Water-
Beetles.;!: — Dr. C. Rengel describes the minute structure of the mid-gut
in Hydrophilus piceus, supplementing what has been done by Frenzel,
Vangel, and Bizzozero, and describes the periodic casting and re-growth
of the whole mid-gut epithelium, with especial reference to the muscular
mechanism. The same process occurs in Hydrous caraboidcs, Hydrobius
fuscipes , and in some Lamellicorns.

Studies on Plecoptera.§ — Dr. P. Kempny gives an account of the
structure and life of those Plecoptera which are included in the genus
Nemura Latr., and describes the palaearctic species.

Studies on Termites. || — Herr E. Wasmann discusses ten Madagascar
species, all new. He discusses the classification of the family, and the
taxonomic value of the soldiers. Hagen’s four genera — Hodotermes,
Termopsis, Calotermes , and Termes — are recognised, the last being divided
into ten sub-genera. The mouth-parts of the soldiers are compared with
those of the other forms ; — thus it is noted that while the mandibles of
the soldiers are almost always stronger than in the workers and imagines,
the opposite is true in Eutermes, where the soldier’s mandibles are
microscopic. The so-called “tongue” of Termites is shown to be
formed from a coalescence of the paraglossae. On the whole the mouth-
parts suggest affinities with Orthoptera.

Parasites of Pears.lf — Dr. G. Del Guercio describes three parasites
of pear-fruits, discussing their life-history and injurious effects, aud the
preventive methods. The parasites are the Tenthredinid Hoplocampa
brevis Klug., the Tortricid Garpocapsa pomonella L., and the Cecidomyid
Diplosis pirivora Ril.

£. IMCyriopoda.

Morphological Notes on Diplopoda.** — Dr. F. Silvestri notes that
in Lysiopetalum foetidissimum, and probably in other species, the second

* Mem. Soc. Zool. France, x. (1897) pp. 5-25 (1 pi.).

t Centralbl. Bakt< u. Par., xxii. (1897) pp. 752-60. '

% Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1898) pp. 440-55 (1 pi.).

§ Yer. Zool.-bot. Gesell. Wien, xlviii. (1898) pp. 37-68 (1 pi. and 16 figs.).

|| Abh. Senckenberg. Nat. Gesell., xxi. (1897) pp. 137-82 (2 pis.).

Bull. Soc. Entom. Ital., xxix. (1897) pp. 1-25 (1 pi.).

** Atti R. Accad. Lincei, Rend., vii. (i898) pp. 52-7 (6 figs.).

302

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

pair of feet are very much reduced in the female. In Pacliyiulus com-
munis, and probably in all Diplopoda with direct development, the
internal feet are reduced, without however affecting the joints ; it may
be that such reduced appendages form the point of departure in the
formation of the copulatory apparatus.

In adult male Craspedosomatidae the silk-glands are atrophied ; in
the females they attain great development and secrete an investment
for the eggs ; in both sexes of Lysiopetalidae the glands are atrophied.
The state of the glands should be attended to in classification.

New Myriopods.* * * § — Sig. F. Silvestri describes seven new species of
Diplopoda from Queensland. He also gives an account of Sicilian
Myriopods, — 36 species of Chilopoda (2 new), and 23 species of Dip-
lopoda (6 new). Of the Sicilian Chilopoda, four are North African
forms, and three Iberian ; of the Diplopoda there are four which are
common to the Italian peninsula, but are not known elsewhere in the
Mediterranean region.

Malayan Myriopods.f — Dr. Carl Grafen Attems describes Prof.
Kukenthal’s collection, which included 64 species, 42 new, namely, three
Chilopoda and the rest Diplopoda.

7. Protracheata.

New Species of Peripatus. :f — Dr. A. Willey gives a diagnosis of
Peripatus novse-britannise sp. n., of which he obtained thirteen species
in New Britain. The diagnosis shows that this species constitutes a
new (Melanesian) type of Peripatus , conforming neither to the type of
the neotropical, nor of the Australasian, nor of the Ethiopian species.

New Species of Peripatus from Ecuador.§ — Sig. L. Camerano
describes a new species, P. Corradi , from Quito, which he places beside
P. quitensis Schm., and P. Balzani Camer. These are the only Neo-
tropical forms which agree with the new species in having three teeth
on the external mandible.

8. Arachnida.

Ant-eating Spider.|| — Herr E. Wasmann has added another name,
Theridium triste Hahn, to the list of spiders known to prey upon ants.
This somewhat rare species is small, round-bodied, and of a brilliant
black colour. It is found in the neighbourhood of the nests of Formica
fusca, F. rufa , F. sanguinea, and F. rufibarbis. It rests upon a blade
of grass, and attacks isolated ants. Its mode of procedure is as follows,
— it jumps down on its victim, winds a thread round the body, and, re-
ascending to its perch, slowly draws up its entangled prey. From this
mode of attack the observer has called it the “ gallows spider.” Its
very small size relative to its prey, and its brilliant black colour, have
led Wasmann to suppose, with Van Hasselt, that its poison must be more
than usually strong.

* Bull. Soc. Entom. Ital., xxix. (1898) pp. 225-32 (14 figs.), and pp. 233-G1

(30 figs.). f Abli. Senckenberg. Nat. Gesell., xiii. (1897) pp. 473-536 (4 pis.).

X Ann. Nat. Hist., i. (7th ser.) 1898, pp. 286-7.

§ Atti It. Accad. Torino, xxxiii. (1898) pp. 308-10 (2 figs.).

|| Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 230-32.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

803

Argas reflexus as a Human Parasite.* — Dr. G. Brandes records
the history of observations as to infection of man by the dove-tick, Argas
reflexus , whose bite seems to be poisonous. Decent cases make the
occurrence quite certain. Only certain people are susceptible, however,
especially the hyperaesthetic.

Distribution of Halacaridse.f — Dr. E. Trouessart points out that
a closer study of the distribution of Entomostraca and Acarina around
the coasts has considerable practical as well as scientific interest, since
these animals form an important part of the food-supply of fishes.

In studying the distribution of Halacaridae, Trouessart has been led
to distinguish four areas : —

(1) The littoral or coralline areas, characterised by Ithombognathus ,
which is restricted to this area, and by the frequency of Halacarus
spinifer, H. Chevreuxi, Agaue brevipalpus, &c.

(2) The granite floor, characterised by Acaromantis squilla , Colo-
boceras longiusculus , and Scaptognathus iridens.

(3) The Bryozocn-area, characterised, for instance, by Halacarus
Murrayi.

(4) The abyssal area, characterised by very distinct forms : — Hala-
carus abyssorum , H. Caudani , Agaue aculeata , A. tricuspis , Colobocera
Koehler i.

e. Crustacea.

Nervous System of Crab.f — Herr A. Bethe makes a third com-
munication in regard to the nervous system of Carcinus msenas, the
common shore-crab.

Besides the “ primitive fibrils ” which pass from the lateral processes
or from the axis-process of the nerve-cell into the peripheral fibre, there
are many others in the neuron. Experiments make it practically certain
that the primitive fibrils form the conducting elements of the nervous
system.

The remarkable conclusion is maintained that almost all the func
tions which a nervous system has in relation to the muscular system
may occur in the crab without the nucleus-bearing portion of the neuron,
and without the fibrillar framework of the ganglion- cells.

We cannot unfortunately find space to follow the ingenious author
in his interesting study of the complex reflexes, in the course of which
he finds evidence for a morphological conclusion, viz. that the stalked
eyes represent a pair of appendages. The most important conclusion
is that ganglion-cells are not necessary for the occurrence of reflexes.

The brain of the crab is shown to be in part “ a reflex inhibiting
organ,” and the facts lead Bethe to deny it any intelligence (“ jede Art
von psychischen Qualitiiten abzusprechen ”). He ends, however, very
pessimistically, saying that his attempt to make things clearer has only
resulted in disclosing numerous unsuspected difficulties.

Peripheral Nervous System of Crayfish. § — Herr W. Schreiber con-
firms previous accounts of the presence of a sub-epithelial plexus of

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., xxii. (1897) pp. 747-52.

t Mem. Soc. Nat. Cherbourg, xxx. (1896-7) pp. 91-8 (3 fi°-s.).

X Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1898) pp. 382-452 (2 pis.).

§ Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 273-7 (3 figs.).

1898

Y

304 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

multipolar nerve-cells in Astacus, and Las succeeded in showing the
definite connection between the cells and the branches of the nerves.

Amphipods from Copenhagen Museum.* * * § — Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing
discusses nine genera and ten species, six of each being new. “ Some of
the species are so like their previously known neighbours that a short-
sighted person might think them not worth distinguishing. Others stand
oddly apart, with so queer a combination of characters that more than
one existing family must look at them askance.” “ Opinions will differ
on the policy of promptly establishing new families for eccentric forms,
or of postponing that responsibility to as late a date as possible.” “ In
the amiable endeavour to oblige the partisans of either view,” the author
“ offers tentatively a new family for one of these perplexing species,
boldly assigns one to an old family, and leaves one for the present-
homeless.”

New Copepods from the Clyde.| — Messrs. T. and A. Scott describe
Stephos Fultoni sp. n., Dactylopus pectinatus sjj. n., and Eurynotus insolens
g. et sp. n., additions to the faunal list of the Clyde area.

Choniostomatidae.J — Herr H. J. Hansen has monographed this
family of Copepoda, parasitic on Malacostracan Crustacea. He describes
43 species in place of the five previously known. The larval and post-
larval development of numerous forms has been investigated. The re-
lations of parasite and host, e.g. the frequently ensuing castration of
the latter, are fully discussed. As a reviewer (F. Zschokke) says,
Hansen’s work is so thorough that there is now no group of parasitic
Copepods better known than the Clioniostomatidae.

Trilobites and Crustaceans.§ — Mr. C. E. Beecher gives an outline of
a natural classification of the Trilobites. This includes a diagnosis
brought up to date ; a detailed comj^arison (as to eighteen features) be-
tween Trilobites, Entomostraca, and Malacostraca ; a summing up of
what is known as to the development ; and a classification into the three
orders : Hypoparia, Opisthoparia, and Proparia.

Annulata.

Earthworms of Madagascar Region. || — Dr. W. Michaelsen de-
scribes about two dozen species from Madagascar, the Seychelles, and
the Mascarenes. They may be ranked in twro groups : — (a) forms intro-
duced by man, e.g. Benliamia bolavi, Eudrilus eugenise, Pontoscolex core-
thrurus, Megascolex armcitus , and some species of Perichseta ; ( b ) endemic
forms, such as the dominant genus Eynotus, a generalised type near the
common root of the Lumbricini and Geoscolccini, and three sj)ecies of
Acanthodrilus, a genus which the author believes to have been almost
cosmopolitan in distant geological periods.

Supposed Auditory Cells in Pontoscolex.1[ — Dr. G. Eisen has studied
the peculiar cells which occur in the equatorial line of each segment in

* Trans. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vii. (1897) pp. 25-45 (9 pis.).

+ Ann. Nat. Hist., i. (7th ser.) 1898, pp. 185-90 (2 pis.).

X Copenhagen, 4to, 205 pp., 13 pis. See Zool. Centralbl., v. (1898) pp. 181-8.

§ Amer. Journ. Sci., iii. (1897) pp. 89-207 (1 pi.).

jj Abh. Senckenberg. Nat. Gesell., xxi. (1897) pp. 217-52 (3 figs.).

Festschrift f. Lilljeborg, Upsala, 1896 (received 1898), 16 pp. and 2 pis.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

305

Pontoscolex. They were first described by Perrier (187* * * §2) as unicellular
glands. They are highly differentiated, with associated nerve-endings or
ganglia (not very satisfactorily proved), and each contains a peculiar
globular body towards the outer side. “ The cell seems especially con-
structed so as to keep this otosome in place, confined to the upper
vacuole, while the beautiful protoplasmic structure below it might serve
to propagate the sound-waves to the nerves below. The central cyto-
plasmic floor, which always seems to be in the same tension as regards
the cell-walls, and always in the same position to the base of the cell,
may serve as a kind of sounding-board.” It is also principally in the
equatorial of this floor that the supposed ganglion-cells or nerve-plates
are situated. Eisen describes Pontoscolex Lilljeborgi sp. n. from Guate-
mala, and a Mexican variety of P. coretJirurus F. Muller.

Pelagic Polychaete Larvae.* — Dr. Y. Haecker distinguishes (a) the
resident forms, ( b ) the regular visitors, and (c) the casual intruders.

(a) In the first place there are the larvre of many Polychaeta which
are, so to speak, at home in the open sea, — various Phyllodocidae, Alci-
opidae, Tomopteridae, &c. Most of the larvae, as Keibisch has pointed
out, soon lose their ciliated rings, and acquire more effective locomotor
and sensory appendages. They tend to suppress the trochophore and
metatrochophore stage, and to pass directly to the Neetochaeta stage.

(b) The second set includes those which are normally pelagic during
a certain period (at least) of their larval life. Especially well adapted
are the Nitraria and It os tr aria types, which are discussed at some length.
Their remarkable adaptations which increase their capacity for drifting,
and their power of energetic movement, are illustrated.

(c) The third set includes wanderers from the littoral plankton.
They are the larvae of various errant and tubicolous forms, and have
been swept out from the shore. They are “ lost children,” and most of
them must perish.

Polychseta of French Coast.f — Baron de St. Joseph concludes his
valuable systematic account of the Polychaeta found off the French
coast.

Ampharetidae.J — Pierre Fauvel describes Ampharete grubei Malmg.
in detail, and deals more briefly with some related forms. The family is
in many ways more nearly related to the Terebellidm than to the Am-
phictenidse ; the three families are parallel branches from an unknown
starting point.

Spirorbis.§ — MM. Maurice Caullery and Felix Mesnil give a syste-
matic account of the (28) species of Spirorbis, which they arrange in
sub-genera. The genus is a Serpulid in which the number of thoracic
segments shows the maximum reduction (to 3), and the coiling of the
tube has become constant. With the spiral coiling of the tube an
asymmetrical structure of the body is associated. In the phylogenetic

* Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (189S) pp. 39—54 (9 figs.).

t Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.), v. (1897) pp. 225-464 (11 pis.).

t Bull. Sci. France Belg., xxx. (1897) pp. 1-212 (11 nls.). See Zool. Centralbl.,
iv. (1897) pp. 866-8.

§ Tom. cit., pp. 185-233 (4 pis.). See Zool. Centralbl., iv. (1897) pp. 865-6.

Y 2

306

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

grouping the chief emphasis is laid on the number of thoracic segments,
the bristles, and the operculum.

Neck-Glands of Leech.* — Dr. S. Apathy describes tfce salivary
glands, or, as he calls them, the neck-glands, of the medicinal leech.
He notes their exact position in the 7th, 8th, and 9th segments, and
gives full instructions as to the mode of procedure in collecting the
secretion of the glands, which prevents the coagulation of blood. The
secretion is constant, and leeches collected at any time of the year, of
any age, and without regard to the state of nutrition, maybe used. But
animals of middle size, in which the clitellum is not swollen, will yield
the best results.

For a fuller treatment of the subject, and for details as to structure
and function of the glands, Dr. Apathy refers to his recently published
paper on “ The neck-glands of Hirudo medicinalis, with regard to the
clinical use of their secretion.” t

Rotatoria.

Researches on the Plankton of Ponds.f — Dr. 0. Zacharias has ex-
amined a large amount of plankton material collected by him and for
him in po :ds in various parts of Germany, in order to compare the micro-
fauna and flora swimming or floating in the open water with that found
in larger freshwater lakes. He gives a list of about 100 species of
organisms found therein, 36 being Rotifers. Two of these are described
as new : — Brachionus falcaius and Tetramastix opoliensis , both of which
are described and figured.

Determination of Sex in Hydatina Senta.§— Prof. M. Nussbaum
has followed Maupas in experimenting with this Rotifer in regard to
the determination of sex. He begins by describing the animal ; but it is
not necessary for us to do more than re-state the essential facts as to
the reproduction. The male is much smaller than the female (up to
0*25 mm. in length), without alimentary canal, and very short-lived
(2-3 days). In copulation, which occurs especially with young females,
the penis perforates the skin, and the sperms are discharged into the
body-cavity. Fertilisation of the eggs does not necessarily follow
insemination. The adult female measures 0*75 mm. in length ; it may
attain full size two days after hatching. The eggs are cither “ summer
eggs ” with soft shells, or “ winter eggs ” with hard shells ; the “ sum-
mer eggs ” give rise to a male or a female brood, and are produced
especially by females which have not been inseminated ; the “ winter
eggs ” are produced only by females which have been inseminated. Nuss-
baum has convinced himself that the “ summer eggs ” are never fertilised,
and that the “ winter eggs ” always are. Any one individual produces only
one kind of egg. But Nussbaum shows in this connection that the dimen-
sions of the eggs are not quite reliable proofs of the sex of the forth-
coming brood. On the whole it is true that the larger eggs develop into
females, and the smaller into males, but the size varies considerably,
and the medium-sized eggs are difficult to deal with. Thus, while Plato

* Biol. Centralb]., xviii. No. 6 (1898) pp. 218-29 (2 figs.),
t SB. Med. Nat. Siebenburg. Mus. Verein, xix. (1897).
x Forseliungsber. a. d. Biol. Stat. zu Plon, vi. (1893) pp. l-£0 (1 pi ).

§ Arch. Mikr. Anat., xlix. (1897) pp. 227-308.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

307

mentions 0*1 mm. as tlie minimum diameter for an ovum wliicli will
develop into a female, Nussbaum reared a living female from an ovum
0*08 mm. in diameter.

Maupas observed that the development of the parthenogenetic (“ sum-
mer ”) eggs takes 26 hours at 15° C. and 12 hours at 24° C. ; Nussbaum
notes that the rate of development is also influenced by the oxygenation
of the water, by the behaviour of the Euglende which form the normal
food-supply, and so on.

Maupas also states that a parthenogenetic female will produce per
diem at 15° C., 18 eggs, which become males, or 7 which become females,
but at 21° C., 27 or 18 respectively ; Nussbaum notes that these figures
are maxima, and are much reduced when a large number of individuals
are living together. The length of life of the parthenogenetic female
was estimated by Maupas as 13 days at 18° C. Four days before death
the female laid its fiftieth and last egg. An effectively fertilised female
lived 7-8 days at 18°-20° C.

Nussbaum found spermatozoa inside the hard shelled ova; there is
no doubt that they are fertilised. It remains, however, an open ques-
tion whether Maupas is right in believing that only those eggs destined
to become males are capable of fertilisation, and that when this happens
they become hard-shelled eggs.

As has been noted, a given ovary produced only males, or only
females, and Maupas concluded that the sex of the grandchildren is
determined in the ovary of the grandmother. Lowering the temperature
determines that the ova will develop into females, and conversely ; but,
after this early determination has been established, no environmental
changes can affect it. He supported this by various experiments, which
Nussbaum criticises. Maupas isolated five females, before maturity,
and kept them at 26°-28° C. They produced 104 ova, which gave rise to
females, of which 97per cent, had male eggs, and 3 per cent, female eggs.
Five females of the same age and from the same culture, at 14°-I5° C.,
produced 260 ova, which gave rise to females, of which 5 per cent, had
“male eggs,” and 95 per cent, “female eggs.” Maupas does not state
whether he estimated the sex from the size of the eggs or from the
.^actually hatched offspring. Nussbaum, by an analysis of the experiments,
seeks to show that there were other differences in the conditions besides
those of temperature. The nutritive conditions and the number of
associated individuals have also to be considered.

Prof. Nussbaum goes on to give an account of his own numerous
experiments. We must make a selection from among the results, which
are unfortunately not arranged methodically. One and the same female
always produces a uniform brood. A male lives from two to three days.
Temperature does not influence the sex of the brood produced by a sexu-
ally mature female ; but cold retards development and productivity.
With lowered temperature “ winter eggs ” tend to be produced. It is
not possible to predict the sex of the embryo from the size of the egg.
Females inseminated early and well fed during their growth produce
only female summer eggs ; females inseminated early and ill fed produce
winter eggs, from which, so far as is known, only females arise. If a
parthenogenetic female is well fed from its emergence till it lays its
first egg, only female eggs are laid ; if ill fed only male eggs. But the

308 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

nutritive influence is restricted to the period stated. We venture to
hope tliat in tlie continuation of this excellent work the author will
expound his conclusions more methodically.

Cyclic Reproduction in Rotifers.* — According to Dr. R. Lauter-
born’s observations extending over a period of six years, there exhts in
the pelagic Rotifers a periodicity in the production of males and fecun-
dated resting eggs. These are produced at certain times of the year,
which times do not always correspond with the beginning of the cold
season. A certain number of Rotifers are perennial. Others appear
only during the summer months, and these produce males only once a
year (monocyclic), generally from the end of August to the end of
October, at the end of a long series of parthenogenetic generations.
After this period they gradually disappear completely ; but they appear
again the following spring or summer. In the perennial Rotifers,
which can be found more or less abundantly all the year round, there
are two or more sexual periods in the year during which males and
resting eggs are produced (dicyclic and polycyclic). In the Rotifers
which have two sexual periods, such as Asplanchna priodonta , the first
occurs in the spring (particularly April), and the second in the autumn
(September and October) ; whilst during the winter and middle of sum-
mer such forms produce no males or resting eggs. The polycyclic
forms have more than two sexual periods, cr may produce males all the
year round.

From these observations the author draws the conclusion that the
beginning of the sexual period in Rotifers is not caused primarily by
external circumstances, such as heat, drought, or want of food, according
to the accepted belief, but that it is due in the first instance to the mode
of development of each species, which may however become modified by
the influence of such external circumstances.

The author further confirms, in the case of Asplanchna prioclonta ,
whatM. Maupas had previously observed in Hydatina , namely that some
females of A. priodonta produce parthenogenetic summer eggs and others
parthenogenetic male eggs, and that these male eggs alone become changed
into resting eggs if they are fertilised. In Asplanchna, of course, the
summer and male eggs are not laid, but develop in the uterus. Th<f
author observed the sjDermatozoon which had entered the resting egg in
process of formation, its transformation into the male pronucleus, and
the conjugation of the two pronuclei.

Rotatoria of New Guinea. | — Dr. Daday has examined some spirit-
material collected by Dr. L. Biro in New Guinea, and found therein 47
species of Rotifers, ten of which are described as new, with his usual
disregard of already hnown forms. At least three of the new species
are “ old friends,” while four or five more are quite unrecognisable
and therefore “ dead,” leaving only two that can properly be called
new. The alleged new species are the following : — Asplanchna papu-
ana (described from the jaws only, which may very well be those of
A. myrnieleo ), Megalotrocha hinotata (= M. semibullata Thorpe), Diplax
ornata ( = Distyla ludwigii Eckstein), JBrachionus papuanus ( = var.

* Biol Centralbl., v. (1898) pp. 173-83.

f Mathem. Termesz. Ertesito. Budapest, 1897, pp. 131-18 (9 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

309

of Br. angular is), Biplois sculp turata (?), Monostyla incisa (?), Monostyla
bicornis (?), Monostyla pygmsea (?), Brachionus mirabilis, Biarthra mono -
styla (g. et sp. n.).

Danish Rotifera.* * * § — Dr. Wesenberg-Lund has a preliminary report
on free-swimming rotifers, of which lie has observed 175 species in the
neighbourhood of Copenhagen. He has also studied in particular the
males and the modes of reproduction in their natural condition, as con-
trasted with artificial cultivations, and found that a period of increased
parthenogenetic activity always precedes the appearance of the males
and the production of fertilised resting eggs. The sexual period varies
in different species, but the majority in Denmark appear to have it in
September to October ; the temperature of the water has no influence in
this respect. Contrary to the accepted belief, the author found some
rotifers, such as Brachionus pala and angularis, bearing male and female
eggs at the same time. The resting eggs are the fertilised eggs, but the
author has observed also sexual periods when no resting eggs were pro-
duced, although males were abundant.

Hematohelminth.es.

Life-History of Gordius, j — Dr. von Linstow showed some time ago
that in the same pool one may find the embryonic stages of Gordius
tolosanus Duj. encapsuled in larvae of Sialis lutaria and Gloeon dip ter um,
the larval stages in the aquatic beetle Pterostichus niger, and the sexual
adults free in the water. In the present paper he gives a list of eighteen
insects in which the larvae of G. tolosanus occur. He also gives a list of
over a dozen which he has shown to be hosts of the larvae of Gordius
aquaticus L. ; the embryos occur in larval lampreys, and probably in
small fishes. It is difficult to understand how certain of the insects
(grasshoppers, Carabus, Procrustes, &c.) which are not aquatic, become
infected, or how the larvae get from them into the water. When the host
is Bytiscus marginalis, the problem is less obscure. In the same paper
the eminent parasitologist discusses Oxyuris biuncinata from larval
lampreys, Ascaris Myxines from the hag, Spiroptera mugientis from Bana
mugiens, and Cercaria ericetorum from Xerophilus ericetorum, — all new
species. In an appendix he takes note of Camerano’s recent monograph
on Gordiida3. f

Nematodes from Madagascar.§ — Dr. von Linstow describes new
species of Ascaris, Physaloptera, Pieter aids, Filaria , Spiroptera, Oxyuris ,
Gordius, Mermis, and Echinorhynchus from Madagascar animals, extend-
ing the familiar observation that each species has its particular parasites.

Platyhelminthes.

Turbellaria of Concarneau.|| — Dr. 0. Fuhrmann found 29 species of
Turbellaria in the Bay of Concarneau, and of these five are new, viz.
Plagiostoma Fabrei, the largest representative of the genus, PI. violaceum,
Monoophorum durum, Macrorhynchus cceruleus , and Microstoma lucidum.

* Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 200-11.

t Arch. Mikr. Anat., li. (1898) pp. 747-64 (1 pi.),

t Mem. R. Accad. Torino, xlvii. (1897) pp. 339-419 (3 pis.).

§ Arch. Naturgescli., lxiii. (1897) pp. 27-34 (2 pis.).

11 Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 252-6.

310

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Larval Trematodes in Gastropod Hosts.* * * § — Sig. P. Sonsino de-
scribes seven different forms of Cercaria-larvae found in 12 freshwater
Gastropods, sucli as species of Limnsea and Dlanorbis, but he has not
been able to connect them with adult forms.

Helminthological Notes.f — Sig. P. Sonsino has notes on Distomum
felineum and D. truncatum from the dog, a Cysticercoid from Ascalobotes
mauritanica, Eustrongylus gigas from the dog, Syngamus trachealis , and
some other parasites.

Trematode Parasites of Fishes.! — Dr. E. Linton describes from his
own collection, and from the United States National Museum, 32 Trema-
todes from fishes. The account deals with species of Nitzchia, Tristo -
mum, Octoplectanum, Diplostomum, Monostomum , and Distomum, the last
forming the great majority.

Minute Structure of Genital Organs in Tri8enophorus.§ — Herr H.
Sabussow has used Golgi’s chrome-silver method and the intra-vitam
methylen-blue method in studying these organs. The present com-
munication deals with some histological details, of which the most
interesting is the occurrence on the cirrus pouch and vagina of what
seem to be the much branched terminations of motor nerve-cells.

Cestodes of Fishes. || — Dr. E. Linton has a series of notes on 45
species of Cestodes from fishes collected at Woods Holl and in the
United States National Museum. Seven are new.

Parasites of Birds. ^[— Prof. H. B. Ward gives a general popular
account of parasitic worms found in domesticated birds. It is known
that the turkey has 14 different parasites, the duck 32, the chicken 43 ;
but, as the author points out, there are doubtless many more to be found.
His paper is a useful one for poultry-keepers to begin with.

Tapeworms of Ducks.** — Mr. T. B. Eosseter has demonstrated by
experimental infection of ducks the development of Dicranotsenia
coronula, Drepanidotsenia gracilis, and Dr. tenuirostris from their cysti-
cercoid stages.

Musculature of Dibotkria.jf — Dr. M. Liike has followed up his
study of the musculature in Tseniadm by an investigation of the same
system in Dibothrium and the like. The detailed results are beyond
our scope, but it may be noticed that Liihe corroborates his previous
conclusion that the entire musculature of Cestodes is referable to two
systems of longitudinal and transverse muscles, effecting contraction
and elongation of the tapeworm body. The transverse muscles include
those termed sagittal and transversal, and the subcuticular transverse
fibres.

* Atti Soc. Toscana Sci. Nat.., x. (1807) pp. 219-53.

t Tom. cit., pp. 253-9.

t Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xx. (1898) pp. 507-48 (15 pis.).

§ Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 183-8 (5 figs.).

|| Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xx. (1897) pp. 423-56 (8 pis.).

U Stud. Zool. Lab. Univ. Nebraska, No. 22 (1898), 18 pp., 5 figs.

** Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, vi. (1897) pp. 397-405 (1 pi.),
tt Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., xxii. (1897) pp. 739-47 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

311

Gonads of Taenia polymorpha.* * * § — Herr K. Wolfflmgel finds that
in this tapeworm the testes, vas deferens , and cirrus-apparatus, are paired,
the last-named being peripheral ; that the female organs and uterus arc
simple ; that the vagina is blind ; and that the cirrus perforates the
cuticle, penetrating into the parenchyma. These peculiarities will pro-
bably necessitate the establishment of a new genus.

Helminthological Notes, f — Hi*. A. Mueller has notes on 24 parasitic
worms, — including Ancyracanthus bihamatus sp. n. from the stomach
of Sterna risoria, JEchinostoma tabulatum sp. n. from the intestine of
Numenius arquatus, and Tsenia triangularis sp. n. from the intestine
of Scolopax galinula.

Echinoderma.

Fertilisation and Cleavage of Echinoid 0vum4 — The late Prof.
B. von Erlanger had made this the subject of one of his last researches.
Both directive spindles have centrosomes, but the pole body of the inner
pole of the second directive spindle disappears. The pole-bodies of
the first directive spindle originate by the division of the middle portion
of the spermatozoon ; and they divide again shortly before the formation
of the daughter nuclei. The centroplasms or spheres are not, as Boveri
alleged, much swollen central corpuscles. After the formation of the
equatorial plate, the central corpuscles lie within the aggregate of
vesicles, which occupy the central portion of the centroplasm. In
regard to the mechanism of mitosis, the author argues against Heiden-
hain’s theory of centered radii.

Mediterranean Species of Synapta.§ — Prof. H. Ludwig discusses
the different forms found at Naples and elsewhere in the Mediterranean.
There are four securely established species, — Synapta iiihserens 0. F.
Miiller, S. macranhjra sp. n., S. digitata Montagu, and S. Thomsoni
Hcrapath.

Growth-Changes in Integumentary Skeleton of Holothnrians.||—

Herr Hjalmar Ostergren recalls the old observations of Baur (1864), that
the young of Synapta inhserens and S. digitata differ from the adults as
to their calcareous bodies. Semper, Herouard. Ludwig, Mitsukuri, and
the author, have made similar observations. The present communication
makes it probable that the organism distinguished as Holotlmria aphanes
is the young stage of H. impatiens Forsk.

Ccelentera.

Experiments on Hydra. — Herr H. Peebles shows that there are
limits to the regenerative powers of Hydra. The smallest parts of H.
viridis which regenerate a hypostome and a tentacle measure 1/6 mm. in
diameter. Tentacles do not grow into polyps, even if united in groups ;
but if an excised tentacle has with it a small fragment of hypostome,
it can regenerate a perfect hypostome and several tentacles. Similarly,
a complete polyp may be regenerated from tentacles plus a portion of

* Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 211-3.

t Arch. Naturges., lxiii. (1897) pp. 1-26 (3 pis.).

X Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 1-11 (12 figs.).

§ Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 1-9. || Tom. cit., pp. 233-7 (I figs.).

1 Arch. Entwickmech., v. (I89?) pp. 794-819 (34 figs.).

312

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

hypostome and a portion of tlie body. Fragments from isolated buds
form new polyps more rapidly than do larger pieces from a full-grown
animal.

Classification of Siphonophora.* * * §— Dr. K. C. Schneider concludes a
long paper on the Siphonopliora, which is mainly of systematic interest.
He defines the order as follows : — Free-swimming colonies of hydro-
polyps, with regularly arranged components, both medusoid (swimming-
bells, pneumatophore, and gonophores) and polypoid (covering pieces,
adhesive threads, and polyps). There are four suborders : — (1) Caly-
cophorm, without pneumatophore, including Prayidae and Diphyidm;
(2) Physophorae, with pneumatophore and swimming-bells, including
Apolemidse, Agalmidm, &c. ; (3) Cystonectoe, with unchambered pneu-
matophore and no swimming-bells, including Physalia, BMzophysa , &c. ;
(4) Chondrophorae, with chambered pneumatophore and no swimming-
bells or main stem, Velella and Porpita.

Regenerative Phenomena in Tubularia.f— Herr Hans Driesch
finds that a “ reparatory zone,” marked by a red substance, appears at
a certain distance from the wound-surface, and forms a new Anlage,
from which reparation proceeds. Decapitated polyps partially split longi-
tudinally may form two complete hydranths. The reparation is quicker
the second time. Oral reparation retards simultaneous aboral reparation.
There is no proximal regeneration, i. e. tentacles do not regenerate
hydranth, nor liydranth ccenosarc.

Driesch distinguishes somewhat subtly between different modes of
regeneration, for which it is difficult to find English equivalents. A
general result of interest is the absence of abnormalities; even when
the usual reparatory process is disturbed the final result is normal.

Hew Hydroids.J — Kristine Bonnevie discusses the classification of
Hy droids, and describes numerous new forms collected by the Norwegian
North Sea Expedition : — four new species of Tubular ia, a new genus
Lampra with three species, a new genus Gymnogonos, two new species
of Eudendrium, four of Hy dr actinia, four of Myriothela , and two of
Coryne.

Porifera.

Spicules of Clathrinid8e.§ — Mr. E. A. Minchin, in the first instal-
ment of “Materials for a Monograph of the Ascons,” deals with the
origin and growth of the triradiate and quadriradiate spicules in the
family Clathrinidee. In an introductory account of the structure of
Clathrina, he recognises, apart from the sex-cells, two constituent layers
in the sponge body, besides a class of cell-elements which seem, pro-
perly speaking, to belong to neither layer. Thus he describes : —

(1) The gastral layer, consisting of the collar-cells lining the
interior.

(2) The dermal layer, consisting of («) the external neuro-muscular

* Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 185-200.

f Arcli. Entwickmecli., v. (1897) pp. 389-418 (14 figs.). See Zool. Centralbl.,
v. (1898) pp. 10-12.

X Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1898) pp. 465-95 (3 pis. and 1 fig.).

§ Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xl. (1898) pp. 469 587 (5 pis. and 3 figs.),

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC.

313

flat epithelium ; (b) the internal connective-tissue layer with the spicules
and their formative cells ; and (c) the porocytes scattered about more
or less evenly in the wall.

(3) The amcebocytes or amoeboid wandering cells met with in all
parts of the sponge.

The classification adopted is : —

Class Calcarea. Sub-class Homocoela. Order Ascones.

(1) Family Clathrinidae. Genera Claihrina and Ascandra.

(2) Family Leucosoleniidm. Genera Leucosolenia and (?) Ascyssa.

With regard to the origin of the triradiate systems, Minchin re-
cognises a scheme of development common to all, with a number of
constant and definite stages, as follows : — -

(1) Formation of “trios” by immigration of cells from the flattened
epithelium.

(2) From the trios arise the “ sextets ” by division of each cell
into two.

(3) The spicule appears with each of its rays corresponding to two
sister-cells of the sextet, i.e. to two cells which haye arisen from the
division of one of the cells of the trio.

(4) As the rays increase in length, the inner formative cells of the
sextet remain at the apices, the outer formative cell at the bases, of
the rays.

f5) Disappearance of the apical formative cells.

(6) The basal formative cells, after building up the rays to their
full thickness at their bases, migrate slowly to the extreme tips of the
rays, where they remain adherent as the definitive spicule-cell.

The fourth or gastral ray is an adventitious element superadded to
the triradiate system, and secreted by a mother-cell which is derived
from a porocyte. The nucleus of the secreting cell may remain single,
or may divide into two or into four nuclei ; but in all cases the cell itself
remains undivided, forming a jflasmodium-like investment to the spicule,
or at least to its terminal portion.

In the theoretical part of his paper, Minchin discusses the origin
and evolution of calcareous sponge spicules. Four theories are reviewed :
— the Biocrystallisation theory of Haeckel, the Adaptation theory of
Schulze, the Mechanical theory of Sollas, and the Alveolar theory of
Dreyer. It is to Schulze’s view that Minchin inclines, namely, that
the fundamental forms of the spicules are to be explained by adaptation
to the primitive types of structure in sponges.

He sums up as follows : —

The first appearance of a calcareous spicule, both ancestrally and
in development, was probably in a minute vacuole in a dermal cell,
filled with an organic substance in which the minute sclerite appeared
as a crystal or concretion. It assumed a non-crystalline form in adapta-
tion to its secondary function of support, and the contents of the vacuole
formed the spicule sheath. The ancestral form in Calcarea was a simple
monaxon, placed tangentially, and completely imbedded in the body-
wall, lying between two adjacent pores.

From this ancestral form others arose : — ( a ) the primitive monaxon
acquired a distal portion projecting from the surface; ( b ) groups of

314

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

three united to form a single triradiate system ; (c) to some of these
a fourth ray was added ; ( d ) some of the triradiate systems became
secondary monaxons.

In Leucosolenia all the dermal cells may form monaxon sclerites,
and this is the more primitive condition ; in Clathrina , however, the
skeletogenous cells migrate from the dermal epithelium inwards, and
form a connective tissue layer.

The forms of the spicules are the result of adaptation to the re-
quirements of the sponge as a whole, produced by the action of natural
selection upon variation in every direction.

Fibres of Reniera.* * * § — Dr. G. Loisel has studied the fibres of Beniera ,
(a) in the living sponge, ( b ) after use of Congo red, and (c) with the
usual reagents. He worked with B. ingcdli and B. elegans.

The substance composing the fibres reacts like spongin, but this is
a wide word. The material appears inside spherular spongoblasts,
which are in some regions isolated, in others grouped irregularly or in
a necklace-like row. in the centre of each cell, beside the nucleus, a
small refractive sphere is seen ; this grow’s into a little rod : adjacent
rods touch and fuse, being cemented by a plasmic substance. The
spongoblasts elongate and fuse, and are then disintegrated, their nuclei
being left in the semi-fluid surrounding substance. Thus the whole
process is essentially very simple, and is all the more instructive as a
subject of study that it continues throughout the life of the sponge.

Parenchyma-Spicules of Spongiilidse.j — Herr Fr. Fetr concludes
that the scattered parenchyma-spicules, as opposed to the united skeletal
spicules, are important only in relation to the gemmules. They form
an accessory skeleton to the gemmules, and lie on the surface of the
chitinous membranes. The author describes them as migrating and
grouping themselves around the young gemmules, accessory to the
amphidiscs, &c.

Zanzibar Sponges. J — Prof. R. von Lendenfeld describes about a
dozen new species from Zanzibar, including two new genera Sirongy -
lacidon in the family Esperellidm, and Axinyssa in the family Axi-
nellidae.

Protozoa.

Amoebae from a Medical Point of View.§ — Dr. R. Behla has written
a little book on Amoebae, especially in connection wTith diseases, such as
dysentery.

Myxosporidia in Coregonus.|] — Herr F. Zschokkc has studied these
parasites, which occur in the connective tissue of the musculature in
Coregonus , and have been referred by Gurley to three different species.
To Zschokkc they all seem the same, and he proposes the new name M.
bicaudatus to supersede the older titles. The species is characterised by
the unusually large size of the cysts and the length of the double tail
process on the spores.

* Journ. Anat. Physiol., xxxiv. (1898) pp. 1-43 (1 pi. and 7 figs.).

t Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 226-7.

X Abh. Senckenberg. Nat. Gesell., xxi. (1897) pp. 93-133 (2 pis.).

§ ‘ Die Amoben, insbesondere von parasitaren und eulturellen Standpunkt>>
Berlin, 1898, 73 pp., 1 pi. || Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 213-4.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

315

Coccidia of Passeres.* — Herr Nils Sjobring discusses tbe occurrence
of Coccidia in birds, to which comparatively little attention has been
directed. He describes in particular Isospora passerum nov. nom., and
has further notes on the disease in pheasants caused by Coccidium ovi-
forme, and tbe presence of Flagellate parasites like Trypanosoma in the
blood of many Passerine birds.

Presence of Protozoa in the Blood and Organs of Leukhaemic
Persons.')’ — Prof. M. Lowit has observed, in the blood drawn from the
finger of cases of mixed leukhaemia, appearances indicative of the pre-
sence of Protozoa. The parasites, though chiefly affecting leucocytes,
in which their growth and development take place, are also found free
in the blood. The parasites belong to the Sporozoa ; but whether they
deserve the title of Hsemamoeba leuJchsemise is not at present certain.

In some of the cases a resting encysted form was found in the blood
and tissues after death. The parasite was not discovered in cases of
pure lymphatic leukhaemia. The author’s present communication is
curt and preliminary.

Pathogenic Protozoa of Foot and Mouth Disease.^ — Hr. G. P.
Piana and Hr. A. Fiorentini describe a pathogenic protozoon, Protamoeba
aphthogenes, which is constantly present in cases of epizootic aphthae.

The microbe may present itself as a hyaline or finely granular body
with or without vacuoles or a nucleus. Sometimes the body shows a
double contour ; at other times it is seen to contain corpuscles. The
bacteria present in the exudation of the vesicles are not killed by
heating for 15 minutes at a temperature of 50-52°, while the aphthous
virus loses its activity. As a nucleus is not constantly present, this
organism is classed with Monera. Like the primitive Protamoebae, they
progress by lobate extension rather than by pseudopodia, and multiply,
like Protomyxa aurantiaca, by endogenous spores.

Amoeboid Bodies in the Blood of Vaccinated Monkeys and Children
and in the Blood of cases of Variola. §— Hr. W. Reed claims that he
has confirmed Pfeiffer’s observation that small granular amoeboid bodies
are present in the blood of vaccinated children and calves, and in the
blood from cases of variola during the stage of fever. Granular amoeboid
bodies having a diameter of about one-third that of a red corpuscle are
present also in the blood of the monkey during the active stage of vac-
cinia, and disappear with the decline of the local inflammation. A body
of like appearance, granulation, and size, may occasionally be found in
the normal blood of monkeys and children. Pale amoeboid bodies con-
taining a few dark pigment-like granules are present in the blood from
cases of variola, and in the blood of the variolated monkey. Bodies of
like appearance may occasionally be found in the blood of vaccinated
children and monkeys.

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., xxii. (1897) pp. 675-84 (8 figs.).

t Op. cit., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) p. 20G. X Tom. cit., pp. 323-8 (1 pi.).

§ Jouru. Exper. Me'd., ii. (1897) pp. 515-27 (2 pis.).

316

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Blepharoplasts and Centrosomes.* — Mr. H. J. Webber discusses
the relationship of these bodies to one another.

Blepharoplasts are special organs of the spermatic cells of Zamia ,
Salisburici, and some Filicinese and Equisetacese, which, in certain stages
of their development, resemble centrosomes. Two are formed in each
generative cell, arising de novo in the cytoplasm on opposite sides of the
nucleus, and about midway between the nuclear membrane and the cell-
wall. The division of the generative cell results in the formation of
two antherozoids, one blepharoplast being located in each antherozoid
cell. During this division the blepharoplasts burst, and the outer
membrane becomes gradually distended into a narrow helicoid spiral
band, from which the motile cilia of the antherozoid are developed.

The blepharoplasts resemble typical centrosomes : — (1) in position,
being located on opposite sides of the nucleus ; (2) in having the kino-
plastic filaments focused upon them during the prophases of the division
of the generative cell. They differ from typical centrosomes: — (1) in
arising de novo in the cytoplasm ; (2) in growing to comparatively
enormous size ; (3) in not forming the centre of an aster at the pole of
the spindle during mitosis ; (4) in having a differentiated external mem-
brane and contents ; (5) in bursting, and growing into a greatly extended
cilia-bearing band, the formation of which is evidently their primary
function ; (6) in their non-continuity from cell to cell.

New Organs of the Plant-Cell.f — In the superficial layers of the
cytoplasm of some Saprolegniaceae and Floridese, Mr. W. T. Swingle
finds abundantly bodies to which he gives the name vibrioids. They are
slender cylindrical sharply defined bodies, exhibiting rather slow bend-
ing or undulatory motions in addition to movements which are probably
due to the cytoplasm. When stained, they are sharply differentiated
from the surrounding cytoplasm. They occur constantly in plants in
all stages of development.

Another new organ or organoid was found at one end of the nucleus
of the oosphere of Albugo candidus. It was a nearly spherical body, but
often a little flattened on the side towards the nucleus. It seems to be
more or less granular in structure, apd appears before delimitation of the
oosphere within the oogone, disappearing after fusion of the male and
female nuclei.

Cytology of the Growing Point.J — Dr. B. Nemec records certain
cytological phenomena which he has observed in the growing point of

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 109-10. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 99.

f Tom. cit., pp. 1 >0—1.

% SB. K. Bohm. Gesell. Wiss., 1897, No. xxxiii. (26 pp. and 1 pi.). (Bohemian
with German abstract.)

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

317

several plants, especially of Allium Cepa , Hemerocallis fulva, and Roripa
amphibia.

In the loose knot stage, a sharply defined hyaline sphere is formed
round the nucleus, growing independently, and elongating, without any
connection of this structure with the cytoplasm being perceptible. While
the nucleus still retains its membrane, the fibres of the central spindle
develop in the interior of this hyaline structure in a meridional direc-
tion from the poles ; the nucleole disappearing synchronously with the
development of these spindle-fibres, and the membrane of the hyaline
structure also disappearing soon after the chromosomes have begun to
assume their equatorial position.

Extranuclear nucleoles exhibit great variability in numbers and
position during karyokinesis. They are frequently found in close con-
tact with the newly formed cell-wall, where they have apparently been
differentiated out of the unused material of the combining fibres.

The number of chromosomes is constant in the embryonal tissue (in
Allium Cepa 12), becoming reduced in older tissues (in Allium Cepa 4).
In pathologically abnormal cells the number is much larger. Fragmen-
tation of the nucleus was observed in the cells which become differentiated
into tracheae.

Fusiform Proteid Substances in the Balsaminese.*— Sig. G. Amadei
has studied the peculiar proteid substances of a fusiform shape which
are widely distributed through the genus Impatiens, though apparently
not extending to all the species. According to the classification of
Zimmermann, they belong to the class of proteids which occur in the
cytoplasm or cell-sap. They are always found in the ovary from the
period of flowering till maturity ; in I. JBalsamina and Sultani they
occur in the epiderm of the outer wall of the capsule ; in I. parvijlora
and glanduligera in the swelling tissues, but not in the epiderm. They
occur further in the groups of cells which accompany the sieve-portion
of the conducting bundles, but never in the root nor in the lower portion
of the stem which is destitute of leaves. These structures vary in form
with the age of the cell, apparently from the action of the acid constitu-
ent of the cell-sap ; in older tissues the originally crescent-shaped bodies
frequently become circular, apparently from further curvature and the
joining of the two ends. From the frequent occurrence of these struc-
tures in organs containing chlorophyll and in the neighbourhood of the
sieve-portion of the conducting bundles, and from their sudden disap-
pearance in the stamens at the time of the ripening of the pollen, the
author infers that they must play an important part in metabolism.

Archespore and Nucleus of Bignonia.f — According to Mr. B. M.
Duggar, the mature archespore of the microsporange occupies a single
boot-shaped layer. The primitive archespore is differentiated by peri-
clinal divisions in certain regions of the outer layer of periblem. The
tapete on the outer side is cut off by the next periclinal division of the
hvpodermal layer. The definitive archespore is formed by not more
than a single division in some or all of the primitive archespore cells.
The archespore of the megasporange apparently develops no primary

* Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii. (1898) pp. 1-9, 33-42 (2 pis.).

t Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) p. 111.

318

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tapete, dividing simultaneously from the 2-celled stage, the 3rd or 4tli
cell becoming the definitive embryo-sac mother-cell. The nucleus of
the archespore is peculiar in its large nucleolar-like structures.

Chromosomes in the Development of the Pollen-grains of Allium.* * * §
— In opposition to the statement of Ishikawa, Mr. D. M. Mottier states
that there is no reduction in the number of chromosomes in the division
of the archespore cells in Allium Cepa ; the division is not effected in
the heterotypic method. The reduction takes place only in the first
division of the pollen-mother-cells themselves. This is the case in all
the genera of Liliacem examined.

Protoplasmic Sac.f — Prof. E. Chodat states that, contrary to the
general assertion, when a vegetable cell is plasmolysed, the protoplasmic
sac does not become at once detached from the cell- wall, but always
remains for a time attached to it by threads of hyaloplasm, often of great
delicacy and in enormous numbers. This phenomenon has been ob-
served not only in the parenchyme of Phanerogams, but in the prothal-
lium and in the parenchyme of the leaf of Ferns, in Characeae, the leaves
of Musci and Hepaticfe, and in Saprolegniacese, Vaucheria , Conjugate,
Chaetophoraceae, and CEdogoniaceae. In many hairs these threads radiate
in all directions, and not merely towards the base of the hair. The
author regards this phenomenon as establishing the close connection
which exists between the cell-wall and the protoplasm contained in it.

(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions).

Cell-wall Mucilage.^ — Herr O. Eosenberg describes the mucilage-
tissue in the seed of Magonia glabrata (Sapindaceae), which differs but
little from that in the leaf. In the ripe seed it exhibits pectin reactions,
but still contains a little cellulose. It appears to serve the function of
a storehouse of water for the use of the embryo.

Wax as an Excretion within the Cell.§ — Prof. M. Mobius describes
an instance of this in the case of a species of Hhus. In the ripe fruit
of this plant, the wax-cells form a layer in contact with the resin-
passages. In these parenchymatous cells the wax forms a thick incrus-
tation on the cell-wall within the cell. The wax is probably a product
of the transformation of starch. The wax-cells contain a granular
protoplasm and a nucleus, but no or very little starch.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Formation of Cork-Tissue in the Roots of the Rosaceae.|J — According
to Dr. Martha Bunting, there are intercellular spaces between the cork-
cells in the root of all herbaceous and shrubby species of Eosacese ex-
amined ; but they are absent from the arborescent species. There is an
alternation of a flattened, usually pigmented, layer of cells with 1-3 layers
of rounded cells in each annual ring. Protoplasm, nuclei, and starch-
grains exist in cork-zones 4-5 layers removed outside the phellogen.

* Ber. Deutech. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 474-5. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 555.

t Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., v. (1898) pp. 96-9.

X Bih. k. Svenska vetensk. Akad. Handl., xxiii. (18 pp. and 1 pi.). See Bot.
Centralbl., 1897 (1898), Beih., p. 345.

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 425-41.

|| Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1897) pp. 117-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

319

Internal Phloem in Gelsemium sempervirens.* — Miss Caroline
Thompson states that the internal phloem in this plant originates as four
longitudinal tracts in the primary meristem, and steadily increases until,
by the eighth or tenth year, it has entirely destroyed the pith. In the
petiole a bicollateral bundle arrangement exists at the base; but this
quickly changes to the ordinary collateral relation by the passage of the
internal phloem through the xylem. Each bundle, in passing out into
the petiole, subdivides into three parts, two of which remain in the stem
and soon come together again, while the third passes out through the
xylem. From the second year onward, the internal phloem patches of
the stem show areas of crushed and obliterated tissue where the previ-
ously formed phloem had been pushed inwards by the younger elements.
In older stems eight large phloem patches, formed by division of the
original four, entirely fill up the pith area.

Anatomy of the Hippomanese.f — Herr H. Herbert describes in de-
tail the anatomy of the stem and leaf of this tribe of the Euphorbiaceae.
The most widely distributed secreting elements are unseptated latex-
tubes ; septated latex-tubes occur only in Manihot. The stomatal appa-
ratus is greatly developed, there being almost always subsidiary cells as
well as guard-cells. Stinging hairs occur in Jatropha urens.

(40 Structure of Org-ans.

Biology and Morphology of Pollen.J — Prof. A. Hansgirg sums up
his observations on various points connected with the emission of pollen-
tubes, the protection of pollen-grains from rain, and the length of time
during which the grains may remain functional. The variations depend
on the vital conditions of the species rather than on any genetic relation-
ship. The characters in the points named, and in the concealment or
exposure of the sexual organs, are noted, from the author’s personal
observations, in the case of a very large number of species belonging to
all the more important natural orders ; and the following classification
is propounded, dependent on these characters : — (A) Plants whose pollen
is resistant to moisture, and germinates in pure water. ( a ) Species in
which the sexual organs are more or less protected against rain, &c. ;
(&) Species in which the sexual organs are only slightly or not at all
protected against atmospheric precipitation. (B) Plants whose pollen
is not resistant to moisture, and does not germinate, or only very imper-
fectly, in pure water ; (a) Species in which the sexual organs are com-
pletely or partially protected against rain, &c. ; (b) Species in which
the sexual organs are only slightly or not at all protected against rain,
usually completely exposed.

Capsular Fruits.§— Herr A. Weberbauer gives an exhaustive treatise
on the anatomy and physiology of capsular fruits, which he classifies
under three groups, viz. : — (A) Capsules splitting by longitudinal fissures,

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) p. 118.

t ‘ Anat. Untere. v. Blatt u. Axe d. Hippomaneen,' 62 pp., Miinchen, 1897. See
Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii. (1898) p. 49.

t SB. K. Bohm. Gesell. Wiss., 1897, No. xxiii. (76 pp.). Cf. this Journal, 1897,
p. 310.

§ Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii. (1898) pp. 54-9, 97-104, 135-42, 161-8, 193-202, 250-7,
296-302 (2 pis.).

1898

z

320 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which includes by far the greater number ; in these the teeth or valves
exhibit a variety of imbibition or hygroscopic curvatures, according to
the amount of water they absorb. The mechanical elements may occur
in one only or in several layers of cells. (B) Capsules splitting by a
transverse fissure (pyxis). (C) Fruits which do not split or are irregu-
larly ruptured.

The variations of structure are then pointed out within each natural
order ; in some cases a special anatomical character runs through a
whole group. A very large number of species are specially described
as far as the capsule is concerned.

The physiological bearings of the different types of structure of
capsular fruits are briefly discussed. The imbibition curvatures of the
walls of the capsule are connected with the dissemination and with the
protection of the seeds.

Fruit of Amphicarpaea.* * * § • — Dr. Adeline Schively finds that the
minute cleistogamic flowers of Amphicarpaea monoica , when buried,
produce one-seeded nuts with soft fruits and seed-coats ; while the purple
flowers, if buried in the bud state while still attached to the plant, pro-
duce perfect underground nuts instead of 3-4-seeded indurated pods.

Fibrovascular Bundles of Leaves. Pursuing his investigations
on the number and symmetry of the fibrovascular bundles of the petiole,
M. A. Chatin states that in Monochlamydese a single bundle is found,
as a rule, only in the woody species. An affinity is established between
the Laurinem and the Daphnacese ; wliile the Euphorbiacese are shown
to have no near affinity to the Malvaceae. The Polygonacese, with their
sheathing petioles, always multifascicular, correspond, in this sign of
degradation, with the Ranunculacese among the hypogynous Dialypetalae,
and the Umbelliferae among the perigynous Dialypetalae. There is no
corresponding structure in the highest class, the Corolli florae.

Size of the Leaves of Conifers.} — Following out his studies on this
subject, Herr R. Meissner states that in Pinus there is an alternate in-
crease and decrease in the length of the leaves in successive years.
In other genera the solitary leaves, whether on primary or secondary
branches, exhibit the same phenomenon. An increase in thickness (es-
pecially in the sieve-portion), but not in length, takes place in those
leaves whose activity extends over several years.

Adventitious Buds on Leaves of Drosera.§ — Mr. A. J. Grout re-
cords an example of this phenomenon in the case of Prosera rotundifolia,
several leaves bearing from two to ten young plants on their upper sur-
face.

Propagating Roots in Xpomaea.|| — Mr. G. L. Clothier states that
Ipomsea leptophylla produces propagating roots which originate from
various points, most abundantly from the lower part of the vertical
fleshy root. They pass out horizontally for a short distance, then rise

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) p. 117. Contrib. Bot. Lab. Univ. Pennsylvania, i.
(1897) pp. 270-363 (18 pis.).

f Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 700-6. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 210.

t Bot. Ztg., lv. (1897) lte Abth., pp. 203-18. Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 472.

§ Amer. Naturalist, xxiii. (1S98) pp. 114-5 (1 fig.).

11 Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 52-3 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

321

to near the surface of the ground several feet from the mother-plant.
Here they produce adventitious buds, and a number of young plants
may originate from a single propagating root.

Structure of Conopholis americana.* — Dr. Lucy L. W. Wilson has
made an exhaustive study of this parasite, belonging to the Orobancheae,
found only on the'1 oak. The extreme degradation of the parasite, and
the intimate relation between it and the root of the host, are comparable
rather to the parasitism of the Balanophoraceae and Rafflesiaceae than to
that of the parasitic Scrophulariaceae. The seedling parasite grows
steadily for 10 or 12 years after it attacks the oak-root, until a huge
mass 6 in. in diameter is formed. This mass is characterised chiefly
by the abundance of sclerenchyme patches, developed by the host through
the irritant action of the parasite. Stomates occur on the stem but not
on the scale-leaves. The double circle of bundles traversing the flower-
ing stem is peculiar in their xylem-portions facing one another.

j8. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

New Case of Basigamy.f — M. P. van Tieghem calls attention to
the phenomena of fecundation in Zamia, as described by Webber,*
which furnish a fresh example of basigamy, i.e. of the reversal of the
poles in the male prothallium.

When the pollen-grain germinates at the summit of the nucellus in
the pollen-chamber, the large apical cell elongates at first into a tube
which enters the nucellus, but soon deviates laterally, and continues to
grow at a tangent to the side of the nucellus at a short distance from
the surface; not only does it not approach the archegones, but it
gradually increases its distance from them. The tube then ceases to
grow, but its basal extremity, to which the extine of the pollen-grain
still adheres, and which encloses a stalked antherid, curves towards the
base, enters the nucellus vertically, and descends in it to a short distance
from the neck of the archegone. It then bursts, in order to set at liberty
its two antherozoids, one of which penetrates into the oosphere and
produces the ovum.

Embryology of Ranunculus.§ — Prof. J. M. Coulter reports the
results of a series of observations on the origin and structure of the
embryo-sac in several American species of Ranunculus ( R . septentrionalis ,
multifidus , and abortivus). Among the more important arc the following.

In the young microsporange a plate of hypodermal cells becomes
distinctly differentiated by means of their enlarging radial diameter and
prominent nuclei. This plate of cells the author regards as the arche-
spore. In the development of the megasporanges ( R . septentrionalis) a
single hypodermal cell frequently represents the whole of the arche-
spore, though in many cases the archespore is formed of a group of
cells. In R. multifidus the strong development of the antipodal cells is
a notable feature, as also the general insignificance of the nuclei of the
egg- apparatus, the synergid nuclei being especially small.

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 115-6.
f Journ. de Bot. (Morot), xi. (1897) pp. 323-6 (1 fig.),
j Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 98.

§ Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 73-88 (4 pis.).

z 2

322

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The pollen-tube, after its entrance into the embryo-sac, increases
rapidly in diameter, in some cases forming a pouch-like tip. The
definitive nucleus of the embryo-sac is remarkably large. There is
evidence of the occasional commencement of the formation of endosperm
before the fusion of the sexual elements, and even before the entrance of
the pollen-tube into the embryo-sac.

Embryogeny of Rosacese and Calycanthacese.* — Dr. B. Longo
points out a remarkable resemblance in the mode of formation of the
embryo in these two orders. In all the Rosacea) there are a number of
equivalent embryo-sac mother-cells ; these mother-cells divide tangen-
tially, each giving rise to a series of daughter-cells, of which usually
the innermost enlarge, and may be regarded as so many embryo-sacs.
Of these embryo-sacs, however, never more than one arrives at a stage
of differentiation at which impregnation can take place, the others being
arrested in development. Precisely the same phenomenon was observed;
by the author in Calycanthus occidentalis and ChimonantJius fragrans.
Although a plurality of embryo-sac mother-cells is not uncommon, the
Rosacese and the Calycanthaceae are the only orders at present known in
which it is constant.

Embryo and Endosperm in the Parietales.j — Herr E. Pritzel dis-
cusses this subject at length, especially in connection with the cell-
contents. Those of the endosperm belong to two types; it contains
either (1) oil or protein-grains, or (2) starch ; never both of these
groups of substances. The chemical character of the endosperm is
constant in large groups. The contents of the embryo, on the other
hand, vary greatly ; all three groups of reserve-substances, oil, protein,,
and starch, may be found in company. If there is starch in the endo-
sperm, there is none in the embryo, while oil and protein-substances
may occur in both. Starch is present in the embryo only when there is
no endosperm. The author classifies the orders which make up the
Parietales under five heads, viz.: — (1) Nutrient tissue copious; embryo
few-celled, undifferentiated ; (2) Nutrient tissue partially consumed
before maturity ; embryo somewhat larger ; (3) Nutrient tissue partially
consumed before maturity ; embryo large, but undifferentiated ; (4) Nu-
trient tissue partially consumed before maturity ; embryo large, differ-
entiated into leaf-like cotyledons and radicle ; (5) Nutrient tissue
completely consumed before maturity ; embryo completely differentiated
into cotyledons, plumule, and radicle.

Embryology of Naias and Zannichellia.J — Prof. D. H. Campbell
describes the origin and development of the sexual elements, the growth
of the pollen-tube, and the mode of impregnation, in these genera.

In Naias flexilis the first division of the embryo is transverse,
dividing it into a basal or suspensor cell, and a terminal or embryo cell.
The suspensor cell then enlarges considerably, but remains undivided,
and the whole of the embryo and the secondary suspensor cells are

* Atti R. Accad. Lincei, vii. (1898) pp. 51-2.

f Engler’s Bot. Jabrb., xxiv. (1897) pp. 348-94. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii.
(1898) p. 269.

X Proc. California Acad. Sci., 1897, pp. 1-62 (1 pi.). See Bot. Gazette, xxv.
(1898) p. 65.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

323

derived from the embryo cell, which first becomes divided transversely
into a number of segments. The terminal segment of the row thus
formed gives rise to the cotyledon, the second to the stem, and tho third
and fourth to the root. Iu Zannichellia the terminal segment divides
vertically, one half becoming converted into the cotyledon, and the
other half into the stem ; the second, third, and fourth segments give
rise to the root, and the fifth to the root-cap. In Naicis jiexilis the
embryo has no trace of a root-cap. In both genera the endosperm is
rudimentary. In the later stages of the embryo-sac of N. jiexilis there
is always present near the antipodal cells a large nucleus, which in-
creases to an enormous size, but does not undergo division. The stamen
of N. jiexilis is surrounded by two envelopes, the inner of which is
regarded by the author as the homologue of the ovular integument, and
the outer one as corresponding to the carpel of the female flower.

Embryology of Potamogeton.* — Mr. K. M. Wiegand has studied
the origin and development of the embryo-sac, fertilisation, and deve-
lopment of the embryo, in Potamogeton jparvijlorus. The embryo-sac
arises, as is usual in Monocotyledons, from a hypodermal cell, after the
cutting off of a tapetal cell. The egg-apparatus and antipodals are
somewhat abnormal. The polar nucleus and the first and second
synergids appear to have been cut off successively from the mother-
nucleus of the oosphere. The synergids disappear almost immediately.
The definitive nucleus cuts off a very large basal nucleus, as in Sagit-
taria , before endosperm formation proceeds in the upper part of the
embryo-sac.

Embryo-sac of Hybrid Narcissi.f — According to Dr. A. Preda, in
all the forms of hybrid Narcissi examined the nuclei of the synergids
and that of the oosphere are erythrophilous ; and the same is the case
with the secondary nucleus. On the other hand the nuclei of the anti-
podals are strongly cyanophilous. It is, therefore, incorrect to speak of
the nuclei of the embryo-sac as being always erythrophilous.

Theories of Heredity .J — Mr. W. T. Swingle dissents from Weis-
mann’s theory of reduction of chromosomes. Arguing from the extreme
polymorphism often displayed in the first generation of hybrids between
races of cultivated plants, or between closely related species, he considers
it necessary to assume, in some cases at least, a predetermination of the
characters of the hybrid at the time of fusion of the male and female
nuclei. The male and female chromosomes probably persist side by
side unchanged in number, during the whole of the ontogeny of the
hybrid, reduction not occurring until the close of the first generation.

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Action of Organic Acids on Growth.§ — Experiments made by Sig.
G. Lopriore on the action of organic acids — citric, malic, tartaric, tannic
— on the growth of pollen-tubes showed a uniformly favourable result,
but a specific variation in the influence of different acids of the same

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 116-7.

t Arch. Sci. Phys. ct Nat., iv. (1897) p. 590.

X Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 111-13.

§ Bot. Zt", lv. (1897) 2tc Abth., pp. 362-3.

324

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

concentration. With solutions' of the acids varying between 1 : 50,000
and 1 : 60,000 a favourable influence on growth was exhibited.

Influence of the Rontgen Rays on Germination.* * * § — From a series

of observations made by MM. Maldiney and Thouvenin on Convolvulus
arvensis, Lepidium sativum , and Panicum miliaceum, they conclude that
the effect of the X-rays is to promote germination. The young plants,
on first germinating, present the usual pale green colour, from which
it is inferred that these rays have no influence on the formation of
chloropihyll.

Germination of the Mistletoe.! — Herr J. Wiesner confirms the state-
ment that the seeds of Viscum album require a six months’ period of re-
pose before germination, which cannot take place in the dark, even when
other conditions are favourable. The seedlings are ombrophobous,
while those of tropical species of Viscum are ombrophilous. The seeds
of tropical species also need no period of repose. Light is not essential
for the germination of the seeds of Loranthus europseus. The prevalent
idea that the viscin-mucilage of the seeds of the mistletoe is essential for
their germination is not founded on fact ; they germinate even better
when freed from it.

Transpiration of Halophytes. J — Herr O. Rosenberg points out that
many plants which grow in moist situations nevertheless present par-
tially xerophilous characters. Employing Stahl’s cobalt-test § for trans-
piration in the case of a number of marine plants, he states that the
number of stomates is by no means always a certain measure of the
amount of transpiration. Many halophytes have not by any means lost
the power of closing their stomates. The upper surface of the leaf has
frequently a distinctly higher intensity of transpiration than the under
surface, a difference not to be explained by the distribution of the sto-
mates. In certain cases, therefore, the intensity of transpiration is not
determined by the number and size of the stomates.

Movement of the Sap in Plants.|] — Herr A. Mayer discusses the
reversed current stated by Bohm to occur in sunflowers when decapitated,
and believes that it is a result of the tearing of the tissues. He states
that, while the cell-walls in the root are permeable for pure water, or for
water containing a small amount of mineral salts in solution, they are
not permeable for colloidal organic substances in solution.

(3) Irritability.

New Property of Geotropically Irritated RootsA — HerrF. Czapek
claims to have discovered a change in the chemical reactions of cells
when exposed to geotropic irritation. A substance which hag the pro-
perty of reducing an ammoniacal solution of silver nitrate is always
present in the cells of the root, especially in those of the periblem. But

* Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 548-9. Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), xii.
(1898) pp. 81-6 (2 pis.).

f Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1'897) pp. 503-16.

X Ofv. K. vetensk. Akad. Forhandl. Stockholm, 1897, pp. 531-49 (1 fig.) (German).

§ Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 130.

|| Forsch. a. d. Geb. d. Agriculturphysik, xx. See Bot. Centralbl , lxxiii. (1898)
p. 47. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 516-20.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

S25

this reaction becomes stronger when the apex of the root has been geo-
tropically irritated. This is accompanied by a redaction in the quantity
of a substance which easily gives off oxygen, and which is also normally
present in the apex of roots. These results were obtained from the
radicle of Vicia Foba , Lupinus albus , Pisurn sativum , Zea Mays, and
Cucurbita Pepo , and the coleoptile of Avena saliva.

Aerotropism in a Saprolegniaceous Fungus.* — In a culture of
Dicfyuchus monosporus, Dr. L. Oelakovsky observed a constant tendency
of the germinating filaments to grow towards the margin of the cover-
glass. Since the conditions prevented the possibility of this growth
being due to either light or temperature, the author regards it as an un-
doubted instance of positive aerotropism. The oxygen appears also to
produce a local branching on the side exposed to its action.

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Formation of Albumen in Plants.f — Herr W. Zaleski discusses the
question, with respect to which contrary assertions have been made,
whether albuminoid substances can be formed in the plant in the dark.
From a series of experiments on leaves (sunflower), he has come to the
conclusion that the nitrates taken up into the leaves are there decom-
posed, and transformed into other nitrogenous compounds. This trans-
formation is connected with the access of sugar, which renders possible
the passage of nitrates into other compounds, probably of the nature of
amides. These processes can take place in the dark.

Cellulose-Enzyme4 — In addition to the examples already known,
Dr. F. C. Newcombe records the extraction of an enzyme which digests
cellulose from seedlings of the date-palm and of Lupinus albus , and from
the mycele of Aspergillus Oryzse. The author does not agree with the
suggestion of Griiss that the cellulose-enzyme is identical with diastase.
In all the above cases the enzyme also dissolves starch ; but the specific
intensity of action is not the same for starch as for cellulose. The
Aspergillus ferment is the one which acts most rapidly on the cell-wall,
the date ferment least rapidly.

Ammoniacal Fermentation due to MucedineseJ — According to
M. 0. Semal, certain simple Mucedineae, such as Penicillium , Aspergillus,
and Fusarium, cultivated in media containing organic compounds with
the amidogenous radicle NH2, are capable of producing ammoniacal fer-
mentation. The doubling of the nitrogenous compounds takes place
with the assistance of a soluble ferment secreted by different fungi.
This soluble ferment possesses, in the cases examined, an individuality
belonging to each compound.

y. General.

Metamorphosis in Plants. || — Prof. S. H. Vines gives a historical
account of the theory of the metamorphosis of the foliar organs of plants,
as taught by Goethe, Wolff, and Linnaeus. The statement that “all

* SB. K. Bohm. Gesell. Wiss., 1897, No. xxxviii. (11 pp. and 1 pi.) (Bohemian
with German abstract).

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 536-42.

% Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii. (1898) pp. 105-8. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 225.

§ La Cellule, xiii. (1897) pp. 285-312.

|| Science Progress, ii. (1898) pp. 79-104,

326

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

parts of the plant except the stem are modified leaves ” was first made
by Wolff in 1767. As to the force by which the metamorphoses are
brought about, the author sums up thus : — “ Whilst we admit that ex-
ternal conditions and agencies may be the vera causa of any given meta-
morphosis, we cannot fail to perceive that they constitute but the
proximate cause, whilst the ultimate cause resides in the organisation of
the plant itself.”

Relationship of Phanerogams and Cryptogams.* * * § — Herr W. Belajeff
gives a careful resume of the development of our knowledge of the mode
of impregnation in Gymnosperms from the time of Hofmeister to the
recent discovery of motile antherozoids in the Coniferae and Cycadese,
which so clearly point to the Gymnosperms forming a connecting link
between the Pteridophyta and the Angiosperms.

Evolution of Assimilative Tissue in Sporophytes* — Mr. C. C.
Curtis discusses the origin of the separation, in the Pteridophyta, of the
sporogenous tissue into isolated portions (sporanges), and the develop-
ment of appendages (leaves) from the sporophyte. He regards the
Filicinm as having but a remote alliance with the Equisetinse and the
Lycopodinse ; but each of the classes presents features which suggest a
descent from the Anthocerotete, although the intermediate stages have
been. hopelessly lost. But among some of the simpler of the eusporan-
giate Filicinae the relationship appears very manifest, especially in the
structure of the so-called fertile leaf. The Gymnosperms and Angio-
sperms only carry out more fully the departure of the Pteridophyta from
the ancestral anthocerotal type.

Winter Characters of Sporanges. :}: — Mr. G. Chamberlain has in-
vestigated the condition in w'hich certain sporanges remain dormant in
the winter season, both in the higher Cryptogams and in Flowering
Plants, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms. He finds that the sporanges
of different plants pass the winter in very different stages of development,
though the stage is probably uniform for the same species. A very
usual halting place in the development of sporanges appears to be the
spore-mother-cell.

B. CBYPTOGAMIA.

Muscineee.

Bursting of the Antherid in Polytrichum.§— Herr F. Schaar de-
scribes the mode of escape of the antherozoids in several species of
Polytrichum, especially P. juniperinum. At the apex of each ripe
antherid is a cap, formed of cells of the antherid- wall with greatly
thickened membranes. These cells are entirely devoid of starch, which
has been used up in the thickening of the walls ; they contain but little
protoplasm, and no chlorophyll. It is the swelling of these thickened
walls that plays the greatest part in the bursting of the antherid. Their
pressure causes a strong tension of the cuticle at the apex of the antherid,
and this finally bursts. The cell-membranes become gradually converted

* Biol. Central!)]., xviii. (1898) pp. 209-18.

t Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxv. (1898) pp. 25-9.

+ Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 124-8 (1 pi.).

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (3897) pp. 479-S2 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

327

into mucilage, and the apical cells are forced out, carrying with them
the antherozoids still imbedded in the swollen membranes of their
mother-cells.

Braithwaite’s British Moss-Flora.*— The last part published of this
work (pt. xviii.) is entirely devoted to the genus Amblystegium , tho
number of species described now amounting to forty. Each species is
illustrated, both as regards its general habit and the characteristic
points of its structure.

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Musci).t — In the
two most recently published parts of this work the genus Plcigiothecium
is completed, with 31 species in all; Amblystegium follows, with 19
European species ; and a commencement is then made of the important
genus Hypnum. It is divided first of all into 10 subgenera, viz. : —
Scorpidium, Acrocladium, Calliergon, Hygrohypnum, Chrysohypnum,
Drepanocladus, Cratoneuron, Ptilium, Ctenidium, and Stereodon. The
sub-genus Chrysohypnum is first taken up, with 8 species, followed by
Drepanocladus (syn. Harpidium), under which 19 species are included.

Characese.

Migula’s European Characeae.l — Founded on his contribution to
Eabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany, Dr. W. Migula now pub-
lishes a complete synopsis of the European Characese, with a reference
also to the extra-European species. It comprises 13 species of Nitella,
6 of Tolypella, 2 of Lamprothamnus, 28 of Chara, 1 of Tolypellopsis,
and 1 of Lychnothamnus. Every species is figured, except Tolypella
hispanica, and in the case of the variable species, a large number of sub-
species or varieties. The systematic part is prefaced by an introduction,
giving a full account of the structure of the family, together with instruc-
tions for collecting and preserving the specimens. It forms a complete
and admirable monograph of the order.

Algae.

Studies in the Confer vales. § — According to Herr K. Bohlin, the
membrane of Microspora is composed of pure cellulose, while that of
Conferva and Ophiocytium is, for the most part, an acid pectin compound.
The membrane of Conferva consists of H-formed particles with the fol-
lowing structure. The middle portion is constructed of a transverse
plate, and of a more or less cylindrical portion. On both sides of this
are finger-stall-like layers, added by apposition. The last of these
forms an imperfect, circle, and from it, together with a probably simul-
taneously formed transverse wall, is formed a new middle portion, on
which are laid down new finger-stall-formed lamellae. In the species of
Microspora examined, there was no such stratification observed ; each of
the H-shaped portions appeared to be homogeneous.

The membrane of an Ophiocytium or Sciadium consists of two halves,
of which the lower is much longer than the upper one.

* Pt. xviii. 1898, 28 pp. and 6 pis. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 221.

f Pts. 31, 32. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 146.

j ‘ Synopsis Characearum europsearum/ Leipzig, 1898, 176 pp. and 133 figs.

§ Bih. k. Svensk. Yetensk. Akad. Handl., xxiii. (1897) 56 pp. and 2 pis. Soe
Bot. Centralbl., xxiii. (1898) p. 213.

328

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In Conferva every cell has one or two nuclei. The chromatophores
of Conferva and Ophiocytium have a much more yellow-green colour
than those of other Chlorophyceee. The propagation of Ophiocytium is
effected by cells resembling aplanospores. It is possible that all the
Confervales are descended from Chloramoeba g. n., vide infra , p. 329.

The author suggests the following classification of the Confervales,
which he defines as uni- or pluricellular Algae, the cells inclosing dis-
tinct disc-shaped chromatophores destitute of starch ; zoospores provided
with a single ciiium.

Fam. 1. CoNFERVACEiE : — Thallus uni- or multicellular ; gametes
biciliate ; pyrenoids wanting (Polychloris , Botrydiopsis, Bumilleria ,
Ophiocytium, Sciadium, Conferva). Fam. II. Chlorotheciace.® : — Cells
solitary or coherent into a thallus ; gametes uniciliate ; pyrenoids want-
ing ( Chlorothecium , Mischococcus, Perionella, Characiopsis (?), Actides -
mium). Fam, III. Botrydiace^ : — Thallus unicellular, multinucleate,
composed of stem and rhizoids ; gametes biciliate (?) ; pyrenoids present
in the young plant ( Botrydium ).

Phyllosiphon Arisari.* — Dr. L. Buscalioni has studied the develop-
ment of this Alga within the tissue of the leaf of Arisarum vulgare. In
the first stages of development the protoplasm of the parasite has a
cloudy finely granular appearance and contains vacuoles ; the nuclei
are large and numerous, and contain nucleoles. At a later period the
nuclei put out amoeboid protuberances ; they multiply by fragmenta-
tion ; no karyokinetic processes were observed. The spores are
formed as soon as the division of the nucleus is completed. The
nucleus of the megaspore breaks up into four fragments, the cytoplasm
also dividing into four segments ; these unite in the centre of their
mother-cell, and, after becoming clothed with a membrane, the megaspore
becomes a sporange. The spores germinate while still within the tissue
of the host.

Chlamydomyxa labyrmthuloides.j — Herr G. Hieronymus has made
an exhaustive examination of the structure and life-history of this rare
organism, first discovered by Archer.

The amoeboid processes are usually formed by the entire cell-contents,
always containing a number of nuclei, escaping from the cell-wall. This
body then generally divides into two amoebae, or, if into a larger number,
it frequently assumes a labyrinthine condition, in which a variety of
living organisms are absorbed and consumed.

The cysts contain one or more nuclei, according to their size, and
are commonly found imbedded in Sphagnwn~ce\\s. The cell-contents
may be agglomerated into distinct masses or energids connected together
by fine hyaline threads of protoplasm, which contain physodes and
chromatophores, but never nuclei ; the chromatophores gradually assume
a red colour, and become converted into oil-drops, serving for the
nutriment of the organism.

Each cyst or amoeba of Chlamydomyxa contains one or more nuclei ;
their division appears to combine the characters of direct and karyo-
kinetic division. The chromatophores are undoubtedly such, and not

* Rend. R. Accad. Lincei, vi. (1897) pp. 46-52.
t Hedwigia, xxxvi. (1898) pp. 1-49 (2 pis. and 10 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

329

green symbiotic algae. The red pigment is of the nature of a lipocbrome.
The protoplasm contains crystals of calcium oxalate.

An organism found in constant association with the Chlamydomyxa ,
and believed by some .to be genetically associated with it, is identified
by the author as Urococcus Hooherianus (Bab. non Hass.)

Chlamydomyxa must be regarded as the lowest type of the Algae
characterised by yellow-brown chromatopliores.

Hew Unicellular Algae.* — In the shallow fresh waters near Stock-
holm, Herr K. Bohlin finds representatives of no less than three new
genera of Unicellular Algae, viz. : —

Brachiomonas g. n., belonging to the Chlamydomonadeae, and distin-
guished from the other genera of that family chiefly by the peculiar
form of the cell. The body of the cell has five appendages, one poste-
rior in the direction of the length of the cell ; the remaining four
arranged symmetrically on the sides, and forming a cross. Each cell
contains a nucleus and pyrenoid, and is provided with two cilia. It
propagates by division, the final product being gametes, with very much
the form of the mother-cell. Two species are described, Brachiomonas
submarina and gracilis.

Chloramoeba g. n. The usually round or broadly elliptical cell is
naked ; the external layer of protoplasm gives rise to amoeboid move-
ments. It is biciliated, the two cilia being of very unequal length. The
green colour disappears in the dark. It multiplies with extraordinary
rapidity, the cells being filled with a white oil. The author places the
genus among the Chloromonadeae of Klebs, along with Vacuolaria and
Baphidomonas.

Phseodactylum g. n. Each cell has the form of a star, the three
narrow arms lying in one plane, and forming square angles with one
another. In each cell is a parietal yellowish-brown chromatophore.
Multiplication takes place by division in a plane passing through ail
the arms. The author proposes to form, from this genus and Stichogloea
Chod., a family of yellow-brown algae parallel to the Pleurococcaceae
among green algae.

The author further describes Chlorogonium letragonum sp. n., in which
the gametes are produced by simple quadriparfcition of the contents of
the mother-cell; and Oocystis Echidna sp. n., the membrane of which is
covered with long slender spines.

Fungi.

Nitrogenous Pigments of Eungi.t— M. B. Van den Dries finds, in
Aspergillus niger , A. fuliginosus, and Polyporus sulphur eus, nitrogenous
pigments of the nature of aspergillin. These substances are nearly
related to one another, but are not identical. They have an acid reac-
tion, and are probably true amides. Aspergillin is not a haematine; it
does not contain a trace of iron, and docs not exhibit its characteristic
band in its spectrum. Aspergillin is very nearly related to the tannins.
In other species of Aspergillus, and in Fusarium Hordei, colouring
matters of a very different character were found, including one with a
basic reaction.

* Ofv. k. vetensk. Ahad. Forhandl. Stockholm, 1897, jp. £07-30 (9 figs.)
(German). f La Cellule, xiii. (1897.) pp. 413-46.

330

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Mineral Food-Material of Fungi.* * * § — M. E. Guntlier confirms tlie
conclusions of Molisch and Benecke. With a high concentration of the
mineral salts, the rapidity of growth is retarded. For a favourable
nutrient solution for Fungi, a potassium salt, a magnesium salt, a sul-
phate, and a phosphate are essential. Neither the potassium nor the
magnesium can be replaced by other elements. Salts of copper, while
poisonous when present in large quantities, promote growth when very
dilute.

New Species of Mucor.f — In addition to the species previously
enumerated, Herr W. Schostakowitsch describes the following new
species of Mucor from Siberia : — M. irkutensis, M. heterosporus sibiricus,
M. de Baryanus, and M. angarensis.

New Genera of Fungi. — Together with a very large number of
new species of ascomycetous Fungi, mostly parasitic or saprophytic,
from Java, Prof. O. Penzig and Sig. P. A. Saccardo + describe the
following new genera : —

Bteridiospora g. n. Perithecia subsuperficialia, globoso-conica, car-
bonacea, nigrantia, ostiolo papillato; asci paraphysati, octospori ; sporidia
oblonga, bilocularia, hyalina ; membrana hyalina, mucosa, deorsum in
alam spathulatam producta, obvoluta. Among Hyalodidymae.

3Ielchioria g. n. Perithecia in caespitulos superficiales botryose
aggregata, sed discreta, globulosa, papillata, nigra carbonacea, stromate
albo molliusculo interposito ; asci oblongo-fusoidei, octospori, obsolete
paraphysati ; sporidia fusoidea, 1-septata, hyalina. As the last.

Hormosperma g. n. Perithecia superficialia, atra, globulosa, papillata,
exigua, setulosa ; asci cylindracei, aparaphysati, suboctospori ; sporidia
cylindricea, moniliformia, typice 8-locularia, subhyalina, loculis globoso-
cuboideis, facile secedentibus. Among Hyalophragmias.

Boerlagella g. n. Perithecia superficialia, globulosa, setosa, nigra,
typice byssiseda ; asci elongati, octospori, paraphysati ; sporidia elongata,
majuscula, pluriseptato-muriformia, hyalina. Among Hyalodictyae.

Leptosporella g. n. Perithecia superficialia, carbonacea, globosa,
papillata, atra, glabra ; asci elongati, 8-spori, sporidia cylin<irico-vermi-
cularia, genuine v. spurie pluri-septata, hyalina. Among Scolecospone.

Bactrosphseria g. n. Perithecia superficialia, verticaliter elongato-
cylindracea, sursum angulosa verruculosa, membranaceo-carbonacea,
nigra, ostiolo sulcato-radiato ; asci cylindracei, aparaphysati, 8-spori ;
sporidia bacillaria, pluriseptata, subhyalina, ascum subsequantia. As
the last.

Prof. O. Penzig § found also in Java the type of a new genus of
Tuberculariese, which he defines as follows : —

Amallospora g. n. Sporodochia verruciformia v. tuberculata, sessilia,
mucilaginosa, hyphis radiantibus subsimplicibus tenuibus, muco ob-
volutis ; conidia in hypharum apice solitaria, primum simplicia, dein
transverse pluriseptata, ac proliferatione laterali aucta ; maturitate in
manipulos quosdam conjuncta, incoloria.

* Beitr. z. mineral. Nahrung d. Pilze, Erlangen, 1897. See Bot. Ztg., lv. (1897)
2te Abth., p. 379. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 545.

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 471-4 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal,

1897, p. 419. % Malpighia, xi. (1897) pp. 387-413.

§ Tom. cit. pp. 461-4 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

331

Parasitic Fungi. — Herr C. Schroter * * * § finds, on the diatom Fragilaria
crotensis var. elongata, but not on the var. curta, in plankton of the Lake
of Zurich, a parasitic organism, Phizophidium fusus , belonging to the
Chytridiacete.

A pine-apple mould is found by Prof. B. D. Halsted f to be com-
posed of Ohalaria paradoxa, or a closely allied species, characterised by
producing three different kinds of spore : — hyaline cylindrical micro-
gonids 4-5 by 16-10 /x, and ovoid olive-brown megaconids 8-9 by
16—18 /x, together with a third form, resembling the megaconids in
colour, but the microconids in size. A similar fungus is connected with
the “ galls ” on the root of the peach.

The asparagus-rust, Puccinia Asparagi, is described by the same
writer as becoming very destructive to crops in the United States. It is
itself largely infested by a fungus parasitic upon it, Darluca filum.

The green spots on mandarin oranges were found by M. Trabut J to
be produced by a fungus which he names Septoria glancescens sp. n. It
produces fermentation of the sugar and of the citric acid, causing the
peculiar flavour which is a modification of the special perfume.

On slime from a plane-tree, Herr R. Meissner § finds a new species
intermediate between Eurotium Aspergillus glaucus and E. repens, which
he names Eurotium Aspergillus medius. It is characterised by the
orange-red colour of the older hyphse of the mvcele.

According to Mr. B. M. Duggar and Mr. L. H. Bailey || the two dis-
eases of the celery known as “ early blight ” and “ late blight ” are due
respectively to the attacks of Cercospora Apii and Septoria Petroselini
var. Apii.

On the fields of maize in Java, M. Kaciborski % finds a parasitic
fungus which he names Peronospora Maydis sp. n., causing great de-
struction to the crops.

Under the name Trichodytes Anemones g. et sp. n., Herr H. Klebahn**
describes a parasitic fungus which attacks the glandular hairs of
Anemone nemorosa. He regards the genus as belonging to the Melan-
conieae, and nearly related to Gloeosporium and Cylindrosporium.

Red Yeasts.ft — Miss K. E. Golden and Mr. C. G. Ferris describe
three red yeasts obtained from the air of the laboratory. Though resem-
bling Saccharomycetes in appearance, both microscopically and in gross
growth, they are unable to form true ascospores. Ho. 1 is intermediate
between Saccharomyces and Torula , in that it forms spore-like bodies,
though these are not true spores, as they neither form the spore-wall nor
bud in germinating, It resembles S. rosaceus in the appearance of the
colonies and in not forming chains. No. 2 is undoubtedly S. glutinis.
No. 3 is apparently a new species of My coderma, though in general
appearance it is much like M. Humuli. The latter, however, liquefies
gelatin, which is decomposed with the production of a foul odour. No. 3
neither liquefies gelatin nor generates any odour.

* Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat , iv. (1897) pp. 474-5.

f Bull. Torrev Bot. Club, xxiv. (1897) pp. 505-10.

X Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 549-50.

§ Bot. Ztg., lv. (1897) 2*® Abtli., pp. 337-44, 353-7 (12 figs.).

|| Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stat , 1897, pp. 201-30.

1 Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 475-8 (1 fig.).

** Tom. cit., pp. 527-36 (1 pi.).

tf Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 39-46 (2 pis.).

332

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Mycorhiza on the Roots of Philesia.* — Mr. J. M. Macfarlane
records an example of this, only the second instance known of symbiosis
between a fungus and a plant belonging to the Liliacese. The myco-
rhiza forms an abundant growth in the mesocortex. The large spherical
starch-grains of these cells were abundantly acted on by the hyphaj,
being dissolved rather than corroded. A large amount of proteid sub-
stance then appeared in the hyphse.

Podaxine8e4 — In the forest of Vallombrosa, Sig. F. Cavara finds a
fungus which he regards as the type of a new genus of this family of
Gastromycetes, which is chiefly extra-European. It is diagnosed as
follows : —

Elasmomyces g. n. Receptaculum semi-epigaeum, stipitatum, globu-
lare, primo clausum, dein inferne apertum, subtus lamellis spuriis crassis
radiantibus donatum ; stipes brevis, farctus, evolvatus in columellam
usque ad peridium desinens ; gleba celluloso-spongiosa ; hymenium e
basidiis 2-4 sterigmaticis, cystidiis, paraphysibusque efformatum ; sporis
sphaericis, difformibus, aculeatis.

The author regards the genus as exhibiting certain affinities with
the pileate Hymenomycetes, agreeing with them in the stipitate pileus,
in the constitution of the hymenium, and even in the presence of cyetids,
which is very unusual among the Gastromycetes. The spherical spores
is another striking peculiarity ; they are always of two sizes, megaspores
and microspores.

Spores of the Truffle.^ — M. A. de Gramont de Lesparre gives further
details with regard to the development of what he terms the “ male ”
and the cf female ” spores of the truffle. After impregnation of the
female spore or of its pseudospore, it puts out very delicate hypodermal
filaments ; these filaments produce on the surface round black spores,
the teleutospores, from which the mycele is again developed.

Geopora and its Allies.§ — Dr. E. Fischer identifies the underground
fungus known as Hydnocystis gyrosa with Geopora Cooperi. These two
genera of Hypogsei differ only in the labyrinthine appearance of the
receptacle of Geopora caused by the folding in of its outer coat.

Stutzer and Hartleb’s Nitre Fungi. — Prof. A. Gartner [| character-
ises the views and statements of Stutzer and Hartleb ^ about nitre fungi
as erroneous. He states that the liquid culture forwarded to him by
Stutzer was neither a mould nor a young or preliminary stage thereof.
The mould sent was morphologically constant, and formed no nitrate. So
too all the other species in the cultures were constant, and none of the
micro-organisms, when grown on organic nitrogen, were able to oxidise
this to nitrite, or the nitrite to nitrate.

Prof. C. Fraenkel ** also investigated the character and properties
of Stutzer and Plartleb’s fungi, and came to a conclusion similar to that
of Gartner.

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 106-7.

f Malpighia, xi.(1897) pp. 414-28 (1 pi.).

t Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 443-7 (9 figs.).

§ Hedwigia, xxxvii. (1898) pp. 56-60 (2 figs.).

|| Centralb]. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 1-7, 52-61, 109-19 (2 pis.).

If Cf. this Journal, 1896, p. 105; 1897, pp. 146, 236.

** Tom. cit., pp. 8-13, 62-67.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

333

Experimental Production of Russell’s Fuchsin-Bodies.* — Prof. F.
Sanfelice reopens the question of the meaning of Russell’s fuchsin-
bodies, which by most histological investigators were held to be of
artificial origin. These fuchsin-bodies have been observed in malignant
tumours and in chronic inflammatory products. During the past year
the author has constantly met with them in cats inoculated with Sac-
charomyces neoformans, but never in the tissues of normal cats. The
appearance of the fuchsin-bodies seen in the tissues of cats infected
with S. neoformans is well depicted in the coloured illustrations.
The Blastomycetes are seen as round bodies lying free or within cells.
The intracellular bodies are small and numerous. Those which are
free are large and circular ; some are in the act of budding, while
others are surrounded by a halo or capsule. The parasites are stained
blue, and the nuclei of the tissue cells red.

Cheese Ripening, j — Dr. 0. Johan-Olsen records very interesting
experiences in the endeavour to ascertain the fungi which effect the
ripening of cheese. The author’s results are quite different from those
of other observers. Cheese is ripened by the symbiotic action of several
fungi ; thus “ Gammelost ” cheese is ripened by the action of lactic acid
ferments, by the symbiosis of Chlamydomucor easel sp. n. and Penicillium
easel sp. n. J.-O., often, but not always, assisted by Dematium easel and
Tyrothrlx i.

The best cheeses are better without the last two, though some people
prefer cheeses with characters imparted by these fungi.

The author’s method of making cheese is as follows. As perfectly
skimmed milk is no use, he adds 2 per cent, of unskimmed milk to the
separated milk. The mixture is then pasteurised, cooled, and when
placed in wooden vessels, pure cultures of lactic acid ferments, Mucor
and Penicillium , are added. The temperature is kept between 16° and
20°. When the correct degree of acidity is attained (18-20 per cent, with
1/4 normal soda solution) the fermentation is stopped. The fermented
milk is then thoroughly stirred, boiled, strained, and moulded. Before
being moulded, Chlamydomucor easel , Mucor easel i, and Penicillium
aromaticum easel are added. During the moulding the cheese mass
should not be under 80°, and should then be allowed to stand for
24 hours.

The cheeses are then removed from the moulds and placed in a room
where the air is dry, warm, and ventilated. After this the cheese may
be altered to suit the taste of the consumers — that is to say, warmth
aids Mucor fermentation, a moderated temperature Penicillium . If Mucor
predominates, the cheeses are brown ; if Penicillium , green. If they are
to be sharp they should be placed in cultures of Tyrothrlx or Dematium
casei, and kept moist and warm for some days. In fact, the ripening
process can be manipulated as desired. The average ripening time is
6-7 weeks.

The article is well illustrated.

Production of Favus Cups by the Inoculation of a Pyogenic
Trichophyton.! — MM. Sabrazes and Brengues record the* fact that a

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 274-80, 311-18 (1 p].).

t Op. cit., 2t# Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 161-9 (6 pis. and 17 figs.).

t Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 1160-1.

334

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

fungus, morphologically a Trichophyton, and obtained from sycosis of
the beard, when inoculated on the human skin, set up suppuration, and
that the affected area was bestudded with small sulphur-yellow cups,
having the naked eye and microscopical characters of favus cups. Sub-
cultures showed resemblance to the pyogenic Trichophyton of the horse.
The same fungus inoculated on two mice produced typical favus cups.
These cups are less invasive than those of human or canine favus. The
authors contend that their observations prove that the barriers between
Trichophyton and Achorion are less absolute than are supposed.

Protophyta.
a. Schizophycese-

Curvatures and Structure of the Membrane in the Schizophy-
ceae.* — Fresh observations by Herr E. Kolkwitz do not enable him to
confirm in all points the account given by Correns of the curvature of
the lower Algte. The curvatures are not spontaneous, but are the result
of contact. The phenomena already described in the Oscillatoriaceee
are presented also in Beggiatoa mirahilis. The foulness of the water in
which Beggiatoa habitually grows causes it to coil up into a ball.

"With regard to the nature of the membrane (in Oscillatoria maxima ),
the author finds it to exhibit fine punctations, which he believes to be of
the same nature as that in Gloeocapsa , and to be due to a granular structure.

New Genera of Protococcoideae.f — Among the results of the first
Eegnell expedition, Herr K. Bohlin describes the following new genera
of Protococcoideae : —

Echallocystis g. n. Thallus macroscopicus, viridis, stratum efficiens;
cellulae oblongae, in divisione membrana cellulae maternae dehiscens ;
cellulae sororiae ad earn se fingentes excreto mucoso, interstitium conicum
cellulorum explente : amylum adest. Placed under Tetrasporeae.

Pilidiocystis g. n. Alga viridis, cellulis ovoideis, membrana ex maxima
parte tenuis, incolorata, sed ad angustiorem partem cellulae incrassata,
umbonem rubellum efficiens, ad partem latiorem cellulae tuberculo
minimo, stipitem unum v. duos ferente, instructa ; pyrenoidibus singulis
in angustiore parte cellulae ; amylum adest ; propagatio 2-4-partitione
contentus cellularis ; cellulis filiis solutione membranae totius maternae,
umbono rubello excepto, liberatis. Near Oocystis and Lagerheimia.

Selenoderma g. n. Alga viridis, thallo mucoso macroscopico, cellulis
late lunatis, irregulariter in muco dispositis ; chlorophoris singulis
parietalibus, pyrenoidibus singulis instructis ; propagatio 2-4-partitione
cellularum ; alii modi propagations ignoti. Near Kirchneriella.

Thermal Algae. % — Miss Josephine E. Tilden enumerates the algae
(Schizophyceae) collected from several warm springs in the United
states and in Canada. They include a number of new forms, and two
new species, Microspora Weedii and Spirulina caldaria.

New Plankton-Forms.§ — M. B. Schroder describes in detail the
composition of the plankton of the Oder, in which he finds the following

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Geeell., xv. (1897) pp. 460-7 (1 ph). Cf. this Journal, 1897,
p. 324.

t Bih. k. Svensk. Vetensk. Akad. Handl., xxiii. (1897) 47 pp. and 2 pis.

% Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 89-105 (3 pis.).

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 482-92.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

335

new species : — Reinschiella (?) setigera (Pleurococcaceae), with the ex-
ternal habit of a Rhizosolenia ; Golenkinia fenestrata, sometimes in
enormous quantities, each colony occasionally consisting of as many as
64 cells ; and Telrapedia emarginata.

Reproduction of Diatoms.* — Comte Abbe F. Castracane reviews the
recent literature on this subject, confirming his previous view that the
normal mode of reproduction of diatoms is by spores or by germs, and
that multiplication by division, although very common, is the exception
rather than the rule. The evidence of fossil diatoms shows that the
siliceous wall is present from the first moment of the existence of the
diatom, and that, like other organisms, it is small when first formed,
gradually growing to its full size.

Rhizosolenia and Attheya.j — In the plankton of the Plbner See,
Dr. 0. Zacharias finds representatives of both these genera of diatoms,
and argues for their very close affinity, if not identity. In Rhizosolenia
he records, moreover, the formation of chains.

Cause of Odours and Tastes in Drinking Waters. J — Mr. D. D.
Jackson and Mr. J. W. Ellms point out that while some of the Cyano-
phycese (especially Anabsena ) produce disagreeable odours in surface
waters by the decay of nitrogenous organic matters, the usual cause of
unpleasant odours and tastes occurring in potable water is the large
numbers of certain microscopical organisms which secrete compounds
of the nature of essential oils as a phenomenon of growth. Besides
Anabsena, an odour of decay is produced by other Cyanophycese, —
Rivularia , Clathrocystis, Goelospliserium, Aphanizomenon. The organisms
■enumerated which emit odours of growth are the following : — Diatomacem
( Asterionella , Tabellaria, Meridion) ; Chlorophyceae (Volvox, Pandorina,
Eudorina) ; Infusoria ( Uroglena , Dinobryon, Synura, Bursaria , Peri-
dinium , Cryptomoncis, Mallomonas). Most of these produce fishy, some
of them aromatic smells. The odour of the Cyanophycese is produced
by the decay of highly nitrogenous organic matter, in which partially
decomposed sulphur and phosphorus compounds play the leading part.

Gas-Vacuoles of Gloiotrichia.§ — In opposition to the view of Richter,
Herr H. Klebahn maintains that the red bodies in Gloiotrlchia echinulata
are gas-vacuoles, though the composition of the contained gas could not
be ascertained.

B. Sch.izomycetes.

Myxobacteriaee8e.|| — Herr H. Zukal has now adopted Thaxter’s
view § that this group of organisms must be ranked under the Schizo-
mycetes rather than under the Myxomycetes. The structure which he
before described as a plasmode is rather a pseudo-plasmode, i.e. it does
not result from the coalescence of active swarm-cells, but is rather a
collection of swarm-cells in which each retains its individuality and can
be again separated from the mass. The Myxobacteriacete are charac-

* Ann. de Micrographie, ix. (18D7) pp. 473-503.

+ Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 161-6 (4 figs.).

% Technology Quarterly, x. (1897) pp. 410-20 (1 pi.).

* Bot. Ztg., lv. (1897) 2te Abt., p. 319. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 345.

|| Ber. Deutscb. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897) pp. 542-52 (1 pi.) Cf. this Journal,
1R97, p. 154. § Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 569.

1898 2 A

336 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

terised by the formation of a receptacle from this mass of swarm-cells in
precisely the same wray as that of a Myxomycete from a true plasmode.
The pseuclo-plasmode is formed by the swarming of true bacteria.

In the case of Chondromyces (Myxobotrys), the bacterium is a rod,
4-7 /x long, rounded at the ends, often irregularly bent, which possesses
the power of swarming under certain conditions, forming a pseudo-
plasmode about 1 mm. in diameter, which becomes invested by a gela-
tinous envelope. Within this the greater part of the bacteria are used
up in the formation of spores. Each rodlet increases in length, and
divides by septa into from 4 to 6 cells, which round themselves off,
invest themselves "with a rather thick membrane, and become the spores.

According to the author, Thaxter’s generic name Myxobacter must
give place to Polyangium, under which the organism has been described
as the egg of an insect. A new species of Myxococcus, M. macrosporus,
is described, growing on the batk of poplars.

Crenothrix and Beggiatoa.* — According to Sig. G. Gasperini, the
organisms known as Crenothrix Kiihniana and polyspora must be referred
to Beggiatoa , a genus which has much more affinity with the lower
filamentous Algse than with Bacteria. Beggiatoa will then include all
the non-chlorophyllaceous forms w'hicli present the morphological and
biological characters of the Oscillator iaceae. A similar affinity is dis-
played by the forms included under the genera Streptothrix, Cladothrix,.
Actinomyces , Thiothrix, Nocardia, Kurthia, Sphserotilus , Leptothrix, Lepto -
tricilia, Detoniella, Hypheothrix, Basmussenia , and Phragmidiotlirix.

When passed through iron tubes, Beggiatoa ( Crenothrix ) Kiihniana
has the jDroperty of depositing iron in the form of a sheath of an organic
ferric oxide, or of ferruginous tubercles. The usual colour of the flakes
of this organism is ochroleucous or ochraceous, but it varies according to
the quantity of iron deposited.

Internal Structure of Micro-organisms. | — Herr V. Buzicka states
that he has discovered important structural conditions in bacterial cells
by means of a special though comparatively simple method. This
method consists in fixing the cover-g^ass films in sublimate, staining with
methylen-blue, and decolorising with acidulated water. By this method
he has succeeded in demonstrating, in bacteria, fungi, and oidia, granules
not hitherto described. The presence and size of the granules appear
to depend largely on the age of the culture. In cocci the granules are
usually central ; in rodlets, polar. Sometimes a rodlet may possess more
than two granules ; if so, they may be situate at regular distances apart ;
and if there be a single central one, it imparts the appearance of a
nucleus, though it is not suggested that the central granule has a nuclear
value.

In fungi and in oidia the granules are more numerous and irregu-
larly distributed. The same method also serves to demonstrate the
septa where fission is taking place.

Microbes of Root-Tubercles. J — M. Maze, who had previously shown
that the fixation of nitrogen by the bacilli of Leguminosee is a property

* Atti Soc. Tosc. Sci. Nat., xi. (1897, 8) pp. 3-7.

t Central bl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 305-7 (1 pi.).

t Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xii. (1898) pp. 1-25, 128-53 (2 pis.). Cf. tliis Journal,
1897, p. 158.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

337

of the micro-organisms themselves and not the effect of a symbiosis, in
a second memoir studies the physiological aspects of the work of the
microbes of these nodosities, viz. the effect of air, the influence of the
richness of the media in combined nitrogen and in saccharose on the
fixation of free nitrogen, behaviour of the microbe to mineral nitrogen,
and the action of the roots of the Leguminosae on the free forms of the
microbes.

In a third memoir the author deals with his observations on the mor-
phology of the microbe. Both under natural conditions and on artificial
media the bacilli are very polymorphic, presenting themselves under
the forms of coccobacilli, filaments, branching forms, endosporous, and
oosporous forms. Sometimes the colonies are composed of motile ele-
ments. Mostly, however, they are motionless.

While the bacilli freshly removed from the tubercles appear to possess
the power of reproducing new tubercles, yet they lose this property in
time ; and though one form or variety of the microbe is unable to produce
the tubercles, this result may be arrived at by the co-operation of two
forms.

Effect of Monochromatic Light on Bacterial Development. * —
Herren Beck and Schultz examined the action and effect of monochro-
matic light on various bacteria, chiefly chromogenic. The bacteria were
simultaneously exposed to the action of sunlight and diffused daylight,
and were also protected from light. Monochromatic light was not found
to possess an inhibitory nor a germicidal action, though occasionally it
had some effect on the production of pigment. Diffused daylight was
favourable to pigment formation. Direct sunlight was injurious to pig-
ment production and to bacterial growth. Rontgen rays had no influence
on the growth or power of forming pigment of the microbes tested.

Production of Sulphuretted Hydrogen, Xndol, and Mercaptan by
Bacteria, j — Herr M. Morris demonstrated the production of sulphuretted
hydrogen by bacteria on a medium composed of agar and sugar of lead,
in the proportion of 1 litre of agar to 1 grm. of sugar of lead, or as 1000
to 1. On this lead-agar bacteria grow well ; the only precaution neces-
sary is to make a deep puncture, as the surface growth does not show
the reaction well owing to oxidation.

The following species were found to form sulphuretted hydrogen
very freely : — typhoid, glanders, Staphylococcus aureus , Proteus vulgaris ,
and P. mirahilis.

The statement of Petri and Maassen, to the effect that almost all
bacteria form sulphuretted hydrogen in media containing much pepton,
was not confirmed for anthrax, mycoides, and subtilis. On the whole
the author’s results agree pretty well with those of Stagnitta-Balistreri.

Indol was copiously produced by mouse septicaemia and by B. coli
anindolicum ; less strongly by typhoid, swine plague, riolaceus, blue
milk, pyocyaneus , anthrax, yellow sarcina, and a yeast. Experiments
with B. coli communis showed that the amount of indol produced was
proportionate on the one hand to the time, and on the other to the

* Zeitschr. f. Hygiene u. Infekt., xxiii. (1897) p. 490. See Centralbl. Bakt. u.
Par,, 2te Abt , iii. (1897) p. 603.

j Arch. f. Hygiene, 1897, p. 304. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii. (1898) p. 216.

2 a 2

338

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

amount of pepton. It follows from these observations that the pro
duction of indol by bacteria is more common than is usually supposed.

Only one bacterium, Proteus vulgaris , was found to produce mer-
captan.

Experimental Production of Amyloid.* — Dr. Davidsohn . has pro-
duced in animals, by subcutaneous injection of living bouillon-cultures
of Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus, a substance which, if not identical
with the amyloid deposit found in the human subject, belongs to the
same class of bodies. The animals were injected at suitable intervals
with doses of the culture increased from 0 * 3 to 25 ccm. In half the
cases the amyloid change was found. Babbits, mice, and fowls gave
positive results, guinea-pigs and cats always negative.

Putrefactive Bacteria in Fruit and Vegetables, j- — Herr P. Gordan,
from an investigation of the causes and conditions of putrefaction in
fruit and vegetables, found that in the decomposition of plants there was
no evidence of the production of sulphuretted hydrogen. In vegetable
decomposition the same bacteria were constantly appearing, the most
frequent being B. coli Esclierich. In rotting apples B. fluorescens
liquefaciens was found, on potato B. liquefaciens , and on red cabbage
B. flavofuscus liquefaciens. This last, a new species, is merely an
accompaniment of the putrefaction set up by the other three, and has
not the power by itself to initiate decomposition.

Gummosis of Beetroot.f — Herr W. Busse endeavoured to isolate
the exciting cause of the gumminess of beetroot, a disease which is first
seen as a browning or blackening of the vascular bundles. The paren-
chyma cells then become soft and degenerate, and at the same time is
produced a dark brown slime which sets to a sort of gum. Two bacilli
were isolated, bacillus a and /3. The colonies of a were finely granular
and radiately striated, and the organism was capable of exciting a lively
fermentation. Unfortunately the cultures were lost before inoculation
experiments could be tried.

Bacillus (3, isolated from different material, was found to possess
similar morphological characters and physiological functions ; the author
therefore concluded that they were one and the same species, and called
it Bacillus Betse. Healthy beets inoculated with B. Betse were found
to contain internally evidences of gummosis, though externally there
was no difference between the infected and healthy plants. Bacterio-
logical examination showed the presence of B. Betse.

Production of Mucinoid Substance by Bacteria. § — MM. A. Charrin
and A. Desgrez find that Bacillus pyocyaneus produces a substance having
the chemical reactions characteristic of mucinoid compounds. Injected
into the animal body it gives rise to the phenomena of pyocyanic intoxica-
tion, emaciation, albuminuria, enteritis, and intramuscular haemorrhages.
The authors suggest, in view of their results, that bacteria play an

* Virchow’s Arch., cl. (1897) pt. 1. See Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii.
(1898) p. 426.

t Inaug.-Diss. Erlangen, Leipzig, 1897, 18 pp. See Beik. Bot. Centralbl., 1898,
p. 322.

X Zeltschr. f. Pflanzenkr., 1897, pp. 65-149. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii. (1898)
p. 153. § Comptes Bendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 596-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

339

important part in inflammatory processes affecting mucous membranes.
Besides B. pyocyaneus, staphylococcus, colon bacillus, aud tlie cholera
vibrio produce the mucinoid substance.

Production of Mucin by a Pathogenic Fluorescing Bacillus.* —
M. Ch. Lepierre states that quantities of mucin are produced in meat-
pepton cultures, and this even independently of fluorescence. In the
latter case the media also contained lactate, malmate, malate, tartronate,
isosuccinate, pyrotartrate, ethylmalmate, glycerate, or glycolate.

Fluorescence and mucin were simultaneously produced when citrate,
succinate, oxyglutartrate, oxypyrotartrate, or gluturate were present.
L’quid media containing asparagin also gave mucin. As this mucin
rarely contains any phosphorus, and is split up by acids with the forma-
tion of a reducing sugar, it is real mucin, and not a nucleoalbumin.

The author also notes that be has observed the formation of mucinoid
substances in liquid cultures of a bacillus which he found to be the
pathogenic agent in the production of “ sleepiness.”

Destruction of Microbes in Hypervaccinated Animals. f — Dr. A. T,
Salimbeni’s experiments on the destruction of microbes in the subcu-
taneous tissue of hypervaccinated animals were made on horses treated
with (1) diphtheria toxin, (2) living cholera vibrios, (3) living strepto-
cocci.

From a general point of view* no essential difference was found
between tho cases of antitoxic and anti-infectious immunity, that is to
say, the microbes were got rid of by phagocytosis. Still the experi-
ments showed that phagocytic leucocytes do not all interpose to the
same extent, or act in the same way upon the englobed microbes. As
regards the bacteria in question, the polynuclear leucocytes are endowed
with the most energetic bactericidal properties. In diphtheria the mono-
nuclear leucocyte scarcely interferes at all. With the cholera vibrio the
case is much the same. In the case of streptococci, mononuclear leuco-
cytes at first arrive in large numbers, and englobe the majority of the
microbes. They soon however perish, and the streptococci thus set at
liberty are destroyed by the polynuclear phagocytes.

Nature of the Agglutinated Substanee.t — M. C. Nicolle considers
that the bodies of certain microbes, such as B. coli, B. typhosus , Vibrio
Massoivah, and others, contain an agglutinated or agglutinable substance,
to the existence of which the phenomenon of agglutination is due. The
reaction is produced only by homologous serum, and the agglutinated
substance is an integral part of the microbe. This substance is ex-
tremely resistant to heat, cold, sunlight, high pressure, and drying, and
the addition of antiseptics does not prevent the production of the pheno-
menon. It is soluble in water, in acids and alkaline fluids, in ether, and in
alcohol. The exact nature of the substance is unknown, and its chemical
composition is doubtless very complex. The production of the substance
is not related to the virulence or toxicity of the cultures used. It is
distinguished from microbic toxins by its solubility in absolute alcohol ;
hence the presence of the agglutinating power is not a sign of intoxi-
cation. The characteristic of the substance is its property of agglome-

* Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (189S) pp. 761-2.

f Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xii. (1898) pp. 192-209. % Tom. cit., pp. 161-91.

340

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

rating and at the same time of causing tne agglomeration of tlie bodies
which contain it, or which are suspended in the fluid.

The substance is located in the external layer of the microbe, and
agglutination may be defined as being a coagulation and coalescence of
the external layers of agglutinable microbes under the influence of
agglutinating serum. Agglutination in fact is a purely passive phe-
nomenon. It is not constantly present, for certain microbes are devoid
of it. It is not, properly speaking, a sign of infection, for a perfectly
non- virulent microbe or a filtered culture may give rise to it.

Hew Chromogenic Micrococcus.* — Dr. A. Cantani describes a chro-
mogenic coccus which is designated, from the hue of the pigment, Micro-
coccus corallinus. It wTas obtained from an impure influenza culture. It
has no special arrangement ; it stains well with anilin dyes, and also by
Gram’s method. It is an essential aerobe. It was cultivated on agar,
in bouillon, and milk, but grew best on blood-agar. The optimum tem-
perature is 20-25°.

The pigment exists only in the cells, the medium not being stained
at all. It is only sparsely soluble in water or alcohol, and not at all
in ether or chloroform. Though M. corallinus does not grow at all at
37°, yet it was found to be pathogenic to guinea-pigs and rabbits,
these animals dying in 4-5 days with toxic symptoms accompanied by
emaciation.

Violet Bacillus. | — Prof. H. M. Ward describes a violet bacillus
which was derived from the Thames. Morphologically it presents itself in
the form of rodlets or filaments from 2—3 /x to 60 /x or more in length by
about 0*75-0*8 /x broad. It may be quiescent or actively motile, and
in old cultures involution forms are found, and the rodlets may be so
short as to be almost cocci. Spore-formation was not observed. It is
aerobic, liquefies gelatin, grows slowly, its optimum temperature is 20°, it
is easily killed by direct sunlight, and is not pathogenic to animals. It
was grown on gelatin-agar, potato, or broth and milk. The growth, at
first white, develops later a violet pigment which is insoluble in water,
but very soluble in alcohol. It is very stable, except in sunlight, is
turned bluish- green on adding caustic alkali, the colour nearlyreturning
by excess of acid.

Polymorphic Bacillus from a case of Calculous Hephritis.f — Sig.
G. Grixoni cultivated from the pus of a nephritic abscess a highly poly-
morphic aerobic bacillus. Its growth on potato was very characteristic,
the growth in 18 hours being dark brownish-red, and in a few days
quite black. Gelatin was not liquefied. The bacillus is devoid of
movement, and stains well by Gram’s method. Mice succumb in about
30 hours after intraperitoneal injection. Babbits, guinea-pigs, and
pigeons are refractory.

Coli and Typhoid Bacteria are Uninuclear Cells.§ — By means of a
special method of staining Dr. A.» Wagner claims that he has demon-
strated that coli and typhoid bacteria are mononuclear cells. The

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 308-11.

f Arm. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 59-74 (1 pi.).

X La Biforma Med., 1893, No. 235-7. See Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt.,
xxiii. (1898) p. 421.

§ Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lfe Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 433-8, 489-92 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 341

simple coli or typhoid cell is a round or oval body with central nucleus.
The nucleus undergoes the changes of shape and position observed
during fission in other cells. Six figures illustrate the author’s descrip-
tion ; the first of these shows the oval bacterial cell with small central
body ; the cell elongates, as does also the nucleus ; the nucleus shows
polar expansions joined by a cord; tho cord disappears simultaneously
with a constriction of the cell ; the cell is now practically two cells
with central nuclei, the bodies of the cells being connected by the adja-
cent part of the investing membrane. Two of the author’s photographs
show tubes or cylinders containing oval bodies, in the middle of each of
which is a central body or nucleus.

Growth of the Typhoid Bacillus in Soil.* — Prof. S. Martin has
studied the growth of the typhoid bacillus in soil from its vegetative
aspect, and without reference to the pathological or physiological activity
of the organism. Two kinds of soil were used : (1) sterilised soil con-
taining a large quantity of organic matter (organically contaminated
soil) ; (2) sterilised virgin soil of sandy peaty nature. In experiments
•conducted at 37° C. on soil 1, the bacillus was found not only to be able
to exist in this particular kind of soil, but to grow and pervade it at this
temperature, while at the laboratory temperature (15°— 19° C.), and ex-
posed to diffused daylight, the bacilli were still alive and active at the
end of 63 days, and had begun to pervade the soil.

From the experiments with the virgin soil the results were negative,
both at 37° and at 15°-19°.

The results of these two sets of experiments offer such a marked
contrast between the growth of the typhoid bacilli in organically con-
taminated soil and in virgin soil, as to indicate that the distinction be-
tween these soils is one of prime importance.

Experiments with Bacillus coli communis under exactly similar con-
ditions gave similar results.

Behaviour of Typhoid Bacilli in Miik.j — Among the results of an
investigation made by Dr. E. Cautley to ascertain how long milk in-
fected with typhoid bacilli will retain its infectivity, may be mentioned
that the Bacillus typhosus will live in milk under the conditions which
ordinarily prevail in a household, though there is no evidence that the
microbe is capable of multiplication. In naturally or artificially soured
milk the bacillus can live, and hence it is quite possible for this micro-
organism to exist in curd cheeses.

Observations on, and Experiments with, the Plague BaciHus4—
Dr. E. Klein made experiments on the plague bacillus with material ob-
tained from a case which occurred in London in the autumn of 1896.
After sketching the morphological and cultural characters of this bacillus,
in the course of which he notes certain characteristic appearances on
gelatin, such as atypical angular colonies consisting of minute oval or
rod-shaped bacilli singly or, more commonly, in dumb-bells, the author
proceeds to the experiments with the plague bacillus. The guinea-pig
was found to be extremely susceptible to plague infection, for plague
material derived directly from the body affected with plague, or indirectly

* Twenty-sixth. Annual Kep. Loc. Govt. Board, 1896-7, Appendix B, pp. 231-42,

t Tom. cit., pp. 243-54. J Tom. cit., pp. 287-308 (6 pis.).

342

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

from artificial cultures, produces, after subcutaneous or intraperitoneal
injection, morbid appearances which differ from tboso produced by any
other known septicaemic affection of this particular animal. As a rule
tho animal dies in 48-72 hours ; there is then a tumour at the infection
site, and the lymphatic glands and spleen are found to be notably
enlarged. If death be delayed beyond 72 hours, then there is also focal
'haemorrhagic pneumonitis with central areas of necrosis. The blood,
lymph, and organs generally are found on examination to reek with
bacilli. It was not found practicable to render the guinea-pig immune
to plague infection, either by means of sublethal doses of plague blood,
or by sterilised cultures of the plague bacillus ; hence the blood-serum
of the animals treated by these methods failed to exhibit any definite
curative or prophylactic property.

Microbe of [Cattle Plague.* — MM. M. Nencki, N. Sieber, and
W. Wyznikiewicz describe a microbe which they have found in the
blood and tissues in cattle plague. It is 1-3 /x in size, and in shape
usually round. It was cultivated on media composed of extract of
salivary gland, in pepton-salt solution, and in agar mixed with inorganic
salts. In examining the blood, it is necessary to break up the red cor-
puscles by the addition of an equal bulk of water. Cultures from tho
bile proved fatal to calves.

Pseudo-Tetanus Bacillus.f — Prof. E. Tavel describes a bacillus,
isolated from abscesses in connexion with the intestine, which has some
resemblance to the tetanus bacillus. It is about 5-7 /x long and 0*5 /x
thick. It forms a terminal oval spore, and possesses several (4-8)
flagella. It is easily stained by basic anilin dyes, but only with diffi-
culty by Gram’s method. It is an essential anaerobe ; it was cultivated
in bouillon, agar, and in serum, but not in gelatin. The spores are
killed if heated to 80°. It is not pathogenic to mice, rabbits, or guinea-
pigs.

JEtiology of Bysentery4 — Dr. S. Ciechanowski and Dr. J. Nowak
made an investigation into twenty-one cases of dysentery for the purpose
of ascertaining the aetiology of this disease. The intestinal contents
and the mucosa of the colon were thoroughly overhauled. The most
prominent and frequent bacteria present were B. coli commune, Strepto-
coccus, and a vibrio, much like V. cholerse osiaticus , but staining well
by Gram’s method. Amoebae were put out of court owing to their in-
frequence. Experiments were made on cats with toxines of the bacteria
alluded to, chiefly B. coli commune and its variety B. coli dysentericum,
but no phenomena or symptoms similar to those of dysentery resulted.

The conclusions arrived at are that, with regard to the dysentery of
temperate latitudes, neither amoebae nor any one kind of bacterium
stand directly to dysentery as cause to effect. Moreover, there is no
proof that it is a mixed infection even ; and, in fine, our knowledge of
the aetiology of this disease is nil.

Bacillus capsulatus chinensis sp. n.§ — Dr. Alice Hamilton describes
a bacillus, remarkable for an extraordinarily thick capsule, which was

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 529-37 (3 pis.).

t Torn, cit., pp. 538-41 (1 pi.).

J Tom. cit., pp. 445-52, 493-500 (2 pis.).

§ Op. oit., 2te Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 230-5 (1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

343

discovered in “ Indian ink.” Under the Microscope the organisms pre-
sented themselves as spherical or oblong forms, in the middle of which
lay a bacillus about O’G /x broad and 4-8 fx long. Two or three
individuals may occupy one capsule. The bacillus did not stain by
Gram’s method, it was devoid of movement, and spore-formation was
not observed. It was easily cultivated on the ordinary media at from
20°-37°. Gelatin was not liquefied. The growth is white. The bacillus
is a potential anaerobe. Milk is slowly coagulated. In some media a
smell arises, on agar like yeast, in milk like cheese, on potato like
trimethylamin and ammonia. The bacillus is extremely pathogenic to
mice and guinea-pigs.

A special characteristic of this microbe is that it never loses its
capsule, and that the capsule is thicker and finer on some artificial
media, such as glycerin-agar or beer-wort agar, than in the animal
body. The bacillus has been found not only in liquid and solid Chinese,
or rather “ Indian, ink,” but in samples of China tea.

Tuberculosis and Pseudo-Tuberculosis.*' — MM. Bataillon and Terre
recount some more examples of the polymorphism of the tubercle bacillus, f
In a previous communication, the authors had described two types, A
that of Koch, B a variety, adapted to low temperatures. Two secondary
types, a and /3 derived from A, are now mentioned, and details of three
series of experiments given. In two there is manifest tuberculosis,
but there are no germs in the tuberculous products capable of being
stained by the Koch-Ehrlich method. In the third series the results
were much the same, except that the bacilli were motile. Thus human
tuberculosis, after a short passage through the frog, when transferred to
guinea-pigs, renders these animals tuberculous without the demonstrable
presence of Koch’s bacillus, the form of the bacillus resembling that
of pseudo-tuberculosis. In rabbits, the bacillus exists in the blood and
viscera, but there is no tuberculous formation or deposit. A converse
type, i.e. where rabbits become tuberculous and guinea-pigs do not, is
next alluded to. Thus there are two types of pseudo-tuberculosis,
originating in two distinct stages of the bacillary cycle.

The inference drawn by the authors ?s very important. They are
convinced that many cases of pseudo-tuberculosis are instances of real
tuberculosis, the agent being one of the numerous forms of Koch’s
bacillus.

Bacillus of Bitter Wine.J — MM. J. Bordas, Joulin, and Rackowsld
isolated from a sample of bitter, wine, by cultivation in strong yeast
■water slightly alkalinised with potash and containing glucose, a bacillus
which presented itself in the form of filaments of variable length.
After a few days the filaments united into bundles made up of short
rodlets. The colonies on gelatin were small, yellowish, and did not
liquefy the medium.

In Laurent’s medium, containing 10 per cent, pepton Collas, the
bacillus grows rapidly ; in 24 hours the liquid is turbid, and in eight
days is distinctly bitter, and at the same time there is gas formation.
In this medium, the bacillus presents itself as short rodlets 4-5 fx long

* Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 538-41.

t See this Journal, 1897, pp. 571 and 2.

X Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 59S-9.

344

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and 1 fx broad. The rodlets are sometimes motile, and are so arranged
as to impart the notion of being ramified. Wine, previously passed
through a Chamberland’s filter and examined six months after inocula-
tion with this bacillus, was found to be pronouncedly bitter. The wine
had become turbid ; its colouring matter had been partly precipitated,
the deposit being found to contain the characteristic filaments. The
alcoholic strength of the wine was undiminislied, while the glycerin
and glucose were notably less. The acidity was greatly increased.
The infected wine had been kept at a temperature of 20°, though
artificial cultures were found to do better at 30°. In wine from which
the alcohol had been removed by distillation, the disease is quickly
effected.

Smegma Bacillus. — Herr II. Laser * succeeded in obtaining, from
hard chancres and condylomata lata, colonies of Smegma bacilli on blood-
agar. The colonies resembled those of Streptococcus and diphtheria, and
when transferred to blood-serum and glycerin-agar they grew up thereon
like dew-drops. Ho growth occurred in gelatin thrust cultures. On
agar, in pepton-water, in bouillon, and on potato, there was scanty or no
development, but on grape-sugar bouillon the growth was moderate.
The bacilli were stainable with fuchsin and methylen-blue, as well as by
Oram’s method. Often rodlets were found which were stained only at
the ends, thus giving the appearance of cocci. The results from subcu-
taneous and intraperitoneal injection of mice and guinea-pigs were
negative.

Herr Czaplewski j* found small colonies of acid-resisting rodlets in
some gonococcus cultures on nutrose-serum-agar. Pure cultivations
were easily obtained. On Loeffler’s serum at 37° yellowish-grey colonies
appeared by the second day, and soon became confluent, forming a pretty
thick overlay. On glvcerin-agar the growth was somewhat similar.
The growth on potato was scanty, and of a honey-yellow colour. The
rodlets are stainable with the basic anilin dyes, and also by Gram’s
method ; are very resistant to decoloration with 5 per cent, sulphuric acid,
30 per cent, nitric-acid-alcohol, sulphuric-acid-alcohol, and even by
hydrochloric-acid-alcohol. The shape of the bacilli is very variable ; on
nutrose-serum and potato are found the longest forms ; on gelatin the
rodlets are frequently knobbed or swollen at one end, or very thick. On
Loeffler’s the rodlets are short. The bacillus is presumed to be identical
with that described by Laser.

Hew Bacillus from a case of Leprosy.J — Hr. Czaplewski cultivated,
from the nasal secretion of a leper, a bacillus belonging to the tubercle
bacillus group, and remarkable from being resistant to the action of acids
and alcohol. The medium used was glycerinised serum, but cultures
were also made with human ascitic fluid on agar, gelatin, and in bouillon.
The bacillus stained well with anilin pigments, and also by Gram’s
method. The resistance to the action of alcohol and of mineral acids,
though pronounced, is not so strong as that of the tubercle bacillus. In
shape the organism is a straight or slightly bent rodlet, the length
and thickness varying a little with the culture medium. The ends may

* Miincken. Med. Wochenschr., 1897, No. 43.

t Ibid. See Beih. Bot. Centralbl., 1S98, pp. 389-90.

t Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 97-107, 189-94 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

345

be pointed, rounded, or even bulbous. In some preparations the bacilli
are found massed together, in others there are club-shaped forms, and in
others branched forms.

Experiments on animals were negative.

Septicaemia hemorrhagica of Cattle.* * * § — Dr. G. Bosso describes a
micro-organism which he has discovered in the haemorrhagic subserous
flecks of cattle dying in 24 hours of haemorrhagic septicaemia. The
microbe is 2-2 • 4 /x long and 0*4-0 *5 /x broad. It is devoid of motion,
and does not form spores. It is easily stained, but not by Gram’s
method. It does not give the indol reaction. It is a potential aerobe,
though when cultivated as an anaerobe it loses its pathogenic properties
for guinea-pigs and rabbits. It is easily destroyed by heat and chemical
reagents and drying. The effect of its toxin when injected into animals
is practically nil. Its virulence is rapidly diminished by continuous
cultivation, but by passage through animals it acquires increased patho-
genic properties. The microbe is pathogenic to guinea-pigs and rabbits,
producing in these animals the morbid appearances of haemorrhagic
septicaemia. Successful cultures were obtained in bouillon, milk, on
gelatin, agar, and potato.

Histological examination of cattle, guinea-pigs, and rabbits, shows the
presence of large crowds of the specific bacterium in the extravasations
in the heart, spleen, and kidneys.

iEtiology of Syphilis. | — Dr. Van Niessen describes a microbe which
he has found in the blood and diseased tissues of persons suffering from
syphilis. The organism, which is demonstrable by staining reagents and
on cultivation, is a pleomorphic bacillus, closely allied to the higher
fungi. The disease is transferable and hereditary, not only in man but
also in animals (rabbits) inoculated with the bacillus. The organism
usually presents itself in the form of streptobacillus. The appearances
presented by the blood, as depicted in some of the figures, are so unusual
that it excites the doubt whether the drawings were made from recent or
old preparations.

Parasites of Cancer and Sarcoma. — M. F. J. Bose, J from an exami-
nation of large numbers of malignant growths, is of opinion that there
exist in these tumours abnormal structures, foreign to the tissues, which
may be grouped under five morphological types : — (1) micrococci or
microbes; (2) granulations; (3) cell-forms; (4) encysted-forms ; (5) sar-
codic forms. All these five types have their seat in the protoplasm of the
cancerous cell, occasionally in the nucleus, and sometimes in connective
tissue cells and giant cells.

The examinations were made from the fresh juice and tissue, and
also from fixed preparations, stained and unstained.

In a later communication § the author discusses the staining re-
actions, the structure, and the modes of reproduction of the parasites.
Even without staining the parasites can be distinguished from the
surrounding tissue, but from staining in the first condition remarkable

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 318-23.

t Tom. cit., pp. 49-59, 108-17, 194-205, 258-G6 (2 pis.),

j Comptes Kendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 541-4.

§ Tom. cit., pp. 1161-3.

346

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

results are obtained. Sections from fixed tissue are less satisfactory,
though they may be made to show the parasite with great clearness.
The chief facts relating to structure appear to be the presence of a
hyaline zone around the microbic, the granular, and cellular forms, the
existence of a nucleus in the cellular forms, and the presence of a doubly
contoured capsule around the encysted forms. With regard to repro-
duction, it seems that the parasites form spores freely, that some are
large and some small, that there is a non-sporing cycle with direct
division of the nucleus, and that there is a cycle of reproduction by
means of microsporozoits or chromatozoits.

The same parasite may also pass through several evolutionary
cycles.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC,

347

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

Cl) Stands.

New Hartnack Microscope. — The well-known Potsdam firm have
brought out a large model Microscope (numbered iv C in their Catalogue)
which is represented in the accompanying figure. It has the novelty of

This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Illu-
f gating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous. V J p i Uptlcs

348

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

an iron tripod foot after the English style, and the illuminating appa-
ratus is worked, not by means of a screw, but by freehand motion. The
iris diaphragm is applied by a side movement, and consequently affords
a better control of its opening. A movable and rotatory stage can be
fitted if desired.

Brugnatelli’s Large-size Mineralogical and Petrological Micro-
scope.*— The stand (fig. 43) is 40 cm. in height, is mounted on an iron
horse-shoe foot, and possesses perfect stability at all inclinations. The
illuminating arrangement can be raised or depressed at will by means of
rackwork. The polariser and condenser are centered by two screws and a
spring. A large Nicol’s prism is mounted in a rotatory tube, completely
independent of all other movements ; it can be set in all desired orien-
tations, and can be easily removed for cleaning. Immediately below the
Nicol is an iris diaphragm, whose movement, regulated by a button, is
completely independent of that of the polarising prism, in such a way
that the motion of the diaphragm has no effect on the orientation of the
prism. A division into degrees and an index gives this orientation ;
another division allows the opening of the diaphragm to be read in
millimetres. This new arrangement is useful for the determination of
the indices of refraction after Viola’s method. The condenser is com-
posed of three lenses, of which the largest, with very long focus, is united
to the mounting of the Nicol, and serves also for observations with
parallel light. The means by which parallel light may be exchanged
for very convergent illumination is imitated from the Fuess Microscope,
but simplified in the sense that the condenser can be easily unshipped
without the aid of a special key. The two superior lenses of the con-
denser, forming a system with large aperture angle, are mounted on a
movable arm fixed under the stage. The arrangement for inserting this
and taking it away is the same as in the Fuess Microscopes.

The circular stage is 120 mm. in diameter, and bears on its periphery
a scale in degrees on argentan (a metal which keeps its white colour).
It moves on a conical bronze guide with great precision. Two verniers
read to 10'. On the rotatory stage is fixed a micrometric car of very
careful construction whose orthogonal displacements are regulated by
two micrometric screws each provided with a drum giving, the one,
hundredths of a millimetre, the other, 0*04 mm.; two divisions in
millimetres give the entire turns. The maximum movement of the car
is 20 mm. in each direction. The object-carrier is applied to the car by
means of an easily removable clip.

The upper part carrying the tube has been heightened by 4 cm. by
means of a massive cylindrical column ; this arrangement, coupled with a
more extended draw-out of the tube by means of a rack, allows the placing,
between the stage and the objective, of accessories of a certain height,
such as the stages of Klein, Fedorow, &c. The tube is composed of
two parts jointed one within the other. The lower extremity bears a
revolver for three objectives, centerable on the rotation axis of the stage.
By means of always screwing the same objective on the same arm of the
revolver, a perfect centering is obtained. The centering ring of the re-
volver is pierced by an opening of rectangular section orientated at 45°,

* Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., xxxiii. (1897) pp. 228-30 (1 pi.).

Fig. 43,

350

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and intended to receive tlie feather edges of gypsum and quartz. This
opening can be closed at will by a movable ring. Immediately above
this arrangement is a window in the exterior tube, in which slides the
analysing Glan-Thompson prism combined with a long focus lens which
renders invariable the focal distance of the optical system used with or
without the analyser. A new arrangement allows the orientation, by a
rotation of 90°, of the analyser ; the orientation of the principal section
boing indicated by an index and a divided dial. All the upper part can
be raised or lowered by means of a rack and pinion ; the micrometric
movement is done by means of a screw whose head is divided into *005
mm.

In order to use the instrument as a focimetcr, a division in milli-
metres is placed on the lateral part of the rackwork piece, and a vernier
below the pinion.

The eye-piece tube is also worked by a rack and pinion, and can be
extended about 40 mm. A millimetre scale reads the extension.

In the lower part of the eye-piece tube is an iris-diaphragm opened
and shut by means of a button on the left side ; directly over this is a
window intended for the Bertrand lens to observe the axial figures of
interference.

The upper extremity of the tube carries the analyser with divided
circle. The mounting of the Glan-Thompson prism is easily removed
to introduce the oculars. These are provided with a reticule and a
small screw which ensure the invariable position of the crossed threads
in relation to the principal sections of the Nicols. The mounting of
the upper analyser is also provided with an opening intended to receive
the feather edges.

M. Amann, who describes the Microscope, has been able to assure
himself, by actual working, that the instrument possesses qualities of
high precision, solidity, and simplicity, which render it an eminently
practical instrument.

Hew Attachable Mechanical Stage. — Fig. 44 is an illustration of
Baker’s new mechanical stage, designed by Mr. Allen, and exhibited by
Mr. C. L. Curties at the meeting of March 16th last. This apparatus
can be easily attached to any Microscope that lias a rectangular stage,
by means of two thumb-screws ; one of these, at the lower end, can be
seen in the figure, but the one at the top is not shown, as it is below
the stage. This attachment at both extremities gives the apparatus
great rigidity. Both rectangular movements are performed by means
of rack and pinion. The milled head seen at the right hand causes the
transverse arm, upon which the slip rests, to move in a vertical direction
over the stage ; but the principal novelty in this device is the method
by which the transverse movement is controlled. Above the slip a
transverse arm, fitted with a rank-and-pinion movement, is pivoted to
the vertical dovetailed slide, and to its extremity is fixed a small piece
of cork, which is kept in pressure against the top of slip by a spring
placed on the right-hand side of the pivot. The friction of this cork
pressing on the top of the slip is sufficient to impart transverse move-
ment to the slip, when the milled head is turned. To diminish the
friction between the bottom edge of the slip and the lower transverse
arm, it is so arranged that the slip bears only on two points. Both

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

351

movements are graduated in millimetres for registration as a £C finder,”
and the mechanical movement in each direction is 1 in. Although the
transverse movement is 1 in,, the examination of a slip is not confined

Fig. 44.

to this amount, as is the case with most mechanical stages, because in
this apparatus no limit is imposed as to the lateral position of the slip,
neither is the length of the slip limited to the usual 3 in. The device,
therefore, becomes eminently useful for the examination of serial
sections.

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

New Hartnack Homogeneous-Immersion Objective. — The Hart-
nack firm have brought out a 1/10 in. homogeneous-immersion on the
same model as their 1/12 in. (No. 1). Greater experience in the con-
struction of immersion lenses allows the new objective to be issued at
a much less price than the 1/12 in. (85 marks as against 125). The
numerical aperture is 1*25-1 *30; the working distance 0*3-0*35 ; and
magnification with suitable eye-pieces from 280 to 1050 diameters.

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

Zeiss’ Combined Horizontal and Vertical Camera. — This apparatus
fully answers to its name, and secures, at the will of the operator, a hori-
zontal, vertical, or 45° inclination of the camera. These three positions
will be readily understood from figs. 45 and 46 ; the outlined portion of
fig. 46 showing the 45° position. The massive triangular cast-iron sole
plate F has recessed into it a revolving stage P, which is kept in position
by a spring, and is adjustable by three setting screws i i, so as to give the
Microscope its proper elevation and inclination. The Microscope is
placed upon the rotating stage, and is adjusted in such a manner that
in its vertical position its axis coincides with the axis of rotation of the
revolving stage P. This adjustment need only be made once, as a stop

1898 2 B

352 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

fixed at the front edge of the rotating stage always ensures the correct
setting of the Microscope, which is firmly clamped by means^of a cross-

bar m passing over the claw at the hack of the foot of the Microscope,
and capable of being tightened down by means of two screws. 1 he

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

853

Microscope, together with the revolving stage, may be rotated through
90° in either direction with respect to the central position. The front

set-screws slide both together in a circular groove recessed into the re-
volving strg>; the back set-screws slide in a separate elevated recess.
This arrangement, in conjunction with the spring which binds the re-

2 B 2

354:

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

volving stage and the sole plate together, serves in a very efficient
manner to adjust the position of the revolving stage and the Microscope
in the two principal directions. A cylindrical guide rod, mounted hinge-
fashion in a fork at the rear of the sole plate, supports the camera, either
end of which is adjustable by sliding sleeves fitted with thumb-screws.
These screws enter writh their points into a longitudinal groove running
along the rod, and thereby keep the camera from turning round.

A prop at the end of the guide rod maintains the camera in a hori-
zontal position ; the vertical position is ensured by a stop at the front
of the rod, a bolt at L acting as a clamp. A pin passed through the
back of the support obtains the 45° position.

An optical bench adapted to the front of the sole plate provides
for the reception of the light-source, condensing lenses, and other
accessories.

(4) Photomicrography.

Winkel’ s New Photomicrographic Apparatus.* — Dr. H. B. Gay-
lord, of Dresden, describes this apparatus, which is based on Zeiss’ com-
bined horizontal and vertical camera, and differs from it mainly in
securing to the operator any inclination of the camera he may desire.
This is accomplished by attaching the guide rod to a rail which slides
in a groove made in the sole plate. The two ends of the camera are
connected by stay-rods, which can be clamped at any angle to a sleeve
sliding on the guide rod.

' i (5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Aperture as a Factor in Microscopic1 Vision. | (Plates YII.-X.) —
Dr. A. Clifford Mercer, in his presidential address before the American
Microscopical Society in 1896, describes a long series of experiments
undertaken by him with the view of investigating this subject.

Considered theoretically and independently as a factor in micro-
scopic vision, aperture has been almost ignored ; although as an associate
factor, associated with diffraction by the finer details of microscopic
objects, it has received no little attention. In this latter form it is the
basis of the Abbe theory of microscopic vision ; but the writer wishes
to call attention to some unsatisfactory points in the Professor’s theory,
and to submit a theory of microscopic vision in harmony with an experi-
mental study of aperture.

He believes that the theory of the effect of aperture should be
applicable to all projecting lenses (e.g. telescopes as well as Micro-
scopes), explaining resolving power and its limitation ; that the diffrac-
tion of light by an object should be considered in the same category
with other changes in direction in incident light produced by an
object, e.g. those resulting from reflection and refraction ; that diffracted
and others rays leaving an object in changed directions, as well as rays
directly transmitted, when travelling the same paths between an object
and an objective, are affected alike by aperture ; and that the final effects
in the image experimentally studied by Abbe are the result of changes

* Zeitsclir. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898) pp. 313-7 (2 figs.).

t ‘ An Experimental Study of Aperture as a Factor in Microscopic Vision,
Buffalo, 76 pp., 4 pis. and 13 figs.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

355

above the objective due to aperture, and not to changes below the
objective resulting from diffraction by the finer details of an object.

He first made a preliminary experiment by constructing a gigantic
Microscope out of a telescope objective, which had a diameter of 2J in.
and a focus of 43 in., and an eye-piece which was supported 60 ft.
from the objective. No tube was necessary, as the experiment was done
in a dark room. The source of light was an electric arc lamp about
27 ft. from the objective. The object was a series of vertical lines
scratched with a fine needle-point through the opaque film of an old
dry plate negative supported nearly 46 in. in front of the objective.
After focusing so as to show the lines through the eye-piece, a plane
was found not far from the eye end of the actual telescope-tube, in
which was a central image of the electric arc with a series of diffraction
images on each side. These images could be dealt with so as to vary the
final image seen through the eye-piece, as one deals with the “ spectra ’*
at the back of the Microscope objective to produce change in the final
image of the ordinary Microscope.

If a telescope objective behaves in the same way as a microscopic
objective in experimenting with these diffraction phenomena and asso-
ciated image changes, does a reason based on such experiments exist for
regarding microscopic vision as sui generis ?

Not only have microscopists noticed in practice the direct relation of
aperture to resolution, but also the fact that isolated lines or particles
in an object appear broader through an objective of small aperture, and
narrower through an objective of large aperture. This narrowing effect
of increasing aperture is due to the contraction of the diffraction pattern.
It is easily understood that the projected image discs of a series of close
points in an object (or the projected image bands of a series of close lines )
might touch or overlap when projected by a lens of small aperture, and, on
the other hand, might be separated or resolved when projected by a lens of
sufficiently large aperture.

The separating or resolving power of the telescope is thus ex-
plained.

Simple parallel experiments with the telescope and Microscope show
that the actual effects of aperture in both instruments are in harmony
with the above explanation.

Dr. Mercer now describes 14 experiments, of which the following
seem the most important.

Experiment 1. — The instrument used was a telescope having an aper-
ture of 2J in. and a focus of 43 in., standing 27 ft. from a window in a
darkened room. Outside the window was a mirror reflecting light from
a bright sky into the room. Of all the light reflected from the mirror
that only reached the telescope which passed through two pinholes in a
piece of black paper supported in front of the mirror. The diameters of
the pinholes were 1/30 and 1/20 in. respectively, and the distance
between them 1/10 in. The iris diaphragm of an Abbe substage con-
denser was supported centrally in a temporary mounting of wood fitting
into the hood of the objective. When the diameter of the iris was 1/16 in.,
the two pinholes appeared, when seen through the telescope, as one dim
hazy disc. When the diameter was 1/8 in., a smaller and more distinct
disc wTas seen. When the diameter was 3/16 in., the disc was still

356

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

smaller, brighter, and better defined, with a dim, hazy, overlapping disc
becoming evident. When the diameter was 3/8 in., both discs were
brilliant and well separated, their relative sizes and distance apart
approaching truth. When the diameter was 1/2 in., the picture was
more brilliant, the larger disc tending to appear star-like with irradia-
tion. With the full aperture of 2J in. irradiation was marked in both.
During these observations thin concentric circles of light were glimpsed.

Experiment 2. — Instrument and all the conditions same as in experi-
ment 1, except that in the hood was fitted a piece of stiff black paper
instead of the iris diaphragm, the circular piece of paper allowing no
light to enter the objective except that which passed through a slot
corresponding with one of its diameters. Thus the objective was made
rectangular in shape, with a narrow aperture in one direction, and a
long or wide aperture in the other. The discs seen through the tele-
scope appeared stretched out, as it were, into lines always crossing at
an angle of 90°, the diameter of the instrument corresponding with the
slot. The width of each line was determined by the long aperture ; the
length by the narrow aperture. A comparison of the width of each line
with its length showred the comparative effect of the two apertures in
contracting the diffraction pattern.

Experiment 3. — At a distance of 3 ft. in front of a Microscope the
same pinholes used in the first two experiments were arranged so as to
allow only such light from a lamp flame as passed through them to reach
the mirror of the Microscope. The light reaching the mirror was
reflected through the substage condenser to an aerial image of the pin-
hole projected by the condenser in the plane of the Microscope stage.
"The aerial image of the pinholes was the object observed through the
Microscope. Seen with a small diaphragm opening behind the objective,
the pinholes appeared as two discs just touching one another. With
larger openings the discs became smaller, more brilliant, and separated.
The effects of varying aperture (varied by means of diaphragm openings
behind the objective) in this experiment with the Microscope were the
same as those seen in the first experiment, when aperture was varied by
means of diaphragm openings in front of the telescope objective.

Experiment 4. — The instrument and all the conditions were the same
as in experiment 3, except that a slot corresponding to one diameter was
used instead of the central opening in a diaphragm behind the objective.
The aperture of the objective thus became rectangular in shape. The
image of the pinholes was observed while the slot was turned so as to lie
successively in all diameters of the instrument. The effects were the
same as those seen when the corresponding experiment 2 was made with
the telescope.

Experiment 5. — The apparatus and its arrangement same as in ex-
periment 3, with two exceptions. First, for the two pinholes three
were substituted, and a group of three parallel slits 2 mm. apart ;
second, for the diaphragms with a single opening at the back of the
objective were substituted diaphragms with two slots. The substage
condenser projected these as essentially self-luminous aerial dots and
lines in the plane of the Microscope stage. The full aperture image is
shown in photo 1, and is most like the original object. Projected with
five isolated slots, the image shown in photo 5 differs more ; while with

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

357

two isolated slots the pictures shown in photos 3 and 4 differ remarkably
from the original object.

Experiment 6. — The general arrangement of the apparatus and the
aerial object remained the same as in the last experiment ; but, instead
of rectangular slots, annular or zonular slots were used at the back of
the objective.

When an annular slot exposed emitting points in a circle 2 mm. in
diameter, the image discs were surrounded by rings of light. When
the circle was 4 mm. in diameter, the discs were surrounded by closer
rings, and the tangential union of diffraction rings between the bands
(overlapping discs) resulted in intense lines, in comparison with which
the semi-rings at the ends of the bands appeared faint.

Now the diffraction pattern is contracted with every increase in
diameter, and this is true in all diameters, and we know that with circular
lenses an area of diffracted light varies in extent inversely with the
square of its diameter or aperture. Therefore the light intensity of
such an area would vary directly with the square of the aperture, pro-
vided the amount of light transmitted by the objective were to remain
the same. But the amount of light transmitted by the objective increases
with the square of its aperture. This means that, independently of the
eontraction of the diffraction pattern, an area of light on the projected
image varies in intensity with the square of the aperture of the lens.
Increase of aperture, then, adds to the intensity of the diffraction pattern
in two ways. The increase of intensity gained in one way must be mul-
tiplied by that gained in the other to get the total increase. Thus : The
intensity of the diffraction pattern varies ivith the square of the square of the
aperture.

Experiment 7. — The object of this was to test the conclusion just
arrived at. The apparatus and conditions were as in experiment 6,
except that for the object was substituted an aerial image of a tiny pin-
hole, and for two or more slots behind the objective, single slots were
substituted.

Photo 8 is a double photomicrograph of the aerial object. E had the
first exposure of 15 seconds, with a slot 3 mm. wide. The aerial object
was shifted very slightly to the right. F had an exposure of 1215
{= 15 x 34) seconds, with a slot 1 mm. wide. Exposed on the same
plate and developed the same, the two images were strictly comparable
as to their intensities. The exposures were so timed as to show the
first diffraction ring in each case. The triple broadening of the disc by
the lesser aperture at once attracts attention, and it is clear that the
exposures were as 1 to 81 ( = 34). In the negative it was impossible
to say that the two rings differed in intensity, but unfortunately the
half tone process has failed to reproduce the rings.

With small apertures the visual pictures of finest particles and lines
consist chiefly of diffraction spreading. Such diffraction spreading not
only contracts with increasing aperture, but gains in intensity rapidly
(with the square of the square of the aperture). Thus, increasing aper-
ture narrows and intensifies most noticeably the picture of finest details.
In a similar way, increase of aperture causes diffraction- spreading of
boundaries of areas to contract and to approach iu intensity that of the
area, because that of the former increases with the square of the aperture,

358

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

while that of the latter increases with the square of the square of the
aperture.

Experiment 8. — The apparatus was arranged as in experiment 6, but
instead of an aerial image of bright lines and areas, an aerial image of
dark lines and areas was photographed. The results in photos 19, 20,
21, and 22 correspond with those in photos 1, 2, 3, and 5 respectively.

Experiment 10. — A telescope was arranged as in experiment 2. In-
stead of the paper diaphragm with a single slot, diaphragms with two-
or more slots were used in the hood. Emitting points uncovered by
pairs of slots (or an isolated zone of aperture) in a telescope behaved
as we have seen the corresponding apertures of a Microscope objective
behave in the projection of diffracted phenomena.

Experiment 11. — Fine and closely ruled lines were observed while
diaphragms with minute openings were held between the lines and the
eye. The conditions were varied so as to convince one that the dioptric
apparatus of the eye projects diffraction phenomena parallel with those
j)reviously studied in images projected by the telescope, Microscope, and
camera objectives.

Experiment 12. — Photo 32 shows the lines of an Abbe test plate (the
same shown inverted in photos 9 and 10), taken when the last emitting
surface of the objective used was covered with a diaphragm which had
an eccentric opening 1 mm. wide, and transmitted only such rays as had
been previously diffracted in the plane of the object by the lines cut
through a film of silver. Photo 33 was taken under the same conditions,,
excepting that the eccentric opening was 2 mm. wide. Photo 34 was
taken under the same conditions as photo 32, except that the slot 1 mm,
wide transmitted central primary rays. Photo 35 was taken with a slot
2 mm. wide, half central and half excentric, transmitting through its
central half primary rays, and through its excentric half diffracted rays.
Repetitions of the experiment show that, under parallel conditions, the
same aperture gives the same resolution with either diffracted or primary
rays. In other words, Aperture affects diffracted rays from an object as
it does primary rays from an object.

Dr. Mercer now gives at full length his reasons for considering that
advantageous reduction in a cone of light between an object and the
objective should not exceed, in the case of first-class objectives, one-
fourth to one-third (never more than one-half) of the diameter of the
cone.

Experiment 13. — The general arrangement of apparatus was the same
as in taking photo 1 (experiment 5), but instead of the card-holes an
opaque card having a cross-shaped hole cut through it was placed
against the bull’s-eye condenser. An aerial image of the cross was pro-
jected in the plane of the Microscope stage by a 1 in. objective arranged
as a substage condenser. This aerial image was then observed through
a 1J in. objective and a 2 in. Huyghenian eye-piece. Let fig. 47 indi-
cate diagrammatically the relative positions of the substage condenser,
aerial image, and objective. The dotted line a shows the position of the
first lens of the substage condenser, and b the position of its second lens.
Let c show the position of the first lens of the objective, and d that of
the final lens of the objective. Let 4 represent the Powell and Lealand
substage diaphragm with circular opening “ 4 ” in use. Let the angular

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. MICROSCOPY, ETC.

359

lines VOX and WOU indicate tlie paths through the lenses which the
boundary rays of the light transmitted by the diaphragm ojiening at 4
travelled. Experimentally it was found that a circular opening 2 mm.
in diameter in a diaphragm capping the substage condenser at 2, a
circular opening 3 mm. in diameter in a diaphragm capping the objective
at 3, and a circular opening 5 mm. in diameter in a diaphragm placed
behind the objective at 5, just permitted all the rays transmitted by the
diaphragm opening “ 4 ” to reach the emitting surface at d.

Fig. 47.

Then, without otherwise changing the arrangement, for diaphragm 5
with its opening 5 mm. in diameter was substituted diaphragm 8 (shown
just behind 5), which had a zonular opening and an opaque central
portion 8 mm. in diameter. Diaphragm 8 obstructed all the primary
rays emitted by the lens at d. The eye-piece was then removed. On
looking at the back of the objective, the zone c d uncovered by dia-
phragm 8 was illuminated, and remained illuminated even when the
circular opening at 4 was changed to “ 1 ” of the substage diaphragm.
The peripheral zone at the back of the objective was illuminated by
rays which must have been separated from the direct axial rays at a
previously operative lens-surface.

The 2-in. eye-piece was replaced ; the eye-lens of the eye-piece wras
removed, and a photomicrograph taken, as shown in photo 14.

Diaphragm 5 was then exchanged for diaphragm 8, and the photo-
micrograph taken with the same camera arrangement is shown in photo 17.
Immediately afterwards, while observing the image of the annulus on the
ground glass as the camera with its 1-in. objective wTas pushed slowdy
towards the Microscope, the annulus was seen to shrink gradually and
become the small cross shown in photo 18, which is inverted as to the
larger cross in photo 14. There can be no doubt then that the annulus
was illuminated by light which in some way was derived from the aerial
image of the cross projected in the plane of the stage, and the inversion
of the smaller image shows that the excentric rays were conveyed to at
least one more focus than the direct axial rays. It is probable that the
excentric rays were separated from the direct axial pencil by internal
and converging reflection at the emitting surface of the front lens of the
objective, and returned to the front surface, thence to be reflected back in
an onward direction to and through the emitting surface along excentric
paths towards the annulus.

The Abbe “ spectra ” now claim our attention. We have found that
they are not indispensable in some of the images of microscopic vision.
“ Spectra ” are images of an opening in the diaphragm of a substage
condenser, or of a source of light, formed above the objective in micro-

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

>(30

scopic vision by diffracted rays originating in the object. Can an image
of an opening, or of a source of light formed in the Microscope-tube
between the objective and the field lens of the eye-piece by diffracted
rays, have any influence on the primary ray-image of microscopic vision
formed between the two lenses of the eye-piece ? Two widely separated
images cannot be seen through the Microscope at the same time. In
other words, such images cannot be united to form a joint visual
picture.

Dr. Mercer thinks that the Abbe “spectra” are sometimes present as an
accident of Microscope projection, and sometimes they are not.

Why do “ spectra ” when present appear to be of such importance ?
The “ spectra ” are so placed in a plane at the back of the objective that
when a slotted diaphragm in their plane uncovers the “ spectra,” the
same diaphragm uncovers simultaneously certain emitting points of the
projecting lens. If now one of the slots of such a diaphragm be covered,
one of the “ spectra ” disappears, and a corresponding change occurs in
the projected image. But this change is due to the loss of the slot and
corresponding emitting point of the projecting lens, and not to the loss
of one of the “ spectra ” ; because if the “ spectra ” were absent in full cone
illumination , the covering the slot in the diaphragm would produce the same
change in the projected image.

When the axial illuminating pencil is narrow and the Abbe t: spectra ”
are separated by well-marked intervals of darkness, the Abbe theory
ignores the emitting surface of the objective corresponding with the
intervals of darkness. In harmony with this partial neglect of aperture,
resolution in the Abbe theory may be said to increase by jumps. So
long as a central image of the source of light is to be seen at the back
of the objective, resolution is not present. The aperture may be in-
creased without change in the contraction of the diffraction pattern and
in accompanying resolution, so long as the central image alone is to
be seen at the back of the objective. But the moment the increase in
aperture is sufficient to uncover or admit one flanking “ spectrum ” image,
resolution is present. With greater aperture no improvement is to be
seen until another “ spectrum ” image is uncovered or admitted.

On the other hand, with full cone illumination, resolution increases
continuously, and not by jumps or by periodic accessions. The portions
of aperture neglected in the Abbe theory are effective in full cone illu-
mination. They contribute in proportion to their breadth, radially from
the principal axis, to the contraction of diffraction patterns. And thus
they may resolve additional finer details (experiment 14) in an object,
or increase the distinctnessyff the resolution of details already resolved.

Experiment 14. — A Microscope was arranged to exhibit the lines
shown in photos 10 and 35. For the optical part of a Powell and
Lealand substage condenser was substituted a Powell and Lealand 1-in.
objective. A Powell and Lealand 3-in. objective and a “ 10 compensat-
ing ” eye-piece were used. A diaphragm with an opening 10 mm. in
diam. was placed at the back of the objective. The revolving diaphragm
of the substage condenser was turned so as to bring opening “ 1 ” into
use. The closer lines of the test plate were resolved. On removing
the eye-piece and looking at the back of the objective, a central image
of the opening in the diaphragm of the substage condenser was seen,

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

361

flanked on each side at the limit of the aperture by about half of an
Abbe “ spectrum ” image. The more distant halves of the “ spectra ”
were just outside the limit of the aperture, and could not be seen.

Then, for the diaphragm with an opening 10 mm. in diam. at the
back of the objective was substituted a diaphragm having an opening
6 mm. in diam. The latter just covered both halves of the two flanking
<£ spectra,” and left on each side of the central image a breadth of dark-
ness corresponding with one portion of the aperture neglected in the Abbe
theory. On replacing the eye-piece and again looking at the test plate,
the closer lines could not be seen. Resolution failed, because under
the conditions present the Abbe theory requires for resolution the
admission, by the diaphragm at the back of the objective, of at least
a part of one “ spectrum ” image in addition to the central image of the
opening in the diaphragm of the substage condenser. Again the eye-
piece wras removed. The diaphragm of the substage condenser was
turned so as to bring opening “ 3 ” into use. This change caused the
central image seen at the back of the objective to increase in size until
it filled the opening 6 mm. in diam. in the diaphragm at the back of
the objective. On replacing the eye-piece and looking at the test plate
once more, the closer lines were seen. Resolution returned as a result
of the additional light from the larger opening on the diaphragm of the
substage condenser reaching and utilising the portions of aperture
which were previously dark under the conditions necessary to the Abbe
theory.

Dr. Mercer summarises the results of his experiments thus : — •

(1) Diffracted rays leaving an object may be considered in the same
category with other rays changed in direction by an object.

(2) The diffraction phenomena seen in a projected image are essenti-
ally the effect of changes in light above the objective due to a function
of aperture, and not to changes below the objective due to diffraction of
light in the plane of the object.

(3) Diffraction in the plane of the object does, under some circum-
stances, furnish light to certain parts of an aperture from which primary
rays are absent, and thus enables aperture to more fully determine the
character of the projected image, resulting in a more nearly truthful
image, or, on the other hand, in false appearances. This is the gist of
the Abbe phenomena of microscopic vision.

(4) But such phenomena are not peculiar to microscopic vision, not-
withstanding Prof. Abbe’s claim to the contrary.

(5) With any positive lens similar and more brilliant results may
be got by utilising corresponding pencils of primary rays, instead of
isolated pencils of diffracted rays.

(6) Still more trustworthy results may be got by using continuous
apertures three-fourths (in diameter) full of primary rays instead of
the isolated pencils of primary rays.

(7) An advantage peculiar to using narrow cone illumination with
an objective of wide aperture (the only illumination admissible in the
Abbe theory) consists in giving, under suitable conditions, apj)roximately
the acme of resolving power simultaneously in each of several diameters.
Thus a circular aperture is approximately squared or made rectangular
as to resolving power in several of its diameters simultaneously.

362

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(8) Special attention is called to the fact that the Abbe theory deals
with complex objects ; for only such objects are subject to resolution.
Single particles and uniform areas are outside its domain. These latter,
however, are microscopic objects, and all objects are essentially different
shaped aggregations of points. An isolated point-like particle, no
matter what its minuteness, may be seen if it present sufficient contrast
with the surrounding microscopic field. The size of the disc image is
no less than a limit determined finally by aperture. That limit in size,
varying inversely with aperture, determines the limit of resolving power.
This is the gist of the theory of microscopic vision which harmonises
with our experimental study of aperture.

Microscopic Vision.* — A paper read by Mr. E. M. Nelson under the
above title gives an interesting historical sketch of the theory of micro-
scopic vision and its present position.

After glancing at Dr. Goring’s experiments on angular aperture in
1837, Mr. Nelson goes rather fully into the history of the controversy
initiated by Dr. Pigott in the M. M. J. (July 1870). Amid much error
and much high-sounding Greek verbiage, Dr. Pigott had the merit of
stating several important truths, viz. : —

(1) That a water-immersion lens can have a greater aperture than any
dry lens, and similarly a homogeneous than a water-immersion.

(2) That illuminating power is increased by the use of higher re-
fractive media.

(3) The suggestion of homogeneous immersion.

Possibly Dr. Pigott’s lucubrations suggested to Mr. P. B. Tolies the
improvements connected with his name ; for in 1874 he actually con-
structed a balsam immersion objective, and in 1873 an apertometer on
much the same principle as that now known as Abbe’s ; moreover, the
word “ homogeneous ” as applied to immersion objectives is probably due
to Mr. Tolies.

Mr. Nelson now traces the history of diffraction from Fraunhofer,
through Herschel and Nobert, to Dr. Barnard in 1869. Fraunhofer, in

studying the well-known equation sin 0 = -r , had thought that the limit

o

of microscopic vision was reached when 8 = A. and 6 consequently
equalled 90°. If Fraunhofer’s theory were correct, not even the 9th
band of Nobert’s 19th band test-plate (56,300 lines per inch) could
be resolved in monochromatic yellow light ; but Dr. Barnard and
Colonel Woodward had resolved up to the 19th (112,600 lines per
inch) with a P. and L. water immersion 1/16.

We are now brought to the era when the opinions of Abbe and
Helmholtz were made known to this country by Dr. Fripp. Abbe’s
great idea of using Snell’s equation (law of sines) as a standard to which
all kinds of aperture might be referred, simplified matters, and put fresh
meanings into and enlarged the ideas connected with aperture. Both
Pigott and Tolies used Snell’s law, ^ sin <£ = /j! sin </>' ; but Abbe went
further, and said, p, sin <f> = fi sin </>' = numerical aperture.

