HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
LIBRARY
OF THE
MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY
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(! osu. ge 192
OCT 24 192)
JOURNAL OF THE TRANSACTIONS
ire VretORTA TENS Fe UTE .
VOL. XXXVII.
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JOURNAL OF
THE TRANSACTIONS
Ghe Victoria Institute,
Philosophical Society of Great Pritain,
EDITED BY THE SECRETARY.
VOLE Pee X El.
LONDON :
(Bublishey by the Lnstitute, 8, Avelpht Cercace, Charing Cross, WU.C.)
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
1905.
LONDON:
HARRISON AND SONS, PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY,
ST. MARTIN’S LANE.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Tue ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING, HELD IN THE HOUSE OF THE
Society or Arts, WEDNESDAY, JUNE 7TH, 1904. THE Rr. Hon.
THE EARL oF Hatssury, D.C.L., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT), IN THE
CHAIR seen eeee eevee ‘eee eoee eese eeoce cere
THIRTY-NINTH ANNUAL REPORT .... a ste aae ae
THE ANNUAL ADDRESS. ON RECONSTRUCTION AND RESTATEMENT.
By Dr. Sitvanus P. THompson, F.R.S. .... aus ee See
SPEECHES BY—
Dr. WALTER KIDD,
Lirvut.-Gen. Sir Henry GEARY,
Mr. Martin L. Rowse,
Rev. Joun TUCKWELL,
Rev. CHANCELLOR LiAs,
AND THE CHAIRMAN.
THE RicHt Way 1n PsycHotocy. By Rev. F. Storrs Turner,
25
B.A. sece eeore eevee cove osee eece seve eece sere
THe Discussion. REMARKS BY—
Dr. SCHOFIELD.
CoLONEL ALVES.
Rev. Joun TuckweE.u, M.R.A.S.
CoMMUNICATIONS FROM—
Proressor StackKpoout E. O’DELL.
Mr. D. Bippiz, M.R.C.S.E.
Proressor H. L. OrcHARD.
Mr. Martin L. Rovse,
AvutTHor’s REPLY.
Wal CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXVII.
PAGE
ConFUCIANISM By Rev. Artuur ELWIN es 208 oe Pe: ||
Tuer Discussion. REMARKS BY—
THE CHAIRMAN, Rev. Joun TUCKWELL.
PROFESSOR ORCHARD.
Lievut.-Cout. ALVES.
Mr. Martin L. Rowse.
Tue Avutuor’s REPLy.
CoMMUNICATION FROM Rev. F. Storrs TuRNER.
THE RAJPUTS AND THE History oF RagpuTaANA. By CoLoneL T.
Housein Henpzey, C.1.E. .... as = jot ee Perm {)
Tuer Discussion. REMARKS BY—
THe CHAIRMAN, GENERAL HALLIDAY,
AND THE SECRETARY.
Tue Deatu or Rev. Dr. F. A. WALKER: EXPRESSIONS OF REGRET
BY THE SECRETARY AND MEMBERS .... pace eh oe ‘acd OO
THE GROWTH OF THE Kinapom oF Gop. By Rev. J. B. WuirTiNe,
Tue Discussion. REMARKS BY—
THE CHAIRMAN, CoLONEL T. H. HENDLEY, C.LE.,
THE SECRETARY,
Mr. Martin L. Rouse,
AND PROFESSOR LANGHORNE ORCHARD.
BisBLIcAL Astronomy. By Lieut.-Cout. G. MAcKINLAY .... Pee tp
THE Discussion. REMARKS BY—-
Mr. Harnine.
CoMMANDER CaBokNeE, C.B.
Dr. HEYwWARD SMITH.
Mr. Martin Rovse.
THE SECRETARY.
CoLONEL HENDLEY.
PROFESSOR ORCHARD.
Rev. J. TUcKWELL.
PROFESSOR SAYCE.
Rev. CANON GIRDLESTONE.
THE AvuTHOR’s REPLY.
CONTENTS QF VOL. XXXVII. vil
PAGE
GEOLOGICAL ExTERMINATIONS. By Dr. CHARLES B. WARRING,
M.A.
THE Discussion. REMARKS BY—
Rev. Dr. IRVING.
Rev. JoHn TUCKWELL.
Dr. WALTER KIvp.
Rev. G. F. WHIDBORNE.
Proressor E. Huu (Secretary).
THE NEBULAR AND PLANETESIMAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH’S
By Warren Upuam, M.A., F.GS.A. .... Sih L8G
ORIGIN.
Discussion. REMARKS BY—
CoLonEL MACKINLAY,
THE SECRETARY,
Mr. Martin L. Rovss,
Rev. J. TUCKWELL,
Proressor Logan LOBLEY, AND OTHERS.
COMMUNICATION FROM Rev. Dr. IRvING
AND Rev. J. RATE.
On Dr. NANSEN’s BATHYMETRICAL RESEARCHES IN THE ARCTIC
OcEAN AS COMPARED WITH THOSE ON THE ATLANTIC COAST OF
EUROPE.
By Proressor E. Hut, LL.D., F.R.S. (Secretary) .... 214
THE Discussion. REMARKS BY—
THE CHAIRMAN, Mr. Hup.sston, F.R.S.,
ProFeEssor LOBLEY,
AND Mr. Davip Howarp.
THE RESURRECTION OF OuR LoRD AND SAviour JESUS CHRIST.
By Rev. Canon GIRDLESTONE, M.A. (ADDRESS)...
eee eere 999
Discussion. REMARKS BY—
CoLONEL MACKINLAY (CHAIRMAN),
Mr. Rovss,
PROFESSOR ORCHARD,
Rev. Joun TUCKWELL,
AND THE SECRETARY.
THE INFLUENCE OF PuHysioLocicAL Discovery on Tuovucut. By
Epwarp P. Frost, Esq., D.L.
A Suort DiscussIoN FOLLOWED.
V1ll CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXVII.
PAGE
THE MesssiIAH oF QapIAN. By Rev. H. D. Griswouip, M.A. _.... 241
Discussion. REMARKS BY—
CoLONEL ALVES,
Mr. Martin Rovss,
THE CHAIRMAN, CoLONEL HENDLEY,
AND Mr. J. O. CorRIE.
THe MINERALS AND MetTAus MENTIONED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT
AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE SOCIAL AND RELIGIouS HISTORY
oF THE Nations oF Antiquity. By Cav. W. P. JERVIS,
F.G.S. eece eere eeee eeece eece eeee eevee eeee eevee 959
Discussion. REMARKS BY—
THE SECRETARY, Proressor HULL,
‘CotonEL MacKInuay, AND THE AUTHOR.
List oF OFFICERS, MEMBERS, ASSOCIATES, ETC. ee Me 283
*,* The Institute's object being to investigate, it must not be held to endorse
the various views expressed at its meetings.
PREFACE.
N issuing the 37th Volume of the Transactions I have only
| to impress on Members and Associates the obligation
they are under to endeavour to increase the influence of the
Institute and to add to the number of its adherents. The
Council has never adopted outside means of popularity by
advertising in order to attract the public, being satisfied with
dependence on the efforts of its friends, the interest and
importance of its objects, and the honour of enrolment in its
ranks. Nevertheless, efforts are necessary to bring the work
of the Victoria Institute to the notice of those whom it is
desirable to attract, and with this object a copy of the “ Objects
Paper” will be issued to those receiving the new volume of
Transactions, with the hope that each Member or Associate
will endeavour to bring in at least one adherent during the
ensuing year.
The Council would esteem it a favour to receive communica-
tions on subjects suitable for discussion and publication, and
also to receive the names of persons considered qualified to
deal with them
Epwarkp Hutu, LL.D.,
Secretary and Editor.
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.
HELD IN THE HOUSE OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS,
WEDNESDAY, JUNE (7TH, 1905.
THe Riegot Hon. THE EarL oF HALsBuRY (PRESIDENT),
IN THE CHAIR.
Letters of regret for inability to be present were read from Bishop
Welldon, Mr. David Howard, V.P., the Dean of Canterbury, the
Rev. G. W. Whidborne and others.
The Right Hon. The Eart or Harssury, F.R.S. (President),
opened the meeting. He regretted that a public duty would
prevent him from remaining—it was not a private duty, but a
public duty, and as such could not be neglected—and theretore he
must vacate the chair for the present.
The SECRETARY.—In the absence of the Lord Chancellor, I
propose that General Halliday be requested to take the Chair.
General HALLIDAY.—In the absence of the Lord Chancellor, I
will now call upon the Secretary to read the Report.
The Report of the Council was then read by the Secretary,
Professor E. Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S., as follows :—
1. In presenting the Turrry-Nintu Aynuat Report, the Council
have pleasure in stating that the past session has not been less
satisfactory in its proceedings than those which preceded it.
As was to be expected, there are losses in membership by death
and resignation ; but in the latter cases it is seldom that a
member resigns without expression of regret tnat he is obliged
to do so owing to circumstances over which he has no control.
Occasionally resignations are withdrawn, and members rejoin
the Society.
2 ANNUAL MEETING.
2. As regards finance it will be seen by the duly audited
balance sheet that while we entered the year 1904 with a
credit balance of £73 9s. 8d., we entered the year 1905 with a
balance of £28 2s. 10d., all bills outstanding having been paid.
3. The’ number of members and associates has slightly
decreased since last year, which is probably to be attributed to
the prevalent financial stress. It is much to be desired that
our members should endeavour to enlist the interest and
adherence of their friends.
The following is a statement of the numbers of the con-
stituency of the Institute at the end of May, 1905 :—
Life Members ee a 2) AAS er
Ammvuall gee. aa: ie Se pelOst i
Life Associates the on Pb bal) is
Annual Associates ... Ma Ne ere: .
Hon. Corresponding Members eee DAA -
Total 870
4. The following is the new list of the Officers and
Council :—
President.
The Right Honourable The Earl of Halsbury, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. (Lord Chancellor).
Vice- Presidents.
Sir T. Fowell Buxton, Bart., K.C.M.G.
Professor Lionel S. Beale, F.R.C.P., F.R.S.
W. H. Hudleston, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Alexander McArthur, Esq., D.L., J.P.
David Howard, Esq., D.L., F.C.S.
Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal, LL.D., F.G.S.
Lieut.-General Sir H. L. Geary, K.C.B.
Honorary Correspondents.
The Right Hon. Lord Kelvin, Past P.R.S.
Professor A. Agassiz, D.C.L., F.R.S. Professor A. H. Sayce, D.D., LL.D.
Professor E. Naville (Geneva). Professor Fridtjof Nansen, D.Sc.
Professor Maspero (Paris). Professor Warren Upham.
Honorary Auditors.
J. Allen, Esq. | General Mackinlay, late R.A.
Honorary Creasurer.
Edward Stanley M. Perowne, Ksq.
Seeretarpy und Editor of the Journal.
Professor Edward Hull, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S.
ANNUAL MEETING. 3
Council,
(In Order of Election.)
Rev. Principal James H. Rigg, D.D. Theo. G. Pinches, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S.
Maj. Kingsley 0. Foster, J.P., F.R.A.S. | Ven. Archdeacon W. M. Sinclair, M.A., D.D.
D, Howards, Esq:, D:L., E:GC:S8., F.1.C.,. fc. Gerard Smith, Esq., M.R.C.S.
(Trustee). Commander G. P. Heath, R.N.
Rev. Dr. F. W. Tremlett, D.D., D.C.L., Ph.D. Rev. Canon Tristram, M.A., D.D., LL.D.,
Very Rev. Dean Wace, D.D. (Trustee). F.R.S.
Rev. Chancellor J. J. Lias, M.A. Rev. G. F. Whidborne, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Capt. E. W. Creak, C.B., R.N., F.R.S. Lieut.-Gen. Sir H. L. Geary, K.C.B., R.A.
Rev. Canon R. B. Girdlestone, M.A. Walter Kidd, Esq., M.D., F.Z.S.
General Halliday. Edward Stanley M. Perowne, Esq.
Rev. John Tuckwell, M.R.A.S. Martin Luther Rouse, Esq., B.L
Lieut.-Colonel Mackinlay, late R.A. Rey. R. Ashington Bullen, M.A., F.G.S.
Colonel T. Holbein Hendley, C.1.E.
5. Deaths.
The Council regret to have to record the death during the
past year of the following supporters of the Institute :—
Colonel W. M. C. Acton, Major-General H. Aylmer, W. A. Browne,
Esq., LL.D., Rev. Henry Brass, M.A., Right Rev. J. W. Bardsley, D.D.,
Bishop of Carlisle, Sir Mark W. Collet, D.L., F. H. Crozier, Esq., Colonel
P. D. Marett, R.A., Captain A. Seton, R.A., The Ven. Archdeacon
A. Stock, B.D., Julian Sturgis, Esq., Rev. M. T. Spencer, M.A.,
Rev. F. A. Walker, D.D., F.L.S., for many years a valued member of the
Council, Rev. H. M. Webb-Peploe, M.A., The Right Hon. Lord Wynford,
William Miller, Esq., Dr. Thomas Chaplin, member of the Council.
The Gunning Prize—The Council are now able to announce
the terms on which the award of the prize, arising from the
interest of the sum of £500 left by His Excellency the late
Dr. Gunning to the Institute. This prize, of the value of £40,
is open for competition to all persons who shall have become
members or associates within three months from the present
date and whose subscriptions are not in arrear. It is to take
the form of an essay, the subject for this year being, “The
bearing of recent Oriental Discoveries on Old Testament
History.” A paper containing information regarding the rules
and needful directions for the competition will be sent out
immediately. The date for the reception of the competing
essays 1s the 15th October next. The limit of the essay is
fixed at about thirty pages of the type and size of the
Journal.
6. MEETINGS.
The subjects dealt with at the ordinary meetings during the
past: session may be arranged under the following heads :—
A, ANNUAL MEETING,
i BiBTickn:,
1. “The Growth of the Kingdom of God.” By Rev. J. Braprorp
Wuitine, M.A.
2. “The Resurrection of Christ.” Address by Rev. Canon
GIRDLESTONE, M.A.
3. “ Biblical Astronomy.” By Lieut.-Colonel Grorek Mackinuay.
4, “ Minerals and Metals of the Old Testament.” By CavaLiERE
W. JeERviIs, F.G.S.
2, PHILOSOPHY.
1. “The Right Way in Psychology.” By Rev. F. Storrs Turner,
B.A
bo
. “The Influence of Physiological Discovery on Thought.” By
Epwarp P. Frost, D.L.
3. PHYSICAL.
1. “Geological Exterminations.” By CHARLES B. Warrine, M.A.
2, “The Nebular and Planetesimal Theories of the Earth’s —
By Warren Uruay, M.A., F.G.S.
4, HISTORICAL.
1. “The History of Rajputana.” By Colonel T. H. HeEnp.ey,
C.T.E.
2. “Confucianism.” By Rev. ArrHuR ELwIn.
3. “The Messiah of Qadian.” By Rev. H. G. Griswoutp, M.A.
7. The Journal of Transactions.
The thirty-sixth volume of the Journal of Transactions
has been circulated in many lands. The Council may be
allowed to repeat, for the information of recent members,
what has already been: stated—that from time to time
expressions of approval and gratitude are received from
members living abroad, while many of the learned societies at
home and’ abroad exchange pubheations with the Institute.
We have also several public libraries who subscribe for the
Volumes. Of persons’ connected with our Society, about
74 belong to the United States of America, 40 to India, 14 to
Australia, 12 to Canada, and about the same number to New
Zealand and South Africa, and 1 (Public Library) to Bermuda;
and a few others to France, Germany, Italy and Sweden. The
Secretary will be glad to receive subjects for papers suitable
for reading before the meetings of the Institute, and suggested
names of competent writers.
or
ANNUAL MEETING.
8. Conclusion.
While humbly desiring the continued blessing of Almighty
God, and the support of its members, the Council wishes to
express its thanks to the contributors of papers which are
being offered in increasing numbers, and to press upon its
friends the duty of doing what in them lies to increase the
membership and extend the usefulness of the Institute.
Signed on behalf of the Council,
HALSBURY,
President.
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ANNUAL MEETING. 7
Rey. Dr. IRvrNnG, in moving the resolution, “ That the Report
be received, and the thanks of the Members and Associates be
presented to the Council, Officers and Auditors for their efficient
conduct of the business of the Institute during the past year,”
said—I do not know that the report calls for any special remarks,
except it be regretted that the number of Members and Associates
has not increased this year so much as we could have wished.
A year or two ago I was called upon to speak in this room on
a similar subject and I expressed the hope that the falling
off of clerical members was only temporary; and I would
venture to express the hope still that we shall have an increase in
the near future, and that the Society will have an increase of clerical
members ; for my studies, which try to stride the double horse of
science and theology, have led me to feel very strongly that it
is mainly in the ranks of the clergy that the work of this Society
is likely to bear good fruit. Only within the last two or three weeks
the readers of the Guardian newspaper have probably noticed that
my unworthy name has appeared. In one case I had a severe
eastigation administered to me by a brilliant writer on the
theological side, who has made himself to some extent acquainted
with science, because of the audacity on my part in venturing to
put in a postscript to a letter—an important letter bearing upon
New Testament Exegesis—uttering a warning to those who had
not been serious students of science against dealing too freely in
scientific phraseology, because I hold that the cause of truth is not
advanced in that way. The castigation I received at the first
moment seemed too funny, but of course the answer was very easy,
and I have answered Canon MacColl.
Several years ago I took an opportunity of writing to Dr.
Creighton, Bishop of London, a very strong letter on the great im-
portance of the clergy being trained so as to be in sympathy with the
forward movement and thought of this twentieth century, and he
entirely agreed with me; but declared there was no energy to spare
for great intellectual issues for a man in his position.
I venture to say it would be a good thing if all influential
members would try and induce more clergy into our ranks. They
have the ear of the public in a privileged way, and it is painful
to find preachers beginning to talk about science and dealing with
scientific things when they are out of their depth.
b
8 ANNUAL MEETING.
I move that this report read by the Secretary be received, and
the thanks of the Members and Associates be presented to the
Council, the Honorary Officers and Auditors for their efficient
conduct of the business of the Institute during the year. I need
not add more than this, my strong appreciation of the way in
which Professor Hull discharges his duties with great enthusiasm.
Mr. WoopForD PILKINGTON, M.Inst.C.E.—Mr. President, ladies
and gentlemen: It affords me great pleasure this afternoon in
having been asked to second the adoption of this report. I have
attended with very great pleasure the reading of several papers
mentioned in this report, and I think that this Institute holds a most
distinguished and exceptional place in the Institutes of like
character, inasmuch as it takes up morals and ethics, and devotes
itself also to that very necessary work that a former speaker has
alluded to, the connection between science and religion, showing
the absolute truth of what is revealed to us in connection with
science in the Bible. I do not know of any other Institute that
devotes itself in a like way to that broad subject with so much
success as this does. I am certain that this Institute on that
account alone has come to stay and increase its members.
It is not within the province of a seconder to take up much time
in seconding the proposal, and therefore this afternoon I simply
conclude with what I have already stated, and second the adoption
of this report and the thanks of the members which are included
in the motion.
The resolution having been put from the chair and carried,
Colonel HENDLEY replied.—On behalf of my colleagues I thank
you for the kind way in which you have received this resolution.
We feel that the work devolves most upon the Secretary, but you
can show your gratitude by increasing the number of members, by
recommending the Society to your friends.
The CHAIRMAN.—I have great pleasure in asking Professor
Silvanus Thompson, D.Sc., F.R.S., to give us the address which he
has prepared. |
THE ANNUAL ADDRESS.
RECONSTRUCTION AND RESTATEMENT.
By Dr. Sirvanus P. THompson, F.R.S.
OWEVER inadequate may be some of the arguments
employed by advocates of the school of philosophy
styling itself Monism, there is undoubtedly a bottom truth
underlying the idea that life is in its widest sense one.
Nature is not infinitely divorced from art; matter is not
separable from form; thought is not mdefinitely remote from
energy ; nor is the gulf between religion and science incapable
of being bridged over. Faith and reason are not mutually
incompatible, however different may seem at first sight the
provinces in which each appears supreme. For neither is
the human being constructed with intellectual bulkheads
which prevent intercommunication between the faculties, nor
is man’s nature so delimited off from the nature of other kinds
of organic life as to preclude the direct interaction of forces
whether physical or psychic. Man is in fact to an extent more
largely understood in recent times than of yore, a product of
his environment. Jeligion is a part of that environment, and
has had no small share in moulding man to that which
morally, socially, and intellectually he is to-day. He has been
slowly learning the laws of the physical part of his
environment ; he is also, but more slowly, learning those of the
spiritual part. If of late he has been beginning to understand
that the physical part of his environment, the world of things
and forces, is not so exclusively dominant as his teachers of
thirty years ago would have had him think; and if he has
become more willing to admit the existence of moral and
spiritual things as a complement to the physical cosmos, he has
also had his eyes opened to see that in the world of moral and
spiritual forces there is a call for the play of his trained reason.
The widening of outlook on the physical side finds its counter-
part on the moral and religious side. The development which
has brought about the reconstitution of science involves in
fact a restatement of religion.
Man cannot remain stationary in a state of arrested
development amidst the play of forces by which he is
surrounded. Evolution takes its course whether he is conscious
of it or not; its operations are not dependent, save to a very
secondary degree, upon his will or his consciousness. The child
B 2
10 Dk. SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, F.R.S., ON
grows, and his growth is effected by food, clmate, air and light,
independently of his consciousness or will. The development
of his mind and of his moral nature for good or ill is very
largely determined by his surroundings. What is true of the
individual is true also of the race; and its development
physical, ' intellectnal, moral and religious, is, whether
acknowledged or not, unquestionably dependent upon environ-
ment. It is impossible that it should be otherwise. The very
condition of lite is changed. Decay and death are processes
inseparable in the order of nature from the possibility of life.
And this is true also of intellectual and religious hfe. No
advance in thought is possible without involving some change,
some abandonment of earlier, less advanced thought. Jn ethics
as in morals, men advance as “on stepping stones from their
dead selves.” In religious thought no progress is possible, save
by the renunciation of some earher beliefs, once held sacred in
the childhood of the race. Not that eternal truth changes, but
man’s appreciation or perception of it does. Newer revelations
supersede old ones, or furnish proof that part of that which, in
the childhood of the race, had been taken for revelation was
rather revelation misinterpreted by human minds; treasure
in earthen vessels; wisdom but half understood, and admixed
with human imagination. The problems of one age differ from
those of another: the temptations of one age may differ from
those of another. It may be easy to mistake, amid different
surroundings, the precise import of words uttered to men of a
former time; for words theinselves change their meanings and
connote different ideas to men of different generations. If for
no other reason than this, it 1s needful from time to time that
there should be restatements of the things held to be true; for
if the statement persists when the meanings of its terms have
changed, the statement ceases to be entirely true even though
the truth it is supposed to state remains unchanged. All this
may be admitted, nay, must be admitted, by the reverent and
intelligent seeker after truth. And the greater his reverence
for truth, the more freely will he make the admission.
The fact is that here, in the twentieth century, we do not
stand precisely in the same position as our fathers stood in the
nineteenth, or our forefathers in the centuries before. The steam-
engine and the printing-press, the telegraph and the dynamo,
the telescope and the microscope, the camera and the spectro-
scope, have wrought revolutions not only in the material aspect
of town and country but in the thoughts of men concerning the
material world in which they live. During the last sixty years
RECONSTRUCTION AND RESTATEMENT. 11
or so in particular, men’s minds have widened. The outlook in
the physical, the biological, and the historical sciences subtends
a vastly greater angle than heretofore; while the means of
observation have multiplied, the instruments of research are far
more powerful and more numerous, and the storehouse of
accumulated facts awaiting co-ordination is overwhelmingly full.
We have learned both how great the universe is and how small ;
what a microcosm after all is the solar system, what a macro-
cosm the structure of the atom. We are able to discuss the
chemistry of the stars. We can with our own eyes behold the
skeleton within a living man, and see his heart beating—can
even watch the progress of digestion i in certain cases. We have
learned how to preserve in permanency accurate automatic
pictures of men and of events, and can register and even
reproduce the tones of their actual speech. We have seen the
air we breathe condensed into a liquid and frozen into a solid.
We have been taught how to manufacture light out of electrical
discharges. The synthesis by the chemist of organic substances
proceeds in an ever-widening circle of triumphs. To-day we
can manufacture by synthesis sugar and indigo; to-morrow 1t
may be albumen or cellulose ; : protoplasm itself, “though it may be
far off, is not beyond the possibilities of which the chemist
dreams. The mechanical theory of the universe, due to Kepler,
and Newton, and Laplace, has been extended by the discovery
of the principles of energy, and the formulation of them in the
laws of thermodynamics. The sciences of optics and electricity
have become one, being parts of the science of the ether. The
discovery of the radio-activity of certain elements and minerals,
with their singular emanations, has revealed a new and sur-
prising field of research. The recognition of the electron has
given a new basis to chemical hypothesis; and Dalton’s atomic
theory, which won its way by its general correspondence with
observed facts, is being swallowed up in a chemistry still more
fundamental.
If the vast complexity and beauty of the universe as it was
known to our fathers could excite their wonder and imagination,
how much more must ours be excited by the immense and
marvellous development that has been opened in our time.
But it is not alone in the physical sciences that such develop-
ments have come about. Biology has made advances almost
equally great. The physical bases of life have been explored
as never before. Diseases which formerly baffled the skill of
the most experienced physician have been discovered to be
due to specific micro-organisms; and we have learned how
12 DR. SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, F.R.S., ON
to combat them by antiseptic and aseptic treatment. For
a whole class of organic poisons known as toxins, antitoxins
have been found, and the processes of manufacture of them by
cultivation have been worked out. The immense part played
in all organic life by ferments has been discovered and partially
explored., Biology has been found amenable to statistical
mathematical treatment; even the laws of heredity are
becoming clear. There has also been a remarkable advance in the
study of psychic phenomena, and psychology has found new
generalisations from which fresh advances may be expected.
The methods of science have penetrated into the work of
scholars and historians. Antiquarian research has taken new
lines. Scholarship is daily becoming more constructively critical
and less pedantic. The study of ethnology has thrown a flood
of light upon many puzzling points of ancient lore. Such a
work as Frazer’s Golden Bough, antithetical as much of it seems
to the religious mind, cannot fail to produce an immense and
clarifying etfect upon the study of the ancient religions of the
world. It is useless to denounce such sincere and profound
investigations because we do not like the conclusions to which
they lead. If the facts are those which have been gleaned,
there are men of intelligence who can draw their own conclusions
from them, and can confute the author if he is wrong; but the
facts remain. One thing the author of that book has made
abundantly clear, that in every primitive religion of mankind
there is an admixture of folk-lore and myth interwoven
almost inextricably with glimpses of the truth. No one can
read it without being profoundly impressed with the weight of
evidence which it adduces; and none who sincerely hold the
religion of Christ can leave it without the conviction that not
even the purest of religions has in the historic past escaped
from the inevitable consequences of its human environment ;
nor can he rise from the perusal of the treatise without the
earnest prayer that the spiritual teachings of Christ may be
purged from such accretions of human origin.
For, the restatement of religious truth in terms adapted to the
present age has indeed become a pressing necessity of our time.
‘Alike from the leaders of the various Christian churches and
from those outside the borders of any church, we hear the
complaint that to an increasing degree Christianity is ceasing
to serve the needs of our age. The preachers and teachers
complain of the empty state of churches and chapels, and
denounce the indifference of the people: while the columns
of the socialist newspapers (such as the Clarion) declare roundly
RECONSTRUCTION AND RESTATEMENT. 13
that Christianity is played out. But the people will be in-
different if those who profess to be leaders of Christian thought
are blind to the changes that are going on all around them, and
address the men of the twentieth century in terms of the
sixteenth or of the sixth; and the socialist writers would be
quite justified in declaring that Christianity was played out,
if Christianity meant no more than they can see in it—a mass
of external observances and ceremonials tied up with formal
beliefs in a number of metaphysical propositions which to them
are unintelligible.
But no one who earnestly desires to see a reconciliation
between science and religion, no one who really believes in
the Oneness of God’s Universe, no one who sincerely regards
the religion of Jesus Christ as intended—divinely intended—for
the regeneration of mankind, can for a moment admit that
Christianity consists (either wholly or essentially) in either
the ceremonials which are observed within its churches and
chapels, or in the metaphysical propositions embalmed in its
orthodox creeds. Common honesty at least will compel them
to acknowledge that the primitive Christian church existed
for at least a century or more before any of the three Creeds
was formulated; that infant baptism is never once mentioned
in the Christian Bible; and that the celebration of the Eucharist,
whether in Saint Peter’s or Saint Paul’s, is a totally different
affair from the simple evening meal which Christ shared with
His disciples, No more need be said here on this point. There
are amongst sincere and devoted Christians some to whom these
later developments of sacramental Christianity are entirely
helpful, precious, and sacred; there are others equally sincere
and devout who regard them as wholly non-essential, or even as
hindrances to the spiritual life. But none of them would say
that there is nothing in Christianity except ceremonies and
ereeds. Behind ceremonies and creeds there hes something
that if all these were wiped out would remain—the revelation
of God to man in the soul, and the revelation of God to man
in the face of Jesus Christ. One who after many years of
thought has deliberately decided to leave aside as futile and
unedifying all metaphysical disputes as to the particular way
in which the divine and the human were combined in the
person of Jesus Christ, and who therefore abstains con-
scientiously from either Trinitarian or Unitarian views, may be
permitted to place on record an acknowledgment how in that
reservation of belef, that deliberate suspense of judgment,
that deliverance from _ partisanship, he has found an
14. DR. SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, F.R.S., ON
}) >)
immense spiritual gain and an enlargement and deepening
oi faith.
Man is possessed of a religious faculty, of a something which
manifests itself to him in his conscience, something which
brings to him the elemental perceptions of mercy, justice, love ;
something which not only enables him to distinguish more or
less clearly between right and wrong, but which influences him
towards a choice of conduct. Whether it be regarded as a
single faculty or as consisting of several, we must treat the fact
of its existence as beyond dispute. It brings to man a
consciousness of something which, though invisible, intangible,
immaterial, is greater than ‘himself ; something which he did not
make and of which he cannot rid himself : ae) “spiritual environ-
ment which, though in one aspect it seems to be independent off
him, in another seems to be within himself. It is in the recog-
nition of this elementary fact in buman consciousness that
religious thought begins. The possession of this consciousness
is not confined to any one race or tribe of men, nor to any one
age. It is a common property of the human race, however
various the systems of religion which have grown up upon it.
Doubtless it is more highly developed in some individuals and.
in some races than in others. But being thus shared
amongst the human family it becomes an objective fact, a
matter of evidence, not to be ignored or ruled out as a product
of imagination. But beside being thus shared by the race, it
is in a peculiar sense the property of the individual. Whatever
he may learn of the workings of the religious faculty in others,
his knowledge of it at first hand, as it lives within himself, is to
him a much more real and vital matter. Whatever may be the
evidence from without, the conviction from within is, at least
in most cases, far more cogent. The instinct of religion is them
innate, as natural as the instinct of hunger, or of self-
preservation, or of sex. The existence of this instinct:
constitutes a domain of human experience, concerning which
the facts may be collected and co-ordinated, and their laws.
discovered. ‘To investigate facts and co- ordinate them, and to-
deduce conclusions 1s, “however, the work of another faculty,.
that of reason. Hence in the discovery of religious truth both
faculties are essential. But because one faculty has the function
of perceiving, and the other of co-ordinating or testing that
which is perceived, there is no possibility of denying to each its.
work. In this connection we may recall an aphorism propounded
by Victor Hugo: “Il y a aussi une philosophie qui nie
Vinfini. I] y a aussi une philosophie qui nie le soleil. Cette
RECONSTRUCTION AND RESTATEMENT. 1
philosophie s’appelle cécité.” Because these perceptions are
arrived at, or communicated, through a faculty that is not the
reason, we must, therefore, neither on the one hand deny their
reality, nor on the other refuse to apply our reason so that we
may understand them. None of our faculties—that of sight,.
for example—would be of real use to us, did we not use our
intellects to comprehend the perceptions afforded by the faculty
that receives them. The intellectual testing of religious:
perceptions is therefore a prime duty.
But what is it to which this religious faculty impels the seeker
after truth? He finds himself, in common with all Christians,
Brahmins, Buddhists, Moslems and Jews, impelled toward an
ideal of perfect being, of a Most High. He finds himself im
the presence of a conviction that He is: he experiences an
indestructible impulse to worship that which he feels to be
Best. He may have gone further, as many of us have done,
and may have found that in none of these religions he can
discover a higher ideal of righteousness than in the Bible
of the Jews, and in none a more sublime example of human
devotion than in the records of the life of Jesus Christ, whom,
whether human or superhuman, as His followers hold Him
to be, he feels to represent the supreme development of
human character, a presentation of the divine possibilities.
in man, nay, even a revelation in human form of the Divine.
Alike in obedience to the religious instinct within hin, and.
in wondering admiration of the perfect life, how ean he,
having travelled thus far in the spiritual pilgrimage, but °
attempt at Jeast to become a follower of Christ? Nay, if he be
a real truth-seeker, one who has no other aim than to find.
and follow truth, there is for him no alternative; follower
of Christ he must strive to be; nay, by that very striving a
follower of Christ, at however great a distance, he has already
become.
To such a one, whose religion is thus an inner conviction, not
founded on any external authority, no intellectual proofs of
Christianity are needed: none can replace the personal revela-
tion that is his own. Arguments founded on “analogies” and
“evidences” are largely wasted on him. He needs no miracle-
mongering to convinee him. Nay, he will hold to his faith in
Christ in spite of all the miracles that a credulous and non-
scientific age heaped up around the historical narratives of His
birth and life and death. Not even the wildest of them—and
the orthodox Church rejected many more than it retaimed—will
shake his faith. He knows that exactly the same kind of sacred:
16 DR. SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, F.R.S., ON
legend has grown up amongst every primitive people around
any hero of commanding personality.
To such a one the pious legends woven about the Christ will
appear just as natural, just as right in their place, and just as
unnecessary of belief now, as any of those narrated of Moses,
or Buddha, or Plato. In a primitive people the ascription of
such legends was one way of expressing sincere adoration, a
plous act quite irrespective of the historic facts. There isa frame
of mind which regards the adoring legend, because it 1s adoring,
as of vastly greater moment than the historic truth, because
it is true. Those who have never inquired into this wonderfully
interesting branch of human history, or who have never even
attempted to comprehend that frame of mind, cannot under-
stand how the reverent seeker after truth in these days can
frankly admit that some of the things supposed by our
forefathers to be a vital part of religion are myth, and yet
not lose his reverence towards those earlier ones whose pious
hearts wove, repeated, believed, and were even edified and
spiritually strengthened by believing those legends. To each
age its own conception of the divine stands to serve its own
purpose. And the age which finds it better to hold simple
unvarnished truth than to weave pious fancies, must not harshly
condemn the age which thought it greater honour to God to
weave these pious fancies than even to ask what the facts
were. It will not do for the twentieth century to rise up in
judgement against the second century, nor for the Western mind
to rivet condemnation upon the Eastern, because the Eastern
mind of the second century took different views of life and
truth from these the Western of the twentieth century takes. To
the uninstructed of all ages that which is abnormal has always
presented itself as something sacred. To the oriental mind,
untutored in science, the abnormal still always presents
something calling forth an instinct of reverential worship. Of
very recent growth, even in the better educated of westerns, is
the idea of the reign of law. We forget too often that in this
respect a whole chasm lies between the England of Edward VI.
and the England of Edward VII. Only those who either fail
to understand or else despise the reign of law and all that the
phrase connotes, can continue to suppose that the truth of any
doctrine can be established by the occurrence of some abnormal
phenomenon. So convinced are all the clearest thinkers
on this point, so scrupulous in their regard for ascertained
truths, that they will rightly demand for any abnormal
occurrence a testimony of evidence much more strict and
RECONSTRUCTION AND RESTATEMENT. 17
precise than that which is required for an occurrence of normal
kind.
Only those who misunderstand the reign of law or ignore it
can hold an abnormal event to be more sacred than a normal
one. On the other hand: those who have attained to this
scientific clearness of vision, and who can see as a simple and
obvious truth that in abnormality there is nothing of itself
that is sacred, that the normal is just as sacred as the abnormal,
must not, because it is obvious to them, despise or condemn
those who in the pre-scientifie ages did attribute some sort of
sacredness to abnormality.
There are still those, and possibly they are still a majority
amongst professed Christians, who would think it derogatory to
the person whom they worship as wholly God as well as wholly
man, to be a man in the fashion of His birth as well as in the
fashion of His death. Let us honour them for their sincerity
of heart and for their reverential souls even when we deem
their sincerity and their reverence to be founded in this respect
on no adequate basis. If we find ourselves in the cause of
what we consider truth unable to share all their beliefs, let it
be ours to see that we neither plume ourselves on any
superiority of discernment, nor fall behind them in the
devotion with which inwardly and outwardly we follow the
Master.
Our minds are not all constituted alike; it is impossible for
us all to see truth in the same aspect. But we can all follow
truth as it is discoverable by us, and we can all pray for a
clearer revelation of it. ‘To our own Master we stand or fall.
There are idols of the temple as well as the idols of the cave,
and of the tribe, and of the market-place. It has been largely
the part of scientific investigation to show us how well-meaning
piety has not always held a clear distinction between idol and
emblem, between the symbol and the thing symbolized; and
“Nehushtan” has had to be the verdict pronounced, and still
will have to be pronounced, over some of the survivals before
which men, thinking to worship God, have offered incense, and
bowed themselves down.
It is for this cause that as our convictions deepen and
strengthen we must be the more ready to preserve open minds
towards the convictions of others, to hold judgment in
reverential suspense even toward some things which large
bodies of devout men have regarded—perhaps ‘for centuries—
as closed questions. Revelation has not stood still, nor
will it in our time. We stand not on the limited territory
18 DR. SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, F.R.S., ON
where our forefathers stood: we have a larger heritage, we look
out upon a larger landscape, there are before us greater heights
to be chmbed. Why should we feel anything but hope and
courage in the larger vision? We are no longer children, and
must look to outgrowing many of the thoughts and even of the
beliefs which were accepted as final in the childhood of the
race. |
It is well known that one of the first-fruits of the invention
ot the telescope was the discovery of the spots on the sun.
History records that the discovery was denounced as impious ;
and the doctrine that there are sunspots was banned as
heretical. It 1s narrated, and the narrative is of significance
to-day, how an ecclesiastic being invited to examine for
himself and to see whether there were not spots on the sun,
refused even to put his eye to the telescope for fear that he
should see the spots which the astronomers asserted to be there,
and so discredit should be brought on the reputation of Saint
Thomas Aquinas. |
That same spirit which first denounces the results of
investigation, and then refuses even to look whether they exist,
is by no means extinct, as the recent correspondence on Faith
and Reason in the columns of the Standard has shown. To
fear that which one does not understand may be natural; but
to refuse to try to understand is a defect of character worse
than cowardice. Those who pin their religious faith to an
outward authority have had many shocks of late, and may need
more for their soul’s health. The spirit of inquiry cannot be
stemmed by an appeal to the fourth century or tothe sixth. If
men ask us to accept as final the decisions of the Couneil of
Nicea, we are bound to inquire whether that body had before it
all materials needful for a final judgment, whether history has.
shown its composition to be representative and unbiased, its.
deliberations to be conducted in the scientific spinit of calm
inquiry, its decisions to be taken without heat or partisanship.
Nay, even if in all these respects it lad been perfect—and
alas ! in some of them it was a miserable failure—the question
would still remain why any thinking person in the twentieth
century should be bound by the thoughts of the fourth. The
fact 1s we are not bound by the decisions of the Council of Nicea.
It has closed no question which we are not at liberty to
reopen. Except to those who are in bondage to ecclesiastical
systems, there are no closed questions that a reverent mind may
not beneficially reconsider. We have as much right to reconsider
the problems of religion in the light of our own age and of its
RECONSTRUCTION AND RESTATEMENT, 19
special revelations, as the men of any former age by the light
of theirs. There is an open door betore us, which no man, and
no body of men, alive or dead, can shut. We cannot be denied
the right to look through the telescope lest we should see spots
on the sun. When, forty years ago, Bishop Colenso drew
general attention to that which devout scholars had already
several times observed, the “ stratification ” now so evident in the
books of the Pentateuch, he was hounded out of the communion
of the Orthodox. Even now there are pious souls who refuse
to read his scholarly works—lest they should see spots on the
sun! We are to a lesser extent witnessing a lke attitude
assumed toward those who in our day are pointing to the
undeniable evidences of stratification in the composition of our
Gospels. It is not a question of science but one of scholarship.
Scholarship is now in possession of the records of ancient
Babylon and ancient Egypt, which antedate our Bibles and
which were not known until recently. Already these have been
sufficiently deciphered to throw much heht upon the stratifica-
tion previously observed, and have vindicated the earlier
perceptions of the scholars.
All the more reason have we, who can from a lower plane
appreciate the labours and conscientious care of a scholarship
that is itself far beyond us, to keep that open mind which the
study of science continually reminds us to be essential in all
true progress. Depth of faith for some of us is measured
not by the quantity of pious beliefs which we can accept, but
by the simplicity of those which we find needful for guidance and
conduct. A man’s religious life consisteth not in the abundance
of the beliefs which he professes. Credulity is not faith. Even
in spiritual things there is a sacred renuuciation of the self,
which enables one to lay aside many hindering things that are
but old garments inherited from our forefathers. When we
observe the greatest source of hindrance to all united work
for the spiritual betterment of mankind, to have been those
endless theological controversies which have embittered and
estranged the earnest and the devout, and have been ever
followed by persecution and spiritual cruelty, shall we not at
least declare that in the name of the Master whose we are and
whom we serve, we will have nothing to do with them or with
the un-Christ-like spirit that characterises them. We need to
have faith enough to believe that suspense of judgment is
often a more sacred duty than acceptance of any particular
dogma. For our age one of the greatest blessings that could
befal us would be to possess that reverential open mind which
20 DR. SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, F.R.S., ON
rises above all bigotries, scientific as well as religious. For
while we need knowledge and insight, just as much do we need
reverence : reverence for the truth because it 1s true, wherever
we find it. If in the sole pursuit of truth we find ourselves
called upon as a sacred duty to renounce some things hallowed by
usage and pious association, that renunciation must be itself no
hasty act, no passing impulse, no wilful breaking away. It
must be under the supreme conviction that it 1s required of our
hands. Return to the simple faith long overlaid by tradition and
sacramentalism may not be easy, but it may be none the less a
duty laid upon us. The renunciation with which for most of
us the restatement of religion necessarily begins, must be a
renunciation not for renunciation’s sake, not born of spiritual
pride, no truckling to popular pressure, no weak compromise for
the sake of intellectual peace. It must be a renunciation made
in obedience solely to the dictates of truth, a renunciation ad
majorem Dei gloriam.
DISCUSSION.
Dr. WALTER Kipp.—I have been asked to move a vote of thanks
to Professor Silvanus Thompson, thanking him for his kindness in
coming this afternoon and putting before us this valuable address ;
we recognise the value of the source from which it comes, from one
who is well known for his Christian character. You will see how
valuable it is for us to have,this address presented to us from such a
source. We have all been brought into a high plane of thought, into
spiritual regions, and into regions of high science, and we have
heard an address which is marked by extreme clearness of thought
and loyalty to truth on both sides; and I could only wish that our
President had been able to be present to the end of this address,
that he might have expressed the value of evidence as it has been
presented to us ;—it is a question of evidence, all through, and the
task remaining for us is simply to interpret the evidence. We
shall all be set thinking on these lines and be prepared to learn
much more. We may be startled to find we have to learn so much.
Years ago we thought we knew a great deal more than we do now,
RECONSTRUCTION AND RESTATEMENT. 21
but we must be stall learning—religion and science are progressing
and we must be prepared to learn more and more. Let us show we
are of open mind and desire to recognise the truth.
Lieutenant-General Sir HENRY GEARY, K.C.B.—It gives me
great pleasure to be allowed to second this vote of thanks to
Professor Silvanus Thompson. Iam sure we have all listened to it
with the greatest possible interest, and I think it has been a great
opportunity for us to have heard the subject handled this afternoon
by so high an authority. It would be quite premature to attempt
to make any remarks upon the paper, because when it comes to be
printed it will require most of us to take it home for careful study ;
but I think an additional reason for our thanking Professor Thompson
for coming amongst us is the particular era at which this paper has
been read. Even the most careless cannot be blind and deaf to the
unsettled state of the minds of people at the present moment. It
is a time when every thinking man and woman has to go to the
foundation of the faith in which they have been brought up and
examine it by the light of modern study, and I think in a few words
we can sum up the Professor’s teaching, and that is, that perhaps
the greatest crime a man can commit in the twentieth century is to
close his mind to any influx of light.
Mr. Martin L. Rouse, B.L.—As one deputed to ask Professor
Silvanus Thompson to come to lecture before us, and who has heard
him most delightfully hold forth to large audiences of the British
Association an exposition of electric power, I should like to concur
in the vote of thanks that is now being given; but I would say i
am most firmly convinced that the evidence that we have of the
truth of the holy word of God, the Bibie, as it stands, is over-
whelming. I would also like to call attention to this fact, that this
very age is foretold by the Bible in more than one way.
One way is that when Daniel was about to close up _ his
prophecy the angel said to him: ‘“‘Shut up the words and seal the
book, even to the time of the end ; many shall run to and fro, and
knowledge shall be increased.” There, in that very book we have
embodied this most distinct prophecy of the character of the age
just before the winding up of God’s purposes and the setting up of
Christ’s visible kingdom upon the earth.
The CHAIRMAN.—The Resolution which has been moved,
seconded and now spoken to, is that we present our best thanks to
22 DR. SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, I.R.S8., ON
Professor Silvanus Thompson for the address now delivered, and
our thanks to those who have read papers during the session.
Of course, an old man of eighty-three, I stand here as one of the
children having yet not got beyond childhood, and am still wrapped
ap in some of the old arguments of the early, first, second and third
century beliefs. But our resolution is by no means that we are
prepared to accept all that Professor Thompson has put before us,
but that we still owe our thanks to him for his address.
Rev. JOHN TucKWELL, M.R.A.S.—Mr. Chairman, I rise to
propose that our very best thanks be given to the Lord Chancellor
for kindly promising to come, and remaining with us as long as he
could, and to General Halliday for having so kindly and promptly
taken the seat which the Lord Chancellor would otherwise
have occupied. Perhaps I may be allowed to say a word or two
concerning the basis of this Society, and if I refer to what has been
said this afternoon I hope it may not be out of place. The Society
professes to maintain an open mind, both in the direction of science
and in the direction of religion ; and I hope it is the endeavour of
all to do so. We, I trust, recognise that no religion can be accepted
by us as true which is not strictly in accordance with reason ; in the
same way as we regard no fact of science as being acceptable to
the human understanding which is not in accordance with reason.
But I may be permitted to say that there is a mistake somewhere.
What is science but the systemisation of the facts of nature as
known to man? I think: that is a correct definition. Taking
that as correct there is, of course, ample ground for recognising
changes and advances which science may make; but I think it
ought to be recognised that the changes and advances are simply
in human knowledge. Facts of science do not, and cannot, change
until the Almighty Creator shall see fit to introduce some new
fact. We know that electricity existed centuries ago before it was |
discovered. There have been no changes in the facts; what has
changed has been the knowledge of man concerning them. On
the other hand, what is religion? or what is theology? but a
systemisation of the facts concerning the relationship between God
and man. These facts are the same to-day as they were thousands
of years ago; and there has been no change in the relationship
between God and man. Theology has made progress in the same
way as science has made progress; and progress in theology can
RECONSTRUCTION AND RESTATEMENT. a3
only be a modification of man’s knowledge concerning the facts,
until the Almighty Creator shall see fit to introduce some new
fact, or modify existing facts concerning the relationship between
man and Himself. We can know very little concerning this
relationship beyond that which He sees fit to make known to us.
“Man by searching cannot find out God.” Whence are we to look
for the revelation of the mind of God on these matters? There
is no other source whence we can obtain any information except
the Scriptures. I know of none other. I know of no truth that
has ever been advanced for the acceptance of man of a general
character which cannot be found in the Scriptures. If that be so, then
I think it becomes us to search our Bibles, and it may be that in
the search for truth there, we shall be able to correct any mistakes
into which we may have fallen.
May I be permitted to say concerning archeology that whilst
modern criticism has spoken of the different “strata” in the Old
Testament Scriptures, and has suggested that something of the same
kind may be found in the New Testament, I do not know of a single
fact which has been revealed to us by archeological knowledge
which supports the modern theories concerning these “strata”; so
far as I understand the question, it is purely hypothetical.
Rev. CHANCELLOR LiAs, M.A.—lI have been asked to second the
Resolution of thanks to General Halliday and those who have
taken part in the present meeting, and I am sorry that I do not
oftener appear here. It is nearly thirty years since I read a paper,
but I have been a member of the Council almost consecutively
since then ; and so as the question has been raised by Mr. Tuckwell
about the basis of the society to which one belongs, perhaps one
has a little right to speak for it. I most cordially concur with
Professor Thompson that we are bound to keep an open mind. It
is a most wicked thing to “close one’s eyes to the telescope,” but I
must ask whether sometimes one is not asked to see something that
is not there? About modern science there is one thing I notice,
that it deals largely on assumptions. Let us make sure that we
shall see the thing, and do not let us assert that it is there, and then
call upon people to see it, when the very reverse is the fact.
I think I caught something from Professor Thompson about
holding the truth because it is the truth. Everyone I hope wishes
to do that. What is the truth? Is the truth contained in the
C
24, RECONSTRUCTION AND RESTATEMENT.
Revelation of God which is handed down, or is it contained in
what are said to be the ultimate conclusions of science in the
twentieth century? I remember people talking about the
nineteenth century, and in a very high-minded way a curate
uttered a philippic against this so-called nineteenth century.
Well, this is the twentieth, and then there will be the twenty-
first, and the twenty-second, and the twenty-third century,
which may negative some of the things which are held at the
present time..
I should like to correct a mistake which some people fall into
about the Fathers of the Council of Nica. It is supposed that
the Nicene Fathers took upon themselves to say, “this is the
faith which men ought to believe because we say so.” They did
nothing of the kind. When Constantine brought ecclesiastical
authorities from all parts of the Christian world, he said :—Here isa
question to be settled. Will you kindly tell us, you who have come
from France, from the East, from Egypt, can you tell us what are the
doctrines of Christianity you have believed in your various
localities? Then they all decided that it had been handed down
that Christ was ‘‘of one substance with the Father.” The answer
shows the opinion of Fathers of the Council which has been handed
down from time immemorial; and therefore let us understand
that the Fathers were not commissioned to dictate to us what we
ought to believe.
I think we ought to thrash everything out, and I hope the
subject of the address may be discussed at a future meeting of the
Society, when all will have an opportunity of expressing their
opinions upon it.
The meeting closed with a vote of thanks to the Chairman.
ORDINARY MEETING.*
Pror. Lionent S. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., In THE Crate.
The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed.
The following candidates were put forward by the Council for
election :—
Lire Memper :—Rev. Dr. Cushing, President of the Baptist College,
Rangoon.
Mempers :—Professor William Galloway, F.G.S. ; Alexander Finn, Esq.,
H.B.M. Consul, Chicago.
AssociATEs :—Sir Thomas Wardle, F.G.S.; J. Heald Jenkins, Esq. ;
Rev. W. H. Frazer, D.D.; Rev. Alexander Irving, D.Sc.
The following paper was read by the Author :—
HE hiGa “WW AVo aN, PSY CHOLOG Y..., By Rey. 3.
Storrs TurRNER, B.A.
1. Definitions—What is psychology ? Different answers are
civen. To Hume it meant the “science of Man,” “of human
nature itself.” Some living psychologists think that the subject-
matter of the science is “the phenomena of mind” (Sully) ;
“the phenomena of consciousness” (Baldwin) ; “ mental
process” (Stout); “ psychical events ” (Bosanquet). These
definitions are equivalent, or nearly so. They suggest funda-
mental questions—such as, a phenomenon of what and to whom ?
is mind identical with consciousness? is there any known being
called mind? Wundt considers that the whole of experience, that
is, according to his notion of experience, all being of every kind,
is the province of psychology—although zmmediate experience
is 1ts special subject-matter. Kiilpe takes psychology to be “ the
adequate description of those properties of the data of experience
which are dependent upon experiencing individuals.” Herbert
Spencer’s definition stands apart. His psychology studies “ the
connexion between two connexions”—these being “the connexion
between the internal phenomena and the connexion between
the external phenomena.” In another place we find it described
* Monday, December 5th, 1904.
26 REV. F. STORRS TURNER, B.A., ON
as “an inquiry concerning the nature of the human mind, and
an inquiry concerning the nature of human knowledge.”
2. Our definition. In this essay, psychology is to have only
one meaning. Verbally, it is Hume’s—with the exception that.
instead of “science” I prefer the word “study.” Practically
Hume’s psychology is a study of the human mind. In this
essay, not mind but man is the subject-matter: man the
embodied mind, or the ensouled body—in popular speech, man
as body and soul. We are to consider the whole real man, the
living unity, as we know him in experience. We desire to
understand owrse/ves— not only each one of us himself; but each
one: himself and his fellow-men. It is essential for the
subsequent discussion, that this definition shall be held fast in
its integrity.
d. The inqgury proposed. Although their definitions vary, I
assume that psychologists all have before their minds the same
or similar given facts, which they try to understand. We have
not time to review the history of psychology and to describe
existing psychologies. I propose to begin an independent
inquiry. Can we discover by examination of the given facts,
indications of the methods which psychology ought to take?
If we succeed, the right way will be known: or, at least a right
way. Whether there can be more than one right way, may be
a subsequent inquiry.
4. The first step. The fact that there are different definitions.
obliges the psychologist to begin by explaining and defending
his own definition. Physical science is not troubled in this
way. The astronomer, the chemist, the geologist, and the rest
all take their given facts as they find them, and being unanimous,
vo to work without any preamble. Why cannot we set to work
as easily and confidently as they ? Because the propriety of
our definition may be challenged. This compels us to justify
it, before we proceed. To do this we must consider given facts
generally, what they are, and how they come to us; and then,
whether the given facts of psychology are found among
them.
5. The meaning of “the given.” Why do we speak of some
things as given facts? We mean that the given things, some-
times called “immediate psychical facts,’ are present to our
consciousness, before the exercise of our thinking powers upon
them. It is somewhat difficult to draw the lne sharply
between the before and after ; for in the first perception of any-
thing, or any event, the mind has its part. Still there are cases
in which this part seems to ke passive rather than active,
THE RIGHT WAY IN PSYCHOLOGY. DF
When the mind receives, the things are given to it. Such
reception, by repetition, becomes recognition—a kind of know-
ledge ; but for the most part we do not wnderstand things until
after we have thought about them. Our thinking, except in
eases where it leads to some physical action upon the thing:
or some mental action, if the thing is a mind; does not alter
the thing. Nevertheless the thing is different to ws because
now we understand it; that is, we attribute to it characters of
which we were not at first aware ; and in some cases, characters
which never come within the range of direct perception. For
example, the sun, moon, and five planets are visible in the sky:
they are given facts; also their motions are visible facts. But
the solar system is not a given fact: it is au inferred fact,
which cannot be seen by human eyes. In this case the dis-
tinction is evident. In innumerable cases it is not so. The
given fact aud our subsequent understanding of it become
welded in a concept; and we come to imagine that we perceive
what in reality we do not perceive, but conceive. No practical
harm would ensue, if our understanding were always correct.
But we make mistakes. Once there was to human thinking
no solar system but a geocentric system. The case stands thus:
human knowledge is a product of given facts and human reason-
ing. Experience has taught us that our reasoning is liable to
err; whereas we have no ground for suspecting the given facts
to be capable of error. Consequently, it is of fundamental
importance that we should know what facts are given.
6. First view. Things ir General—We perceive innumerable
things as different, and yet among them are like things. This
as a practical certainty, and it seems to be also a logical certainty.
For if there were no differences, if all things were exactly alike,
there would be nothing to think about; and if there were no
likenesses, the infinite multiplicity of unlike things would baffle
all attempts to think. But I will not insist upon the logical
necessity. It is enough that in our plain common sense appre-
hension of things, they are given to us as many, and diverse, and
some of them alike. Taken together, these things are to us the
given reality, which we have to understand as best we can.
This given reality is the source and the basis of all our under-
standing; the standard and criterion of reality and truth.
Whatsoever cannot be traced back to this is without sure
guarantee, it may be mere fiction. Whatsoever is undoubtedly
included within or can be certainly deduced from this, is
4ruth.
7. Second view. Ourselves and our environment.—Having got
28 REV. F. STORRS TURNER, B.A., ON
a firm grip of the original datum, we proceed to examine this
more closely. As it appears to us at first sight, it is a vast and
indefinite multitude, in which, by degrees, classes of like things
are discerned. But on attentive consideration the multitude is
seen to consist of a duality, owrselves and our environment.
Tnasmuch as this fact is the justification of our definition, it
behoves us to consider it with the closest attention. In the first
place it is obvious and self-evident that we ourselves as a class
of animals are a part of things in general. We are visible and
tangible things, to ourselves, and to each other. We are like
one another, and we are different from other animals. We
indubitably are a kind of beings, forming one small fraction of
the innumerable whole. On this ground alone, our right to
select ourselves as the subject-matter of a special study could not
reasonably be disputed. But the case is much stronger than
this. We are not given merely as a single kind on a level with
countless other kinds; the whole given fact comes to us, as a
whole or multiplicity consisting of ourselves and other things:
a natural division is given in and along with the original datum.
For the being given is only one-half of the fact, the being receved
is the other half. Without the receiving there could be no
giving. We are not only visible and tangible things; we are
also conscious, intelligent observers of tnings; we are able to
receive the data; and so far as we know, we are the only
ereatures in this globe on which we live who are able thus to
receive the given. Consequently, the distinction is recognized.
as fundamental in philosophy, under the name of subject and
object; but unfortunately there is much confusion of thought
covered by this phrase; so that we had better keep to plain
language ; ow7selves, on the one hand, and everything else, on the
other. It is important to note that what is given is a plurality
of selves; or perhaps it is still better to describe the datum as.
2 triad rather than a duality; the self, other selves, and the
environment.. I may mention here that Der menschliche Welt-
begriff by Avenarius is an important contribution to the study
of the original datum.
9. Objections—In metaphysics the dual or trinal character of
the given has been and is disputed. Solipsism, the assertion that
T alone am the whole real given fact, and that besides me there:
is nothing else, is not worth notice. The opinion that the
environments are as distinct as the individuals 1s more specious ;,
but I think the question really is this—-is our certainty that we
all live in the same world immediately given or is 1¢ an
inference? We must not discuss this pomt. I make no
THE RIGHT WAY IN PSYCHOLOGY. 29
pretence to a complete criticism of the original datum; my
purpose is accomplished if I have shown that some attention
must be paid to it, in order that our psychology may start
securely.
But I may just point out that the philosopher, equally with
the physicist and the psychologist, is powerless without some
given fact or facts. He cannot reason upon nothing. And his
first premiss must precede his reasoning; he cannot create it by
reasoning. It he does not really believe and hold as certain
truth, the threefold reality, the individual self, other selves, and
the common environment, he must find some other standing
ground. How can he even try to find this, without relying upon
the threefold reality? It seems to me that he is stale-mated,
he cannot move. Meantime, I think that we may truthfully say,
that our given reality receives universal assent—the assent
expressed in more than words—the assent of all human activity
in every direction; not in ordinary life only, but in the more
exact and systematic work of the sciences; and even in meta-
physics also, for the philosopher, however he may speculate,
really builds upon the three certitudes just like the rest of
us.
10. Guiding rules.—We come out of our preliminary reflection
with clear right to take ourselves as the given facts of our
psychology. And I think we have gained something more than
this. We seem now to be able to lay down two rules for our
procedure—(1) Our study must keep close to the given
facts; and (2) we must take the facts as they are giver ; we
must not remove them from their context. These rules seem
to shut us up to one method. The first forbids us to substitute
anything else in the place of ourselves, as the subject-matter of
psychology. The second forbids us to separate the self from its
environment. In other words, we have to renounce, or to
subordinate, the processes of abstraction, dissection, or analysis ;
and to study the real living self in his actual life in connection
with his fellows and in connection with the external world. It
will not be a breach of these rules, if we attend to some part or
aspect of the self at one time, and another part at another time:
but it will be violation of the rules if we attend to them us
having an independent existence. The parts or aspects whatever
they may be—sensations, presentations, ideas, emotions,
faculties—exist only in the self’; apart from it they are nothing
real, nothing intelligible.
11. The concept of the Self—Bearing these rules in mind, we
ask—what is the Self?
