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JOURNAL

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VOLUME 326, 1946

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JOURNAL

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VOLUME 36

JANUARY 15, 1946

No. 1

ETHNOLOGY.—Mived bloods of the Upper Monongahela Valley, West Virginia.'
WILLIAM HarRLEN GILBERT, Jr., Library of Congress.

We are accustomed to think of West Vir-
ginia as a racially homogeneous State popu-
lated by Old.Americans of English, Scotch,
and Scotch-Irish descent with an addi-
tional contingent in recent years of Poles
and Italians in the mining areas. It may
come as somewhat of a surprise to many
to learn that there exists in the northern
counties of the State a racial island of
mixed bloods, known locally as ‘‘Guineas,’’
numbering several thousand persons. The
origin of this mixed race is unrecorded, and
the relative proportion of white, Negro,
and Indian blood entering into its makeup
is difficult to ascertain. The main seat of
this people is in northern Barbour County
and southern Taylor County, but small
groups are to be found in over half a dozen
adjoining counties and in Garrett County,
Md. From their homes in the hill country
many have gone in recent years to the

1 Received December 4, 1945.

Many suggestions concerning the Guineas were
collected in correspondence with persons inter-
ested, notably Mrs. Eva Margaret Carnes, of
Roanoke, Va.; Mrs. W. H. Conaway, librarian of
Marion County, W. Va., at Fairmont; and Mrs.
Howard Grant, of Philippi, W. Va. Mrs. Grant
kindly made available extensive genealogical ma-
terial on the Guineas collected by her late hus-
band. In addition, considerable material was
gleaned from the census schedules at the Na-
tional Archives and at Suitland, Md. In Novem-
ber 1945 a short field trip was made to Philippi
and Grafton, W. Va., and extensive interviews
were had with W. M. Watkins, attorney of Graf-
ton; Vergil Rohrbough, superintendent of schools
in Taylor County; E. A. Hunt, superintendent of
schools in Barbour County; Charles W. T.
Lockard, editor of the Grafton News; V. C. Will-
hide, of Grafton; as. well as a number of the
Guineas themselves. Finally, full credit must be
given to the steady cooperation and unfailing
enthusiasm of Philip 8S. Proctor (‘‘Chief’’ Turkey
Tayac), of Washington, D. C., to whose initial
suggestion this research is due.

factory cities of West Virginia, Ohio, and
Michigan in search of economic oppor-
tunity and social betterment.

It is difficult to find a completely accept-
able term to designate these mixed people.
Stigmatized by white public opinion as a
sort of outcast group, they dislike and re-
sent any designation used by outsiders for
themselves. They especially resent the
terms ‘‘Guinea’”’ or “Guinea Nigger,”
which are most generally applied to them
by their white neighbors.? There are several
possibilities in explaining the origin of this
sobriquet.

An educated member of this group is said
to have worked out a genealogy for them
several years ago in which he claimed that
an English nobleman went to the Guinea
coast of Africa in the early days (possibly
as a remittance man), married a native
Negro woman, and produced a large family
of crossbreeds. Later some of these de-
scendants came to America and became
the ancestors of the ‘‘Guineas.’? Hu Max-
well, in his History of Barbour County (pp.
310-311), asserts that the mixed bloods of
that county are called ‘‘Guineas”’ under the
mistaken notion that they are Guinea Ne-
groes. They are said, however, to have
claimed for many years a descent from
one of the Guineas (British, French, or
Portuguese) in Africa or from one of the
Guianas (British, French, or Dutch) in
South America, and that their blood was
native Negro or Indian.

2 In the following discussion although the word
“Guinea” is employed without quotes it is not
meant to condone an approbrious epithet. Rather
it is used for lack of any other single term to
designate these people.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

It is worthy of notice that during the
nineteenth century the name “Guinea”
was applied as an epithet to things or
persons of foreign (especially Italian and
Polish) and uncertain origin in many parts
of northeastern United States (Mencken,
1936, p. 295, and Dictionary of American
English 2: 1193). The term was also ap-
plied to Italians of the laboring class be-
cause of an incident which took place in
early American history when English pen-
nies (jestingly called ‘‘Guineas’’) were cir-
culated in North America and Italian help
would receive them freely and even save
them as valuable coins. From the coins the
term was transferred to their recipients
(Roback, p. 37). Undoubtedly there is
some linkage of the West Virginia mixed
bloods with Italians in the popular mind
because the two races are frequently said
to intermarry rather freely.