Among the enlarged ideas put into the word “ aperture ” by Prof.
Abbe, its photometric value stands first. The radiation of light from

* Proc. Bristol Naturalists’ Soc., viii. pt. ii. (1896-7) pp. 141-66 (6 figs.)

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

363

any surface diminishes in proportion to the cosine of the inclination of
the rays to the normal. This means that the amount of light radiating
from a point in a homogeneous medium varies as (sin w)2, where u is the
semi-angle of the solid cone. The next point is that the radiation of
energy, such as light and heat, in different media, varies as ( n 2), where
n is the refractive index of the medium. Therefore the total effect of
radiation in any medium is proportional to (n sin w)2, i.e. the square of
the numerical aperture.

The Lagrange-Helmholtz-Abbe theorem may be called the Magna
Charta of Microscopy. If u and u ! be the angles of convergence of any
ray on either side of a given system, n and n' the refractive indices of
the media on either side, and M the magnifying power, then

u

Lagrange (1803) showed that - = M, the media on both sides of the

u

system being the same, and the aperture small.

Helmholtz (1866) that = M, the media different, but the aper-

ture small.

Abbe (1873) that

' »i sin u

M for any aperture or media.

Mr. Nelson outlines the proof of the last result, and shows that the
following useful formulae may be obtained :

(■•)

\ back lens _

= / i

N.A.

(ii.)

M x J back lens
distance

N.A.

This gives a simple way of measuring the equivalent focus of any
objective without an apertometer. The image of a stage micrometer is
projected without an eye-piece on a screen, say 2 or 3 ft. from the back
lens, and M the magnifying power is measured ; this, when multiplied
by half the diameter of the back lens, and the product divided by the
projection distance, gives the N.A.

In discussing the Abbe theory that coarse structures are imaged
according to ordinary dioptric laws, and fine ones according to diffrac-
tion phenomena, Mr. Nelson points out that the line of demarcation
between coarse and fine was placed at 1/2500 of an in., but that this
position is untenable, because the diffraction pencils from gratings such as
wire sieves, linen threads, or ruled scales, where the intervals are at least
1/50 in., can be easily seen without any special apparatus. With suitable
apparatus the spectra arising from much larger gratings have been made
visible.

The following simple but important experiments prove that the
Fraunhofer diffraction law applies even to large objects which can be
seen without instrumental aid.

(1) When a scale on a carpenter’s rule is examined through a dia-
phragm held close to the eye, the hole being 0*011 in. in diameter, some
divisions on the rule can just be perceived at in. What is the fineness
of the divisions ?

Let a be the diameter of the hole, and \ the wave-length, say

364

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

1/45,000 in., 8 being tbe value of one line and interspace. Then

• * o

will be tbe angle tbe bole subtends at tbe distance of tbe scale. By tbe
Fraunhofer law u, tbe divergence of tbe diffraction beams is sucb that

sin u = - but, in order that two diffracted beams may just pass through

tbe bole, which is tbe condition of tbe limit of visibility of tbe grating,

sin u must also = =— K ; therefore ^ , and 8 = ^ - = 1/66 in.

7*5 6 7*5 *011

The scale actually bad 64 lines per inch.

(2) Tbe converse problem may be treated in a similar way. Looking
through a bole in a diaphragm placed close to tbe eye, a scale of 50 lines
to tbe inch can be just perceived at a distance of 9 in. What is tbe
diameter of tbe bole ?

Tbe bole here subtends an angle of ^ at tbe scale ; this angle must
be equal to sin u if tbe grating is just resolved. Therefore sin u

=-%, = j- ; a — = *01 in. Tbe actual size of tbe bole by micro-

o y * u^J

metric measurement was *011 in.

These experiments show that tbe diffraction limit is at least fifty
times greater than that assumed, and tbe line of demarcation between
fine and coarse must be altered to 1/50 in., from which it follows that
tbe only Microscope images to be accepted as truthful are those of
objects larger than the 1/50 in., a conclusion which is known to be
absurd.

Another dangerous conclusion from tbe diffraction theory was that,
because tbe image of fine structure depends upon spectra, therefore make
spectra. This meant that the spectra should be made as bright as
possible by reducing tbe aperture of tbe illuminating cone. Reducing
the aperture of tbe illuminating cone is analogous in its effect to re-
ducing tbe slit of a spectroscope. Narrow tbe illuminating beam to a
mere point, and tbe spectra from any diatomic structure will become
brightly coloured. (So much is this tbe case that if a spectroscope is
not at band, a coarse diatom, such as a Pinnularia, illuminated by a
narrow cone when a suitable objective is employed, makes a very good
substitute ; and a light-filter of any kind can be tested by examining tbe
spectra at tbe back of tbe objective.) Prof. Abbe, unfortunately, says
that there is not tbe least ground for supposing that a broad illumi-
nating beam can be expected to give a truer image than a narrow axial
illuminating pencil. Apart from tbe question of tbe manufacture of
false images, this statement renders unnecessary any improvement in
tbe objective— a statement most damaging to tbe interests of micro-
scopy.

In discussing these questions Mr. Nelson carefully defines bis
nomenclature. The central white beam, sometimes called tbe “ Central
Maximum,” will be called tbe dioptric beam (D) ; tbe first coloured
spectrum next tbe dioptric beam the spectrum of the first order (1) ;
tbe one next to that a spectrum of tbe second order (2) ; and so on ; see
fig. 48.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICKOSCOPY, ETC.

365

The law, then, for the manufacture of the simplest form of false
image, is the union of a spectrum of the second order with D, when that
of the first order is suppressed. In this case the false image will consist
of a doubling of line structures, and the insertion of an intercostal in
hexagonal and similar structures. To repeat, the cause of the false
image is the suppression of (1) and not merely the admission, per se, of

Fig. 48.

(2); for if (2) is admitted and combined with the dioptric beam, (1)
being also combined with them, there will be no false image. This effect
can be obtained by a suitable stop, or by using a narrow cone. When
a narrow axial cone is used, spectra of the first order pass through an
intermediate zone of the objective aperture, whilst those of the second
order pass through an outer zone (fig. 48) ; then spherical aberration

Fig. 49. Fig. 50.

(which is always present, even in the best objectives, to a far greater
extent than is generally supposed) will cause spectra of the second
order to be combined with D, to the exclusion of (1), thereby forming a
false image. Putting it in a popular form, it may be said that the eye
is quite unable to distinguish whether any given spectra are spectra of

366

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the first order arising from a fine structure (P, P, fig. 49), or spectra of
the second order from a coarse structure (0, 0, fig. 48) ; so that, if (2)
and D are brought into focus together while spherical aberration is
causing (1) to be out of focus, the result is that the eye interprets (2)
of the coarse structure (0, 0, fig. 48) as if they were (1) of fine structure
(P, P, fig. 49), consequently a ghost image of fine structure is seen. If
therefore the coarse structure (0, 0, fig. 48) which in this instance would
be the true image, had a certain number of lines or marks to the inch,
say 12,000, then the ghost image would have precisely double that quan-
tity, or 24,000 to the inch.

False images of greater complexity may be made by combining (8)
with D, when (1) and (2) are excluded, &c.

All these false images are dispelled by means of the wide angled
axial cone of illumination (i.e. 3/4 cone), because it causes groups of (1)
to pass through the same zone of the objective as those of (2), and unites
as well portions of (1) with D (fig. 50), thus rendering their separation
impossible.

Fig. 51.

Fig. 52.

/

In fig. 50, D, (1), and (2) are distinguished by being drawn in steps,
the overlapping portions being indicated by thick lines. The structure
O, O, is supposed to have 12,000 lines per inch, and to be similar to that
in fig. 48. P, P, in figs. 49 and 52, are supposed to have 24,000 lines per
inch, while S, S, in fig. 51, have 48,000. In these figures the refraction
of the lens has been omitted.

“ Oblique illumination ” is another form of the small cone, and was
probably invented by Dr. Goring in 1826. The dioptric beam passes
through a marginal zone on one side ; and when S, S, is barely resolved
(1) passes through the same zone on the opposite side (fig. 51) ; duplica-
tion is then impossible, and the image will be correct with regard to the
fineness (48,000 per inch). If the structure is sufficiently coarse
(24,000 per inch) to permit a spectrum of (2) and D to pass through
the marginal zone, then a spectrum of (1) will pass through the centre
of the objective. Spherical aberration will prevent combination, and
therefore an image of double the fineness (48,000 per inch) will be
seen.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

367

Tests to determine the reality of the ghosts : —

(1) They usually occur whtn a small cone of illumination is em-
ployed.

(2) They must be an integral multiple of some real structure : thus,
if the real structure is 12,000, the ghost may be 24,000, 36,000, 48,000,
&c., but it can never be 18,000 or 30,000.

(3) The ghosts invariably have a focus differing from that of the
true structure.

The “ black and white dot ” is a term used to express the fact that
when an object — e.g. a siliceous plate — is viewed under the Microscope, its
edge assumes either a black or white appearance, according to changes in
focus ; but when the edge is an inner edge of a hole, and the hole is
very minute, the black edge on one side of the hole will meet the black
edge on the opposite side, and the hole will appear as a “ black dot ” ;
but when the focus is arranged so as to give a white edge, then the hole
becomes a white dot. Although primarily applied to diatoms, the term
is applicable to all minute microscopical objects, such as bacteria, hairs,
flagella, and the edges of objects generally. This phenomenon is found
to depend upon the aperture of the objective ; for the greater the aperture
the easier it is to obtain a black dot. When, however, the hole becomes
excessively minute, a black dot is no longer attainable, and we have to
content ourselves with the white dot appearance. There is nothing in
the theory of microscopic vision, as at present enunciated, to explain why
a larger aperture is required to resolve the black than the white dot.
In dealing with the limit of microscopic vision, the question arises
whether we mean the black or white dot limit, for there must be two
limits. Again, which is the more correct picture ? Moreover, as these
images occur at different foci, which is the correct focus ? and as it
depends on the adjustment of the objective, which is the correct adjust-
ment ?

Another problem awaiting solution relates to dark-ground illumina-
tion. This illumination is best obtained by placing an opaque stop at
the back of the condenser to stop out an axial cone of greater aperture
than that of the objective. It is found in practice that, when the
ground is strictly dark, the resolving limit of all objectives is lowered.
When the stop at the back of the objective is hardly large enough, the
ground assumes a pearly appearance ; in this case the resolving limit
is at its maximum.

(6) Miscellaneous. ;

Vessel for Treatment of Paraffin Sections with Staining and
other Solutions.* — Dr. L. Buscalioni describes a vessel (figs. 53-57)
which is a modification of that devised by D. Caro for the treatment
of paraffin sections. The receiver is a rectangular glass jar measuring
8 cm. high, 6 • 5 cm. broadband 8 • 3 cm. long. The lid is made of ebonite
and is 8*8 cm. long by 7 cm. broad. In it are twelve openings, each
about 4 cm. long, and sufficiently wide to take two slides placed back to
back. On the under surface of the lid is a groove for the purpose of
fitting the lid on to the receiver. The lid is covered with a cap made of

* Malpighia, xi. (1897) pp. 458— 60| (5 figs.). Zeitsch. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898)
pp. 442-4.

1898 2 0

368

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tin or iron plate, and is let into a groove on the upper surface of the lid.
This cap or cover is about 1 cm. high, 7*7 cm. long, and 6 cm. broad,
and its object is to prevent evaporation of the fluid.

Fig. 53. Fig. 54.

Fig. 55.

Fig. 56.

Fig. 57.

The slides are let into the fissures in the lid by placing a couple
back to back, and fixing them together by means of a rubber ring. The
ring not only holds them together but supports them on the lid.

New Rapid Filter.* — Herr E. Funck has devised an apparatus for
rapidly filtering nutrient media such as agar, gelatin, &c. The apparatus
is made of copper, and consists of the double filter A (fig. 58), having a
side tube E for filling the interspace A with glycerin or paraffin.

The outflow tube is provided with a metal disk F, which serves to
prevent dust and impurities from contaminating the filtered fluid, by
closing G. The cover B of the hopper is fastened by means of screws
C, and rendered air-tight through the intermediation of a rubber or
asbestos band. The tube D serves to regulate the pressure of the steam

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 200-1 (1 fig.).

-ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

369

and the filtration. Inside the large funnel is a small perforated funnel
H^wliich serves to protect the paper filter. The filter may be made of

Fig. 58. Fig. 59.

thick filter paper or of flannel. The tube J is for the
introduction of the fluid to be filtered. The apparatus is
supported by the ring K. In order to heat the funnel only
a small flame is necessary.

Injection Syringe for Bacteriological Work.* — Dr. A.

Cantani describes a syringe he has been using for some
time past, with excellent effects. The syringe, which is
easily constructed, consists of a nozzle, a glass tube, and a
rubber ball, similar to that in Koch’s syringe.

As may be seen from fig. 59, the front end of the
syringe is narrowed a little, and to this is fastened the
nozzle. About two centimetres from the other end is a
capillary constriction, beyond which the tube is packed with
cotton-wool. The ball is joined to the syringe by a piece
of rubber tubing b. The instrument is very easily made, easily manipu-
lated, and easily sterilised.

Uew Autoclave.f — Dr. F. Abba describes an autoclave which he
has used for some time with very satisfactory results. It works up to
a pressure of 1/2 atmosphere, giving a temperature of 112°. Though

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 1* Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 217-8 (1 fig.),
f Tom. cit., pp. 462-5 (2 figs.).

2 c 2

370

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

very effective, the apparatus is much less costly than most sterilisers,
as these are made, most unnecessarily, to withstand a much higher
pressure.

The apparatus consists of a copper cylinder or jacket A B (fig. 60)
tinned on the inside. The lid is fastened down with the screws S, and
the interior rendered air-tight by means of an intervening rubber band.
The water-holder B is shaped so as to offer as large a surface as possible
to the flame. Inside the jacket is the sterilising chamber, divided into

Fig. 60.

compartments by perforated partitions, and supported on fillets. Its
diameter is 27 cm., and its height 46 cm. In the lid are three holes,
one for a tap R, another for a safety valve Y, and the third for the
thermometer T. Connected by a pipe d, fitted with a stop-cock a , is a
funnel b c. The jacket is enclosed in a metal case with several openings
o , for the escape of hot air.

The apparatus can be used for sterilising at 100° or at 112°. If the
former temperature be desired, the tap R is kept open If the autoclave

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

371

is to be worked at 112°, the water-holder is filled up to the level in-
dicated, the tap a is closed, and R left open until the thermometer
reaches 98°— 99°, a point which indicates that all the air has been driven
out of the apparatus. The tapt R is then turned, and the temperature
soon rises to 112°. Should the temperature and pressure rise above this,
the steam escapes through the safety valve.

By a preconcerted adjustment of the tap R, the valve V, and the
flame F, a temperature constant between 100° and 112° can be main-
tained.

B. Technique.*

Cl) Collecting- Objects, including: Culture Processes.

Aseptic Cultivation of Mycetozoa. j — Dr. C. 0. Miller, who described
a method for the cultivation of Protozoa,! finds that some modifications
are necessary for Mycetozoa. They will grow in sterilised dilute hay
infusion, or 2 per cent, of milk in water; but for the formation of
sporanges it is usually advantageous, and sometimes essential, to furnish
the organisms with a mechanical support as a means of getting out of
the water. The medium is prepared by putting a handful of hay in a
jar and washing it until the water remains colourless. It is then covered
with fresh water, and allowed to soak overnight. The following day
the water is poured off, filtered, diluted with fresh water until it is of
a white wine colour, and 2 per cent, of milk added. It is then filtered,
put into a flask and sterilised for future use. The macerated hay is
cut, and placed in Erlenmeyer’s flasks ; the first portion is cut short
enough to form a tolerably compact layer at the bottom of the flask
to the depth of 1 cm. ; the rest is cut sufficiently long to form a very
loose layer, reaching about two-thirds the way up the sides of the flask,
care being taken not to allow any of the stems to reach the cotton.
Sufficient water is placed in the flasks to cover the hay, and they are
sterilised for 15 minutes. On the following day fresh water is sub-
stituted, and they are again sterilised. The water is once more poured
off, and enough of the hay infusion and milk previously prepared is
added until it is about 1 cm. deep. The flasks are then sterilised for
10 minutes on three successive days. They are then ready for use.

The cultures are usually transplanted by means of a sterilised
pipette.

Peptonised Milk for the Cultivation of Lactic Acid Ferments. § —

Herr 0. Jensen, who confirms the opinion of Kayser as to the excellence
of peptonised milk as a medium for cultivating lactic acid bacteria, gives
the following method for its preparation.

After the milk is sterilised, 10 ccm. per litre of pure hydrochloric
acid and 2 grm. of pepsin are added, and the mixture incubated at
35°-37°. At first, until the casein is separated and the pepsin dissolved,
the flask is to be frequently shaken up, but afterwards this need only
be done occasionally.

* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous. f Quart. Juurn. Micr. Sci., xli. (1898) pp. 46-9 (2 pis.).

t Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 744.

Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2t8 Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 196-9.

372

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In 36-48 hours it is neutralised, sterilised, and filtered through
paper. The reaction should be about neutral to litmus paper, and 5 com.
of the peptonised milk should, with phenolphthalein as indicator, corre-
spond to 1-2 ccm. of 1/10 normal soda solution. It is advisable to take
the amphoteric reaction of milk into consideration, otherwise the pep-
tonised milk may be too acid.

If the milk be cloudy it may be cleared by boiling with white of egg
and filtering. Gelatin or agar is to be added after the first filtra-
tion.

(2) Preparing- Objects.

Demonstrating the Tubercle Bacillus in Tissues.* — Dr. G. d’Arrigo
and Dr. E. Stampacchia recommend as fixatives of tissues to be examined
for tubercle bacilli the two following solutions.

Pyrogallic acid 2 grm., alcohol (95 per cent.) 100 ccm. The
solution must be freshly made as occasion requires, and the pieces,
having been first washed in water, are immersed therein for four days.
The solution is better renewed at the end of two days. After removal
the pieces are transferred to 95 per cent, alcohol (changed every 5-6
days) until it is no longer blackened.

The second solution recommended is Hayem’s fluid, which is com-
posed of distilled water 100 grm., sodium chloride 0 • 5 grm., sodium
sulphate 2*5 grm., sublimate 0*25 grm. The pieces, which must be
small, are left in this solution for 24 hours, and kept in the ther-
mostat at 37°. After removal they are washed in running water for
some hours, and then transferred to alcohol to which a little iodine has
been added.

The sections are obtained by the paraffin procedure, and are made to
adhere to the slide by the distilled water and heat method. The stain-
ing solutions recommended are the Ziehl-Neelsen phenol-fuchsin, fol-
lowed by Gabbet’s methylen-blue, the formula for which is, distilled
water 100 ccm., sulphuric acid 50 ccm., methylen-blue 2 grm.

It is advisable to allow the phenol-fuchsin solution to act for 20-30
minutes at a temperature of 40°. The preparation should next be
washed in a mixture of spirit and water until the stain is no longer
given off, after which it is treated with the methylen-blue solution for a
few seconds only. The preparation is then washed in water, which is
changed until it is no longer stained, and finally mounted in the usual
way.

In the case of sputum, especially when this secretion contains few
bacilli, it is advised to mix some with 1/3 alcohol and heat the test-tube
in a thermostat for 24 hours at 37°, or for three hours at 50°. The
mixture should be frequently stirred up in order to allow the spirit to
thoroughly penetrate the sputum. Prepared in this way, sputum will
keep for a long time, and bacilli can be demonstrated therein after months
and even years.

Demonstrating the Structure of Coli and Typhoid Bacilli.t — Dr. A.
Wagner has demonstrated the structure of coli and typhoid bacteria by
the following method. In 100 grm. of a boiling 1/4 per cent, salt

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 61-7, 123-31.
f Tom. cit., pp. 433-6, 489-92 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

373

solution, 2 grin, of primulin are dissolved. The solution is filtered
and allowed to cool. A cover-glass preparation is floated on the primulin
solution in a watch-glass, the latter being placed in water at about 60°,
and allowed to remain there for some hours, or indeed all night. The
preparation is then washed with water, and stained with Hessian Bor-
deaux for 1/2-2 minutes. The Bordeaux solutionis made by dissolving
1 per cent, of, the pigment in boiling water and filtering once or twice.
The preparation, after having been washed, is mounted.

The cultures from which the preparations were made were from
glycerin-agar media, the coli being 20-24 hours old and the typhoid
about 13 hours.

Examining the Nephrostomes of Selachia.* — M. F. Guitel de-
scribes a simple procedure for showing the nephrostomes of the kidney
of the adult Acanthias vulgaris. The body is opened along the ventral
middle line, and Flemming’s fluid poured in. The solution, which is
composed of chromic acid 1 per cent. 15 parts, osmic acid 2 per cent.
4 parts, and glacial acetic acid 1 part, is allowed to act for a minute and a
half. The fixative is then poured off, and the ventral cavity quickly and
thoroughly washed with water. As the tissue of the nephrostomes fixes
the osmic acid more strongly than the surrounding parts, these organs,
stained black to chestnut brown, show up well against the dark grey of
the adjacent tissues. The reaction attains its maximum in 24 hours.
The pieces thus prepared keep well in alcohol or in 2 per thousand
carbolic acid.

Microscopical Examination of Viscous Urine.f — Herr G. Michel
employs the following method in order to separate the organised deposit
in albuminous viscous urines for microscopical examination. 50 ccm. of
the urine are shaken several times with 20 ccm. of ether in a cylinder of
100 ccm. capacity and the mixture set aside for some time. The ethereal
layer will then contain all the organised elements. It is drawn off with
a pipette into watch-glasses, and after evaporation of the ether, the
residue is removed to slides for microscopical examination.

Hew Method of Be calcifying.! — Dr. E. Rousseau has devised the
following method for decalcifying.

The objects to be decalcified, which should not be too large, are im-
bedded in celloidin in the ordinary way, i.e. after fixation, are dehydrated
in alcohol, and then, after having been immersed in a mixture of equal
parts of ether and alcohol, are impregnated with celloidin in solutions
of increasing strength (4 per cent., 8 per cent., 12 per cent.). When the
objects are sufficiently saturated with celloidin, the latter is hardened by
slow evaporation, by alcohol or by chloroform. The celloidin blocks
containing the objects are next immersed in a mixture of alcohol at 90°
and nitric acid, the proportion of the latter being regulated by the
amount of calcareous matter to be got rid of. The author uses 10 to 50
parts HN03 to 100 of alcohol. The decalcifying fluid should be re-
newed from time to time, and when decalcification is complete, the excess
of acid is removed by washing in water and immersion in 90 p. c. alcohol,

* Arch. Zool. Exper. et Gen., v. (1897) pp. 385-8 (1 pi.).

t Chem. Zeit., xxi. p. 316. See Pharmaceut. Journ., 1898, p. 324.

X Bull. Soc. Beige de Microscopie, xxiii. (1896-97) pp. 159-65.

374

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

frequently changed, for several days. To the alcohol, carbonate of lime
may be added if necessary. When all the acid has been removed, the
celloidin block may be sectioned. Now it may happen that, owing to
extensive decalcification, there will be large gaps in the objects, which
would be a source of considerable inconvenience in making and manipu-
lating the sections. This difficulty is, however, easily got over by
filling up the holes with 4 per cent, celloidin, and allowing this to set
by evaporation.

This method possesses many advantages ; there is no deformity of
the animals or tissues, which are observed in situ , and it is easy and
rapid.

(3) Cutting-, including' Imbedding- and Microtomes.

New Microtome (System Beck-Becker).* — Dr. Arno Beck describes
an instrument which is intended to imitate the drawing and pressing
motions of hand-cutting, and to improve on the pressing motion of most
microtome knives.

Fig. 61.

Fig. 61 shows the principle of his knife. A parallelogram of metal
rods is jointed at the four corners, and the back edge A B is clamped.
D C represents the knife-edge, which, as it is moved forward, imitates the
two motions desired. A uniform wear and tear of the knife-edge also
results. Regulation of the lengths of the arms also regulates the thick-
ness of the sections ; for the more elongated the curve described by the
knife-edge, the finer the section. Adjustable screws through A and B
determine the pitch of the knife. The guide arms A D and C B are
strongly made, and are kept properly placed by strong springs with the
intention of preventing the hopping of the knife. A small type of the
machine successfully cuts sections of 5 by 7 to 6 by 8 cm.

New Microtome by Reichert. t — Dr. J. Nowak, of Cracow, describes
this instrument, which resembles the Fromme rocking microtome pre-

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898) pp. 324-31 (5 figs.),
f Tom. cit., pp. 317-24 (3 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

375

viously described by Schaffer in the same journal,* but possesses a
certain modification in the regulation of the movement apparatus by
automatic stop and release mechanism, as well as an apparatus for
square sections of the paraffin block. These modifications virtually
amount to a new instrument, which seems highly ingenious. The view
from above is shown in fig. 62, and from below in fig. 63.

A strong cast-iron base (A in fig. 63) bears on its upper side two
upright pillars about 5 cm. high. In the pillars lies a horizontal axis
on which a frame H (fig. 62) rotates. The frame carries a screw St

whose end extends beyond the lower surface of the frame, and passes
further on into the groove of an excentric mounted beneath the frame.
This excentric wheel runs on an axis a mounted above the cast-iron
base, which axis carries a winch wheel A of 10 cm. diameter on the
end extending beyond the frame.

By the rotation of the large winch, and the consequent rotation of
the excentric, the frame H is raised and depressed with a kind of pen-
dulum motion. A corresponding movement follows of the object-holder
fastened to its end, and therewith of the object to be cut. The object-

* Cf. this Journal, 1896, p. 572.

376

8UMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

holder is so fixed that the cutting-plane of the object takes a vertical
position.

Fig. 63.

Fig. 64.

The knife moves slowly from left to right without altering its
setting ; the smaller the knife movement, the thinner the section. The

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

377

knife is mechanically connected with the winch, whose rotation produces
on the one hand a see-saw motion of the paraffin block, and on the other
a pushing of the knife. This is accomplished by means of a slide (e in
fig. 62 ; K in fig. 63) about 4 by 15 cm., moving in a groove of the cast-
iron base. This slide lies exactly under the object-holder, and carries
the knife-holder ss' at one end. At the further edge of the base is the
micrometer screw J (fig. 63), which by means of a three-armed lever is
connected with the slider e (K).

The lever Z is under the base A, and is at one end connected with a
nut c, which is fastened to the micrometer-screw at d; at the other end
there is a small slot b, in which a pivot juts out from the knife-slide K.
The lever is fastened to the base at a by a pin around which it can turn.
Thus is formed a three-armed lever with its fulcrum at a. When the
micrometer (endless) screw J is turned the nut c is displaced, a partial
rotation of the whole lever round a follows, and a corresponding dis-
placement of the slider K is the result. As the arm a b is shorter than
a d , the displacements of K are much less than those of the nut c. Thus
great nicety of working is ensured.

There is a rackwork for adjusting the movements of the knife,
whose inclination is regulated by four screws.

Fig. 64 shows an additional piece of apparatus F, by which the
smallest paraffin blocks can be arranged for section cutting. The
arrangement permits the use of those parts of the knife-edge which are
not generally in play, and thereby affords something like uniform wear
of the blade.

Dr. Nowak speaks highly of the precision of the machine, and of the
ribbon bands of sections.

Student’s Microtome. — Messrs Reynolds and Branson, of Leeds,
have made a simple form of microtome, devised by Prof, de Burgh Birch,
which will be found very useful to students in physiology, botany ,^&c.

Fig. 65.

t.The instrument (fig. 65) is arranged to slide on a glass plate; the
substance to be cut is imbedded, and fixed on the glass plate. Sections
of any degree of thickness may be cut by raising or lowering the screw,
and the microtome is arranged so that any razor may be clamped to it.
Price, with glass plate, without razor .. .. Ss. 9 d. each.

Ditto, with roughened plate to secure better

attachment of the imbedded substance .. 4s. „

Razors .. Is. and 2s. ,,

378

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Two very simple Microtomes.* — Mr. E. Pinnock describes two very
convenient and cheap forms of microtome. (1) The “handy” has a
Y-shaped groove for the paraffin imbedded or the naturally hard object,
the latter being moved forward by a finely cut screw, the object being
held in place by the thumb. There is a flat expansion at the end for the
razor, which should preferably be ground flat. (See fig. 66.)

Fig. 66.

Fig. 67.

(2) Dr. Wetherill’s application of the well-known rivet principle to a
hand-microtome. It is made of hard wood, with a horizontal portion as
a guide for the sweep of the razor, and an incline upon which slides the
rider or object- carrier, to which the paraffin imbedded object is attached
by melting. In the case of a naturally firm object, the rider may be
dispensed with. The object is moved up the incline by the thumb of the
hand holding the microtome. (See fig. 67.)

C4) Staining- and Injecting-.,

Contrast-Staining of Bacteria. f — Herr Knaak has devised a method
in which the cells are stained with fuchsin, and the bacteria writh
methylen-blue. After the action of the methylen-blue, the preparation
is decolorised with hydric sulphide solution (1-10). By this procedure
the pigment is not removed, but merely reduced, and much less so in
the bacteria than in the cells and nuclei. In order to prevent reoxida-
tion of the leucomethylen-blue by the atmospheric oxygen, the pre-
paration is treated with saturated tartaric acid solution. It is then
contrast-stained with fuchsin (1 part saturated alcoholic solution to
20 parts water) for 5-10 seconds. Instead of sulphuretted hydrogen
solution, 1 per cent, solution of argonin may be used for decolorising,
but this must be allowed to act for 4 minutes.

Simple Method for Staining Spores.f — Dr. A. Aujesky has devised
the following procedure for staining spores. The cover-glass film, dried
in the air, is placed for 3-4 minutes in almost boiling 1/2 per cent,
hydrochloric acid. On removal, the cover-glass is washed in water,
dried, and then stained with Ziehl’s fuchsin solution, after the manner
of staining tubercle bacilli in sputum. That is to say, some fuchsin

* Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xix. (1897) p. 189 (2 figs.).

t Deutsch. med. Wochenschr., 1897, No. 42. See jCentralbl.^Bakt. u. Par.,
1“ Abt., xxiii. (1898) p. 343.

Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., xxiii. (1898) pp. 329-31.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

379

solution is dropped on the cover-slip, and the latter heated over a flame
until it begins to vaporise. This should be done twice.

The preparation having been allowed to cool for 1-2 minutes, is
decolorised in 4-5 per cent, sulphuric acid, and contrast-stained for
1-2 minutes in malachite-green or methylen-blue.

Instead of Ziehl’s solution, anilin-oil fuchsin or gentian-violet may
be used. In this latter case, Bismarck-brown or vesuvin should be
used as contrast stain.

Dahlia as a Stain for Bacteria in Celloidin Sections.* * * § — Mr. R.

C. Reed recommends dahlia for staining bacteria in sections prepared
by the celloidin method. The formula used is, saturated alcoholic solu-
tion of dahlia 20 ccm., distilled water 100 ccm. The sections are over-
stained (15-30 minutes), and then thoroughly washed with 95 per cent,
alcohol, until the celloidin around the section appears colourless. They
are then cleared up, for which purpose clove oil is preferred.

This method is not, of course, suitable for bacteria which require
special stains or treatment.

Importance of Testing the Reaction of Sputum in Staining for
Tubercle Bacilli. f — Dr. N. G. Ward points out the importance of test-
ing the reaction of sputum, and if it be found acid, to render it alkaline
before staining it. Any alkali may be used. The reason given by

D. B. Kyle, who was the first to call attention to this fact, is that the
capsule of the bacillus is permeable by an alkali, but not by an acid.
In staining the sediment of urine, pus, or any secretion or fluid for
tubercle bacilli, it is equally necessary to make sure it is alkaline before
staining.

(5) Mounting:, including1 Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Gelatin as a Fixative. — Mr. H. H. Dixon has recently used as a
fixative a dilute solution of gelatin in an aqueous solution of bichromate
of potash. The solution should be quite fluid at 10° C. The ribbon
of paraffin sections is laid on a drop of this solution on the slide.
Wrinkles are removed by gently warming the slide. The superfluous
fluid is then removed by means of blotting paper, and the gelatin
allowed to dry and harden. During this process it should be exposed
to a bright light, the action of the light rendering the fixative quite
insoluble even in warm water, and so removing all danger of detach-
ment from the slide.

The bichromate has the further advantage of preventing the gelatin,
after exposure to the light, from taking up the dyes used as stains.

C6) Miscellaneous.

Paste for Labels.^ — A paste for sticking labels on glass, porcelain,
and metal, may be made of gummi arab. 15 • 0 parts, tragacanth pulv. 7 • 5,
glycerini 45*0, thymoli 0*3, alcohol 3*75, water up to 120*0. The
gum arabic is dissolved in 15 parts water, and the tragacanth rubbed up

* Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xix. (1897) pp. 182-5.

f Microscopical Bulletin, xv. (1898) pp. 1-2.

j Ann. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 117-8.

§ Photog. Zeitung. See Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., iii. (1898) p. 364.

380

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

with 30 parts water. The two fluids are then mixed and strained. The
glycerin is next added, and finally the thymol dissolved in alcohol.

Test for the Production of Indol by Bacteria.* — Dr. Th. Smith
claims that dextrose-free bouillon is the best medium for testing the
production of indol by bacteria. It is prepared from beef infusion,
by extracting either in the cold or at 60° C., and inoculated the same
evening with a culture of an acid-producing bacterium, such as B. coli ,
and placed in the thermostat. Next morning the infusion is boiled,
filtered, pepton and salt added, and then neutralised and sterilised.

Method for Splitting up Argillaceous Silicates containing Diatoms t
— Herr G. Marpmann communicates a method for obtaining diatoms
from schist and argillaceous earths. It consists in treating the earths or
clay with potassium pyrosulphate. The chemical reaction is represented
in the following formula.

Al2(Si03)3 + 3K2S207 = A12(S04)3 + 3K2S04 + 3Si02.

In this way are formed easily soluble sulphates of aluminium and
potassium, while the silicic acid, for the most part in condition of quartz
or diatom shells, is not affected, though some of it remains in a soluble
state.

In practice the procedure is as follows.

One part of the broken up clay or earth is heated with three parts
of the salt, and when melted, one or two parts more of the salt are added.
When thoroughly melted, the mass is poured out into a vessel filled with
water, and then boiled for a time. If the mass do not thoroughly dis-
solve, the sediment should be treated with strong hydrochloric acid, and
then the diatoms separated by fractional sedimentation.

The salt (pyrosulphate) may be made by heating 87 parts of neutral
sulphate of potash in a platinum dish with 49 parts of pure sulphuric
acid. When thoroughly melted, the mass should be poured out on to a
dry porcelain plate, and, when cold, broken up and preserved in stoppered
bottles.

Making Sections of Steel.} — Mr. F. S. Eice prepares sections of
steel for the purpose of demonstrating the microstructural character-
istics. The pieces should 3/4 in. in diam. Sections should be 3/16 in.
thick, if they are to be heated after cutting in the lathe. The best
sections are obtained by carefully grinding off the surface to a plane
by hand on an ordinary quick-cutting oil-stone, then on the finest
Belgian oil-hone, and finally polishing on a piece of chamois tightly
stretched over a block of wood and charged with peroxide of tin.
When thoroughly polished, the surface is washed with alcohol followed
by a little chloroform. The polished surface is then etched in order
to develop the structure.

Though this can be done by means of nitric acid and water, the
surest and most delicate results are obtained from a saturated solution
of iodine in alcohol diluted with an equal bulk of alcohol, both 95 per
cent. Several applications of the iodine solution may be required.
After each etching, wash in 95 per cent, alcohol, and dry quickly to

* Journ. Exper. Med., ii. (1897) pp. 543-7.
t Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., iii. (1898) pp. 341-5.
t Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xix. (1897) pp. 28-42 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

381

prevent oxidation. Then polish with chamois, mount on a slide without
a cover-glass, and examine. # .

A thin coating of vaselin is the best protection from oxidation.

Old Book on Optics. — The following figures (68-71) from Zahn’s
‘ Oculus Artificial^ ’ (1702), to which Mr. E. M. Nelson referred at the
meeting in November last,* have been made from photographs kindly
taken for the purpose by Mr. C. L. Curties.

Fig. 68.

Fig. 68 illustrates a telescope-sight for a musket and a cannon. . Zahn
says, C£ Bombardae et omni generi balistarum ac tormentorum bellicorum
tubum opticum sive telescopium aptare, quo visus ad scopum exacte
dirigi poterit.”

Fig. 69 is the Jordan sunshine recorder. The legend in the ribbon
below is

“ Horas Luce Sono tibi sphaerula Yitrea monstrat,
ignis nil mirum Coelicus urget opus.”

The first thing that attracts attention is the converging nature of
the sun’s rays incident on the sphere ! Next, it will be observed that

* Journ. R.M.S., 1897, p. 600.

382

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in the figure the principal focus of the glass sphere is about 8 instead
of one and a half radii, as it ought to be. An instrument constructed
on the proportions as shown in this figure would therefore be useless.
This is a strange mistake, because the focus of a sphere is correctly
given in another part of the book.

It is intended that at the hours the sun’s rays should burn a string
to which a bell is attached, thus causing it to ring.

We now come to the most interesting figures, viz. 70 and 71. These
are called “ Catoptrico dioptrica telescopica,” and are two out of a series

Fig. 70.

of seven. In fig. 70, D C is the object-glass of a telescope, and A B its
eye-lens ; by means of the two mirrors H G and E F the telescope is, as
it were, folded up into five. The arrow at X is intended to represent an
erect image. It will be noticed that there are two reflections at each
mirror. This is the second in the series ; the first has not been copied,
as the arrangement can easily be understood from fig. 70 ; the difference
between them being that there is only one reflection at each mirror in-
stead of twTo, so that the telescope is folded into three instead of into
five. This leads to fig. 71, which is the third of the series, and shows an
arrangement of plane mirrors, by which the path of the rays is diverted

Fig. 71.

in precisely the same manner as by Porro’s prisms. This is the prin-
ciple which underlies the Zeiss patent binoculars. It will be noticed
that the eye-lenses in figs. 70 and 71 are plano-convex, and are turned in
their proper positions.

The seventh and last of the series has four plane mirrors, and is
very ingenious.

The axis of the telescope is supposed to be horizontal ; the rays are
intercepted just behind the object-glass by a plane mirror placed at an
angle of 45°, and are reflected vertically downwards on to the second
plane mirror, placed nearly horizontally. This reflects the rays verti-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

383

cally upwards on to the third mirror, also placed horizontally, which
reflects them again downwards on to the fourth mirror, placed at an
angle of 4°, and this turns them finally into a horizontal direction to the
eye-piece.

A telescope of 10 ft. focus thus constructed would, when its axis is
horizontal, have a vertical height of about ft., the distance between
the eye-lens and the object-glass being about 1 ft. The object-glass
and the eye-lens are in a line with one another, and are placed in the
middle of the telescope.

384

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on April 20th, 1898, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,

The President, E. M. Nelson, Esq., in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of March 16th last were read and con-
firmed, and were signed by the President.

The Donations to the Society (exclusive of exchanges and reprints)
received since the last meeting were announced as follows : —

From

Three Slides of Botanical Sections Mr. W. T. Suffolk.

Journal of the Board of Agriculture, vol. iv. No. 4, 1898, 8vo .. The Board.

Report of the British Association, 1897 (London, 1898), 8vo .. Mr. F. Crisp.

The thanks of the Society were voted to the donors.

Mr. Xtousselet exhibited a new form of metal lamp chimney made
with two openings, enabling white or tinted glass to be used as required
by simply turning the lamp partly round. This chimney had been made
to a special order by Mr. Pillischer, and happening to see it in the shop,
he thought it might interest the meeting as a new idea in the way of
Microscope lamp chimneys.

The President exhibited a new monochromatic screen trough which
had been handed to him by Mr. Curties. It was of American invention,
and consisted of two glasses cemented to a ring. It was very simple in
construction, and he had no doubt would be an efficient trough for a light
filter.

He also exhibited a dynameter, an instrument designed by Ramsden
in 1775 for measuring the diameter of the emergent pencil of a telescope
in order to determine the power. This was accomplished by means of a
double image, due to the separation of the halves of a divided convex
lens.

The idea of a double-image micrometer by means of a divided lens is
probably due to Savary,* but the form in which it ajipears to-day was
originated by Dollond in 1754. Mr. Powell, to whom the dynameter had

* Phil. Trans., 1753.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

385

been sent for adjustment, told, liim that the semi-lenses were moved by a
differential screw. The President said that he was under the impression
that the differential screw had been invented by his friend the Rev.
James Campbell,* but it would appear that it was a much earlier in-
vention.

Mr. Ingpen said he had one of these made by Ramsden some ye\rs
ago, but gave it away to an oculist. He knew then that it had a differential
screw, and he tried at the time to get this introduced for other purposes,
but was told it was too comjdicated and expensive. He also had at the
present time a divided lens by Dollond 2^ or 2£ inches in diameter.

The thanks of the Meeting were voted to Mr. Rousselet, Mr. Curties,
and the President for bringing these items for exhibition.

Mr. H. G. Madan read a paper “ On some Organic Substances of High
Refractivity available for mounting specimens for examination under
the Microscope.” Samples of the various substances were exhibited in
illustration.

He said he had sent specimens of three of them to Mr. Nelson, who
had handed them to Mr. Morland for him to try their usefulness as
media for mounting diatoms, and he hoped to hear something as to the
result from Mr. Morland that evening.

Mr. T. C. White said they were greatly indebted to Mr. Madan for
the very practical paper he had read. He should like to ask if these
media were suitable for histological work ; because, although they might
do admirably for diatoms or osseous tissue, they might not answer for
softer substances.

Mr. Madan said that one or two were as harmless as Canada balsam ;
some others he could hardly say as much for ; but piperine and quinidine
had been tried and found harmless, and monobromonaphthalene and
phenylthiocarbimide, being neutral substances, were not likely to injure
even delicate tissues. Time alone could prove the entire satisfactoriness
of these media ; but he was inclined to think that the mixture of meta -
cinnamene and phenylthiocarbimide mentioned in the paper approached
most nearly to balsam in permanency and neutrality, while it had a
much higher refractivity than the latter. It did not, however, harden
so completely, hence it should be treated like Farrant’s medium.

Mr. T. Comber said that their old friend Dr. Gray had tried experi-
ments with some of the substances mentioned, and gave him some slides
mounted with piperine, &c., which were very good at the time, but did
not last, except one which was put up in a mixture of piperine and
styrax. The styrax was heated, and whilst in this condition crystals
of piperine were put into it with the object of increasing the refractive
index, and this slide showed no sign of change whatever. He had tried
some of these mixtures as media for objects which he wanted to photo-
graph in sunlight, but found they were not particularly adapted for
this, because they were affected by the sunlight and rendered dark in
colour.

Mr. Madan thought this might be due rather to the heat than to the
light of the sun.

* Described at the Q. M. C., 1886.

2 D 2

386

PROCEEDINGS OP THE SOCIETY.

Mr. Comber said he thought this could hardly be so, because the
heat had been taken out of the beam by passing it through water.

Mr. Morland said he had tested what was sent to him only as
mounting media, but, being entirely # new substances, he did not know
their qualities, because the slides had not yet had time to harden, and
he was not sure as to the cement used, viz. Hollis’s liquid glue, being
able to withstand any solvent action these various media might
have.

Mr. Madan said that no cement could be better adapted for the pur-
pose than a mixture of good glue (or isinglass) and treacle, such as
opticians used for cementing carbon disulphide prisms. This should be
applied warm, and in a day or two it would become quite hard and
strong. He had a hollow prism with sides cemented thus, and filled
with carbon disulphide, which had stood for at least twenty-five years
without the slightest leak.

Dr. Dallinger could only, in regard to the present usefulness of
mounting media of high refracting power, give the testimony of his
experience with slides mounted with these media. He had never mounted
with any of them himself, but specimens had been mounted for him by
the most competent mounters, and he had possessed and used a very
large number of slides mounted in nearly every medium which had
been mentioned, and he had at the present time only one slide in all
his cabinet which was in good condition. All had changed and ruined
most valuable specimens. Nevertheless it was most important that such
media should be available, and it was with great pleasure he found that
so competent a student as Mr. Madan was working upon so important
a matter. There was hope that an efficient and useful medium of high
refracting index might yet be found.

The President was very glad to have heard this valuable paper.
He had sent the materials he had received from Mr. Madan to
Mr. Morland, who had very kindly mounted some diatoms in them so
that he might test them. He found that the methylene di-iodide was a
very dense substance, and the diatoms stood out well in it, but unfor-
tunately they were injured in some way by it, so that in looking at
them the effect was like looking at a dry slide which had gone bad
through what was known as sweating. What it was that caused the
structure of the diatom to melt off in this way he did not know. In
the other materials the diatoms stood out strongly, and the structure
was not interfered with. The quinidine was good, but it crystallised.
He was, however, very sorry to hear that the experiments with quinidiDe
were not a success, because the diatoms could be so beautifully seen in
it. He had not been quite so unfortunate in liis experiences as Dr.
Dallinger, because he had two slides which were in good condition, but
one of these, the finest he had, was he feared, just beginning to show
signs of crystallisation. Ail his piperine slides were still good, and
those in Father Thompsons medium were also perfect. The first slide
mounted in the dense arsenic medium was still perfect, but some wavy
lines were beginning to appear. The curious thing about piperine was
that it made the object look as if you had a bad objective ; one of the
reasons for which was the fact that it had such a high dispersive power.
With regard to these- co-efficients, he had worked out the comparison of

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

387

the dispersive powers of these new media with those of some well-known
glasses, with the following result.

Refractive Indices and Dispersive Powers of Various Substances ,
Lines C, D, Hy.

Glasses : —

H-D

M-l

5 fi

Chance’s light flint

.. 1-574

25-9

„ dense „

1-620

22-6

„ extra dense flint

1-640

20-9

,, double extra dense flint

1717

18-1

Densest flint in Jena catalogue

1-963

11-8

Mr. Madan’s Measurements of New
Substances : —

Methylene di-iodide and phosphorus . .

1-95

15-8

Quinidine

1-602

14-0

Methylene di-iodide

1-743

12-0

Phenylthiocarbimide ..

1-654

10-7

Piperine and balsam

1-657

5*1

Piperine ..

1-681

4-8

From this table we see that while the refractive index of methylene
di-iodide and phosphorus is nearly equal to that of the Jena densest
flint, it has less dispersive power ; but on the other hand quinidine,
which has a refractive index between the light and dense flint of Chance,
has a dispersive power nearly equal to the double extra dense flint.
The next two in the list have high dispersive powers, but they are quite
surpassed by piperine.

For example, piperine and balsam has a refractive index very similar
to Chance’s extra dense flint, but its dispersive power is four times as
great. Piperine alone has less refractive index than the double extra
dense flint, while its dispersive power is 3J times as much.

On the motion of the President a hearty vote of thanks was given
to Mr. Madan for his very valuable paper, a hope being expressed that
something of permanent character might result from what they had
heard that evening.

The President said he was sure the Fellows of the Society would
feel greatly indebted to Mr. Morland for the beautiful diatoms which he
had brought to the meeting for exhibition. The important work he had
done in this direction was so remarkable that it was a great pleasure to
have an opportunity of seeing such a number of specimens. He hoped
Mr. Morland would favour them with some description of what he was
exhibiting.

Mr. Morland said it had been suggested to him that he should read
a few notes on the specimens exhibited ; but on consideration he thought
it would be better if he wrote out a short description of each and placed
it by the Microscope under which each specimen was shown. These
slides were arranged, not with a view to their being test diatoms, but
simply to show the various forms which diatoms assumed. He found
there was in the whole collection only one of the Naviculoid diatoms.
He did not know that he need say any more, but he hoped that the
written descriptions would enable the exhibits to speak for themselves.
He would, however, take that opportunity of thanking Messrs. Beck for

388

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

bringing so large a number of Microscopes to the meeting and placing
them at his disposal.

The following is compiled from the descriptions referred to.

1. Actinoptychus cinnulatus. — From Whampoa, Canton River. On
account of its triangular form this diatom was at first classed amongst
the Triceratia, but closer examination has caused its removal to the
genus Actinoptychus , one striking peculiarity of which is the division
of the valve into compartments or segments, by the alternate elevation
and depression of the valve round a central “ umbilicus.” As a rule
the Actinoptychi are circular, but there are several exceptions to this
rule, the present form being a good example. The centre diatom is a
frustule placed on edge.

2. Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergi.— Halved valve. This is mounted
on edge, and shows the form of the ribs on the inner side of the valve
supporting the outer casing, thus economising to a certain extent the
amount of silex required.

3. Arachnoidiscus ornatus. — In situ on coralline,' the latter having
been decalcified. This slide shows the pill-box form of the diatoms in
every conceivable position, some of them being doubled ready for sub-
division, as can be seen by viewing them edgewise. Mounted in soft
balsam.

4. Aulacodiscus margaritoceus. — Believed to be from Pisagua, West
Coast of South America. The specimen shown is an abnormal one in
regard to its markings. Usually the cells are so crowded together that
they become polygonal from mutual pressure, but where they are dis-
tinct and isolated they retain their rounded form. Many of “the cells
are comparatively large, and by a little careful focusing the “ eye-spot ”
to each can be distinctly seen on the under side of the valve.

5. Aulacodiscus Petersi. — From shell refuse, Panama. This is
shown as a representative of a large and beautiful genus, a monograph
of which by Mr. John Rattray was published in the Journal of this
Society in June 1888. The diatoms on this slide are very perfect, not
one of the processes being broken off.

6. Aulacodiscus Sturti. — From the stomachs of tinned oysters sent
from Japan to the Fisheries Exhibition. This form can be used as a
test object, but is not now shown as such ; the finer markings are be-
tween the “ dots,” particularly towards the centre. A portion of a valve
highly magnified is illustrated in the last edition of 4 Carpenter ’ by Dr.
Dallinger. This diatom is to be found with 3, 4, or 5 processes, 4 being
the most common, and 5 rather rare. I here show one with 6 processes,
the only one I have ever found, but they are arranged irregularly, and
undoubtedly this valve is an abnormal form.

7. Aidiscus oamaruensis. — From deposit at Oamaru, New Zealand.
This is a very fine form of Auliscus. The centre frustule shows that
the processes of the valve on one side of the frustule alternate with those
of the valve on the other side. I find this to be a general rule with all
valves having processes.

8. Auliscus spinosus. — From borings of an artesian well, 406 feet,
Atlantic City, New Jersey. Five valves are arranged together, with a
sixth a little below, placed on edge, showing the other view of the pro-
cesses.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

389

9. Biddulphia echinata. — From Vuna Point, Island of Taviuna, Fiji
Islands. This diatom was described by Mr. Kitton in the Journal of
this Society for June 1888; ho therein remarks that “this species
seems to be very subject to abnormal development.” The slide exhibited
shows this very clearly. It will be noticed that the surface is covered
with triangular scales or spines.

10. Ceratulus Smithii , frustulesand valves. — From Sheerness-on-Sea.
Examining the centre frustule it will be noted that none of the horns or
spines of either valve are opposite to those of the opposite valve ; the
hoop extends partially over the upper valve, as may be distinctly seen
on the edges of the frustule. The valves surrounding the frustule are
in pairs, being really two frustules divided into halves by means of a
mounted bristle. The upper and lower valves are viewed from the
inner side, while those to the right and left are seen from the outside.

11. Climacosphoenia moniligera. — From gathering in Japan. This
is not a rare form in warm seas, but the slide exhibited was mounted to
show the formation of this diatom in its entirety. The diatoms placed
third from the ends are front views of complete frustules ready for self-
division, the others arc valves, or parts of valves, viewed either from
within or without.

12. Coscinodiscus clegans var. spinifera. — From deposit at Oamaru.
This slide exhibits both aspects of the valve. The centre valve, on
edge, shows the short spines on the circumference as well as the depth
of the depression in the centre of the valve.

13. Cymatopleura ellipticci. — From Wey bridge. This is only a

very common fresh- water form, but is exhibited as being the first slide I
mounted with a view of showing both aspects of the valve or frustule.
I scarcely know how I did it, as I only had an ordinary 1-in. simple
lens. I now use for this work a Stephenson’s binocular with a power of
40 or 50 diameters. A face view of the valve does not give so good an
idea of the depth of the furrows as does a front view of the frustule.

14. Dicladia capreolus. — From “ Cementstein,” Sendai, North Japan.
This form, which was described as a distinct species by Ehrenberg, is
now regarded as being a “ spore ” of Chsetoceros dicladia , and is figured
in situ in Castracane’s * Challenger ’ diatoms.

15. Eupodiscus Argus. — From Tampa Bay, Florida. These diatoms
from Tampa Bay appear to have the outer structure less silicified than
is usually the case with this form. In all of the outer valves now shown
the outside structure is comparatively thin, but the centre valve is a
gem, the outside structure being entirely absent with the processes quite
perfect. This valve resembles an Aulacodiscus , to which genus Eupo-
discus Argus undoubtedly belongs.

16. Hemiaulus Kittoni. — From “ Cementstein,” Mors Island, Jut-
land. The centre diatom shows the position of a “ spore ” within the
body of the frustule ; the “ spores ” are also shown entirely isolated.
I am unable to give any further information about these “ spores ” than
that the very similar forms Dicladia capreolus and Hercotheca mammi -
laris , described by Ehrenberg as distinct genera, are now known to be
the somewhat similar spores of Chsetoceros.

17. Hercotheca mammilaris, fossil. — From Howard’s Grove, near
Richmond, Ya. These are “spores” of a species of Chsetoceros , though

390

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

described by Elirenberg as constituting a distinct species by themselves.
These forms are frequently met with in many of the American deposits.

18. Kittonia elaborates. — From deposit at Oamaru, N.Z. This is
a particularly fine form, and is not very uncommon in this deposit, but
when found it is generally more or less broken. I have never found
it other than as a single valve, but I have occasionally found smaller
valves differing considerably from those now shown. This slide shows
the front and side views of this form.

19. Navicula disciformis. — From artesian well, Cambridge, Mary-
land. This is a very curious and small form, not very rare in this
deposit, and I was fortunate enough to find a frustule which I have
mounted edgewise.

20. Odontotropis cristata. — From “ Cementstein,” Mors Island, Jut-
land. This diatom is a large one, but I have been unable to mount it
as a frustule, because the valves fall away from each other when placed
in a drop of water to free them from dirt.

21. Porodiscus interruptus and Craspedoporus elegans. — From the
Oamaru deposit. Described by Messrs. Groves and Sturt in the Journal
of the Quekett Club.

22. Pseudo-rutularia monile. — From deposit at Oamaru, N.Z. The
central pair of valves belong to two opposing frustules ; I have never
yet found a complete frustule of this form. It is frequently the case
that the number of cells on one side of the large central one is one
more than the number on the other side. Messrs. Grove and Sturt, as
well as Herr Grunow, incline to the belief that this is a species of
Hemiaulus. There is only a single species in this genus, if it holds
good.

23. PterotJieca aculeifera. — From “ Cementstein,” Mors Island, Jut-
land. This very curious form is regarded by some as belonging to a
larger genus, viz. Pyxilla. The three central diatoms show the manner
in which the valves of opposing frustules were connected by their
branched processes.

24. Butilaria capitata. — From “ Cementstein,” from Sendai, North
Japan. The Cementstein from which this diatom was obtained is very
rich in new and fine forms. This slide shows how the frustules of this
form are connected in chains. The lower diatom is a side view of a
valve showing the capitate ends from which the species takes its name.

25. SticJiotiscus caltfornicus var. areolata. — From deposit at Oamaru,
N.Z. Showing valves laid flat and a single frustule on edge in the
centre.

26. Syndetoneis amplectans, fossil. — From Oamaru, N.Z. This is a
perfect specimen of a small and curious form from the Oamaru deposit.
It is not extremely rare, but is generally damaged more or less. The
diatom shown consists of two valves of opposing frustules, each valve
having a central rod, at the end of which is an eye, set at right angles
to it, the rod of the other valve passing through. These rods slide on
each other, and the valves cannot be separated without breaking one of
the central rods.

27. Terpsinoe intermedia .— From Salt Marshes, near Mobile, Alabama.
The upper centre form on this slide is very peculiar ; it is the opinion
of some that in the process of reproduction the larger frustule, which

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

391

is the younger, whilst being formed from the contents of two much
smaller frustules, has become silicified and fixed in one of the valves
of the smaller frustules before the contents of the valve had quite
escaped. I have found many large frustules with a small valve attached,
but I have never found one with tivo small ones adhering. The small
valve cannot be detached without injury either to it or the large frustule
or valve.

28. Triceratium castellatum var . fracta. — From deposit at Oamaru,
N.Z. This slide shows a frustule in the centre with four valves sur-
rounding it.

29. Section of “ Cementstein ” from Mors Island, Jutland, Denmark.
The Jutland “Cementstein” is very hard, and is admirably adapted for
section purposes. A book by Messrs. Prinz and Van Ermengem gives
some information as to what can be seen in sections of this “ Cement-
stein.”

30. Diatoms from “ Cementstein ” from Mors Island, Jutland. This
slide gives an idea of the forms to be found in this deposit. There are
several species of Trinacria , triangular forms with long processes at the
corners, the end of each process terminating in a pair of small claws.
Solium exsculpatum is very similar, but small and square. Many forms
in this deposit are sometimes found in rather long chains.

31. Diatoms from Howard’s Grove, Richmond, Va., fossil. This
slide is principally of interest in showing something of the variations in
size of different species. It shows a cast “ hoop ” of one of the larger
Coscinodisci with twelve smaller forms, all of different species, arranged
within the hoop ; they do not touch each other nor the hoop, which is
less than 1/112 in. in diameter. This is not an extraordinarily large
diatom, for I have found forms as much as 1/40 in. across.

32. Spread-slide of fossil diatoms from Richmond, Ya. Among
other forms there are many frustules of Stephanopyxis corona showing
the dissimilarity of the two valves composing it.

33. Type slide of 65 forms from Santa Monica, S. California. This
is a sample, by no means complete, of the forms to be found in about a
pound weight of this material. When mounting type slides, I arrange
the diatoms in squares set diamondwise, thus placing them as close as
possible while keeping them in symmetrical order. The slide shown
has the diatoms arranged in a square of 8 (64), with a very small one
placed in the centre, making 65 in all.

34. Type slide of 121 forms from deposit at Williams’ Bluff, Oamaru.
This slide shows the great variety of forms in this deposit. The diatoms
found in this deposit were described by Messrs. Grove and Sturt in the
Journal of the Quekett Club.

35. Type slide of 80 forms of diatoms, with the name of each diatom
photographed below it. Mounted by Herr M oiler. This is the only
slide exhibited by me this evening not mounted by myself.

Mr. J. J. Vezey read a short note by Mr. E. B. Stringer supple-
mentary to his paper on Photomicrography which was read at the
Meeting of the Society in December last, and published at pp. 174—9 of
the number of the Journal for April 1898.

Mr. T. C. White thought it would be most interesting if Mr. Stringer

392

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

would show them some specimens of his work upon the screen some
evening. Those of the Fellows who had been working at the same
thing would no doubt be very much gratified if he would do so.

The President thought Mr. White’s suggestion was a very good one,
and hoped they should be able to induce Mr. Stringer to come there
some evening and show them what he had done.

The President said he would ask the Fellows present, before ad-
journing the meeting, to pass a very hearty vote of thanks to Messrs. Beck
for having lent so large a number of Microscopes for use that evening,
and to Mr. Baker and Messrs. Boss for a similar favour conferred upon the
Society at their last meeting. Without this valuable assistance it would
have been impossible for them to have had the extremely interesting ex-
hibitions of the present and last occasions.

The thanks of the Meeting were voted to these gentlemen with
acclamation.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—

The President : — A new Monochromatic Light-Screen Trough, and a
Bamsden Dynameter.

Mr. C. Bousselet : — A new form of Metal Lamp Chimney, and Den -
drosoma radians ,* alive and mounted.

Mr. Hy. Morland : — About three dozen slides of Diatoms of his own
mounting.

New Fellows : — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : —
Mr. Thos. J. Barratt, Mr. S. P. Cowardin, Mr. Jacob Pillischer, Bev.
Hy. Wadsworth, and Mr. Geo. Winter.

MEETING

Held on the 18th of May, 1898, at 20 Hanover Square, W.

E. M. Nelson, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of 20th of April last were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The following Donation was announced : —

Annual Reports of Proceedings under the Diseases of Animals Acts,
The Markets and Fairs Acts, &c., <$rc., for the year 1897.
(8 vo, London, 1898)

From

The Board of
Agriculture.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to the Board of
Agriculture for their Donation.

The President exhibited a simple form of microtome, consisting of
a plate of glass slightly roughed on one side, and a heavy casting. There

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

393

was nothing new in the principle, which w’as the same as the Williams’
microtome, and the cutting was done with a razor, but the point of
interest and novelty was the cost. Most kinds of microtomes were, as
they knew, rather expensive instruments, but the price of this ono was
3s. 9 d. post free ; or, if with rough plate, 3d. extra (see p. 377). The
instrument was handed round for inspection by the Fellows present.

The President said they had received three short papers from Mr.
Jourdain, which, as the author was not present, he would read to the
meeting.

The first of these papers was * On a new Apochromatic Objective
constructed without the use of fluorite.’ The lenses were made by
the Bausch and Lomb Optical Company, and Mr. Jourdain promised to
send a set of them for exhibition at one of the meetings of the Society.

The President remarked, in connection with this paper, that although
there was no fluorite used in the manufacture of these lenses, they wrere
a great deal more expensive than those made by Messrs. Zeiss, which
had the fluorite in them.

Mr. Jourdain’s second and third papers, ‘ On the Method of Adjust-
ing the Sizes of the Coloured Images yielded by the Cooke Lens,’ and
‘ On the Construction of the “ Planar ” Lens, and its uses in low-power
Photomicrography,’ respectively, were also read by the President, who
remarked that the optics of photographic lenses had of late years become
so specialised that they now formed quite a distinct branch of study, to
which he had given too little attention to be able to follow Mr. Jourdain
in his account of the Cooke lens. When a subject became specialised, a
specialised nomenclature grew up with it ; and so rapidly did things
progress nowadays, that unless one kept oneself au fait with the current
literature and modes of expression on any particular subject, in a very
little while one became unable to understand the meanings of the terms
employed. Therefore, if Mr. Jourdain had been present, he would like
to have asked him one or two questions with regard to the foci of the
negative and two positives of which the lens was composed. He was
sure, however, that the Fellows present would give Mr. Jourdain a
hearty vote of thanks, both for sending the Cooke lens there, and for
his remarks upon it, as well as for his interesting notice of the apochro-
matic objective constructed without fluorite.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Mr. Jourdain
for his communications.

Dr. J . Tatham inquired if the President had seen one of the apochro-
matic lenses described as being made without fluorite ?

The President said that he had not yet had an opportunity of seeing
one, but he hoped to do so shortly, as Mr. Jourdain had promised to
send some up for exhibition.

The President read a note ‘ On the Optics of Photographic Lenses.’

The President said that Mr. Bousselet had got together for exhibition
that evening a most interesting collection of living objects connected
with pond-life ; he might say that he had never seen a better collection

394

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

of these objects than that they had in the room before them. He hoped
Mr. Rousselet would tell them something about what was being shown.

Mr. Rousselet said he really had nothing to say about them, except
that Mr. Parsons had done a great deal towards getting them together.

The President thought that if Mr. Rousselet had nothing to say, the
Society had a great deal to say as to their indebtedness to the Members
of the Quekett Microscopical Club, and to the Fellows who had contri-
buted to make this exhibition so successful. Messrs. Watson and Son
had sent down a large number of Microscopes for use on the occasion,
whilst others had been brought by Fellows and friends who were exhi-
biting specimens. To all these gentlemen their thanks were heartily
due, and he had great pleasure in proposing that the thanks of the
Society be given to them.

This motion having been put from the chair, was carried unanimously.

The Secretary said there was another paper on the Agenda, viz. : —
a ‘ Report on the Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago,’ by Mr. F. W.
Millett. This, though a valuable communication, was so highly technical
that he proposed that it be taken as read.

The President said that this paper would appear in the Journal, and
would no doubt be referred to with interest by those who studied these
organisms.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to the author for
his communication.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—*

The President Student’s Microtome, made by Messrs. Reynolds
and Branson, Leeds.

Members of the Quekett Microscopical Club and Fellows of the
Society : — An exhibition of Microscopic Aquatic Life.

New Fellow. — The following gentleman was elected an Ordinary
Fellow of the Society : — Mr. Kaufmann I. Marks.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

AUGUST 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

X. — On a New Apoehromatic Objective constructed without the
TJse of Fluorite .

By Philip E. Bertrand Jourdain, F.R.M.S.

(Head 18 th May , 1898.)

Semi-apochrowatic lenses made of hard glass can be produced, as
Mr. E. M. Nelson * has pointed out when speaking of some by Leitz,

Fig. 72.

Apoehromatic objective ;
2/3 in. ( x 2).

Fig. 73.

Projection ocular (8)

( X 2).

which are very highly corrected as to
colour ; in one case such an objective was
hardly distinguishable from the earlier
apochromats of Zeiss. Apoehromatic
lenses can also be constructed if the soft
glasses of Schott & Co. are used, but their
permanency is doubtful.

Prof. Charles S. Hastings recently,
however, computed an apoehromatic ob-
jective without fluorite, which is stated to
be of permanent materials. I am able,
through the courtesy of the makers,
Messrs. Bausch and Lomb, to give a
sectional drawing of an objective and
projection ocular ; but no information

1898

* Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., 1897, p. 349.

396 Transactions of the Society.

as to the precise nature of the glasses used seems to be forth-
coming.

The subject of the permanency of some kinds of Jena glass is of
great interest ; but while it is highly desirable that all the elements
in an objective should be of lasting and untarnishable character, it is
nevertheless a fact that much can be done by judicious protection of
any doubtful ones. The boro-silicate flint of Schott & Co. tarnishes
very rapidly in ordinary air, on account of the presence of minute
traces of sulphur compounds. This flint, when enclosed between two
other glasses in Dennis Taylor's telescope objective, has been found to
show no perceptible alteration after five years’ use. ;

397

XL — On a Method of Adjusting the Sizes of the Coloured Images
yielded by the Coolce Lens .

By Philip E. Bertrand Jourdain, F.RM.S.

( Read 18 th May , 1898.)

The problems involved in designing objectives for photomicrography
in three-colour printing include not only the bringing together to one
focus the rays from three different points in the spectrum, so as to
correct the outstanding secondary spectrum, but the securing of the
same sized image for the same object in three different colours.

The former problem can, of course, be practically solved by the
use of special glasses, such as those used by Schott & Co. ; the second
part of the problem was first explained in detail in the writings of
Dr. Schroder.

One of the most interesting points about the Cooke lenses, which
Mr. E. M. Nelson kindly showed on my behalf before this Society
on March 16th last, is their capability of being adjusted so that the
sizes of the coloured images correspond— -a capability which is quite
exceptional, and has probably been attained in only one other objective,
the “ Concentric ” of Dr. Schroder.

In order to understand the process of adjustment, it is necessary
to have a clear idea of the construction of the lens. It is a triplet,
composed of two simple positive lenses and a simple or compound
negative lens * placed between them : the negative lens or element
having a refractive index for the D ray lower than that of the positive
lenses. The focal power of the negative lens falls slightly short of
the sum of the powers of the two positive lenses, and a small residue
of correction against curvature of field and astigmatism is performed
by diaphragm corrections.f

In securing coincidence of the coloured images with such an
objective, the best results can be practically obtained by the careful
adjustment of the air-space between the back and negative lenses, and
this end may be attained without sacrificing any other qualities of
the lens.

In practice, this adjustment is obtained by treating the photo-
graphic or microscopic objective as the objective of a telescope, using
as the ocular a high power and carefully corrected achromatic eye-
piece.

* In the lenses sliown the negative lens was simple and the aperture F/6’5.
t If the refractive indices of the three lenses are about equal, strict application of
the principle of construction demands that diaphragm corrections be totally elimi-
nated, so that the burden of correcting curvature of field and marginal astigmatism
be thrown on the negative lens, whose power would have to be equal to the combined
focal powers of the positive lenses. As this would necessitate thick glasses and deep
curves, which tend to produce aberrations of secondary order, the best final results
are obtained by the compromise described above.

2 E 2

398

Transactions of the Society.

The image of an artificial star is focussed by means of the latter,
and the objective is inclined so that the light passes through it at about
twenty to thirty degrees from its axis. If the ocular be then turned
slightly out of focus, the objective, unless properly corrected, presents
in the eye-piece a series of coloured riDgs quite apart from any want
of chromatic correction.

In the case of a lens under-corrected in this sense, the outer rings
are red on both sides of the focus ; but if the air-space already referred
to be carefully adjusted while the objective is under examination, these
rings can be made to coalesce exactly, so that they present a ring of
white light.

Finally, I wish to express my deep obligation to Messrs. Taylor,
Taylor and Hobson for many interesting details concerning these
lenses, and the loan of two of them for testing and experimental
purposes.

399

XII. — Remarks on the Construction of the Planar Lens and its
TJse in Low-Power Photomicrography.

By Philip E. Bertrand Jourdain, F.R.M.S.

{Read 18 th May , 1898.)

The application of short-focus photographic lenses to low-power
photomicrographic work has not always been satisfactory, though
it is probably true that a short-focus photographic lens is preferable
to a low-power microscopic objective for purposes of photography.*
Recently, Dr. Rudolph computed a photographic lens of extremely
large aperture, having regard to its astigmatic and spherical correc-
tions, which, in the smaller sizes, is admirably adapted for low-power
photomicrography.

Fig. 74.

In construction, the objective is symmetrical ; each half consisting
of a positive single element Lb and a negative cemented combina-
tion, which, in turn, is made up of a positive biconvex L2 cemented
to a negative biconcave L3. The refractive indices of L2 and L3 are
approximately equal, but L3 has the higher dispersive power.

Spherical aberration is corrected with a large aperture by taking
advantage of the principle of Gauss’ telescope objective ; chromatic
aberration is compensated in an entirely new manner ; and astigmatism
is corrected without the disadvantages of a large separation between
the lenses or thickness of the elements.

For photographic work, it is chiefly interesting on account of its
great available rapidity and wonderfully perfect astigmatic correc-
tion ; indeed, in this respect it surpasses the other anastigmats calcu-
lated by Dr. Rudolph and introduced by Carl Zeiss.

For photomicrographic work, it is interesting to compare it with a

* See Brit. Jonm. Phot., xliv. (1897) pp. 70G-7.

400

Transactions of the Society.

Zeiss projection lens of the same focus. The “ Planar ” lenses are
quite achromatic, and the chromatic differences of spherical aber-
ration are only very slight. The secondary spectrum is not, however,
eliminated to the same extent as it is in the projection lens, and
Dr. Rudolph does not think that this will ever be the case. It may
be noted, however, that apochromatism is not a great necessity in
low-power objectives.

The objectives of 20 and 35 mm. focus may be used with Zeiss’
compensating eye-piece No. 18, but with such high magnifications a
red border is visible.*

* Further information as to curves and kinds of glass used -will be found in the
patent specification (No. 27,635 of 1896), price 8 d., and its reprint in the Brit. Journ.
Phot., xliv. (1897) pp. 421-6.

401

XIII. — On the Errors to be Corrected in Photographic Lenses .

By E. M. Nelson, Pres. R.M.S.

( Read 18 th May , 1898.)

As there was no other paper on the Agenda, I thought it would be a
good opportunity to put before you a brief and popular account of the
errors which need correcting in a photographic lens. This will in
no wise clash with the paper we have just heard, as that dealt with
corrections that had already been effected in certain lenses. One so
often hears and sees in print such erroneous and wild theories regard-
ing photographic lenses, that it may not be amiss to lay before you
one or two of the fundamental optical principles, such as are dealt
with in the ABC books and primers on the subject. This is now
all the more necessary because low-power photomicrography and
ordinary camera photography overlap, the same lens being used for
both purposes.

The first and principal error to be met with in all dioptric lenses,
photographic or otherwise, is that of chromatism ; this need not be
enlarged upon, as all microscopists are acquainted with it, and its
method of correction, by combining a high-power positive lens having
low dispersion with a low-power negative lens having high dispersion,
the power of the combination being the difference between the powers
of its components.

The second error may, like the first, and for the same reason, be
dismissed in a word or two. It is of course the spherical aberration
of the direct pencil, which in this instance we will restrict to axial
parallel rays. This error is due to the spherical form of lenses causing
axial parallel rays, passing through a part of a lens remote from the
axis, to have a different focus from those passing through the axial
portion of the lens. In some lenses the aberration is negative, which
means that the marginal rays have a shorter focus than the central ;
in other lenses it is positive, or the axial rays have a shorter focus
than the marginal. Spherical errors are corrected by combining
lenses which have equal amounts of positive and negative aberration.

The third error is curvature of image ; this means that a real
image formed by a lens having a positive focus is curved, presenting
its concave aspect to the lens, and the radius of curvature is (approxi-
mately) equal to the focal length multiplied by the refractive index.
Thus, for example, if we take the refractive index as 1 * 5, the diameter
of the curvature of the image may be estimated as three times the
focal length of the lens which formed it ; so the image from a 6-in.
focus lens would have a diameter of curvature of 18 in,, or a radius
of curvature of 9 in.

This error is, as far as possible, corrected by reducing the aper-
ture, and by giving to the lens a suitable form. Thus, in a single

402

Transactions of the Society.

landscape lens, an inverted meniscus is used. It generally turns out,
however, that when an advantage is gained in one direction something
is lost in another. In this instance, spherical aberration is introduced
by this form of lens, so the correction of the third error is accom-
plished by introducing the second. In a lens which has a flat field,
a want of sharpness may be noticed in images formed by even direct
axial pencils.

The fourth error is distortion ; this, which is commonly called pin-
cushion and barrel distortion, is caused by the too great refraction of
oblique centrical pencils. It is corrected by opposing two lenses of
symmetrical form to one another. It should be noted, however, that
these lenses may be, and often are, asymmetrical both as to their foci
and as to chromatic corrections ; all that is necessary is that they should
be symmetrical in their outward form or nearly so.

The fifth, the astigmatic error — one most difficult to correct — is
caused by the focal lines of oblique and excentrical pencils. The
mathematical analysis of this subject is both complicated and prolix.
The corrections are obtained by combining glasses possessing rela-
tively high dispersion and low refraction with those of low dispersion
and high refraction. This is now rendered possible, owing to the
production by the Jena firm of glasses having their ratios of refraction
to dispersion different from any hitherto made.

To very briefly explain astigmatism : — When a small oblique pencil
is refracted by a lens, the rays are not brought to a focal point, but
to a line, and afterwards to another line ; these lines are called the
primary and secondary focal lines. When a lens has negative aberra-
tion, that is, when the lens brings aberrated rays to a focal point
situated between the lens and its geometrical focus, then the primary
focal line lies between the lens and the secondary focal line ; but
when the lens has positive aberration, that is, brings aberrated rays
to a focal point beyond its geometrical focus, then the secondary focal
line lies between the lens and the primary focal line. In general,
the circle of least confusion lies half-way between the focal lines.

Now, a plane passing through the axis of the lens and the axis
of the small oblique incident pencil, is called the primary plane, and
the primary focal line is always perpendicular to this plane ; but the
secondary focal line lies in it ; therefore the focal lines are at right
angles to one another. If now points are imaged by lines, it is very
easy to see how the image of a lined object in a certain direction
would be blotted out. By means of a hole in a card, a small oblique
beam of sunlight may be passed excentrically through a hand magni-
fying glass, and the focal lines be conveniently studied by receiving
their images on a piece of paper.

These focal lines have nothing whatever to do with spherical
aberration, as some have supposed, for they can be originated by
pencils falling obliquely on a plane refracting surface. It is here
that we meet one of the differences between reflection and refraction ;

On the Errors to he Corrected in Photographic Lenses. 403

a plane refracting surface has a diacaustic, but a plane reflecting
surface has no catacaustic.

The sixth and last error is a smaller one, viz. the chromatic error
of the secondary spectrum. This is due to irrationality in the disper-
sion of the media of which a compound achromatic lens is composed.

This error is removed in two ways, viz. (<z) by the manufacture
of glasses having proportional dispersions ; and (&) by combining
three different media instead of two ; in other words, by making an
achromatic triplet of three different media, instead of a doublet of
two different media. Of these two methods the first is the better,
and great strides have been made in this direction during the past
10 or 15 years.

To sum up, we find that there are no less than six errors to be
corrected in a photographic lens, viz. : —

(1) Chromatic aberration, primary spectrum.

(2) Spherical aberration of direct pencil.

(3) Curvature of field.

(4) Spherical aberration of oblique pencil.

(5) Astigmatism arising from focal lines of oblique pencils
(caustics).

(6) Chromatic aberration, secondary spectrum.

By these considerations the following question is suggested, viz.,
what is meant by the term aplanatism ? *

There can be no doubt that formerly it was applied to a single
lens which had only been corrected spherically for a direct pencil,
e.g. the aplanatic meniscus. Subsequently it implied the correction
of the spherical aberration for parallel axial rays, and at the same
time the correction of the chromatic aberration of these rays for
the primary spectrum. Now, however, the term has been used more
loosely, and it is often applied to a combination in which spherical
aberration for axial parallel rays has been intentionally introduced
for the purpose of flattening the field.

From what has been said above, we can see the reason of the test
applied to photographic lenses mentioned by Mr. Jourdain. The
artificial star, one of the most sensitive tests for both spherical
aberration and centreing, when the pencils are direct, is also one of
the best for searching out focal lines, when the pencils pass through
it obliquely, the lens being turned on its axis for that purpose.

We are all, I am sure, greatly indebted to Mr. Jourdain for bringing
this interesting subject before us by his account of the correction by
lens distance, and also of the method of testing photographic lenses.

In the above note no notice has been taken of this alteration of lens
distance, because it is of the nature of a secondary correction of a
higher order of error than any we have been considering. This brief
article has only been written in order that the “ brass and glass ” sec-
tion of our Fellows may have before them a few elementary optical
principles connected with photographic lenses and their corrections.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebbata and cryptogamia),

MICBOSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others .*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.f

Theory of the Mesoderm.t — Dr* T. Garbowski discusses the theory
of the mesoderm in the light of Amphioxus. His main conclusions are
the following. The longitudinal axis of the larva and the dorsoventral
axis of the gastrula are not at right angles, but diverge at an angle of
about 70°. The gastrula of Amphioxus is no archigastrula, nor is the
course of development palingenetic. Neither ectoderm alone nor endo-
derm alone conditions the invagination, all the segmented material is
concerned. The closure of the blastopore is not due to a longitudinal
concrescence, but to a strong Nachwachsen , especially of the dorsal wall.
At the posterior margin of the blastopore no primitive mesoderm
cells are differentiated. The mitoses are not more crowded at the upper
inturned margin of the blastopore than in other parts of the epithelium.
The zone of the blastopore margin is, especially above, neither to be
reckoned as ectoderm nor as endoderm. The upper wall of the arch-
enteron is quite normal. There is no demonstrable connection between
the anterior mesoderm folds and the blastopore. There is in Amphioxus
no homologue of the “ peristomal ” mesoderm of Yertebrata. The meso-
derm of Amphioxus is not genetically continuous with that of the
Anamnia, and Amphioxus stands apart from other Chordata.

Yolk-Sac of Scyllium.§— Herr Hs. Virchow describes the yolk-sac
cleft and its closure ; the primary vascular relations (artery, vein,
capillaries, and vascular islands) ; and the transition from the primary
to the secondary vascular relations.

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

t This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied
subjects. % Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 473-97 (4 figs).

§ SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 49-59.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

405

In another paper,* * * § the author discusses the yolk-syncytium of
Selachians, with its undefined cell-areas and its uniform distribution
of nuclei in a single layer. He shows how it differs at different points
(marginal, central, &c.) at different times in development, and in different
genera.

Morphology of Vertebrate Head.f — Mr. H. V. Neal has studied
this problem by investigating the nervous system in Squalus acanthias.
He is unable to accept Locy’s “ neural segments ” as true segments, for
they are irregular in size, inconstant in number, bilaterally asymmetrical,
and without definite relation to structures known to be segmental.

In the early stages of S. acantliias the neuromeres are local thicken-
ings of the lateral zones, as well as dilatations of all the zones of the
medulla.

No structural conditions are presented by the myelomeres which are
not reconcilable with the hypothesis that their existence is dependent
upon the presence of the mesodermal somites.

There was a primitive correspondence between neuromerism, meso-
merism, and branchiomerism.

The eye-muscle-nerves (3, 4, 6) are the serial homologues of ventral
spinal nerves ; the ophthalmicus profundus is a segmental dorsal nerve
belonging to metamere ii., while the oculomotor is its ventral root ; the
trochlear is the ventral nerve of metamere iii., and the abducens
represents the ventral nerves of metameres iv. to vii.

There are five mesomeres alternating with six neuromeres in the otic
and pre-otic regions ; probably eleven neuromeres are finally included in
the head of Squalus.

The author compares the mouth of Amphioxus with the left half of
the mouth of Craniota, the first pair of permanent visceral clefts in
Amphioxus with the hyomandibular clefts, and the eight visceral clefts in
Amphioxus at its “ critical stage ” with the eight morphological clefts
found in some Selachians and Cyclostomes. This report, however, gives
only a hint of the scope of this important paper.

Differentiation of Sex-Cells. + — I)r. v. Haecker distinguishes, in the
development of the germ-cells of Cyclops , three differentiating processes :
— (a) that associated with heterotypic division in the formation of the
primitive germ-cells ; ( b ) that associated with the separation of paternal
and maternal nuclear substance (Riickert) ; and (c) a third process (also
seen in the differentiation of the genital rudiment) which seems like a
disruption of nucleolar substance.

Crosses between Different Breeds of House-Mouse.§ — Herr Georg
von Guaita has sought to study the facts of inheritance by crossing
different breeds of mouse, characterised by size, colour, markings,
dancing power, and temperament. There is a general tendency to
results which may be described as reversions to the original type. Thus,
if the Japanese dancing mouse be crossed with the albino, the second
generation consists of grey mice like the wild form. Continued in-

* Tom. cit., pp. 91-110.

f Bull. Mus. Harvard, xxxi. (189S) pp. 147-291 (9 pis.).

f Ber. Nat. Ges. Freiburg, x. (1897) pp. 15-9.

§ Op. cit., x. (1898) pp. 317-32.

406 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

breeding among relatives tends gradually to infertility, as Ritzema Bos
previously concluded. Some of the detailed results are also of much
interest.

Telegony and Maternal Impressions.* * * §— Dr. Otto vom Rath has
made an interesting critical study, and some experiments, bearing on
these alleged phenomena. It is not easy to sum up the paper, the points
of which depend on the criticism of particular cases ; but it may be noted
that the author thinks biologists are still apt to be “ too superstitious.”
Cases of maternal impression are shown to be “ Marchen,” and Telegony
is still unproved.

Hermaphroditism.f — Dr. J. FI. Babor directs attention to the pheno-
mena which he has observed in Limax maximus. There is in the gonads
a succession of sexual states, — female, hermaphrodite, male, hermaphro-
dite, female. He compares this with what is known in Cymothoidae, Apus,
Stichostemma , Myzostomata, and Myxine. Even in the human testes he
has found in old subjects cellular strands which show here and there
“ primordial ova and primitive follicles.” The generalisation suggested
is that the indifferent germinal epithelium has the power of producing
both kinds of sex-cells in succession.

Studies in Consanguinity.! — A. L. Herrera refers in a resume to
his studies on “ the origin of individuals and the construction of the
organism by internal conditions,” § and submits a series of tables intended
to facilitate the discussion of the facts of inheritance. He refers to
successful inbreeding in race-horses, and to the fact that inbreeding
of white or whitish rabbits is less successful than that with those of
stronger colour. Otherwise, we fail to find anything concrete in his
resume ; but we should like to have the original.

Development rof Lizard’s Skull. || — Herr E. Gaupp gives a pre-
liminary account of his researches on the development of the Lacertilian
skull, — his material consisting of Lacerta agilis, L. vivipara, Anguis
fragilis , and Platydactylus mciuritanicus. The component elements are
discussed under four categories : —

(1) The primordial chondrocranium and its ossifications.

(2) The ‘‘covering bones,” in more or less close relation to (1).

(3) The proper “skin-ossifications” ( lamina supraocutaris , lamina
super cili arts, &c.).

(4) The supra-orbital bone, which appears very late, and is held to
deserve a separate category.

Regeneration of the Lens.^f — Dr. A. Fischel has investigated this
in the larvae of salamanders. He finds that there is no regeneration on
the part of epithelial portions of the cornea which have been ruptured
or brought into intimate relations with the iris. The regeneration is
due to the cells of the inner layer of the pars iridica retinse. The
extirpation of the lens may stimulate regenerative processes at several

* Ber. Nat. Ges. Freiburg, x. (1898) pp. 333-59.

t Verb. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, xlviii. (1898) pp. 150-3.

t Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxiii. (1898) pp. 78-81.

§ Mem. Soc. Sci. Antonio Alzate.

|| Ber. Nat. Ges. Freiburg, x. (1898) pp. 302-16.

Tf Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 373-80.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

407

places, and actually lead to the new formation of more than one lens.
Regeneration is effected by the upper portion of the iris, never by the
lower. The process may occur in complete darkness, but it is then
slower than in the light. Any tearing or dislocation of the iris may
serve as the stimulus to lens-regeneration.

Neurenteric Canal.* * * § — Herr Kopsch maintains that in Tunicates the
blastopore becomes the neurenteric canal through the appearance of
the medullary canal, and that the region of the neurenteric canal is to
be regarded as a growth-centre from which the elongation of the em-
bryonic body proceeds.

b. Histology.

Present Position of Some Cell Problems.f — Prof. J. B. Farmer takes
a survey of some recent work, discussing the conception of the cell as a
structural unit or unit-protoplasmic area, the intercellular continuity of
protoplasm, the interrelations of nucleus and cytoplasm, the role of the
centrosome, the phenomena of nuclear division, the problem of reducing
divisions, and so on. The essay may be recommended as a readable and
up-to-date statement of the present position of some of the fundamental
problems of cytology.

Indirect Division.^ — M. Joannes Chatin has studied direct or
amitotic division, especially in Paludina affected with cercarise. The
rapid proliferation in the connective tissue is very instructive ; some
interesting cases of anomalous direct division occur. Chatin refuses
to admit the generalisation that indirect division is regenerative, and
direct division degenerative. Except in special cases, there is no anti-
thesis between the two modes.

Annular Nuclei.§ — Prof. E. Ballowitz discusses the annular and
perforate nuclei which have been described in many different kinds of
cell. The facts point to the conclusion that these forms are normal
and potent, and without evidence of degeneration. Moreover, they
multiply, like other nuclei, by mitosis. Ballowitz has studied them
especially in the epithelium of Salpci.

Superficial Position of Central Corpuscles in Epithelial Cells. |] —
Prof. E. Ballowitz brings together a number of cases, observed by himself
and others, in which the centrosomes of epithelial cells lay superficially.
The hypothesis is suggested that the centrosomes may be peculiarly
receptive to external stimuli, and may transmit these to the general
protoplasm. In other words, the centrosomes may represent “ a kind of
sensory, central, primitive organ of the cell.” This seems going even
further than von Lenhossek’s description of the little body as a “ kinetic
central organ.”

Intermediate Body in Cell-Division, f — Prof. E. Ballowitz gives a
critical account of what is known in regard to this little body. Like
Flemming, he finds the earliest hints of it in connection with the con-
necting threads ( Verbindungsfaser ) between the daughter-nuclei. It

* SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 5-13 (3 figs.).

t Nature, lviii. (1898) pp. 63-7 (11 figs.).

X Comptes Bendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1163-6.

§ Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 286-99.

II Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 369-72. ^ Tom. cit., pp. 390-405.

408

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

appears, however, as thickenings of these threads, not between them as
Flemming stated. The author argues that it is not merely an “ atavistic
reminiscence.” It has probably some functional import, and the sug-
gestion is offered that it is an accumulation and condensation of used-up
material from the achromatin apparatus, in short, “ that it is an excretory
product.”

Relation of Centrosomes to Cilia.* * * § — Dr. L. F. Henneguy notes
several facts which point to a physiological relation between centrosomes
and cilia. Thus, in the ciliated cells of Lamellibranch gills, the swelling'
at the base of each cilium behaves to reagents exactly like a centrosome.
The same relation is suggested by the centrosome in spermatozoa.

“ The centrosomes, which have been hitherto regarded by the majority
of biologists simply as organs playing a part as kinetic centres, having
to do with the regulation of the movements within the dividing cell,
should also be regarded as kinetic centres for the external movements of
the cell.”

Cuticle and Intercellular Bridges.f — Prof. F. K. Studnicka main-
tains that the cuticle or Declcplatte, with its vertical striae, must be
interpreted in relation to the intercellular communications in the epi-
dermis, and that it is primitively due to fine membranes connecting cilia.
The septa in the Deckplatle , the intercellular connections of epidermic
cells, and in part even the cilia, are morphologically equivalent. An
ingenious figure in the text illustrates the theory.

Chondrified Fibres in Connective Tissue.^ — Prof. F. K. Studnicka
found in the lamprey and hag somewhat mysterious chondrified fibres
in the connective tissue. They did not, except in rare cases, show any
direct connection with cells. What part, if any, they may play in
chondrification, remains obscure.

Alimentary Tract of Chelone.§ — Prof. L. Plate gives a short account
of the alimentary tract of Chelone mydas , the minute structure of which
does not seem to have been adequately studied as yet. Roundish papillae
in the mouth-cavity often show a central insinking, which C. K. Hoff-
mann interpreted as the opening of small glands ; but sections show no
trace of glands. The long horny papillae of the gullet were interpreted
by Owen as assisting the downward passage of the slippery seaweed ;
but Plate thinks that they must help rather to tear it up.

Enamel of Elasmobranch Fishes. || — Mr. C. S. Tomes discusses the
nature of the hard polished outer layer of the teeth in Elasmobranchs
which resembles an enamel in hardness, optical properties, almost entire
solubility in weak acids, and tubularity, but contains lacunar spaces and
presents a very distinct lamination. Upon the balance of its characters
it has much more in common with enamel than with dentine, from which
it is sharply marked off by the entire absence of any collagen basis.
As to development, it seems to be a joint product of the epiblastic
enamel organ and the mesoblastic dentine papilla. On the whole, how-

* Comptes Kendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 975-8.

t SB. Bohm. Ges. Wiss., 1897 (ii.) No. lix. 11 pp., 1 pi. and 1 fig.

% Op. cit., 1897 (ii.) No. lxv., 7 pp.

§ SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 85-9.

It P. ft. Soc., lxiii. (1898) pp. 54-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 409

ever, Mr. Tomes gives his authority to the usage which still calls this
layer enamel.

Parathyroid Glands.* * * § — Dr. D. A. Welsh has made a critical, ana-
tomical, and experimental study of the parathyroid glands ; but of this
only the first part is published. It gives a highly useful historical
digest of the literature concerning these puzzling bodies.

Minute Structure of Notochord.j — Prof. F. K. Studnicka remarks
that the tissue of the notochord is usually described as very simple, —
a superficial epithelium, and large internal vacuolated elements, the
exact nature of which has been often disputed. Ebner, however, rather
changed this view by showing that the notochordal tissue was in no way
degenerate, hut rather the reverse.

Studnicka describes the structure in Petromyzon , Myxine , Chimsera ,
Selachians, several Ganoids and Teleosts, Ceratodus , Protopterus , and
some Amphibians. The cells have no real membrane, nor anything
comparable to cartilage. The presence of intercellular connections and
fibrillations in the ectoplasm suggests affinity with epidermis and epithe-
lium. At the same time, it must be noticed that the germinal zone
(Keimzone) of the notochordal tissue — in other words, the epithelium —
has here and there the capability of forming cartilage. In many cases,
nevertheless, the cartilage described in the notochord is quite extraneous
in origin.

c. General.

Light-Limit in Water 4 — Dr. L. Linsbauer is much more cautious
than some are in regard to the liglit-limit in water. We neither know
the composition of the light at different depths, nor the limit beyond
which light fails to penetrate. It seems certain that a depth of 500 metres
does not represent the limit at which chemical rays may be operative.
The greatest depth recorded for a plant, not a Thallophyte, is 60 m.,
at which Forel found a moss ( Thamnium alopecnrus ) in Lake Geneva.
Alg£8 occur at much greater depths, though they are certainly very
sparse beyond several hundred metres. More exact experiments are
necessary before we can speak definitely in regard to a quite light-less
( aphotische ) region. The author has devised an arrangement for testing
the colour and intensity of the light at various depths.

Bristle-like Structures on a Shark. § — Prof. A. Brandt observed
twenty-seven years ago the presence of numerous bristle-like structures
on the snout of a shark, probably SelacJie maxima ; and with the assistance
of his colleague Prof. W. Reinhard he has now investigated them. They
differ conspicuously from Mammalian bristles in the deposition of cal-
careous corpuscles in the papilla and in the fibrous tissue. The author
argues for the consideration of the hypothesis that hairs and teeth may
be homologous structures.

Functions of Hypophysis Cerebri. || — E. de Cyon has been led on
experimental evidence to regard the hypophysis, like the thyroid, as an

* Proc. Scot. Micr. Soc., ii. (1896-7) pp. 128-43.

f SB. Bohm. Ges. Wiss., 1897 (ii.) No. xlv. 71 pp. (2 pis.),

j Verh. K. K. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien, xlviii. (1898) pp. 167-70.

§ Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 257-70 (10 figs.).

|| Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1157-60.

410

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

automatic arrangement preventing a dangerous afflux of blood to tbe
brain. When it is stimulated, there is an immediate change of blood-
pressure. But it has also a chemical role ; extracts of hypophysis
injected into the veins of an animal produce on heart and blood pressure-
effects identical with those which follow electrical or mechanical stimulus
of the organ. He compares the action of hypophysine or phosphoro-
hypophysine with that of iodothyrine from the thyroid.

Regeneration and Doubling of the Tail in Lizards."' — Dr. G. Tornier
finds that the Yaranidse and Helodermatidse should be excluded from
the list which Fr. Werner has given of Lacertilians which do not ex-
hibit tail-regeneration. He notes that those with heterogeneous scaling
on the tail are those in which atavistic regeneration might be most
reasonably expected; yet this is not the case. This is illustrated in
regard to Pachydactylus capensis in some detail. Most double tails arise
as the result of a notch on the tail, — a secondary tail growing out from
the wound. Sometimes, however, they ensue after a bite without any
notch. The secondary tail is at first at right angles to the axis of the
wound, but the more abundant nutrition of the side towards the head
results in bending the extra appendage backwards.

Studies in Variation.! — Mr. W. J. Moenkhaus has studied the darter
fishes — Etheostoma caprodes and E. nigrum — from Turkey Lake and
Tippecanoe Lake, Indiana. In the former species the males are more
variable than the females (as to rays and spines) in the ratio *507 : *468 ;
in the latter species the females are more variable than the males in the
ratio of • 402 : * 454. In both species the individuals differ in the two
habitats in every structure examined. The differences are apparently
environmental modifications. Successive broods differ with the varying
conditions of the year in which they are born. The variations in the
fins are correlated as follows : —

(a) When the dorsal spines increase in number, the dorsal rays
decrease in number.

( b ) When the anal rays increase, the dorsal spines, the dorsal rays,
and the sum of the elements in the two dorsals, increase.

In an abstract of a paper on cave-animals, Prof. C. H. Eigenmann
criticises current theories, and argues that the Amblyopsidm were not
swept into the caves, but entered them deliberately, and avoided coming
out into the light. They were able to establish themselves in caves
because they were able to do without light, having simjdified eyes and
highly developed other sense-organs ; they do not possess highly deve-
loped sense-organs and degenerate eyes because they were accidentally
swept into caves. A short note is given as to the eyes in Amblyopsis
and Typhlichthys subterraneus. The degeneration is not the result of
arrested development or of ontogenic retrogression, nor is it primarily
due to the cave habitat. The eyes of those species living in the light
are prophetic of the eyes of those living in the dark.

Variations and Mutations of the Sparrow’s Egg in America.}: —
Mr. H. C. Bumpus has compared a large number of sparrow’s eggs from

* SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 59-64.

t Proe. Acad. Sci. Indiana, 1897, pp. 207-31.

X Biol. Lectures Marine Lab. Woods Holl in 1896, Boston, 1897, pp. 1-15.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

411

Britain and America, and finds that the American eggs are more variable
in ratio of breadth to length, and in colour. “ Granting that the
sparrow, since its introduction (1850), has been comparatively free from
the action of natural selection, we may conclude that the predicted
results of Panmixia have been realised.” The author discusses this
conclusion. He suggests that “ English and American birds should be
placed in some third locality which combines equally or eliminates the
prejudicial environmental conditions of the two countries. Then, and
not until then, shall we know to what extent the ontogenic variations
in either country have really become phylogenic.”

Variability in Fishes.* — Dr. G. Duncker has been engaged in
investigating the variability of Pleuronectes flesns and Siphonostoma
typhle L., and makes a short note on some of his results that have a
local faunistic interest. The flounders of Plymouth, when compared
with those of the Baltic and the south-eastern parts of the North Sea,
form a distinct race. The characteristics of this race are: — (1) a high
number of fin-rays in the dorsal and anal fin (average, dorsal 61—62,
anal 43—44) ; (2) almost entirely smooth squamation on the blind side.
In both respects it is similar to the variety PI. italicus Gunther, of the
Mediterranean. There are adequate reasons for separating Syngnathus
rostellatus Nils., and S. acus L., both occurring at Plymouth.

Polydactylism and Syndactylism in Mammals. t — Dr. G. Tornier
describes some cases of polydactylism in pig and deer. He agrees with
Zander that the efficient cause is to be found in the pressure of the
amnion-folds. As the result there is atrophy of certain parts and
“ super-regeneration ” of others. Often, but not always, the results appear
as if there had been a fusion of parts of a right foot with a normal left,
or vice versa ; but it seems impossible to make any generalisation. In
many cases, too, polydactylism is associated with syndactylism which is
the result of some inhibitory action during development, e.g. of pressure
from the amnion-folds.

Polydactylism in Swine.* — Herr J. Werner notes three cases of this,
observed during eight weeks at the city slaughter-house in Leipzig.
All concerned the fore-feet, and in one case the extra digit exceeded the
normal posterior size. He also notes a case in which the soles of the
two median digits had coalesced.

Intelligence of Fishes.§ — Prof. W. C. McIntosh has a very inter-
esting short paper, which we may be permitted to wish that he would
extend, on the memory of fishes. Some of the cases given demand a
somewhat wider title. He speaks of £ the behaviour of a large grey
skate in its endeavour to escape over a trawl-beam more than 50 feet
long which had been arrested in its rise — just above the surface of the
sea — by a temporary block in the machinery. The dexterity with which
it skimmed to and fro along the beam to find where it dipped suffi-
ciently during the movements of the ship to enable it to glide over was
a study. ... If those who have given a green cod of six or eight

* Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., v. (1898) pp. 172-5.

f SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 64-8. t Tom. cit., pp. 47-8.

§ Journ. Mental Sei., April 1898, 4 pp.

2 F

1898

412

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

inches a particular kind of c scale-back ’ (a kind of worm), and noticed,
firstly, how eagerly it seized it, then tested it in its pharyngeal region, and
soon ejected it, never again taking that species into its mouth, they would
be slow to deny that fishes, and even very young fishes, have a memory .,r
A number of very suggestive cases are given, and the author concludes
“ with regard to the absence of cortex of the brain in fishes, this is
probably only a question of degree — easily understood by referring to
the descriptions and figures of the brain in the salmon and the wolf-
fish. Besides, who has proved that the function of memory depends on
the brain-cortex of the human subj ect ? I have seen many a curious case
in the pathological room, the history of which would not have led us
to this conclusion.”

Coloration of Birds.* * * § — Herr Hermann Meerwarth has studied the
tail quills of certain Brazilian birds of prey, in connection with the
vexed questions of colour change without moult and the phylogeny of
markings. Observations on a living specimen of Heterospizias meri-
dionalis in captivity convinced him that certain colour changes, especially
the breaking up of cross-stripes into spots, do occur without moult.
Further, a comparison with the corresponding feathers in Urubitinga
zonura leads him to believe that similar changes without moult occur
in this form, and produce the irregularity of marking already described
in young specimens. The author does not seem to have been aware of
Schenkling’s f recent paper, and does not therefore touch upon the diffi-
culties raised in it.

As to the evolution of markings, the author believes that cross-
stripes are the most primitive ; that, alike in the phylogeny and ontogeny
of the forms discussed, these break up into spots which ultimately
arrange themselves in longitudinal rows. A final change gives rise to
a feather with pigment arranged in three or four zones. The changes
take place first in the central rectrices and later in the lateral ones ; they
occur more rapidly in the male than in the female ; but the tail feathers
are not necessarily the first in the body to undergo these changes..
The author discusses the relation of these facts to Eimer’s “ laws.”

Hepatic Pigments. :f — MM. A. Dastre and N. Floresco have studied
the hepatic pigments, as distinguished from the biliary pigments of
Vertebrates. They divide the bodies into two sets according to their
solubility : — (a) the aqueous pigments (soluble in water after “ papainic ”
digestion, &c.) of which the most important is ferrine ; and (6) the
chloroformic pigments (soluble in chloroform) of which they name one=
cholechrome, intermediate between lipochromes and biliary pigments.

Adaptations of Respiratory Organs in Aquatic Mammals.§ — Herr
0. Muller has made a detailed study of this problem. With increasing
adaptation to life in water, the ventral bronchi are more and more
shunted backwards, and their place is taken anteriorly by the dorsal
bronchi, which increase in number. The change in the form of tbe
thorax also brings about a reduction of one of the lobes of the lungs —

* Zool. Jalirb., xi. (1898) pp. 65-88 (3 pis.),

t Biol. Centralbl., xvii. (1897) pp. 65-79.

j Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1221-3.

§ Jonaische Zeitschr. Naturwiss., xxxii. (1898) pp. 95-230 (4 pis.)-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

413

the infracarcliac lobe. Thus the associated bronchus cardiacus disappears
in whales, and there is only a trace of it in the seal.

Secretion and Absorption of Gas in the Swimming-bladder and
Lungs. * — Dr. J. S. Haldane, following up a previous paper, in which he
gave an account of the evidence which proves that free oxygen, and in
some cases at least nitrogen, is actively secreted by the epithelium of
the swimming-bladder, discusses the question whether the exchange of
gases between the blood and the air present in the alveoli of the lungs
is also brought about by active secretion or absorption. After stating
the evidence in favour of the diffusion theory, Dr. Haldane outlines
some experimental investigations which seem to show that the diffusion
theory of the respiratory exchange in the lungs is insufficient. The
majority of these investigations, including those undertaken by himself
and Dr. Lorrain Smith, go to prove that the lung epithelium participates
actively in the process of respiratory exchange ; but there are still too
many discrepancies in the results gained by different observers to admit
of any certain conclusions being drawn.

Porus Genitalis in Myxinidse.t — Mr. K. H. Burne has studied this
in Myxine glutinosa and Bdellostoma cirrhatum , and has done much to
clear up an obscure point. The main difference between the lampreys
and Myxinoids lies in the absence in the latter of the direct communi-
cation between the “ porus genitalis ” and the uro-genital sinus that
forms so characteristic a feature in the former. The uro-genital sinus
of lampreys is really absent in the Myxinoids ; and in the latter the anus,
“ porus genitalis,” and ureters, open into an integumentary cloacal
chamber, similar to the cloacal chamber common to anus and uro-
genital sinus in the lamprey.

Sensitiveness to Light in Amphioxus.t — Herr W. Krause criticises
Hesse’s recent description of what seemed to him like “ cup-eyes ” on the
nerve-cord of the lancelet. In 1888, Krause suggested that the animal
was sensitive all along its spinal cord, and he adheres to this without
attaching special importance to the grouping of the pigment-granules.
Similar groupings around the nucleus are common, and may be seen in
the human epidermis. Krause is inclined to believe that the importance
of the pigment is not in its disposition, but in its liability to chemical
change.

Petromyzont with Large Eyes.§ — Prof. L. Plate gives a prelimi-
nary account of a Chilian Petromyzont — Maerophthalmia chilensis g. et
sp. n. — which differs notably from other Cyclostomata in having large
Teleostean-like eyes. These and its silvery-white colour point to a free
and active life.

Relations between Marine Animal and Vegetable Life || — Dr. H.
M. Vernon has tackled an interesting problem — how the nitrogenous
matter excreted by marine animals into the water is removed, and what

* Sci. Progr., ii. (1898) pp. 237-52.

t Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxvi. (1898) pp. 487-95 (1 pi.), j
j Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 470-1.

* § SB. Ges. Nat. Freundc Berlin, 1897, pp. 137-41.

| || Proc. Boy. Soc., lxiii. (1898) pp. 155-61.

2 f 2

414

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

parts plants play in the process. Green sea-weeds like Ulva rapidly
remove the free ammonia, but slowly increase the albuminoid ammonia.
Red sea-weeds like GeUdium cause a considerable increase in the albu-
minoid ammonia, and usually in the free ammonia. Percolation through
sand has some purifying effect, but this is increased greatly when there are
diatoms and other Algae mixed with the sand, or when bacteria abound
in the sand. Vernon worked along three lines, chemical, physiological,
and bacteriological. The water was tested physiologically by allowing
the fertilised ova of the sea-urchin, Strongylocentrotus lividus, to develop
in it, and by determining the. change produced in the size of the larvae
after eight days’ growth under various conditions. The bacterial quality
of the water was tested by counting the number of colonies obtained by
gelatin plate culture. As yet the results seem rather inconclusive.

Scientific Method in Biology.* — Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell argues
that the attainment of truth is the aim of research ; that the organic
must not be treated as if it were inorganic ; that scientific research in
biology must be based upon close and extensive observation of the vary-
ing forms of animal life, under natural conditions, with post-mortem
examination of the records left by health and disease ; and so on. The
book is a calm and careful statement of what may be called the
humanitarian position.

Heredity and Instinct, f — Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan closes an inter-
esting lecture on instinct and intelligence with the following well-
weighed paragraph : — “ Heredity plays a double part. It provides,
through natural selection or otherwise, an outline sketch of relatively
definite behaviour, racial in value ; it provides also that necessarily
indefinite plasticity which enables an animal to acquire and to utilise
experience, and thus to reach adaptation to the circumstances of its indi-
vidual life. It becomes, therefore, a matter of practical inquiry to
determine the proportion which the one kind of hereditary legacy bears
to the other. Observation seems to show that those organisms in which
the environing conditions bear the most uniform relations to a mode of
life that is relatively constant, are the ones in which instinct prepon-
derates over intelligent accommodation ; while those in which we see
the most varied interaction with complex circumstances show more
adaptation of the intelligent type. And the growth of individual plas-
ticity of behaviour in race-development would seem to be accompanied
by a disintegration of the definiteness of instinctive response ; natural
selection favouring rather the plastic animal capable of indefinitely
varied accommodation than the more rigid type, whose adaptations are
congenitally defined.”

Litoral Pauna and Pisciculture at Marseilles.^: — Prof. A. E. Marion
has made a detailed survey of the fisheries on the coasts of Marseilles,
describing the different modes of capture, discussing the question of
bait, suggesting possibilities of development, and inter alia , taking note
of other than utilitarian aspects of the litoral fauna.

* ‘ Scientific Method in Biology,’ London, 1898, 8vo, SO pp.

t Journ. Roy. Inst. Great Britain, Jan. 1898, 13 pp.

X Ann. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. Marseille, y. (1897) 386 pp. (153 figs.).]

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

415

Bibliotheca Zoologica.* — We have received the fourteenth instal-
ment of Dr. O. Taschenberg’s well-known list of zoological publications
in periodicals, between 1861 and 1880. It deals with birds and
mammals.

Reaction in Zoology.j— Prof. Ernst Haeckel makes a vigorous pro-
test, entitled * Ascending or Descending Zoology.’ It has been provoked
by Prof. A. Fleischmann’s ‘ Lehrbuch der Zoologie ’ (1898), which reverses
the evolutionary order of treatment, and seems in other ways distinctly
reactionary from the evolutionist’s point of view.

Tunicata.

NeuralllGlandlin gCynthialpapillosa4— Mr. M. M. Metcalf notes
that the gland in this species, and in all the Cynthiidae he has studied,
is epineural. The elongation of the gland and its lack of highly de-
veloped tubular outgrowths is characteristic of the sub-family Cynthiinse.
Its lumen is full of disintegrating cells from the dorsal wall of the
enlarged portion of the duct, and these form the secretion. Auother
point of interest is that the gland is prolonged backward and downward
into the dorsal raphe, i.e. the median portion of the pharvngo-cloacal
partition. This rapheal portion of the gland, which is found in many
other forms, lies in the place formerly occupied by the trunk region of
the larval nerve-tube.

Australian Tunicata. $ — Prof. W. A. Herd man gives a preliminary
account of the catalogue which he has prepared for the Australian
museum at Sydney, and of some forms which are not represented in the
museum collection. The list includes 63 species described and figured
as new in the catalogue of the said museum ; but altogether there are
180 species — a greater number than that (about 176) known from the
shores of N. W. Europe. The great abundance of species in the southern
seas bears out what the author stated in his ‘ Challenger ’ report, that
tc Ascidians attain their greatest numerical development in southern
temperate regions,” as Quoy and Gaimard had also maintained. The
author adds that the extra-tropical southern species do not show any
special relationship to the species of the northern hemisphere, and he
does not think that the Tunicata can be said to give any support to a
“ bipolar” hypothesis.

Development of Double Larva of Diplosomidae.|| — M. Antoine
Pizon confirms some of Salensky’s results (1894) on this subject, e.g. as
to the origin of a double branchial-intestinal apparatus from one primi-
tive cavity. He shows also that two epicardiac tubes from each bran-
chial sac give origin to pericardium and heart, — a fact which escaped
Salensky’s notice. Another interesting result is the observation that
young buds appear on the twin individuals of the “ double larva,” even
before hatching.

* ‘ Bibliotheca Zoologica, ii. Verzeichniss der Scliriften iiber Zoologie welche
inden periodischen Werken enthalten vom Jahre 1861—1880 selbststandig erschienen
sind,’ Leipzig, 8vo, Sig. 521-60, pp. 4209-4528.

t Jenaische Zeitschr. Naturwiss., xxiv. (1898) pp. 469-74.

% Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 467-70 (8 figs.).

§ Ann. Nat. Hist., i. (1898) pp. 443-50.

|| Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 848-50.

416

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.
a. Cephalopoda.

Notes on Structure of Sepia.* * * § — Mr. R. H. Burne finds in tliemale
a funnel which seems to be the remains of a former channel of communi-
cation between, the body-cavity and the peritoneal sac surrounding the
genital duct, thus supplying an additional argument in favour of the
coelomic origin of the sac.

He also describes a series of slender rods of cartilage (one to each
gill lamella), standing out from the branchial gland and stiffening the
free edge of each supporting membrane.

y. Gastropoda.

Reno-Pericardiac Pore in Ampullaria TJrceus.f— Mr. E. H. Burne
has been able to find, what von Erlanger suspected, and what Bouvier
failed to detect, a pore from the pericardium into the left kidney. “ The
present features of the pore are sufficiently peculiar to warn one to be
cautious in assigning great weight to it in any attempt to determine
which kidney of Ampullaria is the representative of the single kidney
of the monotocards.”

Variations and Mutations of Littorina.J; — Mr. H. C. Bumpus
makes a third contribution to the study of variation, namely an account
of the variations and mutations of the periwinkle, Littorina littorea , in-
troduced on the North American shores. He examined 3000 British
shells and 10,000 American shells, 1000 shells being considered sufficient
to represent any given locality. He concludes, from his measurements,
&c. that the periwinkle, subjected to a new environment, and presumably
emancipated from many of the restraining influences of natural selection,
has become in any and in all of the American localities, more variable
in stature, course of growth, weight, and bulk, as also in the limitations
and boundaries of the colour patterns. While presenting extremes of
variation, the American type, compared with the European type, is
more elongated, lighter in weight, more bulky, and with less pronounced
colour-markings. These results are in harmony with and fully corro-
borative of the conclusions reached from the statistical study of the
sparrow’s cgg.§

Gastropods of the Great African Lakes. || — Mr. J. E. S. Moore dis-
cusses the various theories as to the origin of the Halolimnic animals
of the Great African Lakes. The only way of reaching a satisfactory
conclusion is through a minute knowledge of the morphology of the
individual members of the Halolimnic group, and of these the Gastro-
pods are most suitable. If it can be shown from the study of their
structure that the Halolimnic Gastropods in Tanganyika are most closely
related to the freshwater Gastropods at present known, then the theory
of the ancient freshwater origin of the Halolimnic group is probably

* Proo. Malacol. Soc., iii. (1898) pp. 53 6 (2 figs.).

f Tom. cit., pp. 49-52 (1 fig.).

X Zool. Bulletin, i. (1898) No. 5, pp. 247-59 (14 charts and 2 figs.).

§ Cf. supra , p. 410. |] Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xli. (1898) pp. 159-80.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

417

true. But if the relationships discovered are with typical marine genera,
then there will be little doubt that the Halolimnic group originated in
the lake through marine contamination. Of this, there is no direct
evidence ; but there is no positive geological objection to the view that
it has occurred, and there is at least evidence of great geological insta-
bility in the districts concerned. In another paper, the author goes
on to consider the structure and affinities of some of the Gastropods.

Typhobia.* — Mr. J. E. S. Moore gives the first anatomical descrip-
tion of this mollusc, “ probably the most remarkable freshwater Gastro-
pod at present known.” It is fairly abundant in Tanganyika.

The genus, which Fischer referred to the Melanias, must be dis-
sociated from them, at least from all those which have been carefully
examined. The nervous system is quite unique ; no relation with any
other freshwater forms can be made out, but there is some suggestion
of Solarium and the Scalarids. The Typhobias can hardly be called
archaic, but they “ appear to be among the survivors of some old, but
not geologically ancient, marine types.”

Two forms are recognised, Typhobia Horei and Bathanalia Sowesi
g. n., and a new family Typhobiid2e is proposed. They have affinities
with and stand in the relation of forerunners to those more modern
forms which group themselves about the Strombidte. They have also
some of the characters of the Aporrhaidae, Xenophoridse, Cypraeidae, and
Ptenoglossa. “ Their affinities show that they have without doubt been
cut off from an exclusively marine stock at what is, geologically speak-
ing, no very remote period of time.”

Peripheral Glandular Organ of Helcion pellucidum.t — Prof. L.
Bontan has much that is interesting to say in regard to this beautiful
little mollusc, but we must confine our report to what forms the bulk
of the paper, — an account of a peripheral glandular organ situated
between the mantle and the foot, and interrupted only below the mouth.
Like other skin-glands in Molluscs, it consists of a network of support-
ing cells among which the glandular elements lie. The latter are
of enormous size. The organ is formed as a longitudinal groove, the
upper margin bounded by tentacles innervated from the pedal ganglia.
It is not homologous, in position or innervation, with the epipodial
“ collerette ” of Aspidobranchs ; it is homologous with a similar organ
in Nacella, Patina , &c. ; and approaches the glandular tract in Chitons.
As to function, it is probably at once sensory and defensive.

5. Lamellibrancliiata.

Are there Septibranchiate Bivalves PJ— Herr L. Plate criticises
Pelseneer’s conclusion that the thick muscular septum which divides
the mantle-cavity of Cuspidaria and Poromya into two chambers arises
from the gills, and warrants the term “ Septibranchiate.” Plate seeks
to show that the septum is not morphologically branchial or ctenidial,
but rather pallial. He rejects the term “Septibranchiate” as applicable
to Cuspidaria and Poromya, and proposes to call the group Septipalliata.

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xli. (1898) pp. 181-204 (4 pis.).

f Arch. Zool. Exper., v. (1897) pp. 436-82 (1 pi. and 10 figs.).

X SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Beilin, 1897, pp. 24-8.

418

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Structure of Leda.* * * § — Herr W. Stempell describes the structure of
Leda sulculata Gould, — especially the peculiar dorsal mantle-processes;
the imperfect intersiphonal septum which, indeed, is only hinted at ;
the tendency to coalescence of the Protobranch gills; the absence of
any hypobranchial gland ; the distinctly defined oesophageal cavity ;
the absence of any hint of a jaw-like structure ; a narrow duct between
the pericardial portion of the kidney-tube and the terminal part of the
ureter ; and the direct opening of the genital organs into a cloaca. Thus
the author shows that there are many divergences between his observa-
tions and those of Pelseneer on Leda pella L. ; and it seems necessary to
modify Pelseneer’s statement of the general characters of the Nuculidae.

Phagocytosis* in *Development4 — Dr. C. De Bruyne finds that in
Naiad se all the epithelial cells of the ovarian follicles contribute, in dif-
ferent degrees, to the building-up of the ova ; the successful ovum lives
at the expense of the adjacent elements of the follicle.

The emergence of phagocytes and leucocytes from mucous surfaces in
Anodonta is exaggerated in the incubatory cavity. There is a struggle
for existence — in modified form — between the embryo and the maternal
leucocytes.

The embryonic cells are nourished by active exploitation of the
phagocytes and leucocytes, and also by diffusion of material supplied by
the histolysis of the phagocytes and leucocytes. This continues during
the sojourn of the embryos within the gill-cavity of the mother. But
similar processes of struggle and nutrition occur in the skin of the fish
within which the larvae are temporarily parasitic. The same phenomena,
mutatis mutandis , are to be seen in other types.

Bryozoa.

Development of Tubulipora.| — Mr. S. F. Harmer shows that a pro-
cess of embryonic fission occurs normally in Tubulipora , as has already
Veen demonstrated in Crisia and LicJienopora. His paper also contains
*n account of the structure of the colony and of the ovicell, a history of
the species and genus, with diagnosis of accepted forms (including.
T. aperta sp. n.), a discussion of certain (excretory ?) vesicles found in
the tentacles and other parts. Then follows a detailed description of
the different stages in development, and there is a final chapter on the
morphology of the internal parts of the ovicell.

Arthropoda.

Cleavage of the Cuticle in Moulting.§ — P. Pantel distinguishes an
external dead zone of cuticle from an internal transition area between
chitinous and protoplasmic structure. Between these a cleavage occurs
in ecdysis or moulting, which the author has studied in Thrixion in
particular. He describes the slow formation of the replacing cuticle,
and the rapid hydraulic process by which the pressure of the liquid
secreted by the hypodermis effects detachment of the old husk. Then

* SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde BerliD, 1897, pp. 17-23.

f Arch. Biol., xv. (1898) pp. 181-300 (5 pis.),

t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xli. (1898) pp. 73-157 (3 pls.).^

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 850-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

419

follows a special account of the more continuous analogous processes
in the history of the antenniform organ of the larval Thrixion.

Facetted Eyes of Arthropods.*— Mr. V. L. Kellogg calls attention
to Zimmer’s recent description of the differentiation of the facetted eyes
in the males of Chloe and certain other Epliemerids. This is to he
compared with the two kinds of eyes which Chun has described in
Stylocheiron and certain other genera of pelagic Crustacea. The author
has found two kinds of facetted eyes in Blepharocera capitata , a North
American nematocerous Dipteron. The predaceous individuals (both
male and female) have facetted eyes of two kinds, while the other form of
female which feeds on nectar has only the usual small-facetted strongly
pigmented eyes. It seems likely that the differentiation implies a certain
adaptability of the vision to various conditions of focus and intensity of
light.

a. Insecta.

Hybridising Species of Tephrosia.f — Mr. J. W. Tutt gives an
account of recent experiments made by Dr. Riding and Mr. Bacot in
hybridising the two allied species Tephrosia bistortata Goeze ( crepus -
cularia auct.) and T. crepuscularia Hb. (biundularia auct.). Some of
the more important conclusions to which the experiments point are the
following : — (1) The intercrossing may result in every possible inter-
mediate stage of fertility from sterility to full fertility. (2) Certain
crossings produced almost entirely male offspring. (3) The hybrids
are fertile inter se , but to a less extent than in the parent stock, i.e. there
appears to be a larger proportion of failures. They are also fertile with
the parent stock. (4) The direct hereditary influence exerted by the
parents is a great one. (5) The phylogenetically older species is more
dominant in stamping its characters on the progeny. (6) The sex-
condition of the hybrids depends on the predominating influence exerted
by one of the parents. (7) A recently formed aberration may be pre-
potent and dominant over the type from which it has but recently
sprung. (8) The re-crossing of a hybrid with one of the parent species
produces offspring scarcely differing from the parent species with which
the hybrid has been paired. (9) The inbreeding of the same cross
produces a large percentage differing much from either parent form.
(10) The crossing of the hybrids obtained from original reciprocal
crosses tends to produce a mixed progeny, some referable to known
forms of the crossed species, others quite unlike anything ever obtained
in nature. (11) The darkest, best-marked, largest, and most vigorous
specimens are those which remain longest in the pupal state. (12) The
hybrids have lost all regularity as to the time of emergence, i.e. hybridity
causes continuous-broodedness.

As to sex, Mr. Tutt also notes that the influence of the male parent
is less than that of the female. When T. bistortata is the male parent
the progeny is more vigorous than when T. crepuscularia is the male
pare nt. The greater vigour of the male results largely in the produc-
tion of female offspring. When the male is of the dominant species,
females are developed in fair proportion ; when the female is of the

* Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 280-1.

f Trans. Entom. Soc. London, 1898, pp. 17-42.

420

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

predominant species, males are largely in excess. It must not be
supposed, however, that all these conclusions rest upon equally strong
evidence.

Termites.* * * § — Mr. G. D. Haviland describes and figures about ninety
species of Termites, including many new ones. His collection was made
mainly in South Africa, the Malay Peninsula, and Borneo, and in-
cludes specimens from about 1000 different nests. Following Hagen
in the matter of genera, he distinguishes Termes, Calotermes , Termojosis,
and Hoclotermes. By far the greater number of his species belong to
the large genus Termes , and most of his observations were made on
species of that genus. The soldier-caste was used 'for the determination
of species, since the imago is often absent from nests. The segments of
the antennae are fewer in the soldier than in the male, but they are gene-
rally longer and more cylindrical ; those of the female are shorter. The
actual length of antennas is not correlated with the number of segments.
Long antennae go with long legs, and indicate much walking and
foraging; soldiers with short, stout legs belong to sluggish species.
Blindness is more universal among soldier and worker termites than
among ants. The winged insects have an unconquerable desire to leave
the nest. They fly feebly, and not one in many thousands survives the
dangers of flight. At the time of swarming, males and females pair, the
males often clinging to the abdomen of the female, though the sexual
organs are not at that stage mature. In most species a single pair can
found a nest without assistance. The abdomen of the female becomes
different from that of the male at the last moult, by a change in the
ventral plates. Great distension takes place later, and in some groups
there may be secondary chitinisation in the cuticle in front of the
original chitin plates. The function of soldiers is defence only, the
chief enemies of the colony being ants. The soldiers in some species
secrete a sticky fluid in a sac in the head, which opens into a duct
passing down the rostrum. A drop of this fluid is deposited on the
antennae of an invading ant, which is immediately rendered hors de
combat .

Teeth of Diptera.t — Mr. W. H. Harris describes and figures the
teeth present in the proboscis of the house-fly and the common yellow
dung-fly. These chitinous processes seem to be used for puncturing,
scraping, and probably crushing, and are situated at the base of the lobes
of the labium.

Sensory Nerve-Cells of Insects.* — 0. Duboscq has, by the use of
Ehrlich’s method on Forjicula auricularia, confirmed vom Rath’s account
of the sensory neurons in Tracheata. His preparations are the most
convincing as yet furnished for insects. He found, however, none of
the multipolar cells and rich plexuses described by Viallanes, Monti,
and Holmgren ; these he regards as connective, not nervous tissue.

Peculiar Gland in Ants.§ — M. Charles Janet describes in Myrmicz
rubra , the common red ant, a peculiar integumentary gland lodged in the

* Journ. Lion. Soc. (Zool.), xxvi. (1898) pp. 358-442 (4 pis.),

t Cardiff Nat. Soc , xxix. (1896-7) pp. 59-61 (1 pi.).

t Arch. Zool. Exper., 1. (1897) pp. 401-16 (1 pi.).

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1168-71 (7 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

421

inferior aspect of the thorax. It is structurally comparable to the man-
dibular gland, and has been described by Meinert and by Lubbock in
Formicinee, where however its structure is rather different from that in
Myrmicinee. The cavity into which the gland opens is an almost closed
air-chamber. It is probable that the secretion is volatile, and Janet
hazards the suggestion that it is the source of the characteristic “recog-
nition-odour.”

Heart of Hive-Bee.* — Herr W. J. Pissarew finds in Apis mellifica
that the “ aorta,” after bending down to the left side of the gut, shows
eighteen well-defined zigzag loops, which become shorter anteriorly, and
stop about the beginning of the thorax. There is a hint of these loops in
Cheshire’s figures. The author inquires as to their possible use, whether
they occur in any other insects, and whether the vessel on which they
occur should be called “ aorta.”

Brain of a Cave-Beetle.t — Herr 0. Hamann has investigated the
central nervous system of Leptoderus hohenwarti Schmidt, a blind beetle
belonging to the family Silphidm, and occurring in the recesses of the
Adelsberg cave. The supra-oesophageal ganglia show pear-shaped
swellings, which are continued into the antennary nerves, but there are
no other nerves given off. There is no hint of eyes or optic nerves. A
very broad connective round the gullet connects the supra-oesophageal
with the sub-oesophageal mass, the latter being very well developed.
Herr Hamann notes the superiority of 10 per cent, formol over alcohol
for the preservation of such specimens as the above, if histological
examination is in view.

Venation of a Typical Insect Wing4 — Messrs. J. H. Comstock and
J. G. Needham point out that the recognition of the features of the wing
venation that are common to the various orders of insects has been a
matter of slow growth. The names and abbreviations to which the
authors adhere are Costa, C; Subcosta, Sc; Radius, B; Media, 31;
Cubitus, Cu ; Anal veins, A.

Growth of Butterflies’ Wings.§ — M. Arnold Pictet describes the
growth of the wings in Rhopalocera after emergence from the chrysalis.

Composition of Insect’s Head. ||— Herr R. Heymons concludes that
in insects the frons, clypeus, labrum, compound eyes, and frequently the
whole anterior portion of the occiput, represent parts of the primary
head segment, while the posterior portion of the occiput and the genre
represent, probably exclusively, the tergites of the jaw-segments.

Chromatin Reduction in Hemiptera.lf — F. C. Paulmier points out
that the subject of chromatin reduction in insects is at present in con-
siderable confusion. The four workers who have done most to it —
Henking, vom Rath, Wilcox, and Montgomery — have reached quite dis-
similar results. He has studied it in a number of species of Hemiptera.
Anasa tristis de G., Euchistus variolarius Pal. Beauv., and others, and the

* Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 282-3 (1 fig.).

t SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 1-3.

X Amer. Nat., xxxii. (1898) pp. 81-9 (1 fig.).

§ CR. Soc. Phys. Nat. Geneve, 1898; Arch. Phys. Nat., v. (1S98) pp. 378-81.

|| SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 119-23.

f Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 514-20 (19 figs ).

422

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

evidence points to the conclusion that the first division is the reducing
division, and the second the equation division.

Development of Food-Canal in Lower Insects.* * * § — Dr. It. Heymons
contrasts in particular the development of the gut in Lepisma and in
Orthoptera. In Orthoptera the definitive intestinal epithelium arises
from the ectoderm of stomodasum and proctodaeum ; in Lepisma from
yolk-cells. In Orthoptera its origin is bipolar ; in Lepisma multipolar.
During development the yolk-cells of Orthoptera disappear ; in Lepisma
the majority remain functional. The yolk-cells represent the true
“ endoderm ” of insects. Heymons has also some notes on the Malpi-
ghian tubules. In Apterygota entognatha they are either entirely
absent, or they do not occur in their characteristic form. The typical
tubular vessels make their first appearance in Apterygota ectognatha
(Machilidae, Lepismatidae).

j8. Myriopoda.

Development of Chilopoda. t — Dr. R. Heymons has studied this in
Scolopendra cingulata L., and has reached the following conclusions : —

(1) The unpaired gonad and its unpaired (mesodermic) duct are both
paired in rudiment.

(2) In adults of both sexes there is a dorsal loop recognisable on the
efferent duct, and this corresponds to the left of the two primary genital
ducts.

(3) The genital cavity and the lumen of the (mesodermic) efferent
duct arise from the coelom.

(4) As in insects, so in Chilopoda, there is an unpaired ectodermic
terminal portion of the genital duct, from which the (two) paired
terminal glands seem to be derived.

(5) In Chilopoda (Epimorpha) the genital region consists of two
segments, not of one.

5. Arachnida.

Sarcoptes minor. :£ — Dr. M. Carruccio gives a careful description of
Sarcoptes minor Fiirstenberg, the itch mite of the cat, occasionally found
on man. There are very clear figures of the external characters.

Heliotaxis of Larval Mites.§ — Herr Fr. Thomas has made a num-
ber of observations and experiments which go to show that the progressive
movements of the larvae of the gooseberry mite (Bryobia ribis Th.) are
always positively heliotactic, which appears to be of nutritive advan-
tage.

German Hydrachnidse.H — Another instalment of R. Piersig’s valu-
able monograph on the Hydrachnidae of Germany has reached us.

«• Crustacea.

Peripheral Nervous System.1T — Herr E. Holmgren recognises the
strength of the evidence which Nusbaum and Schreiber have afforded

* SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 111-9.

t SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss., 1898, pp. 244-51.

X Boll. Soc. Rom. Stud. Zool., vi. (1897) pp. 181-90 (1 pi.).

§ SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 39-45.

U Bibliotheca Zool., Heft 22 (1898) pp. 241-320 (9 pis.).

1 Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 409-18 (7 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

423

as to existence of peripheral multipolar nerve-cells. It does not follow
that these are the same as the elements described by Bethe in 1896,
which Holmgren suspected to be mesenchymatous. There is no doubt,
according to Holmgren’s observations, as to the multipolar nerve-cells
in the skin of caterpillars ( Sphinx ligustri ) ; and his fresh investigation
of Palsemon, &c., leads him to believe that the same is true of Crus-
taceans. The nerve-cells are connected by their dendritic processes with
one another, and perhaps also with axis-processes. In caterpillars the
state of affairs is clearer, since there are no mesenchymatous elements
which could lead to confusion.

Distribution of Deep-Sea Brachyura and Anomura.* * * § — MM. A.
Milne-Edwards and E. L. Bouvier comment upon the comparative
thoroughness with which the abyssal fauna has been explored in the
area limited by the Western Mediterranean, the Canaries, the Azores,
and the Gulf of Gascony. Far over a thousand dredgings and the
like have been made. Yet the results are in some respects strange. In
the later expeditions conducted by the Prince of Monaco only one new
form was found — Sympagurus Grimaldii , of which only one specimen
is known. Of the eight known species of this genus, six were obtained
in this area. Many other primitive Paguridaa have been found in the
same region, which may perhaps be regarded as one of their head-
quarters. At the same time, it is strange that while the first explora-
tions revealed many new forms, so to speak, at each haul of the dredge,
the six later explorations have resulted in scarcely anything new. This
seems to the authors to suggest that something is wrong with the
mechanical methods of capture at present in use.

Fossil Apodidae.f — Mr. C. Schuchert makes a welcome contribution
to our knowledge of fossil Phyllopod genera, describing Dipeltis Packard
(emend.) which is closely allied to Apus, Diplodiscus carri sp. n., and
the synthetic type Protocaris Walcott. He discusses the geological
history of the Apodidae, which he divides into two new sub-families, —
Apodinae ( Protocaris , Lepidurus, Apus ) and Dipeltinae ( Dipeltis ).

New Gall-making Copepod.J — M. Jules Bonnier describes a Cope-
pod, Pionodesmotes phormosomse g. et sp. n., which lives at the expense
of a deep-sea Echinoid ( Phormosoma aranus), and makes galls protruding
into the interior of the test of its host. At first sight it suggested the
Choniostomatidae, which are parasitic on Arthrostraca, but it is distin-
guished by a perfectly developed second antenna, by the absence of a
prebuccal sucker, by the single pair of maxillipedes, &c. A new family
seems necessary to receive it, probably near Auliostoma and other forms
described by Canu.

Deep-Sea Crustacea from the South-West of Ireland. § — Mr. W. T.

Caiman describes a number of new forms, of which the most remarkable
is Bresilia atlantica g. et sp. n. It seems to require a new family,
BresiliiDjE, since it occupies a somewhat isolated position among the
Caridea. The following points indicate its primitive character

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1245-7.

f Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xix. (1897) pp. 671-6 (1 pi.),

j Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 769-71.

§ Trans. R. Irish Acad., xxxi. (1896) received 1898, pp. 1-22 (2 pis.).

424

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(1) mandible not deeply divided, and possessed of a palp ; (2) proximal
lobe of second maxilla not reduced ; (3) second maxilliped, with its
terminal joints not expanded nor distorted as in tlie typical Caridea;
(4) exopods present on certain thoracic feet.

Annulata.

Structure of Lug-Worm.* — Messrs. F. W. Gamble and J. H. Ash-
worth have studied Arenicola marina , and have made out the following
(among other) new points. On the Lancashire coast, and probably else-
where, two well-marked varieties of Arenicola marina occur, differing in
general appearauce, habits, structure of gills, and periods of maturity.

The cilia lining the gastric region of the gut are specially arranged

(1) on the sides of a ventral groove which is continued to the anus, and

(2) on curved shallow grooves running downwards and backwards into
the former. The currents carry a stream of mucus and digested food
backwards away from the mass of sand in the gut. The ventral groove
is morphologically equivalent to the similar structure of Oligognathusr
and probably to the “ siphon ” of Capitellids.

Each of the two hearts contains a cardiac body, composed of masses
of granular and vacuolated cells, projecting into the ventricle. Func-
tionally they may be regarded as glandular valves preventing reflux
into the gastric sinuses.

Both the large pinnately-branching, and the smaller dendritic, types
of gill occur in A. marina. A lapsus pennse will be noticed in the de-
scription of the efferent branchial vessels.

The brain is divided by a narrow cleft throughout the greater part
of its length. The anterior cornua supply the prostomium and the
buccal papillae, and give off the oesophageal nerve-connectives. The
middle region of the brain supplies the upper part of the prostomium,
and the posterior cornua innervate the nuchal organ.

The nuchal organ, though apparently single, shows traces of a double
origin. It is probably an olfactory organ, and is developed from the
posterior region of the prostomium. The otoliths consist of quartz
grains surrounded by a delicate chitinoid film, as Ehlers stated.

The first pair of nephridia are in process of reduction. In adult-
examples, the terminal portions of the nephridia act as receptacles for
the ripe ova or spermatozoa.

“ The general analogies of Arenicola with certain other limnivorous
Chaetopods are very startling. With the Sipunculids the Arenicolidae
agree in the chitinous spines tipping the proboscis papillae, the buccal
papillae, the strong retractors of the ‘ proboscis,’ the capacious and
largely unsegmented coelom, the general character of the musculature,
the thin-walled looped alimentary canal witli its ciliated ventral groove,
the action of the body-wall in producing waves of coelomic fluid auxiliary
to the process of burrowing and defaecation, and lastly, the pigmented
nuchal organ. If we acknowledge the many points of agreement, which
have for the most part arisen independently, between these two distantly
related families under similar conditions of life, the true relationship
between Arenicola and other genera of Polychaets can only be ascertained

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xli. (1898) pp. 1-42 (5 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

425

by exercising the greatest caution in not confusing convergent adapta-
tional characters with true genetic resemblances.”

Brain of Glyeera.* — M. Ch. Gravier has studied the brain of Glycera
convoluta and related forms, and finds, as his chief result, that it shows
the same general characters as that of other Polychaete Annelids. The
division of the prostomium into rings is quite superficial, and only
affects the epidermis. It has no relation to segmentation, and there is
no essential difference between the prostomium of the Glyceriidae and
that of allied forms.

Elytra of Aphroditidae.j — G. Darboux fils argues that the elytra
are not homologous with dorsal cirri. In segments without elytra the
elytrophore has its homologue in a dorsal ridge, sometimes called
the gill. The insertion of the cirrus is definitely parapodial. A study
of development confirms the conclusion that elytron and cirrus are quite
distinct. In some abnormalities, e. g. in Acholoe astericola Clpd., an
elytron and a dorsal cirrus may occur on the same segment. What are
called gills in these worms are not homologous throughout, not even in
the same family. In Acholoe, for instance, they are homologous with
elytrophores ; in Sigalion, where there are gills even on the segments
with elytra, they are evidently not so.

New Species of Litoral Oligochaeta.J — Akira Jizuka describes
Pontodrilus matsushimensis sp. n., found burrowing in the sand, under
half decayed leaves of Zostera marina , along the shores of Matsushima
Bay, Japan. It tallies well with Beddard’s definition of the genus
Pontodrilus , except that the vas deferens opens into one end of the
glandular portion of the spermiducal gland, the other end leading to
the male pore, whereas in Pontodrilus the vasa deferentia open “ at the
junction of the glandular and muscular parts.” It is probable, however,
the author thinks, that his reference of this new species to the above
genus is correct.

Annelids of ‘ Travailleur ’ and ‘Talisman’ Expeditions^— M. Louis
Roule makes a preliminary report on these, — seven already known, and
seven new. He establishes two new types — Aphrodilella and Letmoni-
cella — satellites of Aphrodite and Letmonice respectively, and of con-
siderable systematic interest. The two most abundant species were
Eunice G'unneri, living in commensalism with Lophohelia prolifera and
Amphihelia oculata , and Hyalinecia tuhicola, living in a tube of its own
making. The author makes a few notes on bathymetric and geographical
distribution.

Phagocytic Organs in Earthworms. || — Herr G. Schneider points
out that in 1896 he clearly described two indubitably phagocytic organs
in Allolohophora, — (a) a portion of the typhlosole ; and (6) a region in
each nephridial canal. This note is in reference to the fact that Cuenot.
in a recent communication on the functions of Oligochaeta, says very
little about the typhlosole, and seems to have misunderstood Schneider.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 972-5. f Tom. cit., pp. 1226-7.

X Annot. Zool. Japon., ii. (1898) pp. 21-7 (1 pi.).

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1166-8.

II Zool. Anzeig , xxi. (1898) pp. 295-6.

426

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

So-called Palolo-Worm.* * * § — Dr. B. Friedlsender has given much at-
tention to the puzzling phenomenon of shoals of “ Palolo ” at Samoa.
As is well known / they appear in immense numbers at regular intervals
with astounding punctuality, even to the hour. The water is thick
with wriggling headless worms, “ thick as vermicelli soup/’ as Agassiz
said. It can hardly be doubted that they come from the coral reef, and
that they are the liberated posterior ends of worms modified in connec-
tion with reproduction. As the author notes, Dr. G. Thilenius has also
and independently discovered the Palolo worms on the reefs, and inter-
preted the swimming portions as reproductive bodies. The riddle
remains, however, that they appear in constant relation to the phases
of the moon, on the day of the last quarter.

Incubation of the Skate-Leech.t — There is a note in the Journal
of the Marine Biological Association on the parental care exhibited by
Pontobdella muricata L. A specimen was dredged along with a scallop-
shell, and was seen to be mounting guard over a group of eggs. It
continued to do so in the aquarium for at least 123 days. “ For what
purpose the skate-leech remains with its eggs during incubation appears
uncertain. . . One may presume that their protection is the chief object,
whether from active enemies or from the mere accumulation of sand, &c.,
is doubtful. . . . Hatching is accomplished by the perforation of the
membrane of one of the fenestne. The chitinous part of the shell is
not ruptured in any way.”

Urns of Sipunculus.J — MM. J. Kunstler and A. Gruvel have been
able to cultivate these remarkable bodies for prolonged periods, and
have followed with precision the successive changes by which they pass
from relative simplicity to unexpected complexity of structure.

Rotatoria.

Fauna of the Nurmijarvi Lake.§ — Mr. K. E. Stenroos has studied
by the side of this inland lake of Finland the fauna of its waters. After
describing the lake itself and its surroundings, he gives a particular
account of the Rotifera, which are represented therein by 157 sj)ecies.
Unfortunately the author has not been able to abstain from describing
a number of species as new upon the most slender variations from the
published figures and accounts. Twenty-six new species are named,
about one-half of which are almost certainly “ old friends,” and a num-
ber of the remainder so ill defined that it will be very difficult to
recognise them again. The following are the new names : — Limnias
nymphsese, Pseudoecistes rotifer (this is the variety of CE. nelatus figured
in Dr. Collin’s note-book with two eyes near the edge of the corona),
Conochilus limneticus ( = C. unicornis ), Microcodides abbreviatus (= M.
robustus ), Notops fennicus (= N. minor f Notommata monostylseformis
( = Monostyla bifurca'), Proales mirabilis , Furcularia trihamata ( = F.
forficula), F. macrodactyla (probably = Diaschiza semiaperta ), Monom-

* Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 337-57.

t Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., v. (1898) pp. 195-6.

X Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 970-2. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 126.

§ Acta Soc. pro Fauna et Flora Fenuica, xvii. 1, Helsingfors, 1898, pp. 1-177
(3;Pls.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

427

mata appendiculata , Eospliora viridis (= E. anrita witli two red specks
close to the frontal eyes), Mastigocerca grandis (? = M. elongata ), M.
unidens , and M. cuspidata (probably both = M. scipio ), M. rosea (= M.
bicornis ), Coelopus intermedins , Dinocharis similis, Cathypna flexilis ,
C. hrachydactyla , C. magna, Distyla oxycauda (= Diplax ornata, Daday
= D. ludwigii ), Monostyla bicornis , Metopedia quadricarinata , M. dacty-
liseta, M. sulcata , Pterodina emarginula (= (?) Pt. reflexa ). Young
students of the Rotifera might as well make themselves fully ac-
quainted with the known species before burdening science with so many
synonyms.

Some little-known Pterodinge.* — In this paper Mr. C. F. Rousselet
fully describes and illustrates the following four species of Pterodina
which before were scarcely sufficiently defined : — Pt. reflexa , Pt. elliptica,
Pt. clypeata , Pt. cseca, giving also copies of figures of the following
species which are not readily accessible : — Pt. bidentata , Pt. parva , Pt.
incisa, Pt. trilobata, and Pt. intermedia. The male of Pt. elliptica is
figured and described for the first time.

Development of Asplanchna.j — Dr. Al. Mrazek has studied the
development in this genus, especially in A. Herrichi. There are, as
usual, three kinds of eggs, — parthenogenetic ova which become males,
parthenogenetic ova which become females, and fertilised eggs which
become females ( Dauereier ). The author discusses the oogenesis, the
structure of the ova, the early stages of maturation and fertilisation, and
the question of the layers.

Nematohelminth.es.

New Nematodes from Bismarck Archipelago, t — Dr. von Linstow
describes a collection made by Prof. F. Dahl. It includes some new
forms of Ascaris, Filar ia, &c., and a remarkable form, Cloacina Dahli
g. et sp. n., from Macropus Browni. As the author remarks, Australia
has often proved itself a land of surprises to the zoologist, and Cloacina
is in its own way surprising. It is one of the Secernentes, with lateral
areas so strongly developed that they are sometimes apposed in the
middle. There is an excretory pore ; the skin is very peculiar ; the
musculature is monomyarian ; the female opening is confluent with the
anus, forming a “ female cloaca ” — a unique character. The genus
belongs to Molin’s Acrophalli and to the Strongylidse.

Excretion in Ascaris. § — Herr S. Metalnikoff has independently
reached results similar to those of Nassonow. He injected ammoniacal
carmine &c. mixed with perivisceral fluid into living specimens of
Ascaris megalocephala, and found that particles occur in the walls of
-the lateral canals and adjacent tissue, and that they are taken up by
the four large anterior “ excretory cells.” The actual ingestion is due
to the numerous small “ vesicles ” on the outgrowths of the four giant-
cells.

* Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, vii. (1898) pp. 24-30 (3 pis.).

t SB. Bohm. Ges. Wiss., 1897 (ii.) No. lviii. 11 pp. (1 fig.).

X Arch. Naturgesch., lxiii. (1897) pp. 281-91 (2 pis.).

§ Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersbourg, vii. (1897) pp. 419-26 (figs.) (Russian). See
Zool. Centralbl., v. (1898) pp. 325-6.

1898 2 g

428

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Endo-Parasites of Hyrax.* * * § — Herr N. Nassonow found in Procavia
syriaca all the end opara sites previously recorded from this host, except
Physalopfera spirula Ehrb. He discusses Anoplocephala hyracis Rud.
( critica Pag.), Ascaris ( Crossophorus ) tentaculatus, Ascaris ( Crossophorus )
collaris Elirb., Oxyuris pugio Ehrb., and 0. flabellum Ehrb.

Platyhelminthes.

Helminthological Notes. — Dr. M. 0. Francaviglia f discusses the
familiar Cysticercus pisiformis of the rabbit, and its adult form Tsenia
serrata of the dog ; Tsenia crassicollis in the cat ; Dipylidium caninum in
dog and cat ; Filaria quadrispina Dies, in Mustela foina, M. martes and
Putorius communis.

Dr. A. Andreini J describes a case of Echinococcus in the heart of a
soldier.

Helminths in Vertebrates of East Prussia.§ — Herr P. Miihling
gives a list of 246 Helminths from East Prussia, and a description of
some new and rare species. His memoir begins with an interesting
historical essay, showing the important part which the naturalists of Ost-
Preussen have had in the development of helminthology.

Adult Tapeworms of Hares and Rabbits. || — Dr. C. W. Stiles has
one of his careful memoirs on this subject, dealing with species of
Davainea , Cittoisenia , Anoplocephala , Bertia, and Andrya, found as adults
in species of Lepus.

Archigetes.^T — Dr. Al. Mrazek gives a full account of the minute
structure of Archigetes appendiculatus Batz., with notes on its life-
history and systematic position. We regret the absence of a summary
in a familiar language.

Dactylocotyle.** — M. Paul Cerfontaine gives a diagnosis of this
genus of Trematodes, a description of its reproductive system in parti-
cular, and an account of the five well-established species which occur as
parasites on fishes.

Merizocotyle.ff — M. Paul Cerfontaine describes M. diaphanum from
Baja batis, M. minus sp. n. from B. oxyrhynchus (?), and discusses the
systematic position of the genus, which seems to belong to the Mono-
eotylidm in the family Tristomese of monogenetic Trematodes.

Reproductive Organs of Drepanidotsenia venusta.JJ — Mr. T. B.
Rosseter describes the scolex and strobila of this tapeworm, whose life-
history he recently discovered. He deals especially with the repro-

* Arbeit. Lab. Zool. Warscbau Univ., 1897, pp. 199-216 (2 pis.) (Russian). See
Zool. Centralbb, v. (1898) p. 819.

f Boll. Soc. Rom. Stud. Zool., vi. (1897) pp. 206-10.

x Tom. cit., pp. 227-33 (1 fig.).

§ Arch. Naturgesch., lxiv. (1898) pp. 1-118 (4 pis.).

|| Proc. Nat. Mus. U.S., xix. (1897) pp. 145-235 (21 pis.).

4 SB. Bohm. Ges. Wiss., 1897, No. xxxii., 47 pp. (5 pis.).

** Arch. Biol., xv. (1898) pp. 301-28 (1 pi. and 3 figs.).

ft Tom. cit., pp. 329-66 (2 pis.).

XX Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, vii. (1898) pp. 10-23 (2 pls.).''|

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

429

ductive organs, and gives some account of the eggs and six-hooked
oncospheres.

Regeneration in Planarians.* — Miss H. Randolph finds that if
Planaria maculata Leidy is divided longitudinally or transversely, each
part regenerates a new individual. Fragments hardly visible can re-
generate a complete whole, except as to pharynx. Double heads, double
tails, extra eyes, &c., seem to be readily producible.

Prof. 0. Fuhrmann j reached similar results. A posterior half
regenerates head and eyes, an anterior half regenerates the posterior
part and the pharynx. Each of 10—15 fragments showed itself able to
regenerate. Longitudinal division also succeeded ; if the cut is oblique,
the regenerated part is perpendicular to the plane of the cut. Monstro-
sities with 2-4 heads and as many tails were produced.

New Planarians.^ — Mr. W. McM. Woodworth describes some new
forms from the Great Barrier Reef: — Pseudoceros devisii sp. n., of a
bright orange-yellow colour and brilliant markings (only one specimen) ;
Idioplana australiensis g. et sp. n., differing from other Planoceridm
chiefly as regards the reproductive organs ; DipostJius corallicola g. et
sp. n., with male organs so peculiar that a new family (Diposthid^e) is
required. The salient feature is the separation of the penis and pro-
state gland into two distinct organs, both of which are doubtless intro-
mittent.

Incertae Sedis.

Sexual Conditions of Myzostoma glabrum.§ — Dr. J. Beard returns
to a subject which he discussed in 1884, and publishes an interesting
critical paper on the researches of Nansen, Prouho, and Wheeler, with
an account of additional observations of his own. His results, apart
from suggestive obiter dicta on hermaphroditism and the like, may
almost be summed up in the last paragraph of his paper.

“ Owing to the various kinds of parasitism presented by the numerous
species of the genus, parasitism, which in some cases has tended to the
preservation of the males, in others to their extinction, in yet others to
their conversion into hermaphrodites, we can, so far as at present known,
divide the species up into : —

1. Purely dioecious forms with small males (von Graaff, Prouho).

M. pulvinar and some cysticolous species.

2. Hermaphrodite forms with true males which remain males (Beard).

M. glabrum.

3. Hermaphrodite forms with males which, retaining their positions

on the hermaphrodites, afterwards become female (Prouho)

M. alatum.

4. Hermaphrodite forms, in which the males have lost their dor-

sicolous position, and have either become extinct or converted
into protandric hermaphrodites.” M. cirriferum and others.

* Arch. Entwickmech., v. (1897) pp. 352-72 (10 figs.). See Zool. Centralbl., v.
(1898) p. 263.

t CR. Soc. Sci. Nat. Neuchatel, 1898. See Arch. Sci. Pkys. et Nat., v. (1898)
pp. 478-9. X Bull. Mus. Zool. Harvard, xxxii. (1898) pp. 63-7 (1 pi.).

§ MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xiii. (1898) pp. 293-324 (1 pi.).

2 G 2

430

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Echinoderma.

Alimentary Tract of Pelmatozoa.* — Herr 0. Jaekel finds that there
is a remarkable contrast in the structure and position of the alimentary-
tract in Crinoidea (Jkl.) on the one hand, and Cladoidea, Cystoidea, and
Blastoidea on the other. In the first, the gut is “ solar ” (following the
hands of a watch), and in a simple coil ; in the others it is “ contrasolar,”
and apparently always more complicated in its coiling. Thus the Cla-
doidea are brought further from the Crinoids, and nearer the Cystoids
and Blastoids.

Anal Papillae of Caudina coriacea.t — Prof. A. Dendy finds two kinds
of papillae around the anus of this Ilolothurian : — (1) There are five
blunt radially-placed projections, which contain abundant spicules, and
are mere solid processes of the body -wall, without nerves or ambulacral
vessels. These are apparently present only in extreme youth, and may
represent anal teeth in a vestigial condition. (2) There are five radially-
disposed groups of anal tentacles (doubtless homologous with the tube-
feet of typical Holothurians), containing branches of the radial nerves
and of the radial ambulacral vessels, with loosely scattered spicules
in their walls. The branches of the ambulacral vessels are swollen out
to form circumanal ampullae, the function of which is evidently to assist
in protrusion and retraction of the anal tentacles. As it seems probable
that C. coriacea, like C. arenata , often lies buried in the sand, with only
the tip of the tail projecting, the development of sensory tentacles is
readily intelligible.

Classification of Synaptidge.J — Herr Hjalmar (jstergren has studied
numerous species of Synaptidm, and finds himself forced to suggest a
much more elaborate classification than heretofore.

I. Synaptime: — Euapta g. n. (6 sp.) ; Chondrocloea g. n. (13 sp.) ;
Synapta Eschscholtz (7 sp.); Lapidoplax g. n. (5 sp.) ; Protankyra
g. n. (20 sp.); Anapta Semper (2 sp.).

II. Chiridotinae : — Sigmodota Studer (7 sp.) ; Chiridota Eschscholtz
(7 sp.).

III. Myriotrochinae : — Myrwtrochus Steenstrup (2 sp.) ; Trochoderma
Theel (1 sp.) ; Acanthotrochus Dan. and Cor. (1 sp.).

The splitting up of the genus Synapta is mainly based on the pecu-
liarities in the structure of the joint-end of the anchor-plates, but with
these other peculiarities are associated.

Synapta vivipara.§ — Dr. H. L. Clark has studied the development
and structure of this species. The ova seem to pass into the body-cavity
by a rupture of the peritoneal epithelium, while the spermatozoa pass
outward through the genital duct. Spermatozoa may pass by way of the
anus into the body-cavity, or perhaps through the water-pore and stone-
canal. A complete blastula is formed in about four hours after fertilisa-
tion. The first larval stage is elliptical, about a third of a millimetre
in length, with the ventral ectoderm much thicker than the dorsal, with-
out ciliated bands, calcareous particles, or nervous system, a mouth on

* SB. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 29-35 (10 figs ),
f Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxvi. (1898) pp. 456-64 (1 pi.),
t Ofversigt K. Yet. Akad. Forhandl., lv. (1898) pp. 111-20 (8 figs.).

§ Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., v. (1898) pp. 53-88 (5 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MIOROSOOPY, ETO.

431

the anterior ventral surface but no anus, a well-developed coelomic
pouch on each side of the digestive tract, and a hydrocoel with five pri-
mary tentacles and five secondary outgrowths opening to the exterior
through the dorsal pore, by means of an adradial water-canal, upon
which may still be seen the vestige of an anterior coelom. Then follows
the development of the pentactula. Its characteristics may be briefly
summed up as follows : — Water- vascular system consisting of a closed
hydrocoel or circumoral water-tube with five primary tentacles, between
which are five very much smaller but equally erect secondary outgrowths ;
a water-tube in the mid-dorsal interradius connecting the circumoral
vessel with the exterior ; and a Polian vessel in the left dorsal inter-
radius. Nervous system consisting of a circumoral ring ; five tentacle
nerves on the inner face of the primary tentacles, the ectoderm of which
is considerably thickened, especially on the outer side ; five radial nerves
bending backward over the secondary outgrowths of the water-ring and
over the radial pieces of the calcareous rings, and running to the poste-
rior end of the body ; and five pairs of otocysts lying external to the
radial nerves, where they bend backward. Digestive system, consisting
of a short oesophagus with the mouth opening anteriorly in the centre
of the circle of tentacles, a large stomach, a comparatively short intes-
tine with a single loop in it, and usually an anus formed secondarily
near or at the aboral pole. Digestive system attached to the wall
throughout its whole course by a mesentery, formed by the union of the
two walls of the right and left coelomic pouches. Calcareous ring, con-
sisting of five radial and five interradial pieces with much-branched
ends. A few scattered glandular organs of doubtful function in various
parts of the ectoderm. The author then traces the development on to
the adult, and gives a short account of the structure of the adult. As
regards the phylogenetic position of Synapta, he agrees on the whole
with Ludwig that the Synaptidae are degenerate pedate Holothurians ;
as regards general embryological results he agrees closely with Bury.

Protandric Hermaphroditism of Asterina gibbosa.* — Prof. L.
Cuenot has made an interesting study of this hermaphrodite species. At
Roscoff, the individuals are males for one to two years, and then become
females ; at Banyuls, the individuals are males for an indefinite number
of years, at least two to three, then become females ; at Naples, there is
remarkable sexual polymorphism, some are wholly male, others wholly
female, others hermaphrodite impartially, others transitional.

Ccelentera.

Movements of Hydra.')' — Herr W. Zykoff describes the protrusion
of fine pointed pseudopodia from the ectodermic cells of the tentacles of
Hydra, fusca, and maintains that these function in attachment and loco-
motion. He discusses the various views already propounded as to the
polyp’s movements.

Grafting Experiments on Hydra.J — Herr G. Wetzel has elaborated
his previous experiments. He first describes grafting between indi-

* Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 273-9 (3 figs.).

t Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 270-2 (1 fig.).

X Arch. Mikr. Anat., lii. (1898) pp. 70-96 (1 pi.).

432

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

viduals of the same species ( legitime Transplantation ), which readily
succeeds. A modification of Trembley’s experiment was effected by
fixing an everted polyp (after removal of head and base) to two normal
polyps, one at each end. The result corroborated the conclusion
reached by Engelmann, Nussbaum, and Ischikawa; a polyp cannot live
permanently in this everted state; but it is not easy to state shortly
what took place. Union of Hydra grisea and H. fusca was effected
readily, but the experimenter was not successful with H. viridis and
either of the others.

Dactylometra.* — Prof. A. Agassiz and Mr. A. G. Mayer describe
this genus of Pelagidae. At the present time there are four genera of
this family known, and they may be distinguished as follows : —

Pelagia .. .. 8 tentacles .. 16 marginal lappets.

Chrysaora .... 24 „ .32 „

Dactylometra ..40 „ ..48 „

Melanaster ..24 „ ..48 „

Like other Peiagidse, Dactylometra has eight marginal sense-organs,
four in the primary, four in the secondary radii — modifications of ten-
tacles, as L. Agassiz showed. The mouth has four oral fringes or palps.
There are sixteen simple pockets round the stomach, eight leading out
into the sense-organs, eight others into the tentacles. The genital
products are contained in four radially situated infoldings of the oral
wall of the stomach, and their position is marked upon the oral floor of
the disc itself by four deeply sunken sub-genital pits. The genital
organs are further furnished with numerous gastric cirri, which project
inwards into the cavity of the stomach. The authors give a general
account of the structure and habits, and the illustrative plates are of
unusual excellence.

Keeping Medusae alive. | — Mr. E. T. Browne finds that the secret
of keeping Medusae alive in an aquarium is to have the water in motion,
so that the animals can float about just as they do in the sea, without
having constantly to pulsate the umbrella. The intervals of floating are
periods of rest. He succeeded by a simple device in keeping a glass
plate moving up and down, fairly slowly, inside a bell-jar. This
“plunger” arrangement, as he calls it, proved very effective. Thus, to
quote one result, three dozen unselected Medusae were placed in a bell-
jar holding about two gallons, and given a good supply of copepods.
They were left untouched for ten days, except that copepods were added
when the supply became low, and at the end of this period thirty-one
were alive, and more than half of them in excellent condition.

Cubomedusse.J — The late Dr. F. S. Conant, one of the victims of the
Jamaica expedition, had finished before his death a memoir on the
structure of the Cubomedusae, which has been published by his friends,
along with a short biographical notice.

The Cubomedusae are of more than passing interest among jelly-
fish, both because of their comparative rarity, and because of the high

* Ball. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxxii. (1898) pp. 1-11 (13 pis.).

t Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass., v. (1898) pp. 176-80 (1 fig.).

t Mem. Biol. Lab. Johns Hopkins Univ., iv. (189«) xvi. and 61 pp. (8 pis. and

1 fig.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

433

-degree of development attained by their nervous system. Thus there
is a cellular lens contained in a pigmented retinal cup, analogous to the
vertebrate structure.

The memoir contains a short account of the three families Cliaryb-
deidae, Chirodropidae, and Tripedalidae, and a detailed description of
the structure of Charybdea Xaymacana, with a particular account of the
vascular lamellae and the nervous system.

Some Medusae from Australia.* — Prof. A. Agassiz and Mr. A. G.

Mayer describe Desmonema rosea sp. n. and Crambessa mosaica Haeckel,
obtained on a recent visit to the Great Barrier Reef.

Actiniaria from East Spitzbergen-t — Dr. C. R. Kwietniewski de-
scribes Allantactis parasitica Danielssen, Chondr actinia digitata O. F.
Muller, Ch. nodosa Fabricius, Actinostola spetsbergensis Carlgr., A. waleri
sp. n., and Leiotealia spetsbergensis sp. n.

The discovery of the species of Leiotealia is interesting, since it has
hitherto been recorded only from the Antarctic, but there are other
■cases of equally wide range, e. g. Actinostola callosa , Actinauge verrillii
McMurrich, and A. fastigiata McMurrich. The author also notes the
occurrence of brood pouches in Arctic anemones, as Y errill first pointed
out. There are two modes : — in the one case the embryos develop in
the gastric cavity of the mother ; in the other case there is a special
cavity in the body-wall. The need for these pouches is perhaps to be
found in the limitations which the ice imposes on the superficial
Plankton.

Studies on Madreporaria.J— Mr. H. M. Bernard maintains that the
Madreporarian genus Alveopora agrees in all essentials of skeletal struc-
ture with the Palaeozoic Favosites , the little known Cretaceous genus
Koninckia helping to link them through the long interval of time.
The skeleton of Alveopora is at a very low level of development — like
a survival, — and is far away from that of the Poritidae with which the
genus is usually classed.

“ The Madreporarian skeleton may be described as the rigid secretion
of the basal portion of the columniform body of a polyp into which the
flexible upper portion may be invaginated. In its earliest developments
■a simple cup, it has become complicated in various ways : primarily, by
the development of radial infoldings of the stiff external wall, com-
parable with the infoldings of the chitinous cuticle of Arthropods ;
secondarily, (1) by further complications of these infoldings, so as to
form an intricate 4 internal ’ skeleton, which may render the primitive
external cup unnecessary, and hence lead to its becoming vestigial ; (2)
by a process of repeated sheddings of the external hard secretions, and
the formation of new ones across and among the 'existing 4 internal ’
skeletal structures (dissepiments and tabulae).” The growing soft parts
may also overflow the primitive rigid cup, and the bagging thus occa-
sioned may reach the substratum and widen the base, or may merely
hang down, secreting in so doing a folded rim to the cup (“ eutheca ”
of von Heider). Along the lines suggested by these conclusions, the

* Bull. Mus. Zool. Harvard, xxxii. (1898) pp. 15-9 (3 pis.).

f Zool. Jahrb., xi. (1898) pp. 121-40 (1 pi.).

% Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxvi. (1898) pp. 495-516 (1 pi.).

434

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

author looks forward to “the colossal task of redescribing and rear-
ranging the Madreporaria.”