30 REV. Fs: STORES (TURNER, BAL, ON
our study would be unnecessary. But we have some knowledge
of the self: he is acomplex being, a wnity containing diversities :
he is a developing being: not fixed, but changing. What we
must seek for, is not a perfect definition, which is unattainable ;
but a conception which shall be certainly true so far as it goes,
and which shall express not one or another of the self’s diverse
qualities ; but his unity, and his diversities as included in the
unity. Moreover, in accordance with the rule that the self
must not be abstracted from, but studied in, the environment,
our conception must include his relation to other selves, and to
what we call the external world. Consideration of this relation
eives the clue we are seeking. Things and people hurt or
benefit us according to our position and behaviour in reference
to them. It is our interest to avoid the injury and to secure
the benefit. This brings to light one of the deepest and most
important characteristics of human nature—self-interest. We
are to some extent able to re-act against the environment so as
to make it our servant, and to thwart it when it appears to be
our enemy. In relation to sentient beings and especially to
other selves, we have to do with beings who also have thew
interests. In such cases, our self-interest 1s not displaced,
but supplemented by a larger interest, which we call duty.
Duty brings with it responsibility: we call ourselves, and our
fellow-men call us, to account for the neglect of duty. These
three relations, self-interest, duty, and responsibility, affect all
our dealings with the environment, and at the same time
employ all the various capacities and powers of human nature.
The sensations and all bodily functions are included in this
eonception of the self as a being who has interests; and
likewise all mental emot:ons and powers—especially the
intelligence and the will. I think we may express the concept
thus—the human self is a being who takes an intelligent interest
in his own welfare, and also in his duties, and responsibilities,
because he can choose his own ends, and devise means for their
attainment. “This description does not pretend to be a periect
definition, but I submit that it is in accordance with the given
facts. Our psychology would have to verify it in detail; but it
is hardly rash to assume that experience has already verified it.
12. Tcleology—This concept of the self serves as a guide to
further study. When once we have clearly apprehended that
we are in a measure in charge of our own being, that we help to
make or mar our own happiness, that beyond this, we either
help to mend or to corrupt society, and have therefore duties
nd responsibilities towards others—we want to understand the
THE RIGHT WAY IN PSYCHOLOGY. ol
self in order that we may achieve our ends and fulfil our duties.
For this purpose, what kind of knowledge is most urgently
needed? Plainly, the first need is to know what are the right
ends, that we may choose these; and inasmuch as ends are often
conflicting, we need to know the order of their importance, and
whether there is one supreme end which can curb the lower
alesires, and bring each of our various purposes into its right
relation to the rest. I would eall this branch of psychology,
human teleology. This is usually omitted from psychologies, L
suppose, because it is dealt with by ethics and rehgion. I
eannot think that the omission is justifiable. It is like the
tragedy of Hamlet, with Hamlet cut out. Moreover, ethics and
religion would gain by being put in their rightful place. At
present, many people regard these as optional subjects, inferior
in value and in certainty to physical science. When human
teleology is recognised as an indispensable part of the scientific
study of human nature, these errors will be dispelled.
13. Hpistemology.—After the study of ends the study of
means, and the first of these is knowledge. Indeed, so
universally necessary and of such fundamental importance is
this means, that to some epistemology has been the first task
of psychology, if not its only task. Locke and Hume are
instances of this. So great is human interest in knowledge
that, although this interest is at first, and even at all times,
chiefly for the sake of other things, knowledge becomes also
an end in itself, pursued for its own sake. And from this the
next step is to give the primacy to knowledge, exalting it to
the highest rank in dignity and in power. It cannot then be
questioned that in any serious attempt to understand ourselves
we must undertake the usually neglected task of trying to
ascertain the nature and value of that thinking which we call
Anowing or believing.
14. Three Grades of Thinking.—After epistemology what
should be the next chapter in our study? At. this point | stop—
«leclining the attempt to forecast any further step. The purpose
with which we set out was to discover, if possible, the right
way in psychology. If we are satisfied that we have succeeded
it is enough. Actually to work out the psychology would be a
ereat enterprise; and only in its execution could we ascertain
how far it will lead us. That we should achieve a perfect
understanding of ourselves is beyond reasonable expectation.
The study of the human self is evidently an immense under-
taking. Already we have seen that it includes teleology and
epistemology, ethics and religion; and to these, history, law,
32 REY. F. STORRS TURNER, B.A., ON
language, political economy, anthropology, might be added.
Human physiology too cannot be left out. Indeed, half or
more than half of the whole range of human thought falls
under our definition, leaving another area, inferior in interest and
importance, for the group of sciences which may be called
physics. Plainly some limits would have to be self-imposed in
a psychology written on our plan; and what these would be
it is not easy to anticipate.
This view of the situation exposes us to an apparently
formidable objection. “ Your scheme,’ it may be said, ‘“ breaks
down under its own weight. The magnitude of its scale makes
it impracticable. A way that no one can follow cannot be the
right way.” Iam not insensible to the force of this objection.
The argument of this paper requires to be supported by the
production of a psychology on the lines it indicates, in order to
produce full conviction. But I think that the objection is not
so formidable as it looks. Before our psychology has been
worked out very far, the objection may disappear, and if not
before, the epistemology, I think, would dispelit. One consider-
ation from that source may be mentioned. It has often been
pointed out that our thinking and our knowledge are not all
on one plane, but are on different levels, in successive stages
—the common-sense or pre-scientific stage ; then “science” which
raises this to a higher level; and after this, the reflective or
philosophical stage. Between the second and third levels there
is a great difference. “Science” takes much for granted.
Philosophy refuses to pass anything uncriticised, delves down
to the foundations, takes into account all the facts, and all the
facts together as a whole and a unity; and, lastly, seeks and
will be satisfied with nothing less than truth and certainty.
Psychology seems to me to belong to the third and highest level ;
and therefore, to be compelled to start from the given certainties
and to seek for a fuller comprehension of what is given. Its
result and reward may be, not the acquisition of new information ;
but the clearer apprehension and firmer grasp of truth already °
within our reach but dimly and confusedly conceived.
15. Body and soul.—lIt our psychology were completed only
so far as to the end of the first two or three sections, sub-
divisions would come to light. We should have, in considering
human interests, to distinguish between bodily and mental
wants ; in studying knowledge, the bodily organs of sense would
have to be considered. I think that we can foresee the advan-
tage which our method will have in studying these topics. Its
essential character will forbid the abstraction of any part or
>
THE RIGHT WAY IN PSYCHOLOGY. 35
aspect of the self from the whole self taken in connection with
its environment. It will not fall into the error of mistaking
what only exists as a part of, or a mode of a given reality, for
an element or phenomenon having a real existence by itself;
and the consequent error of imagining the whole as consisting
of a number or succession of such parts. Body and soul, for
example, belong to the original datum, but as a duality in a
given unity. The self is one being, not two beings; and this
one being is not a body, neither is it a soul or spirit. A body
without a soul is not a human self, but a corpse. A soul without
a body is not a human self—but a ghost; and ghosts are not
given facts. The given fact is the human self, one being
consisting of soul and body, a duality in a unity. (To avoid
possible misconception, perinit me to point out that the cessation
or annihilation of the self when the body dies is no¢ given fact.
The self may continue to exist, and to exist as a unity, and as a
duality in unity after the dissolution of the earthly body.
Whether it does continue or not is also not given fact; it lies
beyond the range of immediate experience.) To return to the
really given fact—this is the self as a unity, containing diversi-
ties called parts, powers, modes, faculties, or by other names.
To study these diversities is our proper business, but it is not
our business to explain how there can be such diversities in the
unity. There is nothing unnatural and nothing irrational
in this existence of diversities within unity. All reality,
so far as we can see, is of this nature. Everywhere we
find examples. The body is a unity, but in it the eyes are
different from the ears; the heart and the blood are different
from the brain and the nerves; there is nothing puzzling
in this, nothing which detracts from the unity of the body. If
we encountered eyes alone, floating in the air, not belonging to
a body, but perfectly detached; nevertheless, true living eyes,
able to see, that would be a puzzle. Similarly, the mind, soul,
or spirit is a unity of successive times and successive experiences,
of receptivity and activity, of endless diversities, in one living
unity. The union of body and soul in one living self is not an
exceptional fact, but in harmony with the whole universe. No
ditficulty, no perplexity is felt, until we make the inistake of
regarding the body as a real thing by itself, and the soul as
another real thing by itself. The puzzle then is to explain
how the two diverse entities ever got united; and_ how,
being united, they can act and react upon each other. But
it is not within our power to take ourselves to pieces ;
therefore we are not required to put ourselves together
34 REY. F.. STORRS .TURNER, B:A., ON
again. When our psychology comes to consider body and
soul, it will not be troubled in any way. On the contrary it
will find this union of body and soul in one self quite
conegruous with the union of ourselves and the environments
in one werld. Its work will be to notice how perfectly this
unity of body and soui fits into the unity of the universe.
Destitute of a body, what could a human soul do or know in
this world? How could it be aware of its environment ?
Without bodies, how could individual souls communicate their
thoughts to each other? The given facts hold together and
support each other, together constituting a system in ‘which
each member is essential to the whole.
16. Free will_Again, our psychology will be untroubled by
that insoluble problem—the relation of free will to determinism.
The facts of volition, duty, and responsibility are solid
certainties of the self—they are not imaginations or inferences,
but immediate realities. It is as impossible to doubt these
facts as it is impossible to doubt the facts of gravitation in
mhysies. Determinism is a theory belonging to another region
of thought—the attempt of the human intellect to comprehend
the universe as a whole. We may feel the fascination which
this theory has for the religious belief that God governs all,
and for the philosophical imagination of a universe absolutely
ruled by law and causation, but we need not be disquieted.
No theory can undermine the certainty of given facts; while
on the other hand it is easy to recognise the inability of the
human mind to know everything.
17. Conelusion——Whether there are two or more right ways
in psychology is a question which must be postponed. An
immense amount of useful work has been done by psychologists
who have begun by analysis of consciousness, and have
endeavoured to explain the self as a compound of simple
elements, somewhat after the manner of physical science.
Unhappily, in some cases, the result has been a doubt whether
there is any self. Miinsterberg i in his Psychology and Infe, and
more ‘ully, an shis SGe unudziiye der Psychologie, has made an
attack upon these “objective” psychologies, no reply to which,
so far as I know, has appeared. I mention this to show that I
am not alone in feeling that a new departure in psychology is
necessary. Meantime I would fain hope that the arguments of
this essay, now submitted to your judgments, will convince
some of you that the method I have advocated is worth trying.
It has the merit of keeping close to practical life. It does not
orornise to explain what the self zs ; but it recognises that the self
THE RIGHT WAY IN PSYCHOLOGY. Oy
is becoming, is in process of evolution. This too is an immediate
certainty. The self is becoming good or bad, wise or foolish,
happy or miserable. Why do we want to understand ourselves ?
Surely that we may become good, wise, happy. The kind otf
knowledge most necessary for us is regulative knowledge—and.,
perhaps, for us, no other kind is possible.
DISCUSSION,
The thanks of the meeting were voted to the author of the paper,
and a discussion followed.
Dr. SCHOFIELD considered that the author by his suggestion puts
us on a very high intellectual platform. He thought that the
radical defect of the present psychology was its tendency to limit
mind to consciousness. It was this narrow concept which limits:
“the psychological mind” to less than half its real extent, that
called forth Prof. James’ scathing description of its present
condition. He says that it is a study of raw facts; a wrangle
about opinions, but has not a single law; that it is in the condition
of physics betore Galileo, or chemistry before Lavoisier.
Colonel ALVES said: It is well-known that as regards the moral
character that the exercises of the soul very speedily make a great
reformation in character. That is unlike mental or physical talents..
For instance, a person without talents for music or painting would
never make much progress.
I do not know what the practical result of a paper like this is.
What is the result? It seems to me that what we know in
practical psychology is that we must first begin at both ends.
There is only one thing that will reach deepest needs. It is well-
known and it is a new birth. There is no doubt many people live
in very good stable houses that last their time, though the founda-
tion is only on the sand, but once the superstructure has been
ruined nothing can be rebuilt except on the solid foundation of the
new birth. There is a necessity for building on that foundation,
and those who work with our Christian teachers have very speedily
agreed as to how the same physical element can be developed and
trained when we are on a solid foundation. It is not much use
36 REV. F. STORRS TURNER, B.A., ON
endeavouring to build up a superstructure on old foundations
which have given way.
Rev. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S.—If psychology is what this
paper seems to indicate, it appears to me that it comprehends all
philosophy, all metaphysics, all science, the whole universe, the
human self and its environment. If this be so, then there is no
such thing as psychology, and we have simply to drop the word
and go on with our study of the other branches of science as we do
now. But there is a limitation generally understood within the
wider subject of metaphysics that comes under the title of psycho-
logy. As I understand it, the term psychology is intended more
especially to refer to the human soul or spirit in its own personal
consciousness and in its experiences as known and taught by that
consciousness. There are some sentences in the paper which need
correction, and others which I think the writer could hardly have
meant at all. The author says, “the mind, soul, or spirit is a
unity of successive times.” What can a unity of successive times
mean? ‘There is an entity which is conscious of successive times,
but the times are not a portion of that entity. Then he adds,
“and successive experiences.” But still that entity is not a series
of successive experiences, but something that passes through
successive experiences. Nor is it a unity “of receptivity and
activity” and ‘of endless diversities.” Receptivity and activity
may be contemplated by themselves in an abstract way, but
psychology is supposed to deal with the conscious substance which
displays these phenomena. He tells us also, that ‘no difficulty, no
perplexity, is felt until we make the mistake of regarding the body
as a real thing by itself, and the soul as another real thing by
itself.” But surely if there is a body it is a real thing, and by and
by it will be a real thing by itself, and when that soul will have
left, it is a real thing and will also be a real thing by itself. What
is that real thing? It is the business of psychology to tell us some-
thing about it, and something about its moral relations to its fellow
souls around it, and to that Divine Creator under whose laws it has
been made and whose laws it must obey.
a
THE RIGHT WAY IN TSYCHOLOGY. Be
COMMUNICATIONS.
From Professor STACKPOOL KE. O’DELL :—
I read with interest “The Right Way in: Psychology,” by the
Rev. F. Storrs Turner, B.A.
I am thankful to the author for such enlightenment as his paper
gives, especially for his definition—- “Study,” as preferable to science.
We know so little about the soul or spirit, except in relation to
mind, that probably ‘mental philosophy ” might well take the place
of “ psychology.”
All our knowledge of psychology is strictly confined to mental
manifestations. But this knowledge is extensive. The history of
nations, science, religion and art, with all that has ever been made
or manufactured, is the result of the unseen powers we call mind.
From ancient pyramids or temples to modern London we see the
manifestations of the spirit or mind of man. This is what
psychologists should study. Mental manifestations, for the pur-
pose of developing them in the formation of character, in the
maintenance of mental health, in the alleviation or curing of the
insane, in the education of children, in the government of nations,
and the general well-being of all peoples morally, mentally and
socially. If in some measure psychology does not lead to such
desirable ends, it is not justified in its existence as either a science
or study. At the same time I would like to state that my know-
ledge of psychology or mental philosophy, leads me to the belief that
it is capable of all I here mention and more, much more.
Remarks by D. BIDDLE, Esq., M.R.C.S.E. :—
I trust I may be allowed to supplement the discussion on Mr.
Storrs Turner’s interesting paper, by expressing the pleasure I
feel in finding that views, which I have held in almost the same
form for forty years, have been independently arrived at by so
skilled a logician as Mr. Turner. My “ Post-mortem Examination,
or What is the Condition of the Disembodied Human Spirit ?”
(Williams and Norgate), was published in 1867, and was followed
in two years by ‘The Spirit Controversy,” an expansion of the
former.
In these I tried to show that memory, an essential factor of
thought, belonged entirely to the body, upon which the human
spirit was dependent for the reception of all impressions, internal
38 REV. F. STORRS TURNER, B.A., ON
as well as external, the chief function of the spirit being Feeling
(more or less complex and of various kinds) and Will; the one
receptive, the other re-active. Hence the importance of the
Christian doctrine of ‘the redemption of the body,” and comfort
also to those who fear ghosts.
Remarks by Professor H. LANGHORNE ORCHARD :—
There is much in this thoughtful and ingenious paper with which
IT have the satisfaction of agreeing. Especially valuable seem to me
the author’s observations upon free will and the regulative character
of our knowledge.
I cannot, however, assent to his definition of psychology as the
study of man (page 26). Psychology is the study of soul; the study
of man concerns itself with anthropology. Nothing is gained by
using terms in a sense different from their accepted meaning.
I also wish to point out that the author speaks of “that
thinking which we call knowing or believing.” Does this mean that
(a) there is no third form of thinking (¢.g., doubting) ; or that (b)
knowing or believing are one particular form of thinking, and both
are one and the same thing? The correlation of the sciences is an
important truth, which, to my mind, is obscured by calling every-
thing psychology that is not physics. And does not the study of
man necessarily connect itself with that study of physics from
which it is proposed to separate it? The theory that the self
consists of a human soul and a human body in union may
appear to have some historical support in Leibnitz’s supposition
that a person consists of soul and body together. But, if the
theory be sound, the self of to-day is not the self of yesterday,
for one of the constituent parts, viz., the body, has changed.
Further, if the self is constituted by a human soul in union
with a human body, it certainly follows that when this union is
dissolved at death, the self is dissolved also, and ceases to exist.
Remarks by Mr. Martin Rouse :—
The mind is a unity in a different sense from what the
body is; or what the body and mind in combination are. For,
firstly, there are portions of our body that we are continually
rubbing off or cutting off; but whoever heard of one’s taking
off a piece from one’s mind (although figuratively we may speak
of “giving a man a yiece of one’s mind”); and, secondly, the
THE RIGHT WAY IN PSYCHOLOGY. 39
body can be stretched so as to touch at one moment two points
that it would otherwise not extend to—for example, by spreading
apart one’s two arms or two legs; but the mind cannot thus be
stretched, since it is impossible by any efforts to think of two objects
at the same instant—they must be thought of by turns.
Also the mind can work quite independently of the body,
dispensing with the bodily organs through which it usually works
altogether. Children who were born blind learn to weave baskets and
bird-cages, preserving the shapes round and true, which it is
impossible they should do without having images of them in their
minds ; while men who have become blind (like the poet Milton)
can conjure up with the keenest vividness images of all the scenes
and incidents that their eyes have witnessed, representing them
anew upon the mirror or illumined screen of memory and even
reflecting fresh forms upon the kaleidoscope of the imagination.
Again, before children are able to speak, they certainly think, as
can be proved by many instances ; and conversely, when men have
ceased to be able to speak upon their dying beds, their signs prove
that they think still, while an instance is on record of a Christian
man writing a dying exhortation after speech had thus left him.*
Aud lastly, whereas they who are dumb through having been born
deat can actually be taught to speak with lips and tongue; some
who have become stone-deaf through old age (like the late Sir
Arthur Cotton) have shown themselves to possess memories as clear
and intellects as vivacious as the ablest of their contemporaries,
who have every organ of sense perfect.
Now, if the absence of each of these faculties separately leaves
the mind intact, the absence of any two or all three of them must
equally leave it so ;—an inference confirmed by the recent case of a
girl born both deaf, dumb and blind, and yet rising to scholarly
attainments through the unwearied patience of her teachers. And it
is further evident that if the absence of bodily sight, speech, and
hearing does not cause the mind to lose any of its soundness or
wholeness, the superadded absence of the inferior faculties of smell,
taste, and touch cannot possibly make it less sound or whole. The
mind is therefore a unity independent of the body.
* Mr. Edward Read of Tasmania, father-in-law of Dr. Harry Guinness.
D
40 THE RIGHT WAY IN PSYCHOLOGY.
REPLY OF THE AUTHOR.
I meant no offence to science, and do not understand how my
sentence can have been so misinterpreted. Science is not meta-
physical ; and glories in its abstinence from metaphysics.
To question (7) I answer that doubting is a kind of thinking ; so
is inquiry, etc. I cannot answer ()) in a sentence, the questions
require at least a whole paper to themselves. In Knowledge, Belief
and Certitude, published by Sonnenschein in 1900, the results of
years of thought and research are contained; and there, too, will
be found a full statement of my view of science.
Limits of space forbid my discussing other criticisms. I cannot,
however, refrain from expressing my dissent from Professor
Orchard’s arguments against the union of soul and body. The
soul also changes, and far more than the body. In some cases, it is
“born again,” it becomes ‘“‘a new creature.” Change is not
incompatible with identity. That the dissolution of the body
involves the annihilation of the soul is an argument which rests
upon the assumption that the visible and tangible body is real ;
and the soul only a dependent phenomenon. We do not know the
ultimate nature of matter, nor the ultimate nature of spirit.
An argument which is based on ignorance is worthless. The soul
is the life of the body ; it is more than that, but it is that. If the
body is disintegrated why should not the life continue, and acquire
anew body? St. Paul says “it is sown a natural (psychical) body ;
it is raised a spiritual body.” Death is an event of which we have
no experience. When we have passed through it, and look back
upon it, we shall know something about it. I do not pretend that
our present conjectures as to what is possible are proofs of
resurrection and immortality; I am only contending that the |
alleged argument from the dissolution of the body is not valid.
I thank my critics for their kind compliments, and for their
criticisms, which shall receive careful consideration.
ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.*
Rev, JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S., IN THE CHAIR.
The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed.
The following candidate was put forward for election by the Council :—
ASSocIATE :—Rev. C. V. Fraser, Holy Trinity Rectory, Jamaica.
The following paper was then read by the Author :—
CONFUCIANISM. By the Rev. ARTHUR. ELwin, “ Long”
Lecturer on the Religions of China.t+ ,
FYNO-DAY our subject is Confucianism, which is one of what
are generally called the Three Religions of China, that is,
the three religions which have been handed down from ancient
times, viz.:—Confucianism, Taouism, and Chinese Buddhism.
Of course, in the short time we have at our disposal, it will
be impossible to go fully into this interesting subject; but we
must try first of all to give a short account of Confucius and
his doings, and then very briefly examine his writings and his
teaching.
Before we pass on, however, we cannot but notice that
Confucius was born in the sixth century B.c., which was
certainly one of the most remarkable centuries in the world’s
history. In China, in this century lived Laou-tse, the founder
of Taouism; and in India, Gautama, the founder of Buddhism.
* Monday, January 2nd, 1905.
+ The author is indebted to the writers mentioned below for infor-
mation contained in the following paper, viz.: Berry, Davis, Doolittle,
Douglas, Du Bose, Dyer, Ball, Elkins, Eitel, Grant, Henry, Huc, Legge,
Martin, Medhurst, Moule, Smith, Tisdall, Williams, and, last but not
least, Mrs. Howard Taylor.
D2
42 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
Had we lived in the sixth century, leaving the east and
travelling westward, we should have met with many illustrious
persons. We might have lstened to the wise discourses of the
philosophers, Thales, Anaximander, and Pythagoras; or we
might have sat under the newly made laws of Solon and
Pisistratus ; or we might have heard Sappho, Alcaeus, or
Anacreon repeat their verses. We might have watched the
building of the first great Temple to Diana of the Ephesians.
We might have followed the onward march of the conquering
armies of Nebuchadnezzar or Darius, or been present when the
messengers arrived, announcing that the Persian armies had
been victorious in Egypt. Had we lived in that sixth century
B.C., we might have mourned with Jeremiah in Jerusalem, or
listened to the words of Ezekiel, by the banks of the river
Chebar. We might have accompanied the Jews into their
captivity in far-distant Babylon, or, later on, stood with them
when they read the proclamation of Cyrus permitting them to
return to their own land. We might have travelled with the
rejoicing multitudes when they returned to Jerusalem, and
have been present at the Feast of Dedication, which was kept
when the building of the Temple was completed. We might
dave followed the career of Daniel, or lstened to grand
prophecies from the lips of Haggai or Zachariah. Truly it may
be said that the sixth century B.c., was one of the most
notable in the history of the world.
Confucius was born in the year 551 B.c., at a place called
Loo in Shang-tung in North China. The name Confucius, I
may remark, is the latinised form of Kong Fu-tse, Kong being
the family name, and Fu-tse meaning teacher or master. Of
his parents we know but little. His father was a military
otticer, celebrated for his bravery and strength. He married
the second time when he was seventy years old, and in due
time the little Confucius was born. For three years only was
the aged parent’s heart gladdened by the presence of his little
son, when he died, leaving his family in poverty. Confucius '
was brought up by his mother, who early sent him to school,
where he soon distinguished himself by his application and
industry. Many years after, in a well-known passage, he
speaks as follows with reference to his growth in knowledge:
« At fifteen my mind was bent on learning, at thirty I stood
firm, at forty I had no doubts, at fifty I knew the decrees of
heaven, at sixty my ear was an obedient organ for the
reception of truth, at seventy I could follow what my heart
desired, without transgressng what was right.” When
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 43
nineteen years of age he married, but his married life was not
happy. A son was born, but he soon after divorced his wife.
“Of all people,” he remarked, “ women and servants are the
most difficult to manage. If you are familiar with them, they
become forward, and if you keep them at a distance, they
become discontented.”
Shortly after his marriage he was appointed Keeper of the
Stores of Grain, and the following year he was promoted to be
the Guardian of the public fields and lands, but this employment
was not congenial, and he soon resigned his office. At the age
of twenty-two we find Confucius devoting his time to the
instruction of young men, and in this occupation he took great
delight. It may be mentioned that with idle scholars he
would have nothing to do. “I do not open the truth,” he said,
“to one who is not eager after knowledge, nor do I help anyone
who is not anxious to explain himself. When I have presented
one corner of a subject, and the listener cannot from it learn
the other three, I do not repeat my lesson.”
At twenty-eight years of age we find him studying music and
archery, and at thirty his fame had so increased, that very
many youths of distinguished families gathered round him, that
they might benefit by his teaching.
lt was about this time that Confucius journeyed into the
neighbouring state of Lo, that he might have an interview with
Laou-tse, the founder of the Taouist Sect. Laou-tse was born
about 604 B.c., and was therefore fifty years older than
Confucius. Historians have handed down to us the conversa-
tions that took place between these celebrated men. Confucius
and Laou-tse could not agree. lLaou-tse proclaimed that
retirement and selt-suppression were the highest attainable
objects. Confucius taught that ceremonial observances and
proper respect for the ancient rites were all-important. When
Confucius spoke of the worthies, who had lived in ancient
times, Laou-tse is said to have answered him: “The men of
whom you speak have with their bones already mouldered into
dust, and only their words remain! ... Put away, sir, your
proud airs, and many desires, your formal manner and
extravagant ideas; these are all unprofitable to you. This is
all I have to say to you.” Confucius, being unaccustomed to
be addressed in this way, retired discomfited. “I know how
the birds fly,” he remarked, “how fishes can swim, and how
beasts run. The runner, however, can be snared, the swimmer
can be hooked, and the flyer can be shot with an arrow. But
there is the dragon ; I cannot tell how he mounts on the wind
AA, REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
through the clouds, and rises to heaven. To-day I have seen
Laou-tse and can only compare him to the dragon.” They
could not agree. After this interview, Confucius is said to
have remarked, “At the sound of his voice my mouth gaped
wide, my tongue protruded, and my soul was plunged in
trouble.” |
According to Mencius, who lived about B.c. 371, China was
in a sad state in the time of Confucius, and it was high time
that some one should try and remedy the evils. “The world,”
he says, “had fallen into decay, and right principles had
disappeared. Perverse discourses and oppressive deeds were
waxen rife. Ministers murdered their rulers, and sons their
fathers. Confucius was startled by what he saw, and under-
took the work of reformation.”
It was at Lo, during this visit, that Confucius saw, in the
Ancestral Temple, a metal statue of a man, with a triple clasp
on his mouth. On the back of the statue were inscribed these
words: “The ancients were guarded in their speech, and like
them we should avoid many words. Many words invite many
defeats. Avoid also engaging in many businesses, for many
businesses create many difficulties.” ‘Observe this, my
children,” said Confucius, pointing to the inscription, “ these
words are true, and commend themselves to our reason.”
Upon returning to Loo, he resumed his former occupation.
His fame increased until, the records tell us, he was
surrounded by no less than three thousand disciples. But
troubles arose, a rebellion broke out, and Confucius was
obliged to take refuge in the neighbouring state of Tse.
Tt was during this j journey that he saw a woman w eeping at
a tomb, and having compassion on her, he sent one of his
disciples to ask the cause of her grief. “You weep as if you
had experienced sorrow upon sorrow,” said the disciple. “I
have,” said the woman, “my father was killed here by a tiger,
and my husband also, and now my son has met the same fate.”
“Why then do you not move from the place?’ asked
Confucius. “Because here is no oppressive government,”
replied the woman. On hearing this answer, Confucius
remarked to his disciples, “ My children, remember this,
oppressive government is fiercer than a tiger.’
After a time he was able to leave Tse, and return to his
native state of Loo, where he was made chief magistrate of the
town of Chung-too. Here he had an opportunity of putting
his principles into practice, and his government was so
successful, that he was gradually promoted, until he became
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 45
Minister of Crime, a position equivalent to that of Prime
Minister. Confucius was now fifty years old. Historians tell
us that his theories, when applied, vindicated themselves, and
order reigned throughout the land. He became such a terror
to evil-doers that crime disappeared, and order prevailed every-
where. “A thing,” we are told, “dropped on the ground was
not picked up, there was no fraudulent carving of vessels,
coffins were made of the ordained thickness, graves were
unmarked by mounds raised over them, and no two prices were
charged in the markets.” Although wonderfully successful,
there was still room for improvement. A father, it is said,
brought a charge against his son in the expectation, probably,
of gaining his case with ease before a judge, who laid such
stress on the virtue of filial piety. To the surprise of all,
Confucius cast both father and son into prison, saying: “Am I
to punish for a breach of filial piety one who has never been
taught to be filially minded? Is not he who neglects to teach
his son his duties equally guilty with the son who fails in
them ?”
It is interesting to notice how the Chinese follow this teach-
ing of Confucius, even to the present day. On one occasion I
was walking down a street in Hangchow, when a young man
standing at the door of a house called me names—foreign devil.
Generally we paid no attention to this, the calling of bad names
being so common, but as this was an aggravated case, I thought
Lwould see what the boy’s parents “would say about it. I
walked into the courtyard in front of the house. and said te
two men I found there: “ Who called me names?” The
answered, “ No one called you names here, sir.” I said, “ You
know there was a young man who called me names; where is
he?” Just then a man appeared from the interior of the
house, dragging along the boy who had been impudent. He
said, “ This is the boy, sir, and I will now beat him.” I said,
“Wait aminute; are you the father of the boy?” He answered.
“Yes.” I then turned to the people who had followed me and
said, “ This man says his son has been calling me bad names,
and he is going to beat him for it. Now I ask you, if the boy
has been behaving badly, who ought to be punished, the son or
the father ?” Those present at once said, the father ought to be
beaten. I then turned to the father and said, “ You hear what
your own people say! Good morning.”
I have time only for one more ‘illustration. A friend of
mine was sitting in his study at Ningpo one evening, when
suddenly his servant ran in to tell him that some people were
46 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
just going to drown a man in the canal near the house. My
friend at once hastened out, and found a crowd of some
hundreds of people gathered near the bridge, which spanned the
canal, about two hundred yards from his door. He walked to
the bridge to see what was being done. The canal was about
twenty feet wide, and the bridge was built high in the centre
in order that the boats might pass underneath it without
difficulty. On the top of the bridge he found an old woman
sitting in a chair, and at her feet lay a young man bound with
ropes, so that he could not move. The old woman was the
mother, the young man bound with ropes was her son, who, at
her order, was about to be cast into the water and drowned.
When my friend appeared, men were just arriving with heavy
stones, which were to be fastened to the young man to make
him sink. He was a bad son, and his mother was afraid he
might commit some serious crime, in which case she would be
sure to suffer, because the authorities would say that she had
not brought him up well. As he would not listen to: her
exhortations, she decided to have him drowned, and then the
danger would be removed. My friend protested against the
whole proceeding, but after long consultation the only way he
could save the man’s life was by becoming surety for his good
behaviour, really, by adopting him as his own son. The man
was unbound, and my friend was allowed to lead him away;
but he turned out to be thoroughly bad, and proved that it was
not without reason his relatives had determined to drown him.
My friend had an anxious time with him for about three years,
at the end of which time the young man died. I heard of a
similar case in Hangchow, but then there was no one to
intercede, and the neighbours, by the order of the mother,
actually dropped the son into the water and drowned him.
It was when Confucius was at the height of his prosperity at
Loo, that difficulties arose. He had assured his followers that
not only would his methods reform sovereign and people, but
that neighbouring states would be so attracted by the spectacle, |
that they too would imitate the example set them. The result
was just the opposite. The order and prosperity of Loo excited
only the jealousy of the neighbouring states. The Duke of
Tse said: “ With Confucius at the head of its government, Loo
will become supreme among the states, and Tse, which is
nearest to it, will be swallowed up. Let us propitiate it by a
surrender of territory.” But after consultation with his
ministers another course suggested itself. Highty beautiful
eirls well skilled in music and dancing, and one hundred and
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 47
twenty of the finest horses, were sent as a present to the Duke
of Loo. The present was accepted. The girls were taken into
the Duke’s harem, and the horses removed to the ducal stables.
The Prime Minister and the government were neglected, and
Confucius mourned that Duke Ting should prefer the songs of
the maidens from Tse to the wise sayings of the sages of
antiquity. As things did not improve, Confucius gave up his
post and left the capital.
Confucius was now fifty-six years old. For fourteen years
he was an exile, wandering from state to state, offering his
services, but no one would employ him. “Your principles,”
said one of his disciples, “are excellent, but they are unaccept-
able to the Empire; would it not be well to abate thema
little.’ “A good husbandman,’ replied the sage, “can sow,
but he cannot secure a harvest. An artizan may excel in
handicraft, but he cannot provide a market for his goods.
And in the same way, a superior man can cultiv ate his
principles, but he cannot make them acceptable.” On one
occasion, during his wanderings, he is said to have compared
himself to a dog, driven from its home. He remarked, “I have
the fidelity of a dog, and I am treated hke one! But what
matters the ingratitude of men? They cannot hinder me from
doing all the good that has been appointed me. If my principles
are disregarded, I have the consolation of knowing in my
breast that I have faithfully performed my duty.”
Although Confucius was not in favour with the rulers, yet
he had many admiring followers, who have carefully preserved
many particulars of the ev ery- -day lite of their esteemed teacher.
In his dress, we are told, he was careful to wear only the
correct colours, viz.—blue, pink, white, and black; he
carefully avoided red, as being the colour usually affected by
women and girls. At the table he was moderate in his
appetite, but particular as to the nature of his food, and the
manner in which it was set before him. Nothing would
induce him to touch any meat that was high, or rice that was
musty, nor would he eat anything that was not properly cut
up, or accompanied with the proper sauce. He allowed
himself only a certain quantity of meat and rice, and though
no such limit was fixed to the amount of wine which he drank,
we are assured that he never allowed himself to be confused by
it. Whatever the food was that was set before him, he always
offered a little of it in sacrifice, with a grave, respectful air.
When out driving, he never turned his head quite round, and
in his actions as well as his words he avoided all appearance
48 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
of haste. We are told that he always had ginger on the table,
and when eating did not converse. When in bed, he did
not lie like a corpse, and he required his sleeping dress to be
half as long again as his body. But during his wanderings
he often suffered much. He tells us, “ With coarse rice to eat,
with water to drink, and my bended arm for my pillow, I still
have joy in these things. Riches and honours acquired by
unrighteousness are to me as a floating cloud.”
Confucius was now growing old, and being weary of wander-
ing from state to state, he had an earnest desire to return to
his native place once more. History tells us that he retired to
Loo in Shangtung, and spent his time in editing the Book of
ffistory, studying the Look of Changes, and writing the Spring
and Autumn Annals. Having a strong presentiment at one
time that his end was drawing near, he is said to have burst
into tears, exclaiming, “The course of my doctrine is run, and
Lam unknown.” “How do you mean that you are unknown ?”
asked one of his disciples. “I do not complain of Providence,”
he answered, “nor find fault with men that learning is
neglected, and success is worshipped. Heaven knows me. .
never does a superior man pass away without leaving a name
behind him. But my principles make no progress, and I, how
shall I be known in future ages?”
One morning in the Spring of 478 B.c., he tottered about
the house sighing —
“The great mountain must crumble ;
The strong beam must break ;
The wise man withers away like a plant.”
“Tf the mountain crumble,” said one of his disciples, “to
what shall I look up? If the strong beam break, and the wise
man wither away, on whom shall I lean? The master, I fear,
is going to be ill’ The master answered, “My time is come
to die.” He went into the house, took to his bed, and on the
seventh day he died. During his short illness, one of his
disciples asked leave to pray for him, quoting from a book of
prayers to the effect that prayer might be offered to the spirits
vf heaven and earth, but Confucius would not permit it, saying,
“My prayers were offered long ago.”
And so, at the age of seventy-three, the great man passed
away; and on the banks of the river Sze, to the north of the
city of Loo, his disciples buried him, and for three years they
mourned at his grave. One of the most faithful, who built a
hut near his grave, and lived in it for six years, mourning as
for a father, said, “ I have all my life had the heaven above my
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. AQ
head, but I do not know its height, and the earth under my
feet, but I do not know its thickness. In serving Confucius,
I am like a thirsty man, who goes with his pitcher to the river
and there drinks his fill, without knowing the river’s depth.”
And so the Most Holy Ancient Teacher, as his disciples
loved to call him, passed away unhonoured, and almost
unknown. Little did the few followers, who mourned around
his grave, realize that the one of whom they were taking leave,
would in after ages number his followers by millions, and that
his writings and sayings would be more attended to and
obeyed, than perhaps the writings ef any man who has ever
lived.
But we must pass on now to consider his writings and
teaching.
“What Confucius teaches is true; what is contrary to his
teaching is false; what he does not teach is unnecessary.”
This was the creed of the Confucian scholar twenty-five
centuries ago, and it is the creed of the Confucian scholar
to-day. We may well ask, therefore, what did Confucius
teach ¢
In the Confucian system everything centred in the family.
The same virtues are required in the head of the family as in
the ruler of the kingdom. The same respectful reverence
should be paid by the children to the father, as is due from
the subjects to the sovereign. “Heaven and earth existing,”
says the Book of Changes, “all things exist; all things existing,
then male and female exist; male and female existing, then
the relation of husband and wife exists; from the existence of
husband and wife, follows the relation of father and son;
father and son existing, then prince and minister exist ; prince
and minister existing, then upper and lower classes; upper and
lower classes existing, decorum and propriety are interchanged.”
“Let the household be rightly ordered, and the people of the
state may be taught.” All the teaching of Confucius tended
to exalt the man, he did not think much of the women. “A
woman,” he said, “is subject to man and is unable to stand
alone, and therefore, when young, depends on her father and
brothers, when married, on her husband, and after his death,
on her sons. She must not presume to follow her own
judgment.”
It is difficult for anyone, who has not lived in China, to
realize the difference between the reception given to a son, and
that given to a daughter. No one welcomes the advent of a
little girl; there are no congratulations, no presents; friends
50 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
and neighbours freely comment on the misfortune that has
come upon the family. And too often the father, by means of
a pail of water, or in some other way, will suddenly bring to
a close the life of the little baby daughter, who, unwelcomed,
has so lately entered his household. In a large country district
to the south of the city of Hangchow, the people said that the
baby’s soul came with its teeth. A soulless baby, dying
without teeth, was wrapped in a piece of matting, and left
anywhere on the hills, generally being eaten by the dogs, but
if the httle.one had cut even one tooth, the soul was supposed
to be there, and a little box was therefore provided for the
burial.
A short poem written about 825 B.c., that is about the time
of the prophet Jonah, well expresses the feeling in China
to-day, as it did the feeling in the country nearly 2,800 years
ago. The poem consists of two verses only, one referring to
the boys, the other to the girls.
“ And it shall be, whenever sous are born,
These shall be laid on beds to sleep and rest ;
In loose long robes they also shall be dressed,
And sceptres shall be given them for their toys,
And when they cry what music in the noise !
These yet shall don the scarlet aprons grand,
And be the kings and princes of the land.
And it shall be, when daughters shall be born,
These shall be laid to sleep upon the ground ;
In coarsest bands their bodies shall be bound,
And tiles shall be their playthings. Twill belong
To these to meddle not with right or wrong,
To mind alone the household drink and food,
And cause their parents no solicitude.”
Following the example of Confucius we must leave the little
girls alone, and indeed the boys only would take far more time
than we can give to them to-day.
There was nothing that Confucius thought more important
than the education of the young. As we have already seen,
that if, through neglected education, a young man went wrong,
those, who had neglected to give the education, ought also to
be punished. Even now in Central China, if a child be rude
or call names, the most cutting thing that can be said is;
“T fear you have no father or mother,” implying of course that
the education had been neglected. At about six years of age
the boy goes to school, and places his foot on the first step of
that ladder which, if he mounts well, will give him a place in
the highest offices in the Empire. At school the boy will have
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 51
to master the following books:—viz., The Three Character
Classic, The Catalogue of Surnames, The Thousand Character
Classic, The Canons of Filial Duty, The Odes for Children, and
the Juvenile Instructor. Having been thoroughly instructed in
these six books, the young scholar is ready to begin the
Confucian Classics, and to prepare for the competitive examina-
tions. Of course many boys, who have to earn their living,
never get so far: they have to leave school early and begin to
Jearn a trade, but it is the highest ambition of everyone if
possible to be a scholar. The following extract well expresses
the national sentiment of the Chinese with reference to the
various occupations that may be followed :—
“ First, the scholar ; because mind is superior to wealth. It
is the intellect that distinguishes man above the lower animals,
and enables him to provide food, raiment, and shelter for himself
and others.
“Second, the farmer; because the mind cannot act without
the body, and the body cannot exist without food and raiment.
“Third, the mechanic; because, next to food and raiment,
shelter is a necessity.
“Fourth, the tradesman; because as society increases, and its
wants are multiplied, men to carry on exchange and barter
become a necessity.
“And, last of all, the soldier; because his business is to
destroy, not to build up society. He consumes what others
produce, but does not himself contribute anything that can
benefit mankind. Still he is, perhaps, a necessary evil.”
We will now briefly consider the Four Books and the Five
Classics, the nine works which contain the writings and sayings
of Confucius and his disciples, and which for hundred of years
have formed the sole subject of the competitive examinations
throughout the land. One has well said; “There is not much,
from a westerners point of view, to commend these ancient
literary productions, and yet the incomparable influence they
have exerted for centuries over so many millions of minds,
invests them, even for us, with an interest no book beside the
Bible can claim.”
The “ great learning” consists of eleven chapters which treat
of four important subjects, viz.: The Improvement of Oneself ;
The Regulation of a Family; The Government of a State; and
the Rule of an Empire. The following extract from the book
forms a kind of introduction to the consideration of these
important subjects :
“The ancients, who wished to illustrate renovating virtue
52 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
throughout the Empire, first ordered well their own States.
Wishing to order well their States, they first regulated their
families. Wishing to reeulate well their families, they first
cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons,
they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their
hearts, they first sought to be sincere in. their thoughts.
Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended their
knowledge to the utmost. Such extension of knowledge lay in
the investigation of things. Things being investigated,
knowledge became complete. Knowledge being complete,
their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere,
their hearts were rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their
persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their
families were regulated. Families being regulated, their States
were rightly governed ; their States being rightly governed, the
Empire was made tranquil.” And so we arrive where we were
at the beginning.
The second of the Four Books is the Zrue Mean, compiled by
the grandson of Confucius about the year 388 B.c. or before the
days of Alexander the Great. This book depicts the character
of an ideal Princely or Superior Man, who in all relationships
of life preserves the golden mean, and is thus a model and
standard of virtue to. succeeding generations. “The Princely
Man, in dealing with others, does not descend to anything low
or unworthy. How unbending his courage! He stands at the
centre, removed from extremes, and leans not to either side.
The Princely Man enters into no state, wherein he cannot be
true to himself. If he hold high office, he does not treat with
contempt those beneath him. If he occupy a lowly position,
he uses no mean arts to gain the favour of his superiors. He
corrects himself, and Tene not others. He feels no
dissatisfaction. On the one hand he murmurs not at heaven,
nor on the other does he cherish resentment towards his
neighbour.. Hence the superior man dwells at ease, entirely
waiting on the will of heaven.” Speaking of the Princely Man,
he also says, ‘‘ Vast and extensive are the effects of his virtue ;
it is like the deep and living stream, which flows unceasingly ;
it is substantial and extensive as heaven, and profound as the
great abyss. Wherever ships sail or chariots ran; wherever
the heavens overshadow, and the earth sustains, wherever
sun and moon shine, or frosts and dews fall, among all who
have blood and breath, there is not one who does not honour
and love him.”
Third: The Analects of Confucius, written by his disciples to
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 53
chronicle the utterances of their “Most Holy Ancient Teacher.”
Among the many remarkable sayings of Confucius, recorded in
this book, certainly the Golden Rule he impressed upon his
followers stands first. One of them had inquired: “Is there a
single word which may serve as a rule of practice for the
whole of one’s life?” “Is not Reciprocity such a word,” replied
Confucius, “ do not to others what you would not wish done to
you.’ “ What do you say,” said a disciple, “concerning the
principle that injury should be recoinpensed with kindness ?”
The master said, “With what then will ye recompense
kindness. Recompense injury with justice, and recompense
kindness with kindness.” Some other sayings are, “I have
found no man who esteems virtue as much as pleasure.—
The perfect man is never satisfied with himself; he that is
satisfied with himself is not perfect.—Patience is the most
necessary thing in the world.—The perfect man loves all men ;
he is not governed by private affection and interest, but only
regards right reason and the public good.—The superior man
has nine things which he takes into thoughtful consideration.
In regard to the use of his eyes, he is anxious to see clearly.
In regard to the use of his ears, to hear distinctly. In regard
to his countenance, that it should be benign. In regard to his
demeanour, that it should be respectful. In regard to his speech,
that it should be sincere. In regard to his doing business,
that it should be with care. In regard to what he doubts
about, to make enquiry. When he is angry, he thinks of the
difficulties that his anger may involve him in. When he sees
gain to be got, he thinks of righteousness.”
The last of the series is the Book of Mencius, who lived about
two hundred years after Confucius, 371 B.c., in the days of
Plato and Demosthenes. Mencius has been regarded by many
as one of the greatest men the Asiatic nations have ever
produced. The following extracts will show what kind of man
he was, and considering when they were written, they are
certainly very remarkable. “I love life,’ he observes, “and I
love justice, but if I cannot preserve both, I would rather give
up life, and hold fast justice. Although I love life, there is
that which I love more than life. Although I hate death,
there is that which I hate more than death.”
“Heaven, when about to confer a great trust upon any man,
first exercises his mind with suffering, and his senses and bones
with toil. It exposes his body to hunger, subjects him to
poverty, and confounds his undertakings. By all these methods
it stimulates his mind, hardens his nature and supplies his
5A REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
incompetencies. .. . When men are distressed in mind, and
perplexed in their thoughts, they are aroused to vigorous
reformation. ... From these things we see how life springs
from sorrow and calamity, while death follows ease and
pleasure.”
It may be remarked in passing, that Mencius had a good
mother. She is said to have moved her residence from the
neighbourhood of a butcher’s shop, because she would not have
her little boy witness daily that which she thought might make
him cruel. — ,
Mencius, like Confucius, believed the nature of man to be
originally good, though contaminated through contact with the
evil of this worid. All men are naturally virtuous, just as
water naturally flows downward.
At the head of the Five Classies is placed the Book of Changes,
an obscure treatise consisting of sixty-four short essays of a
moral, social, and political character. It is said to have been
composed in prison by King Wan, in the year 1150 B.c., that
is before the birth of Samuel. It is in this ancient book that
we first find mention of the Five Great Social Relations; they
are those of Sovereign and subject, husband and wife, parent
and child, elder brother and younger brother, and friends. If
we apply the important word Reciprocity to these five social
relations, we shall perhaps be able to form some idea why the
Chinese nation has been able to hold together for so many
centuries.
The second is the Book of History. It consists of a series of
dialogues designed to give a brief history of China from about
B.c. 2350 to 770 Bc. “This volume compiled by Confucius
contains,” one remarks, “ the seeds of all things valuable in the
estimation of the Chinese. It is at once the foundation of their
political system, history, and religious rites, and the basis of
their tactics, music, and astronomy. The knowledge of the
true God, under the appellation of Shang-ti, is not obscurely
intimated in this work.” ;
The third is the Book of Odes, consisting of three hundred
popular songs and poems, culied from a period covering more
than a thousand years—from the days of Joseph’s greatness in
Egypt, to the era of the Babylonish captivity. It is most
noteworthy that there is nothing in the whole collection which
might not be read aloud in any company, in its full natural
sense, by youth or maiden.
The following one of the Odes, translated by Dr. Legge, is
given as a specimen :—
REY. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. ys)
A wife’s lamentation during the absence of her husband.
“ Away the startled pheasant flies,
With lazy movement of his wings ;
Borne was my heart’s lord from my eyes—
What pain the separation brings !
“The pheasant though no more in view,
His cry below, above, forth sends,
Alas! my princely lord, ’tis you—
Your absence that my bosom rends !
“ At sun and moon [I sit and gaze,
In converse with my troubled heart.
Far, far from me my husband stays ;
When will he come to heal its smart ?
“Ye princely men who with him mate,
Say mark ye not his virtuous way ?
His rule is, Covet not, none hate :
How can his steps from goodness stray ?”
The fourth is the Book of Rites. The original documents
which form the basis of this work go back to 1112 B.c., that
is, about the time of the disturbed days of the judges,
when we are told, “every man did that which was right in his
own eyes.” .“ Even at that time, China was under the control
of a methodical and effective system of national polity.
Villages had their schools, and districts their academies.”
This book regulates the rites and ceremonies of the nation, and
has done so for many’centuries. One of the six governing
Boards at Pekin is specially charged with the duty of seeing its
precepts carried out throughout the Empire. Both the
Emperor and his people regulate their lives by the Book of
ftites, and no one would dare to depart from the rules there
laid down, even in the smallest matter. At marriages,
funerals, and feasts, there is always a master of ceremonies,
whose duty it 1s to see that all is done in accordance with the
proper etiquette.”
The following extracts from the Domestic Rules contained
in this ancient book, though antiquated and trivial in detail,
are interesting, as showing the respect paid to parents, even to
the present day :—
“ Men, in serving their parents, at the first cock-crowing must
all wash their hands, rinse their mouths, comb their hair, bind it
together with a net, fasten it with a bodkin, forming it into a
tuft, brush out the dust, put on the hat, tying the strings
ornamented with tassels, also the waistcoat, frock, and girdle,
with the note kooks placed in it, and the leggings attached on
E
56 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM:
the right and left, bind on the greaves, and put on the shoes,
tying up the strings.
“Wives must serve their hushand’s father and mother as
their own. At the first cock-crowing they must wash their
hands, rinse their mouth, comb their hair, and bind it together
with a net, fasten it with a bodkin, forming it into a tuft, put
on their frocks and girdles, fasten on their bags of perfumery,
put on and tie up their shoes. Then they must go to the ~
chamber of their father and mother, and having entered, in a
low and placid tone they must enquire whether their dress is
too warm or too cool. If the parents have pain or itching, they
must respectfully press or rub the part affected. If the
parents enter or leave the room, either going before or following
they must respectfully support them. In bringing the
apparatus for washing, the younger must present the howl, the
elder the water, begging them to pour it and wash, and after
they have washed, hand them the towel. In asking and
respectfully presenting what they wish to eat, they must cheer
them by their mild manner, and must wait until their father
and mother have eaten, and then retire.”
The following “on reproving parents” is remarkable.
‘When his parents are in error, the son, with a humble spirit,
pleasing countenance, and gentle tone, must point it out to
them. If they do not receive his reproof, he must strive more
and more to be dutiful and respectful towards them, till they
are pleased, and then he must again point out their error.
But if he does not succeed in pleasing them, it is better that
he should continue to reiterate reproof, than permit them to
continue to do injury to the whole department, district, village,
or neighbourhood. And if the parents, irritated and displeased,
chastise their son until the blood flows from him, even then he
must not dare to harbour the least resentment; but, on the
contrary, should treat them with increased respect and
dutifulness.”
Also this. “Although your father and mother be dead, if
you propose to yourself any good work, only reflect how it will
make their names illustrious, and your purpose will be fixed.
So if you propose to do what is not good, only consider how
it will disgrace the names of your father and mother, and you
will desist from your purpose.”
But we must pass on to the last of the five classics; the
Spring and Autumn Annals; which stands alone as the personal
work of Confucius. It gives some account of his own times,
covering a period of over two hundred years, from B.C. 722, that
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. OF
is, shortly after the foundation of Rome. In one noteworthy
sentence in this book, Confucius speaks of the Divine Being '
as “ God all-wise, equitable, and one.”
But we must bring to a close this brief sketch of the Four.
Books and Five Classics, remembering that there is not an
educated man in China who could not repeat the whole nine
books from memory. From the time that competitive
examinations were introduced in the year 631 A.p., they have
constituted the sole subjects for examination. Thus. for’
upwards of twelve hundred years, the nine Confucian Classics:
have been the main study of every generation of Chinamen
from childhood to old age. One has well said: “The effect of:
this complete absorption of the Confucian system into the.
national character has been to maintain the influence of the
sage as powerfully, or even more powerfully, than ever.:
Buddhism and Taouism have found their adherents almost
entirely among the uneducated classes, and even these reject
all doctrines which are inconsistent with the teachings of
Confucius. No educated man would admit for a moment that
he was a follower of either of the above-mentioned religions ;
to him Confucius is guide, philosopher, and friend, and though.
fully recognised by him as a man, is worshipped as a god.”
In the eighteen provinces there are one thousand five hundred’
and sixty temples dedicated to the worship of Confucius, and
in these temples, sixty-six thousand animals are offered every
year to his spirit. The feeling of the Chinese people is:
undoubtedly expressed in the following lnes, which form part
of the sacrificial ritual : ¢
“Confucius! Confucius! How great is Confucius !
Before Confucius, there never was a Confucius !
Since Confucius, there never has been a Confucius !
Confucius! Confucius! How great is Confucius.”
That Confucius was a remarkable man there can be no doubt,
and his humility was one of his most striking characteristics.
He always disclaimed originality, and declared that all his
teaching was derived from the ancients, for whom he
entertained the profoundest veneration. :
“ A transmitter and not a maker, believing in and loving the
ancients.” “I was not born a man of knowledge; I am
naturally only quick to search out the truth from a love for
the wisdom of the ancients.” |
“Tam not virtuous enough to be free from anxieties ; nor wise’
enough to be free from perplexities ; and not bold enough to be
free from fear.”
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58 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
“In the way of the superior man there are four things, to not
one of which have I as yet attained. To serve my father as I
would require my son to serve me; To serve my prince as I
would require my minister to serve me; To serve my elder
brother as I would require my younger brother to serve me;
To behave to my friend as I would require him to behave to
me:
“Shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know a
thing, to hold that you know it; and when you do not know a
thing, to allow that you do not know it; this is knowledge.”
According to Confucius, the first of all virtues, whether in a
son or ina subject, is filial piety. It is this which distinguishes
man from brutes; it 1s this which recognises the true relation
between childand parent. “ Filial piety consists in serving one’s
parents when alive, according to propriety; in burying them
when dead, according to propriety; and sacrificing to them,
according to propriety.” “Of all things,” said Confucius,
“which derive their natures from heaven and earth, man is
the most noble; and of all the duties that are incumbent on
him, there is none greater than filial obedience; nor in
performing this is there anything so essential as to reverence
one’s father; and, as a mark of reverence, there is nothing
more important than to place him on an equality with heaven.
Thus did the Lord of Chow; he sacrificed on the round altar to
the spirits of his remote ancestors, as equal with heaven ; and
in the open hall he sacrificed to King Wan (his father), as equal
with Shang-ti.” This is one of the innumerable passages,
which enjoin the duty of ancestral worship,* which may now
well be called the religion of the Chinese, for Confucianist,
Taouist, and Buddhist, alike all rear the shrine for the ancestral
tablets, and worship at the graves of the departed. This
extract shows that, according to Confucius, a man ought to
place his father on an equality with God, and the following
incident will show that there are Chinese in our own day who
strive to carry this principle into practice.
Only a few years ago a man in Canton committed a murder,
and a warrant was issued for his arrest; but before he could be
found, his son, a young man about twenty years of age, went to
the magistrate and said, “I committed the murder.” The son
was arrested, tried, and, on his own confession, condemned to
death. Soon all the people in Canton knew what had been
done, and it was the one topic of conversation in the city.
* Journal Vict. Jnst., “ Ancestral Worship,” vol. xxxvi, p. 67.
REV, ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 59
When the day came for him to be beheaded, thousands of
people accompanied the procession to the execution ground to
see the young man die, to see the son die to save his father’s
life. Every one knew the young man was innocent, the
magistrate knew it, the people knew it, but not a voice was
raised in his behalf. No one would deprive him of the honour
of carrying out, to the fullest extent, the teaching of his
ereat master. He died and his father was free. Nowhere but
in China could such a scene be witnessed. One result would
undoubtedly follow, the magistrate would be promoted,
because it could only be owing to his virtue that there was such
an excellent young man in the district.
On the subject of spirits, as on all matters relating to
heavenly things, Confucius seems rather inconsistent. His.
mind was wrapped up in the things of this earth, and he
looked upon all such subjects as obscure and unprofitable.
‘Spirits are to be respected,” he said, “ but to be kept at a
distance.” Yet we are told “he sacrificed to the dead, as.
though they were present, and to the spirits as though they
were before him.”
But we must draw this short sketch of Confucius and his.
teaching to a close. Every student of Confucius must hold
his personal character in high estimation, The narrative of
few men’s lives would be so tree from vice, and so full of that
Which must be commended as right and good. But while we
are forced to confess that there is very much to be admired in
the Confucian system, especially compared with other
idolatrous religions, we must not forget that there are many
serious defects. One writer has summed them up as follows :—
“No relation to a living God is recognised. It knows no
mediator between God and man. It is devoid of any deep
insight into sin or moral evil. Truthfulness is not urged, but
rather the reverse. Polygamy is presupposed and_ tolerated.
Polytheism is sanctioned. Fortune telling, choosing of days,
ete., are believed in. Filial piety is exaggerated into the
deification of parents. All rewards are expected in this life.
No comfort is offered to ordinary mortals either in this life or
the next.”
Certainly we can only say of the Confucianists of to-day as
St. Paul said of some in old time, “ Having no hope and
without God in the world,”
60 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
DISCUSSION.
The CHAIRMAN.—We are very deeply indebted to the lecturer
for this very instructive and delightful paper. In the present day
there has been started what has been regarded as another subject
of study, entitled that of comparative religion. I do not think that
we who hold,to the Christian faith need in the slightest degree be
concerned with such a study as that. The paper has given to us
some little insight into Confucianism, which will enable us to see
its manifold defects ; defects which are supplied by that system of
faith which it is our privilege and blessing to hold. One cannot
help being struck, however, with the excellent philosophical
principles which appear in the teaching of Confucius here and
there. Philosophy, of course, is an extremely valuable subject. for
the training and cultivation of the mind of man in every age and
under all kinds of circumstances; but it is evident, from the
experiences of the Chinese nation, that it is not such a study as
enables the human understanding to progress to the extent which it
needs progress. The stagnation of the Chinese nation, I think, can
be understood better now that we have such a paper before us,
telling us what their study has been, and how their minds have
been contracted into the narrow channels of the thoughts of
Confucius. As the paper has so very well remarked, it leaves man
in a condition of serious want and makes no provision for the
supply of that want. The man who is a bad man appears to have
little or no hope held out to him by the Confucian system of
philosophy or religion, in whichever way we may think it should
‘be regarded. That which is so serious a defect in the Chinese
philosophy and religion is only supplied adequately by the
Christian faith. I was very glad to hear from the reader of the
paper of the position which Christianity is now occupying in that
great and important nation. We shall doubtless hear more of the
Chinese nation in years to come than we have in the past. The
‘Yellow Peril is one that we need not concern ourselves greatly
about, but if there is one way by which the Yellow Peril may be
avoided more than another, it is by the circulation of that truth
which their present system of thought and life so earnestly claims
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 61
from sus, and which is so wanting in their present faith and
education.
The subject is now open for discussion.
Professor ORCHARD.—-I am sure we owe our gratitude to the
able and learned author of this paper for putting before us in so
interesting a manner the character and teaching of one of the most
remarkable ethical reformers and philosophers who ever trod the
earth. Confucianism does not make good its claim to be a religion.
A religion, as its derivation implies, is the re-binding of the human
spirit to the great I AM. It is the restored relationship of man to
God. The original fellowship has been lost by sin. If a man is to
be restored to fellowship with God, that sin must be done away
with. The great problem of any true religion is this, how to do
away with sin. ‘True religion is religion ‘‘before God and the
Father,’ but Confucianism makes no remedy for sin. It enjoins
some virtues, but it never rises higher than filial piety. If you do
not rise higher than filial piety you do not raise man above his
natural level. You do not restore the lost communion and fellow-
ship with God.
Confucianism then does not deserve to be called a religion. It
is not areligion. It is a system of philosophy undoubtedly, and
we may concede this, I think fairly, to Confucius that he was a
great ethical reformer and philosopher. At the bottom of page 57
and the beginning of page 58, Confucius himself admits the failure
of his system. He admits that his system does not (even in his
own case) soar far above the ordinary man of his days. He admits.
that his system does not free from anxieties, nor free from per-
plexities, nor free from fear. He admits further there are four
things which he ought to do, but which his system does not enable
him to do, namely, ‘‘ To serve my father as I would require my son
to serve me ; To serve my prince as I would require my minister to
serve me; To serve my elder brother as I would require my
younger brother to serve me; To behave to my friend as I would
require him to behave to me.” He admits then that with regard to
the relationships of father, subject, brother and friend, his system
is a failure,—a failure in his own case, yet he was head and
shoulders above most of his contemporaries.
There are one or two questions that I would like to ask the
author of this paper. One is on page 47. It appears that, before
62 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
Confucius had any food he offered a little of it up in sacrifice.
Was this in sacrifice to the ancestors, or to the spirits, or to God ?
Another question is on page 50, where it appears that if a little
baby had even one tooth it was supposed to have a soul. I should
be very glad to have some explanation of the supposed connection
of tooth and soul, if the lecturer will kindly favour us with the
supposed connection. And the third question I wish to ask is how
he accounts for it that Confucianism has attained such a wonderful
influence in China.
Lieut.-Colonel ALVES.—I should like to say just a word. A good
many people are talking now-a-days of the numberless good religions
in the world, as they call them, of which Christianity may be a
little better than some others, but that they are all very mucly
alike. JI think there is a marvellous amount of sound Old Testa-
ment moral precepts of the Mosaic law in Confucianism. Mr.
Elwin’s friend must have sorely repented himself of that boy who
was going to be drowned. According to the Mosaie ordinances, if
a woman have a rebellious son, who will not obey the voice of his
father, or that of his mother, they were to bring him before the
elders for sentence of death. I think it would be a very good
thing if that law were in existence at the present time.
There are many other points which seem to be very sound.
We remember how five and forty years ago, when Speke and
Grant went to discover the source of the Nile, they struck across
equatorial Africa, on to the lakes, and went down the Nile; and if
we also go to the head and work down we find in the Bible in very
early days what may be called Mosaic-Levitical ordinances long
before the time of Abraham. We find clean beasts in the ark, and
not long after Abraham’s time we see that people, when they went
to meet with God, had to be clean and wash their clothes. If
Levitical ordinances, which after all were only very secondary,
should have been thus revealed, it was surely more important that.
the moral ordinances of the law should have been given as the
common property of the whole world. It is not unreasonable
to suppose that China should have possessed many of these ; and
that Confucius, who admits not to have been original, but only a
compiler of what was good, should have. got hold of some of these
ordinances. But even Israel was in a state of legality, keeping
the law being a condition of life. It was a question of moral
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 63
ordinances, and that a man might not turn away from his righteous-
ness that he had done and die in his sin. That is not the hope of
the Christian and the teaching of the Apostle Paul. We remember
that his remark concerning the heathen is that God deals with
those who were desirous of doing right differently from those who
have means of knowing the truth. Pre-Mosaic Revelation will
account for all the wonderful truth that Confucius put into his
system. We see in the Old Testament the marvellous authority
that a parent had over his children, something that we do not
dream of now-a-days. When Jephthah had made his rash vow,
note his daughter’s words. They were the words of a woman who
was loyal to the truth and who made light of her own sacrifice,
because her father had made his vow to Heaven. ‘The Rechabites
also in the days of Jeremiah were bound by an old vow of
Jehonadab, son of Rechab, that they were not to drink wine or to
live in houses. They obeyed the command of their father, although
the prophet of the Lord put wine before them to drink; and they
were commended for it. Filial respect and obedience are strongly
enjoined in the Old Testament; and there must have beer
a good deal of moral doctrine floating about, some of which no
doubt had got into China, which was a country not so sealed up in
those days as it is now, 2,500 years later. It has had 2,500 years
of training to make it more conservative than in those earlier days.
We are indebted to the reader of this paper, for he has given us a
great insight into the general teaching of Confucius.
Mr. Rouse.—Is not the ascription to Almighty God, which is
quoted by Mr. Elwin, the only one to be found in all the works of
Confucius, except that in his Book of History, he alludes to Him at
times as Shang-Ti, the Supreme Ruler. Believing this to be the
fact, I should judge that Confucius knew little of God as a Father,
or of a way in which guilty sinners could be reconciled to Hin:
here below and find in Him thereafter a comforter and guide.
Confucius instilled principles of justice, patience, and temperance,
and a spirit of wise reflection into his disciples, and both privately
and publicly during his brief sway as a ruler he illustrated that
spirit, and those principles in his own person ; but his philanthropy
stopped short at the negative maxim, “ Do not do to others what
you would not have them do to you”: he rose not to the sublime
principles of the Sermon on the Mount, which was also, as the
64, REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
Divine Saviour tells us, the underlying one of “the law and the
prophets.” All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to
you, do ye even so to them.
But such knowledge of God as the Chinese sage possessed there
is no proof that he thought out for himself without the help of any
current belief or tradition; while there is strong reason, on the
other hand, to infer that at one time the Chinese at large wor-
shipped the Creator, and Him alone. The further we go back into
the history of heathen nations, the more prevalent do we find
the acknowledgment of, and reverence for one great Supreme
Maker of all things. Thus in Babylonia we find in the time of
King Khammurabi, contemporary of Abraham (as Hommel has
shown), that although the state religion was a pagan idolatry, a
very large number of personal names ended with the word lu,
God, and contained ascriptions to God of power, wisdom or kind-
ness ; while very few are to be met with at that time in which the
name of a heathen god is imbedded: but, as the centuries advanced,
personal names, formed from those of heathen divinities, wholly
displaced the names that set forth the nobler tradition. In like
manner (as Hommel further points out) in Arabia the earliest
inscriptions of the Minaean kings, and the inscriptions that succeed
them through several centuries, show an abundance of personal
names ending with 7d, God, and ascribing mighty or gracious
conduct to Him ; but gradually the names of pagan deities worked
their way into the personal names of Arabia—Minaean and
Sabaean—until at length they ousted the truly Godfearing names
of old.*
So, too, as to Persia, a step nearer to China, if Zoroaster, the
reputed founder of the Parsee monotheistic faith, really lived at so
remote a period, as Clodd for instance assigns to him—namely,
betore the twelfth century B.c.—there is no special reason for
supposing that he evolved that faith after he and all his countrymen
had been used to a primeval worship of nature gods. Rather, in
the absence of evidence, and with the analogy of contiguous
* Tt seems as if in their progressive rebellion against the true God,
the last thing that men dared to do was to withdraw their children from
His protection and put them under the protection of their fancied
deities.— M. L. R.
REV.. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 65
Babylonia and Arabia before us, should we infer that Zoroaster
preserved and restored the faith which had been transmitted from
the time of the Deluge and of the great Dispersion which followed
it, but which had already been abandoned by many of his country-
men for a worship of “the creature instead of the Creator,” for the
mighty forces that He directs, instead of the Spirit that made and
controls them all.
Returning now to China, on the one hand, we find a strong link
of communication between Babylonia and China at u remote epoch ;
on the other hand, we find a rare but periodical worship of the God
of Heaven, celebrated from time immemorial by the Chinese
emperors themselves. The link is known from the discovery made
about twenty years ago, that a striking resemblance exists between
some of the earliest Chinese characters and certain of the Babylonian
ones—a discovery that I for one had the pleasure of seeing set
forth by Professor Lacouperie to the Philological Society in about
the year 1890, when he laid fifty cuneiform letters beside fifty of
the phonetic letters in use in the chief province of China before the
Chinese writing was made ideographic, showing the groups to be
practically identical letter for letter. The worship is that which is
paid once in the year by the emperor alone in the great Temple of
Heaven, which is a vast inclosure at Pekin with a large altar in the
midst, but no roof save the blue sky.
It is on record that seventy years ago, when a drought and
famine had long been continued, the reigning emperor uttered
before that altar a remarkable prayer, in which he confessed to the
Supreme Ruler his sins and those of his nation, and asked forgive-
ness and a return of favour; -and the very next day a most
abundant rain fell upon the parched region and revived its fertility.
“Them that honour me I will honour, saith the Lorp.”
Rev. Mr. ELWIn in reply said:—Some interesting points have
been raised. With regard to the offering of a little food in sacrifice
with grave, respectful air, that is specially mentioned in the dnnals
of Confucius, but it does not say to whom the offermg was made.
We may almost take it that it was to the spirits of the ancestors.
And then, with regard to the teeth, that was a very interesting
question, because if the soul comes with the teeth, we may almost
suppose that the soul goes with the teeth, too! I have asked the
Chinese about this, and all they can say is that that tradition has
66 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
been handed down from old time. The idea has, I believe,
originated in order to make infanticide all the easier. If they can
persuade themselves that the baby has no soul, then there is no
difficulty in putting it into a pail of water like a kitten or a
puppy. Of course, if it had a soul there would be greater difficulty,
and perhaps the Chinaman would feel his conscience prick him a
little. The question with regard to the influence of Confucianism
is also very interesting. JI think myself, it is owing to his books.
The books are very old and the competitive examinations are dated
back from about the year 631. The nation is so saturated with
this Confucian idea, the books have to be learnt absolutely
perfectly without a mistake; and any scholar in China who goes
in for examination would be able to repeat the nine books right
through, and of course that in itself would tend to give the whole
Confucian system a standing in the country which nothing else
would.
Dr. Legge held that Shang-ti was the Supreme God, ‘that is to
say, the God that we worship ; the God that has been handed down,
but of course there are others who will not allow that. I have
spoken to Chinese scholars in China—English Chinese scholars—
who would not allow that Shang-ti was the Supreme God ; but it is
avery wide question and certainly a very difficult question. Dr.
Legge, when he visited the Temple of Shang-ti, where the sacrifice
is offered only once a year by the emperor to God,—he worships in
the middle of the night, and offers a whole bullock; it is in the
open air; there is no temple. There is simply a mound and at the
top of the mound an altar, and on this altar the sacrifice ; and the
only worshipper is the emperor. Dr. Legge, when he visited that
place, was so convinced that in that particular spot worship to the
true God had been handed down from century to century, that he
stooped down and took off his boots, and he walked without his
boots, because he said, “‘ This is holy ground.”
The Meeting adjourned.
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 67
COMMUNICATIONS.
Rev. F. Storrs TURNER, B.A., writes :—
Mr. Elwin has crowded within his brief sketch of Confucius as
much accurate and valuable information as could be got within
the limit ; but I would point out that if he had been able to
prepare for it by a description of the historical background the
biography would have been more vivid, and our impression of
the man much increased. It is difficult for an Englishman
rightly to appreciate Confucius. His reverence for antiquity
is offensive to our belief in progress; his rigid scrupulosity in
matters of court etiquette, social usage, and religious ritual,
seems to us pharisaical ; and his remarkable reticence in respect to
the great realities of religion has caused him to be suspected of
agnosticism. But to understand Confucius one must study the
history of his world. The first thing we shall learn is that his
world was not our world. For him and for his people during two
thousand years before, our world did not exist. Egypt, Assyria,
Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome, were utterly unknown. Three or
four thousand miles of mountainous countries like Tibet, of water-
less deserts like Gobi, and of vast uncultivated steppes, over which
roamed nomad tribes of savage warriors, Huns, Scythians, Tartars,
Mongols, divided Eastern Asia from Western Asia, as effectually as
the Atlantic hid America from Europe. Confucius did not know
the name ‘‘ China,” the place he knew was “all under heaven,” z2.,
the world. This being so, those ancient books which he possessed
were the only Bible he had; and it was impossible for him to
conceive of any other literature, any other civilisation, any other
religion, than those of the “ black-haired race.” Moreover, the
history he knew began with the tradition of an age of righteousness
and peace, when saintly kings ruled; whereas he lived in an age
of general misrule, war, oppression and misery. The annals which
we can read are full of battles and sieges. In the courts, assassina-
tions, conspiracies, revolutions, were the rule rather than the
exception. Fathers killed their sons and sons their fathers. Lust
and incest polluted the palaces. It seemed as if morals and religion
were dying. In such a time was Confucius sent into the world, as
68 REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM.
he believed, to stem the flood of wickedness, and to restore the
good old days of peace.
Seen against the darkness of this Geccarouna: the life of
Confucius is bright with. noble heroism, stedfast purpose, clear-
sighted wisdom, and, it seems to me, a profound religious faith.
He did not teach theology, for he had none to teach; but he openly
professed that his message was from heaven; and his loyal fulfil-
ment of his mission, in self-sacrifice, poverty and reproach, is the
evidence of the sincerity of his belief. And what was his message ?
In essence it was just this: ‘Be good. Heaven has made you
capable of being good. Be good sons and good fathers, good
husbands and good wives, good kings and good servants of your
kings ; brothers be good, friends be good.” It was the simplest
message, but mighty in its appeal to conscience as the divinely-
viven nature. For the sake of this we may well tolerate what
seems to us an excessive devotion to forms and ceremonies.
Confucius did not think it excessive. In the Book of Rites, it is
said—
(1) Of all the methods for the good ordering of men, there is
none more urgent than the use of ceremonies. Ceremonies are of
five kinds, and there is none of them more important than sacrifice.
Sacrifices not a thing coming to a man from without, it issues
from within him, and has its birth in his heart. When the heart is
deeply moved expression is given to it by ceremonies. )
(2) The sacrifices of such men have their own blesses: not
indeed what the world calls blessing. Blessing here means per-
fection ; it is the name given to the complete and natural discharge
of all duties.
The quotation from the “ Filial Piety Classic” is apparently
decisive against me; but this document is not one of the Four
Books, and its authority therefore is not quite the highest. Again,
the translation is open to question. In his version, Dr. Legge does
not use the word “equal,” but instead says ‘“‘correlate.”* Kang-hi’s
great dictionary supports Legge ; it does not explain the character
as meaning equal, but as “pair,” “couple,” “opposite.” The
members of a pair or couplet may be equal or unequal. For
instance, the dictionary gives “husband and wife” as an illustration,
* Religions, p. 79.
REV. ARTHUR ELWIN, ON CONFUCIANISM. 69
and to the Chinese mind husband ‘and wife are by no means equal.
I should have thought Legge’s translation beyond question the
correct one, had I not happened upon a Chinese commentator who
clearly approves the other explanation. It is possible that the
original meaning was that Duke Chan “associated” the worship of
his father and King Wan with God, by worshipping them at the
same time and with the same or similar sacrifices, and that after-
wards this practice introduced the notion of equality of the beings
worshipped. At any rate it seems to me that too much stress must
not be laid upon one text. In one of the Psalms it is said, ‘I said
ye are gods,” and the meaning is not easily explained ; but I think
no one would assert that all the Israelites, or all their nobles and
judges, were said to be “gods” in the sense of equality with
Jehovah. For the interpretation of Confucius I rely upon the
general tenour of his teaching. But during more than two
thousand years, and among many millions of scholars, no doubt
there have been many different interpretations of that teaching
among the Chinese; and it is not surprising that foreign students
differ in opinion.
ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.
WAS HELD IN THE ROOMS OF THE INSTITUTE ON
MONDAY, JANUARY 16TH, 1905.
GENERAL HALLIDAY IN THE CHAIR.
The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed, and the
following candidates were elected :—
Lire AssociaTE:—Rev. Oswald J. Hogarth, M.A., Rondebosch,
S. Africa.
AssociATES :—Rev. Joseph Lampe, D. D., Professor, Presbyterian
Theological College, Omaha, U.S.A. Eb Neville Harris, Esq., India
Civil Service (retired) ; Rev. D. Ar nstrom, Aneby, Sweden.
The following paper was then read by the author :—
THE RAJP-UTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAILULTAGE
By Colonel T. HoLpein HENDLEY, C.1.E., Indian Medical
Service (retired).
HE Rajputs have attracted so much interest in India, that
no fewer than 177 separate works upon them and their
country are included in the Bibliography which is attached to
the Medical Gazetteer of Rajputana alone, yet even in some of
our principal encyclopedias only portions of a column of print
are directly devoted to the subject. The Rajputs, or sons of
kings, and the land of Rajputana, or Rajasthan, as it is more
classically termed, the chief seat of their power, cannot, there-
fore, be adequately studied in a single address, so that I propose,
after giving some account of the people and of their country, to
consider, as being more properly fitted for discussion by this
Society, the causes which led to the establishment of a most
interesting race, for more than a thousand years in the same
region, during which period they flourished with little real
disturbance by the paramount powers of India, which changed
no fewer than at least seven times in the same millennium.
Valuable lessons may be learned from the study of the history,
customs, and peculiarities of such a noble, manly, and interesting
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. 71
race, lessons which may serve to guide us into the true way of
preserving empire, a way that can only be based on upright, just,
and honourable, and hence, truly scientific, principles. It was
the failure to recognize these principles which in time led to
the downfall of the great Moghul empire, and also prevented
the Mahrattas from establishing themselves upon its ruins.
It is unnecessary to dwell long on the remote origin of the
Rajputs, who have been said either to be the direct descendants.
of the Kshatriya, or warrior caste of the earlest Indian writers,
or to represent them as a mixed race, which took a name to
which they had little title, or to refer to their alleged invasion
of India at a much later period from Central Asia. It is
sufficient to note that powerful rulers of this great tribe
were established for a long period in early times in North India,
who were gradually driven out from the plain country into the
more inaccessible and less fruitful districts which are now
known under the names of Rajputana, Malwa, and even Gujarat,
in the first of which they have made their special home, and in
which they have maintained themselves to this day.
Rajputana is in the north-west of India, and lies between the
Punjab on the north, Sindh on the west, the united provinces of
Agra and Oudh on the east, and Malwa and Gujarat on the
south. Its area is nearly 153,000 square miles, or about 11,500
more than that of the British Isles.
The Aravalli mountains stretch diagonally across it from near
Delhi down to the south-west border towards Gujarat, dividing
it into two regions, of which that to the north-west, containing:
about three-fifths of the area, is generally sandy, ill-watered and.
unproductive, approaching even to desert as the west is reached),
while that to the south-east, or two-fifths of the whole, has a.
fertile soil with forest tracts, and in the south is more or less.
covered with hills which are well-clothed with woods, both the
latter tracts being well watered. Such is in brief the
description of the country which is given by Colonel Abbott im
his census report for 1891. The states of Marwar, Bikanir, and
Jaisalmer, all Rajput, le in the larger region ; those of Meywar,
with its offshoots, Dungarpur, Partabgarh, Banswara, and
Sirohi are in the south, leaving the rest of the province for
Jaipur, Alwar, Karauli, Kishengarh, and the Haraoti states of
Bundi, Kotah, and Jhalawar, if we regard only the Rajputs to
whom the country belonged for so many centuries; but we must:
add to complete the whole the two Jhat principalities of
Bharatpur and Dholpur, part of the Mohammedan state of Tonk,
and last, but not least, the British district of Ajmere, which lies
i
72 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.1.E., ON THE
in the centre of the country, and was one of the principal
residences and capitals of the Moghul Emperors.
As the physical conditions of a country, including the geology
and meteorology, undoubtedly exercise a very important
influence upon the inhabitants, whether it be on their history
or their character, an influence which I believe to have been
especially marked in the present case,a somewhat careful study
of these points must be made.
Geologists inform us that the Aravalli mountains differ from
the other great ranges of India in being entirely composed of
disturbed rocks, with the axes of disturbance corresponding
with the direction of the chain, the formations in them belonging
to the Archean rocks, and being of great antiquity and quite
unfossiliferous. North-west of the mountains alluvial formations,
also unfossiliferous, extend across part of Marwar; Vindhyan
rocks, a similar series, being found on the south-east border of
the province. Valuable points related to the geology are the
kinds of building materials associated with the strata; the nature
of the soils; and the influence of these factors on the climate,
the communications, the animal and vegetable products, and
the development, health and happiness of the people, as well as
the effect they have had upon their relations with the outside
world. In the eastern and central parts of Rajputana the soil is
light, assimilating to that of the United Provinces, and it yields
good crops of cereals. The rich loams of Haraoti and parts of
Meywar supply large quantities of wheat, sugar-cane, cotton
and opium ; this district, under Zalim Singh, the famous regent
of Kotah, having been a hundred years ago the granary of the
centre of India. On the sand of the north and north-west one
annual harvest, instead of two as elsewhere, is reaped and is
chiefly made up of millets. There is, therefore, a great difference
of foods depending upon the nature of the soil to a large extent ;
thus, for example, where the staple is millet the food is coarse,
and this fact, added to the scarcity of good fodder, which is due
to the irregular rainfall, makes life very hard in the desert:
tracts for both man and beast.
Yet this very difficulty has its compensations, because it
compels the inhabitants who are strong and hardy to seek
their fortunes abroad, thus following the law of movement so
forcibly enunciated by Buckle.
These remarks are not only true of the Rajput warrior, but
of the mercantile classes, who under the names of Marwaris,
Baniyas, Seths, or bankers, reside for a time in the rich towns
and villages of the whole of North India, and even far beyond,
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. 73
in these days of safety, in such places as Hongkong or Zanzibar ;
and also of Brahmans, who go to distant parts to act as priests
to the scattered members of the desert clans ; and unfortunately
also of highway robbers, or dakaits who used to make raids far
and wide in India, returning to their homes with their spoil.
All alike however hope to die in the Rajput land, and to
bring up their families in it so that the strength and independ-
ence of the race may be kept up.
In most parts of the country stone is available for
building substantial houses, but in others, where the soil is
clayey and wood is cheap, tiles and bricks are in general use,
aud in the hills wattle and mud walls with grass roofs are
common. The Rajput was therefore always comfortably
housed, but the abundant quantity of marble and _ beautiful
sandstones of different colours in some districts rendered it
possible for the chiefs to construct most charming palaces,
handsome temples, and, what was much more useful to them,
strong forts and town walls. Few minerals except salt have
been worked, but even this and the ornamental building
stone, although they added to the wealth of the people, have
not been regarded as unmixed blessings, because they attracted
the covetous eyes of the Moghuls.
The geographical and geological features of Rajputana are
most important factors in determining its meteorology. A
large portion of the north-west is occupied by the great Indian
desert, which is covered with sand hills shaped in long straight
ridges, and is ill-watered. The south-east of* the Aravallis is
more elevated and fertile. It is very diversified, and contains
extensive hill ranges, valleys, plateaux, and wcodlands. It is
traversed by several large rivers, and there are numerous
isolated rocky eminences. Sir John Eliot, who kindly wrote
a description of the meteorology for my fajputana Medical
Gazettcer, observes that the meteorological features of the two
divisions of Rajputana differ greatly, depending partly upon its
physical configuration and on its proximity to the Arabian
Sea to the west, and to the great river plains of Northern
India to the east. There are two seasons, viz., the south-west
or wet, and the north-east or dry. The former lasts from
about June to September, and gives on an average about 13:47
inches of rain to North-west Rajputana, and 25°32 inches to
the south-east. Much of the rain comes from the Bombay
current in moderate showers, but in some years a good deal is
received during the passage of cyclonic storms from the west.
October and November are usually fine and dry, though there
F 2
74 COL. I. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.1.E., ON THE
are occasional cyclonic storms, and here I may mention, in
passing, that this is the time at which the warlike races began
their military expeditions. The north-east monsoon Sir J.
Eliot divides into a cold weather season from December to
February, and a hot season from March to May or June, when
the rains begin. The diurnal range of temperature in the
former is very large, and there are usually storms which pass
from the north-east towards the Gangetic plain, and are
followed by a remarkably bright and clear state of the
atmosphere. .They are sometimes accompanied by hail. In
the hot season, hot winds blow over the greater part of
Rajputana, and the relative humidity is very low, being
sometimes as little as 2 or 3 per cent. Excessive dryness of
the air, high temperature, with large diurnal ranges, and hot,
dry, westerly winds are the chief normal features of this
period. The total yearly rainfall for the north-west is 15°26
inches, and for the south-east 27°19 inches. The daily range of
temperature is sometimes between 25° to 32°, and very high
temperatures are noted, in the end of May for example being
as much as 123° F. On the other hand, the thermometer
falls in the cold weather as low as 30°.
The climate is a very prominent factor in the making of
the Rajput, and in preserving his health. The cold months
are usually very delightful, and the bracing air is most
invigorating; the hot season, on account of the dryness of the
atmosphere and ,the frequent winds, can generally be well
borne, and the monsoon period affords a welcome relief to both
man and beast. On the whole the public health is good.
Dust and glare account for a great prevalence of eye affections,
and there is much malarial fever, strangely to say in the dry
city of Bikanir being more prevalent than in the more moist
districts of the east of the province, and so much so is this
the case in certain years that in the west it has been
sometimes difficult to gather in the autumnal harvest, and
military operations would under such circumstances be long
delayed. On the other hand, although smallpox and cholera
are common enough, they do not spread so widely as in other
parts of the empire, on account of the free movement of air, its
dryness, and the fine open country round the hills. The
climate, especially of the north-western tracts, is indeed very
favourable to the growth of a hardy, manly population, and
the comparatively long cold season recuperates the forces of all
but the most feeble, thus, notwithstanding many untoward
conditions, the Rajputs, and even the peasantry of other tribes,
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. a
have through many centuries been noted for their bodily
strength and for those qualities of mind which = should
accompany such a state of health. Where they have failed
it has been due to want of union and good leaders and to
incapacity to adapt themselves to modern conditions, which
thei: more quick-witted adversaries, under foreign influences,
have not been slow to understand and follow. The fact that
Rajputana is one of our best recruiting grounds proves that
mthe aterial is still one of the best, and, if properly led,
second to none in India. Most unfortunately the Rajput
despises the pen, though he feels and recognises its power,
which has often been exercised to his detriment; but, where
physical force, bravery, and loyalty alone are required, he is
always to be depended upon, though he cannot easily realise
that personal courage, with faithful devotion to his liege lord, are
not sufficient to ensure Imperial rule in these days, in which
strategy and well considered plans must accompany diccipline,
and when force alone cannot rule the world. Many of my
Rajput friends, who despise the learning of the scholar and the
schools, which they associate to some extent with trickery and
with the possession of additional fangs to enable a man to prey
upon others, have bitterly regretted to me their powerlessness
to prove their loyalty by using their swords on behalf of the
paramount sovereign. It may “be that. this noble, if somewhat
medieval, spirit may yet some day be used for the good of the
empire. The Pax Britannica has, however, already converted
the Meenas and the Jhats, the strongest of the peasantry, as
well as many Rajputs, into ordinary citizens, who seem to have
forgotten the arts of war, though as yet, I fear, they have not
sutticiently so learned the arts of peace as to be able to defeat
the pleader, or astute petty lawyer, to whom all of them are
ready to fall a prey, or the baniya or small trader, from
whom they recklessly borrow, so that In many cases they ‘lose to
the one or to the other their lands and fortunes.
I think that I have shown that to some extent the progress,
ancient success, and present position of the Rajputs and their
sovereignties, have been due to the geographical, physical, and
climatic conditions of theircountry. I shall now therefore deal
with other important considerations. I repeat that the fact
that the same race has remained dominant, in what would
appear at first sight an unsatisfactory and unpropitious country
and environment, from the date of its first appearance there
fifteen hundred years ago, points to conditions which are indeed
worthy of the most careful study. Assuming that the ancestors
76 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.1.E., ON THE
of the Rajputs came, as tradition asserts they did, from beyond
the Himalayas, and then spread out on the easily conquerable
plains of the north of India, from which they were themselves
in turn evacuated by more disciplined conquerors, and that the
best of them then retired to lands which were better suited to
their martial instincts and modes of life, where finaily they
fully established themselves, we may go on to ask why Rajputana
fulfilled the conditions which were necessary. The Rajputs were
brave, hardy, and above all extremely desirous of possessing
land which they could hold without being under the strict
direct rule of a supreme court. They were fond of the chase, in
which they could maintain their strength and learn the arts of
stratagem in peace, which, in early ages, were much the same
as in war; while at the same time they did not lessen their
devotion to their tribal chiefs, whom they regarded as the
patriarchal heads of their families, whose interests were similar
to their own, whom they were always willine to acknowledge
and die tor as the first amongst equals, the preservation of whose
rights was the same thing as preserving their own, but whom
under ordinary conditions 1t was wiser to keep at a distance.
A country studded with mountain ranges and isolated hills,
at the feet of which were many fertile valleys and plains,
admirably met all these and many other wants of such a people,
not only because it became easy to construct forts from which
the plains could be dominated, but on account of the alter-
nations of wood and cultivation, and the mountain streams
which furnished excellent cover and food for game. Moreover,
the extended cold season renewed the vigour of the men and
kept up their full powers, which enabled them, in days when
standing armies, and particularly infantry, were of little value,
but when personal courage counted for so much, not only to
hold their own, but to extend their possessions, or at least
to provide for their sons. It was not the aim, as it was
not the genius of the Rajput, to promote commerce, though
there are instances of great wealth having been obtained
under their protection in the more settled districts, as is
evidenced by the riches of the banker and merchants, especially
of the Jain sect, which enabled them to build such famous
shrines as those of Abu and Sadri, and to erect splendid
mansions in such out-of-the-way places as Bikanir,
Jodhpore and Shekhawati, or huge temples at Mathura and
elsewhere. The usual position and history of a Rajput capital,
or of the home of any Rajput Thakur or noble, points to the
truth of my conclusions. Let us take for example the capitals
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. Gh
of any of the modern states. The chiefs of Meywar, when they
were driven from the plains of Gujarat, settled in the innermost
recesses of the Aravalli mountains; they then conquered the
Mori chief of Cheetore, and for a thousand years his fortress
remained their capital, from which, when they were opposed
to the disciplined hosts of the Moghul Empire, they had, after
a very hard struggle, extending over many years, to withdraw
again into the rugged district in which they founded the new
and present capital of Udaipur, the City of the Rising Sun. So
also at Jeypore the earliest capitals were Kho and Kuntalgarh,
in almost inaccessible hills, then at Amber, still in the hills,
and finally at Jeypore in the plains, but even now under the
shadow of the mountain range, which is crowned with forts for
the protection of the city. Again, the capital of Marwar, when
it first became an important state, was at Mundore in the hills,
and it was then removed, more space being required, to the
plains beyond, though it was there also dominated by a noble
fort high up on a grand scarped rock. Without exception the
Rajput chiets, even if their present capital does not stand in the
hills, have some inaccessible fastness to which they can retire,
as well as some game preserve in the hills close by. The homes
of the nobles are similarly situated, and if there are no moun-
tains there are wide extents of sand which serve a similar
purpose, or, as at Kotah, a broad river which admits of easy
defence of the place. Of course in process of time it became no
longer so easy to provide for those who separated from the parent
stem, so that they had to be satisfied with less typical sites, but
the traveller will be surprised to find in Rajputana how few are
the villages of the nobles which have not close by some
stronghold, which is built on a rock or near some low hills, or
some woodland out of which to make a game preserve. Villages
in the open owned for their lord him who had the longest arm,
and when the inhabitants were in danger or were oppressed
they withdrew to his fort for shelter.
Tod refers to seeing near Reah in Marwar the cenotaph of the
Thakur of that place, who fell in 1749 in defending the town
walls against the Mhairs, having first put to death his wife in
order to save his honour, and he adds that “there was scarcely
a family on either side of the Aravallis whose estates lay near
them which had not cenotaphs bearing similar inscriptions,
recording the desperate raids of the mountaineers; and it may
be asserted that one of the greatest benefits we conferred on
Rajputana was the conversion of the numerous banditti . . .
into peaceful tax-paying subjects. We have now, moreover,
78 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.1.E., ON THE
metamorphosised several corps of them, from breakers, into
keepers of the peace.” The work of building strong forts and
town walls was much facilitated by the abundance of excellent
building materials. In North India, below the Himalayas,
Rajputana alone fulfilled the important conditions which I have
named. These are found, however, in other parts of the
Peninsula, and in such situations the Rajputs, or the people who
resembled them, also established themselves ; thus, for example,
in the neighbourhood of Rotasgarh, on the Soane river in
Bengal, and in the adjoining hill states of Chota Nagpur, there
are many petty chiefs, who assert their descent from the
genuine Rajput stock, though it is no doubt very much diluted
by admixture with inferior aboriginal blood. The great
Mahratta Chief, Sivaji, and the Rulers of Nepal also claim
Rajput origin, and that from the noblest stock, none other than
the royal house of Udaipur. The rule is almost universal,
though it is true that in early times, when they became para-
mount, the great chiefs of India, from whom the present rulers
believe they are descended ; even the deified king Rama himself ;
and the lords of Balabhi and Kanauj, respectively the reputed
ancestors of the chiefs of Jaipur, Udaipur and Marwar, lived in
the plains, but they did not thoroughly establish themselves
there. Thanks to their possession of Chitor, the famous rock
fortress, and of the hill countries near it, the chiefs of Meywar
after Rana Hamir were paramount for more than two hundred
years in Rajputana, notwithstanding that they had against them
the power of the great sovereigns of Delhi.
I will now quote at length from one of the appendices
to the famous Rajasthan, or “History of the Rajputs,” a
remonstrance which was addressed to Colonel James Tod, its
author, when he was Political Agent in Meywar, by the Sub-
vassals of Deogarh, because it 1s most typical of the ideas of
the Rajputs as regards their duties to their liege lord, and still
more so of his obligations to them, and then I propose to give
some illustrations of the peculiar qualities of the race, qualities
both good and bad, to which, in my opinion, they owe not only
their successes, but their failures.
Remonstrance of the Sub-vassals of Deogarh against their
chief, Rawat Gokal Singh. (Appendix, Tod’s Rajasthan.)
1. He respects not the privileges or customs established of
old.
2. To each Rajput’s house a Charsa or hide of land was
attached ; this he has resumed.
3. Whoever bribes him is a true man, who does not is a thief.
——————— ee
Lal
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. 19
4. Ten or twelve villages established by his vassals he has
resumed and left their families to starve.
5. From time immemorial sanctuary has been esteemed sacred ;
this he has abolished.
6. On emergencies he would pledge his oath to his subjects,
and afterwards plunder them.
7. In old times, it was customary when the presence of his
‘chiefs and kindred was required, to invite them by letter; a
fine is now the warrant of summons, thus lessening their
dignity.
8. Such messengers in former times had a takka (a copper
coin) for their ration, now he imposes two rupees (64 times as
much).
9. Formerly when robberies occurred in the mountains within
the limits of Deogarh, the loss was made good ; now all complaint
is useless, for his fawjdar (military commander) receives a fourth
-of all such plunder. The Mers range at liberty ; but before they
never committed murder, they slay as well as rob our kin, nor
is there any redress, and such plunder is even sold within the
town of Deogarh.
10. Without crime, he resumes the land of his vassals for the
sake of imposition of fines, and after such are paid, he cuts down
the green crops, with which he feeds his horses.
11. The cultivators on the lands of the vassals he seizes by
force, extorts fines, or sells their cattle to pay them. Thus
cultivation is ruined, and the inhabitants leave the country.
12. From oppression the town magistrates of Deogarh have
fled to Raipur. He lays in watch to seize and extort money
from them.
13. When be summons his vassals for purposes of extortion
and they escape his clutches, he seizes on their wives and families.
Females, from a sense of honour, have on such occasions thrown
themselves into wells.
14. He interferes to recover old debts, distraining the debtor
of all he has in the world; half he receives.
15. If any man have a good horse, by fair means or foul he
-contrives to get it.
16. When Deogarh was established, at the same time were
our allotments; as 1s his patrimony, so is our patrimony. Thou-
sands of rupees have been expended in establishing them and
improving them, yet our rank, privileges, and rights he equally
disregards.
17. From these villages, founded by our forefathers, he at
times will take four or five skins of land, and bestow them on
80 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.1.E., ON THE
foreigners ; and thus the ancient proprietors are reduced to:
poverty and ruin.
18. From of old all his Rajput kin had daily rations of
grain; for four years these rights have been abolished.
19. From ancient times the vassals formed his council: now
he consults only foreigners. What has been the consequence ?
The whole annual revenue derived from the mountains is lost.
20. From the ancient allotment of the brotherhood the
mountaineers carry off the cattle, and instead of redeeming
them, this fawjdar (of lies) sets the plunderers up to the trick
of demanding blackmail.
21. Money is justice and there is none other: whoever has
money may be heard. The bankers and merchants have gone
abroad for protection, but he asks not where they are.
22. Refers to their being fined when they attempt to do.
themselves justice, and recover their cattle when they have been
driven to the hills, thereby leading to loss of dignity; to failure
to investigate feuds, whereby the Rajput is obliged to abandon
his patrimony, there being neither protection nor support.
They add that the chief is so supime and so regardless of
honour, that he tells us to take money to the hills and redeem
our property; foreigners are all in all, and the home-bred is
set aside. Dekhanis (Southerners) and plunderers enjoy the
lands of his brethren. Justice there is none.
Our rights and privileges in his family are the same as his in
the family of the Presence (the Maharana). What crimes have
we committed, that at this day we should lose our lands!
We are in great trouble.
The recital of the wrongs of those poor people seems lke
reproducing a page out of ancient Semitic history.
The courage of the Rajputs, whether it is considered under
its personal or its tribal and collective aspects, during the period
of their greatness, was undoubted. Where every page of their
history seems full of instances of both kinds of courage it is
difficult to quote special cases. The most powerful incentives to
bravery amongst them are perhaps pride of race and devotion
to the immediate tribal lord rather than love of country. The
ordinary Rajput thinks it quite sufficient to introduce himself
by saying, “I am a Rajput,” the son of a king, and the proudest
boast of his wife is to be the mother of a Rajput. Many a man
of this race has been encouraged by his women to return again
and again to fight the enemy and to perform the most heroic
deeds. Even their taunts were not wanting though these were
>
rarely needed. The Emperor Akbar caused effigies to be put
’RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPOTANA. 8]
up of Patta Singh and Jai Mal, one of them a mere lad of sixteen,
who both fell tighting on the slopes of Chitor, before his own
palace, figures w hich are in existence to this day, as a testimony
to his admiration for their valour.
We are told that the mother and bride of Patta Singh
accompanied him, and that both fell fighting near the spot. I
have myself seen the monument erected to his memory, and
from the tower of Victory of Kumbhu Rana which crowns that
noble hill of Chitor, have heard the representative of his name and
honours speak with pride of his forefather’s bravery and patrio-
tism, both of which it was easy to see he would willingly emulate.
Where every local history teems with instances of personal
courage of both sexes, and it is almost impossible to find a
coward, it would be invidious to quote more examples, I shall,
therefore, go on to the collective bravery of the race, which has
been the subject of comment of all historians. When the
Rajput finds his case hopeless, he assumes saffron coloured robes,
and putting to death the females of all ages, rushes headlong
into the ranks of the enemy, and committing terrible havoc,
there finds the death which he seeks.
No fewer than three times was this awful sacrifice made in
the history of Meywar, when, headed by the highest of the
queens, the wives and ‘dauchters of all the nobles and the
remaining females of the clan went down into the caverns on
the side of the mountain, and there were suffocated or burned ;
for if this had not been done, they would have become the
lawful prey of the captors, as was the case with the Jews of old
and the nations with whom they fought.
In a beautiful valley cleft in the hill I was shown the sacred
spot where is the entrance to the cavern in which the last and,
perhaps, all of these fearful sacrifices took place. In front of
it is a sacred fountain, and around it are grouped some smal!
temples in which the manes of the dead are propitiated, and
where the Rajputs pray for courage to imitate the example set
by their illustrious ancestors, to which indeed they need but
little incentive, the flames being abundantly fed by their bards
and historians from their earliest days. Nor indeed are the
women less backward than the men in all that is chivalrous.
Taught from their infancy that pious wives should accompany
their husbands to the realms of the dead, they arm their sons
for battle, and follow their lords, in many cases, as the annals
testify, most gladly, to the funeral pyre. Nor is this sur prising,
because the lot of a widow is by no means a pleasant one, as
custom prescribes many hardships that she must go through if
82 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.I.E., ON THE
she wishes to preserve her reputation for honour amongst her
fellows. The sacrifice of the Johar was not confined to great
national occasions, but was an accompaniment of even small
intertribal conflicts. The whole story turns upon the Rajput’s
jealousy of his honour, a feeling of which the following extract
from the memoirs of James Skinner affords a good illustration.
Fraser, who writes his memoirs, says, “If we seek for a picture
of chivalrous gallantry, unswerving fidelity, and fearless self-
devotion, we have only to turn to the cavalry of the Rajput
states ; particularly to that of the Rahtores. We shall find
there acts of resolute heroism that have not been surpassed by
the troops of any age or country. In the history of their own
wars we find repeated instances of bodies of their horsemen
dashing against lines of spears and bayonets in the field, and
against batteries bristhng with cannon, regardless of the havoc
in their own ranks made by grape and steel, while in defence
of their fortresses we find them dying to the last man, rather
than accept quarter from their assailants on any terms but
such as they deem consistent with military honour, for it is the
zzat, the Abru, of the Rajput which is dearer to him than life,
which instigates him to imperil that in its defence; while his
devotion to his chief and clan, like that of the Highlanders of
yore, makes all sacrifices easy when these are in peril.” Skinner
gives an instance of a small garhi or petty fort in the Doab
which was threatened by a detachment of the British army.
The thirteen Rajputs who held it agreed to surrender to
Skinner if permitted to go free and carry off their arms; but
when the younger officers told them to give them up (as
Skinner had promised), they said it was against their custom.
Unfortunately, in spite of Skinner’s remonstrances, they were
refused, and then turned back. They opposed the twenty men
sent against them and killed or wounded as many in number
as themselves, and finally all died in the little post, surrounded
by three or four times the number of their assailants dying or
dead around them. The famous La Borene, or Count de Boigne,
who was such a prominent and good specimen of the military
adventurer, who was the means, thanks to his training of the
infantry of the Mahrattas, of domg more harm to the Rajput
cause than perhaps any one else, bears testimony to the
gallantry of the Rahtore horse. At the renowned battle of
Mairta they charged and recharged up to the very muzzles of
the guns. Again and again they charged, each time with
ebbing effort and weaker effect; again and again they flung
themselves against that hedge of bayonets with merciless
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPOTANA. 83
madness. There is a limit to human endurance, but to-day
that lmit was death. So the ghastly sacrifice was
consummated, until only fifteen remained alive, and_ these,
steadfast to the end, returned for the last time to the shambles
ef self-immolation, and found the death they sought. Baber,
who was the conqueror at Biana, owed that victory, which gave
him India, to his artillery and to the treachery ot some of the
supporters of his valiant antagonist, Sanga Rana of Meywar,
and perhaps to the want of general discipline of the foe, and
not to any decay in their courage, for which he had the greatest
admiration. All writers up to the end of the eighteenth
century speak in similar terms, but when the new century
dawned the incursions of the Mahrattas, aided as they were by
internal dissensions of the Rajput princes, and strengthened by
the infantry and artillery under the European adventurers,
who had trained them, completely demoralised the race, so that
Skinner, who saw “ the brave Surajbanses, or the children of the
Sun,’ in their prime in 1798, in 1832 says, “How much are
they now fallen. Chiefs, no longer brave leaders, but either
boys or men sunk in vice or debauchery, guided by women or
Kamdars or agents—Udaipur the only exception.” Very
shortly afterwards Dr. Irvine of Ajmere wrote of the courage
of the Rajput as having been very much overrated, and as
having been at all times due in a great measure to the use of
opium and other stimulants, but their bravery was a matter of
common knowledge long before opium was in use according to
Tod, and was exercised under circumstances which were quite
independent of such adventitious support. The Rajput takes
a dose of opium before an engagement as an almost sacramental
right and in part, as a valiant man of the race told me, for
medical reasons.
Be that as it may, I think no one who knows the people
would not be glad to lead such men in a charge, being certain
that he would be followed to the death. The Rajput is
impulsive, easily deceived by a wily foe, as the emperors knew
well, having on several important occasions detached chiefs
from the cause of their own enemies by the stratagem of allowing
misleading, or forged, letters to fall into their hands. He is too
prone to take offence and will fight with his brethren for land
as well as for every insult, whether it is true or false, so
unreflecting is he, but he is generous to the foe, often giving
away advantages in a reckless fashion. He has no idea of
discipline, but he will die for the most quixotic and trivial
reasons in defence of his honour and of that of his immediate
84. COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.1.E., ON THE
lord, or for any cause which the latter takes up, though he does
not so readily fight for country as we regard the word. Tod
tells us how the Rajput regards the honour of the clan, or of
his own family, as the most pressing of all duties.
Two illustrations will suffice to enforce the above remarks.
The Maharana of Udaipur had the son of the great Moghul,
Aurungzeb (Orme says it was the emperor himself) in his power
in the mountains, as well as a favourite queen. Although their
detention would have been of the utmost value to him, he let
both go without making any terms. Two great nobles claimed
the right of leading the van in war. The chief, not wishing to
offend either of them, said that he who was first inside of a town
which was then being besieged should lead in the future. One
advanced to the wall, the other tried to enter by the gate, but
the latter finding his elephant would not attempt to burst it in
on account of the long spikes of iron with which it was studded,
and stimulated into frenzy by the distant sound of the war cry
of his rival, threw himself upon the sharp points and commanded
his mahout, or elephant driver, to press forward through his
body, but in the moment of death he had still the mortification
of hearing that his antagonist was already within the
walls.
It isa noble sight to see the Rajputs in full martial array
on the open plain. Some faint idea of their splendour I
witnessed thirty years ago when, after his father’s death, the
late Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Marwar, accompanied by the
whole of his court and his nineteen brothers, went out of
Jodhpur to escort the then Chief of Jaipur, Maharaja Ram
Singh, into his capital. The young nobles were mounted on
camels or horses decked with the gayest trappings, and with
the tails of the wild ox fastened in front of their saddles.
Elephants carried the royal standard and insignia of Marwar,
and before the chiefs and those who accompanied them ran
crowds of horse and foot, while from all sides were heard the
plaudits of the people, accompanied by the discharge of muskets
and similar weapons and the booming of cannon from the fort
walls. Such is the ceremony of the Peshwai or Istakbal.
Something of the ancient glories was seen at the famous
Imperial Assemblage of Delhi, and a faint, though modernized,
version of them in the same capital at the Coronation Darbar of
1903, when an unfortunate chief, who wore the national dress,
the garb of the Moghul Court, as he ascended the Vice-regal
dais, excited the mirth of the unthinking crowd.
Most terrible is the picture drawn for us of the condition
O_o —_
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. 85
of Rajputana when the British first became intimately connected
with it.
Broughton, in his letters from a Mahratta camp, describes
how the army of Sindeah passed systematically over the lands
of all the villages which did not buy him off. His troops
deliberately traversed the fields of wheat and barley where the
ear was just ripening, with no more remorse than if it had been
a desert, the Mahrattas tearing up the corn and loading
themselves and their cattle with it. Risalas (troops of cavalry)
oceasionally halted in the midst of a particularly flourishing
spot to allow their horses to get a good feed. Even the beams
and thatch of the houses were carried away. They tore and
destroyed that which they did not want, so that it was
no wonder that the peasantry were raised against them
and cut off all they could. These miscreants, if they had
a grudge against a village, would march over and trample down
the growing crops. He laments the degeneracy of the Rajputs,
who were formerly so eminently distinguished for their
chivalrous courage and high sense of honour, which now
seemed to have quite deserted them, and, as an instance of the
spirit which formerly animated them, he mentions that when
the Chief of Bhurtpore marched in defiance through the Jeypore
country, the nobles rose up and with their followers drove him
off with fearful loss. This writer, and many others at the time,
refer to the manner in which the English abandoned the Rajputs
under the most unfortunate and disastrous policy of the East
India Company that was carried out by Sir George Barlow,
at which time, for our own convenience, we abandoned this
brave race, not only to the Mahrattas, but even to those still
worse foes, the awful Pindaris, who are described as despotic
marauders and savage barbarians, who were prowling about
the country in immense hordes, being composed of the worst men
of the Mahrattas and Musalman armies, and of all other
scoundrels of the lowest class whom the civil wars and troubles
of the period had driven to obtain a livelihood by preying upon
their fellow creatures. These Pindaris, another writer says,
ranged over the countries of Malwa and Rajputana as if they
were their common prey. Miserable indeed was the condition
of the land, not only from the ravages of these savages, but from
the excesses of the no less ferocious chiefs and princes who
disputed for power upon their soil, so that the greater portion
of them was utterly ruined and. depopulated; and the natives
have given to that period (1800-1818) the expressive name of
gardi-ka-wakt, that is, the time of trouble. “The poor Bhils,
86 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.1.E., ON THE
whom the Mahrattas could not keep in order, were treated by’
them as outlaws, and they permitted their lowest officers to take-
their lives without trial. Torture was freely used. Exposed:
to the sun with his nose slit and his ears shaved from his head:
the Bhil was burned to death, chained to a red-hot iron slab.
Hundreds were thrown over a cliff at Antur, and large bodies,
assembled under a promise of pardon, were beheaded and blown
from guns. Their women were mutilated, or smothered by
smoke and their children dashed to pieces against the stones.”
At this time they too came under the protection of the British.
The country never suffered in this way from the Rajputs, who-
if they did fight with each other, or with the common foe,
protected the peasant, and were on good terms with the wild
Bhil.
It is not wonderful that the Mahrattas and the Mohammedans.
lost empire. As to the latter, when the intolerant Aurangzeb.
imposed the polltax on all who were not Musalmans, he lost at
the same time the support of the Rajputs, and the Moghul
Empire soon fell to pieces, but even, at their best, the Moghuls.
after Akbar did not know how to treat a brave people. The
emperor Jehangir, for example, writes of his efforts to put down
what he calls the robbers of these countries, and mentions as a
proof of the difficulties of the task, that in his own lifetime half-
a-million of them had to be put to death, but without much result..
It was some time before Malwa and Rajputana recovered from
this terrible strain, and even now the recollection of the past
must go far to reconcile the inhabitants to the rule of a humane:
paramount power, even although it is not of their own faith or
race.
The immense improvement in the masters of these regions is.
shown by the opinions of those who saw something of the horrors
of the past; thus, for example, Sir John Malcolm, the great
Political Officer and historian of Central India, says, “the
unbounded liberality of the East India Company is quite un-
known in England, and indeed in the more remote parts of
Hindustan. Their munificence is proverbial amongst the whole:
of the native powers with whom they have been concerned ;
their extreme liberality and good faith in all treaties, which has.
never been tarnished, establish them on a rock which no power
can shake.” It can easily be imagined with what relief the mild
rule and non-interference of such a power must have been.
received after so much oppression and misrule, and after the
unfortunate Barlow period there has been nothing to shake this.
confidence as far as the treatment of the natives of those pro-
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. 87
vinces is concerned. With not very great exceptions the Rajputs
stood the test of the mutiny and were loyal. Most of the states
have recovered, and, though a bad ruler is not unknown, the
people generally are happy, and even the Rajput nobles, who
cannot now obtain new land at the expense of their neighbours
and friends, are at least secure in the possession of that which
they already hold, which can only be alienated by their own
fault. Here, however, family pride, which demands, as they
think, very heavy outlay for marriage and funeral expenses, and
general improvidence, often lead to serious loss and even ruin.
In the good old days the moneylender was kept somewhat under
control, because he was not allowed to go too far, or to collect his
debts by too legal measures, nor to spend too much on himself, as
he was restrained by sumptuary laws. Some states have taken
special precaution to protect the noble against his own folly in
both respects. The Walterkrit Sabha, a social organisation
which was founded on the recommendation of the late Colonel
Walter and of other officers, with the support of the chiefs and
sympathy of the Government of India, has helped the nobles
and better classes of Rajputs to reduce the enormous marriage
expenses, particularly by making it punishable to spend too
much on such occasions. The chief bards and others who pro-
fited most have loyally co-operated in this very useful reform.
Personal pride, family honour, and jealousy of each other, which
were inflamed by the bards, and all of those who were interested
in shearing the unfortunate noble, made it very difficult to
escape from lavish outlay, so that the friendly intervention and
support of a third powerful party, on whose bread shoulders all
the odium and blame could be thrown, was of infinite value at
this time, nor indeed should a paramount power shrink from
performing such an important if temporarily unpleasant duty, and
happily our Government does not shirk its responsibility, and
has not the desire nor is it under the necessity of adopting the
Macchiavelhan policy of the Moghuls, which led the emperors to
believe that it was all-important to divide if they wished to rule.
It was unhappily far too easy to sow dissension amongst the
Rajputs, whose hunger for land, jealousy of each other, and
impulsiveness, as I have already shown, were always so apparent!
History is full of instances of the advantages the old paramount
powers sought and obtained from these sad divisions, though, on
the other hand, it is not wanting in examples of combination
which lasted long enough to prevent their enemies from com-
pletely destroying them.
Such ill-judged action as that of Aurangzeb, when he fined
G
88 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.1.E., ON THE
and punished all Hindus on account of their religion, or the in-
vasions of their country by the numerous Mohammedan invaders
of India, from a sense of common danger, led to general resist-
ance of the foe, but so loosely knit were the discordant elements
of these combinations that failure often occurred on the eve of
victory, or the ultimate advantages of victory were lost to the
race. As an instance of the former, the defeat of Sanga Maha-
rana at Biana by Baber from the defection of one of the } principal
Rajputs may again be mentioned.
The love: of land is an overwhelming passion with the
Rajput, and has often tempted him to despoil his neighbour,
and to take advantage of his difficulties. It has thus come
about that although the tribe has remained firmly established
in Rajputana, the same clans do not always hold the same
possessions, nor have they the same boundaries as formerly. It
was the custom at each succession, for example, for a new
Maharana of Udaipur to make a raid into a neighbouring
State, and so begin a struggle for extended dominions. Each
of the more celebrated septs has thus in turn come to the
front. The brave Chohans once held very extensive sway,
so did the equally renowned Tuars, both having at one time
been rulers at Delhi, but the one is now represented by a noble
in the Alwar State, and the other, as a Jaipur chief, holds his
httle court at Patan in North Jaipur, where in a small house,
within sight of a great fort above on the hills, I was received
on several occasions by him as if he had still in his possession
the lordship of the Imperial city, which was given up 700 or
800 years before, showing how much men such as he live on
the glories and traditions of the past. The history of the
abandonment of the upper fort is characteristic. A former
lord had killed his own father, being eager to enter into
possession, but was soon overcome by remorse as his fears led
him to beleve that the place was haunted by the defunct, and
so persistent was the vision, that he went to live in a hut on
the plain, and from that day none of his descendants have
ventured to take up the old home. Both Jaipur and Jodhpur
have been stained by crimes of this nature, and these have
been due to the love of possession, which was driven into
erime of the worst kind by the evil suggestions of the Delhi
power. In these, and similar cases, the deed has been
execrated by the Rajputs themselves, and the superstitious
fears of the murderer have made his life a burden to him.
Superstition and religion are very much allied in the Rajput.
Every state has its tutelary divinity, who at some critical
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. 89
time has appeared, it is believed, for the preservation of the
ruler or of his race. All firmly believe in the truth of these
stories, and act upon them. While the Rajput is professedly a
follower of Shiva, the destroying form of the divinity of the
Hindus, he is actuated more, perhaps, by the milder tenets of the
votaries of Krishna, whose cult is much favoured by the women ;
and the Jains, who as bankers have always flourished in
Rajputana, have also been influential in leading the chiefs to
treat their people with humanity. The fact that, if oppressed,
the cultivator will at last abandon a village, and the knowledge
that the large extent of waste land needs men to work it, and
that dissatisfied persons will soon find others ready to welcome
them, also tends to induce the nobles to make themselves good
landlords. The custom of modified domestic slavery, which
prevails in Rajputana to this day, is another proof of the
mildness of Rajput rule. The present Chief of Jaipur, in
speaking to me on this question, said that, even in the days of
his poverty, and he at one time lived in exile with very scanty
means, his chelas or his servants born in his own house, to use
the Seriptural or more correct phrase, were never hungry though
he often was. A Rajput, he said, would rather die than see
such persons suffer, and the fact is true that no inan or woman
need now remain in such servitude in these days of railway
communication.
It is the custom when a young Rajput, or his sister, the
young fajputni, is married, for a number of chela boys and
girls to accompany the young people into the new home, and
to be married at the same time, the marriage expenses of the
servant being paid by the lord, and so well is this understood
that the boys and girls are kept unmarried for such an occasion.
Some of these chelas rise to high position in India. These people.
as indeed do all his clansmen, join in all the pleasures as well
as in the sorrows of the lords. In some states, every Rajput
retainer receives a portion of grain from the state granary
_every day. This is of course convenient in a country in which
most of the revenue is paid in kind, but it goes deeper than
that, being an illustration of the custom of looking to the lord
for everything.
i have often been told, when I hinted at the propriety of
rich men giving subscriptions to hospitals, that they were not
needed, because it was the duty of the chief to provide all such
things for his people, and it would therefore be insulting to
distrust him. In turn the chief expects assistance to be given
to him, and that when required, up, of course to a certain
Gu2
90 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.I.E., ON THE
limit, he should be able to have the first call upon anyone for
his skill, thus, for example, the goldsmith or the armourer must
execute work for the Maharaja in preference to the subject,
whatever the necessities of the latter may be.
These customs are but the extension of “mutual aid,” the
earliest form of human society, as Kropotkin has pointed out,
but, side by side with this practice, we have the village system
of India, and the Trade Guilds, all working together with a not
unsuccessful harmony. Interference with the individual is on
well-known lines, and is, therefore, easily borne.
Cooperation in danger, even though imperfect, and inde-
pendence in the home go hand in hand, and although they may
sometimes press somewhat heavily in special cases, it 1s very
doubtful if a different system would be more successful. So
secure have the people of Rajputana been in the belief that, on
the whole, the conditions of life around them are the best for
them, that they have been tolerant of others, and thus in that
country there has been little difference between the prospects
of the Hindu and the Musalman, and, if it were not for the
misrepresentations of foreign members of the Brahmanical
faith from Bengal and elsewhere, it is probable that Christians
of Indian races would meet with the same toleration, though in
their case the Paramount Power does not, under us, exert any
influence in their favour, although they have, if I remember
correctly, ence been described by an Anglo-Indian judge as the
first of all castes.
Although I have given many reasons why I think the Rajputs
settled in Rajputana, I have only incidentally referred to the
conditions under which they maintained themselves so long in
the province. They could not have done this unless their rule
over the people, especially over those who were not of their own
clan, had not been mild, and if their conduct towards them had
not been generally just and benevolent. As regards the powers
which sought to conquer them from the outside, although the
Rajput did not always win he always made himself felt, and his ~
prowess was so respected as to make his enemies not only fear
him, but afraid to attack him without the most serious
preparation.
In respect to their relations with their retainers and the
people generally, many things conduced to good feeling, loyalty,
and success. The retainers are men of the same clan, whose
ancestors followed their tribal chief to war and victory, and
amongst them he divided the lands which they had conquered
together,and which were, therefore, the reward of their mutual toil
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. 91
and prowess. The noble held, as he still holds, his petty court
of ceremony and justice just as his sovereign did; he settled
disputes in a truly patriarchal way; he punished crime; he
protected the poor, and even fed his clansmen, as, indeed,
everyone else in times of famine and scarcity ; he helped
on such occasions as marriages and deaths with money to meet
the additional expenditure of such occasions ; and in return the
lord expected and received similar support at the time of
domestic events in his own family, and, more than all, faithful
help when he had to serve the common sovereign, whether at
his court or in time of war.
If these bonds were broken on either side there were dis-
content, rupture, and transfer of allegiance to another noble, who,
as I have already observed, had a strong interest in getting more
men to till his waste lands, but an even stronger one in securing
the services of additional horsemen to follow him into the field
of battle, or to aid him in any struggle with his own superior
should he find it necessary, in turn, to change his allegiance.
There were therefore many reasons why a noble should be
just and conciliatory. The remonstrance of the sub-vassals of
Deogarh which I have given, shows some of the various
grievances which may arise, and proves how an unjust noble
may soon lose his power, his influence, and even his estate.