Experiments on Ctenophore Eggs.* — Herr A. Fischel corroborates
the results of Chun, Driesch, and Morgan, and has made further experi-
ments on the eggs of Beroe ovata. From each of the isolated first two
blastomeres, a larva with four ciliated ridges arises. From an isolated
blastomere of the 4-cell stage, a larva with two ridges arises ; and from
a blastomere of the 8-cell stage, a larva with one ridge ! Each micro-
mere of the 16-cell stage represents a ridge.

Porifera.

Calcareous Sponges of Spitzbergen.t — Herr L. L. Breitfuss has
studied the collection of the Bremer expedition, and describes 10 species,
of which Leucosolenia nanseni, Sycetta asconoides, Ebnerella huhenthali ,
JE. schulzei, and Pericharax polejaevi are new. Of the 17 Calcarea
known to occur off Spitzbergen, 5 are cosmopolitan, 4 occur in the
Atlantic, 7 are local, and Amphoriscus glacialis is also known from
Greenland and the Russian Murman coast. No Antarctic occurrence
of any of these species is known.

Portuguese Calcarea.J — Herr L. L. Breitfuss describes 11 species
from the Portuguese coast, which has been but slightly investigated.
The total number known to occur is 15. The author’s studies revealed
two new species : — Leuconia coimbrse and L. prava.

Malayan and Chinese Sponges.§ — Herr Nils Gustaf Lindgren has
studied a collection of sponges from Java and the Chinese seas, and deals
in the present memoir with the Monaxonia and Tetractinellida. Of
these there were 54 species, 21 new.

Pacific Sponges.|| — Dr. J. Thiele begins by describing a collection
of Japanese Demospongiae, including many new species and several new
genera. So far the memoir is of purely systematic interest.

Position of Sponges. — Prof. Y. Delage^f discusses this difficult ques-
tion, and inclines to the view that Sponges stand alone in showing a
reversal of the normal direction of invagination. The endoderm comes
to the surface to form epidermis, wffiile the ectoderm is intruded to line
the digestive cavities. If so, the difference between Sponges and other
Metazoa may well be recorded in a term, and the words Enantioderma
and Enantiozoa are proposed.

Prof. E. Perrier** criticises Delage’s proposal to contrast Sponges,
under the name Enantioderma (ivavn'os, contrary), with other Metazoa.
Perrier does not object to Sponges being regarded as a distinct series,
having himself maintained this since 1881 ; he contends, however, that
a new name is superfluous, that it is difficult to admit that one zoological
group can be opposed to another, and that the so-called reversal of the

* Arch. Entwickinech., vi. (1897) pp. 109-30 (1 pi.). See Zool. Central!)]., v.
(1898) pp. 262-3. f Zool. Jahrb., xi. (1898) pp. 103-20 (2 pis.).

X Tom. cit., pp. 89-102 (1 pi.). § Tom. cit., pp. 283-378 (4 pis.).

|| Bibliotheca Zool. (Leuckart and Chun), Heft 24 (1898) pp. 1-72 (8 pis. and
1 fig.). Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1S98) pp. 545-8.

** Tom. cit., pp. 579-83; Ann. Nat. Hist., i. (1898) pp. 408-12.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

435

germinal layers is a misunderstanding. The primitive form of every
embryo (except in Arthropods) is a blastula, typically ciliated and
bipolar ; the more active anterior cells become freed from alimentary
reserves (which accumulate posteriorly), and multiply quickly ; there
are two alternatives : — that the blastula remains free or becomes fixed :
if it remains free the posterior region is necessarily invaginated by the
more rapid growth of the locomotor anterior region ; if it becomes fixed
(as in Sponges) the ciliated region is covered by the granular region.
But this is not reversal of layers.

Prof. Y. Delage * * * § answers Prof. E. Perrier’s criticisms, but main-
tains that there are only two alternatives. Either the direction of
invagination is normal, and the endoderm is disguised as ectoderm, and
reciprocally ; or the layers retain the histological characters which they
have elsewhere, and the direction of invagination has been reversed.

Germinal Layers in Oscarella.f — Dr. O. Maas describes the early
development of Oscarella and Halisarca, and concludes that this is no
special type, but that it shows a diploblastic larval stage, with granular
cells posteriorly, and flagellate cells anteriorly, — layers which corre-
spond to those in Sycandra , Ascones , siliceous, and horny sponges. The
author then proceeds to discuss the possible interpretations : — (a) if
we compare the sponge-layers with those in other Metazoa, and ( b )
if we do not. He refrains from any dogmatic conclusion ; but his
arguments must be considered along with those of Delage and Perrier
noticed above.

Protozoa.

Protozoa of the Balaton Lake.J — Herr E. France enumerates 191
Protozoa from the “ Balatonsee ” ; 24 Ehizopods, 13 Heliozoa, 90 Masti-
gophora, and 64 Infusoria, including several new forms. He thinks that
the distribution is affected not so much by climatic and meteorological
conditions as by the state of the water and the associated plants.

Modifications in Protozoa.§ — J. Kiinstler discusses the modifica-
tions resulting from change of environment, e.g. in a new habitat, but
his remarks are confined to generalities.

New Genus of Eoraminifera,|| — Mr. F. Chapman describes Had-
donia g. n. collected by Prof. A. C. Haddon in the Torres Straits. The
salient characters of the genus are stated in the following terms : — Test
calcareo-arenaceous, adherent, and sinuous ; the commencement some-
times straight, sometimes spiral. Chambers imperfectly septate or
openly labyrinthic. Shell-wall coarsely porous. Thirty-one distinct
specimens were attached to a piece of rock measuring about 5 by 4 in.
The specific name given is H. torresiensis, and the genus is referred to
the labyrinthic group of the sub-family Lituolinse.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 767-9.

t Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1898) pp. 665-79 (1 pi.).

X Resultate d. wiss. Erforschung d. Balatonsees. Bd. ii. Tlieil i. Die Fauna
des Balatonsees. 1897, pp. 1-64 (figs.). See Zool. Centralbl., v. (1898) pp. 322-3.

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 765-7.

|| Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxvi. (1898) pp. 452-6 (1 pi. and 1 fig.).

436

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

New Sporozoon from Limnodrilus.* — Herr Al. Mrazek describes
an interesting new parasite from Limnodrilus clapnredianus ft. One of
its most remarkable features is that the ectoplasm is thickly beset with
short processes like cilia, resembling those known to occur in Myxidium
Lieberhuhni and Chloromyxum leydigii. In many ways it suggests Sar-
cosporidia ; but these are hitherto known only in Vertebrate hosts,
and are always cell-parasites to start with, whereas the form under
discussion may occur floating freely in the body-cavity. The name
proposed is Myxocystis ciliata g. et sp. n.

* SB. Bohm. Ges., 1897, No. viii. 5 pp. (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

437

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Development of the Achromatic Nuclear-division Figure in Vege-
tative and Reproductive Tissues.* — Dr. B. Nemec insists on the im-
portance of the difference in the phenomena of division of the nucleus
exhibited by the vegetative and reproductive (sporogenous) tissues in the
higher plants, especially in connection with the uniformity of the phe-
nomena associated with the reproductive processes in animals and plants.
The (hypochromatic) reduction of chromatin characteristic of repro-
ductive cells occurs only in exceptional and pathological conditions of
vegetative cells. But the stage of the mother-cell nucleus known as
synapsis, in which the chromatin threads on one side of the nuclear space
(usually surrounding the nucleole) appear contracted on one side, is, in
the opinion of the author, not confined to reproductive cells. It occurs
occasionally in vegetative cells, where the development of the chromatin-
threads can be followed out to a form identical with the synapsis stage.

A further difference is exhibited in the development of the achro-
matic nuclear-division figure. In the vegetative cells (apex of the stem
and root of Equisetum ), the bipolar structure can be recognised from the
commencement of the division of the nucleus ; while in the formation of
the spore-mother-cells it is only a later and secondary phenomenon. In
the vegetative tissue of Allium the achromatic figures are also bipolar
from the first.

Multinucleated Vascular Elements in the Dioscoreacese.j — Sig. R.
Pirotta and Dr. L. Buscalioni describe the occurrence, which they believe
has not previously been noted, of vessels with a large number of nuclei
in the species of Dioscoreaceae examined — Tamus communis , and several
species of Dioscorea. The stem, the leaves, and the root, but not the
tubers, are distinguished by the presence, in the vascular bundles, of a
few vessels of a much larger size than the rest. These larger vessels
originate from rows of cells which are at first rectangular in longitudinal
section, but which soon greatly exceed the others in length by inter-
calary growth. At the same time the karyokinetic multiplication of the
nucleus commences, and proceeds with such rapidity that the nuclei in a
single cell may amount to one hundred. As in other similar cases, all
the nuclei in one cell divide simultaneously. The ordinary process of
karyokinesis is naturally somewhat modified by taking place at the same
time in so many nuclei crowded into a small space. It is only after this
that true vessels are formed by the coalescence of the cells.

Protoplasm and Active Albumen.J — Prof. 0. Loew defends his
previous conclusions against unfavourable criticism by Pfeffer in his

* Bot. Central bl., lxxiv. (1898) pp. 1-4 (8 figs.). Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 316.

f Atti R. Accad. Lincei, vii. (1898) pp. 141-5.

X Bot. Centralbl., lxxiv. (1898) pp. 5-13.

438

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

‘ Handbuch der Pflanzenphysiologie,’ and sums up the evidence in
favour of the view, advanced by Bokorny and himself, of the distinction
between passive and active albumen. Active albumen coagulates in all
those conditions in which protoplasm dies.

(2) Other Cell-Contents (including- Secretions).

Chlorophyll and its Derivatives.* * * § — Herr F. G. Kohl communicates
a number of fresh observations on the absorption-spectra of the various
constituents of chlorophyll. Among other points he considers it as
established that phylloxanthin cannot be a derivative of chlorophyll.

Calcium Malate and Malophosphate in Plants.f — M. M. Mirande
states that although malic acid occurs most commonly in plants in the
free state, C4H605, it is also met with in combination with calcium as
neutral calcium malate (C4H505)2Ca, or as calcium malophosphate. It
was studied especially in Nolana yaradoxa , from which it can be pre-
cipitated by the action of alcohol in the form of sphero-crystals of
neutral calcium malate, of the orthorhombic type ; and as two forms of
calcium malophosphate, the one consisting of sphero-crystals of needles,
with excess of phosphoric acid, the other in the form of orthorhombic
prisms, in which malic acid predominates. The quantity of malophos-
phate generally exceeds that of malate.

Gum of Canna.J — According to M. L. Lutz, the gum of Canna is
formed in a lysigenous, and not in a schizogenous manner, as might be
supposed from a cursory examination. It forms in a thick layer in the
interior of the cell, and, gradually condensing, forces the cytoplasm and
its contents into the centre. The protoplasm and the thickened mem-
brane surrounding it finally blend into a mucilaginous mass.

Gum in Elm-galls.§ — Sig. N. Passerini finds, in galls on TJlmus cam-
jpestris, produced by the attacks of an aphis, Schizoneura ulmi , a gum
differing in its properties from other gums — arabin, cerasin, &c. — and
from mucilage, dextrin, and other carbohydrates found in vegetable
tissues. The solid portion consists chiefly of a gummy substance pre-
cipitated by alcohol, the precipitate being amorphous, yellowish, tasteless,
very soluble in water, presenting the appearance of gum arabic, but
differing from that substance in several properties. It is strongly
dextrogyrous, and has an energetic reducing effect on cupric salts.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Central Cylinder of Vascular Plants.|| — According to Mr. E. C.
Jeffrey, there are three main types of fibro- vascular arrangement in plant
axes, viz. (1) a single so-called concentric aggregation ; (2) several such
aggregations, commonly but not always grouped in a circle ; (3) a ring
of so-called collateral or bicollateral bundles. The author points out
the primitive development of the tubular arrangement, which occurs in
many Pteridophyta and Equisetaceee. In the latter family the primitive

* Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii. (1898) pp. 417-26 (1 fig.).

t Journ. de Bot. (Morot), xii. (1898) pp. 6-12, 32-42, 58-60 (6 figs.).

% Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 280-1.

§ Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 189S, pp. 70-1.

|| Rep. Brit. Ass. Toronto, 1897 (1898) pp. 869-70.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

439

stelar arrangement is a closed tube with external and internal endoderm,
but no internal phloem.

Origin of the Vascular Elements in the Growing Point of the
Root of Monocotyledons.* — Sig. R. Pirotta and Dr. L. Buscalioni point
out that in the root of Monocotyledons the plerome is always well differ-
entiated from the other elements of the growing point, and gives birth to
the central cylinder of the root and to the ground tissue, which becomes
differentiated into peripheral pericambium and central parenchyme.
Within the mass of ground tissue stand the vascular elements, either
isolated or united into groups or series, generally simple sieve- and
vascular bundles, arranged in a circle towards the periphery of the
central cylinder. These vascular elements always originate directly
from the differentiation of one or more cells of the meristem of the ple-
rome, thus constituting another important histological difference between
Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.

Vascular Bundles in the Receptacle of the Labiatse.t — M. L. Vidal
has studied the course of the fibrovascular bundles in the receptacle of
Lamium maculatum. The position of the abortive posterior stamen is
clearly marked in the vascular plane of the flower, and may be repre-
sented by a phloem-bundle. The vascular system of the carpels is
perfectly symmetrical in reference to the median plane of the flower. It
is composed, for each carpel, of a median bundle proceeding from two
primitive bundles situated right and left of the median plane, either in
the cauline vascular ring ( Lamium ), or in the pith ( Phlomis ), and of two
placental bundles, each of which is from the first fused with its homo-
logue of the other carpel and with that of a lateral stamen.

Formation of Sieve-Tubes in the Roots of Monocotyledons.^ — From
observations on a large number of species of Monocotyledons, M. G.
Chauveaud arrives at the following general conclusions : — In all the
examples studied, primary sieve-tubes are formed, which may be re-
placed by others, or may themselves persist. These first sieve-tubes are
formed by the septation of a mother-cell, which gives rise to the sieve-
tube and to its sister-cell. The sieve- tube is lozenge-shaped (Gramineae,
Oyperaceaa, &c.) or pentagonal ( Naias , Potamogeton , Vallisneria, &c.),
according to the inclination of this septum to the plane passing through
the axis of the sieve-tube. When the first sieve-tube is replaced by
others, these latter are usually formed directly at the expense of those
previously existing. There may be only one of these directly formed
sieve-tubes ( Avena , Triticum , &c.), or there maybe several. In this case
either all the cells composing the phloem-island develop into sieve-tubes
<( Zea Mays, Scilla italica, Narcissus poeticus, &c.) ; or a certain number
only, the remainder persisting in the state of jdiloem-cells ( Anthurium
crystallinum, Monstera deliciosa , &c.). When the primary sieve-tubes are
not supplanted by others, either the phloem-bundle is reduced to this
primary sieve-tube and to three or four cells adjacent to it (Juncus
balticus, Pontederia cordata , Hydrocharis morsus-ranse ), or to the primary
•sieve-tube and its sister-cell (Naias, Potamogeton, Vallisneria').

* Atti R. Accad. Lincei, vii. (1898) pp. 60-2.

t Journ. de Bot. (Morot), xii. (1898) pp. 46-52.

x Ann. Sci. Nat. (But.), iv. (1897) pp. 307-81 (6 pie.).

440

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

In another article * * * § M. Chauveaud reviews the various theories that
have prevailed with regard to the function of sieve-tubes, and sums up
in favour of the view that their primary function is that of the transport
of food-material.

Laticiferous Tubes and Sieve-Tubes of Cuscuta.f — The laticiferous
tubes and sieve-tubes of the monogynous species of Cuscuta have been
made a subject of study by M. M. Mirande, Cuscuta monogyna and
japonica having been the species especially examined. The laticiferous
tubes are situated in the cortical parenchyme and in the pericycle, and
are never connected by anastomoses. Those in the cortex are long
superposed cells ; those of the pericycle occupy the whole length of the
internodes, and have thickened walls. They contain oily matters,
tannin, and a resinous substance. The sieve-tubes are remarkable from
the diversity of their structure, and from their large size. The transverse
walls are horizontal or oblique, and are sieve-plates ; the longitudinal
walls also containing sieve-plates or punctations of various sizes, or both.
The sieve-tubes (in C. japonica) do not contain starch, but an amylaceous
substance stained red by iodine.

Mucilage-Cells of the Malvacese4 — Dr. A. Nestler describes the
mucilage-cells in the leaves of various species of Malvaceae, which he
regards as organs for the absorption and retention of water. They are
epidermal cells, the cuticle of which projects into the interior of the cell
in the form of a conical or funnel-shaped mass, giving the cuticle the
appearance from the outside of being perforated. The nucleus is
situated near the mouth of the funnel. It is the inner and lateral walls
of these cells which become converted into mucilage. The author finds
hsematoxylin (Bohmer’s) to be the best reagent for demonstrating the
mucilage-cells, imparting to them a deep blue colour.

Mucilage-Cells of Qpuntia.§ — Sig. Longo has made a study of the
mucilage- cells in Opuntia, and states that they are distributed through
the fundamental parenchyme of all parts of the plant. The mucilage
does not result from a transformation of the cell-wall, but is a direct
product of the cell-protoplasm. Their function is that of a water-tissue.
Cells containing crystals occur in the branches and fruit of Platopuntia ,
but are absent from Cylindropuniia.

C4) Structure of Org-ans.

Flower of Deherainia.|| — Dr. G. Fatta has made a study of the
flowers of DeJierainia smaragdina , a shrub belonging to the MyrsineaB,
from Mexico. The flowers remain expanded for a period reaching to
20 days, and are strongly proterandrous, the pollination being effected
by carrion flies. The petals remain green and coriaceous during the
whole time of flowering, and apparently take no part in assisting polli-
nation. They contain chlorophyll, but this chlorophyll appears to have
entirely lost its power of forming starch and of 'assimilating. On the

* Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), ix. (1897) pp. 427-30.

f Journ. de Bot. (Morot), xii. (1898) pp. 70-90 (8 figs.),

j Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlviii. (1898) pp. 94-9 (1 pi.).

§ Ann. R. 1st. Bot. Roma, vii. pp. 44-57 (1 pi.). See Amer. Naturalist, xxxii.
(1898) p. 214. || Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., v. (1898) pp. 145-57 (1 pi.)-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

441

contrary, the green petals absorb oxygen and give off carbonic acid. The
author inclines to support Pringsheim’s theory of the protective function
of chlorophyll.

Epiphyllous Flowers of Chirita hamosa.* — Herr C. E. Boldt has
studied the peculiar phenomenon in this plant, belonging to the Cyrtan-
drese, and concludes that it results from the complete coalescence of a
compound inflorescence with the tissue of the leaf. The similar epi-
phyllous inflorescence of Streptocarpus and other genera of Cyrtandreae is
certainly axillary and not adventitious.

Pistil and Fruit of the Caprifoliacese.f — M. L. Vidal describes in
detail the difference of the structure of the pistil and the fruit in the
two tribes of this order, the Sambuceae and the Lonicereae. In the
Sambuceae the ovary is only partially inferior, the style is short, with a,
large canal, the stigma is lobed, and the fruit a drupe. In the Lonicereaa
the ovary is completely inferior, the style long, and the canal obliterated,
the stigma entire, or nearly so, the fruit a berry, capsule, or drupe. He
further proposes the division of the Sambuceae into two groups, the
Eusambuceae ( Sambucus , Adoxa), and the Viburneae ( Viburnum ), which
presents an approach to the Lonicereae ; also of the Lonicereae into two
groups, the Eulonicereae, in which the fruit is a berry, or a capsule
with multiovular loculi, and the Linnaeeae, in which the fruit is a drupe,
either uniovular or multiovular.

Dichroism in Plants.^ — Prof. F. Delpino records a number of
examples of a variation of colour in the same species unaccompanied by
any anatomical difference : — Euphorbia Peplis, stem and leaves red or
yellow ; Anagallis arvensis , flower scarlet (var. phoenicea ) or blue (var.
coerulea ) ; a similar variation in A. collina ; in the colour of the flower
in Orchis provincialis (Liguria), 0. sambucina, Erica arborea (Tuscany),
and Thalictrum a quilegi folium ; Solatium nigrum , berries black or yellow
( S . miniatum ), &c. In some cases the difference is probably connected
with the piomotion of cross-pollination.

Adaptation of Land-Plants to existence in Water. § — Dr. R. Keller
describes the changes in external habit, and in the structure of its tissues,
undergone by Myosotis palustris when growing submerged in water. The
lower stem-nodes produce roots, the lowermost of which branch, but there
are no root-hairs ; the stem becomes nearly round ; the leaves are
narrower and thinner. This is accompanied by differences also in the
anatomical structure : — the conducting system is reduced ; the epiderm
and cuticle are reduced in thickness.

Extra-Floral Nectaries. || — Herr V. A. Poulsen describes several
fresh examples of these structures from Java. In Excoecaria biglandu-
losa there are on the leaf-stalks two conical projections, hypodermal

* Yidensk. Mecld. Naturhist. Foren. Kjobenhavn, 1897 (10 figs.). See Bot. Cen-
tralbl., lxxiv. (1898) p. 128.

t Ann. Univ. Grenoble, 1897, 19 pp. and 3 figs. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xliv.
(1898) p. 522.

X Bend. B. Accad. Sci. Napoli, 1897, 6 pp. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxiv. (1898)
p. 51. § Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 241-5 (6 figs.).

||| Yidensk. Medd. Naturhist. Foren. Kjobenhavn, 1S97, pp. 356-71 (3 pis.). See
Eot. Centralbl., lxxiii. (1898) p. 454.

442

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

emergences, from which a fluid is excreted. Fagrsea littoralis has a
number of light-coloured spots on the leaf, consisting of a solid small-
celled tissue, which excretes a sweet fluid through a pore. Vaccinium
Teysmanni has extra-floral nectaries at the point of junction of the petiole
with the lamina. In Shorea stenoptera there are on both sides of the
leaves spots which exude nectar.

Leaf and Stem.* — Herr H. Potonie traces back all the organs of the
higher plants to a single morphological fundamental organ, a forking
thallose structure. The leaves of the higher plants have, in the course
of generations, sprung from portions of a thallus, the forked branch being
outgrown, and the lateral branches becoming leaves.

Assimilating Organs of the Asparagege.f — Herr J. Reinke describes
in detail the structure of the assimilating organs in the various genera
of the Asparageas — Asparagus , Buscus , Danae , Semele — in all of which
the leaves are either greatly reduced, or are replaced by cladodes. The
form of the leaves on seedling plants of Semele androgyna and Danae
racemosa renders it probable that these genera and Buscus are most
nearly allied to Cordyline among Liliacese, while Asparagus is more
probably descended from the Convallariese. Whether the development
of cladodes in the Asparageae rendered the leaves superfluous, or whether
they made their appearance to compensate the reduction in the leaf-
surface, we have no evidence.

Floating Leaves.* — Herr E. Wollenweber notes the following pe-
culiarities of floating leaves. The margin is almost always entire.
The growth of the petiole or of the leaf-bearing stem is regulated by the
depth of the water. The epiderm has a thick cuticle, furnished with a
coating of wax. The assimilating tissue always consists of a well-
developed palisade-parenchyme ; there is no spongy parenchyme, the
system of air-chambers being located in the lower part of the lamina.
W ith very few exceptions, stomates are wanting on submerged leaves *,
in floating leaves they occur almost exclusively on the upper surface.
The stomates are very rarely depressed ; the pore forms a kind of
funnel to the air-cavity, a contrivance probably for preventing the
capillary stoppage of the stomate by water. The author classifies float-
ing plants under various groups, according as submerged leaves or aerial
leaves are occasionally developed in addition to the floating leaves.

Lodicules of Grasses.§ — Dr. W. W. Rowlee argues that the lodicules
of grasses correspond to a reduced perianth. The three lodicules in the
flower of Arundinaria alternate on the axis with the stamens, and may
therefore be considered the inner whorl or petals. The stamens are
directly opposite the midribs of the carpels, and indicate that the inner
whorl of stamens, present in some bamboos, is suppressed in Arundi-
naria.

Chimney-shaped Stomates. || — On Holacantha Emory i, a prickly leaf-
less shrub, native of the arid regions of Southern Arizona, Prof. C. E.

* SB. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1897, pp. 183-91.

t Jalirb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeifer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1898) pp. 207-72 (26 figs.).

t Yergleich. Anat. d. Scliwimmblatter, Bonn, 1897, 319 pp. See Bot. Centralbl.,
Ixxiv. (1898) p. 184. § Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 199-203 (2 figs.).

|| Rep. Brit. Ass. Toronto, 1897 (1898) p. 861.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

443

Bessey finds stomates of peculiar form. The epiderm is of extraordinary
thickness, and the stomates have long narrow chimney-shaped openings
above them, terminating in hollow papillae which project some distance
above the surface.

Pyrola aphylla.* * * § — Mr. T. Holm has made a detailed study of the
structure of this plant, and asserts, in opposition to the statement of
previous observers, that it is not leafless, and is neither a parasite nor a
saprophyte. It produces underground shoots, after the manner of other
species of the genus, which bear rosettes of leaves at their apex, of quite
a normal structure, with chlorophyll tissue. The root has no haustoria.
The plant possesses a remarkable facility of propagating itself by means
of axillary buds developed on the underground stems, and of adven-
titious buds produced on the roots.

j8. PhysiologT.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Embryology of Composite, j — Mdlle. M. Goldflus finds that, in the
species of Compositee examined, the antipodals play an important part
in the early stages of the maturing of the fertilised ovule. They become
superposed, and frequently multiply by division. They remain in com-
munication with the base of the embryo-sac by an axial row of elongated
cells which performs the function of a pseudo-chalaza connecting the
termination of the periovular bundles with the antipodal conducting
apparatus. Their position, structure, and contents show that they
perform an active part in the digestion of the pseudo-nucellus (the inte-
rior portion of the integument), similar to that of the epithelial cells.
This interior layer of cells of the integument can no longer be regarded
as a protective layer.

In some genera (Aster, Chrysanthemum, Leucanthemum) the terminal
antipodal is swollen to a club-shaped form, a kind of pseudopode which
projects into the tissues of the ovule. The size of the embryo-sac in
proportion to that of the ovule varies greatly, as also does the structure
of the digestive epithelial layer. In Helianthus the antipodals are of
remarkable size, exceeding that of the remainder of the embryo-sac
before impregnation, and even during the early stages of the development
of the ovule. The antipodals are more cyanophilous than the epithelial
cells, whilst the rest of the active cells of the embryo-sac are erythro-
philous.

Development of the Embryo in Lilaea subulata.J — Prof. D. H.
Campbell finds the development of the embryo in this plant to corre-
spond with that which occurs in other lowly organised Monocotyledons. §
The sporogenous tissue of the stamen is not hypodermal in its origin,
but arises from the plerome, as in Naias and Zannichellia. The ripe
pollen-spore has two cells ; the generative nucleus remains undivided in
the ripe spore. The archespore of the ovule is hypodermal, and a tape-
tal cell is cut off from it. The primary sporogenous cell of the ovule

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 246-54 (1 p].).

t Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., v. (1898) pp. 390-2.

% Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 1-28 (3 pis.).

§ Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 322.

2 H

1898

444

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

divides usually into three, of which the middle one becomes the embryo-
sac. The embryo-sac usually develops in the manner typical of Angio-
sperms, but there may be a suppression of a normal egg-apparatus, and a
formation of cellular tissue in the upper part of the embryo-sac before
fertilisation. This is probably accompanied by an increase in the number
of nuclei. The first division of the embryo is the typical one into two
cells, a basal suspensor cell which remains permanently undivided, and a
terminal embryo-cell. The cotyledon is derived entirely from the ter-
minal one of the primary segments into which the embryo-cell first divides.
The stem probably always originates from the second embryonal segment ;
its position is strongly lateral. The root is of lateral origin, differing
in this respect from other Monocotyledons which have been studied.

Polyembryony in Opuntia.* * * § — Mr. W. F. Ganong describes the pro-
cess of the formation of numerous embryos in Opuntia vulgaris. The
embryos originate within the embryo-sac ; in half-ripe seeds there is
frequently one springing from the micropylar end, and several from the
walls. A careful examination shows that in both cases the embryos
arise from the nucellus, When the pollen-tube reaches the micropylar
region of the nucellus, no oosphere can be detected. It probably disap-
pears early in the development of the ovule. Both the micropylar and
the parietal embryos result from the budding of cells of the nucellus
near the pollen-tube which are rich in protoplasm. In the course of its
development the ovule assumes a campylotropous form, and becomes
completely surrounded by the funicle.

Centrosome-like Body in the Pollen-tube of Cycadese.f — Referring
to the “ centrosome-like bodies ” found by Webber in the pollen-tube of
Zamia, and the “ rounded nuclei ” observed by Belajeff in the sperma-
togenous cells of Characem, Filicinese, and Equisetaceae, Prof. S. Ikeno
comes to the conclusion, based on a comparison with similar structures
in the animal kingdom, that the organs in question are true centrosomes
which have become enormously distended, and serve as a surface of
attachment for the cilia.

Cross-Pollination and Self-Pollination. — Herr 0. Ekstam J names
the insect visitors of a number of species, natives of Nova Zembla,
together with the relative time of maturity of the stamens and stigma.

Dr. P. Knuth § describes the contrivances for attracting insects in
Leucojum vernum and Galanthus nivalis. In both plants, all the parts
of the perianth, receptacle, and style which are not green contain
honey.

From observations and experiments on American species of Eupa -
torium, Dr. Laura B. Cross || concludes that self-pollination is very rare ;
and even when it does occur, the resulting fruits are of weak germinat-
ing capacity. When cross-pollination by hand is effected, a slight
increase is obtained in the production of good fruits ; but when covered

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 221-8 (1 pi.).

t Flora, lxxxv. (1898) pp. 15-8. Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 99.

X Aftr. Tromso Mus. Arsk., xviii. (1897) pp. 109-98. See Bot. Centralbl.,
lxxiii. (1898) p. 14.

§ Bot. Centralbl., Ixxiv. (1898) pp. 161-5 (1 fig.).

II Contrib. Bot. Lab. Univ. Pennsylvania, i. (1897) pp. 260-9 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

445

flowers are cross-pollinated, the increase is very striking, and decidedly
points to the conclusion that insect-visits are the main agency for
pollination in winter.

Mr. C. Robertson’s * * * § most recent contribution to the literature of
this subject comprises an account of the mode of pollination, and the
insect visitors in species of Adsea, Lespedeza (Leguminosse), Cornus ,
Viburnum, Lonicera (in which one species L. sempervirens is pollinated
by birds), and Helianihus.

Experiments on Hybridising.-)- — Mr. W. Saunders gives an account
of the results achieved by experiments conducted by him during the
past 25 years, in the “ cross-fertilising ” of plants, trees, and shrubs.
Among the more interesting hybrids produced were the following : —
One between the black currant as male and the gooseberry as female.
A cross was obtained between a form of the wild grape Vitis cor difolia
and a variety of V. vinifera. A number .of varieties of dark purple
raspberries were produced between the black-cap raspberry Bubus occi-
dentalis and the red raspberry B. strigosus. Pyrus baccata was also
fertilised by a Russian apple, and Primus pumila by P. americana. A
striking hybrid was obtained between Berberis Thunbergii and B. vulgaris
purpurea . A number of promising new varieties of wheat were also
obtained.

Hybridisation of Willows.J — Mr. E. T. Linton has succeeded in
producing, by artificial pollination, hybrid willows, apparently entirely
resembling forms which occur in nature. The different species of Salix
present, however, very different capacities for hybridisation ; some cross
with great readiness; others with reluctance; others again obstinately
refuse to enter into any alliance at all.

Hybrid between Lychnis diurna and L. vespertina.§ — M. F.
Gagnepain has obtained artificially hybrids between these two nearly
allied species, — both between L. diurna £ and L. vespertina 9 > and
between L. vespertina and L. diurna 9 > and gives details of the
characters in which they combine the structure of the male and of the
female parent. Subsequently he found both these hybrids growing
wild, produced by the agency of insect-pollination.

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Action of the Rontgen Rays on the Protoplasm of the Living
Cell. || — According to Sig. G. Lopriore, the X-rays exercise an ac-
celerating influence on the current of protoplasm in the cells of Val
lisneria spiralis ; but this influence does not last long, and, if con-
tinued for a longer period, the effect is injurious. The action of the
rays completely suspends the germination of pollen-grains.

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 229-45.

f Rep. Brit. Ass. Toronto, 1897 (1898) pp. 867-8.

% Journ. of Bot., xxxvi. (1898) pp. 122-4.

§ Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlii. (1896) pp. 129-39; xliv. (1898) pp. 441-9.

|| Nuova Rassegna, Catania, 1897, See Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii. (1898) p. 451.

2 h 2

446

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Nitrogenous Nutrition of Plants.* * * § — According to M. L. Lutz,
flowering plants can derive the nitrogen necessary for their nutrition
from amines without the previous transformation of these substances
into ammoniacal salts or nitrates. The elimination of nitrogen takes
place in the gaseous state.

Germination of Seeds.f — From a series of experiments, made chiefly
on peas, M. F. Y. Jodin concludes that the first stages of germination,
resulting in the production of a rootlet 2-3 times the diameter of the
seed, can take place without the intervention of an appreciable amount
of oxygen. Subsequently oxygen is necessary, and this must be sup-
plied in the uncombined state ; it is not available in the form either
of nitrate or of hydrogen peroxide. Any reduction of nitrates which
takes place during germination must be due to the action of microbes.

Influence of Electricity on Germination.J — Further researches on
this subject by Sig. G. Tolomei lead him to the conclusion that there is
no difference in their absorbing power for water of seeds subjected to
an electric current and of those not so treated. It does, however, some-
what accelerate the process.

Germination of the Seeds of Aquatic Plants.§ — According to a
series of experiments made by Dr. H. B. Guppy, the germination of
seeds may, in the case of many aquatic plants, be deferred to the third,
fourth, or fifth year. The seeds of the water-lilies decay rapidly when
dried, but retain their vitality if kept moist. Immersion in sea-water
favours, rather than retards, their germination. In the case of the
majority of aquatic plants, darkness has a decidedly repressive effect
on their germination ; in other cases it is indifferent ; while seeds of
Potamogeton natans germinated more freely in the dark.

Germination of Lathrsea. || — Herr E. Heinricher finds the phenomeua
of germination in Lathrsea clandcstina to be repeated also in L. squa-
maria. The first pair of leaves which succeeds the cotyledons possesses
the hollow cavities characteristic of the rhizome-scales of Lathrsea .
They are wanting in the cotyledons.

Effects of Water at Different Temperatures on the Germination of
the 01ive.1T — According to Sig. N. Passerini, seeds of the olive which
have been immersed for 10 minutes in water at from 40°-50° C. ger-
minate more rapidly than those not so treated ; immersion in water at
60°-70° increases the proportion that germinate ; while a temperature
of 90° destroys their power of germinating. Under ordinary circum-
stances it is common for not more than 20 per cent, of olive-seeds to
germinate.

Functions of Stomates.** — From a comparative examination of the
structure of stomates in terrestrial aerial, and aquatic plants, Prof. C. E.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1227-9.

t Ann. Agron., xxviii. (1S97) pp. 433-71. See Joura. Chem. Soc., 1898, Abstr.
p. 129.

% Atti R. Accad. Lincei, vii. (1898) pp. 177-83. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 142.

§ Proc. R. Pliys. Soc. Edinburgh, 1S97, pp. 344-59.

1| Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 2-5 (1 fig.). Cf. this Journal, 1895,
p. 335. U Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., 1898, pp. 71-3.

** Rep. Brit. Ass. Toronto, 1897 (189S) pp. 861-2.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

447

Bessey concludes that the normal function of stomates is respiration,
and that the loss of water through them is incidental and secondary.* * * §

Transpiration in a Moist Tropical Climate.*— Replying to the
criticisms of Stahl, Burgersiein, and Giltay,j" on his conclusions on this
subject, Herr G. Haberlandt adduces the result of fresh experiments
in support of his previous contention that in a moist tropical climate
the amount of transpiration is considerably less than in the climate of
Central Europe. Saturation of the air with moisture greatly diminishes
transpiration, even in direct sunlight.

(3) Irritability.

Movements of the Sensitive Plant in Water.f — M. G. Bonnier has
■observed the following phenomena in plants of Mimosa pudica developed
entirely under water : — They continue to display the alternate move-
ments of sleep and waking, and those of irritation, but the waking
period is longer than in the case of plants under normal conditions.
The extent of these movements is less, and they are transmitted less
rapidly. They present no important modification in their tissues, except
in the development of the vascular bundles, in the size of the vessels,
and in the development of the motor cushions, all of which are greatly
reduced. These facts confirm the view that the organs which play the
greatest part both in producing and in transmitting the movements of
the sensitive plant are the vascular bundles.

Sensitive Cushions of Phaseolus and Oxalis.§— From experiments
on Phaseolus multiflorus and on several species of Oxalis , Prof. S.
-Schwendener is able to affirm the existence of the same phenomena in
the sensitive cushions of these genera as in those of Mimosa , viz. that
the upper and lower halves of the cushions react in opposite ways
towards changes in the light. Darkness causes an increase of turgor in
ihe upper, a decrease in the lower half of the cushion.

Relationship of Secondary Roots to the Vertical. |] — From observa-
tions on the seedlings of various plants — Phaseolus multiflorus , Pisum
sativum , Vicia Faba, Lupinus luteus, Cucurbita Pepo — Herr A. Schober
confirms the statement of Czapek that secondary roots do not, as a rule,
retain their vertical direction of growth ; but he does not regard this as
a tendency towards an upward growth ; it is simply a curvature from
the vertical.

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation). :

Ripening of Fleshy Fruits.^]" — M. C. Gerber discusses in great detail
the chemical changes which take place in the maturing of fleshy fruits.
At certain phases of their development they disengage a volume of

* Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1S97) pp. 273-88. Cf. this
Journal, 1897, p. 312.

t Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 556.

j Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1001-7.

§ SB. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1898, pp. 176-81 (1 pi.) Cf. this journal,
1897, p. 558. ]| Bot. Ztg., lvi. (1898) lta Abt., pp. 1-8 (1 pi.).

5 Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), iv. (1897) pp. 1-280 (2 pis.).

448

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

carbon dioxide greater than the volume of oxygen absorbed in the same
time; in other words, the respiratory quotient is higher than unity.
This respiratory quotient has a different origin, and pursues a different
course, according to the degree of ripeness of the fruit, and its chemical
constitution. Two kinds of respiratory quotient higher than unity may
be distinguished, one due to the presence of acids, the other to fermen-
tation. The acid quotient occurs whenever fruits which contain an acid
— citric, malic, tartaric, &c. — are exposed to a high temperature; for
fruits containing citric or tartaric acid, about 30° Q. ; for those containing
malic acid, about 15°. The fermenting quotient is jDroduced whenever
the oxygen of the air does not reach the cells in sufficient quantity to
furnish the energy necessary for vital activity. This deficiency of
oxygen is due to the production of pectin. The fermenting quotient
differs from that of acids in the period at which it appears; in the
lower temperature at which it is manifested ; in its higher value (often
above 3) ; and in the corresponding intensity of respiration.

Among the chemical changes which take place in the ripening of
fleshy fruits are the following : — The acids are partially used up in the
production of carbohydrates. The tannin disappears by complete oxida-
tion without forming carbohydrates ; the starch is transformed into
sugars, which are partially oxidised.

Formation of Wood from Reserve-Material.* — Herr A. Wieler
attributes the nourishment of the cambium in woody plants to three
factors, — the supply of water, of mineral substances, and of organic sub-
stances. Treating especially of the third of these sources, as the result
of observations on a number of different trees, he comes to the conclusion
that the spring-wood is essentially a product of the reserve-substances
in the stem, the breadth of the zone being proportional to the amount
of these substances stored up.

Formation of Cane-Sugar out of Dextrose.* — From observations
made on a material composed of a very large number (2000) of embryos
of barley, Herr J. Griiss asserts that, in the process of germination,
cane-sugar is formed in the cell out of dextrose ; cellulose and starch
out of cane-sugar. In the formation of starch and cellulose, no substance
belonging to the group of aldehyds is set free in the molecules of sugar.

Yeast and Alcoholic Fermentation.^ — After a historical survey of
the different views which have -prevailed regarding the nature of fer-
mentation, Prof. J. R. Green thus concludes an admirable and succinct
article. The great advances made in the study of fermentation under
the action of soluble enzymes has drawn attention to the possibility of
the secretion of an alcohol-producing enzyme by the yeast-cell. The
idea of an enzyme does not necessarily involve a new view as to the
nature of fermentation ; the secreted enzyme is merely substituted for
the protoplasm of the cell as the active agent in the process. This idea
is not new, having been advanced by Berthelot, Moritz Traube, and
Hoppe-Seyler.

The enzyme has been prepared by Buchner, § and this discovery

* Tharander forstl. Jahrb., xlvii. 76 pp. and 4 pis. See Bot. Ztg., lvi. 2te Abtli.,
p. 39. t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 17-20.

X Nature, lvii. (1898) pp. 591-4.

§ Cf. this Journal, 1897, pp. 222 and 4 14.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

449

deals a heavy blow to the vibration theories of Liebig and Naegeli.
Their views are only tenable on the theory that most, if not all, of tho
action takes place in the liquid outside the cells. But if the work be
done by an enzyme, it must necessarily be intracellular ; for enzymes
show no tendency to diffuse through such a membrane as the cell-wall.
It also militates against Pasteur’s theory of intramolecular respiration,
which demands the idea of the decomposition being brought about by
chemical action between the protoplasm and the body from which it
obtains its oxygen.

Formation of Holes in Emmenthal Cheese * * * § — According to Herr
0. Jensen, the normal holes in Emmenthal cheese are not formed by
special agents, by yeasts or by anaerobic bacteria, but by the normal
agents of cheese ripening, among which must be considered the lactic
acid ferments. The gases to which the normal holes are due are not
formed at the expense of the milk-sugar, but at that of the nitrogenous
substances. The lactic acid ferments of cheese may under certain con-
ditions form traces of C02 from nitrogenous substances ; and these traces
of C09 are the cause of the normal hole formation in Emmenthal cheese.

B. CBYPTOGAMIA,

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Leaves of Selaginella. f — M. F. Cornaille describes the structure and
arrangement of the leaves in 24 species of Selaginella , reviewing the
classification proposed by Harvey Gibson. Starting from an ideal group,
comprising nearly or quite glabrous species, destitute of fibres, without
cuticular ornamentations, and with the epidermal cells not palisade-like,
all the species may be arranged in two parallel series, glabrous and
hairy. In each of these series secondary groups are established, de-
pendent on the form of the epidermal cells, the presence or absence of
palisade tissue, and of epidermal fibres more or less ornamented.

Selaginella spinulosa.J — According to Herr H. Bruchmann, this
species differs in several important points from the rest of the genus.
The primary hypocotyledonary shoot remains for a time in the condition
of an erect filiform basal member of the plant ; the roots springing from
its base only, and not, as in other creeping species, from the forks of the
stem. They owe their origin to a peculiar persistent cushion of meri-
stem. The primary shoot at first branches dichotomously, but the
apices of the system soon pass into the condition of fertile spikes ; each
then produces two lateral shoots, and acquires a sympodial character.
The stem never has a single apical cell ; the apex consists of a uniform
meristem not differentiated into layers ; and this is true also of the apex
of the root.

Ferns of Multiple Parentage.— Mr. E. J. Lowe § records the results
of experiments on crossing Asplenium Trichomanes with both A. marinum

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 217-22, 205-75, 325-31.

t CR. Soc. R. Bot. Belgique, xxxvi.(1898) pp. 100-18 (3 pis.). Cf. this Journal,
1897, p. 223.

X ‘ Unters. iib. Selaginella spinulosa,’ Gotha, 1897, 61 pp. and 3 pis. See Bot. Ztg.,
lvi. (1898) 2te Abth., p. 109.

§ Rep. Brit. Ass. Toronto, 1897 (1898) pp. 866-7.

450

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and Athyrium filix-femina. The resulting hybrid partook more of the
character of the latter than of the former male parent, and was abund-
antly fertile.

In another j)aper * the same author notes the development of more
than one sporophyte from a prothallus in the cases of an Athyrium and a
Scolopendrium.

Pits in the Cyatheaceae and Marattiaceae.j — From an examination
of the pits (Staubgriibchen) in the stem and leaf-stalk of various species
in these two orders of Filices, Herr E. Hannig comes to the following
conclusions. The stem- and leaf-pits of the Cyatheaceae are, in their
structure and development, equivalent organs. They act for a time as
pneumathodes, but may be compared with lenticels in their structure and
origin. They have no relationship to the streaks (Male) on the leaf-
cushions of Lepidodendron. The pits on the stipules and leaf-stalks of
the Marattiaceae are also equivalent in their origin and structure ; they
furnish a special contrivance for promoting an active interchange of gas
during the development of the bud, and close when the lamina is able
itself to assimilate after the full development of the leaf. The stomatic
openings on which they arise in the Cyatheaceae and Marattiaceae are
independent organs, forming a highly differentiated state of contrivances
for respiration. The stomates on the stipules of Marattia Verschaffeltii
furnish an example of very great reduction. The portion of the cortex
of the stipules of the Marattiaceae hitherto styled the periderm differs
completely in its chemical character, structure, and mode of renewal,
from all cork structures hitherto examined.

Muscineae.

New Genera of Musci. — Under the name Nadeaudia schistostegiella
g. et sp. n., M. E. Bescherelle t describes a moss from Tahiti. The fol-
lowing is the diagnosis of the genus, which he places near to Hymenodon :
— Dioica ; habitus schistostegiaceus ; caules simplices, interne nudi,
superne frondiformes ; folia erecto-patentia, suprema erecta, cellulis
quadratis viridibus areolata, integerrima, costa cum apice tiniente ; peri-
chaetium terminale ; capsula (?) pedicello longo basi geniculato laevi.

In a subsequent paper § M. Bescherelle sinks the genus Nadeaudia
in Calomnion.

The following new genus from Australia, belonging to the Phascaceae,
is described by Herr C. Muller, || in addition to a large number of new
species. Beekettia : — Habitus Bruchise ; folia pottiacea, marginata, e
cellulis pottiaceis granulosis reticulata, aristato-nervosa, apice acute
dentata ; capsula phascacea, minuta ; calyptra majuscula, pyramidati-cam-
panulata, basin versus angustata, fere calymperacea.

On Leskea Austini Sull. Mr. G. N. Best IT founds a new genus Fabro-
leskea , which he regards as an outlying genus of the Fabroniaceae.

* Rep. Brit. Ass. Toronto, 1897 (1898) p. 867.
t Bot, Ztg., lvi. (1898) lte Abth., pp. 9-33 (1 pi.).

X Rev. Bryol., xxv. (1898) p. 11. § Tom. cit., p. 49. j

l| Hedwigia, xxxvii. (1898) p. 77.

Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxv. (1898) pp. 108-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICBOSCOPY, ETC.

451

New Genera of Hepaticae.* — Among material from tlie interior of
China, Dr. C. Massalongo describes two new genera of Hepaticae : —

Ascidiota g. n. Habitus sp. gen. Madothecse simulans ; caulis pin-
natim ramosus ; folia incuba, ovato-subreniformia, subtus in lobulum
conduplicato-appendiculata ; lobulus folio multo minor, oblongus, ad
plicam inferne scrotiformis saccatus, ejusdem margine interno ad basim
juxta caulem in auriculam inflatain revoluto ; areolatio speciosa, scilicet e
cellulis utraque superficie folii eleganter subhemispherico-prominentibus ;
foliola oblonga, optime evoluta, utrinque ad insertionem turgide-auri-
culata ; perichaetium 1-2-jugum, terminale ; bracteae et bracteolee inter
se liberae ; flores fern, oligogyni.

Hariotella Besch. et Mass. ( Lepidolsense subgen. Hariotella Schiff.).
Habitus sp. gen. Polyoti ; caulis pinnatim ramosus ; folia incuba, imbri-
cata, subtus auricula praedita ; foliola bidentata, dentibus saepe in
auriculas transformatis ; perichaetium polyjugum, in rarnulo brevi laterali ;
bracteis et bracteolis imbricatis, subobovato-oblongis fluentibus, interior-
ibus in sacculum colesuheformem oblongum liberum et infiatum con-
nectis ; flores fem. 9-12-gyni ; calyptra e basi ad medium cum sacculo
colesulaeformi accreta.

Systematic Position of Monoclea.j — Prof. D. H. Campbell advo-
cates the removal of Monoclea from the Jungermanniaceae, and placing
it among the Marchantiaceae. The form of the thallus and the character
of the apical cell correspond with those of Marchantici ; the most im-
portant divergence from the Marchantiaceae being the absence of the
ventral scales, which are, however, represented by short-lived papillate
hairs. Unlike the Jungermanniaceae, Monoclea has two kinds of root-
hair, thin- walled and thick-walled. The structure and arrangement of
the sexual organs is altogether that of the Marchantiaceae, among which
it presents the greatest affinity with the Targionieae. There are six
rows of neck-cells, in contrast with the five of the typical Jungermanni-
aceae.

Retrogression in Metzgeria.J — Among normal plants of Metzgeria
furcata Prof. K. Goebel finds others, in an enfeebled condition owing to
unfavourable vital surroundings. This condition has been described as
the var. ulvula. These plants have a strong tendency to revert to a
“young condition” in which there is an apical cell which does not
further divide. In certain cases, the reversion may even proceed further,
and the thallus be reduced to a single row of cells. These degraded
structures produce adventitious shoots, resembling the parent shoot,
which is never the case with the normal Metzgeria thallus.

Algae.

Influence of Algae on the Purity of Water. § — From experiments
made on the drinking-water of Hamburg, Herr 0. Strohmeyer concludes
that the green algae — Spirogyra, Cladophora, Enteromorpha , Stichococcus

* Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital , v. (1898) pp. 255-GO.

f Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 272-4.

t Flora, lxxxv. (1898) pp. 69-74 (5 figs.).

§ ‘ Die Algenflora d. Hamburger Wasserwerkes,’ Leipzig, 1897, 48 pp. See Bot.
Centralbl., 1898, Beih., p. 406.

452

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

— have a very powerful effect in purifying water by the destruction of
bacteria by the oxygen which they give out. Those algae which are
enveloped in mucilage, especially diatoms, have a very prejudicial
influence on drinking-water, by stopping the filters through which it

passes.

Vickersia, a new Genus of Floridese.* * * § — Among a collection of sea-
weeds from the Canary Islands, Mdlle. N. Karsakoff finds one which she
regards as a new type of Ceramiaceae, with the following diagnosis : — •
VicJcersia. Frons tota articulata, monosiphonia, ecorticata, repens,
radiculis apice scutellatim expansis affixa ; fila primaria cylindrica,
inferne irregulariter ramosa ; ramis erectis, ad genicula opposite aut
verticillatim ramulosis ; ramuli vegetativi simplices, saepius ex articulo
unico crassius-inflato, nunc ad basim ramorum articulis pluribus cylin-
dricis constantes ; ramuli tetrasporiferi biarticulati, articulo inferioro
tetrasporas numerosas circumcirca praegnante ; tetrasporse sphmricac,
triangule divisas, sessiles. Cystocarpia et antheridia desiderantur.
Until the cystocarps have been found, the genus is placed provisionally
near to Griffithsia.

Hew Freshwater Floridea.f — Under the name Delesseria zanzi-
bariensis, Prof. K. Goebel describes what he regards as an addition to
the very small number of freshwater Florideae at present known, from
Zanzibar.

Miss E. S. Barton J regards the alga as probably identical with
Caloglossa Leprieurii.

Reproduction of Coleochsete.— -Herr F. Oltmanns § confirms, in the
main, in the case of Coleoclisete pulvinata, the correctness of Pringsheim’s
description of the mode of sexual reproduction in this genus ; but he
does not assign to it so high a position among Algae as has generally
been done. It is probably most nearly allied to the (Edogoniaceae ; the
resemblance to the Florideae is more apparent than real. The zoo-
sporanges, antherids, and oogones are perfectly homologous organs ; the
oogones are but a slight modification of the zoosporanges. During
winter the resting oosperm remains without change ; it always contains
a parietal nucleus, a large central vacuole, and eight chloroplasts, each
with its own pyrenoid. On germinating the oosperm divides, by a
vertical wall, into two cells, each with a nucleus and four chlorophyll-
bodies ; after two further divisions, each of the eight cells has a single
chlorophyll-disc.

Observations made by Prof. R. Chodat || on the mode of reproduction
of Coleochsete confirm his previous view that there is in this genus of
Algae no true alternation of generations. The fertilised oosphere does
not give birth directly to the thallus, but to two groups of cells more or
less adherent, which finally become liberated like many spores. These
latter germinate directly into a small rudimentary thallus. The so-
called sporogone is formed by the concrescence of the products of the
division of the ovum within the cortical tissue.

* Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), iv. (1897) pp. 281-91 (1 pi.).

t Flora, lxxxv. (1898) pp. 65-8 (6 figs.).

X Journ. of Bot., xxxvi. (1898) pp. 195-7.

§ Flora, lxxxv. (1888) pp. 1-14 (2 pis.).

|| Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., v. (1898) pp. 100-1.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

453

Economical Product from Seaweeds.* — Herr A. Kreftling describes
the production from the Fucaceae of a non-nitrogenous substance which
he calls “ tangic acid ” ( Tangsaure). It appears to be related to the
carbohydrates, although its empirical formula C13H20Ol4 does not indi-
cate this. It is not dissolved by any medium with which it does not
form a chemical combination. The alkali-salts are strongly viscid, and
form a substance well adapted for gumming paper and other materials.
The broad-leaved Laminarise are especially applicable for the manufac-
ture of this substance.

Polymorphy of Cutleria multifida.j — Mr. A. IT. Church confirms
the current statement of the genetic connection of Cutleria and Aglao-
zonia , the former being a sexual, the latter a non- sexual condition.
There is no doubt that the oospheres of Cutleria develope partheno-
genetically, and this development takes place in the latter part of the
summer. There seems to be no difference whatever between the mode
of germination of the sexually and that of the parthenogenetically pro-
duced spores. Under certain conditions the zoospores of Aglaozonia
give rise to what may be called a protonematoid stage of Cutleria. The
polymorphy of Cutleria multifida has nothing in common with a true
alternation of generations. In the opinion of the author the phenomena
point to a gradual loss of sexual function rather than to an imperfectly
differentiated or incipient sexuality.

Conjugatse.f — Messrs. W. and G. W. West maintain their classsifica-
tion of the Conjugatae into three families, the Zygnemaceae, Temno-
gametaceae, § and Desmidiaceae, including the Mesocarpeae as a sub-family
in the Zygnemaceae. Many of the Desmidiaceae exhibit a tendency for
the separate cells to unite into filaments. The authors state that in all
the Conjngatae, the individual is surrounded by a definite mucilaginous
envelope, though the thickness and substance of this envelope vary
greatly. Contrary to the assertion of Ewart, they state that these algae
can resist a very losv temperature, although the formation of zygosperms
is prevented. Direct sunlight greatly promotes their growth as long
as they remain in normal conditions; a bright light being apparently
necessary for the process of conjugation.

The Zygnemaceae are made up of the Mesocarpeae, Pyxisporeae, and
Zygnemeae. The Mesocarpeae are composed of two genera only, Mou-
geotia (including Mesocarpus , Crater ospermum , Plagiospermum, and
Staurospermum ) ; the Pyxisporeae of the single genus Pyxispora ; the
Zygnemeae of Zygnema , PI eurodiscus, Spirogyra, Sirogonium, and Debarya.
Cross-conjugation — i.e. conjugation in both directions — is almost un-
known in the Zygnemeae. The occurrence of lateral conjugation implies
that the sexual differentiation is sometimes manifested, not in the entire
filament, but in the different cells of the same filament. The forma-
tion of parthenospores without conjugation is not uncommon in the
Zygnemeae ; these non-sexually produced spores are aplanospores. The
authors think that the Mesocarpeae have probably been developed along
a different line of descent from the rest of the Conjugatae.

* Chemische Industrie, 1897. See Bot. Centralbl., 1898, Beih., p. 519.

t Ann. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 74-109 (3 pis.).

X Tom. cit., pp. 29-58 (2 pis.). § Of. this Journal, 1897, p. 317.

454 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Karyokinetic Nuclear Division in Spirogyra.* * * § — Herr L. Mitzko-
witsch gives the following account of the division of the nucleus in Spiro -
gyra subsequa and jugalis. The large nucleus has a quadrangular form;
within it is a dense nucleol e-like body which furnishes the material for
the karyokinetic figures. While the nucleus becomes gradually round,
this body forms filiform prolongations towards the periphery of the
nucleus, where they combine with external achromatic filaments. At
the same time chromatin bodies make their appearance in the previously
homogeneous substance, surrounded by a light border. While the
entire chromatin body becomes flattened into a disk which stands verti-
cally to the filament, the sharp outline of the nucleus disappears, and
it is no longer distinctly differentiated from the outer protoplasm. The
chromatin bodies at the same time arrange themselves in a disk, from
which proceed the achromatin-filaments. Each chromatin body now
divides into two, and two parallel disks are formed, which gradually
separate from one another. These daughter-plates acquire a more or
less spherical form ; the coloured mass becomes again homogeneous ;
and two daughter-nuclei resembling the parent nucleus take its place.

Chemical Physiology of Spirogyra. j — A series of chemical analyses
of the ash of Spirogyra nitida, grown under various conditions, have
yielded to Dr. Mary E. Pennington the following results : — Chlorine
and sodium are present in about the same proportion as in marine algae.
Conjugating cells show a chemical composition which differs in almost
every essential from that of the vegetative cell ; the behaviour of the
tannin, and its marked increase in quantity, is striking. Under coloured
screens the chemical composition of the algae differs according to the
rays of light received ; starch was not formed under exclusive blue or
yellow rays; under red rays the growth was even ’more rapid than in
white light.

Dissociation of the Cells of Spirogyra.j: — M. Devaux calls atten-
tion to the fact that when the cells of a Spirogyra separate from one
another, as they do with great ease, the ends remain rounded ; but that
there is, in addition, a membrane in the form of a collar, forming a belt
at the base of each terminal hemisphere. This shows that the cells are
isolated by the gelification of the middle lamella, followed by a dissolu-
tion and rounding off of each half-membrane, accompanied by a dis-
integration of the outer lamella, which then forms the collar. The
process of dissociation is due to a deficiency of oxygen in the water,
and has nothing in common with the formation of thick-walled cysts.

Arboreal Algae.§ — In addition to those already described, Herr
W. Schmidle finds the following species of algae growing on trees in
Ecuador: — Cephaleuros Lagerheimii sp. n., C. Karsteni , G. pulvinatus,
and C. candelabrum, the last forming a connecting link between the
genera Cephaleuros and Pliyeopeltis.

* Warsaw, 1897 (1 pi.) (Russian). See Bot. Centralbl., 1S98, Beih., p. 401.

t Contrib. Bot. Lab. Univ. Pennsylvania, i. (1897) pp. 203-59.

+ P.V. Seances Soc. Sci. Phys. et Nat. Bordeaux, 1897, pp. 34-6.

§ Hedwigia, xxxvii. (1898) pp. 61-75. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xv. (1897)
pp. 456-9 (6 pis.). Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 562.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

455

Plankton-Algae of the Freshwater Lakes of Norway.* — Under
the name Elakatothrix gelatinosa g. et sp. n., Prof. N. Wille describes
a new plankton-form from the lakes of Western Norway. The cells
before division are fusiform, arranged originally in a row, and are sur-
rounded by a gelatinous sheath. The cells divide only by transverse
septa, and contain a small nucleus. The chromatophore, which occupies
almost the entire cell with the exception of the ends, is parietal, and
contains a large pyrenoid ; no swarm-cells were observed. Related to
Adinastrum. Also a new species, Crucigenia irregularis.

Fungi.

Impregnation and Development of the Oosphere in Perono-
sporeae.f — Prof. A. N. Berlese has turned his attention chiefly to
Cystopus Portulacse , Peronospora Ficarise , P. effusa , P. Alsinearum, and
P. parasitica. He was able to follow the act of impregnation, and the
complete course of development of the oogone and oosperm, the follow-
ing being the most noteworthy observations made on these and on
other species.

The Peronosporeas possess distinct sexual organs, the antherid
and oogone ; and the act of impregnation does not consist in the osmotic
mingling of their contents, but in the fusion of a male and female
nucleus. The embryonal nucleus divides frequently until the oosperm
is mature. In each daughter-nucleus the number of chromosomes is
double that of the separate sexual nuclei. A reduction first takes place
on the entrance of the oosperm into the germinating period, and the
number of chromosomes is then reduced by one-half in the nuclei, and
each of the daughter-nuclei becomes a zoospore. In several species
the wall of the oogone remains permanently thin ; and then the peri-
plasm becomes differentiated into a “ perinium ” (in Strasburger’s sense),
with a more or less complicated structure. Even in those cases where
they are well differentiated, the exospore and endospore cannot be re-
garded as analogous to those organs in other fungi ; the exospore cor-
responding rather to the “ perinium ” of certain Pteridophyta, and the
so-called “ endospore ” to a true exospore. In other cases the wall of
the oogone becomes thickened at the expense of the periplasm, and
often forms a stout yellow or yellow-brown membrane. When there
is no perinium, this wall serves as a protection to the oosperm during
ripening and germination.

Parasitic Fungi. — Herr von Derschau J describes the life-history of
Exoascus deformans , and the changes produced in the flowers and tissues
of the peach.

Mr. B. M. Duggar § details the life-history, appearance, and remedies
of the following diseases of the pear : — leaf-spot, due to Septoria pyricola ;
leaf-blight, to Entomosporium maculatum ; and pear-scab, to Fusicladium
pirinum ; also the bacterial disease pear-blight, due to Bacillus amyli-
vorus.

* Mittlieil. Biol. Geselh Christiania, Oct. 17, 1895. See Biol. Centralbl. xviii.
(1838) pp. 802.

t Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1897) pp. 159-96 (4 pis.).

X Landwirth. Jahrb., 1897, p. 897. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxiv. (1898) p. 112.

§ Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stat., Bot. Div., Bull. No. 145, 31 pp. and 15 figs.

456

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Herr F. Bubak * establishes tlie genetic connection of Puecinia
Scirpi, found on Scirpns lacu&tris , with the secidioform, JEciclium nym-
phseoidis , parasitic on Limnanthemum nymphseoides.

Herr M. Woronin f suggests that Monilia fructigena , an epidemic
parasite on the cherry-tree, is probably the conidial form of Sclerotinia
Cerasi.

Sig. F. Cavara J finds plantations of the silver-fir greatly injured by
the attacks of Cucurbitaria pityophila. The mycele induces a strong
hypertrophy of the cortical tissue, accompanied by a splitting and scaling
off of the periderm. A fresh interior periderm is thus formed, with a
fresh phellogen and cortical parenchyme, provided with large resin-
passages and sclerenchyme cells.

M. P. Nypels§ gives the results of the enquiries. of a committee on
vegetable pathology presented to the Botanical Society of Belgium.
The following comprise the maladies attributed to the attacks of parasitic
fungi : — Potato-mould and scurf ; probably frequently due primarily to
the attacks of bacteria. The rust of flax, caused by the attacks of
Melampsora Lini. The burning (brulure) of flax, probably caused by
parasitic bacteria. A disease of flax caused by Phoma herbarum. Another
disease of flax due to Fusicladium Lini. A malady of the celery pro-
duced by Septoria Petroselini var. Apii. A destructive disease of pinks,
apparently attributable to the attacks of an undescribed fungus. The
mildew of the vine caused by Plasmopara viticola. A malady of grapes
due to Spliserella Bathayi sp. n. The cancer of Populus canadensis ,
attributed to the attacks of Hyalopus Populi sp. n. In many cases the
disease is constantly accompanied and aggravated by saprophytic Fungi
and Schizomycetes.

“Casse ” of Wine. — According to M. Laborde,|| the deterioration of
red wine known as “ la casse ” — consisting of an iridescence of the
surface, precipitation of the colouring matter, and a turbidity of the
liquid — is due to the presence of an oxidising diastase or oxydase, the
principal source of which is the mould produced by Boirytis cinerea.
The part played by this oxydase appears to be to absorb the oxygen
from the air and give it up to the colouring matter, which is thus ren-
dered insoluble.

Dr. P. Carles If discusses the remedies which may be employed to
secure the vines from the attacks of this malady.

Roccellese.** — Mr. 0. V. Darbishire describes an additional new
genus of this family of lichens, with the following diagnosis : — Boccel-
lina g. n. Thallus crustaceus v. subfruticulosus, strato corticali dis-
tincto, ex liyphis formato plus minusve transversalibus congiutinatis,
strato gonidiali et medullari stuppeo; apothecia terminalia v. subter-
minalia, orbicularia, hypothecio et parathecio fusconigro, amphithecio

* Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlviii. (1898) pp. 14-7 (1 pi.).

t Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrankheiten, vii. (1897) p. 196. See Bot. Centralbl., 1898,
Beili., p. 479.

% Tom. cit. (1 pi.). See Bot. Centralbl., 1898, Beih, p. 479.

§ CR. Soc. R. Bot. Belgique, xxxvi. (1898) pp. 183-276 (18 figs.).

|| P.Y. Seances Soc. Sci. Pliys. et Nat. Bordeaux, 1897, pp. 11-4, 132-5.

11 Tom. cit., pp. 14-5, 135-6.

** Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesel!., xvi. (1898) pp. 6-16 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal, 1897,
p. 231.

457

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

thallino gonidiis instrueto, infra hypothecium gonidiis nullis, sporis
decoloribus quadrilocularibus ; soredia nulla. For one of tlie new
genera previously described, Dictyographa, the name DarbishireUa is
substituted. The author proposes the term parathecium , instead of peri-
thecium, for the “pars marginalia excipuli,” the elevated portion of the
hypothecium on each side of the “ thecium ” or hymenium.

Saccharomyces guttulatus.* — Dr. A. Wilhelmi gives the following
description of Saccliaromyces guttulatus Busc. The cells are elliptical
to oval, with rounded ends, 6-16 /x long and 2-4 /x broad. Viewed by
transmitted light their colour is pale grey. Tho nucleus is round, and
about 1 /x in diameter. The addition of iodine demonstrates the presence
of glycogen in considerable quantity. Under adverse nutritive con-
ditions, two to four highly refracting vacuoles appear. Sprouting
begins with division of the protoplasm, and this is soon followed by
immigration of the daughter-nucleus. When the nutritive conditions
are favourable there is early separation of the buds ; when unfavourable,
shrub-like colonies are formed. In spore-formation the nucleus divides
into 2-4 daughter-nuclei, around each of which protoplasm is deposited,
and the young spore becomes invested with a definite membrane. If
the material be dried the mother-cells burst. When the spores germi-
nate, they swell, the spore-membrane ruptures, and the germ grows
out. Germination and growth are possible only in the presence of
1*25-5 per cent, hydrochloric acid and 10 per cent, grape sugar, and at
a temperature of 37° C. S. guttulatus occurs normally only in the
stomach and intestine of rabbits, but is occasionally met with in guinea-
pigs.

Micro-organisms of the Fermentation-Industry. | — M. A. Jorgensen
has quite recently published the fourth edition of his well-known work
on fermentation organisms. The present volume has been enlarged and
thoroughly revised. While the general features of the previous editions
are adhered to in the present volume, there are numerous additions in
respect of Saccharomyces species, and of advances in the application of
Hansen’s method of pure cultivations, and of the fermentation of wine.

Heliotropism in the Agaricineae.J — Herr E. C. Hansen records
several examples of negative heliotropism in the stipe of the receptacle
in this class of Fungi. It is by no means the case, as has been stated,
that the expulsion of the spores takes place only by night. The
Coprinere may be divided into three categories, — those in which the
spores are expelled only by night (much the most common) ; those in
which it takes place chiefly by night ( Coprinus Rostrupianus and stereo -
ramus') ; and those in which it takes place, as a rule, by day ( C . niveus,
Agaricus semiglobatus). The negative heliotropism is established by the
fact (in C. stercorarius) that the spores are expelled on the side furthest
from the source of light.

Evolution of the Basidiomycetes.§ — Mr. G. Massee regards the
Basidiomycetes, and among them the Agaricinae, as the most modern

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 305-9, 353-61, 412-7 (8 figs.).

t Berlin, 1898, 349 pp. See Bot. Ztg., lvi. (1898) 2te Abth., p. 122.

X Biol. Gesell. Kjdbenhavn, 1897, p. 1109. See Bot. Centralbl., Ixxiv. (1898)
p. 114. § Journ. Quekett Micr. Club, vii. (1898) pp. 1-9.

458 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

group of Fungi, and the most perfectly adapted to existing requirements,
as proved by their universal distribution and immense numbers, about
11,000 existing species of the Basidiomycetes having been described.
The evolution of the various groups of the Hymenomycetes is thus
sketched out : — (1) The Clavariese, the lowest type, and showing the
least amount of differentiation (about 300 species) ; (2) The Thele-
phoreae, exhibiting the gradual evolution of a method for the protection
of the hymenium from rain and dust (about 1000 species) ; (3) The
Hydneae, in which we see the introduction of a new plan for increasing
the area of the hymenium, by covering the spore-bearing portion with
densely packed slender teeth (about 1000 species) ; (4) The Polyporeae,
in which the same idea is carried out in another way, by the hymenium
lining the cavities of innumerable slender tubes (about 2500 species) ;
(5) The Agaricineae, the most modern and highest type (nearly 6000
species).

Tulasnellacese, a new Family of Fungi.* — Herr N. C. Juel pro-
poses a new family of Fungi, Tulasnellace^e, intermediate between the
Tremellaceae and the Dacryomycetaceae, with the following diagnosis : —
Gymnocarpous Basidiomycetes with spherical unicellular basids without
sterigmas ; spores not deciduous, germinating on the basids and pro-
ducing conids. It is made up of the two genera Tulasnella (syns.
Prototremella and Pachysterigma), and Muciporus g. n., diagnosed as
follows : — Beceptacle expanded flat, with large crowded pits, consisting
of a spongy moderately resistant hyphal tissue, and bearing a very
fugitive hymenium ; basids and spores as in Tulasnella. To this genus
belong M. corticola {Poly porus corticola Fr.), and M. deliquescens sp. n.,
found as a thin slimy coating on the bark of an aspen.

Structure of Mycorhiza/f — M. L. Mangin distinguishes the myco-
rhizas formed on the roots of different species of Cupuliferse into two
kinds, living and dead. With regard to living mycorhiza, the author
disputes the statement usually made that rootlets attacked by mycorhiza
are destitute of a root- cap, or that this structure is, at all events, greatly
reduced in size. He finds, on the contrary, that the cap attains its
normal development, but that it never peels off ; the entire surface of
these rootlets is covered by the cells of the root-cap, which are partly
disorganised. The apex of the rootlet becomes hemispherical instead
of conical. When the mycorhiza has completed its term of activity, the
substance of the hyphee becomes connected into a mucilaginous mass
composed of pectic and gummy substances, which gradually weaken the
vitality of the rootlet, and give rise to the appearance of a great variety
of saprophytes.

Protophyta.
a. ScMzopliycege.

Stapfia, a new Genus of Palmellacese.J — Trot. R. Chodat founds a
new genus of Palmellacem, very nearly allied to Tetraspora, with the

* Bih. K. Svensk. Vetensk.-Akad. Hand!, xxiii. (1897) No. 12 (1 pl.)= Sec Bot.
Centralbl., lxxiv. (1898) p. 116. t Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898; pp. 978-81.

t Bull. Herb, Boissier, v. (1897) (1 pi.). See La Nuova Notarisia, ix. (1898)
p. 24.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

459

following characters : — Thallus gelatinosus, subfirmus, baud tubulosus,
nec saccatus nec membranaceus, sed cylindricus ; cellulse similes eis
Tetrasporse, stratum tenuissimum periphericum viride formantes ; multi-
plicatio ut in Tetraspora.

Urospora and Hormiscia.* — Herr F. R. Kjellman proposes to sink
the genus Urospora in Hormiscia, the character derived from the form of
the zoogonids not being sufficiently constant to maintain the former as a
distinct genus.

Movements of Eunotia major.f — Mr. T. C. Palmer describes the
peculiar movements of frustules of this diatom, which differ from that
known in the Pinnularieae. The frustules in which they take place are
either free or united together in strings of from 2 to 6 ; and the move-
ment appears to be connected with an evolution of oxygen ; it is obviously
stimulated by light. The author connects the power of movement with
the existence of peculiar pseudopode-like bodies, to which he gives the
name “ coleopods,” and which appear to be present in other nearly
related species and genera also of the Fragilariese.

Germination of Microchaete tenera.J — Prof. G. Ritter Beck v. Man-
nagetta has been able to follow out the formation and the germination
of the spores of Microchsete tenera Thur. The spores occur as interstitial
cells of a filament enclosed in a distinct hyaline sheath, often in con-
tinuous rows. They are of an olive-brown colour, cylindrical or barrel-
shaped, and vary greatly in size. The spore elongates and divides into
two while still within the sheath, one of the daughter-cells becoming a
heterocyst, the other, the vegetative cell, undergoing further divisions.
At a later period the young plant, consisting of a basal heterocyst
and about three vegetative cells, escapes from the sheath. Although
the filaments present occasionally a Tolypothrix-like pseudo-ramification,
the author considers that the organism belongs essentially to the simple
(unbranched) Nostocacese.

Cyanothrix and Mastigocladus.§ — Herr W. Schmidle has come to
the conclusion that his genus Cyanothrix must be suppressed, and ab-
sorbed in Mastigocladus. Cultivation of Cyanothrix naginata resulted
in the production of two forms — a Hypothrix and an Anabsena- form, the
latter also producing conids. The presence of a distinct sheath indi-
cates that the alga belongs to the Sirosiphonaceae ; a scytonema-like
branching was also observed, and a probable formation of hormogones.
The author now regards Cyanothrix naginata as identical with Mastigo-
cladus laminosus.

B. Schizomycetes.

Remarkable Marine Organism. || — Prof. A. Dendy describes, under
the name Pontobolbos, a remarkable marine organism from the Gulf of
Manaar, off the Madras coast. At first he felt certain that it was animal

* Bill. K. Svensk. Vetensk.-Akad. Handl., xxiii. (1897) 16 pp. and 1 pi. See
Bot. Centralbl., lxxiv. (1898) p. 176.

t Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1898, pp. 110-9 (2 pis.).

% Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlviii. (1898) pp. 81-6 (1 pi.).

§ Bot. Centralbl., lxiv. (1898) pp. 97-102 (11 figs.).

U Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxvi. (1898) pp. 143-52 (2 pis.).

1898 ■ 2 i

460

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in nature, but he has been gradually forced to regard it as bacterial.
It forms hemispherical or cushion-shaped masses, of a brown colour,
attached to rocks in shallow water, and has a superficial resemblance to
a sponge. The author considers various possibilities, — that it may be a
bacterial mass like that of Crenothrix Kuhniana , or something like the
calcareous pebbles formed by ScJiizothrix fasciculata as described by
Murray, or a symbiosis between bacterial filaments and a gigantic
Rhizopod. Apart from the Bacteria, there seems insufficient evidence
to show that it is an organism at all.

Action of Rontgen Rays on Bacteria.* — Dr. R. N. Wolfenden and
Dr. F. W. Forbes-Ross have shown that the action of the X-rays is
stimulating to the growth of Bacillus prodigiosus.

The rayed cultures grew better than the control cultures, and peculiar
changes were observed in the pigment-forming powers of this microbe.
The chief microscopic changes were growth in chains or strepto-bacteria,
and spore-formation.

Migula’s Bacteriology and the Classification of Bacteria.f — In the
first volume of Prof. W. Migula’s work on the morphology, development,
and classification of Bacteria, the system is given as follows : —

Family I. Coccacese.

“ Species ” 1. Streptococcus (one plane).

2. Micrococcus (two planes).

3. Sarcina (three planes).

4. Planococcus (two planes ; flagella).

5. Planosarcina (three planes ; flagella).

Family II. Bacteriacese.

“ Species ” 1. Bacterium ; no flagella.

2. Bacillus ; flagella.

3. Pseudomonas ; polar flagella.

Family III. Spirillaceae.

“ Species ” 1. Spirosoma ; no flagella ; rigid.

2. Microspira. 1-3 polar flagella ; rigid.

3. Spirillum. 5-20 polar flagella ; rigid.

4. Spirochsete ; no flagella ; flexible.

Family IY. Chlamydobacteriaceae.

“ Species ” 1. Streptothrix.

2. Cladothrix.

3. Crenothrix.

4. Phragmidiothrix.

5. Thiothrix.

Family Y. Beggiatoaceae.

“ Species ” Beggiatoa.

The chief points that may be mentioned as indicative of the line
taken by the writer are, that the flagella are continuous with the investing
membrane ; that arthrospores cannot be distinguished from ordinary
vegetative cells ; and that germination may occur in three ways : (1) The

* Lancet, 1898, i. p. 1752.

t Jena, 1897, 368 pp. and 6 pis. See Nature, lviii. (1898) pp. 97-9.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

461

spore membrane may remain unruptured, remaining as the investment
of the young bacterium, or being dissolved ; (2) the spore membrane
may rupture at the pole ; (3) or equatorially. The existence of a true
nucleus in the spore and in the bacterium is held to be improbable,
though the granules in the bacterial cell may represent a rudimentary
nucleus ; but whether “ rudimentary nucleus” is meant to be taken in the
light of homologue or analogue is left doubtful. There are interesting
chapters on pleomorphism and on the biological characters of Bacteria.

Micro-organisms of Lignite.* — M. B. Renault, who has examined
specimens of lignite, has found therein abundant micrococci existing
either in the decomposing wood or in the substance which binds the
animal and vegetable organisms together. This primitive substance
was at one time in a fluid condition, and it was probably produced by
microbic action on the organisms.

Lignite appears to have been formed in shallow marshy waters
adapted to the life and development of numerous Infusoria. The great
mass of lignite is composed of vegetable debris, often in an advanced
stage of decomposition ; and it is upon this debris that the^microscopic
fungi developed, and in it that their fructification and mycele are found.

Microbiology as applied to Hygiene.t — At the Congress of
Hygiene and Demography held at Madrid; Dr. Behring announced
that, as the result of experimental work with the toxin and antitoxin
of tuberculosis, he had isolated from the tubercle bacillus a substance a
hundred times more powerful than Koch’s tuberculin, and had ob-
tained, by passing the virus through the horse, an antitoxin which he
believed to be an efficient cure for the disease.

Dr. A. Calmette demonstrated the prophylactic effect on snake-bitten
patients of the serum of the blood of horses subjected to small doses of
the venom. A rabbit injected with the mixed venom of cobra naja and
bothrops died in 20 minutes. Two rabbits were injected with the pro-
tective serum, and in 10 minutes each received a dose of the mixture
equal in amount to that which killed the first rabbit. No ill effects
resulted. The serum is easily prepared, and retains its prophylactic
properties for an indefinite period.

M. Nocard described the method of cultivating the microbe of
pleuropneumonia of cattle.J

Dr. E. Yallin drew attention to the existence of saltpetre on the
walls of dwelling houses, and its ill effects on the health of the dwellers
therein. As the salt is produced by nitrifying organisms, germicides
should be mixed with the mortar ; and to eliminate the nitrifying organ-
isms from the walls, these should be inoculated with antinitrifying
bacilli.

Chatinella, a new Genus of Schizomycetes.§ — In the parenchyme
of potatoes killed by Phytophthora , and in the leaves of tulips killed by
Pseudocommis, M. E. Roze finds an organism which he regards as the
type of a new genus of Schizomycetes, and which he names Chatinella

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvi (1898) pp. 1828-31. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 326.

f Nature, lviii. (1898) pp. 15-16. % Of. this Journal, infra , p. 463.

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 858-9.

2 i 2

462

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

scissipara g. et sp. n. It occurs in the form of naked spherules of proto-
plasm, varying between 12 and 27 p in diameter, propagating only, as
far as has been observed, by division. This takes place after the
spherule has invested itself with an enveloping membrane, the internal
protoplasm sometimes clothing itself with a membrane after division
while still within the original envelope.

Bacterial Diseases of Plants. — Mr. Erwin F. Smith* * * § gives further
details of the brown rot of cabbage caused by the attacks of a Schizomy-
cete. The greater part of the infection takes place through water-pores.
The disease is frequently disseminated by insects. The wild mustard
(of America), Brassica sinapistrum , is one of its common host-plants.

A disease of the sugar-beet has recently appeared in the United
States closely resembling that described (in Europe) by Kramer and
Sorauer, caused by Bacillus Betse.

Mr. H. L. Russell | gives a full account of the life-history of Bacillus
campestris, and of the nature of the ravages produced by it in the cabbage-
plant ; also of the best modes of combating it.

Spread of Infectious Diseases by Biting Insects Dr. G. EL F.
Nuttall, who had made experiments bearing on the question of the
dissemination of plague by flies, records the result of researches on the
part played by biting insects in the spread of infectious diseases. For
this purpose mice, dead or dying of anthrax, fowl cholera, or mouse
septicaemia, were allowed to be bitten by hungry bugs and fleas. With
the juices from these the animals were infected. All the experiments
were negative, that is to say, none of the animals sickened. Culture
and inoculation experiments, and microscopical examination of the con-
tents of the insects, showed that the infective agent is rapidly destroyed
within the body of the insect, and that this germicidal action is more
potent at high temperatures.

The suggestion is thrown out that if biting insects disseminate in-
fectious disorders, this is effected by the host infecting himself by
scratching or rubbing in the virus after squashing the insect.

Effect of High Pressures on Micro-organisms.§ — Sig. G. Malfitano
made a large number of experiments with pure cultures of bacteria, fungi,
&c., for the purpose of ascertaining the effect of exposure to high pres-
sure for various lengths of time. The micro-organisms were exposed to
pressures ranging between 25 and 60 atmospheres for 20 to 64 hours.

Among those destroyed were B. coli com., B. anthracis , B. prodigiosus ,
typhoid and cholera bacilli, and some of the pyogenic cocci ; while
B. subtilis, B. mesentericus, Tyrothrix , and B. cedematis invariably sur-
vived. The length of exposure appeared to have more influence than the
degree of pressure. On B. subtilis the interrupted action of compressed
carbonic acid gas for 20 hours, four times repeated at intervals of
24 hours, had no effect. The vitality of the spores of B. subtilis was
unaffected by liquefied carbonic acid gas.

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 107-9. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 574.

t Univ. Wisconsin Agric. Exp. Stat., Bull. No. 85, 39 pp and 15 figs.

% Centralbl. Bakt. u. Bar., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 625-35. Cf. this Journal,
1897, p. 577.

§ Boll. Soc. Med.*Chir. di Pavia. See Nature, lvii. (1898) p. 614.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

463

Microbe of Peripneumonia of Cattle.* * * § — MM. Nocard and Roux
state that the virus of the contagious peripneumonia of the Bovidte may
be easily cultivated in collodion or reed sacs inserted in the peritoneal
cavity of rabbits. It may also be cultivated in Martin’s bouillon pepton,
to which ox or rabbit serum has been added in the proportion of 1 part
of serum to 20 parts of bouillon. All other kinds of artificial media
failed.

The virus is a microbe of exceeding smallness, smaller indeed than
any known microbe. Its shape could not be properly made out even by
staining.

After having remained in the peritoneal cavity for 15-20 days, the
fluid in the collodion sacs was found to be slightly turbid, and devoid
of cells and bacteria. Examined under a magnification of about 2000
diameters, vast numbers of minute mobile highly refracting points were
observable.

Inoculation with the fluid from these infected sacs gave positive
results.

Bacteriology of Pertussis.f — Dr. H. Koplik, who has already made
a communication on hooping cough, J gives some further details as to
Bacillus Pertussis. From the sputum are fished out some of the greyish-
white particles ; from these cultivations are made directly and without
further manipulation, on obliquely set hydrocele fluid. Pure cultures
are greyish-white or pearly. The bacillus was cultivated also on agar,
blood-serum, and on pepton-bouillon. Its growth is anaerobic as well
as aerobic. Stained with Loeffler’s blue, the organism has a finely punc-
tate appearance ; it is 0 * 8-1 • 7 p, long and 0 • 3-0 • 4 /x broad. It is not
decolorised by Gram’s method.

On old cultures involution forms are frequent. In the hanging drop
movements are visible, but these are probably Brownian in character.

The bacilli are most abundant in the convulsive stage ; and if the
case be uncomplicated with bronchitis or pneumonia, pure cultures are
easily obtained.

Bacteriology of Sour Corn.§ — In the United States the canning of
maize is an important industry, and any neglect or defect in the treat-
ment of the grain may result in considerable loss, owing to the contents
of the tins turning sour. The souring is hastened by a high tempera-
ture, and retarded by a low one ; thus samples of one and the same
packing if sent to a cold climate might keep, and if sent to a sunny land
might soon turn sour. Messrs. S. C. Prescott and W. L. Underwood,
in an interesting paper dealing with the historical, commercial, and bac-
teriological aspects of the subject, state that the souring of tinned maize
is directly due to the action of microbes, and they describe twelve species
of bacteria which they have isolated from cases of sour corn. Four of
these were also discovered in the ears of green corn — a fact which makes
it probable that the souring depends principally on defective sterilisa-
tion. Plates illustrating the appearance of cultures of two of the

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xii. (1898) pp. 240-62.

t Johns Hopkins Hosp. Bull., ix. (1898) pp. 79-83 (2 figs.).

X Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 576.

§ Technology Quarterly, xi. (1898) pp. 6-30 (6 pis.).

464

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

organisms, Bacillus U and B. W are given. The morphological and
cultural characters of all the 12 species are described in separate
tables.

Excretion of Typhoid Bacilli in the Urine.* — Dr. J. Petruschky
states that in many cases of enteric fever, typhoid bacilli may be found
in considerable numbers in the urine. The germs are alive, and may
amount to millions per cubic centimetre of urine. This excretion of
living typhoid organisms may last for a week, or even be protracted into
the convalescent stage. These observations, though extremely interest-
ing, are merely confirmatory, as it was previously known that typhoid
bacilli were occasionally to be found in the urine. They are, however,
extremely important as far as regards the epidemiology and prophylaxis
of enteric fever.

Micro-organisms of Turned Wmes.| — MM. F. Bordas, Joulin, and
Raczkowski isolated from wines made in Algeria and the south of
France, two filiform bacilli, one of which is described under the name
B. roseus vini. All the wines in which these organisms occurred have
the microscopical appearance and chemical reactions of turned wines
(“ vins dits tournes ”). B. roseus vini was isolated bv successive passages in
glucose-yeast-water, and then on plates composed of glucose-yeast-water
and 10 per cent, gelatin. On the plates it forms large thick white colonies.
In yeast- water, with 10 per cent, glucose, it forms a thick wrinkled scum,
which in a few days becomes rose-coloured, the liquid turning brown,
and becoming ammoniacal. The scum is composed of filaments having
a diameter of 0 • 6-0 * 8 /x. The filaments are mobile, are formed of seg-
ments, are easily stained, and are ciliated. The ciliated bacilli are
ovoid. As the scum grows old it deposits a sediment, consisting chiefly
of spores. The bacillus turns nitrates into nitrites, does not form indol
in pepton-bouillon, and coagulates milk, imparting to it an acid reaction.
The effect of cultivating in yeast-water, to which glycerin, glucose, or
tartar was added, was studied. The bacillus has no action on alcohol,
and does not ferment saccharose. Inoculated in wine, a copious sedi-
ment is deposited ; the glucose and glycerin are diminished, while the
tartar and the acidity are unaffected.

By itself this bacillus does not appear to be able to turn wine ; but
when associated, as it usually is, with another microbe, Bacillus B,
which destroys the tartar and also acts on the glucose and glycerin,
wine becomes turned.

Bacillus of Bitter Wine.J — MM. F. Bordas, Boulin, and Eaczkowski
state that the bacillus of bitter wine possesses a terminal spore and cilia
at one extremity. It is extremely mobile, and is cultivable in media
containing nitrate of potash, but does not convert this salt into nitrite.
It does not form indol in peptonised media, and it coagulates milk. It
resists desiccation up to 100°. Its optimum temperature lies between
25° and 37°. Inoculated in sterilised wine, the bacillus was found to
exert considerable influence on the contained glycerin, giving rise to the
production of acetic and butyric acids. A comparison of the tables of
wine rendered bitter and of the control wine, shows that the former

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 577-83.

t Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1050-3. t Tom. cit., pp. 1291-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

465

loses in sugar, tartar, and glycerin, and gains in fixed and volatile
acids.

Pathogenesis and Histogenesis of Cancer.* — Mr. F. J. Bose states
that he has succeeded in cultivating cancer parasites in blood rendered
incoagulable by leech extract. The organisms are cellular and of very
variable form ; from these develop fragile spore forms, and eventually
organisms of minute size. They belong to the class Sporozoa, as is
shown by their staining and structure, the evolution in the cells, their
evolutionary cycle, and their dimorphism. That the Sporozoa developed
in cancers are to be regarded as the pathogenic agents is indicated by
their constant presence, their numbers, and their dissemination in the
zone of increase. Additional corroboration is afforded by the results
of inoculating tumours containing parasites ; and the only objection that
can be raised is that cancer has not yet been reproduced by means of
pure cultures. This difficulty is considered to be got over by means
of inoculations made with aseptically obtained Sporozoa. When the
rabbit is inoculated with C. oviforme , tumours, identical with spontaneous
tumours, are formed. When Klossia is inserted into the peritoneal sac
of dogs, rabbits, and guinea-pigs, little disseminated tumours develop ;
and spores of gregarina inserted into the lymphatic sac of frogs cause
the formation of a tumour. In tumours of sarcomatous structure the
transition from spore to sporozoit, and the different forms of cell-
inclusions, may be followed.

The histogenesis of tumours receives much light if their parasitic
nature be conceded ; for when epithelium is invaded, the cells proliferate
and hypertrophy, or may be destroyed by the development of the parasite ;
and when the parasite invades the connective tissue, a neoplasm, origin-
ally of epithelial origin, assumes a connective tissue type. Hence, the
only specific element of malignant tumours is the parasite, and the process
is really a chronic inflammation due to the action of a parasite, which
at first provokes a hypernutrition of the cell, and afterwards destroys
it by living at its expense and compressing its nucleus more and more.

New Form of Tuberculosis.f — M. Ceourmont describes an atypical
form of human tuberculosis due to .the presence of a streptobacillus.
The organism grew freely in peptonised bouillon, the medium becoming
cloudy in 24 hours at 30°, and without the formation of any pellicle
or odour. On gelatin the growth was thin, white, and creamy. The
organism is easily stained, but is decolorised by Gram’s method. It is
a streptobacillus, the ends of which are slightly rounded. It is devoid
of motion. Inoculation of the pure culture produced miliary tubercles,
caseating abscess, and lesions similar to those produced by inoculation
of the original fluid ; and the organism could subsequently be demon-
strated in the various lesions.

Mobility of the Tubercle Bacillus.^ — Herr W. Schumowski states
that he has often observed mobile specimens of tubercle bacilli. By
examining young bouillon cultures in the hanging drop, numerous
rodlets may be seen moving. The motion consists in a vibration of the

* Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 1293-5.

t Arch. Med. Exper., Jan. 1898. See Epit. Brit. Med. Journ., 1898, No. 389.

X Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 838-9.

466

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

body by which its position becomes changed, and by constant vibration
it moves from place to place. If the drop be protected from drying,
the movements will last for 48 hours. The mobility is more energetic
when a particle from a glycerin-agar culture is placed in a drop of
bouillon. Although the movement is probably due to the presence of
flagella, these were never observed either in stained or in unstained
preparations.

Therapeutic Value of the New Tuberculin.* — Prof. P. Baumgarten
and Herr K. Walz have made experiments with the new tuberculin of
Koch, for the purpose of ascertaining what therapeutic or curative value
it may possess in the treatment of tuberculosis.

Tuberculous guinea-pigs and rabbits were injected with small,
medium, and large doses of the tuberculin (T.R.). The results were
j)ractically the same as those from the old tuberculin, and may be
summed up as follows. Small doses are of no use, and the larger the
dose the greater the disadvantage. Indeed it would appear that the
tuberculosis of animals treated with tuberculin T.R. runs a more
malignant and rapid course than that of untreated animals.

Immunity of Fowls to Tuberculosis. j* — MM. Lannelongue and
Achard have found from experiments on fowls that these birds are
refractory to human tuberculosis. Cultures, pus, or pieces taken directly
from human organs, or which have been passed through guinea-pigs and
rabbits, only excite local lesions, without the virus becoming generalised.
Neither have dead bacilli any effect. The bacilli, however, not only
remain alive, but retain their virulence for quite a long time, on the
average for 70-80 days, sometimes for as long as 130 days. The serum
of birds has no immunising effect.

New Thermophilous Bacillus.f — Herr H. 0. Laxa makes a pre-
liminary communication on a bacillus which was isolated from the scum
formed in the course of sugar- making. The organism was cultivated in
glycerin-agar and bouillon. It presented itself in the form of inter-
lacing filaments, which afterwards resolved into bacilloid elements, much
resembling in size B. proteus Zerikeri . Elliptical spores were formed.
The organism only began to grow at 25°, thriving more and more with
increase of temperature up to near 58°, above which it ceased to vege-
tate. The bacillus is extremely resistant to moist and dry heat, standing
dry heat up to 150°, and moist heat up to 100° for 15 minutes. It was
found to be indifferent to the reaction of the medium, and it grew
equally well with or without the presence of oxygen. In substrata con-
taining sugar the growth of the bacillus was very energetic, and gas was
always formed when saccharose was present. With carbohydrates the
growth-reaction was acid ; with pepton and asparagin solutions it was
alkaline, owing to the formation of ammonia. Nitrates were reduced
to nitrites. The scum formation produced after inoculation with pure
cultures supports the view that this thermophilous bacillus is the ex-
citing cause of the scum*

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lta Abtk., xxiii. (1898) pp. 587-93.

t Semaine Med., 1897, p. 175. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii. (1898) p. 412.

t Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 362-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

467

Bacterium of Foot-and-Mouth Disease.* — According to Herren A.
Stutzer and Ii. Hartleb, the exciting cause of foot-and-mouth disease is a
very polymorphic bacterium belonging to the coli group. The varia-
tions in shape are principally due to alterations in the nutritive and
environmental conditions. In bouillon only rodlets appear ; but if milk
be added, long filaments arise, and in citrate of ammonia solution the
organism assumes the spirillum form. Under other circumstances the
appearances are those of cocci and streptococci, and even yeast-like
forms appear. The reaction of the medium seems a matter of indiffer-
ence, as the organism thrives when it is alkaline, neutral, or acid. Pure
cultures produced fever, with palsy of the hind-limbs, in cattle, and the
formation of vesicles in the mucosa of the nose and tongue. The culti-
vated organism soon loses its virulence. The original derivation was
the milk from the diseased udders.

New Bacillus pathogenic to Rats.f — Herr B. Issatschenko isolated
a bacillus from the spleen and liver of rats dead from an epizootic
malady which broke out in the laboratory at St. Petersburg in 1897.

The bacillus is mobile, and has lateral flagella. Its size varies much,
and is dependent on the medium and the age of the culture. It grows
well on all the usual substrata. The growth varies in colour from white
to yellow. The microbe is very pathogenic to rats and mice ; infection
of the mouth producing death in 8-14 days in the former, and in 4-8
days in the latter. It has no effect on pigeons or rabbits.

The results of experiments indicate the practical importance of the
discovery.

Myxomatogenous Virus. f — Under this title Prof. G. Sanarelli de-
scribes a malady which began in 1896 at Montevideo among the labora-
tory rabbits. The first symptom was conjunctivitis, followed in 24-48
hours by swelling of the eyelids and the appearance of subcutanedus
tumours all over the body. The parts about the face and perinaeum
became thickened, and there was a hyperplasia of the connective tisues
generally where skin and mucosa are adjacent. Inspection of the bodies
after death showed subcutaneous tumours of gelatinous appearance,
elastic consistence, and highly vascular ; hypertrophy of the lymphatic
glands, orchitis, and swelling of the spleen. Microscopical examination
of the parts affected showed highly vascular myxomatous tissue. All
attempts at isolating a particular virus failed, but the disease was easily
transferred by means of blood, a fragment of a tumour, a drop of the
secretion from the lids, or by a minute piece of a viscus. The infection
could be transmitted subcutaneously, by intravenous injection, by the
stomach, or through the anterior chamber of the eye. By allowing the
blood to spontaneously coagulate, or by centrifuging it, an optically pure
and perfectly sterile serum was obtained. Notwithstanding that this
serum was bacteriologically pure, it still contained the virus, and on this
ground the author throws out the suggestion that there may be agents
of disease so small that they are undemonstrable by the Microscope.
The virus may be fortified by passage through several rabbits, may be
weakened by age or antiseptics, and is destroyed by heating to 55° for a
few minutes.

* Arch. f. Hygiene, xxx. p. 372. See Beihefte Bot. Centralbl., vii. (1898)
pp. 494-6. f Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 873-4.

X Tom. cit., pp. 865-73.

468

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Mice, guinea-pigs, monkeys, and birds were refractory to the virus ;
one positive result was obtained with dogs. The appearances, however,
were those partly of inflammation and partly of epithelioma. Two trials
of the rabbit serum were made on the human subject. The injection was
followed by pain and swelling of the eyes. Attempts to produce a
vaccine serum failed.

iEtiology of Beri-Beri.* — Dr. W. K. Hunter observed in fresh blood
of two cases of beri-beri micro-organisms flitting about in the plasma.
In cultures made from the blood a white staphylococcus developed. In-
jection into rabbits induced degeneration of the nerves. The same
coccus was isolated from rice, and produced parenchymatous degenera-
tion of the nerves in rabbits. The author considers that rice is the
source of infection.

Lafar’s Technical Mycology.! — The translation into English of vol. i.
of Prof. F’. Lafar’s excellent work on Technical Mycology is a real boon
to all who are interested in vegetable microbes. The subtitle, ‘ The
Utilisation of Micro-organisms in the Arts and Manufactures,’ indicates
the line taken by the author, who has specially directed his attention to
the requirements of the brewer, distiller, and agricultural chemist ; in
short, to all who are interested in fermentation from the industrial side.
Though principally intended for practical purposes, the theoretical and
historical aspects of fermentation are copiously represented, and from
the first page to the last the volume is garnished with facts drawn from
their original sources, an initiative which is as useful as it is praise-
worthy. The author’s style, well rendered into English by Mr. C. T. C.
Salter, is clear and bright, and a perusal of this work will be found far
more interesting than that of most of the present day fiction.

After an appreciative preface by E. 0. Hansen, follows the intro-
duction, wherein are dealt with the theories of spontaneous generation,
and of fermentation and the organisms of fermentation.

The rest of the volume treats of schizomycetic fermentation, dis-
cussed in nine sections and thirty-eight chapters. Just to indicate the
scope and general tenor of the work, we will mention some of these, as
the section on lactic fermentation and allied decompositions. This
section includes chapters on the general characteristics of the lactic acid
bacteria ; the production of optically active organic compounds by fer-
mentation ; the artificial souring of cream ; the curdling of milk ; lactic
acid bacteria in distilling, brewing, and vinification, and in the prepara-
tion of fodder ; the part played by bacteria in tanning.

Other sections deal with the formation of mucus and allied phe-
nomena of decomposition, the transformations and decompositions of
organic nitrogenous compounds, and with oxidising fermentations. In
this last section are discussed the iron bacteria, the sulphur bacteria, the
nitrifying bacteria, the acetic fermentation, and the oxydases.

Space does not permit to allude to more than the few casual details
already given, but these will b6 enough to indicate the general scope of
the work which, from its enormous stores of facts, logically placed and
clearly recited, will be sure of the success it deserves. It is to be hoped
that the second volume will not be long in coming.

* Lancet, 1898, i. p. 1748.

f London, Charles Griffin & Co., 1898, xviii. and 405 pp., 1 pi. and 90 figs.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

460

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

(1) Stands.

Greenough’s Stereoscopic Microscope and its Auxiliary Appli-
ances, f — Herren S. Czapski and W. Gebliardt, of Jena, commence their

Fig. 75.

article by setting forth the advantages of a binocular Microscope, and
by discussing the conditions which should be aimed at in the construc-

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands ; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives ; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation ; (6) Miscellaneous.

f Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. pp. 289-312 (7 figs.).

470

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tion of such an instrument. A sketch of the history of Greenough’s
endeavour to solve the problem is also given. In analysing the con-
ditions of orthomorphic vision, Greenough’s equation is arrived at, viz.

Y = -=■ , where Y = the linear magnification of the single Microscope ;

Cl

D = distance of the observer’s eyes ; d = distance of the light entrances
of both Microscopes. Another condition can be thus expressed : —
“ The image must in all its parts in each Microscope-tube appear from
the point of sight under the same angular distance as the object from
the focus of the primary rays or still more simply, “ Entrance-pupils
and exit-pupils of the Microscope must be on the same points of
junction ” ( Knotenpunhte ).

In order to investigate this last condition, one must realise that
corporeal images are never seen as such, but construct themselves by
an unknown psychic process out of two different plane retinal images.
Let us take three points a, b, c (fig. 75) not lying in a straight line as the

Fig. 76.

object, and imagine two Microscopes Mlt M2 inclined to one another at
an angle of about 14°, and so directed towards the group of points that
the picture of all three falls in the field of view of both Microscopes.
Let Z, r, be the “ entrance-pupils ” of both Microscopes in Abbe’s sense,
i.e. the focus of the image-forming pencil of rays, and consequently the
perspective projection centre for representation. Let ch cr be the pro-
jections of the point c on the line a b produced backwards from Z and r.
Then the working of the Microscope confines itself to projecting in all
its parts an equally magnified reproduction of a b c, and a b cr.

The determination of the visual angles under which the images of
a cxb and acrb, i.e. ALCLBL and ARCRBR, must be presented to both
eyes in the case of normal accommodation, requires that the optical axes
should virtually intersect in a point C, whose distances in space from
A and B stand to one another in the same ratio as those of c from a and b.
This is satisfied only when the angles, under which the image-points
AL, BL, Cl, Ar, Br, Cr appear simultaneously to the eye, are equal to
those under which the corresponding object-points a, b, c from Z and r
respectively appear. Increase of this angle would be in stereoscopic

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

471

view too great an approach of C to A, B, i.e. a relative flattening of
the corporeal image, diminished plastique ; reduction of the angle, on
the contrary, would effect too great a separation of C from A, B, i.e.
exaggerated plastique.

The points of an optical system from which the views of objects
indifferently proceed are well known by Listing’s name of “junction-
points” ( KnotenpunJde ), and they stand to one another in the relation
of image and object. Therefore the simplest expression of Greenough’s
condition for orthomorphy is as given above, viz. “ Entrance-pupils, &c.”

Fig. 77.

From this the formula Y = — can he easily deduced ; for — = — —
(by similar triangles). . r

A system of Porro prisms is used ; and, in order to avoid the derange- .
ment incidental to the lengthening of the tube for adaptation to different
eyesights, a rotation of the tube is employed, which causes an eccentric
rotation of the oculars, and allows wide limits of adaptability. (See
fig. 76.)

As stops are usually placed near the object, and for many purposes
would be a hindrance, they are here adapted for unscrewing. But for
the attainment of orthomorphy they are quite inadmissible, as a com-

472

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

parison of sight with and without these stops teaches. Instead of the
“entrance-pupils,” here the lower “junction-points,” it is more con-
venient to apply stops to the “ exit-pupils” or upper “junction-points.”
The objective lenses are brought together on a small slide working
sideways with a push motion until the fine-adjustment screw is needed.
This slide can eventually be fitted with stronger or weaker objectives.

One of the objectives permits of an in-and-
out screwing movement, to produce sharp
definition to the corresponding eye. Com-
plete presentation to both eyes is an essen-
tial condition of perfect stereoscopic vision.
Oculars of different strengths can be fitted.

The auxiliary apparatus includes, — (A) a
prism rotator, and (B) a capillary tube-
stage rotator.

A. The design and 'working of this little
apparatus are easily understood from fig. 78.
The object O is placed on the hypothenuse
plane of a reflection prism P, so that it is
exactly perpendicular over the middle of one
of the two silvered right-angled planes
When the examination of 0 from above is
finished, and the observer wishes to examine
the under side, he has merely to push the
prism P with the object thereon sideways until O comes under the axis
A A, and to lower the corresponding tube. A second half-sized, prism
p, worked also sideways, will give a side view.

The framework containing these prisms, and the mode of adjusting
them, is shown in fig. 79, which is fully described in the original paper.

Fig. 78.

Fig. 79.

B. The object of this (fig. 80) is to facilitate observation with the
highest powers — even with immersion objectives — of minute objects
which it is desired to view from all points, but whose examination by
an ordinary method of rotation would be tedious, and to which much
movement might perhaps be productive of injury.

A rectangular plate bears in the direction of its long axis a triangular
channel r, which passes through a circular sunk opening o. The cir-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

473

cumference of this orifice has underneath a slight projection bearing
a glass plate, the whole forming a chamber of slight depth (about
0*75 mm.). The function of the chamber is to regulate the flow of the
homogeneous-immersion medium, so as to avoid injury to the object by

Fig. 80.

alteration of the position of the cover-glass. A screw and drumhead
divided into degrees works in an axially perforated cylinder, and effects
the rotation of the chamber.

A list of advantages claimed for the apparatus closes the description.

Two Old Microscopes exhibited by the President at the last
Meeting. — The first (fig. 81), which was made by Benjamin Martin, is
an attempt to improve Cuff’s “ new constructed double Microscope ”
(1744), with what success we shall presently see. The instrument,
which is mounted on a folding tripod in place of the square box foot,
differs essentially from Cuff’s, as it is a stage focuser. Cuff’s Microscope
had a sliding coarse adjustment, the limb which carries the body sliding
on a square pillar fixed to the box foot. A jamb screw was attached
for the purpose of fixing the limb at a mark engraved on the square
pillar, corresponding to the number on the objective on the nose-piece.
Alterations in focus were then made by the fine-adjustment screw, which
caused the body either to approach or recede from the stage.

In Martin’s the body remains fixed while the stage is moved up or
down by rack and pinion, until the stage is brought to a mark engraved
on the fixed pillar, corresponding to a number on the objective.
Parallel to the fixed pillar is a square steel bar, to which the stage may
be clamped by a jamb screw. When the fine-adjustment screw is turned,
it moves this square steel bar up or down, carrying with it the stage,
and in doing this, let it be noted, it turns the coarse-adjustment pinion !
This is, of course, a much inferior method to that of Cuff’s, both on
account of the stage focusing, and also with regard to the manner it is
effected, which causes a superabundance of friction. The loss of time
on the fine-adjustment screw amounts to no less than one and a half
revolutions !

There are six objectives, with a single lieberkuhn common to them
all ; the lieberkuhn slides on a long nose-piece, after the manner of
Cuff’s, marks being engraved to indicate its proper position with any
given objective.

There are also six magnifiers for use as simple Microscopes ; three
of these are fitted with proper lieberkuhns. There is an ordinary spring
slide-holder, as well a supplementary stage with transverse motion
in arc, an arrangement peculiar to Martin’s Microscopes. The limb

474 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

“ "irC mirrors, ... .1 * to. - *■» <■«■“ 9 “■

'““he opticl p«ti»» °< *«• Microscope is

•J5S CilK' «£ piilioos, .Mr combine! fees

being If in. , f i „„ n0se-T)iece an equi-convex lens

There is at the upper end of ^“8 tPuot 0f the eye-piece, hut
of 54,- in. focus ; this must be ,®°“s , kPeng 0f the objectives, for it

of the objective. In reahty it is the objectives, it is only

is common to them all; so that, inch g g ticaJny speaking, is an
the front lens that is ,<?iaӤe4' 0f Martin. The same optical

improvement, is probably th< « mT* Options copied one
arrangement was employed by Adams m I

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO.

475

another so freely that, in the absence of any published account, it is
difficult to determine either the originator of any particular improve-
ment or the date of its introduction. As, however, Benjamin Martin
was a mathematician, who understood both the theory and practice of
optics, this invention may be safely credited to him. The body has a
draw-tube.

The date of this Microscope must be placed between 1759 when Martin
came to London, and 1782 when he died. If, therefore, we say between
1760 and 1770, we shall not be far wrong. It is very portable, the
outside measure of its box being 10J X 7J X 2J in., and its weight in
box with apparatus 4J lbs.

The second Microscope (fig. 82) is by Cary ; it is a small simple
Microscope of a common form, fitted with rack-and-pinion stage focussing.
The vertical pillar screws into a brass plate, let into the box where the
hasp is usually placed.

It has also a compound body which may be used in conjunction
with the simple lenses. This compound body, which is only 2f in.
long, has a compound eye-lens, similar in arrangement to that of
Martin’s described above. There are four powers, which screw into
one another in the usual manner. The box measures only 3J x 3
X 1J in.

Electrically Heated and Regulated Warm Stage.* — Dr. Rudolf

Kraus, after summarising the various heating stages that have been
invented since the first (by Strieker in 1871), points out that no new
application of electric methods has taken place since Stein’s in 1884.
Stein’s method was to place in the hollow stage a spiral connected with

Fig. 83.

an electric current ; but this plan had the faults of deficient regulation
and liability to great variations of temperature, due to the fact that
air is not a good conductor of heat, and therefore is not adapted for
a steady constant heating medium.

The next idea was to make use of liquids as conducting media ; and
after many attempts Herr Ehman has succeeded in finding one, viz.
paraffin oil, which conducts heat and is not itself decomposed by the
current.

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., xxiii. (1898) pp. 10-20 (2 figs.).

2 K

1898

476

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The electrically heated object-stage consists of the stage proper,
silver spirals, paraffin oil, an ordinary graduated thermometer, and a
contact thermometer. There is also a relay (a Neefhammer). The
object-stage proper is a deep metal box containing a silver spiral con-
nected with the main current by m2n2. The regulating apparatus
consists of a contact thermometer inserted in the stage and the relay
in a wooden box. The contact thermometer is connected with the relay,
and closes and opens the current going to the relay from the battery B.*
The apparatus is worked as follows : — Contact m2 n2 is made with
St the main current, and the current entering by him into the spiral
heats it. The paraffin thus becomes warmed, and the temperature con-
tinues to rise until the quicksilver expanding reaches the point of the

Fig. 84.

platinum thread t. At this moment the current o q of the element B
is closed and the hammer A from E. Contact is opened by v p, wffiich,
in the rest position of the relay, is shut ; and the main current m n ,
m2 n2 is opened. No more heat now goes through the spiral, and the
temperature in the stage sinks. Therefore, when the quicksilver thread
of the contact thermometer operates, the adjoining current Z S 0 Q is
opened and the main current again introduced. The alteration of the
currents is marked by an audible click from the hammer. Only a
very weak current (0*2 ampere) goes through the spiral. It was found
possible to regulate the temperature to 0 • 1°, and to keep it constant
even for a whole day.

* The contact thermometer is apparently in the \ liquid, and only'itsj extremity
is visible. This arrangement would allow of the conduction to the liquid of any
heat which would be generated in the contact thermometer, so tending to counter-
balance the loss by radiation and keep the paraffin at a constant temperature. — Ed.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

477

In addition to this advantage of sure regulation and constancy of
temperature, the object-stage admits of a rapid attainment of a desired
temperature as well as of a rapid alteration.

The attainment of a desired temperature (e.g. 37°) occurs diiring
the passage of the main current. When the thermometer shows 37°,
then the platinum thread is brought into contact with the quicksilver
thread, and a distinct click is heard from the relay. The temperature
then remains constant, and the main current, being shut off, is replaced by
the auxiliary current.

A higher or lower temperature is easily attained. To get a higher
temperature, e.g. 45°, the platinum thread is withdrawn to a proper dis-
tance by rotating the screw-head until the graduated thermometer shows
45°. The quicksilver and the platinum threads in the contact thermo-
meter meet ; the main current is shut off and the relay called into action
as before. A reverse movement of the platinum thread combined with
exclusion of the currents permits a cooling down somewhat below the
desired temperature. Then by manipulation of the currents the tempe-
rature is raised to the desired point.

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Zeiss’ Hew Comparison Spectroscope.* — This instrument is in-
tended to assist botanists and physiologists in the study of such coloured
substances as chlorophyll, and is so named because its special feature is
to render possible an exact comparison of the absorption spectra of solu-
tions. As will be seen from the accompanying figure (fig. 85), the appa-
ratus has the general form of a Microscope, and so far resembles one that
the special spectral arrangement can be applied to a Microscope stand.
The object-table F bears two orifices, 4 cm. apart, through which two
mirrors reflect the sun or lamplight perpendicularly upwards. Each of
these two pencils, passing through prisms situated in the horizontal box,
becomes decomposed and forms a spectrum. The two spectra appear in
close proximity, and can be observed through the broad slit C in the
eye-piece.

In the side tube D is placed the wave-length scale, which is illumi-
nated by the mirror at the tube’s mouth, its image being projected be-
tween the two spectra. The width of the slit, and consequently the
brightness of the spectra, can be altered by the turning of the knob A.

Rotation of the tube-piece B brings out sharp presentation of the
scale and spectra ; the screw E causes a side movement of the scale
image. The two plane and concave mirrors are movable round vertical
and horizontal axes. When the necessary mirror adjustments have
been made, two spectra with the most important of Fraunhofer’s lines
are seen over one another. It is easy by movement of the scale to get
the D line on a = 589. When daylight is not available, a spirit-lamp
with a salted wick or asbestos thread soaked in NaCl solution may be
used. When direct sunlight is used, the number of Fraunhofer’s lines
that appear is endless. The cross-piece carrying the prisms and super-
incumbent ocular slides up and down in a vertical axis, and can be
clamped at any desired height.

* Bot. Centralbl., lxxiii. No. 10, pp. 349-52 (1 fig.).

2 k 2

478

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

For comparative observation of absorption spectra .of various solu-
tions it is best to use Zeiss’ double absorption vessels. The manage-

Fig. 85.

ment of the instrument is easy and remarkably convenient, and its great-
feature is its adaptability with even relatively unfavourable light.

C6) Miscellaneous.

i New Thermo-Regulator.* — Dr. F. G. Novy Las devised a thermo-
regulator which can be used for high as well as low temperatures. Fig.

* Journ. Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) pp. 91-2 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

479

86 shows the apparatus as a whole, reduced in size. Fig. 87 illustrates
the construction of the regulator. Part A is provided with two lateral
tubes which have an internal diameter of 6 mm., and has a ground in-
ternal surface indicated by the stippled portion of the drawing. Part B
is ground to fit the preceding. It is provided with an opening (1)
through which the gas passes into the interior. The lower portion of B
has a smaller opening (4) 1 mm. in diameter. The lower portion of
tube B has an internal diameter of 2 mm., and when placed in position

Fig. 86.

Fig. 87.

inside of A, it should come within one or two millimetres of the bottom
of the cup. In this case, the first droplet of mercury, as it issues from
below, shuts off the outflow of gas. The upper part of C is solid, and
the lower part hollow. The gas enters through a large opening (2) and
passes down to (4) the minimum outflow, and to (5) and out at (3). The
portion marked (6) is ground to fit exactly the corresponding part in B.
If this is not done properly, the minimum outflow of gas cannot be regu-
lated as perfectly as it can be otherwise. The upper portion of C is a
ground stopper fitting into B. The manipulation is simple. The gas

480 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING 10

enters through the upper lateral tube. If it is desired to diminish the
inflow of gas, this can be done by turning B. The gas passes through
(1) into the inner space and leaves at (2). The gas goes down, and a
portion leaves through the minimum supply opening (4), while the re-
mainder passes down through (5) and out of (3). By turning C the
minimum outflow of gas can be regulated at will. The regulator works
exceedingly well, especially in connection with Murrill’s gas pressure
regulator.

New Gas-Pressure Regulator.* — Mr. P. Murrill has invented a gas-
pressure regulator, the strong points of which are efficiency, simplicity,
durability, and cheapness. The outer vessel or pail is 6 in. (15 cm.) in

Fig. 88. Fig. 89.

Fig. 90.

diameter and 7 in. (18 cm.) deep. Through the centre of the bottom
three tubes enter, rising 5£ in. (14*5 cm.) above the bottom. The
direction and arrangement of these tubes is shown in the illustrations.

The inlet tube (fig. 89, A) is fitted with
a stopcock to which a 4-in. (10 cm.)
lever arm is attached. On the inside
of the pail are soldered three vertical
U-shaped grooves extending 3 in. (8 cm.)
above the top. The inner vessel or float
is 5 in. (13 cm.) in diameter and 6 in.
(15 cm.) deep. On the outside are
soldered three vertical flanges, corre-
sponding to the three grooves in the
outer vessel. To the top of the float
is soldered a stiff wire ring, and this is
connected with the lever arm by a wire
of such length that the valve is wide
open when the float is at its lowest position. The float with attachments
should weigh about 25 oz. (700 grm.), under which weight the gas will
be delivered at about 40 mm. pressure ; but by means of weights placed

PLAN- TOP OF INNER
a PAIL REMOVED

Journ. Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) pp. 92-1 (4 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

481

on the float the pressure at which the gas is delivered may be varied
at will. The outer vessel is to be filled with water to the depth of 5 in.
(13 cm.) ; or glycerin or liquid paraffin may be used.

The operation of the apparatus is as follows. One of the two exit
tubes may be connected with a manometer, or both may go to burners.
Gas enters through the stopcock into the float which, as it rises, closes
the valve. If the outlets be closed, the float will rise until the valve is
entirely closed, in which position it will stand. When the exit tubes
are opened the float falls, the valve reopens, and gas is admitted at the
same rate at which it is consumed. The apparatus, which is made of
metal, is designed to be used in connection with a thermostat, and with
it the temperature may be held constant within 0*1° C.

Paraffin Imbedding Table.* — Mr. H. B. Ward has devised a modi-
fication of the ordinary paraffin imbedding table, which is superior to
the older type in several respects. The table is made of a triangle of
sheet copper with a base of 6 in. and a perpendicular height of 14 in.

Fig. 91.

The edges of the triangle are turned under and inward, giving to the
table a slightly rounded margin. In height, the main part of the table
measures 2 in., and it is about 4 in. high under the apex of the triangle
where the flame is applied. The legs are made of five-sixteenths copper
rod bent as shown in the illustration, and riveted to the copper sheet.

Circular Colonometers. — Mr. H. W. Jeffers t has constructed an
apparatus (fig. 92) for counting the colonies of bacteria on circular
plates. It consists of concentric zones which are divided into sections,
each having an area of 1 sq. cm. The Petri dish can be centred upon
this apparatus by the circles, and the area read from the line its edges
approach. To facilitate the reading of the area of the plate, the circles
80 and 120, whose areas are equal to 80 and 120 sq. cm. respectively,
were drawn as dotted circles, thus making the areas, marked a and b„
equal to one-half a square centimetre. The colonies in several areas
can be counted, an average taken, and the result multiplied by the
number of square centimetres in each p>late.

The colonometer devised by Mr. J. Weiss J (fig. 93) is made up of
eight concentric circles and 92 sector circles. The first or centre circle
is 1 cm. in diameter ; the second 3 cm. ; the third 5 cm. ; the fourth
7 cm., and so on to the eighth, which is 15 cm,

* Journ Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) pp. 88-9.
t Tom. cit., pp. 53-4 (1 fig.;. f Tom. cit., pp. 51-5 (1 fig.).

4S2

SUMMARY OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The counting is done as follows. An average number of colonies is
found in one of the sector circles, in a definite working area, and the
number is multiplied by the ratio of the area of the sector circle to the

Fig. 92.

Diameter one-half actual size.
Fig. 93.

’Diameter one-third actual size.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

483

area of the entire plate. The ratios are 2 : 1 = 9 ; 3 : 1 = 25 ; 4 : l§ji 49 ;
5:1 = 81; 6 : 1 = 121 ; 7:1 = 169 ; 8:1= 225.

Tims, if in a sector circle of circle G, the average number of colonies
were 12, then the number of colonies is 12 x 121 = 1452.

New Test-Plate.* — Dr. H. van Heurck, after alluding to the scarcity
of Nobert’s plates, suggests that microscopists may avail themselves of
the markings of diatoms for the purpose of testing the resolving power
of lenses. The author has carefully worked out the following table,
giving in parallel columns the diatom-equivalent of Nobert’s series.

Nobert’s series stops at 19, but the author has continued the calcula-
tion for 20, 21, and 22.

Nobert’s

Series.

Number of
Lines.

Number of
Diatom Lines.

Corresponding Diatoms.

1

443

445

Navicula dactylus (str. trans.)

2

665

620

„ lyra „

3

886

900

Epithemia turgida „

4

1108

1100

Navicula Brebissonii „

5

1329

1330

Stauroneis phoenicenteron (str. trans.)

6

1550

1500

Pieurosigma balticum „

7

1572

1800

„ angulatum „

8

1994

2000

Mastogloia meleagris „

9

2215

2200

Surirella gemma „

10

2437

2400

„ (str. long.)

11

2658

2600

Mastogloia exigua Lew. (str. trans.)

12

2880

2800

Van Heurckia rhomboides typ. (str. trans.)

13

3100

3100

Nitzschia linearis Sm. (str. trans.)

14

3323

„ „ var. tenuis (str. trans.)

15

3544

3400

Frustulia saxonica (str. trans.)

16

3766

3600

„ (str. long.)

(3800)

17

3987

t0

Amphipleura pellucida (str. trans.)

(4000)

18

4209

4200

„ „ small (str. trans.)

19

4430

20

4652

21

4872

22

5093

5000

„ „ (str. long.)

Improved Form of Wash-bottle.^ — Mr. W. C. Sturgis describes a
wash-bottle devised by Mr. A. L. Winton. The apparatus is easily made,
easily manipulated, and under perfect control. It consists of a glass

* Zeitschr. f. angew. Mj^kr., iv. (1898) pp. 1-4.
f Journ. Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) pp. 75-6 (1 fig.).

484

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Fig, 94.

vessel, the neck of which is plugged with a rubber stopper with two
perforations, through which pass two U-shaped tubes. To one of

these is fitted a glass nozzle through
the intermediary of a piece of rubber
tubing. Into the rubber tube is pressed
a solid glass ball with a diameter larger
than that of the lumen of the rubber
tube. The vessel having been filled,
the flow is secured by merely pressing
the tube immediately above the head D.
In this way a steady stream or single
drops are made to issue from the
nozzle (fig. 94).

The Microscope and its Applica-
tion.*— The concluding portion of
Prof. L. Dippel’s work on the Micro-
scope and its Application has recently
appeared. It contains the third and
fourth sections which deal with the
structure of the stem, the root and
leaves, and also with the development of the various parts of plants.
It is copiously illustrated with woodcuts.

B. Technique. f

!(1) Collecting- Objects, including- Culture Processes.

Method for Making Anaerobic Roll-Cultures with Gelatin or

A gar 4 — The following simple method for making anaerobic roll-
cultures is given by Herr G. Marpmann. Two test-tubes are required,
one of which can be pushed just inside the other. The larger is then
1/4 filled with the medium and sterilised. The medium is inoculated,
and then stirred up with a glass rod for 5-10 minutes. The smaller
tube is now jammed inside the larger, its surface having been previously
sterilised in the flame. The layer of inoculated medium is set by
plunging the tubes into cold water. The ends of both are sealed with
paraffin or covered with a rubber cap. The colonies are easily counted.
Inoculations can be made from any particular colony by merely with-
drawing the inner tube, or by cutting through the glass.

Cultivation Media suitable for Tropical Climates.§ — M. A. Morel,
writing from Java, wrhere the mean temperature is over 25° 0., states
that he has been in the habit of using for some time past a culture
medium which remains firm at the hottest season of the year. It is
composed of 12J parts white gelatin, 0*25 parts agar, and 90 parts

* Braunschweig, F. Vieweg u. Sohn, 1898, pp. 445-644, with Index, Contents,
and 132 woodcuts.

t This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

% Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., iv. (1898) pp. 37-8.

§ Tom. cit., pp. 4-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

485

bouillon. This mass filters well through a hot-water filter, it is only
liquefied over 30° C., and makes excellent plates which set in half an
hour without the aid of ice.

The addition of the small amount of agar does not prevent the
liquefaction of the medium by peptonising bacteria, though the action is
less rapid than on gelatin alone.

The gelatin may be clarified in the usual way by means of egg
albumen or by means of “ clearing clay,” a magnesium-aluminium
hydrosilicate, which in conjunction with water is decomposed into the
hydrate ; and this in the nascent condition has the property of throwing
down all muddy and even colouring matters, leaving a clear and colourless
supernatant fluid. When the gelatin or agar solutions are ready for
filtering, 1 per cent, of clearing clay is added, and having been well
shaken the mixture is steamed for one hour before it is filtered.

Production of Plague Serum.* — Herr G. Gabritschewsky, finding
that living cultures of plague bacillus were unsuitable for immunising
horses, made experiments for the purpose of obtaining immunising and
toxic substances from cultures of Bacillus pestis by plasmolysis. In
bouillon with 4 per cent, glycerin the plague bacillus grows freely, on
pure glycerin at 37° not at all. Horses were immunised by means of
cultures sterilised by the addition of glycerin. Agar plates were inocu-
lated from bouillon cultures, and in 24-48 hours at 37° a copious plague
culture was obtained. This was distributed in test-tubes, each containing
2 ccm. of glycerin. In 24 hours a cloudy slimy mass was formed, and
this diluted with an equal bulk of bouillon was injected subcutaneously
into horses. At the injection site considerable infiltration occurred, and
the temperature rose to 39*2°. On intravenous injection the tempera-
ture rose to 40°, falling again after 24-48 hours. This immunising
method is only suitable for horses, as glycerin by itself is poisonous
to mice, and in rabbits and guinea-pigs causes local necrosis.

The rest of the paper is devoted to the plasmolytic method of
sterilising cultures.

Culture of Pleurococcus.f — Miss Dorothea F. M. Pertz recommends
for the culture of this organism Knop’s solution 0 * 2 per cent, in sterilised
glass dishes and flasks ; also in hanging drops of the same solution.
Chodat’s filamentous form of the alga did not occur.

(2) Preparing- Objects.

Method for Preparing Plankton Organisms. :£ — Herr G. Marpmann
gives the following for preparing soft organisms such as plasmodes,
Radiolaria, Infusoria, &c. A 1 per cent, solution of hydrochlorate of
cocain is added to the fluid to be examined in the proportion of one-
third to one-half the volume of the latter. Observation under the
Microscope shows that the organisms, even the lower plants, lie quite
still, their processes, tentacles, &c. being fully extended. A drop of
formalin is then added. This kills and fixes the organisms at once.

* Russ. Arch. f. Pathol., klin. Med. u. Bakt., 1897. See Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par.,
lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 808-9.

f Rep. Brit. Ass. Toronto, 1897 (1898) p. 864.
t Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., iv. (1898) pp. 42-3.

486

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

It is now a very easy task to stain such objects, and mount them in
glycerin, glycerin-jelly, or balsam. If they are mounted in balsam the
preparations should be successively treated with alcohol, xylol, and
lavender oil. Care must be taken lest the organisms get dry dining the
process.

Fixing and Preparing Freshwater Algae.* — F. Pfeiffer R. v. Well-
heim recommends the following process. The fixing fluid is composed
of equal parts in volume of 40 per cent, formol, pyroligneous acetic
acid, and methyl-alcohol. After decanting the greater part of the water
from the alga, the fixing fluid is added, and must be at least double in
volume of the water that remains. The algae may remain in this fluid
for weeks or months. If the alga is of a gelatinous character, it must
be transferred from the fixing fluid into strong alcohol ; and this must
always be done before examining or staining.

Algae fixed in this way may be stained by any of the familiar colouring
reagents. Very favourable colouring solutions are the following : —
(1) 100 ccm. of 50 per cent, alcohol, with 2-3 ccm. of iron chloride
solution in 90 per cent, or in absolute alcohol ; (2) A concentrated
solution of perfectly pure carmin-acid in 50 per cent, alcohol. Before
staining the object must lie in 50 per cent, alcohol. It must then remain
in solution (1) for at least 4—6 hours, and be then freed from the excess
of iron chloride by 50 per cent, alcohol. A few drops of solution (2) are
then added ; and the staining is completely effected in a few hours.
The object is next placed in 95 per cent, alcohol, and then transferred
to the imbedding substance.

By this process the structure of Spirotsenia trabeculata, and the
honey-comb structure of Oscillatoria princeps , are very well shown.

Preparing Parasitic Fungi.| — Prof. A. N. Berlese adopts the fol-
lowing method of preparing microscopic fungi parasitic on leaves. The
special advantage is that the observer can at once detect whether the
fungus is in the stage desired for examination, without waiting the result
of a long and tedious process.

Pieces of the leaf infected by the parasite are placed in absolute, or
in 96 per cent, alcohol, or in concentrated picric acid, or better, in a
mixture of 15 ccm. 0*5 per cent, chromic acid, 6 ccm. 1 per cent, osmic
acid, and 1 ccm. glacial acetic acid, and then in concentrated nitric acid.
After washing in distilled water and boiling in alcohol, they can be
examined under a low magnifying power. For imbedding, the material
is hardened in absolute alcohol and then placed in chloroform in a closed
glass vessel. The pieces of infected leaf remain floating on the chloro-
form. Alcohol is then run in until the material is completely covered
by it. After a short time the two fluids mix ; the material becomes
impregnated, and falls to the bottom of the vessel. The saturation is
generally completed after from four to six hours, and the pieces of leaf
are then placed in a concentrated solution of paraffin in chloroform or
directly in pure paraffin melting at 50° C. After sectioning, the sections
are freed from paraffin by turpentine-oil ; then placed in absolute alco-
hol until required for staining.

* Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., xlviii. (1898) pp. 53-9, 99-105.

t Jakrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeifer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1897) pp. 166-70.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

487

Simple Method for Demonstrating the Production of Gas by Bac-
teria.*— Mr. H. E. Durham describes a modification of the fermentation
tube which consists in placing a small test-tube in an inverted position
within the ordinary test-tube used for cultivations. The small tube
should be freely movable when placed inside. The tubes are filled by
means of a burette, and are then steam sterilised on
three successive days. In most cases the smaller tube Fig. 95.
becomes completely filled after the first sterilisation, and
it is not usual for a bubble to persist after the second.

The tubes must not be tilted too much when they are
inoculated (fig. 95).

Demonstrating Pacini’s Corpuscles.^ — Pacini’s cor-
puscles, which may be regarded as the highest develop-
ment of nerve-endings, are easily demonstrable by intra
vitam staining. The animal is to be injected with a
saturated solution of methylen-blue at 37°, and when
dead the pieces are to be stained in saturated aqueous
solution of picrate of ammonia. Methylen-blue forms
with picrate of ammonia a combination insoluble in
water, but soluble in spirit. The preparations are then
immersed in a solution of molybdate of ammonia 1,
water 20, aceto-hydrochloric acid 1 drop. With molyb-
dic acid, methylen-blue forms a compound insoluble in
alcohol, and now the preparations can be dehydrated,
imbedded, cut, stained, and mounted without detriment.

Formol-Methylen-Blue Treatment of Nerve-fibres4
— Herren G. Eossolino and W. Muraview adopt the
following procedure for the demonstration of normal or
diseased nerve-fibres. The pieces are placed for one or
two days in 2-2*5 per cent, formalin, and then trans-
ferred finally to 4 per cent, formalin. After at least
four days the formalin may be exchanged for 95 per cent,
alcohol, and the pieces teased out or sectioned. The
pieces or sections are stained in a hot 0 * 5 per cent, aqueous methylen-
blue solution. After the solution has cooled down, the preparations
are transferred to 1 per cent, alcoholic solution of anilin for a few
seconds or for some minutes. They are then washed in 95 per cent,
alcohol to remove the anilin, cleared up in cajeput oil, and mounted
in balsam.

By this procedure two different kinds of nerve-fibres can be distin-
guished. In one of these the medullary sheath is studded all over with
small round granules of variable size and form. The method is satis-
factory also for the nerve-cells and the connective tissue elements. The
preparations are permanent, retaining the stain well, but they do not
bear exposure to sunlight.

Demonstrating the Nucleoli of Cells in Central Nervous Sys-
tem.§ — Herr Y. Euzicka reports a method for demonstrating the histo-

* Brit. Med. Journ., 1898, i. p. 1387 (1 fig.).

f Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., iv. (1898) pp. 38-41.

X Neurol. Centralbl., xvi. (1897) pp. 722-7.

§ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898) pp. 452-5.

488

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

logical structure and peculiarities of nucleoli in the cells of the central
nervous system. Pieces of spinal cord, 0* * * §5 centimetre thick, may be
hardened in alcohol, or they may be first fixed in saturated solution of
sublimate, or in commercial formol diluted to one-half, and then after-
hardened in alcohol.

The celloidin sections are immersed for 10 seconds in warm 1 per
cent, aqueous methylen-blue solution, or in carbol fuchsin. The sections
are decolorised in alcohol, and then placed in chloroform, which dissolves
out the celloidin. After dehydrating in alcohol and clearing in cajeput
oil, the sections are mounted in Canada balsam.

By this method, while the nuclear mass remains unstained, the nucleoli
or nuclear corpuscles are highly coloured, and show one centrally placed
body, or several extremely small granules with no definite distribution
and a crenated appearance.

Bowhill’s solution * is also recommended as a good stain for demon-
strating the nucleoli.

Peroxide of Hydrogen in Microscopical Research.! — HerrR. Yolk
recommends peroxide of hydrogen for killing motile and sensitive
animals of minute size. One drop of three per cent, solution to 2 ccm. of
water suffices for some Rotatoria, and 1 drop to 1 ccm. of water kills
Anurese and other Loricata. The solutions should always be as weak as
possible, especially as delicate species are damaged by the oxidising
action of the stronger mixtures. When the animals are dead, the mix-
ture must be replaced by water, or by water with 0 • 3 per cent, of salt.
When washed the animals are fixed in the usual way. For objects which
contain carbonate of lime the peroxide must be perfectly free from
acid.

Preparing Permanent Blood-Films. :£ — Herr A. Zielina prepared
blood-films by receiving a minute drop of blood on one side of a cover-
glass, and then distributing it over the surface by touching it with the
edge of a slide which is drawn across the cover-glass from left to right.
A clean edge is necessary for each film, and the wound should be
wiped before taking the next drop.

The films are dried in the air, and are fixed by drawing them eight
or nine times through the flame. When cool they are stained for
30 seconds in Nicolle’s one-third eosin (saturated alcoholic solution of
eosin 50 ccm., 95 per cent, alcohol 100 ccm.). The superfluous stain is
removed, and the preparation dried. The film is again stained in ripe
Ehrlich lisematoxylin for 30-40 minutes. The cover-glass, film side
downwards, is then suspended on water for a time. It is again stained
with the one-third eosin solution for 30 seconds. After having been
washed with water, it is dried, and mounted in balsam.

How to examine the Blood and Diagnose its Diseases.§ — Dr. A. C
Coles has, by producing a compact account of methods for examining the

* See this Journal, ante , p. 244.

t Zool. Anzeig., xix. (1896) pp. 294-5. See Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898)
p. 469.

X Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898) pp. 463-4.

§ London, Churchills, 1898, 260 pp. and 6 pis.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

489

blood and for tbe diagnosis of its diseases, conferred a benefit on those
who are desirous of becoming practically acquainted with the technique
of blood preparations and with the pathology of the blood. The work
is divided into three parts, which deal with methods for examining the
blood, the general morphology of the blood, and the diseases in which
the blood is primarily or secondarily affected.

The author does not lay claim to originality, modestly avowing that
the work is more or less a compilation. It is obvious, however, even
from a snperficial examination, that he speaks authoritatively on a large
number of points, and that the knowledge conveyed is the result of
personal experience and acquaintance with the subject. The coloured
illustrations are extremely effective.

(3) Cutting-, including: Imbedding- and Microtomes.

Combination of the Paraffin and Celioidin Methods of Imbed-
ding.*— Mr. U. Dalilgren adopts the following method for imbedding
ova and embryos of amphibia. The objects are infiltrated with celioidin
in the usual way, and then immersed in a large quantity of chloroform
for twenty-four hours. They are then transferred to a bath of one-half
chloroform and one-half cedar oil. In twenty-four hours they are placed
in the water-bath in paraffin of the grade that will be finally used to
imbed them. Several changes are necessary, and more time must be
allowed than for tissues imbedded by the plain paraffin method.

C4) Staining and Injecting.

Action of Pigments on Living Sponges. f— Dr. G. Loisel finds
that granules of Congo-red and tournesol-blue are absorbed by endo-
dermic and mesodermic cells of Reniera ingalli and Spongilla jluviatilis.
Various kinds of colouring matter in solution (safranin, iodine-green, &c.)
are stopped at the surface of the sponge, while others again are readily
absorbed. Congo-red and tournesol-blue are peculiarly changed inside
the cells enclosing them, as if by the action of an acid. After a time,,
the substances are got rid of into the intercellular spaces, and are
taken up by phagocytes, or transported outwards by the contractions
of the matrical substance. Loisel goes on to notice the colouring of
some living Protozoa, Medusae, and other animals by various reagents.

Staining Blood-Films.}:— Dr. EL Bubinstein recommends the follow-
ing procedure for staining blood. The cover-glasses should be very
thin and perfectly clean. All traces of grease must be removed by
passing them several times through the flame. The drop of blood placed
on the cover-glass should not be larger than a pin’s head. The second
cover-glass should be superimposed so that the two form an octagonal
figure ; and, when the blood has spread out, the two are to be separated
without the one exerting any pressure on the other.

After having been dried in the air, the films are fixed by heating the
cover-glasses film side downwards on a copper plate about 30 cm. long

* Journ. Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) p. 97.

t Journ. Anat. Phy&iol., xxxiv. pp. 187-234 (1 pi. and 3 figs.).

% Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898) pp. 456-62.

490

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and 9 cm. broad, the heat being applied at one end of the plate by a
gas or spirit lamp.

The part of the plate to be used for fixation is the area lying between
the zones where water boils and where it assumes the spheroidal state.
The time required is from half to one minute. The films are stained
with Ehrlich’s triple stain for 5, 6, or 7 minutes. After having been
washed with water, they are dried and mounted in balsam.

Staining the Envelope of Milk-Globules.* * * § — Mr. W. Narramore
states that by staining milk with eosin and with picrocarmin, he found
that the structure surrounding the fat-globules became stained, and that
without doubt the much debated membrane of the fat-globule was
present. At the same time, this was not universally the case, as a large
number showed no trace of a covering. The author remarks that Storch,
a Danish investigator, has also succeeded by means of picrocarmin in
staining the suspected envelope, which is more condensed or viscous
towards its inner side, and more watery on its outer side.

Under the Microscope the fat-globules, colourless in themselves, are
seen to be surrounded by a narrow faint red border.

Staining the “ Vacuole-Granules ” in Yeast-Cells.f — Herr E. Kiister

states that the “vacuole-granules” of yeast-cells, by immersing a sample
of cake-yeast in a thin aqueous solution of neutral red, 1 to 5000 or
1 to 10,000, are sufficiently stained in a few minutes. The granules are
stab ed dark red, the rest of the cell remaining uncoloured. If the action
of the stain be prolonged, the vacuoles, by absorbing more and more of
the pigment, eventually become non-transparent, and look like dark red
balls lying in the colourless plasma.

Double-Stain for Gums.J — M. L. Lutz recommends the following
formulae respectively for (1) a hydro-alcoholic solution of red extract
of Cassella, and (2) a hydro-alcoholic solution of acid green J E E E
(Poirrier) : — (1) Rouge de Cassella 0*25 grm., 90 per cent, alcohol
20 grm., distilled water 30 grm. ; (2) Acid green J E E E (Poirrier)
0*10 grm., 90 per cent, alcohol 20 grm., distilled water 30 grm. He
uses them for the double staining of sections of roots or root-stocks
containing gums.

(5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Method of Preserving Culture Media.§— Mr. F. T. Bioletti pre-
serves culture media by means of the following simple device, which
merely consists in the use of a second plug of antiseptic cotton. The
test-tubes are cleaned and plugged in the ordinary way, except that the
plug is only half the usual length. After having been sterilised and
filled, the plug is pushed in to half an inch below the top of the tube,
and a plug of antiseptic cotton is put over it. The tubes are steri-
lised in the usual way, and may then be covered with a rubber cap or be
put in a closed vessel to prevent evaporation. The antiseptic cotton is

* Rep. Liverpool Micr. Soc., 1898, pp. 23-4.

t Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) p. 306.

X Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) p. 280.

§ Jouvn. Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) pp. 72-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

491

prepared by soaking ordinary cotton in a solution of water 100, alcohol 20,
copper sulphate 3. The cotton should be dried slowly, as it chars easily.

By this method tubes can be kept unchanged for at least three
months, i.e. there is no evaporation and no contamination.

Fixative Solutions.* — Dr. K. Tellyesniczky discusses the value of
a large number of fixative fluids, and gives a very long list of these
solutions and the original references thereto. The solutions are con-
sidered in order of ascending complexity, simple solutions of one
reagent being first treated of. The double, triple, and quadruple solu-
tions arc subdivided into those which do and those which do not contain
acetic acid. In fact, the author’s paper is in praise of the neglected
virtues of acetic acid. This acid, used in connection with plasma-
preserving reage’hts such as potassium bichromate and osmic acid, gives
extremely satisfactory results.

There are numerous formulas containing bichromate, osmic acid, and
acetic acid, and other fixatives such as sublimate, picric acid, and nitric
acid. These are too well known, under the names of their inventors, such
as Perenyi, Flemming, Altmann, Eabl, Zenker, to need further description.

To a mixture of 3 grm. potassium bichromate, 5ccm. acetic acid, and
water 100 ccm., the author’s own name is attached. Small pieces of
material are left in this fluid for one or two days, and larger ones for
longer. After removal they are thoroughly washed in water, and then
further hardened in alcohol of increasing strength, beginning at 15 per cent.

Method for the Preservation of Protoplasmic Spinnings.f — Mr. G.

F. Andrews gives the following as being the best method for the preser-
vation of protoplasmic processes. The fumes of 2 per cent, osmic acid
are concentrated by heat in a glass chamber. For this was used a large
closed tube whose base rested on each side on a glass slide, leaving just
space enough in the centre for a third slide to be slipped in and out.
The whole stood on a glass plate on a water-bath. The central slide
carried a watch-glass of osmic acid solution whose ingress and egress
was provided for by a hole in the glass tube, which can be closed by a
rubber band. When the fumes were sufficiently concentrated, the central
slide was replaced by another of like size. On this the eggs had been
previously arranged with just enough water to cover them. After
fixation and removal from the chamber, the eggs were washed in many
changes of water. The exact length of time the eggs should be ex-
posed to the fumes cannot be given ; but in any case it is very short, a
second too much or too little either way spoiling the result. The best
preservative was found to be concentrated sea-water.

Method for Fixing Leucocytes and Blood-plates.J— Dr. H. Deeljen
recommends that the blood draw n from the finger should be received on
a film of agar, to which 0*75 per cent, of NaCl has been added. On
this the cover-glass is placed. When examined on the warm stage the
white corpuscles are seen to be in an actively motile condition. The
preparations were next fixed with formalin or osmic acid vapour, and
afterwards may be stained in the usual way.

* Arch. Mikr. Anat. u. Entwickl., lii. (1898) pp. 202-47 (1 pi. and 38 figs.).

t Zeitsckr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898) pp. 447-52.

X Munchen. Med. Wochenschr., 1897, pp. 1192-3.

1898 2 l

492

SUMMARY OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Selenium as a Mounting Medium for Diatoms.* * * § — Selenium, says
Herr G. Marpmann, is an element of a brown colour, of sulphur-like
consistence, with a refractive index nearly as great as that of sulphur,
and when heated melts to a brownish-red fluid. By itself alone, selenium
is too dark for a mounting medium, but by mixing with sulphur or arsenic
this disadvantage is obviated. By mixing equal parts of sulfur depu-
ratum and selenium metallicum , rubbing them together and melting in a
test-tube, a red fluid is obtained, and this on cooling becomes a bright
yellowish-red, and maintains its transparency for a considerable time.
It seems that when mounted the preparations are cloudy or even opaque
in places, and in order to remove these defects it is advisable to place
the mounted preparations in a thermostat at 150°.

Of selenium compounds, selenium ethyl Se (C2H5)^. is a fluid which
possesses a boiling point between 107° and 108°. In this fluid con-
siderable quantities of sulphur and selenium can be dissolved. In this
way is produced a thick oily fluid, having a refractive index of about
1*90, and forming a medium which should meet the requirements of
diatomists.

Picro-formalin in Cytological Technique.! — Mr. Graf states that
the best fixative for demonstrating the cell* structure of the lower animals
is picro-formol in varying strengths, 1 vol. saturated aqueous solution of
picric acid and 1 vol. of 5, 10, or 15 per cent, formol, or 95 vols. picric
acid solution and 5 vols. formol, or 90 vols. picric acid solution and 10
vols. formol. The animals (Clepsine nepheloidea sp. n. Whitm.) are
placed (alive) in the mixture for 30 minutes. After immersion in alco-
hol of increasing strength up to absolute, they are imbedded in paraffin.
Sections 3 /x thick were stained with haematoxylin and Bordeaux-red.
By this procedure the delicacies of the cell structure, network, microsomes,
and vacuoles, are rendered extremely clear.

Preservative for ; Freshwater Sponge.!— Mr. F. L. Washburn finds
the following solution to be of value for preserving freshwater sponges.
Pure glycerin 2/3 ; 3 per cent, formalin 1/3. In this the green sponge
will keep for at least three months, the liquid remaining perfectly clear,
and allowing the external anatomy of the sponge to be beautifully
seen.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Microbiological and Serotherapeutical Technique^ — M. A. Bes-
son’s guide to laboratory work, dealing with the]technique of microbiology
and serum therapeutics, is one that deserves to obtain universal approba-
tion. It is divided into a general and special portion, the first describing
the various methods in use at laboratories,^ the second describing the
numerous species of pathogenic organisms. In a third section the
bacteriological examination of water and air is treated of.

* Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., iv. (1898) pp. 6-8.

t State Hospitals Bull., 1897, No. 1 ; also Neurol. Centralbl., xvi. (1897) p. 550.
See Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898) p. 469.

X Journ. Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) p. 73.

§ Paris, 1898, 223 figs. See Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898) pp. 519-20.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

493

Camera Drawing.* — Mr. G. F. Andrews devised a method of camera
drawing which proved invaluable for recording delicate appearances.
Instead of white drawing paper, he used dark shades of thin dull surface
tinted papers, varying the shade and hue according to the amount of
light, on the brightest days using black. The point of the pencil was
whitened with Chinese white. This device obviated the necessity for
using smoked glasses in the camera. There was a notable gain in light
and definition. Various coloured crayons to differentiate optical planes
or cell-series were used, and sometimes a brass or an ivory point.

* Zeitscbr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898) pp. 451-2.

494

PEOCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on June 15th, 1898, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,
The President, E. M. Nelson, Esq., in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of May 18th, 1898, were read and con-
firmed, and were signed by the Chairman.

The List of Donations to the Society since the last meeting (ex-
clusive of exchanges and reprints) was read, and the thanks of the
Society were voted to the donors.

From

Verslag der algfmeene vergadering, 1897. (8vo, Utrecht,)

1897)

AaDteekeningen van de sectie vergaderingen, 1897. (8vo,

Utrecht, 1897) J

Alfred C. Coles, M.D., The Blood : how to examine and
diagnose its diseases. (Svo, London, 1898.)

Marian S. Bidley, A pocket guide to British Ferns. (16mo,
London, 1881.)

Lithograph Portrait of Professor John Quekett, by Wm.
Lens Aldous.

La Societe Provinciate
des Arts et Sciences ,
dtablie a Utrecht.

Mr. George Pearce.

Mrs. M. S. Farquharson
(nee Pidley).

Mr. C. Lens Aldous.

The President said that since their last meeting the Society had lost
one of its oldest Fellows, Mr. Henry Perigal, who had died at the
advanced age of 98, and certainly had attended their meetings when he
was at least 93 or 94. He did not know Mr. Perigal personally very
well, but whilst looking up some interesting details as to some old Micro-
scopes in the Society of Arts Journal he came across an interesting paper
on the way in which the great monoliths at Stonehenge could have been
moved and erected without the use of other than savage appliances ; and
on looking for the name of the author, he found it was Henry Perigal.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

495

On turning over a few pages lie found in the same journal an announce-
ment that a prize had been awarded to Master J. E. Millais for a sepia
drawing, so that at the time when Mr. Perigal was writing papers
like that, the late President of the Royal Academy was a boy ; yet
Mr. Perigal had survived him. This forcibly brings to one’s mind
what 98 means. Mr. Perigal did a great deal of work with the lathe,
especially with elliptic and eccentric chucks. A microphotograph of
him, and also an ordinary photograph, were on the table that evening.

In addition to the presents already mentioned, he would call the
attention of the Fellows to an excellent lithographic portrait of Pro-
fessor John Quekett, which had been presented to the Society by Mr.
Aldous. These portraits were the work of Mr. Aldous’ father, and some
of these having been lately found, the one before them had been very
kindly given to the Society, for which he was sure their hearty thanks
would be returned.

Mr. J. J. Yezey said he should like to be permitted to supplement
the remarks made by the President respecting Mr. Perigal. He thought
it would interest the Fellows to be reminded that Mr. Perigal joined
the Society in 1852 ; and though microscopy had not been so great a
hobby with him as astronomy and geometry, yet he always took the
keenest interest in the proceedings of the Society, as indeed he did in
all the numerous scientific societies to which he belonged. Mr. Yezey
had had the pleasure of paying Mr. Perigal a weekly visit for many
years past, and he could testify to the eagerness with which he wished
to be informed of all that was going on in the scientific world, especially
since the time when he had been obliged to relinquish his attendance
at the meetings. Mr. Yezey felt sure Fellows would greatly regret the
removal of a notable name from their roll of membership. Mr. Perigal
died on the 6th June, and Mr. Vezey had seen him so lately as the
3rd June.

Mr. Swift, being called upon by the President, said that he had
brought to the meeting a camera lucida, and also a new monochromatic
screen for exhibition. These were both made by Mr. F. E. Ives ; and as
that gentleman was in the room he would ask him to describe them.

Mr. Ives said that the camera lucida did not present any great
novelty in principle. He had merely taken one which he found in
Mr. Swift’s show case, and had slightly modified it by depositing on one
of the inside faces of the compound prism a very thin specular film of
silver through which it was possible to see the pencil without having to
centre the eye, as was formerly the case where the film was thick and
opaque with a small hole left to look through, as in the Abbe camera
lucida. The other thing was the result of his attempts to make a mono-
chromatic green screen by means of dyed films between two plates of
glass, which he thought would be found to possess some advantages over
the liquid screens in use. The one now shown would cut off all beyond
the F line on the blue side (including the ultra-violet), and also all red
and yellow. Nothing whatever but green light was transmitted.

Mr. C. Beck thought it was a fact that Zeiss had made a camera
lucida on this principle, which had a very thin silvering between two

496

PROCEEDINGS OP THE SOCIETY.

prisms ; this was used with a side reflector — the President would per-
haps remember it.*

Mr. Swift said he had never seen one of this kind, and did not know
of any which carried out the idea in the way Mr. Ives had done it.

The President thought the method was a very valuable one, and he
did not remember ever having seen this idea carried out in this way
before. It certainly seemed preferable to the method of a thick film of
silver with a hole in it.

Mr. Swift said there certainly was some difficulty in centering the
eye properly in the old form which did not exist in the one before them ;
the pencil used for making the drawing being seen with a considerable
amount of ease whilst tracing over the object under observation.

In reply to an inquiry, if this really gave monochromatic or only
coloured light, and what was the wave-length, —

Mr. Ives said that, of course, the light was not strictly monochro-
matic, although it was all spectrum green. It was a mixture of the
pure green in the spectrum at the E line, with some yellow-green on
one side and blue-green on the other. The screen transmitted very
freely a well defined band in the spectrum, with the E line in the
middle of it. A screen could be made to transmit a broader or narrower
band of the spectrum, and more towards the red or the blue, if desired.

The thanks of the meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Ives for
his exhibits.

The President exhibited and described two old Microscopes, one of
which, made by Benjamin Martin, probably dated from about 1770, and
the other, made by Cary, somewhere about 1740 (see p. 473).

The President said that Mr. B. W. Priest had taken the trouble to
bring down to the meeting a remarkably beautiful collection of micro-
scopic preparations of Sponges for exhibition. He hoped Mr. Priest
would favour them with a few remarks upon the subject.

Mr. Priest said that he had much pleasure in responding to a request
from the Society that he would give an exhibition of slides of sponges,
but he had done so upon the understanding that it would be impossible
for him to read a paper describing the different specimens exhibited, as
he felt he could not, in the time at his disposal, do justice to so vast a
subject. He had brought a selection, which he trusted would be suffi-
ciently characteristic, of the order Calcarea and the three sub-orders of
Silicea, namely, the Monaxonidae, Tetractinellidae, and Hexactinellidae.
He had placed cards with each instrument specifying the name of the
exhibit, and might perhaps call attention more particularly to the
Hexactinellidae, on account of their extreme beauty and complexity of
detail. There were also some slides of freshwater sponges, showing the
statoblasts, so named by his late friend Mr. H. T. Carter of Budleigh
Salterton, because of their strong resemblance to the statoblasts of the

* Since the meeting Mr. Beck has written to say that the camera referred to was
made by Nachet, and had a gilding used instead of silvering.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

497

freshwater Polyzoa. He should be very pleased after the meeting to
answer questions or give any information desired as to any special
slide.

The Secretary said they had received a paper by Mr. Millett in
continuation of his former communication on the Foraminifera of the
Malay Archipelago (see p. 258). It was no doubt a paper of value, but
was highly technical, and as it would appear in extenso in the Journal,
he hoped he should he excused from reading it to tho meeting.

The paper was then taken as read.

The President said that their hearty thanks were due to Mr. Priest
for so kindly bringing down these very beautiful slides for exhibition.
Their thanks were also due to Mr. Baker for the loan on that occasion
of the number of Microscopes on the tables, by means of which it had
been possible to show so large a number of objects.

Votes of thanks to Mr. B. W. Priest and Mr. Baker were then put
to the meeting, and carried with acclamation.

The President reminded the Fellows present that the next meeting
of the Society would not take place until October 19th, and wished them
all a pleasant vacation.

It was announced that the library would be closed from August 12tli
to September 12th.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—

The Society : — A Microphotograph and a Carte-de-visite of the late
Mr. Henry Perigal, date about 1855 to 1857.

The President : — An old Microscope made by Benjamin Martin and
another made by Cary.

Mr. Swift : — A Camera Lucida, and a new Monochromatic Light-
Screen designed by Mr. Fred. E. Ives.

Mr. W. B. Priest : — Slides of the following Sponges : — Calcarea :
Grantia ciliata ; ditto opaque, showing vents ; G. compressa, showing
ova ; Leucosolenia boiryoides ; L. lacunosa. Hexactinellid^j : Aphro-
callistes Beatrix ; A. Bocagei ; Euplectella aspergillum , showing floro-
come spicules ; Farrea fecunda ; F. spinulenta ; Hyalonema Sieboldi ,
showing amphidiscs ; Lanuginella pupa ; Myliusia callocyathes ; Peri -
phragella elisae ; Semperella Schultzi. Lithistid^ : Discodermia poly-
discus. MoNAXONiDiE : Hymeniacidon celata , boring sponge ; Baphi-

dotheca Marshall Hallii. Tetractinellid.® : Ecionema acervus , vertical
section ; Geodia Barretti , vertical section ; G. McAndrewi , spicules and
sterrasters ; Pachymatisma Johnstoni, vertical section. Fossil Sponge :
Coeloptychium agaricoides , showing lantern-like processes. Freshwater

498

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Sponges : Meyenia Jiuviaiilis, showing statoblasts ; M. fluviatilis var.
Meyeni , showing statoblasts ; Spongilla fragilis , showing statoblasts.
Group of Sponge Spicules.

New Fellows: — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows: —
Mr. Theodor A. Delcomyn, Mr. James Pike, and Prof. AV. F. li. Weldon
F.K.S.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

OCTOBER 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

- ♦<>♦ ’ a

XI Y. — Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago
collected by Mr, A. Durr and, F.R.M.S, — Part II,

By Fortescue William Millett, F.R.M.S.

( Read 15 th June, 1898.)

Plates XI. and XII.

Group of Miliolina circularis Bornemann sp.

Miliolina circularis Bornemann sp., plate XI. figs. 1-3.

Triloculina circularis Bornemann, 1855, Zeitscbr. d. Deutsch.
Geol. Gesell., vol. vii. p. 349, pi. xix. fig. 4. T. enoplostoma var.

Fi

l.-

,7 2.
„ 3.

„ 4-
„ 5.
„ 6.
>. 7.
.. 8,
» 10,

» 12.

„ 13.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate XI.

—Miliolina circularis Bornemann sp , Triloculine form, x 75.

,, „ „ Biloculine form, x 90.

,, „ „ Quinqueloculine form, x GO.

„ „ var. sublineata Brady, x 60.

„ valvularis Reuss gp., Triloculine form, x 60.

„ „ „ Biloculine form, x 90.

„ „ „ Quinqueloculine form, x 60.

9. „ labiosa d’Orbigny sp. Fig. 8 x 60, tig. 9 x 90.

11. „ tricarinata d’Orbigny sp., striate form = M. Terquemiana Biadv.

Fig. 10 x 90, fig. 11 x 40.

„ „ d’Orbigny sp., reticulated form = M. Bertheliniana

Brady, x 90.

„ suborbicularis d’Orbigny sp. x 90.

Plate XII.

Fig. 1 a, b, c. — Miliolina Parisiensis d’Orbigny sp.
„ 2 a, b. „ Cuvieriana d’Orbiguy sp.

„ 3 a, b , c. „ cristata sp. n. x 135.

„ 1 a, b. „ Parheri Brady, x 30.

„ 5 a, 5, c. ,, undosa Karrer sp. x 75.

„ 6 a, b. „ Ferussacii d’Orbigny sp.

„ 7 a, 6, c. „ „ „ var.

„ 8 a, b. — Articulina lineata Brady, smooth var.
„ 9, 10 a, b, c. „ conico-articulata Batsch sp.
„ 11. „ funalis var. inornata Brady.

1898

X 55.
X 30.

X 60.

X 60.

X 90.

Fig. 9 x 60, fit
X 60.

x 90.

M

500

Transactions of the Society.

grammostomum Reuss, 1867, Sitzungsb. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien,
yoI. lv. Abth. i. p. 72, pi. ii. fig. 5. Biloculina ventruosa Eeuss,
1867, ibid., p. 69, pi. i. fig. 9. Miliolina circularis (Born.) Egger,
1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. Abth. ii.
p. 235, pi. ii. figs. 61-63. M. circularis (Born.) Jones, 1895,
Palaeontographical Soc., p. 121, pi. v. fig. 4.

Continuing with the forms which typically have the chambers
round or crescentiform in cross section, by imperceptible degrees
changing into those in which the chambers become angular or cari-
nate, we have now to treat of the short robust forms, in which the
long straight chambers characteristic of M. oblonga are replaced by
short ones, more or less curved.

M. subrotunda would almost as well have served for the type ; but
on the whole M. circularis appears to possess a larger number of the
characters common to the group. As shown, by the figures on plate
XI., it exists in the Biloculine, Triloculine, and Quinqueloculine forms,
all of which are edentate and have an aperture formed simply by a tent-
like fold of the last added chamber, leaving the surface of the penulti-
mate chamber exposed.

The Biloculine form, fig. 2, appears to be the B. ventruosa of
Reuss. Although the specimen selected for illustration approaches
Biloculina sjrfizera d’Orbigny, there are many others which are
identical with B. ventruosa as figured by Reuss. Fig. 1 is the Tri-
loculina circularis of Reuss, whilst the Quinqueloculine form, fig. 3, is
scarcely separable from Miliolina subrotunda Montagu. The admi-
rable researches of MM. Schlumberger and Munier-Chalmas show
that individuals of the Miliolinae in various stages of growth assume
Biloculine, Triloculine, and Quinqueloculine characters. In the exami-
nation of a large series of specimens it is scarcely practicable to apply
Schlumberger ’s laborious method of research ; bat there are on the
exterior of the test certain characters, too subtle for scientific definition
and appreciable only by a faculty we all possess which is somewhat
akin to instinct — the kind of faculty which, to use a common illustra-
tion, enables the shepherd to identify each individual member of his
flock, although at the same time he is totally incapable of defining
the minute differences which serve to distinguish one from the others.
By the exercise of some such quality of the mind, we arrive at the
conclusion that the three forms in question can be no other than
variations of M. circularis. Speaking of M. jprocera , Dr. Axel Goes
says,* “ It seems to be clearly allied to M. circularis (Bornem.) Br.,
the chief difference being its quinqueloculine arrangement of the
chambers.” Dr. Goes has thoroughly studied the subject, and his
opinion is of great value ; still, although fig. 3 is Quinqueloculine, it
possesses too many of the characters of M. circularis to be separated
from it with advantage.

* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoology at Harvard College, vol. xxix. No. 1, 1896, p. 82.

501

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett.

The Biloculine form has been found only at Stations 14 and 22.
The other forms occur at most of the Stations, the Quinqueloculine
being the most numerous of the three.

4 Challenger ’ Stations are Prince Edward’s Island, Kerguelen
Islands, and Bass Straits. Amongst other localities Dr. Egger records
it from two 4 Gazelle ’ Stations off the coast of Australia.

Miliolina circularis var. sublineata Brady, plate XI. fig. 4.

Miliolina circularis var. sublineata Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept.,
p. 169, pi. iv. fig. 7. M. circularis var. sublineata Egger, 1893,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II. vol. xviii. Abth. ii. p. 237,
pi. ii. figs. 78, 79.

This rare variety differs from the 4 Challenger’ and 4 Gazelle 5 forms
in having a cribrate aperture. The shell is thin and subtranslucent, as
in the 4 Challenger ’ specimens. In size it considerably exceeds the
specimens of M. circularis with which it is associated in the Malay
Archipelago.

It is rather plentiful at several stations in both areas.

Brady gives but one locality, 44 off the Admiralty Islands on the
north coast of New Guinea ” ; and the sole 4 Gazelle ’ station is off the
coast of Mauritius.

Miliolina valvularis Keuss sp., plate XI. figs. 5-7.

Triloculina valvularis Reuss, 1851, Zeitschr. Deutsch. Geol.
Gesell., vol. iii. p. 85, pi. vii. fig. 56. ? Miliolina valvularis (Reuss)
Brady, Chall. Rept., p. 161, pi. iv. figs. 4, 5. Miliolina valvularis
(Brady) Goes, 1894, Kongl. Svenska Yet.- Akad. Handl., vol. xxv.
p. 115, pi. xxii. fig. 871.