A Hindu will not, however, lightly leave his holding, his
Bhum, or the land of his fathers. Outside many a village is
the shrine of a Bhumia, that is of a man who has died in
defence of his rights in the land, and who in consequence 1s
thought to haunt the scene of his former life, and who, if he is
not propitiated, may greatly trouble his descendants or the
village people. A light is, therefore, kept burning inside the
little shrine, or garlands are placed near the painted stone
within, which represents the departed, whose soul is still
anappeased. The Bhumia sometimes, it is believed, lives near
the spot in the form of a huge cobra, which, if offended, will
ill someone in the place. There are many families that have
remained for untold generations in or near the same hamlet,
and nothing struek me more, in recording the names and
history of persons who were detained in cholera or plague
camps, than the narration of such pedigrees as this. When
passing through the large town of Sojat in Marwar two or three
years after the great famine of 1868-9, I saw whole streets of
houses and shops which were locked up, but were untenanted by
newcomers because it was believed that the owners, or someone
representing them, would surely return from Malwa into which
o2 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.1.E., ON THE
they had fled under stress of hunger. Such facts as this show
how the native of India clings to his land and home, and what
a great amount of wrong is required to drive him away for
good, yet it also pots on the whole to a just and paternal
treatment.
What tended most to preserve such a rule was a common
religion, which, while it allowed much elasticity in some ways,
such as variety of sect and local practice, did not usually
persecute for such divergencies, and its very humane nature
which permitted a man to do so many personal things without
hindrance that, in perhaps better regulated and more straitlaced.
communities, are prohibited. Thus, for example, a man will
shut up a street if he wishes to give a caste feast on some
family occasion ; he will get the loan of horses, elephants, camels,
furniture, and even of a few soldiers when he has a marriage
in hand, and desires to shine a little before his neighbours; and
he will have the right to a seat, or at least a standing place, in
the little court of the noble, even if he is only a smali shop-
keeper: and he may as the head of his guild or fraternity, sit in
judgment on his caste men in petty “disputes, and lastly, his
body may be carried sitting up instead of in a recumbent
position to the cremation ground, his chiet being present. Then
again, if he is one of the nobles or officials, he will have some-
thing to say when his sovereign dies as to the succession.
The rules of succession to position and property in Rajputana
have had very much to do with the permanency of Rajput ruie.
Unlike the Mohammedan Emperors, whose rules for themselves |
and their nobles as well as officials were most irregular, the
Rajput had fixed principles which were followed at every
succession both of a chief and of his nobles.
All were therefore equally interested in keeping these
reculations and in preserving the system which admitted them.
Mohammedan successions were far from regular. The strongest,
or most unscrupulous, won in the almost inevitable struggle
which followed upon the death of the last sovereign, and his
death was not always waited for, as for example in the case of
even the great Akbar himself, whose grandson Khusru strove
to obtain the empire to the prejudice of his father Jehangir. ‘This
scheme some authorities say even the emperor attempted to stay
by giving the rebel’s own supposed supporter Raja Maun Singh of
Jaipur, poisoned pan or betel with his own hand, which, however,
he took by mistake himself, thus causing his own death. So also
Aurangzeb, by cunning and fighting, won the empire from his
brothers and actually deposed his father Shan Jehan, the deed
RAJPUTS AND THE HISIYORY OF RAJPUTANA. 93
of blood being amply revenged upon his descendants, of whom
21 out of 27 died violent deaths. The evil existed in all ranks,
because upon the demise of a noble or high official his possessions
passed to the crown, his natural heirs only receiving enough to
live upon. Can it be wondered then that the Rajputs and the
people generally preferred a system which had some elements
of permanency in it, and that not even the Mohammedans were
wholly in favour of regulations which destroyed all the natural
incentives of working for a man’s own family and of founding
a home and keeping in memory a name.
Ordinarily then the succession in Rajputana was hereditary,
but when there were no sons the Hindu laws, which admitted
of adoption of some lad of the royal line, were followed. This
practice adruitted of the choice of the most promising scion of
the family who was at the moment capable of adoption. 7
Of course there was not unfrequently much scope for intrigue,
but on the whole if the main stem had proved unworthy, there
was a change for the better, and the ancient lineage was always
preserved. Such a case occurred while I was at Jaipur. The
Maharaja was the last of the direct line, and on his deathbed it
became necessary to inquire whom he wished to succeed him,
he replied, “The next of kin according to the Shastras,” or
Hindu Scriptures. This would have led to some dispute, because
tribal and local customs and state views might have given rise
to differences of opinion, so that a few minutes later he was
induced to speak more definitely, and then named a young
man, who was of the family, and who, being the second
son, was not required to perform his own natural father’s.
funeral rites, and was therefore capable of being adopted by
another. This youth succeeded, aud is now the capable, though
conservative and popular chief of the state who came over to
England for the coronation of our King. There were several
important considerations however that arose in this ease that
are illustrative of the subject, as, for example, the facts that the
widows of the chief had also a voice in the matter as well as.
the nobles and the members of the state council, all of whom
agreed. In case of a death without nomination of an heir the
same principles will be followed, but the widow would nominate
by the advice of the other parties.
The Paramount Power has always, certainly since Moghul
times, held, and exercised as far as it could, the right of final ap-
proval. The Moghuls, it will readily be surmised, would interfere
the more often in order to back up their own system of succession,
and to enable them to keep down their most truculent opponents
94, COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.I.E., ON THE
by threatening thei in their dearest aims. One of the measures
which has tended, perhaps, more than any other to ensure the
lasting loyalty of the Rajput has been the grant of the right of
adoption to the chiefs of that race, and the anxiety of the ereat
families was extreme when the failure of direct heirs at
Karauli before the great Mutiny led to this matter being
thoroughly threshed out, and an ultimate decision being given
in their favour. Had it not been so, even in my own time,
many of the great Rajput chiefships would have been at the
disposal of the paramount sovereignty. Even the loyal and
wise chief of Jeypore, Maharaja Ram Singh, felt it necessary
on his deathbed to say to me, when nominating his successor,
that he looked to the Government, in recognition of his uniform
loyalty, to see that his wishes were carried out, and that the
independence of his country was maintained, and his lne
preserved. Nor indeed is this fixity of tenure confined to the
ruling race, which numbers only about five per cent. of the
whole population, but it is the rule throughout all classes.
There are, for example, bankers in the northern parts of
Jaipur, in Bikanir, and in Marwar, whose ancestors have been
settled in or near the same places for many centuries. The
facts which I have mentioned point to community of interest,
to fixity of tenure, and especially to preservation of land in
the regular line of succession, but there are other privileges
which are of equal value to the ordinary human being which
the Rajputana system ensured. Provided a man did not interfere
in high polities, he could do many things which fostered his
love of independence in his own home and affairs which a less
elastic and, perhaps, over-legislated rule would not admit of.
He could till his own lands without much interference,
especially if he bribed a tax-collector, and, with the exception
of caste control to which all were accustomed, he could do
pretty much as he liked, and then too, there was the chance,
under personal rule, of rising even to the position of a prime
minister by natural acuteness, rather than by the arts of the
seribe, which all.in their hearts abhor. Crowning all was the
mutual aid which every one was prepared to render if the
interests of the clan, or of the immediate lord, were attacked.
On the side of the Rajput noble there were many things which
tended to keep him up to the mark. The bard recited deeds of
honour, but on the other hand he could describe in scathing
verse any acts which were contrary to the accepted standard of
uprightness. I remember how the name of a noble was
execrated because in a time of dire distress from famine he
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. 95
vowed he would not part with his huge stores of grain until the
price in the market rose to a certain very high rate, and how
every one scoffed when, on the arrival of the longed-for hour,
and his grain pits were opened, it was found that the contents
were rotten, and the sanitary authority condemned them as being
unfit for human consumption. So also a noble who lends
money at usury, like a Baniya, is despised by his brethren,
while the liberality of another, not always wise though it may
be, is lauded to the skies.
Some of the most beautiful illustrations of the care of the
Rajput princes for their people are to be found in Rajputana.
I refer to the wonderful artificial lakes which have been
formed by throwing across streams, as they emerge from the
hills through the passes, huge dams, some of which are
constructed of marble and are crowned with magnificent halls
and temples which have been usually dedicated to Vishnu the
preserving deity. The coffers of the chief and of his nobles
have been freely opened for such public works, and most
beautiful and useful are the results of such munificence. The
great dams at Deybar and Kankrauli in Meywar, with the
broad expanses of water behind them, are things to dwell for
ever in the memory, as also are many of the lesser works in the
capitals of many other states. It must not be forgotten,
moreover, that the magnificent and striking palaces of the chiefs
have led to the outlay of much money, thus supporting many
trades and occupations, and that a Rajput palace is not a
possession which is intended or used for the benefit of one man
or for a single caste. The palace includes the courts and
public offices to which all have access, and the Darbar Halls
are frequented by men of every class when the numerous
darbars or receptions are held, of which there are at least a
dozen at most courts to commemorate some royal or religious
anniversary as the year rolls round. The great Bishop Heber,
in one of his letters writes as follows, “There are two palaces,
Amber and Jaipur, surpassing all which I have seen of the
Kremlin, or heard of the Alhambra ; a third, Jodhpur, is said to be
equal to either ; and the Jain temples of Abu, on the verge of
the western desert, are said to rank above them all.” In
another place, he remarks that “For varied and picturesque
effect, for richness of carving, for wild beauty of situation, for
the number and romantic singularity of the apartments, and
the strangeness of finding such a building in such a place and
country, | am able to compare nothing with Amber.” Fraser,
the Editor of Skinner’s Memoirs, says, “India cannot produce
96 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.I.E., ON THE
a more splendid view than that of the wide plain of Jaipur, as
seen upon the road from Amber, with its noble city in the
distance, and the foreground studded with palaces, shrines,
temples, tanks, and multitudes of villages thick with groves
and gardens. ‘There are few places in Upper India better
worth seeing than these two cities and their environs.” Tod
describes the glories of Jodhpur, “within whose noble fort,
situated high up on a mole projecting from a low range of hills
so as to be almost isolated, surrounded by strong walls with
numerous lofty towers, are many splendid edifices and the Raja’s
residence, composed of many palaces which were constructed
by his ancestors.”
Of Bundi he says, “ The cowp-d’wil of the eastellated palace
of Bundi, from whichever side you approach it, is perhaps the
most striking in India; . . . throughout Rajwarra, which
boasts many fine palaces, the Bundica Mahl is allowed to possess
the first rank ; for which it is indebted to situation not less
than to the splendid additions which it has continually
recelveds*
The valley of Udaipur he thought the “ most diversified and
most romantic spot on the continent of India,” and who is there
who has seen its marvellous palaces, both on the waters of the
Peshola Lake and on its beautiful shores, its temples and its
Mahasati, or abodes of the dead, its wood-clad embracing hills,
its wayside shrines, and its interesting inhabitants, who shall
differ from him ?
The Jain Temple of Vrishabdeva at Mount Abu, is, according
to him, “ Beyond controversy the most superb of all the temples
of India, and there is not an edifice besides the Taj Mahl which
can approach it. The pen is incompetent to describe the
exuberant beauties of this proud monument of the Jains,
raised by one of the richest of their votaries (by whose name,
and not that of the pontiff enshrined within, it is still
designated), and which continues to attract pilgrims from every
region of India.”
Time would indeed fail us if we were to tell of all the glories
of this romantic land, but I would mention that it 1s not only the
princes who have such beautiful homes, but in Bikanir,
Jaisulmer, and Ajmere, and many another spot there are similar
palatial residences of bankers, priests, and other rich men,
most of these towns being adorned with buildings which are
carved from top to bottom of their walls with most intricate
lace work in red sandstone and marble. Moreover every
picturesque rock in some parts of the country seems to be the
SSeS
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. Q7
site of some charming little shrine, and every hill is crowned
with some romantic castle, all such buildings giving the lie to
the idea that the Hindu does not love beauty, ‘and, in choosing
the situations of his buildings, that he is only moved by
considerations of comfort or perhaps of coolness or security.
Some of the views which are shown to-day will, in a faint
measure, help those who look at them to realize the beauties of
a few of these places.
Few countries can produce such a long roll of eminent men
as Rajputana. To begin with Meywar, there have been few
greater warriors than Sanga Rana, who at the time of his death
was only the fragment of a man, havi ing lost an eye and an arm,
besides having received no fewer than eighty wounds in the
cause of his country. No less great was Kambhu, of whom the
Mohammedan historian, after relating his victory over the King
of Malwa, dilates on his greatness of soul in setting his enemy
at liberty, not only without ransom but with gifts. ‘The life-long
struggle with the Moghul empire of Partap will never be for-
sotten by his race, and the beautiful letter of Rana Raj Singh
to Aurangzeb, remonstrating on behalf of his nation against the
intolerant persecution of that bigot, has often been quoted with
admiration. Marwar produced so long a line of valiant princes
that an exception is almost unknown. Especially famous were
Sur Singh, Gaj Singh, Jaswant Singh, and Ajit Singh. Some of
these were viceroys of the emperors in distant lands and patrons
of art and literature, but in the latter capacity none equalled the
famous founder of Jaipur. Siwai Jai Singh, who reformed the
calendar, wrote histories, built observatories the remains of
which exist to this day, and was, in addition, one of the most
skilful generals and greatest politicians of his age. Raja Man
Singh of the same royal house was, in succession, viceroy for
the Moghuls of Kabul, Bengal and Orissa. In two battles
twelve of the royal blood of Bundi and Kotah died, with the
heads of every Hara clan, to maintain their promised fealty to
the Delhi house. It is unnecessary to pursue this theme, but
one can only wonder that 1t was followed by so much decay.
That this was due, in a very large measure, to the shrewd action
of the Mahrattas in employing European adventurers to organise
their forces on modern principles cannot be doubted, but the
folly of the Rajputs led, in the first instance, to the interference
of the Mahrattas themselves in Rajputana affairs, and the
beginning was due to the jealousy of the rulers of Jaipur and
Marwar, who were both candidates for the hand of Krishan
Kumari, the beautiful daughter of the Maharana of Udaipur.
98 COL. T. HOLBEIN HENDLEY, C.I.E., ON THE
This struggle led to the invitation of the foe to interfere, and
mot only to the ruin of the country, but to the death of the
innocent princess, who was compelled to take poison, though she
was not unavenged. A patriotic noble of Mewar cursed the
instigator of the deed, and foretold that no chief of Udaipur
should ever again have a son who would directly succeed
him.
The late Sir Edward Arnold recited a beautiful ballad deserib-
ing this sad history, in my own house, which was formerly the
residence of the minister of Jaipur, one of the states concerned
in the events which he eloquently narrated, and I would strongly
recommend all who are interested in the Rajputs to read his
charming verses, as none can do so unmoved.
Had time permitted 1 would have written of the wonderful
resemblances of many of the Rajput customs, practices, and
ceremonies to those of the ancient Semitic races and
particularly of the Jews, but failing this opportunity would
point to the suggestiveness of many of the portraits of Rajput
princes which I have brought for your inspection, which may
perhaps be considered of double interest in view of the little
that is known of the remote history and the date of the first
appearance of the tribe in India. I think, moreover, that some
account of a living people which seems so allied in customs,
history, and in many other ways to the ancient Biblical nations
of Asia cannot fail to be of special interest, from many points
of view, to the members of this Society.
In conclusion I will briefly recapitulate as the causes of the
long possession of power in the same regions of the Rajput
race:—A climate and physical conditions which were best
suited to the growth and maintenance in strength of both
mind and body of a manly people, which could not have been
kept up, as the history of other inhabitants of India has
shown, in the hot plains of the peninsula. The presence in
Rajputana of excellent situations and materials for building
forts and places of refuge, and above all numerous inaccessible
hills or deserts into which a secure retreat could:be made in ~
case of severe pressure. The patriarchal and tribal system
which permitted of much personal freedom, while adequate
provision was made for cooperation and united action if
threatened by a foreign power. A common religion. Just and
well understood laws of succession. Benevolent treatment of
the commonality and competition for tenantry which the wide
extent of land ensured. A patriarchal system of justice. A
fairly wide-spread toleration of the religion and customs of the
RAJPUTS AND THE HISTORY OF RAJPUTANA. 99
people of other faiths than their own. And lastly occupation,
in peace as well as in war, of a manly race as afforded by the
amount of game and the numerous preserves, without any great
pressure from unrighteous forest laws, which could not press in
any case very seriously when most of the people did not require
game for use as food.
The very failures in ensuring absolute success prove, I think,
that, on the whole, these conclusions are correct, but, if there
were not justice and manly strength, none of the causes which
I have enumerated would have been of any avail, and so L
would end my paper with the motto of the famous prince Siwat
Jai Singh of Jaipur, “YATO DHARM STATO JAI”—Where there
is virtue (or all the great virtues—whether religious or virile—
for such is the comprehensive meaning of the word dharm)
“THERE IS THE VICTORY.”
DISCUSSION.
The CHAIRMAN remarked on the extreme interest of the paper ;
and thanked the author for the trouble he had taken in the
preparation both of the coloured pictures and the excellent lantern
slides of the beautiful buildings and rich surroundings of the cities:
of Rajputana, and called for observations from those present.
The SECRETARY wished to associate himself with the views of the
Chairman regarding the great interest of the paper and the beauty
of the illustrations. No one was better qualified than Colonel
Hendley for giving a true description of this splendid dependency
of the British Empire, owing to his long residence in Jeypore, his
intimate relations with the late and present Maharajah, who showed
his loyalty to the Crown by his presence at the Coronation of King
Edward VII. It should also be recollected that Colonel Hendley
was instrumental in bringing together into one Museum at Jeypore
a large collection of Indian works of art, and of setting up a
meteorological observatory ; in all of which undertakings he had
the support of the Maharajah and of the british resident. He,
the Secretary, thought these were points which ones to be
mentioned on the present occasion.
The CHAIRMAN, on behalf of the meeting, cordially thanked the
author for his most interesting paper, and the proceedings
terminated.
ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.*
CoLONEL. T. H. HENDLEY, C.I.E.,. IN THE CHAIR.
The Minutes of the previous Meeting were confirmed.
The SECRETARY read a telegram from the Rev. J. B. Whiting
expressing his regret that he was unable to be present, his medical
advisers having forbidden it.
DEATH OF BEY. DRY. A. WALKER:
The SECRETARY also alluded to the death of the Rev. Dr. F. A.
Walker, F.L.S., which took place on January 31st, and which was
a great loss to the Institute. Dr. Walker had travelled in Iceland
and studied the insects of that country and had written several
papers. He (the Secretary) had, on behalf of the Institute, attended
the funeral on Saturday last, and he was sure it was the wish of
the Society that he should express their regret and sympathy with
the widow and family. ,
Mr. Rouse said he wished informally to express for himself his
regret to hear of the death of Dr. Walker. He spoke of his genial
manner and Christian character, and expressed the hope that
some one would be raised up to fill the gap which his death had
caused in the ranks.
Professor ORCHARD also expressed his regret and remarked on
the almost encyclopedic knowledge which Dr. Walker possessed on
many subjects. ;
Mr. Whiting’s paper, entitled “The Growth of the Kingdom of
God,” was read by the Secretary, and discussion followed.
* Monday, February 6th, 1905.
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD.
By Rev. J. B. Wairine, M.A.
[* a very interesting paper, read before this Institute three
years ago, Professor Lobley traced the vast succession of
animal and vegetable creatures, as a preparation of the earth
forman.* This preparation, which ultimately covered the earth,
was orderly, gradual and final. It bore evidence of having
been planned by a mind of wisdom, and carried out by an arm
of power. The work was long, there was no hurry. It was
the work of God.
We instinctively look for a similar process in what we
signify as the Kingdom of God.
We believe in God. The idea of God leads to the
conviction that there has been purpose, plan and preparation.
We look for successful development; but that development
may not be obvious for a long time.
It is, I think, only recently, that we are struck by the fact
that an enormous growth has taken place, “The Kingdom of
God is like a grain of mustard seed, which a man took and
cast into his garden; and it grew and waxed a great tree.”
“This Kingdom” is likened to a field, which contains both
tares and wheat. It is of the growth of this Kingdom of
God that we assert that it is the subject of an eternal purpose;
a divine plan, an intelligent preparation, wherein God hath
abounded in all wisdom and prudence, and for which He has
“ appointed” times and seasons.
Before we proceed further let me adduce evidence of the
growth of this Kingdom of God; bearing in mind that it
consists of all who call themselves Christians.
The evidence shall be (1) in regard to the population of the
world, (2) in regard to the shifting of political power from
non-Christian to Christian Governments. Both these lines of
inquiry lead us to perceive that this Kingdom of God has
become “a great Tree.”
When the Saviour became Incarnate, enormous tracts of the
earth’s surface were without inhabitants. We may take an
illustration of this fact. Africa contains 12,000,000 square
miles, exactly one-fourth of the habitable surface of the earth,
* Trans. Vict. Inst., vol. xxxiv.
102 THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD.
and is nine times as large as India; whilst the number of its
various races put together is only two-thirds of the population
of Hindustan. Again, when Christ was born in Bethlehem,
the area of the whole of the Roman Empire was not larger
than the area of India and Burmah, and the population was
about 125,000,000. From a very interesting book, A Century
of Christian Progress, by the Rev. James Johnston,* we Jearn
that, according to an official census of China, taken A.p. 2, the
population of China was 59,000,000. We shall, therefore, not
be far wrong if we estimate the whole population of the world
ut more than 300,000,000.
Comparing this with the statements of Gibbon and of
Bishop Lightfoot (paper, $.P.G.), we are enabled to draw up the
following charts :—
GROWTH OF POPULATION.
Year. Christians. Non-Christians.
RD BO0s irae) wae gee 6,000,000 360,000,000
AD, 1900° acon yee teh OOOO O00 1,250,000,000
That is, while in the year 300 A.D. Christians were as one to
sixty non-Christians, in 1900 they were as one in three and
a half; and while non-Christians have multiphed four-fold,
Christians have multiplied seventy-fold.
Distinguishing now among Christians, we find :—
Individuals. A.D. 1800 A.D. 1900
Romanist 505 500 eee 107,000,000 222,000,000
Greek, Copt, Armenian, etc.... 66,000,000 128,000,000
Protestant... ies Sho 37,000,000 140,000,000
210,000,000 490,000,000
Tt will be seen that there is no ground whatever for the
statement made in booklets, which have had a very large circu-
lation, that “the heathen world is increasing faster than the
Christian world.” The authors take no account of family in--
crease. Had they consulted members of the Statistical Society of
London, they would have learned that whilst the non-Christian
population of the world increased by 200,000,000 in the nine-
teenth century, the Christian population increased 250,000,000 ;
the number of living converts from non-Christian faiths in
* pn. 167, 1st edition, Nisbet.
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD. 103
A.D. 1900 being 4,000,000, a number in the century four times
greater than the whole number of Christians in a.p. 100.
Let us now turn to the question of ruling power. The
habitable area of the earth is nearly 50,000,000 square miles.
At the birth of our Lord, and for 300 years after, the whole
world was under non-Christian government. When Constan-
tine professed himself to have become a Christian, 2,000,000
square miles passed under Christian government. Speaking
roughly, this remained so for twelve centuries. Then Christian
rule suddenly expanded. The comparative relation of Christian
and non-Christian political power will be seen at a glance, the
figures representing square miles :-—
Rulers. A.D. 1600 A.D. 1900
Christian. "/.- a- aH 3,000,000 42,000,000
Non-Christian as ie 47,000,000 8,000,000
50,000,000 50,000,000
The number of subject people under the non-Christian and
_ Christian rule respectively is as follows for the years 1800 and
1900 :—
; 1800 1900
Non-Christian oe ... 850,000,000 550,000,000
Christian... .... 2. 350,000,000 —_1,100,000,000
1,200,000,000 —1,650,000,000
Whether, therefore, we consider population or ruling power,
we see the marvellous growth of the “ Kingdom of God.”
These statistics are very surprising from two points of
view :—
1. We are apt to imagine that Christianity has always
prevailed throughout Europe, whereas, as a matter of fact, the
early Church was confined in Europe to the countries bordering
the Mediterranean. North of the Danube and east of the
Rhine was the home of barbarians and savages, and the greatest
part of Europe was in heathen darkness for many centuries.
Illustrious missionaries, animated by a zeal as devoted and as
heroic as is exhibited by any of the messengers of the Gospe}
in recent years, plunged into vast forests and preached to
hidden tribes. Many of these missionaries went forth from
the British Isles, and not a few met a martyr’s death. It is
not generally known that at the opening of the thirteenth
A
104 REV. J. B. WHITING, M.A., ON
century the people of Prussia still worshipped snakes and
lizards. Maclear (Christian Missions im the Middle Ages,
p. 339) states that “three gods in particular were held in
veneration, the god of thunder, the god of corn and fruits,
and the god of infernal regions”; ‘every town or village had
a temple.” Infanticide, polygamy, and the burning of widows
on the death of their husbands, and human sacrifices, gave
rise to “ Kuropean crusades,’ and Christianity was forced on
unwilling peoples. Till the year 1336 not a ray of lght had
penetrated the darkness of Lithuania. Nevertheless, great
missionary efforts had been attempted in every century. (See
Archbp. Trench, Mediaval Church History, and Neander.)
2. The statistics given above are very wonderful from
another point of view. They show that the previous pre-
paratory history of the world led to a marvellous result,
marking out the nineteenth century as an “appointed time.”
We note that there has occurred a sudden and extraordinary
increase in the population. Whilst non-Christians increased
on an average 5 per cent. in a hundred years for eighteen
centuries ; in the nineteenth, owing to the security of life and
property under British government, the population of India
far more than doubled, so that taking the whole world,
the increase was 25 per cent. instead of 5 per cent.
Christians, again, who had previously increased on an average
fifty per cent. in a hundred years, in the nineteenth century
increased 150 per cent.
In passing J notice that in consequence of the systematized
missionary work, newly commenced by the Protestant Societies
at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the number of
their converts now lving is over 4,000,000. To effect this
languages have been learned, grammars made, bibles and other
books translated, schools provided, new industries introduced,
new roads, and even railways constructed, commerce established
and character elevated. The Romanist results in the century,
omitting the number of the descendants of previous Indian and
Chinese Christians, was at least 2,000,000.
I learn from the Rev. James J ohnston, that the population
of Europe from a.p. 1 to A.D. 1800, was almost stationary,
viz.:—about 170 millions.* That population suddenly began to
multiply, owing to the shifting of political power, within the
* Mr. Rouse doubts the correctness of this statement on the ground of
the vast tracts of forest, especially in Germany, which were cleared for
habitation in the latter part of that period.—ED.
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD. 105
continent, the vast progress of science and machinery, the
immense increase of progress and other causes; by the end of
the nineteenth century the population of Europe had become
about 360 millions, thus supplying a very large proportion of
the numbers of the present Kingdom of God.
On the other hand, when speaking of this marvellous growth
of the kingdom, we must not omit to bear in mind the
virulent and extraordinary opposition of the powers of evil,
such as the heresies of Christians, the fearful sacrifice of
Christian life in the terrible persecutions under Roman
emperors and Roman popes. Nor must we fail to bear in mind
the inexplicable outburst of Mahommedan fury in the seventh
and thirteenth centuries, the extermination of Christianity in
North Africa, and its almost entire suppression in Spain and
Asia Minor. At about the same time torrents of armed
ruffians from the East overwhelmed the churches founded by
the Nestorians in Central Asia. Cruel slaughter of Christians
in Persia added vast numbers of men, women, and children to
the noble army of martyrs.
Further, whenever conversions in large numbers took place,
there invariably followed a reaction and a revival of Paganism ;
compulsory imposition of the Christian religion gave occasion
to the mingling of heathen ideas and practices with the
teaching of the new faith: heresies sprang up from the fallen
soil of the human heart. The time and prayerful energy of the
Church was rightly and necessarily occupied in defining
Christian doctrine, and drawing up “articles” of true religion
and creeds and “ confessions” of faith. Notwithstanding all
this, the onward roll of the Kingdom has never been really
staid. Defeated in one scene of its triumphs, it has planted
the Cross in other lands, and has proved ultimately to be the
conquering religion.
With these facts before our minds, let us ask, What explana-
tion does the Bible afford us? In Ephesians iii, 11, and i, 8,
we read of the “eternal purpose” carried out “in all wisdom
and prudence.’ The first of these expressions indi¢ates that
the overthrow of every opposing power, the destruction of
“the works of the wicked one,’ and the establishment of a
universal empire of truth and righteousness, is the Eternal
Purpose of “the living God.” The second expression used by
the inspired Apostle discloses to us that the growth of the
Kingdom of God is in His hands, and managed from first to
last “ with wisdom and prudence.” St. Paul learned this from
the Old Testament. The passages are too numerous to quote.
H 2
106 REV. J. B. WHITING, M.A., ON
For example, let us turn to the prophet Isaiah. As we read
the wonderful words, we feel that they rest on the four points
of our proposition. In lin, “the pleasure of the Lord,” 7¢., the
Eternal Purpose, is carried out by “the servant of the Lord”; of
whom we read in ch. xlix, that He concurred in the Purpose and
the Plan. ' In ch. xl, we have notes of Preparation. Nor is this
less evident in the earlier chapters of the Book. Turn to
ch. iv, 2: “In that day ”—a fixed day—‘“ shall the sprout of
Jehovah be for ornament and glory, and the fruit of the earth
for majesty and beauty.” He who was to be the “sprout of
Jehovah,” was also to be the “ fruit of the earth.” On this Dr.
Kay quotes Delitzsch: “He was the grain of wheat, which
redeeming love sowed in the earth on Good Friday; which
began to break through the earth and grow towards heaven on
Easter Sunday, whose golden blade ascended heavenward on
Ascension Day, whose myriad-fold ear bent down to the earth
on the day of Pentecost, and a out the grains, from which
the Holv Chureh was not only born, but still continues to-be
born.” Here are Pur pose, Plan and fixed Times. We have not
the space to refer to the numerous instances given by Isaiah in
which Purpose, Plan, Preparation, and fixed Epochs are evident,
controlling what by some is called secular history. But it is
important to notice that Isaiah speaks of this great truth, not
as revealed first to him, or in his times, but as long known in
all previous ages. For God sends a message to Sennacherib—
a heathen in a heathen land—“ Hast thou not heard long ago
that I have done it? hast thou not heard from ancient times
that I have formed it? Now have I brought it to pass.”
Turning to the New Testament, our Lord’s ereat prayer of
intercession (St. John xvii) establishes the fact that Purpose,
Plan, Preparation, and fixed Epochs characterise the growth ot
the Kingdom of God. ‘‘ Before the foundation of the world ”
a “glory” was “given” to the Son, to which the “glory” of
which he -was a partaker with the Father was antecedent.
This given glory involved “power over all flesh, that He should
give eternal life to as many as the Father had given Him.”
This glory He now gives to the Apostles, and He prays that
“they may be one, as we are one.” This is not the oneness of
which He spoke when He said, “I and My Father are one.”
That was an essential oneness in which His disciples could have
no share. This is the oneness of purpose, aim, intention,
in which they could share. He received this glorious com-
mission. He was God’s “ elect,” “to do all His pleasure.” He
now entrusts that glorious commission to chosen Apostles, in
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD. 107
preparing whom for their office he had spent three years. And
He intimates that this commission should be carried on to the
end of the age. Does not this point unmistakably to Purpose,
Plan, Preparation ? Can we fail to perceive that for the various
events connected with this great Redemption, the hours are
fixed? At Cana He had said, “Mine hour is not yet come.”
Now He lifts His eyes unto heaven and says, “Father, the
hour is come.” The hour, the very hour fixed in the Eternal
Council for the accomplishment of “the eternal purpose which
God purposed from eternity.” And so when in the course of
human history “the fulness of time was come,” “God sent
forth His Son” (Gal. iv, 4).
The events of the Old Testament all point to pre-arrange-
ment of “times and seasons,” 7c. periods of prolonged action,
and dates of particular events: the call of Abraham, the “ 420
years,’ reaching to “the self-same day,” when Israel departed
out of Egypt, the birth of Moses, the !ineage and training and
summons of David, the captivity in Babylon for a fixed
“seventy years,” the rise of the Greek Kingdoms, the founding
of the Roman Empire, “at the time appointed” (Dan. xi, 29).
“Know therefore and understand, from the going forth of the
command to restore and to build Jerusalem unto Messiah the
Prince shall be three-score and two weeks” (Dan. ix, 25, 26).
See also the fixed numbers in the “ Book of the Revelation.”
As we turn to the records in the Bible we note many
decisive events and epochs, involving an immense number of
details, such for instance as, at the timing of the decree of
Cesar Augustus so as to secure that the Holy Nativity should
take place, not in Nazareth, but in Bethlehem; and the birth
of Saul of Tarsus, “the chosen vessel,” in the very decade of
our Lord’s Incarnation, with the rights of a Roman citizen and
a deep interest in Asia Minor.
Or look back to Moses, mark how God secured that he
should become learned in all the learning of the Eeyptians,
and to be trained to be a leader and commander of the people.
While yet in the vigour of early life he has to fly from Eeypt.
He finds refuge in the tents of Jethro. Now Jethro was a
Hittite, a member of that nation who were learned men of
that age. It is said that there was a college of Hittite scribes
in the heart of Egypt. With Jethro Moses was content to
spend forty years. Here the learned Hebrew was surrounded
by inscriptions engraved on tiles, temples, statues, and rocks,
such as have recently been so largely found again and
deciphered. Moses, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit,
108 REV. J. B. WHITING, M.A., ON
compiled the chapters of Genesis, chapters essential as the
foundation records of our holy religion. When this great
work was accomplished he is led back into Egypt, for the
persecuting Pharaoh had died, another Pharaoh sat on the
throne, and the 420 years were drawing to an end.
Do we. sufficiently bear in mind this cardinal principle
that “times and seasons” God hath kept in His own power ?
No doubt there is a reality in human agency; no doubt the
Christian is a free agent, responsible for utilizing or neglecting
opportunities; no doubt in the Scriptures God speaks to us, or
by His Spirit incites, inspires, commands, praises, or blames
His people, as free agents. The Holy Spirit carries out the
Eternal Purpose through the free agency of man. But the
opportunities are God-given, God-appointed, and timed by God.
We must be very careful lest we use language which
overlooks the absolute, unerring wisdom of God. If, for
example, we say, “If the Church had exerted her energy the
world would have been evangelized centuries ago, and the
Second Advent would have already taken place; the prepara-
tion would have been completed for the glorious appearing of
the Great God, even our Saviour Jesus Christ, the Kingdom
would have come,” such unguarded language is unscriptural.
For we read that it was in the fulness of time that the First
Advent took place, neither too soon nor too late. In the
appointed hour and not sooner, will take place the Second
Advent. “Though it tarry, wait for it; for it will surely
come, it will not tarry ” (Hab. i, 3). This is not inconsistent
with the longing expressed by St. Peter, “Looking for and
hasting unto the coming of the day of Gcd” (11 Pet. in, 12);
nor with the declarations regarding the restoration of the Jew:
“T the Lord will hasten it in His time” (Isa. lx, 22); “I the
Lord will hasten my Word to perform it” (Jer. 1, 12); or
with the proclamation regarding the Second Advent, “surely I
come quickly,” or with the prayer of the Bride, ‘“‘ Even so, come,
Lord Jesus” (Rev. xxii, 20). This involves the active, direct
working of the Living God.
If we search outside the pages of the Bible, we arrive at
the same conviction. The position of the affairs of the world
fills us with astonishment. England, in the extreme north-
west of Europe, is in the centre of an Empire which girdles
the globe; her influence controls the tendency of human
thought and energy ; she includes under her sway nearly one-
third of the human race; her ships enter every port; her
language is spoken or understood by 150,000,000 ; her flag is
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD. 109
the flag of universal liberty ; and she holds “the open door ”
of commerce. Her greatness depends on the open Word of
God; and her conduct is professedly governed by the simple
faith and moral teaching of the Gospel of Christ. Thousands
of Christian men and women have gone from her shores to
evangelize the rest of the world ; her opportunity for glorifying
God and preaching Christ are not only magnificent, but
tremendous, and very solemn. Great Britain and Ireland
stand before us as a splendid and fitted instrument for bringing
about the realization of the Eternal Purpose. It seems plain
that our history was in the Divine Plan.
Even if Eneland is hereafter to be superseded by the rise
of some new “rod of God’s power,” she is certainly a prepared
avent for carrying forward the growth of the Kingdom of God
to a height which we are as yet unable to foresee. If this be
se, the hour has come when men of intellectual power,
industrious research, and historical knowledge can note the
course of events, and make a chart of the plan of the Divine
procedure “in all wisdom and prudence.”
Looking at each event in its own magnitude, we do not at
the moment perceive its connection with what went before,
and what happened after it. But when we lay the events all
out before our minds, we discover that they have been so
steadily working together that we are forced to admit design
in history. We see them fit into a plan, lke pieces of a
dissected map. But with this difference, that each event
flowed out and gave birth to what followed in the direct path
towards the final establishment of the Kingdom of God.
Make a list of the names of great men from the day of
the Apostles, such as Saul of Tarsus, Justin, Origen, Eusebius,
Jerome, Athanasius, Augustine, Gregory the Great, Theodore,
Archbishop of Canterbury, King Alfred, Wickliffe, Huss,
Luther, Erasmus, Cranmer, Jewell, Hooper, the Wesleys,
Whitfield, Wilberforce, Simeon, the Venns, Buxton, Livingstone,
Hannington, Crowther, and hundreds of other workers in God’s
inner vineyard, whom we cannot pause to name; look, again,
at another line of workers, such as Alexander the Great, Julius
Cesar, Marcus Aurelius, Constantine, Justinian, Charlemagne,
Henry the Eighth, Queen Elizabeth, Cromwell, Napoleon,
Wellington, Prince Albert, Queen Victoria; or again, call up
the succession of scientific giants—it is evident that each
arose at the very period when he was wanted ; they not only
served their own day and generation, but were clearly necessary
to carry forward the Kingdom of God.
110 REV. J. B. WHITING, M.A., ON
Why did the monastic institutions provide men of leisure
to copy manuscripts of the Word of God? Why did the
invention of printing occur just when the revival of Greek
learning took place in Western Europe, and the thought of
making translations of the Scriptures into the language of the
people took possession of capable scholars? . Why did the
seventeenth century prepare for the eighteenth; and the
eighteenth, with all its infidel philosophy on the one side, and
its evangelistic triumphs among our home population on the
other, prepare for the nineteenth, unless it was in the Plan ?
On what other principle can we account for the fact that
a hundred years ago the minds of obscure servants of God
were moved to inaugurate the missionary agencies which
have since been so great? The missionary impuise cannot
be traced to the political movements of the hour. It cannot
be traced to the intellectual tendencies of those particular
years. It was wholly distinct from the ideas which led to the
marvellous scientific discoveries, which at the same period laid
the foundations of magnificent inventions.
Yet where would have been our missionary successes but
for the decisive battle of Waterloo, the abolition of slavery, or
the overspreading of India by the British power? The
practical application of steam and electricity have made the
missionary enterprise, and the printing and circulation of
many millions of the Holy Scriptures, possible. How could
the relation between the Church Missionary House in
Salisbury Square, or between the Committees of the other
ereat Missionary Societies, and of the Christian Knowledge
Society, the Religious Tract Society, and the British and
Foreign Bible Society, and the thousands of missionaries in
many hundreds of stations ail over the globe, have subsisted
without the steam-engine, the electric telegraph, and the post,
or without the cutting of the Suez Canal, and the gigantic
power of England and the United States ?*
It is not altogether reasonable to accuse the Church in
past ages as neglectful of the duty of evangelising the world.
There have always been great missionaries. But the Church
had other work to do—work preparatory for the appointed
* While these pages were passing through the press an important step
has been made in extending the Kingdom of God by the joint action of
Lord Cromer and the Sirdar of the Soudan, in inviting the Church
Missionary Society to send missionaries to the Pagan nations of the
Upper Nile, now under British influence.— Ep1rTor.
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD. tit
nineteenth century. Before the Church could proceed safely
with the work of evangelisation, the great doctrines of the
Christian Faith had to be defined. Heresies sprang up in
earlier days and forced Christians to study the Word of God
and learn its true teaching. Articles of religion and creeds
had to be drawn up, if the prophets of Christianity were to
speak nothing but what is true in the Name of the Lord.
During all this time, and from the very beginning, the
forces of evil, the Serpent and his seed, were with oreat skill
striving to hinder the growing Kingdom of God. ‘ Whence
had it tares? An enemy hath done this.”
Of human history before the cali of Abraham we have as
yet scarcely any knowledge. But the known world was then
2,000 years old, and men had souls to be saved. That surging
human life was under the control and the guidance of God,
Who overruled the boundaries of nations, and set events in
order, so as to make the necessary preparation for the fulfil-
ment of His great Eternal Purpose to save the world. A
careful study has led many scientific and learned men to the
conclusion that there has never been an evolution of religious
ideas. There is evidence of a devolution from the original
Revelation of God, from the original revealed truth and
morality, and a perversion of God’s plan of saving fallen men.
To arrest this downward grade, when it had reached a
terrible depth of wickedness, and at the same time to prove
that human philosophy and merely human schemes for the
amendment of men could never reach his spiritual need, great
thinkers were raised up in various countries. It is startling to
find that Confucius, the philosopher of China, Buddha the
Indian, Zoroaster the Persian, Pythagoras, born of Italian
parents in Sidon (who travelled through Egypt, Arabia, parts
of India and Persia), and Socrates of Greece were all born
between 700 B.c. and 500 B.c.
In a learned essay on Buddhism in relation to Christianity
(Transactions of the Vietoria Institute, vol. xxv il), the Rev. R.
Collins speaks of “the evidence of a primeval revelation.”
Further on he says, “ Parallel with these recollections of a
Divine worship must have been the recollection of a divinely
taught morality.” Again he says, “I find in ‘The Brahmana
ot a Hundred Paths, and in the Hymns of the Rig Vedas,
evidences of a religious thought, not constructive, but
destructive, nor nearing the lieht, “but receding from it though
still catching its last rays.” Ne evertheless, these are all human
systems for regenerating society. It was a necessary part of
112 REV. J. B. WHITING, M.A., ON
the Preparation for Christianity that these experiments should
be made. Their failure, even when illuminated by Aristotle
and Plato, served to prove the necessity for the Gospel of
Jesus Christ. The lessons of Plato could not avert the decay
of the ancient Greeks, but the Gospel of Jesus Christ,
introduced by Marsden into New Zealand, regenerated the
cannibal Maoris.
But I turn from all this to draw attention to another
point. It was not only necessary that a definite centre in the
midst of a prepared people should be ready for the birth of the
Church; it was indispensable that there should be a suitable
cradle for its first development. Judea and the Jews supplied
the first, Asia Minor and its races supplied the second. In both
cases the statement of the Prophet is illustrated, ‘This people
have I formed for Myself: they shall show forth My
praise.”
The recent researches of Professor Ramsay in Asia Minor help
us to realise the long preparation of a cradle for infant
Christianity. Original wanderers from the family home
penetrate into Asia Minor, work the silver-mines which Ged
had placed there, and found the Hittite Empire.
That empire must be removed out of the way, just as the
Assyrian and Egyptian powers faded away when their purpose
had been served. Asia Minor must eventually include within
its borders the necessary elements to give scope to the labours
of the first great, Apostle of the Gentiles.
The evowth of the Hittite Empire was finally checked by
the arms of Assyria and Egypt; but its existence was broken
up by unknown marauders from the west and the north.
From the south-east of Europe the Phryges enter it B.c. 900.
Overrunning a large portion of it, they amalgamate with its
original barbarians, and form the Phrygian people. They are
driven southward by the Kimmerians, a Teutonic tribe, who
crossed the. Black Sea from the Crimea about 600 B.c,
Meanwhile Greece and Rome had been founded just before
Isaiah began to prophesy. In Greece was developed art and
culture and the language which was to be the vehicle for
stereotyping the story of the coming Christ. The situation of
Greece exactly fitted it for its particular office. But the
conditions necessary for this unfitted it for empire. The riches
of Asia Minor and the trend of political affairs in the Kast
attracted the attention of the Persians. Their armies reached
the Hellespont, and awakened the energies of Alexander the
Great. Into Alexander’s mind, God, Who ruleth in heaven
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD. His
above and on earth beneath, inspired a great thought. It
became his ruling policy to enable Greek ideas, language and
culture to penetrate to the farthest East. He led his armies
to India, and returning, died at the age of thirty-three. Had
he survived, he would have turned to the West, invaded Italy
and prevented the Roman Empire, which became so helpful
for the first planting of Christianity in Asia Minor. Mean-
while (270 B.c.) Celtic tribes, repulsed from Italy, and finding
no rest or place in the northern regions of Europe, crossed
the Bosphorus and gave birth to the Galatian people, to whose
peculiarities we owe the Epistle to the Galatians. About the
same time, Seleucus, Alexander’s greatest general, whose
kingdom stretched from the Euphrates almost to the west
coast of Asia Minor, transplanted 2,000 families of Jews into
all the cities of his kingdom. Their synagogues became centres
from which rays of revealed truth began to lighten the Gentiles.
Devout men and women multiplied. Their monotheism broke
the spell of idolatry ; their morals awoke in many heathen minds
a yearning for purer life. It was preparing the way of the
Lord.
In this same Asia Minor grew up Saul of Tarsus, near
enough to Jerusalem and Antioch in Syria to feel the influence
of those great centres in which the Church was born, and won
its first triumphs, and he naturally turns to the land of his
birth, and preaches Jesus and the Resurrection.
As he traverses the great Roman roads, he finds representa-
tives of Celts and Germans, and Phrygians and Greeks, and
Romans and Jews. To this it is that we owe the marvellous
completeness of his Epistles, and the Epistle to the Hebrews.
Among these various peoples sprang up those various spiritual
needs which led the inspired Apostle to write his wonderful
letters. He had studied the Roman character till he could
write the Epistie to the Romans. His versatile mind could
grasp the great variety of the statements needful to meet every
spiritual difficulty, and to expound the Truth of Jesus Christ
in its application to the widely different circumstances of those
to whom he wrote, with the result that his Epistles are a
complete statement of Christian doctrine and Christian ethics.
Time would fail to speak of the marvellous preparation of
the European peoples and especially of the Saxon race for
carrying on the great work. Perhaps this may be the subject
of a future paper.
114
REV.
J. B. WHITING. M.A., ON
RULING POWERS.
PROTESTANT.
British Empire
torates, etc. .
United States Colonies, ete.
Germany and Colonies ...
Netherlands and Colonies
Sweden, - Norway,
Switzerland
Liberia
RomANIsStT.
Huropean.
French
Belgian, including Congo
Italian
Spanish
Portuguese ‘ Bee
Austria, Hungary, etc. ...
Luxemburg ;
Monaco 5.
Bosnia and Herzegovi ina.
American.
Argentine...
Brazil
Bolivia
Columbia ...
Chili
Peru
Venezuela..
Keuador Paraguay, and Ur ugua uy
Mexico
Honduras and 7 ail See
Total Romanist Power
and _ Protec-
Denmark,
AREA. POPULATION.
12,686,084 410,289,843
3,941,697 86,999,638
1,336,658 70,654,178
995,648 41,225,398
414,875 14,188,314
35,000 400,000
19,409,962 623,756,371
AREA. POPULATION.
5,279,054 110,107,285
911,873 36,695,894
299,146 33,275,253
447,633 18,742,097
836,098 14,696,094
241,398 45,414,744
998 236,543
8 16,186
23,262 1,568,092
8,139,470 250,742,282
1,158,840 4,794,149
218,130 14,333,915
983,982 1,852,657
504,773 4,000,000
279,901 2,712,148
695,733 5,000,000
593,843 2.323,527
343,210 \ 2,994,600
767,005 13,445,162
363,214 5,991,364
5,747,031 57,547,222
13,886,501 308,290, L04
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD.
GREEK CHRISTIANS, ETC.
Russia and Protectorates
Bulgaria
Servia
Roumania...
Montenegro
Greece
Crete ,
Abyssinia ...
Non-CuHRISTIAN.
Chinese
Japanese ...
Corean
Siamese
Nepal we
Afghanistan
Persian
Oran
Morocco
Turkey
British Empire.
Europe... abe Scie eee
Asia: British India, Ceylon, ete.
Africa a a -
America
Australasia
otal) 2
India: Native States
Protectorates :
Asia, including Cyprus ...
Africa es ate
~ Pacific
Egypt and Soudan
Grand Total...
AREA,
8,774,715
37,080
18,630
50,720
3,630
25,314
3,326
150,000
9,063,417
POPULATION.
131,054,514
3,744,283
2,493,770
5,912,520
228,000
2,433,806
303,543
3,500,000
.. 149,670,436
4,277,170 426,047,325
161,158 46,526,319
82,000 16,000,000
236,000 5,000,000
54,000 4,000,000
230,000 4,000,000
628,000 9,500,000
82,000 1,500,000
219,000 5,000,000
1,279,982 80,619,912
7,249,310 598,193,546
121,098 42,168,111
1,114,758 236,415,181
1,532,226 7,001,073
3,342,064 7,531,474
3,175,345 5,091,410
8,285,491 298,277,249
679,392 62,461,549
120,400 1,200,000
1,250,000 35,000,000
800 30,000
11,336,084 396,968,798
1,350,000 13,321,045
12,686,084 410,289,843
115
Nort.—The figures have been used with the kind permission of Messrs.
Macmillan, but I alone am responsible for the grouping of
them.—J. B. W.
116 REV. J. B. WHITING, M.A., ON
DISCUSSION.
The CHAIRMAN.—I do not think that I need detain you very long,
as this paper is sure to provoke discussion ; but I will express my
appreciation of the remarks of the writer of the paper as regards
the progress of Christianity in India—the country with which I am
most acquainted. The progress has been much larger than was
expected. At the last Census, in comparison with the one before
and with the population, it was much greater than it had ever been
in the past. It is not only to be measured by the direct progress—
the conversion of the people to the knowledge of the truth of the
Christian religion—but also in the indirect gain to the country
through the prevalence of Christian truths. In India especially we
see it everywhere, but we must not measure the progress of
Christianity by the number of nominal Christians. The way
is being prepared by the humanizing influences which accompany
the true Christian religion, for example, by increased attention
to the health of the people and to their comfort, as also the higher
position given to women, and the kindness shown to animals.
Much as we hear of the kindness of other races such as Brahmans
and Hindus, there is a great deal of cruelty due to want of know-
ledge and to ignorance. I consider therefore thata very great reason
why our rule in India is on the whole so successful, is the
humanizing influence of the Christian religion. The people them-
selves also are ready for the spread of Christianity. Some 36 years
ago I halted near a temple in the hills in Mewar; I spoke to one
of the Sepoys and asked him why it was the temples about this
place seemed to be so very much neglected. ‘ Well,” he said, “‘ what
is the use of going to temples? The English God is so strong, that
the poor weak gods of this country are helpless.”
That is one instance of the general opinion of the poor, and such
ideas are prevailing amongst many, especially amongst the aboriginal
tribes. Progress is somewhat hindered now, because when there is
a very strong Protestant mission it becomes, said a Roman Catholic
friend, the duty of our Church to stop it. It is not the duty of the
Roman Catholic church to go in for extensive propagandism, but
whenever the Protestants have made a successful mission it is the
Roman Catholic’s mission to put their converts right. But there are
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD. Lie
many other reasons why our progress is not so great as it ought to be,
amongst others being the want of good example which 1s so often set
by Christians, and therefore it behoves us to see that our own example
in non-Christian lands is such as is calculated to raise esteem for
Christianity. It also seems to me that one of the evidences of the
truth of Christianity is the fact that in spite of the shortcomings of
nominal Christians, and in spite of the difficulties, Christianity is so
steadily progressing.
I will now call upon some of the members to discuss the paper.
The SECRETARY.—Mr. Chairman, I referred to a letter that has been
written by Lord Cromer. When I was reading the paper I thought
it of such extreme interest that I cut it out and brought it with me.
It is within the memory of most of us that the Soudan was added
to the British Empire by the victory of Lord Kitchener at
Omdurman, and it has been under the authority of a new Sirdar,
Sir Reginald Wingate, whom I once had the pleasure of meeting
and travelling with from Port Said to Alexandria. He is the right
man for the position which he holds with credit to himself and
with great advantage to the Empire. He and Lord Cromer have
united in requesting the Church Missionary Society to send
missionaries not to the Mahommedans, the fanatical Mahommedans
of the Soudan, but to the regions beyond, to a very high race of
heathen idolaters.
The letter from Lord Cromer is as follows :—
‘* CATRO,
“© 23rd December, 1904.
“The Secretary,
‘Church Missionary Society,
“London.
DIE,
“T understand from Mr. MacInnes, Secretary of your Mission in
Egypt, that you are desirous of obtaining an expression of my
opinion as to the prospect of missionary work in the Soudan. In
my Annual Report for 1902 (p. 60) I said that both Sir Reginald
Wingate and myself were of opinion that the time is still distant
when missionary work may with safety and advantage be promoted
amongst the Moslem population. There was no objection to the
establishment of Christian schools in Khartoum, provided that
118 REV. J. B. WHITING, M.A., ON
parents were warned that instruction in the Christian religion was
intended. This opinion remains unchanged. The case of the
more southern provinces of the Soudan, which are inhabited by
pagan population, is different. There is no reason for imposing
any restraint upon Christianity there, and the Mission will be
welcome. ‘This is more especially the case as regards education. I
venture to express the hope that in any work undertaken by your
Society special attention will be paid to some simple forms of
industrial and agricultural instruction.
“An American and Austrian mission have been established in the
Soudan ; one on the Sobat river and the other on the White Nile.
The Austrian mission has established two mission stations in the
district lying west of the Nile. I enclose for your information a
map showing that a large and populous district is still neglected.
“From Twithe boundary line proceeds to the Abyssinian frontier,
and then follows the frontier to the Uganda border on 5° N. latitude.
On the south it is bounded by the northern border of the Congo
Free State and the Uganda province ; on the west by a line drawn
from Mashrael Rek to a point where the frontiers of the Congo
Free State and the French State and the Bahr-el-Ghazal meet. No
permission as to establishing missionary centres will be given until
a sufficient period has been allowed to elapse for your Society to
consider whether it wishes to occupy the extensive field now
thrown open to it. I should be glad to receive intormation on the
subject. No information from private Societies has been received
to establish schools at their own expense, but in order to avoid
confusion it ought to be mentioned that should such requests be
received they will be considered.
+ + * * + +
“Sir R. Wingate has seen this letter and fully agrees with all that
I have said.”
Considering that this region borders on Uganda to the south and
is connected with Egypt—by the Copts and Christians of the Nile—
we should have, if this mission is established, a complete line of
Christian missionary effort from the Cape to Cairo.
This is a most wonderful opening and one of great interest to us.
Mr. Rouse.—While not being able otherwise than to rejoice in
the growth and spread of Christianity, even though it be largely in
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD. 119
name, in the world, I cannot but disagree with the author in his
statement that it might not have been spread long ago and that
thus the purpose of God would long since have been achieved. He
would have us believe that a definite time having been fixed by the
Aimighty for the advancement of human good, Christ could not
have come again before the end of that time, and therefore it was
not to be expected that the Gospel would have spread over the
world till the end of that time. But we do find in the Scriptures
that God modifies His plans. He would have had the Israelites
enter Canaan in two years; and they came to the borders of
Canaan within the second year: but, because they had not faith to
enter the land, He compelled them to wander thirty-eight years
more, until all that generation was wasted away, with the sole
exception of the two believing spies and Eleazar the priest.
Again, when the Lord Jesus was on the earth, he spoke of John
the Baptist as being Elias, and yet he said that Elias was to come
and restore all things (Matt. xvii, 10-13, et pll. cp. Mal. iv, 5, 6).
How are we to reconcile the two expressions? except that if the
Jews had accepted John the Baptist as the man sent to prepare the
way for the coming of the Lord, they then would have received
Jesus as the King, and the Kingdom then would have been set up
in the world (cp. Luke i, 17). So, too, just after His ascension, the
apostles thus appealed to the Jews: “Repent . . . that the
times of refreshing may come from the presence of the Lord: and
He shall send Jesus . . . whom the heavens must receive until
the restoration of all things.” (Acts iii, 19, 20, R.V.) Therefore,
if they had then repented, ‘The restoration of all things,” that is
to say, the visible establishment of God’s righteous kingdom over
the whole earth, would then have taken place.
Nor can we suppose that God meant Christian men to stop their
missionary efforts. The author makes a slip in saying that
missionary efforts have never ceased. That is a mistake. McLear,
who, I judge, is a good authority on this subject, distinctly states
in his book,* that from the time of the commencement of the
Crusades down to the Reformation there was but one missionary ;
that was Raymond Lull, a man who received very little support
* The Apostles of the Middle Ages.
120 REV. J. B. WHITING, M.A., ON
from the Church, but who bravely went thrice to preach to the
Mahommedans, in Africa, and was finally martyred amongst them.
There was one other whom McLear does not mention who went all
the way to China. But these were the only Roman Catholic
missionaries through four centuries and a half.
I cannot agree that it was part of God’s plan that the monks
should remain in their cloisters, a few of them writing out the
Scriptures in Greek and Latin and none doing anything towards
spreading a knowledge of them. It required Wycliffe to come into
the world and send out his bodies of good men, two by two, over
the land, with copies of the Scriptures in their native language,
before the word of God could be spread. And what did a leader of
the Roman Catholic Church then say—that Wycliffe was casting
his pearls before swine ; and yet, as Milton remarks, if the Lollards
had not been crushed, we should have been the foremost nation in
the world in establishing the Reformation in Europe. 7
Yet, while the Western Church was apathetic, and while the
monks in their cloisters were leading lives of little use, there
was a body of Christians who were preaching to the heathen world,
had ventured right into China, and in India and Burmah had
become a great power, with a multitude of converts, but who were
regarded by the Roman Catholics as heretics. These were the
Nestorians, who have left a monument in Northern China dating
from the sixth century. The mistake of the Nestorians, however,
was that they did not translate the Bible into the language of the
people. Had they done so, their work would have been permanent
everywhere. In China there is not a vestige of it left.
Colonel Hendley has told us how Christian supremacy in India is
destroying evil customs. We might allude to the customs that
formerly prevailed and which the English government has suppressed
—the burning of widows on the funeral pyres of their husbands,
the drowning of children in the Ganges, the self-destruction of men
beneath Juggernaut’s car. It has also hindered the very early
marriages of Hindus by raising the minimum of age by two years; and
of course it has put down lawless crime and violence in all directions.
Let us hope that it will succeed in doing a vast deal more. We
may further allude to the fact that the English Government has
eucouraged and established leper hospitals and many institutions
for the benefit both of mind and body in India; and undoubtedly
THE GROWTH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD. 121
the Hindus in seeing these things cannot but conclude that
Christianity is a true religion.
The pagans had no public hospitals or poor-houses or asylums
for the advantage of the dumb, the blind, the lame and the insane
such as we see spread over Christian countries; still less any
society such as Christian England set the example of founding for
protecting poor animals.
Professor LANGHORNE ORCHARD.—Since “nature” and God’s
spiritual kingdom are both under the same King, we shall agree
with the author of this interesting paper that both may be expected
to evidence a similar process of government and working. Un-
doubtedly, history brings before us “ Purpose, Plan, Preparation,
and fixed Times,” evident in the growth of the Kingdom of God.
The instances adduced from prophecy and from general history
abundantly illustrate this pre-arranged timing of events. In
connection with the preparation of a “suitable cradle” for
Christianity, it is very noticeable that Alexander the Great died
just at a time so specially critical, and that Seleucus transplanted
two thousand Jewish families into all the cities of his kingdom.
Things like these, which cannot be accounted for by any theory of
coincidence, constitute a strong, and indeed decisive, argument in
favour of the author’s thesis.
Iam glad that the author clearly affirms his belief in human
free-will. Without free will there cannot even be morality. God
never over-rides free will. But, though He does not over-ride, He
uses and over-rules it, to carry out His own purposes. If a
statesman, gifted with the wisdom and insight of a Bismarck, could
so correctly guess as to what men would do, as often to make their
actions subserve his plans, can we find any difficulty in believing
that the certain fore-knowledge and unerring wisdom of God
employs and over-rules all results of human free-will ?
The great philosophies referred to by the author, reinforced, by the
conclusions of the intellect, the conclusions of the heart. Their
failure helped to prepare the way of the Lord.
After some observations by Colonel Alves, a cordial vote of
thanks to the author was passed and the meeting separated.
1 2
ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.*
PROFESSOR , LIONEL S. BEALE, V.P., F.R.S., IN THE CHarr.
The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed.
A paper on “ Biblical Astronomy” was read by Lieut.-Colonel G.
Mackinlay, late R.A.
BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
By Lieutenant-Colonel G. Mackrnuay (late R.A.).
HE present seems a good time to consider the subject of
Biblical Astronomy, on account of the recent advances in
(1) Biblical Scholarship.
(2) Discoveries and decipherment of ancient inscrip-
tions, etc.
(5) Astronomy.
Scholarship.—It must be remembered that the languages of
the Bible are comparable to a tool used by the divine Author ;
those languages are foreign ones to us, and a mere literal
translation cannot in every case give the full meaning. During
a residence in Spain, I found that even a certain mastery of
the Spanish language was not in itself sufficient to bring me
into real contact with the people. I had also to study the
Spanish character and the Spanish attitude of mind. The
difficulty of rendering the exact meaning intended by the
writers of the Bible, with their ancient Eastern methods of
expression, 18 certainly oreater than that which exists at the
present moment in translating a modern European book into
English.
* Monday, 20th February, 1905.
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. Vs:
As Max Miiller puts it, “ when first we begin to learn a new
language it seems easy . . . but the more we learn it, the
more difficult do we find it to discover words which will really
square with our own words.”
As the divine scriptures are written for all nations and for
all times, the main essential truths are plainly put forward ;
but when we come to seek for the full force of some of its
sentences we thankfully accept the help afforded by careful
scholarship.
Ancient Inscriptions, etc.—The fast accumulating translations
of ancient inscriptions afford ample confirmation of the
numerous Biblical allusions to the worship of the host of
heaven.
Great assistance is given to ancient chronology; the account
of a total eclipse recorded as seen at Nineveh 763 B.c. has been
verified by calculation as having occurred at the date stated,
when the band of totality passed about 100 miles North of the
city. The eccentricities of the Egyptian Calendar, which moved
its months through the seasons in a long cycle ‘of some 1 065
years, have been helpful; as when it is ” stated that the Nile
rose on a certain day of any one month, the date is necessarily
fixed within a very few years.
Sir Norman Lockyer and others have shown that the dates
of the construction of various Egyptian and Greek temples
oriented to the risings of stars can be known within compara-
tively a few years, as the precession of the equinoxes (see
Appendix) gradually rendered their central avenues of pillars
quite unfitted for their astronomical purpose of allowing the
rays of the rising star to enter and illumine the images in the
central interior shrines, after a period which varied according to
circumstances, but which may have averaged 300 years.
Even the statements of astrology giving the position of
planets at the ‘birth of a child afford chronological data ;
Professor Flinders Petrie thinks that the position of the planets
indicated on certain ancient Eevptian diagrams show that the
ee of birth of Rameses II. and Rameses VL were respectively
¢. 1518 and 1198. We may, however, doubt the accuracy of the
Sane in some cases, as a desire to please royalty may have
tempted the artists to depict more favourable astrological
arrangements of the planets than the true ones.
Contrast of Standpoints.—The appearance of the celestial orbs
has little interest to most of us moderns, unless we are
astronomers, surveyors, or sailors; we have no temptation to
worship them, ner do we expect any control of our future by
124 LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
their movements. Our climate prevents us from seeing them,
especially when they are near the horizon, except at uncertain
intervals; a large number of us live in towns lighted by gas
and electricity, and thus the brilliancy of the stars is eclipsed.
If we travel at night, we enter a well lighted railway carriage
and we look outside it but lttle; we have good almanacks and
clocks, and consequently most of us have no need to consult the
celestial time-keepers, which regulate the earthly ones, and as
our civil calendar has nothing to do with the moon, the variation
in its appearance is not a matter of importance.
The modern astronomer is accustomed to refer his observa-
tions for accuracy to the vertical meridian. He believes most
of the theories of the ancients were wrong, and consequently
he generally bestows little thought on the efforts of man long
ago to wrestle with the problems of the heavens, notwithstand-
ing the fact that the length of the year, the correct arrange-
ment of the calendar, and the direction of true north, were
accurately known from the results of laborious observations
some thousands of years ago.
But in Bible times how different was the standpoint. The
heathen nations surrounding the Hebrews paid great attention to
astronomy, and this is proved by the frequent, perhaps invariable,
orientation of their temples to the rising or setting of the sun at
a solstice, or at an equinox, or to the rising of some star. The
study of astronomy was intimately connected with heathen
worship. Professor Sayce tells us that the first known observa-
tories in the world were those attached to Babylonian temples,
which were generally dedicated to one of the heavenly host, or
to some god connected with one of them by ancient myth. The
priests were the observers, and under the authority of the king
they regulated the calendar; they dabbled in astrology,
doubtless for gain, and in order to keep up their power over
the people. The Hebrew authors of the Scriptures, on the other
hand, drew attention to the heavens in order to declare the
glory of God, or to make some grand parallel to His grace and
mercy. In Bible lands there is a bright clear atmosphere and
a genial climate: there was little artificial light at night, and
that only dim, and there was little hiding of the heavens
during travel. The lunar month was employed by the Hebrews
for their calendar, and consequently the position and appear-
ance of the moon indicated the progress of the month.
Almanacks and time-measuring instruments were few and
rude, and hence the ancients generally must have frequently
consulted the heavenly bodies for various purposes. Astro-
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 125
nomical observations were generally made on the visible
horizon of risings and settings, although some, as at the Great
Pyramid, were doubtless made on the vertical meridian.
The contrast between our modern western and the ancient
eastern use of astronomy for practical purposes was brought to
my notice in a very matter-of-fact sort of way some 30 years
ago, when travelling with my wife by ordinary marches in the
lower valleys towards Cashmere. We were in the habit of rising
about an hour before daybreak, so as to be dressed and ready
to start with the earliest streak of dawn, and thus avoid as
much as possible the heat of the coming day. The native
servants used to look at the positions of the stars during the
night from time to time, until they judged that it was about an
hour before daybreak, and as they did this from night to night
they became very fairly accurate. They then called me, and I
looked at my watch, and we got up at once or delayed a little
according as their estimate had been fast or slow. One day a
very long march down a hot valley was before us, and I was
specially anxious to start in good time. Unfortunately my
watch had stopped the day before, and it was the only timekeeper
in all our little party. Before turning in at night I had a good
look at the stars, and roughly estimated what their position
should be at the time for our rising next morning. I got up
during the night to look for myself, and then I found the heavens
indicating, as I thought, about an hour before dawn; but not a
move did I perceive among the servants and coolies, and when
I woke them up they assured me that it was not yet time.
However I insisted upon it that daybreak must soon come, so
we rose, struck tents, packed up and drank the early coffee,
but still no signs of morning! It was no use to wait, so off we
started in the dark with a lantern; presently the path led into
a dark wood, and then it skirted the edge of a hill with a pre-
cipitous fall on the left hand, which made it somewhat dangerous
without daylight. Our progress was slow, and I began to realise
that I had made a mistake, and that the Easterns who had been
accustomed to judge of the time night after night from the
position of the stars, were more to be trusted for practical
purposes than the Western who attempted to do so for the first
time aiter a single rough estimate the night before.
It is no uncommon thing for a servant in India to glance at
the position of the sun in the heavens, and then make a very,
fair estimate of the time of day. Of course an Englishman
could also do this if he practised this habit of observation, but
our universal possession of watches and clocks hinders us from
126 LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
seeking to attain this facility of telling the time direct from
the heavens.
I was wondering the other day whether the intelligent
modern would recur to the ancient methods of making direct
use of the movements of the stars, when deprived of the
ordinary clocks, ete., of present day civilisation. I therefore
enquired of those who had been engaged in our late war in
South Africa, and soon heard the following from an army
nursing sister, Miss Watson Tulloh, R.R.C.
A young officer suffering from measles was a patient under
her care at Norval’s Pont in an isolation tent, and during
convalescence he watched for her daily visits. As he had no
clock or watch, he made use of the heavens, and he soon
noticed that the nurse’s last round, which was about a couple of
hours after the winter sunset, was paid just when a bright
star rose over a neighbouring kopje, and on the following
evenings the same star again gave him due notice, though the
length of warning increased a little each time. The incident
would probably have been forgotten except for the facts which
occurred afterwards: a false report of the officer’s death,
accompanied by a portrait, was published in the newspapers ;
a little later he was wounded in an engagement and brought
back to the same hospital and to the same nurse. She
recognised his features at once, but thought he must be some
near relative of her former patient, and was only assured of
his identity by his reminding her of the bright star rising
behind the kopje!
We may conveniently divide our subject into the following
sections :—
Jehovah, Creator and Ruler.
Worship of the heavenly bodies forbidden.
The Hebrew calendar.
- Direction and orientation.
The heavens.
Grand astronomical statements.
Figurative allusions. c
TIS SUR oto
(1) JEHOVAH, CREATOR AND RULER.
In Gen. i, 1, we are told that God created the heaven, and
afterwards in the sixteenth verse that He made or ordained the
sun, moon and stars for their purposes. I do not stop to discuss
how the current theories about the origin of the universe fit in
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 127
with the brief majestic statements in Scripture, but I would
note that as we pass on through the Bible we find a very large
number of similar statements of God’s creative and ruling
power made by various writers, with unerring consistency, right
up to and through the times of the New Testament.
A few only are now quoted.
“Thou hast prepared the light and the sun” (Ps. lxxiv, 16 ;
see also Ps. viii, 3, and Ixxxix, 11); “ Him that by under-
standing made the heavens” (Ps. exxxvi, 5, 7; see also Prov.
iii, 19); “ Lift up your eyes on high, and behold who created
these things” (Is. xl, 26; see also xlv, 18); “All things were
made by Him” (John i, 3; see also Col. i, 16; and Heb.
il, 4).
Certain miraculous astronomical events are emphatically
narrated in Scripture. The sun standing still (Josh. x, 12-14;
Is. xxviii, 21; Hab. iii, 11). The shadow moving backward on
fhesdial(o Kanes xx, 10-11: Is. xxxvii, 8; m Chr, xxxu; 31).
The star at Bethlehem (Matthew ii, 9). The failing of the hght
of the sun at the Crucifixion (Matt. xxvii, 45; Mark xv, 33;
Luke xxiii, 44). These have been ditticulties to many; but
no one can deny that they are not in strictest accord with the
repeated statements that God is ruler of the heavens.
The Bible records astronomical facts as they appear to an
ordinary observer; no scientific astronomer can object to this,
as he himself (using popular language) speaks of a “new
moon,”* of the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies; and
even in his own technical arrangements, a star is said to “cross
the wires” in the field of view of the transit instrument.
Whatever explanation we give of the extraordinary events
narrated in the Bible, the fact remains that they are recorded
as miraculous exhibitions of divine power.
The majestic titles of Maker and Lord of Heaven are often
used in Scripture, specially by believers in Jehovah when they
addressed the heathen ; the hearers could understand something
of the glory indicated by those names, though they were
ignorant of His spiritual attributes of righteousness and
mercy.
Thus we find both Melchizedec and Abraham, in the presence
of the king of Sodom, speaking of God as “the Possessor ” or
* A lady friend beginning to take an interest in astronomy was once
talking to me about the zew moon, and said she often wondered what
became of the old ones! If the conventional language of prosaic English
needs some care in order to understand it, can we wonder if Eastern
expressions are not always to be taken quite literally ?
128 LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
“ Maker of heaven and earth ” (Gen. xiv, 19, 22). The heathen
governor under Darius reported to him that the Jewish elders
stated that they were “servants of the God of heaven and
earth” (Ezra v, 11), and Darius uses the same title of Jehovah
in his letter of reply (Hz. vi, 9). Artaxerxes also addresses
Ezra as “the Scribe of the Law of the God of heaven” (Liz.
vil, 12 and 23). Jer. x, 1], is in Aramaic, probably that it
might serve aS a special message to the Chaldeans: “Thus
shall ye say unto them, the gods that have not made the
heavens and the earth, these shall perish” ; and then in Hebrew
the prophet states to the Jews that the Lord “stretched out the
heavens.” Daniel uses the titles “God of Heaven” before
Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. u1, 44), and “ Lord of Heaven” before
Belshazzar (Dan. v, 23). Jonah names Him “ God of Heaven ”
(Jonah 1, 9) before the heathen sailors; and in the New
Testament, Paul and Barnabas at Lystra speak of the “ living
God who made the heaven and the earth” (Acts xiv, 15), and
again at Athens, Paul spoke of Him before the Greeks as “the
Lord of heaven and earth” (Acts xvu, 24, R.V.).
The majestic Psalms of the day (xix) and of the night (vil)
each begin by demonstrating the glory given to Jehov ah by His
vast works in the universe; the former announces that “ the
heavens declare the glory of God,” while the latter addresses
Him, who has set His “ glory above the heavens.”
In some places God’s great work of creation is linked with
His great work of atonement and redemption, as in Ps. xix, 1
and “14, “The heavens declare the glory of God . . O
Lord my rock, and my redeemer”; and Col. i, 16 and 20, ae ia
Him were all things created in the heavens . . . through
Him to reconcile all things unto Himself, having made peace
through the blood of His Cross”; see also Prov. viii, 23, 27,
and ix, 1, 2, “I was set up from everlasting . . . when
He established the heavens I was there . . . wisdom
hath killed her beasts: she hath mingled her wine ;
she hath also furnished her table.” Modern science can teach
us nothing of the second of these great works, but the
advances of astronomy have enlarged our knowledge of the
vastness and grandeur of the universe, and consequently
have taught us a fuller sense of the olory of the Maker and
Ruler.
(2) WorsHIP OF THE HEAVENLY BopiEs FORBIDDEN.
Every careful reader of the Old Testament must be struck
by the fact that worship of the heavenly host was very preva-
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 129
lent among the nations surrounding the Israelites in Old Testa-
ment times. The attention of readers of the Revised Version is
more markedly drawn to this fact by the use of the correct
term “Sun images” in the text instead of “images” only for
the Hebrew word “Chammanim” in the text of the Authorised
Version (Lev. xxvi, 30, Is. xvii, 8, etc.). A little further search
into the meanings of some proper names (e.g., Beth-shemesh,
Potiphera, Tammuz, Ashteroth-Karnaim, Sennacherib, etc., of
which the first three refer to the sun and the last two to the
moon in different languages) show us that this form of false
worship was very widespread indeed. Modern discoveries tell
us the same thing, and numbers of temples have been found
dedicated to one or other of the orbs of heaven; not only in
EKeypt, Assyria, Asia Minor and Greece, but as far west as our
own country, in which we have Stonehenge, and as far east as
China, where there are remains of ancient Sun temples.
Emblems of the divinity in the form of solar discs with wings
have been found in large numbers. (See fig. 1.) We thus
find a close agreement between Scripture and the old
monuments.
We find stern denunciations in the Bible of all false worship,
particularly of that of the host of heaven, “Take heed
: lest.) 22). “when! thow séest the’stn . . . ‘thou
be drawn away and worship” (Deut. iv, 19). “ Worshipped
: the sun . . . which I have not commanded,”
(Deut. xv, 3) “Manasseh .-.°.. . built altars for’ all
the host of heaven . . . wrought much evil in the sight of
the Lord” (11 Kings xxi, 5, 6). “If I beheld the sun when it
shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and my heart hath
been secretly enticed” (Job xxxi, 26, 27), and in the second
commandment (Ex. xx, 4), the first forbidden image is that of
anything in the heaven above.
In Ezek. viii, 16, we read of men who committed abomina-
tion “their faces towards the East and they worshipped the
sun towards the East.”
Sun worship still has many votaries among the Puarsis; the
Hindus also still worship the orb of day to a very large
extent; and many remains of moon worship survive in the
East both among Hindus and Mahommedans.
Max Miiller tells us that the temples of Babylonia and
Egypt were well provided with towers, for the double purpose
ot offering up sacrifices and for observation of the heavens.
The temple at Jerusalem had no such towers; but we find at
times when the Jews disobeyed the Lord they followed heathen
130 LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
examples, worshipping the host of heaven on the tops of their
own houses (1 Kings xxiii, 12; Jer. xix, 13; Zep. i, 5).
Not only was the worship of the heavenly host interdicted,
but a superstitious dread of any unusual appearance in the
heavens was forbidden: “be not dismayed at the signs of
heaven : for the nations are dismayed at them ” (Jer. x, 2, R.V.).
The close connection between the false religions of the
powerful nations on either side of the Holy Land and astronomy
may have given a bad repute to the study of the heavens
among the Hebrews themselves (Is. xlvu, 13); and we do not
find it recorded that any of them excelled in this study, unless
we except Moses, who was learned in all the wisdom of the
Egyptians (Acts vii, 22), Solomon, whose wisdom “ exceeded
the wisdom of all the children of the East, and all the wisdom
of Egypt” (@ Kings iv, 30); and Daniel and his three
companions, to whom God gave “knowledge and _ skill in all
learning and wisdom” (Dan. i, 17). The mention of the
wisdom of the Egyptians and of the children of the East in
the first two of these instances, and the fact that Daniel and
his companions gained: this knowledge and skill in a foreign
land, all point to the conclusion that science in general
(including astronomy) was more studied in the great countries
of Egypt and Chaldea than among the Israelites.
THE HEBREW CALENDAR.
The Bible account of the origin of the Hebrew nation tells
us that the founder Abraham came from Ur of the Chaldees,
and that he was careful that his descendants should marry
among his own relatives; his grandson Jacob also spent many
years of his life in Mesopotamia, and he eventually migrated
with all his descendants to Egypt, where they lived for some
215 years. We are further pointedly told that, although the
children of Israel lived in Egypt so long, they were only there
as “ strangers (Gen. xv, 13; Kx: xxi, 0) Denti 190 mae:
and they left it by divine command to seek out their own long
promised land. Bearing these statements in mind, we should
expect to find that the Hebrews more nearly followed the
Babylonian than the Egyptian calendar (if we can trace what
each was), notwithstanding their long sojourn in the land of
the Pharaohs.
The ancient records fully confirm this expectation; we
find from them that the Babylonians, who belonged to the
Semitic race as well as the Hebrews, had a calendar in which the
year was composed of twelve lunar months of 29 and 30 days,
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 13]
with an additional month inserted about every third year to
prevent them from moving through the seasons; this was also
the arrangement of the Israelites, who, however, possessed their
own peculiarities of calendar; for instance, at the beginning
of their national life they simply indicated a month by its
number, while the Babylonians assigned special names to each.
They also had special feast times and sabbaths.
The Egyptians (a race quite foreign to the Israelites), on the
other hand, had equal civil years of 365 days each, regulated
by the sun alone, and divided into twelve non-lunar months of
thirty days each, with a separate and added period of five
days; while the Egyptian sacred year was corrected on much
the same principle as that which we now adopt in our leap
year arrangement.
In Babylonia much attention was given to the moon,
witness the remains at the present moment of a temple to the
moon god at Abraham’s own town of Ur. Temples to the sun
geod are very numerous in Egypt, but those to the moon are
rarer.
When the Hebrews lived in Egypt they must doubtless have
used the Egyptian calendar, at any rate in their dealings with
the inhabitants of the land, and possibly they used the
Babylonian luni-solar calendar, or a similar one, among
themselves as the Jews do now; but this is not very hkely,
as at first they were few in number, and they then had no
ereat feasts of their own to observe. But from the time of the
first passover they gave up the Egyptian calendar altogether,
and the Lord’s words to Moses, “This month” (evidently a
strictly lunar one) “shall be unto you the beginning of months,
it shall be the first month of the year unto you” (Ex. xu, 2),
emphasizes the break with the land of the oppressors. This
abandonment of the Egyptian calendar must have needed
great skill and wisdom on the part of Moses to carry out,*
and it was of a piece with the general policy to prevent any
return to the land of Egypt, which was naturally in the
* The tenacity with which an old calendar may be clung to is shown
by the fact that in two Mahommedan countries with strictly lunar years,
Morocco and Persia, there are still remains of another calendar. In the
former country, the time for sowing is regulated by almanacks in which
the actual names of the Roman non-lunar months still survive (letter
from G. Michell, Esq., H.B.M. Vice-Consul Casa Blanca, Morocco). And
in Persia governors assume their offices on the first day of the year, which
is computed according to the old Persian solar reckoning. (Letter,
Rev. H. St. Clair Tisdall missionary in Persia.)
tae LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
minds of some (Ex. xvi, 3; Numbers xiv, 4; Acts vii, 39).
The beginning of an Israelitish month at the appearing of the
new moon was announced by the blowing of trumpets*
(Numbers x, 10).
Our present calendar is the outcome of the old Egyptian one,
through Roman channels, several times altered, and not even
now uniformly adhered to in Europe, as Russia has not yet
adopted the last correction. The Hebrew calendar has lived on
unchanged, and it also forms the basis for regulating our
Easter and Whitsuntide.
The Sabbath—Some say that as the four quarters of the
moon (new, full, and the waxing and waning halves) are
periods of definite change, that the week of seven days has
its origin in being roughly the quarter of 294 days, which is
approximately the period of a lunation. But we must put
aside this vague guess, in view of the positive scriptural
statement that the Sabbath was instituted because “ God rested
the seventh day, wherefore the Lord blessed the seventh day,
and hallowed it” (Ex. xx, 11), and we must conclude, in
agreement with the author of the article on “Astronomy”
in the Hncyclopedia Britannica, that the origin of the Sabbath
is divine.
It has been said that the Sabbath was borrowed from the
Babylonians, since they always began the month with the new
moon,—a day which was considered unlucky for some purposes,
and every succeeding seventh day in the month was likewise so
distinguished ; the fifteenth day being called “Sobat,’ a word
which Dr. Pinches believes to be of ancient Accadian origin
and meaning “rest of the heart” or “middle” (of the month).
it is quite possible that the Babylonians may have retained
some trace of the divinely appointed Sabbath, and the actual
Hebrew word “Shabbath” may have been derived from the
same ancient language. The Hebrew arrangement of strictly
weekly Sabbaths was not the same as the Babylonian one of
unlucky days, as new moon and sabbath did not always fall on
the same day (11 Kings iv, 23), and consequently, the 15th of
the month, the Babylonian “Sobat,” could only sometimes be a
Hebrew Sabbath.
* The Hindus blow trumpets on new moons. (Letter, Rev. A.
Margéschis, Tinnevelly, S. India.)
+ Hindus do not sow their fields or reap on new moon days and, in
general, important work is not undertaken on those days. (Rev. A.
Margéschis. )
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 133
Other traces of septiform arrangement are found among the
ancient nations near the Israelites. Several of the constellations
were considered to be composed of seven bright stars.* The
Egyptians are not known to have had any plan of ordinary
weeks of seven days; yet they celebrated a feast every thirty
years, when the first day of the civil year (which was always
365 days) showed an increased difference of seven days from
the sacred year, which was a corrected one; and we are told in
Gen. 1, 5, that the Egyptians mourned for Jacob seventy days.
But it is among the Hebrews that the prominence of the
number seven (spiritually signifying rest or completeness) is
most conspicuous.
The calendar of the three great annual feasts and also other
periods is arranged on this plan, for instance—
The seventh day is the Sabbath (Ex. xx, 8, 9, 10).
The seventh week from the morrow of the Sabbath after
the passover was the feast of weeks (Lev. xxiii. 16).
The seventh month from the passover was the feast of
tabernacles (in-gathering) (Lev. xxii, 34).
The seventh year was the year of release (Ex. xxiii, 11).
After seven times seven years was the year of Jubilee
(Lev. xxv, 8, 9).
Seventy years was the period of the captivity (Jer. xxv,
11), and of the age of man (Ps. xc, 10).
Seventy weeks or seventy periods of seven years each was
the period prophesied by Daniel (Dan. ix, 24),
And there may be other longer septiform periods.
Feasts— With regard to the three great annual feasts of
Jehovah mentioned above, viz, Passover, Weeks, and
Tabernacles, it is interesting to notice the time of the year and
of the month in which they were placed. The first and the
last were in the middle of the month at the full moons near
the equinoxes, and the intermediate feast was at about the
beginning of May, when the moon was at or near the beginning of
its second quarter. Thus on the first days of two of the feasts
there would be the light of full moon all night, and at the
other one, a fair amount of moonlight for the first part of the
shortened night of early summer.
Thus a maximum amount of nocturnal illumination was
obtained in the first days of the feasts, consistent with the
* See p. 106, vol. ii, Prim. Constellations, by A. Brown.
134 LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
carrying out of the septiform arrangement: this must have
added to the splendours of the feasts, and it must have had a
practical advantage in the avoidance of confusion,* as we
remember that all the males were ordered to appear before the
Lord on these three occasions (Ex. xxii, 17). It is observable
that there was no feast at Midsummer, when the great heathen
orgies of Tammuz, and sun worship generally, were celebrated
by the neighbouring heathen.
The feast of the Passover was the foundation day of Hebrew
Deliverance (Ex. xii, 27), and Christ our Passover (1 Cor. v, 7)
also died on the same day (Mark xv, 42).
The feast of Weeks or first fruits was the day of the giving
of the lawf (Ex. xix, 1, 10, 11), and also of the descent of the
Holy Spirit (Acts un, 1, 2).
The great feature of the feast of Tabernacles was rejoicing
(Lev. xxii, 40; Deut. xvi, 15 R.V. “altogether joyful”) at
ingathering. When the Hebrew nation had reached the
summit of its glory, Solomon’s temple was dedicated on that
day (1 Kings viii, 2), and the people were sent away “ joyful and
glad of heart” (I Kings vil, 66). There is also to be a future
elorious keeping of this same feast at Jerusalem (Zech. xiv, 16),
and it is also typical of the future day of great joy in store for
the Christian (1 Pet. iv, 13).
Under some circumstances the Passover was allowed to be
kept on the corresponding days of the second month, instead of
the first (Num: ix, 10, 11; m Chr. xxx, 2); but Jeroboam was
severely blamed for setting up a rival feast on the eighth month
instead of the seventh, a ‘date which “he had devised of his
own heart” (1 Kings xii, 32, 33).
In Ezekiel xlv, 21, 25, the feasts of Passover and Tabernacles
are alluded to, but not that of Weeks; and generally there is
more frequent mention of the first and last feasts than of the
intermediate one. The prominence of two of the feasts over
the other is expressed astronomically by their occurrence at the
definite periods of the equinoctial full moons, while the cther
feast was at a time of no special astronomical importance. As
the fronts of the tabernacle and of the temple faced to the
* A volunteer friend tells me that another volunteer, who was in the
habit of attending Easter manceuvres, and whose power of observation
exceeded his information, once said to him, ‘‘ How remarkable it is I
always find a full moon for this outing ! the moonlight at night is very
convenient in camp life.”
+ See p. 48, The Portable Commentary, Rev. R. Jamieson, D.D.
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 135
East, the rising sun would be almost directly in front at two
of the feasts, but not at the other.
The daily sacrifices were at sunrise (II Kings 11, 20, 22) and
sunset. Noon was also a stated time of prayer for some
CPas lv 1%
An Ancient Calendar.—A year containing twelve months of
thirty days each is aliuded to in Gen. vu, 11, 24; viu, 3, 4, 13,
as it was 150 days from the seventeenth day of the second
month to the seventeenth day of the seventh month. There
must have been twelve of these months, because a period of at
least 40+ 7+7=54 days elapsed between the first day of the
tenth month of the first year, and the first day of the first
month of the following one (see Gen. vill, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12).
It is believed that there were not any additional intercalary
days.
If the word “time” is taken to represent a year, and
“times” two years; the periods “time, times and a half”
(Dan ai) torby and. ‘two months)” (Rev. xi, 2), and
“1260 days” (Rev. xi, 3, xu, 6) are identical, each representing
three and a half of such years.
The so-called Egyptian “vague year” of 360 days was of
the same construction ; 1t 1s believed to have been in use till
about 2,000 B.c., when the tive epact days were added to each
year. A similar year was probably known to the ancient
Babylonians.
When the sun and moon are both used, as in’ the Hebrew
Calendar, it becomes necessary to have some means of fore-
telling the vernal lunation which is to contain the passover,
or what comes to the same thing, to determine beforehand
which years shall contain an extra lunation: this led to a
search for astronomical cycles, 7¢., periods when different
celestial revolutions are performed in almost the same time.
Meton, about Bc. 432, found, from the result of careful
observations, that 235 lunations only exceed 19 years by
about 2 hours 10 minutes; in other words, after a cycle of
19 years the new and full moons recurred on the same days of
the year, and this happens again and again. This is a
convenient cycle, the Jewish reckoning for the passover and
our golden numbers in the Book of Common Prayer for finding
Easter being founded upon it. It must be noted, however,
that after eleven such cycles (209 years) have elapsed, that
the 24 hour differences add together, and amount to 24 hours;
consequently aiter every 209 years a correction of one day
must be mace.
K
136 LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
De Cheseaux, a Swiss astronomer, who lived in the middle of.
the eighteenth century, was searching for other such cycles, and
found that the number 1260 (Rev. xi, 3, and xii, 6), and also
2300 (Dan. viii, 14) gave excellent cycles when taken as years,
each having a small error in the same direction. He therefore
expected and found that their difference 1040-would be more |
correct still. In recent years Dr. Grattan Guinness has taken
advantage of this cycle to construct tables giving the times
directly of all new moons for a period of over 5,000 years; this
has been certified, by competent astronomical authorities, to be
in very close accord with the results of long and careful
computations: for the practical purpose of chronology the
two methods may be said to give identical results.
This cycle was apparently not understood by the writer
Dan. viii, 15: it was only discovered by a comparison of
Bible numbers.
The assumption that the 1260 and 2300 days in the text in
the Bible, may be regarded as years, is based upon the two
passages, Numb. xiv, 34, “searched out the land . . . each day
for a year,” and Ezek. iv, 6, “I have appointed each day for a
year.”
(4) DIRECTION AND ORIENTATION.
The points of the Compass——We have already noted that in
Old Testament times observations were generally made of the
risings of the sun and stars on the visible horizon ; we can
therefore readily understand why the East was regarded as the
front; the West was consequently behind; the North was on
the left; and the South on the right.* It may be assumed
that when the words front or before, hinder, left, right, are
used with respect to a fixed object such as a building, town or
country, that East, West, North, South respectively are
intended. Our versions do not always carry this out, as will
be seen from the appended table, which refers to our own
authorised and revised versions, and also to French and Spanish
\
* The same arrangement is observable in Sanscrit and in some at least
of the Indian languages (e.g., Bengali and Marathi) derived from it. In
modern Arabic the same rule also obtains, though in some places one or
more of the terms have become obsolete and other expressions are now
used instead.
Yemen in Arabia and the Deccan in India both owe their names to this
arrangement, and both mean “the south country,” literally “the right
hand,” in Arabic and in Sanscrit respectively. |
Vo face page 137.
SOME BIBLICAL WORDS
FOR
THE FOUR QUARTERS OF HEAVEN. (Jer. xlix, 36.)
References.
(es
Ordinary Translated in |, AY. RV. gt aes
Hebrew word. meaning. texts A.V. Hose ai s | 5 a
Heal eee eed |e A pM Oi
x2 | ss
| | 3 oy lates | gzal
4 \ a 4 3 a ies
Hla] a | & =| 2
( Qadmoni...| What is before...) east —... aol BHA 2s) U5 sal Wg sdlyaoy, ENN Fs x
| former ... ...| Joel ii, 20... ae a
% Zech. xiv, 8 ... ee Ba (oe Uae ca es wy
a1
. forward... ...| Job xxiii, & ... ee Bol nel ens }. Sho ms Be
Qedem _...| Ditto before ... noel Jip e, 12° aan Bes peel liaise II, % 1. *
Uttermost Deut. xi, 24; xxxiv, 2 weal Mae }, a ue I.
( Acharon ...| behind, last | utmost ... \
| hinder Joel ii, 20; Zech. xiv,8 ..,| 1. | ... Gs ie * *
43
n
irs i Backward Job xxiii, 8 ... ana re eee ll eon Il, a * *
= = -.-| backward, ete. | rd... { Teo. ss ee eSeminar al ace
| Yam . sea (in 305 texts) | West... ...| In 69 texts .
(Negeb ...! District S. part|South in 111|/Gen.xii,1.. .. «jf */../ * | .. | * x
of Judea. texts. |
| TE SEyao, Sea, WS) oc oe Neve lial * ue l.
I Sam. xxiii, 24 us ae ae 1.
11 Sam. Xxiv, 5 nee ; i
Yamin ...) R. hand or R.| R. hand or R. } | 1 Kings vii, 39, 49 . 1 ie 1 \
side. side, South m1 Kings xxiii, ‘eye Se tet : ‘
1 Chr. iii, 175 iv, 6, 7, 8 |
Job xxiii, 9 . ; poe tates lace 4 2 *
[ Ps, Ixxsix, 12 Th ieee erie eo! * *
|
(| 1 Kings vi, 8; vii, 21,39 } |
| | 1 Kings xi, 11 ae |
| Yemani ...! Ditto... ...| Ditto < |i Chr. iii, 17; iv, ae 1 Ba eee B08 IL IL
= i || xxiii, 10 : |
RD | (| Ez. xlvin, 1, 2 J
* Text R.V.
ms Ta a) 7
Cheder Seen (in 17 1) South Be ...| Job xxxvii, 9 Soe noel thei pore c *
South.”
Midbar ...| Wilderness etc.| South ... orl) 12e5 1683375 (3 ane ee weet ae ue 1. l. L,
(in 253 texts).
Yam _...| Sea ies ... South (see West) | Ps. evii,3 ... vie eres eee | ee ue 1. cs 1.
Mesémbria! Mid-day and so| South ... ...| Acts vili, 26... aclu cH ] us wy
L (Greek). | south. |
Semali ...) Left hand or L.| Left hand or t Kings vil, 21, 39°... 1 ] % 1 |
side, L, side. u Kings xi, 11
1 Chr. iii, 17; xxiii, “10
; | (| Gen. xiv, 15... ] * ]
$2 : | | | Josh, xix, 27... as
8\Semol ...) Ditto ... ...! Ditto 4 1 Kings vii, 39, 49 ... 1. | 1,
Z | TChi, ai, iv 6,7 4
| (| Job xxiii, 9 ... a ser eal Goal eres if a50 ue
| Mezarim... Scattering wind | North... ...| Job xxxvil, 9 Peele us 2
The star * means a cardinal point ; the letter 1. means literal rendering.
Li'.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 137
ones. If the literal rendering were always given, and if a
short explanation were made at the beginnings of all Bibles of
the ancient way of regarding the East as the front, every
reader would be able to judge for himself from the context
when front, left, ete., meant East, North, etc., and several
marginal readings might be avoided. It would then be clear
that Solomon’s oe ac was oriented like the Tabernacle in the
wilderness (Fx. xxvi, 22; 1 Kings vi, 16, R.V.).
At the present time we in England employ a somewhat
similar plan in topography ; we e speak of the right or left bank
of a river, and we give a clear impression of our meaning to
anyone familiar with the conventional plan, that the right bank
is that on the right hand of anyone looking down stream. It
is somewhat remarkable that we now look down the course of
the stream, but the ancient Hebrews looked towards the course
of the Sun, and many modern Easterns do the same.
In this connection Job xxiii, 8, 9, R.V., calls for attention:
‘“‘ Behold, I go forward, but He is not there ;
And backward, but I cannot perceive Him ;
On the left hand, where he doth work, but I cannot behold Him,
He hideth Himself on the right hand that I cannot see Him,”
The cardinal points are almost certainly intended in this
passage, and they are so rendered in both French and Spanish,
but not in either our A.V. or Revised Versions. The mention
of hiding Himself on the right hand probably reters to the
hiding of His works, we., the stars, in the south, a fact also
alluded to in the expression, “Chambers of the South,” in
Job 1x, 9, when again the full meaning appears to have been
missed by our translators in both versions, but recognised by
both the French and Spanish, as they correctly give “ chambres.
cachées ” and “lugares secretos” as the meaning of the word
which we render simply ‘“‘chambers.”* The hiding of the stars.
below the horizon in the south must have been noticed by
travellers in Bible times, specially by voyagers on the Nile,.
which stretches north and south through many degrees of
latitude. A description of the south as a place where stars
* In Sanscrit the Rev. A. Margéschis states that avaci, meaning “ lower
region,” is a word used to express the South. The Rev. A. Elwi in, late
missionary in China, states that in Chinese, South, is “‘ below.” The "Rev.
W.C. Whiteside, Western India, says that South is sometimes described
in Sanscrit as “the door.” South is also called yamaya in Sanscrit
from yama, the God of death. The connection between the hidden
chamber and the dead seems to be obvious from Gen. xxiii, 4 and_ 8,
“Bury my dead out of my sight.” ;
K 2
138 LT.-COL. G MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
are hidden from one stationed in northern latitudes is a very
natural one; I myself well remember being struck with a full
view of the brillant star Canopus high in the heavens, when in
more southern latitudes. This star is of course never visible
to us in England, being hidden from view below the horizon
inthe south. The“ working ” on the left or north in Job xxiii, 9,
may refer to the revolving of the stars round the pole.
That the passage most probably indicates the points of the
compass seems evident from the context: Job is desirous
to discover ‘Jehovah, “Oh that I knew where I might find
Him,” he says just- before in verse 3, and then in the text
under consideration he says in effect, “though I go to the sun
rising, He is not there, to the sunset but I cannot perceive
Him ; to the mysterious north stretched over empty space
(Job xxvi, 7), round which the constellations revolve, but I
cannot behold Him; he hideth Himself if I journey southward
and gaze on the stars hidden from us here, even there I cannot
see Himself.” Then by way of sharp contrast he adds in verse 10,
“but He knoweth the way that J take.” In Job ix, 7-11, the
same thought of Jehovah’s power over the sun and stars and
of Job’s inability to see the maker Himself “ which doeth great
things past finding out, yea, marvellous things without number,”
is expressed in somewhat similar language: “So He goeth by
me and I see Him not: He passeth on also, but I perceive Him
not.” Modern Science notes some of the marvellous things,
but utterly fails to find the Maker Himself.
In Job xxvi, 7, R.V., the description of the north as
stretched over empty space, seems to accord with the idea in
the mcdern Arabic word for north, which means “void” (Rev.
W.G. Pope), and with the Tibetan chang “clean,” or “ puritied ”
(Colonel Waddell); perbaps our own word north may mean no
(sun) or void (of the sun).
The east sometimes in the Bible means a country in that
direction ;-as the west is spoken of as behind or hinder; and
as the Mediterranean Sea (which was essentially the sea) was
on that side of Palestine, the word for sea often signifies west,*
and it is consequently translated “west” no fewer than 69
times; as this was so often done, it would appear that in
Ps. exxxix, 9, “If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell
in the uttermost part of the sea,” that the word “west” in
* Myr. G. Michell of Casa Blanca on the Atlantic coast of Morocco
states that the Arabic word for sea, signifies “west” there at the present
time,
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAIL ASTRONOMY. 139
English would probably convey the meaning intended much
better than the word “sea.” The contrast between the
brightness of the morning in the east, and the figure of
extreme darkness in uttermost west seems intelligible, more
particularly as the passage goes on to say that darkness cannot
hide from God. The employment of the word “sea” in
English destroys this sequence of ideas. All the four versions,
however, use the word “sea,” and none of them even gives a
marginal note that the “west” might be intended. It is
somewhat remarkable that the word “ Yam,” the sea, so often
translated “west,” is once rendered by the word “ south” in the
text of both A.V. and R.V. (Ps. evil, 3).
The Negeb, the dry hilly southern part of Judaea, is always
translated the south or south country ; in one case in the R.V.
(Gen. xiii, 1) it would appear better to have used the name of
the country instead of the expression “the south,” as Abraham
did not go in a southward direction, when he went from Egypt
to the Negeb.
There is apparently no trace in the New Testament that the
east was regarded as the front, and that the other cardinal
points were grouped in relation to it; on the contrary, it seems
that the modern European idea of the vertical plane of the
meridian being considered the fundamental one had arisen
and prevailed, for the word mesémbria, which originally meant
mid-day, also signifies south, and it is so translated in the text
or Acts) vi, 26;-of both our A: V.-and R.V. As the same
double meaning is attached to the French and Spanish words
“midi” and “ mediodia,” and as both their versions give only
“south” in the passage under consideration, the marginal
reading “or at noon ” in our R.V. may be unnecessary.
It is interesting to note that the Latin meridies, from
which the French and Spanish words are both derived, has
entirely lost its meaning of “noon” on entering the English
language, since our word “meridian ” only signifies direction.
Orventation.— In the earlier books of the Bible, the points of
the compass are very often alluded to, as for instance in the
description of the orientation of the Tabernacle, and ot the
position of the tribes around it in the wilderness, and in
agreement with this modern research tells us that ancient
temples were generally carefully placed in directions indicated
astronomically.
Tabernacle compared with Heathen Temples.—Comparing an
ordinary heathen, Hgyptian, or Greek temple with the
tabernacle in the wilderness, we find a general agreement in the
140 LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
following points; they were each oriented, rectangular in plan,
symmetrical on either side of a central line, and provided with
an inner sanctuary and with rows of pillars. But when we
come to the arrangement of the pillars we find a vital
difference.
We have seen that in heathen temples dedicated to
astronomical deities, a clear course is allowed down the centre
from the entrance to allow the light of the rising sun or star
to shine into the inmost holy recesses. This necessitates an
even number of pillars on the front, as may be seen at St.
Paul’s in London, St. Peter’s in Rome, etc., which are copied
from the antique. It may perhaps be said that beauty of
appearance also demands a central entrance. It is conse-
quently remarkable that the number of pillars in front of the
tabernacle was odd; while the number placed between the holy
place and the most holy was even* (Ex. xxvi, 32, 37; xxxv1,
36, 38; see fig. 2).
The glory of the Lord was within the most holy place of the
Tabernacle and of the Temple (Ex. xl, 35 ; m Chron. vii, 2; see
also Rev. xxi, 23, xxii, 5), consequently there was no need to
make arrangements for light to come in from outside. Even
had the veil been lifted and the strict orders against entrance
into the most holy place been relaxed, the odd central pillar
would have prevented the light of the rising sun from entering
effectively ; may we not therefore lock upon this central pillar
as a protest against the worship of the heavenly host ?
Solomon’s temple was the direct successor to the Tabernacle,
and we find several of the diinensions of the one simply doubled
in the other (Ex. xxvi, 16, 18, 22; 1 Kings vi, 2, 20) thus :—
| ; Height of
Length. Breadth. | Most Holy Place.
ee ——— | = ———
Tabernacle ye 30 cubits. | 10 cubits. 10 eubits.
Temple ... is COmms 2) OMe | OO ae
\
* Tt has been said by some, that the central pillar was necessary, in
order to carry one end of a ridge pole (which, however, is not mentioned
in the Bible). But even if this were so, the light of the rising sun would
have still been obstructed ; it would not have been difficult to have
carried the ridge pole (if it existed) on a short cross piece supported on
two pillars, if an unobstructed central space had been desired.
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON RBIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 141
The four pillars between the holy and most holy places in
the Tabernacle gave five openings: these were replaced in the
Temple by one opening (central by symmetry), one-fifth of
the whole, furnished with doors or doorways ; two-fifths of the
front on each side were presumably boarded up (1 Kings vi,
31-34).
The five pillars on the front giving entrance to the holy
place in the Tabernacle from the outside gave six openings ;
these were replaced in the temple by two openings, each
furnished with doors, which symmetry demanded should
be on each side of a central pillar; each of these doorways
oceupied one-eighth of the front. Had these doors followed
exactly the same rule as the other doors leading into the most
holy place they would each have been one-sixth of the front ;
but the increase of actual frontage over that of the Tabernacle
permitted the proportionate width of the doorways to be
reduced; thus though some change was made, the central
pillar arrangement which blocked the entrance of the sun’s rays
apparently remained unaltered. This seems evident from the
marginal reading of the A.V., but the R.V. does not make this
meaning quite so clear.
The description of the Temple in Ezek. xh, 2, 3, is rather
obscure ; but it would appear probable that the entrance to the
holy place was in two parts, “five cubits on the one side, and
five cubits on the other side,” ¢.e., two doorways with a central
post between them. The entrance to the most holy place was
apparently only one opening, as there is no mention of “in the
one side” and “on the other side.”
Direction —The Hebrews were not a maritime nation, and we
find little allusion to the use of the heavenly bodies for the
purposes of navigation: we may, however, notice two passages
(Job xxxvili, 32, R.V.), “Canst thou guide the Bear with her
train.” (The Arcturus of this passage and of Job ix, 9, in the
A.Y. is evidently a mistranslation.) The constellation of the
Bear was in those days much nearer to the pole than now, and
it consequently must have served to point out the then pole
star quite as effectively as 1t now does the present one; the
thought seems to be “are you able to guide that which guides
the mariner”? In Acts xxvii, 20, R.V., “when neither sun nor
stars shone upon us for many days,” the thought seems to be
that the danger was great because the means of guidance was
not available; had it been intended to say that their hiding
indicated cloudy bad weather, we should expect to find the
moon mentioned also; but mention of the moon is probably
142 LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
omitted because it could hardly have been of use for purposes
of navigation.
(5) THE HEAVENS.
From a remote period it has been found convenient to divide
the heavens into three regions, viz., those containing :—
1. Circumpolar, non-setting stars.
2. All other visible stars, v.e., those rising and setting.
3. All remaining stars hidden under the horizon in the
south.
Job ix, 9, R.V., mentions “the Bear, Orion and the Pleiades
and the chambers of the South,” and thus enumerates all these
regions ; (1) The very conspicuous constellation of the Bear
was then non- -setting in those latitudes, and consequently
represented the rest “of the non- -setting stars; (2) Orion and
the Pleiades, the rising and setting stars; and (3) the (hidden)
chambers of the South contained the remainder.
(1) Non-setting stars—Some of the non-setting stars had a
practical value in giving direction, as we have already noted:
if proper allowance is made for the time of year, the con-
stellation of the Great Bear, or the Great Clock of the North,
as it has been called, gives the time at night with consider-
able accuracy, especially if a dial face, anciently called a
“nocturnal,” 1s placed over it aud the pole star. The non-setting
stars collectively typified the evil powers of darkness, which
were only vanquished by the rising of the sun. The old story
was that Merodach had a fearful conflict with the dragon.
This was poetically pictured in the heavens by the constellation -
Draco, one of whose stars, towards the tail, was the pole star of
some 4,500 years ago; the body of Draco was consequently
apparently transfixed by an invisible spear (the axis of the
earth preduced), and the two parts of the creature revolved
around it, giving the idea of twistings about in agony. The
rising of ‘the sun caused its entire disappearance, and so
apparently completed its destruction. Our figure of St. George
and the Dragon on the British sovereign possibly owes its
origin to the first part of this ancient story. “His hand
hath pierced the swift serpent” (Job xxvi, 13), probably has
an astronomical reference and indicates that Jehovah causes
the constellation Draco to revolve, and consequently all the
other stars as well; it may perhaps also refer in poetic
language to His supreme power in overcoming all evil.
The seeming destruction of the stars caused by the rising
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 143
sun was an ancient figure of speech, and it is probably used in
i Thess. ii, 8, R.V., “That wicked . . . whom the Lord
shall bring to nought (katargései) with the manifesta-
tion of His coming.” In Nahum iii, 16, 17, “the stars. .
when the sun ariseth they flee away,” bears out the same idea
—if it is allowable for the verb to refer to the stars as well as
to the locusts—and both refer to the great men of Nineveh.
“He must increase but I must decrease” (John 111, 30), may be
derived from a similar idea, as the morning star, herald of the
dawn, modestly decreases very much, but (at its brightest) does
not disappear altogether, on the rising of the orb of day.
John the Baptist may perhaps here be likened to the morning
star,* as “he was not that Light, but was sent to bear witness
of that Light” (John i, 8; see also Mal. iii and iv, 2).
At the beginning of the Lord’s ministry, which was probably
in the autumn, John twice repeats the sentence almost in the
same words (John i, 15 and 30, R.V.), “ After me cometh a man
that is become before me, fer he was before me,” a phrase quite
in accord with the figure of the morning star and the sun.
In John v, 35, R.V., the Lord speaks of the Baptist as “ the
lamp that burneth and shineth: and ye were willing to rejoice
for a season in his light.” The name for Venus of “ Light” or
“Lamp” is no uncommon one. With regard to the phrase
“rejoicing in his light,” an Egyptian, Atallah Athanasius
(associated with Dr. Harper of Cairo), states that “ travellers
by night when they see the morning star rejoice exceedingly,
and sing special songs in its honour, calling it ‘ the release,’
because it announces that the troubles of night and its
darkness are coming to an end.”
If, as is probable, John made his comparison (John 1, 15, 30)
and the Lord made His comparison (John v, 35) to the
morning star at times when it was distinctly visible towards
the end of each night, we have a probable indication of the
exact date of the Crucifixion, which is generally believed to
have occurred within the dates 29 and 33 A.D.
Mr. Wickham, Senior Assistant, Radcliffe Observatory,
Oxford, has caleulated for me that the planet Venus was at its
brightest as the morning star about 10th July, 28 a.D., and
again about 14th February, 30 A.D. new style, or 27th June,
28 A.D., and 1st February, 29 a.p., old style (for the old style
year began on the 25th March); this involves its shining as the
morning star for about three weeks before and two or three
* See iimpriss’ Gospel Treasury, section xiii, part ii, p. 132.
144, LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
months after those dates, z.¢.,in the autumn of 28 A.D. and in
the spring of 30 A.D. The former of these periods may well
have contained the commencement of the Lord’s ministry, and
the latter the second passover, which is generally thought to
be indicated in John v, 1. As the Crucifixion was at the
fourth passover, its date would thus be 32 a.p. or 29 ap. It
must be confessed that this is not strong evidence but only a
possible inference.
The planet Venus as morning star is much better known by
Eastern peoples at the present time than by us. Some farmers
in India and others in the East notice its appearance in broad
daylight. We may think a figure derived trom the planet as
far-fetched, but it was doubtless very familiar to the ancient
Jews.
(2) Lhe rising and setting stars—The second region contains
the rising and setting stars; practical use was made of them
because when some ot them rose with or just before the sun,
the seasons of the year for various agricultural operations were
indicated. According to Dr. Takakusu, Professor of Sanscrit,
Tokio, the farmers ot parts of China and Japan, where
almanacs are not so plentiful as with us, still make use of them
for these purposes. Some 600 B.c. Hesiod wrote of the
Pleiades, “begin harvesting at their heliacal risings, but
plowing when they set.’*
The practical value of the Pleiades to the farmer due to its
position in the heavens probably explains the references to the
eluster. in Job 1x, 9, xxxviu, 31, and Amos v, 8, BR. V2 (Oren
the most brilliant of the constellations, is also mentioned in the
same three passages, probably as representing all the rest. In
Is. xu, 10, the same Hebrew word is used, but it is there
translated “constellations” instead of Orions in both our
A.V. and RR:
This second region of the heavens contains the band of stars
called the Signs of the Zodiac, which is described as the
tabernacle of the sun (Ps. xix, 4). The signs of the zodiac are
surely referred to in 11 Kings xxiii, 5, and in Job xxxvin, 32, as
is indicated in the marginal readings of both AyV. and R.V.
The texts of both the versions, however, are not helpful, the
Hebrew word Mazzaroth or Mazzaloth only occurs in these two
places, but is translated “planets” in one case, and simply
Mazzaroth is given us in the other. No doubt, apparently,
* Agricultural operations in Egypt and Persia are still regulated by
the heliacal risings.
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 145
entered the minds of either the French or Spanish translators,
as both have given the meaning as the signs of zodiac in both
places; this seems quite consistent with the context of
Job xxxviii, 32, R.V.: “Canst thou lead forth the Mazzaroth
in their season?” as the leading forth of the signs of the
zodiac with respect to the sun influences the seasons.
(3) Midden Southern Stars—The third region of hidden
southern stars calls for no further note: when discovered by
one journeying south, they naturally linked themselves to the
other rising and setting stars.
Job xxxvill, 31, 32, R.V.: “ Canst thou bind the cluster of the
Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion? Canst thou lead forth
the Mazzaroth in their season? or canst thou guide the Bear
with her train?” enumerates what may be called the useful
visible constellations ; Pleiades and Orion indicated the time for
agricultural operations; the signs of the zodiac the sequence
the seasons; and the Bear was the guide to the mariner.
(6) GRAND ASTRONOMICAL STATEMENTS.
In ordinary ancient astronomy there were various theories
about the shape of the earth and the method of its support ;
in the Scriptures we have the simple statements, “the pillars
of the earth are the Lord’s, and He hath set the world upon
them” (1 Sam. 11, 8, see also Job xxxviii, 4, Ps. Ixxv, 3,
Prov. vill, 29), and “ He hangeth the earth upon nothing”
(Job xxvi, 7). The globular form of the earth is thought by
many to have been unknown to the ancients: but it appears
that (Is. xl, 22) He “sitteth upon the circle of the earth” of
both our Authorized and Revised Versions would be more
accurately translated, He “ sitteth upon the globe of the earth.”
Both the French and Spanish agree in translating the Hebrew
word “ khug” as “ globe.”
The globular form of the earth is also inferred from the
Lord’s statement that at His sudden coming (Luke xvu, 24),
some will be in bed, presumably at might (Luke xvii, 34), while
others will be working at their ordinary occupations (Luke
Xvu, 35, Matt. xxiv, 40, 43), presumably in the day-time. Day
and night at the same instant at different parts of the earth
are quite consistent with its spherical shape.
According to the observations of modern astronomers, there
are less than 6,000 stars in all the heavens visible to the
unaided human eye. In the Scripture, however, they are
repeatedly spoken of as very numerous indeed, and in some
146 LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
cases their numbers are mentioned in conjunction with the
sand upon the sea shore innumerable; now 6,000 grains of
sand do not fill a very large space, and the linking together of
these two examples of large numbers might not have appeared
very apt to, the first hearers. (Gen. xv, 0; xxvi, 4; Deut. i, 10,
%, 22, kxvill, 62; der, xxx, 22> Naham ai 16 7 Heb) arabe
But when telescopes were invented, the numbers which could
be seen rapidly grew to hundreds of thousands, and of late
years to millions; and when photography came to the aid of
astronomy, pictures appeared of other stars (never even
yet seen by human eye in the most powerful telescope), and the
totals now reach hundreds of millions. Of late years the
spectroscope has confirmed what was previously only a
suspicion, that many bright stars have other dark ones
revolving with them. Sir Robert Ball tells us that “the
brilliant objects that we see, though they are overwhelmingly
numerous, yet they must be absolutely as nothing in
comparison with the myriads of dark objects which are
totally invisible to us, except when certain very remarkable
circumstances occur.” Thus our modern Science huimbles us
by showing that it is more difficult than it appeared at the
time to comply with the demand, “ tell the stars, if thou be able
to tell them ” (Gen. xv, 5). And it enables us to see a tuller
meaning in the grand and simple statement, “ He telleth the
number of the stars” (Ps. exlvu, 4).
The lately recognised dark stars of the modern astronomer
may perhaps be referred to in Jude 13.
Except that a few of them were used for the practical
purposes of finding the time and the latitude, the bulk of the
stars were not of much interest to scientific astronomers a few
years ago ; though of course different magnitudes were assigned
to them, and differences of colour were observed, some were
noted as double and others as variable in their light. But now-
a-days, with the aid of the spectroscope, it is found that all are
moving with great and diverse rapidity ; some are one thousand
times as brilliant as our sun, while others are less so. Instead
of the old apparent monotony among the stars, Professor
S. Newcomb now writes: “Most remarkable is the diversity
of their actual luminosities or the amount of heat and light
which they individually emit. The whole tendency of recent
research is to accentuate this diversity.” Thus now-a-days,
thanks to recent science, we can see more force than formerly
in the words of Scripture, “ one star differeth from another star
in glory” (1 Cor. xv, 41), and our present knowledge of the
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 147
immensity of stellar distances greatly adds point to the words
of Eliphaz, “ Behold the height of the stars, how high they are”
(Job xxii, 12).
(7) FIGURATIVE ALLUSIONS.
When the human race was a few thousand years younger
than it is at present, sunrise was pre-eminently the type of
increasing power; but we modern Enelish in our northern
latitudes have a very early daybreak in the summer time when
the weather is fine and clear, and our present habits of late
rising prevent most of us from being astir at that time of
day; in our winter the skies are frequently cloudy and dull,
and the glories of sunrise are veiled; the consequence is
that we have little practical experience of the beauties of
daybreak, and so the Bible accounts of it do not come
with so much force to us as to those who lived in more
southern countries, and frequently witnessed it. There are
still, however, two powerful eastern nations, Persia and
Japan, which employ the symbol of the rising sun as their
national emblem. In the Scriptures abundant use is made of
sunrise as a figure of strength and joy: the sun is said “to
rejoice as a strong man torun a race” (Ps. xix, 5). Other
joyful references to it are, “The day spring from on high hath
visited us” (Luke i, 78). “The path of the righteous is as the
light of dawn, that shineth more and more unto the perfect
day ” (Prov. iv, 18, R.V. marg.). “Then shall thy light break
forth as the morning ” (Is. lvii, 8).
On the other hand, the withdrawal of the light of the sun,
and also of that of the moon and stars,is an emblem of sorrow:
“The sun and the moon are darkened and the stars withdraw »
their shining” (Joel i, 15). Intensity of sorrow is shown by
an unexpected quenching of the grateful light of day. “Her
sun is gone down while it is yet day” (Jer. xv, 9). In the
same strain a period of lasting joy after sorrow is spoken of as
a time when “Thy sun shall no more go down. . . the days
of thy mourning shall be ended ” (Is. Ix, 20). :
In this connection it is interesting to note the text, “Until
the day dawn, and the shadows flee away” (Song of Solomon,
ii, 17, and iv, 6, A.V.), which certainly gives the idea of dawn, and
it has consequently been taken as a type of resurrection. The
words “ be cool” in R.V., however, make it appear that evening
is the time intended: according to Professor Margoliouth,
the word used for “fleeing away” refers to odours diffusing
themselves, and one would think might as well refer to the
148 LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY.
shadows disseminating themselves over the earth at night as
to their disappearance altogether in the morning; the word
translated “break” in A.V. and “be cool” in R.V. is difficult.
On the whole the probability seems that the evening is
intended, the context 1s certainly not opposed to that view,
and the movement of shadows in other parts of Scripture
seems generally to refer to evening (Job vii, 2; Ps. cii, 11,
cix, 23).
It must have been no uncommon sight to see a few flat
clouds or mist low on the horizon at dawn, in the Eastern sky
in Bible lands in Bible times, and when the sun rose, they must
have caught some of its radiance, almost appearing to be a
part of the luminary itself; a very natural poetic idea would
call them mines to assist its upward flight.
In Mal. iv, 2, we are told, “Unto you that fear my name
shall the Sun of righteousness arise with healing in His
wings.” And in Ps. cxxxix, 9, the wings are also associated
with the rising sun, for the expression 1s “wings of the
morning.”
This thought seems to be carried out in the numerous
carved images of the solar disc with long lateral wings
(emblems of divinity, see Fig. 1) so often to be seen in ancient
temples, ete. (probably the tails of some of them represented the
downward rays of the sun sometimes to be seen when it is near
the horizon); the differences in design in Egyptian and in
Assyrian winged suns may be due not only to differences in the
national art of the two countries, but also to the differences
in the morning cloudscapes of rainless Egypt and of the more
clouded sky of the country near the hills to the north of
Assyria. Compare A and Bwith E and F, Fig.1. The winged
solar discs, emblems of divinity, are not improbably the sun
images forbidden to the Hebrews (Lev. vi, 30, etc.). Let us not
be alarmed at this coincidence; Scripture allows and uses the
language of imagery in worship ; but it forbids the construction
of the actual images themselves for the purposes of worship.
Another symbole meaning of wings was to signify care or
protection (Ps. xvu, 8, lvu, 1; Mal. iv, 2; Matt. xxi, 37);
this thought may possibly explain Ps. lxxxiv, 11, “The Lord
God is a Sun and Shield.” The sun symbolises His active
power and the wings His shielding care of His people.
It is doubtful whether the moon, which reflects the sun’s
light to the dark world, is “the faithful witness ” of Ps. lxxxix,
37, or whether the rainbow is intended.
The infinitudes of space grandly picture the infinite majesty
LT.-COL. G. MACKINLAY ON BIBLICAL ASTRONOMY. 149
and grace of Jehovah, “As the heavens are higher than the
earth, so are my ways higher than your ways and my thoughts
than your thoughts” (Isa. lv, 9). -.
The amount of carbonic acid gas is extremely variable, 3 parts in 10,000
is the proportion in the open country, 5 parts in towns, and as much as
30 parts in 10,000 of air in overcrowded rooms. More than this acts
poisonvusly on animal life.
‘
176 CHARLES B. WARRING, M.A., PH.D., ON
scarcely at all changed. They are world-wide in distribution, and
still enjoy the coal-cellar as they did the Coal-period. There is also
a form of. king-crab which has survived, but little changed,
from that time. Another case of survival is that of the scorpions,
which appeared first in the Upper Silurian of Lanarkshire, also in
the United States of America, and in the Island of Gotland.
These scorpions may have undergone some modification, but they
possessed trachez; they breathed the air as insects breathe it
nowadays. They were probably not aquatic scorpions, but true
terrestrial dwellers, and the family has continued to live down to
the present day. We notice also that in proportion to their great
antiquity in time, so is their wide geographical distribution now.
In all the warmer parts of the world we find scorpions living upon
dry land. It shows what an enormous vitality these creatures
must have enjoyed, which enabled them to change their habitat
with the changed condition of land and soil, and still live on
unaltered through such vast periods of geological time.