Whilst the aperture of this species, in general form, is similar to
that of M. circularis, it differs in being provided with a tooth or
valve which varies in size and form from a mere tubercule on the
penultimate chamber to a large valve covering the whole of the aper-
ture with the exception of a narrow semicircular slit at the margin.
Speaking of M. valvularis , Brady says,* 44 The species is one of the
few that may rank with Miliolina trigonula and Miliolina tricari-
nata as a true Triloculina ” ; but in the Malay Archipelago it occurs
also in the Biloculine and Quinqueloculine forms, and the figures by
Goes above referred to represent it as having but two chambers visible
externally ; however, these have not the symmetry characteristic of
Biloculina, and the arrangement of the earlier chambers is Triloculine
or Quadriloculine.

The Quinqueloculina dilatata d’Orb., from the Gulf of Marseilles,
figured by Schlumberger,t resembles the wild growing forms of
M. valvularis. Biloculine forms similar to this species, if not identical,

* ‘Challenger’ Report, 1884, p. 161.

f Mem. Soc. Zool. France, vol. vi. 1898, p. 217, fig. 30 and pi. iii. figs. 73, 74.

2 m 2

502

Transactions of the Society.

are B. globulus Bornemann, B. Grinzingensis Karrer, and B. ringens
var. Balkwill and Wright.

In the Malay Archipelago the distribution is similar to that of
M. circular is, but it is less abundant.

The f Challenger/ specimens were obtained on the north-east coast
of New Zealand. Those described by Dr. Goos were from the North
Atlantic, from deep water in both instances.

Miliolina labiosa d’Orbigny sp., plate XI. figs. 8, 9.

Triloculina labiosa d’Orb., Foram. Cuba, p. 178, pi. x. figs. 12-
14. Miliolina labiosa (d’Orb. sp.) Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 170,
pi. vi. figs. 3-5.

This very unsatisfactory species occurs at only a few of the Stations,
and never in great abundance. In form it ranges from Nubecularia
Bradyi to Miliolina valvularis , the specimen figured being one of
the most symmetrical.

D’Orbigny describes it as tolerably numerous in the sands of
Cuba, and it is recorded from numerous ‘ Challenger ’ Stations.

Miliolina subrotunda Montagu sp.

“ Serpula subrotunda dorso elevato,” Walker and Boys (1784),
Test. Min., p. 2, pi. i. fig. 4. Vermiculum subrotundum Montagu,
1803, Test. Brit., part ii. p. 521. Miliolina subrotunda (Walk,
and Boys) Goes, 1894. Kongl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Hand!, vol. xxv.
p. 109, pi. xix. figs. 816, 847. Miliolina subrotunda Jones, 1895,
Palaeontographical Soc., p. 120, woodcut, fig. 9.

In the Malay Archipelago typical forms of this ubiquitous species
are not common, most of the specimens possessing some of the charac-
ters of M. circular is and M. valvularis.

It appears in Prof. Butschli’s list of Foraminifera from the Malay
Archipelago.

Miliolina suborbicularis d’Orbigny sp., plate XI. fig. 13.

Quinqueloculina suborbicidaris (d’Orb.) Schlumberger, 1893,
Mem. Soc. Zool. France, vol. vi. p. 73, plate ii. figs. 63, 64, pi. iii.
fig. 67, and woodcuts, figs. 26-28.

The Malay specimens, as will bo seen from the illustrations,
closely resemble those from the Gulf of Marseilles figured by Schlum-
berger.

It is moderately abundant at a few of the Stations.

Under the name of M. Fichteliana , Brady records it from Mada-
gascar, the Inland Sea of Japan, and the Chinese Seas.

Miliolina tricar inata d’Orbigny sp.

Triloculina tricarinata d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 299, No. 7. Miliolina ( Triloculina ) tricarinata (d’Orb.) Egger,

503

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett.

1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., CL II., vol. xviii. Abth.
IT. p. 234, pi. ii. figs. 35-37. M. tricarinata (d’Orb.) de Amicis,
1893, Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital., vol. xii. fasc. 3, p. 30, pi. iii. fig. 2.
M. tricarinata (d’Orb.) Goes, 1894, Kongl. Svenska Yet.- Akad.
Handl., vol. xxv. p. 114, pi. xxi. figs. 866-869. M. tricarinata
(d’Orb.) Jones, 1895, Palaeontographical Soc., p. 119.

This very common species is well represented, being found at
most Stations in both areas. It appears in Prof. Biitschli’s list of
Foraminifera from the Malay Archipelago.

Miliolina tricarinata , striat6 var., plate XI. figs. 10, 11.

Miliolina Terquemiana Brady, 1884, Chalk Kept., p. 166, pi.
cxiv. fig. 1.

This striate variety is not uncommon in the Malay Archipelago,
and is most abundant in Area 1. Its characters are distinctly those
of M. tricarinata , and there are no passage forms towards M. trigo-
nula. Brady writes,* “ Miliolina terguemiana is exceedingly
rare. Hitherto I have only seen specimens from two localities,
namely, in shallow-water sand, dredged off* Calpentyn, Ceylon, and
in littoral sand from the east coast of Madagascar.”

Miliolina tricarinata , reticulated var., plate XI. fig. 12.
Miliolina Bertheliniana Brady, 1884, Chalk Kept., p. 166,
pi. cxiv. fig. 2.

This variety is very rare in the Malay Archipelago, being repre-
sented by one specimen only from Station 2. Its form is that of

M. tricarinata, but approaching that of M. trigonula. Brady gives
four localities : “ Off Ascension Island, 7 fathoms ; off Calpentyn,
Ceylon, 2 fathoms ; and in the shore-sands collected by Mr. Hitching
near Tamatave, Madagascar, and near Port Elizabeth, Algoa Bay.”

Miliolina trigonula Lamarck sp.

Miliolites trigonula Lamarck, 1804, Ann. du Mus., vol. v. p. 351,
No. 3. Miliolina trigonula (Lam.) Sherborn and Chapman, 1889,
Journ. Koy. Micr. Soc., p. 484, ph xi. fig. 1. M. trigonula (Lam.)
Terrigi, 1891, Mem. K. Com. Geol. Ital., vol. iv. part i. p. 66, pi. i.
fig. 4. M. trigonula (Lam.) Goes, 1894, Kongl. Svenska Vet.-Akad.
Handl., vol. xxv. p. 115, pi. xxii. fig. 870.

This form, like M. tricarinata, is represented at most of the
Stations in both areas, but is not quite so abundant.

Miliolina trigonula, striate var.

Miliolina insignis Brady, 1881, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., voL xxi.

N. S. p. 45. Miliolina insignis Brady, 1884, Chalk Kept., p. 165,
pk iv. figs. 8, 10.

* ‘ Challenger’ Report, 1884, p. 1G6^

504 Transactions of the Society .

This variety is rare in the Malay Archipelago, although it occurs
at three Stations.

Brady gives several localities, amongst them Bass Straits and the
coast of Java.

Miliolina Parisiensis d’Orbigny sp., plate XII. fig. 1, a, b, c.

Quinqueloculina Parisiensis d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
vol. vii. p. 301, No. 5 (not described). Q. Parisiensis d’Orbigny,
‘ Planches Inedites,’ pi. i. fig. 1. Q. Parisiensis d’Orbigny, 1850,
‘ Prodrome de Paleontologie,’ vol. ii. p. 409. Q. Parisiensis (d’Orb.)
Terquem, 1882, Mem. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. ii. p. 181, pi. xix.
fig. 21.

Although the Malay specimens of this pretty little form do not
accord in all respects with the figures given and referred to by
Terquem, yet so many of the characters are similar that there need
be no difficulty in referring them to the same species.

D’Orbigny’s references are to the figures in the £ Planches
Inedites,’ and his only published description is in the Prodrome,
“ Espece renflee et striee.” Thanhs to the kindness of Signor For-
nasini of Bologna, I am in possession of a tracing of the figure in
the £ Planches Inedites ’ ; this represents an elongate Quinqueloculine
shell, with fine striae and an edentate circular aperture at the ex-
tremity of a short prolongation of the anterior portion of the last
formed chamber.

The unnamed and undescribed figures in £ Description des Coquilles
fossiles des environs de Paris,’ by Deshay es, referred to by Terquem,
represent tests with simple longitudinal striae ; whilst Terquem de-
scribes his specimens as having longitudinal costae with the intervals
marked by a series of perforations. In the Malay sjDecimens, as
shown by the figure, the sculpture consists of transverse costae
crossed at right angles by larger longitudinal ribs. The aperture
has three or more lobes, with sometimes traces of an obscure tooth.
The test is Triloculine, and the shell substance thin and fragile.

It occurs only at Station 2, and there very sparingly.

Miliolina reticulata d’Orbigny sp.

Triloculina reticulata d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 299, No. 9. Miliolina ( Triloculina ) reticulata (d’Orb.) Egger,
1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 239, pi. ii.
figs. 83, 84. Quinqueloculina reticulata (d’Orb.) Schlumberger,
1893, Mem. Soc. Zool. France, vol. vi. p. 214, fig. 25 and pi. ii.
fig. 62.

In this common species the Quinqueloculine form usually has the
chambers circular in transverse section, whilst in the Triloculine
form they are generally more or less angular.

It is common at several Stations, mostly in Area 1.

Report on Forciminifera. By F. W. Millett.

505

Group of Miliolina seminulum .

Miliolina seminulum Linne sp.

Serpula seminulum Linne, 1767, Syst. Nat., 12th ed., p. 1264,
No. 791. Miliolina seminulum (Linne) Jones, 1895, Pal. Soc.,
p. 116, pi. iii, figs. 35, 36.

Although this grouping of the Miliolinse is far from natural,
as indeed any system must be which aims at linking together the
different forms in a linear series, it serves to bring together forms
which the profusion of intermediate specimens in this collection
shows to be nearly related.

In this group, chambers with the rounded transverse section
cease to be the rule, and in most of the forms the chambers are
angular or carinate.

M. seminulum occurs so abundantly in all seas and at all depths,
that it is needless to specify localities. In the Malay Archipelago it
is as numerous and as widely distributed as elsewhere.

Miliolina Auberiana d’Orbigny sp.

Quinqueloculina Auberiana d’Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Cuba, p. 167,
pi. xii. figs. 1-3. M. Auberiana (d’Orb.) Goes, 1894, Kongl.
Svenska Vet.-Akad. Hand!, vol. xxv. p. 109, pi. xix. fig. 844, a-d.

This stout angular variety is not common in the Malay Archi-
pelago, and does not appear to have been hitherto recorded from this
region, although Biitschli in his list gives M. triangularis , which is
a closely allied variety, differing in little more that the amount of
acuteness of the periphery. A. Silvestri * records it from two localities
in the Adriatic.

Miliolina Cuvieriana d’Orbigny sp., plate XII. fig. 2 a, b.

Quinqueloculina Cuvieriana d’Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Cuba,
p. 190, pi. xi. figs. 19-21. Miliolina Cuvieriana (d’Orb.), Egger,
1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II., p. 234, pi. ii. figs. 47-49
and pi. iv. figs. 22-24. M. Cuvieriana (d’Orb.) Jones, 1895, Pal.
Soc., p. 119, pi. vi. fig. 4 a, b.

In his description of this species d’Orbigny states that two or
three longitudinal striae accompany the keel on each side of it. In the
figure in the Cuba Memoir these striae are represented, but they do
not appear in any other of the figures ascribed to this species. The
Q. Schroelcingerii var. Calabra Seguenza f has the peripheral edges of
the chambers flattened and striate. The Q. seminuda of Keuss if has
the periphery rounded and striate; whilst Terquem,§ regardless of

* Atti e Rendic. d. Accad. Sci. Lett, e Arti d. Zelanti e PP. dello Studio di
Acireale, vol. viii. 1896-7, p. 15.

f R. Accad. dei Lincei, 1880, p. 154, pi. xiv. fig. 13.

X Denksckr. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. xxv. 1865, p. 125, pi. i. fig. 11.

§ Mem. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. 1878, p. 76, pi. xiv. fig. 8.

Transactions of the Society.

506

priority of nomenclature, names a form Q. seminuda in which the
peripheral striae are replaced by costae. Brady,* Egger, and T. Rupert
Jones all figure the species without striae or costae, and specimens of
this kind occur in the Malay Archipelago, but not so abundantly as
the costate form figured. The proportion of the peripheral margin
marked by costae varies in different specimens, the tendency always
being to develop in the direction of M. bicornis.

It is most abundant and attains its greatest size at Station 14,
but it occurs at a few other Stations.

Miliolina cristata sp. n., plate XII. fig. 3 a, b, c.

Test nearly circular, unequally biconvex, chambers triangular in
cross-section, peripheral margin acute, that of the last formed chamber
boldly serrated, aperture with a thickened margin, dentate. Length
O' 20 mm.

This description will serve to identify a minute form whose
zoological position appears to be between M. Cuvieriana d’Orbigny
and M. venusta Karrer. It may possibly be allied to M. excisa
Brady, Parker, and Jones, t from the Abrolhos Bank.

The solitary specimen is from Station 22.

Miliolina venusta Karrer sp.

Quinqueloculina venusta Karrer, 1868, Sitzungsb. k. Akad. Wiss.
Wien, vol. lviii. p. 147, pi. ii. fig. 6. Miliolina venusta (Karrer)
Sherborn and Chapman, 1889, Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc., p. 2, pi. xi.
figs. 2, 3. M. venusta (Karrer) Chapman, 1891, Journ. Roy. Micr.
Soc., p. 573, pi. ix. figs. 5, 6. M. venusta (Karrer) Egger, 1893,
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 235, pi. ii.
figs. 56-58.

As might be expected of this essentially deep-water species, it is
but scantily represented in the anchor-mud from the Malay Archi-
pelago, although it occurs at several of the Stations.

One of the * Gazelle ’ Stations is Western Australia ; and under
the name of M. Candeiana , Dr. GoesJ records it from the North
Atlantic.

Miliolina undosa Karrer sp., plate XII. fig. 5 a-c.

Quinqueloculina undosa Karrer, 1867, Sitzungsb. k. Akad. Wiss.
Wien, vol. lv. p. 361, pi. iii. fig. 3. Miliolina undosa (Karrer) Egger,
1893, Abhandl. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 237, pi. ii.
figs. 41, 42.

Brady remarks, § “this is a Quinqueloculine variety, somewhat
of the * Ferussacii ’ type.” Of the specimens figured by Brady on

* ‘Challenger’ Report, 1884, p. 162, pi. v. fig. 12.

t Trans. Zcol. Soc., vol. xii. 1888, p. 215, pi. xl. fig. 33.

I K. Svenska Yet. -Akad, Handl., vol. xxv. No. 9, 1894, p. 109, pi. xix. fig. 845.

§ ‘ Challenger ’ Report, 1884, p. 176.

507

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett.

pi. vi., figs. 0 and 7 resemble M. licornis in general contour, whilst
figs. 8 a, b appear to be more nearly related to M. Ferussacii. The
Malay specimens, as shown by the figures, approach still more closely
to the thin elongate forms of M. Ferussacii, and Egger’s specimens
seem to be of the same character. The Quinqueloculina signata of
Iveuss * combines the characters of M. undosa and of M. Ferussacii,
and is of much interest as an instructive intermediate form. Judging
from external appearances, Q. undulata d’Orbigny, described and
figured by Schlumberger,t pi. i. figs. 53, 54, differs from M. undosa
in having traces of longitudinal costae, whilst pi. ii. figs. GO, 61,
resembles the typical M. licornis as figured by many authors.

It occurs at Stations in both Areas, but is not very abundant.

The localities given by Brady are “ Challenger Station 162, off
East Moncoeur Island, Bass Strait, 38 fathoms ; but it occurs also on
the coral reefs of the Sandwich Islands, 40 fathoms ; on the south
coast of Papua, Flinders Passage, 7 fathoms ; and off Ascension Island,
7 fathoms.” Egger records it only from Mauritius. A. Silvestri has
found it in the Adriatic. Schlumberger’s specimens of Q. undulata
are from the Gulf of Marseilles.

Miliolina ParJceri Brady, plate XII. fig. 4 a, l.

" Quinqueloculina with oblique ridges,” Parker, 1858, Trans.
Micr. Soc. London, N.S., vol. vi. p. 53, pi. v. fig. 10. Miliolina
ParJceri Brady, 1881, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N.S., vol. xxi. p. 4G.
M. ParJceri Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 177, pi. vii. fig. 14.

This species seems to be nothing more than a robust and complex
form of M. undosa. The passage-forms are numerous and varied,
making a complete series from the one to the other. The Malay
specimens are large and well developed, and are less triangular, that is
to say, more rounded at the periphery, than those figured by Brady.

It is most abundant and at its best at Station 22, but is found
at all other Stations in both Areas. Parker’s specimens were from
the East Indian Seas. Brady says of it, “ essentially a coral-reef
species. It occurs at seven * Challenger ’ Stations amongst the islands
of the Pacific, and with one exception (off Tahiti, 420 fathoms),
always in shallow water. It has been found in sand dredged off the
Seychelles (E. P. Wright), off Java (Kobertson), and in the Red Sea.’

Miliolina Ferussacii d’Orbigny sp., plate XII. figs. 6 a, l, 7 «, l , c.

Quinqueloculina Ferussacii d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
vol. vii. p. 301, No. 18; Modele No. 32. Miliolina Ferussacii
(d’Orb.) var. Balkwill and Wright, 1885, Trans. R. Irish Acad.,
vol. xxviii. p. 325, pi. xii. figs. 10-12. M. Ferussacii (d’Orb.)

* Denksclir. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. i. 1850, pi. 1. fig. 11.
t Mem. Soe. Zool. France, vol. vi. 1893, p. 213, figs. 23, 24, and pi. i. figs. 53, 54,
and pi. ii. figs. 60, 61.

508

Transactions of the Society.

Sherborn and Chapman, 1886, Jonrn. B. Micr. 8oc., p. 742, plate
xiv. fig, 5. M. Ferussacii (d’Orb.) Chapman, 1891, Journ. R. Micr.
Soc., 1891, p. 574, pi. ix. fig. 8. M. eontorta (D’Orb.) Goes,
1894, K Svenska Yet.-Akad. Handh, vol. xxv. p. Ill, pi. xx. figs.
851, 852. M. eontorta (d’Orb.) var. Goes, 1896, Bull. Mus. Comp.
Zool. at Harvard College, vol. xxix. p. 82, pi. yii. figs. 10-12; pi. viii.
figs. 1-7.

This species is represented by numerous varieties, from the smooth
eeble form fig. 6 to the strongly costate fig. 7 ; but here, as in most
other regions, the variety M. eontorta is the most abundant of them
all, especially the rugose form resembling Q. bidentata d’Orbigny *
and Q. sclerotica Karrer.f A considerable proportion of the speci-
mens of the strongly costate variety show a tendency to wildness of
growth, some of the later chambers deviating from the normal plan of
aggregation, as in M. separans Brady, and in Triloculina nodosaroides
Karrer.

This species and its varieties are common at most of the Stations
in both Areas.

Its distribution in the northern hemisphere is very wide, but
according to Brady, in the southern hemisphere it has only been noted
at two or three points on the coast of Australia, one of which is Baine
Island, Torres Strait.

Miliolina agglutinans d’Orbigny sp.

Quinqueloculina agglutinans d’Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Cuba,
p. 168, pJ. xii. figs. 11-13. Miliolina agglutinans (d’Orb.) Balkwill
and Wright, 1885, Trans. R. Irish Acad., vol. xxviii. p. 355, pi. xiii.
figs. 1-3. M. agglutinans (d’Orb.) Brady, Barker, and Jones, 1888,
Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. xii. p. 215, pi. xl. figs. 34, 35. M. agglutinans
(d’Orb.) Chapman, 1891, Journ. R. Micr. Soc., p. 574, pi. ix. fig. 7.
M. agglutinans (d’Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 239, pi. ii. fig. 55. M. agglutinans (d’Orb.)
Goes, 1894, K. Svenska Yet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 110, pi. xix.
fig. 848 and pi. xx. fig. 849.

Included in this so-called species are the agglutinate forms of
M. Ferussacii and M. seminulum. To the former of these belong
the Quinqueloculina agglutinans and Q. enoplostoma of the Cuba
Memoir, these having the contour of M. eontorta, which again, when
it has a rough surface, is the M. sclerotica of Karrer, and this form
sometimes agglutinates sand-grains, or incorporates them sparingly
into its shell-substance. The specimens figured by Brady, Balkwill,
and Wright, Brady, Parker, and Jones, Chapman and Egger, are of
the seminulum type, as are also some of those figured by Goes, whilst
others have the form of M. eontorta and M. Cuvieriana.

* Foram. Cuba, 1839, p. 197, pi. xii. figs. 18-20.
f Sitzungsb. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1868, p. 152, pi. iii. fig. 5.

509

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett.

The Malay specimens are all of the seminulum type ; they occur
at several Stations in both Areas, but are nowhere abundant.

Miliolina pulchella d’Orbigny sp.

Quinqueloculina pulchella d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii.
p. 303, No. 42. M. pulchella (d’Orb.) Jones, 1895, Pal. Soc., p. 123,
pi. vi. fig. 3. M. pulchella (d’Orb.) Goes, 1894, K. Sveuska Vet.-
Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 114, pi. xxi. figs. 862-864.

This species, whose surface ornament often combines the fine striae
of M. bicornis with the strong costae of M. Ferussacii , is here repre-
sented only by a few feeble specimens.

Miliolina Linnseana d’Orbigny sp.

Triloculina Linneiana d’Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Cuba, p. 172,
pi. ix. figs. 11-13. Miliolina Linnseana (d’Orb.) Brady, 1884, Chall.
Rep., p. 174, pi. vi. figs. 15-20. ? Miliolina ( Triloculina ) Linnseana
(d’Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II., vol. xviii.
p. 239, pi. ii. figs. 80, 81.

The Malay specimens resemble those figured by Brady, the costae
being irregular and sometimes interrupted or bifurcate.

It occurs sparingly at a few Stations.

The localities named by Brady are West Indies, Madagascar, and
eight 4 Challenger ’ Stations in the neighbourhood of the coral islands
of the Pacific, within the tropical zone. Egger’s rather doubtful
example is from Mauritius.

Miliolina bicornis Walker and Jacob sp.

Serpula bicornis ventricosa Walker and Boys, 1784, Test. Min.,
p. 1, pi. i. fig. 2. Miliolina bicornis (Walker) Williamson, 1858,
Rec. Foram. Great Britain, p. 87, pi. vii. figs. 190-195. Adelosina
bicornis (W. and J.) Schlumberger, 1886, Bull. Soc. Zool. France,
vol. xi. p. 546, figs. 1-5, and pi. xvi. figs. 10-15. M. bicornis
(W. and J.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II.,
vol. xviii. p. 237, pi. ii. figs. 73, 74. M. elegans (Williamson) Goes,
1894, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 112, pi. xx. fig. 857.
M. bicornis (W. and J.) Goes, ibid., p. 113, pk xxi. figs. 860, 861.
M, bicornis (W. and J.) Madsen, 1895, Meddelelser fra Dansk Geol.
Forening, No. 2, p. 180, pk fig. 1.

This species is most numerously represented by its elongate form,
which, as before mentioned, merges into the costate variety of M.
Bosciana.

It is abundant in Area 1, but occurs also in Area 2.

The 4 Gazelle ’ specimen figured by Egger is of the elongate variety,
and closely resembles the M. bicornis var. elegans of Williamson. It
is from Mauritius, the only Station named for the species.

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Transactions of the Society.

Miliolina Boueana d’Orbigny sp.

Quinqueloculina Boueana d’Orbigny, 1846, Foram. Foss. Vienne,
p. 293, pi. xix. figs. 7-9. M. Boueana (d’Orb.) Goes, 1894, K.
Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 114, pi. xxi. fig. 865.

This form is not well represented, and the specimens might almost
with as much reason have been included in the Miliolina oblonga
group.

It occurs at a few Stations in both Areas.

Miliolina alveoliniformis Brady.

M. alveoliniformis Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., N.S.,
vol. xix. p. 54. Schlumbergerina arenipliora Munier-Chalmas, 1882,
Bull. Soc. Geol. France, ser. 3, vol. x. p. 425, figure. M. alveolini-
formis (Brady) Brady, 1884, Chalk Rept., p. 181, pi. viii. figs. 15-20.
M. alveoliniformis (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad.
Wiss., Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 232, pi. ii. figs. 17-19.

This abnormal form of Miliolina is tolerably common and well
developed at Station 22 in Area 2. All the specimens have the
porous aperture as represented by Brady and Munier-Chalmas, thus
differing from the example figured by Egger. In my cabinet are
specimens from ‘ Challenger’ Station 172, Nukualofa, Tongatabu, which
are more regular in form, are entirely porcellanous, and the aperture
resembles that of M. circularis.

Brady speaks of it as being essentially a coral reef species, and as
having a wide range. The localities given by Munier-Chalmas for
Schlumbergerina arenipliora are the coast of Madagascar and the
Gaboon and Torres Strait. The ‘ Gazelle ’ Stations are, off the Cape of
Good Hope and Mauritius.

Sub-Family Hauerininse.

Articulina d’Orbigny.

Articulina sulcata Reuss.

Articulina sulcata Reuss, 1850, Denkschr. k. Akad. Wiss., vol. i.
p. 383, pi. xlix. figs. 13-17. A. sulcata (Reuss) Brady, Parker, and
Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. xii. pt. vii. p. 215, pk xl. fig. 11.
A. sulcata (Reuss) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 243, pk ii. fig. 5.

The specimens of this species are neither numerous nor widely
distributed. They are of the form figured by Brady and by Egger,
which differs slightly from those figured by other authors.

Brady records four < Challenger ’ Stations, one of which is Raine
Island, Torres Strait. The * Gazelle ’ Stations are West Africa and
Mauritius.

511

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett.

Articulina Sagra d’Orbigny.

Artieulina Sagra d’Orbigny, 1839, Foram. Cuba, p. 183, pi. ix.
figs. 23-26. A. Sagra (d’Orb.) Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 184,
pi. xii. figs. 22-24.

None of the Malay specimens have the extreme development of
the Vertebralina mucronata of d’Orbigny,* nor of the A. Sagra as
figured by Brady, but they form a series extending from the Cuba
specimens of the latter form to the A. lineata of Brady ; the decora-
tion varying from costate to striate.

It is pretty evenly distributed, although not common.

Articulina lineata Brady.

Articulina lineata Brady, 1884, Chall. Bept., p. 183, pi. xii.
figs. 19-21.

As before stated, this variety is connected with A. Sagra , and it
would perhaps be better to include it in that species. None of the
Malay specimens however have the margin “ thin and sharp,” as have
some of the ‘ Challenger ’ examples.

It occurs at the same Stations as A. Sagra , and is rather more
abundant.

It has been found at four 4 Challenger ’ Stations, one of which
is Kaine Island, Torres Strait. There seems to be no other record
of its occurrence.

Articulina lineata Brady, smooth variety, plate Nil. fig. 8.

This form occurs in company with A. lineata , and is rather more
abundant. In differs only in the absence of the striations. Length
0*50 mm.

Articulina conico-articulata Batscli sp., plate XII. figs. 9, 10.

Nautilus conico-articulatus Batsch, 1791, Conch. Seesandes, p. 3,
pi. iii. fig. 11. Vertebralina conico-articulata (Batsch) Goes, 1882,
K. Svenska Yet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xix. No. 4, p. 121, pi. ix. fig. 317.
A conico-articulata (Batsch) Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 185,
pi. xii. figs. 17, 18, and pi. xiii. tigs. 1, 2. A. conico-articulata
(Batsch) Brady, Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. xii.
p. 216, pi. xl. figs. 7-9. Articulina sp.? Wisniowski, 1888, Jahrb.
k. k. Geol. Keichs., vol. xxxviii. p. 694, pi. xiii. fig. 62. A. conico-
articulata (Batsch) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 224, pi. iii. fig. 2. A. extensa Egger, 1893,
ibid., p. 242, pi. iii. fig. 3.

It is unfortunate that the figure of this species given by Batsch
should have been taken from a specimen in which the initial chambers
are wanting, seeing that this cylindrical Articulina is found in two
distinct forms. In one of these the earlier chambers are arranged on

* Foram. Cuba, 1839, p. 52, pi. vii. figs. 1G-19.

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Transactions of the Society.

the Milioline plan as in A. nitida d’Orbigny, whilst in the other the
initial portion consists of a spherical primordial with circumambient
chamber as in the genus Orbitolites. Speaking of Vertebralina conico-
articulata , Goes remarks/ “ Its most singular form is that in which
the primordial chamber is flask-formed, and the subsequent chamber
develops itself from the top of its neck and so on, one chamber
after the other in Nodosarina fashion ; thus its usual Miliolina formed
stage is' passed over altogether.” All the Malay specimens are of
this form, and are extremely attenuated. It will be noticed that the
Nubecularict tibia (pi. v. fig. 3) has the initial chambers of this
character, and it becomes a question if this species should not be
removed to the genus Articulina. Jones and Parker remark/ “ From
the Clam-shells of the East Indian Seas, and from the Strombus
gigas of the West Indies, we get minute rectilinear individuals of
Nubecularia, with a spiral commencement (2V. tibia var. nov.).” And
again (p. 456), “ Of the straight specimens (2V. tibia) we have only
fragments, the spiral portion being absent.” Brady also writes/
“ Owing perhaps to the thinness of the walls and the slenderness
of the stoloniferous tubes, specimens are scarcely ever found with
more than three segments.” A glance at the published figures of
N. tibia will suggest that nearly all of them represent imperfect
examples, and it might reasonably be assumed that the earlier
chambers were of the same character as those of the Malay speci-
mens. In these latter the shell substance of N. tibia is dense
and opaque, whilst that of A. conico-articulata is thin and somewhat
translucent. It must be left to subsequent researches to prove
whether N. tibia is a distinct species, or if it is only a smooth form
of A. conico-articulata.

As for the latter, it may be convenient to assume that Batsch’s
species, as indeed the contour of the figure suggests, had the initial
chambers of the Orbitolites- form, whilst d’Orbigny’s A. nitida with the
Milioline commencement may be treated as a distinct species.

Acting on this assumption, it may be stated that A. nitida is not
represented in the gatherings by Goes from the Caribbean Sea, nor
in Mr. Durrand’s anchor mud; that, allowing for errors of inter-
pretation, they both occur in the ‘ Challenger ’ and Abrolhos Bank
collections ; and that, supposing Egger’s A. extensa to be equal to
A. conico-articulata , they are both represented in the ‘Gazelle’
soundings.

For A. conico-articulata Egger’s Stations are Mauritius and
West Australia, and for A. extensa (which he considers a variety of
A. funalis ) Mauritius only.

In the Malay Archipelago the Orbitolites- form is very abundant,
and occurs at nearly all the Stations in both areas.

* K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl., vol. xix. 1882, p. 121.

t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xvi. 1860, p. 455.

% ‘ Challenger ’ Report, p. 135.

513

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett.

Articulina funalis Brady.

Articulina funalis Brady, 1884, Chall. Bept., p. 185, pi. xiii.
figs. 6-11. A. funalis (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., 01. 11., vol. xviii. p. 242, pi. iii. fig. 1.

Fragments of this species occur at a few Stations in both areas,
but the initial club-shaped portion is always wanting.

* Challenger ’ Stations are, Kerguelen Island, off Prince Edward’s
Island, and Humboldt Bay on the north coast of Papua.

What appears to be a fragment of this species is represented in
‘ The Foraminifera of the Abrolhos Bank,’ Brady, Parker, and Jones,
1888, pi. xl. fig. 7, and figs. 5 and 6 of the same plate may represent
the striate and smooth forms of the like species.

Articulina funalis var. inornata Brady, plate XU. fig. 11.

Articulina funalis var. inornata Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 186,
pi. xiii. figs. 3-5. A. inornata (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k.
bayer. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 242, pi. iii. fig. 4.

Occurs at the same Stations as the typical form, and is somewhat
-more abundant.

The only ‘ Challenger ’ Station is Prince Edward’s Island, and the
only ‘ Gazelle ’ Station Mauritius ; rare in both localities.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(PRINCIPALLY INVERTEBRATA AND CRYrTOGAMIA),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others .*

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryolog-y.f

Span of Gestation and Cause of Birth. J- — Dr. J. Beard lias given
this title to another of his suggestive papers. It should have been
reported on sooner, but the author gives one much to ponder over.

In the early days of Mammalian evolution, before an allantoic
placenta had arisen, the birth period and the critical period coincided,
as is still seen in many Marsupials. Then, too, the ovulation period
must have been almost equal to — really a little longer than — the critical
period. A coming ovulation, a reflex message from ovary to uterus,
was the direct cause of birth.

The evolution of an allantoic placenta made it possible for birth to
be postponed to a later time, for the new structure provided for the
nutrition of the foetus beyond the critical period or, more technically,
beyond the single “ critical unit.” Then, too, the ovulation period
was extended to embrace two critical units instead of one, as still seen
in mouse, rabbit, &c. This marked the passage from the Metatherian
to the Eutherian status.

A gestation of two units, although an advance on a gestation of one
unit only, did not yield the advantages to be gained by still further
prolongation to include three or more critical units. This further pro-
longation was acquired, but still preserved the correspondence between
the length of gestation and a certain number of critical and ovulation
units. Illustrations are given of cases up to eight critical units.

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so called,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied
subjects.

X ‘ The Span of Gestation and the Cause of Birth ; a Study of the Critical
Period and its Effects in Mammalia,’ Jena, 1897, 8vo, ix. and 132 pp.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

515

As a rulo, forms with a greater number of critical units included
in the gestation period are born in a condition more advanced than
those with fewer. Mere length of gestation does not affect this; for
a mouse attains in 20 days a degree of development as advanced as a
rabbit in 30, or as a dog in 62 days.

The association of a greater degree of development at birth and
an increased number of critical units embraced in gestation, is due to
the fact that forms with gestation periods of several critical units,
must, in their ancestral history, have passed through conditions in
which the number was smaller.

But the matter is complicated by the fact that in horse, sheep, pig,
and man, the critical unit seems to be no longer the equivalent of one
ovulation unit, but almost of two. The gestation length has been
doubled without altering the grade of development at birtli, a change
which is perhaps associated with a probable increase of size in the
course of ancestral history.

In all mammals, ovulation is either abortive or suppressed during
gestation, for its normal occurrence would lead to abortion. The corpus
luteum is probably connected with the suppression. Its commencing
degeneration some little time before the end of the gestation, like its
rapid atrophy when fertilisation has not taken place, allows of prepara-
tion being made for a new ovulation. The approach of this ovulation
is, in a reflex manner, the direct cause of birth.

The critical period, multiples of this, and the ovulation periods,
must very frequently be times of abortion in mammals.

Menstruation is comparable to an abortion prior to a new ovulation.
It is an abortion of a decidua prepared for an egg, which was given
off subsequently to the preceding menstrual period, and has escaped
fertilisation. It is comparable to an abortive birth at a former critical
period.

Lactation, gestation, the ovulation unit, and the critical unit, are all
connected as expressions of the rhythm of reproduction in mammals.
The basis of this rhythm is in the ovary. By ovulation the rhythm is
proclaimed throughout the reproductive life of the female ; in gestation
the same rhythm is maintained, but in a modified fashion ; and as the
span of uterine life draws to a close, it again asserts itself, and induces
birth. Thus harmony and law reign in the reproductive life of
Mammalia.

Our summary is very closely in the author’s own words ; but it must
be understood that wo have been forced to leavo out the concrete argu-
ments. We will quote the final sentence : “ The reign of law prevails in
the infinitely little no less than in the immeasurably vast ; and that this
should be, is probably not less momentous and vital for human existence,
than that the law which moulds a tear should guide a planet in its
course.”

Orthogenesis.* — The late Prof. G. H. Tb. Eimer used this word to
denote progressive development in a definite direction, and it is pro-

* ‘Entstehung der Arten auf Grund von Vererben erworbener Eigensckaften
nach den Gesetzen d. organischen Wachsens. II. Tkeil. Orthogenesis der Schmetter-
linge, ein Beweis bestimmt gerichteter Entwickelung und Ohnmacht der natiirlichen
Zuchtwahl bei der Artbildung. Zugleich eine Erwiderung an August Weismann.

1898 2 n

516 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

minent on the title-page of his last work. The idea is no new one ;
Nageli was one of its exponents ; it has cropped up in many guises ;
what Eimer tried to do was to prove its reality.

Organisms grow, and vary progressively in definite directions, defined
by external conditions ; at certain stages of stability there is a stoppage
in the process, and species arise by “ genepistasis.” This is the central
thesis, which we have previously summarised ; the aim of the book is
to show the adequacy of the theory as an interpretation of Lepidoptera.

The chapters deal with the following subjects : — the theory of
orthogenesis and the limits of natural selection ; criticism of Weis-
mann’s “ germinal selection ” theory ; origin of leaf-like characters ;
types of marking and pseudo-mimicry ; mimicry ; succession of colours
and markings ; sexual dimorphism and selection ; climatic influences as
factors in evolution.

X' We cannot agree with the late Professor’s collaborates Dr. C.
Fickert that “ the book furnishes incontrovertible proofs of the inherit-
ance of acquired characters aud a complete refutation of Weismannian
speculations ; ” but it is a careful attempt to vindicate a position in which
there is doubtless some truth, if we could only get at it. It will remain
as a memorial of a devoted and courageous student of evolution who was
not afraid to be in a minority.

Physiological Import of Maturation.* — Dr. N. Iwanzoff has studied
this in Holothuria tubulosa and other Echinoderms. The immature ova
form pseudopodia when surrounded with spermatozoa, and the younger
the ovum, the greater is the mutual attraction, and the more intense
the production of pseudopodia. In the case of very young ova, however,
the pseudopodia are few or absent. In quite ripe eggs, again, there is
but one pseudopodium — the receptive protrusion — which is relatively
small. The spermatozoa which are taken in by the immature ova serve
as food and are digested. The process of maturation weakens the
vitality of the ovum by the elimination of an important part of the
nucleus, and that in such a way that the ripe ovum is unable to digest
the spermatozoon. Fertilisation is fundamentally a nutritive process.

Germinal Vesicle and Polar Bodies in Urodela-f — Profs. J. B.
Carnoy and H. Lebrun continue their investigation of the germinal
vesicle and polar bodies in Amphibia, the present memoir dealing with
the axolotl and the newts. The nucleoli are definitely nuclein-bodies ;
the structure of the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm is reticular not alveolar;
the nuclein ribbon is typical and apparently continuous, and gives rise
at an early stage to a few primary nucleoli, or sometimes is wholly
resolved into these ; in any case the ribbon is resolved, and disappears
as such, some of the granules forming secondary nucleoli.

From this point onwards, until the occurrence of the polar kineses,
all the figures are nucleolar, one set succeeding another in ephemeral
sequence, of which the authors give a detailed description. It is errone-

Unter Mitwirkung von Dr. C. Fickert.’ Leipzig, 8vo, x., xvi., and 513 pp., 2 pis.,
235 figs. See Zool. Centralbl., v. (1898) pp. 241-51 ; Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898)
pp. 403-16, 444-56.

* Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 1897 (published 1898), pp. 355-67 (1 pi.).

f La Cellule, xiv. (1898) pp. 113-200 (4 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

517

oils to speak of the persistence of the nuclear ribbon as such, or to
maintain that it forms the figures.

Superfluous products resulting from the successive dissolutions pass
out into the cytoplasm and serve to nourish it, forming vitelline plates.
There are no longitudinal nor transverse divisions of the nuclein
elements at any stage in the whole process. At the time of the polar
kineses, some of the products of the nucleolar dissolution which is in
process form the rods of the figures, but it is nonsense to say that these
come directly from the primitive ribbon. The authors offer severe
criticism of the results reached by other observers, whose vision, they
say, has been distorted by theoretical prejudice.

Segmentation of Ovum in Sheep.* — Mr. R. Assheton has succeeded
in obtaining a very fairly perfect series of specimens from the time
of fertilisation to shortly before the stage at which Bonnet’s account
begins. His results agree with wbat he has already observed in the
pig. At an early stage, perhaps as early as the 8-segment stage, the
future epiblast and hypoblast are differentiated. The hypoblast sur-
rounds the epiblast , so that at the morula stage the embryo consists of
a few internal epiblast cells surrounded by hypoblast cells, which at
one pole form a thicker investment than elsewhere. In the middle of
this thickened mass of hypoblast the cavity of the blastodermic vesicle
arises. Subsequently, by the rupture of the hypoblast, the epiblast
comes to the surface. The cavity of the blastocyst is not the segmenta-
tion-cavity, but (as Robinson stated) the archenteron surrounded on all
sides by hypoblast. Thus there is no blastopore. The hypoblast is,
owing to mechanical and physical causes, double over part of the wall.
Assheton goes on to consider the hypothesis of the hypoblastic origin
of the trophoblast.

Spermatogenesis in Man.f— Prof. K. von Bardeleben makes his
eighth contribution on this subject. (1) He gives further proof that
the intermediate-cells ( Zwischenzellen ) pass through the walls of the
seminal tubules into the lumen, bearing crystals, pigment, and fat with
them. (2) The development of the spermatides into the “spermato-
somes” or unripe spermatozoa is then discussed, seven stages being
described. There is what may be called a futile attempt at continued
cell-division — a “ kytokinesis” without karyokinesis — and there is an
adaptation of external form in relation to movement. (3) The occur-
rence of an accessory form (Nebenform) of spermatosome and spermato-
zoon, in addition to the main form (j Eauptforni), is upheld.

Rudimentary Ova in Frog’s Testis.:*: — Herr F. Friedmann describes
a case in which distinct ova occurred in the seminiferous tubules of
liana viridis. The ova showed none of the typical yolk-plates, nor any
of the characteristic brownish pigment, but were otherwise clearly
ova. Fifteen were fairly well developed ; three were degenerate and
like the cells in Bidder’s organ.

Effect of Mechanical Stimulus on Unfertilised Ova of Silkmoth.§
— J. Perez notes that friction, washing with sulphuric acid, and other

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xli. (1898) pp. 205-62 (4 pis. and 6 figs.).

t Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturvviss., xxxi. (1898) pp. 475-520 (3 pis. ancl 5 figs.).

X Arch. Mikr. Anat., lii. (1898) pp. 248-62 (1 pi.).

§ Proces Verb. Soc. Sci. Bordeaux, 1896-7 (received 1898), pp. 9-10.

2 n 2

518 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

influences, are known to hasten the development of silkworm eggs. The
removal of the varnishing secretion facilitates gaseous interchange, and
increases the vitality.

More striking, however, is the fact that unfertilised eggs are stimu-
lated to parthenogenetic development by gentle friction, Parthenogenetic
development does indeed occur apart from this, and is most frequent in
the eggs of robust females.

Wind-Eggs.* — M. Xavier Raspail describes a “ wind-egg ” or “ cock’s
egg ” which he found in the nest of Cannabina linota. He has in his
long experience found only four of these peculiar eggs in the nests of
wild birds. Various hypotheses have been suggested to explain them.
That they are cock’s eggs is absurd ; that they are laid by immature or
exhausted females is contradicted by the case described. Raspail’s con-
clusion is that they are not really eggs at all. Some stimulus provokes
the secretion of albumen in the upper part of the oviduct; the mass
acquires ovoid form as it passes downwards ; and a shell is formed
around it.

Fourth Visceral Cleft and lateral Thyroid in Cat.f — P. Verdun
finds that the median thyroid arises as an epithelial bud from the anterior
wall of the bucco-pharyngeal cavity near the level of the second branchial
arches. All the secretory parenchyma, as in rabbit and mole, comes
from this median rudiment. The lateral thyroids are paired organs,
which seem to arise on each side of the ventral wall of the fourth
visceral pouch. The tliyroidean glands arise as hemispherical thicken-
ings of the dorsal and external wall of the same pouches.

Development of Hedgehog’s Spines.f — Dr. Hs. Sprenger gives a
detailed account of the structure and development of the hedgehog’s
spines. Like hairs, they show three areas, — a medulla, a cortex, and a
cuticula ; and their development in the embryo is at first essentially the
same as that of hairs.

Organ in Embryo Reptiles like a Hypochorda.§— Prof. A. Prenant
finds that in embryos of Anguis fragilis , Lacerta viridis, L. agilis , Agama
Bibronii , and Tropidonotus natrix, there is a median dorsal pharyngeal
plate, which seems comparable to, if not strictly homologous with, the
hypochorda of Ichthyopsida.

Gastrula and Archenteron of Salamander. j| — Dr. Hj. Gronroos
concludes that the primitive alimentary cavity in Salamandra maculosa
is formed from two components, — (a) in small part, from the gastrula-
invagination, and (b) for the most part, from an independent cavity
arising internally as a modification of the segmentation cavity.

Chondrocranium in Ichthyopsida.1T — Mr. G.M. Winslow has studied
this in Ambly stoma and other Urodela, in Pipa, in Ichthyophis, and in
Polypterus , Protopterus , and trout. He gives excellent figures of the
models which he constructed by Born’s method. One of his aims was to

* Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxiii. (1898) pp. 94-7.
f Journ. Anat. Physiol., xxxiv. (1898) pp. 265-304 (1 pi. and 12 figs ).
t Zool. Jahrb., xi. pp. 97-152 (3 pis.).

§ Journ. Anat. Physiol., xxxiv. (1898) pp. 433-62 (3 pis.).

|| Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 456-63 (6 figs.),
f Tufts College Studies, No. 5, 1898, pp. 147-201 (4 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

510

see how far the chondrocranium can he employed as an aid in classifica-
tion. Thus he finds evidence against associating the Caecilians with any
of the Urodela, and in favour of keeping them in a distinct group co-
ordinate with the Urodela and Anura. As regards the Dipnoi, the
evidence confirms W. N. Parker’s view that they should not be retained
among the fishes.

Early Stages in the Development of Salmonidae.* * * § — Dr. J. Jablo-
nowski finds (in the salmon) that the endoderm, first established by the
gastrulation, forms the definitive lining of the most anterior blind cupola
of the archenteron, which afterwards undergoes degeneration ; that the
anterior boundary of the rudiment of the central nervous system corre-
sponds with the roof of this archenteric cupola ; and that the dorsal
blastoporal lip is originally situated not far behind this anterior boundary.
In the latter part of his paper, he works out four points of agreement
between the trochophore and the vertebrate embryo.

Development of Teleostean Scales.! — Herr S. A. Ussow has studied
this in Cobitis tsenia , Ac. The upper layer consists of a structureless
homogeneous material formed, at the expense of the mesoderm of the
cutis, from the scleroblasts. Its inorganic substance is amorphous cal-
cium phosphate. In short, the tissue is a simple form of bone. The
lower layer is formed from the same mesodermic elements, and consists
of hardened connective tissue threads without any cells between.

Development of Caecum in Amphioxus.ij: — Prof. J. A. Hammar finds
that this organ arises as a median “ liver-fold,” which is constricted off
caudalwards to form a blind sack. Thus the development is like that of
a typical vertebrate liver. The position on the right side is secondary.
The chief peculiarity is the non-formation of any parenchyma.

Law of Ancestral Heredity.§ — Prof. K. Pearson expounds and illus-
trates what he terms Gallon’s Laiv of Ancestral Heredity , which “ enables
us to predict a priori the values of all the correlation coefficients of
heredity, and forms the fundamental principle of heredity from which
all the numerical data of inheritance can in future be deduced, at any
rate, to a first approximation.”

In the notation adopted, a father is called a 1st parent, a grandfather
a 2nd parent, a great-grandfather a 3rd parent, and so on ; the mid s,h
parent or the s,h mid-parent is derived from all 2" individual sth parents.

With reservations as to how “ mid-parent ” should be defined, Pearson
states the law of ancestral heredity as follows.

“ If & be the deviation of the s,h mid-parent from the mean of the
s,h ancestral generation, and h0 be the probable deviation from the mean
of the offspring of any individual, o-s the standard deviation of the sth mid-
parental generation, cr0 of the generation of the offspring, then

7 1 U'o 7 | 1 ®"o 7 t 1 U"o 7 . 1 U’o 7 .

^0 — 9 — ^1 4- t — *2 4- q — + Ya — *4 +

2 CTl 4 <T9 O O-o lb (Ta

* Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 532-51 (19 figs.),

t Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 1897 (published 1898), pp. 339-51 (2 pis.).

X Anat. Anzeig., xiv. pp. 602-7 (5 figs.).

§ Proc. Boy. Soc., lxii. (1898) pp. 386-412.

520

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

This is the somewhat generalised form of the law which Mr. Galton
sums up as follows : — “ Eachjparent contributes on an average one-quar-
ter, or (0* * * §5)2, each grandparent one-sixteenth, or (0*5)4, and so on; and
generally the occupier of each ancestral place in the nth degree, whatever
be the value of n, contributes (0*5)2w of the heritage.” Prof. Pearson
concludes his paper with the sentence, “ If Darwinian evolution be
natural selection combined with heredity, then the single statement
which embraces the whole field of heredity must prove almost as epoch-
making to the biologist as the law of gravitation to the astronomer.”

Formation of Breeds and Species.*— Herr H. Kohlwey has been
led to some general conclusions as the result of many years’ experi-
mental breeding of pigeons. In free-living forms especially, but also
in domesticated breeds, external conditions are of great importance as
evolutionary factors. He is convinced as to the inheritance of acquired
characters, and finds in the environment a primary cause of variation.
Even the colour of the birds is influenced, either indirectly through the
nervous system, or directly. The offspring tend to resemble male parent
or female parent, according to the relative potency of the germ-cells. In-
breeding need not lead to degeneration if the stock be sound. Whether
we accept the author’s main thesis or not, a contribution to evolution
theory from a breeder is always of interest. We have not seen the
original essay.

b. Histolog-y.

Centrosomes and Nucleus-t — Dr. B. Nemec compares cell-divisions
in which the centrosome functions, with those in which the centrosome
seems to be absent, as in higher plants. There is no doubt as to the
essential resemblance ; and the author’s point is that in cells without a
centrosome the nucleus serves the same purpose in the prophases and
anaphases. In short, the centrosome is in such cells homodynamous
with the nucleus before and after nuclear division.

Structure of Cytoplasm.^: — Prof. J. Arnold has examined many dif-
ferent kinds of cell with reference to the architecture of their substance.
His method was to allow fragments of tissue to steep in potassium iodide
iodine solution. In many cases, as in leucocytes and the cells of bone-
marrow, plasmosomes are recognisable, bound by thread-like or rod-like
processes into systems, sometimes reticular and sometimes spongy. The
plasmosomes enclose granules (somatia) variously disposed, and there is
a hyaline substance (paraplasm) in the interstices of the plasmosome
systems. But with these materials great structural variety is possible,
as the author shows.

In a second paper, § dealing with nervous tissue, Arnold describes
the general occurrence of rows of granules. In ganglion-cells there are,
apart from the hyaline interstitial substance, at least two different sub-
stances forming systems of granules. It may be that the one system,

* ‘ Arten- und Kassenbildung. Eine Einfukrung in das Gebiet der Tierzuckt.
Mit einem Vorwort von Dr. G. H. Th. Eimer,’ Leipzig, 8vo, 72 pp., 5 figs. See
Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 377-80; Zool. Centralbl., iv. (1897) pp. 569-70.

t Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 569-80 (18 figs.),

t Arch. Mikr. Anat., lii. (1898) pp. 134-51 (1 pi.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 535-52 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY. ETC.

521

composed of “ neurosomes,” has to do with conduction, while the other,
composed of plasmosomes, has to do with nutrition.

Structure of Nerve-Cells.* * * § — Dr. A. Biihler gives a detailed descrip-
tion of the minute structure of the spinal ganglion-cells in a variety of
types. There is a granular meshwork, in the interstices of which fluid
can circulate, an arrangement which makes it easy for food to come in
and for waste to be got rid of. The conditions of stability in the
framework are connected with the system of organic radii associated
with the central corpuscles. The fibrils in the process which links one
ganglion-cell to another are differentiations of the cell-substance serving
as paths for the stimuli. These fibrils spread out within the cell, and
are intimately connected, both mechanically and physiologically, with
the cell as a whole. The basophile bodies in the cell are specific sub-
stances connected with the nervous metabolism, perhaps in part reserve-
material capable of reacting strongly to slight stimulus. Each element
in the cell is under the influence of the other elements, and reacts on
them, and the expression of their unified co-operation is nervous func-
tion.

Vascular Epithelium.f — Prof. F. Leydig refers to a recent research
by Maurer in which emphasis was laid on the occurrence of capillaries
in the buccal epithelium of Amphibians. Leydig had noticed such
cases in his ‘ Zelle und Gewebe ’ (1885). He now calls attention to vascu-
lar epithelium in earthworm and leech, Menopoma giganteum and Pleuro-
delesWaltii, Ichthyophis glutinosus , &c., quoting the observations of various
investigators on the subject. Leydig had previously pointed out the
respiratory importance of the superficial emergence of blood-vessels.

So-called Vascular Epithelium.f — Herr H. Joseph maintains that
the buccal epithelium of Amphibia does not contain any blood-vessels,
and is not vascular in Maurer’s sense. There is merely a sub-epithelial
capillary network, the branches of which bear diverticula directed
towards the epithelium and projecting on its base.

Intercellular Connections in Epithelium.§ — Prof. A. Kolossow
gives evidence in support of the thesis that the organic connection of
cells in epithelial tissue is a constant structural characteristic, and
suggests, though demonstration is still impossible, that the intercellular
bridges may be important, in glandular epithelium in particular, not
merely mechanically, but as paths for stimuli from cell to cell.

Epidermoid Structures in Mammals. || — Prof. F. Leydig discusses
a number of peculiar structures in the skin of .Balsena mysticetus , the
snout of the ox, the bill of Ornithorhynchus, the snout of the mole, &c.
He feels almost convinced that they are related to hair-structures, and
yet they show some resemblance to the cup-organs of lower Vertebrates.
If this last point could be demonstrated, it would, Leydig admits, point
towards Maurer’s theory of the derivation of hairs from integumentary
sense-organs.

* Verh. Phys.-med. Ges. Wurzburg, xxxi. (1898) pp. 285-392 (2 pis. and 2 figs.).

t Arch. Mikr. Anat., lii. (1898) pp. 152-5.

X Tom. cit., pp. 167-76 (1 pi. and 1 fig.).

§ Tom. cit., pp. 1-43 (3 pis.). || Tom. cit., pp. 156-66.

522

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Minute Structure of Glandular and Epithelial Tissue.* * * § — Herr
K. W. Zimmermann has studied this in numerous organs. His research
bears especially on the central corpuscles and the secretory capillaries.
The microcentrum, although very varied in its composition, including
one centrosome or a centrodesmosis of several, may be interpreted
throughout, in general terms, as the motor centre, as contrasted with
the nucleus which is the chemical centre of the cell. The microcentrum
is a “ kinocentrum,” and the nucleus a chemocentrum. The author dis-
tinguishes the various conditions as regards secretory capillaries ; they
may be absent ; they may be exclusively intercellular ; or both inter-
cellular and intracellular types may occur together. The number of
cases in which intracellular secretory capillaries occur is much less
than is usually asserted.

Histogenesis of Elastic Tissue.! — M. Gardner has studied this in
the amniotic membranes of various mammals, and has reached the
following conclusions. (1) The elastic substance is formed entirely
in the protoplasm of the cells, in the form of granules. (2) The elastic
granules fuse into very delicate filaments, and this fusion may occur
within the limits of a single cell, or in several anastomosed cells. The
nucleus has no obvious relation either to the formation of the granules
or to their fusion. (3) The delicate elastic filaments of adjacent cells
fuse into a larger filament, and this is joined to two or more analogous
filaments to form a larger fibre. (4) No active intrusion of elastic
filaments into the extra-protoplasmic substance is observable. The
formative cells determine the eventual reticular or fibrous structure.
Those who do not read Russian will welcome the new journal in which
this paper occurs ; the papers are to be published in French or German.

Digestive Tract of Salmon.^ — Hr. G. Lovell Gulland gives an
interesting account of the minute structure of the digestive tract of tho
salmon, and the changes which occur in it in fresh water. The most
striking change is of the nature of a desquamative catarrh, probably
associated with the general state of nutrition of the fish. “ Probably
for some time before the fish enter the river, and certainly while they
are lying at the mouth of it, the catarrhal change begins, and begins
clearly in the intestine and pyloric appendages ; the stomach is at that
time unaffected. By the time the fish have reached the upper waters,
the stomach has been attacked, and the whole digestive tract is in a state
of catarrh. After spawning is over, the stomach is the first part to
recover, and in the kelts it is again histologically normal, while the
intestine and pyloric appendages probably recover when the fish have
returned to the sea.” In no part of the alimentary canal of the many
fish examined from fresh water, including kelts, were there any remains
of undigested food.

* Comparative Histology of Digestive Tract.§— Hr. Edith J. Clay-
pole gives an interesting general account cf this, in great part based

* Arch. Mikr. Anat., lii. (1898) pp. 552-706 (3 pis. and 14 figs.).

f Le Physiologiste Russe, i. (1898) pp. 3-14 (2 pis.).

X Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 441-55 (12,figs.). Cf. Report of Investigation
on the Life History of Salmon. Fishery Board for Scotland, 1898, pp. 13-22 (6 pis.).

§ Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xix. (1897) pp. 83-92 (1 ph).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

523

on her own observations, which are mainly confirmatory of those of
others. Ciliated epithelium is primitive ; but in the adult mammal it
is present only in the respiratory tract. The same is true of birds.
In turtles one group (great sea-turtles) agrees with the above-named ;
in the others the oesophagus is lined with stratified columnar ciliated
cells, and mucus-glands are largely developed. In Amphibia there is
an added ciliated area in the roof of the mouth in land forms. In
Ganoids the cilia occur as far down as the stomach, but not in the
mouth. In Cyclostomes the whole intestinal tract is more or less
ciliated. On the whole, there is a reduction of ciliation and a reduction
in the size of the cells, as we ascend the series.

Buccal and other Glands of Colubridae.* — Mr. G. S. West describes
(a) the unicellular glands in the mouth, (5) the labial glands which are
solely mucus-secreting, (c) the parotid which becomes the poison-gland
of the venomous forms, ( d ) the Harderian which varies greatly in size,
and (e) the sublingual which lubricates the sheath of the tongue, as
Minot Lalone has noticed. Snakes are the only animals in which a
considerable admixture of mucus is present in the parotid saliva, this
mucus being derived in all cases from some of the epithelial cells of
the duct, and sometimes also from special accessory mucous alveoli.
The author makes two brief notes on the succession of the teeth and
on the relation of the poison-duct to the fangs.

Phosphorus-containing Substances of the Cell-t — Dr. T. Gregor
Brodie points out that our knowledge of the form and position in which
the phosphorus is held in the animal cell has of recent years been con-
siderably advanced by the researches of Miescher, Kossel, and their
co-workers, and has been greatly stimulated by Altmann’s discovery that
from the chief and most abundant of the) phosphorus proteids the phos-
phorus can be split off in the form of a complex acid — nucleic acid.
Dr. Brodie gives an account of nucleic acid and of the compounds in
which it forms a part in the cell, e.g. protamine.

“ It is remarkable,” he says, “ to find that the chromatin of such cells
as the spermatozoa should chemically consist of substances which, rela-
tively to proteids, are of simple constitution. If it be true that hereditary
characteristics are transmitted by the chromatin of the rejmoductive cells,
we should have expected a most complex chemical structure for these
parts ; and it therefore becomes the more striking to note that the most
complex protamine obtained, arbacin, is from the animal lowest in the
scale ( Arbacia , a sea-urchin), and that in the higher Vertebrates examined
no protamine is present at all.”

Structure of Suprarenal Capsules.} — Prof. H. Stilling gives a de-
tailed account of the minute structure of these organs in the edible frog.
A point of particular interest is the difference observable at different
seasons, which may be indirectly connected with the state of the repro-
ductive organs. The author has also observed a seasonal variation of
weight in the supra-renals of the rabbit.

* Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxvi. (1898) pp. 517-26 (2 pis.).

f Science Progress, vii. (1898) pp. 131-49.

$ Arch. Mikr. Anat., lii. (1898) pp. 176-95 (1 pi.).

524

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Comparative Study of Hair.* — Dr. W. G. Reynolds has a paper on
this subject which hardly admits of summary. We note it on account
of its practical interest to the medico-legal expert, or to the microscopists
whom he may consult.

Organs of Taste.f — Dr. A. E. Loveland has studied these both in
the human foetus and in the adult. His results are mainly confirmatory.
Gustatory or sensory cells and sustentacular or supporting cells are
distinguished. The central prolongations of the gustatory cells end
bluntly in the tissue, and nerve-fibrils come everywhere into close
apposition with them, though there is no actual communication. The
nerve-fibrils ramify and form various networks, both around and within
the taste-bulbs, but the further distinction between perigemmal and
intergemmal external fibrils is superfluous. The sub-epithelial cells
may be auxiliary to the taste function, and may be regarded as “ secondary
sensory ” cells, as Retzius called them.

Muscle-Fat in the Salmon.J — Mr. S. C. Mahalanobis finds that the
fats taken with its food by the salmon in the sea accumulate between
the muscle-fibres and also inside the fibres between the fibrils, and that
during the sojourn of the fish in the river these fats steadily diminish,
being either used up as a source of energy by the muscle, or trans-
ported from the muscle to the growing ovaries. There is no evidence
of fatty degeneration ; and many cases of so-called fatty degeneration in
other animals are merely such interfibrillar infiltration as occurs in
the salmon’s muscle. §

c. General.

Origin of Vertebrata.|| — Prof. E. Perrier states eight essential
characteristics of Yertebrata: — (1) bilateral symmetry and metamerism ;
(2) the presence of cilia ; (3) gill-clefts ; (4) a closed vascular system
and a ventral heart; (5) nephridia; (6) notochord; (7) dorsal nerve-
cord ; (8) an inverted position compared with lower animals. Applying
the method of exclusion, he rejects theory after theory until only the
Annelid theory is left. This is not done, however, without making
many assertions which are subjects of legitimate difference of opinion.

Origin of Mammals.^ — Prof. H. F. Osborn marshals the evidence in
favour of the general conclusion that the Theriodontia constitute a
group which contains practically all the primitive characters of the
Mammalia in the skeleton and teeth, and that no other reptiles or
amphibians approach so near the hypothetical pro-mammal. The ex-
planation of amphibian characters in the soft parts of existing mammals
may be that the pro-mammal sprang from primitive reptiles which
preserved a number of still more primitive amphibian or stegocephalian
characters.

Theory of Limbs.** — Dr. H. Braus has made a detailed study of the
innervation of the limbs in Selachii, Holocephali, and Dipnoi, and bases

* Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xix. (1897) pp. 117-28 (2 pis.).

f Tom. cit., pp. 129-74 (3 pis.).

X Government Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland, 1898, pp. 10G-11
(4 pis.). § Cf. infra , p. 525.

II Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1479- 8ti.

U Amer. Nat., xxxii. (1898) pp. 309-34 (14 figs.).

** Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxxi. (1898) pp. 230 4GS (S pis. and 3 figs.)-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

525

on this some discussion of the general theory of limbs. His results as
to the relation of the appendicular musculature to the appendicular
skeleton, and as to the extent of displacement which the girdles may
show in relation to the vertebral column, furnish indirect but effective
evidence in favour of Gegenbaur’s theory of the visceral arch origin, as
opposed to the Thacher-Mivart-Balfour-Dohrn theory of the origin of
paired fins from lateral folds.

Cranial Nerves and Sense-Organs of Fishes.* — Mr. F. J. Cole
points out that it is “ unphilosophical,” at present at any rate, to regard
the cranial nerves as a fixed number of serially arranged pairs ; that
even in the case of the branchial nerves, where the serial arrangement
is most marked, it would be hazardous to assert that each represented
a metameric unit; that the cranial nerves form an association whose
form is due practically to physiological necessities, and not to a survival
of an original serial arrangement ; and that the lateral sense-organs on
the head are certainly not metameric, and only secondarily so in the
body.

Biology of the Salmon.f — Dr. D. Noel Paton edits an interesting
‘ Report of Investigations on the Life History of the Salmon,’ three
papers from which we have summarised separately. The report deals
mainly with the condition and capability of the food-canal while the
salmon are in fresh water, and with the changes in the weight and com-
position of the muscles, reproductive organs, &c.

That the return from the sea to the native river is not governed by
the growth of the reproductive organs and n>sus generaiivus , is shown by
the fact that salmon are ascending the rivers throughout the whole year
in all stages of reproductive development. The salmon returns when it
has accumulated the necessary supply of food-material. The conclusion
of Miescher-Ruesch is confirmed that the salmon, at least before spawn-
ing, does not feed during its sojourn in fresh water. The solids greatly
diminish, but the percentage of water in the flesh increases. A detailed
study of some of the changes as regards fats, proteids, pigments, &c.,
has been made by the various authors who share in this report.

Markings of Boidae.J — Dr. J. Zenneck has made a very thorough-
going study of the markings in this large family. After describing a
long series of particular cases, he leads up to the most general conclusion.
“ All the species discussed may be arranged in a relatively small number
of series. Each link of such a series differs in the same way from its
preceding or succeeding link in the same series. Thus the various
links of a series may be regarded as various steps in one and the same
process.” In short, Zenneck confirms Eimer’s observations and conclu-
sions as to the wall-lizard, but over a wider field. The facts seem to
the author to point very clearly to definite progressive variation along a
few lines. Apart from its evolutionary interest, the memoir is of
importance in regard to classification and bionomics.

* Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., xii. (1898) pp. 228-47.

t Report of Investigations on the Life History of Salmon. Fishery Board for
Scotland, 1898, 176 pp.

X Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxiv. (1898) pp. 1-384 (8 pis. and 28 figs.).

526

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Warning Colours and Mimicry.* * * § — Mr. F. Finn has followed up his
experiments with Babblers ( Crater opus canorus ) by a series of experi-
ments with other birds of the babbler and bulbul groups. The birds
were kept together, and were daily offered a choice of “ non-warningly
coloured ” and “ protected ” butterflies. Mr. Finn concludes that there
is a general appetite for butterflies among insectivorous birds, but that
many, if not most, species dislike the “ warningly coloured ” Danainse,
Acrsea violse , Pajpilio aristolochise , and Delias eucharis. The mimics of
these are relatively palatable, and their mimicry is commonly effective
under natural conditions, but may not stand the severe test of aviary or
cage conditions.

Each bird has apparently to acquire its own experience ; for young
hand-reared birds had no instinctive knowledge of “ nauseous ” forms,
but soon learned to avoid them. His results go, on the whole, there-
fore, to support the theory of Wallace and Bates.

Mr. Finn recommends future observers to make their observations
on birds at liberty, or, if that be impossible, to use wild-caught, rather
than hand-reared birds, confining them singly, and feeding them natu-
rally,, that they may be neither hungry nor pampered.

Pigments of Muscle and Ovary in the Salmon. f — Miss M. I. New-
bigin finds two pigments, of which one is red and gives the blue lipo-
chrome reaction, corresponding closely to zoonerythrin, while the other
is yellow and does not give the lipochrome reaction. As the colour of
fish changes, there seems to be a direct transference of the red pigment
from the muscles to the ova. It is probable that this yellow pigment is
due to excess of fatty food, and that part of it is converted in the muscle
into the red pigment. If this be so, “it shows that a characteristic
pigmentation may be acquired as it were incidentally in the life-history
of the individual.”

Division and Budding among Animals.f — Hr. F. von Wagner
criticises a recent paper by M. von Bock.§ Wagner re-emphasises what
he has previously maintained,- — the necessity for clearly distinguishing
between division and budding, and the thesis that the modes of asexual
multiplication have had independent origins in the various groups in
which they occur.

Remarkable Abnormality in a Frog.|| — Mr. E. Warren describes a
vascular connection between the rectal vein of the hepatic portal and
the apex of the lung. The blood-vessel was not attached to the me-
sentery, but was quite free in the body-cavity. “ If the abnormality
be not regarded as due to reversion or disease, it is a striking example
of the potentialities of an organism.”

Vitalism and Evolution.^ — Prof. J. T. Wilson, in an interesting
presidential address to the Linnsean Society of New South Wales, deals
especially with the lasting problems of vitalism and evolution. His

* Joum. Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, lxvii. (1897) pp. 613-68.

f Gov. Rep. Fishery Board for Scotland, 1898, pp. 159-64.

f Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 130-9.

§ Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Naturwiss., xxxi. (1897) pp. 105-52 (3 pis.).

|| Anat. Anzeig., xiv. (1898) pp. 551-2 (1 fig.).

1 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxii. (1898) pp. 812-46.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

527

point of view may perhaps be inferred from the closing sentence, — “ In
this way may a perfect loyalty to the evolution doctrine throughout tho
entire domain of cosmic process, from its lowest to its highest mani-
festations, bring with it an emancipation from bondage to those
mechanical principles which seem alone suggested on the lower plane
of the inorganic, and which may, for certain purposes, though with more
conscious effort, be applied throughout the whole sphere of objective
science.”

Sensitiveness to Light in Amphioxus.* * * § — Herr R. Hesse answers
Krause’s criticism of his work. Krause’s hypothesis that the pigment
in the spinal cord of the lancelet corresponds to the optic purple of
the Vertebrate eye, is baseless. Hesse adheres to his account of the
structure and function of the “ cup-eyes.”

Lethargy in Birds.f — Dr. 0. Fabani discusses the much debated
question as to the possible hibernation of birds, citing many statements
both old and new. His conclusion is that, although there is no evidence
of a strict hibernation, comparable to that of the marmot, for instance,
yet there are cases of lethargy or suspended animation, as in Anthus
spinoletta, lasting for a prolonged period.

Respiration in Spelerpes fuscus without Lungs.f — Dr. E. Bethge
infers from the distribution of capillaries that Salamandra maculata can
breathe in gullet, buccal cavity, and skin, as well as by lungs ; that in
Triton tseniatus oesophageal respiration is slight or absent ; and that in
Sjpelerjpes fuscus , without lungs, both cutaneous and bucco-pharyngeal
respirations are important.

Digestion in Dogfish.§ — Prof. E. Yung finds that the mucosa of the
stomach in dogfishes has deep glands whose cells resemble the Beleg-
zellen in the stomach of Mammals. The digestive juice is very acid,
doubtless in adaptation to the calcareous shells of the Crustaceans, &c.,
which the fishes eat. Experiments showed that a proportion of about
7 parts of hydrochloric acid in 1000 was most favourable ; the maxi-
mum, in Lcmna cornubica, was 11 in 1000. The artificial digestion of
chitin did not succeed. As Richet has shown, there is no diastase in
the stomach.

Phagocytosis in Amphibians and Mammals. || — Mr. J. M. Berry
has experimented by injecting lamp-black, as Miss E. J. Claypole did,
and he confirms her results. The phenomena in Amphibia and Mammals
are essentially the same ; the carbon passes from lymph to blood and
vice versa ; the carbon-laden phagocytes tend to collect under serous
membranes, and the foreign matter escapes from the body through
lungs, intestinal tract, kidneys, and skin.

Distribution of Batrachia.^f — Prof. J. Palacky gives an account of
the geographical distribution of Batrachia, which is in many respects
remarkable. There are no Arctic nor Antarctic frogs, and out of the

* Anat. Anzeig., xiv. pp. 556-7.

t Atti Accad. Pontif. Nuovi Lincei, li. (1898) pp. 83-98.

% Zeitsehr. f. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1898) pp. 680-707 (2 pis.).

§ Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1885-7.

|| Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xix. (1897) pp. 93-106 (5 pis.).

•Q Verh. Zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, xlviii. (1898) pp. 374-82.

528

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

total of about 1000 species of Anura, about half belong to America,
more than a quarter to Asia, over a sixth to Africa, and at most sixteen
species to Europe. There are 57 species in Madagascar, 21 in Celebes,
125 in British India, and 135 in Mexico. The three genera Bana ,
Bufo, and Hyla are almost cosmopolitan. But we cannot do more than
direct attention to this interesting paper.

Marine Fauna of Brittany and the Gulf of Lyons.* — Dr. G.
Pruvot makes a comparison between the marine faunas of these two
areas. He distinguishes, — (1) a littoral region, with a sub-terrestrial
and a strictly littoral zone, the latter divided into three sub-zones or
horizons ; (2) a coast region, with two zones ; and (3) a deep region,
also divided into two zones. We do not know how to summarise the
author’s paper within our narrow limits, but it is much too important
to be left unrecorded.

Plankton of Puget Sound.f — Messrs J. I. Peck and N. R. Har-
rington have found, in regard to Peridinium , Coscinodiscus , Melosira ,
Copepods, and Nauplii, that the surface strata present the greatest
numbers of living individuals, and furnish the most favourable, although
irregular, conditions for the growth and reproduction of these organisms.
In the case of the large diatoms, burdened with their siliceous case,
there is a relatively rapid sinking into the strata beneath, and in other
diatoms the conditions of growth seem to be well fulfilled in the lower
strata. All the forms treated of except the Copepods were found alive
down to 112 fathoms, probably the lowest depth to which the method
of quantitative estimate has been carried.

Plankton of Rivers. — Dr. C. Zimmer J distinguishes (a) the
“ autopotamic ” plankton, restricted to flowing water, and consisting ex-
clusively of algae, unless perhaps Tetramastix opoliensis Zach. ; (b) the
“ eupotamic ” plankton, occurring in standing as well as in flowing
water ; and (c) the “ tychopotamic ” plankton, of exceptional occurrence
in rivers. A list of observed forms is given, but as yet it is a short
one.

Herr B. Schroder § ’ also discusses the plankton of the Oder, and
compares it with that of the pond (fed by the river) in the botanic
garden at Breslau.

Common Eel in the Open Seas.|| — M. Leon Vaillant notes that a
specimen of Anguilla anguilla L., a yard long, was taken by Captain
Chaves from the stomach of a cachelot-whale, which seems to show that
this remarkable fish goes far out to sea. If we understand the last
paragraph aright, the author does not seem to be aware of Grassi’s
results.

Biological History of Carbon.^" — A. Bach completes an essay on
this subject, which shows at least the incompleteness of our knowledge.
By a process analogous to electrolysis, C02 is decomposed in the green
plant ; formic aldehyde is formed and is polymerised to give rise to
glucose; thence, perhaps by some ferment, other sugars and starch

* Arch. Zool. Expel*., v. (1897) pp. 511-660 (6 pis.) maps and curves,
f Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 513-22.
t Tom. cit., pp. 522-4. § Tom. cit., pp. 525-35 (1 fig.).

|Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 1429-30.
f Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., v. (1898) pp. 520-35.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

529

arise. In an unknown manner the formic aldehyde serves as the starting
point for nitrogenous compounds (e.g. formaldoxime and formamide),
and these give origin to the nitrogenous reserve asparagin. The latter
is somehow associated with carbohydrates to form proteids. The
synthesis of fat is equally mysterious. The various sets of carbon-
compounds formed by plants are oxidised in the animal body, and C02
is the last term, as it was the first.

Possible Role of Electricity in Vital Processes.* — F. Solvay re-
cords (1) that the synthesis of a sugar has been effected by Dr. A.
Slosse by passing an electric current for five hours through a mixture
of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, both dry and pure ; and (2) that the
synthesis of urea has been similarly effected from carbon monoxide and
ammonia, both dry and pure.

Terminology of Classification.! — M. Charles Janet discusses the
categories of classification, of which he recognises fourteen, and the
best endings for the terms. It is difficult, however, to change old
usages or to secure unanimity on the subject.

Tunicata.

Classification of Molgulidse-! — M. Antoine Pizon finds that the
characters of the branchial apparatus cannot be relied upon to define
the major divisions of the family. Thus the new genus Gamaster has
its branchial system exactly like that of Eugyra , while the genital organ
is situated on the right side instead of on the left. The genera Para-
molgula Traustedt, Bostrichobranchus Traustedt, and Anurella Lac.-
Duth. are without value, and Pera Stimpson is very doubtful. There
remain eight genera, which may be arranged in three sections : —

(1) Molgulidae with a single gonad situated on the right side ;

Gamaster g. n.

(2) MolgulidaB with a single gonad situated on the left side

(misprinted in the text) ; Eugyra Hancock, Eugyriopsis

g. n.

(3) Molgulidae with paired gonads: — Astropera g. n., Molgula

Forbes, Ctenicella Lac.-Duth., Stomatropa g. n., and Asco-
pera Herdm., which may be arranged according to the
curvature of the intestine and the state of the siphons.

Classification of Tunicata.§ — Prof. E. Terrier discusses the position
and classification of Tunicata, starting from the conclusion that Verte-
brates comparable to Amphioxus have given rise to Tunicates. The
Cynthiidae have undergone least modification from the suj>posed ancestral
type. The Larvacea, such as Appendicular ia, are not primitive forms,
but are arrested larvae with precocious reproduction. We cannot, how-
ever, follow the author into the more detailed classification. It may
be noted in passing that he bases his arguments on the “ logical and
rigorous application ” of the “ law of patrogonie ” (repetition of phy-
logeny by ontogeny), which he speaks of as “a universally admitted
principle.”

* Bull. Acad. Roy. Bel"., xxxv. (1898) pp. 547-51.

f Mem. Soc. Acad, de l’Oise, 1898, pp. 5-12.

x Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 1814-17. § Tom. cit., pp. 1758-62.

530 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

INVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.
a. Cephalopoda.

New Family of Cephalopoda.* — Prof. L. Joubin describes the
external features of a pelagic Cephalopod — Galiteuthis armata g. et
sp. n. — of which the only known specimen was bought by M. Gal in
the market at Nice. In the (Egopsida division of Decapoda, there are
four families, Ommastrephidae, Onychii, Cranchiaeformes, and Taono-
teuthi. This new type requires a new family — Cranchionychiae — which
should be placed third on the list. The mantle is united to the neck
and funnel, as in Cranchiaeformes ; the tentacles bear a double row of
hooks, as in Onychii. In short, Galiteuthis is like a Taonius with the
tentacles of Onychii.

Muscular Attachment in Ammonoids.f — Mr. G. C. Crick has
studied this in many forms. As in the recent Nautilus, so in the Am-
monoids, the shell was external, and the animal was attached to it by
means of “ shell muscles ” and an “ annulus.” Indications of this muscular
attachment are fairly common. In the Ammonites and such allied
forms as Baculites, Hamites, &c., the shell-muscles were attached to the
dorsal portion of the shell ; they frequently either approximated or met
each other in the median line of this region ; when they did not quite
meet, they were doubtless united by a more or less narrow band corre-
sponding to the dorsal portion of the annulus in the recent Nautilus.
It would appear as if the provision of an annulus were an absolute
necessity to the animal in addition to the shell-muscles ; and most pro-
bably Dr. Waagen’s explanation of its occurrence is the correct one,
viz. that the annulus and shell-muscles served not merely to hold the
animal to its shell, but formed also an air-tight band around it, fastening
the mantle to the shell.

Grimalditeuthis.J — Prof. L. Joubin describes Grimalditeuthis richardi
g. et sp. n., a pelagic cuttlefish, captured by Dr. J. Pichard on the
‘ Princess Alice ’ in the Atlantic, 23*39 long. W. and 38 * 55 lat. N. The
body is elongated and very transparent ; the mantle shows a long dorsal
boutonniere, joined to the siphon by two oval ventral pallial membranes ;
there is a valve in the siphon ; the eyes are without a lachrymal sinus ;
there are two fins, one quite terminal and sharply defined off ; there is
a straight tubular pen ; the arms are almost equal, and the small suckers
have small hooks ; there are no natatory brachial membranes. The
animal belongs to the family Taonoteuthidae, of which a diagnostic key
is given.

y. Gastropoda.

Central Corpuscles in Sex-Cells of Snail.§ — Dr. 0. vom Path finds
that the sex-cells of Helix jpomatia have distinct central corpuscles,
visible in the resting state as well as in mitosis. The siderophilous
corpuscles are quite distinct bodies. In these and other respects the
author’s results differ from those of Bolles Lee.

* Ann. Sci. Nat., viii. (1898) pp. 279-92 (9 figs.),
t Trans. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), vii. (1898) pp. 71-113 (4 pis.),
t Bull. Soc. Zool. France, xxiii. (1898) pp. 101-13 (2 figs.).

§ Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 395-6, 413-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

531

Reno-pericardial Canals in Patella.* — Mr. E. S. Goodrich shows that
in Patella vulgata and P. coerulea there are two rcno-pericardial canals,
opening by means of projecting ciliated funnels from the pericardium
into the right and left kidneys respectively.

Indo-Malayan Nudibranchs.-j- — Prof. H. Simroth discusses the genera
Parmacochlea , Parmarion , and the Microparmarion group (with Micro -
parmarion and Collingea g. n.). He also refers to Girasia and Parmella.
Their essential interest, he says, is that they disclose structural diver-
gences of considerable morphological importance; and his task has
been to set the series in better order.

Structure and Classification of Janellidse.f — Prof. L. H. Plate gives
an account of Janella schauinslandi sp. n. and Aneitella berghi sp. n., and
a general discussion of the family. The Janellidae are Nudibrancbs
from New Zealand, Australia, and Polynesia. There are two ommato-
phores, and two small oral lobes. The head-shield is triangula.r, pointed
behind ; the genital opening is just behind the right tentacle. The
small mantle-cavity communicates with the diverticula of the peculiar
Buschellunge. A very large blood-sinus on the back communicates
directly with the atrium, and encloses the lung, the kidney, the shell-
vesicles, and a sensory vesicle which is regarded as a modified osphra-
dium. The shell is rudimentary, in the form of calcareous particles
enclosed in numerous isolated vesicles. There are very numerous trans-
verse rows on the radula, with over 200 lateral teeth on each side of the
rachis tooth. The central nervous system has closely apposed partly
fused visceral ganglia. The hermaphrodite reproductive organs are
usually without a seminal vesicle ; the sperm-oviduct may be absent or
well developed; there is always an albumen-gland and a sessile or
shortly-stalked receptaculum seminis. Diagnoses are given of the four
genera : — Janella , Aneitella , Aneitea , and Triboniophorus — and of the
known species. Their possible relationships are also discussed, but
there seems little certainty.

Development of Limax maximus.§ — Dr. J. Meisenheimer com-
pletes his account of this, describing the later stages. The head vesicle
appears very early, directly after the gastrula stage ; it has a wall of
ectoderm and scattered internal mesoderm ; unlike the actively pulsat-
ing podocyst, which appears a little later, it is quite passive. The
primitive kidney is wholly ectodermic, and is absorbed towards the end
of the larval period. The pulmonary cavity arises as an invagination
of ectoderm, with which a secondary inrolling is associated, forming the
true mantle-cavity. A vesicle constricted off from the ectoderm forms
the shell-gland. Henchman’s results in regard to the nervous system
are entirely confirmed. The tentacles arise from the apical plates ; the
integumentary sense-organs described by the Sarasins in other forms
occur ; the otolithic vesicle is formed by an ectodermic proliferation ;
the eye is an ectodermic invagination, and lies at first at the base of the
tentacle. The endoderm-sac is the beginning of the gut, and to this

* Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xli. (1898) pp. 323-8 (1 pi.).

t Zool. Jahrb., xi. (1898) pp. 151-72 (1 pi.).

X Tom. cit., pp. 193-280 (6 pis. and 3 figs.).

§ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1898) pp. 573-664 (9 pis. and 20 figs.).

1898 2 o

532

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

two ectodermic regions are afterwards added. Originally the visceral
coil lies in the mantle over the foot. Heart and kidney have a common
ectodermic Anlage. The blood-vessels arise directly from lymph-spaces
in the body.

Convergence in Gastropod Shells.* — Dr. Grafin Maria von Linden
maintains that there are but a few fundamental forms of Gastropod
shell, and that similar forms recur in ui allied groups. She gives evi-
dence of “ liomoogenesis ” or convergence in Melaniidse, Pleurotomidm,
Cancellarikhe, Rissoidse, and Columbellidse. Almost identical forms
may arise in groups which are at most very distantly related.

Development of Acmaea.f — M. Louis Boutan has studied the hitherto
unknown development of Acmsea virginea , one of the intermediate forms
connecting cyclobranch Docoglossa, like the limpet, with the Rhipido-
glossa. Although resembling Patella , it has a cervical gill like the
Rhipidoglossa. The eggs are laid in April and May, and are scattered
in the water. The author followed the whole development, but he
restricts himself in this note to a notice of two important points : —
(a) The torsion of the visceral mass cannot have to do with the twisting
of the shell, for the shell is symmetrical ; it depends on the development
of the foot. ( b ) The position of the terminal peak in patelliform shells,
turned backwards in Emarginula , forwards in Acmsea, is immaterial ;
whatever be the position of the peak, the animal always has the same
relative position in the shell.

Structure of Pleurotomaria.J — MM. E. L. Bouvier and H. Fischer
continue their account of Pleurotomaria Quoyana , describing the nervous
system, sense-organs, and radula. The results bear out the conclusion
previously arrived at, that this is a primitive type.

5. Lamellibranchiata-

Structure of Nuculidse.§ — Dr. W. Stempell gives a detailed account
of Leda sulculaia Gould and Malletia chilensis Des Moulins, two Chilian
forms whose structure has hitherto been undescribed. They are among
the most primitive of living bivalves, as is suggested on palaeontological
grounds, and by the following anatomical facts: — the simple relations
between shell and body, the primitive nature of the shell (e. g. absence
of prismatic layer), the presence of a creeping sole and the slight de-
velopment of the byssus apparatus, the simple structure of the feather-
like gills, the primitive nature of the kidney, the fact that the gonads
are sometimes in connection with the pericardium, the more or less
separate pleural ganglia, the persistence of the otocyst duct, and the
marked difference between nearly related species. In short, though
true Lamellibranchs, the Nuculidae are phylogenetically near the base
of the stem which diverged very early from the main Molluscan stock.

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Wings of Insects.)) — Messrs. J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham
devote the third chapter of their studies on wings to a discussion of

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxiii. (1898) pp. 708-28 (2 pis.).

t Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1887-9. % Tom. cit., PP- 1361-3.

§ Fauna Chilensis, ii., Supplement iv. Zool. Jalirb., 1898, pp. 339-430 (4 pis.).

|| Amer. Nat., xxxii. (1898) pp. 230-57 (24 figs.), 335-40 (9 figs.). Cf. this
Journal, ante , p. 190.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

533

specialisation by reduction. This may take place by atrophy of veins,
or by a coalescence of two or more adjacent veins. In this connection
they describe the venation of the wings of certain Plecoptera, of Psocus ,
of a Cicada , of Heteroptera, Lepidoptera, Trichoptera, and Diptera.

Daily and Seasonal Activity of Hive-Bees.* — Mr. F. C. Keny<5n
gives an account of a series of experiments made by a French bee-
keeper, M. Leon Dufour. By hourly recording the weight of a hive, the
experimenter obtained data from which it was possible to plot daily and
seasonal curves showing the relations between the activity of the bees and
the flow of nectar during the day and the season, as well as the relation
between the daily amount of nectar collected and the number of bees
in the hive, and between the number of bees and the different seasons.
The curves showed that, at any rate in the locality where the experiments
were made (Fontainebleau), there are four distinct periods of honey-flow,
two comparatively poor and two abundant. These latter are due to the
blooming of acacias and heather respectively. During the poor flow
there is a period of comparative inactivity in the middle of the day,
corresponding apparently to a period of small flow of nectar. During
the season of abundant flow, the activity of the bees is more or less
constant throughout the day. Apart from such midday inactivity, the
bees go and come steadily, and the hive, after the minimum is passed,
increases in weight progressively and with comparative steadiness.

When the flow of nectar is poor, the bees leave the hive slowly for
the first hour or so ; then the rate of departure is rapid till the minimum
Weight is reached. When the flow is abundant, the reduction in weight
is less marked, probably because the bees secure their stores easily and
return more frequently to the hive.

Early in May the workers were numerous, and their numbers in-
creased rapidly up to the middle of July, but fell again until, in the end
of August, comparatively few left the hive.

Geographical Distribution of Ants.j — Dr. 0. Stoll directs attention
to some of the new facts which have been established in regard to the
geographical distribution of ants. Perhaps the most important result
is the evidence of a striking relationship between the ant-fauna in the
tropical and sub-tropical parts of Australia and that in India and the
Indian Archipelago. New Guinea is an important connecting link
between the two.

Psychical dualities of Ants and Bees.J — Herr A. Bethe credits
an animal with “ psychical qualities ” when it gives evidence of utilising
its experience and of controlling its action in relation to what it has
learned. Without this, it is only a Peflexmaschine , exhibiting reflexes,
the more complex of which are usually called “ instincts,” though the
author avoids the word. As to the origin of these reflexes, he agrees
with Weismann and not with Wundt.

Among his experiments are the following : — If a Myrmica or Cam -
ponotus herculeanus be washed and then bathed in the juice of Tetra -

* Amer. Nat , xxxii. (1898) pp. 90-5.

f MT. Schweiz. Ent. Ges., x. (1898) pp. 120-6.

X Arch. Ges. Physiol., lxx. (1898) pp. 15-100 (2 pis.), See Zool. Centralbl., v.
(1898) pp. 273-6.

2 O 2

534

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

moriumy it will remain unmolested when introduced into a nest of the
latter. In finding their way back to the nest or back to discovered
booty, the sense of smell seems to be the guide. The bees of one
colony seem to have the same odour, which makes recognition possible.
In flying home to the hive, bees are guided neither by smell nor by
sight ; they obey an influence which is operative within a radius of a
few miles ; but what the influence is remains a riddle. Bethe’s con-
clusion is that ants and bees have no “ psychical qualities.”

An Insect Virus.* * * § — J. H. Fabre gives after his manner a most
interesting account of his search for the virus which makes itself felt
on the fingers, &c. of those who handle the caterpillars, or the eggs,
or even the excreta, of Bombyx pityocampa. It is a urinary” product,
and occurs in other caterpillars, perhaps in all insects. Its isolation
might have some practical import, like that of cantharidine.

Cases of Myasis.f — Prof. N. Leon reports the occurrence of larvae
of Sarcophaga magnijica from the big toe and in the external ear; of
larvae of Sarcophaga carnaria on the nose ; of larvae of Musca domestica
on feet, arms, and back ; and other cases, e.g. of undetermined larvae
from a tooth abscess. Prof. A. Blanchard adds a note of other cases,
and refers to the popular treatment of them.

Recent Experiments in Hybridisation. J— Mr. F. A. Dixey gives
an account of the experiments made by Dr. M. Standfuss, and collected
in the second edition of his ‘ Handbuch der paldarhtischen Gross- Schmetter-
linge * (Jena, 1896). In hybridising distinct species, Standfuss fouhd

(1) that the freshly hatched larva closely resembles the female parent ;

(2) that with growth a resemblance to the male parent gradually in-
creases ; (3) that the final extent of approximation towards the male parent
depends on the relative phylogenetic age of the two species ; the older
being able to transmit its properties, whether of structure or habit,
better than the young ; (4) that in reciprocal pairing the male is able
to transmit the characters of the species in a higher degree than the
female.

In pairing normal forms with aberrations and local races, Standfuss
found (1) that when the normal form of a species ( Grundart ) is crossed
with a gradually formed local race of the same species, the result is a
series of intermediate forms; but (2) that when the normal form is
crossed with a sporadic aberration, the result in many cases is that the
issue agrees either with the normal form or with the sport, intermediate
forms being absent.

False Homochromism.§ — Prof. L. Cuenot adheres to his opinion, ||
which Plateau If has sought to controvert, that the resemblance of
Venilia macularia L. to spotted withered leaves of poplar, &c., is quite
accidental and not an adaptation. The occurrence of the insect on a
congruent background of withered leaf appears to be very rare.

* Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.), vi. (1898) pp. 253-78.

f Aich. Parasitol., i. (1898) pp. 314-7.

t Science Progress, vii. (1898) pp. 185-202.

§ Bull. Soc. Zool., xxiii. (1898) pp. 99-100.

|| Tom. cit., p. 37. f Tom. cit., p. 87.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

535

Frenulum of Lepidoptera.* * * § — Mr. G. 0. Griffiths gives a careful
account of this apparatus for connecting the fore- and hind-wings of
many Lepidoptera during flight. It is analogous in its purpose to the
less perfect jugum of the Trichoptera and Micropteryx , to the wing-
hooks of the Hymenoptera, and to the locking apparatus of Belostoma.

Seasonal Dimorphism in Precis.f — Mr. G. A. K. Marshall has
been able to demonstrate by breeding, what he concluded from field
observations, that P. sesamus is the dry-season form of the wet-season
P. octavia , “ the most remarkable instance of seasonal variation as yet
known among the Lepidoptera.” He gives the details of the case, and
discusses the theoretical interpretation. His own view is that the
tendency to variation was initiated by climatic influences, especially
humidity, and subsequently utilised and developed by natural selection
for protective purposes.

Affinity of Wild and Domestic Silkworms.^— Prof. C. Sasaki dis-
cusses the wild silkworms of Japan. They agree entirely with Theo-
pTiila mandarina , as described by F. Moore. From this species the
domestic silkworm has been derived.

Metamorphosis of Caterpillars.§ — M. Arnold Pictet describes the
way in which the imago emerges from the’ chrysalid state, and the
various symptoms of the near approach of emergence. The process
may be hastened by mechanical excitation and by raising the tem-
perature.

Metamorphosis of Muscid8e.|| — Sig. A. Berlese describes the wander-
ing cells (trophocytes) which occur in great numbers in the pupae of
Muscidae, and serve to store up the albuminoid detritus resulting from
the disruption of the larval organs. The store may be compared to a
second yolk, accessory to the new development.

Alleged Phylogeny of AphanipteraA — Dr. B. Wandolleck criticises
Dahl’s theory ** that Puliciphora lucifera g. et sp. n. is a connecting link
between Pulicidae and Phoridse. A comparison of the adults and the
larvae reveals insurmountable difficulties against any such conclusion.
The Aphaniptera are indeed not far from the Diptera, but cannot be
derived from them. Prof. Dahl,j"(' who handed over his material to
Dr. Wandolleck, makes a brief rejoinder.

Defensive Glands of some Beetles4| — L. Bordas has studied the
anal glands of Cybister Rceselii Fabr., Dytiscus marginalis, &c. They
are large but simple glands, with a pyriform collecting vesicle and an
excretory duct. The secretion is green and has a sickening smell. As
the glands do not open into the gut, they can have nothing to do with
digestion. They may have some excretory significance, but there is no
doubt that they are defensive.

* Trans. Entom. Soc. London, 1898, pp. 121-32 (1 pi.).

t Ann. Nat. Hist., ii. (1898) pp. 30-40.

X Annot. Zool. Japon., ii. (1 898) pp. 33-40 (1 pi.).

§ CR. Soc. Phys. Nat. Geneve, in Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., v. (1898) pp. 577-9.

|| Riv. Patol. Veg., vi. (1897) pp. 111-4 (1 pi. and 1 fig.).

H Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 180-2. ** Op. cit., xx. (1897) pp. 409-12.

ft Op. cit., xxi. (1898) pp. 308-9.

XX Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1824-5.

536 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Larva of Pelophila.* * * § — The Rev. W. F. Johnson and Mr. G. H.
Carpenter describe the habits and structure of the ground-beetle Pelo-
pliil i borealis Payk. It has a twofold interest, as a typically Arctic
spee’es ranging in Ireland far to the south, and because of the primitive
and generalised characters of the larvte compared with other Carabidae.

Drowning of a Water-Beetle. f — Herr E. Frey-Gcssner calls atten-
tion to the case of a quite uninjured and lively water-beetle ( Hydrophilus
piceus ) which, after being some time out of water, was drowned in about
two hours when replaced in the (quite fresh) water.

Spermatophagous Organ in Bed-Bug4 — Sig. A. Berlese describes a
special organ or bursa associated with the spermatheca in Acantlda lec-
talar ia L. Its cells seem to bo adapted to ingesting and destroying the
excess of spermatozoa, and may be described as “ spermatophagous.”

Classification of Coccidae.§ — Dr. G. Leonardi begins a discussion of
the vast genus Aspidiotus, which must be split up into eight Aspidio -
tus, Chrysomplialus, Spatheaspis, Hemiberlesia , Aonidia , Aonidiella , Tar-
gionia, and Clientraspis. A useful international glossary of the terms
applied to the external structures is given.

Dr. P. Buffa || gives a detailed description of a new coccid — Aclerda
Berlesii sp. n. — living on the reed, Arundo donax.

Rare Dermatosis.^- — Dr. S. Cannarsa describes some cases of a
“ rare dermatosis ” in peasants who had been carrying reeds ( Arundo
donax), and suggests that the cause is probably to be found in Aclerda
Berlesii.

Thermometer Crickets.** — Messrs. C. A. and E. A. Bessey agree with
Dolbear that the rate of chirping in crickets is very closely dependent
on the temperature. The form they observed was QScanthus niveus, the
tree -cricket. The authors give a formula and a plotted curve.

Australian Termitidge.ff — Mr. W. W. Froggatt publishes the third
and concluding part of his monograph on the Australian Termitidae. It
contains detailed descriptions of the different forms of termite in many
species belonging to the genera Termes and Eutermes, with notes on the
habits and habitat of each, and includes several new species.

Cleavage in Apterygota4j — Dr. Agnes M. Claypole finds in Anurida
maritima several interesting points which connect the centrolecithal
cleavage of most insects with the simpler holoblastic type. In Anurida
nearly equal cleavage exists in the early stages ; at a later stage holo-
blastic division is lost, and the formation of the blastoderm takes place
by the peripheral migration of the nuclei, surrounded by small masses
of protoplasm ; no secondary yolk-cleavage occurs. The authoress
makes these observations the basis of a discussion as to the variety of
ovum-sleavage in Arthropods.

* Trans. Entom. Soc. London, 1898, pp. 133-40 (12 figs.).

t MX. Schweiz. Entom. Ges., x. (1898) pp. 133-4.

X Ex Rivista Patol. Veg., vi. (1898) 16 pp. and 3 pis.

§ Riv. Patol. Veg., vi. (1897) pp. 102-34 (8 figs.), 204-36 (9 figs.).

|| Tom. cit., pp. 135-59 (3 pis. and 18 figs.).

1 Riv. Patol. Veg., vi. (1897) pp. 21-3.

** Amer. Nat., xxxii. (1898) pp. 263-4 (1 fig.).

I f Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, xxii. (1898) pp. 721-58 (2 pis.),
fj Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xix (1897) pp. 74-82 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

537

Myrmecophilous Animals.* * * § — M. Charles Janet adds to liis previous
studies on myrmecophilous animals a list of those animals whose
relations with their hosts are best known, and classifies them under
different categories. Regarding as truly myrmecophilous only those
which really seek the society of the ants, and come of themselves to live
in their nests, he enumerates a large number, and discusses their relations
to their hosts’ under the following headings: — “ Parasitism , Phoresie,
Myrmecocleptie , Synechlrie, SynoeJcie, and Myrmecoxenie .” In conclusion
the writer points out the various conditions which attract so many differ-
ent animals, e.g. convenience and security of the nests, abundance of
vegetable food in ligneous nests, abundance of animal food, heat gene-
rated in the nest, the tendency of ants to bestow as much care on the
young of other species in the nest as on their own, &c.

Researches of Charles Janet.j — M. Charles Janet has compiled a
useful illustrated summary of over thirty papers which he has published
during the last few years. Most of them deal with insects, and many
have been reported in this Journal.

£. Myriopoda.

Fertilisation in Pachyiulus communis.J — Sig. F. Silvestri shows that
in this Myriopod the spermatozoa are immobile and cap-shaped, and are
passed by the male into the two receptacula seminis of the female. The
egg emits a pseudopodium, comparable to the attractive or receptive
cone in other ova, which actively draws a spermatozoon through the
micropyle. In short, the ovum here plays an active role, while the
spermatozoon is passive.

y. Protracheata.

Distribution of Peripatus.§ — E. L. Bouvier describes Peripatus
Tholloni sp. n. from Africa (Gaboon). It seems to be intermediate between
the American species and those of the Cape, and the author makes it the
starting point in a discussion of the geographical distribution of the
genus. It seems fairly certain that Central America and the Caribbean
region was the centre of origin and migration. Some went west to
Australia and adjoining regions, others eastwards to Africa.

New Species of Peripatus.|| — E. L. Bouvier describes P. tuber culatus
sp. n., found at Popayan, in New Grenada (Columbia). Its very nume-
rous (37 pairs) flattened appendages, the complex armature of its
mandibles, the four papillae and five spinous ridges on the appendages,
are regarded as primitive characters. More than any other species it
approaches the supposed Annelid-like ancestor. The specific title refers
to the large tubercular papillae on the dorsal surface.

S. Arachnida.

Agrarian Acarids.^f— Sig. A. Berlese begins a memoir on the mites
which occur on cultivated plants. He gives a general account of their

* Limoges, 1897, 98 pp.

t ‘Notice sur les Travaux scientifiques presentes par M. Charles Janet.,’ 1890,
94 pp., 105 figs.

X Atti R. Accad. Lincei (Rend.), vii, (1898) pp. 129-33 (5 figs.).

§ Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 1358-GL || Tom. cit., pp. 1524-5.

f Riv. Patol. Veg., vi. (1897) pp. 1-65 (40 figs.).

538

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

structure and their habits, their means of offence and defence, and their
modifications by the environment.

Mouth-Parts of Mites.* — A. Brucker describes in Trombidion, &c.
— (1) a rostrum hearing the chelicerae, and;(2) a pharyngeal proboscis
fused to the pedipalps. The same is true of the Gamasidse, but the ros-
trum coalesces with the apparatus formed by the proboscis and pedipalps,
and forms a complete tube within which the chelicerae are movable.

Spider and Piteher-Plant.t — Mr. K. I. Pocock gives an account of
an interesting observation by Mr. A. Everett. It concerns Misumena
nepenthicola, one of the Thomisidee, which invariably takes up its abode
in the pitcher of a North Bornean (Labuan) Nepenthes , probably N. phyll -
amphora. The web is a thin carpet spread over a small portion of the
conductive area, and enables the spider to maintain its hold on the
slippery surface. Here the spider lives and rears its young, no doubt
feeding upon the insects which the Nepenthes attracts. The peculiar
habitat doubtless helps the spider to escape the attacks of the mason
wasps which are so fatal to spiders. Moreover, when the pitcher is torn
open, the spiders plunge into the liquid and retreat to the very base
among the debris of captured insects. The adoption of water as a city
of refuge is known in some spiders, such as Dolomedes, Thalassius , some
species of Lycosidge, and Araneus ( Epeira ) cornatus, but it does not seem
to have been previously recorded of any member of the Thomisidae. It
appears to be a new instinct acquired by the species in connection with
its peculiar habitat.

e. Crustacea.

Poecilogony in Alpheus minor.J — H. Coutiere notes that the larval
development in this species may be abridged or lengthened according to
the individual environment. In specimens from the Antilles the larval
development is much abbreviated ; in those from the Gulf of California
the newly hatched larvae are much less advanced. This should be com-
pared with the observations of Boas on Palsemonetes varians in fresh
water and in the sea.

New Parasitic Copepods on Fishes.§ — Staff-Surgeon P. W. Bassett-
Smith adds considerably to his previous discoveries. He describes ten
new species, and establishes a new genus Pseudoclavella, near Oken’s
Clavella in the family Dichelesthina. He directs attention to the con-
stancy with which particular parasites are found on particular hosts.

Parastacus.|| — Dr. E. Lonnberg communicates some welcome bio-
logical and anatomical notes on Parastacus Hassleri Faxon, which has
long been a puzzle to zoologists. Sexual dimorphism is well marked,
and the animals are completely dioecious, but every individual of both
sexes is provided with two pairs of genital ducts, two anterior ones lead-
ing to the “ orifices ” on the coxopodites of the third pair of legs, and
two posterior ones on the fifth pair. In reality, the posterior pair in the
female are too narrow to allow the passage of an egg, and the “ orifices ”

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1821-3. f Nature, lviii. (1898) pp. 274-5.

X Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1430-2.

§ Ann. Nat. Hist., ii. (1898) pp. 77-103 (4 pis.).

|| Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 334-5, 345-52 (3 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

639

are “ only sham.” In the male, similarly, the only true orifices are on
the fifth pair of legs, those on the third pair being closed. There is some
but not adequate evidence that the testis shows hints of eggs. The
author goes on to notice the subterranean habits of the animal and its
autotomy.

South African Phyllopods from Dried Mud.* — Prof. G. 0. Sars
describes Apus numidicus Grube, hatched out as a nauplius from the
egg ; Streptocephalus gracilis sp. n. ; Str. purcelli sp. n. ; BrancMpodopsis
hodgsoni g. et sp. n., which approaches Branchipus and Branchinecta ;
Estlieria elizabetlise sp. n. ; and Leptestheria siliqua sp. n.

Annulata.

Cell-Lineage in Annelids and Polyclades.f — Prof. E. B. Wilson
returns to an interesting suggestion which he made some years ago,
that a pair of rudimentary cells observed in the early embryos of Aricia
and Spio were to be regarded as vestiges of an ancestral type of develop-
ment in which they were represented by a group of larger functional
cells, such as are still found in the embryo of Nereis. The vestigial
cells in question represent the posterior part of the entoblast-plate.

Fresh investigations show that the three forms — Crepidula , Nereis ,
and Aricia — form a progressive series in which the entoblastic part of the
mesentoblast cell is reduced from more than half the bulk of the cell to
an insignificant vestige ; and the facts support the viewr that the primary
mesoblasts or mesoblastic pole-cells of Annelids and Molluscs must be
regarded as derivatives of the archenteron. “ The vestigial cells of
Aricia, Spio, Amphitrite, and Planorbis would seem to represent the last
traces of such archenteric origin of the teloblasts ; ” and the bearing of
this on the possible relation between the teloblastic and enterocoelic
modes of mesoblast-formation is obvious.

After discussing the micromere-quartets in Annelids, Molluscs, and
Polyclads, and in Leptoplana in particular, the author indicates the
general interest of the phenomena. ( a ) They suggest that development
may exhibit ancestral reminiscence as clearly in the cleavage of the
ovum as in the later formation of tissues and organs. ( b ) They seem
on the whole to emphasise the importance of cell-formation in develop-
ment, recent reaction notwithstanding.

Nervous System of Polychaeta.f — Miss M. Lewis has studied this
in two of the Maldanidte, Axiothea ( = Clymenella) torquata and Clymene
producta sp. n. She finds that Ley dig’s fibres in Annelids are true
nerve-fibres, the sheath being comparable to the medullary sheath of
nerve-fibres in Vertebrates, and the contents to the axis-cylinder. The
fibres result from the union of the direct processes of giant ganglion-
cells. The cells which give rise to Leydig’s fibres show peculiar struc-
tural conditions,' in the possession of a nucleus always eccentric in posi-
tion, and of other structures more central in position, the centrosome
and the attractive sphere. Parts of the peripheral nervous system end

* Arch. Matli. Naturvidenk. Christiania, xx. (1898) 43 pp., 4 pis., and 23 pp.,
3 pis. See Zool. Centralbl., v. (1898) p. 456 and p. 508.

t Ann. New York Acad. Sci., xi. (1897) pp. 1-27 (7 figs.).

% Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci., xxxiii. (1898) pp. 225-68 (8 pis.).

510

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in abundant multicellular sense-organs in tbe integument. These are
sometimes definitely arranged, and are composed of bipolar nerve-cells.

Nervous System of Nereis.*— Mr. J. J. Hamaker has made a de-
tailed study of the central nervous system in Nereis virens Sars. The
system lies deeper than in most Polychseta, is separated from the hypo-
dermis by the circular muscles, and is protected by a spongy (ectodermic)
neuroglia and an outer (mesodermic) neurilemma.

The “ mushroom bodies ” of insects and Decapod Crustacea are re-
presented in the brain of Nereis by the anterior masses of small nuclei.
The optic ganglion, which in some species of Nereis lies beneath the
anterior eye, may in other species lie within the brain-capsule. There
is no neuropil in the ventral nerve-cord. Three longitudinal connec-
tives run between each two successive ganglia, one small median and two
larger laterals. The sheaths of the nerve-fibres have no nuclei, and must
therefore be a product of the fibres. The cells have commonly one or
more centrosomes. The giant fibres are nervous, and are put into rela-
tion with peripheral organs through ordinary centrifugal fibres. The
giant fibres give off no fibrillations, and nervous relation with other fibres
is established directly between the axis cylinders. Certain decussating
fibres are always united in pairs by anastomoses between the axis cylin-
ders where they cross each other. Certain centripetal fibres of the same
set are always united by anastomoses between the ends of the branches.
Contact between axis-cylinders may possibly be one of the means of
bringing nerve-fibres into functional relation with each other.

Heart-body and Coelomic Fluid in Polychaeta .f — Mr. L. J. Picton

has investigated Audoinia filigera , Pectinaria belgica, Siphonostoma diplo -
chsetos, Polymnia nebulosa , Amphitrite variabilis, ^c. The mesoblastic
origin of the heart-body is shown in Polymnia ; it is not homologous
with the diverticulum of the gut which projects into the dorsal vessel in
some Oligochaeta. The organ may be regarded, as Eisig suggests, as of
the nature of intra-vascular chloragogen, that is, as modified peritoneal
tissue, primitively clothing the outside of the dorsal vessel, but becoming
folded so as to lie within it. It may be in part compared to the liver
of Vertebrates, but there is no glycogen. Fat and iron are present,
and the latter is probably associated with haematopoietic function. With
regard to the mechanical functions of the heart-body, we are on surer
ground. The vessel wall contracting upon it obliterates the heart
cavity at systole, the whole of the blood passing to the gills.

Owenia.J — Prof. G. Gilson has continued his study of Owenia fusi-
formis, and has reached the following results. There is no peritoneal
membrane on the parietal surface of the coelomic cavity. The body-
wall is formed of musculo-glandular elements, and not by separate
layers of muscular and glandular cells. The internal portion of these
musculo-glandular elements secretes albuminoid substances, fatty matter,
and uric products. The albuminoid substances form the spermatic
plasm in the male and an envelope for the eggs in the female. As
the nephridia have lost excretory function, this is discharged by the

* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxxii. (1898) pp. 89-124 (5 pis.).

t Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., xli. (1898) pp. 263-302 (4 pis.).

% La Cellule, xiv. (1898) pp. 89-107 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

Ml

musculo-glandular wall, and the uric granules are swept out by the
genital funnels which are modified nephridia.

Notes on Annelids.* — Prof. W. C. M£Intosh points out the specific
distinctness of Lepidonotus Waldbergi Kinberg and L. clava Montagu,
which Baron de Saint-Josepli has recently united. He also shows that
Sigalion squamatum Delle Chiaje, S. Mathildse Aud. and Ed., and S.
Buslcii M‘Intosh, are distinct.

Epitokous and Polymorphic Forms of Dodecaceria concharum.f
— MM. F. Mesnil and M. Caullery continue their study of the “ poly-
morphic development” of this Cirrhatulid. They distinguish five
forms which differ (1) structurally (in the form of the setae) ; (2) as
to their parasites ( Gonospora is constant in two of the forms, and always
absent in three) ; and (3) in their mode of development. There seems
little doubt that there is but one species, but a satisfactory solution of
the relations of the different forms requires that the development of
each be traced cib ovo.

Early Stages in Development of Serpulidae.J — M. Albert Soulier
has studied this in Serpula infundibulum and Eydroides pectinata , with
special reference to the formation of the mouth and anus in the trocho-
phore. He finds that the blastophore gives rise to both, and that its
apposed lips form the longitudinal cellular strand which extends
between them on the ventral surface of the trochophore.

Proboscis of Glyceridae.§ — M. Ch. Gravier describes (a) the pha-
ryngeal sheath, ( b ) the pharyngeal proboscis, and (c) the ventriculus,
which compose the massive proboscis-organ of Glycera convoluta and
allied forms. He gives an account of the complex innervation and the
highly developed sensory structures. The proboscis has a veritable
nervous autonomy, accessory to that of the body generally.

Degeneration in Earthworms. || — Dr. K. Hescheler continues hi*
study of regenerative phenomena in Allolobophora terrestris Sav., All.
caliginosa Sav., and Lumbricus herculeus Sav., especially the first. The
first five segments were removed, and the re-growth observed.

The earlier stages, lasting until about the end of the first week,
were somewhat as follows. A scar-tissue, consisting of lymph-cells, is
first formed ; in a few hours spindle-shaped cells appear and are arranged
in regular rows, continuing the longitudinal musculature. The scar-
tissue is covered in a few days by a new and homogeneous epidermis,
apparently formed from the old one. The gut closes by the fusion of
the cut surfaces, and is always separated from the epidermis by the
scar-tissue. Most of the other organs end with their stumps in the
scar-tissue, and a special cap of this covers the end of the nerve-cord.
Mitoses are rarely to be seen, and the elements with large nuclei
which afterwards occur are still absent.

In the next stages the new-formation of the central nervous system
and the fore-gut are the great events. Mitoses occur abundantly, and

* Ann. Nat. Hist., ii. (1898) pp. 103-18 (1 pi.).

f Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1069-72.

X Tom. cit., pp. 1666-9. § Tom. cit., pp. 1817-20.

|| Jenaische Zeitschr. f. Natimviss., xxxi. (1898) pp. 521-604 (6 pis.).

542

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the scar-tissue abounds in regeneration-cells with large nuclei. These
regeneration-cells seem to spring both from the epidermis and from the
gut-epithelium. Nerve-fibres grow out from the old cord, and cells,
hardly distinguishable from regeneration-cells, form by multiplication
little nests in the cord.

The nerve-fibres and the gut grow further into the regenerating
area ; the fibres surround the gut at that spot where it is nearest the
epidermis ; and along the whole stretch of the new nervous rudiment,
cells are apposed from the young epidermis, especially at a dorsal spot
just over the end of the gut (the future cerebrum).

A funnel-like invagination of the epidermis forms a new stomodfeum,
but the epithelium of the pharyngeal region arises from the cells of
the old gut. Meanwhile, aggregations of cells with many mitoses are
to be seen on the whole nerve-cord, as far back as the 15th segment.
Most are like ganglion-cells, others seem to be non-nervous.

The author refrains from generalisations and theoretical conclusions,
for which there is not yet a sufficiently strong foundation of facts.

Development of Nephridia of Earthworms in Regeneration and
in Ontogeny.* * * § — A. Michel describes the single and somatopleural
origin of the nephridium in Allolobophora foetida, and has convinced
himself as to the remarkable parallelism between the embryonic and
the regenerative development.

Chilian Earthworms.f — Dr. W. Michaelsen has investigated Plate’s
Chilian collection. The results correspond with what previous collec-
tions have shown in regard to the earthworms of this region. There
were two new forms : — Acanthodrilus platei and Microscolex pallidus —
belonging to the two genera which have been already shown to be pre-
dominant in Chili.

Rotatoria.

Asplanchna in Britain.^ — Mr. W. T. Caiman points out that if
the occurrence of Asplanchna as a conspicuous member of the pelagic
fauna of lakes has not hitherto been recorded in Britain, it can only be
attributed to the lack of attention in this country to the systematic
investigation of our fresh-water fauna. He has found A. priodonta in
lochs near Dundee, and Mr. John Hood has long been familiar with its
occurrence.

Rotifera of Ceylon.§ — Dr. E. Y. Daday gives a list of 42 species
of Rotifers collected in Ceylon by Dr. J. V. Madarasz in 1896, and
brought home in spirit. Among these, one new species, Cathypna macro -
dactyla , and two new varieties, Asplanchna brightivelli var. ceylonica , and
Salpina macracantha var. ceylonica , are named and figured.

The total number of species known from Ceylon is only 46. Is there
no microscopist in the island who would take up the study of these
creatures and make a fairly complete list ?

* Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 1820-1.

f Fauna Chilensis, Heft ii. Supplement iv., Zool. Jalirb., 1898, pp. 471-80(1 fig.).

% Nature, lviii. (1898) p. 271.

§ ‘ Mikroskopisehe Susswasserthiere aus Ceylon,* Budapest, 1898, pp. 1-20 (4 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

543

Reproduction in the Rotifera.* * * § — Mr. W. T. Caiman in this paper
gives a very useful summary of the progress of recent researches in
this direction by Maupas, Lauterborn, Nussbaum, and others. Tlio
various memoirs have already been noticed in these pages.

Nematohelminth.es .

Centrosomes in Ascaris megalocephala.f — Dr. E. Fiirst finds that
there are still many obscure phenomena in the behaviour of the much-
investigated ovum of Ascaris megalocephala. He found, for instance,
that directive-spindles may occur quite like cleavage-spindles with two
large astrospheres. The remarkable divergence of the typical directive-
spindles is not disposed of by the alleged presence of centrosomes.
Unless the whole directive-spindle is to be interpreted as a centrosome,
Fiirst finds none. His observations show clearly that the constitution
of the achromatin division-figure may be very varied in the object under
discussion. To face these divergenes may lead to an understanding of
the different types of indirect nuclear division.

American Gordiacea.J — Dr. T. H. Montgomery, jun., describes 17
species from American collections, including 5 new species of Gordius ,
Paragordius g. n., with Leidy’s Gordius varius as type, and 5 new
species of Chordodes. The paper was sent to press before the author
received Camerano’s monograph, in which the new genus Paragordius
was also established.

Phagocytic Structures in Strongylus armatus.§ — Prof. N. Nasso-
now describes three pairs of unicellular stellate structures on the ventral
surface near or on the middle line. Schneider noted the first pair in
1866. The author has found experimental proof of their phagocytic
power. He could detect no other structures with this capacity, and no
leucocytes.

Eustrongylus gigas in Dogs.|| — Herr J. Rotstadt reports the
occurrence of this parasite in over 10 per cent, of 340 dogs at Warsaw.
The copulation in the kidney was observed and photographed. Those
found in the body-cavity were mostly in the region of the liver. The
history of the parasite’s behaviour remains obscure.

Platyhelminthes.

Phylogeny of Cestodes.1T — Herr E. Lonnberg derives Trematodes
and Cestodes from a common stock among the Rhabdocoele Turbellaria.
The primitive Cestodes are most nearly represented by the Diphyllida.
From the main stem there diverged on the one hand the Pseudophyllida
— Bothriodium, BotJirimonas, Trisenojphorus, Bothriocejplialus , Schisto-
cejphalus Ligula, Cyattiocephalus (?) and Archigetes (?) — and, on the other
hand, the Tetraphyllida (all other forms).

* Natural Science, July 1898, pp. 43-51.

f Arch. Mikr. Anat., lii. (1898) pp. 97-133 (2 pl3.).

X Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxxii. (1898) pp. 23-59 (15 pis.).

§ Zool. ADzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 360-3 (1 fig.).

|) Arbeit. Lab. Zool. Univ. Warschau, 1897, pp. 147-51 (1 pi.) [Russian]. See
Zool. Centralbl., v. (1898) pp. 407-8.

Tf Centralbl. [Bakt. Par., xxi. (1897) pp. 674-84, 725-31 (54 figs.). See Zool.
Centralbl., v. (1898) pp. 365-6.

544

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Helminthological Notes. — Dr. M. C. Francaviglia * * * § gives an account
of the parasitic worms found in Gobius avernensis Canestr. : — 2 Cestodes,
1 Trematode, 3 Nematodes (including Filaria Gnrruccioi sp. n.), and
4 Acanthocephala.

Dr. G. Lepri f discusses the parasites found in birds of prey in the
Roman province : — 9 Nematodes, 3 Cestodes, and 3 Acanthocephala.

Dr. Galli- Valerio J describes a case in which Cysticercus cellulosse
was found in human muscle. One of the two specimens was without
rostellum or hooks. The experiment of swallowing six living speci-
mens of Cysticercus pisiformis had no results. Experiments show the
great power of resistance possessed by the embryos of Strongylus apri
to heat, drought, and some reagents.

Gonads of some Species of Tsenia.§ — Dr. F. Holzberg describes
the reproductive organs in Tsenia tetragona Mol., T. madasgascariensis
Dav., and T. cesticillus Mol. (non Duj.), which belong to the group
Davainea. He gives some notably clear semi-diagrammatic figures.

Taenia nana. || — Dr. K. Miura and F. Yamazaki record an occurrence
of this human? tape worm in Japan, where it has not been previously
observed. A short description of the worm and its eggs is given.

Incertae Sedis.

Enteropneusta of Funafuti.1T — Mr. J. P. Hill lias given a detailed
description of Ptychodera licdleyi sp. n., from the atoll Funafuti.

Echinoderma.

Echini of the ‘ Albatross.’** — Pi of. A. Agassiz makes a preliminary
report on the Echini collected by the £ Albatross * off the west coast of
Central America to the Galapagos, to the west coast of Mexico, and
in the Gulf of California. “ As regards the distribution of Echini in
the Pacific, we have at the present day a condition of things very
similar to that which must have prevailed in the Atlantic when the
species of Echini living in the Crag and in the Maltese beds had their
representatives in the West Indies, having, as has been suggested, found
their way from the Mediterranean along the shores of an ancient con-
tinent. Some of the species living on the west coast of Central America
have a very extended geographical distribution in the Pacific, and yet
no one claims that this great range has been brought about by their
migration along the shores of a continent, or continental islands, exist-
ing between Panama and the Sandwich Islands or the Marquesas. The
great equatorial current gives us a cause fully efficient to effect such
a wide distribution, and that in a comparatively short time.” Even
when there are no Plutei, the young are capable of being transported
long distances by currents. The young and embryos of the Echinoderms

* Bull. Soc. Rom. Stud. Zool., vii. (1898) pp. 1-17 (1 pi )

t Tom. cit., pp. 52-69 (1 pi.).

i CR. Soc. Vaudoise Sci. Nat., in Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., v. (1898) pp. 572-3.

§ Zool. Jalirb., xi. (1898) pp. 153-92 (2 pis.).

|] MT. Med. Fac. Univ. Tokio, iii. (1897) pp. 239-58 (1 pi.).

Mem. Austral. Mus., iii. (1897) pp. 205-10, 335-46 (5 pis.). See Zool. Cen-
tralbl., v. (1898) pp. 452-5.

** Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxxii. (1898) pp. 71-86 (13 pis., 1 map).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

545

and Polyps of the West Indies have been carried to the Bermudas ; and
“ we can well imagine an equatorial current taking during Miocene and
Eocene periods the young of the Echini flourishing in the Crag and in
the Mediterranean, and in the southern extension of that fauna perhaps
only from the Cape Yerd Islands, and bringing them to the shores of
Northern South America or into the Caribbean Sea.”

Holothuroidea of the ‘ Travailleur ’ and ‘Talisman’.* — M. Remy
Perrier makes a second report on this collection, dealing with 31 species,
15 of which are new. The whole collection included 46 species, 26 new.
The family Holothuriidae is divided into two tribes, — Synallactinae and
Holothuriinae (Ludwig), the former mostly abyssal, the latter mostly
littoral. The Synallactinae, diverging at an early date from the Holo-
thuriinae, as their primitive characters suggest, migrated to great depths,
and gave rise to the specialised group of Elasipoda.

Chilian Holothuroids.j — Prof. H. Ludwig reports on Plate’s collec-
tion. There were only six species, which suggests the sparseness of the
Chilian littoral fauna.

Descriptions of Holothuria platei sp. n., of Chiridota fernandensis
sp. n. (from Juan Fernandez), aud of some previously recorded forms,
are given.

A comparison of the Chilian and the Magellan Holothurians yields
the surprising result that the number of genera and species increases
towards the South.

Variation in Ambulacral System.!— Mr. II. L. Osborn describes
the test of a specimen of Arbacia punctulata in which the number of
ambulacral systems was four instead of five. One entire ambulacral
system and the neighbouring inter-ambulacrals had failed to appear,
but the apical organs were not included in the suppression.

Larval Stage of Luidia.§ — Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh gives a brief
account of the remarkable Bipinnaria asterigera , the larval stage of a
species of Luidia, specimens of which were obtained in St, Andrews
Bay.

Hybrid Echinoid Larvae. || — Mr. II. M. Vernon has made experi-
ments on the hybridisation of Strongylocentrotus lividus, Splicer echinus
granularis , aud Echinus micro-tuberculatus, and other Echinoids, his
object being to determine the exact relationship of structure and size
between certain of the hybrid and parent larval forms. One of the most
important of his results is stated as follows : — The Strongylocentrotus 9
— Splicer echinus $ hybrid is only formed at a time when the Strongylo-
centrotus ova have reached their minimum of maturity ; whilst in the
case of the reciprocal hybrid, it follows that, as the maturity of the
Strongylocentrotus-spQTm. increases, it is able to transmute first a por-
tion and then the whole of the hybrid larvae from the Sphcerechinus to
its own type. In other words, the characteristics of the hybrid offspring
depend directly on the relative degrees of maturity of the sexual pro-
ducts.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1664-6.

t Fauna Chilensis, Heft ii., Zool. Jnhrb., Supplement iv. (1898) pp. 431-54 (1 pi.).

X Amer. Nat., xxxii. (1898) pp. 259-61 (1 fig.).

§ Ann. Nat. Hist., ii. (1898) pp. 103-18 (1 pi.).

|| Proc. Roy. Soc., lxiii. (1898) pp. 228-31.

546

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Ccelentera.

Peculiar Phenomena of Growth and Reproduction in Campanu-

laria.* * * § — Prof. A. Giard finds that the stolons of Campanularia ( Agastra )
caliculata alter their mode of growth and become long coiled branched
threads without hydranths when they are made to grow on the free edge
of a seaweed in moving water, instead of being allowed to spread over the
surface of their support. Though it usually produces fixed medusoid-
like gonothecae, it may liberate free medusoids ; but as these have no
manubrium or food-canal, they are very imperfect. A similar fact was
observed by Agassiz in Syncoryne mirabilis. Giard calls the first abnor-
mality “ rhizomanie ” and the second “ allogonie.”

Sarcostyles of Plumularidse.f — Mr. C. C. Nutting uses the word
nematophore for the receptacle, and the word sarcostyle for the modified
liydranth within each. Development, minute structure, and transition
forms, make it certain that the sarcostyles aro morphologically members
of the colony. They are of use in defence, in the prehension of food, in
removing refuse and decomposing organic matter, and in holding to-
gether adjacent corbula (“ fruit-receptacle ”) leaves until the edges
unite.

Law of Budding in Physophora4 — Prof. C. Chun maintained in a
former paper that each swimming-bell in the series is younger than its
distal neighbour and older than its proximal neighbour, and that in the
biserial arrangement the buds diverge alternately to right and left. This
was criticised by K. C. Schneider, who maintained that the stem was
twisted through 180° between each two swimming-bells, and that the
arrangement was a right-handed spiral. Chun entirely denies any spiral
twisting of the stem of Physophora , which is really quite straight.
There is spiral twisting in Forslcalia and in Apolemia, but not in Physo -
phora , where the final grouping of the swimming-bells depends upon
their original grouping as they are constricted off from the budding
zone.

New Zealand Actiniaria.§ — Mr. H. Farquhar describes a number of
new species, and erects a new genus Halcampactis, which by its strange
combination of characters forms a link between the two families Sagar-
tidse and Halcampidse. He calls attention to apparent distinctness of
the northern and southern littoral marine faunae.

Larva of Edwardsia claparedii.|| — Sig. F. S. Monticelli describes
the minute structure of a larval Actinian found attached to the test of
JBolina liydatina Chun. It appears to be almost certainly the larva of
Edwardsia claparedii Panceri, and to be the same as that which Mark
found associated with another Ctenophore — Mnemiopsis leidyi.

Irregularities in Number of Directive Mesenteries in Hexac-
tinise.^F — Prof. J. PI. M‘Murrich describes the great variety observed in
seven specimens of Sagartia spongicola Yerr. The plan was hexamerous

* CR. Soc. Biol., x. (1898) pp. 17-20. See Zool. Centralbl., v. (1898) pp. 396-7.

f Amer. Nat., xxxii. pp. 223-30.

% Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 321-7 (2 figs.).

§ Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxvi. (1898) pp. 527-36 (1 pi.).

|| MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xiii. (1898) pp. 325-40 (1 pi.).

H Zool. Bull., i. (1897) pp. 115-22 (figs.). See Zool. Centralbl., v. (1898) p. 504.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

547

in two, heptamerous in two, octamerous in three ; one had two directive
pairs separated only by one septal pair of the first order ; five had three ;
one had four. Other cases arc discussed. The absence of directive
mesenteries must not be used in establishing groups ; the tendency to
increase or decrease the number is in most cases at least a purely indi-
vidual feature.

Porifera.

Classification of Rossellidae.* * * § — Prof. J. Ijima discusses this family,
which he divides into four sub-families, defined in relation to the cha-
racters of the parenchymal microscleres, and, as far as possible, of tho
megascleric elements as well. These sub-families are Leucopsacinae,
Lanuginellinm, Rossellinae, and Acanthascinae.

Calcareous Sponges from ChilLf — Herr L. L. Breitfuss has studied
Plate’s collection, and finds ten species, of which five are new, one species
of Leucosolenia, one of Sycon. and three of Leuconia, — a result which
may be contrasted with what was known when Haeckel published bis
‘ Kalkschwamme ’ (1872), in which only three cosmopolitan species were
recorded from the Chilian region.

Protozoa.

Spore-Formation in Amoeba villosa4 — Mr. J. C. Smith observed
the emergence of spherical masses from an encysted Amoeba , which
collapsed thereafter. After the ejection, the membranous coverings of
the units were ruptured and the contained nucleus-like bodies were
freed. The connection of these with the parent nucleus was not dis-
covered, but the observation is a very useful one, since reports as to
spore-formation in Amoebae are few.

Adriatic Foraminifera.§ — Sig. A. Silvestri gives an account of
over 150 Adriatic Foraminifera. The three most; abundant species are
Planorbulina mediterranensis , Pulvinulina vermiculata , and Polystomella
macella. Among the most interesting Adriatic forms are the following :
— Vertebralina striata , Peneroplis pertusus var. cristata , Cyclammina
cancellata, Nodosaria papUlosa, N. obliquatai Sagrina columellaris , and
Truncatulina tenera.

Fertilisation-Processes in Rhizopods.|| — Herr L. Rhumbler has
sought to trace back the fertilisation-process in Metazoa to a beginning
in Rhizopods. The first step is found in cytotropism, in which chemo-
tropic substances are secreted between cells. The next step is plasto-
gamy ; the two apposed naked cells fuse. Selection would favour those
cells which effected the most advantageous exchanges of material with
other cells. Plastogamy would be most advantageous shortly before or
shortly after nuclear division. Gradually cytogamy led on to karyo-
gamy, which has also its degrees of specialisation. Reduction-bodies
and polar-bodies may be interpreted primarily as due to the exhausted
(kriippelhaft) divisions of cells which require karyogamy, but they

* Annot. Zool. Japon., ii. (1898) pp. 41-55.

T Fauna Chilensis, Heft ii., Zool. Jahrb , Supplement iv. (1898) pp. 455-70 (1 pi).

X Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xix. (1897) pp. 69-73.

§ Atti e Rend. Accad. Zelanti, viii. (1896-7), published 1898, pp. 1-114.

|| Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 21-6, 33-8, 69-86, 113-30 (14 figs.).

1898 2 P

548

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

secondarily acquire another significance. But this is only a very
general indication of the conclusions reached in this interesting paper,
which, though very speculative, is also full of concreteness.

Conjugation and Karyokinesis in Actinosphserium.* * * § — Prof. R.
Hertwig first describes the processes which precede encystation, corro-
borating Brauer, except that' the latter thought the nuclei were reduced
in number by fusion, while Hertwig thinks they dissolve. However it
is effected, the number is reduced to about 1/50. Round each remain-
ing nucleus a ‘'primary cyst” is formed; the nucleus of each of these
divides by mitosis, and the “ secondary cysts ” are formed. The nuclei
of the secondary cysts then divide twice in succession by mitosis, and
each time one daughter-nucleus is thrown off as if it were a polar kody ;
then the two associated cysts fuse, nucleus with nucleus and plasm with
plasm. It seems an extreme case of autogamy, and can only be of use
in bringing about a reconstruction of the nuclear material. The karyo-
kinesis concerned in the getting rid of the polar bodies is “ heteropolar,”
and differs also from the ordinary mitosis of Actinosphserium in the
presence of a centrosome.

Fossil Radiolarians.f — Sig. P. E. Vinassa de Regny gives a list of
109 fossil Radiolarians from the“ftaniti titoniane ” of Carpena near
Spezia. Of the 109 only 13 have been previously recorded as fossils.
The abundance of Spheeridea and Cyrtidea is remarkable. Several
genera, e. g. Spongolonche , Exastylarium, Pipetella, Tripodictya , and
Carpocanistrum , are for the first time recognised as being represented
in fossil form.

Peneroplis.t — Herr F. Dreyer has made this Foraminifer (P. pertusus)
tlie basis of a discussion of morphological principles and the question
of species. He deals with the variations observed in about 25,000
specimens, — a broad basis for induction. It is by studies of actual
facts, he says, and not by phylogenetic speculation, that progress will
be made. The selection theory is false ; and even if it were true, it does
not touch the heart of the problem. “Wenn sie rich tig ware, ware
sie nichtig.” It is time that biology should try to recover from “ its
English disease ” !

Hew Infusorian Genus.§— R. Sand describes Nematopoda cylindrica
g. et sp. n., a new Peritrichous Infusorian found on algas at Roscoff.
The new genus resembles Gothurnia , but it is the only member of the
Dexiotricha which has both a case and a stalk. It is also the only
genus in which the contractile stalk consists of a single undifferentiated
filament.

* SB. Ges. Morpli. Munchen, xii. (1897) pp. 83-90, and xiii. pp. 36-41. See
Zool. Centralbl., v. (1898) pp. 394-6.

t Atti R. Accad. Lincei (Rend.), vii. (1898) pp. 34-9.

X ‘ Peneroplis. Eine Studie zur biologischen Morphologie und zur Speciesfra^e ’
Leipzig, 1898, 4to, 119 pp., 5 pis. See Zool. Centralbl., v. (189«) pp. 357-64. ° ’

§ Ann. Soc. Beige Micr., xxii, (1898) pp. 85-99 (6 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

549

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

Cl) Cell-Structure and Protoplasm.

Histology of the Vegetable Nucleus.* — From a study of the phe-
nomena connected with the sickle-stage of the nucleole in vegetable
cells, Dr. B. Lidforss comes to a conclusion adverse to that of Strasburger
and Humphrey, that it is an artificial phenomenon, due to the mode of
treatment. Out of 21 species examined, belonging to three different
natural orders, he finds it in 17 ; in the remaining four there is at the
corresponding stage only a movement of the nucleole towards the peri-
phery of the nucleus. In any one ovary either all or none of the
embryo-sac nuclei showed the sickle structure of the nucleoles ; it was
exhibited also with the most various fixing materials. As far as the
embryo is concerned, it was observed only in the primary embryo-sac
nucleus when mature; not in its daughter-nuclei, nor in those of the
surrounding tissue of the nucellus. The author records also the occur-
rence of the sickle-stage in the nucleoles of pollen-mothcr-cells, where it
is probably a widely distributed phenomenon.

To elucidate the question of the chromatophily of the vegetable
nucleus, Dr. Lidforss cultivated pollen-tubes of Agapanthus umbellatus
in distilled water and in sugar-pepton solution. He found, in the latter
case, the tubes to be filled, from their base to their apex, by a dense
mucilage, composed of proteids, presenting, therefore, a favourable con-
dition of nutrition for the nuclei. The vegetative nucleus and the
cytoplasm were then found to be strongly erythrophilous ; while the
generative nucleus was distinctly cyanophilous. The cyanophilous
reaction of the male sexual cells in Angiosperms cannot, therefore, be
dependent, as has been suggested, on a deficient supply of nutriment.

Structure of the Nucleus.^ — Sig. F. Cavara has studied the structure
and function of the nucleoles, and their relation to the chromosomes
during and after karyokinesis. Resting nuclei are of two kinds — those
which for the moment only are not dividing, and those which are no
longer capable of division ; these latter are found in sieve-tubes, vessels,
and in all elements which are not capable of division but which manifest
an active growth. The nuclei are then very large, and contain largo
nucleoles. In embryo-sac nuclei the nucleoles exhibit a special
structure.

Specially important is the study of the phenomena which immediately
precede division ; the nucleoles are not expelled, but break up and are
absorbed by the nuclear threads.

The nucleoles consist of an inner homogeneous slightly stainable
substance (plastin or py renin), and an outer stainable substance, varying
in density and often spongy, comparable to chromatin. During division

* Act. Univ. Lund, xxxiii. (1897) 29 pp. and 1 pi. (German),
t Atti 1st. Bot. R. Univ. Pavia, v. (1898) 49 pp. and 2 pis. See Bot. Centralfci.,
lxxiv. (1898) p. 239.

2 p 2

550

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the nucleoles lose their structure, their stainable property diminishes,
they become smaller and break up, their separate portions having no
power of absorbing stains. The substance of the nucleoles is therefore
probably used up in the formation of the chromosomes ; they must hence
be regarded as bodies for the concentration of the nutrient material in
the nucleus, i.e. of plastin, chromatin, and similar substances. This
theory explains the peculiar and variable capacity of the nucleoles to
absorb stains. It also favours the possibility of an absorption of the
chromatin from the framework of the nucleus. Chromatolysis is there-
fore not always a pathological phenomenon.

Reduction-Division of the Vegetable Nucleus.* — Herr W. Belajeff
maintains that the negative results hitherto obtained in attempting to
establish a reduction-division in the vegetative nucleus, similar to that
which obtains in the animal nucleus, depend on inaccurate observation.
From the U, V, and X forms of the chromosomes in the condition of
daughter-aster, he finds, in addition to the heterotypic and vegetative, a
third mode of division in the nucleus (pollen-mother-cells of Fritillaria
and Lilium ), corresponding completely to the reduction-division in
animal organisms ; in this mode of division the form of the chromosomes
is that of a J.

Kinoplasm and Nucleole in the Division of Pollen-mother-cells, t—
Mr. W. C. Stevens has studied the behaviour of the kinoplasm and the
nucleole in the division of the pollen-mother-cells of Asclepias Gornuti.
At the time when this division takes place, the relatively large nucleoles
entirely disappear, and the chromatin breaks up into twelve small chro-
mosomes. The bulk of the nucleolar substance of the pollen-mother-cell
appears to remain in a state of solution after the daughter-nuclei have
gone into the resting state, and is used, at least in part, in the formation
of the cell-plate. The daughter-nuclei enter into the resting state and
lose all connection with the spindle at an early stage in the formation
of the cell-plate, so that the growth of the plate proceeds without any
kinoplasmic connection of the nucleus with the region of growth. This
is the reverse of what occurs in the spore-formation of Peziza and
Erysiphe, and shows that kinoplasmic connection with the nucleus is not
always necessary to the formation of the cell-plate; and that if the
daughter-nuclei exert an influence on the formation of the plate, it is
through the medium of the cytoplasm.

Blepharoplasts in Spermatogenous Cells.}: — After a review of the
observations on these bodies by the author himself and by others, Herr
W. Belajeff gives further details of their formation and structure in the
case of a fern, Gymnogramme sulphur ea. In those cells in which the
spermatogenous cells are produced by division, he observed two stainable
bodies at two opposite points, the poles of the future nuclear spindle.
After the division of these cells, each of these bodies takes up a position
corresponding to that of the centrosomes. In opposition to the state-
ments of Guignard, he finds only one of these bodies in the mother-cells

* Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 27-34 (11 figs.).

t Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vii. (1898) pp. 77-85 (1 pi.).

x Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 140-4 (l pi.). Cf. this Journal ante
p. 31G.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

551

of the antherozoids, but one each at the polar and antipolar sides of
the nucleus in the primary mother-cells of the antherozoids, before their
division. During karyokinesis the stainable body was not seen in the
form of a centrosome, from which the achromatin-threads proceed. It
is possible that, in the karyokinetic division of the nucleus, a large
number of centrosomes may be found on the poles of the nuclear spindle,
which subsequently unite to form one of the stainable bodies. The
author has observed a number of the small stainable granules on the
broad polar ends of the nuclear spindle in the embryo-cells of Larix.

Reaction of Protoplasm to Thermal Irritation.* — The result of a
series of experiments on the effect of different temperatures on the
activity of protoplasm leads Dr. K. L. Schaefer to the law that at tem-
peratures between 10° and 31° C., the sensitiveness increases very nearly
in geometrical proportion with arithmetical increases of temperature.

(2) Other Cell-contents (including Secretions}.

Leptomin, a new Cell-content of Leptome.f — In the leptome of a
large number of plants Herr M. Raciborski finds a new substance, to
which he gives the name leptomin , the function of which appears to be
the conveyance of oxygen. It occurs especially in the sieve-tubes and
laticiferous vessels, but also in many parenchymatous cells.

Leptomin is destroyed in solution by short heating to 95° C. ; it is
soluble in water and glycerin, insoluble in alcohol ; in the dry state it
is an amorphous wh\te powder, which is not attacked by dilute alkalies,
but is destroyed by dilute acetic or picric acid. A solution of guaiacum-
resin with addition of hydrogen peroxide turns blue in the presence of
leptomin, as in the presence of haemoglobin or haemocyanin. In the life
of vascular plants leptomin appears to play a part analogous to that of
haemoglobin in the higher or haemocyanin in the lower animals, facili-
tating, as a substance rich in oxygen, the internal respiration, i.e. an
interchange of oxygen between the sieve-tubes, laticiferous vessels, and
other cells in which it is contained, and the surrounding tissues.

A list of the plants in which leptomin has been found is given,
including Gymnosperms and Vascular Cryptogams. Its presence was
detected in every vascular plant examined, but not in fungi ; it was
found in parasitic, saprophytic, and aquatic flowering plants.

Oxydases and the Guaiacum Reaction.}: — Herr J. Griiss confirms his
previous statement that an intense blue stain is produced in the phloem
by guaiacum-hydrogen -peroxide ; also that of Raciborski of the presence
in the leptome of the hypothetical substance which he calls leptomin.
His experiments lead him to the conclusion that the substance which
causes this reaction is in a transitional condition in the walls of the
vessels.

He finds three catalytic enzymes, corresponding to the three dia-
stases, secretion-diastase, translocation-diastase, and cytase, and dis-
tinguished from one another by their behaviour when heated. The
enzyme of Penicillium is not a diastase.

* Flora, lxxv. (1898) pp. 135-40.

t Per. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 52-63, 119-23.

X Tom. cit., pp. 129-39. Cf. this Journal, 1896, p.652.

552 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Saccharose and Glucose in Sugar-cane.* — Herr F. A. F. C. Went
lias carried out an elaborate series of experiments on the conditions
most favourable for the formation of saccharose and glucose in the
sugar-cane. The largest amount of glucose is always found near the
apex of the stem, while the apical meristem itself contains no reducing
sugar. In the stem and roots, glucose is especially abundant in the
parts which are growing most rapidly, decreasing as they grow older.
Fructose occurs also in the unripe sugar-cane. Saccharose is to be
found, especially in parts where growth in length has ceased, gradually
increasing in all the internodes. In the apex of the root there is but
little accumulation of saccharose, the sugar being here inverted in order
to serve for the growth of the root. During growth the greater part of
the saccharose is therefore found above ground. In the leaves of the
sugar-cane, saccharose, glucose, fructose, and starch are formed.

Hew Organic Substance in Woody Tissue. f — In sawdust which
has been agitated for several days with 1 per cent, potassium hydrate,
filtered, and treated with a slight excess of hydrochloric acid, M. G.
Guerin finds a copious flocculent precipitate. This substance is entirely
free from iron, but contains appreciable amounts of manganese, phos-
phorus, and sulphur. The author regards it as a nuclein-like substance,
and believes that in this form manganese is always present in wood.

Peculiar Cell-contents in Potamogeton praelongus.J — Dr.B.Lidforss
has studied the peculiar bodies found in the epidermal cells of this plant
by Lundstrom, and described by him as oil-bodies or elaioplasts. He
finds Lundstrom’s account to require correction in several points. They
are composed of a substance which has a greater specific gravity than
water, and which cannot, therefore, belong to the ordinary class of oils,
whether fixed or essential. This substance occurs also in the cell-sap in
a nearly saturated solution. Dr. Lidforss investigated with great care the
microchemical reactions of the substance, which are given in detail, and
comes to the conclusion that it belongs to the class of aromatic aldehydes.

Proteolytic Enzyme of Yeast Extract.? — Herren M. Hahn and L.
Geret confirm the statement of Buchner of the presence in yeast extract
of an enzyme which has the power of rendering albumin soluble.
Different kinds of yeast yield solutions containing this proteolytic
enzyme, and similar solutions can be obtained from tuberculosis and
typhus bacilli. The yeast extract, as obtained by Buchner’s method, is
nn opalescent liquid, and even after several filtrations through paper and
Kieselguhr filters, contains isolated yeast-cells.

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Fundamental Tissue of the Leaf. ||— Prof. F. W. C. Areschoug dis-
cusses several questions connected with the anatomy, development, and
physiology of the mesophyll of the leaf, basing his results mainly on an
examination of the leaves of Iris neglecta, Sambucus nigra , Asarum

* Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1898) pp. 289-344 (1 pi.),
t Comptes Kendus, exxv. (1897) pp. 311-2.
t Bot. Centralbl., lxxiv. (1898) pp. 305-13, 337-43, 372-7.

§ Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Gesell., xxxi. (1898) p. 205. See Journ. Chera. Soe.
Abstr., pp. 245-6. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 414.

|| Act. Univ. Lund, xxxiii. (1897) 46 pp. and 5 pis. (German).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

553

europseum , Ribes alpinum , Tilia parvifolia, Pinus sylvestris , and Taxus
baccata. He points out that the distribution of labour is not so strongly
marked in the organs of plants as in those of animals ; thus, the epiderm
often becomes an assimilating or aquiferous tissue. The palisade-paren-
chyme and the spongy parenchyme of the mesophyll may both perform
the same function, or one may replace the other. The author regards
transpiration as always essential for the existence of a current for the
supply of nutrient salts to the plant.

Formation and Structure of Lenticels.* — According to M. Devaux,
in the formation of lenticels the tissue produced on the outside of the
generating layer always consists exclusively of true bark ; the rounded
cells which enter into the composition of the bark represent cells of the
phelloderm which have increased more or less in size, and have become
separated from one another ; they are developed from a phellogen situ-
ated at the internal limit of the layer of bark which lies above them.
The generating layer which is found below the rounded cells is a new
layer of phellogen intercalated within the phelloderm and regenerating it.

The generating layer of lenticels is not usually a permanent layer.
It ceases to be active as soon as a new layer is formed lower down in the
phelloderm, or often also in the primary cortex. The only true bark of
lenticels, with centripetal development, is represented by the layers known
as the intermediate rays or closing layers ; that is to say, by suberised
cells much more closely united and having the essential characters of
true bark.

Assimilating Tissue of Polygonum Sieboldii.f — Dr. L. Montemar-
tini describes the assimilating system in the stem of this plant. The
cortex is divided into two layers, the outer one consisting of cells with
collenchymatous walls, the inner of rounded thin-walled cells with large
intercellular spaces. Both layers contain abundance of chlorophyll.
The red spots on the stem are caused by the epidermal cells adjacent to
the stomates being filled with anthocyan which protects the chlorophyll
in the subjacent layers from too strong insolation.

Alterations in the Tissue produced by a Parasite.f — M. A. Da-

guillon describes the changes produced in the leaves of Hypericum
perforatum by the attacks of a dipterous gall-insect Oligotrophus Giardi.
They are in the following directions. The leaf itself becomes thicker ;
the epidermal cells increase in size and lose their wavy cell-walls ; the
upper epiderm becomes thinner ; the mesophyll becomes less differen-
tiated ; the veins acquire a simpler structure, the collenchyme which
usually accompanies them disappearing; the secreting glands become
completely enveloped in the mesophyll, losing their transparency ; a red
pigment soluble in the cell-sap is formed in the cells near the under
surface.

(4) Structure of Organs.

Teratology of Flowers.§ — Herr H. Vochting gives details of a very
large series of observations on the anomalies in the structure of flowers,

* PY. Seances Soc. Sci. Phys. et Nat. Bordeaux, 1897, pp. 27-8. Comptes
Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1432-5. f Malpighia, xii. (1898) pp. 78-81 (1 pi.).

X Rev. Ge'n. de Bot. (Bonnier), x. (1898) pp. 5-14 (11 figs.).

§ Jalirb. f. wiss/Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1898) pp. 391-510 (6 pis.
and 1 fig.).

554

SUMMARY OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and deduces from them some general laws, comparing these with the
conclusions of previous observers, witli which they do not always agree*.
He contests the theory that each specific abnormality in structure is the
result of some specific abnormality in the external conditions, referring
them rather to internal causes.

Hydathodes. — Herr 0. Spaujer * gives a resume of the present state
of our knowledge with respect to the exudation of water from leaves,
with a list of the orders and species of Phanerogams and Pteridophyta
in which it has at present been observed. With regard to the function
of the secreting organs, he considers that it cannot he primarily the
exudation of water, since even in those plauts in which it is most active
(the Rosaceae), the amount of water given off is trifling compared to that
eliminated by transpiration. It is probably rather the promotion of the
transport of mineral and other food-materials through the plant. The
different forms of structure are arranged under several types, each in
most cases belonging to a number of nearly allied genera. The appa-
ratus for the exudation of water is described by the author as consisting
of the following elements : — the termiuations of the vascular bundles ;
the epithelial sheath ; the epithele ; the aquiferous chamber ; the fissure.

Some of the controversial points in this paper are vigorously com-
bated by Herr G. Haberlandt, f who charges Spanjer with misrepresent-
ing his statements on some points; with ignoring well-known observa-
tions of competent authorities ; and with bringing forward no new facts
in support of his theories. In particular he contests Spanjer’s assertion
that there is no active secretion of water through hydathodes of a glan-
dular nature. These have been observed by Haberlandt in Phaseohis
multiflorus and Anamirta Cocculus ; by Goebel and Groom in Lathrsea
and other Rhinanthese ; as well as by Treub and Koorders.

Herr A. Meyer J defends the conclusions arrived at by Spanjer against
the attacks of Haberlandt.

Size of the Leaves of Conifers.§ — According to observations made
by Mr. E. P. Copeland on American conifers, the variation in the size
of leaves of the same season is a rhythmic one. and displays great regu-
larity. Those formed at first are very short ; they are afterwards longer ;
and at the end of the season again short, generally shorter than the
earliest. This is attributed by the author either to the direct or to the
hereditary influence of the variations in the vital activity at different
periods of the year, as the plant gradually arouses from its winter rest
in spring and sinks again into it in late summer and autumn.

Double Root- cap of Tropaeolum.|| — M. C. Brunotte has investigated
the structure of the double root-cap of Tropseolum, and states that the
supernumerary sheath originates from the proliferation of the cells of
the suspensor.

Structure of Myristicaceae.1T — Herr 0. Warburg publishes a detailed
monograph of this order, preceded by a description of the anatomical

' * Bot. Ztg., lvi. (1898) lle Abt., pp. 35-81 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 95.

t Op. cit., lvi. (1898) 2te Abt., pp. 178-81. + Tom. cit., pp. 241-5.

§ Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 427-36.

|| Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 277-9.

Nova Acta Acad. Cses. Leop.-Oarol., Ixviii. (1897) pp. 1-680 (25 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

555

characters of the order and of the genera, among which the following
may be mentioned. The order is characterised by the presence of sacs
containing a reddish astringent kino which becomes blood-red on exposuro
to the air. The hairs are very characteristic, being branched sympodi-
ally. Oil-cells containing an essential oil are invariably present. The
oil originates before the flower opens or fertilisation takes place. It is
at first nothing bat a thickening of the integument in the region of the
hilum, the exostome taking part in its formation. It contains an essential
oil, a resinous substance, crystals of calcium oxalate, also in many species
a substance intermediate between dextrin and starch. It is greedily
devoured by birds, the ripe seeds passing uninjured through the intes-
tinal canal. The Myristicaceae appear to be cross^-pollinated by the
agency of insects.

P. Physiology-

Cl) Reproduction and Embryology.

Orientation of the Plant-Egg.* — Under this term Prof. C. Mac-
Millan describes the origin and development of the embryo, which he
has followed out in the Hepaticae (j Riccia, Sphserocarpus, Marchantia ,
Anthoceros, Jungermanniaceae), and in Pteridophyta ( Equisetum , Angio-
pteris, Isoetes, Marsilia, Pteris , Lycopodium. The following is his
summary of the general conclusions arrived at.

The orientation of the “ plant-egg ” is fundamentally a phenomenon
of adaptation. The conception of a basal wall is founded upon facts of
pliylogeny so profound that it is necessary to recognise that wall as basal
which separates morphologically distal from morphologically proximal
regions. The first wall formed may or may not be the basal wall.
Three principal types of egg-orientation are recognised : — the primitive
or bryophytic, characteristic also of Equisetum and Angiopteris ; the
semi-inverted, characteristic of Isoetes and the leptosporangiate ferns ;
and the inverted, characteristic of Lycopodium and Spermatophyta. The
origin of the primitive type is in adaptation to the peripheral position
of the archegones and to the plane of the substratum ; the origin of the
semi-inverted type is in adaptation to derived archegonial positions and
resistance of prothallial areas, interfering with the direct normal growth
of the embryo ; the origin of the inverted type is in adaptation to re-
peated archegonial displacement, and nutritive areas of prothallial areas
adjacent. The phylogenetic sequences derived from such an ecological
investigation of embryos do not materially differ from those derived by
a study of pure morphology.

Structure of the Female Organ and Apogamy in Baianophora.f

- — Prof. M. Treub describes the female organ of Balanophora elongate,
as originating from a papilla consisting of a single cell covered by tie
single layer of epidermal cells. This single cell is the mother-cell of
the embryo-sac ; the upper portion elongating into a structure resem-
bling a style. The embryo-sac often develops from this mother-cell
without further division ; the epiderm divides into about four layers of
cells. The primary embryo-sac nucleus divides into two ; it is from
the basal one of these two that the whole of the egg-apparatus is

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 301-23 (10 figs.).

t Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, xv. (1898) pp. 1-25 (8 pis.).

556

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

derived ; no coalescence takes place with tlie polar nucleus ; this latter
divides into two or four, corresponding to the antipodals. Finally,
the whole egg-apparatus — oosphere and synergids — disappears, except
the polar nucleus, which undergoes division, dividing the embryo-sac
into a small upper and a large basal cell, of which the former only
develops, dividing into a small number of endosperm-cells. One of
these becomes the pseudo-embryo. The endosperm-cells form a large
amount of oil, and become frothy. The number of cells of which the
embryo is composed is not more than from five to ten while it is still
enclosed in the mother-plant. Pollen-tubes were never seen to enter
the female organ, and the phenomenon is therefore one of pure apogamy,
resembling that of Pteris cretica.

Embryogeny of Euphorbia.* — According to observations made by
Florence M. Lyon on Euphorbia corollata, each single so-called “ flower ”
is an inflorescence of the same type as the general inflorescence. This
inflorescence (cyathium) tends to become further reduced by the abortion
of the terminal (female) flower. The development of the ovule is marked
by an elaborate outgrowth of the nucellus in the form of a long neck,
whose direction of growth is guided by placental hairs which exert an
attractive influence, causing it to bend toward them, thus making a com-
plete connection between the stigmatic cells and the embryo-sac for the
passage of the pollen-tube. Ovules appear before there is any trace of
carpel, being clearly of cauline origin. There is nothing unusual in
the development of the embryo-sac. The synergids are remarkably long,
and the antipodals very ephemeral. As a rule a single cell is the an-
cestor of all the spore-mother-cells in each pollen-sac. The tapete may
be clearly differentiated, at least one division preceding the pollen-
mother-cells ; it is developed from the wall. The synapsis stage was
observed with great regularity. There are indications that the genera-
tive cell may not divide.

Embryogeny of the Pontederiacese.f — Mr. W. E. Smith has studied
the biology of this order, chiefly in Poniederia cordata and Eichhornia
crassipes, but finds no special ordinal characteristics. The two genera
agree in the ephemeral nature of the antipodals and in the structure of
the endosperm. Such irregularities as occur in Eicliliornia appear to be
correlated with its enormous power of vegetative multiplication.

How Flowers attract Insects.— Dr. P. KnuthJ subjects Plateau’s
conclusions on this subject to a critical examination, and arrives at a
result that they are based on an erroneous interpretation of the facts.
While admitting that insects may at first be attracted to flowers from
a distance by their scent, Dr. Knuth still regards colour as the chief
source of attraction at smaller distances ; the markings on the corolla
itself being in many cases the final guide-post to direct the insects to
the ovary.

Sir J ohn Lubbock § has repeated some of Plateau’s experiments, and
has arrived at the same result : — that his conclusion that insects are
attracted mainly by the sense of smell is not substantiated.

* Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 418-26 (3 pis.).

f Tom. cit., pp. 324-37 (2 pis.).

X Bot. Centralbl., lxxiv. (1898) pp. 39-46. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 191.

§ Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), xxxiii. (1898) pp. 270-8.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

557

Prof. Kienitz-Gerloff* comes to the same conclusion as the two
other observers, summing up his criticism on Plateau’s results with the
remark that what is new is not true, and what is true is not new.

Herr Tiebe,f while agreeing in the main with the conclusions of
Muller and Lubbock, points out that Plateau has, after all, made a
useful addition to the controversy in insisting on the important part
played by scent in the attraction of insects.

Pollination of Cistns.J — M. C. Gerber points" out that in Cistus
albidus , immediately after flowering, the calyx (with the involucre formed
of the two so-called outer sepals) completely closes round the pistil and
stamens, forcing the open anthers on to the stigma, and thus ensuring
self-pollination. The large size and bright colour of the flowers are,
therefore, not here a contrivance for attracting insects and ensuring
cross-pollination.

Pollination of the Cactaceae.§ — M. L. G. Seurat points out a re-
markable difference between the floral biology of Opuntia and Cereus. In
Opuntia the flowers are expanded for many days, and the stamens are
endowed with a well-marked irritability. The flower is cross-pollinated
by the agency of bees. In Cereus the flowers remain open only for a
very short time, and the stamens are quite immotile. They may be
pollinated by insects, but the part played by them is very much less
important than in Opuntia.

Parthenogenesis in Antennaria. — Dr. H. 0. Juel|| confirms the
observation of the late Dr. Kernel* v. Marilaun of a production of fertile
seeds in Antennaria alpina without impregnation. The male plants are
very rare, and produce no functional pollen-grains. In the earliest
stages, up to the production of eight nuclei, the divisions of the embryo-
sac exhibit nothing special. From the antipodals a parenchymatous
mass of cells is formed at the upper end of the embryo-sac. The position
of the oospheres and synergids is normal. The two polar nuclei become
closely attached, but do not coalesce. The oosphere then elongates,
divides, and developes into an embryo without any access of a pollen-
tube. The polar nuclei then separate, divide, and produce the endo-
sperm, which is subsequently reduced to a single layer of cells.

Mr. E. L. Greene ^ calls attention to the production of fertile seeds
without impregnation in A. plantaginifolia.

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Influence of Nutrition on the Evolution of Plants.** — M. A. Dan-
geard traces the origin of the differentiation between animals and plants
to a difference in the mode of nutrition. With a sphere the proportion
between surface and contents increases with the decrease of radius ; the
smaller the cell, the larger are the contents in proportion to the size

* Biol.’Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 417-25. f Tom. cit., pp. 465-9.

t Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 1734-7.

§ Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), x. (1898) pp. 191-2.

|| Bot. Centralbl., Ixxiv. (1898) pp. 369-72.

M ‘ The Plant-World,’ i. (1898) p. 102. See Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) p. 376.

** Le Botaniste, vi. (1 898) pp. 1-63.

558 8UMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the cell. Sexual reproduction is regarded by the author as a con-
sumption by the organism of its own substance (autophagy).

Function of Calcium Salts.* — Herr O. Loew lays stress on the fact
that, although the presence of some salt of calcium appears to be essential
to the growth of most plants, this is not the case with the lower Fungi
or with one lowly organised Alga ( Palmella ). He holds that the nucleus
at a certain period of development, and the chlorophyll-bodies except at
their very earliest stage, require calcium, and make use of its protein-
compounds. Salts of strontium produce no injurious effect so long as
the plant is supplied with sufficient salts of calcium. Different fungi
exhibit different results as to the possibility of substituting rubidium for
calcium.

Power of Isolated Chlorophyll-Grains to give out Oxygen.f—

Dr. L. Kny replies to the strictures of Ewart if on his previous paper,
and maintains the correctness of his former conclusions. In the same
examples as those employed by Ewart — Vallisneria spiralis , Selaginella
helvetica , Catliarinea undulata, Funaria liygromeirica — he was never able
to detect any evolution of oxygen from the chlorophyll-grains when
completely separated from the surrounding cytoplasm.

In reply Dr. A. J. Ewart § claims that Kny’s results practically
coincide with his own.

Growth of Lilium Martagon.||— Herr A. Rimpach has studied the
growth of Lilium Martagon from the seed. The first foliage-leaf appears
in the second spring; its basal portion swells, and becomes filled with
starch ; for several successive years only one fresh foliage-leaf is pro-
duced annually by the small bulb, which is gradually dragged downwards
by the contractile roots, always in an erect position. After the ascending
stem has begun to develop, no fresh root-leaves are produced. The
ordinary mode of reproduction of the plant is by seed. In the con-
tractile roots the contractile tissue is the whole of the inner cortex ; the
outer cortex, the central vascular cylinder, and the endoderm taking no
part in the contraction. The mature plant produces also a rosette of
small roots which extend horizontally, and are densely covered with
root-hairs. They serve to sustain the stem in an erect position, as well
as performing a nutritive function.

Growth of Root-hairs and Rhizoids.1T — Herr C. Sokolowa has studied
the phenomena connected with the growth of the root-hairs in seedlings
of flowering plants — Sinapis alba, Brassica Napus , Cucumis sativus, — and
the rliizoids of cryptogams — Marchantia polymorpha, Lunularia vulgaris.
In all these cases not only is the growth limited to a special region, the
apical cap, but in this region only a particular spot is in active growth
at any one moment, the whole cap bending towards the side on which
this spot is located.

With regard to the physiology of growth, the author holds — as the

* Eot. Centralb]., lxxiv. (1898) pp. 202-5, 257-65.

t Op. cit., lxxiii. (1898) pp. 426-39. Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 101.

J Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 206. § Op. cit., lxxv. (1898) p. 33.

1| Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Geselh, xvi. (1888) pp. 104-10 (1 ph).