I must emphatically enter my protest against the theory of
animals living either in the air or on the land without a proper
supply of oxygen and a minimum of carbonic acid gas, and also that
the waters of the rivers, lakes, and the sea must have been in a
similar habitable state. I cannot imagine their being so full of
carbonate of lime as to form a veritable peas-pudding in which the
animals must swim and aérate their blood.
With regard to the extermination of the larger animals, I am
afraid that the author has gone astray there also. Of course every-
one who has treated the subject—and I may mention particularly
the name of the illustrious Professor, Sir Richard Owen, who
pointed out long years ago, that in all times of drought, or flood, or
fires, or other troubles on the land, it is always the larger animals
that are thé first to be exterminated, because they have the greatest
difficulty to maintain the struggle for life. They are bound to be
killed off. In times of drought they cannot get enough water or
food, and the smaller animals either escape by burrowing, or by
getting up a tree in a flood, or on high ground, whereas the large
animals are carried away and drowned. So when the author says
that the large animals ought (according to the law of the selection
of the most suitable) to have escaped, his statement is not borne out
by testimony and observation. It is the larger animals that most
GEOLOGICAL EXTERMINATIONS. £77
-easily succumb, and the smaller animals that have the greatest
chance of escape.
Then with regard to the Quaternary period, Mr. Warring seems to
be again in error. The Quaternary period is that in which we are
now living. There cannot be any distinction drawn between the
latest or Quaternary deposits and those of to-day ; man goes back in
time through all the Quaternary period, and the animals we see
to-day belong to the Quaternary period also.
Then with regard to size, I must say that the author seems to bea
little in error. The larger land animals were the huge land-reptiles,
the Dinosaurs, and they lived between the Trias and the Chalk
periods. There was during the Chalk period a great terrestrial
extent of the earth’s surface exposed and habitable and whose
animal remains are found in old lake-deposits, not in murine beds
like our chalk. There were large tracks in America where animals
of huge size dwelt, and among them were those reptiles, the
Dinosauria. They all died out at the end of the Chalk period.
Take again the great group of fishes, for instance ; they commenced
in the Silurian, and forms resembling some of those living to-day are
found in Devonian rocks. Sharks occur in the Devonian, and forms
of scaly fishes. The principal difference is that the fish of to-day
usually possess a strong bony skeleton, whereas in the earliest fishes
there was no hardened skeleton—they were notochordal, having
only a gelatinous or cartilaginous skeleton; many also had a covering
of hard armour plates. Some of the cartilaginous fishes (¢.¢., the
sharks) are living to-day.
With regard to the birds, they appeared first in the Jurassic
period, and the earliest possessed teeth, but they were clothed with
feathers ; they were not reptiles. We have never found any other
animals, save birds, that possessed feathers. Then in the London-clay
period more birds appear, some with serrated jaws (not true teeth)
and some with long horny bills, like grebes and Solan geese, well
adapted for catching fish, so that modern birds really may date from
the Eocene period, and they have thus a long historical record.
Mammals were supposed to begin in the Trias and go on to the
present day, but the remains found in the Trias probably represent
Ammodont or Theriodont reptiles that had some affinity towards
mammals, but were not really mammals at all. In the Purbeck
178 CHARLES B, WARRING, M.A., PH.D., ON
beds there were undoubted small mammals, and so from that period
we have evidence of mammalian life, and the surviving reptiles were
not such huge creatures as in the earlier periods.
When it is said that the largest of living animals had disappeared,
the author had forgotten the existence of the great “ Right-whale,”
which is a mammal, 80 to 120 feet in length, and the largest of all
animals that ever lived upon the surface or in the waters of the
globe. The whales are larger than any of the great reptiles, the
Dinosauria. So large a creature could not have supported existence
upon the land; even had its limbs served, it would be absolutely
impossible for purposes of locomotion upon dry ground, from its
vast bulk. It could only move in the water, in which the more
resisting medium of that fluid enabled it to support its bulk and
live. The land reptiles were limited as to size. Even the largest
of them, the Lrontosaurus (perhaps 70 feet in length), one of which is
is about to be set up by Mr. Andrew Carnegie in the Natural
History Museum this year, is supposed to be an animal which
walked under water and put its head out to breathe, and fed upon the
aquatic plants growing at the bottom of the rivers or lakes. This
has only been suggested by Professor Cope, and therefore is not put
forward as a well-ascertained fact in science.
May I be permitted to read these few lines to you from
Huxley: “If there be any result which has come more clearly out
of geological investigation than another, it is that the vast series of
extinct animals and plants is not divisible into distinct groups by
any sharply-marked boundaries. There are no great gaps between
epochs and formations, no successive periods marked by the
appearance of plants and animals en masse. Every year adds to
the list of links between what the older geologists supposed to be
entirely separate epochs. Witness the Crags linking the Drift
with Older Tertiaries; the Maestricht beds linking the Tertiaries.
with the Chalk; the St. Cassian beds exhibiting a mixed fauna of.
mesozoic and palzeozoic types in rocks of an epoch once supposed.
to be eminently poor in life; witness, lastly, the incessant disputes.
as to whether a given stratum shall be reckoned Devonian or
Carboniferous, Silurian or Devonian, Cambrian or Silurian.”
(Huxley, Lay Sermons, p. 243), [written before 1870, soon after the
appearance of Darwin’s Origin of Species]. This was written by
Huxley before 1870, so that the author has overlooked an important,
Se
—_- se.
GEOLOGICAL EXTERMINATIONS. 79
authority as early as Dana, whom he quotes. Dana was not so much
a paleontologist as a great mineralogist, but the author of the paper
certainly might have quoted Huxley and several other able authori-
ties affording abundant evidence of the continuity of life, which has
never been broken or interrupted since its first dawn upon our earth.
Rev. A. Irvine, D.Sc., B.A.—We are very much indebted to
Dr. Woodward for his remarks. I have learnt something from
them, and I should like to draw attention to one or two views that
fell from him. As to one thing in particular, the effect of the
relative proportions of carbonic acid in the atmosphere upon the life
of plants. Dr. Woodward informed us that certain experiments at
Kew had led to the conclusion that much carbonic acid kills the
plant. My experimental investigations carried on at Wellington
College in the “eighties ” led to that conclusion, so long as I dealt
with simply a mixture of carbonic acid and nitrogen; but when I
introduced an equivalent amount of oxygen—about one volume of
oxygen to one volume of carbonic acid along with nitrogen, I found
that the plant-growth increased with rapidity, and moreover, with
their roots saturated with water (as those of the coal measure plants
were when growing), with exactly the same conditions of light, and
in every way exposed to the same conditions, except in the
proportions of the gases, to which their foliage was exposed.
No well-informed student of geology wouid dream of reviving
the obsolete notion of “ cataclysmic ” disappearances of life, to which
Dr. Woodward has made reference. That cannot fairly be read
into Dr. Warring’s paper. We should recollect, however, that the
main business of the Victoria Institute is not with the detailed
investigations of this or that special science, but with the co-
ordination of the results achieved in all the sciences with those arrived
at in other lines of research. From that point of view the most
important and most interesting part of the paper before the meeting
is found in the concluding paragraphs. It opens up a vast field for
discussion, but, as time is short, it may suffice to say that in Nature
and in Revelation alike we find the great law of Evolution
written upon all things; but that law is not all, and does
not account for all, that comes within the ken of the human mind
in the universe of Being. In the light of that higher “monism ”
which runs through the Bible revelation we can trace a directing
influence, which has not left the wild forces of Nature to work out
180 CHARLES B. WARRING, M.A., PH.D., ON
their results in a purely hap-hazard sort of way, such as is implied
in the Darwinian dogma; we can, in fact, recognise directivity (as.
defined by Professor George Henslow) in the very variations, which
must be antecedent to selection. Evolution pure and simple must
imply that every new departure on the road of development is
evolved solely out of the facts that preceded it, and the material and
other properties latent in those facts, including environment. Yet
when we come to consider the origin of matter and its properties,
we are a long way from grasping any intelligent idea of matter
originating in mind, though everything in Nature proclaims a.
controlling mind.
Again, the mystery of life is inscrutable; and whatever ideas we:
may ultimately get as to the intrinsic nature of life, it is not likely
that we shall ever get rid of that element of sczentific faith which
holds the minds of Haeckel and his followers. The sneer from that
side implied in the word “miracle” is but an “appeal to the:
(Agnostic) gallery ” ; and it is illogical for Haeckel to maintain that
a legitimate place is found for faith (implying an exercise of the:
imagination) in science, and at the same time to dismiss the exercise:
of precisely the same intellectual! faculties in the field of religion as
mere ‘illusion and fancy.” And so we are led on to the mysteries
involved in the great Christian verities, and to that “ pure:
Agnosticism ” of George Romanes, which is content to say, “I don’t
know,” “I don’t understand,” without having the effrontery to say
(ergo) “ You don’t know or understand.” ‘ Nobody can know or
understand.” Such Agnostic dogmatism is utterly unphilosophical,.
and must remain so, until at least the origin of matter and its.
properties, and the origin of /ife with its vast variety of manifestations
are removed from the region of the unexplained qué natural causation.
Rev. JOHN TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S.—With very much of this:
paper I am in entire agreement. But there are some important
facts to which insufficient weight has been allowed. First of all I do:
not think we can rely upon the uniformitarian principle altogether:
in the geological processes of the past. :
The very fact that at certain epochs many more forms of life:
disappeared and with much greater geological suddenness than at
others, implies something more than the ordinary processes of nature.
The late Professor Prestwich, in a paper read before this Institute
ten years ago, pointed out that a great diluviai catastrophe overtook.
——— eee
GEOLOGICAL EXTERMINATIONS. 18i
the continent of Europe in post-Pliocene times, I believe, which must
have swept away the whole of its mammalian life. He connected
this with the traditional Deluge, and I suppose the tens of
thousands of mammoths and mastodons whose remains have been
found in some cases frozen, and the flesh in a perfect state of
preservation, must have perished suddenly and probably in
connection with the same event.
I quite agree with the author that the mere elevation of the
earth’s surface will not account for these events.
Dr. WALTER Kipp, F.Z.S.—Without being a geologist, I desire
to point out that this important subject of geological exterminations.
has considerable bearing upon current and unsolved problems in
biology. The exclusive sway of selection in the production of new
forms of life has received of late years strong support from Darwin’s
greatest follower, and Weismann has summed up his own life’s work
in two volumes, The Evolution Theory, in which he has elaborated
further his theory of germinal selection invented ten years ago, so as
to rehabilitate the doctrine of Darwin’s natural (personal) selec-
tion. He has finally declared, after great study of the matter, that
Lamarckism is a delusion, and that acquired characters are not
transmissible. This sweeping doctrine is intimately connected with
our subject of to-day thus: granting that evolution or modification
of species has taken place through the ages of geology, this must
have come about in one of three ways—either by direct modification
of the organism by its environments and use of function—or by
selection alone,—or by the combined actions of selection and use—:
inheritance and direct environmental action. Weismann is forced
to allow that among unicellular organisms environmental influence
is supreme, but maintains that when multicellular organisms arose
and amphimixis (or the mingling of two streams of heredity from two
parents) occurred, the influence of environments and use and disuse
in evolution abruptly ceased, and that at this dividing line in the
history of the organic world selection remained in unquestionable
predominance, and that selection is even anterior to the birth of
che organism, for it begins in the germ. The fact shown to-day, in
the paper before us, that exterminations on a vast scale have con-
tinued through geological history by reason of changes of atmosphere,
water and soil, is a glaring contradiction to this pan-selectionist
theory of Weismann. These exterminations are, many of them at
182 CHARLES B. WARRING, M.A., PH.D., ON
least, wholesale, and so much so that individual variations could
have no influence upon individual survival. We may not affirm the
old doctrine of repeated catastrophes, but surely many of the great
extinctions of floras and faunas of the world have been quite as vast
as the catastrophes formerly supposed, although they have been
obviously gradual in most cases. We have but to look at the face
of a chalk cliff some hundred feet high, literally composed of the
skeletons of the Foraminifera, Polycistina, and Diatoms with their
débris, or the “Atlantic Ooze” of to-day, going through the
experience of the chalk of the Cretaceous period, or to study a bed
of Nummulitic limestone some thousands of feet in thickness, and to
examine a piece of this from the Great Pyramid, and find num-
mulites of all sizes from a split pea to a florin; we have only to
consider these gigantic evidences of organism entombed en masse by
the physical agencies concerned in geological exterminations, to see
that individual fitness to survive can have had, in these vast masses
of organisms, no part or lot in the matter. What individual fitness,
we may ask, determined the death or survival of the myriads of
club-mosses and tree-ferns which went to make up the coal-measures
of the world? They perished evidently en masse, and it may be
assumed that such of them as happened to live to propagate their
species with variations suited to new environments were directly
modified by the changing environments.
We have heard of the heroic Sixth Brigade of the Japanese
before Port Arthur, making one of the most desperate assaults ever
made by infantry on powerful forts, going into action with 5,000 men,
of whom 400 alone remained when the forts were taken, and of the
Colonel of the 1st Regiment, the hero of fifty-seven combats, who
habitually exposed himself in the firing line, and who according to
the usual calculations should have been long ago dead and buried,
and we are forced to admit that no more did the colonel survive
because he was fitted to survive than did the 4,600 of the Sixth
Brigade fall because they were unfitted to survive under the
remorseless extermination of shell fire and bullets. This, I submit,
is parallel to the wholesale and impartial destruction of masses of
organisms of an early and lowly class, though not all of that
unicellular group in which alone does Weismann fail to bring in
selection as the deus ex machind.
This aspect of the subject gives “ geological exterminations” a
GEOLOGICAL EXTERMINATIONS. 183
living interest for the naturalist in addition to the other useful
points raised in the paper.
Rey. G. F. WuipporNng, M.A., F.G.S.—I have read Dr. Warring’s
suggestive paper with very great interest. The extermination of
species is self-evident, ¢.g., Spirifer, Pterodactyle, Ammonites, etc.,
must have been exterminated. That any living species is descended
from them is unthinkable. The many monotremata are now
reduced to two.
That at times extermination was synchronously predominant
may also be predicated, without, of course, suggesting that it was
at any time complete. There are often rapid disappearances of
whole groups of species that never recur in the same profuseness
again. At most continuance is accounted for by “survival of the
fittest.” But evidently that expression is intrinsically inaccurate ;
its meaning is intended to be “survival of the fittest in a modified
form.” Dr. Warring I understand tells us that the commonly sug-
gested causes for these survivals are insufficient, and suggests three
others of a chemical character. Whether these in turn are alto-
gether adequate for the effects may perhaps be questioned. We
have far the most evidence in geological history of sea animals.
Their genealogy may be treated alone. Two of Dr. Warring’s three
causes practically vanish with regard to them. Atmosphere and
soil could have had very slight and indirect effects upon them. We
have then only the chemical change of the sea to account for their
genealogy. Is it sufficient to have produced the evolution ascribed
to it? For instance, the assumed excess of lime might be sup-
posed to have resulted in more massive shells, but as an instance
Spiriferina of the Oolites are, speaking generally, more massive than
Spirifera of the Devonian. Devonian Gasteropods from Chud-
leigh, placed besides recent specimens of similar form, are almost
similar in massiveness. But I in no way wish to suggest that Dr.
Warring’s three causes are not effective, but only that they are not
in themselves fully adequate for the effects assigned them. They
may come to the help of the other causes asserted to produce evolu-
tion ; the result is that we get a still greater variety of assigned
causes, and the advantage in Dr. Warring’s causes is that a sequence
in the causes is at least implied congruous with the sequence of
effects, though insufficient in itself to account for them. But what
Dr. Warring emphasises is that the sequence of effects is orderly, a
N
“184. CHARLES RB. WARRING, M.A., PH.D., ON
continued orderly advance towards the present conditions. So after
all it seems to me that the conclusion of his argument is reached, that
behind any causes that can be imagined to have worked in the
building up of biological history, there must have been a constant
directive energy designing that such results should come. The
instance he gives of the evident ‘survival of the unfittest ” in the
Quaternary age—that is, the “ unfittest physically, though the fittest
cosmically,” is certainly remarkable.
In the closing paragraph he suggests a relationship between
“natural law” and “the supernatural.” This raises the question
whether the general conception of “natural law ” is not in itself
defective. To us “natural laws” appear binding rules, necessitating
effects. But from the point of view of the divine Lawgiver natural
‘laws are not necessities but perfection of will. He, being what the
Christian believes Him to be, has not enacted regulations by which
-the work and progress of nature shall be independently governed ;
but He Himself evolves it throughout and to the minutest particu-
lar by the infinite congruity and consistency of His will. The law
of God is perfect from its inception to its action. His law is His
will; voluntary to the minutest degree, but also consistent to the
minutest degree. And so the supernatural to us is only a further mani-
festation of His volition, which to our eyes seems above natural law,
‘ but which in itself is only another cycle in the active consistency of
God.
Professor EpwAarbd Hutu, F.R.S. (Secretary).—The subject
- brought before us is one of great interest and great difficulty. Mr.
Hudleston writes on this subject: ‘“ Exterminations in the Earth’s
history are more apparent than real and are largely due to the
imperfection of the Geological Record.” I concur in Mr. Hudles-
ton’s view—yet there are some points bearing on the subject which
require explanation. In the first place, we may notice the great
longevity (so to speak) of some genera and the brief duration of
others. Thus the Nautilus which survives in our oceanic waters
commenced its career in the Silurian period; so with the Lingula
and a few other forms. On the other hand, a most prolific oceanic
genus, the Trilobite, ended its career in the Carboniferous. It is
difficult to account for the longer duration of the former as com-
pared with the latter, for both were inhabitants of the successive
oceans, Another biological fact of great interest and obscurity is
GEOLOGICAL EXTERMINATIONS. 185
the excessively limited range of the various species of Aminonites
throughout the Jurassic and Liassic periods, so that their life’s
history seems limited to the time necessary for the deposition of a
few inches or feet of strata. The succession of the Ammonite forms
without any apparent change in the environment, as far as it is
possible to carry observation, is one of the most curious problems in
the life history of oceanic forms. It is otherwise with land forms
and those which inhabited estuaries and shallow waters, there,
slight physical changes may easily have brought about the destruc-
tion of whole races.
P.S.—On reading Dr. Woodward’s important remarks, it seems
to me that he has rather mistaken the views of the author of this
paper. It does not seem to me that Dr. Warring wished to be
understood as holding that all life was at any time exterminated
over the globe after its original appearance, and was subsequently
reintroduced, but that from time to time, certain genera and species
were exterminated, or failed to leave descendants.
ORDINARY GENERAL MEETING.*
PROFESSOR LIONEL BEALE, V.P., F.R.S., IN THE CHAIR.
The Minutes of the previous Meeting were read and confirmed.
The following paper was read by the Secretary, in the absence of the
Author :—
THE NEBULAR AND PLANETESIMAL THEORIES OF
THE EFARTH’S ORIGIN. By Warren Urpuam, M.A.,
F.G.S.Amer. (Hon. Corresponding Member.)
STRONOMY and geology, chemistry and physics, with their
very useful arm or ally, spectroscopy, seek together to
discover the origin and development of the earth and the moon,
of the sun and his retinue of planets, and of the starry universe:
“In the beginning how the heavens and earth
Rose out of chaos.”
While we are assured that they “declare the glory of God,”
and that “all things were made by Him,” it has also been learned
not less surely that He has worked by His established physical
and chemical laws in the creation of suns and worlds. We may
partially discern the laws, or methods of working, through which
the Creatcr has made and upholds the myriads of stars and our
relatively small, but yet vast, solar system; but beyond all that
we know, as, for example, of the laws of gravitation, everywhere
lies mystery which baffles our comprehension.
How all matter is influenced by all other matter and drawn
toward it, how the earth began and came to its present condition,
how the crystal or the plant or the animal grows, “ great things
and unsearchable, marvellous things without number,” proclaim
an omnipresent and omnipotent Creator and Ruler.
* Monday, March 20th, 1905.
PLANETESIMAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH’S ORIGIN. 187
To learn continually more and more of His thoughts, as
revealed in His works, is the highest reward of the student of
nature; and increased powers of vision, whether with the
telescope or the microscope, open ever-widening fields of know-
ledge and new problems to be solved. In every direction the
search for truth reaches no limit; and in the theines of this
paper, although much has been ascertained, infinitely more
remains for inquiry.
The nebular hypothesis or theory may well be ealled the
grandest generalization in all the range of the natural sciences.
As most elaborately stated by the eminent astronomer and
mathematician, Laplace, in his Exposition du Systeme du Monde,
this theory traces the beginning and development of the solar
system from an original gaseous nebula, an exceedingly
tenuous and intensely “heated cloud of matter, extending in
a spheroidal form beyond the orbit of Neptune, the outer-
most planet. By its gravitation and resulting contraction, the
nebula is supposed to have acquired a movement of rotation,
with polar flattening. Whenever the outer equatorial belt of
the revolving nebula attained a centrifugal force exceeding
the attraction toward the central mass, a part would be left
behind, either as a relatively small revolving nebulous body,
or as a ring of such matter, somewhat like the rings of
Saturn. Later the ring, if it was at first of that form, would
be broken; and, finally, the detached mass would be gathered
ito a globe, which, in its condensation, would form satellites
in the same manner as outer parts of the great central mass
formed the successive planets.
Under this theory the principal features of our planetary
system, implying unity of orjgin and development, find a con-
sistent general explanation. Professor Charles ) As regards political circumstances. This is summed up in
the statement that just as the Jewish Messiah appeared in
Palestine when it was subject to the Roman Government, so.
the Moghul Messiah has appeared in India while it is subject
to the British Government. (c) As regards descent. “Jesus
was not fully of Israelite descent, but He was called an
Israelite only because His mother was of that race. Similar
is my case. Some of my grandmothers too were Sayyids,
though none of my ancestors was himself a Sayyid. The
birth of a child who did not partake of the blood of an Israelite
father indicated that Israel had forfeited half its claim to.
Divine favour, and would forfeit the other half on further
transgressions, and that the next prophet would be from a
R 2
250 THE REV. H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON
totally different nation. As this world is now coming to an
end, therefore in my descent from a tribe other than the
(Juresh, there 1s an indication that the end of the world would
cut off all claims of the Quresh to khildfat” (Review of
feligions, November, 1904, p. 400). (d) As regards moral and
religious conditions. The Mirza Sahib draws’ a rather
impressive parallel between the moral and religious needs,
which nineteen hundred years ago required the presence of
Jesus Christ, and the same needs to-day both in Islam and in
Christianity, which, with equal insistence, according to the
Mirza Sahib, call for the promised Messiah. Morally, the
times are out of joint, “Society is rotten to its very core”
(Review of Religions, p. 60). The special sins of Christendom
are drunkenness, prostitution and gambling; and those of
Islam are the ghazi spirit, immorality, lack of love, ete. Such
evils “call for a reformer.” The Mirza Sahib’s principle is that
Necessity itself is proof (Zarurat-ul-Imam, p. 25), v.e., since the
true reformer has appeared at Qadian, the very necessity which
called for him may be cited as proof of the reality of his
claims. eligiously, the condition of things is no better. The
fear of God has vanished from before the eyes of men. Islam
is cursed with the doctrines of jihad, a bloody Mahdi, and
tomb-worship, and besides there 1s no unity of belief on such
important doctrines as the death of Christ and His second
coming (vide Zarirat-ul-Imam, pp. 24, 25). And as regards
Christianity, it is cursed with false doctrines such as the
deification of Jesus Christ and belief in His atoning
death.
Of the Jews in the time of Christ, the Pharisees believed too
much, the Sadducees too little, and the whole religious life of
the time was marked by formalism in worship and unrighteous-
ness of life. So is it to-day in Islim. Muhammadans of the
old school, who are under the guidance of the ignorant Mullahs,
outstrip Roman Catholics and Buddhists in their reverence for
saints and devotion to tomb-worship. In short, they are
superstitious and believe too much. On the other hand,
Muhammadans of the new school, ¢g., the followers of
Sir Sayad Ahmad, hold very loose views on the subject of
revelation and resurrection. They are rationalistic and believe
too little. A divinely appointed Umpire is necessary in order
to arbitrate between these various positions and to restore “ the
volden mean.” Such is the mission which the Mirza Sahib
claims for himself, He is the Hakam or umpire in religious
matters for the present age; (¢) As regards mission. The Mirza
THE MESSIAH OF QADIAN. FAG
Qadiani claims to be, like Jesus Christ, a divinely appointed
Mediator between God and man, and so a true Jntercessor with
God for man. To sum up, the Mirza Sahib claims to be the
spiritual leader of his time, the mediator between God and
man, the promised Mahdi or spiritual warrior vf God, the
Hakam or divinely-sent arbitrator, the second Adam, the true
Ahmad or spiritual manifestation of the prophet Muhammad,
the promised Messiah, and metaphorically a manifestation of
Deity ; (7) As regards credentials. Ahmad of Qadian claims
to be like Jesus of Nazareth, as regards the “signs” which
have accompanied his mission. These signs are both natural
and supernatural and consist of miracles, fulfilled predictions,
answers to prayer, eloquence iu the Arabic tongue, profound
understanding of the Quran, growth in the number of disciples,
good effect of the doctrine on the lives of disciples, ete.
Such then are the proofs, both negative and positive, by
which Ahmad of Qadian seeks to demonstrate his claim to be
the promised Messiah. As by claiming to be the promised
Mahdi, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad seeks to focus the Messianic
expectations of the Muhammadans upon himself, and as by
claiming to be the promised Avatar he seeks to fix the
Messianic hope of the Hindus upon himself, so by claiming to
be the promised Messiah he clearly hopes to turn all the
Messianic expectancy of Christians towards himself. As Zhe
Review of Religions puts it: “The appearance of a single
person, in fulfilment of the expectations of three different
nations, is a happy sign of the union of the three great nations
of the world, the Hindus, the Muhammadans, and the Chris-
tians.” (November, 1904, p. 427.)
Thus, the programme is universalistic, and the aspiration is
toward religious sovereignty over the nations. The Roman
empire has ceased to be, nevertheless it still exists in the form
of the Roman Church; for is not the Pope of Rome (jealously
selected as a rule from Italy) the spiritual ruler of a vast
multitude over all the earth? In like manner the Moghul
empire has ceased to be, and yet there seems to be in the mind
of the Moghul chief of Qadian the dream of a Moghul church
with himself as the head, and wielding spiritual sovereignty
over all mankind.
Ill. THE AHMADIYYAH SOCIETY.
According to the census of 1901, there were reported for the
Punjab, “1,113 followers, males over 15, of Mirza Ghulam
202 THE REV. H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON
Ahmad of Qadiin” (vol. xvi, p. 143); for the N.W. Provinces
and Oudh, “ nine hundred and thirty-one persons returned their
sect as Ahmadiyyah” (vol. xvi, p. 96); and for the Bombay
Presidency the members of the Ahimadiyyah sect of Musalmans
“appear to number over 10,000 persons” (vol. ix, p. 69). It
is, quite hkely, judging from the returns in the Bombay Presi-
dency, that in the Punjab and N.W. Provinces many followers
of the Mirza Qadiani were entered simply as Muhammadans
and not as members of the Ahmadiyyah. The Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad claims himself to have at the present time “ more than
200,000 followers” (Review of Religions, September, 1904,
p. 345). This is probably a great exaggeration. Nevertheless,
it 1s pretty clear that the Mirza Qadiani has some tens of thou-
sands of followers in all India. So far as is known to the
writer of this paper, the Mirza’s following comes entirely from the
ranks of Islim. It is a disintegrating movement within the
bounds of Muhammadan orthodoxy.
As regards methods of propagation the Society is marked by
great aggressiveness. The press is fully used, and a constant
stream of books, pamphlets, handbills, ete., pour forth from the
Society’s publishing house at Qadian. Many of the pamphlets
and handbills in English are sent to the leading newspapers all
over the world. It is intended that the village of Qadian
should also be the educational centre of the movement. The
Mirza Sahib’s High School at Qadian has already blossomed
out into a secondary college, teaching up to the first arts. It is
worthy of note that the only students in the Panjab who have
taken Hebrew for a university examination have come from
@adian. This year two appeared in Hebrew for the entrance
examination and one for the intermediate.
The vigour and enthusiasm with which the Messiah of
(Jadian, in season and out of season, publishes his own name
and sounds forth his own praises, puts us to shame whose holy
mission it is to make known the name of Jesus Christ, the true
Messiah and Saviour of the world. And finally, the Mirza
(Jadiani’s own impressive diagnosis of the moral and spiritual
evils of the day, both in Islam and in Christianity, ought to
help to constrain us, not indeed to give thanks that the
promised deliverer has already come and is in our midst, but
rather to lift our eyes with longing and prayer to God that
soon, whether through a personal appearing in glory to rule
the earth in righteousness, or through a widespread and
powerful outpouring of His Spirit; the Christ of God may
come.
THE MESSIAH OF QADIAN. Paes
LV. LITERATURE ON THE AHMADIYYAH SECT.
1. Census of India, 1901, vol. ix, p. 69, vol. xvi, pp. 96-97, and
vol. xvii, p. 143.
The Review of Religions, a monthly journal published at
Qadian. It was started in January, 1902, and is the
English organ of the Society.
3. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the Mehdi-Messiah of Qadian, by
H. D. Griswold, Lodiana, Mission Press, 1902, pp. 1-32.
A statement and criticism of the claims of Ahmad of
(Jadian.
4. The Greatest Discovery Exploded, or the Death, Resurrection,
and Second Coming of Christ established against the Aspersion
and Claims of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, by Rev.
GL. Thakur- Das, . Lodiana,. Mission Press; 1903,
pp. 1-24.
5. Moslem Teaching as to the Sintessness of Muhammad, being an
Exposure of the Fictitious Theory of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad,
of Yadian, on the Koranic meawng of zanb and gurm, by
James Monro, Esq., C.B., Calcutta, Baptist Mission Press,
pp. 1-41. A reprint of correspondence which originally
appeared in the Epiphany, together with a running com-
mentary to explain the course of the correspondence.
6. Ibtal « Mirza, or the Refutation of Mirza-e-Qadiant. A
reprint of articles which originally appeared in_ the
Taraqg, « monthly Urdu magazine published by the
Punjab Religious Book Society, Lahore, 1903, pp. 1-154.
The ablest criticism of the pretensions of the Mirza of
Qadian which has yet appeared.
7. Many articles in criticism of the doctrines of Mirza Ghulam
Ahmad have appeared in the issues of the Vur A/shan, an
Urdu weekly paper published at Ludhiana.
bo
DISCUSSION.
Colonel ALvEsS.—I think that when we entered this room most of
us did not know who Qadian was or where it or he was.
This of course is one of the signs of the time. We are to
expect that false prophets and Christs should arise, and if it were
254 THE REV. H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON
possible deceive the elect. Now it seems to me an astonishing
thing that nearly all of our Missionary Societies, individually and
collectively, and so very few people seem to have realised the truth
of the first promise, given of course in threat or warning to the
Serpent, ‘it shall bruise thy head.”
I think that one reason, humanly speaking, why so many false
prophets will arise and get a great following is this, that the true
Christ and the true doings of that Christ when He comes again in
glory, are not proclaimed as a preliminary to the preaching of the
Gospel by our Missionary Societies. How many are dead in their
iniquities. It is a most important truth which should be proclaimed.
to those who are locking for somebody. It is the first duty to
proclaim that person and so get in touch with them. If you
proclaim a coming King you are in touch with Mohammedans and
Hindus. Before you can bring them into touch with other
points you must bring them into touch with something which
has been handed down—a truth which they have never truly
lost, however much it has been corrupted. :
Mr. Rousr.—In Mr. Griswold’s paper we have a quotation from
Nicholas Notovitch’s Unknown Life of Christ. I daresay that some
of us remember, I think it was about ten years ago, a remarkable
statement in the newspapers that this traveller had discovered in a
Buddhist monastery in the far north of India—on the borders of
Tibet or in Tibet itsel{i—a remarkable life of Issa, that is, Jesus, in
which it was stated, as here mentioned, that He spent a great part.
of His boyhood and youth in travelling to and about that region.
That statement however was at once disputed by the Moravian.
missionaries, who have the credit of first carrying the Gospel into
this region; for they declared that, after careful inquiries at the
monastery they could find no record of Notovitch having visited it
at all. But anyhow, even if he had, his statement, as we here see,
does not at all harmonize with that of the so-called Mirza ; because
the visit was paid, if it be true, by Jesus when He was a boy or
youth, and not after He was supposed to have risen from the dead,
as the Messiah of Qadian says.
Again, we read here that, according to him, the words, “I was
not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of Israel,” and “ Tle
Son of Man came to seek and to save that which was lost,” refer to
the Ten Tribes. This they certainly mainly do not; because the
THE MESSIAH OF QADIAN. Ds
Lord Jesus addressed the first words to a Canaanite woman to
apparently deprecate His working a miracle on her behalf because
she did not belong to the people of Israel af large, amongst whom the
two tribes were included (she having asked Him, because He had done
many miracles in ¢ieir midst, to extend His favours) ; and, when He
used the second words, He was referring to the repentance and
salvation of Zaccheus, who we may safely conclude belonged to
the Two Tribes, since his home was at Jericho, in Judea.
Again, whereas there are strong reasons, endorsed by the learned,
for believing that the Afghans are Israelites, there is no proof that
the inhabitants of Cashmere are such.
As to the arising of such Messiahs, we have lately had the Mahdi
in Dongola and at Khartoum ; we have this man here spoken of ; we
have had a Messiah appearing in the western United States, and
men getting leave from railway companies in order to follow him to
be cured of their injuries sustained on the railways. The last man,
after flourishing for a few weeks, disappeared, saying blasphemously
that the Father needed him elsewhere. And now we have a
remarkable man who has preached for many years to a certain small
sect in London, claiming to be the Messiah: I speak of the leader
of the Agapemonites. But this is just what our Lord Jesus Christ
foretold, that shortly before His final coming one of the signs
would be that many would arise in His name saying “I am Christ.”
Then what guidance did He give as to such startling announce-
ments? ‘If they shall say unto you, Behold He is in the desert ”
(like the Mahdi), “go not forth; Behold, He is in the secret
chambers” (like the man in the Agapemonite Retreat), “ believe:
it not: for, as the lightning cometh out of the Hast and shineth
even unto the West, so shall also the coming of the Son of Man
be :” that is to say, when the Lord Jesus Christ returns, as we have:
just heard, He will return in mighty power, and be visible to all
mankind. In Zech. xiv, and in other places, though less clearly,
beth in the Old Testament and in the New, it is said that the foe
whom we describe as the anti-Christ will gather an army drawn.
from many nations, and lead it against Jerusalem, and that at first
he will be victorious, but ultimately God will descend and “ His feet
shall stand upon the Mount of Olives,” and from there He will pass:
on to victory and destroy that vast army and then establish His
reign of justice and peace over all the earth. It is remarkable that
256 THE REV. H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON
just as in Zech. xiv, 4, it says that the Lord’s feet shall stand upon
the Mount of Olives; so, when the eleven disciples with their ©
companions were looking up into heaven after the ascending Jesus,
two angels appeared to them and said: ‘“ Ye men of Galilee, why
stand ye gazing up into heaven? this same Jesus, which is taken up
from you into heaven, shall so come in like manner as ye have seen
him go into heaven,” Acts i, 11—that is to say, comparing it with
Zechariah, that He shall descend in glory upon the Mount of
Olives.
The CHAIRMAN.—The paper is extremely interesting from many
points of view, and not only from the personality of the Mirza, who
claims to be the Messiah, but from the fact that his is one of the
very latest of the many sects of Mohamedans and Hindus. New
sects are very common in India in both religions. A large book
has been written, I think, by a missionary at Ludhiana on the sects
of Hindus alone. Some of them are of a very obscure and even
degrading character ; but, in the majority, there is a general tendency
to cope with the special evils of the times and to start reform. The
Sikh religion was a powerful effort of the kind. Also in Bengal
was the extensive body which followed Chatanya, whose teaching
had many good points. In Rajputana many small sects have arisen,
such as the Dadu Panthis, the Ramsnehis and others. In most of them
there was a groping after the truth. In the lifetime of the founder
they flourished, but decay as a rule soon set in after his death. So
in the ordinary course we may expect that, on the death of Mirza
Ghulam Ahmad his cult will probably decline. He writes on quite
familiar lines such, for example, when he makes much of the similarity
and significance of words. Thus Mohamad has a jaldli name, that
is a glorious one, and therefore, he had a triumphant career, but he
had also a second or jamali, that is beautiful name, viz., Ahmad
(praiseworthy), which the new Messiah interprets as pointing to
peace, and therefore which must apply to himself as that is his own
name. His brother was also a religious leader for the sweeper
community, hence he too must be a guide.
The usual thing is that when a prophet dies his memory is
revered by worship of his foot-print, which is carved in stone, if he
be not in Hindu sects converted into a god or a minor incarnation
or an atom of one, and so the cult maintains some degree of
permanency.
THE MESSIAH OF QADIAN. 252
The speaker mentioned the ten lost Jewish tribes. I remember
how, at the Royal Asiatic Society, the late Surgeon-General
Bellew contended that not only were the Jews moved from one
country to another, but that other tribes were forcibly migrated by
Alexander the Great from Asia Minor to the Punjab, and strove to
prove his views by the similarities which he saw between the
Punjabi and Greek tongue. Other writers have aiso given in that
way a Semitic or Central Asian origin for some of the inhabitants of
the Punjab and Rajputana. It is probable that the prevailing ideas
of both Europeans and natives therefore guided the Mirza in his
speculations on this question.
As regards the remarks on the grave of Yus Asaf in Srinagar,
there is great respect everywhere for such tombs. Several years
ago I occupied rooms in the palace of the Hindu Maharajah of
Bardwan, and just outside our window we saw the grave of a
Mahomedan pir or saint, which was not ouly tolerated but visited,
and offermgs placed upon it by Hindus as well as Musalmans in
order to propitiate the occupant. On the road to Baalbek, a
little later, we were shown the tomb of Noah, which was 120 feet
long but only two or three feet wide. It was covered with pocket
handkerchiefs, which women placed there in the hope of getting
children or of saving their sick ones. Some people said it was part
of an old water pipe! The tomb of Abel was not far off, and I
believe there is another of his near Mecca; but all these old
monuments have one thing in common in that they refer to the
antediluvian patriarchs and were very large. In later ages the
length diminished ; but as our Lord’s stature was that of an ordinary
man, the Srinagar tomb could not have been his. Indian Mohamedans
would readily understand such an argument; but the truth is the
Mirza is a very clever man who makes the most of a little
knowledge. His astuteness is shown also in making use of current
beliefs and of all the religions of which he knows anything. All
people in the East are at present on the look out for some great
prophet—Messiah—or Mahdi. The Hindus expect the tenth
incarnation of Vishnu or the Kalki Avatara, and even say where
he is to appear—-viz., at Sambal in the central provinces of India.
He will be seated on a horse of which three legs are on the ground
and the fourth is raised. When the beast puts the uplifted foot on the
ground the incarnation will appear and conquer and rule the world.
258 THE REV. H. D. GRISWOLD, M.A., PH.D., ON THE MESSIAH, ETC.
The Mohamedan Mahdi must be born in the family of Husain, and
be a descendant of Fatima the daughter of the prophet. A common
belief in North India is also that as a child he will have milk in his
veins. The new Messiah gets over the difficulty of not being of
the lineage of Mohammed, but I should like to ask whether milk
instead of blood circulates in his body? It is believed by the vulgar
that the British vaccinate in order to discover the new Mahdi, so
that like Herod of old they may slay the innocent. The extensive
bibliography on the last page of the paper shows that the sect is
attracting a good deal of attention, but, at the same time, that it
was being adequately dealt with, and its fallacies, absurdities and
feeble arguments exposed, especially from the Christian point of
view—this was being done with special ability in the Epiphany, the
able publication of the Oxford Mission in Calcutta, which is now so
much appreciated by thoughtful Europeans and natives in India.
Mr. J. O. Corriz, B.A.—The successful insistence by Ghulam
Ahmad of Qadian on the peaceful character of his Messiahship, as
cpposed to the popular Mohamedan doctrine of a bloody Mahdi,
who will a wage a bloody jihad or war against unbelievers, is an
evidence of the infiltration that goes on of Christian ideas into
Indian religious notions :—other evidences are the Brahmo Somaj,
and the Arya Somaj (vide C_LMLS. Intelligencer, Feb. 1905, pp. 93,
94; and May, 1905, p. 335).
The phenomena of false Messiahs, and spiritual leaders, such as
Brigham Young, Dowie and others obtaining considerable numbers
of followers point to a longing in humanity for a_ spiritual
leader. (Perhaps the Papacy is another case in point.) It is
forcibly argued that the yearning for immortality, so general in
mankind, is an evidence that man is immortal ; for, otherwise, God
would not have given it. Does not a like consideration apply to
this widespread desire for a spiritual leader? May it not be an
indication, that One will come, who will satisfy that longing %
namely, our Lord Jesus Christ.
Colonel HENDLEY then moved that the cordial thanks of the
meeting be conveyed to the author of the paper for his valuable
communication.
ORDINARY MEETING.*
MantTiIn L. Rouse, Esq., B.L., IN THE CHAIR.
The Minutes of the previous meeting having been read and confirmed,
the Secretary (in the absence of the author) read the following paper :—
THE MINERALS AND METALS MENTIONED IN
THE OLD TESTAMENT. Their paramount influence
on the Social and Religious History of the Nations of Antiquity.
By Chev. W. P. Jervis, F.G.S., Member of the Italian
Geological Society, Rome; late Conservator of the Royal
Italian Industrial Museum, Turin.
PRECIOUS STONES, ISRAELITISH TIMES,
B.c. cureum 1520. The first allusion we know of to precious
stones as already sought for in those ancient times is that of
Job. “As for the earth out of it cometh bread, and under it is
turned up as it were fire; the stones of it are the place of
sapphires (lapis lazuli, see below, p. 262, etc.), and it hath dust
of gold.” (Job xxvui, 6.)
p.c. 1491. Although Moses simply records that the children
of Israel on their departure from Egypt spoiled the people, or
land, of jewels of gold and jewels of silver, the sequel proves
that many of these must have formed the settings of precious
stones, of very great value, since in the wilderness the free-will
offerings of the host included the twelve precious stones for the
breastplate of the ephod.
Though numerous specialists have devoted the most
conscientious study to the precise signification of the Hebrew
* Monday, May 22nd, 1903,
260 CHEV. W. P. JERVIS, F.G.S.. ON THE MINERALS AND
text of the Bible as to what stones were employed, no one has
ever been able to identify unquestionably more than a few of
them. The rest have been doubtfully attributed to several
mineral species, mineralogy being so recent a science; and it is
reasonable to assume that the word of the Hebrew scriptures
for such stones was but that by which they were known to the
Egyptians. Can they therefore be ever interpretated by us ?
One only solution seems to present itself as logical, which is to
take the earlier understood and more recent Greek text
descriptive of the heavenly Jerusalem; for, be it remembered,
that all the Mosaic ceremonies were essentially typical. In the
priestly breastplate the names of the 12 tribes of Israel were
severally engraved, while the wall of the City had 12
foundations, and in them the names of the 12 Apostles of the
Lamb. Now let us give the parallel texts in the Old and New
Testament, and compare them together, hclding that the stones
were identical in either case. Should such an explanation be
accepted a slight advance would be possible.
pc. 1491.—* Thou shalt make the breastplate of judement
with cunning work ; after the work of the ephod thou shalt make
it, of gold, of blue, and of purple, and scarlet, and of fine twined
linen shalt thou make it. Four square shall it be being doubled.
And thou shalt set in it settings of stones, even four rows of
stones. The first row shall be a sardius, a topaz, anda carbunele ;
and the second row shall be an emerald, a sapphire, and a
diamond; and the third row a ligure, an agate, and an
amethyst ; and the fourth row a beryl, and an onyx, and a jasper.
And the stones shall be with the names of the children of
Israel, 12 according to their names, like the engravings of a
signet, every one with his name shall they be, according to the
12 tribes .. . And Aaron shall bear the names of the children
of Israel in the breastplate of judgment upon his heart”
(Ex. xxviii, 15-29). It may here be observed that the order in
which these stones are given in the Septuagint Greek trans-
lation differs greatly from the original Hebrew.
In the apostle John’s vision of the new Jerusalem “the
building of the wall of it was of jasper, and the foundations of
the wall of the city were garnished with all manner of precious
stones. The first foundation was jasper, the second sapphire, the
third a chalcedony, the fourth an emerald, the fifth a sardonyz,
the sixth sardius, the seventh chrysolite, the eighth beryl, the
ninth a topaz, the tenth a chrysoprasus, the eleventh a jacinth,
the twelfth an amethyst.” (Rev. xxi, 18-20.)
Udem, translated sardius, capdcov in 8.; capd.os in R., is serd
METALS MENTIONED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 261
in Persian ; sardum in Syriac; sardinon in Coptic; samuk in
Samaritan. It is given as sardius by B. K. L. R. S.*
Sardius, or noble carnelian pits exist in Guzerat near the
river Nurbudda, thirteen miles from Baroda, and have been
worked from the remotest antiquity. Other pits whence
sardius is obtained in the same region are worked near Ratanpur
and Kompurwanye. The Indian sardius, which is derived from
igneous rocks, differs from carnelian only in its being
coloured milk-white, greenish, or black. The natives heat it
powertully for a few hours in pots with goat or cow dung, when
the dark orange varieties assume a splendid clear, uniform red
colour, becoming somewhat translucent. It is a very precious
stone, and was worked by the ancients in a most magnificent
manner. Udemis supposed to have been a variety, from Odom,
red. These pits are exclusively worked by the primitive
indigenous races, who send all the produce to be cut by the
celebrated lapidaries at Cambay. Noble red sardius is likewise
found in Bokhara. :
Shebo, translated agate, dyarns in S., is achates in Coptic,
whence achates in Latin; shebo in Persian; sebog in Arabic.
Given as agate by B. K. L. O. It evidently corresponds to
chalcedony, yadx«ndov in h.; both are mineralogically identical,
only the latter being uniformly whitish, and the former
polychrome.
Shoham, translated onyx, ovv’ycov in S., by others dvv€,
capoovixoy and Bepvadeov ; sardonyx in Latin, is given as onyx
by B. L.S. J., and clearly corresponds to sardonyx, capéovv€, in
R. J.; it is stated by K. to signify beryl, but there does not
seem to be sufficient ground for his interpretation, the more
so as he also suggests sardonyx as probable. Sardonyx differs
from carnelian simply from its yellow colour. It is found in
India with the sardius, also in Egypt.
Yahalum, translated diamond; (?) the ypvaddcé0s of the S.,
given also as diamond by B. and L., is considered by K. to
have been the ovvysov of the 8.; whence he translates it onyx.
In fact the so-called greenish diamond from near Baroda is
merely a variety of chalcedony, and if so would correspond to
xXpvootpacos in h., that being simply a greenish variety of
* Abbreviations.—Authorities. B. Braun, De Vestitu sacerdotum hebr.
1680 ; Bw. Bredow, /Historische Untersuchungen ; Keferstein, Mineralogia
polyglotta, Halle, 1849; Luther, Die Bibel; O., Old Testament ; Aaron
Pick, The Bible Students’ Concordance, to ascertain the literal meaning in
the original, 1845 ; R. Revelations ; 8. Septuagint ; J. Jervis. :
262 CHEV. W. P. JERVIS, F.G.S., ON THE MINERALS AND
chalcedony. Further K. shows that though the word chrysolite
denotes the colour, there is no means of identifying which of
several suitable hard stones in the breastplate was signified, and
the matter is shrouded with obscurity.
Sappir, translated sapphire, and camdecpos in 8., is sappir in
Chaldea, sophor in Ethiopic, saphiros in Coptic, saphiron in
Syriac, sapphiros i in. Latin. Given as sapphire by 'B. LO) ff.
But K. authoritatively states that what was known to the
Chaldeans, Greeks, and Romans under the name of sapphire
was lapis Jazuli. That mineral comes from Bokhara, and the
«istrict of Badakshan in Afghanistan, to the north of the
Hindu Kush, not far from the upper course of the Oxus,
whence it is taken by caravans to the lapidaries of Cambay.
Jashpeh; translated jasper, tag7us 11 S., 1s also called jashpeh
in Persian and Syriac. Jasper occurs abundantly in many
countries, including Syria, Egypt, etc., but is also extensively
found and cut in Guzerat ; it is recognised as such by B. L. O. BR. ;
K. considers that plasma, or Jasper, was intended here.
There are potent arguments in support of the conviction
that all the foregoing stones in Aaron’s Epbod were cut at
Cambay, and thence taken to Egypt by regular trade, for it
has been traced back to long before the Christian era.
hence the commerce of the lapidaries of Cambay supplied
all countries of the ancient world from China to Greece and
Eeypt: even at the present day it is hinted that much of what
is sold in Western Europe in resorts of modern tourists has a
like origin, having been worked and cut at Cambay.
Akhlomoh, translated amethyst, awéIvaTos in S.,1s amothostos
in Ethiopic (whence the Greek name) and in Syriac ;
amethystos in Coptic; amethystus in Latin. It is so given
by B. K. L. O. RB. 8.; all are concordant. It is abundant :
amongst other countries, in India and Ceylon.
As to the identification of the other stones the greatest
perplexity exists, and nothing positive can be ascertained.
Boreketh, translated carbuncle, from the Sanscrit Barak,
shining, is the cwapayédos in 8., also papaydes in Greek;
maragd in Ethiopic; marakta in Sanscrit; berakta and
ismaragda in Chaldea; barketh and zmerud in Persian;
gamurud in Hindustani; zamaragd in Ethiopic, whence
evidently the Greek; samurod in Arabic; smaragdus in
Latin. Translated emerald by B. K.L.R.8. It is found in
Egypt, whence the whole ancient world was supplied.
Extensive traces of the ancient emerald mines on the Saburah,
between Berenice and Koptos, were discovered in chlorite
METALS MENTIONED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 263
schist by Caillaud. Emeralds also exist in Arabia Petriea,
in the Ural mountains, and in the government of Irkutsk
in Siberia, but they are not found in India. The name
“carbuncle” is misapplied.
Nophekh, translated emerald, and avIpaێ in 8., is anthrax
in Coptic, whence the Greek; anthrax in Latin. Since no
corresponding etymology to nophec is known to us, we have
to follow the Septuagint rendering. Given erroneously as
ruby by B. and L., considered to have been noble garnet,
which has the appearance of burning coal, but decidedly not
ruby, K. Precious or oriental garnet, almandine or carbuncle,
comes from Jaipur and Rajputana in India, whence the ancients
are surmised to have procured them; also from Ceylon and
Pegu, and it occurs in isolated crystals in metamorphic schists,
as is usual.
Leshem is translated ligure, and Neyvpeov in 8. It is leshem
and jeshem in Persian, otherwise there is no affinity to the
word in other languages, lygirion in Coptic; lincurios in
Latin, rendered ligure by L., hyacinth by B.; K. considers it
to signify reddish-brown tourmaline, common in India.
Pitdoh is translated topaz, and tomatioy in 8.; 1t 1s topaz as
given by B. L. P.R. Supposing the etymology to originate from
pitor, ze¢., the yellow in Sanscrit, K. infers it to denote some
yellow Indian stone, such as yellow zircon, yellow spinel, or
yellowish brown grossolaria (cinnamon stone) but not yellow
topaz, which is not found in Asia. He states that the Greek
tormatiov, topazion in Coptic, from the island of Topaza, was
merely phosphorescent fluor spar.
Tharsish, translated beryl, and by BepvAXov in S., which
corresponds to beryl By#purrAos in R. The word is thorsish in
Syriac, but nothing analogous exists in other languages in
order to guide us. In Greek it has been given as Japoeus and
translated ypvoodIos, from chrysolidos in Coptic. Beryl is a
favourite ornamental stone, found in large crystals in Siberia,
and is considered by K. to have been known to the ancients
and to have been employed for the breastplate, but yet he gives
both sardonyx or beryl as intended by shohan, as above.
Tharsish is given as turquoise by L. evidently wrong; as
chrisolite by B., likewise unsuited, since it is by no means
clear what that word indicated; as amber on account of its
colour Bw. and K. Though it is possible that amber, obtained
by the Pheenicians through their emporium at Tarshish, or
Cadiz, might have borne the name of that place, it does not occur
among the foundations, while beryl does, and seems preferable, J.
S
254 CHEV. W. Ll. JERVIS, F.G.S., ON THE MINERALS “AND
There still remain three foundations in the Revelations to be
identified, viz. chrysolite, topaz and hyacinth, in addition to
some conjectures made already.
When Moses took the offering special mention is made of
“onyx stones and stones to be set for the ephod and for the
breastplate,” for the Lord had spoken unto Moses on Mount
Sinai, saying, speak unto the children of Israel that they
bring me an offering for the tabernacle, and besides metals and
other requisites were specified “onyx stones and stones to be
set in the ephod and in the breastplate.” Bezaleel and
Aholiab “wrought onyx stones inclosed in ouches of gold,
graven as sionets are graven, with the names of the children
of Israel, and he put them on the shoulders of the ephod, that
they should be as stones for a memorial to the children of
Israel.” And in the breastplate they set four rows of stones:
the first row was a sardius, a topaz, and a carbuncle; and the second
row an emerald, a sapphire, and a diamond ; and the third row
a igure, an agate, and an amethyst ; and the fourth row a beryl,
ain onya;-and, a jasper. ).( Ex, xxv, 73 xxvii, lo—-21 7 sao
XXx1x, 6, 10-13.)
B.c. curcewm 1015. In describing to Solomon the things he
had prepared for the temple David specifies among the rest
“onyx stones, and stones to be set, glistering stones, and of divers
colours, and all manner of precious stones, and marble stones
{? oriental alabaster] in abundance.” (I Chron. xxix, 2.)
The servants of Hiram and Solomon brought precious stones
from Ophir, as well as gold; the queen of Sheba likewise
brought Solomon precious stones. (1 Chron. ix, 1, 10.)
B.C. 588. We learn that Tyre procured certain precious.
stones through Syria. “Syria was thy merchant by reason of
the multitude of the wares of thy making; they occupied thy
fairs with emeralds (oriental garnet ? see ante), purple and
broidered work, and fine linen, and coral and agate” (Kadkud),
supposed to have been zircon, garnet, or tourmaline, but not
certain, K. Take up a lamentation upon the king of Tyrus and
say unto him, “Thou hast been in Eden, the garden of God ;
every precious stone was thy covering, the sardius (noble
carnelian) the topaz (zircon, garnet, tourmaline) and the diamond
(chrysoprase ?) the beryl, the on yw, the jasper, the sapphire ( lapis
lazuli), the emerald (carbuncle or precious garnet 7), carbunele
(emerald) and gold.” (Ezek. xxvii, 16, 22; xxviii, 13.)
METALS MENTIONED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 265
PRECIOUS STONES SYMBOLICALLY.
B.C. 1491. Moses was commanded to go with Aaron, Nadab
and Abihu and seventy of the elders of Israel to worship afar
off at the foot of Mount Sinai, while only Moses was suffered
to go near the Lord: then they went as far as they were
permitted, “and they saw the God of Israel und there was
under his feet as a paved work of sapphire stone (lapis lazuli) and
as it were the body of heaven in his clearness.” (Ex. xxiv, 10.)
In describing the incomparable value of wisdom Job
exclaimed, “ It cannot be valued with the gold of Ophir, and
the precious onyx, or the sapphire (lapis lazuli); the gold and
the crystal (zekhuketh) crystal-like glass ? (P.) cannot equal it and
the exchange of it shall not be tor jewels of fine gold. No
mention shall be made of coral or pearls, for the price of
wisdom is above rubies (penenem): this is not a stone at all,
but is considered by Gesenius, K. and other authorities to be red
coral.
B.C. circum 712. Prophesying the extension of Christ’s
Church, Isaiah says, “ Oh thou afflicted, tossed with tempest, and
not comforted, behold I will lay thy stones with fair colours,
and thy foundations with sapphires (lapis lazuli) and I will
make thy windows of agates (kudkud, conjectured to be zircon,
garnet or tourmaline, K.), and thy gates of carbuncles (ekdokh,
an uncertain fiery gem) and all thy borders of pleasant stones.”
(is. Hix, 11, 12:)
B.c. circum 595. The prophecy of Ezekiel opens with a
magnificent heavenly vision of four living creatures which
came out of a great cloud and a fire, “and out of the midst
thereof as the colour of amber, out of the midst of the fire.”
And as he beheld them behold one wheel upon the earth by the
living creatures. The appearance of the wheels and their work
was like unto the colour of a beryl; and the likeness of the
firmament upon the heads of the living creatures was as the
colour of the terrible crystal stretched forth over their heads
above. And above the firmament that was over their heads
was the likeness of a throne, as the appearance of a sapphire
stone (lapis lazuli). And I saw as the colour of amber, as the
appearance of fire round about within it” (Ezek. i, 4, 16, 26).
The word zekhukhéth employed here in both cases does not
signify amber, but a precious alloy of copper and gold or of gold
and silver, so in Ezek. viii, 2.
266 CHEV. W. P. JERVIS, ¥.G.S., ON THE MINERALS AND
ADAMANT (Diamond—Shomir) SYMBOLICALLY.
B.c. circum 595. When the Lord sent Ezekiel to reprove the
house of Israel of their sins he said, “They will not hearken
unto thee”; “ Behold I have made thy face strong against their
faces, as adamant, harder than flint.” (Ezek. 111, 9.)
B.c. 518. Thus speaketh the Lord: “They refused to
hearken, yea they made their hearts as an adamant stone.”
(Zech. vii, 12.)
Fuint (Khalomésh).
In the English translation the word flint occurs seven times
in the Old Testament, though in Is. v, 28, and Ezekiel 111, 9, it
is simply ¢sw7, a rock, in the original, while in the other passages
it is khalomésh, which is conjectured to signify flint by K.
But the rendering of the S. is unquestionably the right one,
being in all cases general as 7rétpa, a rock, but never 7rétpos, a
stone, “Who brought thee out of the rock of flint.” “He
made him to suck honey out of the rock.” [Hebrew, khaloméesh.]
(Deut. vill, 15; xxxii, 13). “He putteth forth his hands upon
the rock.” [Hebrew, jflint.] (Job. xxviii, 9.) “Which turned
the rock into a standing water, the flint into a fountain of
waters.” (Ps.. cxiv, 8.) “I have set my face like a flint”
(Is. 50, 7.)
SALT (Melakh).
B.c. circum 1917. In the days of Amraphel, King of Shinar,
Arioch, King of Ellasar, Chedorlaomer, King of Elam, and
Tidal, king of nations, these made war with Bera, King of
Sodom, with Birsha, King of Gomorrah, Shinab, King of
Admah, and Shemeber, King of Zeboiim, and the King of
Bela, which is Zoar. “ All these were joined together in the
vale of Siddim, which is the salt sea.” (Gen. xiv, 3.)
p.c. 1898. The sun was risen upon the earth when Lot
entered Zoar; then the Lord destroyed the cities of Sodom and
Gomorrah and all the inhabitants of the plain. “ But his wife
looked back from behind him, and she became a pillar of salt.”
[Was incrusted.] (Gen. xix, 26).
B.C. circum 1490. “ Every oblation of thy meat offering shalt
thou season with salt, neither shalt thou suffer the salt of the
covenant of thy God to be lacking from thy meat offering ;
with all thine offerings thou shalt offer sald.
B.c. circum 1040. “ David gat him a name when he returned
from smiting of the Syrians in thevalley of salt, being 18,000 men.”
METALS MENTIONED IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 267
In the days of David “ Abishai, the son of Zeruiah, slew of
the Edomites in the valley of salt 18,000.” (1 Sam. viii, 15.
1 Chron. xviii, 12.) Two accounts of same battle.
p.c. 896. The men of Jericho said unto Elisha, The
situation of this city is pleasant, but the water is naught.
«And he said, bring me a new cruse, and put salt therein, and
they brought it to him. And he went forth unto the spring of
the waters, and cast the salt in there, and said, Thus saith the
Lord, I have healed these waters; so the waters were healed.”
(i Kings ui, 20, 21.)
B.C. circum 827. Amaziah, King of Judah, slew of Edom in
the valley of salt 12,000.” (1 Kings xiv, 7.)
B.C. circum 630. Those through whom legacies have been received.
VWLEMS Ee R's.,
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1901 Ami, Professor Henry M. M.A. D.Sc. F.G.S. F.R.S.
Canada.
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1882 +Baring, Rev. F. H. M.A. Camb. F.R.G.S.
1869 +Barker, John L. Esq.
1881 Barton, James, Esq. B.A. M. Inst. C.H.
1899*4{7Beale, Professor Lionel S. F.R.C.P. F.RBS.
F.R.Mchi.S. F.R.M.S. (Vicz-PREsIDENT).
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1903. Bermuda Library, Trustees of.
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1887 Biddle, D. Esq., M.R.C.S.E. F.S.S. Memb. Aeronaut.
Soc. of Great Britain.
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SF — Blackwood, Lady Alicia.
1887 Bowman, Rev. Prof. S. L. A.M. D.D. 8.T_D. P.S.L.
1905 Brettell-Vaughan, Edward, Esq. M.R.A.C.
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1884 Brown, Rev. Claud, M.A. Oxon.
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137
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1888
1889
1899
1903
1882
1884.
286
Browne, John, Esq. C.H.
Budgett, James S. Hsq.
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(Vice-PRESIDENT).
C
Carr, Rev. Arthur, M.A., late Fell. Oriel, Hon. Sec.
Cent. Soc. Higher Relig. Educ.
Caudwell, Job, Esq. F.R.G.S. F.R.S.L.
Chapman, Edward, Esq. M.A. Fell. of Magd. Coll.
Oxon. Dh Essa eee
Chapman, Geo. John, Esq. M.A. 8.C.L. F.Z.S.
Chinnery, H. J. Hsq.
Choles, Capt. Frederick J. F.R.C.I. F.R.G.S.
Clough, G. Benson, Esq.
Cogswell, Napoleon Thomas, Esq.
Collins, Brenton H. Esq. J.P.
Cooper, S. Joshua, Hsq.
+Coote, Sir A. C. P. Bart. M.A. Camb. F.R.G.S.
Corke, H. C. Esq. D.D.S. F.R.S.L.
Cory, John, Esq. J.P.
Couch, The Right Hon. Sir Richard, P.C. F.R.G.S.
Coxhead, Rev. J. J. M.A.
Cunningham, Francis A. Esq. M.A. B.Sc. Attorney-
at- Law.
fCushing, Rev..J. Ni, M.A-; DID, (Ph.D) ease:
Principal of Baptist College, Rangoon.
D.
Davidson, Rev. D. C., M.A.
+Day, William, Esq.
Deacon,.J. HW. Wi. Misqe M.A. JP Dal:
Derry and Raphoe, The Right Rev. G. A. Chadwick,
D.D. Bishop of.
{Dodge, Rev. D. Stuart, M.A.
Drummond, Mrs. J. M. A.
Ducie, Right Hon. The Earl of, F.R.S. F.G.S.
Dounepiy, Right Rev. 8. T. Nevill, D.D. Lord Bishop of.
Hi.
Edwards, Trevor Caswell, Esq.
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287
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1904 Finn, Alexander, Esq., F.R.G.S., British Consulate,
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F.R, Hist. S. F.R.G.S. Maritzburg. Natal.
1902 Foote, Robert Bruce, Esq., F.G.S.
1902 *Foster, Major Kingsley O. J.P. F.R.A.S.
1875 Fox, Rev. Prebendary H. E. M.A. Camb.
1876 Freeman, Miss F. H.
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G.
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1892 *Geary, Lieut.-General Sir H. L. K.CB. R.A.
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1890 Gibson, Right Rev. Alan Geo. Sumner, M.A. Bishop
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1896 Gregg, Rev. David, D.D. LL.D.
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Ey
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F.C.S. F.L.8. (Vice-PReEsipEnr).
1888* Hull, Professor HE. M.A. LL.D. F.R.S. F.G.S.; late
Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland,
Professor of Geology R. Coll. of Science, Master
in Engineering (Hon. Caus. Dub.), Acad. Sci.
Amer. Philad. Corresp. Soc. Geol. Belg. Soc. Extr.
(Secretary).
1901 Hull, Edmund C. P. Esq. J.P.
1891 Huntingford, Rev. Canon Edward, D.C.L. late Fell.
New Coll. Oxf.
1888 Hutchinson, Rev. Canon, C. B. M.A. Exam. Chap. to
Archbishop of Canterbury.
S. £8.68:
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i:
SF tince, Joseph, Esq. A.K.C. F.C.S. F.LS. F.G.S. &e.
1880 Ince, Rev. Canon W. D.D. Reg. Prof. Div. Oxf. Chap.
to Bishop of Oxford.
J. :
1869 Jenkins, Rev. HE. EK. M.A. LL.D.
1891 +Jex-Blake, The Very Rev. T. W. D.D. Dean of Wells.
1896 Johns, Rev. C. H. W. M.A.
1889 +Johnson, Rev. Samuel Jenkins, M.A. Oxon.
K
1881 Kempthorne, Rev. J. P.
1895*4 Kidd, Walter Aubrey, Esq. M.D. B.S. M.R.C.S. F.Z.S.
1893 +Kinnaird, The Honourable Louisa E.
1900 ¢Klein, Sydney T. Esq. F.LS. F.R.A.S. F.R.M.S
F.E.S. M.R.I.
L.
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F.R.G.S.
1898 Laurence, Miss M. A.
18754 *Lias, Rev. Chancellor J. J. M.A. Hulsean Lecturer
1884.
289
SF = Liidgett, George, Esq. B.A. Lond. J.P.
1896 Logan, Rev. Samuel C. D.D. LL.D.
1887 Loveday, Miss L. E.
M.
1904 MacGregor, Ronald, Esq. H.M.C.S.
18979 *Mackinlay, Lieut.-Colonel George, late R.A. (Hon.
Auditor).
1904 Marchant, Rev. James, F.R.S.L.
1885 +tMarshall, Rev. C. J.
1891 +MasHam, Rt. Hon. Samuel Cunliffe-Lister, Lord;
]3 a Bie) ee
1901 Matthews, Ernest R., Esq. C.K. F.G.S.
1872 Matthews, John T. Esq.
SB *+McArruur, Apexanner, Esq. D.L. J.P. F.R.GS.
(VicE-Patron),
1885 McArthur, W. A. Esq. M.P.
1894 McCullagh, Rev. J. B.
1877 Morgan, R. C. Esq.
1905 +Mortimer, Rev. Alfred G., D.D., Philadelphia.
1900 Mudd, Christopher, Esq. F.L.S.
1881 +Mullens, Josiah, Esq. F.R.G.S.
N.
1880>Napier, James S. Esq.
1878 Netson, The Right Hon. The Earl.
1881 Newton, Rev. Preb. Horace, M.A. Camb. Prebendary
of York.
O.
1902 Olsen, Ole Theodor, Esq. F.L.S. F.R.A.S. F.R.G.S
Ord, Wasa, Sweden, Ord St. Olaf of Norway ;
St. Andrews Terrace, Grimsby.
BP:
1885 Pain, R. Tucker, Esq. Memb. Graphic Soc. Memb.
Art and Amateurs’ Soc.
1881 Patton, Rev. F.L. D.D. LL.D. Prof. Relations of
Philosophy and Science to the Christian Religion,
Principal, Princeton Theo. Seminary.
1885 +Paynter, Rev. F. M.A. Camb.
1894 *Perowne, Edward Stanley Mould, Esq. F.S.A. (Hon.
TREASURER. )
1896 +Petter, Rev. W. D. H. M.A. Camb.
290
1872 +Phené, J. S. Esq. LL.D. F.S.A. F.G.S. F.R.G.S.
1882 +Pogson, Miss E. Isis; F.M.S. Meteorological Reporter
and Assist.-Govt. Astronomer, Madras.
1888 +Powell, Sir F. S. Bart. M.P. F.R.G.S.
R.
1896 Rage, Rev. Preb. Lonsdale, M.A. Oxon.
1893 Reade, Miss F. M.
1880 Rivington, Rev. Cecil 8. M.A., Hon. Canon of Bombay.
1891 Rogers, Rev. Canon Joseph E. M.A.
1900 Rosedale, Rev. H. G. D.D. Oxon. F.R.S.L.
18994 * Rouse, Martin Luther, Esq. B.L.
1872 Rowe, Rev. G. Stringer.
8.
SF Scales, George J. Esq.
1903 Schuster, Rev. William Percy, M.A. Oxon.
1882 +Scott-Blacklaw, Alex. Esq. -
1891 Sessions, Frederick, Esq. ¥.R.G.S. M.R.A.S.
1904 Sewell, Ebenezer J. Esq.
1887 Simons, Henry Minchin, Esq.
1889 tSimpson, Prof. A. R. M.D.
1893 Smart, Francis G. Esq. M.A. M.B. F.L.S. F.R.G.S.
HYS2A2
18864 *Smith, Gerard, Esq. M.R.C.S.E. ;
1873 Smith, Philip Vernon, Esq. M.A. LL.D.
1881 +Smith-Bosanquet, Horace J. Esq. D.L. F.R.G.S.
1875 Stewart, Rev. Alex. M.D. LL.D.
1871 Stewart-Savile, Rev. F. A. M.A. J.P.
1892 +Stilwell, John Pakenham, Esq. J.P.
1885 +Strathcona and Mount Royal, Lord, G.C.M.G. LL.D.
F.R.G.S. F.G.S. (Vicu-Presiven’.)
1903 Streatfeild, Rev. G. S. M.A.
1903 Sutton, Arthur W. Esq. F.L.S.
1870 Sypney, The Most Reverend W. Saumarez Smith,
D.D. Bishop of, Metropolitan of N.S.W. and
Primate of Australia.
db
1905 Tasker, Rev. Professor J. G.
1881 +Taylor, Rev. Canon Robert.
1872 ‘Townend, Thomas, Hsq.
291
1897 Townsend, Rev. Professor L. Tracy, D.D. LL.D.
1899 Tremlett, James Dyer, Esq. (Barr.-at-Law) M.A.
Camb. ;
187] *Tremlett, Rev. Dr. F. W. D.D. D.C.L. Hon. Ph.D.
Jena Univ. F.R.G.S. Chaplain to Lord Waterpark,
Eecles. Com. for American Prelates and the Uniy.
of the South.
Tejoo7 Priguram,,. hevecda.-b. DD) Ti Dy FRS, F.L.8-
M.Z.S. Canon of Durham.
1889 Tritton, Joseph H. Hsq. F.R.G.S. F.S 8.
1901 ‘Tucker, Rev. J. S. M.A.
18944;*Tuckwell, Rev. John, M.R.A.S.
1888 Turton, Lt.-Col. W. H. D.S.O. R.E. F.R.G:S.
ie
1880 Usherwood, The Ven. Archdeacon T. EH. M.A.
abe
SF Vanner, James HE. Esq.
1875 tVeasey, H. Esq. F.R.C.S.
W.
18769 *Wace, Very Rev. H. D.D. Dean of Canterbury; Hon.
Chap. to the Queen; late Principal of King’s
College, Lond.
1873 Walters, William Melmoth, Esq.
1878 +Watson, Rev. A. Duff, M.A. B.D.
1903 +Whidborne, Miss Alice M.
1888*4+Whidborne, Rev. G. F. M.A. Camb. F.G.S. F.R.G.S.
1881 | Whiting, Rev. J. B. M.A. Camb.
SF Whitwell, Miss R. M.
1899 +Wigram, Rev. HE. F. H. M.A.
1894 Williams, Colonel Robert, M.P.
1879 Willis, Right Rev. Alfred, D.D.
1887 Wilson, Rev. B. R. M.A.
HF *+Woodhouse, Alfred J. Esq. L.D.S. M.R.I. F.R.M.S.
1899 Woodhouse, Rev. Canon Frederick C. M.A. Camb.
SF ~=Wright, Francis Beresford, Esq. M.A. Cantab. J.P.
Han. ES:
ve
1876 Young, C. H. Baring, Esq. M.A. F.R.G.S.
1878 |
1894
1894:
1871
1896
1888
1883
1869
1884
1905
1887
1887
292
ASSOCIATES.
Adams, Rev. Canon James.
Adams, Rev. R. M.A. T.C.D.
Adams, Rev. W. W. D.D.
Allen, J. Esq. (Hon. Auditor).
Anderson, Sir Robert K.C.B. LL.D.
+Andrews, Rev. Walter, M.A.
Archdall, Rev. Mervyn, M.A.
+Armagh, The Most Rev. W. Alexander, D.D. D.C.L.
Archbishop of. Primate and Metropolitan of all
Ireland.
Armour, Rev. Canon 8. C. M.A. D.D. Head Master
Merchant Taylors’ School.
Arnstrom, Rev. D. A.
Arrowsmith, HE. M. Esq.
Ashby, Robert, Esq.
1888 4 Ashwin, Rev. C. Godfrey, M.A.
1891 +Atkinson, Rev. Edward, D.D. Master Clare Coll.
1898
1892
1876
1882
1895
1889
1902
1887
1887
1895
1894:
1894.
1890
1874
1888
Cambridge.
Awdry, Rt. Rev. W. D.D. Bishop of Tokyo.
Bacon, Reva 12s. D2D:
Badger, Rev. W. C. M.A.
Ballard, Rev. F. M.A. B.Sc. Lond. B.D. F.G.S.
Barlow, Rev. C. H. M.A. Oxon. Chap. Bengal.
Barton, Rev. Arthur R. D.D.
Barton, Rev. Professor G. A. Ph.D.
Baruurst, Right Rev. C. HE. Camidge, D.D. Bishop of.
Berry, Rev. Canon D. M. M.A. Oxon. Demi of Magd.
Kllerton Prizeman.
Berry, Rev. T. Stirling, D.D.
Bevan, Ven. Archdeacon H. E. J. M.A. Camb.
Gresham Prof. of Divinity.
Bice, Prof. Hiram H. Ph.D. F.R.G.S.
+Bigelow, Professor Melville M. Ph.D.
Billing, Rev. F. A. M.A. LL.D. F.R.S.L.
Bird, Arthur, Esq. F.R.G.S. \
1904 +Birkett, Rev. Arthur Ismay, M.A.
1905
1884.
1875
Blakeslee, Rev. E. M.A. Boston.
Blair, Rev. W. Hugh T. L.T.H.
+Bodkins Weiticg. Lf:
1900
1890
1879
1902
1887
1895
293
Bolton, H. Hargreaves, Esq. J.P.
Bomford, Rev. L. G. M.A.
Bomford, Rev. Trevor, M.A. Camb.
Boord, Miss Eva J.
Bourdillon, KE. Esq., C.E.
Bowman, John Hall, Esq. B.A.
1891 Boyd, Rev. T. Hunter.
1895
1895
1887
1882
1900
1893
1887
Breed, Rev. Professor David R. D.D.
Breed, Rev. F. W., B.A. Durham.
Bridgeman, Col. the Hon. Francis C.
Broadbent, Colonel J. E. C.B. R.E.
Brown, J. Walter, Esq.
+Bryan, Joseph Davies, Esq.
Buckton, G. Bowdler, Esq. F.R.S. F.C.S. F.E.S.
F.L.8. Acad. Sci. Nat. Ph. Cor.
1894*+ Bullen, Rev. R. Ashington, B.A. F.L.S. F.G.S.
1880
1883
1884
1893
1892
1889
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1890
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1894
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Bulteel, M. H. Esq. M.R.C.S.E.
Burr, Rev. EH. F. D.D. LL.D.
Burton, HE. Esq.
Buswell, Ven. Archdeacon H. D.
+Butt, Rev. Canon G. H. B.A.
+Cain, Rev. John.
CaLeponi4, Right Rev. W. Ridley, D.D. Lord
Bishop of.
Carey, Colonel William, C.B. R.A.
Carroll, A. Esq. M.D. D.Lit., Ph.D., D.Sc.
Carruthers, Miss S. H.
+Caudwell, Eber, Esq. M.R.C.S.E. L.R.C.P.
+Caudwell, Paul, Esq. B.A. Solicitor.
Chambré, Very Reverend A. St. J. B.A. M.A. D.D.
Dean.
Chatterton, Rev. F. W.
1891 §Cherrill, Rev. Alfred K. M.A.
1884:
1888
1893
1896
1888
Chichester, Rev. E. A. M.A.
Clapton, Edward, Esq. M.D. F.R.C.P. F.LS.
F.R.G.S.
Clarke, Rev. C. W. A. M.A. Camb. Prin. Noble Coll.
S. India.
Clements, Rev. G. W., M.A. Oxon.
Clyde, Rev. J. C. A.B. A.M. D.D.
1891 +Cobern, Rev. Camden M. B.A. S.T.B. Ph.D.
1895
1888
1897
1898
1900
1898
1885 +Coote, S. V. Esq. M.A. Oxon. F.R.G.
F.R
1905
Cockin, Rev. J.
Cole, Aj.-General R.A.
Collie, Frank L. Esq. M.D. C.M.
Collins, Rev. J. M.A. Camb.
Conference Library, Aliahabad (Rev. W. E. S. Hol-
land, Librarian).
Consterdine, Rev. J. W. M.A.
S.
Corrie, Josiah Owen, Esq. B.A. A.S., Barr.
294,
1888 YCourtney, W. L. Esq. M.A. LL.D. Fellow and Tuto
New Coll. Oxford.
1903 Covington, Rev. Prebendary W. M.A.
1885 Crawford, Rev. Prof. W. A.
1887 *Creak, Captain Ettrick W., C.B., R.N. F.R:S.
1877 Crewdson, Rev. Canon G. M.A. Camb.
1899 Cribb, John G. Esq.
1878 Crofton, Lieut.-Gen. J. R.H.
1890 Crosbie, Rev. Howard A. M.A.
1890 Cruddas, W. D. Haq. D.L. J.P.
1892 Cuming, George W. Esq.
1886 Dakota, Right Rev. W. H. Hare, D.D. Bishop of.
1894 Darley-Hartley, W. Esq. M.R.C.S. L.R.C.P.
1892 Darling, General Charles W. Oneida Hist. Soc.
1895 Darling, Rev. John Lindsey, M.A. T.C.D.
1884 Daunt, Rev. Canon W. M.A.
1894 Davies, Rev. Prof. W. W. M.A. B.D. Ph.D. Ed. Arch.
Dep. Methodist Review, Delaware.
1876 Dawson, Rev. W. M.A. F.R.H.S.
1880 Day, Rev. A. G. M.A. Oxon.
1875 +De Brisay, Rev. H. de la Cour, M.A. Oxon.
1888 Deedes, Ven. Archdeacon Brook, M.A.
1894 +Della Rocchetta, of Dolceacqua, Count Arthur, late
Capt. in the General Staff of Italian Army.
1890 +De Witt, Rev. Prof. John D.D. |
1869 Dibdin, Charles, Esq. F.R.G.S. Sec. Rl. Nat. Lifeboat
Inst. Hon. Memb. Cor. Société des Institutions de
Prévoyance.
1869 Dibdin, R. W. Hsq. F.R.G:S.
1898 Dickins, Rev. Alan, B.A.
1874 Dimond-Churchward, Rev. Prebendary M. D. M.A.
1894 Dix, Rev. Morgan, 8.T.D. D.D. D.C.L.
1892 Down anp Connor, The Rt. Reverend T. J. Welland,
D.D. Bishop of. ‘
1897 Drake-Brockman, William Drake, Esq., late Sup.
Engineer P.W.D. India; late A.I.C.H.
1888 DouniEatH, The Rt. Hon. H. L. Lord.
1885 Durham, The Rt. Reverend H. C. G. Moule, D.D.
Bishop of.
1880 Du-Sautoy, Mrs. F. P.
1889 Dykes, Rev. J. Oswald M.A. D.D.
1883 . Ebbs, Miss Ellen Hawkins.
1891 Kckersley, Rev. Jas. M.A.
1889 +Eddy, Rev.. Mary B. G. President Mass. Metaph.
Coll.
1887 +Edwards, W. Durston, Esq. C.H. M.1.C. & M.H.
18859 +Hlwin, Rev. Arthur.
1902 Emmet, Rev. William EH. M.A. Oxon.
1880 Escott, Rev. Hay Sweet, M.A.
1886 Evans, Mrs. H. M.
295
1896 Evington, Right Rev. Bishop H. D.D. (Bishop in
Kiushin, 8. Japan).
1899 Fairbairn, H. A. Esq. M.D. M.A.
1899 +Farquharson, Mrs. M.
1892 Feilden, J. Leyland, Esq.
1903 Ferguson-Davie, Rev. Charles James, M.A. Trin.
Coll. Camb.
1876 Field, Rev. Arthur T. M.A. Camb.
1896 +Field-King, J. M.D. C.S.D.
1903 Figgis, Darrell EK. Esq.
1869 f¥Finley, Samuel, Esq.
1879 Finnemore, Rev. J. M.A. Ph.D. F.G.S.
1903 Fisher, Rev. William, M.A.
1904 Fison, Walter Cornell, Esq.
1885 Fleming, Rev. R. H. D.D.
TS3l> Plemine, sir iSandtord, K.C MiG. “LinDy F.GS8:
F.R.G.S. V.-President Royal Soc. of Canada.
1900 Flint, Charles A. Esq.
1889 +Ftoria, The Right Rev. E.G. Weed, D.D. S.T.D.
Bishop of.
1897 Flournoy, Rev. Parke Poindexter, D.D.
1894 +Forster, Miss H. J.
1894 Forsyth, Rev. R. Coventry, B.M.
1882 f¥ox, C. Dillworth, Esq.
1882 9 Fradenburgh, Rev. J. N. D.D. Ph.D. LL.D.
1904 Fraser, Rev. Charles Vincent.
1904 Frazer, Rev. William Henry, M.A. DD.
1896 Friends Foreign Mission Association, Hoshangabad,
India.
1900 Gardiner, HE. J. Esq.
1873 +Gardner, Mrs. Ernest L.
1897 Garnett, Thomas, Esq.
+Gedge, Sydney, Esq. M.A. F.R.G.S.
1899 Gibbon, Major J. Aubrey, R.E.
1885 Gibson, Rev. Preb. EK. C. S. M.A. Oxon. D.D.
18779 *Girdlestone, Rev. Canon R. B. M.A.
1877 Goe, Right Rev. Bishop F. F. D.D.
1903 Goodridge, Richard H. W. Esq.
1876 Gould, Rev. President G. P. M.A. (Regents Park
College).
1881 Gray, Charles, Esq.
1879 Gray, Rev. A. M.A. Oxon.
1891 Gray, Rev. H. J. Spence, M.A. Oxon, Chaplain to the
Government of India.
1903 Gray, Brigade Surgeon Robert, M.D.
1893 Greg, KR. Philips, Esq. J.P. F'S-A. F.G.S.
1877 Greenstreet, Colonel W. L. R.E.
1897 Greer, Mrs. Thomas.
- 1902 Gregg, Ivo Francis Hy. Carr, Esq. M.B.A.A.
1887 Grenfell, Rev. G. F.R.G.S.
1881
296
Grey, Rev. Principal H. G. M.A. Wycliffe Hall,
Oxford.
1901 FGriswold, Rev. H. D. M.A. Ph.D.
So
1899
1892
1903
1897
1896
1899
1901
1894
1878
1899
1894
1893
1904
Gutch, George A. Esq. C.E.
Haile, A. S. Esq.
Hall, Hugh Fergie, Esq. M.A. F.G.S.
Hamlyn-Harris, Dr. Ronald, D.Sc. F.G.S. F.LS.
Hanham, Rev. Howard H.
Hanna, His Honour Judge Septimus J. LL.D.
Harlowe, David, Esq.
Harmer, F. W. Esq.iJ-P. PaGrs.
Harper, President Wm. Rainey; Ph.D. LL.D.
Chicago Univ.
Harper, The Ven. Archdeacon H. W. M.A.
Hartley, Rev. H. A. S. M.D. Liberian Consul,
Colombia.
Harwood, Rev. Edwin, D.D.
*Heath, Captain G. P: R.N.
Heaton, James Esq. Memb. Soc. Arts.
19039*Hendley, Colonel Thomas Holbein, C.I.E. (Indian
Medical Service, retired).
1889 +Herbert, Rev. H. P.
1896
1882
1891
1892
19C5
1901
197
1902
1895
1890
1904
18838
1902
1888
1905
1900
1875
1889
kes)
1890
1904:
1902
1898
1885
1904:
Hewitt, David Basil, Esq. B.A. L.R.C.S. L.R.C.P. J.P.
Hicks, Rev. Edward, M.A. D.D. D.C.L.
Higgens, T. W. H. Esq. A.M.1.C.E.
+Hildesley, Rev. Principal A. H. M.A. Sanawar.
Hill, Rev. James S. M.A.
Hodges, Rev. Albert H.
Hodgson, Rev. William, M.A. Oxon.
+Hogarth, Rev. Oswald J. M.A.
Honduras, Right Rev. George Albert Ormsby, D.D.
Bishop of.
Hooper, Charles H. Esq.
Hopkins, EDs Bisq; YMC: AS (5248)
+Houstoun, G, L. Hsq. F.G.S.
Howard, Sir Frederick, J.P.
Howard, Joseph, Esq. B.A. Lond. M.P. F.R.G:S.
Hull, Charles Murchison, Esq. Civil Service, Natal.
Hull, Edward Gordon, M.A. M.D. Dub.
Hutchinson, Mrs. C. W.
Hutchinson, J. T. Esq. L.R.C.P.
Hutton, Henry, Esq.
Hyslop, Rev. James, M.A.Ph.D. F.G.S.
Irving, Rev. Alexander, D.Sc. F.G.S.
+Jacob, Colonel Sir S. Swinton, K.C.LE. Jaipur.
Janvier, Rev. Cesar A. Rodney, M.A. (Princeton).
Jeffers, Rev. President EH, T. A.M. D.D. York Col-
legiate Inst. U.S.A.
Jenkins, J. Heald, Esq. M.A.
1898 QJervis, Cavaliere W. P. F.G.S. (Turin).
1902
1877
1894
1891
297
Jessop, Arthur, Esq.
Jewell, F. G. Esq.
Jewett, Professor J. R. Ph.D.
Johnson, C. R. Esq. H. Sec. Brighouse Ch. Lit. Club.
1896 +Johnstone, Miss J. A.
1903
1879
NF
1892
1898
1884
1883
1885
1887
L880
1884
1890
1905
1879
1873
1903
1903
1873
1893
L901
1885
1885
1873
1897
1903
Juhlin, Rev. G. (Sweden).
Kaye, The Ven. W. F. J. M.A. Oxon. Archdeacon and
Canon of Lincoln.
Kemble, Mrs. Stephen Cattley.
Kennedy, James, Esq. B.C.S. (Ret.) M.R.A.S.
Kerr, Robert, Esq.
Kimball, J. H. Esq. A.M. Yale (Sup. Pub. Sc.)
Kimm, Rev. W. F. M.A. late Fell. Cath. Coll. Camb.
King, A. Freeman Africanus, Esq. M.D. Dean and
Prof. Columb. Univ. and Vermont Univ. Memb.
Path. Anthrop. and Biolog. Soes.
Kirkpatrick, Rev. R. C. M.A. Oxon. and Dub.
+Knight, Rev. C. F. M.A. Camb.
Lach-Szyrma, Rev. W. S. M.A. Oxon.
Lambert, Alan, Esq. F.G.S. F.R.G.S.
Lampe, Rev. Joseph J. D.D.
Langham, J. G. Esq.
Lawrence, Ven. Archdeacon C. D. M.A.
Lawrence, Samuel A. Esq.
Lea, Alfred, Hsq.
Lea, Miss G. EH.
Lea, W. A. Hisq. B.A. Sc.
Lefroy, The Right Rev. G. A. D.D. Bishop of Lahore,
India.
Lefroy, The Very Rev. W. M.A. Dean of Norwich.
Levering, W. H. Esq. (Pres. Ind. S. S. Union).
+Lewis, Rev. J. S. M.A.
Linton, BE. C. Esq. M.A. Camb.
Little, Charles, Esq.
1900 F Lobley, Professor James Logan, F.G.S. F.R.G.S.
1883 +Lock, Rev. W. M.A. D.D. Oxon. Fell. Jun. Bursar
1878
1892
1901
1887
1888
1877
1881
1882
1902
1902
1883
and 'Tutor of Magdalen, Warden of Keble College.
Locke, Rev. J. G. T.C.D. Senr. Fresh. 1888.
+Logan, The Honourable James D.
Loénnbeck, Fredrick Waldemar, Stockholm.
Lowber, Rev. Chancellor J. W. M.A. LU.D. D.C.L.
Se.0. Ph: DY PIS. Dal .R.G.Sitt.D:
Lowrie, Rev. 8. T. M.A. D.D.
Macpherson, Rev. A. C. M.A. A.K.C. (Hon. Loe.
Sec.).
MeWilliam, Rev. J.
Maitland, Rev. H. F. M.A. Oxon.
Mallett, Rev. Frank J. Ph.D.
Manwaring, George A. Esq. C.E.
Marspen, Right Rev. Bishop 8. E. D.D.
U 2
298
1903 Marten, Charles Henry, Esq.
1893 +Martineau, A. H. Esq. (Ind. Civ. Serv.).
1903 Martyn, Henry John, Esq.
18929 +Masterman, H. W. Gurney, Hsq. F.R.C.S. F.R.G.S.
iD ek.
1897 Maxon, Rev. W. D. D.D.
4888 Maxwell of Calderwood, Lady.
1894 Mead, Rev. Charles Marsh, Prof. Th.
1895 Menanusta, Right Rev. Cecil Wilson, D.D. Bishop of.
1892 Y Mello, Rev. J. Magens, M.A. F.G.S.
1903 Mercer, Rev. Arthur, M.A.
1879 Methuen, Rev. T. Plumptre, M.A. .
1905 Millroy, Alfred Taggart FEsq., Analytical Chem.
Memb. Soc. Chem. Ind., Memb. Amer. Chem. Soe.
1889 Millingen, J. R. Van, Esq.
SF Milner, Rev. W M. H. M.A. Oxon.
1903 Mitchinson, Right Rev. Bishop J. D.D. D.C.L.
1899 Moffat, Rev. J. S. C.M.G.
1892 +Molony, Major Francis A. R.H.
1898 Molony, Hdmund Alexander, Hsq. (Indian Civil
Service).
1899 Monckton, G. F. Esq. F.G.S.
1885 Moore, G. A. Esq.
1894 Moorehead, Prof. Warren K. M.A. F.A.A.A.S. Curator,
Dep. of Arch., Phillips Acad. Andover, U.S.A.
1879 Morley, Right Rev. S. Bishop of Tinnevelly.
1882 Moule, Ven. Archdeacon A. Hi. B.D. (Mid China).
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Bengal.
1878 +Mullings, John, Esq.
1893 Munt, George William, Esq.
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PRC. aN:
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1879 +Oake, Rev. R. C.
1886 Oates, Rev. A.
1880 O’Dell, Professor Stackpool E.
1902. qOdling, Charles W. Esq. C.8.1.
1872 Ogle, W. Hsq. M.D.
1894 Oliver, Rev. T. D.D. T.C.D. Memb. Senate, Univ. Dub.
1891 Orchard, H. Langhorne, Esq. Prof. of Logie, M.A.B.Se.
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1898 Parker, Rev. Alvin Pierson, D.D. President, Anglo-
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1883
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299
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1885 tPayne, J. A. Otonba, Esq. F.R.G.S. Chief Registrar
1894
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Peake, A. S. Esq. M.A. Oxon Fell. Merton, iate Tutor
Mansfield Coll. Oxon.
1887 +Penford, Rev. EH. J.
1902
1903
1894
1905
1884.
1881
1896
1890
1882
1898
1881
Penn, Rev. William Charles, M.A.
Petch, Rev. Charles Cousens.
Pike, Rev. Sidney, M.A. Camb.
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Piper, F. H. Esq.
Pippet, Rev. W. A. .
Plantz, Rev. President Samuel, D.D. Ph.D.
Porte, Rev. J. R. A.M. D.D.
Postlethwaite, J. Hsq. F.G.S.
Potter, Ven. Archdeacon Beresford, M.A. T.C.D.
Pratt, Rev. J. W. M.A.
1880 +Priestley, Rev. J. J. 8.P.G.
1888 +Pringle, of Torwoodlee, Mrs.
1905
1875
Loteal
1894,
1876
1899
1877
1878
1903
Proctor, Henry, Esq. H.M.C.S. M.R.A.S.
Rate, Rev. J. M.A. Camb.
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SF W* Rigg, Rev. J.H. D.D. Principal of the Wesleyan Training
1885
1899
1899
1895
1894
College, Ex-President of the Wesleyan Conference.
Riggs, Rev. J. F. B.A. M.A.
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Rogerson, Rev. Geo. M.A.
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Rouse, Rev. G. H. LL.B.
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1894 Ward, H. B. Esq.
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302
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1892 +Woodd, Rev. C. H. Basil, M.A. Camb, Nat. Sci. Trip.
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Painter, Rev. W. Hunt, Stirchley Rectory, Shifnal, Salop.
@ Parker, Prof. H. W. 47, 7ih Avenue. New York, N.Y., U.S.A.
tPeet, Rev. Stephen D. Ph.D. Editor ‘“‘ American Antiquarian,”
5817 Madison Avenue, Chicago, Ill. U.S.A.
Penrith, Rev. T. H. Wesley Manse, High Wycombe.
Petherick, Rev. G. W. B.A. St. Bartholomew’s Rectory, Salford,
Manchester.
Phillips, Rev. M. 13, Pantheon Road, Madras.
Phillips, Rev. T. M.A. T.C.D. F.R.G.S. 140, Blomfield Terrace,
Harrow Road, W.
Plummer, C. Esq. Bo/ssevain, Manitoba, Canada.
Pope, Rev. G. U. D.D. Balliol College, Oxford.
“)Post, dtev. Prof. G. Ho M.A M:D)- DDS. F.L:8. Surgeon
Johanniter Hosp. Syrian Protestant College, Beyrout.
Postlethwaite, J. Hsq. F.G.S. Hskin Place, Keswick, Cumberland.
Rage, Rev. F W. M.A. Marsworth Vicarage, Tring.
Ratcliff, Mrs. 45, Castle Street, Dumfries, N.B.
Redman, Rev. J. Hyderabad, Sindh, India.
Richards, Rev. G. B. Somercotes, Plympton, South Devon.
‘Robertson, Rev. Alex., D.D. Ca‘ Strawn, Ponte Della Salute, Venice.
Ross, Rev. H. D.D. LL.D. F.C.S. Memb. R. Soc. of Arts of Port
Louis, Dallas House, Lancaster.
Rossiter, J. A. Hsq. Tivoli Hall, Kingstown, Dublin.
Rous-Marten, C, Esq. F.R.G.S. F.M.S. M. Scot. Met. Soc.; M. Gen.
Syn. N.Z. Wellington, New Zealand.
Sawyer, W. C. Esq. A.M. Harvard; A.M. Ph.D. Gottingen; Prof.
Phil. and Rhetoric, Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis-
consin, U5. A.
Shaw, Rev. W. Cleethorpes, Grimsby.
Shipham, Rev. Arthur, The Mound, Matlock Bridge.
Smith, Armstrong, Hsq. F.R.G.S. Govt. Hducational Dep.,
Hawaii, Sandwich Islands.
tSouper, Rev. F. A. M.A. Cantab. Brixham, Devon.
Stefansson, Jon, Esq. Ph.D.
Storrs, Rev. W. T. B.D. Vicarage, Sandown, I.W.
+Taylor, Rev. Canon R., St. Stephen’s, Newtown, Sydney, N.S.W.
Thwing, Rev. H. Payson, M.D. Ph.D. M.A. Harvard, Prof. Rhet.
and Voe. Cult., 156, St. Mark’s Avenue, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
q/Tisdall, Rev. W. St. Clair, M.A. Julfa, Isaphan, Persia.
Tomkins, Rev. H. G. Park Lodge, Weston-super- Mare.
Tyndall, Mrs. Colepark, Twickenham.
Wainwright, S. H. Hsq. M.D. Principal Academic Dept.
Kwansei Gakuin, Kobe, Japan.
310
Waller, Rev. J. T. Castletown Manor, Pallaskenry, Ireland.
Walter, Rev. J. C. B.A. Langton Rectory, Horncastle.
q Warring, C. B. Esq. M.A. Ph.D. Poughkeepsie, N.Y., U.S.A.
Weidemann, Professor Alfred, Ph.D. 2, Kénig St. Bonn.
White, Rev. Hill Wilson, M.A. D.D. LL.D. M.R.LA. Wailsun’s
Hospital, Multifarnham, Ireland.
Whiteway, Rev. R. W. B. Beulah House, Selby, Yorks.
‘Williams, Rev. C. L. M.R.C.S.E. Ch. Ch. Vicarage, Ramsgate.
Williams, W. Hsq. Supt. Govt. Telegraphs, India (ret.) Crofton,
Combe Park, Bath.
Willis, Rev. N. A.B. T.C.D.,
Willis, R. N. Esq. M.B. 2, Carlton Terrace, Rathmines, Dublin.
Willis, Rev. W. N. B.A. Camb. Head Master, Ascham School,
Hastbourne.
Willis, T. Gilbert, Esq. 4, Kildare Street, Dublin.
Winslow, Rev. W.C. Ph.D. D.D. D.C.L. LL.D. D.Sc. 525, Beacon
Street, Boston, U.S.A.
Wirgman, Rey. Canon A. T. M.A. D.C.L. St. Mary’s Rectory, Port
Elizabeth, S. Africa.
Woker, Prof. Philipp, D.D. Prof. Eccles. Hist. Wankdorf, Berne,
Switzerland.
Wright, Rev. C. H. H. D.D.-T.C.D. M.A. Oxon. Ph.D. Letpsie:
Bampton Lecturer, 1878, Donnellan Lecturer, 1880-8],
90, Bolingbroke Grove, S.W.
Zwemer, Rev. S. M. M.A. D.D. F.R.G.S. Bahrein, Persian Gulf.
511
SOCIETIES EXCHANGING TRANSACTIONS WITH
THE INSTITUTE.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
American Geographical Society.
American Geological Society.
American Institute of Christian Philosophy.
American Philosophical Society.
Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia.
Anthropological Society, New York.
Anthropological Society, Washington.
Canadian Institute. |
Colonial Museum of New Zealand.
Geographical Society of the Pacific.
Geographical Society of California.
Geological Society.
Harvard Museum of Comp. Zoology.
Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society.
Michigan, Agricultural College of, U.S.
New Zealand Institute.
Newport Natural History Society, U.S.
Nova Scotian Inst. of Natural Science.
Numismatic Society of Philadelphia, U.S.
Oneida Historical Society.
Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay.
Royal Colonial Institute.
Royal Dublin Society.
Royal Geographical Society.
Royal Institution.
Royal Irish Academy.
» The Royal Society.
Royal Society of Canada.
Royal United Service Institution.
Smithsonian Institution (Washington).
Société Scientifique du Chili,
Society of Arts.
Society of Biblical Archeology.
Society of Biblical Literature, U.S.
Soc. Bib. Lit. and Exeg., Boston.
Sydney Museum, New South Wales.
Sydney Observatory, New South Wales.
United States Bureau of Ethnology.
United States Geological Survey.
United States Government Geological and Geographical Survey.
United States Government Reports. ;
Warwickshire Natural History Society.
West Chester Philosophical Society, U.S.
OBJECTS, CONSTITUTION, AND BYE-LAWS
OF
Che Victoria Institute,
Philosophical Society of Great Rritain.
Adopted at the First Annual General Meeting of the Members and Associates
May 27th, 1867, with Revisions of 1874-75,
3 * -—____
§ I. Objects.
1. THe Vicroria Institute, or PHILOSOPHICAL Society OF GREAT
Britain, is established for the purpose of promoting the fol-
lowing objects, viz. :—
First. To investigate fully and impartially the most important
questions of Philosophy and Science, but more especially those
that bear upon the great truths revealed in Holy Scripture ;
with the view of reconciling any apparent discrepancies
between Christianity and Science.
Second. To associate together men of Science and authors who
have already been engaged in such investigations, and all
others who may be interested in them, in order to strengthen
their efforts by association; and, by bringing together the
results of such labours, after full discussion, in the printed
transactions of an Institution: to give greater force and
influence to proofs and arguments which might be little
known, or even disregarded, if put forward merely by
individuals.
ul
Third. To consider the mutual bearings of the various scientific
conclusions arrived at in the several distinct branches into
which Science is now divided, in order to get rid of contra-
dictions and conflicting hypotheses, and thus promote the real
advancement of true science; and to examine and discuss all
supposed scientific results with reference to final causes, and
the more comprehensive and fundamental principles of Philo-
sophy proper, based upon faith in the existence of one Eternal
God, who, in His wisdom, created all things very good.
Fourth. To publish Papers read before the Society in furtherance
of the above objects, along with full reports of the discussions
thereon, in the form of a Journal, or as the Transactions of
the Institute.
Fifth. When subjects have been fully discussed, to make the results
known by means of Lectures of a more popular kind, and to
publish such Lectures.
Sixth. To publish English translations of important foreign works
of real scientific and philosophical value, especially those
bearing upon the relation between the Scriptures and Science;
and to co-operate with other philosophical societies at home
and abroad, which are now or may hereafter be formed, in the
interest of Scriptural truth and of real science, and generally
in furtherance of the objects of this Society.
Seventh. To found a Library and Reading Rooms for the use of
the Members and Associates of the Institute, combining the
principal advantages of a Literary Club.
§ IL. Constitution.
1. The Society shall consist of Members and Associates, who in
future shall be elected as hereinafter set forth.
2. The government of the Society shall be vested in a Council, to
which Members only shall be eligible,* consisting of a President, two or
* Exception: 1f an Associate has been selected, it has been at an Annual
General Meeting, and then only after the whole of the Members had been
consulted, and no disapproval signified.
x 2
il
more (not exceeding seven) Vice-Presidents, a Treasurer, one or more
Honorary Secretaries, and twelve or more (not exceeding twenty-four)
Ordinary Members of Council, who shall be elected at the Annual
General Meeting of the Members and Associates of the Institute. But,
in the interval between two Annual Meetings, vacancies in the Council
may be filled up by the Council from among the Members of the Society ;
and the Members chosen as Trustees of the funds of the Institute shall
be ex officio Members of Council.
3. Any person desirous of becoming a Member or Associate shall
make application for admission by subscribing the Form A of the
Appendix, which must be signed by two Members of the Institute, or
by a Member of Council, recommending the candidate for admission as a
Member ; or by any one Member of the Institute, for admission as an
Associate.
4, Upon such application being transmitted to one of the Secretaries,
the candidate for admission may be elected by the Council, and enrolled
as a Member or Associate of the Victoria Institute, in such manner
as the Council may deem proper ; having recourse to a ballot, if thought
necessary, as regards the election of Members; in which case no person
shall be considered as elected unless he have three-fourths of the votes in
his favour.
5. Application for admission to join the Institute being thus made
by subscribing Form A, as before prescribed, such application shall
be considered as ipso facto pledging all who are thereupon admitted
as Members or Associates to observe the Rules and Bye-Laws of the
Society, and as indicative of their desire and intention to further its
objects and interests; and it is also to be understood that only such as
are professedly Christians are entitled to become Jfembers.
6. Each Member shall pay an Entrance Fee of One Guinea and an
Annual Contribution of Two Guineas. A Donation of Twenty Guineas
shall constitute the donor a Life Member.
7. Each Associate shall pay an Annual Contribution of One Guinea.
A donation of Ten Guineas shall constitute the donor a Life Associate.
8. The Annual Contributions shall be considered as due in advance
on the Ist day of January in each year, and shall be paid within three
months after that date; or, in the case of new admissions within three
months after election.
iV
9. Any Member or Associate who contributes a donation in one sum
of not less than Sixty Guineas to the funds of the Institute shall be
enrolled as a Vice-Patron thereof, and will thus also become a Life
Member or Life Associate, as the case may be.
10. Should any member of the Royal Family hereafter become the
Patron, or a Vice-Patron, or Member of the Institute, the connexion
shall be regarded as purely Honorary ; and none of the Rules and Bye-
Laws relating to donations, annual contributions or obligations to serve
in any office of the Society, shall be considered as,applicable to such
personages of Royal Blood.
11. Any Member or Associate may withdraw from the Society at any
time, by signifying a desire to do so by ietter, addressed to one of the
Secretaries ; but such shall be liable for the contribution of the current
year, and shall continue liable for the annual contribution, until all sums
due to the Society from such Member or Associate shall have been paid,
and all books or other property borrowed from the Society shall have
been returned or replaced.
12. Should there appear cause, in the opinion of the Council, for the
exclusion from the Society of any Member or Associate, a private
intimation may be made by direction of the Council, in order to give
such Member or Associate an opportunity of withdrawing from the
Society ; but, if deemed necessary by the Council, a Special General
Meeting of Members shall be called for the purpose of considering
the propriety of expelling any such person: whereat, if eleven or more
Members shall ballot, and a majority of those balloting shall vote that
such person be expelled, he shall be expelled accordingly. One month’s
notice, at least, shall be given to the Members of any such Special General
Meeting.
13. Non-resident Members and Associates, or others desirous of’
promoting the objects and interests of the Institute, may be elected by
the Council to act as corresponding Members abroad, or as Honorary
Local Secretaries, if within the United Kingdom, under such arrange-
ments as the Council may deem advisable.
14. The whole property and effects of the Society shall be vested in
two or more Trustees, who shall be chosen at a General Meeting of the
Society. The Trustees are empowered to invest such sums as the Council
may, from time to time, place in their hands, in, or upon any of the Stocks,
Funds, or Securities, for the time being, authorized by statute for the
V
investment of trust funds by trustees, and shall have the usual powers of
trustees in regard thereto. [The President, Hon. Treasurer, and Hon.
Secretary may officially give effect to such resolutions as a General
Meeting may pass in regard thereto. |
14a. All moneys received on account of the Institute shall be duly
paid to its credit at the Bankers, and all cheques shall be drawn, under
authority of the Council, and shall be signed by the Honorary Treasurer
and Honorary Secretary.
15. The accounts shall be audited annually, by a Committee, con-
sisting of two Members,—one of whom may be on the Council,—to
be elected at an Ordinary Meeting of the Society preceding the
Anniversary, Meeting. This Committee shall make a written Report
to the Council at the first Meeting after such audit, and also to the
Institute, upon the day of the Annual General Meeting,—stating the
balance in the Treasurer’s hands and the general state of the funds of the
Institute.
16. Both Members and Associates shall have the right to be present
to state their opinion, and to vote by show of hands at all General and
Ordinary Meetings of the Society ; but Members only shall be entitled to
vote by ballot, when a ballot is taken in order to determine any question
at a General Meeting.
S IIL. Bye-Laws (Privileges).
1. A Member or Associate, when elected, shall be so informed by
the Secretary in a printed copy of the letters, Form B, in the Appendix.
2. Members and Associates shall not be entitled to any privileges, or
have the right to be present, or to vote at any of the Meetings of the
Society, till they have paid the contributions due by them.
3. Annual subscriptions shall be considered as in arrear,
if not paid on or before 31st March in each year, or within
three months after election, as the case may be.
4. Should any annual subscription remain in arrear to the 30th June,
or for six months after election, the Treasurer shall cause to be forwarded
to the Member or Associate from whom the subscription is due, a letter,
Form D, in the Appendix, unless such Member or Associate reside out of
the United Kingdom ; in which case the Form D shall not be sent unless
the subscription continues unpaid till the 30th September.
V1
5. If any arrears be not paid within twelve months, the Council shall
use their discretion in erasing the name of the defaulter from the list of
Members or Associates.
6. Members shall be entitled to introduce two Visitors at the
Ordinary Meetings of the Society; and to have sent to them a copy
of all the Papers read before the Society, which may be printed in its
Transactions or otherwise, and of all other official documents which
the Council may cause to he printed for the Society ; they will also be
entitled to a copy of all such translations of foreign works or other books
as are published under the auspices of the Society in furtherance of
Object 6 (§ I.).
7. Associates may introduce two Visitors at the Ordinary Meetings, and
shall be entitled to all the minor publications of the Society, and to a
copy of its Transactions during the period of their being Associates, but
not to the translations of foreign works or other books above referred to.*
It shall, however, be competent to the Council of the Society, when its
funds will admit of it, to issue the other publications of the Society to
Associates, being ministers of religion, either gratuitously or at as small
a charge as the Council may deem proper.
8. When it shall be found necessary to send the letter, Form D, to any
Member or Associate who may be in arrear, the printed papers and other
publications of the Society shall cease to be sent to such Member or
Associate till the arrears are paid; and, until then, he shall not be
allowed to attend any Meeting of the Society, nor have access to any
public rooms which may be in its occupation.
9. The Libraryt shall be under the management and direction of the
Council, who are empowered to designate such works as shall not be
allowed to circulate.
10. Each Member{ shall be allowed to borrow books from the
Library, and to have not more than three volumes in his possession at
the same time; pamphlets and periodical publications not to be kept
above fourteen days, nor any other book above three weeks.
11. Members who may borrow books from the Library shall be
answerable for the full value of any work that is lost or injured.
* These, as well as the Transactions issued in the years previous to
their joining, may be purchased at half price.
t For the use of Members and Associates.—See 7th Object.
{ Members only are allowed to take books away,
Vil
12. Periodical publications shall remain on the table for a month
other books for a fortnight, after they are received.
13. When a book or pamphlet is wanted, and has been the stipulated
time in the possession of any Member, the Secretary shall request its
return, and a fine of threepence a day shall be incurred for every day it
may be detained, which fine shall commence on the third day after the
transmission of the notice in the case of town Members, and after the
sixth day in the case of country Members ; and until the return of such
works, and the discharge of all fines incurred, no further issue of books
shall be permitted to the Member applied to. |
14. The books shall be ordered in for inspection at such times as the
Council shall appoint, and a fine of half-a-crown shall be incurred for
neglecting to send in books by the time required in the notice.
15. A book shall le on the Library table in which Members may
insert, for the consideration of the Council, the titles of such works as
they desire to be purchased for the Institute.
§ IV. Bye-Laws (General, Ordinary, and Intermediate Meeting).
1. A General Meeting of Members and Associates shall be held
annually on May 24th (being Her late Majesty’s birthday, and the Society’s
anniversary), or on the Monday following, or on such other day as the
Council may determine as most convenient, to receive the Report of the
Council on the state of the Society, and to deliberate thereon; and to
discuss and determine such matters as may be brought forward relative
to the affairs of the Society ; also, to elect the Council and Officers for the
ensulng year.
2. The Council shall call a Special General Meeting of the Members
and Associates, when it seems to them necessary, or when required to do
so by requisition, signed by not less than ten Members and Associates,
specifying the question intended to be submitted to such Meetine. Two
weeks’ notice must be given of any such Special General Meeting ; and
only the subjects of which notice has been given shall be discussed
thereat. ‘
3. The Ordinary Meetings of the Society shall usually be held on the
first and the Intermediate Meetings on the third Monday evenings in’
each month, from November to June inclusive, or on such other evenings
Vill
as the Council may determine to be convenient: and a printed card of
the Meetings for each Session shall be forwarded to each Member and
Associate.
4, At the Ordinary and Intermediate Meetings the order of proceeding
shall be as follows: The President, or one of the Vice-Presidents, or a
Member of the Council, shall take the chair at 4.30 o’clock precisely, the
minutes of the last Ordinary or Intermediate Meeting shall be read aloud
by one of the Secretaries, and, if found correct, shall be signed by the
Chairman ; the names of new Members and Assoziates shall be read ; the
presents made to the Society since their last Meeting shall be announced ;
and any other communications which the Council think desirable shall be
made to the Meeting. After which, the Paper or Papers intended for
the evening’s discussion shall be announced and read, and the persons
present shall be invited by the Chairman to make any observations
thereon which they may wish to offer.
The claims of Members and Asscciates to take part in a discussion
are prior to those of Visitors. The latter when desiring to speak
upon any Paper, must first send their cards to the Chairman and
ask permission (unless they have been specially invited by the
Council “to attend, and join in considering the subject before
the Meeting,” or are called upon by the Chairman). 1875.
5. The Papers read before the Society, and the discussions thereon,
fully reported, shall be printed by order of the Council; or, if not, the
Jouncil shall, if they see fit, state the grounds upon which this Rule has
been departed from, in the printed Journal or Transactions of the Society.
6. The Council may at their discretion authorize Papers of a general
kind to be read at any of the Ordinary or Intermediate Meetings, either
as introductory lectures upon subjects proper to be afterwards discussed
or as the results of discussions which have taken place, in furtherance of
the 5th Object of the Society (§ L).
7. With respect to Intermediate Meetings, the Papers read at which
are not necessarily printed nor the discussions reported,* the Council at
its discretion, may request any lecturer or author of a Paper to be read
thereat, previously to submit an outline of the proposed method of
treating his subject.
* So arranged when the “ Intermediate Meetings” were commenced
16th January, 1871.
1X
8. At the Ordinary or Intermediate Meetings no question relating to
the Rules or General Management of the affairs of the Society shall be
introduced, discussed or determined.
S V. Bye-Laws (Council Meetings).
1. The Council shall meet at least once every month from November
to June inclusive, or at any other time and on such days as they may
deem expedient. The President, or any three Members of the Council,
may at any time call a Special Meeting, to which the whole Council shall
be summoned.
2. At Council Meetings three shall be a quorum ; the decision of the
majovity shall be considered as the decision of the Meeting, and the
Chairman shall have a casting vote.
3. Minutes of the Proceedings shall be taken by one of the Secretaries,
or, in case of his absence, by some other Member present, whom the
Chairman may appoint ; which Minutes shall afterwards be entered in a
minute-book kept for that purpose, and read at the next Meeting of the
Council, when, if found correct, they shall be signed by the Chairman.
§S VI. Bye-Laws (Papers).
1. Papers presented to be read before the Society shall, when read, be
considered as the property of the Society, unless there shall have been
any previous engagement with its author to the contrary; and the
Council may cause the same to be published in any way and at any time
they may think proper after having been read. If a Paper be not read,
it shall be returned to the author; and, if a Paper be not published
within a reasonable time after having been read, the author shall be
entitled himself to publish it, and he may borrow it for that purpose.
2. When a Paper is sent to the Society for the purpose of being read, it
shall be laid before the Council, who shall refer it to two of that body, or
of the other Members or Associates of the Society whom they may select,
for their opinions as to the character of the Paper and its fitness or
otherwise for being read before the Society, which they shall state as
briefly as may be, in writing, along with the grounds of their respective
opinions. Should one of such opinions be adverse to the Paper and
against its being read before the Society, then it shall be referred to some
other referee, who is unaware of the opinion already pronounced upon the
Paper, in order that he may state his opinion upon it in like manner,
Should this opinion be adverse to the Paper, the Council shall then
x
consult and decide whether the Paper shall be rejected or read ; and, if
rejected, the Paper shall be returned to the author with an intimation of
the purport of the adverse opinions which have been given with respect to
it; but the names of the referees are not to be communicated to him,
unless with their consent or by order of the Council. All such references
and communications are to be regarded as confidential, except in so far as
the Council may please to direct otherwise.
3. The Council may authorize Papers to be read without such previous
reference for an opinion thereon ; and when a Paper has been referred,
and the opinion is in favour of its being read in whole or in part, the
Council shall then cause it to be placed in the List of Papers to be so
read accordingly, and the author shall receive due notice of the evening
fixed for its reading.
4. The authors of Papers read before the Society shall, if they desire
it, be presented with twenty-five separate copies of their Paper, with the
discussion thereon, or with such other number as may be determined upon
by the Council.
§ VIL. Bye-Laws (General).
1. The government of the Society, and the management of its
concerns are entrusted to the Council, subject to no other restrictions
than are herein imposed, and to no other interference than may arise
from the acts of Members in General Meeting assembled.
2. With respect to the duties of the President, Vice-Presidents,
and other Officers and Members of Council, and any other matters not
herein specially provided for, the Council may make such regulations and
arrangements as they deem proper, and as shall appear to them most
conducive to the good government and management of the Society, and
the promotion of its objects. And the Council may hire apartments, and
appoint persons not being Members of the Council, nor Members or
Associates of the Institute, to be salaried officers, clerks, or servants, for
carrying on the necessary business of the Society; and may allow them
respectively such salaries, gratuities, and privileges, as to them, the
Council, may seem proper ; and they may suspend any such officer. clerk
or servant from his office and duties, whenever there shall seem to them
occasion ; provided always, that every such appointment or suspension
shall be reported by the Council to the next ensuing General Meeting of
the Members to be then confirmed or otherwise as such Meeting may
think fit.
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FORM B.
SIR, 19
I have the pleasure to inform you, with reference to
your application dated the : , that you have
duly been elected a of the Vicrorta INstTITUTE, oR
PHILOSOPHICAL Society oF GREAT BRITAIN.
I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your faithful Servant,
To Hon. See.
FORM C.
(Bankers) Messrs.
* Please pay Messrs. Ransom, Bovuverte, & Co. my Annual
Contribution cf Two Guineas to the VICTORIA INSTITUTE,
due on the Ist of January, 19 ,and the same amount on that
day in every succeeding year, until further notice.
Tam,
Your obedient Servant,
1g
If this Form be used, please add your Signature, Banker’s Name, and the
Date, and return it to the Office, Adelphi Terrace. Receipt-stamp required.
* The above is the form for Members. The form for Associates is the same
except that the Subscription stands as “ONE GUINEA.”
xiii
FORM OD.
Sir, i
IT am directed by the Council of the Vicror1a InstituTe
to remind you that the Annual Contribution due by you to the
Society for the year is now six months in arrears,
and I have to call attention to the Bye-Laws of the Institute,
§ III, 4 4 and 8, and to request you to remit to me the amount
due (viz., & ) by Post-office order or otherwise, at your earliest
convenience.
I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your faithful Servant,
To Treasurer,
FORM E.
FORM OF BEQUEST.
I give and bequeath to the Trustees or Trustee for the time
being of THe VicroriA InsriruTe, ok PHILOSOPHICAL Society
or Great Briratn, to be applied by them or him for the
purposes of the said Society, the sum of £ :
if so intended “ free of legacy duty.” And I declare that the
receipt of the Trustees or Trustee for the time being of the said
Society shall be a good discharge to my Executors for the said
legacy.
XIV
THE JOURNAL OF THE TRANSACTIONS
ISSUED DURING PAST YEARS.
Since the Inauguration of the Society, the following Papers have been read :—
The Quarterly Parts of the Journal are indicated by the numbers prefixed. (Zhe
volumes are sold at One Guinea to Non-Members; Half-a-Guinea to Members and
Associates ; those issued during the years of subscription are not charged for.)
Fino? SERIES, VOLS: 1\ TO. 5,
VOL. &
1. A Sketch of the Existing Relations between Scripture and Science. By the late GEORGE
WARRINGTON, Ksq., F.C.S.
2. On the Difference in Scope between Scripture and Science. By the late C. MoUNTFORD
BuRNETT, Esq., M.D., Vice-President V.I.
On Comparative Philology. By the Rev. Ropryson TuHornton, D.D., Vice-President V.I.
On the Various Theories of Man’s Past and Present Condition. By the late JAMES
REDDIE, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I.
3. Onthke Language of Gesticulation and Origin of Speech. By Professor J. R. YouNG.
On Miracles: their Compatibility with Philosophical Principles. By the Rev. W. W.
ENGLIsu, M.A.
Thoughts on Miracles. By the late E. B. PENNy, Esq-
On the General Character of Geological Formations. By the late E. HopKins, Esq., C.E.
4. On the Past and Present Relations of Geological Science to the Sacred Scriptures. By the
Rev. Professor JOHN Kirk.
On the Lessons taught us by Geology in relation to God. Rev. J. BRopigz, M.A.
On the Mutual Helpfulness of Theology and Natural Science. By Dr. GLADSTONE, F.R.S.
On Falling Stars and Meteorites. By the late Rev. W. MrrcuEett, M.A., Vice-President V.I.
(The above Papers, with the Discussions thereon, and with “ Scientia Scientiarum: being
some Account of the Origin and Objects of the Victoria Institute,” with the Reports of
the Provisional Proceedings, and the Inaugural Address by the late Rev. Walter Mitchell,
M.A., Vice-President, form Vol. I. of the ‘ Journal.”’)
VOu iL
5. (On tke Terrestrial Changes and Probable Ages of the Continents, founded upon Astro-
nomical Data and Geological Facts. By the late EvAN Hopkins, Hsq., C.E., F.G.S.
On the Credibility of Darwinism. By the late GEORGE WARINGTON, Hisq., F'.C.8.
On the Credibility of Darwinism. By the late JAMES REDDIE, sq., Hon. Sec. V.I.
&. | On Utilitarianism. By the late JAMES REDpIE, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I.
| On the Logic of Scepticism. By the Rev. Roprnson THORNTON, D.D., V.P.
! Annual Address (On the Institute’s Work). By the late JAMES REppIE, Ksq., Hon. Sec.V.I.
7.\ On the Relations of Metaphysical and Physical Science to the Christian Doctrine of
i Prayer. By the Rev. Professor JoHN Kirk.
| On Geological Chronology, and the Cogency of the Arguments by which some Scientific
Doctrines are supported. (In reply to Professor Huxley’s Address delivered at Sion
College on 21st Nov., 1867.) By the late J. Reppie, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I. (1867-68).
8 | On the Geometrical Isomorphism of Crystals, and the Derivation of all other Forms from
L those of the Cubical System. (6 Plates.) By the late Rev. W. MITCHELL, M.A., V.P.
VOL
9. On the Antiquity of Civilisation. By the late Bishop Trrcomps, D.D.
On Life, with some Observations on its Origin. By J. H. WHEATLEY, Hsq., Ph.D.