IT Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 1897, pp. 167-277 (3 pis. and 22 figs.) (German).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

559

result of experiments dependent on tbo use of congo-red as a staining
reagent — that the cellulose-membrane is formed out of the outermost
layer of protoplasm on the surface of the protoplast, in the form of a
loose pellicle, which, remaining in contact with the protoplasm, grows
in surface and becomes thicker and denser. The granular protoplasm,
the parietal layer, and the cellulose membrane, form a connected whole
with no sharp line of demarcation between them. The author supports
Pfeffer’s view that the formation of cellulose is directly connected with
the process of respiration and the breaking up of proteids.

The nucleus takes no direct part in the growth of the cell-wall,
although it is usually found in proximity to the growing wall, near the
apex of the root-hair or rhizoid. In the epidermal cell from which the
hair springs, the nucleus lias usually a roundish form, and is situated
near the spot where the hair originates. After a time it passes into the
hair and gradually assumes a fusiform shape.

(3) Irritability.

Nyctitropic Movements.* — Herr L. Jost supplements his previous
observations on nyctitropic movements in plants with the following : —
The movements of the perianth-leaves of the tulip and dandelion depend
on changes in the temperature, and not, to any appreciable extent, on
changes in the light. The closing of the flowers is not, however, caused
by an increase of temperature, but by the maintenance, for a consider-
able time, of the same high temperature which brings about the open-
ing of the flower. The opening of the flower is caused by a rapid
growth of the inner surface of the perianth-leaves; its closing by the
cessation of this, and the more rapid growth of the outer surface. The
phenomena are the same in the crocus.

The author differs somewhat from Pfeffer f in his theoretical expla-
nation of the phenomena of nyctitropic movements. He thinks it more
probable that in these movements, and in those of nutation, the two
antagonistic halves of an organ react differently, that the concave side
exhibits an active retardation of growth or contraction, while the con-
vex side displays an acceleration of growth or expansion. The move-
ment of reflexion must, he thinks, be attributed to interior causes.

With regard to the influence of changes in temperature on the move-
ments of foliage-leaves ( Pliaseolus , Acacia, Desmodium , Bobinia, Mimosa),
he states the general rule that in the dark a slow elevation of temperature
causes opening, a quick elevation closing of the leaflets ; slow depression
of temperature induces a closing of the leaflet, rapid depression a moro
rapid closing.

Nutation of the Sunflower.:]: — Mr. J. H. Schaffner has studied the
phenomena connected with the diurnal nutation of the flower-heads of
Helianthus animus (in Kansas). From shortly after sunrise, when tho
plant is nutating about 60° E., until sunset, there is a gradual movement
westward until the terminal bud faces W., and the upper part of the stem

* Jalirb. f. wies. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1898) pp. 345-90(2 figs.). Cf.
this Journal, 1897, p. 312. t Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 370.

j; Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 395-403 (1 fig.).

560

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

nutates 90°. From sunset until about 10 p.m., tbe plant regains its
vertical position, and the leaves droop so that their apices point vertically
downward. From 10 p.m. to 1 a.m. is the period of repose. From 1 a.m.
till sunrise there is a gradual turning eastward, accompanied by a rising
of the leaves, their upper surfaces being brought again at right-angles to
the light.

The period of repose cannot be entirely due to the fall of temperature ;
since, although there is a rapid fall from sunset till midnight, there is
also a rapid fall from midnight to sunrise, when the change of position
is very marked. The drooping of the leaves cannot be explained
entirely as a means of protection against excessive radiation ; for when
the temperature is lowest, the leaves are already standing up rigidly and
turning towards the east.

A moderate wind or cloudy weather has but little effect on nutation ;
continual drought and excessive moisture both act prejudicially. De-
capitation and wounding do not interfere with the nutation, while, on the
other hand, the removal of the leaves entirely destroys the power.

Helianthus rigidus exhibits similar phenomena, but more strongly
developed.

Tendrils of Entada scandens.* — Prof. D. T. Macdougal describes
the structure and irritability of the leaf-tendrils of this plant belonging
to the Mimoseac. They appear to be equally sensitive over their entire
length, and are in a state of rapid circumnutation, and more or less
curved into a hook form. The sensory zone consists of the single layer
of epidermal cells, in which the nucleus occupies a central position.
The curvature of the tendril is due to the contraction of the cells that
become concave, resembling that of the pulvinus of Mimosa. The
author concludes, from the phenomena presented by this plant, that the
efficiency of the tendril is by no means dependent on the degree of
dorsiventrality exhibited, those of Entada being isodiametric.

Influence of Low Temperatures on the Direction of Shoots.f — Herr
K. Vochting had previously established that, in the case of flower-stalks
(Anemone stellata)1 high temperatures cause an elongation of curved
stalks and an erect growth ; low temperatures, on the other hand, a curv-
ing of straight stalks. He now shows that in herbaceous plants this law
operates, probably very generally, in vegetative shoots also. They be-
come orthotropous or plagiotropous according to the temperature. The
species on which the experiments were chiefly made was Mimulus Tilingii.
Although this law probably accounts for the prostrate direction of the
stems of many plants, especially of arctic shrubs, it cannot be regarded
as the only cause ; there are also heliotropic and geotropic factors.

Contraction-Movements of Anther-lobes, Sporanges, and Moss-
leaves.:!: — From a series of experiments on the bursting of anthers (7w-
lipa, Crocus , Lilium , Gladiolus ), and of sporanges (Equisetum arvense ),
and on the rolling up of dried moss-leaves (Bhynchostegium murale ),
Herr C. Steinbrinck supports the view of Kamerling that the pheno-

* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxv. (1898) pp. 65-72 (1 fig.).

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 37-52 (1 fig.). Cf. this Journal, 1894,
p. 227. % Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 97-103.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

561

mona are duo to a hygroscopic mechanism, at least as probably as that
which attributes them to a shrinking of the cell- walls.

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Functional Metabolism in the Plant.* — In the Croonian lecture
delivered before the Royal Society, Prof. W. Pfeifer discusses the nature
and significance of functional metabolism in. the plant. The true aerobic
functional metabolism is the same in principle in plants and in animals.
This process runs its course within the living protoplasm, not merely
on its surface, or in particular portions of it, but in and between all
its constituent parts. The distinction between aerobic and anaerobic
organisms is one of degree only ; the two are connected together by
intermediate links. Among aerobes life is maintained for a limited
time by the action of intramolecular respiration.

Influence of Sodium and Magnesium Salts on the Growth of
Plants.f — According to a series of experiments made by M. H. Coupin,
maritime plants ( Beta maritima , Atrijplex hastata var. maritima , Ccihile
maritima) are very closely adapted to the proportion of sodium chloride
contained in sea-water, a very small increase in the proportion of that
salt in the water killing them. This, however, is not -the case with
magnesium salts ; the proportion of magnesium chloride may be trebled
or even quadrupled.

Depletion of the Endosperm of Barley during Germination. f — •
According to experiments made by Mr. H. J. Brown and Mr. F. Escombe
on the germination of barley, the separation of the “ aleurone-layer ” or
Kleberschicht is due to cytohydrolysis, i.e. to the absorption of water by
the hyaline portions of the cytoplasm, and the disintegration due to this
cause extends centripetally into the endosperm. They affirm that the
normal phenomena of endosperm solution and depletion are not due to
the action of extraneous micro-organisms, but to the metabolic activity
of the endosperm itself; and not to its amyliferous cells, but to the
aleurone-layer alone. This layer is the only part of the endosperm which
can be recognised as taking part in the preparation of the food-material
for the embryo, since no evidence can be obtained of any changes being
initiated by the amyliferous cells themselves. The “ aleurone-cells ”
share with the scutellum the power of eroding starch-grains, but their
principal function is to break down the cell-membranes of the amyli-
ferous endosperm.

Chemical Processes in the Germination of Seeds.§ — Mr. F. Escombe
supports the view of Gorup-Besanez that during germination amides and
amido-acids perform different functions. The former result in only
small amounts from direct hydrolysis, being chiefly formed synthetically
from the further transformation of amido-acids, and of nitrogenous sub-
stances derived from the reserve-carbohydrates. This synthesis of
amides occurs in the dark ; and the further stages of proteohydrolysis,
at any rate, are due to enzymic action. It is also most probable that

* Proc. Roy. Soc., lxiii. (1898) pp. 93-101.

t Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), x.(1898) pp. 177-91 (3 figs.).

j Proc. Roy. Soc., lxiii. (1898) pp. 2-25 (1 pi.). Nature, Iviii. (1898) pp. 332-4
(2 figs.). § Science Progress, vii. (1898) pp. 219-36.

562

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

proteins cannot be regenerated from amides in darkness, and nothing
can yet be said as to the rationale of their regeneration in light. The
author emphasises the importance of this inquiry by the consideration
that the metabolism of germination is doubtless, in the main, chemically
similar to that metabolism which occurs in mature plants throughout
the whole vegetable kingdom.

Respiration of the Embryo of Wheat.* * * § — Herr G. Burlakow com-
pares the respiration of the embryo and of the endosperm of wheat during
germination. In the early stages the respiration of the embryo is much
(up to 20 times) more active than that of the endosperm. This is due
to the large amount of proteids and carbohydrates ; the slight respiration
of the endosperm being the result of the small amount of active albumen.
The temperature has a great influence on the energy of the respiration of
all the parts, especially of the embryo.

Soluble Ferment in Wine.f — According to Sig. G. Tolomei, contact
with air causes the oxidation of the colouring matter of wine, rendering
it insoluble, and developing a characteristic odour. This is due to the
presence of a soluble enzyme resembling laccase. On adding a muscatel
ferment to a sterilised wine must, the latter developes, after a few
days, a crop of SaccJiaromyces ellipsoideus. During this process a soluble
ferment is elaborated, which, remaining dissolved, is capable of producing
all the modifications which constitute the maturing of wines.

y, General.

Lacustrine Biology 4 — Prof. R. Chodat distinguishes between the
pelagic and the limnetic plankton flora of the Swiss lakes. Green alg*e
are not frequent in the pelagic plankton, not being able to support the
strong and continuous illumination ; those algae which do occur, as
Botryococcus Braunii , are protected by a red pigment. In most of the
Swiss lakes the water contains but little nitrogenous matter, or mineral
salts in solution. Among diatoms, Asterionella and Fragilaria croto-
nensis are abundant, while Melosira is rare. In the lake of Neuchatel
the water and the ice are coloured red by immense quantities of Botryo-
coccus Braunii.

Flora of Trout-tanks. § — Herr E. Lemmermann has investigated the
relation to the breeding of trout of the algae found in the trout-tanks at
Sandfort, near Osnabriick. The diatoms are of great value to trout-
culture, since they check the growth of the injurious Saprolegniaceae and
bacteria, and serve as food for rotifers, Crustacea, &c. The Oscillatoriaceae
appear to have no injurious effect on the water. The diatoms develop
especially in cold and shady tanks ; the Chloropliyceae in those exposed
to the sun. The large floating masses of Cladophora, Spirogyra , and

* Arb. Naturf.-Ges. k. Univ. Charkow, xxxi. (1897) Beil., pp. i.-xv. See Bot.
Centralbl., lxxiv. (1898) p. 323.

t Atti R. Accad. Lincei, 1896, pp. 52-6. Cf. Journ. Chem. Soc., 1898, Abstr.,
p. 247.

% Bull. Herb. Boissier, vi. (1898) pp. 49-77, 155-88. See Bull. Soe. Bot. France,
xlv. (1898) p. 88. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 568.

§ Forschungsgeb. a. d. Biol. Stat. Plon, v. (1897) pp. 67-117. See Bot. Centralbl.,
lxxiv. (1898) p. 347.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

563

flowering plants, afford a protection against too strong insolation, as well
as a nidus for the breeding of the animals on which the trout feed.

A new genus is described, j Ricliteriella, belonging to the Ulotrichaceie,
nearly allied to Nordstedtia , but distinguished by the absence of the
stellate chromatophores, and by its strongly developed gelatinous
envelope.

Resistance of Seeds to Immersion in Water.* — M. H. Coupin
finds, as the result of a series of experiments, that different seeds dis-
play very different powers of resistance to the disintegrating effects of
long immersion in water. Some seeds display greater resisting powers
to water which is from time to time renewed than to unchanged water ;
with others the reverse is the case; while others again are equally
affected by water in both conditions. One important agent in the dis-
integration of the seeds is Bacillus amylobacter, which sets up butyric
fermentation.

Heat of Germinating Seeds.f — Mr. Gr. MacloSkie gives experi-
mental reasons for believing that the rise of temperature of germinating
seeds is not due entirely to the oxidation of carbon, but partly also to
the heat set free by imbibition, the law which Sachs illustrates in pheno-
mena attending the ascent of water in trees.

Action of Anaesthetics on Vegetable and Animal Protoplasm. :f — •
Prof. J. B. Farmer and Dr. A. D. Waller have experimented on the
effects of various anaesthetics on Elodea and Ohara , and find it to be
the same as on animals. The action of carbon dioxide was to produce
an initial slight acceleration, followed speedily by a comqdete cessation
of the movement of the protoplasm, as indicated by that of the chloro-
phyll-bodies. Ether vapour in air passed over the plant for two minutes
caused a speedy arrest of all movement, and the quiescent condition
lasted for some minutes longer. The action of chlorophyll was far more
deadly than that of ether.

B. CRYPTOGAMXA.

Biology of Spores.§ — From an examination of the structure of the
spores in Lycopodiacese, Opliioglossacese, Gasteromycetes, Myxomycetes,
and Tuber , Herr G. Liistner classifies these structures under two heads,
dependent on the nature of the outer coat, reticulate or pitted, though
they are connected by intermediate forms. The former — e. g. spores of
Lycopodium clavatum and annotinum — are incapable of being wetted,
not on account of being oily, but because of the air-chambers formed
by the ridges on the outer surface. They can penetrate deep into the
soil without being injured, and belong especially to such species as
germinate underground or carry on in their early stages a saprophytic
existence. The second class — e. g. spores of Lycopodium Phlegmaria —
belong to species for whose germination water is necessary. The chloro-
phyll which they contain shows that they germinate rapidly and in
the light.

* Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 1365-8.

f Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxv. (1898) pp. 272-4.

J Proc. Roy. Soc., lxiii, (1898) pp. 213-6 (2 figs.).

§ Jenenscr Inauguraldiss. Wiesbaden, 1898. See Bot. Ztg., lvi. (1898) 2ta Abt.,
p. 198.

1898 2 Q

564

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Characeae.

Shoot-Nodes of the CharacesD.*— Pursuing liis investigation on
this subject, Dr. K. Giesenhagen now describes in great detail the
structure of the shoot-nodes in the following species : — the rare Nitella
cernua, where, in accordance with its gigantic size, the nodes are com-
posed of a very large number of cells, Tolypella , in all the species of
which genus the development of the nodes corresponds closely to that
in Nitella syncarpa , Lamprothamnus alopecuroides, and Chara stelligera.

Muscinese.

Propagation of Mosses by Gemmae, j — Herr C. Correns gives further
details respecting the propagation of mosses from nematogenous cells.
In those species which have no persistent growing point, there are
certain cells which alone possess the property of forming protonemes.
These occur in all parts of the plant which do not become spontaneously
detached; — in Hypnum stramineum on the under side of the leaves; in
Leucobryum vulgar e especially on the upper side of the leaf and on the
margins of the apex ; in many species from the meristematic cells of
the base of the leaf. In dissected moss-stems the rhizoids are usually
produced from nematogenous cells. This property does not appear to
belong to all the cells of the plant indifferently.

Gemmae .of Aulacornnium androgynum.f — Herr A. Y. Grevillius
supports the view that the clusters of gemmae or bulbils found at the
apex of the naked jiseudopodes of this moss are modified leaves. A com-
plete series of transitional forms occurs between them and typical foliage-
leaves, and the author cannot confirm the view of Correns § that in this
species these organs arc modified paraphyses, while in A. palusire they
are modified leaves. In both species neither the apical cell nor the
rows of cells immediately beneath it takes any part in their germination.

Dwarf Male Plants of Dieranum.|| — Herr C. Warnstoff finds the
dwarf male plants which grow from the stem of the female jdant in
the following species of Dicranum : — spurium, undulatum , Bonjeani , majus,
and scoparium. They are not produced on a protoneme which springs
from a spore, but on the weft of roots which serves as a protoneme.
They carry on their existence in direct connection with the female plant,
and replace male “ flowers ” ; and the author proposes for this “ inflores-
cence ” the term “ pseudo-autoecious.” He has found ordinary male
plants in D. scoparium and majus , but not in D. spurium , Bergeri, undu-
latum, Bonjeani , neglectum , or Muhlenbechii.

Algae.

Food-Materials of Algge. — Herr W. Benecke % confirms the state-
ment of Molisch of the indispensability of calcium for the active growth
of the lower algae ; potassium he also finds to be essential, but the pro-
portion in which this element is present is comparatively indifferent.

* Flora, lxxxv. (1898) pp. 19-65 (2 pis. and 18 figs.). Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 416.

t Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 22-7 (1 fig.). Of. this Journal, ante,
p. 105. % Tom. cit., pp. 111-18 (1 pi.).

§ Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 105.

|| Allg. Bot. Zeitschr., 1898, pp. 40-3. Sec Iledwigia, xxxv. (1898) Rep., p. 129.

1 Bot. Ztg., lvi. (1898) lte Abt., pp. 83-97. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 545.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

565

His experiments were carried out on species belonging to three different
families, — Protococcaceae, Ulothrichacuse ( Ulothrix , Hormidium , Sticho-
coccus), and Chaetophoraceee ( Microti tamnion ).

Herr 0. Loew * contests the accuracy of one or two statements made
by Benecke, and the latter replies, f

Germination of the Cutleriacese.J — M. C. Sauvageau compares the
structure of the thallus of Gutleria or Zanardinia to that of filaments of
Ectocarpus united laterally. Two modes of germination have been ob-
served in the family : — the parthenogenetic development of the oospheres
of Cutler ia multijida, observed by Thuret ; and the germination of im-
pregnated oospheres described by Falkenberg. The former give rise to
plants resembling a young Ectocarpus, the latter to the form known as
Aglaozonia. M. Sauvageau confirms the occurrence of both these modes
of germination in the case of Gutleria adspersa, and states that the two
modes are not due to differences of habitat, season, or temperature, but
that they occur side by side on the same substratum. There are no
intermediate conditions between these two modes of germination.

Bangia pumila. §— Mr. 0. Y. Harbishire describes this endemic
species of the eastern Baltic. Besides the vegetative mode of propaga-
tion, he was able to follow out in this species a sexual mode. The
antherids consist of cells in which the contents have divided into a large
number of “spermatia” by repeated quadripartition. The “ sperma-
tium ” enters the procarp through a small orifice. Cystocarps are formed
on branches on which the procarps have been impregnated.

Laminariacese.U — Prof. N. Wille has studied in detail the anatomical
structure of Alaria esculenta, which he regards as the highest northern
type of the Laminariaceee, especially in the following points : — the inter-
calary zone of growth in the stipe ; the structure of the stipe ; the
formation and structure of the rhizoids ; the structure of the mid-rib,
of the sterile surface of the leaf, and of the sporophyll. The assimilating
tissue is confined to a single outermost layer of cells. The conducting
elements are partly sieve-cells formed from the meristematic cells, partly
sieve-hyphae. The former may lose their function with age, and become
closed bv plugs of cellulose. The rhizoids are formed from the super-
ficial layer in the lower part of the stipe The sporophyll may persist
for a whole year, and the stipe may live for several years. In the
formation of the sporanges there is a great increase in the number of
chromatophores. The trichomic structures contribute to the nourishment
of the plant. The intercellular substance consists, in the opinion of the
author, essentially of calcium pectinate ; while the inner lamella of the
cell-wall shows the reactions of cellulose.

Centrosome of Dictyota.^T —After a summary of what is at present
known as to the existence of centrosomes in the vegetable kingdom,
Mr. D. M. Mottier describes his discovery of them in Dictyota dichotoma,
* Op. cit., 2te Abt., pp. 235-6. f Tom. cit., p. 236.

% Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 1435-8. Of. this Journal, ante, p. 453.

§ Komm. wiss. Unters. d. Deutsch. Meere in Kiel, iii. (1898). See Hedwi^ia,
xxxvii. (1898) Rep., p. 106.

|| Beitr. z. Phys. Anat. d. Laminariacecu, Christiania, 1897, 70 pp. and 1 pi. See
Bot. Centraibl., lxxxiii. (189S) p. 388.

H Ber. Deutsch. Bot, Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 123-8 (5 figs.).

2 q 2

566 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

in connection with the tetrasporc-m other-cells. They are rod-shaped
and somewhat curved, and are larger than those of Stypocaulon, and
probably also than those of Fucus ; the convex side always faces the
nucleus. They are usually parallel, but may also be at right-angles
to one another. They are not altogether homogeneous, but appear to
consist of small granules. From the centrosome radiate very delicate
threads of protoplasm which lose themselves beneath the chromato-
phores and granules which have collected round the nucleus in a some-
what dense zone. In the daughter-nuclei resulting from the first
division of the tetraspore-mother-cells, the centrosome and its rays
are found on the polar side, the greater number of the rays running
in a tangential direction to the nucleus.

From the remarkable similarity in the structure of the cells to those
of Fucus and Styjpocaulon , and the fact that it possesses motile swarm-
spores, the author is induced to place Dictyota among the Phaeosporeae.

Sexuality of the Tilopterideae.* — M. C. Sauvageau denies to the
monosporous sporanges of the Tilopterideae the designation of oogones,
maintaining their non-sexual character. He proposes to remove Ecto-
carpus pusillus from that genus and from the Ectocarpaceae, and to place
it in the Tilopterideae under Acinetospora , to which genus Heterospora
Vidovichii should also be referred. In A. pusilla he has found unilo-
cular sporanges containing bodies which present all intermediate stages
between aplanospores and zoospores. The monospore of A. pusilla con-
tains only a single nucleus ; it is an organ of vegetative propagation, a
propagule. Before escaping from the sporange it is enclosed in a deli-
cate membrane, preventing all possibility of impregnation. In the
other Tilopterideae the monospores are sometimes uninucleated, some-
times multinucleated. Although some species have antherids, no sexual
process is known, and the monospores germinate directly. The Tilo-
pterideae have, therefore, no very near alliance to the Cutleriaceae ; their
nearest allies are the Ectocarpaceae, which they closely resemble in their
vegetative structure.

Sexuality of the Sphacelariaceae.f — M. C. Sauvageau has discovered
male sexual organs, antherids, on SpTiacelaria hystrix. They resemble
the multilocular sporanges in form and size, but have smaller chambers,
and are orange-red, while the sporanges are dark brown. No unilocular
sporanges were observed, and the “ multilocular sporanges ” are probably
oogones and their “ spores ” oospheres. The dehiscence of the antherids
takes place in precisely the same way as that of the “ sporanges,” each
loculus bursting separately. The antherozoids are pear-shaped, with a
red spot, while the “ zoospores ” are oval and much larger. No conju-
gation with the supposed oospheres was detected.

The antherids of the Sjehacelariaceae closely resemble those of the
Tilopterideae ; and the author now regards the Ectocarpaceae, Tilo-
pterideae, and Cutleriaceae as forming an alliance not only among them-
selves, but also with the Sphacelariaceae.

Conjugation of Swarm-spores in Scytosiphon.J — Herr P. Kuckuck
has been able to establish the occurrence of conjugation between swarm-

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1581-3. f Tom. cit., pp. 1672-5.

X Her. Deutscfi. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 35-7 (7 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

567

spores of ScytosipJion lomentarius , similar to that recorded in the case
of Edocarpus siliculosus , though by far the larger number come to rest
without being impregnated. After conjugation the zygote rounds itself
off, and contains two distinct chromatophores, each with an eye-spot.

Division of the Nucleus in Spirogyra.* — After a review of the
extensive literature of the subject, Herr L. Mitzkewitscli gives an account
of his own observations on several species of Spirogyra, which differ in
some important respects from those of previous observers, the species
examined presenting no essential differences. The point which the
author especially desired to clear up was the part played by the nucleoles
in the division of the nucleus. In his description of the process of
nuclear division, he agrees in important points with that of Strasburger
and Tangl ; but in the role of the nucleoles he is rather in accordance
with those observers who ascribe to them a more important function
than that which belongs to the nucleoles in the higher plants. He
especially insists on the part played by them in the formation of the
nuclear disc. They do not disappear in the process of division ; and
may be regarded as a concentration of the stainable substances of the
nucleus. The nuclear disk stage in the karyokinetic process is remark-
ably accentuated in Spirogyra. The material out of which it is formed
is made up of two substances, chromatin in the form of roundish or
elongated granules, coloured a bright red by safranin, each with a light-
coloured border, and a second substance, possibly linin, coloured by
safranin a light rose-colour.

Conjugation of Binucleated Cells in Spirogyra. \ — By rapid cooling
or the action of anaesthetics, Herr J. J. Gerassimoff obtained, in the
division of the cells of Spirogyra majuscula , two cells, of which one con-
tained no nucleus, the other either two of ordinary size, or one very
large or compound nucleus. From these latter cells entire filaments
were obtained by division, each cell of which contained either two nuclei,
or one very large one ; these cells also increasing greatly in diameter.
Germination of zygotes produced from these binucleated cells resulted
in the production of filaments, the cells of which contained only one
nucleus, but which were of abnormally large diameter. In the conjuga-
tion of binucleated cells, parthenospores were sometimes observed. Two
female conjugated with one male cell ; but the protoplasm of the latter
coalesced only with that of one female cell, a partlienospore being formed
in the other female cell. Double zygotes are apparently produced when
two adjoining female cells are separated by an imperfect septum.

Rhizoclonium4 — From the cultivation of two species of Bhizoelonium
(B. hieroglyphicum and profundum) Dr. F. Brand comes to the conclusion
that neither the relative length of the cells nor the formation of rhizoids
is a trustworthy character for the separation of species, these characters
being largely dependent on external conditions. Long-continued culti-
vation gave no countenance to the view of a genetic connection between
Bhizoelonium and CladopJiora. The formation of propagating organs of
the nature of akinetes was confirmed. The following diagnosis of the
genus is proposed : — Unbranched filamentous algte (or only with rudi-

* Flora, lxxxv. (1898) pp. 81-124 (1 pi.). Of. this Journal, ante, p. 454.

t Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou, 1897 (1898) pp. 484-503 T9 figs.) (German).

X Bot. Centralbl., lxxiv. (1898) pp. 193-202, 225-36 (1 pi.).

568

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

mentary branching) belonging, according to the structure of their cells,
to the Cladojfhorese, but not referable to any other genus of the order.

Fungi.

Lipase in Fungi.* — From Penicillium glaucum M. E. Gerard has
extracted a ferment which he finds to be identical with lipase, or at all
events very nearly related to it.

Protoplasm of the Mucorinese.f — Pursuing his researches on the
structure of the protoplasm and the seat of the protoplasmic currents in
Mortierella , M. L. Matruchot states that in the Mucorineae the proto-
plasm is differentiated into a transparent mass of hyaloplasm and a
certain number of granular protoplasm cords (“ enchylema ”) enclosed
and distributed regularly at the periphery. With increase of age the
protoplasmic cords become distributed throughout the mass, and finally
become transformed into a more and more watery hyaloplasm. This
final condition is not due, as has been stated in the case of the higher
plants, to the extension of the vacuoles.

Biology of Uredinese.J — Dr. H. Klebahn reviews the present position
of our knowledge respecting the biology of the UredineaB, and gives a
summary of the most recent additions to that knowledge. He lays
especial stress on the existence of “ biological species ” or “ species
sorores ,” groups in which the aecidioforms are scarcely distinguishable,
while the uredoforms and teleutoforms present appreciable differences.
Of these groups of biological species the following may be regarded as
established. Peridermium Pini f. acicola comprises at least 9 or 10
morphologically indistinguishable or scarcely distinguishable species
belonging to the genus Coleosporium , recognised only by cultivation on
the teleutospore hosts. Cseoma Lands consists, in the same way, of 4
or 5 species whose teleutoforms are species of Melampsora parasitic on
poplars, birches, and willows. On Phalaris arundinacea are a series of
puccinioforms of the type of P. sessilis, distinguished from one another
according as the secidioforms are parasitic on species of Arum , Leucojum,
Allium , Orchis , or Convallaria. Several series of biologically different
forms occur among the Uredineae of cereal crops and other grasses. The
same is the case with the rusts of Car ex.

Germination of jEcidiospores.§ — Dr. P. Nypels calls attention to the
fact that some Uredinese belonging to the genus Endophyllum produce
aecidiospores which germinate in an unusual manner, similar to that of
teleutospores. This occurs abnormally in E. Sempervivi, much more
commonly in AEcidium leucospermum parasitic on Anemone nemorosa.
Some of the aecidiospores of this species germinate in the ordinary way ;
others form secondary spores at the apex of the germinating filament ;
these appear to pass through a period of rest before germinating.

Parasitic Fungi. — M. L. Mangin |) has established the truly parasitic
nature of Septoria graminum, which attacks the leaves of wheat.

* Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, 1897, p. 182. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1888) p. 76.

f Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1363-5. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 219.

X Bot. Ztg., lvi. (1898) 2te Abt., pp. 145-58.

§ Ann. Soc. Beige Microscopic, xxii. (1898) pp. 101-11 (5 figs.). Ann. de Micro-
graphie, x. (1898) pp. 214-19 (1 fig.).

|| Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1438-40.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

569

A detailed description is published * * * § of the injury caused in various
Leguminosse —Trifolium pratense, T. incarnatum , Medicago lupulina , and
others — by the attacks of the clover-fungus, Sclerotinin Trifoliorum. The
injury is chiefly produced by sclerotes in the leaf or stem which
frequently fall to the ground ; but there is also a saprophytic conidial
or Botrytis form in which infection may be conveyed to other host-
plants.

M. F. Debray f distinguishes between the anthracnose maculee and the
anthracnose ponctuee of the vine. The former is due to the attacks of
Sphaceloma ampelinum , the latter to those of Pseudocommis Vitis, the
latter distinguished by its cancer-like appearance.

Herr H. Klebalm j gives the results of a series of experiments on the
cultivation of the species of Puccinia parasitic on species of Carex, the
tecidioforms of which are found on species of Bibes.

M. M. Molliard § describes the proliferation of the flowers of Bromus
erectus caused by Ustilago bromivora ; the action of U. longissima on the
structure of the vascular bundles of Glyceria aquatica ; and the
anatomical modifications produced in a species of Symplocos by
Exobasidium Symploci.

Prof. B. D. Halsted || describes the mildew of the lime-bean due to
the attacks of Phytophthora Phaseoli. On plants of asparagus he finds
disease! tufts similar to the witch-broom of cedar and cherry trees,
apparently caused indirectly by the asparagus rust, Puccinia Asparagi.
Black specks on the leaves of roses were the result of Pilobolus crystallinus
derived from the manure by which the bed was covered.

Although almost uniformly free from the attacks of any similar para-
site in Europe, the lilac is, in N. America, infested by a species of
Erysipheae, generally described as Microsphsera Friesii. Herr P. Magnus^
has studied this fungus, and has found it very nearly allied to or
identical with M. Alni and M. Betulse. It has probably infected the
lilac in America from Ilex decidua , Betula lutea, or Corylus americana.
The only allied species known on the lilac in Europe is Microsphsera
Ehrenbergii, which has probably reached it from Lonicera tatarica.

Parasites of the Vine.** — Mr. D. M‘ Alpine and Mr. G. H. Robinson
give a detailed account of the Fungi which attack the vine in Australia.
A complete list comprises 48 species — 28 parasites and 15 saprophytes.
Of these 24 (15 parasites, 9 saprophytes) have not been previously noted,
and their structure and life-history are described in detail. The disease
known as brunissure is ascribed to climatal conditions, not to the attacks
of Plasmodiophora Vitis.

Fungus Parasitic on Zygnema.j't — M. E. de Wildeman describes a
fungus endophytic in Zygnema cruciatum, causing great enlargement of

* Joum Board of Agriculture, v. (1898) pp. 39-50 (2 figs.).

f Bull. Agric. Algerie et Tunisie. See Bull. Soc. Bot. France, xlv. (1898) p. 92.

t Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrank., viii. (1898) pp. 11-30. See Hedwigia, xxxvii.
(1898) p. 115.

§ Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), x. (1898) pp. 87-93, 96-101 (1 pi. and 4 figs.).

11 Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxv. (1898) pp. 161-2 (1 fig.), 232-4 (1 fig.).

TT Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 64-70 (1 pi.).

** ‘Additions to the Fungi of the Vine in Australia,’ Melbourne, 54 pp. and
10 pis. ft Bull. Soc. Beige Microscopie, xxii. (1898) pp. 113-24 (1 pi.).

570

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

tlic cells which it attacks. It consists of a single cell surrounded by a
membrane. Its systematic position was not determined.

Stromatopogon, a Hew Genus of Lichens.* * * § — From the Sandwich
Islands, Herr A. Zalilbruckner finds a lichen which he makes the type
of a new genus, with the name Stromatopogon Baldwini g. et sp. n.,
growing on the trunks of trees. It resembles TJsnea, but belongs to the
Coniocarpei with a strongly developed thallode, but greatly reduced
fructification. The author regards the genus as the representative of a
new type of the Sphaerophorei.

Reticulations of Ramalina reticulata.f — Mr. G. J. Peirce has
investigated the cause of the perforations which produce the netted
appearance in all thalli, whether old or young, in this lichen, probably
the largest known in size. They are not produced simply by the un-
equal expansion in three directions, although this is the main factor in
the older parts ; it is also the curving and consequent straining longi-
tudinally of the softest and least coherent portions of the thallus, near
the tip, by the folding over of the apex, and the concentration, owing
to the narrowness and circinate curving of the apex, of the greatest
transverse strain in that zone where the longitudinal strain is also
greatest. The ordinary mode of propagation of the lichen is a vegeta-
tive one, the rain softening the thallus, and causing the detachment
of large pieces which are carried to a great distance by the wind.

Hew Text-book of Lichenology.J— Dr. A. Schneider’s new Text-
book of Lichenology is intended primarily for the use of students in
colleges and universities. It is divided into two parts, the first treating
of the history, general morphology, and physiology of lichens ; the
second, of their classification and special morphology. The phenomena
of symbiosis are classified under antagonistic symbiosis (parasitism),
nutricism, and mutualistic symbiosis. Five families of Fungi are given
as probable ancestral groups of fungal symbionts ; and nine genera of
algae are named, which are known to enter into symbiotic relationship
to form lichens. The structure of the thallus and apothece is adequately
described.

The author proposes a system of classification of lichens, founded
on their fungal ancestry, the primary division being into the three
orders, Ascolichens, Basidiolichens, and Gasterolicliens, based on the
method of spore formation of the fungal element. As generic characters,
those of the spore are given as of primary importance, then the develop-
ment of the thallus, the apothece, the exciple, the colour of the apothecial
disk, and the colour of the thallus. A number of genera are based
upon algal differences. Seventy-seven genera of Lichens are recognised.

Cytological Researches on the Yeast-Cell.§ — The results of a care-
ful examination into the cytological characters of the yeast-cell by Prof.
F. A. Janssens and M. A. Leblanc are summed up as follows. In the
quiescent condition every yeast-cell contains a nucleus, which is made up

* Arm. k. k. Naturh. Hofmuseums, xii. pp. 99-102 (2 pis.). See Hedwigia

xxxvii. (1898) Eep., p. 72. f Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) pp. 404-16 (8 figs.).

X Schneider, A., ‘ A Text-book of General Lichenology,’ Binghampton, N.Y.,
230 pp. and 6 pis. See Bot. Gazette, xxv. (1898) p. 284.

§ La Cellule, xiv. (1898) pp. 203-41 (2 pis. and 67 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

571

of a membrane, a caryoplasm, and a nuclcolo. In the early stage of
fermentation the nucleus becomes vacuolated, and shortly afterwards the
protoplasm follows suit. When fixed at this stage, the nucleus is found
to have returned to its original condition, while the protoplasm has
acquired a characteristic and typical reticular appearance.

Substances of nucleo-albuminous nature may be deposited in the
protoplasmic portion, and may be so abundant as to form definite aggre-
gates (granules). These granules always disappear before spore-forma-
tion takes place. Yacuolisation of nucleus and cytoplasm may occur a
second time in old cells.

During budding of S. Ludivigii and Schizosaccharomyces octosporus,
there is indirect division of the nucleus. In S. cerevisise and some
others the division is direct. In the latter case, one of the nucleoles
passes into the bud.

In cells about to spore two nuclei are observable. These two bodies
fuse together, and the resulting single nucleus contains about twice as
much nuclein as the ordinary nucleus. Thus a fecundated ovum is
produced. At the same time the granules disappear and the proto-
plasm becomes profoundly altered. The new nucleus divides by a kind
of very modified kinesis, though some of the stages are observable. In
the second division similar, though still more modified, appearances are
evident.

During the maturation of the spores the nucleoles become invested
with a membrane, and thus the nuclei are re-formed. During germina-
tion, owing to the swelling of the spore, the nucleus becomes more
evident. When the spore of Saccharomyces Ludivigii germinates, the
nucleus passes into the promycele of Hansen. Sometimes the twro nuclei
destined for fecundation do not fuse, and in this way false spores are
produced which are sterile.

Vitality of Alcoholic Ferments.* — Herr E. C. Hansen made a number
of experiments and observations as to the vitality of alcoholic ferments
kept in nutritive media and in the dry condition. The principal result
of these investigations, which have been carried on for years, is that the
greater number of the Saccharomycetes retain their vitality indefinitely
in a 10 per cent, solution of saccharose, provided there be access of air'
Much the same may be said for ferments resembling Saccharomyces and
Mucor.

Those which died were Saccharomyces Ludivigii , Carlsberg yeast
number 2, the asporogenous variety of the latter, and Schizosaccharo-
myces.

In beer-wort, some of the yeasts were still alive after 10, 11, and 12
years. In water, S. pastor ianus i. was alive after 11^ years, S. past or ianus
iii. after 10 years, S. ellipsoideus after 10 years.

The experiments on the dried cells were carried out on filter paper,
cotton, and platinum wire. The cells on the filter papers were dead in
less than 12 months ; of those on cotton, some were alive after 2 and 3
years, but dead in less than 3 and 4 years ; while those on the platinum
wires (dried in exsiccator) did not as a rule survive longer than a few

* Resume du Compte-rendu d. Trav, d. Lab. de Carlsberg, iv. (1898) pp. 93-121
(3 figs.).

572

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

days or weeks. In the dried condition the retention of vitality appeared
to dejiend upon spore-formation.

Winter Habitat and Dissemination of the Alcoholic Ferments.* —
Dr. A. Berlese has demonstrated that the alimentary canal of flies forms
a suitable and important conservatory for Saccharomyces ellipsoideus and
S. pastorianus during the winter. It is owing to flies that the yeast-cells
are transported from one place to another, and are deposited on ripe
fruits. The air plays little or no part in the dissemination of yeasts.
Tlie yeasts are preserved in the intestines of the pupa of certain diptera,
and proceed to multiply in the perfect insect. Yeasts may be preserved
in the faeces of animals and in putrefying flesh for considerable periods,
and it is possible that they may be transported therefrom by flies.

Action of Oxygen on Beer Yeast, f — M. J. Effront has found that
if beer yeast be finely fragmented and exposed to the air, there takes
place an absorption of oxygen which is accompanied by considerable
elevation of the temperature. The author considers this oxidation of the
yeast to be due to the presence in the cells of an oxidising enzyme.

Saccharomyces guttulatns B,oh4 — Drs. L. Buscalioni and 0. Casa-
grandi, in some recent observations, state that S. guttulatus is a Saccharo-
jnyces which exists normally in the stomach and intestine of rabbits ;
though it develops only in the stomach of these animals, it is cultivable
on various media. Its shape on artificial media differs slightly from that
observed in the faeces. On solid media (agar) it is usually oval; on
other substrata it is much elongated, though oval cells are still formed.

It contains a nucleus which during budding and spore-formation di-
vides by fragmentation. In this way secondary nuclei are produced, and
these are frequently united by an intermediary piece which, however,
is rarely seen in the cultivated forms. The nucleus in the elongated
cells of old cultures degenerates by a process of irregular fragmentation,
or assumes various forms. In budding cells the nucleus passes to the
pole from which the bud is arising, while in the resting state it occupies
tho middle part of the elements if they be elongated ; and if the cells be
ovoid, it approaches more or less to one of the poles.

Its protoplasm contains glycogen, which is especially abundant in
the cells found in the intestines and in the large ovoid cells of cultures.
The cultural characters vary somewhat for the different media, but
are fairly constant for the same substratum. It multiplies both by buds
and spores. Spores are formed in faeces, whether dry or moist ; but the
exact conditions of their formation are at present obscure. S. guttulatus
has the power of forming alcohol from glucose and of inverting saccha-
rose. It is pathogenic to rats, rabbits, and guinea-pigs when injected
into the subcutaneous tissue or into the peritoneal sac; rabbits die in
15-30 days, guinea-pigs in 10—20 days, and rats in 10—16 days. Endo-
venous injection of rabbits kills tbe animals in 6-8 days. At the
injection sites nodules with purulent contents are formed.

Fungi intermediate between Trichophyton and Achorion.§ — M. E.
Bodin has observed in man and in animals cutaneous lesions of which

* Rivista Patologia Veg., vi. (1897) pp. 1-20, 24-44.

f Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 326-7.

I Malpighia, xii. (1898) pp.,59-75 (1 pi. and 15 figs.) Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 60.

§ Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (1898) pp. 1528-9.

ZOOLOftY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

573

tlie clinical aspect and the microscopical appearances resemble those of
Trichophyta of animal origin, while pure cultures present the morpho-
logical characters and the biological affinities of Achoria. He there-
fore concluded that there exists a group of parasites intermediate be-
tween the Trichophyta and Achoria.

This intermediate group also includes, — (1) Mucedineee, the myco-
logical characters of which are those of Achorion, while their clinical
aspect resembles that of certain Trichophyta ; and (2) parasites which
are Trichophyta morphologically and biologically, but which produce
favus lesions.

Trichophyton producing Herpes on the Horse.*— MM. Matruchot
and Dassonville describe a new Trichophyton which infested the horses
and men of an artillery regiment. The fungus was easily cultivated on
Sabouraud’s medium, on carrot and on potato. The cultures showed a
mycele 2—8 /x broad, relatively rarely septate, and frequently branched
at right angles. Oval spores, 3-4 a by 2-3 y, are formed by the side
of joints, and, besides these lateral spores, chlamydospores (3-10 /x by
2 • 8 y) are also produced. Examination of the hairs showed numerous
oval spores (4-6 y by 2—4 /x), and also mycele. The authors consider the
fungus should be classed among the Ascomycetes of the group Gymno-
ascaceee. The cultures were successfully inoculated on man and guinea-
pigs.

Pseudo-Lupus Vulgaris caused by a Blastomyces.f — Mr. T. C.
Gilchrist and Dr. W. R. Stokes record a case, the clinical aspect of
which simulated the appearance of lupus vulgaris (tuberculosis of the
skin). In sections from the cutaneous lesions, almost typical tubercles
were found, and these were associated with the presence of apparently
budding Blastomycetes. These organisms were chiefly spherical uni-
cellular bodies, varying from 10-20 /x in diameter, were inclosed in a
doubly contoured membrane with finely granular protoplnsmic contents,
and sometimes contained a vacuole. No nucleus was discovered. There
were many budding forms, but no mycele or hvphae.

Pure cultures were easily obtained on the ordinary media. These
exhibited budding forms and a fairly profuse mycele.

Dogs, guinea-pigs, a horse, and a sheep, were successfully inoculated.
In the lungs were found nodules, sometimes of considerable size, resem-
bling cancerous deposits.

Microscopically these nodules were found to be of a chronic inflam-
matory nature, and they contained the parasites.

As the organism did not ferment sugar, and produced a mycele in
cultures, it may belong to the Blastomycetes or to the Oidia : but in
conformity with the present nomenclature the authors have designated
it Blastomyces dermatitidis.

Protophyta.
a. Schizopliycese.

Culture-forms of Diatoms, t — In pure cultures of diatoms in water
containing a little straw and clover, Herr J. Burger obtained specimens

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 279-81.
f Journ. Exper. Med., iii. (1898) pp. 58-78 (5 pis.),
t Zeitechr. f. angew. Mikroscopie, iv. (1898) pp. 61-2.

574

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of Gomphonema acuminatum without a stalk, and associated in a spiral
resembling Meridian circulars \ the protoplasm yellow-brown. A small
species of Synedra multiplied within an oval transparent envelope, in
which the frustules lay side by side.

Changes of Form of Seeletonema costatum.* — Herr G. Karsten has
studied the movements of this diatom, belonging to the Coscinodisceae, a
plankton-alga associated in chains, and concludes that the multiplication
and development are regulatad by internal forces dependent on external
conditions. The propagation takes place only half as rapidly in flowing
as in standing water.

Nostoc punctiforme. — Following out his observations on the de-
velopment of this organism, M. R, Bouilhac j’ has established that it is a
plant which can develop in absolute darkness if it be supplied with an
organic substance such as glucose. It can develop both like a green
plant by decomposing carbon dioxide, and as a non-clilorophyllous plant
by assimilating an organic substance.

In another paper MM. A. Etard and R. Bouilhac J state that this
organism preserves, in the dark, the power of forming chlorophyll.

/3. Schizomycetes.

Bacterial Diseases of Plants. — Prof. J. C. Arthur § summarises the re-
ports in the Bulletins of the various experimental stations in the United
States, respecting diseases of cultivated crops and fruit-trees due to
the attacks of Schizomycetes. A new bacterial disease of sweet-corn is
described, attacking the plant chiefly at the time of flowering, clogging
the fibrovascular bundles of the stem. The olive-knot or tuberculosis
of the olive is ascribed to the attacks of Bacillus Olese.

Sig. F. Cavara || describes the following bacterial diseases of the
grape-vine : — Tuberculosis, produced by Bacillus Ampelopsorse ; necrosis,
by B. cubonianus ; also necrosis of the mulberry, due to two different
Schizomycetes, one of them resembling B vitivorus and identical with
B. cubonianus , the other a new chromogenous species, B. Mori carneus ;
tuberculosis of the peach, caused by an undescribed species, Clostridium
Persicse tuberculosis sp. n.

According to Prof. B. D. Halsted,!" bacteriosis of the “bush-bean”
is due to the attacks of Bacillus Phaseoli.

Herr W. Schostakowitsch ** describes the remarkable changes pro-
duced in Mucor proliferus by a bacterium, rendering the species almost
unrecognisable.

Pathogenic Streptotlirix in Sputum. tt — Herr Rullmann found a
pathogenic streptothrix in sputum, supposed to be derived from a lesion
near the root of the lung. The fungus stained easily, and was not

* Wissensch. Meeresunters., iii., Heft 2, Kiel, 1898. See Bot. Ztg., lvi. (1S98)
2te Abt., p. 203.

t Comptes Rendus, cxxvi. (1898) pp. 1583-6. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 225.

j Op. cit., cxxvii. (1898) pp. 119—21. § Bot. Gazette, xxxv. (1898) pp. 461-3.

|| Le staz. sperim. agrar. Ital., xxx. (1897) pp. 482-509. See Hedwigia, xxxvii.
(1898) Rep., p. 100. 1 Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxv. (1898) pp. 329-31 (1 fig.).

** Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 91-7 (1 pi.).

ft Munch. Med. Woehenschr., July 19, 1898. See Brit. Med. Journ., 1898, ii.
Epil. 180.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 575

decolorised by Gram’s method. The sputum contained hard masses
composed of a pure culture of the fungus in which branching was rare.
On some media it grew in spindles and in rods with clubbed ends
resembling the diphtheria bacillus. On Loeffler’s serum and on egg
albumen it produced threads. General infection followed on injection
of cultures into animals. Sometimes it excited suppuration of the lym-
phatic glands.

Beetroot Jaundice.* * * §' — During the past few years the beet cultivated
in the Pas-de-Calais and near Paris has been attacked by a disease called,
from the yellow aspect of the leaves, beetroot jaundice. The malady
not only turns the leaves yellow, but causes them to wither. The plant
stops growing, and the amount of sugar may be diminished by at least
50 per cent. When examined microscopically, the cells in the diseased
parts are found to contain numerous short stumpy bacilli which whirl
about rapidly in the cell fluid. Pure cultivations of the bacterium, when
inoculated on healthy plants, reproduce the disease.

Biochemical Production of Sorbose.f — According to M. G. Bertrand,
sorbose, the formula for which is C6H120G, does not exist as such in the
juice of sorbus trees ( S . aucuparia, S. latifolia, S. intermedia ), but is
developed therein by oxidation of the sorbite through the agency of a
bacterium very closely resembling, if not identical with, B. xylinum of
Brown.

When a pure culture of this bacterium is inoculated on a medium
containing sorbite, the latter is converted into sorbose, the yield not un-
frequently amounting to 80 per cent. The bacterium is a motionless
rodlet 2-3 p long and about 0 • 5 p thick. The rodlets, which are easily
stained, are united together by a.gelatinous substance. Like Mycoderma
aceti it is an oxidising organism capable of living in an acid medium.

The sorbose bacterium is imported by a little red fly, Drosophila
cellaris.

Branched Borm of the Tubercle Bacillus.J — Dr. C. F. Craig de-
scribes and depicts specimens of the branched form of the tubercle
bacillus. The specimens were obtained directly from the sputum, and
stained in the ordinary way. The illustrations clearly show typical
branching and its early or budding stage.

Bacillus graminearum.§ — In some parts of southern Italy certain
reeds ( Arundo donax, Phragmites vulgaris , and Galamagrostis epigejos)
become mouldy and dry after having been cut and stacked. Handling of
these reeds gives rise to irritation, sometimes severe, of the skin and
mucous membranes. The lymphatic glands may be enlarged, and the
temperature rise to 100-104° F. In the dry and mouldy reeds is found
a copious whitish pink fine powder which consists of spores and filaments
of various species of Hyphomycetes and Schizomycetes, numerous spores
of Dendrochium microsorum , and colonies of a bacillus 5-6 p long and
1-2 /x broad. This bacillus is called B. graminearum.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 338-9.

t Aim. Inst. Pasteur, xii. (1898) pp. 385-99 (2 figs.). Cf. also Comptes Rendus
cxxii. (1896) pp. 900-3.

X Journ. Exper. Med., iii. (1898) pp. 363-70 (1 pi.).

§ Melfi, 1898, 20 pp. Lancet, 1898, ii. p. 486.

576

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Bofcriomycss.* — Mr. J. B. Wolstenholme states that Bollinger has
recently come to the conclusion that the causative agent of scirrhous
cord in horses is a micrococcus which has also been found on certain
cereals and grasses. These scirrhous cords are dense masses of fibrous
tissue, of a pale pink hue on incision, and are often found to he riddled
with abscesses. Microsections show fibrous tissue, granulation tissue, and
collections of cocci. The cocci are about 3 jx in diameter.

ITature of the Antagonism between Toxins and Antitoxins.f —
Prof. C. J. Martin and Dr. T. Cherry made experiments to determine
whether the action of antitoxins was direct or indirect. Both views have
been strongly supported, the latter by Calmette, Wasserman, Buchner,
Metchnikoff, and others; the former by Behring, Ehrlich, Kantliach, and
others. If the action be direct, then it is to be regarded in the light of a
chemical reaction ; if indirect, then the result is brought about through
the intervention of the cells of the body. While the supporters of the
indirect view interpreted the facts, as far as they went, correctly, yet they
had altogether left out of consideration a factor of })rime importance in
investigations of this nature ; they had failed to appreciate the value of
time. The authors, who support the direct or chemical reaction view,
point out that every chemical reaction has a certain definite velocity
coefficient, and the rapidity of action under any circumstances where the
reacting compounds are in solution, depends upon this coefficient, and
also upon the product of the active masses of the reacting bodies present.
They further point out that, by modification of the factors time, tempera-
ture, and active masses, very discrepant results may be obtained.

The authors’ experiments were conducted with the toxin of diphtheria
and one of the constituents of the poison of the Australian tiger snake
( Hoplocephalus curius). The antitoxins used were Behring’s No. 1 and
serum from the Pasteur Institute, Paris. The antivenomous serum was
obtained from the Pasteur Institute, Lille. It was first shown, by means
of the gelatin filter, that the association of toxin and antitoxin for a
certain length of time had resulted in an amalgamation, and that the mix-
ture had become after two hours a harmless fluid. The results of the ex-
periments with snake venom are given in tabular form. These are quite
in accord with the filtration experiments with diphtheria toxin and anti-
toxin, and are diametrically opposed to the results obtained by Calmette.

Microbe of Progressive Cirrhosis.^ — Prof. J. G. Adami has dis-
covered in cases of portal cirrhosis in man a microbe which, according
to the strength of the staining, presents itself as a diplococcus or as an
ovoid bacterium. In the infective cirrhosis of cattle a very similar
microbe is demonstrable ; this is a polymorphic organism appearing as
a diplococcus in liquid media and a bacillus on solid substrata. It is
pathogenic to laboratory animals. From one case of human atrophic
cirrhosis, the author was able to isolate a microbe quite similar in appear-
ance and in cultural characters to that of the diplococcus found in the
infective cirrhosis of cattle.

This microbe, from cultures obtained from spleen, kidney, lymphatic
gland, and blood, was found to be highly polymorphic ; on agar plates

* Trans. Manchester Micr. Soc., 1897 (issued July 10, 1898) pp. 23-8 (2 figs.).

f Proc. Roy. Soc., lxiii. (1898) pp. 420-32.

X Lancet, 1898, ii. pp. 396-400 (1 pi. and 6 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

577

there were long chain-like bacilli interspersed with shorter forms, as
well as the diplococcus and diplobacillus forms. The organism is ex-
tremely small, and very difficult to stain. The most successful stainings
were obtained with phenol-fuchsin and decolorising in the sun.

Astasia asterospora Meyer.* — Herr W. Migula has found, by using
Loeffler’s mordant and van Ermengem’s method, that Astasia asterospora
is covered all over with flagella. He is of opinion that the genus Astasia
should be suppressed, and the organism described as Bacillus aster osporus.

With regard to the granules which Meyer considers to be nuclei,
the author is of opinion that neither in Astasia nor in any other of the
species examined can they be held to be true nuclei.

Bacillus tartaricus.f — MM. L. Grimbert and L. Ficquct describe a
new bacillus which produces a ferment capable of splitting up tartrate.
It is 1-2 /x long, is actively mobile, stains by Gram’s method, and is
a facultative anaerobe. It quickly renders bouillon turbid, forming a
scum thereon. On gelatin plates the colonies resemble those of the coli
bacillus. The liquefaction of the gelatin is slow, and begins from the
10th to the 15th day. It does not form indol in pepton solution ; milk is
coagulated in about eight days ; starch is not dissolved ; nitrates are
converted into nitrites. The bacillus attacks glucose, lactose, maltose,
sucrose, dextrin, and mannite, and has no effect on dulcite and glycerin.
On tartrate of lime both are aerobic ; and in anaerobic cultures the
bacillus exerts a strongly disintegrating action. As nutrient medium, a
saline solution containing two per thousand pepton and kept at 36° was
used. The fermentation products were acetic acid, succinic acid, carbonic
acid, hydrogen, and alcohol

With tartrate of ammonia no gas development took place, nor was a
trace of alcohol detected, but succinic and acetic acids were both recog-
nised. The bacillus therefore decomposes tartrates with the production
of succinic, acetic, and carbonic acids, and hydrogen.

The Fatty Substance in the Tubercle Bacillus.f— Starting from
the observation of Unna that the tubercle bacillus contained a fatty
substance, Dr. Aronson made giant cultures in glycerin-bouillon, there-
by obtaining 300 grm. of tubercle bacilli. The mass of bacilli was
treated with alcohol and ether. In the culture there remained a thin
brown substance which amounted to 20-25 per cent, of the whole bacil-
lary mass. Chemical examination showed that this substance was com-
posed of 17 per cent, free fatty acid, the rest being wax. From the
latter, one of the higher alcohols was obtained. The wax was also
obtained, though in less quantity, when tubercle bacilli were grown on
mineral media. This wax stains deeply with carbol-fuchsin, and only
gives up the colour with great difficulty when treated with hydrochloric
acid alcohol. The wax lies partly between and partly in the tubercle
bacilli. That inside the bacilli is only extracted with difficulty. A
similar substance with similar staining reaction was obtained from
diphtheria bacilli.

* Flora, lxxxv. (1898) pp. 141-50 (3 figs.). Of. this Journal, ante , p. 120.

f Journ. de Pliarm. et de Chim., July 6, 1897. See Zeitsckr. f. angew. Mikr.,
iv. (1898) pp. 79-80.

t Munch. Med. Wochenschr., 1898, p. 642. See Zeitschr. f. angew. Mikr., iv.
(1898) pp. 71-2.

578 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

By treating tubercle bacilli from which the wax had been removed
with caustic soda (0*02 per cent.), under a pressure of 180, a substance
was extracted which was strongly poisonous to guinea-pigs, producing
death from marasmus.

Agglutinative Power of Tuberculous Serum produced by Che-
mical Substances.* — M. S. Arloing states that he has produced the
phenomenon of agglutination in goats’ serum by means of eucalyptol,
guaiacol, creosote, and corrosive sublimate. The animals received in-
jections of these substances for periods varying from one to two years.
The creosote, guaiacol, and eucalyptol were suspended in olive oil.

Microbes of Turned Wine.t — MM. F. Bordas, Joulin, and de
Backowski now give an account of the bacillus associated with B. rosens
vini previously described by them. The bacillus was isolated from the
sediment on a pepton-mineral medium, and afterwards on gelatinous
media; the gelatin was not liquefied. Under the Microscope the
bacillus is seen as filaments of variable length, being 8 to 12 fx long
and about 0*8 fx broad. It does not stain by Gram’s method ; it slowly
transforms nitrates into nitrites ; coagulates milk after eight days ; does
not form spores, nor produce indol. It withstands desiccation for
6 months ; is killed in a minute at 65°. When cultivated in wine, the
fluid becomes cloudy, loses colour, and at the end of about 20 days
causes a sensible diminution in the tartar and glucose, and a slight
increase of acidity.

The differences between this bacillus and B. roseus vini cultivated
under identical conditions are interesting. The former produces no
scum, developes in media containing more than 3 grm. of tartar per
litre, acts feebly on glucose and glycerin, produces succinic acid with
the former, and does not form dioxyaceton with the latter. On the
other hand, B. roseus vini always develops on the surface ; is not cultiv-
able in media containing that proportion of tartar ; acts energetically
on glucose and glycerin, forming lactic acid in the first case, and dioxy-
aceton in the second.

Agglutination of the Tubercle Bacillus. f — M. S. Arloing finds that
Koch’s bacillus may be agglutinated by the action of certain serums.
Thus the serum of goats which have been injected with tuberculin or
with tubercle bacilli produces the phenomenon in a complete and satis-
factory manner. This serum also agglutinates avian tubercle bacilli
very well.

The agglutinating power of normal blood is inversely to the power
of the species for contracting or resisting tuberculosis. Thus it is nil
for the guinea-pig and rabbit, slight for the goat, more marked in the
ox and ass, well marked in the horse. The agglutinative power was
found to develop in a comparatively short time, less than a fortnight.

This agglutinative power was applied to the diagnosis and pro-
gnosis in cases of human tuberculosis, and positive results were ob-
tained in over 90 per cent, of the cases.

Mobile Variety of the Tubercle Bacillus.! — M. S. Arloing has
obtained cultures of the tubercle bacillus which are easily emulsioned

* Comptes Rendus, exxvi. (189S) pp. 1550-2.

t Tom. cit., pp. 1443-6. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 464.

X Tom. cit., pp. 1398-1400. § Tom. cit., pp. 1319-21.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

579

by breeding on cooked potato. The success is quite subordinated to
the quality of the potato and to the constant impregnation of the nutri-
tive medium with glycerinated water. By means of the foregoing,
homogeneous cultures in glycerin-bouillon were obtained. -Any of
these cultures at any period of their growth contain mobile organisms.
Such bacilli are isolated, rarely in groups, are straight or slightly curved,
a little larger than the bacilli found in sputum, and give the charac-
teristic colour reaction. The immobility of the tubercle bacillus is
therefore not a constant characteristic of this organism.

Aerobism of the Tetanus Bacillus.* — Dr. J. Ferran supports the
view upheld by Grixoni with regard to the tetanus bacillus. Grixoni
contended that this bacillus is an essential aerobe and only occasionally
an anaerobe, that it thrives in the upper layers of the earth and is non-
virulent, and that its pathogenic properties are acquired by association
with other bacilli under conditions not accurately known.

Ferran states that by making a series of cultures of the tetanus
bacillus it may be shown that this presumed essential anaerobe is
really an aerobe. The first cultures are made in an atmosphere of
acetylen gas ; and this, in the succeeding ones, is more and more diluted
with air until the bacillus lives entirely in air, forming thick tufts on
the surface of the bouillon, and having undergone no morphological
change. Only the first cultures, however, are virulent. The author
therefore concludes that the common conception, viz. that the tetanus
bacillus is a strictly anaerobic organism, is erroneous.

Bacillus Gangrsense Pulpae.f — Prof. J. Arkovy describes a poly-
morphic organism, B. gangrsense pulpse , which he considers to be the
main cause of pulp-gangrene and of chronic alveolar abscess. The
material was first inoculated in bouillon, and then transferred to gelatin
and agar plates. On the former the organism grew as a bacillus, on the
latter at first as a bacillus, but in about ten days a coccus form appeared.
From the gelatin plate-cultures, stick subcultures in gelatin and agar
were made. In the gelatin a bacillus grew ; in the agar, after about ten
days a coccus appeared. When the last was transferred to gelatin plates,
the organism reverted to the bacillus form. The results were quite
similar when subcultures were made from the first agar plates.

The bacillus was found in the mouth, teeth, saliva, and in gangre-
nous tissue. It is about 4 fx long, with sharply cut-off ends. It may
occur singly, or in short chains. It has a fish-like movement, and
occasionally forms spores. It is easily stained by Gram’s method, but
not with metliylen-blue. The colonies on gelatin are at first white, then
yellow, and exhale a stinking cheese-like odour. The gelatin is liquefied
with a strong alkaline reaction. It grows well on agar, potato, and serum,
but best on tooth pulp. It is a potential anaerobe, and its optimum
temperature is 37° *5-39° *5 C. Cultures inoculated on healthy teeth
reduced the teeth to a carious condition in two months.

Growth of Bacteria on Media made from Animal Organs.}: — Dr.
L. E. Livingood finds that there are substances in all organs of animals

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiv. (1898) pp. 28-9.

f Op. cit., xxiii. (1898) pp. 917-29, 962-74 (1 pi and 12 figs.).

X Tom. cit., pp. 9S0-4, 1002-7, 1013-54.

1898 2 R

580

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

which exert an inhibitory influence on the growth of bacteria ; that there
is some slight difference in this inhibiting action in different organs ;
that there is no essential difference in the appearance of the growths on
the various media ; that the organisms grown on the media used show no
marked variation in morphology ; and that the inhibiting property is in-
variably lost on heating the extracts. It was also found that there is a
certain uniformity in the composition of organs in different animals, so
far as the nutritive value to bacteria is concerned.

The viscera used in the experiments were the liver of certain domes-
tic animals and of man, the spleen of the sheep, dog, ox, and pig, and the
adrenals of the ox, sheep, and pig. The juice of the organ was passed
through a Pasteur-Chamberland filter, and one portion of the fluid
poured into a test-tube containing an equal bulk of 2 per cent, agar
melted and cooled down to 45° C. Another portion was made up as a
bouillon-agar (1 per cent, pepton, 5 per cent. NaCl, 2 per cent, agar)
by means of heat. The control tubes contained plain bouillon agar.
The micro-organisms selected were B. coli , B. typhosus , B. anthracis ,
B. diphtherise , and B. pseudodiphtherise.

Mineral Constituents of Tubercle Bacilli.* — Drs. E. A. de
Schweinitz and M. Dorset analysed 1*453 grm. of ash obtained by in-
cinerating tubercle bacilli. The results were as follows: — Na20, 13*62
per cent.; K20, 6*35 per cent.; CaO, 12*64 per cent.; MgO, 11*55
per cent. ; carbon and silica, 0 * 57 per cent. ; P205, 55 * 23 per cent. The
high percentage of phosphoric acid and the absence of other acid radicals
are very noticeable.

New Chromogenic Bacillus, t — Herren F. W. J. Boekhout and
J. J. Ott de Vries describe a chromogenic bacillus which they designate
B. fuchsinus on account of the iridescent pigment. The bacillus wras
isolated from tap-water, and cultivated on potato. The growth, at first
reddish, had in two days a bronze shimmer. The organism was cultivated
on several kinds of nutrient media, the most suitable for the production
of pigment being a sodium-tartrate-pepton-agar. In shape B. fuchsinus
resembles B . prodigiosus ; it is from 1-1*5 p long and about half as broad.
It is easily stained.

Oxygen is necessary for the production of pigment, but the bacillus
can vegetate in the absence of this gas. The optimum temperature lies
between 22° and 25° C. The shape of the organism was found to vary
with the medium ; for while ordinarily it is a short rodlet with rounded
ends, yet, when cultivated in malt extract or malt-agar, it forms pretty
long rodlets. Other slight variations were also noticed. When cultivated
at 36° no pigment was formed, but when the temperature was lowered the
colour reappeared. It does not produce gas, and imparts to the medium
a strongly acid reaction. Besides the pigment and the acid, B. fuchsinus
secretes a peptonisiDg ferment. The pigment is soluble in alcohol,
chloroform, and carbon bisulphide, less so in ether, and with difficulty
in water.

Action of Cider on the Typhoid Bacillus.^ — Dr. E. Bod in, who has
made experiments to test the duration of the vitality of the typhoid

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiii. (1898) pp. 993-5.

t Op. cit., 2te Abt., xxiv. (1898) pp. 497-501.

X Arm. Inst. Pasteur, xii. (1898) pp. 458-84.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

581

bacillus in cider, finds that this organism is destroyed in from 2 to 18
hours after the liquid has been infected. This destruction is due to the
acidity of the cider, provided that there are at least 2 grin, of malic acid
per thousand. If the acidity be 0*8-1 per thousand, the organism may
exist in malic acid for 3 or 4 days, and more than 20 if it be neuter.
As cider usually possesses an acidity over 2 per thousand, the typhoid
bacillus cannot live therein longer than 18 hours. If, however, cider
be diluted with typhoid-infected water, this beverage may become the
means of imparting the malady if drunk during the first day.

Bacteria of Sorghum Blight.* — M. F. F. Bruyning jun. describes
two new bacteria which he has discovered in blighted sorghum.

B. ruber ovatus sp. n. is somewhat oval in shape, 0*9-1 *2 fx long by
0*7-0 *8 fx broad, sometimes in pairs or triplets. It is aerobic and does
not form spores. It is slowly decolorised by Gram’s method. There
are indications of a capsule. The optimum temperature is 20° C. On
potato the colour of the growth is bright red or vermilion. Growth
in bouillon is slow, the medium becoming somewhat opalescent and a
scanty colourless sediment being deposited. Gelatin is not liquefied, and
litmus-gelatin remains unaltered.

J\I. aurantiacus sorgbi sp. n. is round to oval in shape, with a dia-
meter of 0 • 7-0 * 9 [x. It forms chains. On potato the growth soon
assumes a bright yellow colour. Milk is coagulated in about seven days.
Bouillon soon becomes turbid. All the substrata sooner or later present
an acid reaction. On gelatin the growth is yellow, and the medium is
not liquefied. The micrococcus is aerobic, but has some tendency to
potential anaerobiosis.

The pigment, which is easily obtained from the diseased plant, is
extremely soluble in strong alcohol. When dried it is of a dark brown
hue, and is found to possess powerful staining qualities. Silk and wool
are easily “fast” dyed by dilute spirituous solutions. The author
dilates freely on the numerous properties of this pigment, and discusses
the differences between it and other bacterial pigments.

The pigment of M. aurantiacus sorghi is soluble in weak spirit.

Sporicidal Action of Normal Rabbit Serum. t — From an experi-
mental study on immunity carried out through the agency of B. subtilis
and rabbits, Dr. Podbelsky concludes that the spores of B. subtilis are
killed by normal rabbit serum in vitro. This sporicidal property ap-
pears to be imparted from substances derived from leucocytes. Neither
oedema-fluid nor aqueous humour prevents the development of spores
nor kills the bacilli. The action of serum rich in leucocytes approaches
that of blood-serum. Substances in the blood plasma which are capable
of traversing reed-membranes do not prevent the development of spores,
and do not kill the bacilli in the body of the living rabbit. Spores of
B. subtilis introduced into any part of the rabbit are incorporated by
leucocytes, and their development is arrested. By careful selection a race
was obtained, the spores of which were able to develop in normal serum,
and also when injected into the body. The bacilli arising from these
spores were, however, incorporated and digested by the leucocytes.

* Archiv. Ne'erland. Sci. Exact, et Nat., ser. ii., i. (1898) pp. 297-330 (2 pis ).

f Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xii. (189S) pp. 427-46.

2 r 2

582

SUMMARY OF CtJRRENT RE3EA.RC3E3 RELA.TI5fci TO

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

(1)] Stands.

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Micioscopical Optics

and Manipulation; (6) Miscellaneous.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

583

Sticker’s Travelling Microscope.* — Under this name Dr. George
Sticker describes a new form of portable Microscope made [by the firm
of Leitz to his design.

The general arrangement will be easily understood from the two
figures (figs. 96 and 97). When packed in its leather case it does not
exceed 15 x 5J x 6 cm. The lid of the case serves as a stand, and a
metal rod carries the object-table, mirror, diaphragm, &c. The coarse
adjustment is attained by sliding the tube, and the fine by a screw be-
tween the tube and the objective. The case contains places for an ocular

Fig. 97.

and two objectives. Only the optical upper part of each objective is
packed, and one lower part. The traveller selects the system to suit
his purpose. Finer objectives secured in their metal cases can be also
packed.

The weight of a waterproof pocket carrying the leather case, and a
second case for immersion oil, stain solutions, slides, and cover-glasses,
is only 920 grm. (2 lbs/), which weight also includes a leather strap
for slinging the whole on one’s shoulder like a field-glass.

Berger’s New Microscope. f — The novelty in this instrument is en-
tirely confined to the overstage, and is intended to meet the constructional
difficulties involved in adapting the adjustments (especially the fine) to
Microscopes used for high-power photomicrography. Usually the strain
on the fine adjustment caused by the extreme length (and consequent
weight) of tube is a decided disadvantage. Herr Berger arranges so
that both his coarse and fine adjustments are independent of the draw-
out. The Microscope is also suitable for ordinary use.

Fig. 98 gives a general view, fig. 99 a vertical section, and fig. 100
a ground plan.

The oval-shaped piece B is arranged as a handle, which affords a
strong brace between the fine adjustment path Y (fig. 100) of the micro-
meter work and the special hollow-cast standard H (fig. 99). The fine
adjustment differs widely from the general form, and is fitted by means

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xiv. pp. 433-6 (2 figs.),
t Zeitschr. f. Instrumentcnk., pp. 1 29-33’ (3 figs.).

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

584

of a very strong dove-tail shaped slide F, so hollowed out in its up pel-
part that it affords tho requisite room for the spiral spring W. I he

Fig. OS.

under part of F is pierced, and conceals the very long nut for the micro-
meter-screw M. Contact ensues between the hard-tempered extremity

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

585

of tlie micrometer-screw and another also hard-tempered anvil-shaped
steel piece which is screwed into the lid D.2, closing dust-tight the under

Fig. 93. ;

586

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

opening in the standard H. On the fine adjustment slide F rests, very
solidly screwed, the gear P for the coarse movement. The aluminium
tube T (fig. 90), in order to avoid undue wear and tear of the mechanism,

Fig. 101.

is connected in the usual way with the tooth-rack by means of a copper
companion piece Z (fig. 100). The coarse adjustment follows the usual
models. The micrometer-screw is thus seen to be packed away in the

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

587

hollow stand for protection’s sake. It is completely skeltered from
direct hand-touch. It is turned by means of an endless screw E (figs
09 and 100) which gears into the toothed wheel S, working on the flange
of the screw, and carries the usual micrometer knob. By means of this
arrangement two conditions are satisfied : the fine adjustment is slowed
in the most desirable way without the necessity of requiring from the
micrometer-screw too fine a motion, and the position of the endless
screw, so firm and safe in the handle-like stand, renders even rough
mechanical operations entirely without effect on the fine adjustment.

In order to avoid injury to the micrometer-screw when the slide F is
at its extreme highest or lowest position, a special protection arrange-
ment, limiting the play of the endless screw, is contrived for the fine
adjustment. As is seen from fig. 100, the endless screw E engages
another toothed wheel S2 which is a nut working on a vertical screw.
This nut S2 comes into contact with the upper or lower surface of the
chamber containing it before the fine adjustment slide F reaches the
end of its travel, thus preventing strain on that part of the mechanism.

Messter’s Bacteria Microscope.* — The makers of this instrument
claim that its specially advantageous construction almost entirely removes
troubles arising from loss of time (1) in changes of eye-pieces and
objectives ; (2) in tedious coarse adjustment for various powers ; (3) in
laborious picking out of very minute objects with strong magnifications.
Investigations can therefore be made, even by a tyro, more quickly,
accurately, and conveniently, with this instrument than with any other.
It is specially recommended to physicians for diagnosis of urine and
sputum. The figure (101) shows clearly the arrangement of the eye-
pieces and objectives with their revolvers ; and the fitting of these is so
perfect that the image is always adjusted for every nine magnifications.
[Thus apparently no coarse adjustment is required. — Ed.] An improved
central micromillimetre-screw secures the fine adjustment ; and a lever
under the micrometer-screw effects a raising or lowering of the tube
without change of adjustment, which is very convenient in the applica-
tion of thick-ringed slides, or in the rotation of the objective revolver.

Messter's Compressorium Microscope. f — This is specially designed
for the easy and certain discovery of trichin ee and other objects.

By pressing down the lever G (fig. 102), the pressure of the com-
pressorium II on the glass plates and J2 is released, and the table-
screw L is diawn back to its fullest extent. This screw withdraws the
runners on which rest the glass plates, and these last receive between
them the slice of meat to be examined. When the object is ready the
compressorium is again brought into play, and inspection is made by
transmitted light with the weak objective. The outside corner of the
field is at first under the Microscope ; then, by rotation of the mother-
screw K, the front line of numbered squares are brought one by one
into viewT ; L is now turned until the first of the next row is in sight,
and, by reversing the mother-screw, the whole of the squares in the
second line are inspected ; thus in time the whole of the field is examined.
When once found the revolver brings the high power into use. As the

* Messter’s Catalogue, p. 12.

t Cat. cit., p 21.

588

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

objectives are accurately fitted on the revolver, adjustment is obtained
by the micrometer-screw.

Fig. 102.

c

Messter’s Preparation Microscope.* — In this class of simple Micro-
scope, which seems intended for dissection or preliminary selection, the
image of the object always presents itself in its natural relations. Hence

* Messter’s Catalogue, p. 37, No. 16.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC,

589

difficulties arising from image-reversal are avoided. The lid of the bos
is constructed with flaps which, when folded back, form supports for the
hands of the operator. The front lets down, and thus light is admitted
to the mirror. Lenses of 20, 30, and 50 linear magnification are supplied.

Fig. 103.

The stand is fitted with a micrometer-screw, and the general arrange-
ment will be readily understood from fig. 103.

A large size model of this instrument is also made with magnification
up to 100 linear, with tooth-and-rack adjustment, and with plane and
concave mirror.

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

New Apparatus for Application of Electric Currents to Living
Microscopic Objects.* — Dr. Alfred Schaper describes the apparatus
constructed to his designs by the firm of Zimmermann, Leipsic. His
especial object was to secure that the object-holder should be free from
polarising currents. He uses a piece of plate glass 12 by 7 cm., per-
forated at the centre with a circular hole 20 mm. in diameter. Along
each of the narrow sides is cemented a strong nickelled metal plate
6 by 3 cm., furnished with binding screws as shown in fig. 104. This
plate, which he calls the conductor, is placed on the object-stage so that
the hole is immediately over the Abbe condenser.

The object-holder varies according to the kind of experiment and
the nature and size of the object ; but its general construction is such as
to ensure communication of the current from the pole-plates. For
this purpose both ends of the object-holder are mounted with a clamp-
like metal piece which surrounds the edges of the holder and firmly
unites its broad lower plane to its narrow upper one (figs. 105, 106, m).

* Zeitschr. f wiss. Mikr., xiv. (1898) pp. 436-41 (5 figs.).

500

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

When arranged as shown in fig. 107, on the conductor plate, the binding
screws of the first lie exactly on a pole-plate, and are by means of the
metallic contact themselves electrified. The dimensions are so chosen
that the pole-plate can be moved as much as 2 cm. without losing contact.
In this way the electrified and yet independent object-holder can be
moved sufficiently without hindrance, so that Microscope examination
can be effectively carried out.

On the upper side of the object-holder arrangements are made for the
reception of the electrodes.

Fig. 105 shows a form adapted for the smallest organisms and
strongest objectives ; fig. 106, one for larger objects such as snails’ eggs.

The former of these consists of an object-holder, as described above,
with a shallow circular sinking, some 15 mm. in diameter, communicating
on each side with a groove 2 mm. wide, in which lie the platinum thread
poles of the electrodes. When this sinking and grooves are filled with

Fig. 101. Fig. 105.

water, and a cover-glass applied, the platinum poles can be placed at
any desired distance, and can even be pushed under the cover-glass.
This form of pole gives an ellipsoidal electric field ; platinum foil poles
give a parallel electric field.

The second object-holder is shown in fig. 106, and is of the same size
as the former, but bears in addition a glass rectangular trough 11 mm.
high. Its sides have an insertion 3 mm. deep, through which the copper
wire electrodes project into the interior of the trough. The poles consist
of small platinum shanks, and the adjoining jiarts of the wires are coated
with an insulating varnish. Two glass slips 4 mm. high and 6 mm.
apart are cemented on to the floor of the trough parallel to the electrodes,
so as to fix the object better in the current. The trough contains a
relatively large amount of water, which is very desirable for the larger
organisms. A glass cover can be adapted to the trough.

The above electrodes are naturally polarisable, but they answer well

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

591

for even a series of experiments if long exposure is not required or
more than weak currents.

For long continuing investigations, especially when absolute exact-
ness is desired, Flfisclrl’s brush electrodes may be advantageously used.
A narrow glass tube 4 or 5 cm. long is cemented at its lower end with
plastic clay, through which
passes a fine short brush (fig.

108, a and b) and the tube is
three parts full of zinc sul-
phate solution. The upper
end is closed with a cork,
through which passes a strong
zinc wire, so that its lower
end dips 1 cm. into the solu-
tion. The part of the wire
within the tube must be amal-
gamated. The other end of
the wire is bent and connected
with the binding screw. The
whole arrangement must be so
adjusted as to lie exactly central with the groove previously strewn with
kaolin, and the kaolin is also slightly sprinkled into the central hollow
of the object-holder. The brush point thus lies on the kaolin mass
which now forms the unpolarisable poles. When used with the trough,
the brush is fitted to the insertions in the side walls.

(4) Photomicrography.

Photomicrography.* — Mr. Edmund J. Spitta furnishes a series of
papers on this subject, which he treats under three heads (1) Low-
power work ; (2) Medium-power work ; (3) High-power work.

(1) Low-power worlc. — After pointing out that in this branch the
Microscope is not used, he gives a useful series of practical directions.
In discussing the choice of a lens he recommends one of short focal
length. Where the object is large and the magnification required small,
a diminutive portrait lens of about 3 in. focus, built on the Petzval prin-
ciple and placed with its shorter conjugate focus towards the object, has
given good results ; but if the magnification exceeds 1 J to 2 diameters, it
is difficult for the operator to reach the milled head. However, Messrs.
Dallmeyer have specially constructed a small rectilinear lens of about
If in. focus, which, with magnifications over 1J to 2 diameters, has given
really admirable results ; its only fault is that it is not constructed to
work equally well with red, green, and violet rays. Mr. Spitta has
found the finest type of lens to be the planar recently introduced by
Zeiss, and constructed from calculations by Dr. Rudolph for the especial
purpose of photomicrography. It works equally well on all colours of
the spectrum, gives exquisite definition up to the margin of the plate,
and is manufactured in several focal lengths. Its expensiveness is a
matter for regret. An auxiliary front to the camera, attached where the
lens usually fits, gives an increased extension of 6 or 8 in., and still

* Pharm. Journal for 1898, pp. 326-9, 432-3, 474-5, 566-8, 587-9 (16 figs.).

Fig. 108.

592

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

allows focussing if the short-focus “ planar ” or Dallmeyer lens be
used.

Among other details are some special directions for the microphoto-
graphy of culture tubes.

The formula F = ^ ^ ^ is found to be sufficiently accurate for

practical work (F = focal length of lens required, M = magnification,
and L = camera-length). ' Thus, if it be required to produce a magni-
fication of four diameters with a camera - length of 10 in., then

F = — jp- = 2 in. In the same way, if any two of the three quan-
tities F, L, M be known the third can be calculated.

(2 and 3) Medium and High-power Work. — In these sections the
various difficulties to be encountered are fully described. The author’s
favourite Microscope is the Zeiss model I A, although apparently it
is so badly balanced that it has to be clamped to the table to prevent it
tumbling over.

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Microscopic Images and Vision.* — Mr. Lewis Wright, from the
point of view of the microscopist, continues the investigation of this
subject on the lines commenced by Lord Rayleigh and Dr. Stoney.f
His object is to show that the “ spectrum ” (i.e. the ordinary Abbe)
theory is only true in a conditional and limited sense, while its accept-
ance in a universal sense is a present cause of positive mischief in
microscopy. He begins by discussing some fundamental physical
objections to Dr. Stoney’s seven propositions, which propositions may
be summarised thus : — (A) “ All light emitted by an object may be
resolved into undulations consisting of uniform plane waves.” (B) “We
may conceive these reversed in direction (since any dynamical system
may be reversed) ; and when they thus arrive back at the position
occupied by the original object, they will then produce an image the
most perfect that the light emitted is caj>able of producing.” Hence in
general, “plane waves converging inwards” are capable of producing the
most perfect attainable image producible from the rays grasped by the
objective. Mr. Wright objects that uniform plane weaves are not in
trustworthy microscopy the actual dynamical system, and therefore
cannot, as he afterwards shows they do not, produce the supposed most
perfect attainable image by reversal. More specifically, it seems evident
that we are debarred from considering the light from a microscopic object
as consisting of uniform plane waves, except on the condition of plane-wave
illumination of the object. (Here, indeed, we have the secret of Abbe’s
consistent enforcement of illumination by a small luminous cone or
pencil, which gives approximately such illumination.) To get the
normal wave-surface approximately plane, the beams of rays must be
got approximately parallel, which is attained in physical optics by
removing the source of light, itself relatively small, to a considerable
distance from the grating or other apparatus. Now, in the case of a

* Phil. Mag , June 1898, pp. 480-503 (1 fig.).

f Cf. this Journal, 1896, p. G81, and 1897, p. 71.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

593

microscopic objective of focus 1/50 in., the light would travel a path of
perhaps 1/200 in. from the object to the lens, and such light canuot be
regarded as consisting of uniform plane waves, except in the case of
plane-wave illumination of the object, as in the Abbe theory.

In discussing the supposed dynamical system, Mr. Wright admits
that a reversal of the ivliole actual system would produce such an image
as described ; but it does not seem to follow that mere “ coalescence and
interference of uniform plane waves ” involves such a result. In any
case, what the reversal of the supposed dynamical system must really re-
produce as an image at the plane of its origin, must be the postulated
operative cause of the system. That cause, by the hypothesis, is not an
actual object which alone emits luminous waves, but the object sur-
rounded by an indefinite number of identical replicas , emitting identically
similar plane waves. This does not represent any object in reality;
and that fact seems to dispose of such a presentment as a full and
complete representation of microscopic vision.

In considering how far the Abbe theory, which possesses more or less
undoubted truth, is an adequate representation of microscopic vision, the
author states his own opinion thus : — “ The trustworthiness of a microscopic
image is in proportion as the object approximates to a self-luminous con-
dition, and diminishes in proportion as it is or has to be (for it may have
to be) examined by plane- wave illumination.”

If the object be self-luminous there will be no spectra, and the rays
emitted will be quite heterogeneous ; yet an image must be possible.
Really self-luminous objects can hardly be used with objectives above an
inch, but approximations to self-luminosity can be obtained in various
ways with high powers. Thus Lord Rayleigh has shown that the wide
cone from a condenser introduces a large amount of heterogeneity into
the rays from the objects, and practically produces self-luminosity.
Dr. Stoney rather seems to regard the function of the condenser as that
of providing illumination by plane waves. Thus, according to Dr. Stoney,
the ideal is to get absolutely aplanatic systems of plane waves trans-
mitted through the objects, and all conditions short of this impair the
image ; but according to the author, irregularities of phase add to the
trustworthiness of the image, though they may impair it in some other
features. A very important practical question is therefore at stake.

The following experiment is one of those by which the author proves
his view. He takes as his stage object a grating of 3000 or 6000 lines
to an inch, illuminated by a narrow cone from the condenser, focussing
the flat of a rather distant lamp-flame. Immediately in front of this
flame he places a coarse grating of 50 to 100 lines per inch, either photo-
graphed or of wire. The several points of these luminous lines emit
light-waves, chiefly in the self-luminous manner, indiscriminate in
phases and transversals as the points of the flame itself. Arranging the
stage grating so as to cover only half the objective field, a condenser can
be selected of such a focal length, aud other matters so adjusted, that the
focal image of the coarse grating formed by the condenser corresponds,
both in intervals and focal plane, with the object-grating on the stage,
the same illuminating cone being used. R move now the coarse grating,
and place the stage grating centrally ; then, on removing the eye-piece,
and looking down the tube, the dioptric beam or its flanking spectra,

591

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

as so often described, will be seen. They interfere, and form tbe image
seen by the eye-piece in tbe Fresnel and Abbe manner. Removing the
stage-grating, and replacing the coarse one over the flame, its focal image
is now the object. Owing to the heterogeneity of the rays, this aerial
image emits no spectra — there neither arc nor can be any such. But it
is perfectly resolved. Here we have a resolution of 3000 or 6000 lines
per inch that has no place at all in the “spectrum” theory; which,
therefore, can be no complete theory of microscopic vision, though it has
an important place in it.

It is highly desirable to find out what proportion and value must be
assigned to the Abbe image in ordinary research. There arc really two
factors in the standard image, which is the outcome partly of the features
upon the object, and partly of the state of the light by which the object
is illuminated ; and Dr. Stoney himself says, “ It (the image) may be im-
proved by increasing the degree in which the first of these factors, and
by decreasing the degree in which the second, contributes to produce, to
modify, or to efface detail in the image.” With this statement the author
cordially agrees, but differs from Dr. Stoney in the estimate of the true
relative proportions of the factors. Thus the results of diatom photo-
micrography on Abbe methods are wofslly inferior.

Wherever we have a known periodic structure in transparent objects,
plane wave illumination and the consequent interference lines formed
by the beams diffracted by that structure have an extraordinary effect in
intensifying into black and white a more or less accurate representation
of the periodic detail. (Two experiments illustrating this are described.)
Thus the Abbe method has a most important function in enabling us to
see contrast in the details of a large class of objects — especially hyaline
or transparent objects — which do not present contrast or opacity suffi-
cient to be seen in any other way. The error has been in giving to
it the sole or all-important place, not recognising that there is quite
another kind of image also available, depending upon Airy’s theory ; and
that the latter — while in the case of transparent details often giving
images insufficient, or at least far inferior, in black-and-white contrast —
is free from the contour errors of the Abbe image, and must be used to
correct it so far as is possible in the individual cases. The errors of the
“ spectrum ” image are well known. Its very contrast or “ resolution ” is
a departure from truth, to which the more indistinct self-luminous image
is in reality a much nearer approach. It tends to make details, which
should be only geometrically symmetrical to a limited extent, perfectly
so. All that can be really learnt from it is that there is probably some
periodic difference of structure in the object similar in dimensional in-
tervals to “lines” shown; less probably so in regard to “ spots,” since
these are often produced by false diffraction fringes from any long line
which may cross the true ones. That the lines are lines, or that the
“pattern” is so geometrical as appears, is in the highest degree im-
probable. That the “ spectrum ” theory and method so long retained
exclusive predominance is because attention has been so concentrated
upon either gratings or diatoms of known periodicity in structure, but
which only represent to a very small extent indeed any serious kind of
investigation.

It thus appears that in Microscopy we have to deal with two charac-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

595

teristics of an image, wliich often are only to a limited extent com-
patible; that we have at command two methods of illumination, which
respectively promote more especially each of such characteristics ; and
that in most cases our problem is so to combine and balance these two
methods as to produce the best result. Fidelity of contour will be
secured in proportion as we are able to obtain our image by hetero-
geneous illumination, approximating the object to a self-luminous con-
dition. But this method may prove utterly unable to give us contrast ,
which we may therefore have to gain at the expense perhaps of infidelity
in contour. Thus an opaque object, even of much minuteness, may be
best shown by ground-glass illumination, or a very wide cone ; while
a diatom, unless in a very dense medium, or dry in air, may require
narrow pencils of approximately plane waves. Moreover, neither kind
of pencil can be obtained absolutely pure. The narrowest pencil will
only approximately consist of plane waves, and the widest cone will
not be free from them. We thus understand why, in really critical
work, a large cone from a good condenser usually gives us the best
result; but why it may be impossible, even with a perfect objective,
to use a cone of light which will fill its aperture completely. It may
be necessary to intensify the image, while using as much heterogeneous
light as we can. But this necessity depends on the nature of the
object, and does not exist in all cases.

There is a very obvious and simple, yet decisive test as to the cor-
rectness of this view. According to the Abbe theory, the amount of
cone light which can be used will depend upon the minuteness of the
structure alone. According to the author’s view, the density or contrast
of the structure is the chief factor in this question. All experience
proves that the latter is the case.

In conclusion, the author discusses the effect of these theories on
the work of the Microscope optician, and on the prospects of further
microscopical research. Devotion to the Abbe theory alone has even
led Continental microscopists to challenge the importance of spherical
aberration in objectives ; but Mr. Wright shows that the perfect correc-
tion of spherical aberration of a lens determines how far we may go
in the use of the heterogeneous cone with that lens. The well-known
fact that individual similar lenses frequently possess marked superiority,
shows a more perfectly corrected spherical aberration ; and this suggests
the direction of further improvements. It is not so much further
minuteness, but greater powers of resolution within the limits of our
present lenses, that are desiderated.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Simple Apparatus for Washing Microscopical Objects.* — Dr. G.

Cruz describes an apparatus (fig. 109), which he uses for washing tissues,
drc., intended for microscopical examination. The apparatus consists
of a glass funnel fixed to the upright of a laboratory stand. Above
this is another funnel in the reverse position. The upper funnel, also
fixed to the upright, is of less diameter than the lower one. Through
its stem passes, to near the bottom of the hopper of the lower funnel,

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr , xv. (1S9S) pp. 23-80 (1 fig.).

2 s

1898

596

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

a glass tube, the end of which is perforated in several places. The
stem of the upper funnel is connected with the water supply. The

overflow is caught in a still larger
Fig. 109. funnel, and passes away" to a sink

through the stem.

Apparatus for Fixing and Hard-
ening Small Objects.* — Mr. W. C.

Stevens recommends the following
method for carrying material through
the processes of fixing and harden-
ing. For very small objects such
as root-tips, sporanges, and young
flower-buds, it is specially useful.
Small glass buckets are made by
cutting up glass tubing 1 cm. in dia-
meter into lengths of 3 cm. By
means of heat one end of each piece

Fig. 110.

is turned out so as to form a rim or flange. Over this end a piece of
muslin is tied. The little bucket is then provided with a suspender
by means of a piece of thread fixed to the middle of the bottom (see
fig. 110). If, wdien the bucket containing the specimen is suspended in
the fixative fluid, the bucket does not sink, a weight should be attached,
or the air may be removed from the specimen by means of the air-
pump.

Thermo-regulated Water-baths for the Bacteriological Labora-
tory, f — Mr. Y. A. Moore describes two water-baths which have been
found to work very satisfactorily.

The larger bath (fig. Ill), to which a thermostat is connected, is a
rectangular copper tank 40 x 50 x 25 centimetres. It is divided into
two compartments, each of which has a separate cover and perforated
false bottom. The partition consists simply of a top cross-piece which
is about 4 cm. wide. Near its centre is a round opening 2 cm. in

* Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vii. (1898) pp. 107-10 (3 figs.),
f Journ. Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) pp. 108-9 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY,, MICROSCOPY., ETC.

597

diameter for a thermometer, which is protected by a perforated copper
tube extending to and soldered to the bottom of the tank.

Near the end of the cross-piece or close to the side of the tank there
is a second and similar opening and shield for a thermostat. There is
a faucet for drawing off the water. The tank stands upon an iron
quadruped. Each compartment is heated by a separate burner connected
by a T or Y tube to the gas tube leading from the regulator, J

The smaller bath (fig. 112) is cylindrical in form, 25 cm. high and
of about the same diameter. On one side there is a semicircular pro-
jection forming a chamber for the thermostat. This is separated from

\ Fig. 112.

the main tank by means of several narrow strips of copper soldered at
each side. The tank has a perforated false bottom. The cover has an
opening for a thermometer.

The Friedberg burner was found to work very satisfactorily with
both baths. The Roux thermostat seemed to be the best regulator ; it is
constructed of metal, is readily adjusted, and quite as sensitive as spirit
or mercury thermo-regulators.

The larger bath can be used for macerating meat at a high tempera-
ture (60°— 65°), for making culture media, for sterilising, for determining
the thermal death-points for different bacteria, and for other purposes.

j3. Technique.*

(1) Collecting* Objects, including- Culture Processes.

New Medium for Bacteriological Diagnosis.f — Sigg. Pacinotti and
Municchi have devised a coloured nutritive medium which may aid in

* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses ; (2) Preparing Objects ; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes ;
(4) Staining and Injecting ; Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous. f Zeitsckr. f. angew. Mikr., iv. (1898) pp. 106-7.

2 s 2

598

8UAIMARY CF CURRENT RE8 MARCHES RELATING TO

the diagnosis of different kinds of bacteria. The medium is made by
mixing 140 grm. of egg-albumen with 20 grm. of powdered raw coffee.
After standing for 2 or 3 days, the mixture assumes an emerald-green
hue, which afterwards becomes darker. After filtering through gauze
into test-tubes, the medium is sterilised for 2 hours a day for several con-
secutive days and allowed to set. On this medium the bacteria do not
become tinted, but the colour around the colonies becomes altered.
Colonies of Meningococcus and Pneumococcus are surrounded by an orange-
yellow zone. Thoso of St. py. aureus produce a pale yellow hue, with
slight liquefaction of the medium ; while Proteus vulgaris strongly
liquefies the medium with the formation of a red colour. The staining
of the albumen cannot be referred to the chlorophyll contained in the
coffee-berries, for this is easily soluble in alcohol, ether, and benzin, and
insoluble in water. The green coloration is the more inexplicable as
the reaction is not acid. Mineral acids turn the green albumen reddish y
but do not decolorise. C02 has no action, and 0 turns it darker. If the
cultures be killed by heating to 100°, or moistened with 1 per thousand
sublimate solution, the original colour returns.

Use of Acetylene in the Cultivation of Anaerobic Bacteria.* —

Dr. J. Ferran recommends the use of acetylene for cultures of anaerobic-
bacteria. The air in the culture vessels is driven out by means of the
gas, which is easily prepared. The apparatus for making acetylene gas
is composed of a 2-litre vessel half filled with w’ater, and closed with
a caoutchouc plug having two perforations. Through one of the holes
passes a glass rod, having at the end a hook on which is suspended a
little basket containing calcium carbide. Through the other hole passes
a glass tube, connected with a rubber tube, and this latter with the
culture vessel. The culture vessel is also closed with a doubly per-
forated stopper. Through one of the holes passes a tube for the exit
of air, while the other is connected with the rubber tube from the acety-
lene apparatus. When the connection is made the calcium carbide is
immersed in the water, and the gas at once develops. As] soon as the
air is completely driven out, the two tubes of the culture vessel are
closed, and the calcium carbide drawn up out of the water.

Culture of Diatoms. f — Herr J. Burger communicates the following
simple method for cultivating diatoms ( Gomplionema ). The material
was placed in a glass vessel containing tap-water, some straw, bran, and
moss. This vessel was covered with tissue piper, and hung up before
the window in a moderately warm room. The culture was started in
February, and in April the straw was found to be covered with dia-
toms.

(2) Preparing Objects.

Detection of Protoplasmic Threads in the Cell-wall. — Mr. W.

Gardiner gives further details of his two methods for demonstrating the
connecting threads which traverse the walls of plant cells.

(1) The Kolossow safranin method, in which the tissue is first
killed and swelled with picric acid, picrosulphuric acid, picro-acetic

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par , lte Abt., xxiv. (1898) p. 29. ;

t Zeitsclir. f. angew. Mikr., iv. (1898) p. 61.

X Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., ix. (1898) pp. 504-12. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 240.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

599

acid, or in certain cases with sulphuric acid. It is then fixed with
Kolossow’s mixture of uranium nitrate and osmic acid. Tho material
may be preserved in thymol water (0 * 5 grm. to 1 litre). The sections
are stained with a saturated aqueous solution of s ifranin or with anilin-
oil-safranin, and, after having been washed with water are treated with
a 2 per cent, solution of orange G, which dissolves the dye from the
cell-wall and leaves the protoplasm and connecting threads stained.
The threads may now be further stained by substitution, gentian-violet
and Gram’s method giving the best results. After either the dye
should be removed from the cell-wall by means of a 5 per cent, solution
of acid fuchsin. After immersion in dilute glycerin, the sections are
mounted in glycerin-jelly.

(2) Iodine-acid violet method. The tissues are killel and fixed with
iodo-potassic iodide solution, with an average strength of 0*5 per cent,
iodine and 0*75 per cent, potassic iodide. The sections are caused to
swell by immersion in sulphuric acid varying in strength according to
the tissue from 1 to 30 per cent. The sections to bo stained are first
mordanted with a solution of iodine in 5 per ceut. sulphuric acid. The
staining solution is made by mixing equal parts of two stock solutions,
the first being a 10 per cent, solution of II2S04, and the second a 0*5-
1 per cent, solution of pyoktanin or gentian-violet in water.

To this staining solution the sections are directly transferred from
iodo-potassic iodine and sulphuric acid mixture. The staining solution
is allowed to act for 10 minutes, and then the sections are removed, and
washed in water. The staining may be intensified by repeating the
process.

The sections should bo mounted in glycerin containing a small
percentage of zinc chloride and a trace of iodine.

The mounting medium is made by mixing 30 ccm. glycerin, 60 ccm.
water, and 10 ccm. of a 20 per cent, solution of zinc chloride, adding
a flake or two of iodine, and heating over a warm bath.

Preparing Agar Media.* — Dr. M. P. Ravcnel gives the two follow-
ing simple and rapid methods for preparing agar media, (i.) To make
1 litre of agar, take (A) dried pepton (l per cent.), 10 grm.; salt (0*5
per cent.), 5 grm. ; Liebig’s ext. (0*5 per cent.), 5 grm. ; water, 500 ccm.
Boil for 3 minutes, and neutralise. (B) Agar (1*2 per cent.), 12 grm. ;
water, 500 ccm. Chop the agar and put into autoclave, liun the auto-
clave up to 2 atmospheres, giving 12 LI0 heat. As soon as this pressure
is reached, turn out the flame and allow the autoclave to cool down to
below 100° before opening. The two solutions A and B are then mixed,
cooled to 60°, the whites of two eggs beaten in 50 ccm. of water added,
well stirred in, and the whole then boiled, and filtered through paper.
Time, an hour and a quarter to an hour and a half.

(ii.) To make permanently clear agar, fresh meat should be used as
follows. To make 1 litre take (A) chopped meat, 500 grm. ; water, 500
ccm. Mix, and place in a cool place over-night, then strain through towel.

( B ) Agar (1 *2 per cent.), 12 grm. ; water, 500 ccm. Put in autoclave, run
up to 2 atmospheres, put out flame, and cool down to below 100° before
opening. When the agar solution has cooled down to about 75°, mix

* Joum. Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) p. 106.

600

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

A and B together, add 10 grm. (1 per cent.) dried pepton and 5 grin.
(0 • 5 per cent.) salt, boil for 3 minutes, neutralise, and filter. The pro-
duct is an absolutely clear jelly, which never forms any precipitate.
The filtration takes 10—12 minutes through an ordinary filter-paper.
Solution B should not he added to A until cool enough to avoid coagu-
lation.

Treatment of Celloidin Sections Stained with Orcein.* — Herr H.
Jordan takes the celloidin-sections (80—96 per cent.), and by means of
tissue paper places them on the slide already smeared with albumen or
albumen-glycerin. The paper is firmly smoothed down, and on the top
of it is placed another slide. The slides, firmly held in the hand, are
then heated to coagulate the albumen. When this is effected, the whole
is immersed in 96 per cent, alcohol, and the upper slide and paper
removed. The preparation is then transferred to the solvent. The
solvents recommended are a mixture of equal parts of absolute alcohol
and ether or acetic ether. The latter may be used before or after
staining, as it does not damage the orcein.

Modification of the Weigert-Pal Method for Paraffin Sections.f —
Dr. E. E. Laslett recommends the following procedure as efficient and
trustworthy. The material, spinal cord, medulla, &c., is hardened for
about a fortnight in Muller’s fluid, and then cut into slices not more than
2 mm. thick. These are placed in Marchi’s fluid for a week, washed,
and imbedded in paraffin. The sections are fixed to the slide by the
water method, and then, after removal of the paraffin, placed in the acetic
acid-hsematoxylin over-night, preferably in a warm oven, as thereby the
staining process is materially hastened. After washing they may be
passed into a saturated solution of sodium orlithium carbonate, by which
the colour is changed to a bluish black. They are then differentiated
by the Pal method, care being taken not to over-decolorise. The
advantages of this method are, firstly, that it is a combination of the
Marchi and Weigert methods, and secondly, that the sections are much
thinner than by the celloidin method.

Method of Demonstrating the Structure of Yeast-Cells. J — In
their investigations on the yeast-cells, Prof. F. A. Janssens and M. A.
Leblanc used Moeller’s iodine fluid for fixing, and alcohol at 95° for
hardening. The iodine solution consists of distilled water 100 ccm.,
iodide of potassium 1 grm., iodine to saturation. A few drops of the
iodine solution are placed on a slide, and a loopful of yeast culture
carefully mixed with it. Some of the mixture is then carefully spread
on cover-glasses. When the fluid has evaporated, the cover-glasses are
transferred to fresh Moeller’s solution for 24 hours. Then, after having
been washed in water, they are passed successively through one-third
alcohol, alcohol at 80°, and finally at 95° for at least two days. It is
necessary to remove all traces of iodine. Several methods were used for
staining the preparations, among the best being the following : — fuchsin
4 grm., phenol 10 ccm., alcohol 40 ccm., water 200 ccm. The prepara-
tions are decolorised with weak H2SOI, and contrast-stained with
Loeffler’s methylen-blue. The method which gave the best results con-

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xv. (1898) pp. 53-5. f Lancet, 1898, ii. pp. 321-2.

% La Cellule, xiv. (1898) pp. 203-9. Cf. ante , p. 570.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

601

sisted in mordanting the preparations for four hours in ferric alum
2*5 grm., water 100 ccm., and then staining for 18 hours in ha3matoxylin
0 • 5 grm., water 100 ccm. The preparations should be decolorised to the
extent that the nucleus is quite black and the cytoplasm unstained.

Black haematoxylin was also used for staining. Preparations stained
with this fluid may be advantageously contrast-stained with crocein, or
by decolorising with orange or carmin-blue. In fact the cytoplasm may
bo completely decolorised with 0 • 1 grm. of carmin-blue dissolved in
500 ccm. of alcohol at 80°. The preparations may be mounted in
glycerin (50 per cent.) This fluid, while very suitable for examining
the objects, is very detrimental to the stains, as the yeasts are more or
less rapidly decolorised. The authors, after having examined and drawn
the preparations, mount them in dammar-colophon (resin), after having
contrast-stained them with Congo or Bordeaux red, crocein, or carmin-
blue.

The cover-glasses must not be warmed, or the yeasts will shrink to
about half their former bulk. In connection with these preparations,
the value of amylic alcohol is noted. After the preparations have been
passed through a series of alcohols up to 95°, a drop of amylic alcohol is
placed on the cover-glass. This fluid, being denser than ordinary alcohol,
forms a layer immediately beneath the latter and above the specimens,
and, though insoluble in water, is extremely effective in dehydrating the
yeasts, and also in preventing their absorption of moisture.

(3) Cutting1, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Imbedding and Staining Lichens.*— Mr. G. H. French recommends
that lichens should first be immersed in 95 per cent, alcohol for 24 hours,
and then placed in thin celloidin and thick celloidin for 24 hours
each. The specimens are imbedded in thick celloidin, which is hard-
ened in 70 per cent, alcohol for 24 hours, and then cut. Staining with
borax-carmin gives the fungus part of the lichen a pale pink hue, while
the algal cells have a greenish-red shade. In this way the host-cells
are readily distinguished from the fungus.

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Methylen-Blue for Investigating Respiration in Plants.j — Prof.
J. B. Farmer points out the usefulness of methylen-blue for demon-
strating the reducing power of living protoplasm. If germinating
seedlings of barley or peas be placed in a test-tube filled with a
0 * 0005 per cent, solution of methylen-blue which has been boiled to
expel the air, the liquid around them will in the course of a few hours
be decolorised. If some of the decolorised fluid be withdrawn with a
pipette and shaken up with air, the blue tint speedily returns. Still
more striking results were obtained by putting CJiara cells in the dark
in the methylen-blue solution.

With many plants the reaction is tardy, and with all the result is
attained more quickly if the plants have previously been starved of
oxygen. It seems probable that the oxygen obtained by reducing the

* Journ. Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) p. 135.
f Nature, lviii. (1898) pp. 185-6.

602

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

anilin dye is not directly utilised by the protoplasm, but by some
dissociation product formed during the metabolic activity of the proto-
plasm.

Testing Butter and Milk for Tubercle Bacilli.* — Dr. Petri found,
in 102 samples of butter, tubercle bacilli present in 32*3 per cent. The
tuberculoid bacillus was also frequently present, both alone and in con-
junction with the true tubercle bacillus. The test applied was to inject

5 ccm. of the butter into guinea-pigs. The animals which succumbed
w'ere carefully examined, and those which survived were killed and also
inspected. If rodlets giving the characteristic staining reaction were
found, further inoculations were made w’ith the suspected material.
While the true tubercle bacillus invariably gave rise to infection, the
tuberculoid rodlet failed to excite specific inflammatory changes, and the
inoculation wound healed up perfectly.

In 64 samples of milk, 14 per cent, contained tubercle bacilli and

6 * 3 per cent, the tuberculoid rodlet. The milk used was centrifuged,
and 3 ccm. of the cream, the buttermilk, and the sediment were injected
into the peritoneal sac of four guinea-pigs.

Black Hsematoxylin.f — Prof. F. A. J anssens recommends the follow-
ing preparation of haematoxylin for biological work. It is prepared
very much in the same way as Delafield's haematoxylin, the chief dif-
ference being that iron-alum is substituted for ammonia-alum. To a
hot saturated solution of ammonia-iron-alum (NH4)2Fe2(S04)4, are added
4 grm. of haematoxylin dissolved in absolute alcohol. The soluble
black dye which is thereby formed is allowed to stand for a while, and
then 100 ccm. of glycerin and 100 ccm. of methyl-alcohol, CH40, are
added.

Prodigiosin as Staining Reagent for Botanical Specimens.}: — Prodi-

giosin, the pigment produced by Bacillus prodigiosus, is recommended by
Herr O. Rosenberg as a useful reagent for staining cuticula, corky mem-
branes, and fatty substances. To these it imparts a deep red colour, and
though woody tissue and cell-contents are also faintly stained, they lose
the stain when washed in alcohol. The pigment is obtained by culti-
vating the microbe on potato at 25° for 3 or 4 days. The bacterial mass
is then scraped off, placed in a glass vessel, and dissolved in 95 per cent,
alcohol. The alcoholic extract when filtered is a clear brick-red fluid.
For staining sections the strength recommended is 5 ccm. of the bacterial
substance to 25-30 ccm. alcohol. Exposure to light damages the colour ;
but if preserved in black bottles protected from light, the fluid will keep
for a good time. The sections from fresh or preserved tissue are im-
mersed in the fluid for 5 to 10 minutes, and on removal it is well to pass
them through alcohol. The parts stained are cuticula and corky tissue,
though the oil-drops in the hyphae of fungi take up the pigment freely.
It is easy to double stain with prodigiosin, especially with malachite-
green or chloranilin. In the former case the woody tissue is green ; in
the latter yellow.

* Arb. aus d. kaiserl. Gesundheitsamt, xiv. (1898) p. 1. See Zeitschr. f. angew.
Mikr., iv. (1898) pp. 64-5. t La Cellule, xiv. (1898) p. 207.

X Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xv. (1898) pp. 56-60.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

603

Staining the Mucus-cells of Malvaceae.* — Herr A. Nestler used
Bohmer’s haematoxylin for demonstrating mucus, the mucus-cells being
stained blue. Alcoholic solution and Loeffler’s solution of metliylen-blue
also stained the mucus-cells blue. With Meyer’s reagent a similar result
was obtained. The sections from material taken from alcohol were
placed in 25 per cent, solution of copper sulphate, washed with dis-
tilled water, and treated with 50 per cent, caustic potash. The mucus
in Malvaceae swells up in copper-ammonium oxide and becomes pale blue.
With tincture of iodine and iodopotassic iodide there is no reaction ;
with alcoholic solution of safranin it turns orange, and with tincture of
alkanna steel-blue.

Diagnostic Stain for the Diphtheria Bacillus.f — Dr. R. T. Hewlett
communicates Neisser’s differential method for staining the diphtheria
bacillus, (i.) One grm. of methylcn-blue is dissolved in 20 ccm. of 96
per cent, alcohol and mixed with 950 ccm. of distilled water and 50 ccm.
of glacial acetic acid, (ii.) ’Two grm. of benzoin are dissolved in 1000
ccm. of boiling distilled water, and the solution filtered. Cover-glass
films from fresh serum cultures are stained in No. i. for 1-3 seconds,
rinsed in water, counter-stained in No. ii. for 3-5 seconds, washed, dried,
and mounted in balsam. Thus treated, the diphtheria bacillus shows as
a brown-stained rodlet containing dark blue granules, usually polar,
but occasionally with one at the middle of the rod.

The method is not so successful with swabbings directly from the
throat, but with fresh membrane it affords a rapid means for positive
diagnosis.

(5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Mounted Specimens— a New Departure. — Mr. C. Baker, of 244 High
Holborn, proposes during the ensuing season, should the project receive
sufficient support, starting a department for lending specimens, much
on the same lines as a lending library. Should the undertaking prove
a success, Mr. Baker has arranged for the subscription to include
postage both ways, as detailed below. The annual subscription will be
ll. Is., payable in advance. For this sum each subscriber will have the
right of borrowing some 250 specimens in 12 deliveries; that is to say,
24 slides posted monthly for the year, or the same number of slides
posted each fortnight for the winter months only. In order to save
subscribers as much trouble as possible, it is proposed to send the speci-
mens in special boxes with double wrappings, the inner one of which
will be stamped and addressed for return, so that the subscriber has
only to re-wrap the parcel and post it. Should sufficient subscribers
send in their names, steps will at once be taken to compile a catalogue
especially for this department, so that subscribers may choose as far as
possible the specimens they wish to see. This, however, would not be
possible until the undertaking were an assured success.

Those desiring to subscribe should communicate at once with
Mr. C. Baker, Optical Warehouse, 244 High Holborn, London, W.C.

* Oesterr. Bot. Zeifschr., xlviii. (1898) p. 94. Cf. this Journal, ante , p. 440.

f Brit. Med. Journ., 1898, ii. p. 599; and also Zeitsclir. f. Hvg., xxiv. (1897)
p. 443.

604

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(6) Miscellaneous.

Some Methods of Determining the Positive or Negative Character
of Mineral Plates in Converging Polarised Light with the Petro*
graphical Microscope.* — Dr. M. E. Wadsworth gives the following
instructions in the use of the petrographical Microscope as a polari-
scope.

“ Since by varying the powers, the petrographical Microscope can be
used with mineral plates of any standard thickness, the directions here
given can be used with the ordinary polariscope plates, as well as those
thinner ones prepared expressly for use with the Microscope.

I. Uniaxial Minerals. — When the mineral plate shows the common
uniaxial cross in converging light, its positive or negative character can
be ascertained by means of the gypsum plate or quartz wedge, as well
as by the ordinary mica plate.

(1) Use of the Gypsum Plate. — Examine the mineral plate, which,
in converging polarised light between crossed nicols, shows a dark cross
or part of a cross with or without coloured rings or arcs. Insert the
gypsum plate in the slot in the body of the Microscope, above the ob-
jective. The cross is then resolved into coloured hyperbolas. The
central portion is red, terminated on the ends with yellow, and bordered
on the side by blue. If the blue that borders the red lies on a line
parallel to the axis of least elasticity, the mineral is positive ; but if it
lies on opposite sides of this line, the mineral is negative. The gypsum
plate is often more satisfactory in its use than the mica plate for these
determinations.

(2) Use of the Quartz Wedge. — Insert the quartz wedge thin end
forward. When the wedge is gradually pushed in, the cross resolves
itself into coloured arcs that cross the field of view from two opposite
sides of the field, and pass out of sight on the other two sides. These
arcs follow each other in succession as the wedge is pushed in. If these
coloured arcs advance towards the centre of a line parallel to the axis of
least elasticity, the mineral is positive ; but if they march toward the
centre from opposite sides of that line, the mineral is negative.

The use of the quartz wedge is less liable to error than either of the
preceding, and besides it can be used in many cases where the others
give no results.

(a) If the uniaxial plate is cut so that it shows arcs of rings, its
positive or negative character can be determined by placing the arcs so
that a line perpendicular to them shall make an angle of 45° with the
cross-hairs. By use of the quartz wedge, coloured arcs or rings can
often be brought into the field, when otherwise none aro seen. Push
in the quartz wedge with its axis of least elasticity tangent to the arcs.
If the rings then move outwards with their convex side forward, and, in
time, a black or partially black arc appears, the mineral is positive ;
but if the arcs move with their concave sides forwards, the mineral is
negative.

As a check against any error, turn the wedge over and push it in, so
that its axis of least elasticity will bo perpendicular to the arcs. If then
the arcs move with the concave side forward, the mineral is positive;

* Journ. of Applied Microscopy, i. (1898) pp. 20-1.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

605

but if they move with tlie convex side forwards, and a black or partially
black ring or rings show, the mineral is negative.

( b ) A uniaxial plate cut parallel to the vertical axis can have its
positive or negative character shown in converging polarised light as
follows. Place the plate at an angle of 45° with the cross-hairs so as
to show the coloured arcs or imperfect hyperbolas. Push in the quartz
first with the axis of least elasticity perpendicular to the vertical or
optic axis of the plate. If on pushing along the quartz wedge a dark
hyperbola is seen to pass over the field, the mineral is positive. Again,
push in the quartz wedge with its axis of least elasticity parallel to the
vertical axis of the plate. If then a dark hyperbola is seen to traverse
the field, the mineral is negative.

II. Biaxial Minerals. — In order to render intelligible the directions
later given, there is here stated the method published in the text-books
for determining the positive or negative character of a biaxial mineral
plate.

If a line of extinction of a biaxial plate properly cut is placed parallel
to one of the cross-hairs, it shows a cross with unequal arms ; but if the
line of extinction makes an angle of 45° with that cross-hair, it shows
two dark hyperbolas, whoso vertices or eyes mark] the position of the
vertical axes. Accompanying the cross and hyperbolas are coloured
lemniscate figures. Oftentimes the hyperbolas are wanting, and only
the coloured lemniscata can be seen ; but by the insertion of the quartz
wedge, the hyperbolas can frequently be brought into the field.

(a) The positive or negative character of this biaxial plate can then
be determined by placing the plate on the stage in such a position that
a line joining the hyperbola eyes, or bisecting the lemniscata through
their longest direction, shall form an angle of 45° with the cross-hairs.
Push in the quartz wedge with its axis of least elasticity parallel to the
line joining the hyperbola eyes. If the hyperbola eyes open and move
toward the centre of the lemniscate figure, the mineral is positive.

Push in the quartz wedge with its axis of least elasticity perpen-
dicular to the line joining the hyperbola eyes. If these eyes open and
move toward the centre of the lemniscate figure, the mineral is negative.

Of course, if in either case the eyes contract and move outwards, this
is proof, when the axis of least elasticity of the quartz wedge is perpen-
dicular to the line joining the hyperbola, that the mineral plate is
positive ; but if they move outward when the axis of elasticity is parallel
to the chosen line, the mineral plate is negative.

This method is less satisfactory in practice than the one where the
eyes open and move inwards.

(b) The above method given in our text-books can be supplemented
by one that can be employed in numerous cases when both of the hyper-
bola eyes cannot he seen, but only one of them or only the lemniscate
arcs. In either of these cases the positive or negative character of the
mineral plate can be ascertained ; if one can determine the position of
the line joining the hyperbola eyes or optic axes, by the form of the
interference figures, by the position of the larger arm of the cross, or by
any other means. When this direction is observed, place the arcs so
that the direction of the line joining the hyperbola vertices shall be
perpendicular to, or shall bisect them ; also have this line make an angle

606

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

of 45° with the cross-hairs, as before. Push in the wedge with its axis
of least elasticity perpendicular to the arcs, or parallel to the line joining
the hyperbola eyes. If the lemniscate arcs move in towards the centre
of the field with their convex side forwards, the mineral is positive.

Push in the wedge with its axis of least elasticity tangent to the arcs,
or perpendicular to the line joining the vertices. If the arcs then move
in with their convex side forwards, the mineral is negative. If the arcs
move outwards with their concave side forwards, the mineral in the first
position of the wedge is negative, and in the second position positive.

(c) If the distance between the hyperbola eyes is not so great but
that they lie within the field of view’, the mica and gypsum plates can
both be employed to determine the positive and negative characters
when the lemniscate figure is placed as before, with the line joining the
hyperbola eyes forming an angle of 45° with the cross-hairs of the eye-
piece. Insert either the mica plate with its axis of least elasticity
parallel to the chosen line, or else insert the gypsum plate with its axis
of least elasticity perpendicular to the chosen line. With either plate
in this position, the arcs on one side of the hyperbola eyes will enlarge
and those on the other side contract. If the arcs that lie on the inside
of the eyes, or nearest the centre of the figure, enlarge, and those on
the outside contract, the mineral is positive. On the other hand, if the
arcs nearest the centre contract, and the outside arcs expand, the mineral
is negative. This method can be used with plates that have too great
an axial divergence for their determination when the unsymmetrical
cross is placed with its arms parallel to the cross-hairs.”

Microscopical Water Analysis.* — Herr C. Mez’s introduction to
the examination of water deals principally with drinking water and
sewage. The first part treats of the vegetable and animal organisms
ordinarily found in impure water, and the second and larger portion of
the work deals with the methods of microscopical analysis.

One of the chief merits of the work consists in an attempt to introduce
a simplified nomenclature : thus, Diplococcus flavus liquefaciens tardus ,
Micrococcus pyogenes albus, Bacterium fluorescens liquefaciens minulissi-
mum , are designated M. flavovirens, M. pyoalbus, B. minutissimum.

Cleaning Slides intended for Water-stuck Sections.^ — M. J. G. de
Groot declares that the following procedure is absolutely perfect for
cleaning slides intended to be used for sections which are to be stuck on
by the water method. On a clean cloth is spread a little common chalk,
and the cloth having been moistened with a drop of w'ater, the slide is
rubbed therewith. The slide is again rubbed with a clean cloth moist-
ened with water, and is then ready for use.

* Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 507-9. Hedwigia, xxxvii. (1898) pp. 96-7.

I Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xv. (1898) pp. 62-3.

JOURNAL

OF THE

ROYAL MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DECEMBER 1898.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

XY. — Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago
collected by Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S, — Part III.

By Fortescue William Millett, F.R.M'.S.

{Head 19 th October , 1898.)

Plate XIII.

Vertebralina d’Orbigny.

Vertebralina striata d’Orb., plate XIII. fig. 1.

Vertebralina, striata d’Orb., 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vob vii. p. 283,
No. 1 ; Modele, No. 81. V. striata (d’Orb.) Egger, 1893, Abbandl.
k. baver. Akad. Wiss., Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 243, pi. iii. figs. 33, 34.

The majority of the Malay specimens have the peripheral margin
angular or carinate, as in V. insignis Brady, but in all the test is
inequilateral, and one lip of the aperture protrudes beyond the other.
Thus, although most of the specimens combine certain of the characters
of the two species, the typical V. insignis is not represented. As will
be seen from the figure, which is drawn as viewed by transmitted
light, the test commences with a planospiral chamber.

It occurs at several Stations, but the specimens are small and
feeble.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII.

*

Fig. 1.' — Vertebralina striata d’Orbigny. x 90.

„ 2. — Oplithalmidium tumidulum Brady, x 90.

„ 3. — Massilina secans d’Orbigny. X 40.

„ 4. „ „ var. macilenta Brady, x 40.

„ 5, 6, 7. „ alveoliniformis sp. n. X 30.

„ 8. — Hauerina fragilissima Brady sp. X.45.

„ 9, 10. „ „ various forms of aperture.

„ 11. „ eompressa d’Orbigny. x 40.

„ 12. — Planispirina contraria d’Orbigny sp. x 45.

„ 13. ,, exigua Brady, x 45.

., 14, 15. — Fischerina pellucida sp. n. x 90.

1898

X 90.

2 T

608

Transactions of the Society.

Ophthalmidium K ubler.

Ophthalmidium inconstans Brady.

Hauerina inconstans Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,
yoI. xix. n.s. p. 54. 0. inconstans Brady, 1884, Chall. Bept., p. 189,

pi. xii. figs. 5, 7, 8. 0. inconstans (Brady) Brady, Parker, and

Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. xii. p. 216, pi. xl. figs. 12, 13.
0. inconstans (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
Gl. II., yoI. xYiii. p. 244, pi. iii. figs. 6, 49.

The Malay specimens are few in number, and are mostly of the
Spiroloculine form from the Abrolhos Bank, figured by Brady, Parker,
and Jones. Brady writes of tbe species, “Specimens of Ophthal-
midium inconstans in their fullest development partake more or less
of the characters of Cornuspira, Spiroculina , and Hauerina .” *

Found only at Stations 2 and 17. The ‘Gazelle’ Stations are
West Australia and Amboyna.

Ophthalmidium tumidulum Brady, plate XIII. fig. 2.

0. tumidulum Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 189, pi. xii. fig. 6.

A solitary specimen from Station 25. It is rather more angular
than Brady’s figure, and has three segments to each of the later
convolutions. The surface has indications of faint oblique striae.

Brady names but one ‘Challenger’ Station, “off Cubebra Island,
West Indies,” but says it is found in a few other localities.

Mcissilina Schlumberger.

In all the Miliolidse which at certain stages change their plan of
growth, there are two well-defined groups, in one of these the first
stage is planospiral, consequently they may be regarded as dimorphic
forms of Cornuspira. This arrangement prevails in the genera Verte-
bralina , Ophthalmidium , and Planispirina. In the other group the
earlier chambers are aggregated on one or other of the Milioline
plans, as in Articulina , Massilina , and Hauerina.

The genus Massilina, as constituted by Schlumberger, contains
those forms which, commencing as Miliolina , subsequently change to
Spiroloculina. Undoubtedly the accepted classification of this family
stands greatly in need of improvement, but at present there is hardly
sufficient material available to warrant the proposal of a new system.

Massilina secans d’Orbigny sp., plate XIII. fig. 3.

Quinqneloculina secans d’Orb., 1826, Ann. Sci. Xat., vol. vii.
p. 303, No. 43 ; Modele, No. 96. Miliolina secans (d’Orb.) Sherborn
and Chapman, 1886, Journ. Koy. Micr. Soc., p. 742, pi. xiv. fig. 4.
Sigmoilina secans (d’Orb.) var. obliquistriata Halkyard, 1889, Trans.

* Brady, ‘Challenger’ Report, 1884, p. 189.

609

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett.

Manchester Micr. Soc., p. 61, pi. i. fig. 7. Massilina secans (d’Orb.)
Schlumberger, 1893, Mem. Soc. Zool. de France, vol. vi. p. 218, w.c.
figs. 31-34 and pi. iv. figs. 82, 83. Miliolina secans (d’Orb.) Goes,
1894, K Svenska Yet-.-Akad. Handl., vol. xxv. p. 112, pi. xx. fig. 856.

This species is very abundant and occurs in various forms, some
with the surface smooth, others covered with papillae arranged in
irregular curved lines, as shown in the figure, which is taken from
one of the most aberrant forms of the species, the earlier chambers
being large in proportion, and unusually angular and protruding.

It occurs at Stations in both areas, hut mostly in Area 2.

Massilina secans var. macilenta Brady, plate XIII. fig. 4.

Miliolina macilenta Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 167, pi. vii.
figs. 5, 6.

The Malay specimens confirm Brady’s suspicion that this is hut
a costate variety of M. secans , and it is scarcely possible to separate
the two forms.

M. macilenta is more widely diffused than the type, but occurs
in less abundance.

The ‘ Challenger ’ Stations are Hares Harbour, Admiralty Islands ;
Humboldt Bay, Papua ; and off Honolulu, Sandwich Islands.

There appears to be no other record of its occurrence.

Massilina alveoliniformis sp. n., plate XIII. figs. 5, 6, 7.

Test elliptical, chambers tubular, the earlier ones arranged irre-
gularly around the long axis, the later ones in a Spiroloculine series,
periphery rounded, aperture terminal, radiate or cribrate, obscured by
sand-grains. Texture arenaceous. Length 1 -40 mm.

This species in some respects resembles Sigmoilina tenuis, but
differs from it in the composition of the test and the character of the
aperture. It may be regarded as a dimorphous form of Miliolina
cilveoliniformis , the earlier chambers, as shown by fig. 6, having ail
the characters of that species. Quinqueloculina fabularoides Karrer *
has a similar aperture, and the arrangement of the chambers is not
unlike.

It has been observed at Stations 2, 13, and 22, but the specimens
are not numerous.

Hauer ina d’Orbigny.

As represented by the Malay specimens, this genus has the earlier
chambers arranged after the fashion of Miliolina alveoliniformis.
These are succeeded by a series on the Spiroloculine plan, and these
again by the arrangement characteristic of the genus, in which there
are three or more segments in each convolution. The aperture is
invariably much compressed, hut is not always cribrate.

* Sitzber. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. 1. Abth. i. 1864, p. 704, pi. i. fig. 3.

2 t 2

610

Transactions of the Society.

Hauerina fragilissima Brady sp. n., plate XIII. figs. 8, 9, 10.

Spiroloculina fragilissima Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept., p. 149,
pi. ix. figs. 12-14.

The ‘ Challenger ’ specimens of this form, as stated by Brady,
might be assigned either to Spiroloculina or to Hauerina, but there
is in the Malay gatherings a much compressed variety of Hauerina
compressa, which in all but the final development of the three seg-
ments to a convolution, is the exact counterpart of S. fragilissima.
In this latter form the aperture is sometimes cribrate, sometimes
has an elongated tooth, and frequently the dentate and oiibrate forms
of aperture are combined in the same specimens. Various forms of
aperture are figured on plate XIII. It is a very interesting and
instructive passage form combining the characters of the genera
Spiroloculina , Massilina , and Hauerina.

It is moderately abundant at several Stations in both Areas.

S. fragilissima occurs at seven ‘ Challenger ’ Stations, four of
which are off the coast of Papua.

Hauerina compressa d’Orbigny, plate XIH. fig. 11.

II. compressa d’Orb., 1846, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 119, pi. v.
figs. 25-27. H. compressa (d’Orb.) Egger, 1898, Abhandl. k. bayer.
Akad. Wiss., Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 244, pi. iii. figs. 9, 10, 28, 24.

This rare species occurs both in the compressed form represented
by Brady and in the more robust form figured by Egger. Usually
it is only in the outermost convolution that there are more than two
segments. The earlier chambers are indistinguishable from those of
H. fragilissima.

In the Malay Archipelago it is found rather sparingly at a few
Stations in both Areas.

Brady writes, “ So far as can be gathered from the ‘ Challenger *
material, the present distribution of Hauerina compressa is restricted
to a very small area. It occurs in two dredgings in the narrow sea
between the northernmost part of Australia and the island of Xew
Guinea, namely off Booby Island, 6 to 8 fathoms, and off Kaine Island,
155 fathoms, and a few small and doubtful specimens have been found
in an adjoining locality ; but beyond these limits it has not been ob-
served.’" * The £ Gazelle ’ specimens were from Mauritius.

Hauerina ornatissima Karrer sp.

Quinqueloculina ornatissima Karrer, 1868, Sitzber. k. Akad. Wiss.
Wien, vol. lviii. Abth. I. p. 151, pi. iii. fig. 2. Hauerina ornatissima
Brady, 1884. Chall. Kept., p. 192, pi. vii. figs. 15-22.

This handsome species, so commonly found in coral sand and so
seldom recorded, occurs sparingly at several Stations in both areas.
The specimens, although not very large, are characteristic.

* c Challenger’ Report, 1884, p. 191.

Report on Foraminifera. B\j F. W. Millett .

611

Planispirina Seguenza.

Planispirina contraria d’Orbigny sp., plate XIII. fig. 12.

Biloculina contraria d’Orb., 1848, For. Foss. Vienne, p. 266,
pi. xvi. figs. 4-6. Planispirina contraria Brady, 1884, Chall. Kept.,
p. 195, pi. xi. figs. 10, 11 and woodcut fig. 5 a.

From Station 27 there is a single specimen of this rather rare
although widely distributed species.

It is recorded from six ‘ Challenger ’ Stations, amongst them being
north of Papua and off Amboyna. A somewhat doubtful example
appears on pi. iii. figs. 35, 36 of Egger’s ‘ Gazelle ’ Beport, but there
is no reference to it in the text.

Planispirina exigua Brady, plate XIII. fig. 13.

Eauerina exigua Brady, 1879, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., vol. xix.
n.s., p. 53. P. exigua Brady, 1884, Chall. Bept., p. 196, pi. xii.
figs. 1-4 and woodcut fig. 5 b. P. exigua (Brady) Brady, Parker,
and Jones, 1888, Trans. Zool. Soc., vol. xii. p. 216, pi. xl. fig. 4.
P. exigua (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
Cl. II. vol. xviii. p. 245, pi. iii. figs. 11, 12.

This common tropical shallow water species occurs in considerable
abundance, and is widely distributed in both areas. The specimens
exhibit remarkable persistency of form.

Sub-Family Fiseherininse.

Test free ; segments numerous, arranged on a Botaliform or insequi-
laterally planospiral plan ; aperture large, terminal.

This sub-family, unique amongst the Porcellanea in having the
chambers arranged in a more or less Botaliform manner, embraces
the genera Fischer in a of Terquem and Geratina of Goes.

The genus Fischer ina was instituted by Terquem in 1878 to
accommodate a rare aberrant form from the Upper Pliocene of the
Island of Bhodes. As usual with him, taking no notice of the shell
structure, he assigned it a place between Rotalina and Nonionina ,
and named the species F. Rhodiensis*

In 1894, Goes f described a porcellanous species from the Azores,
which in form resembles Trochammina proteus Karrer. To this form
he gave the name of Ceratina trochamminoides , remarking that
through lack of specimens he was unable thoroughly to investigate
the genus. Its affinities with Fischerina are, however, tolerably well
marked, and it may be assigned provisionally to the same sub-family.

Fischerina Terquem.

Fischerina pellucida sp. n., plate XIII. figs. 14, 15.

Test Botaliform, depressed, consisting of about three convolu-
tions, each containing five or six chambers, which are all visible on the

* Mem. Soc. Ge'ol. France, ser. 3, vol. i. 1878, p. 80, pi. xiv. fig. 25.

f K. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Hand]., vol. xxv. p. 122, pi. xxv. fig. 930.

612

Transactions of the Society.

superior face. Inferior face excavated at the umbilicus, periphery-
rounded, slightly lobulated ; sutures sunk. Aperture circular, with an
everted margin. Shell smooth and translucent. Length 0*25 mm.

This interesting little form is widely distributed in the Malay
Archipelago, and is by no means rare. It differs from F. Rhodiensis
in the inflation of the chambers, in the lesser exposure of the con-
volutions on the inferior face of the test, and in the form of the
aperture.

Sub-Family Peneroplidinse.

Cornuspira Schultze.

Cornuspira foliacea Philippi sp.

Orbis foliaceus Philippi, 1844, Enum. Moll. Siciliae, vol. ii. p. 147,
pi. xxiv. fig. 26. Cornuspira foliacea (Phil.) Balkwill and Wright,
1885, Trans. E. Irish Acad., vol. xxviii. p. 326, pi. xii. fig. 1.
C. foliacea (Phil.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
Cl. IL, vol. xviii. p. 247, pi. iii. figs. 20, 21. C. foliacea (Phil.) For-
nasini, 1893, Mem. E. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, ser. 5, vol. iii. p. 431,
pi. i. fig. 4. C. foliacea (Phil.) Goes, 1894. K. Svenska Vet.-Akad.
Handl., vol. xxv. p. 106, pi. xviii. fig. 834. C. foliacea (Phil.)
Morton, 1897, Proc. Portland Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. ii. p. 114, pi. i.
fig. 16.

Although tolerably abundant and widely diffused, the specimens
are feeble, none of them exhibiting the rapid increase in size of the
outer convolution which is characteristic of the species.

Cornuspira involvens Eeuss.

Operculina involvens Eeuss, 1850, Denkschr. k. Akad. Wiss.
Wien, vol. i. p. 370, pi. xlvi. fig. 20. Cornuspira involvens Eeuss,
1863, Sitzber. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, vol. xlviii. p. 39, pi. i. fig. 2.
C. involvens (Eeuss) Balkwill and Wright, 1885, Trans. E. Irish
Acad., vol. xxviii. p. 327, pi. xii. fig. 2. C. involvens (Eeuss) Brady,
Parker, and Jones, 1888, Trans/, Zool. Soc., vol. xii. p. 216, pi. xl.
figs. 1-3. C. involvens (Eeuss) Sherborn and Chapman, 1889, Journ.
E. Micr. Soc., p. 484, pi. xi. figs. 4, 5. C. cretacea (Eeuss) Burrows,
Sherborn, and Bailey, 1890, Journ. E. Micr. Soc., p. 552, pi. viii. fig. 6.
C. involvens (Eeuss) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad. Wiss.,
Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 246, pi. iii. figs. 18, 19. C. involvens (Eeuss)
T. Eupert Jones, 1895, Pal. Soc., p. 128, pi. iii. figs. 52-54 and
woodcuts figs. 11 a, 11 b.

Is more abundant than C. foliacea, and occurs in two forms ; in one
of these the tube is very small at the commencement, and the convo-
lutions numerous ; in the other the whorls are few, and the tube,
having its origin in a spherical chamber, increases but little in size.
This latter is the more abundant.

Probably these represent the Microspheric and Megalospheric

613

Report on Foraminifera. By F. W. Millett.

forms of the species. Both are figured on plate xl. of the Memoir on
the Foraminifera of the Abroihos Bank, by Brady, Parker, and Jones,
referred to above.

Peneroplis Montfort.

Peneroplis pertusus Forskal sp.

Yar. a. planatus Fichtel and Moll sp.

„ b. pertusus Forskal sp.

„ c. arietinus Batsch sp.

„ d. cylindraceus Lamarck sp.

„ e. lituus Grmelin sp.

„ f. carinatus d’Orbigny.

Accepting Brady s convenient arrangement of the forms composing
this genus,*, the above mentioned varieties are found in moderate
numbers at most of the Malay Stations, but are most abundant in
Area 1.

The specimens as a. rule are not large, and call for little mention ;
it may however be observed, that although there are numerous
examples of the fragile form P. lituus , not one of them possesses the
initial chambers.

Orbitolites Lamarck.

Orbit olites marginalis Lamarck sp.

Orbulites marginalis Lamarck, 1816, Hist. Nat. Anim. sans
Vert., vol. ii. p. 196, No. 1. Orbitolites marginalis Carpenter, 1883,
Phil. Trans., vol. clxxiv. p. 559, fig. 1.

This ‘ simple form occurs in some abundance at several Stations in
both areas, but the specimens are small.

Orbitolites complanata Lamarck.

Orbitolites complanata Lamarck, 1801, Syst. Anim. sans Vert.,
p. 376. 0. complanata (Lam.) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k. bayer.

Akad., 01. II., vol. xviii. p. 249, pi. iii. fig. 40. 0. complanata (Lam.)
T. Bupert Jones, 189’5, Pal. Soc., p. 136, pi. iii. figs. 45-47. 0. com-
planata (Lam.) Lister, 1895, Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxvi. p. 431, pi. ix.
figs. 41-51.

Distribution similar to that of 0. marginalis, and some of the
specimens attain a considerable size.

Alveolina d’Orbigny.

Alveolina Boscii Defrance sp.

Oryzaria boscii Defrance, 1820, Diet. Sci. Nat., vol. xvi. p. 106
Alveolina Boscii (Defr.) d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat., vol. vii
p7 306, No. 5 ; Modele No. 50. A. longa (Czjzek) Egger, 1893
Abhandl. k. bayer. Akad., Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 249, pi. iii. fig. 32.

* ‘ Challenger * Report, 1884, p. 204.

614 . Transactions of the Society.

Occurs at a few Stations in both areas. The specimens are mode-
rate in size.

The ‘Gazelle ’ examples are from Mauritius.

Alveolina melo Ficlitel and Moll. sp.

Nautilus melo Fichtel and Moll, 1798, Testae. Micr., p. 118, pi.
xxiv. Alveolina melo (F. and M.) d’Orbigny, 1826, Ann. Sci. Nat.,
yoI. vii. p. 306, No. 5. A. melo (Brady) Egger, 1893, Abhandl. k.
bayer. Akad., Cl. II., vol. xviii. p. 249, pi. iii. fig. 31.

This species is very rare in the Malay Archipelago and has been
found only at Stations 2 and 22.

The ‘ Gazelle ’ Stations are Mauritius and West Australia.

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES

RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY

(principally invertebrata and oryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, Etc.

Including Original Communications from Fellows and Others .* * * §

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA,

a. Embryology.!

Determination of Sex4 — Heir L. Cohn lias collected the facts and
theories on this subject. As is well known, there are too few facts to
warrant any general theory. It seems certain that the sex of the off-
spring may be affected by numerous factors. Schenk’s theory is con-
demned as a hypothesis based on very insufficient evidence. Schenk
gives only three or four cases which bear out his theory. Cohn is at
least more cautious.

Telegony.§— Hr. Otto vom Rath discusses the possibility of coin-
foetation in mammals in its bearing on this subject. Certain breeding
experiments of his own, and of Herr Fr. Engelmann’s in the case of
dogs, convince him that it does occur, though he admits the difficulty
of eliminating the possibility of reversion in the case of the more
specialised breeds. He explains the phenomenon as the result of the
fact that, in the case of animals which bring forth many young at a
birth, the eggs are not all ripe simultaneously, but may be shed into the
oviduct at intervals of several days, and so be fertilised at different
periods. He believes that the appearance of badly bred pups in a
litter, which breeders regard as the result of telegony, may be accounted
for in this way. He is not able to believe in the possibility of telegony
on the evidence as at present stated.

* The Society are not intended to be denoted by the editorial “ we,” and they do
not hold themselves responsible for the views of the authors of the papers noted,
nor for any claim to novelty or otherwise made by them. The object of this part of
the Journal is to present a summary of the papers as actually published , and to
describe and illustrate Instruments, Apparatus, &c., which are either new or have
not been previously described in this country.

f This section includes not only papers relating to Embryology properly so ealleJ,
but also those dealing with Evolution, Development, and Reproduction, and allied
subjects.

X ‘Die willkiirliche Bestimmung des Geschlechts,’ Wurzburg, 1898. See Biol.
Centralbh, xviii. (1898) pp. 589-90.

§ Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 637-42.

GIG

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Respiration in Amphibia during1 Metamorphosis.* — Herr F. Maurer
gives an interesting description of the vascularisation of the epidermis
at the time of metamorphosis in liana , Bufo, and Hyla. He finds that,
when the skin-glands begin to develop, there appears between epidermis
and corium a sub-epidermal layer remarkable for its numerous capil-
laries. These capillaries grow outwards, penetrating to immediately
beneath the outermost row of epidermal cells, so that the epidermis
becomes completely vascularised. Other experiments have convinced
the author that at the time of metamorphosis neither gills nor lungs are
actively respiratory. He therefore regards this temporary development
of superficial blood-vessels as a proof that the skin is then the main
respiratory organ. The capillaries become much less conspicuous as
soon as the metamorphosis is over.

Multiple Canals in Spinal Cord of a Chick Embryo.t—-Miss A. 0.
Smith describes the spinal cord of a chick of about ten days’ incubation.
The embryo was normal except as regards the cord, which showed a
series of secondary neural canals, or more properly vesicles. They did
not open into one another nor into the central canal. All of them were
lined with the same kind of cells as those lining the central canal, of
which they were probably disconnected outgrowths.

Development of Sphenodon.J — Dr. Arthur Dendy briefly sum-
marises the more important results of his investigations on this subject.
He finds that development lasts about thirteen months, the eggs being
laid in November and hatched in the December of the next year ; but
the earlier stages are rapidly passed through, and it would seem that de-
velopment is virtually suspended during the winter months. There are
several peculiarities in the formation of the amnion, notably in the
presence during the early stages of a “ posterior amniotic canal,” quite
similar to that described by Mitsukuri for Chelonians. This would
seem to confirm the belief that Sphenodon is related to that group.
The parietal eye apparently arises independently of the epiphysis, and
the author is of opinion that the pineal gland is represented by a mass
of convoluted tubules lying in front of the parietal eye. A similar
independence of parietal organ and epiphysis has been maintained by
Beraneck for Lacerta and Anguis.

Regeneration in Erog-embryos.§ — Miss E. F. Brynes finds that
tadpoles develop normal full-sized limbs, even if the limb-rudiment is
completely destroyed at the time when it first appears. Three species
were experimented on, Rana sylvaiica , R. palustris , and R. virescetis, and
in all cases fresh limb-rudiments developed from the surrounding somato-
pleural tissue. The author considers that the experiment adds fresh
evidence to the view that the entire limb is somatopleuric in origin.

b. Histology.

Ganglion-cells. || — Dr. Rohde has extended his researches on this
subject to cover the ganglion -cells of Vertebrates, and in the present

* Morph. Jahrb., xxvi. (1898) pp. 330-6 (1 fig.).

f Anat. Anzeig., xv. (1898) pp. 56-60 (6 figs.).

% Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., lxiii. (1898) pp. 440-3.

§ Anat. Anzeig., xv. (1898) pp. 104-7 (3 figs.).

|| Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., lxiv. (1898) pp. 697-727 (5 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

617

paper discusses tlieir characters from the comparative point of view.
As to method, he emphasises the value of corrosive sublimate as a fixa-
tive, and especially the necessity for mounting sections in glycerin ;
such preparations show, he says, details invisible in balsam, and also
allow of fresh staining, which may be necessary.

Some only of the points of structure dwelt on can be mentioned here.
Ganglion-cells in general consist of three parts, a homogeneous hyalo-
plasm, a supporting network of spongioplasm, and a deeply staining
substance having a varying relation to the spongioplasm proper. The
neuroglia places the ganglion-cells in communication with one another.
The nuclei of the cells contain two kinds of granules, some of nuclein,
and others of paranuclein ; the latter are the nucleoli. Besides the
chief nucleolus, there are also smaller slightly different structures, the
accessory nucleoli. These may pass out into the cytoplasm and give
rise to the structures sometimes described as centrosomes ; they probably
form the chromatin substance already described in the cell protoplasm.
The author believes that the specific function of ganglion-cells is depen-
dent on this continued passage of accessory nucleoli from nucleus to
cytoplasm. He 'does not believe that centrosomes occur in ganglion-
cells. The structures described by Lenhossek as centrosomes in the
cells of the spinal cord in the frog, are not true centrosomes. Their
meaning is doubtful, but they may be remnants of degenerated ganglion-
cells.

Histology of Glands.* — Herr Erik Muller has found that the remark-
able secreting capillaries of the gastric glands can be demonstrated by
other means as well as by Golgi’s famous method. Fragments of the
mucous membrane of the stomach of a dog were laid for 24 hours in
Kopsch’s mixture (40 parts 3*5 per cent, potassium bichromate and 10
parts of commercial formalin), and then for one or several days in the
bichromate alone. They were then washed, and hardened in alcohol of
increasing strengths. The sections were stained with Heidenhain’s iron-
hsematoxylin. The results were admirable, and not only served for the
discovery of several new points, but were valuable as an independent
confirmation of results obtained by Golgi’s method.

The results as to the fundus glands in the dog’s stomach are to show
that the paths of the secretions are first by the central lumen and cross
channels, which are surrounded by a distinct ectoplasmatic membrane,
and secondly by the intracellular secreting capillaries. In both central
and parietal cells the- secretion arises from granules which, before they
are converted into fluid, pass through two stages, one in which they are
stainable, and one in which they are not. The course of the secretion is
different in the two sets of cells : — (u) in the first case this is poured
direct into the gland-lumen ; (b) in the parietal cells it is drained off
by their intracellular canals.

In a further investigation of the mucous glands of the cat, the author,
by means of the injections of pilocarpin, obtained cells free from secre-
tion, and found that not only, as has been previously stated, do empty
mucous cells and empty albuminous gland-cells closely resemble one
another, but, further, neither are distinguishable from the cells of

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoo!., lxiv. (1898) pp. 624-47 (2 pis.).

G18

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Gianuzzi’s crescents. This, however, the author regards as only proving
that it is the granules of secreting cells, and the nature of their respec-
tive secretions, which are to be relied on in determining specific differ-
ences.

In his concluding paragraphs, the author urges the necessity of lay-
ing more stress upon the way in which the fluid secretion arises from
the solid cell contents, and discusses his results in the light of this
point. In mucous cells, albuminous cells, pancreatic cells, and the cen-
tral cells of the gastric glands, the secretory granules in the resting state
are peripheral. lu the parietal cells of gastric glands they are central,
and their conversion there into fluid gives rise to the characteristic intra-
cellular capillaries.

Distribution of Phosphorus in Tissues.* * * § — Dr. A. B. Macallum gives
some account of the results of the application of his method (see p. 686)
for detecting phosphorus-containing compounds in animal and vegetable
cells. In cells in general the chromatin of the nucleus gives a marked
phosphorus reaction, while eosinophilous nucleoli give a similar but less
well marked reaction, and the cytoplasm of most cells gives a very slight
indication. To this last statement exceptions are found in liver cells ;
in ovarian ova of Amphibia, in which, however, the phosphorus is taken
up by the yolk-splierules as these develop ; in the spermatozoa of Asca-
ris ; and in other cases.

Connections between Unstriped Muscle-cells.f — Herr J. Schaffer
maintains that these elements are not connected either by amorphous
cementing substance or by intercellular bridges like those in epithelium.
The intercellular connective substance is a fibrous alveolar reticulum
with sparse nuclei, directly associated with adjacent fibrillar connective
tissue.

c. General.

Nocturnal Plankton of the Lake of Geneva.^ — Prof. H. Blanc re-
lates his experience showing that the Entomostraca which form the great
mass of the plankton in the Lake of Geneva are more abundant at the
. surface during the night than during the day. They migrate at night
from the deeper to the more superficial layers. The nocturnal multipli-
cation of such organisms as Ceratium hirundinella may have something
to do with it.

Planktonlof the Red' Sea.§ — Dr. A. Steuer gives a preliminary ac-
count of the pelagic fauna of this region, stating the relative abundance
of the diverse constituents. His results go to show the fundamental im-
portance of the currents in determining the distribution of the animals.

Plankton of Norwegian Lakes. || — Herr Hartvig Huifeldt-Kaas has
an interesting paper on this subject. His observations extended over
thirty-three lakes, and in three cases the annual periodicity of the
plankton was determined. He finds that in the general case the surface
life, both in actual amount and in number of species, decreases with an

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Loncl., lxiii. (1898) pp. 475-9.

t Anat. Anzeig., xv. (1898) pp. 36-41.

X Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., xxxiv. (1898) pp. 225-30 (1 chart).

§ SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, cvi. (1897) pp. 407-24 (1 map).

II Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 625-36.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

619

increase in the depth of water, the Algae especially being never abundant,
except in shallow (2-10 metres) water. More careful observations
showed, however, that this is only true in summer, and that the relative
size of the drainage area of the lake is an important factor. Where a
shallow lake has large and rapid feeders, its plankton will be less than
that of a deeper lake wThich drains a proportionately smaller area. Such
facts point to the special importance of the temperature of the water and
of the relative frequency of its renewal. As might be expected, it was
found that the number of fish in a lake bears a direct relation to the
amount of its plankton. The paper is illustrated by some very instructive
tables.

Evolution of Spines.* — Mr. C. E. Beecher discusses this subject
with much wealth of example and illustration, his object being to reach
some general conclusion as to the origin of the spinose condition. Spines
are purely organic structures, and therefore subject to the law of varia-
tion ; variation may be either progressive or regressive, and is therefore
produced either by constructive or destructive agencies. In either case
the agent may be external stimuli acting on the organism, or growth-
force acting from within. There are, therefore, four factors concerned
in the production of spines. But each of these factors is complex and
capable of subdivision, and there may be a replacement or overlapping
of forces, so that there are in all eleven causes of spinosity. It may
arise : —

“ (1) In response to environmental stimuli acting on exposed parts.

(2) As the extreme result of progressive differentiation of previous
structures.

(3) Secondarily, as a means of protection and offence.

(4) Secondarily, from sexual selection.

(5) Secondarily, from mimetic influences.

(6) From j>rolonged development under conditions favourable for
multiplication.

(7) By repetition.

(8) By restraint of environment causing suppression of structures.

(9) By mechanical restraint.

(10) By disuse.

(11) By intrinsic suppression of structures and functions.5’

A detailed discussion of these factors shows that two main generali-
sations may be drawn up : — “ (1) That spinosity represents the limit
of morphological variation, appearing in phylogenv as the limit of mor-
phological progress and regress ; and (2) that similarly, physiologically,
spinosity represents the paracme of vitality.” In other words, “ after
attaining the limit of spine differentiation, spinose organisms leave no
descendants, and from such spinose types no new types are developed.”

Relations between Marine Animal and Vegetable Life.f — Mr.
H. M. Vernon, following up his wrork on the ‘ Effects of Environment on
the Development of Echinoderm Larvae,’ has made a series of researches
into the relations between marine animal and vegetable life. His work
concerns itself with (1) the purification of water by vegetable life, and

* Amer. Journ. Sci., vi. (1898) pp. 1-20, 125-36, 249-68, 329-59 (1 pi., 73 figs.).

t MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, 1898, pp. 341-425.

620

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

(2) the fouling of water by animal life. The experimenter gives a full
account of his methods, and he thus summarises his results : —

Green sea-weeds, such as TJlva, rapidly remove the free ammonia from
aquarium tank water, but they slowly increase the organic ammonia.
Larvae grown in water thus purified are, as a rule, increased in size.
When grown in direct contact with the alga, they are generally decreased
in size, but an increased proportion of the fertilised ova develop to larvae.

Red sea-weeds, as Gelidium , generally cause an increase in the free
as well as in the organic ammonia. They sometimes have a favourable,
but as a rule an unfavourable effect on larval growth. Filtration through
sand may remove almost all the free ammonia present and a third or
more of the organic ammonia, this purification being effected by the
layer of diatoms and algae on the grains of sand. Sand kept in darkness
may also effect great purification, in this instance through bacterial
influence. Larvae grown in water thus purified are increased in size
some 4*2 per cent.

On keeping water in diffuse light for some weeks, nearly all the free
ammonia disappears, owing to the multiplication of the small quantity
of algae and diatoms originally present. The organic ammonia is at the
same time increased, but larvae grown in the water are greatly increased
in size.

Larvae grown in water previously exposed under certain conditions
to the sun are greatly increased in size. Sunlight, though it has an
immediate germicidal action on the water, probably effects no bacterio-
logical purification.

On keeping water in darkness for three or more weeks, nearly all
the free, and a third or more of the organic ammonia, is removed by
bacterial action. Larvae grown in water thus purified are some 7*5 per
cent, larger than the normal. As far as the ammonia is concerned, water
kept in darkness may become as pure as open sea-water, but it is not
physiologically so pure, for larvae grown in the latter are 16 per cent,
larger than the normal.

A very considerable purification of the aquarium water is effected by
the layer of bacterial slime coating the inside of the conducting pipes.
Thus half of the ammonia was sometimes removed by this means, and
the larvae grown in the water were 7 * 8 per cent, larger than the normal.

Larvae grown in water filtered through asbestos and water previously
heated to 50°, 76°, or 100°, are considerably increased in size,
t Larvae grown in water previously fouled by fish, crabs, molluscs, and
Holothurians, are increased in size, but in water fouled by Echinoids
and other Plutei, are considerably diminished. Dead Echinoids foul
the water about ten times more than most living animals, whilst fish
and crabs foul it ten times more than molluscs and Holothurians.

Ammonium chloride acts very injuriously on larval growth, but
potassium nitrite and potassium nitrate in small quantities have no
action.

Aeration has only a very slightly favourable effect on larval growth.

The nitrites present are greatly diminished on keeping the water in
darkness, but are increased by vegetable growth and on development of
larvae in the water.

The arm-lengths are, as a rule, affected in the same direction as the

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 621

body-lengths on change of environmental conditions, but in the reverse
direction by water filtered through sand, water exposed to sunlight, and
water previously heated to 100° C.

The specific gravity and purity of the aquarium water vary but little
at different times of the year. The salinity is about a hundredth part
greater than that of open sea-water.

Endolymphatic Apparatus of Eishes.* * * § — Herr Szymon Sidoriak has
made some observations on the development of the ear and its parts in
embryos of Bhodeus amarus, and finds that not only do the conditions
observed there confirm Nusbaum’s views as to the morphology of the
parts in Cyprinus carpio, but that the endolymphatic apparatus is more
fully developed in Bhodeus than in the former. The special points
would appear to be the development of a cross connection — the ductus
endolymphaticus — between the two recessus labyrinthi, and, associated
with this cross canal, the development of a large unpaired median sac,
and lateral paired sacs. The last are absent in the carp, though the spaces
which they occupy in the minnow are there clearly indicated.

Identification of Artificially Hatched Eish.| — Mr. H. C. Bumpus
refers to the many millions of young fish which have been “ planted ”
in various localities by the United States Fish Commission. The
“ planting ” is followed by increase, but how can it be shown that the
fish appearing in increased numbers are really the adults of the young
artificially produced ? To mark the fry is out of the question, but it is
possible that the fry mark themselves by variational differences which
may be detected. In a given area the “ curve of distribution ” for some
native species may be determined in reference to fin-rays, scale-rows,
number of vertebrae, &c. Secondly, the same may be done in another
locality from which the “ brood-fish ” are to be taken. Thirdly, after the
“planted fish” have had time to mature, new curves may be plotted for
the first locality. The relation of these new curves to those first made
will show whether the re-stocking has had any effect. Various objections
to this ingenious proposal are considered.

Vertebral Teeth of Dasypeltis.J — Prof. L. Kathariner has made a
detailed study of the egg-breaking apparatus in Dasypeltis scabrci. The
hypapophyses which are important are especially those from 22 to 26 ;
their tissue is true bone and without enamel ; they lie in connective-
tissue pockets with their points projecting freely. Behind the oeso-
phagus the canal narrows abruptly, so that the broken fragments of
egg-shells do not pass down. In a young specimen (38 cm. in length),
which had not yet begun the adult diet, the teeth of the mouth-cavity
were relatively large, and the constriction mentioned above was un-
developed. In spite of the retrogression of the teeth in the adult, the
typical buccal glands remain well developed.

Larynx of Amphibians.§ — Dr. Ernst Goffert, in an elaborate paper,
discusses the structure and development of the larynx in Amphibians.
Apart from anatomical details, the chief point is to show that the

* Anat. Anzeig., xv. (1898) pp. 93-8 (4 figs.),

f Amer. Natural., xxxii. (1898) pp. 407-11 (2 figs.),

i Zool. Jalirb. (Abth. Anat.), xi. (1898) pp. 501-18 (1 pi.).

§ Morph. Jahrb., xxvi. (1898) pp. 282-329 (4 pis. and 5 figs.).

622

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

primary part of the laryngeal skeleton — that is the arytenoid, cricoid,
and tracheal rings — is derived from the fifth branchial arch, and that
its muscles are derived from those of the same arch.

Function of Pancreas in Squalid©.* * * § — Prof. E. Yung finds that
extract of pancreas from Scyllium catulus and Lcnnna cornubica contains
ferments dissolving starch, emulsifying fats, and digesting fibrin. The
last enzyme sometimes fails to act ; the conditions of its activity remain
inadequately known. A little piece of spleen mixed up with the pancreas
in preparing the extract is an effective condition.

Optic Nerve in the Sciuridae.t — Dr. Rudolf Krause describes a re-
markable condition of this nerve in Spermophilus citillus. The nerve is
compressed in cross section, and on reaching the eye swells out into a
long oval body closely applied to the surface of the sclerotic. Inter-
nally, the papilla nerii optici is found to form a band 6—7 mm. long, over
the whole of which rods and cones are absent. The papilla is richly
supplied with blood-vessels. A description of the eyes of some other
Sciuridee is promised.

Tailless Eatrachiaus of Europe.! — Mr. G. A. Boulenger has com-
pleted his account of these Amphibians. The present part deals with
Bufonidas, Hylidae, and Ranidae. The text and the illustrations are
worthy of each other, and it is impossible to refrain from congratu-
lations.

Electric Organ of Malapterurus electricus.§ — Dr. E. Ballowitz has
recently investigated this organ. In its structure he finds much general
resemblance to the conditions seen in other electric fish. He expects to
publish full details later, but confines himself in the present paper to a
brief description of the peculiarities of the nerve-endings. It has been
long known that in Malapterurus there is not a complicated network of
nerves, such as that found on the plates of the electric organ in other
electric forms, but the exact nature of the nerve-endings has been
hitherto unknown. The author was extremely successful with pre-
parations by Golgi’s method, and found that the plates of the organ are
somewhat disc-shaped, the pcstericr surface of the disc being prolonged
into a partially hollow and partially solid process called by the author
the funnel, terminating in a swollen knob. On the surface of this
knob lie 2—4 spirally coiled nerve-fibres with free varicose ends ; these
replace the nerve network seen in other forms.

Electric Organ of Mormyrus.|| — Dr. J. Ogneff has investigated by
means of modern methods the electric organs of three species of
Mormyrus. His results in general confirm those of the older observers,
and emphasise the resemblance between the feebly developed electric
organs of this fish and the more specialised organs of forms like
Gymnotus and Torpedo.

As is well known, in all species there are four electric organs, two

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 77-8.

t Anat. Anzeig.j xv. (189S) pp. 110-11.

X ‘ The Tailless Batracliians of Europe,’ by G. A. Boulenger, pt. ii. Svo, London,
1898, printed for the Ray Society, pp. 211-376, pis. xi-xxiv. figs. 78-124.

§ Anat. Anzeig., xv. (1898) pp. 85-92.

jj Zeitschr. f. vriss. Zool., lxiv. (1898) pp. 565-95 (1 pi.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

623

ventral and two dorsal. Each is roughly shaped like a three-sided prism
with tapering conical ends, and is invested with a tendinous sheath.
Connected with this sheath are numerous vertical connective-tissue
partitions which divide the organ into a series of compartments, within
which lie the electric plates. The number of these seems to be more or
less constant for the species, the growth of the organs being due to an
increase in the size of the plates and not to an increase in number. The
plates are separated from the partitions by a layer of mucoid tissue in
which the nerves ramify. In some species the nerves penetrate the plate
in front and in some behind ; there is also variation in the number of the
branches into which the nerve breaks up. As to the difficult point of
the relation between the myelin threads and the pale nerve-fibres, the
author finds that the dark fibres consist of 30-50 myelin threads, which
invest like “ a finger-stall ” the conical origin of the pale fibres. The
latter consist of (1) a connective-tissue sheath with spindle-shaped
nucleated cells, beneath which lies (2) a thin nucleated membrane, the
electrolemma, then (3) a thick homogeneous sheath surrounding (4) the
central axis-cylinder. In considering the connection between the fine
branches of these nerve-fibres and the electric plates, it is first necessary
to consider the structure of the latter. Each consists of three layers,
an anterior and a posterior layer of similar structure, and a central layer.
Each outer layer consists of a homogeneous mass finely dotted and con-
taining oval nuclei. Under high magnification it is seen that the dotted
appearance is due to minute fibrillar rods, perpendicular to the surface
of the plate, and probably representing the remains of muscle-fibres ;
they are connected with the swollen ends of the pale nerve-fibres. The
middle layer of the plate consists of striped muscle-fibres, though, owing to
the extreme rapidity with which they undergo change, this is not always
easy to demonstrate. They are surrounded by a transparent substance.

Finally, as to the relation of the pale nerve-fibres and the plates.
Where the connective-tissue sheath persists (as in M. oxyrhynchus ) to
their branched ends, it is continued into the mucoid layer between the
plates. The thin electrolemma beneath it spreads out over the surface
of the plate, the thick sheath of the fibre is continuous with the trans-
parent layer of the plate. The fate of the axial cylinder is unknown, its
fibrils have been followed only to the end of the little rods.

Toxin and Anti-toxin of Snake-venom.* — Dr. Charles J. Martin
has been continuing his observations on this subject, with especial re-
ference to the observed discrepancy between the quantities of auti-
venene required to neutralise a given dose of venom, when they are
(1) previously mixed outside the body; and (2) simultaneously injected
under the skin. His conclusions are that (1) about the same quantity
of anti-venene necessary to neutralise the venom in vitro is capable of
doing so when the former is injected into the blood-stream, and the
latter sub-cutaneously ; (2) at least ten to twenty times this quantity is
required when they are both placed simultaneously under the skin, but
in different parts of the body. The author is of opinion that these
results markedly support his view that the nature of the antagonism
between the toxin and anti-toxin is a chemical one. The practical
result is that the anti-venene should be injected intravenously.

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Lend,, lxiv. (1898) pp. 88-94.

2 u

1898

624 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Tunicata.

Different Forms of Anchinia.* — Prof. A. Korotneff describes an
asexual form of Ancliinia , which differs in its mode of budding from the
other two asexual forms previously described. Including the sexual
generation there is thus a polymorphism of four stages.

INVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

“ Nebenkern ” in Spermatogenesis of Pulmonata.f — Mr. J. A. Murray
has studied the history of this body in Helix pomatia and in Avion.
The most important result of his research is the conclusion that in the
attraction-sphere ( Nebenkern ) of Pulmonata there are no structures
which can in any way be compared to chromosomes. “ The salient
characters by which these are recognised — constant number, equal dis-
tribution to the daughter-cells, and longitudinal division — are absent.”
This conclusion is strongly against the supposed high importance of
the constituent elements of the attraction-sphere as such.

New South African Marine Gastropod. J — Mr. G. B. Sowerby de-
scribes a remarkable mollusc, which has characters in common with the
Volutidae, Buccinidae, and Fusidae. The soft parts, which have been
described by Mr. M. F. Woodward, have some resemblance to those of
the Volutidae, and are quite unlike those of Fusidae and Buccinidae.
The most striking feature in the shell is its apex ; the nucleus being
large, and of a bulb-like form ; otherwise it would be taken for a species
of Neptunea Bolton = Chrysodomus Swainson. Mr. Sowerby proposes
Neptuneopsis Gilchristi g. et sp. n., as the name of this new Gastropod.

Caudal Triangular Groove of Arion.§— M. Emile Andre describes
this in A. empiricorum Fer. and A. fuscus Miill. It is a depression
bounded anteriorly by the mantle, and laterally by the margins of the
sole. It is lined by epithelial cells among which there are calcareous
and mucous unicellular glands. The secretion is greatest at the time
of reproduction in spring. It may be odoriferous, and Saint-Simon has
noted that two slugs eat one another’s mucus before pairing. It has no
toxic quality.

5. Ijamellibranchiata.

Australasian Shipworms.j| — Mr. C. Hedley describes Calobates fluvi-
atilis sp. n., from a river in Fiji, and compares it with other forms. The
soft parts rather than the hard parts should be taken as a guide in
classification. A salient character is the cup-like process of the mantle
which embraces both siphons and palettes ; the siphons differ in the
extent to which they are divided. The genus Calobates Gould is re-
modelled, and is characterised by a cup-like anterior fold of the mantle
and short siphons divergent for half their length. It thus embraces

* MT. Zool. Stat. Neapel, xiii. (1898) pp. 426-32 (1 pi.).

t Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Anat.). xi. (1898) pp. 427-40 (2 pis.).

% ‘ Report of the Marine Biologist (Cape of Good Hope) for the Year 1897,’
issued 1898, pp. 132-4. § Rev. Suisse Zool., v. (1898) pp. 179-82 (1 fig.).

|| Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxiii. (1898) pp. 91-6 (9 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

625

Wright’s Nausitoria , possibly Gould’s Lyrodus , and species referred to
other genera. The new species described is distinguished by the
rounded and produced auricle of the valve, and by the liatchet-shaped
palettes.

Arthropoda.

Phytogeny of Pantopoda.* — J. E. W. Ihle discusses the various
opinions held as to the relationships and phytogeny of the Pantopoda.
He holds that it is impossible to ally them with Arachnoids or with
Crustaceans, but he thinks that the Myriopods may be regarded as the
ancestral stock. The Pantopoda should be ranked as an independent
class of Tracheata, very divergent, but more nearly related to Myriopoda
than to any others. The occurrence of a pair of abdominal appendages
is especially emphasised.

More ‘Challenger’ Pycnogonids. t — Dr. P. P. C. Hoek describes
four new species of Pycnogonids, — Pallene dimorpha , Anoplodactylus neg-
leda , Colossendeis japonica , and Pycnogonum magellanicum. They were
found by Prof. G. 0. Sars in his £ Challenger ’ collection of Cumacea,
after the completion of the report on Pycnogonids. The author also
describes GhsetonympJion hirtum Kroyer from the southern part of the
North Sea.

a. Insecta.

Individual Variation in Wings of Lepidoptera.J — Mr. W. L. W.
Field has tried to answer two questions in this connection : — (1) Is a part,
developed in any given species in an extraordinary manner as compared
with the development of the corresponding part in other allied species,
more variable than parts which exhibit less specific peculiarity ? and (2)
Which sex is the more variable ? He worked with the moth Thyreus
abbotii Swainson, one of the common Sphingidge of Eastern North
America, and his measurements related to the irregular and very long
outer margin of the wing. He finds that this, the most aberrant dimen-
sion of the fore-wing, is likewise the most variable. This accords with
Darwin’s law. The females show, in general, a greater degree of varia-
bility than the males; but in the markedly aberrant feature under
discussion, their variability is less than that of the males. It is possible
that the sinuosity of the margin has a protective significance, and is of
less importance in the males whose conditions of life are easier.

Natural Selection in Lepidoptera.§ — Mr. M. L. Sykes illustrates
this by a study of mimicry, and gives an admirable exposition illustrated
by eight photographed plates.

Post-embryonic Development in Ants.|| — Herr W. Karawaiew now
publishes full details of his investigations on this subject in Lasius
flavus. As to method, the author chiefly emphasises the necessity for
dropping the larvm for a few seconds into water heated to about 80° C.
before fixation. The fixing agents, of which several were tried, were then
used cold. The most important general result is to show that, in marked

* Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 603-9.

f Tijdschr. Nederl. Dierk. Ver., v. (1898) p. 290 (2 pis.).

% Proc. Amer. Acad. Sci., xxxiii. (1898) pp. 389-96 (5 figs.).

§ Trans. Manchester Micr. Soc. for 1897 (issued 189S), pp. 51-61 (8 pis.).

|| Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool.. lxiv. (1898) pp. 385-178 (1 pis. and 15 figs.).

2 U 2

626

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

contrast to the conditions seen in flies, phagocytes play a very unim-
portant part in the metamorphosis. In this respect Lasius resembles
the Lepidoptera, and the author agrees with Korotneff and Rengel in
believing the peculiarity to be associated with the length of time occu-
pied by the metamorphosis. When this is rapid, as in flies, phagocytic
activity may be assumed ; when slow, the degenerative changes are
self-induced, and phagocytes are unimportant. The two conditions are
compared to the pathological states known as acute and chronic inflam-
mation. The most important part played by phagocytes in Lasius is in
connection with the cells of the fatty body, which are actually broken
down by means of phagocytic cells. This the author considers to be
due to the necessity for providing room in the abdomen for the rapidly
growing organs, especially the gonads. The contrast between the phago-
cytic and non-phagocytic types of development are well illustrated in
a comparison of the development of the imaginal muscles in flies and
in Lasius. While in the former the larval muscles are completely
consumed by phagocytes ; in the latter, although the muscle is inter-
penetrated by imaginal myoblasts, these do not exercise any apparent
influence on the larval muscle fibres and cells. The latter undergo a
gradual process of disintegration, due, according to the author, to ex-
haustion of vitality produced by too active functioning. When disen-
tegrated, the muscle fibres and cells form a liquefied mass, which is
gradually taken up by the imaginal myoblasts.

The paper includes detailed comparisons with the results obtained by
other observers for different insects.

Development of Mantis.* — Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell has made a few
observations on the development of a species of Siagmomantis, and is
unable to confirm what Pagenstecher described in regard to Mantis , e.g.
as to the state of the legs, or as to a real ecdysis between the pupa-like
form and the active young. The young insects did not hang by their
threads to the ootheca “ for some days,” but ran about the morning after
hatching.

The Genus Trimerus.f — Dr. Alfred Nalepa gives an account of this
genus founded by him for certain members of the family Eriophyidae,
found either as parasites within galls or in diseased growths of woody
trees. Fourteen species are known, three being now described for the
first time.

Wings of Insects.! — Messrs. J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham
continue their account of venation and tracheation, discussing in this
instalment the Hymenoptera and Embiidae. It can be accepted as a
firmly established fact that the courses of the wing-veins of primitive
insects were determined by the courses of pre-existing tracheae. But
there is little correlation in Trichoptera, Diptera, or Hymenoptera.

Specialisation of Lepidopterous Wing.§ — Mr. A. Kadcliffe Grote
finds that specialisation is manifested in two principal directions : —

(1) the suppression of the media, common to both pairs of wings ; and

(2) the suppression of the branches of the radius, confined to the fore-

* Amer. Nat , xxxii. (1898) pp. 513-4 (2 figs.).

t Zool. Jalirb. (Abth. Syst.), xi. (1898) pp. 405-11 (1 pi.).

+ Amer. Natural., xxxii. (1898) pp. 413-24 (11 figs.).

§ Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., xxxvii. (1898) pp. 17-44 (3 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

627

wings in most Lepidoptera, and occurring sporadically. His survey of
the Pierinm leads him to the conclusion that the Anthocharini represent
the most generalised forms in the holarctic fauna, and that they are
probably the survivors, not on the direct line, of a former five-branched
condition of the family.

Hew Family of Diptera.* — Dr. Benno Wandolleck has formed the
family Stethopathid2e to include what he regards as three genera of
Hies, especially characterised by the absence of both wings and halteres,
and in one case by the ectoparasitic habit. Of the genera the first, still
unnamed, has been erected for some specimens discovered by Prof. Cook
on African snails probably of the genus Achalina. After the author
had begun the study of these specimens, Prof. Dahl f obtained some
similar flies from Balum ; these he regarded as links between Diptera
and Aphaniptcra, and described as male and female of Puliciphora luci-
fera g. et sp. n. Wandolleck has since obtained Dahl’^ specimens, and
states that they are not male and female, but both females belonging
to different genera ; he denies the suggestion of affinity with the fleas,
rejects Dahl’s description, diagnosis, and name, and places the forms in
the genera Stethopathus and Chonoceplialus. These two genera together
with his own constitute the new family Stethopathidae, of which females
only are known. In them the thorax is greatly reduced, wings and
halteres absent, and compound eyes feebly developed. Full descriptions
of the specimens are given. The paper is exceedingly controversial
in tone.

Gnats and Malaria.J — Prof. B. Grassi makes a preliminary note of
much interest as to the probable role of Anopheles claviger , Culex penicil-
laris, &c., in the dissemination of the germs of malaria. If the thesis bo
correct, it suggests a practical way of lessening the scourge.

8. Arachnida.

Lymphoid Glands of Scorpion.§ — Prof. A. Kowalevsky has made a
study of two “ lymphoid glands ” (in Scorpio europseus) which are attached
by their anterior ends to the diaphragm dividing the body into a tho-
racic and an abdominal cavity immediately behind the coxal glands.
They are analogous to the median “ lymphatic gland ” which covers the
nerve-cord, but they show a greater power of absorbing introduced liquids,
while the latter has a greater avidity for solids.

New Parasitic Mite.|] — M. Marin Molliard describes, under the name
of Phytopus aquilina, a parasite found by him on the undersurface of the
fronds in Pteris aquilina. It is botanically interesting because it modifies
the shape of the fronds of the fern, and also prevents the development
of sporanges. The female of the species is figured, but no specific de-
scription is given.

African Opilionidse.^f — Dr. J. C. C. Loman gives a complete chro-
nological list of the Opilionidm already described in Africa, and adds to

* Zool. Jalirb. (Abth. Syst.), xi. (1898) pp. 412-41 (2 pis.),
t Zool. Anzeig., No. 543 (1897) pp. 409-12.
i Atti R. Accad. Lincei (Rend.), vii. (1898) pp. 163-72.

§ Mem. Ac. Imp. St. Petersbg., v. (1897) p. 18 (2 pis.).

I| Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Morot), x. (1898) pp. 93-6 (1 fig.).

Zcol. Jalirb. (Abth. Syst.), xi. (1898) pp. 515-31 (1 pi.)

628

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the list nine new species from South Africa and Madagascar. Six of
these came from Prof. Weber’s collection, and three from that of Dr. H.
Lenz. All are fully described, and their systematic position discussed.

e. Crustacea.

Minute Structure of Gills.* — Dr. J. Kimus has studied the gills in
species of Asellus, Cirolana , Idotea, Anilocra , and Cymothoa. Each lamella
is an outgrowth of the body-wall, with two epithelial walls and an exter-
nal cuticle. The epithelial walls bound a vascular cavity, and are united
by bridges or pillars in which some connective-tissue may be included.
This intermediate tissue, mesodermic in origin, has not been previously
described. It seems to be of some physiological importance in deter-
mining the course of the blood.

Parthenogenetic Cypridse/f — Dr. Richard Woltereck has investi-
gated especially the formation and development of the egg in certain
species of Gypris, and prefaces his paper by noting how little is really
known of the Ostracods as compared with Phyllopods and Copepods.
Among the special points of interest exhibited by the first named are
the great variation in habit in nearly related forms, and the frequency
of parthenogenesis, whether permanent, temporary (seasonal), or local.
There is similar variation in the form and colour of the egg, and in the
methods of egg-laying.

The origin, growth, and maturation of the eggs were followed in
detail, and the regular occurrence of a synaptic state in the growing eggs
was demonstrated. As in other cases, the synapsis is indicated by the
fusion of the chromatin threads into a ball, while the nucleolus retreats
to the opposite end of the nucleus. When the synaptic state is over, it
is seen that the similar germ-cells have become differentiated into ova
and nutritive cells. The latter, demonstrable in the ovary, have broken
down by the time the ova reach the oviduct. They are remarkable for
their excess of chromosomes (hyperchromatosis), and for the tendency
these have to group themselves in dyads and tetrads. These ultimately
ajDproach nearer and nearer together, until the nucleus is filled with a
dark amorphous mass of chromatin. In the egg-cells on the other hand
the chromosomes diminish and disappear, the chromatin being repre-
sented by minute microsomes, the conspicuous nucleolus appears in
several different forms, a clear vesicle is developed in the nucleus, and
the so-called yolk-nuclei appear in varying form in the cytoplasm. When
the growth of the egg is completed, it is laid, and maturation begins.
With the beginning of this process the chromosomes reappear. The
single polar body usually divides after its formation. The process of seg-
mentation is described in detail, and the result is to show much general
resemblance to the conditions seen in Copepoda.

In an interesting discussion of the theoretical value of his results,
the author rejects the suggestion that synapsis has anything to do with
reduction, and regards it as a suppressed mitotic division, notably be-
cause it is preceded by a segmentation of the chromatin threads into
chromosomes, a process which does not again occur in the egg-cells till

* Anat. Anzeig., xv. (1898) pp. 45-51 (G figs.).

f Zeitsclir. f. wiss, Zool., Ixiv. (1898) pp. 59G-G23 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

629

immediately before tlie formation of the polar body. The nucleolar
substance the author regards as a product of the active metabolism of
the nuclear chromatin. The formation of tetrads in the nutritive cells
is to be regarded as a degenerative process, but the nuclei of these cells
as a whole play an important part in the nutrition of the egg. The
yolk-nuclei of the egg are most nearly related to nucleolar substance.

Annulata.

Viviparity in an Annelid.* — MM. F. Mesnil and M. Caullery have
already described the polymorphism of Dodecaceria concharum (Ersted,
two forms of which (R and 0) undergo a metamorphosis of which
there is no trace in a third form (A). They have now found out that
this form A is viviparous and parthenogenetic. There is no hint of
males belonging to this A form. The larvae appear to be liberated by
the rudimentary segmental organs. It seems to be a case of what
Chun has called “dissogony.”

Structure of an Australian Land-Leech.f — Miss Ada M. Lambert
gives a careful account of a species which Blanchard has named Philse-
mon pungens. It bears more resemblance to Hsemadipsa than to any
other genus of Gnathobdellidm. It possesses five pairs of eyes, a point
in common with Mesobdella, but differing from Xerobdella. It differs,
however, from all three genera in having only two tooth-plates.

Histology of Ehynchobdellidse.J — Herr Emil Bayer, in the course
of his researches on the anatomy and development of these leeches, has
made some observations on the hypodermis, sense-organs, and skin-
glands. He finds that the cells of the hypodermis show a distinct
division into two regions, an inner filled with granular protoplasm, and
an outer which shows vertical fibrillation. The fibrillation is apparently
the result of a modification of the protoplasmic network, and is asso-
ciated with the development of a cuticle. It is comj>arable to a similar
structure in the epidermal cells of Gordius. As to the sense-organs,
the cup-shaped organs in the Rhynchobdcllidae are scattered irregularly
over the whole surface of the body. There are also hitherto unde-
scribed sense-organs of very remarkable structure in the Rhynclio-
bdellidae, notably in Glossosiphonia sexoculata. In this species the
sense-organs may be seen under slight magnification as little cones
scattered over the dorsal surface. Each consists of two cells ; the outer,
the sense-cell proper, is a modified hypodermis cell with a large nucleus,
and ending in exceedingly fine cilia which penetrate the cuticle. The
lower cell is a muscle-cell, capable by its contraction of acting on the
sense-cell so as to telescope this within itself. It is divided into an
upper transversely striated region and a lower clear area containing
the nucleus. These remarkable sense-organs are described in detail,
the description being illustrated by admirable figures. They are ap-
parently tactile organs, and their position and number are associated with
the habits of the species. The paper ends with some account of the
hypodermal and sub-hypodermal glands, which are chiefly distinguished
from one another by the degeneration of the nucleus in the former.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 486-9.

f Proc. R. Soc. Victoria, x. (1898) pp. 211-35 (5 pis. and 5 figs.).

% Zeitsclir. f. wiss. Zook, lxiv. (1898) pp. G 18-96 (?> pis. and 10 figs.).

630 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

New Species of Pristina.* — Dr. A. Garbini describes Pristina affinis
sp. n., nearly allied to Beddurd’s P. proboscidea. He found the Oligo-
chtete in studying Utricularia neglecta which sometimes captures it.
The proboscis (prostomium) is very long, almost cylindrical, and very
delicate and mobile.

Abyssal Sipunculids.f — M. Louis Roule makes a preliminary note
on the Sipunculids collected by the ‘ Travailleur ’ and ‘ Talisman ’ from
depths of 958 to 4255 m. in the Atlantic, off Spain, Morocco, and
Senegal. Two genera were represented in the collection, — Phallosoma
Levinsen, nearly related to Sipunculas , and Phascolosoma. In regard
to the latter in particular, the author expresses his strong doubt as to
the value of specific distinctions previously suggested. It appears to
him to be a very plastic type with numerous local varieties connected
by transition-forms.

South African Gephyreans.J — Dr. C. Ph. Sluiter gives an account
of the Gephyreans obtained by Prof. Weber in Africa; the collection
contained six species only. The greater part of the paper is taken up
by a description of a Malay form previously described by the author § as
Sipunculus indicus Peters, but now formed into a new species as S. dis -
crepans. The two species differ in several points, notably in the minute
structure of the skin, which is described and figured in both.

Rotatoria.

Rotatoria of the Basin of the Lake of Geneva. || — Dr. E. F. Weber
publishes the first part of what promises to be a very valuable contri-
bution to the rotatorial fauna of Switzerland. This first part contains
a descriptive list, with synonyms and bibliography, of 17 Rhizota and
18 Bdelloida so far found by the author in this district, and every species
is illustrated with excellent original and coloured drawings. One species,
Callidina brycei , is described as new.

New Rotifer, Monostyla appendiculata.^f — Mr. A. Skorikow of
Charkow, figures in outline and describes as new this rotifer which he
found in an inland salt-water lake in Russia. Unfortunately, this new
species was already figured and described by Dr. E. von Daday in 1893,
under the name Monostyla lamellata , from salt-water lakes in Hungary.

Nematohelminthes.

Introduction to Study of Nematode Parasites.**— Mr. N. A. Cobb
has made a laudable attempt to popularise the study of nematode para-
sites which he has already greatly advanced. After a description of
methods of observation, he gives a general account of the structure and
functions, most liberally illustrated. Eight new genera are proposed ;

* Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 562-4 (1 fig.).

t Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 197-9.

t Zool. Jahrb. (Abtli. Syst.), xi. (1898) pp. 442-50 (2 figs.).

§ Naturk. Tijdsckr. Nederl. Indie, v. p. 475.

I! Rev. Suisse de Zool., v. (1898) pp. 263-354.

Zool. Anzeig., 1898, p. 556 (1 fig.).

** Extract from MS. Report on the Parasites of Stock, Dep. of Agric. N.S.W.,
Miscellaneous Publication, No. 215, Sydney, 1898, 62 pp. and 129 figs.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

631

but in spite of tlie author’s apology, wo regard it as unfortunato that
these should be mixed up with a very useful introduction.

New Species of Gordiacea.* * * § — Dr. Tlios. H. Montgomery describes
two new species of Cliordodes , one Ch. furnessi from Borneo, and the
other Ch. albibarbatus from Africa. The first was found in two species
of Mantis , and is especially characterised by the presence of tubercles in
pairs. The other species is distinguished by the tufts of white hairs
on its cuticle ; bo.tli sexes are known, and the male and female differ
from one another in several respects.

Filaria and Spiroptera.j — Dr. M. Stossich gives a monographic
account of the numerous species belonging to these and related genera.
He deals with 212 species of Filaria, 89 species of Spiroptera, and
several species of Oxyspirura , Filaroides, Spiroxys, and Gongylonema. A
list of 489 hosts with their various Filaria- parasites is given.

In a previous paper J he [continues his miscellaneous Helmintho-
logical Notes.

Platyhelminthes.

Structure of Taenia confusa Ward.§ — Mr. M. F. Guyer has made
a detailed study of this new species of human tape-worm. There is
unfortunately some doubt with regard to the head, but the other organs
of the body are described in detail, and are contrasted with those of
T. saginata and T. solium.

Stichocotyle Nephropis.|| — Herr T. Odhnerhas succeeded in finding
the sexual form of this Trematode, whose larval form was described in
1884 by Mr. J. T. Cunningham from the gut of Nephrops norvegicus, and
afterwards (1895) by Nickerson from the American lobster. The adult
was found in the biliary ducts of the liver of Baja clavata, but doubtless
occurs in other species. It is distinct from Macraspis elegans Olsson, to
which Monticelli (1892) referred the larva ; but a more precise state-
ment as to its affinities is reserved.

Anatomy and Histology of Nemertines.1T — Dr. Ludwig Bohmig has
recently refound the little fresh-water Nemertine formerly described by
him as Tetras'emma grsecense, and has also obtained more specimens
of the terrestrial form described by von Graff as Geonemertes clialico -
pliora, and has subjected both forms to a thorough histological examina-
tion. He has in the first place emended Tetrastemma grsecense (Bohmig)
to Stichostemma grsecense (Bohmig), and has modified the diagnosis
of von Graff’s species, notably by showing that the sexes arc sepa-
rate and the male unknown. The remainder of the paper is devoted
to the anatomy and histology of the two species ; a few of the more
general points only can be noted here. The observations show that,
as stated by Burger, a body-cavity is absent in the adult ; it is how-
ever possible that it exists in the young forms and is filled up by the
intercellular substance secreted by the connective-tissue cells. Both of

* Zool. Jalirb. (Abth. Syst.), xi. (1898) pp. 379-84, 493-9G (3 pis.).

t Boll. Soc. Adriat. Sci. Nat., xviii. (1898) pp. 13-162.

X Tom. cit., pp. 1-10 (2 pis.).

§ Zool. Jah lb. (Abth. Syst.), xi. (1898) pp. 4G9 -92 (1 pi.).

|| Zool. ADzeig., xxi. (1S98) pp. 509-13.

*|y Zeitschr. f. whs. Zool., lxiv. (1898) pp. 479-564 (5 pis. and 1 fig.).

632

SUMMARY OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the forms investigated have a complex excretory system. In Sticho -
stemma grsecense there was found to be only one pair of nephridia in
small specimens, while the larger had sometimes eight at one side of
the body and nine at the other. The nephridial tubules formed a fine
network through the body, the fine branches ending internally in well
defined “ flame-cells.” A similarly complicated nephridial system was
found in Geonemertes , where ten excretory pores were counted on either
side of the body. During the course of his detailed observations on the
gland-cells of the cerebral organ of Sticlio stemma, the author came to
the conclusion that the disappearance of the nucleolus from an actively
secreting cell shows that it is a reserve from which new chromatin
may he manufactured.

Incertae Sedis.

Larval Development of Cheilostomata.* — M. Louis Calvet has
studied this in numerous species, e.g. of Bugula , Scrupocellaria , F lustra,
and Lepralia. ^blastula with a reduced blastocoele is followed by an
epiholic gastrula, in which four initial endoderm cells enter the segmen-
tation cavity. The endoderm retains its primitive character through
the whole of the larval development ; the mesoderm is not differentiated
until shortly before hatching. In the larvae of the viviparous species
there is a neuro-muscular system quite comparable to that of Cyphonautes
compressus and the larvae of Ctenostomata (Flustrellidae, Alcyonididae),
but there is no digestive tube. A “mesodermic thickening” occurs
similar to that which Prouho has described in Ctenostomata.

Origin of Polypide in Marine Ectoprocta.f— M. Louis Calvet has
studied the much-discussed origin of the polypide in the oozoids, young
blastozoids, and adult blastozoids, of numerous species.

Only in the oozoids does the polypide arise as an invagination of
the zooecial walls. In other cases the polypide begins as a solid mass,
which secondarily becomes diploblastic and hollow. Only in the oozoid’s
polypide are there elements representing the three germinal layers.
In the blastozoids, the polypide has a mesenchymatous origin, from
elements which in the young blastozoids are derived from the ectodermic
epithelium, and in the adult blastozoids from the funicular tissue. In
these cases, therefore, the differentiation of the three germinal layers is
not recognisable.

Echinoderma.

Amputation of Disc-covering in Ophiurids.* — Dr. C. Ph. Sluiter
begins an interesting note by referring to Prof. Jeffrey Bell’s description
of a remarkable ophiurid from Brazil (1888) in which the covering of
the disc was lost, and the dorsal surfaces of the most proximal arm-joints
were strangely affected. Sluiter believes that this form was probably
identical with or nearly allied to Ampliiura grisea Lym. But he is more
concerned with the occurrence of a similar loss of the disc-covering in
Ophiocnida echinata Ljn. (Lym.), in which he suspects that a normal
amputation occurs periodically, probably in connection with repro-
duction. It is also suggested that the covering of the disc and the
genital organs are regenerated after the reproductive season.

* Coraptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 79-81. f Tom. cit., pp. 194-7.

1 Tijdschr. Nederland. Dierk. Yer., v. (1898) pp. 303-10 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

633

Ccelentera.

Arctic Hydromedusse.* — Gbsta Gronberg gives a list of 41 species
which have been found in the Arctic region, and describes two new forms,
Sarsia brachygaster sp. n., and Solmundus glacialis sp. n., besides others
already more or less satisfactorily diagnosed.

New Actinarian.f — Mr. E. L. Mark describes a very remarkable
new form found during the c Albatross ’ expedition, which he regards as
a sea-anemone possibly allied to Ceriantlius , and calls Branchiocerianthus
urceolus. The disc is oval and much higher at one end than at the
other, the marginal tentacles 85-97 in number, and arranged in the
form of a horseshoe. The oral tube rises above the level of the disc,
and is surrounded by numerous (about 130) oral tentacles. Between
this tube and the marginal tentacles are a varying number (21-37) of
paired branched organs, called by the author £< gills.” The column
resembles that of Ceriantlius , and its lower bulb-shaped termination is
invested by a complex sheath. The description is preliminary only.

Alcyonaria from Spitzbergen.J — Herr Walther May describes the
Alcyonaria found by Kiikenthal and Walther off the east coast of Spitz-
bergen. They all fall into Kiikenthal’s genus Paraspongodes , which
includes most of the new genera founded by Danielssen. The genus is
defined by the following characters : — Nephthyidae without supporting
fasciculi, the polypes single or united in clusters. The specimens
include six species, of which two are new. Full details as to distri-
bution are given, an interesting point being that the species are cold-
water animals, and the depth at which they live is determined apparently
by temperature only. Thus Paraspongodes fruticosa occurs on the west
coast at a depth of 600 fathoms, but on the east in 52 fathoms, this
being apparently due to warm and cold currents respectively.

Structure of Xenia.§ — Mr. J. H. Ashworth has a note on certain
points in the anatomy of a species of the Alcyonarian Xenia. In this
species the six short mesenteric filaments of most Alcyonarians are
absent, but the stomodaeum contains secreting “ goblet-cells,” which pro-
bably perform the digestive function usually discharged by the cells of
the filaments. Certain of the endoderm-cells are remarkable in that
they are each furnished with a long pseudopodium, which may be from
four to eight times the length of the cell.

Porifera.

Calcareous Sponges. || — Mr. G. P. Bidder discusses certaint points
connected with the skeleton and classification of these sponges. He
believes that in the formation of spicules too little stress has been laid
upon tension as an important factor, and differs from Minchin in be-
lieving that the explanation of the exact geometrical figure of any spicule
is to be sought in crystallography rather than in physiology. “ The
angles of a triradiate calcareous spicule are dictated by the properties

* Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Syst.), xi. (1898) pp. 451-68 (l pi.).

t Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., xxxii. (1898) pp. 147-54 (3 pis.).

X Zool. Jahrb. (Abth. Syst.), xi. (1898) pp. 385-404 (1 pi.).

§ Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond., lxiii. (1898) pp. 443-6 (3 figs.).

|| Op. cit., lxiy. (1898) pp. 61-76 (10 figs.).

634

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of calcite, and, witliin a considerable range, would appear neither to
influence nor be influenced by selective mortality in the species among
which it occurs.” The position is elaborated in considerable detail.

In the second part of the paper the author criticises the classifica-
tion of sponges according as they are homocoel or heterocoel, and,
without prejudging the question as to whether there is or is not a natural
class Calcarea, he proposes to establish two sub-classes — (1) Calcaronea,
and (2) Calinea. These sub-classes arc mainly based on the two points
already noticed by Minchin, that in the first division the nucleus of
the collar-cells and of the flagellate cells of the larva is distal, and the
flagellum arises from it directly, while in the second the flagellum does
not arise directly from the nucleus, which is basal ; and that in the first
case the larva is an amphiblastula, in the second a parenchymula.
The two sub-classes are also characterised by their spicules, the first to
appear in the one case being oxea, and in the second triradiates. Detailed
diagnoses are given of the sub-classes and their orders, and in some cases
also of the families.

Calcareous Sponges from the White Sea.* — Herr L. L. Breitfuss
describes a collection from the White Sea and from the Murman or
Barent Sea. Altogether there are 41 Arctic species on record, —
15 Asconidm, 20 Syconidae, and 6 Leuconiidae, and there seems to bo
great uniformity in the circumpolar distribution.

Protozoa.

Deep-water Deposits from the Red Sea.f — Dr. E. Graffe describes
the composition of the ooze from depths of 1000 m. or more in the
Red Sea. It may be described as midway between Globigerina- and
Pteropod-ooze. The list includes a large number of Foraminifera,
2 Radiolarians, 13 Pteropods, and 2 Heteropods.

Classification of Ciliata.j; — Dr. Y. Sterki maintains that the Peri-
tricha are quite distinct from all the other Ciliata, which he terms
Pantotricha. He subdivides the Pantotricha into Gymnostomata and
Trichostomata (em.), and recognises three orders of Trichostomata, viz.
Aspirotricha, Oiigotricha (em.), and Zonotricha.

Licnophora.§ — Sig. A. Garbini gives a short description of Licnophorci
europsea sp. n. from fresh water at Verona. A similar form ( L . setifera )
was described from fresh water in New Zealand by Maskell (1886), but
Biitschli doubted its validity, which Garbini now confirms. His dis-
covery is a remarkable Protozoon, very contractile, and Protean in form.
The posterior region is irregularly rectangular, and bears two groups of
minute setae ; the anterior region forms a right angle to the posterior
part, and is covered with short cilia. The terminal oral aperture is
surrounded by numerous long cilia.

Luminosity of Ceratium tripos. || — Herr J. Reinke states that the
luminosity of this marine organism may be incited by a variety of

* Mem. Acad. Imp. St. Petersbg., vi. (1808) p. 41 (4 pis.).

t SB. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien, cvi. (1897) pp. 431-8.

1 Amer. Natural., xxxii. (1898) pp. 425-8.

§ Zool. Anzeig., xxi. (1898) pp. 513-4 (2 figs.).

|| Wiss. Meeresunters. v. d. Comm. z. Unters-. d. deutschen TMeere in Ki 1, N.F.,
iii. p. 39. See Bot. Ztg., lvi. (1898) 2te Abtli., p. 282.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

G35

mechanical agencies, as also by warmth, though there is an optimum
temperature, above and below which the phenomenon is not exhibited.
Various foreign substances — alcohol, iodine, sulphuric acid, in moderate
concentration — produce the luminosity. Electric irritation gave no
definite results.

A New Gregarine.* — MM. Maurice Caullery and Felix Mesnil
describe, under the name of Gonospora longissima , a new coelomic Grega-
rine, found in the epitokous form of Dodecaceria concharum (Erst., and
exhibiting several interesting peculiarities. It resembles the other
members of the genus in being short when young ; but the adults are
long filaments, 1-2 cm. in length* The life-history of the parasite pro-
gresses along parallel lines with that of the host. At the sexual maturity
of the latter, the Gregarine forms its spores, and the cysts are liberated
by the nephridia with the genital products. The spores hatch in the
alimentary canal of the new host, and the young penetrate into the
intestinal cells. The remarkable point, however, is that in these cells
the young Gregarines undergo endogenous multiplication, and it is these
secondarily produced forms or sporozoites which reach the coelom of the
host. This process of self-infection of the host has not been previously
described in Gregarinida, and is of interest because it has already been
shown to exist in the Coccidea.

Haematozoon of Goitre.f — Dr. E. Grasset points out the parallelism
between goitre and paludism ; each has a peculiar geographical distri-
bution ; each is associated with the enlargement of an organ of internal
secretion (thyroid and spleen) ; each may reach an extreme in a cachexia ;
and each has an associated Hmmatozoon. Laveran has described the
haematozoa of paludism ; Grasset has found similar forms in the blood
of recently infected goitre patients. The bodies are spherical and non-
nucleated, with brick-red pigment ; another form is a “free flagellum” ;
in others there are numerous agglomerated segments. More details
must of course be forthcoming.

Exosporidium marinum.J — M. Dene Sand describes this new para-
site found on the legs of an Acarid common among seaweed. Its
membrane, ectoplasm, granules, sluggish movements, and hints of spore-
formation, suggest a Gregarine ; and the observer places it provisionally
beside Amoebidium parasiticum described by Cienkowski.

* Ann. Microgr., x. (1898) pp. 152-5.

t Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 75-7 (10 figs.).

X Bull. Soc. Beige Micr., xxiv. (1898) pp. 116-9.

636

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-Structure and Protoplasm. ’

Form of the Cell-nucleus.* — In a paper on the Physiology of the
Cell-nucleus, Dr. F. G. Kohl set3 down the normal form of the nucleus
in young protoplasmic cells as spherical or elliptical. But subsequently
its form may undergo very great change ; as in the elongated vermiform
nuclei of the parenchymatous cells in the vascular bundles of Allium
Porrum , the cells of the hairs of Tradescantia, &c., where the length of
the nucleus may be fifty times its breadth. In the endosperm-cells
of Zea Mays the nuclei are peculiar branched filiform bodies which fill
up the spaces between the starch grains. In the epidermal cells of
Hyacinthus orientalis the nuclei are pointed at both ends, as also are
those of the epidermal cells of the leaf of Ornithogalum . umbellatum ,
and those of the hairs on the leaf-stalk of Pelargonium zonale. In cells
with living protoplasm endowed with motility the author was, in some
cases, able to see a slow change of form, when the outline was observed
at intervals of 20, 30, or 40 minutes. Amoeboid motions, similar to those
of the nucleus of animal cells, were also observed in some instances,
connected probably with the absorption of nutriment by the nucleus.
This had apparently not been observed before in vegetable cells enclosed
in a cell-wall.

Streaming of Protoplasm. f — From observations made on the hairs
on the flower of the common gourd, Herr M. Heidenhain contests the
ordinary statement that solid particles (granules) are passively carried
along in protoplasm-currents. The “ streaming ” of the granules is a
phenomenon quite distinct from the local movement of masses of proto-
plasm, though the two kinds of motion may concur. The movement
of the granules may, however, take place equally when the mass of
protoplasm is at rest.

Chromatolysis of the Nucleus.^ — From a study chiefly of the
muciferous idioblasts of Opuniia , Dr. B. Longo comes to conclusions
in several points opposed to those of Cavara. He maintains that the
phenomenon of chromatolysis does not occur in normal nuclei ; that
the nucleoles are composed of a single substance, and not of a central
substance (plastin of Zacharias, pyrenin of Schwartz, representing,
according to Cavara, the nucleole properly so called), and of a peripheral
substance representing the chromatin ; that the “ nucleole properly so
called ” of Cavara is nothing but a vacuole ; that the nucleoles are per-
fectly homogeneous, vacuolated, but not alveolated. He concludes that
at present we know nothing of the true function of the nucleoles.

* SB. 69. Versam. Deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzte, Braunschweig, 1897. See Bot.
Centralbl., lxxii. (1897) p. 168.

t SB. Phys.-ined. Gesell. Wurzburg, 1897 (1898) pp. 116-39.

X Atti r. Accad. Lincei, vii. (1898) pp. 282-90. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 549.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

637

Plasmolysis and the Protoplasmic Membrane.* — Prof. R. Chodat
and M. A. M. Boubier have made experiments on plasmolysis in a number
of plants belonging to various classes of Cryptogams (Algse, Muscineas,
fern-prothallia), as well as on flowering plants. The following is a
summary of the conclusions arrived at.

In isolated cells the plasmolysed protoplasm does not become com-
pletely detached from the cell-wall ; it remains for a time connected
with it by more or less numerous threads of ectoplasm. These threads
have no connection with the filaments of protoplasm which pass through
the cell- wall. Their formation is explained by the viscid consistence
of the ectoplasm, and by the fact that the limiting layer of the proto-
plasm passes insensibly into the cell-wall, and may give rise, by appo-
sition, to new layers. The adhesion of the ectoplasm to the cell- wall
partly explains its passivity in the protoplasmic movement. The ecto-
plasmic layer (parietal utricle) cannot be regarded., as some authors
have done, as a sharply differentiated structure, a distinct organ. In
many gelatinous Algae it passes insensibly into the cell-wall ; while
it is also continuous with the granular protoplasm, to which it adheres
more strongly than to the cell-wall.

Structure of the Cell-wall.f — Prof. E. Strasburger gives the result
of fresh researches, especially on the following points : — The formation
of the division-walls in the pollen-mother-cells of Lilium and Alstroe-
mevia ; the formation of a membrane round isolated protoplasm-balls
in Vauclieria ; the formation of the beams of cellulose in Caulerpa ; the
formation of sacs in the epiderm of the seeds of Cupliea ; the formation
of the massulm-chambers and glochids in Azolla ; the development of the
extine of pollen-grains of Knautia and Althaea ; the stratification of
the pith-cells in the stem of Clematis. The following are the results
already attained.

The materials of the cell-wall are products of the protoplasm. They
are either excreted on the surface of the protoplasts (division-walls in
pollen-mother-cells of Lilium, &c., protoplasm-balls of Vauclieria ), or
they remain in the interior of the protoplasts, and there undergo a
variety of changes (beams of Caulerpa'). In many cases (massulse of
Azolla) a definite mass of protoplasm is completely transformed into
cellulose, the material for the formation of cellulose being apparently
a product of the splitting up of cytoplasm. The cell-walls increase in
superficies by passive traction and simultaneous apposition of new
lamellae, or by active intussusception. Their increase in thickness in
tissues is generally effected by the apposition of new lamellae, which do
not further increase in thickness by active intussusception, but under-
go changes by passive infiltration and incrustation. In certain cases,
especially in isolated cells, a secondary increase in thickness of the
lamellaB takes place by active intussusception, often accompanied by
striking changes in form (extine of the pollen-grains of Althaea and
Knautia). Both apposition and intussusception therefore take part,
separately or combined, in the increase in thickness of the cell-wall.

Instead of the terms kinoplasm and trophoplasm for constituents of
the cell, Strasburger proposes jilarplasm and alveolarplasm. The secon-

* Journ. de Bot. (Morot), xii. (1898) pp. 118-31 (1 pi.).

t Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1898) pp. 511-98 (2 pis.).

638

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

clary increase in thickness of the extine of the pollen-grains of Althaea
and Knautia is attributed to a secondary imbibition of living protoplasm
rather than to the original presence of protoplasm. In these pollen-
grains the extine is double, the two layers being separated by a rod-
layer ( StdbchenschicJit ) ; the rods are free, but the spaces between them
may be filled by soluble pigments. Similar “rod-layers” unite also
the more strongly refractive layers of the membranes of the pith-cells in
Clematis , and possibly occur in all stratified membranes. The author
finds that the thick-walled strongly lignified pith-cells of Clematis are
still caj)able of division.

(2) Other Cell-Contents (including- Secretions).

Active Albumin in Reserve-material.* * * § — Out of 48 species of trees
examined, M. U. Suzuki finds, in 25, active albumin in the cortex, and
more abundantly in the cortex than in the buds. He concludes that
active albumin acts as a reserve-material, being stored up in the winter
and used up in the spring in the formation of the buds.

Spheroids and Crystalloids in Phytolacca.f— Herr 0. Kruch de-
scribes these structures especially in the apex of the leaf of P. icosandra ,
which runs out to a sharp leathery yellowish point, and in other species.
They are large round usually colourless strongly refringent structures,
and occupy a large space in the protoplasts. They are usually homo-
geneous, but sometimes contain one or more vacuole-like cavities.
Similar structures were observed in the apex of the leaves of P. abyssi-
nica , where there is either one in each cell in the neighbourhood of the
nucleus, or a number of small ones, often united into clusters.

Tannin-like Drops in the Cell-sap of the Leaves of Bromeliacese.f

- — In the parenchyme-sheath of the vascular bundles of the leaves of Bil-
ler gia amcena, Dr. G. S. Wallin finds peculiar very refringent yellow to
yellow-green or yellow-brown drops in the cell-sap of all the cells. In
each cell is usually one relatively large (16-18 /x) or several smaller
drops. The micro-chemical reactions are given, which determine these
drops to be neither of a resinous nor of an oily, but of a tannin-like
character. They are nearly or quite insoluble in the cell-sap, in which
respect they differ from similar bodies in the Scrophulariacese, which are
partially soluble. The presence of this substance is usually limited to
the bundle-sheaths ; it was found in all species of Bromeliacese examined,
and appears to be peculiar to that order. It is probably an excretion
product.

Distribution of Glutamin in Plants. § — According to Herr E.
Schulze, asparagin is frequently replaced by glutamin as the soluble
nitrogenous food-material of plants. It was found in 22 species belong-
ing to 10 different families, among others Lepidium sativum , Baplianus
sativus, Camelina saiivai Spergula arvensis, Spinacia glabra , and Picea

* Bull. Imp. Univ. Tokio, iii. (1897) p. 253. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898)

p. 199.

t Ann. K. 1st. Bot. Boma, vii., 12 pp.-and 1 pi. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898)
p. 127. f Bot. Centralbl , lxxv. (1898) pp. 323-6.

§ Landwirth. Yersuchs-Stat., 1898, p. 442. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898)

p. 200.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

639

excelsa. It occurs specially frequently in the Cruciferse; the largest
proportion being 2 ‘5 per cent, of the dried substance. In all cases
where glutamin has at present been found, the seeds contain abundance
of oil, though the seedlings from some oily seeds (poppy, Tropseolum , pine)
contain asparagin and not glutamin.

Structure of Starch-grains.* * * § — From the minute study of starch-
grains obtained from a variety of different plants, Herr J. H. Salter
comes to the following general conclusions. In all stages of its growth
the starch-grain is sharply differentiated from the plastid in which it is
formed ; its substance is excreted, and is not produced by gradual trans-
formation of successive layers of protoplasm. Staining experiments
show that the stratified appearance of starch-grains is the result essen-
tially of variations in density, i. e. in the capacity for absorption of the
different layers. All growing starch-grains appear to have a denser
margin which is not stratified. The lamella attain their final differen-
tiation only when they are covered by those formed later. A progressive,
but not uniform, decrease in density may be detected, advancing from
the margin to the nucleus of the grain. Observation of grains in process
of solution renders it probable that changes may in some cases take
place in the surface of the grain from the action of a ferment. The
relation of the plastid to the starch-grain in process of solution appears
in some cases to confirm Meyer’s view that the ferment is excreted by
the chromatophore. As regards the inner structure of the starch-grain,
all the phenomena lead to the conclusion that each lamella, or at least,
each watery lamella, consists of a series of elements deposited radially.

Arsenic in Plants.f — Herr J. Stoklasa reports the results of a care-
ful series of observations on the presence of arsenic in the vegetable
kingdom, and on its poisonous effects on plants. He states that arsenious
and arsenic acids are both highly poisonous to plants, even in excessively
minute quantities, and that arsenic acid is not able to replace phosphoric,
as has been stated. Arsenic is, however, a very widely diffused element,
especially in association with sulphuric acid ; in superphosphates it may
even be present to the extent of 0*3 per cent.; but its presence in the
form of As(OH)3 or AsO(OH)3 is not injurious to vegetation unless it
exceeds 0 * 4 per cent.

Ferment in Barley.J — MM. E. Bourquelot aud H. Herissey find, in
germinating barley-seeds, in addition to amylase and trehalase, a soluble
ferment which has a special action on pectin.

Raphids in Monocotyledons.§ — Mr. J. Parkin describes the presence,
in certain genera of Liliacem and Amaryllidem, of raphid-cells inter-
mediate between those of ordinary structure in which a bundle lies in the
centre of the cell surrounded by a mucilage-sheath, and those of Iris, in
which each crystal-sac contains a large acicular crystal, and has a nucleus
and protoplasm, but no mucilage. The raphids in question were ob-
served in Funkia ovata, Convallaria majalis, Phormium tenax , Tritoma

* Jalirb. f. wiss. Bot. (PfefFer u. Strasburger), xxxii. (1898) pp. 117-66 (2 pis.).

t Zeitschr. f. d. landwirtsch. Yers. in Oesterreich, 1898, p. 154. See Bot. Cen
tralbl., lxxv. (1898) p. 304.

X Comptes Bendus,cxxvii. (1 898) pp. 191-4. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 218.

§ Ann. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 147-51 (1 ph).

1898 2 X

640

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Uvaria , and Poliantlies tuberosa. The individual crystals are fewer and
larger than in an ordinary bundle, and are destitute of a mucilage-
sheath.

Coagulation of Latex.* * * § — Mr. R. H. Biffen describes the mode of
coagulating the latex in several species of rubber-producing plants, and
the evidence afforded of the existence of a proteid constituent, whether
acid or alkaline, as well as of globulins, albumoses, and peptone.

Reserve-Material in Deciduous Trees.f — Mr. E. M. Wilcox gives a
preliminary account of his researches into the changes which occur
during the dormant period in the reserves of trees. He has studied the
changes from October to March in about twenty-live species of trees, and
finds there is a general movement of the starch from the peripheral to
the deep-seated portions of the stem in winter, and a reversal of the pro-
cess in spring.

(8) Structure of Tissues.

Comparative Anatomy of the Cycadese.J — Mr. W. C. Worsdell
gives the following as the general results of his study of the comparative
anatomy of certain genera of Cycadem.

“ In Cycas the conduplicate vernation and arrangement of the bundles
in the fleshy hypogseal cotyledons, the secondary extrafascicular rings,
the concentric cortical strands, and, in one species, the peculiar concen-
tric structure of the leaf-traces in the stem, and in the hypocotyl some
curious concentric strands running obliquely out from the cylinder, and
in a small seedling, the secondary vascular cylinders lying outside the
normal stele ; in the seedling of Stangeria paradoxa the small primary
concentric bundles in the stalk common to the two cotyledons, which,
both higher up and lower down, become collateral, and in the adult stem
the occurrence of a secondary concentric strand in the periphery of the
cortex ; and, in Ceratozamia mexicana, the vert : cal succession through the
pith of a large stem of effete peduncular cylinders, the peduncles which
occasionally terminate the stem being in turn pushed to one side and
their basal region enclosed, by a lateral shoot which continues the main
vegetative axis.”

From these characters the author draws the conclusion that the
Cycadeae are nearly allied to certain fossil fern-like plants, notably the
Medullosse. The species examined were Cycas revoluta, C. media , Macro -
zamia spiralis , Ceratozamia mexicana , and Stangeria paradoxa.

Anatomy of the Hemp § — Sigg. G. Briosi and F. Tognini describe
in great detail the structure of the vegetative organs of Cannabis sativa.
Among the more important points brought out are the following. In the
stem there was found, in the interior of the xylem portion of the vascular
bundles, a string of phloem-tissue, not containing any sieve-tubes, which
they call “ internal pseudo-liber ” and regard as a retrogressive or
undifferentiated phloem. In the root the results obtained by the authors
differ somewhat from those of Van Tieghem and Douliot. In the

* Ann. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 165-71.

t Amer. Journ. Sci., vi. (1898) pp. 69-74.

% Journ. Linu. Soc. (Bot.), xxxiii. (1898) pp. 437-57 (1 pi.).

§ Atti 1st. Bot. Univ. Pavia, iv., 175 pp. and 26 pis. See Bot. Centralbl., 1898,
Beib., p. 27.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

641

meristem of tlie root the periblem arises from two initial layers. There
is no pericycle in the upper part of the hypocotyl or in the stem. The
xylem-bundles of the root are perfectly continuous with those in the
stem ; the passage from the centripetal to the centrifugal arrangement
takes place without torsion. The fibres of the hemp are always more or
less fusiform, and have often spathulate, curved or wart-like ends, but
are never branched.

Wood of Pomese.* — Dr. A. Burgerstein has continued his investi-
gations of the structure of the wood in several genera of this family. Ho
states that, in the development of the histological elements of the secon-
dary xylem, there is only a gradual differentiation, and that transitions
occur in all directions. The medullary rays consist, with some excep-
tions, of only one or two rows of cells, or partially of three. Several
genera exhibit diagnostic characters in the structure of the wood.

Absciss-layer in the Leaves of Monocotyledons.! — In the leaves of
Narcissus , Galanthus, and Leucojum, Mr. J. Parkin has observed the
formation of a layer of cells with corky walls which cause the detach-
ment of the leaf from its tunicate base. Some time before the leaves
turn yellow, certain of the parenchymatous cells situated a little above
the tunicate base of the foliage-leaf become meristematic, and divide to
form a zone of narrow cells with conspicuous nuclei and abundant
protoplasm.

Resin-galls of the Abietineae.! — Herr P. Nottberg discusses in
detail the formation of masses of resin between the wood and bark in
pine-stems. Their formation is always the result of the energy of the
cambium in repairing an injury. Immediately after their formation the
cells of this pathological parenchyme begin to form resin internally ; but
whether the resinogenous layer arises from the cell-wall or from the
protoplasm is uncertain. The resin-passages of the duramen are always
closed by thyllae, thus preventing any external communication through
injury to the alburnum. In the silver-fir ( Edeltanne ), which does not
normally produce secretion-receptacles, resin-passages are formed as the
result of injury.

(4) Structure of Organs.

Influence of Carbon dioxide on the Form and Structure of

Plants.§ — M. E. C. Teodoresco compares the effect on the form and
structure of plants ( Lupinus albus, Phaseolus multiflorus, Pisum sativum ,
Faba vulgaris) of an atmosphere containing a larger amount of carbon
dioxide than ordinary atmosphere, with one deprived as far as possible
of that gas. He finds that in the former case the plants have their
hypocotyl or their first internodes shorter, but the following internodes
longer, the total length of the stem being usually greater. As a rule,
the internodes have in the former case a larger diameter, the number of
vascular bundles being also often greater ; in each bundle the xylem,
the phloem, and the generating zone (cambium), are also more fully

* SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, cvii. (1898) pp. 8-22. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 546.

f Ann. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 151-3 (2 figs.).

X Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrankheiten, vii. (1897) pp. 181 et seq. (1 pi. and figs.).
See Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898) p. 209.

§ Comptes Bendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 335-8.

2x2

642

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

developed ; the leaves are thicker ; the cells of the palisade-tissue more
elongated, and the air-chambers larger.

Male Organs of Gymnosperms.* — M. Thibaut calls attention to the
difference in structure between the male organs of the Coniferae and
Cycadeae on the one hand and those of the Gnetaceae on the other hand.

In the Cycadeae the stamen consists of a scale which bears the pollen-
sacs on its under side. The scale or vegetative portion of the stamen is
large and well developed. It consists of one or two much-branched
vascular bundles, an epiderm with a strongly developed cuticle, and a
dense layer of fibres and sclerites, deposits of tannin and calcium oxalate,
and secretion-canals. The pollen-sacs have a septum formed either of
a single layer of epidermal cells or of a layer of hypodermal fibres.
The epiderm, which represents the elastic zone of the septum, is dis-
tinguished from the epiderm of the rest of the stamen only by a stronger
development of its cutieular layers and by the lignification of its lower
region. Its cell-walls are strongly thickened on their lateral sides.

The same type occurs, with more or less variation, in all Conifers, the
variations depending mainly on the degree of reduction of the scale and
on the diminution in size of the pollen-sacs. In the Araucarieae, Taxo-
dieae, and Cupressineae, the pollen-sacs are obviously on the lower [upper
in Bot. Centr.] side of the scale, in other Coniferae they exhibit a tendency
to become depressed. As the vegetative portion of the stamen becomes
reduced in size, it exhibits also a simplification in structure, while that
of the pollen-sac becomes more and more complicated.

The Gnetaceae, in contrast to the Cycadeae and Coniferae, possess
perfect male flowers. The pollen-sacs are not placed on one side of a
scale, but on the apex of so-called supports (staminophores). They
open by a fissure at their apex. The epidermal cells have no thickening
zone, but, on the other hand, curved septa ; those of all the other Gymno-
sperms being flat.

Sporophyll of Cycadeae. f — Mr. W. C. Worsdell has studied the
vascular structure of the sporophyll in a number of species belonging
to different genera of Cycadeae. He finds, in the male sporophyll, a
single vascular bundle leaving the cylinder of the axis of the cone,
which, on entering the stalk of the sporophyll, divides into three. The
bundles supplying tho sporanges are much smaller in size than the
similar ones on the female side. They also diverge less from the mesarch
structure of those of the foliage leaf than do the bundles of the female
sporophyll. In the female sporophyll two bundles leave the cylinder
of the axis of the cone, usually dividing up in the cortex into a larger
number, so that, as a rule, four bundles occur in the stalk of the sporo-
phyll, of which the two lateral ones are much larger than the rest. The
divergence^ from the ordinary mesarch structure of the foliage leaf is
here much more marked. In the sterile portion of both kinds of sporo-
phyll, i.e. in the part above the insertion of the sporanges, the mesarch
structure of the bundle prevails. As compared with the bundles of the
stalk, the centripetal is, as a rule, much more developed than the centri-

* ‘ Rech. s. l’appareil male d. Gym nospermes,’ 225 pp. and 1G pis., Lille, 189G.
See Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898) p. 129.

t Ann. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 203-41 (2 pis.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

643

fugal xylem ; while the phloem, which shares the development of tho
centrifugal xylem in the stalk, becomes reduced and insignificant.

From these facts Mr. Worsdell draws the conclusion that, in the
Cycadeae, the sporophyll is probably a more primitive organ than the
foliage leaf.

Composition of Pollen.* — In the ash of the pollen of the pine, Herr
E. Bamann finds the greatly preponderating substances to be salts of
potassium and of phosphoric acid. After combustion he found in tho
ash 50*746 per cent, of potassa, and 39*086 per cent, of phosphoric
acid, the remaining substances being present in much smaller quantities,
viz. soda 1*958, lime 2*612, magnesia 2*518, manganese oxide 1*119,
iron oxide 1 * 958 per cent., and a trace of silica. The dried substance
contained, in 1000 parts, 24*15 of potassa, 18*59 of phosphoric acid,
4*81 of sulphuric acid, and 43*66 of nitrogen.

Protection of Fruit against Parasitic Fungi, f — Herr A. Zschokke
describes the mode in which cultivated fruits, especially species of
PyruSj Mains , Sorbus , Cydonia, and Mespilus; as also Cotoneaster , aro
protected against the attacks of parasitic fungi, the chief of these being
Monilia frnctigena, JBotrytis cinerea, Penicillium glaucum , P. olivaceum ,
Macor pyriformis, and M. stolonifer. He states that none of these fungi
can penetrate the uninjured cuticle. The stomates become very sparsely
distributed by the growth of the fruit, and are ultimately transformed
into lenticels. There is often a copious local or general formation of
cork, as in the russet apple. Since it is very rarely that the epiderm
is not locally injured, the chief protection against fungi is the chemical
nature of the fruit itself, especially the abundance of tannin and malic
acid in the peripheral layers of cells.

Fibrovascular Bundles of Leaves.^ — In completing his review of
the connection between the number and symmetry of the vascular
bundles :"in the petiole and the degree of organisation of the plant,
M. A. Chatin points out that we have in these characters a further
evidence of the low organisation of Monocotyledons as compared with
Dicotyledons. There may be a single vascular bundle in the petiole, or
3, 5, 7, 9-11, or a larger number, but never a single compound bundle
resulting from the fusion of several. This is clearly connected with the
almost universal absence of a pinnate venation. The single vascular
bundle of the stem is often almost entirely destitute of vessels. Tho
parallel venation of most Monocotyledons implies aQ indefinite number
of petiolar bundles, while the palmate or pinnate venation, so rare
among Monocotyledons, implies a limited number of bundles in the
petiole.

Hypertrophied Bud-Scales in Pinus.§ — Mr. F. E. Lloyd has observed
that, in lateral shoots produced by the pruning of staminate shoots in
Pinus ponderosa , the small triangular scales which subtend the leaves

* Zeitschr. f. Forst. u. Jagdwesen, xxx. (1898) p. 105. See Bot. Ztg., lvi. (1898)
2te Abtli., p. 233.

f Landwirtli. Jahrb. d. Schweiz, xi. (1897) pp. 153-96 (2 pis.). See Bot. Cen-
tralbl., lxxv. (1898) p. 217.

X Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 301-7. Bull. Soe. Bot. de France, xlv.
(1898) pp. 241-8, 310-7. Cf. this Journal, ante, p. 320.

§ Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., xi. (1898) pp. 45-51 (1 pi.).

644 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

had, by hypertroj)hy, become leaves in structure and function. They
may be compared to similar normal structure in other conifers, and
must be regarded as primitive atavistic structures such as occurred in
Leptostrobus. J

Aerial Roots of Tseniophyllum.* — According to Prof. J. Wiesner,
the aerial roots of Tseniophyllum Zollingeri, a leafless epiphytic Javanese
orchid, have a remarkably slow growth, compared to that of the bamboo
as 1 to over 2000. They grow in a nearly vertical direction, flat against
the stem of the tree, and do not display any geotropic curvature. They
are negatively heliotropic and hyponastic, which enables them also to
grow on horizontal surfaces. Their growth appears to be entirely sus-
pended in the dark. The plant has a remarkably lichen-like habit, the
roots apparently performing all the functions of nutrition.

Adaptation of Land-Plants to Existence in Water. j — Dr. R. Keller
gives further illustrations of this phenomenon in the cases of Myosotis
Pehsteineri, LytJirum salicaria , and Ficaria verna , describing the changes
which take place ia the external form and in the internal structure of
the various organs.

j8. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Fertilisation in Pinus.J — Mr. V. H. Blackman gives an account of
the cytological details and of the processes surrounding it, in Pinus
sylvestris, from the formation of the ventral canal-cell to the period of
cell-formation at the base of the egg.

As the oosphere nucleus, after separation of the nucleus of the
ventral canal-cell, moves rapidly towards the centre of the egg, it in-
creases greatly in size, from the formation of a peculiar metaplasmic
substance which fills up the nucleus and ultimately obscures the chro-
matin. Almost the whole of the contents of the lower part of the
pollen-tube passes over into the oosphere by the rupture of the closing
membrane of the pit at the apex of the tube. At this stage all the
four nuclei may be seen lying in the cytoplasm of the egg. The stalk-
cell nucleus, the pollen-tube nucleus, and one generative nucleus, remain
at the apex of the egg, and ultimately become disorganised. The other
generative nucleus advances rapidly towards the female nucleus, and
gradually penetrates its substance until it is almost completely enclosed
within it. After fusion has taken place, the chromosomes can be dis-
tinguished as two separate groups. No definite resting fertilised nucleus
is formed. The spindle, which lies obliquely in the centre of the egg, is
at first multipolar in form, and, while it is in this condition, the chromo-
somes begin to split longitudinally, but can still be distinguished in tw’o
groups. Only after the formation of four segmentation-nuclei do these
begin to wander down to the base of the egg. The number of chromo-
somes in the egg-nucleus is twelve ; and the same number were also
found in the nuclei of the cells of the prothallial tissue and of the
pollen-mother-cells. The chromosomes of the first segmentation-spindle

* SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, cvi. (1897) lte Abth., pp. 77-98 (1 pi.),
t Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 545-52 (10 fisrs.). Cf. this Journal, ante ,
441. + Proc. Roy. Soc., Ixiii. (189*) pp. 400-1.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

645

were found to bo twenty-four ; and this is probably also the number in
the sporophytic tissue. No centrospheres or centrosomes were seen in
connection either with fertilisation or with any of the related processes.

Embryology of Gnetum.* — Dr. J. P. Lotsy contributes the following
notes on the embryology of Gnetum Gnemon.

The female flowers in the purely female inflorescences have three
envelopes ; those in the pseudo-androgvnous inflorescences two, with at
first the rudiment of a third. Several embryo-sacs (megaspores) are
formed ; multiplication of the nucleus takes place in them all ; but
usually only one megaspore attains its full size. If unimpregnated, the
embryo-sac becomes completely filled with endosperm. In the mature
embryo-sac is a parietal j)rotoplasm-sac with numerous free nuclei.
Before impregnation the embryo-sac becomes constricted into a smaller
lower and a larger upper portion. In the lower portion a tissue
is formed before the pollen-tube reaches the embryo-sac, which the
author regards as a prothallium. No cell-division takes place in the
upper portion of the embryo-sac. At the time when the pollen-tube
reaches the wall of the embryo-sac, it contains a pollen-nucleus which
is already disorganised, and two generative nuclei. One or more pollen-
tubes enter the upper portion of the embryo-sac which contains the free
nuclei, both the generative nuclei entering the sac. Each of the male
generative nuclei coalesces with one of the free nuclei of the embryo-
sac, so that two products of copulation result from each pollen-tube ;
each of these “zygotes” then surrounds itself with protoplasm, and
ultimately with a cell-wall. Some of the free nuclei form a rudimentary
endosperm around the zygotes. The pollen-tubes may still be attached
to the zygotes after these begin to grow. They first grow into long
tubes (pro-embryos), the nucleus travelling to the apex. The pro-
embryos either insert themselves between the prothallium and the wall
of the embryo-sac, or enter the prothallium. This latter now presses
aside the nucellar tissue and grows to a large size, with a small hollow
at the apex corresponding to the upper part of the embryo-sac. In this
upper portion the upper apices of the pro-embryos project, while the
lower apices penetrate further into the prothallium. At this stage the
seed falls from the tree.

Embryology of Drosera.f — According to Prof. C. A. Peters, the
mode of development of the embryo of Drosera somewhat approaches
the monocotyledonous type. A sporogenous layer of four cells is pro-
duced in the nucellus, but no tapete. Three of these cells soon become
disintegrated, the fourth being the mother-cell of the embryo. The
microsporange produces a tapete which originates and disappears in a
similar way. From the first division of the pollen-mother-cell are
produced two cells lying in close proximity, which soon divide, thus
producing the tetrads. The first spindle disappears before the second
two are formed. The suspensor consists of only two cells.

Embryo of Indian Corn.| — Mr. W. W. Bowlee and Mr. M. W.
Doherty thus describe the peculiarities of the structure of the embryo of

* Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898) pp. 257-61.

t Proc. Amer. Ass. Ad. Sci., 1897 (1898) p. 275.

j Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxv. (1898) pp. 311-5 (1 pi.).

646

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Zea Mays. The bundles of the primary root are of the true radial type.
The innermost elements of the xylem are anomalous, and it is doubtful
whether they are true ducts. The leaf-trace bundles of the scutellum
do not in any way affect the arrangement of the main bundles. The
first internode closely resembles the root in structure. The fibrovascular
bundles change from the radial type to the collateral type in the second
node. These bundles, on entering the second node, pass outward and
terminate blindly toward the periphery, the last elements to disappear
being the xylem. The bundles of the sheath differ from those of normal
leaves in that they originate in the node from which they are given off,
that they blend into pairs, and finally, in the sheath, appear as two
bundles at opposite points on the axis, and that the curves of this bundle
in the node are very sharp.

Ornithophiious Flowers.* * * § — According to Dr. J. Johow, the number
of flowers pollinated by the agency of birds is much smaller than is
often stated, being, in fact, nearly confined to those described as such
by F. Muller. Humming-birds in particular, since they feed entirely
on insects, and not on nectar, play but little part in the carriage of
pollen. He proceeds then to describe an unquestionable ornithophiious
species, Paya chilensis, an arborescent species of Bromeliacese growing
on the Chilian sea-coast. The “ nectar ” is exceedingly abundant, but
is not attractive to insects, containing only a very small amount of
sugar in solution. It is, however, eagerly drunk by humming-birds, but
more especially by the “ Chilian starling,” Curseus atcrrimus. In this
way they get their heads plentifully besprinkled with pollen, which they
then carry to other flowers.

Cross-pollination and Self-pollination. — According to Mr. R. J.

Webb,! the closed flowers of Gentiana Andrewsii are cross-pollinated
by humble-bees, which forcibly open them in order to obtain the honey.

Herr H. Ross J describes the mode of pollination in Cobsea macro -
stemma from Guatemala, which differs in some respects from that in
C. scandens. While normally entomophilous (through the agency of
Sphingidm), this species shows well-developed contrivances for ensuring
self-pollination.

Herr E. Ule § describes the structure of the flower, and the appli-
ances for pollination, in species of Arislolochia, natives of or cultivated
in Brazil. In A. macroura we find one of the most perfect and striking
examples of proterogyny known. Cross-pollination appears absolutely
necessary for fertility, and self-pollination impossible. The flowers of
A. elegans are almost invariably visited by a quantity of small flies of
a particular species, which carry the pollen to the stigma. A. brasiliensis
and cymbifera are not known to ripen their fruit.

Dr. P. Knuth || finds Leucojum sestivum more fully adapted for cross-
pollination by insect agency than L. vernum ; though self-pollination is
by no means excluded. In Iris germanica the length of the nectar-tube
(5-5J mm.), almost exactly corresponds to that of the proboscis of the

* SB. k. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1898, pp. 332-41.

t Amer. Naturalist, xxxii. (1898) p. 265.

t Flora, lxxxv. (1898) pp. 125-34 (1 fig.).

§ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xvi. (1898) pp. 74-91 (1 pi.).

|| Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898) pp. 161-3 ; lxxvi. (1898) pp. 33-5 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

647

honey-bee. In Lilium candidum .self-pollination is almost impossible ;
while in L. testaceum and chalcedonicum it may readily occur, though
probably the ordinary mode of pollination is by visiting insects.

Mr. J. H. Lovell * * * § describes the structure of the flower and enume-
rates the visiting insects observed in Gaultheria procumbens (proter-
androus, Apidse) ; Glielone glabra (not self-pollinated, species of Bomnbus) ;
Impatiens biflora (Apidse) ; Cornus canadensis , stolonifera, and alter ni folia
(self-pollination generally prevented, a great variety of visitors) ; Aralia
racemosa (strongly proterandrous, a great variety of visitors, as many
as 80 species).

Hybridism.-j' — Dr. M. Abbado reviews the state of our knowledge
at present, and the literature on the subject of the production of hybrids
in the vegetable kingdom, especially with reference to the morphological
characters of the hybrids as compared to those of the two parents. He
regards hybridism as an effectual origin of new species. A very copious
bibliography is appended.

Knuth’s Handbook to the Biology of Flowers.}; — This most im-
portant work completes the survey of this branch of vegetable physio-
logy from the publication of Muller’s c Befruchtung der Blumen ’ down
to the present date (April 1898); every important observation made
during the past quarter of a century being recorded. The first volumo
comprises a review of the literature of the subject to the present time,
and treats of the various modes of pollination and of distribution of
the sexual organs, cleistogamy, parthenogenesis, the different classes of
insects and of other animals that contribute to the carriage of pollen,
the part played by the conspicuousness of flowers, their scent, Ac. In
the first part of the second volume are contained the records of observa-
tions on particular species of plants in Europe and the Arctic region,
from Ranunculacese to Compositae ; the adaptations of the flowrers them-
selves and of the visiting insects being in each case described. The
second part of the second volume will contain similar details from the
Lobeliacete to the Coniferae ; and a third volume will be devoted to
observations on extra-European plants.

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and Movements

of Fluids).

Influence of Mineral Salts on the Form and Structure of Plants. §

— From a series of experiments on a great variety of plants, M. C.
Dassonville states, as a general law, that the mineral solutions most
favourable to the growth of plants are those which incite the greatest
amount of differentiation. There are special differentiations which are
localised in particular tissues. For example, the pericyclic fibres be-
come more abundant, the fibro vascular bundles increase in importance,

* Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xxv. (1898) pp. 382-90.

f Nuov. Gioru. Bot. Ital., v. (1898) pp. 76-105, 265-303.

X Knuth, P., ‘Handbuch d. Bliitenbiologie,’ BJ. i. Einleitung u. Litteratur,
400 pp., 81 rigs., and 1 portrait. Bd. ii. Th. i. Ranunculaceae — Compositae, 697 pp.,
210 tigs., and 1 portrait. Leipzig, 1898.

§ Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonuier), x. (189S) pp. 14-25, 59-68, 102-24, 161-70, 193-9,
238-60, 289-304, 335-44 (10 pis. and 4 figs.). Comptes Rendus, csxvi. (1898)
pp. 856-8, Cf. this Journal, 1896, p. 643.

648

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

and tlie generative layer retains longer its power of division. A general
sclerosis wliicli hinders the development of the plant, must be dis-
tinguished from a local sclerosis which increases the differentiation of
the tissues and is an indication of a higher organisation.

Potassium and sodium salts have opposite effects on the tissues ; the
former retarding the differentiation of the supporting elements, whilst
the latter increase the rigidity of the plant. Potassium silicate gives a
dark green colour to the leaves. Potassium phosphate is altogether in-
dispensable to the plant.

A very large number of results are given with respect to the influence
of different mineral salts, in different degrees of concentration, on a
variety of cultivated plants, both in aqueous solutions and in the open
ground. The first effects of a salt on the development of a plant are
often in opposition to the final result, the exuberance of growth being
due, at least in part, to an accumulation of water.

Conducting-path of Organic Substances.*— From a variety of ex-
periments made on living plants, Herr F. Czapek draws the following
general conclusions.

The conducting-bundles run down from the lamina of the leaf sepa-
rately through the petiole without anastomosing ; the conducting-path
of the carbohydrates cannot therefore lie through the fundamental
parenchyme ; the current can take place only through the leptome-
bundles of the leaf-stalk, and in a nearly straight direction without any
transverse branches ; the conducting elements are exclusively the sieve-
tubes and the cambiform cells, especially the latter. In addition to
starch, sugars are of common occurrence in the sieve-tubes. The
leptome-parenchyme is the storehouse of the leptome ; starch is stored
up in its cells in great quantities, also often a large amount of reserve-
proteids. Dead portions of the leptome have no power of conveying the
products of assimilation. The process is intimately connected with the
functions of living protoplasm, which takes up the nutritive substances
and gives them out again from cell to cell. The protoplasmic connec-
tions of the sieve-tubes play, therefore, a very important part in the
conduction of food-materials. The individualising of the separate
members of a stock is a reaction induced by the cessation of the inter-
change of food-material between the stock and the cell that is thus
separated.

Function of Leaves.! — From the fact (which he has confirmed by
direct observation) that the amount of nitrogenous substance, and
especially that of asparagin, decreases during the night, M. U. Suzuki
concludes that one important function of leaves is the splitting up of
proteinaceous substances into amido-bodies ; these amido-bodies being
then conveyed to the fruits, roots, underground stems, &c., where they
are required for the formation of proteids.

Passage of Food-material into and from the Leaves.! — Herr E.
Eamann confirms the statement of Wehmer that (contrary to the usual

* SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, cvi. (1897) lte Abth., pp. 117-70.

f Bull. Imp. Univ. Tokio, iii. (1897) p. 241. See Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898)

p. 18.

X Zeitschr. f. Forst. u. Jagdwesen, xxx. (1898) pp. 157-66. See Bot. Ztg., lvi.
(1898) 2fe Abth., p. 231.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. GJ9

belief) no diminution of the amount of mineral substances in the leaves
takes place during the autumn. The amount of nitrogen, potassium, and
phosphorus was found (in the beech) to be practically unchanged up to
the end of September. This, however, does not negative the theory of
a passage of mineral substances back from the leaves to the petiole and
the stem ; but this is counterbalanced by the transpiration-current.

Functions of Stomates.* * * § — Using the hygroscopic apparatus already
described for measuring the opening and closing of stomates, Prof. F.
Darwin says that, notwithstanding previous statements to the contrary,
partial closure of the stomates of marsh and aquatic plants does take
place when the leaf is gathered. In many cases closure of the stomate
is preceded by temporary opening, which may occur almost simul-
taneously with the gathering of the leaf. In dark stormy weather the
stomates may be nearly closed by day, even in summer. After darkness
has been prolonged for several days, the stomates gradually open. The
great majority of plants (not nyctitropic) show some closure of the
stomates by night.

Assimilation of Nitrates in the Dark.f — From experiments made
by M. U. Suzuki, chiefly on barley, he has come to the conclusion that
flowering plants can assimilate nitrates in the dark, and form proteids
from them. The nutrient solution used contained 0*2 per cent, sodium
nitrate, 0 • 1 per cent, potassium monophosphate, 0 • 1 per cent, potas-
sium biphosphate, 0 * 1 per cent, magnesium sulphate, 0 • 07 per cent,
calcium sulphate.

-• Growth of Roots.j — From observations made on a large variety of
trees, Herr 0. G. Petersen establishes a general law of seasonal perio-
dicity in the growth of roots, — active in April and May, and again in
September, but suspended in J uly. This periodicity was least clearly
manifested in the maple and the ash. In the oak the autumnal fresh
formation of roots takes place in October. The growth of the myeorhiza
continues until November. The annual formation of rings in the main
roots usually begins in May, and ends in September or October.

Influence of the surrounding Medium on the Growth of Roots. § —
Herr J. Wacker states that, as in the case of land-plants ( Vicia Faba ,
Lujoinus albus, Helianthus annuus , Cucurbita Pepo) the growth of the
primary root almost ceases when they are cultivated in water ; so also
with water plants ( Lemna minor , L. trisulca , Azolla filiculoides , Hydro -
charis morsus-ranse) the growth of the primary root almost entirely
ceases when they are planted in a saturated soil. This is not the result
of a difference in the proportion of oxygen in the two media. In mud
the roots of land plants perish either from the absence of free oxygen,
or from the presence of various products of decomposition. They have,
apparently, not the same power of absorbing oxygen that those of bog-
plants possess.

* Proc. Roy. Soe., Ixiii. (1898) pp. 413-7. Nature, lviii. (1898) pp. 212-3. Cf.
this Journal, ante , p. 134. f Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898) pp. 289-92.

X Overs. Kgl. Danske vidensk. selsk. Forhandl., 1898, No. 1 (many figs.). See

Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898) p. 272.

§ Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeifer u. Strasburger), xxsii. (1898) pp. 71-116.

650

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Grafting* * * § of the Wild on the Cultivated Carrot.* — M. L. Daniel has
experimented on the grafting of the wild carrot on a well-established
and very distinct cultivated variety, and allowing it to produce seed.
The seedlings from the seeds thus produced manifested a distinct
approach in characters to those of the host, the phenomena being some-
what similar to those of hybridisation.

Exudation of Drops from Leaves.f— Pursuing his researches on this
subject, Dr. A. Nestler finds, in several genera of Malvaceae, an abundant
excretion of water, though he was unable to determine whether it was
effected through trichomes, through the stomates, or through the pecu-
liarly constructed mucilage-cells. Cut shoots of Tropseolum majus exude
water in a moist atmosphere not only at the ends of the vascular bundles
at the margins of the leaves, but also from the stem ; in the latter case
through the 6tomates. Other examples are afforded by Tradescantia
viridis, Juncus articulatus, and Dichorisandra discolor .

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Formation of Albuminoids. :£ — Dr. B. Jacobi gives a resume of the
results obtained by recent observers on the location and conditions of
formation of proteids in green plants, which he summarises as follows.

The synthesis of proteids takes place in the leaves. Under otherwise
normal conditions of growth, this process may commence in the dark, a
reaction taking place between the carbohydrates and nitric acid, ammonia,
and amides. The extent to which this process can proceed in the dark
depends on the amount of disposable carbohydrates. If these are present
in large quantities, proteids are formed ; but if the supply is small, the
process is arrested, in the dark, at the production of amides. Light con-
tributes indirectly tb the formation of proteids, since it increases the
supply of carbohydrates. The true source of energy is, therefore, in the
carbohydrates.

Action of Diastase on Venom.§ — M. C. Wehrmann confirms La-
cerda’s observations relative to the digestive power of serpent venom.
He states that venom does not saccharise starch, nor invert saccharose.
It does peptonise fibrin. It contains a toxin and a feeble diastase.
Observations on the action of diastases on venom show that some of
these bodies possess very active properties, while others are but feebly
active, and the rest inactive.

Ptyalin was found to act with remarkable energy on venom, and
pepsin scarcely at all. Hence, when venom is introduced by the mouth,
its harmlessness is probably due to the action of the buccal secretion.

The very active diastases were ptyalin, papain, pancreatin ; the
feebly active ones, pepsin, rennet, amylase, and the inactive emulsin
sucraso and oxydase.

* Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 133-5. Cf. this Journal, 1895, p. 72.

t SB. lc. Akad. Wiss. Wien, cvi. (1897) lte Abtli., pp. 3S7-10G (1 pi.). Cf. this
Journal, 1897, p. 557.

X Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 593-603.

§ Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xii. (1898) pp. 510-6.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

651

y. General.

Application of Anatomy to Classification.*— M. F. Crepin contends,
especially as a result of his long study of the genus Rosa, that system-
atists of the new school have neglected the phenomena of morphology, as
an aid to those ofj histology, in determining the affinities of species.
The systematist who bases; his conclusions on anatomy ought to bo
associated with a morphologist, and all anatomical research should be
preceded by a profound study of species from a morphological point of
view.

Organic Gradation in the Organs of Nutrition land Reproduc-
tion.!— M. A. Chatin reviews the results at which he has arrived as to
the relative degree of organisation of the various groups of plants de-
rived from a study of the number and arrangement of the vascular
bundles in the petiole. He regards also hermaphroditism, and conse-
quently autofecundation, as a higher type of structure than the separation
of the sexual organs and consequent cross-fertilisation. A multiplication
of parts (corolline, staminal, or carpellary), such as occurs in the Ranun-
culacem and Magnoliacete, and which is unknown in the highest type,
the Corolliflorse, is evidence of retrogression towards the spiral foliar
type. He further denies the insectivorous habit of Drosera and other
“ carnivorous ” plants.

Artificial Production of Alpine characters in Plants.! — From a
series of experiments made at Fontainebleau (on Trifolium repens , Teu-
crium Scorodonia, Senecio Jacobsea, Vicia saliva , Avena saliva, Hordeum
vulgare), M. G. Bonnier comes to the conclusion that it is possible to
produce artificially the special characters of Alpine plants grown in the
open air by subjecting them to alternations of temperature comparable
to those to which they are subject at high altitudes. Comparing plants
of the same species, springing from the same stock, the first set kept
continually at low temperatures (4°-9° C.), the second set subject to the
normal variations of temperature in the environs of Paris, and the third
set to very low night-temperatures, and to insolation during the daytime,
the latter were found to exhibit a decrease in stature compared to the
two former, the internodes becoming proportionally short, the leaves
smaller, thicker, and of firmer consistency, with a more rapid production
of flowers.

Fructification of Macrostachys.§ — M. B. Renault has examined the
structure of this organism, from the terrain houiller of Commentry ; and
states that it presents an example of one of the most ancient forms of
vegetation possessing secondary xylem which originates from a permanent
secondary layer. The reproduction takes place by means of megaspores
and microspores, as in many living Vascular Cryptogams.

Ligule ofLepidostrobus.|| — Mr. A. J. Maslen describes the presence,
in the fossil Lepidostrobus , the strobile of Lepidodendron, of a ligule,
occupying a precisely similar place to that of Selaginella , the sporange
intervening between it and the axis.

* Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belgique, xxxvii. (1898) pt. i. pp 7-15.

t Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, xlv. (1898) pp. 98-108. Cf. supra , p. 613.

I Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 307-12 (3 figs.). § Tom. cit., pp. 284-6.

1| Ann. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 256-9 (1 fig.).

652

SUMMARY OP CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

B. CRYPTO GAMXA.

Germination of Spores.* — From a series of experiments on the ger-
mination of the spores of Bryophyta and Pteridopkyta ( Marchantia ,
ferns, Equisetum), Mr. F. De F. Heald concludes that, under ordinary
conditions of temperature and inorganic nourishment, moss and liver-
wort spores are unable to germinate in the dark. Organic nourishment,
in the form of either peptone or grape-sugar, will incite the germination
of most spores in complete darkness. Moss protonemes are able to
attain a considerable size in the dark by a saprophytic nourishment,
although the vigour of growth is considerably below the normal. Under
ordinary conditions of temperature and inorganic nourishment, fern
spores are unable to germinate in the dark ; but a higher temperature
will furnish conditions for germination in complete darkness. The
spores of Equisetum germinate apparently as well in darkness as in light,
and at ordinary temperatures.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Leaf and Sporocarp of Marsilia.f — Mr. D. S. Johnson has studied
the development of the leaf and sporocarp in Marsilia quadrifolia, and
states that in its mode of origin the leaf agrees closely with that of
other leptosporangiate Pteridophyta, as also in its further growth by
the segmentation of a two-sided apical cell ; but the details of the seg-
mentation differ. The sporocarp originates from a transversely placed
apical cell arising in a marginal cell on the inner side of the young leaf.
The microsporanges and megasporanges are derived from sister-cells,
and it is not correct to say that the former come from segments of the
apical cell of the latter. The author regards the sporocarp of Marsilia
as homologous with the petiole only of the sterile branch of a leaf.

Leaf and Sporocarp of Pilularia.i — From studies made on P. globu-
lifera, Mr. D. S. Johnson concludes that the leaves of Pilularia arise,
in acropetal succession, on the right and left sides alternately of the
upper surface of the stem. Each leaf originates in a large cell, from
which a typical two-sided apical cell is cut off by curved anticlinals. The
sporocarp arises on the inner and anterior side of the leaf, just above
the axillary bud, which is always present. A fertile branch of the stem
has a sporocarp on nearly every leaf, but there is never more than one
on the same leaf. A careful study of the leaf does not indicate the
presence of even a rudimentary lamina. The sporocarp originates from
the two-sided apical cell in one of the marginal cells of the fourth grade
in (probably) the first segment of the anterior side of the leaf. The
megasporanges and microsporanges arc not derived from different mar-
ginal cells, as in Marsilia. The sporocarp of Pilularia appears to be
the equivalent of a sporocarp of Marsilia in which the number of sori
has been reduced to two pairs.

Oophyte of Botrychium.§ — Mr. E. C. Jeffrey publishes further
details respecting the interesting discovery of the gametophyte of

* Bot. Gazette, xxvi. (1898) pp. 25-46 (1 pi.).

f Ann. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 119-45 (3 pis.).

X But. Gazette, xxvi. (1898) pp. 1-25 (3 pis.).

§ ‘The Gametophyte of Boti ychiurn virginianum,’ Toronto, 1898, 32 pp. and
4 pis. Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 415.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

653

Botrycliium virginianum , among the moro important of which are the
following: — The gametophyte is entirely subterranean, without chloro-
phyll, and is probably symbiotic. The whole surface is furnished with
rhizoids which are mostly multicellular. The reproductive organs are
found exclusively on the upper surface. It possesses a well-marked
apical meristem. The endophytic fungus appears to be intermediate
between the genera Pythium and Completoria. The neck of the archegone
consists of seven or eight tiers of cells; the neck-canal-cell has two
nuclei. The root, stem, and cotyledon grow by the segmentation of a
single apical cell. A single instance of polyembryony was detected ;
also an indication of apogamy.

Mucilage-Canals of the Marattiaceae.* — M. L. Lutz states that in
the leaves of the Marattiaceae ( Marattia fraxinea, Angiopteris evecta )
there are two kinds of mucilage-canals ; the one true intercellular spaces
formed schizogenously ; the others originating in the first place from
rows of cells rich in tannin and poor in mucilage, which become trans-
formed, by the gelification of their transverse septa, into mucilage-cells,
without any small bordering cells, as is the case with those of the first
kind ; these latter have, therefore, a lysigenous origin.

Muscineee.

Xndusiella, a new Genus of Musci.f — From Central Asia, Herr Y. F.
Brotherus describes a new genus of Mosses, which he thus characterises :
Genus curiosissimum Tortulacearum, juxta Aloinam ponendum, sed foliis
elamellosis, seta perbrevi, theca ovali, peristomio erecto et calyptra
magna campanulata, longe diversum.

Modifications of the Thalius of Marchantia and Lunularia.J—

M. J. Beauverie has made a series of experiments on the alterations in
the structure and mode of growth of these Hepatic® produced by ab-
normal conditions of illumination, exposing them to a feeble, but
constant and uniform light. In place of the ordinary flat creeping
thalius there appeared a number of narrow vertical green plates, the
original flat tballus exhibiting signs of disorganisation. The author
regards the flat plagiotropic growth of the thalius of these plants under
ordinary conditions as the result of an equilibrium resulting from the
action of a negative geotropism and a negative heliotropism ; when
the action of light is removed, the negative geotropism alone comes into
play. The structure of the modified thalius undergoes a great change ;
the air-chambers and the pseudo-stomates almost entirely disappear,
and the distribution of the chlorophyll becomes completely changed, the
difference between the two surfaces being greatly reduced. It would
appear, therefore, that the dorsiventrality of the ordinary thalius of the
Hepatic® may almost entirely disappear under altered conditions, but it
always remains latent ; the lower surface can never be made to produce
stomates, nor the upper surface rhizoids and amphigasters.

* Journ. de Bot. (Morot), xii. (1898) pp. 133-5 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal, 1895,
p. 659. t Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898) pp. 321-2.

X Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, xlivv(1898) pp. 57-69 (9 figs.).

654

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Structure and Development of Dendroceros.* — Prof. D. H. Campbell
gives the following as the main results of his study of this epiphytic
genus of Hepatic®.

In its apical growth and in the form of the thallus, Dendroceros
differs widely from other genera of Hepatic®. The type of apical cell is
that found in Pellia epiphylla , and in the homosporous Ferns, especially
Osmunda, where the prothallium resembles the thallus of Dendroceros
also in the definite midrib and the occasional development of leaf-like
lobes. The archegone corresponds in its structure to that of the other
Anthocerote®, and is intermediate in character between Notothylas and
Anthoceros. The antherid is solitary, and arises, as in the others of the
order, endogenously. The first wall of the embryo is longitudinal, as
in Anthoceros , but the first transverse wall determines the limits of the
foot, as in Notothylas . The origin of the archespore is from the amplii-
thece, as in the other genera, but it is less massive than in either of these.
The division of the archesporial cells into sporogenous and sterile is
less regular than in either of the other genera, and the primary arche-
sporial cells may be transformed directly into sporogenous cells without
any further divisions. The capsule is destitute of stomates.

Algae.

Cystocarp of Delesseriaceae.f — Mr. R. W. Phillips has studied the
development of the cystocarp in several species of Delesseria and Nito-
phyllum, and lays stress on the following points as presenting some
divergence from conclusions arrived at by other observers. The carpo-
gonial branch is invariably four-celled, as is universally the case in
the Rhodomelace®. Although usually arising singly on an inner cell of
the cortex, the carpogonial branches occasionally appear in pairs. The
author was unable to confirm the formation of a second chamber de-
scribed as separated from the spore-containing cavity by the middle
layer as a kind of diaphragm. The fusion of the auxiliary cell with
neighbouring cells at the “ placenta,” so general in the FJoride®, is
strikingly absent in Delesseria ; nor does it occur in Grinnellia. An
anterior auxiliary cell, cut off from the pericentral cell, occurs in most
Rhodomelace®, and in all Ceramiace®. When the cells adjacent to the
central cell in a fertilised protocarp become charged with nutriment
prior to the formation of the gonimoblast-filaments, they become multi-
nucleate, as many as eight or ten nuclei at times occurring in one cell.

As regards their systematic position, the Delesseriace® are undoubt-
edly nearly allied to the Rhodomelace®.

Myrionemace®4 — M. C. Sauvageau has studied the structure and
mode of reproduction of this small family of epiphytic and endophytic
sea-weeds belonging to the Ph®ospore®.

In Myrionema, vulgare he distinguishes the following four structures :
— (1) A creeping thallus, with marginal growth from transverse division
and dichotomous branching of its cells ; (2) the rhizoids, multicellular
filaments growing downwards from the thallus ; (3) the hairs, springing

* Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), xxxiii. (1898) pp. 4G7-78 (2 pis.).

t Ann. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 173-202 (2 pis.). Cf. this Journal, 1S9G, p. 546.

t Ann. Sci. Nat. (Bot.), v. (1897) pp. 161-288 (29 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

655

endogenously from young colls near the margin, with a basal zone
of growth ; (4) the erect assimilating filaments, usually unbranched,
springing at a distance from the margin, and with apical growth. The
chromatophores are small and disc-shaped, several in a ceil. The
secreting cells (described for the first time) are formed from meristematic
marginal cells, and secrete a brown tannin-like substance, which sub-
sequently passes into the first-formed hairs. The sporanges are both
unilocular and multilocular, the latter with a few greater or a larger
number of smaller chambers (megasporanges and meiosporanges). The
mode of germination of the zoospores varies according to their origin.

The following new species are described : — Mijrionema Corunnse on
Laminaria pallida ; M. polycladum on Fucus serratus ; M. papillosum on
Laminaria saccharina. A new genus Hecatonema is established, from
Phycoselis maculans , occurring in three distinct forms ; also Ghilionema
g. n., distinguished by the erect filaments being united into irregular
groups. It comprises C. Nathalie sp. n., and G. replans ( Ectocarpus
reptans Orouan, Myrionema reptans Foslie). The genus Ascocyclus is
distinguished by its erect sac-like secreting cells, which are situated
directly on the creeping filaments, and are designated by the new term
ascocysts. A new species is described, A. sphserophorus , growing on
Lthodymenia palmata , and distinguished by its nearly spherical ascocysts ;
also A. hispanicus sp. n. on Saccorhiza bulbosa.

Hapters of Laminaria saccharina.* — Herr M. Pedersen gives the
following description of the development of the hapters of this seaweed,
growing on Furcellaria jastigiata. The sporelings attach themselves
firmly to a stone, and form, in the first year, a generation of short
hapters ; after a period of repose, a second generation is formed above
the first, and so on. The hapters are flattened at the end and branch,
and are of a firm and stiff consistency. The cell-walls of the central
layers are strongly thickened ; those of the peripheral layers less so.
Irritation of the hapter is excited by constant contact, and especially by
friction.

iEgagropilae.j — Herr F. R. Kjellman has studied the structure of
the compact balls composed of densely interwoven filaments of green
algae which go under this name. On disentangling the weft of filaments,
it is found that the basal portion differs from the remainder of the fila-
ment in all perfect individuals, consisting of one or two cells with thicker
cell-wall, and obviously playing the part of a bud from which the rest of
the filament has sprung. This was observed especially in a new species,
A. canescens. The degree of branching of the shoot varies greatly.
The author regards the mass of filaments in the true AEgagropilse as
forming a coenobe. He treats AEgagropila as a section of the genus
Gladophora, differing only from the typical Eucladophorse in the pro-
perty of forming “ coenobes ” ; while Acrosiphonia, with which they have
sometimes been associated, is more nearly related to Siphonocladus than
to Gladophora.

* Bot. Tidsskr., xxi. (1898) pp. 319-25 (5 figs.). See Bot. Centralbl., lxxv.
(1898) p. 192.

f Nova Acta R. Soc. Sci. Upsaliensis (German), xvii. (1898), 26 pp., 3 pis., and
3 figs.

1898 2 y

656

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Fungi.

Composition of the Cell-wall of Fungi.* * * § — Herr C. van Wisselingh
has made a careful examination of the chemical nature of the cell-wall
in more than 100 species of Fungi, belonging to all the more important
families. His general conclusion is, that while cellulose occurs but rarely,
chitin is a substance of very wide distribution, and is identical with the
chitin found in animals. Cellulose was found in Fungi belonging to
the Myxomycetes ( Didymium squamulosum), Peronosporeae ( Plasmopara
densa , Cystopus Portulacee), and Saprolegniacese ( Saprolegnia dioica).
Chitin occurs in the Myxomycetes ( Plasmodiophora Brassicse ), Chytri-
diaceae ( Synchytrium Taraxaci). Entomophthoreae ( Empusa Muscse'),
Mucorineae ( Mucor Mucedo, Clilamydomucor racemosus , Pilobolus crystal-
linus ), Rhizopeae ( Bhizopus nigricans ), and in almost all the higher
Fungi. In a few cases (bacteria, Saccharomyces Cerevisise , Fnligo septica ,
Cetraria islandica ), neither substance occurred ; in no case could the
presence of the two substances simultaneously in the cell-wall be de-
termined. Chitin is not so abundant in the reproductive as in the
vegetative organs, and in thin-walled spores may be replaced by my cosin.
The chitin is often limited to a definite part of the cell-wall, as occurs
in many spores. It is commonly accompanied by other little-known
substances, as lichenin, and two others hitherto undescribed, which the
author names usnein ( Usnea barbata) and geasterin ( Geaster fornicatus).

The author believes that the chemical nature of the cell- wall may be
turned to account in the systematic classification of Fungi.

Mineral Food-Material of Fungi-t — Herr E. Gunther finds a good
nutrient solution for fungi to contain necessarily a salt of potassium and
one of magnesium, and a sulphate and phosphate. A high concentration
of the solution retards the growth of the fungi. Potassium cannot be
replaced by sodium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, or copper, except that
rubidium may replace potassium with Botrytis cinerea. Magnesium
cannot be replaced by calcium, strontium, barium, beryllium, zinc, or
cadmium ; salts of these elements are injurious in various degrees, in the
order named. Salts of copper, when very dilute, promote the growth of
fungi, but when more concentrated are poisonous.

Formation of Diastase by Fungi, if — From experiments made on
Penicillium glaucum and Aspergillus niger, Herr J. Katz comes to the
conclusion that these fungi have the power of forming diastase, the
presence of starch not being absolutely necessary for this process. The
presence of grape- or caue-sugar checks the formation of diastase, but
the sugar is inverted. In the case of cane-sugar, 1 -5 per cent, prevents
the formation, while as much as 10 per cent, of milk-sugar is required.
Bacillus megaterium presents very similar phenomena. The continual
removal of the diastase as formed promotes the production of fresh
quantities.

Fungi producing Citric Acid.§— Herr C. Wehmer finds that Peni-
cillium luteum is capable of producing citric acid, to the extent of 2-3 per

* Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1898) pp. 619-87 (2 pis.).

f ‘ Beitr. z. mineralischen Nahrung d. Pilze,’ 59 pp., Erlangen, 1897. See Bot.
Centralb! , lxxv. (1898) p. 194.

+ Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxi. (1898) pp. 599-618.

§ Chem. Zeit., xxi. (1897) pp. 1022-3. See Journ. Cliem. Soc., 1898, Abstr.,
ii. p. 446.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

657

cent., from saccharine solutions. Mucor pyriformis produces a larger pro-
portion of citric acid when grown on boiled rice, developing at the same
time an ethereal odour. With both fungi, however, the production of
citric acid is uncertain.

Calcium oxalate in Fungi.* — Mr. C. B. Plowright records the
occurrence of crystals of calcium oxalate in the lamellm of Clitocybe
cyathiformis ; also in Geaster mammosus, where they have a regular
octahedral form.

Development of Sporodinia grandis.f — Herr G. Klebs finds this
species a specially favourable one for observing the influence of external
conditions on the reproduction of Fungi, since it produces readily both
zygotes and sporanges, and is easy to cultivate in nutrient solutions of
very different composition. It is not, as has been stated, a parasite, but
a saprophyte. Herr Klebs finds the production of sexual or non-sexual
organs of reproduction not to be due, as van Tieghem has stated, to the
presence or absence of oxygen, but to the degree of moisture of the air.
If the air is comparatively dry, i.e. if the conditions are favourable for
active transpiration, the aerial hyphse produce sporanges. If, on the
other hand, the air is moist and the transpiration checked, zygotes are
produced. Temperature and light play only a secondary part, as they
affect moisture and transpiration. The formation of parthenospores
can be induced in a variety of ways, as by a diminution of the air
pressure.

Structure of the Peronosporacese4 — A study by Prof. A. N. Berlese
of the vegetative organs of the Peronosporacese ( Peronospora , Phyto-
phthora, Plasmopara , Cystopus, &c.) leads him to the following general
conclusions. The mycele is furnished with true haustoria for absorbing
the nutriment from the host-plant ; their form differs in the different
genera. The presence of callose in the cell- walls is confirmed. Distinct
conidiopliores do not occur in all the genera ; in Pythium the filaments
which bear the conids or the zoosporanges differ in no respect from the
ordinary filaments of the mycele ; they present the strongest differ-
entiation in Basidiophora, Plasmopara , and Peronospora ; in Phytoplithora
they are occasionally branched. The conids are solitary, except in Cys-
topus and in some species of Pythium ; they are often papillose. They
are multinuclcate, the number of nuclei usually varying between 4 and
8 ; they have been derived directly from the conidiophore. Besides the
conids, which produce zoospores on germinating, Pythium possesses a
second kind of zoosporange, often borne on special branches of the
mycele.

Division of the Nucleus and Formation of the Conids in Oiclium.§
— Prof. A. N. Berlese has studied these phenomena especially in 0. moni-
lioides, parasitic on grasses, the imperfect form of Erysiphe graminis. The
division of the nucleus is karyokinetic, and presents all the usual stages.
The conids are not formed successively one at a time, as stated by de
Bary. The cylindrical cells, rich in granular protoplasm, near the apex

* Bull. Soc. Mycol. de France, 1898, p. 13 (2 pis.). 8ee Bot. Centralbl., 1898,
Beih., p. 42.

t Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. (Pfeffer u. Strasbuvger), xxxii. (1898) pp. 1-70 (2 figs.).

X Riv. di Patol. Veg., vi. (1897) pp. 78-101, 237-68. Of. this Journal, ante ,
p. 455. § Tom. cit., pp. 6G-75 (2 pis.).

2 Y 2

658

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

of the mycelial filaments, put out on the side removed from the sub-
stratum each a minute vesicular papilla, into which passes a small
quantity of finely granular protoplasm. The nucleus of the cylindrical
cell begins to divide, and one of the two daughter-nuclei enters the
papilla, which becomes separated from the mother-cell. The papilla
now elongates; the nucleus in each again divides, a transverse septum
is formed in each of the two, producing a filament of four cells, the growth
being basal and not apical. By repetition of these processes are formed
the rows of cells which ultimately become chains of conids.

Parasites of Economic Plants in India.* * * § — Dr. D. D. Cunningham

records the following: — Ustilaginoidea Oryzse on rice; Phytophthora
infestans, Fusisporium Solani, a Pythium, and a Sclerotinia on the potato;
a sclerote on the leaves of Ficus stipitata ; also one on the tea ; Perono-
spora arborescens on Pcipaver somniferum ; as well as several others that
are not specifically identified. The leaves of the tea have been found
infested by an endophytic alga, Cephaleuros virescens.

Parasites of the Sugar-Cane.! — Herren H. J. Wakker and F. A.
F. C. Went enumerate the following parasites of the sugar-cane in
Java, producing diseases of which the Dutch names are given: — (1) On
the stem ; Ustilago Sacchari, Colletotrichum falcatum, Thiebaviopsis
ethaceticus, Marasmius Sacchari, Bacillus vascularum ; (2) on the leaf-
sheaths; Cercospora vaginse ; (3) on the leaves; Gercospora Kophei,
TJredo Kuhnii , Leptosphseria Sacchari , Fricsphseria Sacchari , Pestalozzia
fuscescens ; (4) on the root; Cladosporium javanicum, Allantospora
radicicola. A number of saprophytic species are also described.

Development of Anthracnoses.J: — Bertha Stoneman contributes some
information to the life-history of the group of parasitic fungi known by
the somewhat vague name of anthracnoses. Though naturally parasitic,
they are easily cultivated as saprophytes. The development of the
conidial forms, belonging mostly to the genera Glceosponum, Colletotri-
chum,wad Volutella, was followed both on the host-plant and in cultures,
and several new species are described. The formation of so-called
secondary spores or buds is not a constant character of these genera,
but may be absent during the entire cycle of development. In four
species the connection was established with perfect or perithecial forms.
These are made by the author to constitute a new genus Gnomoniopsis ,
nearly allied to Gnomoniella, but differing in the conids being curved
instead of ovate.

Exobasidium Vitis.§ — M. A. Potebnia regards this fungus as nearly
related to Dematium pullulans rather than as a Basidiomycete. He
notes the phenomenon, under cultivation, that, at a certain stage of
development, masses of protoplasm escape, usually from the apex of a
filament, which form either irregularly shaped or more regular spherical
or kidney-shaped bodies.

* Sci. Mem. Medical Officers of the Army in India, 1897, 36 pp. and 6 pis.

See Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898) p. 147.

t ‘ De Ziekten v. h. Sinkerriet op Java,’ Deel i., 25 pis., Leiden, 1898. See Bot.
Centralbl., lxxv. (1898) p. 150. J Bot. Gazette, xxvi. (1898) pp. 69-120 (12 pis.).

§ Arb. Naturf.-Gesell. Charkow, xxxi. (1897) pp. 28-35 (1 pi.). See Bot. Cen-
tralbl., lxxv. (1898) p. 122.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

659

iEcidium graveolens.* — Herr P. Magnus lias studied the develop-
ment of the fungus which produces the “ witch-broom ” of the barberry,
and describes the deformation caused by it in the tissues of the host-
plant. He now identifies it as the aecidioform of Puccinia Arrhenatheri ,
and designates it 2E:idium grciveolens Shuttlew., instead of the usually
accepted name A. magellanicum, which belongs to a fungus growing on
Berberis ilicifolia from the Straits of Magellan.

Roesteliae producing Mycocecidia.f — M. L. Geneau de Lamarliere

discusses the various mcidioforms of Gymnosporangium in reference to
their life-history, and the host-plants of both forms, which he classifies
as under : —

JEcidia.

Teleutospores.

Roestelia cancellata on the pear.

Gymnosporangium fuscum (= G. Sa-
binse ) on Juniperus Sabina, J. Oxy -
cedrus, J. virginiana, J. phoenicia,
and Pinus Halapensis.

Roestelia ... on Cydonia vulgaris ,
Crataegus oxyacantha, and Mespilus
germanica.

Gymnosporangium confusum on Juni-
perus Sabina.

Roestelia lacerata on Cratsegus oxya-
cantha.

Gymnosporangium clavariseforme on
Juniperus communis.

Roestelia cornuta and R. penicillata on
Pyrus Malus, Sorbus Aria , S. Aucu-
paria, and S. Cliamsemespilus.

Gymnosporangium tremelloides (= G.
conicum and G. juniperinum) on
Juniperus communis and J. nana.

The changes produced by the cecidia in the tissues of the host-plant
are described in detail ; hypertrophy is displayed especially in the
cortex and homologous tissues, as the lacunar tissue of the leaf. The
cecidia produced by different species of the same genus, and having the
same mode of life, have the same structure, with only differences in
detail, on host-plants belonging to the same family, these being always
arborescent Kosaceae.

Bestoration of Spore-formation in Alcohol Yeasts. :}: — M. W. Bei-
jerinck — who had previously noticed that in Saccharomyces octosporus
the asporogenous cells reproduce asporogenous cells only, while the
spores give origin to both sporogenous and asporogenous cells — now
extends this observation to colonies. Thus, yeast-colonies which are de-
rived from spores reproduce spores in their turn, and the more spores
there are in a colony the more there will be in those cultivated from it ;
while cells originating from spore-free colonies produce asporogenous
colonies.

* Ann. of Bot., xii. (1898) pp. 155-63 (1 pi.). Cf. this Journal, 1897, p. 321.

t Rev. Gen. de Bot. (Bonnier), x. (1898) pp. 225-37, 276-88 (2 pis. and 5 figs.

X Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2,e Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 657-63, 721-30 (1 pi.).

660

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The differences between the two kinds of colonies are recognisable
by the following distinctions. Spore-bearing cells are distinguished
from the spore-free cells by means of the iodine reaction which stains
the spores blue or the glycogen violet-brown ; asporogenous cells, being
free from glycogen, do not stain. Spore-bearing colonies usually liquefy
wort-gelatin sooner than spore-free colonies. Spore-bearing colonies
are white and remain white ; while the spore-free colonies are only white
at first, and become brown afterwards.

The author appears to think that the differences between the two
kinds of colony are due to heredity ; and acting onjthis idea, he has been
able to regenerate the functions of sporulation and proteolysis by care-
fully selecting suitable and proper cells from an old culture which had
almost entirely lost these functions.

Biology of Stereum hirsutum.* — Prof. H. Marshall Ward has made
some observations on the mode in which this fungus attacks woody tissue.
He finds that, in the case of the horse-chestnut, the liyphae attack the
walls of the tracheids and other xylem-elements from within, gradually
delignify them layer by layer, and then consume the swollen cellulose
matrix. The mycele grows more luxuriantly in the alburnum than in
the duramen.

Polyporoid form of Mushroom.j — M. N. Patouillard describes a
specimen of Agaricus campestris bearing, on the underside of the pileus,
a polyporoid hymenium, closely resembling that of a Polyporus or
Boletus. The basids and spores were normal in size and structure.
The author believes that many so-called species of the Polyporem are
really polyporid forms of Agaricineas.

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany (Fungi ImperfectiU
— Under this section of the exhaustive work on the Cryptogams of Ger-
many, Austria and Switzerland, are comprised all the conidial fructifica-
tion-forms which precede or accompany the mature ascoform of the
Ascomycetes (Pyrenomycetes and Discomycetes) ; and their elaboration
has been entrusted to Herr A. Allescher. 4 hey are arranged under
three orders: — (1) Sphaeropsideas, spores abstricted in black or light-
coloured, mostly -spherical, lenticular or conical receptacles (peritheces
or pycnids), or more or less conspicuous sporophores; (2) Melanconieae,
spores or conids formed in sori which are only at first covered by the
epiderm, but then emerge on sporophores or basids, and are therefore
not enclosed in true receptacles or peritheces; (3) Hypliomycetes, spores
or conids usually developed superficially or nearly so, on the substratum,
on free hyphae, not in receptacles, very rarely in the interior of insects.
The Sphaeropsideae are again divided into four families, — the Sphaerioideae,
Hectrioideae, Leptostromaceae, and Excipulaceae. The Sphaerioideae are
classified under eight sections, and the first of these, the Hyalosporae,
comprises 26 genera. Of the first genus, Phyllosticta, 490 species are
described, and a commencement is made of Phoma, with 296 species.
They are arranged, in both genera, in accordance with the habit and

* Trans. Roy. Soc., clxxxix. (1898) pp. 123-34 (5 pis.).

t Bull. Soc. Mycol. France, xv. (1898) pp. 46-7 (1 pi.). See Bot. Central!)] .,
lxxv. (1898) p. 240.

X lter Band, vi. Abth. Lief. 59-62, 256 pp. and 5 figs., Leipzig, 1898.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

661

the systematic position of the host-plant, and several new species are
described. The illustrations represent the characters of the genera.

Myxomycetes.

Ceratification in Myxomycetes and Myxobacteria.* — Herr H.
Zukal describes a resting condition in certain Myxomycetes dependent
on the conversion of the cell-walls of the plasmodes and receptacles
into a horny substance. It was observed in Trichia fallax , T. varia ,
and Lycogala epidendron. In the first-named species the sporanges were
in one spot converted into a reddish-brown mass of a horny consistence,
the spaces between the spores, sporanges, and capillitium-filaments, being
filled by a hard homogeneous transparent substance, in the place of air
or a fluid protoplasmic mass. The process he believes to be a perfectly
normal one, similar to the formation of sclerotes in Fungi, and enabling
the plant to remain for a time in a state of rest. A similar phenomenon
was observed in the other Myxomycetes named, also in two Myxobacteria,
Chondromyces crocatus and Myxococcus macrosporus.

Protophyta.
a. Schizopliyceae.

Reproduction of Diatoms.f — Count Abbe F. Castracane reviews his
previous conclusions on the subject, and points out that the diminu-
tion in size of diatoms by scissiparition takes place only in those genera
where the two valves of the frustu’es are joined in such a way that one
encloses the other ; in the Melosireae this diminution is compensated
by the natural increase in size of the individual. He further notes that
in Melosim various the frustules, usually described as cylindrical, are
occasionally spherical.

Decrease and Increase in the Size of Diatoms.^— Hr. P. Miquel
has carried on for nearly three years a series of experiments on the
decrease in size of Nitzschia linearis. He finds that, in 71 cultures,
during this period, the greatest length is reduced from 70*2 to 39*0 /a,
the average length from 63*6 to 33*6 /a. He calculates that the number
of multiplications required for this reduction would be at least 1640,
and that the number of individuals produced in these multiplications,
represented by the expression 21640, would exceed in mass that of our
globe as much as a cubic metre exceeds a grain of sand, and could only
be expressed by a series of mere than 500 figures. When the minimum
size has thus been attained, a sterile microfrustule is produced, from
which the author was unable to obtain auxospores. With Nitzschia
sigmoidea, on the other hand, during a culture wdiich extended over
several months, the amount of reduction was only from 170 to 130 /a,
and microfrustules were then obtained which germinated, and re-estab-
lished the original size. Similar results wrere obtained with Nitzschia
palea, N. elliptica, Cyclotella comta, Biddulphia aurita, B. rhombus , and
Navicula elliptica. Abnormal auxospores and megafrustules were some-
times produced, interrupting the regular course of diminution in size.

* Biol. Centralbl., xviii. (1898) pp. 573-8.

f Ann. de Micrographie, x. (1898) pp. 67-80.

% Tom. cit., pp. 49-59, 182-91 (2 figs.).

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

662

Abnormal Diatoms. — Dr. P. Miquel * records the occurrence, in a
series of cultures of Nitzschia linearis , of a number of abnormal forms
which he believes to be du3 to unfavourable conditions of heat, light,
or nutriment, or to the presence of injurious chemical substances in
the medium.

Mr. S. Lockwood f affirms, as the result of observations made through
a long series of years, that if kept in darkness, the spores or germs of
diatoms may retain their vitality for a period of sixteen years. When
germinating after that length of time, they may give rise to remarkable
anomalous forms.

White Forms of Euglena.l — E. Couvreur has studied the gradual
disappearance of chlorophyll-grains in Euglena and the resulting white
forms. These can live for some time at the expense of the reserves of
paramylon, but they are incapable of multiplying. There is no doubt,
he concludes, that they are Algae, not Protozoa.

/3. ScRizomycetes.

Action of the Rontgen Rays on Bacteria.§— Contrary to the ex-
perience of Wolfender and Forbes-Ross, Herr H. Rieder finds that the
Rontgen rays have a greater inhibitive or even destructive effect on
bacteria than those of ordinary light. This was found to be the case
with B. coli, Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus , Streptococcus pyogenes , the
bacilli of cholera, diphtheria, typhus, and fowl-cholera. Bacteria sus-
pended in agar, blood-serum, or gelatin plates, perished in an hour under
the action of the Rontgen rays ; even bouillon cultures of the cholera
bacillus were killed by long exposure.

Nucleo-proteids of Bacteria.|] — The question of immunity and of
toxins and anti-toxins is closely associated with that of the chemical
composition of the micro-organisms themselves. The previous researches
of Sig. G. Galeotti indicated that the proteid substance they contain is
nucleo-proteid. The bacterium specially investigated during the pre-
sent research was Ernst’s Bacillus ranicidus, large cultures of which
are obtainable. The neclec-proteid separated from this by the usual
methods yielded xanthine bases. It contained a low percentage of
nitrogen (12), while the phosphorus amounted to 1*01 to 1*8 per
cent. It produced intra-vascular coagulation in rabbits, but small doses
conferred immunity. The colour reactions with anilin dyes are also
dealt with.

Denitrifying Micro-organisms.^]' — Herr 0. Kiinnemann finds that
horse-dung contains two kinds of denitrifying organisms, of which one,
B. denitrijicans i, is effective only in symbiosis with B. coli. The other
is a variety of B. denitrijicans ii. The same micro-organisms were some-
times, but not always, found in cattle-dung. The loss of nitrates may

* Ann. de Micrographie, x. (1898) pp. 177-81 (2 figs.), f Tom. cit.„ pp. 1-9.

X Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon, xliv. (1898) pp. 99-100.

§ Miinchener Med. Wochenschr., 1898, No. 4. See Bot. Centralbh, 1898, Beih.,
p. 4. Cf. thia Journal, ante , p. 460.

|| Zeit. Physiol. Chem., xxv. (1898) pp. 48-63. See Joum. Chem. Soc., lxxiii.
and lxxiv. (1898) Abstr., pt. ii. p. 444.

f Landw. Versucbs-Stat., 1. (1898) pp. 65-113. See Journ. Chem. Soc., lxxiii.
and lxxiv. (1898; Abstr , pt. ii. pp. 444-5.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

663

be considerable, but is less in soil poor in organic matter. Exclusion of
air and abundance of aeration retard the action of B. denit. i, but have
no effect on B. denit. ii. Sulphuric acid (0 17 per cent.) prevents the
development of denitrifying organisms. The varieties of denitrifying
organisms found in different kinds of soils were different from those
found in dung. They were B. pyocyaneus , B. Jluorescens liquefaciens ,
and B. denitrificans iii. Denitrification is not disturbed by 0* * * §1 per
cent, of caustic lime, but is slower in presence of 0*25 per cent.;
with 0 * 5 per cent, of lime B. pyocyaneus alone caused denitrification.
Marl had no effect.

New Chromogenic Saprophyte.* — M. Y. Y. Rodzewitcli describes a
chromogenic organism which he isolated from Tilletia levis of the family
UstilagineEe. The organism is a short thin mobile rod let, which, when
cultivated on the ordinary media, grows well between 20° and 37°. The
colonies are of a bright yellow hue, and in from one to two months the
medium is stained yellow. The best media were potato and grape-
sugar-agar. Gelatin is liquefied.

The organism stains well with anilin dyes, and is not decolorised
by Gram’s method. It does not apparently form spores, and is non-
pathogenic to animals.

New Pathogenic Tetracoccus.f — Sig. L. Vincenzi isolated from an
enlarged submaxillary lymphatic gland in a child three months old a
tetracoccus, designated Tetragenus citreus , which was cultivable on the
ordinary media. It is a potential anaerobe, is not decolorised by Gram’s
method, and grows quickly at 25°-35° C. In bouillon cultures a lemon-
coloured deposit is thrown down. In gelatin plates the deep colonies
are round and yellowish, and look like drops of wax. The appearances
in agar cultures are much the same. Milk is not coagulated by T.
citreus , though the yellow precipitate forms there too. It is not patho-
genic to rabbits, mice, or guinea-pigs.

Mobile Sarcina.J — Herr Th. Sames describes a mobile Sarcina which
was isolated from the drain water of a pigstye. The average diameter
of the coccus was found to be about 3 p. The Sarcinse stain well with
the usual anilin pigments and also by Gram’s method. Flagella-staiuing
showed the presence of numerous long flagella (25-50), which are well
depicted in the accompanying illustration. The organism grew well on
all the usual media, and appeared to be equally well adapted for aerobic
and anaerobic conditions.

Bacterial Disease of the Hyacinth. § — Dr. E. F. Smith confirms the
statement of Wakker that a common disease of the hyacinth is due to
the attacks of a bacterial organism. It belongs to the genus Pseudomonas ,
and has one polar flagellum.

Relation between Human and Avian Tuberculosis. || — M. Nocard
is of opinion that it is possible to impart to the bacillus of human tuber-
culosis the biological characters and the virulence of the bacillus of

* Wratsch, 1897, No. 5. See Ann. de Micrographie, x. (1898) p. 228.

+ La Riforraa Med., 1897, p. 758. See Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lt# Abt., xxiv.

(1898) pp. 193-4. % Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iv. (1898) pp. 664-9 (1 pi.).

§ Proc. Arner. Ass. Adv. Sci., 1897 (1898) p. 274.

|| Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xii. (1898) pp. 561-73.

6 64

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

avian tuberculosis, and that the two bacilli, so different in appear-
ance, are merely varieties of the same species. By inserting in the
peritoneal sac of fowls collodion bags filled with cultures of human
tuberculosis, and removing these after an incubation of four months, the
author succeeded in imparting to the human tubercle bacilli characters
which are recognised as being distinctive of avian tuberculosis.

The chief differences between the two varieties are that the cultures
of human tuberculosis are dry, scaly, and difficult to dissociate, while
those of avian tubercle are soft, greasy, wrinkled, and easily spread out.
Avian tubercle bacilli still grow at 43°, a temperature at which human
tubercle bacilli cannot be cultivated. It is almost impossible to inoculate
fowls with mammalian tubercle ; on the other hand, certain mammals
are refractory to avian tuberculosis, e. g. the dog. The guinea-pig re-
sists subcutaneous inoculation, but succumbs to intraperitoneal, though
the lesions it then presents are different’ from those excited by human
tubercle.

Permanence of the Infection of the Tubercle-bacteria.* * * § — From ex-
periments on a variety of species of Leguminosse, Herren F. Nobbe and
L. Hiltner find that in all cases the bacteria which infest the root-tubercles
retain not only their vitality, but their activity, for twelve months ; and
this power of infection is not confined to tubercles belonging to the same
species, or even genus, of host-plant, as that from which the microbe was
originally obtained.

Influence of Filtration on Diphtheria Antitoxin.f — According to
Dr. L. Cobbett, diphtheria serum loses in antitoxic power by transmis-
sion through filters. This loss varies from practically nil to over 30
per cent., and depends directly on the “ stopping ” power of the filter.
Hence diphtheria antitoxin, when prepared in bulk, should be passed
through an easy flowing filter, and the operation should be suspended as
soon as there are indications of the apparatus getting blocked, and no
attempt should be made to force the liquid through at a high pressure.

Of course the antitoxic efficiency must be calculated after filtration.

Aberrant Growth-forms in Streptococcus and Pneumococcus.^ —
Dr. A. Stolz draws attention to atypical appearances and aberrant forms
which occur in Streptococcus and Pneumococcus. In some preparations,
large flask-shaped and bacillary forms are not uncommon ; and if the
chains or collections be carefully observed, these will show not only
great differences in the size and shape of the individuals, but also frequent
departures from the normal division-direction. Thus, instead of Strepto-
coccus forming long chains composed of individuals of the same size and
shape, reproduction masses having resemblance to Staphylococcus, rosette
collections, bifurcating lines, &c., will be found to be not unfrequent.

Method of Action of Preventive Serum against Swine Erysi-
pelas.§ — M. F. Mesnil, who has investigated the method of action of
preventive wserum of swine erysipelas, states that when rabbits are
vaccinated by the Pasteurian method, it is possible to obtain an anti-

* Landwirdsch. Yers.-Stat., 1898, p. 467. See Bot. Centralbl., 1898, Beih., p. G4.

f Centralbl. Bakt. u. Far., lte Abt., xxiv. (189S) pp. 886-91, 415-19.

X Tom. cit., pp. 337-48 (6 figs.).

§ Ann. Inst. Fasteur, xii. (1898) pp. 481-500.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

665

infectious serum which, when used on mice, pigeons, and rabbits, is found
to have preventive properties, and, further, to be curative up to 24 hours
after the introduction of the virus, provided that the infection have not
already become generalised.

In vitro the serum is not bactericidal ; it is endowed with marked
agglutinating properties, even when strongly diluted. The agglutinated
microbes do not lose their virulence, and the bacill', in the immunising
serum, form chains composed of a large number of joints.

The body-juices of mice, passively immunised, do not exert any action
on the microbes, their destruction being due to the action of phagocytes
which incorporate them in a living virulent condition. The serum,
then, is a stimulant to the cells charged with the defence of tho
organism.

The virus was introduced either into the abdominal cavity or injected
beneath the skin of the belly.

Contagious Pneumonia': of Guinea-pigs.* — M. M. G. Tartakowsky
describes a malady affecting laboratory guinea-pigs, tho most prominent
feature being an acute pneumonitis. The causative organism closely re-
sembles the bacillus of glanders in size ; the rodlets have rounded ends,
and are 2-3 times as long as broad. They are usually in pairs. They
are easily stained, but not by Gram’s method. Neither spores nor spon-
taneous movements were observed. On glycerin-gelose or on gelose
the growth is greenish-blue, while on gelatin and potato it is brownish-
yellow. Milk is not coagulated. It is strictly aerobic, and is sensitive
to the reaction of the medium, growing fairly well in neutral media, best
when the reaction is slightly alkaline, and not at all when acid.

The distribution of the microbe in the body of the guinea-pigs is
limited to the respiratory organs ; even when the animal is infected ex-
perimentally by subcutaneous inoculation, the organism is found only at
the site of injection.

Intraperitoneal inoculation killed guinea-pigs in 30-36 hours ;
rabbits take the disease when inoculated, but are not affected naturally
or spontaneously. The name proposed for this hitherto undescribed
disease is Pneumonia contagiosa bacillaris caviarum.

Achalme’s Bacterium and Acute Rheum atism.j — Prof. I. Sawt-
cenko confirms the observation of Achalme,]: that in the blood of persons
sick with acute rheumatism there exists a specific anaerobic bacterium.
Pour times out of six the bacterium was obtained in a state of purity,
once mixed with Streptococcus , and once the results were negative. The
most favourable cultivation medium was lactose-bouillon mixed with
milk, the reaction being slightly acid. 1 ccm. of blood was mixed with
10 ccm. of the medium.

The bacterium, the morphological and cultural characters of which
are not described, secretes substances endowed with negative chemiotaxis
and necrotic properties.

Injection of filtrates of virulent cultures appeared to increase the
immunity of animals. The presence of salicylate of soda diminished

* Arch. Sci. Biol. St. Petersbourg, vi. p. 255. See Ann. de Micrographie, x.

1898) pp. 228-32. f Ann. <le Micrographie, x. (1898) pp. 220-2.

+ Ct‘. this Journal, ante, p. 119.

6(36 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the development of the bacteria ; this inhibition being no doubt due to
the presence of salicylic acid set free during the fermentation process.

Dysentery and Abscess of the Liver.* * * § — Dr. A. P. Petridis, who
has made bacteriological and inoculation experiments for the purpose
of ascertaining the relation between dysentery and abscess of the iiver,
finds that the endemic dysentery of Egypt is of microbic origin. The
microbe having the greatest share in the production of the disease is a
Streptococcus ; amoebae do not seem to possess any pathogenic action.
The cat, which suffers from spontaneous dysentery, was found to be a
suitable animal for experimental purposes. When inoculated with
dysenteric material, or with pure cultures of Streptococcus , the disease
was easily produced, and in four cases out of sixty there was abscess of
the liver. In these abscesses and in others of spontaneous origin, Strep-
tococcus is the organism usually found, but sometimes Staphylococcus
may be present. Amoebae do not appear to have any connection with
the production of liver abscesses.

Action of the Sorbose Bacterium on Wood-sugar. f — M. G. Ber-
trand has found that when the sorbose bacterium is cultivated in yeast
decoction containing xylose or wood-sugar, it exhibits its oxidising action
by transforming the sugar, with the exception of a few hundredths, into a
corresponding monobasic acid, xylonic acid. What action this microbe
has on other glucoses is reserved for a future communication.

Flagella of Termobacterium aceti.J — Herr A. Zeidler, who had pre-
viously described § an acetic acid bacterium endowed with movement,
now gives an excellent photogram of this organism, which shows ex-
tremely well the flagella as stained by Bunge’s method.

Bacteriology of Verruca.|| — M. C. Nicolle communicates the results
of an examination made on a case of Peruvian wart, a disease charac-
terised by the outbreak of tumours on the skin and mucosas, and also by
internal deposits.

Sections of the lungs showed nodules composed of epithelioid cells
surrounded by a zone of small round cells ; but no giant cells or caseation
were observed. In the liver were similar aggregates, but these con-
tained giant cells. In the spleen and lymphatic glands were more or
less extensive areas of caseation.

In the affected parts were found bacilli morphologically resembliug
those of tuberculosis. They were isolated and frequent, and stained
well by the Ehrlich method. If anything they were somewhat stouter
than the bacillus of tubercle.

Dr. Letulle, who has examined specimens of the cutaneous lesions of
Verruca peruviana, has also found a microbe identical with the tubercle
bacillus as to shape and colour reaction.

Capsule of Pneumococcus.il — Dr. N.- Pane gives reasons for suppos-
ing that the capsule of Pneumococcus is merely the outer part of the

* Arm. de Mierographie, x. (1898) pp. 192-213.

f Comptes Rendus, cxxvii. (1898) pp. 124-7.

X Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., 2te Abt., iv. (1898) p. 669 (1 pi.).

§ See this Journal, 1897, p. 161.

|| Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xii. (1898) pp. 591-5.

•f Centralbl, Bakt. u, Par., lt0 Abt., xxiv. (1898) pp. 289-94 (2 figs.).

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

667

bacterium wliich has become swollen from imbibition and degeneration.
Two illustrations of preparations of blood infected with Pneumococcus
are shown. In the first preparation of blood taken from the heart
immediately after death, the cocci are seen without capsules. The
second preparation is from the same blood, but had been preserved
for ten days in sealed glass tubes. In this the cocci are seen to be
surrounded with a broad characteristic capsule, and their central darkly
stained portion to be distinctly diminished in size.

Sporogenous Pseudo-diphtheria Bacillus.* — Dr. A. de Simoni de-
scribes a spore-forming pseudo-diphtheria bacillus obtained from nasal
discharge. It is cultivable on all the ordinary media. It is rather
smaller than the true diphtheria bacillus, but presents similar shape,
appearances, and the characteristic granules. It is easily stained, and
best with methyl-violet. On agar the growth is indistinguishable from
the Klebs-Loeffler. On gelatin it does not grow at all at 20°-22°. In
milk and on potato it produces spores when kept in the thermostat at
30°-34° for 48 to 60 hours. The bacilli stand 80 degrees of moist heat,
and 85 degrees of dry heat for 10 minutes. Solutions of sublimate
(0* 02-0*1 per cent.) are very effective, the spores being killed in a
few minutes.

Micro-organisms of Bigg’s Disease.^ — Mr. D. AVhittles briefly
notices, without description, the invariable presence of a micro-organism
in the case of progressive infective ulceration of the peridontium, or true
Bigg’s disease. He believes it to be “ of the anaerobic variety.”

* Centralbl. Bakt. u. Par., lte Abt., xxiv. (1898) pp. 294-7 (1 pi.).

t Anat. Anzeig., xv. (1898) pp. 108-10.

668

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c.*

Cl) Stands.

Large Binocular Microscope designed and made by an Amateur.

— At the meeting of the Society on November 16th, the President
brought under the notice of the Society a large binocular Microscope
(fio. 113) which was not only designed, but actually made by an amateur,
and accompanied an exhibition of a photograph of the instrument with
the following remarks.

“ The three largest Microscoj)es that have been constructed since the
introduction of achromatism, with which I am acquainted, are first,
Tulley’s, 1826.f The second was made by G. Lowden, jun., of Dundee,
in 18514 This was 4 ft. long, had a body-tube 4 in. diameter, and
weighed 1J cwt. The third was made by C. D. Ahrens, and was ex-
hibited before this Society in 1888. It 1 ad a body-tube of 4^- in.
diameter, and it stood 2j ft. high.§

“ Of these three the second can hardly be called a practical construc-
tion, and the third was intended solely for polariscope wrork ; on the
other hand, the one represented in the photograph, although large, is a
practical and serviceable working instrument. A one-foot rule is placed

* This subdivision contains (1) Stands; (2) Eye-pieces and Objectives; (3) Illu-
minating and other Apparatus; (4) Photomicrography; (5) Microscopical Optics
and Manipulation; (6) Miscellaneous. f Carpenter, 7th edition, fig. 112, p. 147.

X Journ. R.M.S., 1882, p. 851, fig. 156. § Op. cit., 1889, p. 273, fig. 39.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY^ ETC.

6G9

on tlie table beside it, forming a rough scale by which its size may be
estimated. The action of the various parts of this Microscope is so un-
like that of any other instrument that they will hardly be understood from
an inspection of the photograph ; a ‘detailed account is therefore necessary.
To the flat tripod foot, which is about 18 X 12 in., are fixed two lateral
flat upright posts, braced together at their upper end by a fixed hori-
zontal rod ; to the centre of this rod one end of a quadrant is attached,
its other end being fixed to the base.

“ The quadrant and its lower point of fixture are clearly seen in the
photograph ; but the fixed horizontal rod, which supports the upper end
of the quadrant, is hidden by another horizontal bar ; its terminal screw,
which passes through the right-hand vertical upright post, can however
be seen. Through the bases of the upright posts is fixed a stout cylin-
drical horizontal bar, its centre being the centre of the quadrant. A
strong arm, forming a radius of the quadrant, turns on the middle of this
bar ; its upper end, which embraces the quadrant, is produced a short
distanco beyond the quadrant, and forms a rigid attachment for the
lower end of the tail-piece. To the extremities of this lower horizontal
bar is pivoted the lower end of a lattice bracing, the upper end of this
bracing being attached to the lower fixed stage-plate, which in this
Microscope is behind the tail-piece. The plan of this lattice-work is
clearly seen in the photograph ; a more minute description is therefore
unnecessary. Attention however may be drawn to the third horizontal
rod, to which are attached the stays and struts of the lattice bracing, and
which moves with the lattice bracing when the Microscope is inclined.
The Microscope can be clamped in any inclined position by a screw,
which, passing through the upper end of the radius, pinches the
quadrant. Thus far we have an entirely original method of supporting
a large Microscope, which ensures rigidity, apart from undue weight.
Passing on to the Microscope itself, we see that it is constructed on
the Ross model, with an unusually long (for that model) fine adjust-
ment lever. The coarse adjustment is of the ordinary type, racking a
prism bar out of the tail-piece. The body, which is binocular and
12 in. long, is supported at the back by a strut.

“ In this part we meet with little or no divergence from known forms ;
but in the stage we find considerable novelty. The mechanism is as
follows there are three plates, the upper one, which is identical with
the actual stage of the Microscope, is attached by a pivot, seen a short
distance from its lower end, to a middle plate, which carries a tangent
screw. These two plates slide in a vertical dovetailed groove in the
third or lowest plate, the vertical movement being actuated by rack and
pinion in the usual way. The transverse movement is a transverse
movement in arc ; this is performed by the tangent screw at the lower
\ end of the middle plate causing the upper plate to revolve on the pivot
seen a little above it. Special notice should be given to this stage with
regard to its rigidity, which depends of course upon the rigidity of its
lowest plate ; but this, as we have seen, is supported by no less than five
struts of the lattice bracing and by the tail-piece. The result obtained
by this design is an open, thin, and unhampered stage, and I know not
where you will find its equal in this respect.

“ From the stage we pass on to the substage, in which we shall find
some more novel and interesting details. The substage itself has the
usual rectangular movements for centering, and it is also fitted with a slow

070

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

motion focussing screw, the milled head of which is seen at the lowest
point of its support, immediately in front of the tail-piece. This sup-
port of the substage swings in arc (the reflection of a portion of the arc
can be seen in the mirror), llie centre of rotation being the object on the
stage. The substage, carrying the condenser, can also be further turned
obliquely to the optic axis by means of the pivot in its front support.
By means of these two motions extreme obliquity of illumination can be
obtained.

“ With regard to the invention of the swinging substage, there is one
figured in Adams on the Microscope, 1798 (PI. 9, fig. 5), in connection
with Jones’s Lucernal Microscope, as improved by the Rev. John Prince,
of Massachusetts, and Mr. John Hill, of Norfolk.* * * § The idea underlying
this construction was not for purposes of oblique illumination, as we
now understand it, i. e. for sending an oblique beam below the stage on
a transparent object, because this kind of illumination would be simply
useless with a lucernal Microscope which projected’ the image on a
ground-glass screen. But the swing was applied in order that the sub-
stage might be turned round to the upper side of the stage, so that it
might become a super-stage illuminator for opaque objects. Substage
oblique illumination was neither intended nor used at this date. The
next time we meet with a swinging substage is in Grubb’s Sector Micro-
scope | (described before the Royal Irish Academy on May 10th, 1852,
and patented 1854). Jn this Microscope the substage, with a right-
angled prism attached beneath it, was fixed to a slot, which traversed in
a radial groove. J Coming to more recent times (1871), Tolies, § in
America, revived the swinging substage, to facilitate the resolution of
lined tests with oblique light. He was followed by Bulloch || (1873)
and Zentmayer^T (1876) in America, as well as by all the principal
makers in this country, Powell excepted. This absurd craze culminated
in the Ross-Wenham radial Microscope of 1882.** I am, however,
happy to say that the 3/4 axial cone has slain the Lernaean Hydra, and
both swinging substages and radial Microscopes have sunk to rise no
more. Returning, however, to the model before us, we have a very
perfect and early form of swinging substage ; for I first saw this Micro-
scope in 1870, and at that time it must have been about ten or fifteen
years old. Several of the objectives used with this Microscope were
computed and made by its designer.”

* Journ. R.M.S., vol. vii. ser. 2, 1S87, p. 297, fig. 45.

f Op. cit., vol. iii. 1880, p. 1056, fig. 126, and Proc. R. Irish Acad., v. (1853) p. 296.

X The following is abstracted from a footnote which occurs in a paper on ‘ The
Measurement of Aperture,’ written by the learned and Reverend J. R. Robinson,
D.D , Dean of Armagh, with reference to a new Microscope Mr. Grubb had made for
him (Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, iii. p. 166, 1855).

“This Microscope ( Grubb's Sector ) deserves to be known. . . . Mr. Grubb’s
illuminator is a prism whose aberrations are corrected for a lamp placed at a given
distance in the plane of the stage. It travels on a graduated arc of 120°, and through
this range its focus continues on the object. . . If raised above the stage it gives at
once a capital illumination for opaque objects; it acts well with Lieberkuhn and
Nicol’s prism, and trifling additions make it equally effective with Mr. Bergin’s
parallel illuminator, which shows some objects with peculiar distinctness.” Mr.
Bergin’s illuminator was a combination of a rhombic prism with Mr. Shadbolt’s
parabolic reflector.

§ Journ. R.M.S., vol. iii, 1880, p. 1061, figs. 128, 129.

|| Tom. cit., 1880, p. 1068, fig. 133. ^ Op. cit., vol. ii. 1879, p. 320, and 2 figs.

** Op. cit., vol. ii. ser. 2, 1882, p. 256, 4 figs, and pi. p. 145.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

671

“British Students’” Microscopes. — This name is given by Messrs.
R. and J. Beck to their new forms of Students’ Microscopes, two of which

HliTiTiiiiiiiii iimiwH

are here figured. By making large numbers of these instruments, and
by the extensive use of machinery in their production, Messrs. Becdc
1898 2 z

672 SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

consider that tliey have brought out an excellent class of low-priced
Microscope.

Fig. 114, which shows the cheapest of the set, has a sliding coarse-
adjustment. Its stand is a solid heavy tripod, with a spread of 6 in.

Fig. 115.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC. 673

between each foot. It has a joint for inclination, and the fine-adjustment
is regulated by a micrometer-screw and large milled head. The large
square stage has a distance of 2^ in. from centre of stage to limb, and
allows a very large culture-plate to be examined. The under-stage is
provided with a fitting of the full size, and is furnished with an im-
proved form of iris-diaphragm enlarged or contracted by means of a
handle-shown in the figure. Each instrument is provided with a plane
and concave mirror. An Abbe form of condenser at once converts the
instrument into a very efficient Microscope for bacteriology and other
high power study.

Fig. 115 shows a more expensive form of the same instrument. The
difference is partly in the coarse adjustment, which here is a spiral rack
and pinion. The draw-tube is engraved in millimetres, and at once
records the exact amount of mechanical tube-length in use. Another
addition is a rack and pinion focussing and screw centering substage ;
the milled head of the focussing substage pinion is extended beyond the
legs of the tripod, thus placing the focussing adjustment of the substage
always within easy reach, even when the instrument is used in a vertical
position. By these means all the requirements for the very highest
power work are secured, and the very best condensers and highest power
object-glasses can be successfully manipulated.

“ Fram ” Microscope. — The “ Fram ” Microscope, recently brought
out by Messrs. W. Watson and Sous, is illustrated in fig. 116. The
object of this design is to produce a Microscope of the highest class at
a very moderate price. The working parts are fitted and finished by
hand, so as to obtain the smoothest and most precise action. The foot
is of the tripod pattern with a spread of 7 in., and the instrument is
absolutely steady in any working position. The coarse adjustment is
Watson’s diagonal rack and pinicn, and the fine adjustment is the lever
pattern applied to all the instruments manufactured by the firm, which
has been tested for many years, and found satisfactory. One revolution
of the milled head moves the body 1/300 in., thus giving very exact
adjustment for high-power work, while the compensating screws pro-
vide a remedy for any slackness that may arise after a long period
of use.

The coarse and fine adjustments are of the pattern adopted by
Messrs. Watson in all their Microscopes. The stage, which is large, is
of the Nelson horse-shoe shape, and the fittings are of the universal size
throughout. The body with the draw-tube closed measures less than
G in., and with the draw-tube extended 10 in.; it is therefore permissible
to use objectives corrected for either the Continental or English tube-
lengths. The lower end of the draw-tube is provided with the universal
thread. In its plainest form the Microscope is provided with the ordi-
nary tube fitting beneath the stage, to carry the condenser, &c., and is
arranged to be turned aside from the optical axis when not required.
This cau be replaced by a compound substage, fitted with rack and
pinion focussing and screw centering adjustments. A sliding bar having
a new form of spring fitting, affording a very smooth motion, has been
designed for the instrument. The objectives are so mounted as to be
approximately in focus when revolved on a nose-piece, and the eye-pieces
are all arranged to work in the same focal plane.

2 z 2

674

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

Old French Microscope. — The President] exhibited, at the meeting
of the Society on October 14th, an old French Microscope, which, if its
date could be accurately determined, might be of considerable interest.

h*8 an archaic look about, it, reminding one of‘Joblot’s
(l/lo), but the rack and pmion focussing to the stage prevents its date

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

675

being put earlier than about 1765. Below the stage is a short piece of
conical tube, and below that is a wheel of graduated diaphragms. This
conical tube is a survival of the black ivory cone, mentioned by Henry
Baker in his description of Culpeper and Scarlet’s Microscope in 1743.

An interesting point is that there is no known instance of a wheel
of graduated diaphragms between the years 1702 and the establishment
of achromatism 1825-30 ; so that if the date of this Microscope could
be established prior to 1825, it would be the earliest example of the
reintroduction of the wheel of graduated diaphragms since 1702.

Microscope by John Cuff. — The President exhibited au interesting
old Microscope by J. Cuff of Fleet Street (fig. 117), which in its day

Fig. 117.

(1) A compound body having a single eye-lens (no field-lens) can bo
attached.

(2) It is provided with a fine adjustment of the John Marshall type
(lens and not stage focussing).

(3) The stage has lateral movement on a pivot.

(4) The instrument is inclinable.

(5) The pillar is mounted excentrioally on its oval base-plate, and it
is capable of rotation, which gives the Microscope greater stability in
different positions.

(6) It can be folded up for portability.

(7) A clip is provided to clamp the slide to the stage, and this is

676

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

the earliest known example of a slide-clip, as distinguished from the
spring, plates, &c., in vogue at that time.

This model has played an important part in the evolution of the
Microscope ; for it was copied in 1771 by Adams, who added a rack and
pinion to the forward movement of the body over the stage. It was also
the type copied by Baspail for his Microscope, which seventy years
later was very popular in France.

Notes. — (a) The lateral movement of the stage may be- considered as
a modification of the stage of Benjamin Martin’s “ Universal Microscope ”
(1740).

(6) The forward movement of the body over the stage is effected by
a sprung slide.

(c) The manner of clamping the slide to the stage is the same as
that still employed by Powell in his iron Microscope, and is the proto-
type of the spring-clip at present so largely used on Continental Micro-
scopes.

(d) This instrument is the earliest known example of a pillar,
mounted excentrically, and rotating on its foot to increase the stability.
This idea was copied by George Adams in 1771. It was reinvented by
Mr. A. McLaren.* It has also lately been introduced by Messrs. Boss
& Co.j It ought to be pointed out that the pillar of John Marshall's
Microscope, 1704, was also mounted excentrically, and was capable of
rotation, inasmuch as it had a ball-and-socket joint at the bottom.
This, however, was not meant to increase the stability, but to swing the
Microscope clear of its base, which was necessary for purposes of illumi-
nation, there being no mirror. Stability in John Marshall’s Microscope
was obtained by fixing lead to the bottom of the box.

Speaking to-day with our fuller knowledge of the essential points
of a Microscope, we should severely criticise Cuff’s Microscope. The
attachment of the stage to the pillar by a pivot cannot be commended,
neither can the hinged joint on the limb which carries the body. Both
these devices deprive the instrument of all steadiness, and render it fit
for work with the lowest powers only. The designer evidently thought
that the transverse motion of an object was better secured by a pivoted
stage than by the pushing of a slider between two plates compressed by
a stiff spring ; in this he was probably right, for we must compare the
instrument with those in use at that time, and not with our modern
stages. The hinged joint in the limb was to allow the Microscope to
be placed in a horizontal position, so that any object held in the stage
forceps might be examined with a Lieberkuhn with direct illumination,
which was a method much in vogue at that time. In brief, it was a
throw back on what has been termed “ the telescope mount.”

The probable date of this instrument, wThich is signed, is circa 1760.

(2) Eye-pieces and Objectives.

Improved Huyghens Eye-piece.J — Ur. Hugo Schroeder begins a dis-
cussion of the principle of this eye-piece by pointing out that, as is well

* Journ. R.M.S., 1884, ser. ii. vol. iv. fig. 9, p. 111.
t t Jtmrp. R.M.S., 1894, pp. 507-8, fi^s. 39 and 40.

X Central-Ztg. f. Opt. u. Meek., No.Ao, May 15, 1898, pp. 91-3.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETO.

677

known, it fulfils the conditions of achromatism, viz. that A =

P +P

where the letters have their usual meanings. It is clear that P and p
may have an infinite number' of separate values, and may yet give the same
value for A. Which of these infinite values are the best? For the last
century it has been usual to put P = Sp, and “ Huyghens’ ocular ” usually
has this construction. Dr. Schroeder admits that in this form the com-
bination is not ill adapted for high magnifications, but considers it ill
suited for w7eak magnifications, and the nearer A approaches the value
unity the worse the combination is. The necessary insertion of a stop
which excludes half the field of view is a grave defect. He has there-
fore recalculated the equations, and after several years’ experience gives
a table for the decimal values of P from 1 to 3, from which the following
lines are extracted.

The conditions underlying the table presuppose (T) that both lenses
are plano-convex ; (2) that they are of the same material ; (3) that in the
first approximation the various coloured images are brought to the same
size ; (4) that the eye-point is exactly at the half-focus of the eye-glass,
in order that the observer should not come too near the lens.

F = Objective focus.

P = Field-lens focus.
p = Focus of the eye-lens.

A = Distance of both lenses with respect to their cardinal points.
s = Distance of field-lens from the objective.

E = Equivalent focus of the ocular.

L = Length of the instrument from the first to the last lens.
m = Magnification of the instrument.
d = Distance of diaphragm from the field-lens.

D = Distance of objective image from the field-lens'.

/ = Focal length of the primary rays after quitting the field-lens
measured therefrom.

8 = Diameter of the diaphragm in the focus of p.

® = Half the visible field of view.

p

\v

A

s

F

m

d

D

E

/

L

2 0

5 max.

1-0

1

1-00

2-00

2

2

0

0

! l

2-00

3-00

o

28

58

0-500

1*5

1

11*25

4*50

4-80

4*00

0-25

0-300

1-200

2-25

5*75

38

56

0-667

2-0

1

1-50

10-00

10-67

00

©

©

0-50

0-667

1-333

2-50

11*50

47

10

0-800

2*5

1

1*75

27*50

28-57

20-00

0-75

rH

r--

©

1-429

2-75

29-25

54

4

0-909

3*0

1

2*00

1

00

00

00

1-00

1-500

1-500

3-00

60

0

1-000

New Microscope Objective for Zoological and other Biological
Investigations under Water.* — Dr. H. Hartwig, of Jena, describes the
above apparatus, which has been made to his designs by the Zeiss firm.

* Zeitscbr. f. wi?s. Mikr. xv. (189S) p. 102.

678

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

He considers that Zeiss’ water-immersion system D* is usually the best
to use for the observation of living creatures in water-chambers. In
many such cases, however, the desideratum is not so much a lens of
powerful resolution and high magnification as of extended field of view
and deep penetration. His new objective is constructed to meet this
want, and he names it the “ Pianktonsucher.”

The Pianktonsucher has a front focus of 35 mm., a working distance
of 36 mm., and a numerical aperture of 0*11. For a tube-length of
160 mm. and Zeiss’ Huyghens’ oculars 1 to 5, the following values are
obtained for the diameter of the objective field and for the magnifi-
cation : —

Huyghens Ocular.

Objective Field,
mm.

Magnification.

1

3-5

25

2

3-3

35

2*

4-2

35

3

2-4

50

4

2-0

60

5

1-7

80

In consequence of the use of the new Jena glasses, which after many
years’ experience have proved extraordinarily durable, a very good cor-
rection-position could be given to the system. The image is completely
plane and free from astigmatism quite close up to the periphery, even
when ocular 2* with its extended view-field is used, so that adjustment
affects the whole view-field uniformly. As the interference of the raj-
pencils is almost apochromatic, the images display a clean-cut distinct-
ness. In order to be able to carry on observations in water, the lenses
are fastened on the end of a cylindrical niokelled brass tube, so that
entry of the water is impossible.

In order to secure small creatures on the floor of the water-chamber,
three narrow glass bars are cemented on to the floor, and a cover-glass
placed on them (below the water-level), so that the objects are enclosed
in a thin stratum, which stratum can be explored without altering the
adjustment of the objective.

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

“Newtonian” Universal Science Lantern (Ives and Newton’s
Patent). — This lantern has been devised with “a view to producing an
instrument which shall be extremely portable and which shall yet be
capable of producing, with a minimum of trouble and rearrangement,
most of the experiments required by science lecturers. As shown in the
illustration (fig. 118), it is fitted with lantern-slide front, microscopic
attachment, and spectroscopic front. The lantern is so fitted that any
one of the three fronts can be exchanged for the other by simply sliding
the front from the centre to the one side or the other as may be required.

The first front is for showing the ordinary slides or diagrams, and
comprises a 4-in. double condenser and 8-in. best double achromatic
front lens, exhibiting slides as well and clearly as any lantern that is
made.

The second front is a Microscope attachment, and is of more interest
to the readers of this Journal, perhaps, than the other parts of the iustru-

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

679

ment, and is fitted with a movable substago condenser and low-power
objective. The adjusting substage is so made that a spot-lens or dark-
ground illuminator can be used, also a Lieberkuhn for illuminating
opaque objects. A large Nicol cau bo used for showing crystals ; rock
sections by means of polarised light show well on the screen. The ease
with which the Microscope can be shifted to the lantern front for showing
photomicrographs makes the instrument especially useful to the lecturer.

The third front is for spectroscopic work, and is fitted with slit,
direct-vision prism, and achromatic focussing lens, which project a
brilliant spectrum on the screen without the necessity of placing the
lantern at an angle. A comparison prism is also fitted, by which at
the same time an image is projected on the screen of any medium of
which the absorption spectrum is being shown.

Fig. 118.

The whole of this part of the apparatus can be lifted off, leaving a
clear base-board, so that a vertical attachment, or photochromoscope,
elbow polariscope, or any front can be substituted that may be wanted
directly. The condenser is mouuted on a hinge, aud can be removed or
put into position instantly. Either lime-light or the electric arc can be
used in this lantern ; and as it is made throughout in Messrs. Newton
& Co.’s workshop, it is perhaps unnecessary to say that every detail has
been carefully arranged, and that the workmanship is of a high class.

(6) Miscellaneous.

Abbe’s Theory of the Microscope.* — Karl Strehl, of Erlangen, pro-
pounds the seven following propositions, which seem to him to be of
fundamental importance for rightly understanding Abbe’s theory of the
Microscope.

“ (1) Of the continuations of the plane-wave which falls perpen-
dicularly on the primary optic axis and illuminates the object, only the
direct continuation is a plane-wave, the deflected ones are by their very
nature not plane- waves.

* Central-Ztg. f. Opt. u. Mech., No. 18, pp. 71-2 (2 figs.).

680

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

“ (2) The diffraction-spectra are, according to Abbe (in monochro-
matic light), set up as the real images generated by the system, and due
to the bright parts of the virtual diffracted appearances generated by
the objective structure in the image-forming infinitely distant planes.

“ (3) The stereometric place for equality of phase is not so much
the image-forming focal plane, as a spherical surface concentric to tho
image-point and generated by the image-forming focal point.

“ (4) The direct primary maximum lies at the image-forming focus,
but the deflected secondary maxima do not lie in the image-forming focal
planes ; the collective diffraction-spectra are not aplanatic images.

“ (5) The diffraction-spectra do not lie generally on a spherical
surface, and even if they do, then this spherical plane is generally not
concentric to the image-focus; generally the ray-paths have not equal
distances between the diffraction-spectra and the image-focus, i.e. the
diffraction-spectra are not in the same phase.

“(6) If the objective is aplanatic, then the locus of the real diffrac-
tion-spectra is formed with unequal phase by means of a spherical surface
concentric to the image-focus ; consequently it is easily understood that
the normal microscopic image is erected at a definite point of the optical
primary axis (i.e. at the centre of the spherical surface), and not in any
desired point, so that the diffraction-spectra lie with equal phase in the
focal plane,

“(7) When the surface (generated by the image-forming focus) is
of such a kind that it contains the collective diffraction-spectra in the
same phase, I call it the ‘ wave-surface 5 ( Wellenflache ). This ‘wave-
surface ’ is constant for the aplanatic arrangement of the system.”

B. Technique. *

Cl) Collecting- Objects, including Culture Processes.

Artichoke as Nutrient Medium. j- — M. M. Roger recommends arti-
choke as a nutrient medium, as many bacteria and yeasts grown on this
substratum exhibit a characteristic appearance. With some species the
infection-site assumes a green hue, with others it remains uncoloured.
B. subtilis forms a deposit in 24 hours, the subjacent substratum being
coloured green. Anthrax does the same in 3-4 days. Typhoid has no
action on the substratum. B. prodigiosus when incubated imparted the
green staining, though the red pigment did not form. At room tempe-
rature the cultures of B. prodigiosus exhibited the red colour, while the
green staining was absent.

The author suggests that the green pigment is due to the oxidation
of some constituent of the artichoke owing to the (vital ?) action of the
microbes. That it is an oxidation process is obvious from the fact that
when oxygen is excluded, the green pigment is not formed. The pig-
ment is soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol, chloroform, and ether.
Acids turn it red, while bases restore the green colour.

* This subdivision contains (1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Pro-
cesses; (2) Preparing Objects; (3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtonies ;
(4) Staining and Injecting; (5) Mounting, including slides, preservative fluids, &c. ;
(6) Miscellaneous.

f C.R. Soc. Biol., v. (1898) pp. 769-71.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

G8i

(2) Preparing- Objects.

Preparation and Fixing of Algae.* * * §— Prof. F. Oltmanns recommends
the following process for the Florideas. The algae are placed in chromic-
potassium-sublimate-glacial-acetic-acid, or in Rath’s picrin-osmium-
platinum-chloride-acetic-acid, and then, after a short time, in 70 percent,
alcohol, until they no longer impart to it a yellow colour. Rath’s mixture
fixes the chromatophores well. The preparation may then be stained by
haemalum or by very dilute solution of haematoxylin (at 60° C.), or by
Heidenhain’s haematoxylin-iron-alum. Carmin does not answer so well.

Isolating Ganglion-cells and TJnstriped Muscle-fibres.f — Accord-
ing to Herr J. Arnold, ganglion-cells and unstriped muscle-fibres are
easily isolated by the iodo-potassic iodide method. The objects may be
placed for 2-3 days in 10 per cent, potassium iodide solution, and then
for a similar time in iodopotassic iodide solution (5 drops of the strong
solution to 10 ccm. of 10 per cent, potassium iodide solution), or the latter
mixture may be employed from the start. In the first case the cells are
better isolated, in the second they preserve their form more perfectly.

It is a very good thing to add a few drops of an aqueous solution of
eosin to the isolating fluid.

Methods for Demonstrating Myxosporidia.J— Herr F. Doflein used
for his investigations on Myxosporidia material derived from sea- and
fresh- water fish. It is indispensably necessary that living and fresh
material should be studied, as the study of the finer morphology of the
spores is a matter of extreme difficulty in clarifying media. The best
fixative was found to be Flemming’s solution, though sublimate, picro-
acetic acid, and picro-sulphuric acid can be used with advantage, espe-
cially as after the latter reagents carmin stains can be employed ; for,
as is well known, after Flemming’s solution these stains are not extremely
successful. In order to obtain preparations of the forms inhabiting the
urinary and gall-bladders, the following method was adopted. A drop
of the fluid in which Myxosporidia were suspended was spread on a
slide and fixed with one of the before-mentioned fluids. If the bile
would not coagulate a little blood was added. In this way a crowd of
Myxosporidia are fixed in a thin film, and can be further treated as a
section. After fixation in Flemming’s solution, the best pigments were
safranin and gentian- violet, and the haematoxylin- iron. After the other
fixatives, borax-carmin, Mayer’s carmin, haematoxylin, haemalum, haemato-
xylin-eosin, or orange G, Bismarck-brown, and methylen-green were
useful occasionally. For showing up the walls and margins of cells,
indulin is a useful accessory to iron haematoxylin.

Method for Demonstrating the Shape of Spaces and Passages in
Embryos.§ — Herr F. Hochstetter communicates an ingenious method
which he devised for showing the changes occurring during the develop-
ment of the membranous labyrinth. This method, with modification and

* Bot. Ztg., lvi. (1898) lte Abth., p. 100.

f Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., lii. (1898) pp. 762-73(1 pi.). See Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr.,
xv. (1898) p. 226.

X Zool. Jakrb. (Abtli. f. Anat. u. Ontog.), xi. (1898) pp. 281-350 (7 pis. and
20 figs.). See Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xv. (189S) pp. 217-8,

§ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xv. (1898) pp. 186-92 (1 pi.).

682

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

improvement, was applied to embryo lungs for the purpose of demonstrat-
ing the shape of the air-passages and saccules. The preparations are
immersed for a short time in a mixture of two parts chloroform and one
part oil of cloves. They arc then removed, and dried on filter-paper.
When the preparation begins to turn white (less than 5 minutes), it is
transferred to oil of cloves. The spaces in the labyrinth are now filled
with air or a mixture of air and chloroform vapour, and when examined
by reflected light look as if they were filled with quicksilver. Though the
picture may last long enough to take a drawing or a photograph, it is a
transient one, owing to the absorption of the air by the oil of cloves.
More lasting preparations were obtained from embryo lungs. In this
case a solution of finely powdered Indian ink was used. The solution
was sucked in through the trachea as the air disappeared from the lung,
and in this way beautiful preparations of the shape of the air-passages
and air-sacs were obtained.

The photographs given of lung preparations of the embryos of rabbits
and fowl are excellent demonstration objects.

Removal of Pigment from Zoological Specimens.* — Dr. R. Jander
recommends Fol’s decalcifying solution for removing pigment from
zoological specimens, such as mantle of Lamellibranchs, leeches, Arthro-
pods’ eyes, fish-skins, &c.

The solution consists of one per cent, chromic acid, 70 vols. ; nitric
acid, 3 vols.; water, 200 vols.

The pigment is removed in from 12 to 48 hours, according to the
bulk of the object. The solution may be used for sections as well as
for whole objects. Sections must be stuck on by means of some adhesive,
such as very thin albumen.

The solution has the further advantage of fixing and decolorising
simultaneously. The acids are easily removed by means of water.

Hardening Blood, Sputum, &c., on Slides. j — Dr. C. Ritter prefers
slides to cover-glasses for making preparations of morbid and other
fluids, such as blood, pus, sputum, urine. The fluid should be poured on,
and the slides placed in glass capsules or vessels containing the fixative,
such as osmic acid or formalin. The slides are made to rest on fillets
or blocks with the film side downwards, so as to expose the surface to
the action of the reagent.

Demonstrating Medullated Nerve-fibres.;]; — Herr A. E. Smirnow
demonstrates the medullated nerve-fibres in the molecular layer of the
cerebellum by the Weigert-Pal and Golgi methods. The whole cere-
bellum of a freshly killed dog is placed in a mixture of 4 parts of 5 per
cent, bichromate of potash and 1 part of formol for 1-8 weeks. The
organ is then cut in half and immersed in 3-5 per cent, bichromate of
potash solution, which is renewed daily for a week. After an immersion
of from 2-5 weeks, one-half is treated by the Weigert-Pal method, and
the other cut up into pieces of 1-2 cm. in length.

These pieces are placed in the following mixture : — Five per cent,
bichi ornate of potash, 5 vols.; 2 per cent, osmic acid, 1 vol. After

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xv. (1898) pp. 163-5.

t Tom. cit., pp. 159-61 (2 figs.).

X Arch. f. Mikr. Anat., lii. (1898) pp. 195-202 (1 pi.). See Zeitschr. f. wiss.
Mikr., xv. (1898) pp. 246-7.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

683

1-1^ weeks, the pieces are transferred to a weak aqueous solution of
nitrate of silver, and then for 48 hours or longer to a 1 per cent, solution
thereof.

This modification of Golgi’s method gave good results also with
human cerebella or cerebra which had been kept for 2-3 days in a cool
place.

Preparation of Diphtheritic Toxin without Meat.*— Prof. Spronck,
having found that yeast favoured the production of the diphtheritic
toxin, now prepares the toxin by the following method. Ordinary
yeast, not brewer’s yeast, is used. One kilo, is boiled in 5 litres of
water for 20 minutes, the yeast being constantly stirred with a spatula.
The decoction is poured out and allowed to stand 24 hours. To the
supernatant fluid are then added 5 grm. of salt and 20 grm. of pepton.
The fluid, which is slightly acid, is neutralised with soda, 7 ccm. of
normal soda solution being added to the litre. It is then hot-filtered
through paper, distributed into vessels, and steiilised at 120°. Thus
prepared, the diphtheritic toxin is twenty times stronger than that pre-
pared from old meat.

(3) Cutting-, including: Imbedding- and Microtomes.

New Microtome.f— M. P. Francotte describes a microtome made
by^Jung which has the following advantages (fig. 119). It is of

* Ann. Inst. Pasteur, xii. (1898) pp. 701-4.

f Bull. Soc. Beige de Microscopie, xxiv. (1897-98) pp. 18-21 (1 fig.).

684 8UMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

moderate price. It is adapted for cutting objects imbedded in celloidin
or in paraffin, or by the ether-freezing method. It is constructed of
iron, the greater part of the surface being nickelled and the rest var-
nished. It is clamped to the table by a large binding-screw d, and if
required to cut under water or alcohol, it is fixed to a board placed
vertically.

The microtome proper is of the Ranvier type. The micrometer-
screw is moved automatically by an excentric which is capable of adapt-
ing itself to one or more divisions of a graduated circle b. The requisite
number of divisions is determined by the operator, each corresponding
to a micron when the handle k is pushed forward. The excentric is
set by merely turning a ring, and thus gearing the microtome for
1 to 36 microns.

The knife-carrier is attached to the vertical piece a, and moves on
the pivots s s when the handle k is pushed backwards or forwards.

The illustration (fig. 119) shows the apparatus as arranged for ether-
freezing.

(4) Staining- and Injecting:.

Weigert Methods of Staining.* — Prof. C. J. Herrick reports a
series of experiments with the Weigert staining methods in studying
the components of the cranial nerves in bony fishes, which rests largely
on the myelination of the nerves. The results are given for the dif-
ferent fixing reagents, mordants, &c., and form a body of valuable
suggestions for those who propose applying these methods to the lower
Vertebrates.

Fixing and Staining Starch-grains. f — The results described on
p. 639 were obtained by Herr J. H. Salter by the use of the following
processes of fixing and staining.

Flemming’s mixture was found, on the whole, to bo the best fixing
material. Sublimate-alcohol and picrin-alcohol also gave good results
when the staining reagent used was acid-fuchsin.

For staining the plastid in which the starch-grains are imbedded,
acid-fuchsin and iron-haematoxylin gave much the best results, especially
when the fixing material used was sublimate ; 20 grm. of acid-fuchsin
were used in 100 ccm. of anilin- water. The starch-grains themselves
may be stained by methyl-violet or gentian- violet in aqueous solution,
both showing the stratification fairly well, especially if the section be
first treated with a concentrated aqueous solution of orange G. For a
double stain the material may be fixed by sublimate and stained by acid-
fuchsin followed by methyl- or gentian-violet, the excess of violet being
then removed by orange. The chloroplasts and leucoplasts, as well as
the whole of the cytoplasm, take up the fuchsin, while the starch-grains
absorb the violet.

Sudan iii., a Selective Stain for Fat.t — Dr. A. G. Nicholls confirms
the observation of Rieder, who found that Sudan iii. is useful for histo-
logical work, especially for differentiating fat. A saturated solution of
Sudan iii. in 96 per cent, alcohol is, after filtration, diluted two-thirds

* N. York State Hospital’s Bull., Oct. 1897. See Amer. Nat., xxxii. (1898)
p. 802. t Jahrb. f. wiss. But. (Pfeffer u. Strasburger), xxxii. (1898) pp. 118-21.
f Microscopical Bulletin, xv. (1898) p. 31.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

085

with 50 per cent, alcohol, and filtered again. Sections, after a few
minutes’ immersion, are washed in 60-70 per cent, alcohol, drained, and
mounted in glycerin or Farrants’ medium. Fat is stained a carmin-red,
but the colour is a golden-yellow if the particles be small.