On the Unphilosophical Character of some Objections to the Divine Inspiration of Scrip-
ture. By the late Rev. WALTER MITcHELL, M.A.
On Comparative Psychology. By EH. J. Morsuxran, Esq., Hon. For. Sec. V.I.
10. On Theology asa Science. By the late Rev. A. De LA Marg, M.A.
On the Immediate Derivation of Science from the Great First Cause. By R. LAmine, Esq.
On some of the Philosophical Principles contained in Mr. Buckle’s “ History of Civilisa-
tion,” in reference to the Laws of the Moral and Religious Developments of Man. By
the Rev. Prebendary C. A. Row, M.A.
On the Nature of Human Language, the Necessities of Scientific Phraseology, and the
Application of the Principles of both to the Interpretation of Holy Scripture. By the
Rev. J. BAYLER, D.D.
11. Onthe Common Origin of the American Races with those of the Old World. By the late
Bishop Trrcoms, D.D.
On the Simplification of first Principles in Physical Science. By the late C. Brooks, F.R.S.
On the Biblical Cosmogony scientifically considered. By late G. WARINGTON, Esq., F.C.S.
On Ethical Philosophy. By the Rev. W. W. Eneuisu, M.A.
12, On some Uses of Sacred Primeval History. By the late D. McCausLanD, Esq., Q.C., LL.D.
On the Relation of Reason to Philosophy, Theology, and Revelation. By the Rey. Preb.
C. A. Row, M.A.
VO Ea:
13. ( Analysis of Human Responsibility. By the late Prebendary Irons, D.D. (And part 16.)
On the Doctrine of Creation according to Darwin, Agassiz, and Moses. By Prof. KirK,
, | On the Noachian Deluge. By the Rev. M. Davison.
On Life—Its Origin. By J. H. WHEATLEY, Hsq., Ph.D.
On Man’s Place in Creation. By the late Professor MACDONALD, M.D.
On More than One Universal Deluge recorded in Scripture. By late Rev. H. Moutz, M.A.
4 On Certain Analogies between the Methods of Deity in Nature and Revelation. By the
Rev. G. HENsLow, M.A., F.L.S. .
On the Respective Provinces of the Observer and the Reasoner in Scientific Investigation.
By the Rev. EpwArp GABBETT, M.A. .
On the Credulity of Scepticism. By the Rev. R. THornton, D.D., V-P.
| On Current Physical Astronomy. By the late J. Repp1E, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I.
| Analysis of Human Responsibility. By thelate Preb. Irons, D.D. (See part 13.) Concluded.
14
15.
16.
Viole Vv;
17. On the Origin of the Negro. By the late Bishop Trrcomp, D.D.
. On the Testimony of Philosophy to Christianity as a Moral and Spiritual Revelation. By
the Rev. Preb. C. A. Row, M.A.
On the Numerical System of the Old Testament. By the Rev. Dr. THorNTON, V.P.
18. On Spontaneous Generation; or, the Problem of Life. By the Rev. Prof. Kirk.
A Demonstration of the Existence of God. By the Rev. J. M’Cann, D.D.
Why Man must Believe in God. By the late JAMES RepprIEg, Esq., Hon, Sec. V.L.
49. On Geological Proofs of Divine Action. By S. R. Parrison, Esq,, F.G.S8.
On True Anthropology. By W. HircHMAN, Hsq., M.D.
On Comparative Psychology. (Second Paper.) By EH. J. MorsuEaD, Esq., Hon. For. See. V.1.
20. On the High Numbers in the Pentateuch. By P. H. Gossz, Esq., F.R.S., V.P.
Israelin Egypt. By the late Rev. H. MouLz, M.A.
Xvl
MEW Se RTSS.
BEING THE VOLUMES CONTAINING THE MORE MODERN PAPERS.
VOL. VI. 1s THE FIRST OF THIS SERIES.
21. (On Civilisation, Moral and Material. (Also in Reply to Sir John Lubbock on “ Primitive
Man.”) By the late J. Reppig, Esq., Hon. Sec. V.I.
22. | On Dr. Newman’s ‘‘ Essay in Aid of a Grammar of Assent.” By the Rey. Preb. Row, M.A.
On the Evidence of the Egyptian Monuments to the Sojourn of Israel in Egypt. By the
Rev. B. W. SAVILE, M.A.
On the Moabite Stone. By Captain F. Perris, Hon. Sec.
On Phyllotaxis; or, the Arrangement of Leaves in Accordance with Mathematical Laws.
By the Rev. G. HENSLow, M.A., F.L.S.
{ On Prehistoric Monotheism, considered in relation to Man as an Aboriginal Savage. By
the late Bishop Trrcompr, D.D.
On Biblical Pneumatology and Psychology. By the Rev. W. W. Enauisn, M.A.
On Some Scriptural Aspects of Man’s Tripartite Nature. By the Rev. C. GRAHAM.
On Ethnic Testimonies to the Pentateuch. By the late Bishop T1rcoms, D.D.
24. | On the Darwinian Theory. By the late Prebendary Irons, D.D.
Serpent Myths of Ancient Egypt. By the late W. R. Cooprr, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.R.A.S.,
Sec. Soc. Biblical Archeology. 129 Illustrations.
VOL: Vil:
25. ( On Natural Theology, considered with respect to Modern Philosophy. By the Rev. G,
HENsLow, M.A., F.L.S.
On Fatalism. Contributed by the Rev. J. Ropsrns, D.D.
26. | Or Darwinism Tested by Recent Researches in Language. By F. BATEMAN, Esq., M.D., &c.
| On Force and its Manifestations. By the Rev. J. M‘Cann, D.D.
On Professor T'yndall’s ‘‘Fragments of Science for Unscientific People.” By the late
Prebendary Irons, D.D.
On the Origin of the Moral Sense. By the Rev. Professor Kirk.
On Force and Energy. By the late CHARLES Brooke, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
27. | On Darwinism and its Effects upon Religious Thought. By C. R. BREE, Esq., M.D., &c.
Remarks on Some of the Current Principles of Historic Criticism. By Rev. Preb. Row, M.A.
On ‘‘ Scientific Facts and Christian Evidence.” By the late J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S.
28. | On the “ Law of Creation—Unity of Plan, Variety of Form.” By Rev. G.W. WeELpDon, M.A.
Some Remarks on the Present Aspect of Inquiries as to the Introduction of Genera and
Species in Geological Time. By V.-Chancellor J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S.
VOL. VII.
29. The Paleolithic Age Examined. By N. Wuit.ey, Esq.
(Annual Address.) On the Moral and Social Anarchy of Modern Unbelief. By the late
Principal T. P. BouLtrBEE, LL.D.
30. On the Identity of Reason in Science and Religion. Rev. R. MircHELL.
On Buddhism. By the Right Rey. Bishop Prers C. CLaveurton, D.D., &c., with communi-
cations from Professors CHANDLER and BREWER.
On the Contrast between Crystallisation and Life. By the late J. E. Howarpb, Esq., F.B.S.
31, On the Brixham Cavern and its Testimony to the Antiquity of Man—examined. By
N. Wuit ey, Esq., Sec. Royal Inst. of Cornwall.
On the Rules of Evidence as applicable to the Credibility of History. By W. Forsyrn,
Esq., Q.C., LL.D., Vice-President.
On the Principles of Modern Pantheistic and Atheistic Philosophy as expressed in the last
work of Strauss, Mill, &e. By the Rev. Prebendary C. A. Row, M.A. Paper on the
same, by late Prof. CHALLIs, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
32. On Prehistoric Traditions and Customs in Connexion with Sun and Serpent Worship.
By J. 8. PHtenz, Esq., LL.D., F.S.A., with Illustrations.
Y
xV11
VOR.
33. (On the Varying Tactics of Scepticism. (Annual Address.) By the Rev. Roprnson
Tuornton, D.D., Vice-President.
On the Harmony between the Chronology of Egypt and the Bible. By the Rev. B. W.
SAVILE, M.A.
On the Ethical Condition of the Early Scandinavian Peoples. By E. W. Gossx, Esq.
34. | On Magnitudes in Creation and their Bearings on Biblical Interpretation. By the late
Bishop Tircoms, D.D. Paper on the same, by late Prof. Cuatuis, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.; with communications from the Astronomer Royal’s Department, the
Radcliffe Observer, and Professor PrircHARD, F.R.S.
4 On Biblical Interpretation in connexion with Science. By the Rev. A. I. McCaun, M.A.
\ (King’s College), with a communication by V.-Chancellor J. W. Dawson, C.M.G.,
LL.D., F.B.S.
On the Final Cause as Principle of Cognition and Principle in Nature. By Professor
G. S. Morris, of Baltimore University, U.S.
35. | On the Bearing of certain Paleontological Facts upon the Darwinian Theory of the Origin
of Species, and of Evolution in General. By Professor H. A. Nicnoxson, M.D., D.Sc.,
F.R.S.E., &c.
On the Early Dawn of Civilisation, considered in the Light of Scripture. By the late
J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
On the Indestructibility of Force. By the late Professor Brrxs, M.A.
36. On Mr. Mill’s Essays on Theism. By the late Preb. W. J. Irons, D.D.
VOLT?
37. On the Chronology of Recent Geology. By 8S. R. Parrison, Esq., F.G.S.
On the Nature and Character of Evidence for Scientific Purposes. By the Rev.
J. M‘Cann, D.D.
The Relation of the Scripture Account of the Deluge to Physical Science. By the late
Prof. CHAuuis, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
38. An Examination of the Belfast Address from a Scientific point of view. By the late
J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
Annual Address; Modern Philosophie Scepticism examined. By the late Rev. R. Matn,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., The Radcliffe Observer.
On the Etruscan Language. By the Rev. Isaac Taytor, M.A.
39. On ‘* Present Day Materialism.” By the Rev. J. McDouGALL.
On the Sorrows of Scepticism. By Rev. R. THornron, D.D., Vice-Pres. (see parts 6, 15, 33.)
On Heathen Cosmogonies, compared with the Hebrew. By Rev. B. W. SAvixxE, M.A.
On the Place of Science in Education. By Professor H. A. Nicuotson, M.D., D.Sc.,F.R.S.E.
40. On Egypt and the Bible. By the late J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
VOL, 2a.
41. (The Flint ‘‘ Implements” of Brixham Cavern. By N. WuirLEy, Esq. (Photographically
illustrated.
On the Flint Agricultural Implements of America. By Dr. J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
An Examination of ‘‘ The Unseen Universe.” By the late Preb. [Rons, D.D.
The Uncertainties of Modern Physical Science. By the late Professor Brrxs, M.A.
The Ethics of Belief. By Principal H. WAcr, D.D.
42.< On the Metaphysics of Scripture. By the late Prof. CHAu.is, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
On the Theory of Unconscious Intelligence as opposed to Theism. By Prof. Morris, U.S.A.
On the Myth of Ra. By the late W. R. Coopsr, Esq., F.R.A.S., Sec. Soc. Bib, Arch.
On Christianity as. a Moral Power. By Professor Lias, Hulsean Lecturer, Cambridge.
43. | On the Structure of Geological Formations as Evidence of Design. By D. HowArp, F.C.8.
On the Bible and Modern Astronomy. By the late Prof. Birks, M.A. (Camb.).
44. | On Comparative Psychology. By EH. J. Morsueap, Esq.
VOL. XII.
45. On the Indestructibility of Matter. By the late Professor CHALLIS, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
On History in the Time of Abraham, Illustrated by Recent Researches. By Rev. H. G.
Tomkins. With Numerous Notes by Various Assyriologists.
On the Horus Myth. By the late W. R. Coopsr, Esq., F.R.A.S., M.R.A.S., Sec. Soc.
Bib. Arch. (Jilustrated.) Additional Papers by various Egyptologists.
46. The Influence of True and False Philosophy. (Ann. Address.) The late J. E. HowArD, F.R.S.
The History of the Alphabet. By Rev. IsAAc Taytor, M.A.
Creation and Providence. By the late J. E. Howarp, Hsq., F.R.S.
Nature’s Limits: an Argument for Theism, By S. R. Pattison, Esq., F.G.S.
Mr. Matthew Arnold and Modern Culture. Prof. L1As, Hulsean Lecturer, Cambridge.
XVil1
47. On the Relation of Scientific Thought to Religion. The Rignt Rev. Bishop CoTrrritx, D.D,
Monotheism. By the Rev. Dr. RuLE (Author of “ Oriental Records”).
48. Physical Geography of the East. By the late J. L. PortEr, D.D., D.C.1..
VOL; it:
49. ( Modern Geogenies and the Antiquity of Man. Late Prof. Brrxs, M.A.
The Annual Address. Rev. Principal Riee, D.D.
50. | ‘‘On Science and Man.” By Dr. NoAu Porter (President of Yale, United States).
“The Lapse of Time since the Glacial Epoch determined by the Date of the Polished Stone
Age.” By Dr. SouTHALL (United States).
‘‘ Final Cause: a Critique of the Failure of Paley and the Fallacy of Hume.” By the
late J. P. THompson, D.D., LL.D. (Harvard, U.S.).
51. | ‘“ The Torquay Caves and their Teachings.” By the late J. E, Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
4 ‘“« Does the Contemporaneity of Man with the Extinct Mammalia, as shown by Recent Cavern
1 Exploration, prove the Antiquity of Man?” By T. K. CALiarn, Esq., F.G.S., &e. ;
with special additional communications by Professor Boyp-DAwkiNs, F.R.S8., Rev.
J. M. MEtLo, M.A., F.G.S. (Creswell), &c.
“The System of Zoroaster considered in connexion with Archaic Monotheism.” By
k. Brown, Esq., F.S.A. ,
52. | “On the Evidence already obtained as to the Antiquity of Man.” By Professor T. McK.
Hueuess, M.A. (Woodwardian Professor of Geology at Cambridge University) ; with
additions by the DukE oF ARGYLL, K.G., Professor BoyD-DAWKINS, F'.R.S., and other
Geologists,
VOL. XIV:
53. ‘The Topography of the Sinaitic Peninsula ” (giving results of last survey). By (the late)
Rey. F. W. Hotuanp, M.A. (Palestine Exploration Fund); with a new map.
“ The Ethnology of the Pacific.” By the Rev. 8. J. WHITMEE, F.L.S.; with a large new
map, showing the distribution of Races and all the results of the latest discoveries.
The Annual Meeting.
54. On Physiological Metaphysics. By Professor NoAH PorTER (President, Yale Univ., U.S.),
On the Druids and their Religion. By the late J. E. Howarb, Esq., F.R.S.
On the Organ of Mind. By Rev. J. F1sHEr, D.D. (the late).
On the Data of Ethics. By Principal Wacz, D.D.
55. On the Bearings of the Study of Natural Science, and of the Contemplation of the Dis.
coveries to which that Study leads, on our Religious Ideas. By Professor STOKEs,
P.R.S. (Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, Cambridge).
Late Assyrian and Babylonian Research. By Hormuzp Rassam, Esq.
On the Evidence of the Later Movements of Elevation and Depression in the British Isles.
By Professor Hucues, M.A. (Woodwardian Professor of Geology at Cumbridge).
On the Nature of Life. By Professor H. A. Nicuoxson, M.D., F.R.S.E., Aberdeen.
56. On the Religion and Mythology of the Aryans of Northern Europe. By R. Brown, F.S.A.
VOL. XV.
57. ( The Life of Joseph. Illustrated from Sources External to Holy Scripture. By Rev. H. G.
TOMKINS.
On the Relation between Science and Religion, through the Principles of Unity, Order, and
Causation. Annual Address by the Right Rev. Bishop CoTTERILL, D.D. (the late).
Some Considerations on the Action of Will in the Formation and Regulation of the Universe
—heing an Examination and Refutation of certain Arguments against the existence of
a personal conscious Deity. By (the late) Lord O’ NEILL.
58. | On the Modern Science of Religion, with Special Reference to those parts of Prof. Max
Miiller’s ‘‘ Chips from a German Workshop,” which treat thereon. Rey. G. BLENCOWE.
On the Karly Destinies of Man. By (the Jate) J. E, Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
Pliocene Man in America. By Dr. SoutHatni (United States); a second paper on the
same, by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., of M‘Gill College, Montreal;
and communications from the Duke of ARGYLL, K.G.; Professor W. Boyp-DAwkINns,
F.R.S.; Professor T. McK. Hucurs (Woodwardian Professor of Geology at Cam-
bridge), and others.
Scientific Facts and the Caves of South Devon. By (the late) J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
Implements of the Stone Age as a primitive Demarcation between Man and other Animals.
By (the late) J. P. THomrson, D.D., LL.D.
Meteorology: Rainfall. By J. F. BATEMAN, Hsq., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
On the Rainfall and Climate of India. By Sir JoszpH Farrer, K.C.S.I., M.D., F.R.S.,
with a new Map, showing the Physical Geography and Meteorology of India, by
| TRELAWNEY W. SAUNDERS, Esq.
60. | Language and the Theories of its Origin. By R. Brown, Esq., F.8.A.
59
¥ 2
x1xX
WW Oln:-e vale
61. The Credibility of the Supernatural. (Annual Address.) By (the late) Lord O’Ner1.
Supposed Paleolithic Tools of the Valleyof the Axe. By N. WuITLEy, Esq. (Engravings.)
An Examination of the Philosophy of Mr. Herbert Spencer. By the Rey. W. D. Grounp.
62. On Herbert Spencer’s Theory of the Will. By Rev. W. 1). GRounD; with Communication.
Biblical Proper Names, personal and local, illustrated from sources external to Holy Scripture.
By Rev. H. G. Tomxins. Comments by Professor MAsPERO, Mr. RAssam, and others.
Breaks in the Continuity of Mammalian Life at certain Geological Periods, fatal to the
Darwinian Theory of Evolution. By (the late) I. K. CaLLarD, Esq., F.G.8., with
Comments by several Geologists.
The New Materialisin Unscientific ; or, Dictatorial Scientific Utterances and the Decline of
Thought. By Professor LionEL 8S. BEALE, M.D.,F.R.S.
On the Living and the Non-Living. By the same. On the New Materialism. By the same.
63. The Theory of Kvolution taught by Heckel, and held by hisfollowers. By J. HASSELL, Esq.
The Supernatural in Nature. ly (the late) J. E. Howarpn, isq., F.R.S.
64. Materialism. By Judge C. W. RicHmMonp.
VOR. Svat:
65. ( The Recent Survey of Western Palestine, and its Bearing upon the Bible. By TRELAWNEY
M.D., C.B. Speeches by Sir J. RispoN BENNETT, V.P.R.S.; Sir JosEPH FAYRER,
K.C.S.1., M.D., F.R.S.; and others.
On the Argument from Design in Nature, with some Illustrations from Plants. By (the
late) W. P. JAMES, Esq., M.A.
Considerations on the Unknown and Unknowable of Modern Thought; or, Is it possible to
know God? By the Rev. J.J. Lias, M.A. (then Hulsean Lecturer). Comments by
(the late) Lord O’N¥ILL and others.
On certain Theories of Life. By Surg.-Gen. C. A. Gorpon, C.B., M.D., Hon. Phys. to
the Queen.
On Certain Definitions of Matter. By (the late) J. E. Howarp, Esq., F.R.S.
On the Absence of Real Opposition between Science and Revelation. By Professor G. G.
66.
SAUNDERS, Esq.
Remarks on Climate in relation to Organic Nature. By Surgeon-General C. A. Gornon,
L
67. |
4 StoxeEs, P.R.S. Comments by several leading scientific men.
Babylonian Cities. By HorMuzD RAssAM; with Remarks by Professor DELITzscu, &c.
y. y ’
68. | The Origin of Man. By Archdeacon BARDSLEY.
| Did the World Evolve Itself? By Sir E. Beckgrt, Bart. (now Lord Grimthorpe).
VOL. UO XeViLit:
69. On Misrepresentations of Christianity. By Lord O’NEIL1 (the late).
Science not opposed to Revelation. By J. L. PortEer, D.D., D.C.L. (the late).
70. Recent Egyptological Research in its Biblical Relation. By the Rey. H. G. ToMKINs.
Cuneiform Inscriptions as illustrative of the times of the Jewish Captivity. By W.StT.
CHAD BoscawEN, F.R.Hist.Soc.
Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon—On Recently Discovered Inscriptions of this King. By
EB. A. BupGE, M.A., M.R.A.S.
Buddhism. By Rev. R. Coxtins. Remarks by Dr. LEITNER (Lahore), Professor RHYS
Davips, Mr. RassaM, Rev. S. Cours (Ceylon), &c. Also a full Note on Krishna.
71. Pessimism. By (the late) W. P. JAMEs, Esq.
On the Prehistoric Factory of Flints at Spiennes. By Rev. J. MAcrens MELLO, F.G.S.
The Evolution of the Pearly Nautilus. By 8. R. Pattison, Esq., F.G.8.
72. ‘Qn Prehistoric Man in Egypt and the Lebanon.” By Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G.,
F.R.S., McGill University, Montreal. Remarks by Professors W. WARINGTON SMYTH,
F.R.S., W. Boyp-DAWKINs, F.R.S., T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,T. WintsHir£, F.G.S.,
Colone] H&RSCHEL, F.R.S., Dr. RAE, F.R.S.
VOL) Xx,
73. (On the Inductive Logic. By Prof. R. L. Dasnry, D.D., LL.D. Speeches by Sir H.
BARELY, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir J. Lerxoy, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., &e.
| On Evolution by Natural Selection. By J. HASSELL, Esq.
Remarks on Evolution. By Professor VIRCHOW.
74. | On the Recency of the Close of the Glacial Epoch. By D. MacxrnTosu, Esq., F.G.S.
Communications from Prof. T. RuPERrT JONES, F.R.S., and others.
On the recession of Niagara (with the United States Government Survey Diagrams).
ts
78.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
xX
( On the Religion of the Aboriginal Tribes of India. By Professor J. Avery, Remarks by
General Hate, Mr. E. Rassam, and others.
On the Evolution of Savages by Degradation. By Rev. F, A, ALLEN, M.A.
Some Thoughts on the Evolution of Religions. By Rev. W. R. Buackert, M.A.
On the Relation of Fossil Botany to Theories of Evolution. By late W. P. James, F.L.S.
Remarks by Sir R. Owen, F.R.S., Prof. W. Carruruers, F.R.S., Dr, J. BRAXTON
Hicks, F.R.S., &c.
Was Primeval Man a Savage? By J. HAssExL, Esq.
Remarks on Evolution and Development. By Rev. J. Wurre, M.A.
On Some Characteristics of Primitive Religions, By Rev, R. Cottins, M.A,
Human Responsibility. By Rev. G, BLENCowE.
On the Worship and Traditions of the Aborigines of America, By Rev. M. Ertts, M.A.
Remarks by Professor J. O. Dorsry, U.S. Survey.
Note on Comparative Religions.
WOOL XOX
Special Address by the Institute’s President, Sir G. G, Sroxsrs, Bart., M.A., D.C.L.,
President of the Royal Society.
Egypt: Physical, Historical, Literary, and Social. By J. Lestrz Porrer, D.D., D.C.L.
(the late), Remarks by the Karl of Betmorg, Right Hon. A. S. Ayrton (the late), &c.
On the Theory of Natural Selection and the Theory of Design. By Professor Duns, D.D.,
F.R.S.E. Remarks by Right Hon, Lord Grimruorpes, &c,
On Agnosticism. By J. HASSELL, Esq.
On the Structure of the Gorilla, By E. CHARLEswortH, Esq., F.G.S.; with illustration.
Notes on the Antiquity of Man. By the Eptror, The Chronology of Animal Life on the
Earth prior to the Advent of Man. By Sir J, WiLtt1Am Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.,
President of the British Association,
Historical Evidences of the Migration of Abram. By W. Sv. C. Boscawen, F.R.Hist.Soe.,
with drawings. Notes by Professor Sayce, E. A. W. BupGE, Esq., &c.
A Samoan Tradition of Creation. Rev. T. PowEt1, F.L.S. (the late); Notes on the Islanda.
The Fundamental Assumptions of Agnosticism. By Rev. H. J. CLARKE.
On Miracles. By Rev. H. C. M. Watson. Remarks by Lord Griwruorre, &e.
On Accounts of the Creation. By W. P. JAmzs, Hsq., F.L.S. (the late).
On Final Cause. By Professor K. L. DABNEY, D.D., LL.D.
On Structure and Structureless. By Prof. Lionrn 8. Braue, M.B., F.RB.S.
On the Meteorology of Syria and Palestine. By Professor G. E. Post, F.L.S. (with chart),
Remarks by Sir JosePH FAYRER, K.C.8.I., F.R.S., &e.
On the Geographical Names on the List of Thothmes III. By Professor G. MAasPERo
(with map). Remarks by Sir CHARLES Witson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Major
C. R. Conver, R,E., Dr. Wrieut, &c. Note on Excavations round the Sphinx. By
Prof, MAspPERo.
VOL. XXII.
Results of an Expedition to Arabia Petrzea and Palestine (with chart). By Professor E.
Hutt, F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland.
Jewish, Phoenician, and Early Greek Art. By Rev. J. Lestre Porter, D.C.L. (the late).
The Discoveries at Sidon.
The Empire of the Hittites. By Rev. W. Wricut, D.D. Note on the Hittites.
Canaan, Ancient and Modern. By Professor Trisrram, F.R.S.
On Caves. By Professor T. McK. Hueugs, F.R.S. (Cambridge), with comments by Sir
J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., Sir WArineron W. Smyru, F.R.S., and others.
Oriental Entomology. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S. Notes by 8S. T. KLEIN, Esq.,
F.L.S., and others.
Petra. By Professor E. Hutt, F.R.S. (with chart).
On Krishna. By Rev. R. Cottins, M.A. Notes by Sir M. Monrer-Wituiiams, K.C.LE.,
Professors MAx MuLuER, E. B. CowEtt, Doue.as, DE LAGOUPERIE, Dr. LEITNER, and
Dr. EDERSHEIM (the late).
The Pedigree of the Coral Reefs of England. By.S. R. Parrison, F.G.S. Remarks by
Sir G. G. Sroxszs, Bart., P.R.S.
Practical Optimism. By the Most Rey. Bishop SAuMAREz Smitu, D.D.
Traditions of the Aborigines of North America. By Rev. 8. D. Pxxr (with illustrations).
On the Beauty of Nature. By Lord GrimrHorpr, with special paper by Rev. W.
ARTHUR, M.A.
Evolution. By Rev. H. J. CLARKE, M.A. Remarks by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Appendices; The Jewish Nation and Diseases. Egyptian Discoveries in 1888. (Library
List, &e.) The Sacred Books of the Kast. By Sir M. Monter-Wituiams, K.C,I.E.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91:
92.
Xxi1
VOL. XXII.
Annual Address by the President, Sir G. G. Sroxzs, Bart., M.P., President of the Royal
Society. Speeches by Sir H. BaRkty, K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir Rispon Bennett, F.EK.S.,
Sir F. L. McCuintrock, F.R.S., Mr. H. Rassam, &c.
Note by the President on the one Origin of the Books of Revelation and of Nature.
On Time and Space. By the Rev. W. ArTuvuR.
On the Names on the List of Thothmes III at Karnac, their Geographical, Ethnographical,
and Biblical relations. By G. MAsPERo, with communications from Sir C. W1iLson,
K.C.B., F.R.S., Professor A. H. SAycz, Rev. Canon Lippon, Mr. LE PaGcE RENovF,
Rev. Dr. EDERSHEIM, Major C. R, ConpER, Rev. H. G. Tomkins, &c., with maps by
G. MASPERO.
On the Theory of Natural Selection and the Theory of Design. By Professor Duns, D.D.,
with remarks by Lord GrimruorPE, the Most Rev. the BisHopr of SypNEY, and others,
and a note by Mr. T. Francis Rivers, F.L.8.
On the late Professor AsA GRAY. By the Eniror.
Note on the importance of Babylonian Excavations. By the Epitor.
On Human Footprints in Nicaragua. By Dr. D. G. BRINTON.
The Aborigines of Australia, their Ethnic Position and Relations, by J. FrAsER, LL.D.,
F.R.S. (N.S.W.), with remarks by many travellers; also an opinion by Professor
Max MULLER.
Oriental Entomology. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S., remarks by several ento-
mologists, including a note by Mr. E. B. Poutron, F.R.S., on Mimicry.
A Physical Theory of Moral Freedom. By JoszErpH JoHN Murpuy; remarks by Sir J.
FayreEr, K.C.S.1., F.R.S., the Hon. J. M. Grecory, LL.D., of Washington, and
others.
The Botanical Geography of Syria and Palestine. By Professor G. E. Posr, D.D., M.D.,
with notes by Eastern Travellers.
On Flint Arrow Heads of delicate Structure. By the Rt. Hon. Sir C. Murray, K.C.B,,
also a note on Cave Deposits.
VOL. xi
Annual Address by Sir M. Monrer-Witiiams, K.C.1LE., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., Boden
Professor of Sanscrit in Oxford University. Speeches by the BisHop or DuNEDIN,
Sir H. BarKty, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., Sir Rispon Brnnerr, F.R.S., late Mr. H. W.
Bristow, F.R.8., &e.
On a few of the Contrasts between the Essential Doctrines of Buddhism and of
Christianity. By Sir M. Monrer-WiuiAms, K.C.1.E., &c., &e.
Coral Islands and Savage Myths. By H. B. Guppy, Esq., M.B. Discussion, &c., by
Sir G. G. Sroxss, Bart., M.P., P.R.S., Captain W. J. L. WHarton, R.N., F.R.S., the
Hydrographer to the Admiralty, Mr. W. H. Hupixston, F.R.S., Professor Jamzs
GEIKIE, F.R.S., Mr. Joun Murray, of the Challenger Expedition, &c.
On the Keeling Atoll. By Dr. Guppy.
Colours in Nature. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S.
On the Sciences of Language and of Ethnography. By Dr. LErTnER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.O.L.
Modern Science and Natural Religion. By Rev. C. Goprrry AsHwin, M.A.
Note on Science and Religion. By Captain F. Prrrig, F.G.S.
The Historical Results of the Excavations at Bubastis. By HE. NAvILLE, Ph.D. Remarks
by Sir C. Nrwron, K.C.B., Dr. REGINALD StruArT Poo.#, &c.
Notes on the Ethnology and Ancient Chronology of China. By Surgeon-General
Gorpon, M.D.,C.B. Remarks by Dr. LeGGE, Prof. Chinese, Oxford Univ., Dr. BEAL,
Prof. Chinese, London Univ., «ce.
On Cuts on Bone as evidence of Man’s Existence in remote ages. By Prof. T. McK.
HuaGues, F.R.S. Remarks by Prof. Ruprrr Jonks, F.R.S., Prof. A. S. Woopwarp,
F.G.S8., Rev. J. M. MELLo, M.A., F.G.S., &.
The Butterflies and Moths of Africa. By W. F. Kirsy, F.E.S.
The Factors of Evolution in Language. By Mr.J.J.Murpuy. Remarks by Professor
Max MuoLLER.
The Meaning and History of the Logos of Philosophy. By Rev. H. J. CLARKE.
The Dawn of Metallurgy. By Rev. J. Macens MeEtio, M.A., F.G.S. Remarks by
Professor SAycE, Major ConpER, Mr. J. ALLEN BRowy, F.G.8., and others,
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
100.
101.
XXll
VOL. XXIV.
Annual Meeting. ‘The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Tel el Amarna. By the Rey. A. H.
Saycr, M.A., D.D., LL.D., Professor of Assyriology, Oxford University. Speeches
by the Rt. Hon. Lord Harsspury, Lord High Chancellor, Dr. NAvILuE, Sir H.
Barkty, K.C.B., F.R.S., &c., Sir E. OmMANNEY, C.B., F.R.S., Sir J. Rispon
BENNETT, F.R.S., Captain E. W. Creak, R.N., F.R.S., and others.
On the Canaanites. By Major C. R. Conner, R.E., D.C.L.
Instinct and Reason. By CU. Cottincwoop, Esq., M.A., M.B., M.R.C.P., F.L.S., &e.
Remarks by Professor HuLL, F.K.S., and others.
The Science of Rectitude as Distinct from Expedience. By Rev. H. J. CLARKE.
God in Nature. By Professor E. Hutt, D.C.L., F.R.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Ireland.
Man’s Place in Nature. A Note. By the Eprror.,
Land Tenure in Ancient Times in Palestine. By Rev. J. Ngmt,M.A. Remarks by the
Right Hon. Lord Hatspury, Lord High Chancellor, Mr. F. SzeBoum, Mr. 8.
BERGHEIM, Dr. CHAPLIN, and other Eastern Travellers.
The Botany and Entomology of Iceland. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.L.S.
Remarks by Dr. J. Raz, F.R.S., Dr. G. HARLEY, F.R.S., Professor Logan LoBLey,
G.S.,. cick
The Origin of Man. An address thereon by Professor RuDOLPH ViRcHOW.
The Dispersal of Plants as Illustrated by the Flora of the Keeling Islands. By H. B.
Guppy, Esq.,M.B. Remarks thereon by Professor T. RupERT Jongs, F.R.S., Mr.
JOHN Murray (Challenger Expedition), and others.
Sketch of the Geological History of Egypt and the Nile Valley. By Professor E. HULL,
LL.D., F.BS., F.G.S., &c., with map.
VOL. Ixy,
The Monism, Pantheism, and Dualism of Brahmanical and Zoroastrian Philosophers.
By Sir M. Monzgr-Wit.iams, K.C.1.E., D.C.L.
On the Post Glacial Period. By Professor W. UpHam, Assistant State Geologist, U.S.A.
(a note).
On Human Responsibility. By the Right Hon. Lord GrimrHorPr. Remarks by
Prebendary H. Wack, D.D., Principal of King’s College, London.
Chinese Chronology. By Professor J. LEGGE, M.A., Oxford University. Remarks by
Sir THomas Wang, G.C.M.G., and others.
The Garden of Eden, a criticism on the views of certain modern writers. By HormuzD
RassaM, Esq. Remarks by Sir G. G. Stoxzs, Bart., F.R.S., Sir J. W. Dawson,
C.M.G., F.R.S., Professor A. H. SAycr, D.D., Mr. T. PincuEs, Colonel CoNDER,
D.C.L., &c., M. BeRTIN, and others. With a map engraved by Mr. Stanford from
the official surveys.
Annual Meeting.
Islam. By Rev. W. St. C. Tispatt, M.A. Remarks by Sir T.ForpD, Colonel CoNDER,
D.C.L., Dean GouLBuRN, Rev. Dr. K@.LLE, Rev. H. LANspELL, D.D., M.R.A.S.,
Mr. RAssAm, and other authorities.
On the Reality of the Self. By W. L. Courtney, M.A., LL.D.
Notes on the Philosophy and Medical Knowledge of Ancient India. By Surgeon-General
Sir C. A. GorDoN, M.D., K.C.B., Q.H.P. Remarks by Sir JosEpH Fayrer, K.C.S8.I1.,
F.R.S., and others.
On the Apparent Cruelty of Nature. By Rev. T. Woop, M.A. Remarks by Sir
J. FAYRER, K.C.S.I1., F.R.S., and others.
Deontology. By the Rev. H. J. CLARKE.
VOL. XXVI.
The Route of the Exodus. By Dr. E. Navitue. Speeches by Sir J. FAyreEr, K.C.S.L.,
Sir J. CoopE, K.C.M.G., and others.
From Reflex Action to Volition. By Dr. ALEx. Hit, Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge
University, with important discussion.
The Weak Sides of Natural Selection. By J. W.SuatER, F.C.S., F.E.S. Remarks by
Professor E. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S., and many others.
On Serpent Worship and the Venomous Snakes of India. By Sir Jos—EpH Fayrer, M.D.,
K.C.S8.1., F.R.S. Remarks by Sir RicHArD Potiock, K.C.S8.I., Surgeons-General
W. B. Beatson CornisH, C.I.E., C. A. Gorpon, C.B., Admiral H. D. GRANT, C.B.,
and others, and an important special report by Dr. A. MUELLER, of Australia.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
dad.
XXI11
Some recent Discoveries in the Realm of Assyriology. By T. G. Pincuzs, Esq., Brit.
Mus. Remarks by Colonel ConprEr, R.E., D.C.L., M. Bertin, Mr. W. Sz. U.
Boscawen, Rev. H. G. Tomkins, and others.
The Philosophic Basis of the Argument from Design. By Professor BERNARD, D.D., T.C.D.
On Flint Bodies in the Chalk known as Paramoudra. By E. CHArLESworTH, Esq.,
F.G.S. Illustrated.
The Glacial Period and the Earth-movement Hypothesis. By Professor JAMEs GEIKIE,
D.C.L., F.R.S. Remarks by Professors E. Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S., Logan Loptey,
F.G.S., Major-General Drayson, R.E., F.R.A.S., Mr. W. UpHaAM, U.S. Govt. Assist.
State Geologist, &c., &c.
Useful and Ornamental Stones of Ancient Egypt. By Sir J. Wirt1AmM Dawson, C.M.G.,
F.R.S. Remarks by W. H. HupLEsTon, F.R.S., President of the Geological Society,
Professor K. Hutu, F.R.S., Mr. W. BRINDLEY, F.G.S8., Colonel ConpER, R.E., D.C.L.,
Professor LoGAN LOBLEY, and others.
Causes ee Changes. Current opinions reviewed by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G.,
F.R.S. .
VOL. 2OxViL
‘he work of the Institute in the present day. By the Right Hon. Lord Hatsrury, P.C.,
F.R.S., with speeches by Sir H. BARKLy, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., I’.R.S., Sir G. BucHANAN,
F.R.S., Sir J. FAyrer, K.C.S.L, F.R.S., Sir F. Younce, K.C.M.G., Professor
KE. Huu, F.R.S., and others.
The Principles of Rank among Animals. By Professor H. W. PARKER, M.D.
On the Recession of Niagara Falls. By W. Upnuam, Assist. Geologist U.S. Govt.
How the Waters of the Ocean became Salt. By Professor E. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S. Remarks
by Professor J. TYNDALL, D.C.L., F.R.S., Sir J. Prestwicu, D.C.L., F.R.S., and
others.
The List of Shishak. With map. By Professor MAspERoO. With important discussion.
An Inquiry into the Formation of Habitin Man. By Dr A. T. Scuorretp. Remarks
by Dr. AtEx. Hitt, Master of Downing, Sir C. A Gorpon, K.C.B., Professor
PARKER, &c., &c.
On the Alleged Scepticism of Kant. By W. L. Courtnry, LL.D. Remarks by Arch-
deacons SINCLAIR (London) and THORNTON (Middlesex), Professors BERNARD, DuNs,
and numerous others.
On the Comparison of Asiatic Languages. By Colonel C. R. Conpszr, R.E., D.C.L.
Remarks by Professor LEGGE (Oxford), and others.
A Possible Cause for the Origin of the Tradition of the Flood. By Sir J. Prestwicu, K.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. Remarks by Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F'.R.S., Sir H. Howortu,
K.C.1 E., M.P., F.R.S., Dr. H. Woopwarp, F.R.S., President of the Geological
Society, Professor T. McK. Hucugs, M.A., F.R.S., Professor T. RUPERT Jon&s, F.R.S.,
Mr. J. ALLEN Brown, F.G.S8., Rev. J. M. MELLO, F.G.S., Mr. W. UpHam, Assist.
Govt. Geologist, U.S.A., and many others.
VOT. Sexy Tie
The Religious ideas of the Babylonians. By T. G. Pinches, M.R.A.S., British Museum.
Remarks by Colonel ConpER, R.E., D.C.L., Rev. Dr. Lowy, Professor Fritz
HomMMEL, &c.
Chinese Ethics and Philosophy. By Sir CHARLES Gorpon, K.C.B. Special statement
by Sir THomas Wank, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., &e.
On the Luminiferous Ether. By Sir G. G. Stokxs, Bart., President. Speeches by His
Excellency the Hon. 'T. F. BAyarp, United States Ambassador, Sir H. BAaRKty,
G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir Jos—EpH FayrReEr, K.C.S.I., F.R.S., Professor Hutt,
F.R.S.; Admiral GRANT, C.B., R.N., &c. (Annual Meeting).
Evolution and Design. By G. Cox Bompas, F.G.S. Remarks by Professor BLAKE,
F.G.8., Rev. J. M. Metto, F.G.S., &e.
Archeology and Evolution. By R. H. WaLKEy. Remarks by Professor LoBLey,
F.G.8., &e.
Holy Scripture illustrated and confirmed by recent discoveries in the East. By Professor
EK. Hut, F.R.S. Remarks by Professor J. H. GLADSTONE, F.R.S., Colonel ConpER,
R.E., Mr. Rassam, &c.
Buddhism and the Light of Asia. By Rev. R. Cottins, M.A. Remarks by Professor
LEGGE, Rev. G. U. Pops, D.D., the Rev. KENNETH MACDONALD, Professor ORCHARD,
M.A., B.Sc., Mr. R. Scort MoncRIEFF, and many others,
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
118.
119.
120.
XX1V
Stone Folk-lore. By Professor Duns. Speeches by the Right Hon. the Lorp CHAN-
CELLOR, Sir H. Barxiy, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir G. Bucnanan, F.R.S.,
Sir J. Fayrsr, K.C.S8.1., F.R.S., Professor Hutz, F.R.S., Sir C. Gorpon, K.C.B.,
His Honour J. OTONBA PAYNE, &c. (Annual Meeting).
The Mechanical Conception of Nature. By Professor Macuosk1g, D.Sce., of Princeton
College, U.S.A. Remarks by Rev. Prof. Bernarp, D.D., G. B. BucktTon, Esq.,
F.R.S., and others.
The Philosophy of Comte. By J. W. Suiater, F.C.S., F.E.S.
On the supposed discovery of Remains belonging to an animal intermediate between man
andthe ape. By Professor E. Hutu, F.R.S. (illustrated).
The Passage of the Red Sea by the Israelites. By Major-General TuLtocu,. C.B.,
C.M.G. (with map).
VOL, XXIX.
Jubilee Volume. Annual Address: The Perception of Light. By Sir G. G. Stoxxs,
Bart., President. Speeches by Earl Hatspury (Lord Chancellor), Sir H. BarKty,
G.C.M.G., F R.8., Sir C. Gordon, K.C.B., Profs. E. Huu, F.R.S8., and SAYce.
On Scientific Research and Biblical Study. By the Rey. Canon R. B. GIRDLESTONE,
M.A.
On Certain Inscriptions and Records Referring to Babylonia, Elam, and their Rulers,
and other Matters. By THEOPHILUS G. PincHEs, M.R.A.S. With copies of tablets,
&e., and arranged by the Author up to September 25th, 1897, with Opinions of
Professors HOMMEL, SAYCE, and others. Communication from Professor A, H.
SaycE, D.D.
China’s Place in Ancient History: A Fragment. By Surgeon-General Sir CHARLES A.
Gorpon, M.D., K.C.B., Q.H.P.
Communications from Her Majesty the Queen and Her Royal Highness Princess Henry
of Battenberg.
The Polynesians and their Plant-Names. By H. B. Guppy, M.B. Communication
from Professor Max MULLER, Dr. JoHN FRAsEr, F.R.S, (N.S.W.).
The Natural and the Artificial. By A. T. ScHorrELp, Esq., M.D., M.R.C.S8. Communi-
cations from Professor LIONEL 8. BEALE, M.B., F.R.8., and others.
Causes of the Ice Age. By WARREN UPHAM, Esq. Communications from Sir JosEPH
PRESTWICH, D.C.L., F.R.S. (late), Professor J. GEIKIE, LL.D., F.R.S., and others.
On Specimens in the Peter Redpath Museum of McGill University, illustrating the
Physical Characters and Affinities of the Guanches or Extinct People of the Canary
Islands. Illustrated. By Sir J. Witt1am Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., &e.
Professor PuTNAM on some Guanche Skulls. Communications trom Professor J.
CLELAND, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Dr. LAMBERT of Cairo.
Miracles. Science, and Prayer. By the Rev. Chancellor J. J. Li1as, M.A.
VOL eX:
Annual Address: Chiefly on the Rontgen Rays. By Sir G. G. Sroxss, Bart., President:
Speeches by Earl HaLspuRY ae Chancellor), the Rt. Hon. Lord KELv1n,G.C.V.O.
Sir H. Barxry, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir Jos—EpH FAyYRER, Bart., K.C.S.I.
F.R.S., Professor BH. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S.
Biblical Lands; their races, customs, &c. (with Map). By HormMuzp RassAm, Esq.
Remarks by G. PIncHES, Esq., M.R.A.S. (of British Museum), &c.
The History of Manikka Vacagar, “the Foe of the Buddhists.” By the Rev. G. U.
Popgr, D.D., with Appendix for Students.
List of Publications in the Institute’s Transactions on the Religions of the East.
On some Relations of Mind and Body. By A. T. Scuorrevp, M.D., with communications
from Professors CALDERWOOD, LL.D., J. CLELAND, M.D., F.R.S., and Dr. Sansom.
The Classification of the Vertebrata. By Prof. J. CLELAND, F.R.S., J. HuTcuHInson, Esq.,
F.R.S., Inspector-General J. D. MacponaLp, F.R.S., Prof. H. W. Parxrr, Dr. W.
Kipp, &c.
The Proposed Scheme for the Embanking the Waters of the Nile. By Professor E.
Hut, LL.D., F.R.S. Remarks by Batpwin Latuam, M.I.C.E., &c.
Problems of Aboriginal Art in Australia. By the Right Rev. Bisnorp THornton, D.D.
On Primitive Man. By Rey. J. M. MetLo. Communications from Sir J. W. Dawson,
C.M.G., F.R.S., Professors T. RureRT Jonzs, F.R.S., E. Hutt, F.R.S., H. G.
SEELEY, F.R.S., and others.
Investigations regarding the submerged Terraces and River Valleys bordering the British
Isles. By Professor E. Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S. Remarks by Cavaliere W. P. JERVIS,
Director of the Royal Museum, Turin, Professors ETHERIDGE, F.R.S., T. RUPERT
JONES, F.R.S., Logan Losiey, F.G.S., &c.
121.
122.
123.
124.
xXXV
VOT BeeaAl,
Annual Address: The age of the Earth as an abode fitted for life. By the Right Hon.
Lord Kretvin, G.C.V.O. Speeches by the Right Hon. Earl Hatspury, P.C., F.R.S.
Lord Chancellor), Sir G. G. SroxEs, Bart., F.N.S. (the President), Sir JosEPx
AYRER, Bart., F.R.S., Sir SIDNEY SurppaRD, G.C.M.G., Captain E. W. Creak,
R.N., F.R.S. Design in Nature. By Lord KELVIN. A note.
Where is Mount Sinai? By Professor E. Hvit, LL.D., F.R.S., with the Ordnance
Survey Map reduced.
Design as exemplified in the formation of the human foot. A note by Dr. GERARD
Smi1tH, M.R.C.S.
Herodotus. His remarks bearing on Egyptian Geology in the light of recent Egyptian
Research. By Rev. F. A. Waker, D.D., F.L.S. Copious remarks by Sir
J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Herodotus. His remarks bearing on Egyptian Botany und Investigation. By same.
Physical conditions of the Mediterranean Basin which have given rise to a community of
some species of Fresh Water Fishes in the Nile and Jordan Basins. By Professor
E. Hutu, F.R.S. (with map).
Tithe Giving amongst Ancient Pagan Nations. A plea for the Unity of the Human
Race in early times. By Rev. H. ULANsDELL, D.D)., M.V.I., M.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
A note, Philological reasons for the same, given at the Congress of Orientalists by
the Right Hon. F. Max MuLuER, M.A., D.C.L.
Another possible cause of the Glacial Epoch. By Professor E. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S.
(with map), with remarks by Professors I. RupERtT Jonzs, F.R.S., W. 8. GRESLEY,
F.G.S., United States, Cavaliere JERVIS, F.G.S., Italy, and others.
The Literature of Egypt in the time of Moses. By J. N. FRADENBURGH, Ph.D., D.D.,
LL.D. With remarks by Colonel C. R. ConpsEr, R.E., D.C.L., &c.
Plan and purpose in Nature. By Dr. W. Kipp. Remarks by Professors LIonEL §.
BEALE, F.C.S., E. Huuu, F.R.S., J. H. GLapstone, Ph.D., F.R.S., and others.
The Star Worshippers of Mesopotamia. By Rev. 8. M. Zwemzr, F.R.G.S. With
remarks by Dr. T. CHAPLIN and Colonel C. R. ConprEr, R.E., D.C.L.
Anoual Address: The Perception of Colour. By Sir G. G. StToxs&s, Bart., F.R.S., V.D.
Speeches by the Right Hon. Lord KEtLvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S., the Right Hon.
Lord Listrr, P.R.S., Sir C. Gorpon, K.C.B., Archdeacon THoRNTON, &c.
Sub-Oceanic Terraces and River Valleys off the coast of West Europe. By Professor E.
Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S. Cae three plates). Remarks by Professors ETHERIDGE, F.R.8.,
T. McK. Hucuss, F.R.S., Cavaliere JERVIS, F.G.S., of the Royal Museum, Turin,
General McManon, F.R.S., &c.
VO.) XEXSaiT:
Annual Address: Our Coal Resources at the close of the Nineteenth Century. By
Professor E. Hutt, LL.D., F.R.. Speeches by the President, Sir G. G. SToKEs,
Bart., F.R.S., Sir JospepH FAYRER, Bart., K.C.S.I., Rev. CANON GIRDLESTONE, M.A.,
and the Ven. Archdeacon THORNTON, D.D.
The Unity of Truth: Being the Annual Address to the Victoria Institute for 1899. By
the Right Hon. Sir RicHarD TEMPLE, Bart., G.C.S.I.
Life as compared with the Physical Forces. By J. W. SuaTer, Usq., F.C.S., F.E.S.
Remarks by Professor LionEL S. BEALE, F.R.S., Rev. Professor BERNARD, Dr.
R. C. SHETTLE, Xc.
The Worship and Traditions of the Aborigines of the Islands of the Pacific Ocean.
By Rev. M. Exuus, D.D., with remarks by Davip Howarp, Esq., D.L., Professor
H. L. OrcHARD, M.A., D.Sc., &c.
The Climate of Egypt in Geological, Prehistoric, and Ancient Historic Times. By
Dr. GRANT BEY.
Remarks on the Past, Present, and Future of the Australian Flora. By Rev. W. WooLLs,
Ph.D., F.L.S., with remarks by Sir FrepDERIcK Youne, Surgeon-General Sir _
C. A. GoRDON, and a communication from (the late) Baron F. voN MUELLER, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.
The Sub-Oceanic River-Valleys of the West African Continent and of the Mediterranean
Basin (with Map). By Professor E. Hutu, M.A., LL.D.,\F.R.S. Communications
from Professor T. RuPpERT JoNnES, F.R.S., Cavaliere W. P. JERVIS, F.G.S., and
Professor J. Logan LoBLEY, F.G.S.
The Human Colour Sense and its accordance with that of Sound, as bearing on the
“¢ Analogy of Sound and Colour” By Dr. Jonn D Macponatp, I.H.R.N., F.R.S.
XXV1
Oreation or Evolution. By Dr. Water Kipp, F.Z.S., with communications from
Major Turton, R.E., and Dr, J. H. GLApsToNrE, F.R.S.
Common Errors as to the Relation of Science and Faith. By Professor G. MACLoskIR,
D.Sc., LL.D.
The Scope of Mind. By Dr. Atrrep T. ScuorigLp, M.R.C.S., with communicatious
from Professors J. CLELAND, F'.R.S., LIONEL BRALE, F.R.S., Dr. R. Jones, F.R.C.8.,
and R. ANDERSON, Hsq., C.B., LL.D.
Nationality. Likenesses and Differences which point to many Races making up what are
called Nationalities. By Professor T. McKENNY HuGuEs, F R.S., with remarks by
the Right Rev. H. B. Wu1ppue, D.D., Bishop of Minnesota, Professor WusTLAKE,
LL.D., Colonel ConpDER, R.E., &c.
Marks of Mindin Nature. By Rev. Professor J. Duns, D.D., F.R.S.E.
Thalassographical and Thalassological Notes on the North Sea. By Sgr. Cavaliere
W. P. Jervis, F.G.S. (with Map), with remarks by Professors E. Hutt, LL.D ,
J. Logan Losey, F.G.S., Rev. G. F. WuipBornge, F.G.S., &c.
The Nature of Life (Part I). By Professor LIoneL §. BEALz, F.R.S., with remarks b,
Dr. SHETTLE, Professor ORCHARD, M.A,, B.Sc., and Kev. J. TUCK WELL.
VOL. XXXIITI.
Annual Address: The Origin of New Stars. By Professor Sir Ropert 8. Batu, LL.D.,
F.R.S. Speeches by the President, Sir G. G. Sroxes, Bart.. F.R.S., and the Rev.
Canon GIRDLESTONE, M.A.
A short account of the Congrés International d’Histoire des Religions: held in Paris,
September, 1900. By THEOPHILUS G. PINcHEs, Esq., LLD., F.R.A.S.
Vitality. By Professor LIonEL 8. BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., with remarks by Dr. A. T.
ScHOFIELD, Professor EK. Hutu, LL.D., F.R.S., Professor OrcHarpD, M.A., B.Sc,
and Mr. Davip Howarp, D.L.
On the Being of God. By the Ven. Archdeacon Srncuarir, D.D. Remarks by Professor
ORCHARD, Rev. JOHN TUCKWELL, and Dr. WALTER KIppD.
The Philosophy of Education. By A. T. ScHoFIELD, Esq., M.D.
Ethics and Religion. By the Rev. Prebendary H. Wacz, D.D., with remarks by Rev. Dr.
WALKER, Rey. JOHN TUCKWELL, and others.
Methods of Protection among Animals, By Water A. Kipp, Esq., M.D., F.Z.S.
Remarks by Professor Hutt, F.R.S., and Professor ORCHARD.
Questions Involved in Evolution from a Geological Point of View. By Rev. G. F.
WHIDBORENE, M.A., F.G.S., remarks by Mr. Martin Rovsgz, B.L., and Rev. JoHn
TUCKWELL.
Eolithic Implements. By Rev, R. AsHincTon BuLLEN, B.A., F.G.S., with remarks by
Professor E. Hutu, Professor RuPpERT JonzEs, F.R.S., and others.
Visit to the Hittite Cities, Hyuk and Boghaz Keoy. By Rev. G. E. Wu1tTsr, Marsovan.
Remarks by Dr. THEOPHILUS G. PINcHES, Davip HowarD, Esq., D.L., and others.
Recent Investigations in Moab and Edom. By Major-General Sir CHarLtes W. WItson,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Remarks by Rev. Canon GirpLESTONE and l’rofessor E. Huuu.
Address of Condolence to H.M. the King on the Death of H.M. Queen Victoria,
Ancient Script in Australia. By HE. J. StarHam, Esq., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Remarks
by Sir G. G. Stoxss, Bart., F.R.S., Commander G, P. Hzatu, R.N., and others.
Meeting, Monday, 1st April, 1901. Gracious reply from H.M. the King to the Address
ot Condolence; sent through the Home Secretary.
The Maori’s Place in History. By JosHua RuTLaND, Esq. Remarks by Dr. T. G.
PincHEs, Rev. Dr. WALKER, Rev. W. SHaw, F.Z.S., and others.
Pictorial Art among the Australian Aborigines. By R. H. MatuEws, Esq. Remarks
by Professor LoBLey, F'.G.S., Rev. W. S. Lacu Szyrma, M.A., and others.
The Wahabis: Their Origin, History, Tenets and Influence. By Rev. S. M. ZwEMER.
Remarks by Rev. G. F. WHrpBorNE and Dr. H. W. HuBBarp.
The Arab Immigration into South East Madagascar. By Rev. G. A. SHaw, F.Z.S.,
with remarks by E.S.M, PErowng, Esq., Professor E. Hutt, Professor ORCHARD,
and others.
Hornets: British and Foreign. By Rev. F. A. WALKER, D.D., F.E.S.
The Divisions of the lee Age. By WaRREN UPHAM, Esq., M.A., F.G.S.A. Remarks
by Professor HuLL, Professor LoBLEY, Dr. PINcHEs, and Rey. JoHN TUCKWELL.
The Sub-Oceanic Depression known as ‘‘ La Fosse de Cap Breton,” and the adjacent
River Valleys of France and Spain. By Professor J. Logan Losury, F.G.S., with
remarks by Captain G. P. HeatTH, R.N., and Mr. Davin Howarp, D.L.
XXVIl
VOL. =X Xxiy.
Annual Address: The Water Supply of Jerusalem. By Major-General Sir C. W. WILson,
i, FR.
The Springs of Character. By A. T, ScHOFIELD, Esq., M.D.
Modifications in the Idea of God,produced by Modern Thought and Scientific Discovery,
By Rev. Chancellor Lias, M.A.
The Preparation of the Earth for Man’s Abode. By Professor J. Locan LosiEy, F.C.S.
Adaptation and Selection in Nature: their bearing on Design. By WALTER Kipp, Esq.,
MDS eE eZee
Physical History of the Norwegian Fjords. By Professor Hull, F.R.S.
Physical History of the New Zealand Fjords. By J. M. MAcLAREN, I',G.S,
Iceland: Its History and Inhabitants. By Dr. J. STEFANSsSON.
Artesian Water in Queensland. By R. Logan Jack, LL.D.
Locusts and Grasshoppers. By Rev. Dr. WaLksr, I'.L.S.
Water essential to All Life. By Professor LionrL BEALE, F.R.S.
Procopius’s African Monument. By M. L. RKousx, B.L.
Some Diseases mentioned in the Bible. By Dr. T. CHAPLIN,
VOLS XOX:
Annual Address. By Professor W. M. Fuinpers Prrtrts, D.C.L.
The Babylonian Story of the Creation, including Bel’s Fight with the Dragon. By
THEOPHILUS G. PincuEs, Esq., LL.D., M.K.A.S.
The Future of Islam. By Professor D. S. Marcouiouts, D.Litt., Laudian Professor
of Arabic, Oxford University.
The Arya Samaj. By Rev. H. D. Griswoxp, M.A., Ph.)., Missionary, Lahore, India.
On the Unseen Life of our World and of Living Growth. By Professor Lionr. §.
BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.R.S., Government Medical Referee for Hneland.
The poe e ere: Cornwall, and its Teachings. By Professor Epwarp Hutu, LL.D.,
PhS ao Gas:
Tne Water Supply of Jerusalem. By Ernest W. GurnEY MAsTERMAN, Diploma in
Public Health, Cambridge.
Modern Theories concerning the composition of Holy Scripture. By Rev. Joun
TUCKWELL, M.R.A.S.
‘On the Geological Relationship of the Voicanoes of the West Indies. By J. W.
SPENCER, M.A., Ph.D., F.G.S.
Volcanic Action and the West Indian Eruptions of 102. By J. Logan Lostey, F.G.S.
F.R.G.S.
Report on the Congress of Orientalists held at Hamburg in September, 1902. By
THEOPHILUS G. PINCHES, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S.
The Laws of the Babylonians, as recorded in the code of Hammurabi.
G. Pincuss, Esq., LL.D., M.R.A.S.
Lecture on ‘‘ Experiences in South Africa during the War.” By the Rev. W. H.
FRAZER, D.D., late Acting Chaplain to the Forces.
The Living God of Living Nature from the Science Side. By Professor LionEL §.
BEALE, F.R.C.P., F.B.S.
3y THEOPHILUS
MOU. DOCK.
Annual Address. By the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Hauspury, D.C.L., F.R.S.
The Genesis of Nature. By Rev. G. F. WHIpporRNE, M.A., F.G.S.
Ancestral Worship (lecture). By Rev. ARTHUR ELwiIn.
Two Paths, one Goal. By Dr. WautTEeR A. Kipp, F.Z.S. (being an examination of
Bishop TEMPLE’s Bampton Lectures for 1884.)
On the Hot Lakes District, New Zealand. By Miss HiirpA Boorp.
Observations on Irrigation Works in India. By C. W. Opiine, Esq., C.LE.,
M.Inst.C.E.
On the Age of the Last Uprise in the British Isles. By Professor E>warp Hutt,
1g Deh Da ES
On the Samaritan Text of the Pentateuch. By Rev. Canon Garratt, M.A.
The Samaritan Passover of the year 1861. By Rev. Canon HAMMoNnD, LL.B.
The Conception of the Great Reality. By Sypnry T. KLEIN, Esq., F.L.S., F.R.A.S.
XXVili
On the Synchronous Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah. By FrepEnrick
GARD FLEAy, Esq., M.A.
Notes on the Thickness of the Lucerne Glacier of the Post-Pliocsne Period, By
Professor EpWARD Hutu, F.R.S.
Prehistoric Remains, with drawings, near Tenda, Italy. By Cay. W. P. JERVIS,
F.G.S.
On the Origin of the Marine ae) Fauna of Lake Tanganyika. By W. H.
Hupuzston, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.
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