Micro chemical Staining of Cell-walls.* * * §— M. J. Chalon records the
results of a new series of experiments made on the following vegetable
tissues : — pine, willow, Cordyline , mistletoe, Dracaena , agave, hemp,
cotton, rose, maize. All the material was first treated with eau de javelle
to destroy the starch and cell-contents, the cell-wall being the only part
experimented on. The single stains used were, haematoxylin, benzo-
azurine, magdala-red, benzo-purpurin,naphthol-black, coralline, methylen-
blue, orseille.

The double stains were, campeachy and fuchsin, fuchsin and methylen-
blue ; alum-carmin and methylen-blue or iodine-green ; carmin, cam-
peachy and methyl-green ; prussian-blue and safranin ; campeachy and
benzo-purpurin, anilin-blue and magenta.

These double stains were tried on palm, iris, pineapple, ketinie,
maize, Cordyline , mistletoe, willow.

Further experiments and the conclusions are promised later.

New and Rapid Method for Double Staining Blood. f — Dr. R.
Garcia fixes and stains blood in the following way. A drop of blood and
a drop of sterilised bouillon are mixed together on a cover -glass. When
the mixture is dry, the cover-glass is placed on a slide and the film fixed
by heating the slide over a flame. This takes scarcely a minute. For
staining the author employs cosin and methylen-blue in simple solution ;
the stains are used successively, the superfluous fluid being washed off
each time with water, after which the preparation is mounted in balsam.
The whole process takes about 5 minutes.

It is preferable to use the eosin before the methylen-blue ; and in
order to make the bouillon more durable, a few drops of formol may be
added.

Neutral Red for Staining Hsemoglobigenous Granules. — Dr. E.

Giglio-Tos demonstrates the hsemoglobigenous granules in the erythro-
cytes of certain animals — lamprey, fowl embryo, frog, guinea-pig, &c. —
by means of a saturated solution of neutral red in 0 • 8 per cent, sodium
chloride.

A drop of the staining solution and a drop of the blood are mixed
together on a slide, and a cover-glass imposed. In 5-10 minutes the
preparation may be examined.

Modification of Van Ermengem’s Method of Staining Elagella.§ —
Dr. J. W. W. Stephens has obtained beautiful results from a modifica-
tion of Van Ermengem’s method, || which consists in using ‘Margin, ” one
of the many compounds of silver and albumen, instead of nitrate of silver.
The usual procedure is followed, the silver bath being a 2 per cent,
largin solution which contains about 0*2 per cent, of silver. The film
may be passed from silver to gallic acid three or four times, or oftener.

* Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belgique, xxxvii. (1898) pt. ii. pp. 12-29.

t Cionica Medic.-Quir. Habana, xxiii. No. 23. See Zeitsclir. f. wiss. Mikr., xv,

(1898) pp. 236-7. X Zeitsclir. f. wiss. Mikr., xv. (1898) pp. 166-71.

§ Lancet, 1898, ii. p. 874. || Cf. this Journal, 1894, p. 405.

686

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

The film thus passes through (1) largin, from 2 to 10 minutes ; (2)
gallic acid, 2 to 10 minutes ; (3) largin, till clear ; (4) gallic acid again
if necessary, and so on.

The cover-glasses should always he burnt on a piece of wire gauze
to remove all fat.

By this method clean well-stained preparations can be obtained with
ease and certainty.

Staining Intestinal Canal by Van Gieson’s Method.* — Dr. W.
Moller recommends Van Gieson’s method for staining sections of intes-
tinal canal. The method was originally intended for the central and
peripheral nervous system, and consists in staining first with haemato-
xylin, and afterwards with a mixture of acid fuchsin and picric acid.
The author adopts the following modified procedure. (1) Stain for half
an hour in Delafield’s hematoxylin. (2) Immerse in distilled water for
12-24 hours. (3) Stain for 1/2-1 minute in Van Gieson’s mixture,
which is composed of 150 ccm. of a saturated aqueous solution of picric
acid, and 3 ccm. of a saturated aqueous solution of acid fuchsin. (4) Wash
in distilled water (1/4— 1/2 minute). (5) Dehydrate in 90-96 per cent,
alcohol (2-5 minutes). (6) Transfer to absolute alcohol for 1 minute.
(7) Origanum oil; (8) Canada balsam. To the water (4) and the spirit
(5) must be added a few drops of Van Gieson’s solution to prevent the
too great extraction of the picric acid.

The material dealt with had been kept in spirit for years, and the
sections were “ celloidin-sections.”

(5) Mounting-, including- Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

New Method for Fixing Paraffin Sections to the Slide.j — Herr K.
Koninski's gelatin-formalin method is based on the fact that formalin
renders gelatin firm and insoluble. The slides are covered with a thin
film of gelatin, after the manner of photographers. When the gelatin
has set the plate is ready. Upon the dry plate are arranged the ribands
of sections, and having been smoothed down by the aid of warm water,
any excess of water is poured off. The plate is then warmed until the
gelatin is liquefied. The superfluous gelatin is removed with bibulous
paper, and the plate allowed to dry. When dry it is placed in pure
formalin for about 10 minutes. Thus fixed the gelatin film holds the
sections so firmly that the slide may be immersed in boiling water with-
out fear.

C6) Miscellaneous.

Microscopic Detection of Phosphorus-containing Compounds.!—
Prof. A. B. Macallum discusses the difficulties connected with the micro-
scopic detection and localisation of compounds containing phosphorus,
and especially the value of the reducing agents hitherto employed after
the use of ammonium molybdate for the purpose. He finds that pyro-
gallol is unreliable, and recommends the use of a recently prepared
aqueous solution of phenyl by draz in hydrochloride of 1-4 per cent,
strength. This, in the absence of alcohol or a caustic alkali, gives a
green colour where phospho-molybdate compounds are present, but only

* Zeitschr. f. wiss. Mikr., xv. (1898) pp. 172-7. t Tom. cit., pp. 161-3.

X Proc Roy. Soc. Lond., Ixiii. (1898) pp. 467-74.

ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, MICROSCOPY, ETC.

687

a faint yellow reaction wliere ammonium molybdate alone is present ;
the great advantage of this reducing agent being that it is not necessary,
as in the case of pyrogallol, to remove uncombined ammonium molyb-
date before subjecting the tissues to the reducing process. The method
is as follows : — The tissues, either fresh or hardened in alcohol, are sub-
jected, for periods varying from 10 minutes to 48 hours, to the action
of a nitric-molybdate solution made by dissolving one part by weight
of pure molybdic acid in four parts by weight of strong ammonia, and
adding thereto slowly fifteen parts by weight of nitric acid sp. gr. 1 • 2.
The reagent acts best at a temperature of 35° C., and the action is pro-
gressive ; the inorganic phosphates are first affected, then the lecithin,
and finally the organic phosphorus. When the reaction is completed,
the tissues are exposed to the phenylhydrazin hydrochloride solution
for a minute or two, washed in distilled water, dehydrated, cleared in oil
of cedar, and mounted in balsam. The lecithin may be removed from
the tissues before the phosphorus test is applied by extracting with
ether and then subjecting to prolonged (five hours) treatment with
boiling ethyl -alcohol in a Soxhlet apparatus. The inorganic phosphorus
may be partially removed by treating the tissues with 20 per cent, acetic
acid ; but it is possible, by examining the preparations after the molyb-
date solution has acted for about 10 minutes, to determine the relative
amount of inorganic phosphorus present ; an increase of the reaction
after the first 10 minutes demonstrates the presence of inorganic phos-
phorus.

Microchemical Demonstration of Alkaloids.* — Herr H. Barth, in
an exhaustive article on the microchemical demonstration of alkaloids,
states that alkaloids are present in some part of the fruit or seed, from
the husk to the endosperm and embryo.

The reagents employed for determining the presence of the alkaloids
were those ordinarily used in pharmaceutical and toxicological chemistry.
These reagents were chiefly precipitants, and those which gave some
characteristic colour. In a few instances the reagents gave better results
when used as vapour than in solution.

The results of the author’s observations appear to show that the
functions of alkaloids are various, some being essentially excretory and
protective, others, especially such as exist in the endosperm and embryo,
are reserve substances and nutritive.

New Method for making Casts.f — Dr. G. A. Peters has invented a
method for making casts by which the minutest details of the object are
rendered visible. The process consists in spraying melted paraffin over
the whole surface, at the same time cooling it by spraying ice-cold water,
strengthening the mould with plaster of Paris, and removing it in as
many sections as may be required. The mould is made of hard paraffin.
The surface of an object requires no preparation unless covered with
hair. It is in this case oiled, and covered by means of a spray with a
cream composed of cornflour, glycerin, and alcohol. The paraffin is
sprayed on through a special ejecting apparatus, which is practically
nothing more than a spray surrounded by a hot-water jacket. The

* Bot. Centralbl., lxxv. (1898) pp. 225-31, 261-7,292-300, 326-44, 369-78, 401-9,
pi.)* t Brit. Med. Journ., 1898, ii. pp. 621-1 (5 kgs).

688

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

mould is then strengthened by a backing of plaster of Paris, and having
been divided up into sections in the usual way by means of threads, is
removed.

Though the procedure is somewhat cumbersome, the results are extra-
ordinarily good.

Lee and Mayer’s Outlines of Microscopical Technique for Zoologists
and Anatomists.* — The general scope of Mr. N. Bolles Lee’s work on
microscopical technique is too well known to English microbiologists
to require any description.

Herr P. Mayer, of Naples, has recently brought out a German edi-
tion which, while purporting to be a translation, is really a revision.
The work has been much improved by the alteration and the care be-
stowed on it.

Cement for Glass.j — The following mixture is recommended for
cementing glass used in aquaria. Gum elastic is dissolved in benzin
till the fluid has a syrupy consistence. White lead and linseed oil
varnish are rubbed up to a paste and mixed with the gum solution. The
cement may also be used for sticking glass to wood.

Bone-Corrosion Preparations.^ — Hr. Stanislaus von Stein describes
a new method of obtaining models in caoutchouc of the inner ear. The
first necessity is that the temporal bone should be thoroughly cleaned ;
to effect this it may be injected with hot concentrated soda solution.
When clean it is to be injected with “ Kosa-Kautschuk ” dissolved in
chloroform, and placed for twenty-four hours in a beaker filled with
solution which is allowed to slowly thicken. The bone is then reinjected
if necessary, allowed to dry completely, and the caoutchouc scraped from
the surface except over the openings. The next process is that of vul-
canisation, accomplished by placing the bone in a cuvette in a thin
plaster of calcium sulphate, closing the cuvette tightly, and placing it
for an hour and a half in a vulcanising apparatus. It is then taken out
of the cuvette, the adherent sulphate removed in water, and the pre-
paration decalcified by being placed in a solution containing hydrochloric
acid in the proportion of 1 to 5. The perfectly hard preparation is then
washed, dried, and varnished. The advantages of the method are claimed
to be its rapidity and cheapness, and the permanence and excellence of
the result.

As a Frontispiece to the current volume, we give a reproduction
of an excellent photograph, taken by Mr. Washington Teasdale, which
may interest our older Fellows, of the room in King’s College, where the
meetings of the Society were held from the year 1S67 until we moved to
the present roou s in Hanover Square in 1890.

* Berlin, 1898 (Friedlander u. Sohn). See Bot. Ztg., Ivi. (1898) 2te Abth.,
pp. 185-6. f Zeitsclir. f. angew. Mikr., iv. (1898) p. 109.

X Anat. Anzeig , xv. (1S98) pp. 112-6.

689

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on October 19th, 1898, at 20 Hanover Square, W.,
The President, E. M. Nelson, Esq., in the Chair.

Ths Minutes of the Meeting of June 15tli last were read and con-
firmed, and were signed by the President.

The List of Donations to the Society (exclusive of exchanges and
reprints) received since the last Meeting was read, and the thanks of the

Meeting were voted to the donors.

From

Zahn, J., Oculus Artificialis. (2nd edition, Nuremberg,

1702) The President.

Catalogue of Tertiary Moll usca. Parti. (8 vo, London, 1 The Trustees of the

1897) ) British Museum.

Annual Report of the Board of Agriculture. (Svo,]

London, 1898) ? The Board of

The Journal of the Board of Agriculture. Yol. v. No. 2. f Agriculture.

(8vo, London, 1898) j

Lafar, F., Technical Mycology. Yol. i. (8vo, London,

1898) The Publishers.

Photography Annual for 1898. (Svo, London, 1898) .. Mr. P. E. B. Jourdain.

The Illustrated Annual of Microscopy. (4to, London,

1898) The Publishers.

Journal of Proceedings of the Dublin Microscopical Club,) The Dublin

10 parts j Microscopical Club.

Annual Reports (18th to 23rd) of the American Micro-) President of the American

scopical Club / Microscopical Club.

Portrait of Mr. Henry Perigal Mr. R. W. Craig ie.

Two Portraits of Mr. Henry Perigal \ The Executors of

A Solar Microscope / Mr. Henry Perigal.

A Microscope by Benjamin Martin . . . . Mr. Alfred E. Fryett.

A Photograph of the Society’s Room at King’s College . . Mr. Washington Teasdale.
8 Slides of Diatoms, 2 Test-plates, 2 Micrometers, and

1 Diffraction-plate Mr. H. J. Grayson.

The President said that Messrs. Baker had sent for exhibition one
of Reichert’s Microscopes fitted with a reflector placed in the tube higher
up than the back lens of the objective, by means of which the light was
thrown upon the object through the objective. The idea was very old,
and when first adopted it was thought to be useful in the examination
of diatoms. It became obsolete for a time, but had now been revived
for use in steel-works for examination of the fractures of the metal, for
which purpose this method of illumination was said to be specially
advantageous. He was very glad to see the use of the Microscope ex-
tending in this way to the processes of manufacture. This illuminator
was figured in the Journal last year, p. 334, but it had not been exhibited
at their meetings until now.

3 a 2

690

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Mr. C. Beck exhibited four new Microscopes mounted on true tripod
stands, the chief point about which was that they were well made, but
got out at a very cheap price. They did not greatly differ from some
of the other forms being made, but he might point out one improvement
which he thought would be appreciated : this was that the milled head
of the substage pinion came entirely outside the stand.

He also exhibited a centrifuge which was an improvement upon the
one exhibited at a former meeting of the Society. They had found that
the number of parts could be reduced without impairing the result, and
the instrument could consequently be made at a reduced cost. It was
also now fitted with two aluminium guides for test-tubes, and with a
lighter frame for carrying two small glass tubes with thermometer bore
for use in determining the proportionate number of blood-corpuscles.
There were also other tubes to be used for milk and for sedimentary
bacteria.

The President said ho was much pleased with these model Micro-
scopes shown by Mr. Beck, which 'carried out one of the ideas he had
always aimed at — the production of a really well made but not too
expensive Microscope for students’ use. He thought the position of the
milled head of the substage outside the stand was a great improvement.

These Microscopes are described and figured on pp. 671 and 672.

Messrs. Watson and Sons exhibited and described another Micro-
scope named the “ Fram,” specially designed for students’ use, which is
described and figured supra , pp. 673 and 674.

The President thought this was a very suitable form of students’
Microscope, which again carried out his ideal of a really good small
Microscope. He was very glad to see the efficient state which instru-
ments of this class had attained in the hands of Messrs. Beck and
Messrs. Watson.

The thanks of the Society were unanimously voted to Messrs. Baker,
Beck, and Watson and Sons for their exhibits.

The President exhibited an interesting old Microscope by John Cuff,
of Fleet Street, and an old French Microscope, descriptions of which
will be found supra , pp. 674 and 675.

The President said that he had received another packet containing
specimens of micro-ruling from Mr. H. J. Grayson, of Melbourne, who
in 1895 sent some specimens of his excellent work to the Society for
exhibition. These rulings were of four kinds, two being micrometers,
and two test-plates. The first was a most beautifully ruled plate con-
taining ten bands, being the inch divided into thousandths, two-thou-
sandths, &c., up to ten-thousandths. A photomicrograph of this plate
was also sent. This would be handed round for inspection, and he
hoped the Fellows would kindly examine it with a hand-lens, as it was
the finest photomicrograph of ruled bands he had ever seen. As all
these ruled slides were mounted in realgar with a refractive index of
over 2*5, the lines stood out with a distinctness and brilliancy such as
had not been seen before. The next plate was also a very useful one,
as it contained hundredths and thousandths of an inch, and fourths,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

691

tenths, and hundredths of a millimetre. Critical micrometric measure-
ments had been made of this plate, and it was found to be accurately
and evenly spaced — and in brief was one of the best micrometers he
had ever handled. It, like the others, was mounted in realgar. The
gift of these beautiful micrometers to the Society would, he was sure,
be much appreciated by the Fellows who would now have in their
cabinet two accurate micrometers for the purpose of comparison. The
other two were test-plates, the first of which had twelve bands varying,
with intervals of 5000 lines, from 5000 to 60,000 lines per inch. The
other contained ten bands varying, with intervals^ of 200, from 200 to
2000 lines per millimetre. These also were mounted in realgar.

The second portion of Mr. Grayson’s packet consists of test diatoms
mounted in realgar, the following being some of the species : — Pleuro-
sigma angulatum , P. elongatum, P. balticum , Frustulia saxonica, Navicula
rhomboides , Pinnularia nobilis with hoops, and Amphipleura pellucida.
Specimens of N. rhomboides and Pinnularia were also mounted in
sty rax for the purpose of comparison. He might mention in passing
that the A. pellucida slide contained also an interesting Nitzscliia , the
resolution of which was more difficult than that of A. pellucida. The
packet was received just after their last meeting in June, so that the
slides had been here during the hot summer, and they had also stood
the heat and rough handling in the post from Melbourne, and as yet
showed no signs of crystallisation, and Mr. Grayson said that from the
method adopted there was no fear of this taking place ; if so, a great
desideratum had been accomplished. A specimen of ruling suitable
for a diffraction grating was included in the packet.

He had great pleasure in moving that the very hearty thanks of the
Society be given to Mr. Grayson for his very useful presents. Put, and
carried by acclamation.

Mr. J. Hewton Coombs’s paper, ‘ The Reproduction of Diatoms,’ was
read by the Secretary, and was illustrated by a series of lantern slides.

Mr. A. W. Bennett, in response to the President, said that not being
a diatomist, he rather shrank from saying anything upon the subject.
The study of diatomy had gone through three stages : in the first, these
organisms were brought under notice by microscopists because of the
extreme beauty of their siliceous forms, and their uses as tests for the
powers of the Microscope ; then followed their classification, and the
determination of species, and with this the excessive multiplication of
species which was so greatly to be deprecated ; and then came the study
of these forms with a view to the determination of their life-history.
It was very remarkable, however, notwithstanding all that had been
done, how very much they had yet to learn as to the life-history of the
diatoms. In the writings of Smith, Thwaites, and others of the older
diatomists, they found a few observations on their life-history ; but with
these exceptions, very little had been determined on this point till within
the last few years. It is a familiar fact that many of the lower vegetable
organisms multiply in two different ways, by a sexual and a non-sexual
process, the non-sexual mode being often the result of an abundant
supply of nutriment, the sexual mode of a deficiency in this respect.
There can be no doubt that diatoms multiply in both ways. The paper

692

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

which had been read appeared to throw new light on these various modes
of reproduction, and seemed to point to the removal of the diatoms from
the Protophyta, where they are placed in the Journal of the Society,
to a position among the Conjugate, near to the desmids.

Before the reading of Mr. Newton Coombe’s paper, the lantern-slides
described below were exhibited, illustrating the formation of megafrus-
tules of freshwater diatoms, and of the cysts referred to in Wm. Smith’s
‘ Synopsis,’ and erroneously supposed to contain “ broods of young
diatoms,” and to be a stage in the reproductive process.

Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 (taken at a magnification of 312 diameters) were
photos of cysts containing various species of diatom, Synedra radians
(1), Gomphonema acuminatum (2), Eunotia pectinalis (3), Meridian circu-
lar e (4).

No. 5, of the same magnification as the cysts, was that of a Bhizopod,
similar to those which formed the cysts, but with its tentacles contracted
after death. The creature spreads its amoeba-like body over the diatoms,
and after digesting their contents, makes its exit from the cyst by means
of a small opening which can generally be detected by careful focussing.
Mr. Coombe was led to the conclusion that the cysts did not contain
“ broods of young diatoms,” as supposed by Wm. Smith and others, by
discovering several containing two quite distinct species of diatoms mixed
together.

No. 6 was that of two frustules of Gymbella lanceolata lying side by
side in a cyst (secreted by the diatoms) prior to conjugation (x 312).

No. 7 showed the same species of diatom, with two megafrustules
fully formed, as the result of conjugation of the parent frustules
(X 312).

No. 8 was that of two frustules of Gymbella parva, showing the actual
intermingling of their contents prior to the formation of two megafrus-
tules ( x 325).

No. 9 showed the formation of two megafrustules of Gymbella cistula
after conjugation ( X 325).

No. 10 showed Gymbella lanceolata in cyst after conjugation, and the
formation of two megafrustules, one of which had only just emerged
from the parent frustule, and had not yet begun to silicify. The entire
outline of this undeveloped frustule can be traced in the photomicro-
graph (x 200).

Ncs. 11, 12, 13, and 14 were further illustrations of the formation of
megafrustules of Gymbella after conjugation ( X 300 about).

No. 15 was that of a single frustule of Gymbella lanceolata , forming a
megafrustule without conjugation.

Nos. 16, 17, 18, and 19 illustrated a mode of conjugation differing from
the preceding, in that the contents of the conjugating frustules, instead of
growing, after emergence and union, in a direction parallel to the longer
axis of the diatom, grow at right angles to the longer axis, with the
result that the two megafrustules lie across the two microfrustules. It
is difficult to take anything like a satisfactory photomicrograph of the
two pairs of frustules which, from their position, as indicated, are neces-
sarily in different planes from each other. The only genera in which
Mr. Coombe had met with this particular mode of formation of the mega-
frustules were Epithemia and Amphora. No. 19 showed the newly emerged

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

693

mcgafrustules in tlic latter diatom growing as in the preceding cases of

JEpithemia.

The writer believed this to he the first recorded case of the mode of
formation of the megafrustule in the genus Amphora ( x 312).

Nos. 20 and 21 are believed to be the first recorded cases of the for-
mrtion of megafrustules of Synedra radians.

The bulb-like appearance in the middle of the megafrustules occurs
in almost all the specimens examined (x 312).

No. 22 was that of the formation of two mcgafrustules of Amphipleura
pellucida , presumably after conjugation, as in the case of Cocconema
(X 325).

No. 23 is curious as being a case of the formation of a megafrustule
of Nitzschia , photographed after the gathering, in which it was found,
had been boiled in nitric acid (x 325).

The Secretary said that there was another paper on the Agenda,
being Fart III. of Mr. F. W. Millett’s ‘Report on the Recent Forami-
nifera of the Malay Archipelago.’ This paper, although one of consider-
able value, was so highly technical that it was £>roposed, as in the case of
Parts I. and II., to take it as read. It would of course appear in extenso
in the Journal.

On the motion of the President the thanks of the Society were
unanimously voted to Mr. Coombe for his paper, and the exhibition of
slides in connection with it ; and also to Mr. Millott for his further
communication.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—

The Society : — Photographic Portrait of Mr. Henry Perigal, by Mr.
R. W. Craigie ; two Engraved Portraits of Mr. Henry Perigal, and a
Solar Microscope presented by the executors of Mr. Henry Perigal;
a Microscope by Benjamin Martin, presented by Mr. Alfred George
F ryett.

The President : — An old Microscope by Cuff, date circa 1760 ; an old
French Microscope, date uncertain ; Micrometer Rulings and Dif-
fraction Plate, ruled by Mr. H. J. Grayson.

Mr. Charles Baker: — Reichert’s Microscope for examining opaque
objects.

Messrs. R. and J. Beck: — Four British Students’” Microscopes;

and a new form of Medical Centrifuge.

Messrs. Watson and Sons : — The “ Fram ” Microscope.

New Fellows: — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows: —
Dr. Noble Benjamin Hall Dean, and Mr. Oliver Eaton.

694

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

MEETING

Held on November 16tii, 1898, at 20 Hanover Square, W.

E. M. Nelson, Esq, President, in the Chair.

The Minutes of the Meeting of October 19th;. 1898, were read and
confirmed, and were signed by the President.

The President, on behalf of the Council, gave notice that at the next
meeting of the Society the suspension of Bye-law 36 would be moved.

The President having requested Mr. A. D. Michael to take the chair,
read a paper describing a very large binocular Microscope made and de-
signed by a friend. The description was illustrated by an excellent-
photograph of the instrument shown upon the screen.

Mr. Michael said he was quite sure it would be the pleasure of the
meeting to pass a very hearty vote of thanks to the gentleman who had
so kindly sent the photograph, and also to the President for his remarks
upon it, in which he had so clearly put before them the details of the
construction of this very elaborate instrument.

A vote of thanks was accordingly put from the chair and canied
unanimously.

Mr. Michael said that Mr. Curticshid brought a number of slides of
diatoms for exhibition that evening ; and that Messrs. Beck also ex-
hibited two of the original slides of Amphipleura pellucida mounted by
Prof. Hamilton Smith in his high refractive medium. These were shown
under 1/12-in. oil-immersion objectives of numerical apertures of 1*0
and 1*25 respectively, the diatom under the former satisfactorily show-
ing resolution, while that under the latter was perfectly resolved.

Mr. Michael said they were much obliged to those gentlemen for
their exhibits, and especially so to Mr. Curties for bringing before them
so many excellent examples of the advantages of mounting these difficult
objects in high refractive media.

Mr. Yezey said the exhibition sub-committee of the Council were
particularly indebted to Mr. Curties on that occasion, because he had
come to their assistance at very short notice ; and had very kindly come
down with this very beautiful series of slides, so that the Fellows of the
Society and their friends should not come to the meeting and find there
was no exhibition.

The thanks of the Society were then cordially voted to Messrs.
Curties and Beck for their exhibits.

The Secretary said a paper had been received from Mr. Arthur
William Waters, on ‘ Bryozoa from Madeira.’ The paper itself was
too long to be read in exienso, lie would therefore give a short resume of
it, and it would be printed in full in the Journal.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

695

Mr. Michael said they were greatly obliged to Mr. Waters for this
paper, and also for the summary of its contents. A systematic paper
such as this was not so much intended to be read and discussed at a
meeting, as to be a permanent record, while as a work of reference to
those who were studying the subject it would prove to be of consider-
able value. The Society was to be congratulated upon having such a
paper to print in its Transactions.

The thanks of the Meeting were unanimously voted to Mr. Waters
for his paper.

The following Instruments, Objects, &c., were exhibited:—
Messrs. R. and J. Beck: — Two achromatic 1/12-in. oil-immersion
Objectives of N.A. 1 • 0 and 1 • 25.

Mr. C. Baker: — A selection of Diatoms mounted in high refractive
media.

New Fellows : — The following were elected Ordinary Fellows : —
Mr. John Henry Garnar, The Hon. Thomas Kirkman, Mr. Keith Lucas,
Mr. Arthur E. T. Payne, Mr. George John Randell, Rev. James Redfearn,
Mr. James Wedeles, Dr. James D. Whitley, Dr. Earley Yernon Wilcox.

INDEX OF NEW BIOLOGICAL TERMS, OR OLD TERMS WITH
NEW MEANINGS, RECORDED IN THIS VOLUME.

a. ZOOLOGY.

Acid cells, Kowalevsky, 79
Allogony, Giard, 546
Aphotic, Linsbauer, 409
Astrocyte, Catois, 291
Autopotamic, Zimmer, 52S
Bacteroidal cells, Cue'not, 77
Chemoeentrum, Zimmermann, 522
Choleclirome, Dastre and Floresco, 412
Cirropliore, Darboux, 197
Cirrostyle, Darboux, 197
Contrasolar, Jaekel, 490
Critical period, Beard, 283
Critical unit, Beard, 514
Deutocerebrum, Goodrich, 69
Ectadenim, Blatter, 71
Enantioderma, Delage. 431
Enantiozoa, Delage, 434
Eupotamic, Zimmer, 528
Heleoplankton, Zacharias, 294
Heliutaxis, Thomas, 422
Homoogc-nesis, von Linden, 532
Hyperchromatosis, Woltereck, 628
Intercytoblastic substance, Sehiater, 183
Kalyptrotropism, Bethe, 76
Kinocentrum, Zimmermann, 52 1
Kytoldnesis, Bardeleben, 517
Martial function, Dastre, 292

Mesadenise, Blatter, 71
Mullerian group, Dix *y, 191
Neck-glands of leech, Apathy, 306
Neurofibril, Apathy, 61
Orthodentine, Rose, 66
Orthogenesis, Elmer, 515
Paraplasm, Arnold, 520
Piitrogony, Perrier, 529
Plasmosome, Arnold, 520
Plastogamy, Rhumbler, 547
Polybathic, Locard, 189
Porocyte, Min chin, 313
Procerebrum, Pedaschenko, 76
Protocerebrum, Goodrich, 69
Pseudoplanktonic, Ruedemann, 202
Reparatory zone, Driesch, 312
Rhizomany, Giard, 546
Secondary brain, Pedaschenko, 76
Sextet, Minckin, 313
Somata, Arnold, 520
Strength- centre, Waite, 60
Super-regeneration, Tornier, 411
Thalassemin, Herdman, 197
Tritocerebrum, Goodrich, 69
Trophocytes, Berlese, 535
Tychopotamic, Zimmer, 52S

Alveolarplasm, Strasburger, G37
Aphanisis, Bessey, 219
Ascocyst, Sauvageau, 655
Autoblast, Sehiater, 115
Blepharoplast, Webber, 99
Brachytmema, Correus, 106
Chlamydobacteriacere, Migula, 460
Chlorotheciacese, Bohlin, 328
Coccacese, Migula, 460
Cytase, Reinitzer, 218
Dolickotmema, Correns, 106
Filarplasm, Strasburger, 637
Hypnoplasm, Escombe, 102

j8. BOTANY.

Hypnosis, Escombe, 102
Leptomin, Raciborski, 551
Micro-centre, Guignard, 205
Mixed graft, Daniel, 101
Phalline, Robert, 224
Rhexolytic-, Correns, 106
Schizolytic, Correns, 106
Sorghin, Passerini, 207
Sorghorubin, Passerini, 207
Spirillacese, Migula, 460
Symphysis, Bessey, 2! 9
Tulasuellacem, Juel, 45S
Yibrioid, Swingle, 316

697

INDEX.

A.

Abba, F., New Autoclave, 369
Abbado, M., Hybridism, 617
Abbe’s Theory of the Microscope, 679
Abdominal Appendages of Insects, 72
Abnormality in Frog, Remarkable, 526
Absciss-layer in the Leaves of Monocoty-
ledons, 641

Abyssal Molluscs, 189, 295
Acanthobdella peledina , 78
Acari from Franz-Joseph Archipelago, 74
Acarids, Agrarian, 537
Acetic Acid Bacteria, Physiology and Mor-
phology, 116

Acetylene, Use in the Cultivation of
Anaerobic Bacteria, 598
Achalme, P., Bacteriology of Acute Ar-
ticular Rheumatism, 119
Aclialme’s Bacterium and Acute Rheuma-
tism, 665

Achard, — , Immunity of Fowls to Tuber-
culosis, 466

Achorion and Trichophyton, Fungi inter-
mediate between, 572
Achromatic Nuclear-division Figure in
Vegetative and Reproductive Tissues,
Development, 437
Acmsea, Development, 532
Actiniaria from East Spitzbergen, 433

— New Zealand, 546
Actinarian, New, 633
Actinomycetic Form of the Tubercle

Bacillus, 240

Active Albumen and Protoplasm, 437
Adami, J. G., Microbe of Progressive Cir-
rhosis, 576

Adaptation of Land-Plants to Existence in
Water, 441, 644

AdlofF, P., Development of Rodent Den-
tition, 51

Adolphi, H., Variations in Spinal Plexus
and Sacrum of Newts, 232
iEckliospores, Germination, 568
JEcidium elatinum, Effect on Abies bal-
samea, 208

— graveolens, 659
iEgagropilm, 655

Aeration of the Trunks of Trees, 217
Aerial Roots of Tseniophyllum, 644

Aerotropism in a Saprolegniaceous Fungus,
325

Agar Medio, Preparing, 599
Agassiz, A., Dactylometra, 432

— Echini of the ‘ Albatross,’ 544

— Some Medusae from Australia, 433
Agglutinated Substance, Nature of, 339
Agglutination of the Tubercle Bacillus,

5 7S

Agglutinative Power of Tuberculosis
Serum produced by Chemical Sub-
stances, 578

Air-bladder of Fishes, 187
Aitken’s Dust-Counter, 248
Albrecht, — ., Mechanics of Development,
50

Albumen, Formation in Plants, 325
Albumin, Active, in Reserve-material, 638
Albuminoids, Formation, 650
Alcohol, Production of, in Respiration,
104

Alcoholic Enzyme, Alleged, in Yeast, 219
Alcyonaria from Spitzbergen, 633
Aleppo Boil, Streptococcus of, 122
Algre, Method of Preserving, 245

— Preparation and Fixing, 681
— . See Contents, xxvii

Alimentary Canal of Antlnenus Larva,
73

— Tract of Chelone, 408
of Pelmatozoa, 430

Alkalised Serum as a Culture Medium for
Diphtheria Bacilli, 239
Alkaloids, Microchemical Demonstration,
687

Allen, 3. M., 144

Allescher, A., Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic
Flora of Germany (Fungi Imperfecti),
660

Alloys, Microscopic Stud}r of, 135
Alpine Characters in Plants, Artificial
Production, 651

Amadei, G., Fusiform Proteid Substances
in the Balsa minese, 317
Amallospora, 330

Amaudrut, Alex., Structure of Proso-
branchs, 190

Ambulacral System, Variation in, 545
Ammoniacal Fermentation due to Muce-
dinese, 325

698

INDEX.

Amoebae from a Medical Point of View,
314

— Studies on, 203

Amoeboid Bodies in the Blood of Vacci-
nated Monkeys and Children, and in the
Blood of Cases of Variola, 315
Ampharetidse, 305
Amphicarpaea, Fruit, 320
Amphioxus and Balanoglossus, Relation-
ship of, 185

— Early Development of, 181

— Japanese, 185

— Organs of Sight, 293

Amphipods from Copenhagen Museum,
304

— Sensitiveness to Light, 413
Amputation of Disc-covering in Ophiurids,

632

Amygdalin and Emulsin, Localisation of,
in Eriobotrya, 92

Amyloid, Experimental Production of, 338
Anaerobic Roll-Cultures, Method for Mak-
ing, with Gelatin or Agar, 484
Anaesthetics, Action on Vegetable and
Animal Protoplasm, 563
Anal Papillm of Caudina coriacea, 430
Anatomy, Application to Classification,
651

— of Phanerogams. See Contents, xxi
Anchinia, Different Forms, 624
Anchor Mud from the Malay Archipelago,

255

Andeer, J. J., Ostioles, 65
Anderson, A. P., Effect of JEcidium elali-
num on Abies balsamect , 208

— Stomates on the Bud-Scales of Abies,

95

Andre, Emile, Caudal Triangular Groove
of Arion, 624

Andreini, A., Helminthological Notes, 428
Andrejew, N. P., Rapid Staining of Tuber-
culous Sputum, 133

Audi ewes, F. W. , Bacillus enterilidis sporo-
genes var., 231

Andrews, E. A., Some Activities of Polar
Bodies, 1S2

Andrews, G. F., Camera Drawing, 493

— Method for the Preservation of Proto-

plasmic Spinnings, 491

— The Liviug Substance, 66
Angiosperms, Phylogeny and Taxonomy

of, 219

Anisophylly, Causes of, 96
Annelid Prostomium, Relation of, to Ar-
thropod Head, 69
Annelids, Irish, 197

— Notes on, 541

— • of ‘ Travailleur ’ and * Talisman ’ Ex-
peditions, 425
Anniversary Meeting, 141
Annulata. See Contents, xvi
Anomura and Biachyura, Distribution of
Deep-sea, 423

Antherid, Burating of, in Poly trichum,
326

Anthracnoses, Development, 658
Antipodal Cells and Pollen-Grains, 99
Anti-toxin and Toxin of Snake-venom,
623

Anti-toxins and Toxins, Nature of the
Antagonism between, 576
Ants and Bees, Psychical Qualities, 533

— Apparatus for keeping. 299

— Geographical Distribution, 533

— New Colonies and Fungus-Gardens in,

299

Apathy, St., Conducting Element in Ner-
vous Tissue, 64

— Neck-Glands of Leech, 306
Aperture as a Factor in Microscopic Vision,

354

Apkaniptera, Alleged Phylogeny, 535
! Apochromatic Objective, NewT, constructed
without the use cf Fluorite, 395
! Apodidse, Fossil, 423
Apdgamy and Structure of the Female
Organ in Balanophora, 555
Apterygota of Kiew, 193
Aquatic Gentianacese, Anatomy of, 208

— Plants, Germination of Seeds, 446'

Morphology, 97

Araehnidn. See Contents, xv
Arachnids and Myriopods, Swiss, 75
Arboreal Algae, 454

Arcangeli, G., Flowering of Arum pictum ,
215

— Germination of Pollen-grains, 214|
Archegone of the Muscinese, Development,

220

Archentcron and Gastrula of Salamander,
518

Archespore and Nucleus of Bignonia, 317
Arcliigetes, 428
Arctic Lepidoptera, 72
Arescbouc, F. W. C , Fundamental Tissue
of the Leaf, 552

Argas reflexus as a Human Parasite, 303
Arkovy, J., Bacillus Gangr sense Pul pas, 579
Arloing, S., Agglutination of the Tubercle
Bacillus, 578

— Agglutinative Power of Tuberculous

Serum produced by Chemical Sub-
stances, 578

— Mobile Variety of Tubercle Bacillus,

578

Arnold, J., Isolating Ganglion-cells and
Unstriped Muscle-fibres, 681

— Structure of Cytoplasm, 520
Aronson, — ., The Fatty Substance in

Tubercle Bacillus, 577
Arrigo, G. d\, Demonstrating the Tubercle
Bacillus in Tissues, 372
Arsenic in Plants, 639
Artari, A., Saccharomyces Zopjii, 113
Arthropod Head, Relation of, to Annelid
Prostomium, 69

INDEX.

699

Arthropoda. See Contents, xiii
Arthur, J. C., Bacterial Diseases of Plants,
574

— Movement of Protoplasm in Coenocytic

Hyphse, 205

Artichoke as Nutrient Medium, 680
Articular Membranes in Hymenoptera, 300
Artificially Hatched Fish, Identification
of, C21

Arum pictum , Flowering of, 215
Ascaris, Excretion in, 427

— Fertilisation of, 284
Ascidiota , 451

Ashworth, J. II., Structure of Lug-worm,
424

— Structure of Xenia, 633
Asplanchna, Development, 427

— in Britain, 542

Assheton, R., Segmentation of Ovum in
Sheep, 517

Assimilating Organs of the Asparagem,
442

— Tissue of Polygonum Sieboldii, 553
Assimilation, Method of Demonstrating,

247

Assimilative Tissue in Sporophytcs, Evo-
lution, 326

Astasia asterospora , 120, 577
Asymmetry of Gastropods, 296
Atkinson, G. F., Influence of the Rontgen
Rays on Vegetation, 101
Atmospheric Precipitation, Influence on
the Growth of Plants, 102
Atrial Chamber in Amphioxus, Develop-
ment, 181

Attachable Mechanical Stage, New, 350
At terns, Carl Grafen, Malayan Myriopods,
302

Attheya and Rhizosolenia, 335
Auditor, 141

Auditory Cells, Supposed, in Pontoscolex,
304

Aujesky, A., Simple Method for Staining
Spores, 378
Autoclave, New, 369
Avetta, C., Puccinia Lojlcajana, 110

B.

Babcock, S. M. Unorganised Ferments in
Milk, 219

Babor, J. FI., Hermaphroditism, 406
Bach, A., Biological History of Carbon,
528

Bacillus capsulatus Ghinensis. 342

— chlororapliis , 1 1 5

— Ellenbachensis alpha and Alinit, 118

— enter itidis sporogenes var., 231

— Gangrxnx Pulpae , 579

— graminearum , 575

— New, pathogenic to Rats, 467

— pestis, 230

Bacillus tartaricus, 577

— tuberculosis , Transformation of, into a

common Saprophyte, 116

— X Sternberg . and Bacillus icteroides

Sanarelli , 230
Bacteria, Biology of, 114

— difficult of St lining, Method of Treat-

ing, 133

— Growth on Media made from Animal

Organs, 579

— Lectures on, 231

— Microscope, Messter’s, 587
Bacterial Diseases of Plants, 115, 462, 574
Bacteriosis of Carnations, 226
Bacterium pathogenic to Phylloxera and

Acarina, 120
Bactrosphserin, 333
Baer’s (von) Philosophy, 59
Bailey, L. II., Parasitic Fungi, 331
Baker, C., 689

— Mounted Specimens — a New Departure,

603

Baker, F. C , Apex of Gastropod Shell, 67

— Notes on Ra dulse, 190
Baker, F. Watson, 140

Baklanoff, W., Preparation of Pigments
for Depicting Microscopical Prepara-
tions, 241

Balanoglossus and Amphioxus, Relation-
ship of, 185

Balanophora, Structure of the Female
Organ and Apogamy in, 555
Ballowitz, E., Annular Nuclei, 407

— Electric Organ of Malapterurus electri -

cus , 622

Organs, 65

— Intermediate Body in Cell-Division, 407

— Sickle-shaped Nuclei and Giant-Spheres

in Resting Epithelial Cells, 62

— Superficial Position of Central Corpus-

cles in Epithelial Cells, 407

— Visibility and Appearance of Unstained

Centrosomes, 241
Bangia pumila , 565

i Baranetzky, J., Development of the Grow-
ing Point in the Stem of Monocoty-
ledons, 207

Bardeleben, K. von, Dimorphism of Sper-
matozoa in Mammals, 57
| — Interstitial Cells of Testis, 57
| — Spermatogenesis in Man, 517
Barnard, J. E., 250

j — Application of the Electric Arc to
Photomicrography, 170
Barth, H., Microchemical Demonstration
of Alkaloids, 687

Barton, E. S., New Freshwater Floridea,

I 452

Basidiomycett-s, Evolution, 457
Basigamy, New Case of, 321
Bassett-Smith, P W., New Parasitic Cope-
pods, 196

— on Fishes, 538

700

INDEX.

Bastin, E. S., Structure of American Coni-
fers, 96

Bataillon, — ., Tuberculosis and Pseudo-
Tuberculosis, 343
Batrachia, Distribution, 527
Batrachians, Tailless, of Europe, 622
Bats, Pollination by, 214
Batters, E. A. L., Porpbyrodiscus, a new
Genus of Floridese, 107
Baumgarten, P., Therapeutic Value of the
New Tuberculin, 466
Baur, E., Criticism of Chemical Theory
of Life, 292

Bayer, Emil, Histology of Rhyncliob del-
lid®, 629

Beard, J., Birth-Period of Trichosurus
vulpeculci , 283

— Sexual Conditions of Myzostomci gla-

brum, 429

— Span of Gestation and Cause of Birth,

514

Beanverie, J., Modifications of the Thallus
of Marchantia and Lunularia, 653
Beck, — Effect of Monochromatic Light
on Bacterial Development, 337
Beck, Arno, New Microtome (System Beck-
Becker), 374
Beck, C., 495, 690
Beck, R. and J., 694

— “ British Students’ ” Microscopes, 671
Beck, M., Capsule for Anaerobic Cultiva-
tion, 131

Beckettia, 450

Beecher, C. E., Evolution of Spines, 619

— Trilobites and Crustaceans, 304
Bees and Ants, Psychical Qualities, 533
Beetroot Jaundice, 575

Beggiatoa and Crenothrix, 336
Behla, R., Amoebae from a Medical Point
of View, 314

Behring, — Microbiology as applied to
Hygiene, 461

Beijerinck, W., Schizosaccharomyces octo-
sporqs, 112

— Restoration of Spore-formation in Al-

cohol Yeasts, 659

Beissner, Hans, Interstitial Substance of
Testis, 284

Belajeff, W., Blepharoplasts in Spermato-
genous Cells, 550

— Fertilisation, 98

• — Reduction-Division of the Vegetable
Nucleus, 550

— Relationship of Phanerogams and Cryp-

togams, 326

— Spermatogenesis and Secondary Nucleus

in Fillcinese and Equisetineae, 104
Bell, F. Jeffrey, 140, 141, 142, 147
Beneeke, W., Food-Materials of Algae,
564

Benedict, J. E., Synidotea, 195
Bennett, A. W., 691
Berger’s New Microscope, 583

Bergh, R., Opisthobranchs of Ternate, 297
Bcri-Beri, ^Etiology, 468
Bacilli of, 228

Berkeley, H. J., Effect of Poisons on Cor-
tical Nerve-Cells, 288

— Preparing Central Nervous System, 242
Berlese, A., Agrarian Acarids, 537

— Insects and Yeasts, 112

— Metamorphosis of Muscidae, 535

— Spermatop 1 ; ago us -Organ in Bed-Bug,
• 536

— Winter Habitat and Dissemination of

the Alcoholic Ferments, 572
Berlese, A. N., Division of the Nucleus
and Formation of the Conids in
Oidium, 657

— Impregnation and Development of the

Oosphere in Peronosporeae, 455

— Preparing Parasitic Fungi, 4S6

— Structure of Peronosporaceae, 657
Bernard, H. M., Studies on Madreporaria,

433

Berry, J. M., Phagocytosis in Amphibians
and Mammals, 527

Bertrand, G., Action of the Sorbose Bacte-
rium on Wood-sugar, 666

— Biochemical Production of Sorbose,

575

Besana, C., Black Discoloration of Cheese
and Cheese-poisoning, 229
Beschcrelle, E., New Genus of Musci, 450
Bessey, C. E., Chimney-shaped Stomates,
443

— Functions of Stomates, 447

— Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Angio-

sperms, 219

Bessey, C. A., and E. A., Thermometer
Crickets, 536

Besson, A., Microbiological and Serothcra-
peutical Technique, 492
Best, G. N., New Genus of Musci, 450
Bethe, A., Nervous System of Crabs, 303
of Shore-Crab, 76

— Psychical Qualities of Ants and Bees,

533

Betlige, E., Respiration in Spelerpes fuscus
without Lungs, 527
Bibliotheca Zoologica, 415
Bidder, G. P., Calcareous Sponges, 633
Bietrix, E., Eggs and Larv® of Marine
Fishes, 56

BiiTen, R. H., Coagulation of Latex, 640
Bile-Salts and Cholesterin as Vaccines
against Viper’s Venom, 292
Billstein, Emma L., Cleansing of Slides
and Cover-G lasses, 249
Bioletti, F. T., Method of Preserving
Culture-Media, 490

Bipolar Mitoses, Repeated, in Mother-
Sperm-Cells of Snail, 296
Bilge, E. A., Vertical Distribution of
Limnetic Crustacea, 76
Bii th, Cause of, and Span of Gestation, 514

INDEX.

701

Birth-Period of Tricliosurus vulpecula, 283
Bischoff, C. W., Influence of Cutting on
Growth of Hair, 181

Biting Insects, Spread of Infectious Dis-
eases by, 462

Bitter Wine, Bacillus, 343, 404
Bivalves, Experiments on, 68
Blackburn, W., Lncework Sponge, 87
Blackman, Y. H., Fertilisation in Pinus,
644

Blackwell, Elizabeth, Scientific Method
in Biology, 414

Blanc, H., Nocturnal Plankton of the Lake
of Geneva, 618

Blanc, L., Classification of Monstrosities,
62

Blastomycetes, Morphology, 224
Blatter, P., Male Genital Organs of Hydro-
pliilus, 71

Blepharoplasts and Centrosomes, 316

— in Spermatogenous Cells, 5f>0

Bles, E. J., Openings in the Wall of the
Body-Cavity in Vertebrates, 186
Blochmann, F., Epithelium of Cestodes, 80
Blood and the Identification of Bacterial
Species, 116

— How to Examine and Diagnose its Dis-

eases, 488

— New and Rapid Method for Double

Staining, 685

— of Oviparous Vertcbrata, Staining, 245
Blood-Films, Preparing Permanent, 488

Staining, 489

Blood-Platelets, Enumeration, 248

Blue Light, Assimilating Energy of, 101
Boch, Max von, Budding of Chsetogaster,
77

Bodin, E., Aclion of Cider on the Typhoid
Bacillus, 5S0

— Fungi intermediate between Tricho-

phyton and Achorion, 572
Body-Cavity in Vertebrates, Openings in
the Wall of, 186

Boekhout, F. W. J., New Chromogenic
Bacillus, 580
Boerlctgellci, 330

Bolilin, K., New Genera of Protococcoideae,
334

— New Unicellular Algae, 329

— Studies iu the Confervales, 327
Bohinig, Ludwig, Anatomy and Histology

of Nemertines, (531

Bohn, George, Reversal of Respiratory
Current in Decapods, 194
Belas, T., Glass-Blowing and Working,
249

Boldt, C. E., Epiphyllous Flowers of
Chirita hamosa , 441

Bolton, J. S., Chrome-silver Impregnation
of Formalin-hardened Brain, 244
Bernstein, — Passive Immunity in Diph-
theria, 118

Bone- Cells, Canaliculi, 289

Bone-corrosion Preparations, 688
Bonnevie, Kristine, New Hydroids, 312
Bonnier, G., Artificial Production of Alpine
Characters in Plants, 651

— Movements of the Sensitive Plant in

Water, 447

Bonnier, Jules, New Gall-making Copepod,
423

Bontan, L., Peripheral Glandular Organ of
Hdcion pellucidum, 417
Bordage, Edmond, Lepidoptera injurious
to Sugar-Cane, 193

Bordas, F., Bacillus of Bitter Wine, 343,
464

— Microbes of Turned Wine, 464, 578
Bordas, L., Defensive Glands of some

Beetles, 535

— Rectum and Rectal Glands of Ortho-

ptera, 300

Borgert, A., Parasites of Sticholonche and
the Acanthometridre, 88
Bos, J. Ritzema, Earthworms and Moles,
189

Bose, F. J., Parasites of Cancer and Sar-
coma, 345

— Pathogenesis and Histogenesis of Can-

cer, 465

Bosso, G., New Inf. ctious Disease of Cattle,
122

— Septicaemia haemorrliagica of Cattle,

345

Botanical Specimens, Preservative Fluids
for, 134

Bothriocephalus zschohlcei, 80
Botriomyces, 576
Botrychium, Oophyte, 652
Boubier, A. M., Plasmolysis and Proto-
plasmic Membrane, 637
Bouilhac, R., Biology of Nostoc, 225

— Nostoc punctiforme, 574

Boulenger, G. A., Tailless Batrachians of
Europe, 622

Bourquelot, E., Ferment in Barley, 639
Boutan, Louis, Development of Acmsea, 532
Bouvier, E. L., Distribution of Deep-Sea
Brac-hyura and Auomura, 423

— Distribution of Peripatus, 537

— New Species of Peripatus, 537

— Structure of Plcurotomaria, 532
Bower, F. O., Sporophyll of Marattiacese,

105

Bowhill, — ., Staining Flagella of Bacteria
with Orcein, 244

Brachet, A., Pleural Cavities and Pleuro-
Pericardial Membranes, 54
Brachial and Lumbo-Sacral Plexi of Nec-
turns maculosus, Variations in, GO
j Brachiomonas, 3.29
Biachiopods, Plankton, 82
Brachyura and Anomura, Distribution of
Deep-Sea, 423

j Br :em, F , Epiphysis and Hypophysis in
Frog, 286

702

INDEX.

Brain of Cave-Beetle, 421

— of Glycera, 425

Braith waite’s British Moss-Flora, 327
Branching Annelid, 78
Brand, F., Chantransia, 106

— Rhizoclonium, 567

Bran !es, G., Argas rejlexus as a Human
Parasite, 303

Brandt, A., Bristle-like Structures on a
Shark, 409

Braus, H., Theory of Limbs, 524
Brebner, G., Tilopteridese, 222
Breeding Habit of a Japanese Tree-Frog,
57

Breeds and Species, Formation, 520
Breitfuss, L. L., Calcareous Sponges from
Chili, 547

from the White Sea, 634

of Spitzbergen, 434

— New Calcareous Sponge, 87

— Portuguese Calcarea, 434

Brengues, — ., Production of Favus Cups
by the Inoculation of a Pyogenic Tricho-
phyton, 333
Bresiliidse, 423

Brewster’s, Sir David, Microscope, 123
Briosi, G., Anatomy of the Hemp, 640
Briquet, J., Anatomy of Phrymacese, Stil-
boideae, Chloantho'ideae, and Myo-
poracese, 97

— Pollination of Erythronium, 100
Bristle-like Structures on a Shark, 409
Brodie, T. G., Enumeration of Blood-

Platelets, 248

— Phosphorus-containing Substances of

the Cell, 523

Brcelemann, — ., Swiss Arachnids and
Myriopods, 75

Brotherus, Y. F., Indusiella, a New Genus
of Musci, 653

Brouha, M., Development of Liver and
Pancreas in Birds, 285
Brown, H. T., Depletion of the Endosperm
of Barley during Germination, 561

— Influence of Low Temperatures on the

Germinative Power of Seeds, 217
Browne, E. T., Keeping Medusae alive,
432

Bruchmann, H., Selaginella spinulosci , 449
Brucker, A., Mouth-parts of Mites, 538
Briiel, B., Genital Ducts of Calliphora, 71
Brugnatelli’s Large-size Mineralogical and
Petrological Microscope, 348
Brunotte, C., Double Root-cap of Tro-
pseolum, 554

Bruyne, C. de, Phagocytosis in Develop-
ment, 418

Bruyning, F. F., junr., Bacteria of Sorghum
Blight, 581

Bryce, D., Rotifera from Spitzbergen, 83
Brynes, E. F., Regeneration in Frog-em-
bryos, 616

Bryozoa from Madeira, 695

Bryozoa. See Contexts, xiii
Bubak, F., Parasitic Fungi, 456
Bubonic Plague, Method of Rapidly Identi-
fying Microbe of, 134
Buccal and other Glands of Colubridse,
523

Budding and Division among Animals, 526

— in Physophora, Law of, 546
— - of Chsetogaster, 77

Buds, Adventitious, on Leaves of Drosera,
320

— and Stipules, 210
Buffa, P., New Coceid, 536

Bugnion, E., Development of Epiphysis ill
Reptiles, 182

Bidder, A., Structure of Nerve-Cells, 521
Bumpus, II. C., Identification of Artifici-
ally Hatched Fish, 621

— Variations and Mutations of Littorina,

416

— The Sparrow’s Egg in x\merica, 410
Bunting, Martha, Formation of Cork-Tissue

in the Roots of the Rosacese, 318
Burger, J., Culture-forms of Diatoms, 573

— Culture of Diatoms, 598
Burgerstein. A., Wood of Pomese, 641
Burlakow, G., Respiration of the Embryo

of Wheat, 562

Burne, R. H., Notes on Structure of Sepia,
416

— Porus Genitalis in Myxinidce, 413

— Reno-Pericardiac Pore in Ampullciria

urceus, 416

Buscalioni, L., “ Encapsuling ” of Starch-
grains, 207

— Endosperm and Suspensor of Lupinus,

99

— Mullinucleated Vascular Elements in

the Dioscoreacese, 437

— Origin of the Vascular Elements in the

Growing Point of the Root of Mono-
cotyledons, 439

— Phyllosiplwn Arisciri, 328

— Sacchciromyces guttulatus Rob.. 572

— Vessel for Treatment of Paraffin Sec-

tions with Staining and other Solu-
tions, 367

Busquet, P., Central Body of the Bac-
teriaceac, 225

Busse, O., Staining Yeast-Cells, 132
Bussc, W., Gummosis of Beetroot, 338
Butterfly's Wings, Changes in Structure,
300

C.

Cactacese, Pollination, 557
Caecum in Amphioxus, Development, 519
Cakile and Ilex, Morphology, 98
Calcarea, Portuguese, 434
Calcium Malate and Malophosphate in
Plants, 438

INDEX.

703

Calcium Oxalate in Fungi, 657

— Salts, Function, 558

Caiman, W. T., Asplanclina in Britain,
542

— Deep-Sea Crustacea from the South-

West of Ireland, 423

— Reproduction in the Rotifera, 543
Calmette, A., Microbiology as applied to

Hygiene, 461

Calvet, Louis, Larval Development of
Cheilostomata, 632

— Origin of Polypide in Marine Ecto-

procta, 632

Calycanthacese, Embryogeny, 322
Camera Drawing, 493

— Lucida, 495

— Zeiss’ Combined Horizontal and Ver-

tical, 351

Camerano, L., New Species of Peripatus
from Ecuador, 302
Campanulucese, Pollination of, 214
Campbell, D. H.. Development of Embryo
in LiLna subulata, 443

— Embryology of Naias and Zannichellia,

322

— Structure and Development of Dendro-

ceros, 651

— Systematic Position of Monoclea, 451
Canaliculi of Bone-Cells, 289

Canary Islands, Freshwater Fauna, 294
Cancer and Sarcoma, Parasites of, 345

— Pathogenesis and Histogenesis, 465
Candolle, C. de, Peltate Leaves, 211
Caue-Sugar, Formation out of Dextrose,

448

Cannarsa, S., Rare Dermatosis, 536
Cantani, A., Injection Syringe for Bacterio-
logical Work, 369

— New Chromogenic Micrococcus, 340

— Seminal Fluid as a Nutritive Medium,

131

Capitellid, New, 79

Capri folia cem, Pistil and Fruit, 441

Capsular Fruits, 319

Capsule of Anthrax Bacillus, 117

■ — for Anaerobic Cultivation, 131

— of Pneumococcus, 666
Carbon, Biological History, 528

— Dioxide, Influence on the Form and

Structure of Plants, 641
Carcinological Studies, 75
Carles, P., “ Casse ” of Wine, 456
Carlgren, O., Development of Mesenteries
in Actinias, 86

Carnoy, J. B., Fertilisation in Ascaris, 284

— Germinal Vesicle and Polar Bodies in

Urodtla, 516

Carpenter, G. H., Geographical Distribu-
tion of Dragon-flies, 190

— Larva of Pelophila, 536
Carruccio, M., Sarcoptes minor, 422
Cartilage in Cyclostomes, Histogenesis,

290

Carver, Thos. A. B., Application of the
Electric Arc to Photomicrography, 170
Caryophyllia, cyathus, Development, 87
Casagrandi, O., Morphology of Blastomy-
cetes, 224

— Saccliaromyces guttulatus, Rob., 572
“ Casse ” of Wine, 456

Casting aud Regeneration of Mid-Gut-
Epithelium in Water-Beetles, 301
Castracane. Abbe F., Reproduction of Dia-
toms, 335, 661

Casts, New Method of making, 687
Catois, — Neuroglia of Brain in Fishes,
290

Cattle, New Infectious Disease of, 122

— Plague, Microbe of, 342

Caudal Triangular Groove of Arion, 624
Caullery, — ., Branching Annelid, 78

— Epitokous and Polymorphic Forms of

Dodecaceria concharum, 541
Caullery, Maurice, A New Gregarine,
635

— New Ccelomic Gregarine, 204

— Spirorbis, 305

— Viviparity in an Annelid, 629
Cautley, E., Behaviour of Typhoid Bacilli

in Milk, 341

Cavara, F., Bacterial Diseases of Plants*
574

— Parasitic Fungus, 456

— Podaxinese, 332

— Structure of the Nucleus, 549
Cecconi, G., Fauna of Vallombroso, 295
Celakovsky, L., Aerotropism in a Sapro-

legniaceous Fungus, 325

— Homology of the Embryo of Grasses,

213

Cell-contents, Peculiar, in Potamogeton.
prsslongus, 552

Cell-division, Intermediate Body in, 407
Cell-Linenge in Annelids and Polyclades,
539

of Planorbis, 68

Cell-Membranes, 183
Cell-nucleus, Form. 636
Cell-Plates and Cell-plate Rudiments,
289

Cell-problems, Present Position of Some,
407

Cell Structure of Phanerogams. See Con-
tents, xxi

Cell-wall, Biology and Physiology, 91

Histology, 206

of Fungi, Composition, 656

— — Structure, 637

Cell-walls, Microchemical Staining, 685
Celloidin and Paraffm Methods of Imbed-
ding, Combination of, 489

— Sections Stained with Orcein, Treat-

ment of, 600
Cellulose-Enzyme, 325
Cement for Glass, 688
Central Body of the Bacteriacese, 225

o B

1898

704

INDEX.

Central Corpuscles in Epithelial Cells,
Superficial Position of, 407
in Sex-Cells of Snail, 530

— Cylinder of the Root, 92

of Vascular Plants, 438

Centrosome of Dictyota, 565
Centrosome-like Body in the Pollen-tube

of Cycadeae, 444

Centrosomes and Blepharoplasts, 316

— and Nucleus, 520

— in Ascaris megalocephcila , 543

— in Plants, 205

— Relation of, to Cilia, 408

— Unstained, Visibility and Appearance

of, 241

Cdourmont, — New Form of Tuberculosis,
465

Cephalopoda, New Family, 530
— . See Contexts, xii
Ceratification in Myxomycetes and Mvxo-
bacteria, 661

Ceratium tripos, Luminosity, 634
Cerfontaine, Paul, Dactylocotyle, 428

— Merizocotyle, 428
Cestodes of Fishes, 310

— Phylogenv, 543
Chaetopterin, 197

Chalon, J., Microchemical Staining of
Cell-walls, 685

Chalon, J., Preservative Fluids for Botani-
cal Specimens, 134

Chamberlain, G., Winter Character of
Sporanges, 326
Chantransia, 106

Chapman, F., Foraminifera of the Gault
of Folkestone, 1

— New Genus of Foraminifera, 435

— Ramulina, 88
Characeae. See Contents, xvii
Charpy, — Microscopic Study of Alloys,

135

Charrin, A., Production of Mucinoid Sub-
stance by Bacteria, 338
Chatin, A., Fibrovascular Bundles of
Leaves, 210, 320, 643

— Organic Gradation in the Organs of i

Nutrition and Reproduction, 651
Chatin, Johannes, Connective Tissue of ]
Paludina, 296

— Indirect Division, 407

Chatinella , a new Genus of Schizomycetes,
461

Chauveaud, G., Development of Primary
Sieve-Tubes, 93

— Formation of Sieve-Tubes in the Roots

of Monocotyledons, 439

— Root of Hydrocharis, 212
Chavigny, — ., Bacillus of Subacute Gase-
ous Gangrene, 121

Cheese, Black Discoloration of, and Cheese-
Poisoning, 229

— Ripening, 333

Cheilostomata, Larval Development, 632

| Chemical and Luminous Stimuli, Influence
of, on Red Blood-Corpuscles, 292
I — Changes in Phanerogams. See Con-
tents, xxv

j — Theory of Life, Criticism of, 292
Cherry, T., Nature of the Antagonism be-
tween Toxins and Antitoxins, 576
Chester, G. D., Stomates on Petals and
Stamens, 95

Chilionema, 655 £

| Chilopoda, Development, 422
| Chitonidae, 298

Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides, 328
Chloanthoideae, Anatomy of, 97
i Chloramceba, 329
| Chlorophyll and its Derivatives, 438
I — Formation of, 103
Chlorophyll-Function, Dependence of, on
the Chromatophores and the Cytoplasm,
101

Chlorophyll-Grains, Isolated, Power to
give out Oxygen, 558
Chloroplastid and Cytoplasm, Relations of,
206

Chodat, R., Lacustrine Biology, 562
i — Plasmolysis and Protoplasmic Mem-
brane, 637

i — Protoplasmic Sac, 318
! — Reproduction of Coleockaete, 452
I — Stapfia, a new Genus of Palmellaceae,
458

Cholesterin and Bile-Salts as Vaccines
against Viper’s Venom, 292
Chondrocranium in Ichtliyopsida, 518
Chondrified Fibres in Connective Tissues,
408

Choniostomatidse, 304
Chromatic Tetrads in Spermatogenesis of
Grasshopper, 193

Chromatid Bodies of Sperm-Cells, 289
Chromatin Reduction in Hemiptera, 421

in Spermatogenesis of Pentatoma,

73

Chromatolysis of the Nucleus, 636
Chrome-Silver Impregnation of Formalin-
hardened Brain, 244
Chromogenic Bacillus, New, 580
— Micrococcus, New, 340
— Saprophyte, New, 663
Chromosomes in the Development of the
Pollen-grains of Allium, 318
— in Somatic Cells of Man, Number of, 62
Chun, C., Law of Budding in Physophora,
546

Church, A. H., Polymorphy of Cutleria
multifida, 453

j Cicatrisation, Process of, 290
Ciechanowski, S., iEtiology of Dvsenterv,
342

I Ciliata, Classification, 634
Ciliated Epithelium in Amphibian Larvae,
65

Cirrhosis, Progressive, Microbe, 576

INDEX,

705

Cirrophore of Polynoidae, 197
Cistus, Pollination, 557
Citric Acid, Fungi producing, 656
Clark, H. L., Synapta viviparci, 430
Clathrinidae, Spicules, 312
Claws of Vertebrates, Phylogeny, 52
Claypole, Agnes M., Cleavage in Aptery-
gota, 536

Claypole, Edith J., Comparative Histology
of Digestive Tract, 522
Cleaning Slides intended for Water-stuck
Sections, 606

— Used Slides, 249

Cleansing of Slides and Cover-Glasses, 249
Clearing Vegetable Sections, 241
Cleavage in Apterygota, 536

— of the Cuticle in Moulting, 418
Clepsine, Physiological Experiments with,

79

Clothier, G. L., Propagating Boots in
Ipomaea, 320

Clymene, New Species, 78
Cobb, N. A., Introduction to Study of
Nematode Parasites, 630
Cobbett, L., Alkalised Serum as a Culture
Medium for Diphtheria Bacilli, 239

— Influence of Filtration on Diphtheria

Antitoxin, 664
Coccidae, Classification, 536
Coccidia of Passeres, 315
Coccoliths, 108

Cockerell, T. D. A., Cross-pollination and
Self-pollination, 100

— Development of Mantis, 626

— Influence of Filtration on Diphtheria

Antitoxin, 664
Codium, Structure, 222
Coelentera. See Contents, xix
Ccelomic Fluid and Heart-Body in Poly-
chseta, 540

Cohn, L., Determination of Sex, 615
Cohn, Th., Closing Bands in Epithelium,
290

Cohniella, a new Genus of Diatoms, 114
Cole, F. J., Cranial Nerves and Sense-
Organs of Fishes, 525
Coleochaete, Reproduction, 452
Coles, A. C., How to Examine the Blood
and Diagnose its Diseases, 488
Culi and Typhoid Bacilli, Demonstrating
the Structure, &c., 372

Bacteria are Uninuclear Cells,

340

Collecting Objects. See Contents, xxxiii
Colonies and Fungus-Gardens, New, in
Ants, 299

Colonometers, Circular, 481
Coloration of Birds, 412

— of Butterflies, Experiments as to, 192

— of Insects, 70

— of Living Protozoa, 87
Comber, T., 139, 140, 148, 385, 386
Compositae, Embryology, 443

Compositae, Pollination, 214
Compressor in m Microscope, Messter’s, 587
Comstock, J. H., Wings of Insects, 190, 532,
626

— Venation of a Typical Insect Wing,

421

Conant, F. S., Cubomedusae, 201, 432
Conducting Element in Nervous Tissue, 64
Conducting-path of Organic Substances,
648

Conduction of Organic Food-Materials in
Plants, 215

Confervales, Studies in the, 327
Conifers, American, Structure, 93

— Size of Leaves, 320, 554
Conjugatae, 453

Conjugation and Karyokinesis in Actino-
sphaerium, 548

— in Ectocarpus, 108

— of Binucleated Cells in Spirogyra, 567

— of Swarm-spores in Scytosiphon, 566
Connections between Unstriped Muscle-

cells, 618

Connective Tissue of Paludina, 296
Conopholis americcina, Structure, 321
Consanguinity, Studies in, 406
Continuity of Protoplasm in Guard-Cells
and Moss-Leaves, 90

Contraction-Movements of Anther-lobes,
Sporanges, and Moss-leaves, 560
Contrast-Staining of Bacteria, 378
Convergence in Development, 287

— in Gastropod Shells, 532

Coombe, J. Newton, Reproduction of Dia-
toms, 691

Copal, Limpid Colourless Solution of, 247
Copeland, E. B., Relation of Nutrient Salts
to Turgor, 217

Copeland, E. P., Size of the Leaves of
Conifers, 554

Copepod, New Gall-making, 423
Copepoda, Non-marine, from Spitzbergen,
196

— New, from the Clyde, 304

Coplin, W. M. L., Laboratory Dish, 237
Copulation in Ophidians, 287
Cork-Tissue, Formation of, in the Roots of
the Rosaceae, 318

Cornaille, F., Leaves of Selaginella, 449
Corpus callosum. Origin, 293
Correlation of Growth under the Influence
of Injuries, 216

Correns, C., Propagation of Mosses by
Gemmae, 105, 564

Coulter, J. M., Embryology of Ranunculus,
321

— Pollen-Grains and Antipodal Cells, 99
Council, Members of, 147

Coupin, H., Influence of Sodium and
Magnesium Salts on the Growth of
Plants, 561

— Resistance of Seeds to Immersion in

Water, 563

3 b 2

706

INDEX.

Coutiere, H., Pcecilogony in Alplieus minor ,
538

Couvreur, E., White Forms of Englena,
662

Craig, C. F., Branched Form of Tubercle
Bacillus, 575
Cranchionychiae, 530

Cranial Nerves and Sense-Organs of Fishes,
525

— Region in Neeturus, Development, 52
Crendiropoulo, M., Pathogenic Bacillus

found in Yemen Ulcer, 121
Crenotlirix and Beggiatoa, 336
Crc'pin, F., Application of Anaiomy to
Classification, 651

Crc vatin, Fr., Electric Organ of Torpedo,
288

Crick, G. C., Muscular Attachment in
Ammonoids, 530
Crickets as Thermometers, 192
Cross, Laura B, Cross-pollination and
Self-pollination, 444

Cross-pollination and Self-pollination, 99,
444, 646

Crosses between Different Breeds of House-
Mouse, 405

Crustacea, Deep-sea, from the South-west
of Irelaud, 423

— Rare, 195

— . See Contents, xvi
Cruz, G., Simple Apparatus for Washing
Microscopical Objects, 595
Cryptochiton, Young of, 68
Cryptogamia. See Contents, xxvi
Cryptogams and Phanerogams, Relation-
ship, 326

Crystalloids and Spheroids in Phytolacca,
638

Ctenophore Eggs, Experiments on, 434

Cubomedusse, 20 1 , 432

Cue'not, L., False Hoinocliromism, 534

— Means ot Defence among Animals, 291

— Physiology of Oligochsetes, 76

— Protandric Hermaphroditism of Asterina

gibbosa, 431

Cuff, John, Microscope by, 675
Cultivation Media suitable for Tropical
Climates, 484

Culture Processes. See Contents, xxxiii
Culture-Media, Method of Preserving, 490
Cunningham, D. D., Parasites of Economie
Plants in India, 658
Curator, 147

Curties, C. L., 123, 124, 139, 141, 253, 694
Curties, Thomas, 139

Curtis, C. C., Evolution of Assimilative
Tissue in Sporophytes, 326
Curvature of Roots, 102
Cushions, Sensitive, of Phaseolus and
Oxalis, 447

Cuticle and Intercellular Bridges, 408
Cutleria multifidci , Polymorphy, 453
Cutleriacese, Germination, 565

Cutting Objects. See Contents, xxxiv
Cjauothrix, new Genus of C yanophycese,
114

— and Mastigocladus, 459
Cyathcaceae, Pits in, 450

Cycadese, Centrosome-like Body in the
Pollen-Tube, 444

— Comparative Anatomy, 610

— Peduncle, 96

— Sporophyll, 642

Cyclic Reproduction in Rotifers, 308
Cyon, E. de. Functions of Hypophysis
Cerebri, 409

Cjperac ae and Gramineae, Embryo, 213
Cystocarp of Delesseriaceae, 654

— of Rhodymeniales, 106

Cystoliths, Rudimentary Silicified, in the
Lorantliaceae, 93

Cytoplasm aud Chloroplastid, Relations
of, 206

— Structu’.e, 90, 520

Czapek, F., Conduction of Organic Food-
Male; ials iu Plants, 215

— Conducting- path of Organic Substances*

648

— New Property of Geotropically Irritated

Roots, 324

Czaplewski, E., Bacterium found in Hoop-
ing Cough, 227

., New Bacillus from a Case of Lep-
rosy, 344

— Smegma Bacillus, 344

Czapski,J3., Greenongh’s Stereoscopic Mi-
croscope aud its Auxiliary Appliances*
469

D.

Dactylocotyle, 428
Dactylometra, 432

Daday, — Rotatoria of New Guinea, 303
Daday, E. V., Rotifera of Ceylon, 542
Daguillon, A., Alterations in the Tissue
produced by a Parasite, 553
Dahlgren, U., Combination of the Paraffin
and Cilloidin Methods of Imbedding,
489

Dahlia as a Stain for Bacteria in Celloidin
Sections, 379
Ballinger, W. H., 3S6
Dalmer, M , Morphology of Ilex and Cakile,
98

Dangeard, A., Influence of Nutrition on
the Evolution of Plants, 557
Daniel, L., Grafting of the Wild on the
Cultivated Carrot, 650

— Mixed Grafts, 101
Danish Roibeia, 309

Dantec, Felix C., Sex and Molecular Dis-
symmetry, 287

Darbisliire, O. V., Bangia pumila, 565

— Roccelh se, 456

INDEX.

707

Darboux, G., Cirrophore of Polynoidse, 197 I

— Elytra of Aphroditidse, 425
Darwin, F., Functions of Stomate3, 649

— Hygroscopic Function of Stomates,

216

— Method of Demonstrating Assimilation,

247

— New Method of Observing Stomates.

134

Dassonville, ■ — .. Trichophyton producing
Herpes on the Horse, 573
Dassonville, C., Action of Mineral Salts on
the Structure of the Lupin, 102

— Influence of Mineral Salts on the Form

and Structure of Plants, 647
Dastre, — Function of the Liver in
Delation to Iron, 292
Dastre, A., Hepatic Pigments, 412
Davidsohn, — Experimental Production
of Amyloid, 338

Dean, Bashford, Development of Cali-
fornian Hag, 55

Debray, F., Parasitic Fungi, 569
Decalcifying, New Method, 373
Decapoda and Stomatopoda, Malayan, 195
Deelemann, M., Influence of the Reaction
of the Medium on Bacterial Growth,
131

Deeljen, II., Method for Fixing Leucocytes
and Blood-Plates, 491
Deep-water Deposits from the Red Sea,
634

Defence, Means of, among Animals, 291
Defences of Plants, 211
Defensive Adaptations of Lepidopterous
Larvse, 72

— Glands of some Beetles, 535
Degenerative and Regenerative Processes

in Breathing Tubes of Janellidse, 297
Deherainin, Flower, 440
Delage, Y., Position of Sponges, 434,
435

— Text-Book of the Protozoa, 203
Delesseriacese, Cystocarp, 654
Delpino, F., Dichroism in Plants, 441

— Dimorphism of Ranunculus Ficaria, 97
Dendrochirota, Notes on, 200
Dendroceros, Structure and Development,

654

Dendy, A., Anal Papillse of Caudina coria-
cea, 430

— Development of Sphenodon, 616

— Remarkable Marine Organism, 459
Denitrifying Micro-organisms, 662
Dentine, Classification of Forms, 289
Dentition, Development of Rodent, 51
Dermatosis, Rare, 536

Dersehau, — ., von, Parasitic Fungus, 455
Descemet’s Membrane, Regeneration, 184
Desgrez, A., Production of Mucinoid Sub-
stance by Bacteria, 338
Desiccation, Resistance of Plants to, 219
De Toni’s Sylloge Algarum, 109

Dcvaux, H., Aeration of the Trunks of
Trees, 217

Devaux, — ., Dissociation of the Cells of
Spirogyra, 454

— Formation and Structure of Lenticels,

553

Diaptomus, Norili American Species, 196
Diastase, Action on Venom, 650

— Formation by Fungi, 656

Diatom causing Fou’ness of Water, 114
Diatoms, Abnormal, 662

— Culture of, 128, 598

— Culture-Forms, 573

— Decrease and Increase in Size, 661

— Media for the Study of, 246

— Miquel’s Cell for pure Cultures, 130

— Naviculoid, 387

— Reproduction, 335, 661, 691
Dibothria, Musculature of, 310
Dichroism in Plants, 441
Dicranum, Dwarf Male Plants, 564
Dictyota and Taonia, Antherozoids, 221

— Centrosome, 565
Digestion in Dogfish, 527

— of the Endosperm of the Date, 218
Digestive Tract, Comparative Histology,

522

of Salmon, 522

Dimorphism of Ranunculus Ficaria , 97

— Seasonal, in Pre'cis, 535

Dingier, W., Phenomena of Torsion, 96
Diphtheria Antitoxin, Influence of Filtra-
tion on, 664

— Bacilli and Pseudo -Bacilli, 228

— Bacillus, Diagnostic Stain, 603

— Passive Immunity in, 118
Diphtheritic Toxin, Preparation without

Meat, 683

Diphtheria-Bacilli, Alkalised Serum as a
Culture Medium, 239
Diplopoda, Morphological Notes, 301
Dippel, L., The Microscope and its Appli-
cation, 484

Diptera, New Family, 627
Direction, Sense of, 186
Directive Mesenteries in Hexactiuise, Ir-
regularities in Number, 546
Disguises in Bud Arrangement, 210
Dish, Laboratory, 237
Division and Budding among Animals,
526

— of the Nucleus in Spirogyra, 567
Dixey, F. A., Mimetic Attraction, 191

— Recent Experiments in Hybridisation,

534

— Temperature and Modification, 192
Dixon, H. H , Coccoliths, 108

— Gelatin as a Fixative, 379

— Structure of Codium, 222

Dixon, H. N., Tensile Strength of Cell-
walls, 207

Doflein, F., Methods for Demonstrating
Myxosporidia, 681

708

INDEX.

Doflein, Fr., Notes on the Protozoa, 87
Doherty, M. W„ Embryo of Indian Corn,
645

Dolbear, A. E., Crickets as Thermometers,
192

Dorset, M., Mineral Constituents of Tuber-
cle Bacilli, 580

Double Larva of Diplosomidae, Develop-
ment, 415

Doublets and Triples, Achromatic, Con- !
struction of, 156

Douville, H., Phylogeny of Lamelli-
branchs, 298

Dragon-Flies, Geographical Distribution, j
190

Drepanidotxnici venusta , Reproductive Or- j
gans, 428

Drew, Gilman A., Yoldia, 298
Dreyer, F., Feneroplis, 548
Dries, R. van den, Nitrogenous Pigments
of Fungi, 329

Driesch, Hans, Regenerative Phenomena I
in Tubularia, 312
Drosera, Embryology, 645
Dubois, L., Bacterium Pathogenic to
Phylloxera and Acarina, 120

— Method of Treating Bacteria difficult of

Staining, 133

Duboscq, O., Sensory Nerve-Cells of In-
sects, 420

Ducamp, A., Examination of Oysters for
Pathogenic Microbes, 120
Duerden, J. E., Irish Hydroids, 201
Dufour, Leon, Daily and Seasonal Activity |
of Hive-Bees, 533

Duggar, B. M., Archespore and Nucleus of J
Bignonia, 317

— Parasitic Fungi, 331, 455
Duncker, G., Variability in Fishes, 411

Variation of Fin Rays of Fishes, 59 |

Durham, H. E., Simple Method for Demon-
strating the Production of Gas by Bac- j
teria, 487

Durrand, A., Anchor Mud from the Malay
Archipelago, 251, 255

— Recent Foraminifeia of the Malay

Archipelago, 258, 499, 607
Dust-Counter, Aitken’s, 248
Duval, M., Precis of Histology, 62
Dwarf Male Plants of Dicrauum, 564
Dysentery, iEtiology, 342

— and Abscess of the Liver, 666

E.

Earthworms and Moles, 189

— Chilian, 542

— of Madagascar Region, 304
Ecballocystis, 334

Echini of the ‘ Albatross,’ 544
Echinoderma. See Contents, xix

Echinoid Ovum, Fertilisation and Cleav-
age, 311

Ecliinoids, Fossil, 85
Echinuroid, New British, 197
Economical Product from Seaweeds, 453
Edwards, A, W., Diatom causing Foulness
of Water, 114

Edwardsia claparedii, Larva, 546
Eel, Common, in the Open Seas, 528
Effront, J,, Action of Oxygen on Beer
Ycftst ol

Egg-laying of Dog-fish, 1S2

Eggs and Larvae of Marine Fishes, 56

— Hens’, Variation in Weight, 287

— Maturation of Pelagic Teleostean, 285
Eimer, G. H. Th., Orthogenesis, 515
Eisen, G., Supposed Auditory Cells in

Pontoscolex, 304

Ekstam, O., Cross-pollination and Self-
pollination, 444
Eldkatothrix gelcitinosa , 455
Elasmomyces, 332
Elastic Tissue, Histogenesis, 522
Electric Arc, Application to Photomicro-
graphy, 170

— Currents, Influence of, on the Lower

Organisms, 216

New Apparatus for Application of, to

Living Microscopic Objects, 589

— Organ of Malapterurus electricus , 622
of Mormyrus, 622

of Torpedo, 288

— Organs, 65

Electrically Heated and Regulated Warm
Stage, 475

Electricity, Influence on Germination, 446

— Possible Role in Vital Processes, 529
Ellis, W. P. G., Parasitic Fungus, 110
Ellms, J. W.j Cause of Odours and Tastes

in Drinking Waters, 335
Elytra of Aphroditidse, 425
Embryo and Endosperm in Parietales, 322

— in Lilsea subulata, Development, 443

— of Indian Corn, 645

— of Trout, Development of External

Form, 286

Embryogeny of Euphorbia, 556

— of Pontederiaoese, 556

— of Rosacese and Calycanthacese, 322
Embryology of Composite, 443

— of Drosera, 645

— of Gnetum, 645

— of Naias and Zannichellia, 322

— of Phanerogams, See Contents, xxii

— of Potamogeton, 323

— of Ranunculus, 321

— of Vertebrates. See Contents, viii
Embryos, Method for Demonstrating the

Shape of Spaces and Passages in, 681
Emery, C., Instinct and Intelligence, 291
Emmenthal Cheese, Formation of Holes in,
449

Ripening, 229

INDEX.

709

Emmerling, O., Fermentation of Fresh
G-rass, 227

Enamel of Elasmobranch Fishes, 4.08
“ Encapsuling ” of Starch-Grains, 207
Eudodictyon, a New Genus of Ectocar-
pacese, 108

Endolymphatic Apparatus of Fishes, G21
Endo-parasites of Hyrax, 428
Endosperm and Suspensor of Lupinus, 99

— of Barley, Depletion during Germina-

tion, 561

Energids of Plants and Animals, 62
Euteropneusta of Funafuti, 544

— New Genus, 199
Entomology of the Oak, 74
Entomostraca of Plon, 195

Envelope of Milk-Globules, Staining, 490
Enzyme of Barley, 218
Epidermoid Structures in Mammals, 521
Epilitkon, 107

Epiphyllous Flowers of Chirita hamosa ,
441

Epiphysis and Hypophysis in Frog, 286

— in Reptiles, Development of, 182
Epithelial and Glandular Tissue, Minute

Structure, 522

Epithelium and Reticular Tissue; 63

— Closing Bands in, 290

— of Cestodes, 80

Epitokous and Polymorphic Forms of Do-
decaceria concharum, 511
Erikson, J., Fungus-Parasites- of Cereals,
222

Erlanger, R. von, Early Development of
Rotifers, 84

— Fertilisation and Cleavage of Echinoid

Ovum, 311

— Spindle-Formation in Cephalopod Blas-

toderm, 295

— Wornr-like Spermatozoa of Paludina

vivipara , ( 8

Errors to be Corrected in Photographic
Lenses, 401

Erythronium, Bulb, 211

— Pollination of, 100

Escombe, F., Chemical Processes in the
Germination of Seeds, 561

— Depletion of the Endosperm of Barley

during Germination, 561

— Germination of Seeds, 102

— Influence of Low Temperatures on the
, Germinative Power of Seeds, 217
Etard, A., Nostoc punetiforme, 574
Euglena, White Forms, 662

Eunutia major , Movements, 459
Euphorbia, Embryogeny, 556
Eustrongylus gigas in Dogs, 543
Everett, A., Spider and Pitcher-Plant,
538

Evolution and Vitalism, 526
Ewart, A. J., Bacteria with Assimilatory
Pigments, 115

— Effects of Tropical Insolation, 215

Ewart, A. J., Power of Isolated Chloro-
phyll-Grains to give out Oxygen, 558

— Relations of Chloroplastid and Cyto-

plasm, 206

— Resistance of Plants to Desiccation,

219

Excretory Canals in Ascarids, Terminal
Organs of, 198

— Cells of Ascarids, 80

— System of Bdellostoma, 55
Exobasidium Vitis, 658
Exosporidium marinum, 635
Exudation of Drops from Leaves, 650
Eye of Corycreus, 1 96
Eye-pieces. See Contents, xxxii
Eyes, Compound, of Ephemerids, 70

F. '

Fabani, C., Lethargy in Birds, 527
Fabre, J. II., An Insect Virus, 534
Fabre-Domergue, — Eggs and Larvm of
Marine Fishes, 56
Fabroleskea, 450

Facetted Eyes of Arthropods, 419
Fairchild, I). G., Nuclear Division among
Fungi, 109

Farmer, J. B., Action of Anaesthetics on
Vegetable and Animal Protoplasm,
563

— Hybrid Fern, 220

— Methylen-Blue for Investigating Re-

spiration in Plants, 601

— Present Position of some Cell Problems,

407

Farquhar, H., New Zealand Actiniaria,
o46

Fat, Sudan iih, a Selective Stain for, 684
Fatta, G., Flower of Deherainia, 410
Fauvel, Pierre, Ampharelidte, 305
Favus Cups, Production of, by the Inocu-
lation of a Pyogenic Trichophyton, 333
Fedde, F., Anatomy of Solanacea?, 93
Felix, W., Excretory System of Bdello-
stoma, 55

Fere, Ch., Variations in Weight of liens’
Eggs, 287

Ferment in Barley, 639

— of Cellulose, 225

— Soluble, in Wine, 562
Fermentation of Fresh Grass, 227

— of Phanerogams. See Contents, xxv
Fermentation-Industry, Micro-Organisms,

of, 457

Ferments, Alcoholic, Winter Habit it and
Dissemination, 572

— Unorganised, in Milk, 219

— Vitality of Alcoholic, 571

Ferran, J., Aerobism of the Tetanus Bacil-
lus, 579

— Transformation of Bacillus Tuberculosis

into a Common Saprophyte, 116

710

INDEX-

Ferran, J., Use of Acetylene in the Culti-
vation of Anaerobic Bacteria, 598
Ferris, C. G., Red Yeasts, 331
Fertilisation, 98

— and Cleavage of Echinoid Ovum, 311

— and Nuclear Division in Fucus, 107

— in Ascaris, 284

— in Paehyiulus communis , 537

— in Pinus, 644

Fertilisation-Processes in Rhizopods, 547
Fibres of Reniera, 314
Fibrovascular Bundles of Leaves, 210, 320,
643

Ficquet, L., Bacillus tartar icus, 577
Ficus, Leaves, 211

Field, W. E., How to Make a Microscope
Stand, 126

Field, W. L. W., Individual Variation in
Wings of Lepidoptera, 625
Figdor, W., Causes of Anise phyllv, 96
Filar ia and Spiroptera, 631
Filiciueae and EqAsetinese, Spermato-
genes's and Secondary Nucleus in, 104
Filter, New Rapid, 368
Filtering Bacterial and other Fluids,
Apparatus for, 132
Fin-Rays of Fishes, Variation of, 59
Finn, Frank, Experiments on ’Warning
Colours, 192

— Warning Colours and Mimicry, 526
Fiorentini, A., Pathogenic Protozoa of

Foot-and-Mouth Disease, 315
Fischel, A., Experiments on Ctenophore
Eggs, 434

— Regeneration of the Lens, 406
Fischer, A., Lectures on Bacteria, 231
Fischer, E., Geopora and its Allies, 332
Fischer, H., Structure of Pleurotomaria,

532

Fischer-Sigwart, H., Habits and Life-
History of Frog, 185
Fixative Solutions, 491
Fixing and Hardening Small Objects,
Apparatus, 596

Tissues rapidly, Apparatus for,

242

Flagella of Bacteria, Staining with Orcein,
244

— Modification of Van Ermengem’s

Method of Staining, 685

— of Termobacterium aceti, 666
Flemming, W., Number of Chromosomes

in Somatic Cells of Man, 62
Flemming’s Fixing Solution, 1 34
Floatmg Leaves, 442
Floresco, N., Hepatic Pigments, 412
Floridea, New Freshwater, 452
Flowers, Plow they attract Insects, 191,
556

Focke, W. O., Cross-Pollination and Self-
Pollination, 100

Food-Canal in Lower Insects, Develop-
ment, 422

Food-material, Mineral, of Fungi, 656
— • — of Algae, 564

Passage into and from the Leaves,

648

Foot-and-Mouth Disease, Bacterium, 467

Pathogenic Protozoa of, 315

Foraminifera, Adriatic, 547

— of the Gault of Folkestone, 1

— Recent, of the Malay Archipelago, 258,

499, 607

— New Genus, 435

Forbes-Ross, F. W., Action of Rontgen
Rays on Bacteria, 460
Formative Forces, 183
Formol - Methylen - Blue Treatment of
Nerve-Fibres, 487

Forster, J.. Nutrient Gelatin with High
Melting-point, 131

Fourth Visceral Cleft and lateral Thyroid
in Cat, 5 IS

Fraenkel, C., Stutzer and Hartleb’s Nitre
Fungi, 332

“Fram” Microscope, 673
Francaviglia, M. C., Helminthological
Notes, 428, 544

France, R., Protozoa of the Balaton Lake,
435

Francotte, P., New Microtome, 683
Frankl, O., Injection Mass, 245

— Path of the Spermatozoa in the Frog,

58

Freidenfelt, T., Central Nervous System of
Anodonta, 69

Freire, D., Yellow Fever and Micrococcus
xanthogenicus , 121

French, G. H., Imbedding and Staining
Lichens, 601

Frenulum of Lepidoptera, 535
Frenzel, J., Argentine Protozoa, 203

— New Freshwater Protist, 87
Freshwater Algse, Fixing and Preparing,

486

— Fauna, 67

Freudenreich, Ed. de, Action of Rennet on

Pasteurised Milk, 227

— Ripening of Emmenthal Cheese, 229
Frey-Gessner, E., Drowning of a Water-

Beetle, 536

Friedenthal, Hs., Functions of 'White
Blood-Corpuscles, 67

Friedlander, B., So-called Palolo-Worm,
426

Friedmann, F., Rudimentary Ova in Frog’s
Testis, 517

Friedrich, P. L., Actinomycetic Form of
the Tubercle Bacillus, 240
Fritsch, G , Vitality of Young Round-
Worms, 197

Frog, Habits and Life-History of, 185
Froggatt, W. W., Australian Termitid®,
536

S Fruit, Protection of, agamst Parasitic
i Fungi, 643

INDEX.

711

Fucus, Nuclear Division and Fertilisation,
107

Fuhrmann, O., New Tapeworm, 80

— Regeneration in Planarians, 429

— Turbellaria of Concarneau, 309
Fulton, T. Wctnyss, Maturation of Pelagic

Teleostean Eggs, 285
Funck, E., New Rapid Filter, 368
Functional Metabolism in the Plant, 561
Fundamental Tissue of the Leaf, 552
Fungi, New Genera, 330
Fungi. See Contents, xxvii
Fungus-Gardens and Colonies, New, in
Ants, 299

Fiirst, E., Centrosomes in Ascaris megaio-
cepliala , 543

Fusiform Proteid Substances in tbo Bal-
saminese, 317

G.

Gabritschewsky, G., Production of Plague-
Serum, 485

Gaguepain, F., Hybrid between Lychnis
diurna and L. vespertina , 445
Galeotti, G., Nucleo-Proteids of Bacteria,
662

Galiteutliis armcita, 530
Galli- Valerio, — Helminthological Notes,
544

Galls, North African, 301
Gamble, F. W., Structure of Lug-Worm,
424

Ganglion-cells, 616

and Unstriped Muscle-fibres, Iso-
lating, 681

Peculiar, in Spinal Cord of Perch, 288

Gangrene, Bacillus of Subacute Gaseous,
121

Ganong, W. F., Polyembryonv in Opuntia,
444

Garbini, A., Licnophora, 634

— New Species of Pristina, 630

— Spongillids of Lago di Garda, 202
Garbowski, T., Theory of the Mesoderm,

404

Garcia, R., New and Rapid Method for
Double Staining Blood, 685
Gardiner, W , Detection of Protoplasmic
Threads in Cell-walls, 240, 598

— Histology of the Cell-wall, 206
Gardner, — ., Histogenesis of Elastic

Tissue, 522

Gamier, C., Appearance of Intercellular
Bridges between Smooth Muscle-cells.
63

Garstang, W., Respiratory Mechanism in
Decapods, 75

Gastropoda. See Contents, xiii
Gartner, A., Stutzer and Hartleb’s Nitre
Fungi, 332

Gas-Pressure Regulator, New, 480 '

Gasperini, G., Crenothrix and Beggiatoa,
336

Gastropod, New South African Marine,
624

— Shell, Apex of, 67

Gastropods of the Great African Lakes,
416

Gastrula and Archenteron of Salamander,
518

Gastrulation in Amphioxus, 51

— in Vertebrates, 51

Gaupp, E., Development of Lizard’s Skull,
406

Gayet, L. A., Development of the Arche-
gone of the Muscinese, 220
Gaylord, H. R., Winkel’s New Photomicro-
graphic Apparatus, 354
Gebhardt, W., Greenough’s Stereoscopic
Microscope and its Auxiliary Appli-
ances, 469

— Immersion-Oil Bottle, 238
Gehuchten, A. van, Structural Changes in

Nerve-Cells, 290
Gelatin as a Fixative, 379

— Nutrient, with High Melting-point,

131

Gemmm of Aulacomnium androgynum,
564

— Propagation of Mosses by, 105, 564
Geneau de Lamarliere, L., Roestelise pro-
ducing Mycocecidia, 659

Genital Ducts of Calliphora, 71

— Organs, Male, of Hydrophilus, 71
Minute Structure of, in Triteno-

phorus, 310

Geocarpism of Morisia hypogaea, 102
Geopora and its Allies, 332
Georgevitsch, Jivoea, Segmental Glands
of Ocypus, 300

Geotropically Irritated Roots, New Pro-
I perty of, 324

| Gephyreaus, South African, 630
| Gerard, E., Lipase in Fungi, 568
| Gerard, R., Pollination of Composite, Cam-
panulacese, and Lobeliacese, 214
Gerassimoff, J. J., Conjugation of Binucle-
ated Cells in Spirogyra, 567
Gerber, C., Pollination of Cistus, 557

— Ripening of Fleshy Fruits, 447

— Transformation of Saccharine Sub-

stances into Oil, 103

Geret, L., Proteolytic Enzyme of Yeast
Extract, 552

j Germinal Layers in Oscarella, 435
* — Variation, 181

— Vesicle and Polar Bodies in Urodela,

516

Germination of Phanerogams. See Con-
tents, xxiv

j Germinating Seeds, Heat of, 563
I Germination, Depletion of the Endosperm
1 of Barley during, 561

712

INDEX,

Germination of Seeds, 102, 446
Chemical Processes in, 561

— of the Seeds of Aquatic Plants, 446
Gestation, Span of, and Cause of Birth,

514

Giant-Spheres and Sickle-shaped Nuclei
in Resting Epithelial Cells, 02
Giard, A., Peculiar Phenomena of Growth
and Reproduction in Campanularia, 546
Giesenhagen, K., Shoot-Nodes of the
Characem, 564

Giglio-Tos, E., Neutral Red for Staining
Haemoglobigenous Granules, 685

— Staining Blood of Oviparous Verte-

brata, 245

Gilchrist, T. C., Pseudo-Lupus Yulgaris
caused by a Blastomyces, 573
Gilkinet, A., Defences of Plants, 211
Gill, C. Haughton, Culture of Diatoms,
129

Gillanders, A. T., Entomology of the Oak,
74

Gills, Minute Structure, 628

Gilson, G., Owenia, 540

Gland, CEsophageal, of Nematodes, 198

— Peculiar, in Ants, 420

— Posterior Salivary, of Octopoda, 1S9
Glands, Histology, 617

Glandular and Epithelial Tissue, Minute
Structure, 522

Glass-Blowing and Working, 249
Gloiotrichia, Gas- Vacuoles of, 335
Gloss, M. E., Mesophyll of Ferns, 105
Glucose and Sacc . arose in Sugar-Cane,
552

Glutamin, Distribution in Plants, 638
Gnats and Malaria, 627
Gnetum, Embryology, 645
Godlewski, E., Formation of Proteids by
Leaves, 103

— Production of Alcohol in Respiration,

104

— jun., Repeated Bipolar Mitoses in

Mother-spt rm-cells of Snail, 296
Goebel, K., New Freshwater Flo'ridea,
452

— Retrogression in Metzgeria, 451
Goeldi, E. A., Remarkable Case of Pro-
tective Resemblance, 191

Goette, A., Development of Scyphopolypes,
85

Goffert, Ernst, Larynx of Amphibians,
621

Goitre, Hsematozoon of, 635
Golden, K. E., Red Yeasts, 331
Goldflus, M., Embryology of Composite
443

Gonads of some Species of Taenia, 544

— of Tania polymorpha , 311
Gonococcus, Cultivating, 130
Goodrich, E. S., Relation of Arthropod

Head to Annelid Prostomium, 09

— Reno-pericardial Canals in Patella, 531

Goppert, E., Phylogeny of Claws of Verte-
brates, 52

Gordan, P., Putrefactive Bacteria in Fruit,
and Vegetables, 338
Gordiacea, American, 543

— New Species, 631
Gordius, Life-History, 309

Graf, — ., Picro-formalin in Gytological
Technique, 492

Graflfe, E., Deep-water Deposits from the
Red Sea, 634

Grafting Experiments on Hydra, 431

— of Wild on Cultivated Carrot, 650
Grafts, Mixed, 101

Graham, J. W., Life-History of Trichina,
79

Gramineaj and Cyperacete, Embryo, 213
Gran, H. H., Euclodictyon, a new Genus
of Ectocarpacese, 108

Graptolites, Recent Progress in the Study
of, 202

Grasses, Homology of the Embryo, 213
Grasset, E., Hmmatozoon of Goitre, 635
Grassi, B., Gnats and Malaria, 627
Gravier, Ch., Brain of Glycera, 425

— Proboscis of Glyceridse, 541
Gravity, Action of, on the Growth of

Fungi, 109

Grayson, H. J., Micro-rulings, 690
Green, J. R., Alleged Alcoholic Enzyme
in Yeast, 219

— Yeast |and Alcoholic Fermentation,

448

Greene, E. L., Parthenogenesis in Antcn-
naria, 557

Greenhough’s Stereoscopic Micioscope and
its Auxiliary Appliances, 469
Gregarincs, New, 204, 635
Grevillius, A. Y., Gemmrs of Aulacomnium
androgynum , 564

Griffini, A.,Taxunomic Value of Nervures,
300

GritS ths, G. C., Frenulum of Lepidoptera,
535

Grimalditeuthis, 530
Grimbert, L., Bacillus tarlaricus, 577
Grixoni, C., Polymorphic Bacillus from a
Case of Calculous Nephritis, 340
Grouberg, Go^ta, Arctic Hydromedusse, 633

— Tubularia indicisa , 201

Gronroos, Hj., Gastrula and Arehenteron
of Salamander, 518

Groom, P., Leaves and Scales of Lathrsea,
96

Groot, J. G. de, Cleaning Slides intended
for Water-stuck Sections, 605
Groot’s Improved Lever Microtome, 244
Grote, A. Radcliffe, Changes in Structure
of Butterflies’ Wings, 300

— Specialisation of Lepidopterous Wing,

626

Grout, A. J., Adventitious Buds on Leaves
of Drosera, 320

INDEX.

713

Growing Point, Cytology, 316
in the Stem of Monocotyledons, De-
velopment, 207

Growth and Reproduction in Campanu-
laria, Peculiar Phenomena, 546

— of Phanerogams. See Contents, xxiv
Griinbaum, A. S., Blood and the Identifi-
cation of Bacterial Species, 116

Griiss, J., Formation of Cane-Sugar out of
Dextrose, 448

— Oxydases and the Guaiacum Reaction,

551

Gruvel, A., Urns of Sipunculus, 426
Guaiacum Reaction, and Oxydases, 551
Guaita, Georg von, Crosses between Dif-
ferent Breeds of House-Mouse, 405
Guercio, G. del, Parasites of Pears, 301
Guerin, G., New Organic Substance in
Woody Tissue, 552

Guignard, L., Bacillus chi or or aphis, 115

— Centrosomes in Plants, 205

Guitel, F., Examining the Nephrostomes
of Selachia, 373

Gulland, G. Lovell, Digestive Tract of
Salmon, 522 ^

Gum in Elm-galls, t38

— of Canna, 438

— Production of, in the Sterculiaceae, 92
Gummosis of Beetroot, 338

Gums, Double Stain for, 490
Gunther, E., Mineral Food-Material of
Fungi, 330, 656

Guppy, H. B., Germination of the Seeds of
Aquatic Plants, 446
Gut in Silk-Moth, Development, 72
Guyer, M. F., Structure of Taenia confusa
Ward, 631

Gwynne-Vauglian, D. T., Morphology and
Anatomy of the Nymphseaceze, 97
Gymnosperms, Male Organs of, 642

H.

Haberlandt, G., Hydathodes, 95, 554

— Transpiration in a Moist Tropical Cli-

mate, 447
Haddonia, 435

Haeckel, Ernst, Reaction in Zoology, 415
Haecker, V., Differentiation of Sex-Cells,
405

— Behaviour of Reproductive Cells in

Plants and Animals, 284

— Pelagic Polyehaete Larvae, 305
Haematoxylin, Black, 602
Haematozoan Infections of Birds and Man,

89

Haematozoon of Goitre, 635
Haemoglobigenous Granules, Neutral Red
for Staining, 685

Hag, Californian, Development, 55
Hahn, M., Proteolytic Enzyme of Yeast
Extract, 552

Hair, Comparative Study, 524

— Influence of Cutting on Growth, 184
Halacaridae, Distribution, 803
Halcampactis, 546

Haldane, J. S., Air-Bladder of Fishes,
187

— Secretion and Absorption of Gas in

the Swimming-Bladder and Lung,
413

Haller, B., Significance of Hypophysis and
Infundibular Organ, 53
Halmahera, Freshwater and Terrestrial
Gastropoda from, 297
Halophytes, Transpiration, 324
Halsted, B. D., Bacterial Diseases of
Plants, 574

— Parasitic Fungi, 331, 569
Hamaker, J. J., Nervous Svstem of Nereis,

540

Ilamann, O., Brain of Cave-Beetle, 421
Hamilton, Alice, Bacillus capsulatus
cliinensis , 342

Hamilton, A. G., Cross-pollination and
Self-pollination, 100

Hammar, J. A., Development of Caecum
in Amphioxus, 519

Hankin, E. H., Method of rapidly
Identifying the Microbe of Bubonic
Plague, 134

— Relation of Insects and Rats to the

Spread of the Plague, 117
Hannig, E., Pits in the Cyatheacese and
Marattiacese, 450

Hansen, E. C., Heliotropism in the Agari-
cineae, 457

— Vitality of Alcoholic Ferments, 571
Hansen, H. J., Choniostomatidoe, 304

— Isopods of the ‘Albatross’ Expedition,

195

Hansgirg, A., Eiclogv and Morphology of
Pollen, 319

Hapters of Laminaria saccharina, 655
Hard Tissues of Vertebrates, 66
Hardening and Fixing Small Objects,
Apparatus, 596

— Blood, Sputum, &c., on Slides, 682
Hardness of Minerals, Micro-Sclerometer

for Determining, 237
Haiiotella, 451

Harmer, S. F., Development of Tubuli-
pora, 418

— Notochord of Cepkalodiscus, 81
Harper, R. A., Nuclear Division among

Fungi, 109

Harrington, N. R., Plankton of Puget
Sound, 528

Harris, George T., 141
Harris, W. H., Teeth of Diptera, 420
Hartleb, R., Bacillus Lllenbachensis alpha
and Alinit, 118

— Bacterium of Foot-and-Moutli Disease,

467

Ilartnack Microscope, New, 347

714

INDEX.

Hartnack New Homogeneous-Immersion
Objective* 351

Hartwig, H., New Microscope Objective
for Zoological and other Biological
Investigations under Water, 677
Harvest Mites, 194

Haswell, W. A., New Prorhynchid Tur-
bellarian, 198

Haswell, William A., Text-Book of Zoo-
logy, 184

Hatta, S., Pronephros of Lamprey, 182
Haviland, G. D., Termites, 420
Head, Composition of Insect’s, 421

— Morphology of Vertebrate, 405
Head-Kidney of Lamellibranchs, 68
Heald, F. de F., Germination of Spores,

652

Heart, Development, in Agelaslica Aim ,
193

— Muscle-Cells, 63

— of Hive-Bee, 421

Heart-Body and Ccelomic Fluid in Poly-
chseta, 540

Heat of Germinating Seeds, 563
Heath, H., Young of Cryptochiton, 68
Hebb, R. G., 250, 251
Hebert, A., Composition of the Sap, 92
Hecatonema, 655

Hedley, C., Australasian Shipworms, 624
Heidenhain, M., Streaming of Protoplasm,
636

Heinriclier, E., Germination of Lathrasa,
446

• — Green Hemi-Parasites, 209
Heleoplankton, 294
Heliotaxis of Larval Mites, 422
Heliotropism in the Agaricinere, 457
Heller, R., Influence of Electricity on the
Lower Organisms, 216
Helminthological Notes, 310, 311, 428,
544, 631

Helminths in Vertebrates of East Prussia,
428

Hemi-Parasik s, Green, 209
Hemp, Anatomy, 640
Henneguy, L. F., Relation of Centrosomes
to Cilia, 408

Hensel, R., Bacterium found in Hooping
Cough, 227

Hepatic Pigments, 412
Hepaticre, New Genera, 451
Hepke, P., Regeneration in the Naiadse, 77
Herbert, H., Anatomy of the Hippomaneae,
319

Herdman, W. A., Australian Tunicata,
415

— New British Echinuroid, 197
Heredity and Instinct, 414

— Law of Ancestral, 519

— Theories of, 323

Herissey, H., Ferment in Barley, 639
Hermann, F., Chromatoid Bodies of Sperm-
Cells, 289

Hermaphroditism, 406

— Protandric, of Asterina gibbosa, 431
Herouard, E., Text-Book of the Protozoa,

203

Herrera, A. L., Molecular Attraction in
Vital Phenomena, 184

— Studies in Consanguinity, 406
Herrick, C. J., Weigert Methods of Stain-
ing, 684

Hertwig, O., Influence of Temperaturo on
Development, 283

Hertwig, R., Conjugation and Karyokinesis
in Actinosphmrium, 548
Heschcler, K., Regeneration of Earth-
worms, 541

Hesse, O., Lichen- Acids, 111
Hesse, R., Organs of Sight in Amphioxus,
293

— Sensitiveness to Light in Amphioxus,

527

Heurck, H. van, Culture of Diatoms, 128

— Media for the Study of Diatoms, 246

— Miquel’s Cell for Pure Cultures of

Diatoips, 130

— New Test- Plate, ^>3

Hewlett, R. T., Bacilli and Pseudo-Bacilli
of Diphtheria, 228

— Bacillus Pestis, 230

— Diagnostic Stain for the Diphtheria

Bacillus, 603

Heydrich, F., Melobesiacese, 107
Heymons, R., Abdominal Appendages of
Insects, 72

— Composition of Insect’s Head, 421

— Development of Chilopoda, 422

of Food-Canal in Lower Insects,

422

— Segmentation of Myriopod Body, 193
Hickson, S. J., Distribution of Millepora,

201

— Freshwater Fauna, 67
Hieronymus, G., Chlamydomyxa labyrin-

thuloides, 328

High Pressure, Effect on Micro-organisms,
462

Hill, J. P., Enteropneusta of Funafuti, 544
— • Placentation of Perameles, 180
Hiltner, L., Permanence of the Infection
of the Tubercle-Bacteria, 664
Hippomanem, Anatomy, 319
Histology, Pre'cis of, 62
— . See Contents, ix
Hive-Bees, Daily and Seasonal Activity,
533

Hochstetter, F., Method for Demonstrating
the Shape of Spaces and Passages in
Embryos, 681

Hoehl, E., Intercellular Bridges in Muscle,
183

Hoek, P. P. C., ‘ Challenger ’ Pycnogonids,
625

Hoffmann, R. Wolfgang, Cell-Plates and
Cell-Plate Rudiments, 289

INDEX.

Holm, T., Morphology and Anatomy of
Obolaria, 98

— Pyrola aphylla , 443

Holmes, S. J., Cell-Lineage of Planorbis,
GS

Holmgren, E., Peripheral Nervous System,
422

Holothuroidca of the ‘ Travail leur ’ and
the ‘ Talisman,' 545
Holothuroids, Chilian, 545
Holzberg, F., Gonads of some Species of
Taenia, 544

Homochromism, False, 534
Homogeneous-Immersion Objective, New
Hartnaek, 351

Hooping Cough, Bacterium found in, 227
Hormiscia and Urospora, 459
Hormosperma, 330

Hornet’s Venom antagonistic to Viper’s,
188

Horrell, E. C., Sterigmates and Spores of
Agciricus campestris , 224
Hot Springs, Algae (Protophyta) of, 114
Houssay, F., Osmotic Phenomena in Mi-
tosis, 288

Huifeldt-Kaas, Hartvig, Plankton of Nor-
wegian Lakes, 618

Hunter, W. K., iEtiology of Beri-Beri,
468

Huot, — Suprarenal Capsules in Lopho-
branck Fishes, 186

Hutton, F. W., Problem of Utility, 60
Huyghens Eye-piece, Improved, 676
Hyacinth, Bacterial Disease of, 663
Hybrid between Lychnis diurna and L.
vespertina, 445

— Echinoid Larvae, 515

— Fern, 220

— Narcissi, Embryo-sac, 323
Hybridisation of Willows, 445

— Problems of, 58

— Recent Experiments, 534
Hybridising, Experiments, 415

— Species of Tephrosia, 419
Hybridism, 647
Hydathodes, 95, 554

Hydatinci senta , Determination of Sex,
306

Hydra, Experiments on, 311

— Movements of, 431
Hydrachnida of Germany, 75, 194, 422
Hydroids, Irish, 201

— New, 312

Hydromedusae, Arctic, 633
Hygroscopic Function of Stomates, 216
Hypertrophied Bud-Scales in Piuus, 613
Ilypervaccinated Animals, Destructon of
Microbes in, 339

Hypochorda, Organ in Embryo Reptiles
like a, 578

Hypophysis and Epiphysis in Frog, 286

— an l Infundibular Organ, Significance

of, 53

Hypophysis Cerebri, Functions, 409

— in Health and Disease, 63

— of Mammals, 286

I.

Ihering, H. von, New Colonies and Fuugus-
Gardens in Ants, 299

Ihle, J. E. W., Phylogeny of Pantopoda,
625

Ijima, J., Classification of Rossellidae, 547
Ikeda, S., Breeding Habit of a Japanese
Tree-Frog, 57

Ikeno, S., Ceutrosom e-like Body in the
Pollen-tube of Cycadeae, 444
Ilex and Cakile, Morphology, 98
Illuminating Apparatus. See Contents,
xxxii

Images and Vision, Microscopic, 592
Imbedding and Staining Lichens, 601

— Objects. See Contents, xxxiv
Imliof, O. E., Lacustrine Fauna, 295
rmmersion-Oil Bottle, 238
Impregnation and Development of the Oo-

sphere in Peronosporeae, 455

— of the Ova of Hydatina senta, 199
Incubation of the Skate-Leech, 426
Indian Corn, Embryology, 645
Indirect Division, 407

Indol, Production by Bacteria, 337

— Test for the Production of, by Bacteria,

380

Indusiella, a new Genus of Musci, 653
Infundibular Organ and Hypophysis, Sig-
nificance, 53

Infusorian Genus, New, 548
Ingcnitzsky, I., Psyche Helix, 193
Injecting Objects. See Contents, xxxiv
Injection Mass, 245
Injured Nerves, Growth of, 288
Insecta. See Contents, xiii
Insect Virus, 534

Insects and Rats, Relation of, to the Spread
of Plague, 117

— and Yeasts, 112

— How Flowers attract, 191, 556
Instinct and Heredity, 414

— and Intelligence, 291
Instruments, Accessories, &c. See Con-
tents, xxxii

Integumentary Skeleton of Holothurians,
Growth-Changes in, 311
Intelligence and Instinct, 291

— of Fishes, 411

Intercellular Bridges and Cuticle, 408
between Smooth Muscle-Cells, Ap-
pearance of, 63
in Muscle, 183

— Connections in Epithelium, 521
Intestinal Canal, Staining by Van Gieson’s

Method, 686

Intra-Vitam Staining, 133

716

INDEX.

Intravenous Injection of Tuberculous Case-
ous Matter, Effect of, 122
Invertebrata. See Contents, xii
Irritability of Phanerogams. See Con-
tents, xxv

Isopods of the ‘ Albatross’ Expedition, 195
Issatschenko, B., New Bacillus pathogenic
to Rats, 467
Ives, Fred. E., 495

Iwanzoff, N., Physiological Import of Ma-
turation, 516

J.

Jablonowski, J., Early Stages in the De-
velopment of Salmonidse, 519
Jackson, D. D., Cause of Odours and Tastes
in Drinking Waters, 335
Jacobi, B., Formation of Albuminoids, 650
Jaekel, O., Alimentary Tract of Pelma-
tozoa, 430

— Pedigree of Vertebrata, 61
Jagerskiokl, L. A., (Esophageal Gland of |

Nematodes, 198

Jaggar, T. A., Micro- Sclerometer for De- j
termining the Hardness of Minerals, 237 j
Janczewski, E. de, Root of Anemone, 212
Jander, R., Removal of Pigment from
Zoological Specimens, 682
Janellidae, Structure and Classification,
531

Janet, Charles, Apparatus for Keeping
Ants, 299

— Articular Membranes in Hymenoptera,

300

— Myrmecophilous Animals, 537

— Peculiar Gland in Ants, 420

— Researches of, 537

— Terminology of Classification, 529
Janssens, F. A., Black Haematoxylin, 602

— Cytological Researches on the Yeast-

Cell, 570

— Method of Demonstrating the Structure

of Yeast-Cells, 600

Jeffers, H. W., Circular Colonometer, 481
Jeffrey, E. C., Central Cylinder of Vascular
Plants, 438

— Oophyte of Botrychium, 652
Jelly-fish, American Fresh-water, 201
Jenmania, a new Genus of Lichens, 111
Jensen, O., Formation of Holes in Em-

menthal Cheese, 449

— Peptonised Milk for the Cultivation of

Lactic Acid Ferments, 371
Jizuka, Akira, New Species of Litoral
Oligochmta, 425

Jodin, F. V., Germination of Seeds, 446
Johan-Olsen, O., Cheese Ripening, 333
Johnson, D., Development of Marsilia, 104
Johnson, D. S., Leaf and Sporocarp of
Marsilia, 652

of Pilularia, 652

Johnson, W. F., Larva of Pelophila, 536
Johow, J., Ornithophilous Flowers, 646
Joly, J., Coccoliths, 108
Jones, T. Rupert, Ramulina, 88
Jordan, H., Treatment of Celloidin Sec-
tions Stained with Orcein, 600
Jorgensen, A., Micro-organisms of the
Fermentation-Industry, 457
Joseph, H., So-called Vascular Epithelium,
521

Jest, L., Nyctitropic Movements, 559
Joubin, L., Grimalditeuthis, 530

— Nemertea, 80

— New Family of Cephalopoda, 530
Joulin, — ., Bacillus of Bitter Wine, 343

— Microbes of Turned Wine, 464, 578
Jourdain, Philip E. Bertrand, On a Me-
thod of Adjusting the Sizes of the
Coloured Images yielded by the
Cooke Lens, 397

— On a New Apochromatic Objective con-

structed without the use of Fluorite,
395

— Remarks on the Construction of the

Planar Lens, and its use in Low-
power Photomicrography, 399
Jourdain, S., Development of Trombidion
holosericeum , 194

Juel, H. O., Nuclear Division in Pollen-
mother-cells, 91

— Parthenogenesis in Antennaria, 557
Juel, N. C., Tulasnellaceae, a new Family

of Fungi, 458

Jung, — ., New Microtome, 683

K.

Kamerling, Z., Biology and Physiology of
the Cell-wall, 91

Kapelkin, W., Minute Structure of Lam-
prey’s Skin, 64

Karawaiew, W., Internal Metamorphosis
of Ants, 72

— Post-embryonic Development in Ants,
625

Karop, C. G., 146

Karsakoff, N., Vickersia , a new Genus of
Floridese, 452

Karsten, G., Changes of Form of Sceleto-
nema costatum, 574

Karyokinesis and Conjugation in Actino-
sphserium, 548

Karyokinetic Nuclear Division in Spiro-
gyra, 454

Kathariner, L., Vertebral Teeth of Dasy-
peltis, 621

Kattein, A., Central Cylinder of Root,
92

Katz, J., Formation of Diastase by Fungi,
656

Keller, R., Adaptation of Laud-Plants to
existence in Water, 441, 644

INDEX.

717

Kellicott, D. S.r Rotiferaof Sandusky Bay,
83

Kellog, Y. L., Facetted Eyes of Arthro-
pods, 419

Kempny, P., Studies on Plecoptcra, 301
Kenyon, F. 0., Daily and Seasonal Ac-
tivity of Hive-Bees, 533
Kern, F., Capsule of Anthrax Bacillus,
117

Kholodkovsky, N., Preserving Sea Ane-
mones, 133

Kienitz-Gerloff, — ., How Flowers Attract
Insects, 557

Kiiims, J., Minute Structure of Gills, 628
Kinoplasm and Nucleole in the Division of
Mother Pollen-Cells, 550
Kirkby, W., Clearing Vegetable Sections,
241

Kister, J., Diagnosis of Typhoid-like
Bacilli in Suspected Water, 117
Kitt, Th., Streptothrix Form of the Swine
Erysipelas Bacillus, 227
Kjellman, F. R., iEgagropilse, 655

— Urospora and Hormiscio, 459
Klebahn, H., Biology of the Uredinese,

568

— Gas-Yacuoles of Gloiotrichia, 335

— Parasitic Fungi, 331, 569

Klebs, G., Development of Sporodinia
grandis, 657

Klein, E., Microbes of Vaccinia and
Variola, 231

— Observations on, and Experiments with

the Plague Bacillus, 341
Knaak, — Contrast-Staining of Bacteria,
378

Knight, Edith, Bacilli and Pseudo-Bacilli
of Diphtheria, 228

Knuth, P., Cross-Pollination and Self-
Pollination, 100, 444, 646

— How Flowers attract Insects, 556

— Pollination by Bats, 214

Knuth’s Handbook to the Biology of
Flowers, 647

Kny, L., Dependence of the Chlorophyll-
Function on the Chromatophores and
the Cytoplasm, 101

— Power of Isolated Chlorophyll-Grains

to give out Oxygen, 558
Kobelt, W., Freshwater and Terrestrial
Gastropoda from Halmahera, 297
Kobert, — ., Phalline, a Poisonous Pro-
duct from Fungi, 224
Koch, G. von, Development of Carophyllia
cyathus , 87

Kofoid, C. A., Sources of Error in the
Plankton Method, 247, 294
Kohl, F. G., Assimilating Energy of Blue
Light, 101

— Chlorophyll and its Derivatives, 438

— Continuity of Protoplasm in Guard-

Cells and Moss-Leaves, 90

— Form of the Cell-nucleus, 636

Kohlwey, — Formation of Breeds and
Species, 520

Kolkwitz, C., Curvatures and Structure of
the Membrane in the Schizophycese,
334

Kolliker, A. von, Encrgids of Plants and
Animals, 62

Kolossow, A., Intercellular Connections
in Epithelium, 521

Kolpin-Ravn, F., Rudimentary Silicified
Cystoliths in the Loranthacese, 93

Kolster, R., Peculiar Ganglion-cells in
Spinal Cord of Perch, 288

Koninski, K., New Method for Fixing
Paraffin Sections to the Slide, 686 .

Koplik, H., Bacteriology of Pertussis, 463

Kopsch, — Neurenteric Canal, 407

Kopsch, Fr., Development of External
Form of Trout Embryo, 286

— Egg-laying of Dog-fish, 182

KorotnefF, A., Different Forms of An-
chinia, 624

Korschelt, E., Regeneration in Earth-
worms, 196

Kostanecki, K., Fertilisation in Myzostoma,
199

Kowalevsky, A., Acanthobdella peledina ,
78

— Lymphoid Glands of Scorpion, 627

— Physiological Experiments with Clep-

sine, 79

Kowalski, A., Repsold’s New Self-Regis-
tering Micrometer, 126

Kraus, Rudolph, Electrically treated and
Regulated Warm Stage, 475

Krause, K., Optic Nerves of Fishes, 288

Krause, R., Posterior Salivary Glands of
Octopoda, 189

Krause, Rudolph, Optic Nerve in the
Sciuridm, 622

Krause, W., Sensitiveness to Light of
Amphioxus, 413

Kreftling, A., Economical Product from
Seaweeds, 453

Kronecker, H., Influence of Chemical and
Luminous Stimuli on Red Blood-Cor-
puscles, 292

Kruch, O., Spheroids and Crystalloids in
Phytolacca, 638

Kuckuck, P., Conjugation of Swarm-
spores in Scytosiphon, 566

Kiikenthal, W., Parasitic Prosobranclis,
297

Kulagin, N., Development of Platygaster,
73

Kiinkele, T., Vascular Bundles in the Pith
of Alnus, 93

Kiinnemannj O., Denitrifying Micro-organ-
isms, 662

Kunstler, J., Central Body of the Bac-
teriacese, 225

— Modifications in Protozoa, 435

— Urns of Sipunculus, 426

718

INDEX,

Kiister, E., Staining the “Vacuole-Gran-
ules ” of Yeast-Cells, 490
Kwietniewski, C. R., Actiniaria from East
Spitsbergen, 433

L.

Laborde, — “ Casse ” of Wine, 456
Lacework Sponge, 87
Lcicinularia elliptica, a new Rotifer, 84
Lactation, 289
Lacustrine Biology, 562

— Fauna, 295

Lafar’s Technical Mycology, 468
Lagerheim, G., Permanent Staiu for Starch,
245

Lambert, Ada M., Structure of an Austra-
lian Land-Leech, 629
Lamellibranchiata. See Contents, xiii
Lamellibranchs, Phylogeny, 298
Laminariacem, 565

Lamprey’s Skin, Minute Structure, 64
Land-Leech, Structure of an Australian,
629

Lang, W. H., Micrcsporange of Stangeria,
94

Langdon, F. E., Pollen of Asclepias, 94
Lankester, E. Ray, Chsetopterin, 197

— Development of Atrial Chamber in

Amphioxus, 181

Lannelongue, — ., Immunity of Fowls to
Tuberculosis, 466

Lantern, “ Newtonian” Universal Science
(Ives and Newton’s Patent), 678
Larvae and Eggs of Marine Fishes, 56
Larynx of Amphibians, 621
Laser, H., Smegma Bacillus, 344
Laslett, E. E., Modification of the Weigert-
Pal Method for Paraffin Sections, 600
Latex, Coagulation, 640
Lathrrea, Germination, 446

— Leaves and Scales of, 96
Laticiferous Tubes and Sieve-Tubes in

Cuscuta, 440

Lament, J., Absorption of Orgauic Matters
by Roots, 101

Lauterborn, R., Cyclic Reproduction in
Rotifers, 308

— Early Development of Rotifers, 84

— Two new Protozoa, 203

Laxa, H. O., New Thermophilous Bacillus,
466

Leaf and Stem, 442

— of Conifers, Size, 320, 554
Leaves, Function, 648

Leblanc, A., Cytological Researches on the
Yeast-Cell, 570

— Method of Demonstrating the Structure

of Yeast-Cells, 600

Lebrun, H., Germinal Vesicle and Polar
Bodies in Urodela, 516
Leclerc du Sablon, — Digestion of the
Endosperm of the Date, 218

Leclerc du Sablon, — ., Oleaginous Re-
serve-Substances of the Walnut, 218
Leda, Structure, 418

Ledoux-Lebard, — Action of Pseudo-
tuberculous Scrum on the Bacillus of
Pseudo-Tuberculosis, 226
Lee, A. Bolles, Spermatogenesis of Snail,
296

Lee and Mayer’s Outlines of Microscopical
Technique for Zoologists and Anato-
mists, 688

Leger, L. J., Development of the Phloem-
Elements in Vascular Bundles, 93
Lemmermann, E., Flora of Trout-tanks, 562
Lendenfeld, R. v., Zanzibar Sponges, 314
l.enhossek, M. w, Spermatogenesis in Mam-
mals, 284

Lens, Development and Structure, 286
— Regeneration, 400

i Lenssen, — ., Sporozoic Parasites in a Ro-
tifer, 84

j Lenticels, Formation and Structure, 553
j Leon, N., Cases of Myasis, 534
! Leonard i, G., Classification of Coccidae,
536

Lepidoptera injurious to Sugar-Cane, 193
— Natural Selection in, 625
Lepidostrobus, Ligule, 651
Lepierre, Ch., Production of Mucin by a
Pathogenic Fluorescing Bacillus, 339
Lepri, G , Helminthological Notes, 544
Leprosy, New Bacillus from a Case of, 344
Leptomin, a New Cell-content of Leptome,
551

Leptosporclla, 330

Lesparre, A. de Gramont de, Spores of the
Truffle, -332

Lethargy in Birds, 527
Leucocytes and Blood-plates, Method for
Fixing, 491

Leumann, B. H. F., Method of rapidly
identifying the Microbe of Bubonic
Plague, 134

Lewis, M., Nervous Svstem of Polvchseia,
539

— - New Species of Clymene, 78
Leydig, F., Ep'dermoid Structures in
Mammals, 521

I — Vascular Epithelium, 521
Lichen- Acids, 111
Lichenology’, New Text-book, 570
| Lichens, New Genera, 111, 570

— Staining and Imbedding, 601
Licnophora, 634

Lidforss, B., Histology of the Vegetable
Nucleus, 549

— Peculiar Cell-contents in Potamogeton.

prxlongus, 552
Light-Limit in Water, 409
Light, Sensitiveness to, in Amphioxus, 527
Lignite, Micro-organisms of, 461
L/lsea subulcita , Development of the Em-
1 bryo, 443

INDEX.

719

Liliura Martagon, Growth, 558
himcix maximus, Development, 531
Limbs, Theory, 524

Limnetic Crustacea, Vertical Distribution,
76

Lindau, G., Parasitic Fungi, 110
Linden, Grafin Maria von, Convergence in
Gastropod Shells, 532
Lindgren, Nils Gustaf, Malayan and Chi-
nese Sponges, 434

Lindner, G., Protozoa of Pontine Marshes,
204

Liusbauer, L., Light-Limit in Water, 409
Linstow, von — ., Life-History of Gordius,
309

— Nematodes from Madagascar, 309

— New Nematodes from Bismarck Archi-

pelago, 427

Linton, E., Cestodes of Fishes, 310

— Trematode Parasites of Fishes, 310
Linton, E. T., Hybridisation of Willows,

445

Lipase in Fungi, 568

List, Th., Protein Crystalloids in Nuclei
of Amoebocytes, 200

Litoral Fauna and Pisciculture at Mar-
seilles, 414

Liver, Abscess of, and Dysentery, 666

— and Pancreas in Birds, Development,

285

— Function of, in Relation to Iron, 292
Liver-Cell, Minute Structure, 183
Living Matter, Theory of the Functions in,

66

— Substance, The, 66

Livingood, L. E., Growth of Bacteria on
Media made from Animal Organs, 579
Lloyd, F. E., Hypertrophied Bud-Scales in
Pinus, 643

Lobeliace®, Pollination of, 214
Locard, Arnould, Abyssal Molluscs, 189,
295

Lockwood, S., Abnormal Diatoms, 662
Locy, W. A., Accessory Optic Vesicles in
Chick Embryo, 53
Lodicules of Grasses, 442
Loew, O., Food-Materials of Alg®, 565

— Function of Calcium Salts, 558

— Protoplasm and Active Albumen, 437
Logarithmic Plotting of Biological Data,

247

Loisel, G., Action of Pigments on Living
Sponges. 489

— Fibres of Reniera, 314

Loman, J. C. C., African Opilionid®, 627
Longo, — ., Mucilage-Cells of Opuntia,
440

Longo, B., Chromatolysis of the Nucleus,
636

— Embryogeny of Rosace® and Cal yean -

thace®, 322

Lonnberg, E., Parastacus, 538

— Phylogeny of Cestodes, 543

Lopriore, G., Action of Organic Acids on
Growth, 323

— Action of the Riintgen Rays on the

Protoplasm of the Living Cell, 445
Loriol, P. de, Fossil Echinoids, 85
Lotsy, J. P., Embryology of Gnetum, 645
Louping-Ill and Sheep-Ticks, 74
Loveland, A. E., Organs of Taste, 524
Lovell, J. H., Cross-pollination and Self-
pollination, 647

Low Temperatures, Influence on the Di-
rection of Shoots, 560

on the Germinative Power of

Seeds, 217

Lowe, E. J., Ferns of Multiple Parentage,
449

Lowit, M., Presence of Protozoa in the
Blood and Organs of Leukhsemic Per-
sons, 315

Lubbock, Sir John, Buds and Stipules, 210

— How Flowers attract Insects, 556
Ludwig, H., Chilian Holothuroids, 545

— Development of Phyllophorus urna,

200

— Mediterranean Species of Synapta,

311

Lug-Worm, Structure, 424

Liihe, M., Botliriocephalus zschokkei , 80

— Musculature of Dibothria, 310
Luidia, Larval Stage, 545
Luminosity of Ceratium, tripos, 634
Luminous and Chemical Stimuli, Influ-
ence of, on Red Blood-Corpuscles, 292

Lunt, J., Preserving Living Pure Cultiva-
tions of Water Bacteria, 239
Liistner, G., Biology of Spores, 563
Lutz, L., Double-Stain for Gums, 490

— Gum of Canna, 438

— Localisation of Amygdalin and Ernul-

sin in Eriobotrya, 92

— Mucilage-Canals of the Marattiace®,

653

— Nitrogenous Nutrition of Plants, 446
Lymphoid Glands of Scorpion, 627
Lyon, Florence M., Embryogeny of Eu-
phorbia, 556

M.

Maas, O., Development of Pronephros and
Mesonephros in Myxine, 54

— Germinal Layers in Oscarella, 435
Macallum, A. rB., Distribution of Phos-
phorus in Tissues, 618

— Microscopic Detection of Phosphorus-

containing Compounds, 686
MacCallum, J. B., Heart Muscle-Cells, 63
Me Alpine, D., Parasites of the Vine, 569
MacBride, E. W., Early Development of
Amphioxus, 181

— Relationship of Amphioxus and Balano-

glossus, 185

3 c

1898

720

INDEX.

Maccliiati, L., “ Encapsuling ” of Starch- .
Grains, 207

McClure, C. F. W., Nerve-Cells of Gastro-
pods, 189

MacDougal, D. T., Tendrils of Entada
scandens, 560

Macfarlane, J. M., Mycorhiza on the Roots
of Philesia, 332

McIntosh, W. C., Intelligence of Fishes, 411

— Irish Annelids, 197

— Larval Stage of Luidia, 545

— Notes on Annelids, 541

— Post-Larval Fierasfer, 287
Maclallum, W. G., Hsematozoan Infections

of Birds and Man, 89
Macloskie, G., Heat of Germinating Seeds,
563

MacMillan, C., Orientation of the Plant-

Egg, 555

McMurrich, J. PL, Irregularities in Num-
ber of Directive Mesenteries in Hexac-
tinise, 546

Macrostachys, Fructification, 651
Madagascar, Nematodes from, 309
Madau, H. G., On some Organic Sub- |
stances of High Refractivity, available
for Mounting Specimens for Examina-
tion under the Microscope, 273, 385
Madreporaria, Studies, 433
Magnesium and Sodium Salts, Influence
on the Growth of Plants, 561
Magnus, P., JEcidium graveolens, 659

— Parasitic Fungi, 569

Mahal anobis, S. C., Muscle-Fat in the
Salmon, 524
Malaria and Gnats, 627
Malay Archipelago, Foraminifera, 499

Report on the Recent Foraminifera

collected by A. Durrand, 258, 499, 607
Maldiney, — ., Influence of Rontgen Rays
on Germination, 324

Malfitano, G., Effect of High Pressures on
Micro-Organisms, 462
Malisclieff, N., Nerve-Endings in Oesopha-
gus and Stomach of Birds, 184
Mammals, Origin, 524
Man, J. G. de, Malayan Decapoda and
Stomatopoda, 195

Mangin, L., Parasitic Fungus, 568

— Production of Gum iu the Sterculiacese,

92

— Structure of Mycorhiza, 458
Maunagetta, G. Ritter Beck v., Germina-
tion of Microchxte tenera, 459

Mantis, Development, 626
Marattiacese, Mucilage-Canals, 653

— Pits in, 450

— Sporophyll, 105

Marchal, P., North African Galls, 301
Marchal, Paul, Remarkable Mode of Re-
production in Encyrtus, 299
Marine Animal ami Vegetable Life, Rela-
tions between, 413, 619

Marine Fauna of Brittauy and the Gulf of
Lyons, 528

— Organism, Remarkable, 459

Marion, A. F., Litoral Fauna and Pisci-
culture at Marseilles, 414
Mark, E. L., New Aetinarian, 633
Markings of Boidse, 525
Marpmann, G., Method for Making An-
aerobic Roll-Cultures with Gela-
tin or Agar, 484

Preparing Plankton Organisms,

485

Splitting up Argillaceous Sili-
cates containing Diatoms, 380

— Morphology and Biology of the Tuber-

cle Bacillus, 118

— Selenium as a Mounting Medium for

Diatoms, 492

Marshall, G. A. K., Seasonal Dimorphism
in Precis, 535

Marsilia, Development, 104

— Leaf and Sporocarp, 652

Marti, H., Influence of Chemical and
Luminous Stimuli upon Red Blood-
Corpuscles, 292

Martin, C. J., Nature of the Antagonism
between Toxins and Antitoxins, 576

— Toxin and Anti-toxin of Snake-venom,

623

Martin, S., Growth of the Typhoid Bacillus
in Soil, 341

Maslen, A. J., Ligule of Lepidostrobus,
651

Massalongo, C., New Genera of Hepaticse,
451

Massee, G., Evolution of the Basidiomy-
cetes, 457

Masterman, — Notochord of Cephalo-
discus, 81

Mastieocladus and Cyanothrix, 459
Maternal Impressions and Telegony, 406
Matruchot, L., Trichophyton producing
Herpes on the Horse, 573

— Protoplasm of the Mucorine®, 568
Maturation, Physiological Import, 516
Maurer, F., Respiration in Amphibia du-
ring Metamorphosis, 616

May, Walther, Alcyonaria from Spitsber-
gen, 633

Mayer, A., Movement of the Sap in Plants,
3_4

Mayer, A. G., Dactylometra, 432

— Some Medusre from Australia, 433
Mayer, O., Ciliated Epithelium in Amphi-
bian Larvae, 65

Mayer, P., Spiral Fold of Selachian Intes-
tine, 62

Maze', — Microbes of Root-Tubercles, 336
Mazzarelli, G., Tylodinid®, 297
Measures, — ., 139, 141
Mechauical Stimulus, Effect on Unferti-
lised Ova of Silk Moth, 517
Mechanics of Development, 50

INDEX.

721

Medium, Influence of the Reaction of, on
Bacterial Growth, 131

of surrounding, on the Growth of

Roots, 649

— New, for Bacteriological Diagnosis, 597
Medullated Nerve-fibres, Demonstrating,

682

Medusae, Keeping Alive, 432

— from Australia, 433

Meehan, T., Cross-pollination and Self-
pollination, 99, 100

Meek, A., Sheep-Ticks and Louping-Ill,
74

Meerwarth, Hermann, Coloration of Birds,
412

Megnin, P., Harvest Mites, 194
Meisenheimer, J., Development of Limax
maximus, 531

Meissner, R., Parasitic Fungus, 331

— Size of the Leaves of Conifers, 320
Melanism in Reptiles and Amphibians, 67
Melchioria, 330

Melobesiaieae, 107

Membrane in the Schizophycem, Curva-
tures and Structure, 334
Mercaptan, Production by Bacteria, 337
Mercer, A. Clifford, Aperture as a Factor
in Microscopic Vision, 354
Merizocotyle, 428

Merkel, Fr., Formative Forces, 183
Mesenteries, Development of, in Actiniae,
86

Mesnil, Felix, Branching Annelid, 78

— Epitokous and Polymorphic Forms of

Uodecaceria concharum , 541

— Method of Action of Preventive Serum

against Swine Erysipelas, 664

— New Capitellid, 79

Coelomic Gregarine, 204

Gregarine, 635

— Spirorbis, 305

— Viviparity in an Annelid, 629
Mesoderm, Development in Phoronis, 81

— Theory, 401

Mesonephros aud Pronephros, Develop-
ment, in Myxine, 54
Mesophyll of Ferns, 105
Messter’s Bacteria Microscope, 587

— Compressorium Microscope, 587

— Preparation Microscope, 588
Metalnikoff* S., Excretion in Ascaris, 427
Metamerism of Head in Torpedo, 287
Metamorphosis in Plants, 325

— Internal, of Ants, 72

— of Caterpillars, 535

— of Muscidae, 535

Metcalf, M. M., Neural Gland in Cynthia
papillosa, 415

Methylen-Blue for Investigating Respira-
tion in Plants, 601
Metzgeria, Retrogression in, 451
Meves, Fr., Axial Filament of Human
Spermatozoa, 57

Meyer, A., Astasia asterospofa, 120

— Hydathodes, 554

Mez, C., Microscopical Water Analysis, 606
Miall, L. C., Structure and Life-History
of Phalacrocera replicata , 299
Michael, A. D., 146, 251, 694, 695

— Acari from Franz-Joseph Archipelago,

74

Michaelis, L., Lactation, 289
Michaelsen, W., Chilian Earthworms, 542

— Earthworms of Madagascar Region, 304
Michel, A., Development of Nephridia of

Earthworms in Regeneration and in
Ontogeny, 542

— Composition of Nucleoli, 289

— Origin of Setigerous Bulbs and Ne-

phridia in Annelids, 196
Michel, G., Microscopical Examination of
Viscous Urine, 373

Microbiological and Serotherapeutical
Technique, 492

Microbiology as applied to Hygiene, 461
Microchzete tenera, Germination, 459
Micrococcus xanthogenicus aud Yellow
Fever, 121

Micro-Crystallography, a few Notes on,
251, 270

Micrometer, Repsold’s New Self-Register-
ing, 126

Micro-organisms, Internal Structure, 336
Micro-Ruling, 690

Micro-Sclerometer for Determining the
Hardness of Minerals, 237
Microscope, Berger’s New, 583

— by John Cuff, 675

— Messter’s Bacteria, 587

Compressorium, 587

Preparation, 588

— Large Binocular, designed aud made

by an Amateur, 668

— New Hartnack, 347

— Old French, 674

— Sticker’s Travelling, 583

— The “ Frara,” 673
Microscopes, “ British Students’,” 67 1

— Two Old, 473, 496

Microscopical Manipulation. See Con-
tents, xxxiii

— Optics. See Contents, xxxiii

— Technique. See Contents, xxxiii
Microscopy. See Contents, xxxii
Microsporange of Stangeria, 94
Microtome, Groot’s Improved Lever, 244

— New, 242, 683
by Reichert, 374

(System Beck-Becker), 374

— Student’s, 377
Microtomes, Two very simple, 378
Microtomes. See Contents, xxxiv
Migula, W., Astasia asterospora, 577
Migula’s Bacteriology and the Classifica-
tion of Bacteria, 460

— European Characeae, 327

3 o 2

722

INDEX.

Millepora, Distribution, 201 1
Miller, C. O., Aseptic Cultivation of My- I
cetozoa, 371

Millett, F. W., Report on the Recent Fora- j
minifera of the Malay Archipelago col- ;
lected by Mr. A. Durrand, 258, 499, 607,
693

Milne-Edwards, A., Distribution of Deep- j
Sea Braehvura and Anomura, 423
Mimetic Attraction, 191
Mimicry and Warning Colours, 526

— in Insects, 192

Minchin, E. A., Spicules of Clathrinidae,
312

Mineral Food-Material of Fungi, 330

— Plates, Some Methods of Determining

the Positive or Negative Character in j
Converging Polarised Light with the
Petrographical Microscope, 604

— Salts, Action of, on the Structure of

the Lupin, 102

Influence of, on the Form and Struc-
ture of Plants, 647
Miquel, P., Abnormal Diatoms, 662

— Culture of Diatoms, 128

— Decrease and Increase in the Size of

Diatoms, 661

Miquel’s Cell for Pure Culture of Diatoms,
130

Mirande, M., Calcium Malate and Malo-
phosphate in Plants, 438

— Laticiferous Tubes and Sieve-Tubes of

Cuscuta, 440

Mistletoe, Germination, 324
Mitchell, J., Upper Silurian Palsechinus, 1
85

Mite, New Parasitic, 627
Mitoses, Repeated Bipolar, in Mother -
Sperm-Cells of Snail, 296

— Osmotic Phenomena in, 288
Mitsukuri, K., Sphseroihuria bitentaculata j

in Japanese Seas, 200

Mitzkewitsch, L., Division of the Nucleus J
in Spirogyra, 567

— Karyokinetic Nuclear Division in Spiro-

gyra, 454

Miura, K., Tsenia nana, 544
Mdbius, M., Wax as an Excretion within '
the Cell, 318

Mobusz, A., Alimentary Canal of An- I
tbrenus Larva, 73
Modification and Temperature, 192
Moebius, M., Leaves of Ficus, 211
Moenkhaus, W. J., Studies in Variation,
410

Molecular Attraction in Vital Phenomena,
184

— Dissymmetry and Sex, 287

— Layer of Cerebellum, 64
Moles and Earthworms, 189
Molgulidse, Classification, 529

Moller, W., Staining Intestinal Canal by |
Van Gieson’s Method, 686

Molliard, M., Determination of Sex in the
Hemp, 100

— Parasitic Fungi, 569

— New Parasitic Mite, 627
Mollusca. See Contents, xii
Monochromatic Light, Effect of, on Bac-
terial Development, 337

for Photomicrography, 127

Screen, 495

Monoclea, Systematic Position, 451
Monostyla appendiculata, New Rotifer, 630
Monstrosities, Classification of, 62
Montemartini, L., Assimilating Tissue of
Polygonum Sieboldii, 553
Montesano, G., Tetanus Bacillus in a Case
of Dementia paralytica, 226
Montessori, Maria, Tetanus Bacillus in a
Case of Dementia paralytica, 226
Montgomery, T. H., jun., Chromatin Re-
duction in Spermatogenesis of Penta-
toma, 73

— American Gordiacea, 543

— New Species of Gordiacea, 631
Monticelli, F. S., Larva of Edccardsia

claparedii , 546

Moore, B., Supra-Renal Bodies, 186

Capsules of Teleostei, 291

Moore, J. E. S., Gastropods of the Great
African Lakes, 416

— Typhobia, 417

Moore, V. A., Thermo-regulated Water-
baths for the Bacteriological Laboratory,
596

Morel, A., Cultivation Media suitable for
Tropical Climates, 484
Morgan, C. Lloyd, Heredity and Instinct,
414

Morland, Hy., 386, 387
Morris, M., Production of Sulphuretted
Hydrogen, Indol, and Mercaptan by
Bacteria, 337

Mottier, D. INI., Behaviour of the Nuclei
in the Development of the Embryo-
sac and in Impregnation, 212

— Centrosome of Dictyota, 565

— Chromosomes in the Development of

the Pollen-grains of Allium, 318

— Flemming’s Fixing Solution, 134

— Nuclear Division in Pollen-mother-cells,

90,91

Mounted Specimens, a New Departure, 603
Mounting Objects. See Contents, xxxv

— Specimens for Examination under the

Microscope, On some Organic Sub-
stances of High Refractivity avail-
able for, 273

Mouth-Parts of Mites, 538
Movement of Protoplasm in Ccenocytic
Hyphse, 205

— Peculiar, of Intracellular Particles in

Yeast-Cells, 223

Movements of Fluids of Phanerogamia.
See Contents, xxiv

INDEX.

723

Mrazek, Al., Archigetes, 428

— Development of Asplanchna, 427

— New Sporozoon from Limnodrilus, 43G
Mucilage, Cell-wall, 318
Mucilage-Canals of the Marattiacese, 653
Mucilage-Cells of Opuntia, 440

of the Malvaceae, 440

Mucin, Production by a Pathogenic Flu-
orescing Bacillus, 339
Mucinoid Substance, Production by Bac-
teria, 338

Mucor, New Species, 330
Mucorineae, Protoplasm, 568
Mucus-cells of Malvaceae, Staining, 603
Mueller, A., Helminthological Notes, 311
Miihling, P., Helminths in Vertebrates in
East Prussia, 428

— New Parasites, 198

Muller, C., New Genera of Musci, 220, 450
Muller, Erik, Histology of Glands, 617
Muller, O., Adaptations of Respiratory
Organs in Aqualic Mammals, 412
Multinucleated Vascular Elements in the
Dioscoreaceae, 437

Multiple Canals in Spinal Cord of a Chick
Embryo, 616

Multiple Parentage, Ferns of, 449
Municchi, — ., New Medium for Bacterio-
logical Diagnosis, 597
Muraview, W., Formol-Methylen Blue
Treatment of Nerve-fibres, 487
Murray, G., Plankton Gathering, 128
Murray, J. A., “Nebenkern” in Sperma-
togenesis of Pulmonata, 624
Murrill, P., New Gas-pressure Regulator,
480

Musci, New Genera, 220, 450, 653
Muscineae. See Contents, xxvi
Muscle-cells, Unstriped, Connections be-
tween, 618

Muscle-Fat in the Salmon, 524
Muscular Attachment in Ammonoids, 530
Musculature of Dibothria, 310
Mushroom, Polyporoid form of, 660
Myasis, Cases of, 534
Mycetozoa, Aseptic Cultivation, 371
Mycocecidia, produced by Roesteliae, 659
Mycorhiza on the Roots of Philesia, 332

— Structure, 458
Myoporaceae, Anatomy, 97
Myrignemaceae, 654
Myriopoda. See Contents, xv
Myriopods and Arachnids, Swiss, 75
— - Malayan, 302

— New, 302

— Studies on, 74
Myristicaceae, Structure, 554
Myrmecophilous Animals, 537

— Coleoptera, 1 92
Myxobacteriaceae, 335
Myxocystis ciliata, 436
Myxomatogenous Virus, 467
Myxomycetes. See Contents, xxix

Myxosporidia in Coregonus, 314
— Methods for Demonstrating, 681 •.
Myzostoma, Fertilisation in, 199
Myzostoma glabrum , Development, 82 i
Sexual Conditions, 429

N.

Nadeaudici scliistostegiella, 450
Naias, Embryology, 322
Nakagawu, H., A Japanese Amphioxus,
185

Nakamura, T., Behaviour of Yeast at a
High Temperature, 223
Nalepa, Alfred, The Genus Trimera, 626
Narramore, W., Staining the Envelope of
Milk-Globules, 490

Nassonow, N., Endo-Parasites of Hyrax,
428

— Phagocytic Structures in Strong ylus ar-

matus, 543

— Terminal Organs of Excretory Canals

in Ascarids, 198

Neal, H. V., Morphology of Vertebrate
Head, 405

“Nebenkern” in Spermatogenesis of
Pulmonata, 624
Neck-Glands of Leech, 306
Nectaries, Extra-Floral, 441
Needham, J. G., Venation of a Typical
Insect Wing, 421

— Wings of Insects, 190, 532, 626
Nelson, E. M. fThe President), 123, 124,

139, 140, 142, 146, 147

— Microscopic Vision, 362

— On the Construction of Achromatic

Doublets and Triples, 156
Errors to be Corrected in Photo-
graphic Lenses, 401
Nemathelminthes. See Contents, xvii
Nematode Parasites, Introduction to Study
of, 630

Nematodes from Madagascar, 309

— New, from Bismarck Archipelago, 427
Nematopoda cylindrica , 548
Nematospora, a new Genus of Saccharo-

mycetes, 111

Nemec, B., Centrosomes and Nucleus, 520

— Cytology of the Growing Point, 316

— Development of the Achromatic Nuclear-

division Figure in Vegetative and
Reproductive Tissues, 437
Nemertea, 80

Nemertines, Anatomy and Histology, 631
Nencki, M., Microbe of Cattle Plague, 342
Nepenthes, Proteolytic Enzymes of, 207
Nephridia and Setigerous Bulbs in Anne-
lids, Origin, 196

— of Earthworms, Development in Re-

generation and in Ontogeny, 542
Neplirostomes of Selachia, Examining, 373
Neptuneopsis Gilchristi , 624

724

INDEX.

Nepveju, G., Bacilli of Beri-Bcri, 228
Nerve-Cells of Gastropods, 189

Structural Changes, 290

Structure, 521

Nerve-Endings in (Esophagus and Sto-
mach of Birds, 184

of the Sweat-Glands, 290

Nervous System and Sex-Cells, Develop-
ment, in Lernxa branchialis, 76

Central, of Anodonta, 69

of Crab, 303

of Nereis, 540

of Polychseta, 539

of Shore-Crab, 76

Peripheral, of Crayfish, 303

Preparing, Central, 242

■ — - Tissue, Conducting Element in, 64
Nervures, Taxonomic Value, 300
Nestler, A., Exudation of Drops from
Leaves, 650

— Mucilage-Cells of the Malvaceae, 440

— Staining the Mucus-Cells of Malvaceae,

603

— Structure of Seeds, 94

Neural Gland in Cynlllia papillosci, 415
Neurenteric Canal, 407
Neuroglia of Brain in Fishes, 290
Neutral Eed for Staining Haemoglobi-
genous Granules, 685
New Guinea, Botatoria of, 308
Newbigin, M. I., Pigments of Muscle and
Ovary in the Salmon, 526
Newcombe, F. C., Cellulose-Enzyme, 325
“Newtonian” Universal Science Lantern
(Ives and Newton’s Patent), 678
Nicholls, A. G., Sudan iii., a Selective
Stain for Fat, 684

Nicolle, C., Bacteriology of Verruca, 666

— Nature of the Agglutinated Substance,

339

— Streptococcus of the Aleppo Boil, 122
Niessen, Van, ^Etiology of Syphilis, 345
Nitrates, Assimilation in the Dark, 649
Nitre Fungi, Stutzer and Hartleb’s, 332
Nitrogenous Nutrition of Plains, 446
Nobbe, F., Permanence of the Infection of

the Tubercle-bacteria, 664
Nocard, — ., Microbe of Peripneumonia of
Cattle, 463

— Microbiology as applied to Hygiene,

461

— Relation between Human and Avian

Tuberculosis, 663

Nocturnal Plankton of the Lake of Geneva,
618

Noll, F., Grafting of Siphoneae, 108
Nomura, H., Parasitic Fungi, 110
Nostoc, Biology of, 225
Nostoc punctiforme, 225, 574
Notochord, Minute Structure, 409

— of Cephalodiscus, 81

Nottberg, P., Resin-galls of the Abietinese,
641

Noury Bey, Streptococcus of Aleppo Boil,
122

Novv, F. G., Apparatus for Filtering
Bacterial and other Fluids, 132

— New Thermo-Regulator, 478

— Simple Steam Steriliser, 132
Nowak, J., ^Etiology of Dysentery, 342

— New Microtome by Reichert, 374
Nuclear and Cell-Division in the Sphace-

lariaceae, 108

— Division among Fungi, 109

and Fertilisation in Fucus, 107

in Pollen-mother-cells, 90

Nuclei, Annular, 407

— Behaviour of, in the Development of

the Embryo-sac and in Impregnation,
212

Nucleo-proieids of Bacteria, 662
Nucleole and Kinoplasm in the Division of
the Pollen-mother-cells, 550
Nucleoli, Composition, 289

— of Cells in Central Nervous System,

Demonstrating, 487

Nucleus and Archespore of Rignonia, 317

— and Centrosomes, 520

— Division of, and Formation of the Conids

in Oidium, 657

— Histology of the Vegetable, 549
- — of the Saccharomycetes, 111

— Structure, 549
Nuculidse, Structure, 532
Nudibranchs, Indo-Malayan, 531
Nurmijarvi Lake, Fauna, 426
Nussbaum, M., Determination of Sex in

Hydatina senta, 306

— Path of the Spermatozoa in the Frog,

58

Nutation of the Sunflower, 559
Nutrient Salts, Relation of, to Turgor, 217
Nutrition, Influence on the Evolution of
Plants, 557

— - of Phanerogams. See Contents, xxiv
Nuttall, G. H. F., Spread of Infectious
Diseases by Biting Insects, 462
Nutting, C. C., Sarcostyles of Plumularidse,
546

Nyctitropic Movements, 559
Nympliseacese, Morphology and Anatomy,
97

Nypels, P., Germination of iEcidiospores,
568

— Parasitic Fungi, 456

O.

Objective, New Hartnack Homogeneous-
Immersion, 351

— New Microscope, for Zoological and
other Biological Investigations under
Water, 677

Objectives. See Contents, xxxii
Obolaria, Morphology and Anatomy, 98

INDEX.

725

Odhner, T., Stichocotyle Nephropis, G31
Odours and Tastes in Drinking Waters,
Cause, 335

CEstrid Larvm, Life-History, 301
Ogneff, J., Electric Organ of Mormyrus,
622

Old Microscopes, 124, 496
Oleaginous Reserve-Substances of the Wal-
nut, 218

Oligochieta, New Species of Litoral, 425

— Physiology, 76

— Reproduction of Coleochaete, 452
Oltmanns, F., Preparation and Fixing of

Algae, 681

Omelianski, V., Ferment of Cellulose, 225
Oosphere in Peronosporeae, Impregnation
and Development, 455
Ophidians, Copulation, 287
Opilionidae, African, 627
Optic Nerve in the Sciuridae, 622

— Nerves of Fishes, 288

— Vesicles in Chick Embryo, Accessory, 53
Optics, Microscopical. See Contents, xxxiii

— Old Book on, 381
Opuntia, Polyembryony, 444

Orcein, Staining Flagella of Bacteria, 244

— Treatment of Celloidin Sections Stained

with, 600

Organic Acids, Action of, on Growth, 323

— Gradation in the Organs of Nutrition

and Reproduction, 651

— Matters, Absorption of, by Roots, 101

— Substance, New, in Woody Tissue, 552

— Substances of High Refractivity, On

some available for Mounting Speci-
mens for Examination under the
Microscope, 273, 385

Organs of Phanerogamia. See Contents,
xxii

— of the Plant-Cell, New, 316
Ornithophilous Flowers, 646
Orthogenesis, 515

Ortmann, A. E., Carcinological Studies,
75

— Germinal Variation, 184

Osborn, H. F., Origin of Mammals, 524
Osborn, H. L., Variation in Ambulacral
System, 545

Osmotic Phenomena in Mitosis, 288
Qstergren, Hjalmar, Classification of Syn-
aptidse, 430

— Growth - Changes in Integumentary

Skeleton of Holothurians, 311

— Notes on Dendrochirota, 200
Ostioles, 65

Oudemans, C. A. J. A., Parasitic Fungus,
110

Ovay Rudimentary, in Frog’s Testis* 517
Oweuia, 540

Oxydases and the Guaiacum Reaction, 551
Oxygen, Action on Beer Yeast, 572
Oysters, Examination of, for Pathogenic
Microbes, 120

P.

Pacini’s Corpuscles, Demonstrating, 487
Pacinotti, — New Medium for Bacterio-
logical Diagnosis, 597
Pagenstecher, A., Arctic Lepidoptera, 72
Palacky, .T., Distribution of Batrachia, 527
Pafsechinus, Upper Silurian, 85
Palladine, W., Formation of Chlorophyll,
103

Palmer, T. C., Movements of Eunotia major ,
459

Palolo-Worm, So-called, 426
Pampaloni, L., Geocarpism of Morisia hy-
pogsea , 102

Pancreas and Liver of Birds, Development,
285

— Function in Squalidse, 622

Pane, N., Capsule oT Pneumococcus, 666
Pantel, P., Cleavage of the Cuticle in
Moulting, 418
Pantopoda, Phylogeny, 625
Paraffin and Celloidin Methods of Imbed-
ding, Combination of, 489

— Imbedding Table, 481

— Sections, New Method of Fixing to the

Slide, 686
Paragordius, 543

Parasites, Fungus-, of Cereals, 222

— New, 198

— of Ants, 74

— of Birds, 310

— of Economic Plants in India, 658

— of Pears, 301

— of Sticholonche and the Acanthome-

tridse, 88

— of the Sugar-cane, 658

— of the Vine, 569
Parasitic Copepods, New, 196
on Fishes, New, 538

— Fungi, 110, 331, 455, 568
— - — Preparing, 486
Parastacus, 538
Parathyroid Glands, 409

• — Thyroid, and Thymus Glands, 53
Parenchyma-Spicules of Spongillidze, 314
Parker, T. Jeffery, Text-Book of Zoology,
184

Parkin, J., Absciss-layer in the Leaves of
Monocotyledons, 641

— Raphids in Monocotyledons, 639
Parsons, F. A., 144
Parthenogenesis in Antennaria, 557
Parthenogenetic Cypridse, 628
Passerini, N., Effects of Water at Different

Temperatures on the Germination of
the Olive, 446

— Gum in Elm-galls, 438

— Sorghin and Sorgliorubin, 207
Paste for Labels, 379

Paton, D. Noel, Biology of Salmon, 525
Patouillard, N., Polyporoid Form of Mush-
room, 660

726

INDEX.

Paulmier, F. 0., Chromatin Reduction in
Hemiptera, 421

Pearson, K., Law of Ancestral Heredity,
519

Peck, J. I Plankton of Puget Sound, 528
Pedaschenko, Development of Nervous
System and Sex-Cells in Lernxci bran-
chialis, 76

Pedersen, M., Hapters of Laminaria sac-
charina, 655

Peebles, H., Experiments on Hydra, 311
Peglion, V., Disease of the Tobacco Plant
due to Thielava basicola, 110
— • Nematospora, anew Genus of Saccharo-
mycetes, 111

Peirce, G. J., Reticulations of Bamalina
reticulata , 570

Pelmatozoa, Alimentary Tract, 430
Pelophila, Larva, 536
Peltate Leaves, 211
Peneroplis, 548

Pennington, Mary E., Chemical Physiology
of Spirogyra, 554

Penzig, 0., New Genera of Fungi, 330
Peptonised Milk for the Cultivation of
Lactic Acid Ferments, 371
Perez, J., Effect of Mechanical Stimulus
on Unfertilised Ova of Silkmoth, 517
Perigal, Henry, 494
Periodicity of Root-Pressure, 217.
Peripatus, Distribution, 537
— ’New Species, 302, 537

from Ecuador, 302

Peripheral Glandular Organ of Helcion
pellucidum, 417
— • Nervous System, 422
Peripneumonia of Cattle, Microbe, 463
Permanganate in Microtechnique, Use of,
241

Peronosporacese, Structure, 657
Peronosporese, Impregnation and Develop-
ment of the Oosphere, 455
Peroxide of Hydrogen in Microscopical
Research, 488

Perrier, E., Classification of Tuuicata, 529

— Origin of Vertebrata, 524

— Position of Sponges, 434

— Sex and Molecular Dissymmetry, 287
Perrier, Re'my, Holothuroidea of the ‘ Tra-

vailleur’ and ‘Talisman,’ 545
Perrot, E., Anatomy of the Aquatic Gen-
tianacese, 208

— Sieve-Tissue outside the Phloem and

Vascular Tissue outside the Xylem,
208

Peter, Karl, Convergence in Development,
287

Peters, C. A., Embryology of Drosera, 645
Peters, G. A., New Method for making
Casts, 687

Petersen, O. G., Growth of Roots, 649
Petit, J. M., Examination of Oysters for
Pathogenic Microbes, 120

Petr, F., Parenchyma-Spicules of Spongil-
lidse, 314

Petri, — ., Testing Butter and Milk for
Tubercle Bacilli, 602

Petridis, A. P., Dysentery and Abscess of
the Liver, 666

Petromyzont with Largo Eyes, 413
Petrunkewitseh, A., Development of Heart
in Agelastica Alni, 193
Petruschky, J., Excretion of Typhoid
Bacilli in the Urine, 464
Pertussis, Bacteriology, 463
Pertz, Dorothea F. M., Culture of Pleuro-
coccus, 485

Pfeffer, W., Functional Metabolism in the
Plant, 561
Phmodactylum, 329

Phagocytic Organs in Earthworms, 425

— Structures in Strongylus armatus , 543
Phagocytosis in Amphibians and Mam-
mals, 527

— in Development, 418
Phalacrocera replicata , Structure and Life-

History, 299

Plialline, a Poisonous Product from Fungi,
224

Phanerogamia. See Contents, xxi
Phanerogams and Cryptogams, Relation-
ship, 356

Phillips, R. W., Cystocarp of Delesseri-
aeese, 654

of Rhodymeniales, 106

Phisalix, C., Cholesterin and Bile-Salts as
Vaccines against Viper’s Venom, 292

— Hornet’s Venom antagonistic to Viper’s,

188

— Tyrosin as a Vaccine for Snake-Bite, 292
Phloem, Internal, in Gelsemium semper -

virens, 319

Phloem-Elements, Development of, in Vas-
cular Bundles, 93

Phosphorus, Distribution in Tissues, 618
Phosphorus-containing Compounds, Micro-
scopic Detection, 686

Substances of the Cell, 523

Photographic Lenses, On the Errors to be
corrected in, 401

Photomicrographic Camera and Con-
densing System, New Form of, 174
Photomicrography, 591

— Application of the Electric Arc to, 170

— Instantaneous, 282

— . See Contents, xxxii
Phrymacese, Stilboidese, Chloanthoi'defe,
and Myoporacese, Anatomy, 97
Phyllophorus urna. Development, 200
Phyllopods, South African, from Dried
Mud, 539

Phyllosiphon Arisari, 328
Physiology of Phanerogams. See Con-
tents, xxii

Piana, G. P., Pathogenic Protozoa of Foo£-
and-Mouth Disease, 315

INDEX,

727

Pic, Maurice, Myrmecophilous Coleoptera,
192

Picro-formalin in Cytological Technique,
492

Pictet, Arnold, Growth of Butterflies’
Wings, 421

— Metamorphosis of Caterpillars, 535
Picton, L. J., Heart-body and Ccelomic

Fluid in Polycliaeta, 540
Tieri, J. B., Experiments on Bivalves,
68

I’iersig, R., German Hydraclmidse, 75, 194,
422

Pigment, Removal from Zoological Speci-
mens, 682

Pigment-forming Saprophyte, New, 115
Pigments, Bacteria with Assimilatory,
115

— for Depicting Microscopical Prepara-

tions, Preparation of, 241

— Nitrogenous, of Fungi, 329

— of Muscle and Ovary in the Salmon,

526

— of Tardigrades, 75
Pilidiocystis, 334

Pilularia, Leaf and Sporocarp, 652
Pinnock, E., Two very Simple Microtomes,
378

Pinus, Fertilisation, 644
Fionodesmotes Fliormasorme, 423
Pirotta, R., Multinucleated Vascular Ele-
ments in the Dioscoreaceae, 437

— Origin of Vascular Elements in the

Growing Point of the Root of Mono-
cotyledons, 439

Pissarew, W. J., Heart of Hive-Bee, 421
Pitcher-Plant and Spider, 538
Pitcher-Plants, 95

l’itfield, R. L., Streptococcus sanguinis
canis , 229

Pits in Cyatheaceae and Marattiacese,
450

Pizon, Antoine, Classification of Molgu-
lidse, 529

— Development of Double Larva of Diplo-

somidao, 415

Placentation ofPerameles, 180
Plague Bacillus, Observations on, and
Experiments with, 341

— Relation of Insects and Rats to the

Spread of, 117

— Serum, Production, 485

Planar Lens, Remarks on the Construc-
tion of, and its use in Low-power Photo-
micrography, 399
Planarians, New, 429
Plankton Algae of the Freshwater Lakes
of Norway, 455

— Gathering, 128

— Method, Sources of Error in, 247, 294

— Nocturnal, of the Lake of Geneva,

618

— of Norwegian Lakes, 618

Plankton of Ponds, Researches on, 306

— of Puget Sound, 528

— of Rivers, 528

— of the Red Sea, 618

— Organisms, Method for Preparing, 485
Plankton-Forms, New, 334

“ Planktonsucher,” 678
Plant-Egg, Orientation, 555
Plasmolysis and the Protoplasmic Mem-
brane, 637

Plate, L., Alimentary Tract of Chelone,
408

— Are there Septibranchiate Bivalves ?

417

— Degenerative and Regenerative Pro-

cesses in Breathing Tubes of Janel-
lidse, 297

— Petromyzont with Large Eyes, 413
Plate, L. II., Chitonidae, 298

— Structure and Classification of Janel-

lidae, 531

Plateau, F., How Flowers attract Insects,
191

Platt, Julia B., Development of Cranial
Region in Necturus, 52
Platygaster, Development of, 73
Platyhelminthes. See Contents, xxxii
Plecoptera, Studies on, 301
Plessis, G. du, Swiss Turbellaria, 80
Pleural Cavities and Pleuro-Pericardial
Membranes, 54
Pleurococcus, Culture, 485
Pleurotomaria, Structure, 532
Plowright, C. B., Calcium Oxalate in Fun-
gi, 657

Pneumococcus and Streptococcus, Aberrant
Growth-forms, 664

— Capsule, 666

Pneumonia, Contagious, of Guinea Pigs,
665

Pocock, R. I., Spider and Pitcher-Plant,
538

Podaxinese, 332

Podbelsky, — ., Sporicidal Action of Nor-
mal Rabbit Serum, 581
Poecilogony in Alplieus minor , 538
Poisons, Effect of, on Cortical Nerve-Cells,
288

Polacci, G., Parasitic Fungi, 110
Polar Bodies and Germinal Vesicle in
Urodela, 516

Some Activities of, 182

Polarisation Apparatus, Novelties in, 233
Pollen, Biology and Morphology, 319

— Composition, 643

— of Asclepias, 94

Pollen-Grains and Antipodal Cells, 99

Germination of, 214

Pollen mother-cells, Nuclear Division in,
90

Pollock, J. B., Curvature of Roots, 102
Polychaeta of French Coast, 305

— Larvae, Pelagic, 305

728

INDEX,

Polydactylism and Syndactylism in Mam-
mals, 411
— in Swine, 41 1
Polyembryony in Opuntia, 444
Polymorphic Bacillus from a case of Cal-
culous Nephritis, 340
Polymorphism of the Branches of an Inflor-
escence, 209

Polypide in Marine Ectoprocta, Origin, G32
Polzeniusz, F., Production of Alcohol in
Respiration, 104
Pomese, Wood of, 641
Pontederiacese, Etnbryogeny, 556
Pontoscolex, Supposed Auditory Cells,
304

Porifera. See Contents, xix
Porphyrodiscus, a new Genus of Floridese,
107

Porter, J. F., Protozoan Parasites of Ter-
mites, 89

Porus Genitalis in Myxinidse, 413
Positive or Negative Character of Mineral
Plates, Some Methods of Determining,
in Converging Polarised Light with the
Petrographies 1 Microscope, 604
Post-embryonic Development in Ants, 625
Post-larval Fierasfer, 287
Potamogeton, Embryology, 323
Potamoplankton, 189
Potebnia, A., Exobasidium Vitis, 658
Potonie, H., Leaf and Stem, 442
Potts, E., American Fresh- water Jelly-fish,
201

Poulsen, V. A., Extra-Floral Nectaries,
441

Preda, A., Embryo-sac of Hybrid Narcissi,
323

Prenant, A,, Organ in Embryo Reptiles
like Hypochorda, 518
Preparing Objects. See Contents, xxxiii
Prescott, S. C., Bacteriology of Sour Corn,
463

Preservative Fluids. See Contents, xxxv
President, The, 253, 254, 384, 386, 387,
392, 393, 494, 496, 497, 689, 690, 694
President’s Annual Address, 146-9
Pretzl, A. D., Monochromatic Light for
Photomicrography, 127
Priest, B. W., 496
Piistina, New Species, 630
Pritzel, E., Embryo and Endosperm in
Parietales, 322
Proales Wernecki , Male, 83
Proboscis of Glyceridae, 541
Prodigiosin as Staining Reagent for Bo-
tanical Specimens, 602
Production of Gas by Bacteria, Simple
Method of Demonstrating, 487
Pronephros and Mesonephros, Develop-
ment of, in Myxine, 54
— of Lamprey, 182
Propagating Roots in Ipomrea, 320
Prorhynchid Turbellarian, New, 198

Prosobranchs, Parasitic, 297

— Structure of, 190

Protective Resemblance, Remarkable Case
of, 194

Proteids, Formation of, by Leaves, 103
Protein Crystalloids in Nuclei of Amcebo-
cytes, 2U0

Proteolytic Enzymes of Nepenthes, 207

of Yeast Extract, 552

Protist, New Freshwater, 87
Protococcoideae, New Genera, 334
Protophyta. See Contents, xxix
Protoplasm and Active Albumen, 437

— of Plants. See Contents, xxi

— Reaction to Thermal Irritation, 551

— Sac, 318

— Spinnings, Method for the Preservation

of, 491

— Streaming of, 636

— Threads, Detection in Cell-wall, 240,

598

Protoplasmic Membrane, and Plasmolysis,
637

Protozoa, Argentine, 203

— Modifications in, 435

— Notes on, 87

— of Pontine Marshes, 204

— of the Balaton Lake, 435

— Pathogenic, of Foot-and-Mouth Disease,

315

— Presence of, in the Blood and Organs of

Leukhaemic Persons, 315

— Text-Book of the, 203

— Two New, 203

— . See Contents, xx
Protozoan Parasites of Termites, 89
Prowazek, S., Coloration of Living Proto-
zoa, 87

— Studies on Amoebae, 203

Pruvot, G., Marine Fauna of Brittany and
the Gulf of Lyous, 528
Przesmycki, A. M., Intra-Vitam Stainimr,

133

Pseiidocommis Vitis as a Cause of Disease
in Plants, 224

Pseudo-Diphtheria Bacillus, Sporogenous,
667

Pseudo-Lupus Vulgaris caused by a Blas-
tomyces, 573

Pseudo-Tetanus Bacillus, 342
Pseudo-tuberculous Serum, Action of, on
the Bacillus of Pseudo-Tuberculosi.-,
226

Psyche helix , 193
Pteridiospora, 330
Pterodiuae, Some little-known, 427
Puccinia Lojkajana , 110
Pugnat, Charles- A me'dee, Spinal Ganglion-
Cells of Reptiles, 64
Puliciphora lucifera, 535, 627
Puriewitsch, K., Emptying the Contents
of Reserve-Receptacles, 218
Purification of Sewage by Bacteria, 117

INDEX.

729

Purity of Water, Influence of Algae on,
451

Putrefactive Bacteria in Fruit and Vege-
tables, 338

Pycnogonids, ‘ Challenger,’ 625
Pyloric Caeca in Starfish, Function of, 200
Pyrola aphylla, 443

Q.

Querton, Louis, Cell-Membranes, 183

§

R

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Ger-
many (Fungi Imperfecti), 660

(Musci), 327

Rabl, C., Development and Structure of
the Lens, 286

Raciborski, M., Leptomin, a new Cell-
Content of Leptome, 551

— Parasitic Fungus, 331
Raczkowski, — ., Bacillus of Bitter Wine,

343, 464

— Microbes of Turned Wine, 464, 578
Radiolarians, Fossil, 548

Radulae, Notes on, 190

Bamalina reticulata, Reticulations, 570

Ramann, E., Composition of Pollen, 643

— Passage of Food-material into and from

the Leaves, 648
Ramulina, 88

Randolph, H., Regeneration in Planarians,
429

Ranunculus, Embryology, 321
Ranvier, L., Growth of Injured Nerves,
288

— Process of Cicatrisation, 290

— Regeneration of Descemet’s Membrane,

184

Raphids in Monocotyledons, 639
Raspail, Xavier, Wind-Eggs, 518
Rath, O. vom, Central Corpuscles in Sex-
Cells of Snail, 530

— Telegony, 615

and Maternal Impressions, 406

Rats and Insects, Relation of, to the Spread
of Plague, 1 17

Ravenel, M. P., Preparing Agar Media,
599

Ray, J., Action of Gravity on the Growth
of Fungi, 109
Reaction in Zoology, 415
Rectum and Rectal Glands of Orthoptera,
300

Reduction-Division of the Vegetable Nu-
cleus, 550

Red Yeast, New Kinds of, 222, 331
Reed, C. R., Dahlia as a Stain for Bacteria
in Celloidin Sections, 379

Reed, W., Amoeboid Bodies in the Blood
of Vaccinated Monkeys and Children,
and in the Blood of Cases of Variola, 315
Regeneration and Doubling of the Tail in
Lizards, 410

— in Earthworms, 196, 541

— in Frog-embryos, 616

— in Planarians, 429

— in the Naidm, 77

— in Vertebrates, 59

Regenerative and Degenerative Processes
in Breathing Tubes of Janellidm,
297

— Phenomena in Tubularia, 312
Reichert, New Microtome, 374

Reid, F. J., Growth of Tubercle Bacillus
at a Low Temperature, 227
Reinitzer, F., Enzyme of Barley, 218
Reinke, J., Assimilating Organs of the
Asparageee, 442

— Luminosity of Ceratium tripos , 634
Remlinger, P., Experimental Typhoid

Fever, 119

Renault, B., Fructification of Macrostachys,
651

— Micro-Organisms of Lignite, 461
Rengel, C., Casting and Regeneration of

Mid-Gut Epithelium in Water-Beetles,
301

Reniera, Fibres, 314

Rennet, Action of, on Pasteurised Milk,
227

Reno-Pericardiac Pore in Ampullaria Ur-
ceus , 416

Canals in Patella, 531

Report, 142

Reproduction and Growth in Campanil-
laria, Peculiar Phenomena, 546

— in Encyrtus, Remarkable Mode, 299

— of Plianerogamia. See Contents, xxiii
Reproductive Cells in Plants and Animals,

Behaviour of, 2S4

Repsold’s New Self-Registering Micro-
meter, 126

Reserve-Material in Deciduous Trees,
640

Reserve-Receptacles, Emptying the Con-
tents of, 218

Resin-galls of the Abietineae, 641
Resistance of Seeds to Immersion in Water,
563

Respiration in Amphibia during Metamor-
phosis, 616

— in Plants, Methylen-Bluo for Investi-

gating, 601

— in Spelerpes fuscus without lungs, 527

— of Phanerogams. See Contents, xxv

— of the Embno of Wheat, 562
Respiratory Current in Decapods, Reversal

of, 194

— Mechanism in Decapods, 75

— Organs in Aquatic Mammals, Adapta-

tions, 412

730

INDEX.

Reticular Tissue and Epithelium, 63
Retterer, E., Epithelium and Reticular
Tissue, 63

Reynaud, G., Sense of Direction, 186
Reynolds, W. G., Comparative Study of
Hair, 524

Reynolds and Branson, Student’s Micro-
tome, 377

Rheumatism, Acute, and Achalme’s Bac-
terium, 665

Articular, Bacteriology, 119

Rhizoclonium, 567

Rhizoids and Root-hairs, Growth, 558
Rhizopods, Freshwater, from Spitzbergen,
203

Rhizosolenia and Attheya, 335
Rhumbler, L., Fertilisation-Processes in
Rhizopods, 547

Rhynchobdellidre, Histology, 629
Rice, F. S., Making Sections of Steel,
380

Richard, Jules, Freshwater Fauna of
Canary Islands, 294

Ricome, H., Polymorphism of the Branches
of an Inflorescence, 209
Rideal, — Purification of Sewage by
Bacteria, 117

Rieder, H., Action of Rontgen Rays on
Bacteria, 662

Rigg’s Disease, Micro-organisms of, 667
Rimpach, A., Growth of Lilium Martagon,
558

Ripening of Fleshy Fruits, 447
Ritter, C., Hardening Blood, Sputum, &c.,
on Slides, 682

Robertson, C., Cross-Pollination and Self-
Pollination, 445

Robinson, G. H., Parasites of the Vine,
569

Roccellese, 456

Rodzewitsch, W. W., New Pigment-Form-
ing Saprophyte, 115

— New Chromogenic Saprophyte, 663
Roestelise producing Mycocecidia, 659
Roger, M., Artichoke as Nutrient Me-
dium, 680

Rohde, — Ganglion-cells, 616
Rollinat, R., Copulation in Ophidians,
287

Rontgen Rays, Action of, on Bacteria, 460,
662

— on Protoplasm of the Living

Cell, 445

Influence of, on Germination, 324

on Vegetation, 101

Root of Anemone, 212

— of Hydrocharis, 212

Root-Cap, Double, of Tropseolum, 554
Root- Hairs and Rhizoids, Growth, 558
Root-Tubercles, Microbes of, 336
Roots, Growth of, 649
Rosa, N., Effect of Intravenous Injection
of Tuberculous Caseous Matter, 122

Rosaceae, Embryogeny, 322
Rose, C., Hard Tissues of Vertebrates,
66

Rosenberg, O., Cell-wall Mucilage, 318

— Prodigiosin as Staining Reagent for

Botanical Specimens, 602

— Transpiration of Halophytes, 324
Ross, H., Cross-pollination and Self-polli-
nation, 646

Rossellidae, Classification, 547
Rosseter, T. B., Reproductive Organs of
Drepanidotsenia venusta , 428

— Tapeworm of Ducks, 310
Rossolino, G., Formol-Methylen-Bluo

Treatment of Nerve-Fibres, 487
Rotatoria of the Basin of the Lake of
Geneva, 630

— . See Contents, xviii
Rotifera, Early Development of, 84

— from Spitzbergen, 83

— Mounting, 253

— New Male, 83

— of Ceylon, 542

— of Sandusky Bay, 83
■ — Reproduction, 543

Ilotstadt, J., Eustrongylus gigas in Dogs,
543

Roule, Louis, Abyssal Sipunculids, 630
Annelids of ‘ Travailleur ’ and ‘ Talis-
man ’ Expeditions, 425
Roulin, — ., Bacillus of Bitter Wine,
464

Rousseau, E , New Method of Decalcifying,
373

Rousselet, C. F.. 384, 394

— Male of Proales Werneclci , 83

— Mounting Rotifera, 253, 254

— Some little-known Pterodinae, 427
Roux, — m Microbe of Peripneumonia of

Cattle, 463

Rowlee, W. W., Embryo of Indian Corn,
645

— Lodicules of Grasses, 442

Roze, E., Clmtinella , a new Genus of
Schizomycetes, 461

— Parasitic Fungus. 110

— Pseudocommis Vitis, as a Cause of

Disease in Plants, 224
Rubinstein, H., Staining Blood -Films,
489

Ruedemann, R., Recent Progress in the
Study of Graptolites, 202
Rullmann, — Pathogenic Streptothrix in
Sputum, 574

Russell, A. E., Enumeration of Blood-
Platelets, 248

Russell, H. L., Bacterial Diseases of Plants,
462

— Tubercle Bacilli in Butter, 230

— Unorganised Ferments in Milk,

219

Russell’s Fuclisin-Bodies, Experimental
Production, 333

INDEX.

731

RuiiSka, V., Demonstrating the Nucleoli
of Cells in Central Nervous System,
487

— Internal Structure of Micro-Organisms,
336

Rywosch, T., Pigment of Tardigrades, 75

S.

Sabatier, Ad., Examination of Oysters for
Pathogenic Microbes, 120
Sabrazes, — ., Production of Favus Cups
by the Inoculation of a Pyogenic Tricho-
phyton, 333

Sabussow, H., Minute Structure of Genital
Organs in Trisenophorus, 310
Saccardo, D., Volutella, 111
Saccardo, P. A., New Genera of Fungi,
330

Saccharine Substances, Transformation
into Oil, 103

Saccliaromyces guttulatus, 457, 572

— Zopfii , 113

Saccharomycetes, Nucleus of, 111
Saccharose and Glucose in Sugar-cane,
552

Sadone, — ., Impregnation of the Ova of
Hydatina senta, 199

St. George, v. la Valette, Formation of Sex-
Cells in the Silk Moth, 71
St. Joseph, Baron de, Polychseta of French
Coast, 305

Sake, Ferments of, 113
Salimbeni, A. T., Destruction of Microbes
in Hypervaccinated Animals, 339
Salisburia and Zamia, Fertilisation, 98
Salmon, Biology, 525

Salmonidse, Early Stages in the Develop-
ment, 519

Salter, J. H., Fixing and Staining Starch-
grains, G84

— Structure of Starch-grains, G39
Salzer, Hans, Hypophysis of Mammals,

28G

Sames, Th., Mobile Sareina, 663
Sanarelli, G., Myxomatogeuous Virus, 467
Sanarelli, J., Bacillus X Sternberg and
Bacillus icteroides Sanarelli , 230
Sand, lb, Exosporidium marinum, 635

— New Infusorian Genus, 548
Sanfelice, F., Experimental Production of

Russell’s Fuchsia-Bodies, 333
Sap, Composition of, 92

— Movement of, in Plants, 324
Sareina, Mobile, 663

Sarcoma and Cancer, Parasites of, 345
Sarcoptes minor , 422
Sarcostyles of Plumularidae, 546
Sars, G. O., South African Phyllopods from
Dried Mud, 539

Sasaki, C., Affinity of Wild and Domestic
Silkworms, 535

Saunders, W., Experiments on Hydridising,
445

Sauvageau, C., Bacillus clilororaphis , 115

— Conjugation in Ectocarpus, 108

— Germination of Cutleriacem, 565

— Myrionemaceae, 654

j — Nostoc punctiforme, 225

— Sexuality iof the Sphacelariacese, 566

I Sauvageau, C., Sexuality of the Tilopteri-
deae, 566

i Sawtcenko, J., Achaline’s Bacterium and
Acute Rheumatism, 665
Sceletonema costatum, Changes of Form, 574
Schaar, F., Bursting of the Antherid in
Polytrichum, 326

Schacht, F. W., North American Species of
Diaptomus, 196

Schaefer, K. L., Reaction of Protoplasm to
Thermal Irritation, 551
Schaffer, J., Connections between Un-
striped Muscle-cells, 618
Schaffner, J, H., Nutation of the Sun-
flower, 559

Schaper, Alfred, New Apparatus for Appli-
cation of Electric Currents to Living
Microscopic Objects, 589
Scherbakow, A., Apterygota of Kiew,
193

Schiewek, O., Ferments of Sake, 113
Schively, Adeline, Fruit of Amphicarpacn,
320

Schizosaccharomyces octosporus, 112
Schlater, G., Biology of Bacteria, 114

— Minute Structure of Liver-Cell, 183
Schizomycetes. See Contents, xxix
Schizophycem. See Contents, xxix
Schmidle, W., Arboreal Algse, 454

— Cyanotlirix, a New Genus of Cyano-

phycese, 114

— — and Mastigocladus, 459
Schneidemiih], — Life-History of CEstrid

Larvre, 301

Schneider, G., Phagocytic Organs in Earth-
worms, 425

Schneider, K. C., Classification of Siphono-
phora, 312

Schneider’s New Text-book of Liclieno-
logy, 570

Schober, -A., Relationship of Secondary
Roots to the Vertical, 447
Scholz, E., Parasitic Fungi, 110
Schostakowitsch, W., Bacterial Diseases of
Plants, 574

— New Species of Mucor, 330
Schreiber, W., Peripheral Nervous System

of Crayfish, 303

Schroder, B., Cohniella, a New Genus of
Diatoms, 1 1 4

— New Plankton-Forms, 334

— Plankton of Rivers, 528

Scliroeder, Hugo, Improved Huyglien3
Eye-piece, 676

Schroter, C., Parasitic Fungi, 331

732

INDEX.

Schuchert, C., Fossil Apodidae, 423
Schultz, — Effect of Monochromatic Light
on Bacterial Development, 337
Schultz, E., Development of Mesoderm in
Piioronis, 81

Schulze, E., Distribution of Glutamin in
Plants, 638

Schumowski, W., Mobility of the Tubercle
Bacillus, 465

Schweinitz, E. A. de, Miueral Constituents
of Tubercle Bacilli, 580
Schwendener, S., Sensitive Cushions of
Phaseolus and Oxalis, 447
Scientific Method in Biology, 414
Scott, D. H., Peduncle of Cvcadeae, 96

— Spencerites, a new Fossil Genus of

Lycopodiaeese, 220

Scott, T. and A., New Copepods from the

Clyde, 304

— Some Rare Crustacea, 195
Scourfield, D. J., Entomostraca of Plon,

195

— Freshwater Rhizopods from Spitsber-

gen, 203

— Logarithmic Plotting of Biological Data,

247

— Non-marine Copepoda from Spitsbergen,

196

— Tardigrada from Spitsbergen, 194
Scyphopolypes, Development, 85
Scytosiphon, Conjugation of Swarm-spores,

566

Sea-Anemones, Preserving, 133
Secondary Nucleus and Spermatogenesis

in Filicineae and Equisetinese, 104

— Roots, Relationship to the Vertical,

447

Secretaries, 147

Secretary, The, 394, 497, 693, 695
Secretion and Absorption of Gas in the
Swimming-bladder and Lungs, 413
Secretions of Phanerogamia. tSee Con-
tents, xxi

Seeds, Structure of, 94
Segmental G lane's of Ocypus, 300
Segmentation of Myriopod Body, 193

— of Ovum in Sheep, 517

Seifert, W., Physiology and Morphology of
the Acetic Acid Bacteria, 116 •
Selagiuella, Leaves, 449
Selaginella spinulosa, 449
Selenium as a Mounting Medium for
Diatoms, 492
Selenoderma, 334

Self-pollination and Cross-pollination, 99,
444, 646

Semal, O., Ammoniacal Fermentation due
to Mucedinese, 325

Seminal Fluid as a Nutritive Medium,
131

Sense-Organs and Cranial Nerves of
Fishes, 525

Sensitive Plant, Movements in Water, 447

Sensitiveness to Light of Amnhioxus,
413

Sensory Nerve-Cells of Insects, 420
Sepia, Notes on Structure, 416
Septibranchiate Bivalves, Are there? 417
Septicaemia hannorrhagica of Cattle, 345
Serotherapeutical and Microbiological
Technique, 492

Serpulidae, Early Stages in Development,
541

Setigerous Bulbs and Nephridia in Ane-
lids, Origin of, 196

Seurat, L. G., Pollination of the Cactaceae,
557

Sewertzoff, A. N., Metamerism of Head in
Torpedo, 287

Sex and Molecular Dissymmetry, 287

— Determination of, 615

— in Hydutina senta, Determination, 306

— in the Hemp, Determination, 100
Sex-Cells and Nervous System, Develop-
ment of, in Lernsea branchialis, 76

Differentiation, 405

in the Silk Moth, Formation, 71

Sfameni, P., Nerve-Endings of the Sweat-
Glands, 290

Sheep-Ticks and Louping-Ill, 74
Shelford, R., Structure and Life-History of
Flialacrocera replicata , 299
Shephard, .T., Lacimdaria elliptica , a new
Rotifer, 84

Shipley, A. E., New Tapeworm in a Bird,
198

Shipworms, Australasian, 624
Shoot-Nodes of Characeae, 564
Shull, G. H., Disguises in Bud Arrange-
ment. 210

Sickle-shaped Nuclei and Giant-Spheres in
Resting Epithelial Cells, 62
Sidoriak, Szymon, Endolymphatic Appa-
ratus of Fishes, 621

Sieber, N., Microbe of Cattle Plague, 342
Sieve-Tissue outside the Phloem and
Vascular Tissue outside the Xylem, 208
Sieve-Tubes and Laticiferous Tubes of
Cuscuta, 440

in the Roots of Monocotyledons, For-
mation, 439

Primary, Development, 93

Sight, Organs of, in Amphioxus, 293
Silkworms, Affinity of Wild and Domestic,
535

Silvestri, A., Adriatic Foraminifera, 547
Silvestri, F., Fertilisation in Pachyiulus
communis , 537

— Morphological Notes on Diplopoda, 301

— New Myriopods, 302

Simon, — ., Swiss Arachnids and Myrio-
pod a, 75

Simoni, A. de, Sporogenous Pseudo-diph-
theria Bacillus, 667

Simroth, H., Asymmetry of Gastropods,
296

index. 733

Simroth, H., Indo-Malayan Nudibranchs,
531

— Plankton Brachiopods, 82

— Species of Vaginula, 297
Sipkonese, Grafting of, 108
Siphonophora, Classification, 312
Sipunculids, Abyssal, 030

Size of the Coloured Images yielded by
the Cooke Lens, Method of adjusting,
397

Sjobring, Nils, Coccidia of Passeres,
315

Skorikow, A., New Rotifer, Monostyla
appendiculata , 630
Skull, Development of Lizard’s, 406
Slides. See Contents, xxxv
Sluiter, C. Ph., Amputation of Disc-
covering in Ophiurids, 632

— South African Gephyreans, 630

Tunicata, 188

Smegma Bacillus, 344

Smirnow, A. E., Demonstrating Medullated
Nerve-fibres, 682

— Molecular Layer of Cerebellum, 64
Smith, A. C., Multiple Canals in Spinal

Cord of a Chick Embryo, 616
Smith, E. F., Bacterial Diseases of Plants,
115, 462

Smith, E. F.. Bacterial Disease of the
Hyacinth, 663

Smith, G. Elliot, Origin of Corpus callo-
sum, 293

Smith, J. C., Spore-Formation in Amoeba
villosa , 547

Smith, R. Greig, Sheep-Ticks and Loup-
ing-Ill, 74

Smith, T. H., Test for the Production of
Indol by Bacteria, 380
Smith, W. R., Embryogeny of the Pon-
tederiacese, 556

Snake- venom, Toxin and Anti-toxin of,
623

Sobotta, J., Gastrulation in Amphioxus,
51

in Vertebrates, 51

Sodium and Magnesium Salts, Influence
on the Growth of Plants, 561
Sokolowa, C., Growth of Root-hairs and
Rhizoids, 558
Solanacese, Anatomy, 93
Solvay, F., Possible Role of Electricity in
Vital Processes, 529

Sonsino, P., Helminthological Notes, 310

— Larval Trematodes in Gastropod Hosts,

310

Sorbose Bacterium, Action on Wood-sugar,

‘ 666

— Biochemical Production, 575
Sorghin and Sorghorubin, 207
Sorghum Blight, Bacteria, 581

Soulier, Albert, Early Stages in Develop-
ment of Serpulid®, 541
Sour Corn, Bacteriology, 463

Sowerby, G. B., New South African
Marine Gastropod, 624
Spallieci, S., Algae (Protophyta) of Hot
Springs, 114

Spaujer, O., Hydathodes, 554
Species and Breeds, Formation, 520
Spectroscope, Zeiss’ New Comparison,
477

Spencerites, a new Fossil Genus of Lyco-
podiace®, 220

Spengel, J. W., Excretory Cells of As-
carids, 80

Spengelia porosa , 199
Sperm - Cells, Chromatoid Bodies of,
289

Spermatogenesis and Secondary Nucleus
in Filicine® and Equisetinese, 104

— in Mammals, 284

— in Man, 517

— of Grasshopper, Chromatic Tetrads in,

193

— of Snail, 296

Spermatophagous Organ in Bed-Bug,
536

Spermatozoa, Human, Axial Filament of,
57

— in Mammals, Dimorphism of, 57

— Path of, in the Frog, 58

— Worm- like, of Paludina vivipara , 68
Sphaeelariace®, Nuclear and Cell-Division

in, 108

— Sexuality, 566

Spluerothuria bitentaculata in Japanese
Seas, 200

Sphenodon, Development, 616
Spheroids and Crystalloids in Phytolacca,
638

Spicules of Clathrinid®, 312
Spider and Pitcher-Plant, 538

— Ant-Eating, 302
Spider-Lines, 232

Spinal Ganglion-Cells of Reptiles, 64

— Plexus and Sacrum of Newt, Variations

in, 292

Spindle-Formation in Cephalopod Blasto-
derm, 295

Spines, Development of Hedgehog’s,
518

— Evolution of, 619

Spiral Fold of Selachian Intestine, 62
Spirogyra, Chemical Physiology, 454

— Conjugation of Binucleated Cells, 567

— Dissociation of the Cells, 454

— Division of the Nucleus, 567

— Karyokinetic Nuclear-Division, 454
Spiroptera and Filaria, 631
Spirorbis, 305

Spitta, Edmund J., Photomicrography,
59 1

Splitting up Argillaceous Silicates contain-
ing Diatoms, Method for, 380
Sponge, Freshwater, Preservative for, 492

— New Calcareous, 87

734

INDEX.

Sponges, 496

— Action of Pigments on Living, 489

— Calcareous, 633
from Chili, 547

from the White Sea, 634

of Spitzbergen, 434

— Malayan and Chinese, 434

— Pacific, 434

— Position, 434

— Zanzibar, 314

Spongillidse, Parenchyma-Spicules, 314

— of Lago di Garda, 202

Spore- Formation in Amoeba villosa , 547

Restoration of, in Alcoholic Yeasts,

659

Spores, Biology, 563

— Germination, 652

Spores, Simple Method for Staining,
378

Sporicidal Action of Normal Rabbit Serum,
581

Sporodinia grandis, Development, 657
Sporozoic Parasites in a Rotifer, 84
Sporozoon from Limnodrilus, New, 436
Sprenger, Hs., Development of Hedgehog’s
Spines, 518

Spronck, — Preparation of Diphtheritic
Toxin without Meat, 683
Spuler, A., Canaliculi of Bone -Cells,
289

Sputum, Importance of Testing the Re-
action of, in Staining for Tubercle
Bacilli, 379

Staining and Imbedding Lichens, 601
Staining Objects. See Contents, xxxiv
Stalactites, Algal, 113
Stampacchia, R., Demonstrating Tubercle
Bacillus in Tissues, 372
Stand, Microscope, How to make, 126
Stand fuss, M., Recent Experiments in Hy-
bridisation, 534

Stangeria, Microsporange of, 94
Stapfia, a new Genus of Palmellaceae,
458

Starch, Permanent Stain for, 245
Starch-grains, “ Encapsuling of,” 207

Fixing and Staining, 684

Structure, 639

Stauffaclier, H., Head-Kidney of Lamelli-
branchs, 68

Stavenhagen, A., Alleged Alcoholic En-
zyme in Yeast, 219
Steam Steriliser, Simple, 132
Stebbing, T. R. R., Ampliipods from Co-
penhagen Museum, 304
Steel, Making Sections of, 380
Stein, Stanislaus von, Bone-corrosion Pre-
parations, 688

Steinbrinck, C., Contraction-Movements of
Anther-lobes, Sporanges, and Moss -
leaves, 560
Stem and Leaf, 442
Stempell, W., Structure of Leda, 418

Stempell, W., Structure of Nuculidae, 532
Stenroos, K. E., Fauna of Nurmiiarvi Lake*
426

Stephens, J. W. W., Modification of Van
Ermengem’s Method of Staining Fla-
gella, 685

Stereoscopic Microscope and its Auxiliary
Appliances, Greenough’s, 469
Stereum liirsutum, Biology, 660
Sterigmate3 and Spores of Agaricus cam-
pestris , 224

Sterki, V., Classification of Ciliata, 634
Sterling, S., Detection of Typhoid Bacilli
in Faeces by Eisner’s Method, 134
Sternberg, G. M., Microbe of Yellow Fever,
121

Stethopathidae, 627

Steuer, A., Eye of Corycaeus, 196

— Plankton of the Red Sea, 618
Stevens, W. C., Apparatus for Fixing and

Hardening Small Objects, 596

— Kinoplasm and Nucleole in the Division

of the Pollen-mother-cells, 550
Stichocotyle Nephropis, 631
Sticker, George, Travelling Microscope,
583

Stilbo'ideac, Anatomy, 97
Stiles, C. W., Adult Tapewrorms of Hares
and Rabbits, 428

Stilling, H., Structure of Suprarenal Cap-
sules, 523

Stipules and Buds, 210
Stokes, W. R., Pseudo-Lupus Vulgaris
caused by a Blastomyces, 573
j Stoklasa, J., Arsenic in Plants, 639

— Structure of Seeds, 94

Stoll, O., Geographical Distribution of
Ants, 533

Stolz, A., Aberrant Growth-forms in
Streptococcus and Pneumococcus, 664
Stomates, Chimney-shaped, 442

— Functions, 446, 649

— Hygroscopic Function, 216

— New Method of Observing, 134

— on Petals and Stamens, 95

— on the Bud-Scales of Abies, 95
Stomatopoda and Decapoda, Malayan,

195

Stone, Ellen A., Function of Pyloric Caeca
in Starfish, 200

Stoneman, Bertha, Development of An-
thracnoses, 658

Stossich, M., Filaria and Spiroptera, 631
Strasburger, E., Fertilisation, 98

— Nuclear-Division and Fertilisation in

Fucus, 107

in Pollen-mother-cells, 91

— Structure of Cytoplasm, 90
of the Cell-wall, 637

Strehl, Karl, Abbe’s Theory of the Micro-
scope, 679

Streptococcus and Pneumococcus, Aberrant
Growth-forms, 664

INDEX.

735

Streptococcus sanguinis cams, 229
Streptothrix Form of the Swine Erysipelas
Bacillus, 227

— Pathogenic, in Sputum, 574
Stringer, E. B., A New Form of Photo-

micrographic Camera, and Condensing
System, 140, 174

— Instantaneous Photomicrography, 282
Stromatopogon, a New Genus of Lichens,

570

Strohmeyer, 0., Influence of Algse on the
Purity of Water, "451

Studnicka, F. K./.Chondrifie ^Fibres in
Connective Tissue, 408

— Cuticle and Intercellular”. Bridges, 408

— Histogenesis of Cartilage in Cyclo-

stomes, 290

— Minute Structure of Notochord, 409
Sturgis, W. C., Improved Form of Wash-

bottle, 483

Stutzer, A., Bacterium of Foot-and- Mouth
Disease, 467

Suchetet, Andre, Problems of Hybridisa-
tion, 58

Sudan iii., a Selective [Stain for Fat,
684

Sugar-cane Parasites, 658
Sulphuretted Hydrogen, Indol, and Mer-
captan, Production of, by Bacteria,
337

Supra-renal Bodies, 186
Capsules, 56

in Lophobranch Fishes, 186

of Teleostei, 291

Structure, 523

Suspensor and Endosperm of Lupinus,
99

Suzuki, U., Active Albumin in Reserve-
material, 638

— Assimilation of Nitrates in the Dark,

619

— Formation of Proteids by Leaves, 103

— Function of Leaves, 648
Swift, M., 495

Swine Erysipelas Bacillus, Streptothrix
Form, 227

— • — Method of Action of Preventive
Serum against, 664

Swingle, W. T.,New Organs of the Plant-
Cell, 316

— Nuclear- and Cell-Division in the Spha-

celariaceie, 108

— Theories of Heredity, 323

Sykes, M. L., Natural Selection in Lepi-
doptera, 625

Symbiosis between a Butterfly and a
Flower, 73

Symmers, W. St. C., Peculiar Movement
of Intracellular Particles in Yeast-Cells,
223

Synapta, Mediterranean Species, 311
Synapta vivipara, 430
Synaptidse, Classification, 430

Syndactylism and Polydactylism in Mam-
mals, 411
Synidotea, 195
Syphilis, iEtiology, 345
Syringe, Injection, for Bacteriological
Work, 369

T.

Txnia confusa , 80
Structure, 631

— nana, 544

— polymorpha, Gonads, 311
Tailless Batrachians of Europe, 185
Tannin-like Drops in the Cell-sap of the

Leaves of Bromeliacese, 638
Taonia and Dictyota, Antherozoids, 221
Tapeworm, Adult, of Hares and Rabbits,
428

— of Ducks, 310

— New, 80

in a Bird, 198

Tardigrada from Spitsbergen, 194
Tartakowsky, M. G., Contagious Pneu-
monia of Guinea-pigs, 665
Taschenberg, O., Bibliotheca Zoologica,
415

Taste, Organs of, 524
Tastes and Odours in Drinking Waters,
Cause of, 335
Tatham, J., 393

Tavel, E., Pseudo-Tetanus Bacillus, 342
Teasdale, Washington, 688
Technique, Microscopical. See Contents,
xxxiii

Teeth of Diptera, 420

— Vertebral, of Dasypeltis, 621
Teichodontium, 221
Telegony, 615

— and Maternal Impressions, 406
Teleostean Scales, Development, 519
Tellyesniczky, K., Fixative Solutions,

491

Temperature and Modification, 192

— Influence of, on Development, 283
Tendrils of Entada scandens, 560
Tensile Strength of Cell-walls, 207
Teodoresco, E. C., Influence of Carbon

dioxide on the Form and Structure of
Plants, 641

Teratology of Flowers, 553
Terminology of Classification, 529
Termites, 3U1, 420
Termitidte, Australian, 536
Ternate, Opisthobranchs of, 297
Terre, — ., Tuberculosis and Pseudo-Tuber-
culosis, 343

Testis, Interstitial Cells, 57

Substance, 284

Test-Plate, New, 483
Tetanus Bacillus, Aerobism, 579

3 D

1898

736

INDEX.

Tetanus Bacillus in Dementia paralytica,
226

Tetracoccus, New Pathogenic, 663
Thallus of Marchantia and Lunularia,
Modifications, 653
Thermal Algm, 334
Thermometer Crickets, 536
Thermophilous Bacillus, New, 466
Thermo-Kegulator, New, 478
Thibaut, — Male Organs of Gymno-
sperms, 642

Thielava basicola , Disease of Tobacco Plant
due to, 110

Thiele, J., Pacific Sponges, 434
Thoma, R., Apparatus for Rapidly Fixing
and Hardening Tissues, 242
Thomas, F., Parasitic Fungus, 110
Thomas, Fr., Heliotaxis of Larval Mites,
422

Thomas, M. B., Periodicity of Root-Pres-
sure, 217

Thompson, Caroline, Internal Phloem in
Gehemium sempervirens , 319
Thorn, C., Method of Preserving Algrn,
245

Thouvenin, — Influence of Rontgen Rays
on Germination, 324

Thyroid, Thymus, and Parathyroid Glands,
53

Thysanomitriopsis, 221
Tiebe, — How Flowers attract Insects, 557
Tieghem, P. van, Embryo of Graminese
and Cyperaceae, 213

— New Case of Basigamy, 321
Tilden, J. E., Algal Stalactites, 113

— Thermal Algae, 334
Tilopterideae, 222

— Sexuality, 566

Tissue, Alterations in, produced by a Para-
site, 553

Tissues of Phanerogams. See Contents,
xxii

Tognini, F., Anatomy of the Hemp, 640
Tolomei, G., Influence of Electricity on
Germination, 446

— Soluble Ferment in Wine, 562
Tomes, C. S., Classification of Forms of

Dentine, 289

— Enamel of Elasmobranch Fishes, 408
Tornier, G., Polydactylism and Syndac-
tylism in Mammals, 411

— • Regeneration and Doubling of the Tail
in Lizards, 410

in Vertebrates, 59

Torsion, Phenomena of, 96
Tourneaux, F., Thyroid, Thymus, and
Parathyroid Glands, 53
Townsend, C . O., Correlation of Growth
under the Influence of Injuries, 216
Toxin and Anti-toxin of Snake-Venom,
623

Toxins and Anti-toxins, Nature of the An-
tagonism between, 576

! Trabut, — ., Parasitic Fungus, 331
Transpiration in a Moist Tropical Climate,

! 447

i Treasurer, Report and Balance Sheet for
! 1897, 144, 145, 147

Trematode Parasites of Fishes, 310
j Trematodes, Larval, in Gastropod Hosts,
310

Treub, M., Structure of the Female Organ
and Apogamy in Balanophora, 555
Trichina, Life-History, 79
Trichodytes Anemones, 331
Trichophyton and Achorion, Fungi inter-
mediate between, 572

— producing Herpes on the Horse, 573
Trilobites and Crustaceans, 304
Trimble, H., Structure of American Co-
nifers, 96

Trimen, R., Mimicry in Insects, 192
Trimerus, The Genus, 626
Triples and Doublets, Achromatic, Con-
struction of, 156
Triquetrella, 221

Trombidion liolosericeum, Development,
194

Tropical Insolation, Effects of, 215
Trouessart, E., Distribution of Halacaridre,
303

Trout-tanks, Flora, 562
Truffle, Spores, 332
Tschirch, A., Structure of Seeds, 94
Tswett, M., Use of Permanganate in Micro-
technique, 241

Tubercle Bacilli in Butter, 230

Mineral Constituents, 580

Testing Butter and Milk for, 602

— Bacillus, Actinomycetic Form, 240
Branched Form, 575

Growth, at a Low Temperature,

227

in Tissues, Demonstrating, 372

Mobile Variety of, 578

Mobility, 465

Morphology and Biology, 118

The Fatty Substance in, 577

— Bacteria, Permanence of the Infection,

664

Tuberculin, New, Therapeutic Value,
466

Tuberculosis and Pseudo-Tuberculosis,
343

— Immunity of Fowls, 466

— New Form. 465

— Relation between Human and Avian,

663

T.ilcrculous Sputum, Rapid Staining of,
133

Tubular ia indivisa, 201
Tubularia, Regenerative Phenomena, 312
Tubulipora, Development, 418
Tulasnellacem, New Family of Fungi,
458

Tunicata, Australian, 415

INDEX. 737

Tunicata, Classification, 529

— South-African, 188
— . See Contents, xii
Turbcllaria, New, 81

— of Concarneau, 309

— Russian, 80

— Swiss, 80

Turned Wine, Microbes, 464, 578
Tutt, J. W., Hybridising Species of Teph-
rosia, 419

Tylodinella irinchesii , 297
Tylodinulse, 297
Typhobia, 417

Typhoid and Coli Bacilli, Demonstrating
the Structure of, 372

Bacteria are Uninuclear Cells,

340

— Bacilli, Excretion in the Urine, 464
in Faeces, Detection of, by Eisner’s

Method, 134

in Milk, Behaviour, 341

— Bacillus, Action of Cider on, 580
Growth in Soil, 341

— Fever, Experimental, 119
Typhoid-like Bacilli in Suspected Water,

Diagnosis of, 117

Ty rosin as a Vaccine for Snake-Bite, 292

U.

Ule, E., Cross-pollination and Self-pollina-
tion, 646

— Symbiosis between a Butterfly and a
Flower, 73
Ulea, 221

Underwood, W. L., Bacteriology of Sour
Corn, 463

Unioellular Algae, New, 329
Unstriped Muscle-fibres and Ganglion-
cells, Isolating, 681

Urech, F., Experiments as to Coloration of
Butterflies, 192
Uredineae, Biology, 568
Urns of Sipunculus, 426
Urospora and Hormicia, 459
Ussow, S. A., Development of Teleostean
Scales, 519

Utility, Problem of, 60

V.

Vaccinia and Variola, Microbes, 231
“ Vacuole-Granules ” in Yeast-Cells, Stain-
ing, 490

Vagiuula, Species, 297
Vaillant, Leon, Common Eel in the Open
Seas, 528

Vallin, E., Microbiology as applied to
Hygiene, 461

Vallombroso, Fauna of, 295

Van Ermengem’s Method of Staining Fla-
gella, Modification, 685
Variability in Fishes, 411
Variation, Studies in, 410
Variations and Mutations of Littorina,
416

of Sparrow’s Egg in America,

410

Variola and Vaccinia, Microbes, 231
Vascular Bundles in Pith of Alnus, 93
in Receptacle of the Labiatee, 439

— Elements in Growing Point of Root of

Monocotyledons, Origin of, 439

— Epithelium, 521
So-called, 521

— Tissue outside the Xylem and Sieve-

Tissue outside the Phloem, 208
Venation of a Typical Insect Wing, 421
Venturiella, 221

Verdun, P., Fourth Visceral Cleft and
Lateral Thyroid in Cat, 518

— Thyroid, Thymus, and Parathyroid

Glands, 53

Verhoeff, C., Studies on Myriopods, 74
Vernon, H. M.„ Hybrid Echinoid Larvae,
545

— Relations between Marine Animal and

Vegetable Life, 413, 619
Verruca, Bacteriology, 666
Verson, E., Development of Gut in Silk-
Moth, 72

Vertebrata, Origin, 524

— Pedigree of, 61

— . See Contents, viii
Vessel for Treatment of Paraffin Sections
with Staining and other Solutions, 367
Vezey, J. J., 144, 147, 495, 694
Vice-Presidents, 147

Vickersia, a new Genus of Florideae,
452

Vidal, L., Pistil and Fruit of the Capri-
foliaceae, 441

— Vascular Bundles in Receptacle of La-

biate, 439

Vinassa de Regny, P. E., Fossil Radio-
larians, 548

Vincent, Swale, Supra-renal Bodies, 186

Capsules, 56

of Teleostei, 291

Vincenzi, L., New Pathogenic Tetracoccus,
663

Vine, Parasites of, 569
Vines, S. H., Metamorphosis in Plants,
325

— Pitcher Plants, 95

— Proteolytic Enzymes of Nepenthes, 207
Violet Bacillus, 340

Virchow, Hs., Yolk-Sac of Scyllium, 404
Viscous Urine, Microscopical Examination,
373

Vision and Images, Microscopic, 592

— Microscopic, 354, 362
Vitalism and Evolution, 526

7S8

INDEX.

Vitality of Young Bound Worms, 197
Viviparity in an Annelid, 629
Vochting, H., Teratology of Flowers, 553

— Influence of Low Temperatures on the

Direction of Shoots, 560
Volk, R., Peroxide of Hydrogen in Micro-
scopical Research, 488
Volutella, 111

Vries, J. J. Ott de, New Ghromogenic
Bacillus, 580

W.

Wachter, W., Jenmania, a new Genus of
Lichens, 111

— Morphology of Aquatic Plants, 97
Wacker, J., Influence of the surrounding

Medium on the Growth of Roots, 649
Wadsworth, F. L. O., Spider-Lines, 232
Wadsworth, M. E., Some Methods of
Determining the Positive or Negative
Character of Mineral Plates in Con-
verging Polarised Light with the Petro-
graphical Microscope, 604
Wager, H., Nucleus of the Saccharomy-
cetes, 111

Wagner, A., Coli and Typhoid Bacteria
are Uninuclear Cells, 340 ,

— Demonstrating the Structure of Coli and j

Typhoid Bacilli, 372

Wagner, F. von, Division and Budding ;
among Animals, 526

Waite, F. C., Variations in the Brachial j
and Lumbo-Sacral Plexi of Necturus
maculosus, 60

Wakker. H. J., Parasites of the Sugar-
cane, 658

Waller, A. D., Action of Anaesthetics on
Vegetable and Animal Protoplasm,

“ 563

Wallin, G. S., Tannin-like Drops in the
Cell-sap of the Leaves of Bromeliaceae,
638

Wandolleck, B., Alleged Phylogeny of
Aphaniptera, 535

— New Family of Diptera, 627
Warburg, O., Structure of Myristicacese,

554

Ward, H. B., Paraffin Imbedding Table,
481

— Parasites of Birds, 310

— Taenia confusa , 80

Ward, H. Marshall, Violet Bacillus, 340

— Biology of Stereum hirsutum , 660
Ward, N. G., Importance of Testing the

Reaction of Sputum in Staining for
Tubercle Bacilli, 379
Warning Colours and Mimicry, 526

— - — Experiments on, 192

Warnstoff, C., Dwarf Male Plants of Di-
cranum, 564

Warren, E., Remarkable Abnormality in a
Frog, 526

Wash-bottle, Improved Form, 483
Washburn, F. L., Preservative for Fresh-
water Sponge, 492

Washing Microscopical Objects, Simple
Apparatus, 595

Wasmann, E., Ant-Eating Spider, 302
I — Parasites of Ants, 74
I — Studies on Termites, 301
: — Von Baer’s Philosophy, 59
S Wassermann, A., Cultivating Gonococcus,
130

I Water Analysis, Microscopical, 606
! — Bacteria, Preserving Living Pure Culti-
vations, 239

— Effects of, at Different Temperatures

on the Germination of the Olive,
446

Water-Baths, Thermo-Regulated, for the
Bacteriological Laboratory, 596
Water-Beetle, Drowning of, 536
Waters, Arthur William, Bryozoa from
, Madeira, 695

; Watson and Sons, The “Fram” Micro-
scope, 673

Wattenwyl, B. v., Coloration of Insects,
70

Wax as an Excretion within the Cell,
318

Webb, R. J., Cross-pollination and Self-
pollination, 646

Webber, H. J., Blepharoplasts and Centro-
somes, 316

— Fertilisation of Zamia and Salisburia,

98

Weber, E. F., New Male Rotifers, 83

— Rotatoria of the Basin of the Lake of

Geneva, 630

Weberbaur, A., Capsular Fruits, 319
Wehraer, C., Fungi producing Citric Acid,

I 656

| Wehrmann, C., Action of Diastase on
Venom, 650

I Weigert Methods of Staining, 684
Weigert-Pal Method, Modification for
Paraffin Sections, 600
Weiss, J., Circular Colonometer, 481
Welby, F. A., Theory of the Functions in
Living Matter, 66

Wellheim, F. Pfeiffer R. v., Fixing and
Preparing Freshwater Algae, 488
Welsh, D. A., Parathyroid Glands, 409
Went, F. A. F. C., Parasites of the Sugar-
Cane, 65S

— Saccharose and Glucose in Sugar-cane,

551

Werner, Fr., Melanism in Reptiles and
Amphibians, 67

Werner, J., Polydactylism in Swine, 411
Wesenberg-Lund, — ., Danish Rotifera,
309

West, G. S., Buccal and other Glands of
Colubridae, 523

West, W. and G. W., Conjugatae, 453

INDEX.

739

Wcttstein, R. v., Green Hemi-Parasites,
209

Wetzel, G., Grafting Experiments on
Hydra, 431

Wheeler, W. M., Development of Myzo-
stoma glabrum, 82

White Blood-corpuscles, Functions of,
67

White, T. C., 251, 385, 391

— A few Notes on Micro-Crystallography,

251, 270

Whittles, D., Micro-organisms of Rigg’s
Disease, 667

Wicke, W., Novelties in Polarisation
Apparatus, 233

Wiegand, K. M., Embryology of Potamo-
geton, 323

Wieler, A., Formation of Wood from
Reserve Material, 448
Wiesner, J., Aerial Roots of Tmniophyllum,

644

— Germination of Mistletoe, 324
Wilcox, E. M., Reserve-material in De-
ciduous Trees, 640

Wilcox, E. V., Chromatic Tetrads in
Spermatogenesis of Grasshoppers, 193
Wildeman, E. de, Fungus Parasitic on
Zygnema, 569

Wilhelmi, A., Saccharomyces guttulatus, \
457

Wille, N., Lamina riacem, 565

— Plankton- Algae of the Freshwater 1

Lakes of Norway, 455
Willey, A., New Genus of Enteropneusta,

199

— New Species of Peripatus, 302
Williams, J. LL, Antherozoids of Dictyota

and Taonia, 221

Willis, H. G., Defensive Adaptations of
Lepidopterous Larvae, 72
Wilson, E. B., Cell-Lineage in Annelids ;
and Polyclades, 539

Wilson, J. T., Vitalism and Evolution,
526

Wilson, Lucy L. W., Structure of Gonopho-
lis americana, 321
Wind-Eggs, 518

Wing, Lepidopterous, Specialisation, 626
Wings, Butterfly’s, Growth of, 421

— of Insects, 190, 532, 626

— of Lepidoptera, Individual Variation,

625

Winkel’s New Photographic Apparatus,
354

Winslow, G. M., Chondrocranium in Ich-
thyopsida, 518

Winter, A. P., Bulb of Erythronium,
211

Winter Characters of Sporanges, 326
Wisselingh, C. van. Composition of the
Cell-wall of Fungi, 656
Wolfenden, R. N., Action of Rontgen j
Rays on Bacteria, 460

Wolff, G., Hypophysis in Health and Dis-
ease, 63

Wolffhiigel, K., Gonads of Tsenia poly -
morpha, 311

Wollenweber, E., Floating Leaves, 442
Wollny, E., Influence of Atmospheric Pre-
cipitation on the Growth of Plants,
102

Wolstenholme, J. B., Botriomyees, 576
Woltereck, Richard, Parthenogenetic Cy-
pridse, 628

Wood, Formation from Reserve Material,
448

Woods, A. F., Bacteriosis of Carnations,
226

Woodworth, W. McM., New Planarians,
429

— New Turbellaria, 81
Woronin, M., Parasitic Fungus, 456
Worsdell, W. C., Comparative Anatomy of

the Cycadese, 640

— Sporophyll of Cycadem, 642

Wright, Lewis, Microscopic Images and
Vision, 592

Wyznikiewicz, W., Microbe of Cattle
Plague, 342

X.

Xenia, Structure, 633

Y.

Yabe, K., Two New Kinds of Red Yeast,
222

Yamazaki, F., Tssnia nana, 544
Yankawer, S., New Microtome, 242
Yeast and Alcoholic Fermentation, 448
— • Behaviour of, at a Hi eh Temperature,
223

Yeast-Cell, Cytological Researches, 570
Method of Demonstrating the Struc-
ture, 600

Peculiar Movement of Intracellular

Particles in, 223

Staining, 132

Yeasts and Insects, 112

— Red, 222, 331

Yellow-Fever and Micrococcus xanthogen i-
cus, 121

Microbe of, 121

Yemen Ulcer, Pathogenic Bacillus found
in, 121
Yoldia, 298

Yolk-Sac of Scy Ilium, 404
Yung, E., Digestion in Dogfish, 527

— Function of Pancreas in Squalidm,

622 j

Z.

Zacharias, O., Heleoplankton, 294

— Potamoplankton, 189

— Researches on Plankton of Ponds, 306

740

INDEX.

Zncharias, Rhizosolenia and Attheya, 335
Zuhlbruckner, A., Stromatopogon, a New
Genus of Lichens, 570
Zaleski, W., Formation of Albumen in
Plants, 325

Zamia and Salisburia, Fertilisation, 98
Zannicbellia, Embryology, 322
Zanzibar Sponges, 314
Z( idler, A., Flagella of Termobacterium
aceti, 666

Zeiss’ Combined Horizontal and Vertical
Camera, 351

— New Comparison Spectroscope, 477
Zenneck, J., Markings of Boidae, 525
Zielina, A., Cleaning Used Slides, 249

— Preparing Permanent Blood-Films, 488

Zimmer, C., Compound Eyes of Epheme-
rids, 70

— Plankton of Rivers, 528
Zimmermann, K. W., Minute Structure of

Glandular and Epithelial Tissue, 522
j Zoology, Text-Book, 184
Zschokke, A., Protection of Fruit against
Parasitic Fungi, 643

Zschokke, F., Myxosporidise in Coregonus,
314

Zukal, H., Ceratification in Myxomycetes
and Myxobacteria, 661

— Mvxobacteriacese, 335
Zygnema, Fungus Parasitic on, 569
Zykoff, W., Movements of Hydra, 431

— Russian Turbellaria, 80

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CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

TAOE

I. — The Foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone. Part X. —
Conclusion and Appendices. By Frederick Cliapman,
A.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Plates I. and II.) 7 .. 1

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

ZOOLOGY.

VEETEBRATA.

a. Embryology.

Albrecht — Mechanics of Development 50

Sobotta, J. — Gastrulation in Amphioxus 51

„ „ Gastrulation in Vertebrates . . . 51

Adloff, P. — Development of Rodent Dentition 51

Goppert, E. — Phylogeny of Claws of Vertebrates 52

Platt, Julia B. — Development of Cranial Region in Necturus 5*2

Locy, W. A. — Accessory Optic Vesicles in Chick Embryo 5 J

Haller, B. — Significance of Hypophysis and Infundibular Organ 51

Tourneux, F., & P. Verdun — Thyroid, Thymus, and Parathyroid Glands .. .. 52

Brachet, A. — Pleural Cavities and Pleuro-Pericardial Membranes 54

Maas, O. — Development of Pronephros and Mesonephros in Myxine 54

Felix, W. — Excretory System of Bdellostoma 55

Dean, Bashford — Development of Californian Hag 55

Vincent, Swale — Supra- Renal Capsules 56

Fabre-Domergue & E. Bietrix — Eggs and Larvse of Marine Fishes 56

Ikeda, S. — Breeding Habit of a Japanese Tree-Frog 57

Bardeleben, K. yon — Interstitial Cells of Testis 57

Meves, Fr. — Axial Filament of Human Spermatozoa 57

Bardeleben, K. von — Dimorphism of Spermatozoa in Mammals 57

Frankl, CL, & M. Nussbaum — Path of the Spermatozoa in the Frog 5S

Suchetet, Andre— Problems of Hybridisation 58

Tornier — Regeneration in Vertebrates 59

Wasmann, E. — Von Baer’s Philosophy . . .. 59

Dunckkr, Georg — Variation of Fin-Rays of Fishes 59

Hutton, F. W. — Problem of Utility 60

Waite, F. C. — Variations in the Brachial and Lumbo-Sacral Plexi of Necturus

maculosus G6

JiEKEL, O. — Pedigree of Vertebrata 61

Mayer, Paul — Spiral Fold of Selachian Intestine 62

Blanc, Louis — Classification of Monstrosities 62

b. Histology.

Duval, M. — Precis of Histology 62

Ballowitz, E. — Sickle-shaped Nuclei and Giant-Spheres in Resting Epithelial Cells 62

Kolliker, A. von — Energids of Plants and Animals 62

Flemming, W. — Number of Chromosomes in Somatic Cells of Man 62

Retterer, Ed. — Epithelium and Reticular Tissue 63

MacCallum, J. B. — Heart Muscle-Cells 63

Garnier, Charles — Ap vearance of Intercellular Bridges between Smooth Muscle-

Cells - 63

Wolff, G. — Hypophysis in Health and Disease 63

Apathy, St. — Conducting Element in Nervous Tissue 61

Pugnat, Charles- Amkvee— Spinal Ganglion- Cells of Reptiles (54

Smirnow, A. E. — Molecular Layer of Cerebellum 64

A

o

PAGE

Kapelkin, W. — Minute Structure of the Lamprey's Shin 64

Mayer, O. — Ciliated Epithelium in Amphibian Larvx 65

Andeer, J. J. — Ostioles 65

Ballowitz, E. — Electric Organs 65

Rose, C. — Hard Tissues of Vertebrates 66

c. General.

Andrews, G. F. —The Living Substance 66

Welby, F. A. — Theory of the Functions in Living Matter 66

Friedenthal, Hs. — Functions of White Blood-Corpuscles 67

Werner, Fr. — Melanism in Reptiles and Amphibians 67

Hickson, S. J. — Freshwater Fauna 67

IN VERTEBR AT A .

Mollusca.
y. Gastropoda.

Baker, F. C. — Apex of Gastropod Shell 67

Holmes, S. J. — Cell-Lineage of Planorbis 68

Erlanger, R. von — Worm-like Spermatozoa of Paludina vivipara 68

Heath, H. — Young of Cryptochiton 68

S. Lamellibranchiata.

Pieri, J. B. — Experiments on Bivalves 68

Stauffacher, H. — Head-Kidney of Lamellibranchs 68

Freidenfelt, T. — Central Nervous System of Anodonta .. .» 69

Arthropoda.

Goodrich, E. S. — Relation of Arthropod Head to Annelid Prostomium 69

a. Insecta.

Brunner von Wattenwyl — Coloration of Insects 70

Zimmer, Carl — Compound Eyes of Ephemerids 70

Blatter, P. — Male Genital Organs of Hydrophilus 71

Bruel, L. — Genital Ducts of Calliphora 71

St. George, v. la Yalette — Formation of Sex-Cells in the Silk-Moth 71

Willis, H. G. — Defensive Adaptations of Lepidopterous Latv.se 72

Heymons, R. — Abdominal Appendages of Insects 72

Pagentstecher, A. — Arctic Lepidoptera 72

Karawaiew, W. — Internal Metamorphosis of Ants 72

Yerson, E. — Development of Gut in the Silk-Moth 72

Mobusz, A. — Alimentary Canal of Anthrenus Larva 73

Kulagin, N. — Development of Platygaster 73

Montgomery, T. H., Jun. — Chromatin Reduction in Spermatogenesis of Pentatoma 73

Ule, E. — Symbiosis between a Butterfly and a Flower 73

Gillanders, A. T. — Entomology of the Oak 74

j3. Myriopoda.

Verhoeff, C. — Studies on Myriopods 74

5. Arachnida.

Michael, A. D. — Acari from Franz-Josef Archipelago 74

Wasmann, E. — Parasites of Ants 74

Meek, A., & R. Greig Smith — Sheep-Ticks and Louping-Ill 74

Piersig, R. — New German Hydrachnidx 75

Simon & Brcelemann — Swiss Arachnids and Myriopods 75

Rywosch, T. — Pigment of Tardigrades 75

e. Crustacea.

Garstang, W. — Respiratory Mechanism in Decapods 75

Ortmann, A. E. — Carcinological Studies 75

Bethe, A. — Nervous System of Shore- Crab 76

Pedaschenko, D. — Development of Nervous System and Sex-Cells in Lernsea bran-

chialis 76

Birge, E. A. — Vertical Distribution of Limnetic Crustacea 76

Annulata.

Cuenot, L. — Physiology of Oligochxtes 76

Hepke, Paul — Regeneration in the Naidx 77

Boch, Max von — Budding of Chxtogaster 77

Caullery & F. Mesnil — Branching Annelid 78

Lewis, M. — New Species of Chjmene 78

3

PAGE

Kowalevsky, A. — Acanthobdella peledina 78

Mesnil, Felix — New Capitellid 79

Kowalevsky, A. — Physiological Experiments with Clepsine 79

Nematohelminthes.

Graham, J. W. — Life-History of Trichina 79

Spengel, J. W. — Excretory Cells of Ascarids 80

Platyhelminth.es.

Joubin, L. — Nemertea 80

Fuhrmann, O. — New Tapeworm 80

Ward, H. B. — Taenia confusa 80

Luhe, M. — Bothriocephalus Zschokkei 80

Blochmann, F. — Epithelium of Cestodes . . . . 80

Zykoff, W. — Russian Turhellaria ' 80

Plessis, G. du — Swiss Turhellaria 80

Woodworth, W. McM. — New Turhellaria 81

Incertae Sedis.

Harmer, S. F., & Masterman — Notochord of Cephalodiscm 81

Schultz, E. — Development of Mesoderm in Phoronis 81

Simroth, H. — Plankton Bracliiopods 82

Wheeler, W. M. — Development of Myzostoma glahrum 82

Rotatoria.

Kellicott, D. S. — Rotifera of Sandusky Bay 83

Bryce, David — Rotifera from Spitzhergen 83

Rousselet, C. F. — Male of Proales Wernecki 83

Weber, E. F. — New Male Rotifers 83

Shephard, J. — Lacinularia elliptica, a new Rotifer 84

Erlanger, R. v., & R. Lauterborn — Early Development of Rotifers 84

Lenssen — Sporozoic Parasites in a Rotifer 84

Echinoderma.

Mitchell, J. — Upper Silurian Palsechinns 85

Loriol, P. de — Fossil Echinoids 85

Ccelentera.

Goette, A. — Development of Scyphopolypes 85

Carlgren, Oscar — Development of Mesenteries in Actiniae 86

Koch, G. von — Development of Caryophyllia cyathus 87

Porifera.

Blackburn, W. — Lacework Sponge 87

Breitfuss, L. L. — New Calcareous Sponge 87

Protozoa.

Prowazek, S. — Coloration of Living Protozoa 87

Doflein, Fr. — Notes on the Protozoa 87

Frenzel, J. — New Freshwater Protist 87

Jones, T. Rupert, & F. Chapman — Ramulina 88

Borgert, A. — Parasites of Sticholonche and the Acanthometridae 88

Porter, James F. — Protozoan Parasites of Termites 89

Maclallum, W. G. — Haematozoan Infections of Birds and Man 89

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Strasburger, E. — Structure of Cytoplasm 90

j Kohl, F. G. — Continuity of Protoplasm in Guard-cells and Moss leaves 90

1 Mottier, D. M., & others — Nuclear Division in Pollen-mother-cells 90

Kamerling, Z. — Biology and Physiology of the Cell-wall 91

4

(2) Other Cell-contents (including' Secretions). tags

Hebert, A. — Composition of (he Sap 92

Lutz, L. — Localisation of Amygdalin and Emulsin in Eriobotrya 92

Mangin, L. — Production of Gum in tlie Sterculiaceze 92

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Kattein, A. — Central Cylinder of the Root 92

Chauveaud, G. — Development of Primary Sieve-Tubes 93

Leger, L. J. — Development of the Phloem-Elements in Vascular Bundles .. .. 93

Kunkele, T. — Vascular Bundles in the Pith of Alnus 93

Kolpin-Ravn, F. — Rudimentary Silicified Cystoliths in the Lor anthacezc .. .. 93

Fedde, F. — Anatomy of Solanaceas 93

(4) Structure of Organs.

Lang, W. H. — Microsporange of Stangeria 94

Langdon, F. E. — Pollen of Asclepias 94

Tschirch, A., & others — Structure of Seeds 94

Chester, Grace D. — Stomates on Petals and Stamens 95

Anderson, A. P. — Stomates on the Bud-Scales of Abies 95

Vines, S. H. — Pitcher-Plants 95

Haberlandt, G. — Jlydathodes 95

Groom, P. — Leaves and Scales of Lathrsea 96

Dingler, W. — Phenomena of Torsion 96

Figdor, W. — Causes of Anisophylly 96

Scott, D. H. — Peduncle of Cycadeee 96

Trimble, H., & E. S. Bastin — Structure of American Conifers 96

Wachter, W. — Morphology of Aquatic Plants 97

Briquet, J. — Anatomy of Phrymaceee , Stilbo'ideze , Chloantho'idess , and Myoporaceze . . 97

Delpino, F. — Dimorphism of Ranunculus Ficaria 97

G Wynne- Vaughan, D. T. — Morphology and Anatomy of the Nymphseacese . . . . 97

Holm, T. — Morphology and Anatomy of Obolaria 98

Palmer, M. — Morphology of Ilex and Cakile 98

f}. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Strasburger, E., & W. Belajeff — Fertilisation 98

Webber, H. J. — Fertilisation of Zamia and Salisburia 98

Coulter, J. M. — Pollen-Grains and Antipodal Cells .. .. 99

Buscalioni, L. — Endosperm and Suspensor of Lupinus 99

Meehan, T., & others — Cross-Pollination and Self-Pollination 99

Briquet, J. — Pollination of Erytlironium 100

Molliard — Determination of Sex in the Hemp 100

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Germination, and Movements
of Fluids).

Kny, L. — Dependence of the Chlorophyll-Function on the Chromatophores and the

Cytoplasm 101

Daniel,* L. — Mixed Grafts 101

Laurent, J. — Absorption of Organic Matters by Roots 101

Atkinson, G. F. — Influence of the Rontgen Rays on Vegetation 101

Kohl, F. G. — Assimilating Energy of Blue Light 101

Dassonville — Action of Mineral Salts on the Structure of the Lupin 102

Wollny, E. — Influence of Atmospheric Precipitation on the Growth of Plants .. 102

Escombe, F. — Germination of Seeds 102

(3) Irritability.

Pampaloni, L. — Geocarpism of Morisia hypogzea 102

Pollock, J. B. — Curvature of Roots 102

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Palladine, W. — Formation of Chlorophyll •• 103

Gerber, C. — Transformation of Saccharine Substances into Oil 103

Suzuri, U., & E. Godlewski — Formation of Proteids by Leaves 103

Godlewski, E., & F. Polzeniusz — Production of Alcohol in Respiration .. .. 104

B. CRYFTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Johnson, D. — Development of Mar silia 104

Belajeff, W. — Spermatogenesis and Secondary Nucleus in Filicinese and Equise-

tineze 104

Gloss, M. E. — Mesophyll of Ferns 105

Bower, F. O. — Sporophyll of Marattiaceze 105

T

5

Muscineae. page

Correns, C. — Propagation of Mosses by’ Gemmas 105

Algae.

Phillips, R. W. — Cystocarp in the Rhodymeniales 10G

Brand, F. — Chantransia 106

Batters, E. A. L. — Porphyrodiscus , a new Genus of Floridese 107

Heydrich, F. — Melobesiacese 107

Strasburger, E. — Nuclear Division and Fertilisation in Fueus 107

Swingle, W. T. — Nuclear and Cell-Division in the Sphacelariacese 108

Sauvageau, 0. — Conjugation in Ectocarpus 108

Gran, H. H. — Endodictyon , a new Genus of Ectocarpacese 108

Noll, F. — Grafting of Siplioneas 108

Joly, J., & H. H. Dixon— Coccoliths 108

De Toni’s Sylloge Algarum .. .. 109

Fungi.

Harper, R. A., & D. G. Fairchild — Nuclear Division among Fungi 109

Ray, J. — Action of Gravity on the Growth of Fungi 109

Thomas, F., & others — Parasitic Fungi 110

Peg lion, V. — Disease of the Tobacco Plant due to Thielava basicola 110

Avetta, C. — Puccinia Lojhajana 110

Saccakdo, D. — Volutella Ill

Hesse, O. — Lichen- Acids Ill

Wachter, W. — Jenmania , a neiv Genus of Lichens Ill

Wager, H. — Nucleus of the Saccharomycetes Ill

Peglion, Y. — Nematospora, a new Genus of Saccharomycetes 112

Berlese, A. — Insects and Yeasts 112

Beijerinck, M. W. — Schizosaccharomyces octosporus .. 112

Artari, A.—Saccharomyces Zopfii 113

Schiewek, O. — Ferments of Sake 113

Protophyta.

a. Sclaizophyceae.

Tilden, J. E. — Algal Stalactites 113

Spallicci, S. — A Igse ( Protophyta ) of Hot Springs 114

Schroder, B. — Cohniella, a new Genus of Diatoms 114

Edwards, A. W. — Diatom causing Foulness of Water 114

Schmidle, W. — Cyanothrix, a new Genus of Cyanophyceas 114

j8. Schizomycetes.

Schlater, G. — Biology of Bacteria 114

Smith, E. F. — Bacterial Diseases of Plants 115

Guignard, L., & C. Satjvageau — Bacillus chlororaphis sp. n 115

Ewart, A. J. — Bacteria with Asssimilatory Pigments 115

Rodsewitsch, W. W. — New Pigment-forming Saprophyte 115

Ferra'n,*J. — Transformation of Bacillus tuberculosis into a common Saprophyte .. 116

Grunbaum, A. S. — Blood and the Identification of Bacterial Species 116

Seifert, W. — Physiology and Morphology of the Acetic Acid Bacteria 116

Hankin, E. H. — Relation of Insects and Rats to the Spread of Plague 117

Rideal — Purification of Sewage by Bacteria 117

Kister, J. — Diagnosis of Typhoid-like Bacilli in Suspected Water 117

Kern, F. — Capside of Anthrax Bacillus 117

Marpmann, G. — Morphology and Biology of the Tubercle Bacillus 118

Bomstein — Passive Immunity in Diphtheria 118

Hartleb/R. — Bacillus Ellenbachensis alpha and Alinit 118

Remlinger, P. — Experimental Typhoid Fever 119

Achalme, P. — Bacteriology of Acute Articular Rheumatism 119

Sabatier, Ad., & others — Examination of Oysters for Pathogenic Microbes .. .. 120

Dubois, L. — Bacterium pathogenic to Phylloxera and Acarini 120

Meyer, A. — Astasia asterospora 120

Sternberg, G. M. — Microbe of Yellow Fever 121

Freire, D. — Yellow Fever and Micrococcus xanthogenicus 121

Chavigny — Bacillus of Subacute Gaseous Gangrene 121

Crendiropoulo, M. — Pathogenic Bacillus found in the Yemen Ulcer 121

Nicolle, M., & Noury — Streptococcus of the Aleppo Boil .. 122

Bosso, G. — New Infectious Disease of Cattle .. .. 122

Rosa, N. — Effect of Intravenous Injection of Tuberculous Caseous Matter .. .. 122

6

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, See.

Cl) Stands. page

Sir David Brewster’s Microscope (Fig. 1) 123

Two Old Microscopes (Figs. 2-4) 124

Field, W. E. — Hoiv to Make a Microscope Stand 126

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

Kowalski, A. — Repsold's Neiv Self -Registering Micrometer 126

(4) Photomicrography.

Pretzl, A. D. — Monochromatic Light for Photomicrography 127

B. Technique.

Cl) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes

Murray, G. — Plankton Gathering 128

Heurck, H. van — Culture of Diatoms 125

„ „ Miguel's Cell for Pure Cultures of Diatoms (Figs. 5-7) .. .. 180

Wassermann, A. — Cultivating Gonococcus 130

Forster, J. — Nutrient Gelatin with High Melting-point 131

Beck, M. — Capsule for Anaerobic Cultivation (Figs. 8 and 9) 131

Cantani, A. — Seminal Fluid as a Nutritive Medium 131

Deelemann, M. — Influence of the Reaction of the Medium on Bacterial Growth .. 131

C2) Preparing Objects.

Novy, F. G. — Apparatus for Filtering Bacterial and other Fluids 132

„ ,, Simple Steam Steriliser 132

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Busse, O. — Staining Yeast Cells 132

Dubois, L. — Method of Treating Bacteria difficult of Staining 133

Andrejew, N. P. — Rapid Staining of Tuberculous Sputum 133

Przesmycki, A. M. — Intra-Vitam Staining 133

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Kholodkovsky, N. — Preserving Sea-Anemones 133

Mottier, D. M. — Flemming's Fixing Solution 134

Chalon, J. — Preservative Fluids for Botanical Specimens 134

C6) Miscellaneous.

Darwin, F. — New Method of Observing Stomates 134

Sterling, S. — Detection of Typhoid Bacilli in Faeces by Eisner's Method .. .. 134

Hankin, E. H., & B. H. F. Leumann — Method of rapidly Identifying the Microbe

of Bubonic Plague 134

“T. K. K.” — Microscopic Study of Alloys (Figs. 10-13) 135

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, 15th December, 1897 139

Anniversary Meeting, 19th January, 1898 141

Report of the Council for 1897 142

Balance Sheet for 1897 145

Authors of Papers printed in the Transactions are entitled to 20 copies of their
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1BBJ 0 U R N A L

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Royal

Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY .A. 3XT ID BOTANY

(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, <fec-

Edited by

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Lecturer 071 Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital ;

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Hospital, Edinburgh,

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CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

PAGE

II. — The President’s Address. By Edward M. Nelson (Figs. 14-23) 149

III. — The Application of the Electric Arc to Photomicro-

graphy. By J. Edwin Barnard, F.B.M.S., and Thos.

A. B. Carver, B.Sc. (Figs. 24-27) 170

IV. — A new Form of Photomicrographic Camera and Condensing

System. By E. B. Stringer, B.A. (Fig. 28) ... .. .. 174

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.

Hill, J. P. — Placentation of Perameles 180

MaoBride, E. W. — Early Development of Amphioxus 181

Lankester, E. Ray — Development of Atrial Chamber in Amphioxus 181

Bugnion, E. — Development of Epiphysis in Reptiles 182

Andrews, E. A. — Some Activities of Polar Bodies .. 182

Hatta, S. — Pronephros of Lamprey 182

Kopsch, Fr. — Egg-laying of Dog-fish 182

# Merkel, Fr. — Formative Forces . .. 183

b. Histology.

Hoehl, E. — Intercellular Bridges in Muscle 183

Querton, Louis — Cell Membranes 183

Schlater, G. — Minute Structure of the Liver-Cell 183

Bischoff, C. W. — Influence of Cutting on the Growth of Hair 18 t

Ranvier, L. — Regeneration of Descemet's Membrane 184

Malischeff, N. — Nerve-Endings in (Esophagus and Stomach of Birds 184

Herrera, A. L. — Molecular Attraction in Vital Phenomena 184

c. General.

Parker, T. Jeffery, & William A. Haswell — Text-Book of Zoology 184

Ortmann, A. E. — Germinal Variation 184

MacBride, E. W. — Relationship of Amphioxus and Balanoglossus 185

Nakagawu, H. — A Japanese Amphioxus 185

Boulenger, G. A. — Tailless Batrachians of Europe 185

Fischer-Sigwart, H. — Habits and Life-History of Frog 185

Reynaud, G. — Sense of Direction 18G

Bles, E. J. — Openings in the Wall of the Body-Cavity in Vertebrates 18G

Moore, B., & Swale Vincent - Suprarenal Bodies 18G

Huot — Suprarenal Capsules in Lophobranch Fishes .. .. 186

Haldane, J. S. — Air-Bladder of Fishes 187

Phisalix, C. — Hornet's Venom antagoni ze to Viper's 188

A

Tunicata. PAGR

Sluiter, C. Ph. — South African Tunicata 188

INVERTEBRATA.

Zach arias, O. — Potamo plankton 189

Bos, J. Ritzema — Earthworms and Moles 189

Mollusca.

Locakd, Arnould — Abyssal Molluscs 189

a. Cephalopoda.

Krause, R. — Posterior Salivary Glands of Octopod a . . 189

y. Gastropoda.

McClure, C. F. W. — Nerve- Cells of Gasteropods . . ,, 189

Baker, F. C. — Notes on Radulfe 190

Amaudrut, Alex. — Structure of Prosobranchs 190

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Comstock, J. H., & J. G. Needham — Wings of Insects 190

Carpenter, G. H. — Geographical Distribution of Dragon-flies 190

Plateau, F. — How Flowers attract Insects 191

Dixey, F. A. — Mimetic Attraction 191

Trimen, R. — Mimicry in Insects .. .. .. .. 192

Urech, F. — Experiments as to Coloration of Butterflies 192

Dixey, F. A. —Temperature and Modification 192

Finn, Frank — Experiments on Warning Colours .. .. 192

Pic, Maurice — Myrmecophilous Coleoptera 192

Dolbear, A. E. — Crickets as Thermometers 192

Wilcox, E. V. — Chromatic Tetrads in Spermatogenesis of Grasshopper 193

Petrunkewitsch, A. — Development of Heart in Agelastica Aim 193

Scherbakow, A. — Apterygota of Kiew 193

Bordage, Edmond — Lepidoptera injurious to Sugar-Cane 193

Ingenitzsky, I. — Psyche Helix 193

B. yriopoda.

Heymons, R. — Segmentation of Myriopod Body 193

8. Arachnida.

Goeldi, E. A. — Remarkable Case of Protective Resemblance 194

Jourdain, S. — Development of Trombidion holosericeum 194

Megnin, P. — Harvest-Mites 194

Piersig, R. — Hydrachnida of Germany 194

Scourfield, D. J. — Tardigrada from Spitsbergen 194

e. Crustacea.

Bohn, Georges — Reversal of Respiratory Current in Decapods 194

Man, J. G. de — Malayan Decapoda and Stomatopoda 195

Scott, T. & A. — Some Rare Crustacea 195

Hansen, H. J. — Isopods of the * Albatross ’ expedition 195

Benedict, J. E. — Synidotea 195

Scourfield, D. J. — Entomostraca of Plon 195

„ „ Non-Marine Copepoda from Spitsbergen 196

Steuer, A. — Eye of Corycseus . . . . 196

Bassett-Smith, P. W. — New Parasitic Copepods 196

Schacht, F. W. — North American Species of Diaptomus .. .. . . 106

Annulata.

Korschelt, E. — Regeneration in Earthworms 196

Michel, Aug. — Origin of Setigerous Bulbs and Nepliridia in Annelids . .. .. 196

Darboux, G. — Cirrophore of Polynoidee 197

McIntosh, W. C. — Irish Annelids 197

Herdman, W. A., & others — New British Ecliinuroid 197

Lankester, E. Ray — Chxtopterin 197

3

Nematohelminthes. PAGK

Fritsch, G.— r Vitality of Young Round- Worms 197

Nassonov, N. — Terminal Organs of Excretory Canals in Ascarids 198

Jagerskiold, L. A. — (Esophageal Gland of Nematodes 198

Platyhelminthes.

Haswell, W. A. — New Prorhynchid Turbellarian 198

Muhling, P. — New Parasites 198

Shipley, A. E. — New Tapeworm in a Bird 198

Incertse Sedis.

Willey, A. — New Genus of Enter opneusta 199

Kostanecki, K. — Fertilisation in Myzostoma 199

Rotifera.

Sadone — Impregnation of the Ova of Hydatina Senta 199

Echinoderma.

Stone, Ellen A . — Function of Pyloric Caeca in Starfish . . 200

Ludwig, H. — Development of Phyllophorus urna 200

Ostergren, Hjalmar — Notes on Dendrochirota .. .. 200

Mitsukuri, K. — Sphaerothuria bitentaeulata in Japanese Seas 200

List, Th. — Protein Crystalloids in Nuclei of Amcebocytes 200

Coelentera.

Potts, E. — American Fresh-water Jelly-fish 201

Conant, F. S. — Notes on Cubomedusae 201

Duerden, J. E. — Irish Hydroids 201

Hickson, S. J. — Distribution of Millepora 201

Gronberg, Gosta — Tubularia indivisa 201

Ruedemann, R. — Recent Progress in the Study of Graptolites 202

Porifera.

Garbini, A. — Spongillids of Lago di Garda 202

Protozoa.

Delage, Y., & E. Herouard — Text- Booh on the Protozoa ** .. 203

Frenzel, J. — Argentine Protozoa 203

Prowazek, S. — Studies on Amoebae 203

Scourfield, D. J. — Fresh-water Rhizopods from Spitsbergen 203

Lauterborn, R. — Two new Protozoa 203

Lindner, G. — Protozoa of Pontine Marshes 204

Caullery, Maurice, & Felix Mesnil — New Gcelomic Greaarine . . . . 204

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy ana Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

CD Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Guignard, L. — Centrosomes in Plants 205

Arthur, J. O. — Movement of Protoplasm in Coenocytic Hyphae 205

Ewart, A. J. — Relations of Chloroplastid and Cytoplasm 206

Gardiner, W. — Histology of the Cell-wall 206

Dixon, H. N. — Tensile Strength of Cell-walls 207

C2) Other Cell-contents (including- Secretions).

Vines, S. H. — Proteolytic Enzymes of Nepenthes 207

Macchiati, L., & L. Buscalioni — “ Encapsuling ” of Starch-grains 207

Passerini, N. — Sorghin and Sorghorubin 2°7

4

(3) Structure of Tissues. page

Baranetzky, .1. — Development of the Growing Point in the Stem of Monocotyledon s 207

Perrot, 10. — Anatomy of the Aquatic Gentianacese 208

„ ,, Sieve-Tissue outside the Phloem and Vascular Tissue outside the

Xylem 208

Anderson, A. P. — Effect of JEcidium elatinum on Abies balsamea 208

(4) l’Structure of Organs.

Heinricher, E., & von Wettstein — Green Hemi- Parasites 209

Ricome, H. — Polymorphism of the Branches of an Inflorescence 209

Lubbock, Sir John — Buds and Stipules 210

Shull, G. H. — Disguises in Bud Arrangement 210

Chatin, A. — Fibrovascular Bundles of Leaves 211

Candolle, O. de — Peltate Leaves .. 211

Moebius — Leaves of Ficus 211

Gilkinet, A. — Defences of Plants 211

Winter, A. P. — Bulb of Erythronium 211

Janczewski, E. de — Boot of Anemone .... .. 212

Chauveaud, G.—Root of Hydrocharis 212

£. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Mottier, D. M. — Behaviour of the Nuclei in the Development of the Embryo-sac

and in Impregnation . 212

Tieghem, P. Van — Embryo of Graminese and Cyperacese 213

Celakovsky, L. — Homology of the Embryo of Grasses . . 213

Arcangeli, G. — Germination of Pollen-grains 214

Knuth, P. — Pollination by Bats 214

Gerard, R. — Pollination of Composite, Campamdacese , and Lobeliacese 214

Arcangeli, G. — Flowering of Arum pictum 215

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Germination, and Movements
of Fluids).

Czapek, F. — Conduction of Organic Food -Materials in Plants . .. 215

Ewart, A. J. — Effects of Tropical Insolation 215

Townsend, C. O. — Correlation of Growth under the Influence of Injuries .. 216

Darwin, F. — Hygroscopic Function of Stomates 216

Heller, R. — Influence of Electric Currents on the Lower Organisms 216

Copeland, E. B. — Relation of Nutrient Salts to Turgor 217

Brown, H. T., & F. Escombe — Influence of Low Temperatures on the Germi native

Power o f Seeds 217

Thomas, M. B. — Periodicity of Root-Pressure 217

Devaux, M. H. — Aeration of the Trunks of Trees 217

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Puriewitsch, K. — Emptying of the Contents of Reserve-Receptacles 218

Sablon, Leclero du — Digestion of the Endosperm of the Date 218

„ „ Oleaginous Reserve- Substances of the Walnut 218

Reinitzer, F.— Enzyme of Barley 218

Green, J. R., & A. Stavenhagen — Alleged Alcoholic Enzyme in Yeast 219

Babcock, S. M., & H. L. Russell — Unorganised Ferments in Milk 219

y. General.

Bessey, C. E. — Phytogeny and Taxonomy of Angiosperms . . 219

Ewart, A. J. — Resistance of Plants to Desiccation 219

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

Farmer, J. B. — Hybrid Fern 220

Scott, D. H. — Spencerites, a new Fossil Genus of Lycopodiacese 220

Muscinese.

Gayet, L. A. — Development of the Archegone of the Muscinese 220

Muller, C. — New Genera of Musci . , . . 220

b

Algee.

PAGE

Williams, J. Ll. — Antherozoids of Dictyota and Taonia 221

Brebner, G. — Tilopteridex 222

Dixon, H. H. — Structure of Codium 222

Fungi.

Eriksson, J. — Fungus-Parasites of Cereals 222

Yabe, K. — Two new Kinds of lied Yeast 222

Nakamura, T. — Behaviour of Yeast at a High Temperature 223

Symmers, W. St. C. — Peculiar Movement of Intracellular Particles in Yeast-Cells 223

Kobert — Phalline , a Poisonous Product from Fungi 224

Horrell, E. C. — Sterigmates and Spores of Agaricus campestris 224

Casagrandi, O. — Morphology of Blastomycetes 224

Myxomycetes.

Roze, E. — Pseudocommis Vitis , as a Cause of Disease in Plants 224

Protophyta.
a. Schizophyceee.

Bouilhac, R. — Biology of Nostoc .. 225

Sauvageau, L.— Nostoc punctiforme 225

B. Schizomycetes.

Kunstler, J., & P. Busquet — Central Body of the Bacteriacex 225

Omelianski, Y. — Ferment of Cellulose 225

Woods, A. F. — Bacteriosis of Carnations 226

Montesano, G., & Maria Montessori — Tetanus Bacillus in a Case of Dementia

paralytica 226

Ledoux-Lebard — Action of Pseudo-tuberculous Serum on the Bacillus of Pseudo-

Tuberculosis 226

Reid, F. J. — Growth of the Tubercle Bacillus at a Low Temperature 227

Freudenreich, Ed. de — Action of Rennet on Pasteurised Milk 227

Emmerling, O. — Fermentation of Fresh Grass 227

Kitt, Th. —Streptothrix Form of the Swine Erysipelas Bacillus 227

Czaplewski, E., & R. Hensel — Bacterium found in Hooping Cough 227

Hewlett, R. T., & Edith Knight — Bacilli and Pseudo-Bacilli of Diphtheria .. 228

Nepveju, G. — Bacilli of Beri-Beri 228

Pitfield, R. L. — Streptococcus Sanguinis Canis 229

Freudenreich, Ed. de — Ripening of Emmenthal Cheese 229

Besana, 0. — Black Discoloration of Cheese and Cheese-Poisoning 229

Hewlett, R. T. — Bacillus Pestis 230

Sanarelli, J. — Bacillus X Sternberg, and Bacillus icteroides Sanarelli . . . 230

Russell, H. L., & others — Tubercle Bacilli in Butter 230

Andrewes, F. W. — Bacillus enter itidis sporogenes var .. .. 231

Klein, E. — Microbes of Vaccinia and Variola 231

Fischer, A. — Lectures on Bacteria 231

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, See.

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

Wadsworth, F. L. O. — Spider-Lines (Fig. 29) 232

Wicke, W. — Novelties in Polarisation Apparatus (Figs. 30-36) 233

(6) Miscellaneous.

Coplin, W. M. L. — Laboratory Dish (Figs. 37 and 38) 237

Jaggar, T. A. — Micro- Sclerometer for Determining the Hardness of Minerals

(Plates III. and IV.) 237

J Gebhardt, W. — Immersion-Oil Bottle (Fig. 39) 238

6

B. Technique.

(.1) Collecting: Objects, including- Culture Processes^ i*age

Cobbett, L. — Alkalised, Serum as a Culture Medium for Diphtheria Bacilli . . . . 239

Lunt, J. — Preserving Living Pure Cultivations of Water Bacteria 239

Friedrich, P. L. — Actinomycotic Form of the Tubercle Bacillus 240

(2) {Preparing Objects.

Gardiner, W. — Detection of Protoplasmic Threads in Cell-Walls 240

Tswett, M. — Use of Permanganate in Microtechnique 241

Baklanoff, W. — Preparation of Pigments for Depicting Microscopical Preparations 241

Ballowitz, E. — Visibility and Appearance of Unstained Centrosomes 241

Kirkby, W. — Clearing Vegetable Sections 241

Berkeley, H. J. — Preparing Central Nervous System 242

Thoma, R. — Apparatus for Rapidly Fixing and Hardening Tissues 242

(3) Cutting including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Yankawer, S. — New Microtome (Figs. 40 and 41) 242

Groot’s (J. G. de) Improved Lever Microtome 244

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Bolton, J. S. — Chrome-silver Impregnation of Formalin-hardened Brain .. .. 244

Bowhill — Staining Flagella of Bacteria with Orcein 244

Giglio-Tos, E. — Staining Blood of Oviparous Vertebrata 245

Lagerheim, G. — Permanent Stain for Starch 245

Frankl, O. — Injection Mass 245

[(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Thorn, C. — Method of Preserving Algae 245

Hei rck, H. van — Media for the Study of Diatoms 246

Limpid Colourless Solution of Copal 247

(6) Miscellaneous.

Kofoid, C. A. — Sources of Error in the Plankton Method 247

Darwin, F. — Method of Demonstrating Assimilation 247

Scourfield, D. J. — Logarithmic Plotting of Biological Data 247

Macfadyen, A., & J. Lent — Aitkeris Dust-Counter 248

Brodie, T. G., & A. E. Russell — Enumeration of Blood-Platelets 248

Billstein, Emma L. — Cleansing of Slides and Cover-Glasses 249

Zielina, A. — Cleaning Used Slides 249

Bolas, T. — Glass-Blowing and Working 249

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, 16th February, 1898 .. .. 250

„ 16th March, 1898 252

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1

1898. Part 3.

JUNE.

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JUL 27 IR9P

Journal

3V )

OF THE

Royal

Microscopical Society

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ZOO LOG-'Y' -A_ 1ST HD BOTANY

(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia) ,
MICROSCOPY, <Scc_

Edited by

A. W. BENNETT, M.A. B.Sc. F.L.S.

Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital ;

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND

R. G. HEBB,’ M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P. J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. F.R.S.E.

Lecturer on Pathology at ,Westminster Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine ,

Hospital ,

Edinburgh,

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CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

PAGE

V. — On Anchor Mud from the Malay Archipelago. By

A. Durrand, F.R.M.S 255

YI. — Report on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay
Archipelago collected by Mr. A. Durrand, F.R.M.S.

By Fortescue William Millett, F.R.M.S. (Plates V.

and YI.)

VII. — A few Notes on Micro-Crystallography. By T. Charters

White, M.R.C.S., L.D.S., F.R.M.S 270

VIII. — On some Organic Substances of High Refractivity, avail-
able for Mounting Specimens for Examination under
the Microscope. By H. G. Madan, M.A., F.C.S., Fellow

of Queen’s College, Oxford 273

IX. — Instantaneous Photomicrography. By E. B. Stringer, B.A. 282

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES.
ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.
a. Embryology.

Hertwig, O. — Influence of Temperature on Development 283

Beard, J. — Birth- Ptriod of Trichosurus vulpecula .. . . 283

Carnoy, J. B. — Fertilisation in Ascaris 284

Lenhossek, M. von — Spermatogenesis in Mammals 284

Beissner, Hans — Interstitial Substance of Testis 284

Hzeuker, Y. — Behaviour of Reproductive Cells in Blunts and Animals 284

Fulton, T. Wemyss — Maturation of Pelagic Teleostean Eggs 285

Brouha, M. — Development of Liver and Pancreas in Birds 285

Braem, F. — Epiphysis and Hypophysis in Frog 280

Salzer, Hans — Hypophysis of Mammals 28G

Rabl, C. — Development and Structure of the Lens 280

KorscH, Fr. — Development of External Form of Trout Embryo 280

McIntosh, W. C. — Post-Larval Fierasfer 287

Sewertzoff, A. N. — Metamerism of Head in Torpedo 287

Rollinat, R. — Copulation in Ophidians . . . . 287

Le Dantec, Felix — Sex and Molecular Dissymmetry . . 287

Fere, Ch. — Variations in Weight of Hens’ Eggs .. .. 287

Peter, Karl — Convergence in Development 287

b. Histology.

Ranvier, L. — Growth of Injured Nerves 288

Berkeley, H. J. — Effect of Poisons on Cortical Nerve-Cells 288

Kolster, R. — Peculiar Ganglion-Cells in Spinal Cord of Perch 288

Krause, K. — Optic Nerves of Fishes “ .. .. 2ns

Crevatin, F r. — Electric Organ of Torpedo 288

Houssay, F. — Osmotic Phenomena in Mdosis 288

Hermann, F. — Chromatoid Bodies of Sperm-Cells 289

Michaelis, L. — Lactation . 289

Michel, Aug. — Composition of Nucleoli . . . . 289

Hoffmann, R. Wolfgang — Cell- Plates and Cell-Plate Rudiments 289

Tomes, C. S. — Classification of Forms of Dentine .. . . 289

Spuler, A. — Canaliculi of Bone- Cells 289

Studnicka, F. K. — Histogenesis of Cartilage in Cyclostomes 290

Cohn, Th. — Closing Bands in Epithelium 2n0

Sfameni, P. — Nerve-Endings of the Sweat-Glands 290

Ranvier, L. — Process of Cicatrisation 290

Gehuchten, A. van — Structural Changes in Nerve-Cells 2nO

Catois — Neuroglia of Brain in Fishes 290

Moore, B., & Swale Vincent — Supra-Renal Capsules of Teleostei 291

A

c. General. pace

Cuenot, L. — Means of Defence among Animals 291

Emery, 0. — Instinct and Intelligence 291

Kroneckeh, H., & H. Marti — Influence of Chemical and Luminous Stimuli on

Red Blood- Corpuscles 292

Adolphi, H. — Variations in Spinal Plexus and Sacrum of Newt 252

Phisalix, 0. — Cholesterin and Bile-Salts as Vaccines against Viper’s Venom .. 292

„ Tyrosin as a Vaccine for Snake-Bite 292

Dastre — Function of the Liver in Relation to Iron .. 292

Baur, E. — Criticism of Chemical Theory of Life 292

Hesse, R. — Organs of Sight in Amphioxus 293

Smith, G. Elliot — Origin of Corpus Callosum . . 293

IN VERTEBR AT A .

Kofoid, C. A. — Sources of Error in Planhton Method . . 294

Zaciiarias, O. — Heleoplankton 294

Richard, Jules — Freshwater Fauna of Canary Islands 294

Cecconi, G. — Fauna of Vallombroso 295

Imhof, O. E . — Lacustrine Fauna 295

Mollusca.

Locard, Arnould — Abyssal Molluscs 295

a. Cephalopoda.

Erlanger, R. von — Spindle-Formation in Cephalopod Blastoderm 295

y. Gastropoda.

Lee, A. Bolles — Spermatogenesis of Snail 296

Godlewski, E. — Repeated Bipolar Mitoses in Mother-Sperm-Cells of Snail .. .. 296

Simroth, H. — Asymmetry of Gastropods 296

Chatin, Joannes — Connective Tissue of Paludina 296

Mazzarelli, G. — Tylodinidse 297

Kukenthal, W. — Parasitic Prosdbranchs 297

Kobelt, W. — Freshwater and Terrestrial Gastropoda from Halmahera , &c 297

Bergh, R. — Opisthobranchs of Ternate 297

Simroth, II. — Species of Vaginula 297

Plate, L. — Degenerative and Regenerative Processes in Breathing Tubes of Janellidse 297

Plate, L. H. — Chitonidw 298

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Douville, H. — Phytogeny of Lamellibranchs 298

Drew, Gilman A. — Yoldia 298

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Marchal, Paul — Remarkable Mode of Reproduction in Encyrtus 299

Miall, L. C., & others — Structure and Life-History of Phalacrocera replicata . . 299

Ihering, H. von — New Colonies and Fungus-Gardens in Ants 299

Janet, Charles — Apparatus for keeping Ants 299

Bordas, L. — Rectum and Rectal Glands of Orthoptera 300

Georgevitsch, Jivoca — Segmental Glands of Ocypus 300

Janet, Charles — Articular Membranes in Hymenoptera 300

Griffini, A. — Taxonomic Value of Nervures 300

Radcliffe, A. -Changes in Structure of Butterflies’ Wings 300

Marchal, P. — North African Galls 301

Schneidemuhl — Life-History of CEstrid Larvpe 301

Rengel, C. — Casting and Regeneration of Mid-Gut Epithelium in Water-Beetles .. 301

Kempny, P. — Studies on Plecoptera 301

Wasmann, E. — Studies on Termites 301

Gdercio, G. Del — Parasites of Pears 301

B. Myriopoda.

Silvestri, F. — Morphological Notes on Diplopoda 301

„ „ New Myriopods . . 302

Attems, Carl Grafen — Malayan Myriopods 302

y. Protracheata.

Willey, A. — New Species of Peripatus 302

Camerano, L.— New Species of Peripatus from Ecuador 302

§. Arachnida.

Wasmann, E. — Ant-eating Spider .. .. 302

Brandes, G. — Argas reflexus as a Human Parasite 303

Trouessart, E. — Distribution of Halacaridse 303

€. Crustacea.

Bethe, A. — Nervous System of Crab 303

Schreirer, W. — Peripheral Nervous System of Crayfish 303

Stebbing, T. R. R. — Amphipods from Copenhagen Museum 304

3

I i

PAGE

Scott, T. & A. — New Gopepods from the Clyde 304

Hansen, H. J. — Clioniostomatidae 304

Beecher, 0. E. — Trilobites and Crustaceans 304

Annulata.

Michaelsen, W. — Earthworms of Madagascar Region 304

Eisen, G. — Supposed Auditory Cells in Pontoscolex 304

Hacker, Y. — Pelagic Polychxte Larvae 305

De St. Joseph — Polychaeta of French Coast 305

Fauvel, Pierre — Ampharetidae 305

Caullery, Maurice, & Felix Mesnil — Spirorbis 305

Apathy, S. — Neck- Glands of Leech 306

Rotatoria.

Zacharias, O. — Researches on the Plankton of Ponds 306

Nussbaum, M. — Determination of Sex in Hydatina senta 306

Lauterborn, R. — Cyclic Reproduction in Rotifers .. . . 308

Daday — Rotatoria of New Guinea 308

Wesenberg-Lund — Danish Rotifera 309

Nematohelminth.es.

Linstow, von — Life-History of Gordius 309

„ „ Nematodes from Madagascar 309

Platyhelminthes.

Fuhrmann, O. — Turbellaria of Concarneau 309

Sonsino, P. — Larval Trematodes in Gastropod Hosts' 310

„ „ Helminthological Notes 310

Linton, E. — Trematode Parasites of Fishes 310

Sabussow, H. — Minute Structure of Genital Organs in Trieenopliorus 310

Linton, E. — Cestodes of Fishes 310

Ward, H. B. — Parasites of Birds 310

Rossetek, T. B. — Tapeworms of Ducks 310

Luhe, M. — Musculature of Dibothria 310

Wolffhugel, K. — Gonads of Taenia poly morpha 311

Mueller, A. — Helminthological Notes 311

Echinoderma.

Erlanger, R. von — Fertilisation and Cleavage of Echinoid Ovum 311

Ludwig, H. — Mediterranean Species of Synapta .. . 311

Ostergren, Hjalmar — Growth-Changes in integumentary Skeleton of Holothurians 311

Ccelentera.

Peebles, H. — Experiments on Hydra 311

Schneider, K. C. — - Classification of Siphonophora 312

Driesch, Hans — Regenerative Phenomena in Tubularia 312

Bonnevie, Kristine — New Hydroids 312

Porifera.

Minchin, E. A. — Spicules of Clathrinidae 312

Loisel, G. — Fibres of Reniera •• • 314

Petr, Fr. — Parenchyma- Spicules of Spongillidae 314

Lendenfeld, R. von — Zanzibar Sponges 314

Protozoa.

Behla, R. — Amoebae from a Medical Point of View • • 314

Zschokke, F. — Myxosporidia in Coregonus .. . . 314

Sjobring, Nils — Coccidia of Passeres 315

Lowit, M. — Presence of Protozoa in the Blood and Organs of Leukliaemic Persons 315
Piana, G. P., & A. Fiorentinl — Pathogenic Protozoa of Foot and Mouth Disease.. 315
Reed, W. — Amoeboid Bodies in the Blood of Vaccinated Monkeys and Children, and 315
in the Blood of cases of Variola 315

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including1 the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy-

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm.

Webber, LI. J. — Blepharoplast and Centrosomes 316

Swingle, W. T. — New Organs of the Plant-Cell . 316

N£mec, B. — Cytology of the Growing Point * .. 316

Amadei, G. — Fusiform Proteid Substances in the Balsaminex 316

4

PAGlt

Duggar, B. M. — Archespore and Nucleus of Bignonia 317

Mottier, D. M. — Chromosomes in the Development of the Pollen-Grains o f Allium 318

Chodat, R. — Protoplasmic Sac 318

(2) Other Cell-contents (including- Secretions).

Rosenberg, O. — Cell- Wall Mucilage 318

Mobius, M. — Wax as an Excretion within the Cell 318

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Bunting, Martha — Formation of Corlc-tissue in the Roots of the Rosacex .. .. 318

Thompson, Caroline — Internal Phloem in Gelsemium semper virens .* . . .. 319

Herbert, H. — Anatomy of the Hippomanese 319

(4) Structure of Org-ans.

Hansgirg, A. — Biology and Morphology of Pollen 319

Weberbauer, A. — Capsular Fruits 319

Schiyely, Adeline — Fruit of Amphicarpxa 320

Chatin, A. — Fibrovascular Bundles of Leaves 320

Meissner, R. — Size of the Leaves of Conifers 320

Grout, A. J. — Adventitious Buds on Leaves of Drosera 320

Clothier, G. L. — Propagating Roots inlpomxa k 320

Wilson, Lucy L. W. — Structure of Conopholis americana 321

3. Physiolog-y.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Tieghem, P. van — New Case of Basigamy 321

Coulter, J. M. — Embryology of Ranunculus 321

Longo, B. — Embryogeny of Rosacex and Calycanthacese 322

Pritzel, E. — Embryo and, Endosperm in the Parietales) 322

Campbell, D. H. — Embryology of Naias and Zannichellia 322

Wiegand, K. M. — Embryology of Potamogeton 323

Preda, A. — Embryo-sac of Hybrid Narcissi 323

Swingle, W. T. — Theories of Heredity 323

C2) Nutrition and Growth (including- Germination, and
Movements of Fluids).

Lopriore, G. — Action of Organic Acids on Growth 323

Maldiney & Thouvenin — Influence of the Rontgen Rays on Germination .. .. 324

Wiesner, J. — Germination of the Mistletoe 324

Rosenberg, O. — Transpiration of Halophytes 324

Mayer, A. — Movement of the Sap in Plants 324

(3) Irritability.

Czapek, F. — New Property of Geoiropically Irritated Roots 324

Celakovsky, L. — Aerotropism in a Saprolegniaceous Fungus 325

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Zaleski, W. — Formation of Albumen in Plants 325

Newcombe, F. C.— Cellulose-Enzyme 325

Semal, O. — Ammoniacal Fermentation due to Mucedinese .. - 325

y . General.

Vines, S. H. — Metamorphosis in Plants 325

Belajeff, W. — Relationship of Phanerogams and Cryptogams 326

Curtis, C. C. — Evolution of Assimilative Tissue in Sporophytes 320

Chamberlain, G. — Winter Characters of Sporanges 326

B. CRYPTOGAMIA.

Muscineae.

Sciiaar, F. — Bursting of the Antlierid in Polytrichum . .

Braithwaite’s British Moss-Flora

Rabenhorst’s Cryptogamic Flora of Germany ( Musci )

Characeae.

Migula’s European Characex

Algae.

Bohlin, K. — Studies in the Confervales

Buscalioni, L. — Pliyllosiphon Arisari

Hieronymus, G. — Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides
Bohlin, K. — New Unicellular Algse

Fungi.

Dries, R. van den — Nitrogenous Pigments of Fungi .
Gunther, E. — Mineral Food-Material of Fungi . ■
Schostakowitsch, W. — New Species of Mucor . .
Penzig, O., & P. A. Saccardo — New Genera of Fungi

Schroter, C., & others — Parasitic Fungi

Golden, K. E., & C. G. Ferris— Red Yeasts

326

327
327

327

327

328

328

329

329

330
330

330

331
331

5

I

VAG p

Mac fa hlan e, .T. M. — Mycorhiza on the Hoots of Plnlesia 332

Cavaua, F. — Podaxinete 332

Gramont de Besparre, A. de — Spores of the Truffle 332

Fischer, E. — Geoporn and its Allies 332

Gartner, A., & C. Fraenkel — Stutzer and Hartleb’s Nitre Fungi 332

Sanfelice, F. — Experimental Production of Russell’s Fuchsin Bodies 333

Johan-Olsen, O. — Cheese-ripening . . 333

Sabrazes & Brengues — Production of Fcivus Cups by the Inoculation of a pyogenic

Trichophyton 333

Protophyta.

a. Schizophyceae.

Kolkwitz, R. — Curvatures and Structure of the Membrane in the Schizophycese . . 334

Bohlin, K. — New Genera of Protococcoidex 334

Tilden, Josephine E. — Thermal Algx 334

Schroder, B. — New Plankton-Forms 334

Castracane, F. — Reproduction of Diatoms 335

Zacharias, O. — Rhizosolenia and Attheya 335

Jackson, D. D., & J. W. Ellms — Cause of Odours and Tastes in Drinking Waters 335
Klebahn, H. — Gas- Vacuoles of Gloiotricliia 335

B. Schizomycetes.

Zukal, H. — Myxobacteriacex 335

Gasi erini, G. — Crenothrix and Beggiatoa 336

RfjziCKA, V. — Internal Structure of Micro-organisms 336

Maze — Microbes of Root-tubercles 336

Beck & Schultz — Effect of Monochromatic Light on Bacterial Development . . . . 337

Morris, M. — Production of Sulphuretted Hydrogen , Indol, and Mercaptan by

Bacteria 337

Davidsoiin — Experimental Production of Amyloid 338

Gordan, P. — Putrefactive Bacteria in Fruit and Vegetables 338

Bijsse, W. — Gummosis of Beet-root 338

Charrin, A., & A. Desgrez — Production of Mucinoid Substance by Bacteria . . . . 338

Lepierre, Ch. — Production of Mucin by a Pathogenic Fluorescing Bacillus . . . . 339

Salimbeni, A. T. — Destruction of Microbes in Hyper vaccinated Animals .. . . 339

Nicolle, C. — Nature of the Agglutinated Substance . . . 339

Cantani, A. — New Ghromogenic Micrococcus 340

Ward, H. M. — Violet Bacillus 340

Grixoni, d. —Polymorphic Bacillus from a case of Calculous Nephritis .. . . 340

Wagner, A.— Coli and Typhoid Bacteria are Uninuclear Cells .. 340

Martin, S. — Growth of the Typhoid Bacillus in Soil 341

Cautley, E. — Behaviour of Typhoid Bacilli in Milk 341

Klein, E. — Observations on, and Experiments with, the Plague Bacillus 311

Nencki, M. & others — Microbe of Cattle Plague 342

Tavel, E. — Pseudotetanus Bacillus 342

Ciechanowski, S., & J. Nowak— JEtiology of Dysentery 342

Hamilton, Alice — Bacillus ccipsulatus chinensis sp. n .. 342

Bataillon & Terre — Tuberculosis and Pseudo Tuberculosis 343

Bordas, J., & others — Bacillus of Bitter Wine . . 343

Laser, H. — Smegma Bacillus 344

Czaplewski — New Bacillus from a case of Leprosy . . . . 344

Bosso, G. — Septicaemia hxmorrliagica of Cattle 345

Niessen, Van— JEtiology of Syphilis 345

Bose, F . J. — Parasites of Cancer and Sarcoma 345

MIOKOSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, See.

(1) Stands.

New Hartnack Microscope (Fig. 42) 347

Brugnatelli’s Large Size Mineralogical and Petrological Microscope (Fig. 43) . . 348

New Attachable Mechanical Stage (Fig. 44) 351

CSj Eye-pieces and Objectives.

New Hartnack Homogeneous-Immersion Objective 351

(3j Illuminating- and other Apparatus-

Zeiss’ Combined Horizontal and Vertical Camera (Figs. 45 and 46) 351

6

(4) Photomicrography. page

Gaylord, H. R. — WirikeVs New Photomicrographic Apparatus 354

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Mercer, A. Clifford — Aperture as a Factor in Microscopic Vision (Plates VII.

to X. and Fig. 47) 354

Nelson, E. M. — Microscopic Vision (Figs. 48-52) 362

r(6) Miscellaneous.

Buscalioni, L. — Vessel for Treatment of Paraffin Sections with Staining and other

Solutions (Figs. 53-57) 367

Funck, E. — New Rapid Filter (Fig. 58) 368

Cantani, A. — Injection Syringe for Bacteriological Work (Fig. 59) 369

Abba, F. — New Autoclave (Fig. 60) 369

B. Technique.

Cl) Collecting- Objects, including Culture Processes.

Miller, C. O. — Aseptic Cultivation of Mycetozoa 371

Jensen, O. — Peptonised Milk for the Cultivation of Lactic Acid Ferments . . . . 371

(2) Preparing Objects.

D’Arrigo, G., & R. Stampacchia — Demonstrating the Tubercle Bacillus in Tissues 372 .

Wagner, A. — Demonstrating the Structure of Coli and Typhoid Bacilli 372

Guitel, F. — Examining the Nephrostomes of Selachia 373

Michel, G. — Microscopical Examination of Viscous Urine . . . . 373

Rousseau, E. — Neiv Method of Decalcifying 373

(.3) Cutting including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Beck, Arno — New Microtome ( System Beck- Becker) (Fig. 61) 374

Nowak, A. — Neic Microtome by Reichert (Figs. 62-64) ,. .. 374

Student’s Microtome (Fig. 65) 377

Pinnock, E. — Two very simple Microtomes (Figs. 66 and 67) 378

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Knaak — Contrast Staining of Bacteria 378

Aujesky, A. — Simple Method, for Staining Spores 378

Reed, R. C. — Dahlia as a Stain for Bacteria in Celloidin Sections 379

Ward, N. G. — Importance of Testing the Reaction of Sputum in Staining for

Tubercle Bacilli 379

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Dixon, H. H. — Gelatin as a Fixative 379

(6) Miscellaneous.

Paste for Labels 379

Smith, Th. — Test for the production of Indol by Bacteria 380

Marpmann, G. — Method for splitting up Argillaceous Silicates containing Diatoms 380

Rice, F. S. — Making Sections of Steel 380

Nelson, E. M. — Old Book on Optics (Figs. 68-71) 381

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, 20th April, 1898 381

„ 18th May, 1898 392

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1898. Part 4.

AUGUST.

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\

ft in

Journal

OF THE

Royal

Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ZOOLOGY -A.2 NT 3D BOTANY

(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia),
MICROSCOPY, <Scc.

Edited by

A. W. BENNETT, M.A. B.Sc. F.L.S.

Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital ;

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND

R. G. HEBB, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P. J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. F.R.S.E.

Lecturer on Pathology at Westminster Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine,

Hospital, Edinburgh,

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CONTENTS

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

PAGE

X. — On a New Apochromatic Objective constructed without
the Use of Fluorite. By Philip E. Bertrand Jourdain,
F.R.M.S. (Figs. 72 and 73) 395

XI. — On a Method of Adjusting the Sizes of the Coloured
Images yielded by the Cooke Lens. By Philip E.
Bertrand Jourdain, F.R.M.S 397

XII. — Remarks on the Construction of the Planar Lens and
its Use in Low-Power Photomicrography. By Philip
E. Bertrand Jourdain, F.R.M.S. (Fig. 74) 399

XIII. — On the Errors to be Corrected in Photographic Lenses.

By E. M. Nelson, Pres. R.M.S. .. ,401

4

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES .

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.

Garbowski, T. — Theory of the Mesoderm .. .. , .. 404

Virchow, Hs. — Yolk-Sac of Scyllium . . 404

Neal, H. V. — Morphology of Vertebrate Head 405

IBecker, v. — Differentiation of Sex- Cells 405

Guaita, Georg yon — Crosses between Different Breeds of House-Mouse . . .. 405

Rath, Otto yom — Telegony and Maternal Impressions 40G

Babor, J. Fl. — Hermaphroditism 40G

Herrera, A. L. — Studies in Consanguinity 40G

Gaupp, E. — Development of Lizard’s Skull . , . . . 406

Fischel, A. — Regeneration of the Lens . . . . . . 40G

Kopsch — Neurenteric Canal 407

b. Histology.

Farmer, J. B. — Present Position of some Cell Problems 407

Chatin, Joannes — Indirect Division 407

Ballowitz, E. — Annular Nuclei 407

„ „ Superficial Position of Central Corpuscles in Epithelial Cells .. 407

„ ,, Intermediate Body in Cell-Division 407

Henneguy, L. F. — Relation of Centrosomes to Cilia 408

Studnicka, F. K. — Cuticle and Intercellular Bridges 408

„ „ Chondrified Fibres in Connective Tissue 408

Plate, L. — Alimentary Tract of Chelone 408

Tomes, C. S. — Enamel of Elasmobranch Fishes 408

Welsh, D. A. — Parathyroid Glands 409

Studnicka, F. K. — Minute Structure of Notochord, .. .. 409.

c. General.

Linsbauer, L. — Light-Limit in Water 409

Brandt, A. — Bristle-like Structures on a Shark .. 409

Cyon, E. de — Functions of Hypophysis Cerebri 409

Tornier, G. — Regeneration and Doubling of the Tail in Lizards .. . . .. . 410

A

2

PAGE

Moenkiiaus, W. J., & C. H. Eigenmann — Studies in Variation 410

Bumpus, H. C. — Variations and Mutations of the Sparrow's Egg in America . . 410

Duncker, G. — Variability in Fishes 411

Tornier, G. — Polydactylism and Syndactylism in Mammals 411

Werner, J. — Polydactylism in Swine 411

McIntosh, W. C. — Intelligence of Fishes 411

Meerwarth, Hermann — Coloration of Birds 412

Dastre, A., & N. Floresoo — Hepatic Pigments 412

Muller, O. — Adaptations of Respiratory Organs in Aquatic Mammals 412

Haldane, J. S.— Secretion and Absorption of Gas in the Swimming-bladder and

Lungs 413

Burne, R. II. — Porus Genitalis in Myxinidse 413

Krause, W. — Sensitiveness to Light in Amphioxus 413

Plate, L. — Petromyzont with Large Eyes 413

Vernon, H. M. — Relations between Marine Animal and Vegetable Life 413

Blackwell, Elizabeth — Scientific Method in Biology 411

Morgan, C. Lloyd — Heredity and Instinct 414

Marion, A. F. — Litoral Fauna and Pisciculture at Marseilles 411

Tasciienberg, O. — Bibliotheca Zoologica 415

IliECKEL, Ernst — Reaction in Zoology 415

Tunicata.

Metcalf, M. M. — Neural Gland in Cynthia papillosa 415

Herdman, W. A. — Australian Tunicata 415

Pizon, Antoine — Development of Double Larva of Diplosom:d e 415

INVERTEBRATA.

Mollusca.
a. Cephalopoda.

Burne, R. H. — Notes on Structure of Sepia 410

y. Gastropoda.

Burne, R. II. — Reno-Pericardiac Pore in Ampullaria TJrceus 410

Bumpus, H. C. — Variations and Mutations of Littorina 410

Moore, J. E. S. — Gastropods of the Great African Lahes 410

„ „ Typhobia 417

Boutan, L. — Peripheral Glandular Organ of Helcion pellucidum 417

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Plate, L. — Are there Septibranehiate Bivalves ? 417

Stempell, W. — Structure of Leda 418

Bruyne, (J. de — Phagocytosis in Development 418

Bryozoa.

Harmer, S. F. — Development of Tubulipora 418

Arthropoda.

Pantel, P. — Cleavage of the Cuticle in Moulting 418

Kellogg, V. L. — Facetted Eyes of Arthropods 419

a. Insecta.

Tutt, J. W. — Hybridising Species of Tephrosia 419

Haviland, G. D. — Termites 420

Harris, W. H. — Teeth of Diptera 420

Dubosq, O. — Sensory Nerve-Cells of Insects 420

Janet, Charles — Peculiar Gland in Ants 420

Pissarew, W. J. — Heart of Hive-Bee 421

Hamann, O. — Brain of a Cave-Beetle 421

Comstock, J. H., & J. G. Needham — Venation of a Typical Insect Wing .. .. 421

Pictet, Arnold— Groivth of Butterflies' Wings 421

Heymons, R. — Composition of Insect' s Head 421

Paulmier, F. C. — Chromatin Reduction in Hemiptera 421

Heymons, R. — Development of Food-Canal in Lower Insects 422

j3. Myriopoda.

Heymons, R. — Development of Chilopoda 422

5. Arachnida.

Carruccio, M. — Sarcoptes minor 422

Thomas, Fr. — Heliotaxis of Larval Mites 422

Piersig, R. — German Hydrachnidee .. 422

3

e. Crustacea. rAGE

Holmgren, E. — Peripheral Nervous System . . . . 422

Milne-Edwards, A., & E. L. Bouvier —Distribution of Deep-Sea Brachyura and

Anomura 423

Sciiuchert, C. — Fossil Apodidx 423

Bonnier, Jules — New Gall-malting Copepod 423

Calman, W. T. — Deep-Sea Crustacea from the South - West of Ireland 423

Annulata.

Gamble, F. W., & J. H. Ashworth— Structure of Lug- Worm 424

Gravier, Cii. — Brain of Glycera 425

Darboux, G. — Elytra of Aphroditidse 425

Akira Jizuka — Neiv Species of Litoral Oligochxta 425

Houle, Louis — Annelids of 1 Travailleur ’ and ‘ Talisman Expeditions 425

Schneider, G. — Phagocytic Organs in Earthworms 425

Friedl^ender, P. — So-called Palolo- Worm 426

Incubation of the Skate-Leech 426

Kunstler, J., & A. Gruvel — TJrns of Sipunculus 426

Rotatoria.

Stenroos, K. E. — Fauna of the Nurmijdrvi Lake 426

Rousselet, C. F. — Some little-known Pterodinx 427

Mrazek, Al. — Development of Asplanclina 427

N ematohehninth.es .

Linstow, von — New Nematodes from Bismarck Archipelago 427

Metalnikoff, S. — Excretion in Ascaris 427

Nassonow, N. — Endo-Parasites of Hyrax 428

Platyhelminthes.

Francavigiia, M. C. — Helminthological Notes 428

Muhling, P. — Helminths in Vertebrates of East Prussia 428

Stiles, C. W. — Adult Tapeworms of Hares and Babbits 428

Mrazek, Al. — Archigetes 428

Cerfontaine, Paul — Dactylocotyle 428

„ „ Merizocotyle 428

Rosseter, T. B. — Beproductive Organs of Drepanidotxnia venusta 428

Randolph, H., & O. Fuhrmann — Degeneration in Planarians , . 429

Woodworth, W. McM. — New Planarians 429

Incertee Sedis.

Beard, J. — Sexual Conditions of Myzostoma gldbrum 429

Echinoderma.

Jaekel, O. — Alimentary Tract of Pelmatozoa 430

Dendy, A. — Anal Papillx of Caudina coriacea 430

OSTErgren, Hjalmar— Classification of Synaptidx 430

Clark, H. L. — Synapta vivipara 430

Cuenot, L. — Protandric Hermaphroditism of Asterina gibbosa 431

Coelentera.

Zykoff, W. — Movements of Hydra 431

Wetzel, G. — Grafting Experiments on Hydra 431

Agassiz, A., & A. G. Mayer — Dactylometra 432

Browne, E. T. — Keeping Medusx alive 432

Con ant, F. S. — Cubome'dusx 432

Agassiz, A., & A. G. Mayer — Some Medusx from Australia 433

Kwietniewski, C. R. — Actiniaria from East Spitzbergen 433

Bernard, H. M. — Studies on Madreporaria 433

Fischel, A. — Experiments on Ctenophore Eggs 434

Porifera.

Breitfuss, L. L. — Calcareous Sponges of Spitzbergen 434

„ „ Portuguese Calcarea 434

Lindgren, Nils Gustaf — Malayan and Chinese Sponges . . . . 434

Thiele, J. — Pacific Sponges 434

Delage, Y., & E. Perrier— Position of Sponges 434

Maas, O. — Germinal Layers in Oscar ella .. .. 435

Protozoa.

France, R. — Protozoa of the Balaton Lake 435

Kunstler, J. — Modifications in Protozoa 435

Chapman, F. — New Genus of Foraminifera 435

Mrazek, Al. — New Sporozoon from Limnodrilus 436

4

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.

a. Anatomy.

(1) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. page

Nemec, B. — Development of the Achromatic Nuclear-division Figure in the Vegeta-
tive and Reproductive Tissues 437

Pirotta, R., & L. Buscalioni — Multinucleated Vascular Elements in the Dios -

coreacese 437

Loew, O. — Protoplasm and Active Albumen 437

(2) Other Cell-contents (including- Secretions).

Kohl, F. G. — Chlorophyll and its Derivatives 438

Mirande, M. — Calcium Malate and Malophosphate in Plants 438

Lutz, L. — Gum of Canna 438

Passerini, N. — Gum in Elm-galls 438

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Jeffrey, E. C. — Central Cylinder of Vascular Plants 438

Pirotta, R., & L. Buscalioni — Origin of the Vascular Elements in the Groiving

Point of the Root of Monocotyledons 439

Vidal, L. — Vascular Bundles in the Receptacle of the Labiatse 439

Chauveaud, G. — Formation of Sieve-Tubes in the Roots of Monocotyledons .. .. 439

Mirande, M. — Laticiferous Tubes and Sieve-Tubes of Cuscuta 440

Nestler, A. — Mucilage- Cells of the Malvaceae 440

Longo— Mucilage-Cells of Opuntia 440

(4) Structure of Org-ans.

Fatta, G. — Flower of Deherainia «. 440

Boldt, 0. E. — Epiphyllous Flowers of Clarita hamosa 441

Vidal, L. — Pistil and Fruit of the Caprifoliaceae 441

Delpino, F. — Dichroism in Plants 441

Keller, R. — Adaptation of Land-Plants to Existence in Water 441

Poulsen, V. A. — Extra-Floral Nectaries 441

Potonie, H. — Leaf and Stem 442

Reinke, J. — Assimilating Organs of the Asparageae 442

Wollen weber, E. — Floating Leaves 442

Rowlee, W. W .—Lodicules of Grasses 442

Bessey, 0. E. — Chimney -shaped Stomates 442

Holm, T. — Pyrola aphylla . . 443

i 6. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

Goldflus, M. — Embryology of Compositae

Campbell, D. H. — Development of the Embryo in Lilaea subulata

Ganong, W. P. — Polyembryony in Opuntia

Ikeno, S. — Centrosome-like Body in the Pollen-tube of Cycadese

Ekstam, O., & others — Cross-Pollination and Self-Pollination .. .. .. ..

Saunders, W. — Experiments on Hybridising .. ... .. .. .. .. .; • ..

Linton, E. T. — Hybridisation of Willows

Gagnepain, F. — Hybrid between Lychnis diurna and L. vesperlina

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Germination, and
Movements of Fluids).

Lopriore, G. — Action of the Rontgen Rays on the Protoplasm of the Living Cell ..

Lutz, L. — Nitrogenous Nutrition of Plants

Jodin, F. V. — Germination of Seeds .. ......

Tolomei, G. — -Influence of Electricity on Germination

Guppy, H. B. — Germination of the Seeds of Aquatic Plants

Heinricher, E. — Germination of Lailirxa

Passerini, N. — Effects of Water at different Temperatures on the Germination of
the Olive

Bessey, C. E.— Functions of Stomates - .

Haberlandt, G. — Transpiration in a Moist Tropical Climate ‘ ..

(3) Irritability.

Bonnier, G. — Movements of the Sensitive Plant in Water

Sohwendener, S. — Sensitive Cushions of Pliaseolus and Oxalis

Schober, A. — Relationship of Secondary Roots to the Vertical . . . .

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Gerber, C. — Ripening of Fleshy Fruits

Wieler, A. — Formation of Wood from Reserve-Material .. ..

Gruss, J. — Formation of Cane-Sugar out of Dextrose

Green, J. R. — Yeast and Alcoholic Fermentation

Iensen, O. — Formation of Holes in Emmenthal Cheese

443

443

444
444

444

445
445
445

445

446
446
446
446
446

446

446

447

447

447

447

447

448
448

448

449

5

B. CKYPTOGAMIA.

Cryptogamia Vascularia.

PAGE

Cornaille, F. — Leaves of Selaginella 449

Bruchmann, H. — Selaginella spinulosa 449

Lowe, E. J. — Ferns of Multiple Parentage 449

LIannig, E. — Pits in the Cyatheaceae and Maraitiacese 450

Muscineae.

Bescherelle, E., & others — New Genera of Musci 450

Massalongo, 0. — New Genera of Hepaticze 451

Campbell, D. H. — Systematic Position of Monoclea 451

Goebel, K. — Retrogression in Metzgeria 451

Algae.

Strohmeyer, O. — Influence of Algx on the Purity of Water 451

Karsakoff, N. — Vichersia, a new Genus of Floridex 452

Goebel, K., & E. S. Barton — New Freshwater Floridea 452

Oltmanns, F., & R. Chodat — Reproduction of Coleochxte 452

Kreftling, A. — Economical Product from Seaweeds 453

Church, A. H. — Polymorphy of Cutleria multi 'fida .. .. 453

West, W. & G. W .—Conjugate 453

Mitzkewitsch, L. — Karyokinetic Nuclear Division in Spirogyra 454

Pennington, Mary E. — Chemical Physiology of Spirogyra 454

Devaux — Dissociation of the Cells of Spirogyra 454

Schmidle, W. — Arboreal Algse 454

Wille, N. — Plankton- Algse of the Freshwater Lakes of Norway 455

Fungi.

Berlese, A. N. — Impregnation and Development of the Oospliere in Peronosporese 455

Derschau/von, & others — Parasitic Fungi 455

Laborde & P. Carles — “ Casse ” of Wine 456

Darbishire, O. Y. — Roccellese 456

Wilhelmi, A. — Saccliaromyces guttulatus 457

Jorgensen, A— Micro-organisms of the Fermentation Industry 457

Hansen, E. C. — Heliotropism in the Agaricinese 457

Massee, G. — Evolution of the Basidiomycetes 457

Juel, N. C. — Tulasnellacese , a new Family of Fungi 458

Mangin, L. — Structure of Mycorhiza . „ 458

Protophyta.
a. Schizophyceae.

Chodat, R. — Stapfia , a new Genus of Palmellacese 458

Kjellman, F. R. — Urospora and Hormiscia 459

Palmer, T. C. — Movements of Eunotia major .. .. 459

Beck v. Mannagetta, G. — Germination of Microchsete tenera 459

Schmidle, W. — Cyanotlirix and Mastigocladus 459

B. Schizomycetes.

Bendy, A. — Remarkable Marine Organism 459

t Wolfenden, R. N. — Action of Rbntgen Rays on Bacteria 460

Migula’s Bacteriology and the Classification of Bacteria 460

Renault, B. — Micro-organisms of Lignite 461

Behring & others — Microbiology as applied to Hygiene 461

Roze, E .—Chatinella, a new Genus of Schizomycetes 461

Smith, Erwin F., & H. L. Russell — Bacterial Diseases of Plants 462

Nutt all, G. H. F. — Spread of Infectious Diseases by Biting Insects 462

Malfitano, G. — Effect of High Pressures on Micro-organisms 462

Nocard & Roux — Microbe of Peripneumonia of Cattle 463

Koplik, H. — Bacteriology of Pertussis 463

Prescott, S. C., & W. L. Underwood — Bacteriology of Sour Corn 463

Petruschky, J. — Excretion of Typhoid Bacilli in the Urine 464

Bordas, F., & others — Micro-organisms of turned Wines 464

„ „ Bacillus of Bitter Wines 464

Bose, F. J. — Pathogenesis and Histogenesis of Cancer 465

Ceourmont — New Form of Tuberculosis . . 465

Schumowski, W. — Mobility of the Tubercle Bacillus 465

Baumgarten, P. — Therapeutic Value of the New Tuberculin 466

Lannelongue & Achard — Immunity of Fowls to Tuberculosis 466

Laxa, H. O. — New Thermophilous Bacillus 466

Stutzer, A., & R. Hartleb — Bacterium of Foot-and-Moutli Disease 467

Issatschenko, B. — New Bacillus Pathogenic to Rats 467

Sanarelli, G. — Myxomatogenous Virus 467

Hunter, W. K. — Jfctiology of Beri-Beri 468

Lafar’s Technical Mycology 468

6

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, See.

(1) Stands. page

Czapski, S., & W. Gebiiardt — Greenough' s Stereoscopic Microscope and its Auxiliary

Appliances (Figs. 75-80) 469

Two Old Microscopes exhibited by the President at the last Meeting (Figs. 81 and 82) 473
Kraus, Rudolf — Electrically-Heated and Regulated Warm Stage (Figs. 83 and 84) 475

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Zeiss’ New Comparison Spectroscope (Fig. 85) 477

(6) Miscellaneous.

Novy, F. G. — Neiv Thermo- Regulator (Figs. 86 and 87) 478

Murrill, P. — New Gas-Pressure Regulator (Figs. 88-90) 480

Ward, H. B. — Paraffin Imbedding Table (Fig. 91) 481

Jeffers, H. W. — Circular Colonometer (Fig. 92) . 481

Weiss, J. — Circular Colonometer (Fig. 93) 481

Heurck, H. van — New Test-Plate 483

Sturgis, W. C. — Improved Form of Wash-bottle (Fig. 94) 483

Dippel’s (L.) The Microscope and its Application ,. 484

B. Technique.

Cl) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes.

Marpmann, G. — Method for making Anaerobic Roll-Cultures with Gelatin or Agar 484

Morel, A. — Cultivation Media suitable for Tropical Climates 484

Gabritschewsky, G. — Production of Plague Serum 485

Pertz, Dorothea F. M. — Culture of Pleuroooccus 485

(2) Preparing Objects.

Marpmann, G. — Method for Preparing Plankton Organisms 485

Wellheim, F. Pfeiffer R. v. — Fixing and Preparing Freshwater Algae .. .. 486

Berlese, A. N. — Preparing Parasitic Fungi 486

Durham, H. E. — Simple Method for Demonstrating the Production of Gas by

Bacteria (Fig. 95) 487

Demonstrating Pacini's Corpuscles 487

Rossolino, G., & W. Muraview — Fermol-Methylen-Blue Treatment of Nerve-Fibres 487
Ruzioka, Y. — Demonstrating the Nucleoli of Cells in Central Nervous System.. .. 487

Yolk, R. — Peroxide of Hydrogen in Microscopical Research 488

Zielina, A. — Preparing Permanent Blood-Films 488

Coles, A. C. — How to Examine the Blood and Diagnose its Diseases 488

(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Dahlgren, U. — Combination of the Paraffin and CeUoidin Methods of Imbedding 489

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Loisel, G. — Action of Pigments on Living Sponges 489

Rubinstein, H. — Staining Blood-Films 489

Narramore, W. — Staining the Envelope of Milk- Globules 490

Kuster, E. — Staining the “ Vacuole- Granules ” in Yeast-Cells 490

Lutz, L. — Double Stain for Gums 490

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Bioletti, F. T. — Method of Preserving Culture Media 490

Tellyesniczky, K. — Fixative Solutions .. 491

Andrews, G. F. — Method for the Preservation of Protoplasmic Spinnings .. .. 491

Deeljen, Id. — Method for Fixing Leucocytes and Blood-plates 491

Marfmann, G. — Selenium as a Mounting Medium for Diatoms 492

Graf — Picro-Formalin in Cytological Technique 492

Washburn, F. L. — Preservative for Freshwater Sponge 492

(6) Miscellaneous.

Besson, A. — Microbiological and Serotherapeutical Technique 492

Andrews, G. F. — Camera Drawing 493

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

Meeting, 15th June, 1898 .. .. 494

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100 plates, if plain. Prepayment by P.O.O.

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1898. Part 6.

OCTOBER.

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OF THE

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nov is ma

Microscopical Society;

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CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ZOO ILOG-^T -A- 1ST ID BOTANY
(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia),
MICROSCOPY, <Scc-

Edited by

A. W. BENNETT, M.A. B.Sc. F.L.S.

Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital ;

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R. G. HEBB, M.A. M.D. F.R.C.P. J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. F.R.S.E.

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CONTENTS.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY.

PAGB

XIV. — Keport on the Recent Foraminifera of the Malay
Archipelago collected by Mr. A. Durr and, F.R.M.S.

— Part II. By Fortescue William Millett, F.R.M.S.

(Plates XI. and XII.) 499

SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES .

ZOOLOGY.

VERTEBRATA.

a. Embryology.

Beard, J. — Span of Gestation and Cause of Birth 514

Eimer, G. H. Th. — Orthogenesis 515

Iwanzoff, N. — Physiological Import of Maturation 516

Carnoy, J. B., & H. Lebrun — Germinal Vesicle and Polar Bodies in Urodela .. 516

Assheton, R. — Segmentation of Ovum in Sheep 517

Bardeleben, K. von — Spermatogenesis in Man 517

Friedmann, F. — Rudimentary Ova in Frog's Testis 517

Perez, J. — Effect of Mechanical Stimulus on Unfertilised Ova of Sillmoth .. .. 517

Raspail, Xavier — Wind-Eggs 518

Verdun, P. — Fourth Visceral Cleft and Lateral Thyroid in Cat 518

Sprenger, Hs. — Development of Hedgehog's Spines 518

Prenant, A. — Organ in Embryo Reptiles like a Hypochorda 518

Gronroos, Hj. — Gastrula and Archenteron of Salamander 518

Winslow, G. M. — Cliondrocranium in lchthyopsida 518

Jablonowski, J. — Early Stages in the Development of Salmonidx 519

Ussow, S. A. — Development of Teleostean Scales 519

Hammar, J. A. — Development of Caecum in Amphioxus .. 519

Pearson, K. — Law of Ancestral Heredity .. .. 519

Kohlwey, II. — Formation of Breeds and Species 1 520

b. Histology.

Nemec, B. — Centrosomes and Nucleus •• 520

Arnold, J. — Structure of Cytoplasm 520

Buhler, A. — Structure of Nerve-Cells 521

Leydig, F. — Vascular Epithelium 521

Joseph, H. — So-called Vascular Epithelium .. 521

Kolossow, A. — Intercellular Connections in Epithelium 521

Leydig, F. — Epidermoid Structures in Mammals 521

Zimmermann, K. W. — Minute Structure of Glandular and Epithelial Tissue .. .. 522

Gardner — Histogenesis of Elastic Tissue 522

Gulland, G. Lovell — Digestive Tract of Salmon 522

Claypole, Edith J. — Comparative Histology of Digestive Tract 522

West, G. S. — Buccal and other Glands of Colubridae 523

Brodie, T. Gregor — Phosphorus-containing Substances of the Cell 523

Stilling, H. — Structure of Suprarenal Capsules 523

Reynolds, W. G. — Comparative Study of Hair 524

Loveland, A. E. — Organs of Taste 524

Mahalanobts, S. Muscle-Fat in the Salmon 524

c. General.

Perrier, E. — Origin of Vertebrata 524

Osborn, H. F. — Origin of Mammals .. .. 524

Braus, H. — Theory of Limbs 524

Cole, F. J. — Cranial Nerves and Sense-Organs of Fishes 525

Paton, D. Noel — Biology of the Salmon 525

Zenneck, J. — Markings of Boidee 525

Finn, F. — Warning Colours and Mimicry 526

Newbigin, M. I. — Pigments of Muscle and Ovary in the Salmon 526

Wagner, F. von — Division and Budding among Animals 526

A

2

PAGE

Wakren, E. — Remarkable Abnormality in a Frog 526

Wilson, J. T. — Vitalism and Evolution 526

Hesse, R. — Sensitiveness to Light in Amphioxus 527

Fabani, 0. — Lethargy in Birds 527

Bethge, E. — Respiration in Spelerpes fuscus without Lungs 527

Yung, E. — Digestion in Dogfish 527

Berry, J. M. — Phagocytosis in Amphibians and Mammals 527

Palacky, J. — Distribution of Batrachia 527

Pruvot, G. — Marine Fauna of Brittany and the Gulf of Lyons 528

Peck, J. I., & N. R. Harrington — Plankton of Puget Sound 528

Zimmer, 0., & B. Schroder — Plankton of Rivers 528

Vaillant, Leon — Common Eel in the Open Seas 528

Bach, A. — Biological History of Carbon 528

Solvay, F. — Possible Role of Electricity in Vital Processes . . . . 529

Janet, Charles — Terminology of Classification 529

Tunicata.

Pizon, Antoine — Classification of Molgulidse 529

Perrier, E. — Classification of Tunicata 529

INVERTEBRATA.
Mollusca.
a. Cephalopoda.

Joubin, L. — New Family of Cephalopoda 530

Crick, G. C. — Muscidar Attachment in Ammonoids 530

Joubin, L. — Grimalditeuthis 530

y. Gastropoda.

Rath, O. yom — Central Corpuscles in Sex- Cells of Snail 530

Goodrich, E. S.— Reno-pericardial Canals in Patella .. 531

Simroth, H. — Indo-Malayan Nudibranchs 531

Plate, L. H. — Structure and Classification of Janellidee 531

Meisenheimer, J. — Development of Limax maximus 531

Linden, Maria von — Convergence in Gastropod Shells 532

Boutan, Louis — Development of Acmsea 532

Bouvier, E. L., & H. Fischer — Structure of Pleurotomaria 532

5. Lamellibranchiata.

Stempell, W. — Structure of Nuculidas 532

Arthropoda.
a. Insecta.

Comstock, J. H., & J. G. Needham — Wings of Insects 532

Kenyon, F. C. — Daily and Seasonal Activity of Hive-Bees . . 533

Stoll, O. — Geographical Distribution of Ants 533

Bethe, A. — Psychical Qualities of Ants and Bees 533

Fabre, J. H. — An Insect Virus 534

Leon, N. — Cases of Myasis 534

Dixey, F. A. — Recent Experiments in Hybridisation 534

Cuenot, L. — False Homochromism 534

Griffiths, G. C. — Frenulum of Lepidoptera 535

Marshall, G. A. K. — Seasonal Dimorphism in Precis 535

Sasaki, C. — Affinity of Wild and Domestic Silkworms 535

Pictet, Arnold — Metamorphosis of Caterpillars 535

Berlese, A. — Metamorphosis of Muscidx 535

Wandolleck, B„ & Dahl — Alleged Phytogeny of Aphaniptera 535

Bordas, L. — Defensive Glands of some Beetles 535

Johnson, W. F., & G. H. Carpenter — Larva of Pelophila 536

Frey-Gessner, E. — Drowning of a Water-Beetle 536

Berlese, A. — Spermatophagous Organ in Bed-Bug 536

Leonardi, G., & P. Blffa — Classification of Coccidas 536

Cannarsa, S. — Rare Dermatosis 536

Bessey, C. A., & E. A. — Thermometer Crickets 536

Froggatt, W. W. — Australian Termitidse 536

Claypole, Agnes M. — Cleavage in Apterygota 536

Janet, Charles — Myrmecophilous Animals 537

„ „ Researches of 537

/3. Myriopoda.

Silvestri, F. — Fertilisation in Pachyiulus communis 537

yt Protracheata.

Bouvier, E. L. — Distribution of Peripatus . . 537

„ „ New Species of Peripatus 537

3

5. Arachnida. pagb

Berlese, A. — Agrarian Acarids 537

Bruoker, A. — Mouth-Farts of Mites 538

Pocook, R. I. — Spider and Pitcher-Plant 538

e. Crustacea.

CouTiiiRE, H. — Poecilogony in Alpheus minor 538

Bassett-Smith, P. W. — New Parasitic Copepods on Fishes 538

Lonnberg, E. — Parastacus 538

Sars, G. O. — South African Phyllopods from Dried Mud 539

Annulata.

Wilson, E. B. — Cell- Lineage in Annelids and Poly clades 539

Lewis, M. — Nervous System of Polychseta 539

Hamaker, J. J. — Nervous System of Nereis 540

Picton, L. J. — Heart-Body and Ccelomic Fluid in Polychseta 540

Gilson, G. — Owenia 540

M‘Intosh, W. 0. — Notes on Annelids 541

Mesnil, F., & Caullery — Epitokous and Polymorphic Forms of Dodecaceria con-

charum 541

Soulier, Albert— Early Stages in Development of Serpulidae 541

Gravier, Ch. — Proboscis of Glyceridae 541

Hescheler, K. — Regeneration in Earthworms 541

Michel, A. — Development of Nephridia of Earthworm in Regeneration and in

Ontogeny 542

Miohaelsen, W. — Chilian Earthworms 542

Rotatoria.

Calman, W. T. — Asplanchna in Britain

Daday, E. v. — Rotifera of Ceylon

Calman, W. T. — Reproduction in the Rotifera

Nemat oh.elminth.es.

Furst, E. — Centrosomes in Ascaris megalocephala
Montgomery, T. H., Jun. — American Gordiacea ^ . .
Nassonow, N. — Phagocytic Structures in Strongylus armc
Rotstadt, J. — Eustrongylus gigas in Dogs

Platyhelminthes.

Lonnberg, E. — Phytogeny of Cestodes

Francaviglia, M. C., & others —Helminthological Notes
Holzberg, F. — Gonads of some Species of Teenia
Miura, K., & F. Yamazaki — Tania nana

Incertae Sedis.

Hill, J. P. — Enteropneusta of Funafuti 544

Echinoderma.

Agassiz, A. — Echini of the 1 Albatross ’ 544

Perrier, Remy — Holothuroidea of the ‘ Travailleur * and * Talisman * 545

Ludwig, H. — Chilian Holothuroids • 545

Osborn, H. L. — Variation in Ambulacral System 545

M‘Intosh, W. C. — Larval Stage of Luidia 545

Vernon, H. M. — Hybrid Echinoid Larvae 545

Coelentera.

Giard, A. — Peculiar Phenomena of Growth and Reproduction in Campanularia . . 546

Nutting, C. C. — Sar costyles of Plumularidae 546

Chun, C. — Law of Budding in Physophora 546

Farquhar, H. — New Zealand Actiniaria 546

Monticelli, F. S. — Larva of Edwardsia claparedii .. .. 546

M‘Murrich, J. Pl. — Irreqularities in Number of Directive Mesenteries in Hexac-

tiniae . 546

Porifera.

Ijima, J. — Classification of Rossellidae

Bbeitfuss, L. L. — Calcareous Sponges from Chili

Protozoa.

Smith, J. 0. — Spore-Formation in Amoeba villosa . .

Silvestri, A. — Adriatic Foraminifera

Rhumbler, L. — Fertilisation-Processes in Rhizopods

Hertwig, R. — Conjugation and Karyohinesis in Actinosphaerium

Vinassa de Regny, P. E. — Fossil Radiolarians

Dreyer, F. — Peneroplis

Sand, R. — New Infusorian Genus

547

547

.. 547

.. 547

.. 547
.. 548

.. 548

.. 548

542

542

543

543

543

543

543

543

544
544
514

4

BOTANY.

A. GENERAL, including1 the Anatomy and Physiology
of the Phanerogamia.
a. Anatomy.

'Cl) Cell-structure and Protoplasm. page

Lidforss, B. — Histology of the Vegetable Nucleus 549

C avar a, F. — Structure of the Nucleus 549

Belajeff, W. — Reduction- Division of the Vegetable Nucleus 550

Stevens, W. C. — Kinoplasm and Nucleole in the Division of Pollen-mother-cells . . 550

Belajeff, W. — Blepliaroplasts in Spermatogenous Cells 550

Schaefer, K. L. — Reaction of Protoplasm to Thermal Irritation 551

(2) Other Cell-contents (including1 Secretions).

Raciborski, M. — Leptomin, a new Cell-content of Leptome 551

Gruss, J. — Oxydases and the Guaiacum Reaction 551

Went, F. A. F. C, — Saccharose and Glucose in Sugar-cane .•. 552

Guerin, G. — New Organic Substance in Woody Tissue 552

Lidforss, B. — Peculiar Cell-contents in Potamogeton prselongus 552

Hahn, M., & L. Geret — Proteolytic Enzyme of Yeast Extract 552

(3) Structure of Tissues.

Areschoug, F. W. 0.— Fundamental Tissue of the Leaf 552

Devaux — Formation and Structure of Lenticels 553

Montemartini, L. — Assimilating Tissue of Polygonum Sieboldii 553

Daguillon, A. — Alterations in the Tissue produced by a Parasite 553

(4) Structure of Organs.

Yochting, H. — Teratology of Flowers 553

Spanjer, O., & others —Hydathodes 554

Copeland, E. P. — Size of the Leaves of Conifers ' . . 554

Brunotte, C. — Double Root-cap of Tropseolum 554

Warburg, O. — Structure of Myristicacese 554

0. Physiology.

(1) Reproduction and Embryology.

MacMillan, C. — Orientation of the Plant-Egg 555

Treub, M. — Structure of the Female Organ and Apogamy in Balanophora . . . . 555

Lyon, Florence M* — Embryogeny of Euphorbia 556

Smith, W. R. — Embryogeny of the Pontederiacese 556

Knuth, P., & others — How Flowers attract Insects 556

Gerber, C. — Pollination of Cistus 557

Seurat, L. G. — Pollination of the Cactacese . . . . 557

Juel, H. O., & E. L. Greene — Parthenogenesis in Antennaria 557

(2) Nutrition and Growth (including Germination, and Movements
of Fluids).

Dangeard, A. — Influence of Nutrition on the Evolution of Plants 557

Loew, O. — Function of Calcium Sails 558

Kny, L., & A. J. Ewart — Power of Isolated Chlorophyll-grains to give out Oxygen 558

Rimpach, A. — Growth of Lilium Martagon 558

Sokolowa, C. — Growth of Root-hairs and Rhizoids 558

(3) Irritability.

Jost, L. — Nyctitropic Movements 559

Schaffner, J. H. — Nutation of the Sunflower 559

Macdougal, D. T. — Tendrils of Entada scandens 560

Yochting, K. — Influence of Low Temperatures on the Direction of Shoots .. .. 560

Steinbrinck, C. — Contraction-Movements of Anther-lobes, Sporanges, and Moss-leaves 560

(4) Chemical Changes (including Respiration and Fermentation).

Pfeffer, W. — Functional Metabolism in the Plant 561

Coupin, H. — Influence of Sodium and Magnesium Salts on the Growth of Plants . . 561

Brown, H. J., & F. Escombe — Depletion of the Endosperm of Barley during

Germination 561

Escombe, F. — Chemical Processes in the Germination of Seeds .. .. 561

Burlakow, G. — Respiration of the Embryo of Wheat 562

Tolomei, G. — Soluble Ferment in Wine 562

7« General.

Chodat, R. — Lacustrine Biology' 562

Lemmermann, E.— Flora of Trout-tanks 562

Coupin, H. — Resistance of Seeds to Immersion in Water 563

Macloskie, G. — Heat of Germinating Seeds 563

Farmer, J. B., & A. D. Waller — Action of Anaesthetics on Vegetable and Animal

Protoplasm . , 563

5

B. CRYPTOGAMIA. PAGE

Lustner, G. — Biology of Spores 563

Characeae.

Giesenhagen, K. — Shoot-Nodes of the Characeae 564

Muscineae.

Correns, C. — Propagation of Mosses hy Gemmae 564

Grevillius, A. Y. — Gemmae of Aulacomnium androgynum 564

Warnstoff, 0. — Dwarf Male Plants of Dicranum 564

Algae.

Benecke, W. — Food-Materials of Algae 564

Sauvageau, 0. — Germination of the Cutleriaceae 565

Darbishire, O. V. — Bangia pumila 565

Wille, N —Laminariaceae 565

Mottier, D. M. — Centrosome of Dictyota 565

Sauvageau, 0. — Sexuality of the Tilopterideae 566

„ „ Sexuality of the Sphacelariaceee 566

Kuckuck, P. — Conjugation of Swarm-spores in Scytosiphon 566

Mitzkewitsch, L. — Division of the Nucleus in Spirogyra 567

Gerassimoff, J. J. — Conjugation of Binucleated Cells in Spirogyra 567

Brand, F. — Rhizoclonium 567

Fungi.

Gerard, E. — Lipase in Fungi 568

Matruchot, L. — Protoplasm of the Mucorineae 568

Klebahn, H. — Biology of Uredineae 568

Nypels, P. — Germination of Mcidiospores 568

Mangin, L., & others — Parasitic Fungi 568

M‘Alpine, D., & G. H. Kobinson— Parasites of the Vine 569

Wildeman, E. de — Fungus parasitic on Zygnema 569

Zahlbruckner, A. — Stromatopogon, a new Genus of Lichens 570

Peirce, G. J. — Reticulations of Ramalina reticulata 570

Schneider, A. — New Text-book of Lichenobgy 570

Janssens, F. A., & A. Leblanc— Cytological Researches on the Yeast-Cell .. .. 570

Hansen, E. 0. — Vitality of Alcoholic Ferments 571

Berlese, A. — Winter Habitat and Dissemination of the Alcoholic Ferments .. .. 572

P>front, J. — Action of Oxygen on Beer- Yeast 572

Buscalioni, L., & O. Casagrandi — Saccharomyces guttulatus Rob. 572

Bodin^E. — Fungi intermediate between Trichophyta and A chorion . . 572

Matruchot & Dassonville — Trichophyton producing Herpes on the Horse .. .. 573

Gilchrist, T. 0., & W. R. Stokes — Pseudo-Lupus Vulgaris caused by a Blastomyces 573

Protophyta.
a. Schizophyceae.

Burger, J. — Culture-forms of Diatoms 573

Karsten, G. — Changes of Form of Seeletonema costatum 574

Bouilhac, R., & others— Nostoc punctiforme 574

j8. Schizomycetes.

Arthur, J. C., & others — Bacterial Diseases of Plants 574

Rulmann — Pathogenic Streptothrix in Sputum 574

Beet-root Jaundice 575

Bertrand, G. — Biochemical production of Sorbose 575

Craig, C. F. — Branched form of the Tubercle Bacillus 575

Bacillus graminearum 575

Wolstenholme, J. B. — Botriomyces 576

Martin, C. J., & T. Cherry — Nature of the Antagonism between Toxins and Anti-
toxins 576

Adami, J. G. — Microbe of Progressive Cirrhosis 576

Migula, W. — Astasia asterospora Meyer 577

Grimbert, L., & L. Ficquet — Bacillus tartaricus 577

Aronson — The Fatty Substance in the Tubercle Bacillus 577

Arloing, S. — Agglutinative Power of Tuberculous Serum produced by Chemical

Substances 578

Bordas, F., & others — Microbes of Turned Wine 578

Arloing, S. — Agglutination of the Tubercle Bacillus 578

„ „ Mobile Variety of the Tubercle Bacillus 578

Ferran, J. — Aerobism of the Tetanus Bacillus 579

Arkovy, J. — Bacillus Gangraenae Pulpas 579

Livingood, L. E. — Growth of Bacteria on Media made from Animal Organs.. .. 579

Sen weinitz, E. A. de, & Dorset — Mineral Constituents of Tubercle Bacilli .. .. 580

Boekhout, F. W. J., & J. J. Ott de Yries — New Chromogenic Bacillus .. .. 580

Bodin, E. — Action of Cider on the Typhoid Bacillus 580

Bruyning, F. F., Jun. — Bacteria of Sorghum Blight 581

Podbelsky — Sporicidal Action of Normal Rabbit Serum 581

6

MICROSCOPY.

A. Instruments, Accessories, &c.

(1) Stands. page

Sticker, George — Travelling Microscope (Figs. 96 and 97) 582

Berger’s New Microscope (Figs. 98-100) 583

Messter’s Bacteria Microscope (Fig. 101) 587

„ Compressorium Microscope (Fig. 102) 587

„ Preparation Microscope (Fig. 103) 588

(3) Illuminating- and other Apparatus.

Schaper, Alfred — New Apparatus for Application of Electric Currents to living

Microscopic Objects (Figs. 104-108) 589

(4) Photomicrography.

Spitta, Edmund J. — Photomicrography 1 591

(5) Microscopical Optics and Manipulation.

Wright, Lewis — Microscopic Images and Vision 592

CQ) Miscellaneous.

Cruz, G. — Simple Apparatus for Washing Microscopical Objects (Fig. 109) .. .. 595

Stevens, W. C. — Apparatus for Fixing and Hardening Small Objects (Fig. 110) .. 596

Moore, V. A. — Thermo-regulated Waterbaths for the Bacteriological Laboratory

(Figs. Ill and 112) 596

B. Technique.

(1) Collecting Objects, including Culture Processes.

Pacinotti & Municchi — New Medium for Bacteriological Diagnosis 597

Ferran, J. — Use of Acetylene in the Cultivation of Anaerobic Bacteria 598

Burger, J. — Culture of Diatoms 598

C2) Preparing Objects.

Gardiner, W. — Detection of Protoplasmic Threads in the Cell-wall . . 598

Ravenel, M. P. — Preparing Agar Media 599

Jordan, H. — Treatment of Celloidin Sections stained with Orcein 600

Laslett, E. E. — Modification of the Weigert-Pal Method for Paraffin Sections .. 600

Janssens, F. A., & A. Leblanc — Method of Demonstrating the Structure of Yeast-

Cells 600

(3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

French, G. H. — Imbedding and Staining Lichens 601

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Farmer, J. B. — Methylen-Blue for Investigating Respiration in Plants 601

Petri — Testing Butter and Milk for Tubercle Bacilli 602

Janssens, F. A. — Black Hsematoxylin 602

Rosenberg, O. — Prodigiosin as Staining Reagent for Botanical Specimens . . . . 602

Nestler, A. — Staining the Mucus-Cells of Malvaceae 603

Hewlett, R. T. — Diagnostic Stain for the Diphtheria Bacillus 603

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Baker, C. — Mounted Specimens — a New Departure 603

(6) Miscellaneous.

Wadsworth, M. E. — Some Methods of Determining the Positive or Negative Cha-
racter of Mineral Plates in Converging Polarised Light with the Petrographical

Microscope 604

Mez, C. — Microscopical Water Analysis 606

Groot, J. G. de — Cleaning Slides intended for Waterstuck Sections 606

Authors of Papers printed in the Transactions are entitled to 20 copies of their
communications gratis. Extra copies can be had at the price of 10#. 6d. per half-sheet
of 8 pages, or less, including cover, for a minimum number of 50 copies, and 6s. per
100 plates, if plain. Prepayment by P.O.O.

The Journal is issued on the third Wednesday in
February, April, June, August, October, and December,

v

1898. Part 6.

DECEMBER.

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•-ni

JAM y 1899

Journal

<• m

OF THE

Royal
Microscopical Society;

CONTAINING ITS TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS,

AND A SUMMARY OF CURRENT RESEARCHES RELATING TO

ZOOLOG jP^JSTJD BOTANY

(principally Invertebrata and Cryptogamia),

MICROSCOPY, S sc.

Edited by

A. W. BENNETT, M.A. B.Sc. P.L.S.

Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas's Hospital ;

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE AND

R. G. HEBB, M.A. M.D. F.R.O.P. J. ARTHUR THOMSON, M.A. F.R.S.E.

Lecturer on Pathology at Westminster Lecturer on Zoology in the School of Medicine ,

Hospital, Edinburgh,

FELLOWS OF THE SOCIETY.

LONDON :

TO BE OBTAINED AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS,

20 HANOVER SQUARE, W. ; ,

jj)^ of Messrs. WILLIAMS & NORGATE ; and of Messrs. DULAU & CO. J

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6

B. Technique.

Cl) Collecting1 Objects, including Culture Processes. page

Roger, M. — Artichoke as Nutrient Medium G80

l C2) Preparing Objects.

Oltmanns, F. — Preparation and Fixing of Algx 681

Arnold, J. — Isolating Ganglion-cells and unstriped Muscle-fibres 681

Doflein, F. — Methods for demonstrating Myxosporidia .. .. 681

Hochstetter, F. — Method for Demonstrating the Shape of Spaces and Passages in

Embryos 681

Jander, R. — Removal of Pigment from Zoological Specimens 682

Ritter, C. — Hardening Blood , Sputum, &c., on Slides 682

Smirnow, A. E. — Demonstrating Medullated Nerve-fibres 682

Spronck —Preparation of Diphtheritic Toxin without Meat 683

3) Cutting, including Imbedding and Microtomes.

Frai'CT . — New Microtome (Fig. 119) 683

(4) Staining and Injecting.

Herrick, C. J. — Weigert Methods of Staining 684

Salter, J. H. — Fixing and Staining Starch-grains 684

Nicholls, A. G. — Sudan Hi., a Selective Stain for Fat 684

Chalon, J. — Microchemical Staining of Cell-walls 685

Garcia, R. — New and rapid Method for double- staining Blood .. .. 685

Giglio-Tos, E. — Neutral Bed for Staining Heemoglobigenous Granules 685

Stephens, J. W. W. — Modification of Van Ermengem’s Method of Staining Flagella 685
Moller, W. — Staining Intestinal Canal by Van Gieson’s Method 686

(5) Mounting, including Slides, Preservative Fluids, &c.

Koninskt, K. — New Method for Fixing Paraffin Sections to the Slide 686

(6) Miscellaneous.

Macallum, A. B. — Microscopic Detection of Phosphorus-containing Compounds . . 686

Barth, H. — Microchemical Demonstration of Alkaloids 687

Peters, G. A. — New Method for making Casts 687

Lee and Mayer’s Outlines of Microscopical Technique for Zoologists and Anatomists 688

Cement for Glass 688

Stein, S. von — Bone-Corrosion Preparations .. .. 688

Our Frontispiece 688

PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY,

Meeting, 19th October, 1898 689

„ 16 th November ,, 694

Index of New Biological Teems 696

General Index to Volume 697

Contents of Volume vii

Authors of Papers printed in the Transactions are entitled to 20 copies of their
communications gratis . Extra copies can be had at the price of 10s. 6d. per half-sheet
of 8 pages, or less, including cover, for a minimum number of 50 copies, and 6s. per
100 plates, if plain. Prepayment by P.O.O.