The term ‘‘Guinea”’ does not seem, how-
ever, to have any significance in relation
to the appearance of the mixed bloods,
even though ‘‘Guinea Negro” has generally
meant a very black member of the African
race, and it probably has no reference to
the yellow-colored gold pieces made from
Guinea gold. The mixed bloods are cer-
tainly not black, nor can their color be
adequately described as yellow. Much more
to the point is the locality idea, a vague
tradition of a place called ‘“‘Guinea’”’ from
which these mixed people spring. It is
said that the name ‘‘Guinan”’ or ‘‘Guinea,”’
locally pronounced ‘‘Guinny,”’ has long
been applied to an area northwest of Phi-
lippi in Barbour County where these mixed
people are centered. This area, also known
as ‘‘Chestnut Ridge,’”’ was regarded by the
whites as lowering the value of property
in the adjacent parts owing to the nature
of its inhabitants.

In Gloucester County, Va., there is said
to be a section called ‘“‘Guinea Neck’’ in-
habited by a peculiar people, isolated by
the coastal land formation. It is possible
that the ancestors of the Guineas may have
migrated from some such a region west-
ward to Berkeley or Hampshire County in
Virginia, where we first hear of them from
the census records.

VOL. 36, No. 1

It must be admitted, when all is said
and done, that none of these theories of
the origin of this term is quite satisfactory,
and we are just as much in the dark as
before so far as a real etymology of this
name is concerned.

There are several other terms sometimes
employed to designate the Guineas. One
of these is ‘‘West Hill Indians’ from the
community of West Hill, which is their
principal center in Taylor County at the
present time. Formerly the term ‘Cecil
Indians’’ was heard, derived from the com-
munity of Cecil, now flooded by the Ty-
gart Reservoir. Since many of these people
lived near the Grafton & Belington Rail-
way (or G. & B. Railway) and traveled on
this line extensively, they were sometimes
referred to as the “G. and B. Indians.”
Sometimes the Guineas employed the cir-
cumlocution ‘‘Our People’ to designate
their own kind or again the name “‘Maleys,”’
referring to the commonest surname (Male)
among them.

The family names of the Guineas are
limited in number and are the most im-
portant items for identification of mem-
bers. The characteristic names are Adams,
Collins, Croston, Dalton, Dorton, Ken-
nedy, Male, Miner or Minard, Newman,
Norris, and Prichard. Of these by far the
most frequent in occurrence is Male. The
name Croston is next in frequency. The
Males, who also spell their name as Mayle,
Mail, and Mahle, trace their descent back
to an ancestor who was said to have come
over from England during colonial times.
One observer thinks that there may be
some connection between the Males and
the Malay Race. It is said, moreover, that
in the Male clan the white and Indian
blood is much more prominent than the
Negro. The Crostons, who have also spelled
their name Crosten, Chroasten, Croaston,
and Crostin, claim to be of Dutch descent
and trace their ancestry back to Hampshire
County, Va., along with the Males.

There is nothing singular about the per-
sonal names of the Guineas, but it is worth
noting that nicknames of a sort are fre-
quently applied, such as ‘‘Pizen John,”
“Screech,” and ‘‘Whistling George.” As

JAN. 15, 1946

in many other groups some given names
recur again and again in certain family
lines over several generations. The im-
portance of names will be mentioned again
in a later context in this paper.

Before proceeding further with a de-
scription of this peculiar minority it would
be well to note the natural conditions of
the geographic environment of these people
and. how these influences have shaped their
manner of life. Barbour and Taylor Coun-
ties are located in the northern part of
West Virginia along the axis of the Tygart
River, a branch of the Monongahela.
Barbour County is less rugged than the
mountainous counties to the east and
south, although there are a few cliffs of
some boldness along the watercourses. To
the eastward are Laurel and Chestnut
Ridges, which sink into hills with rounded
tops in Barbour. There are no wide valley
areas in Barbour, however, and the level
lands are to be found for the most part on
the ridges or uplands. In the bottoms along
the Tygart and its branches the ‘‘Great
Laurel” (Rhododendron maximum) formerly
grew most luxuriantly. This plant flourished
especially where cool and shady glades pre-
vailed and often covered large areas with
impenetrable laurel thickets. In the early
days these thickets were the retreat of wild
animals and a great barrier to the hunter.
Since the Tygart flowed northeastward
through the center of the county and had
numerous branches running out at an
angle from its bottoms, it furnished an
ideal hiding place for the various refugee
families from whom the Guineas are be-
lieved to have sprung.

Taylor County is similar in geographic
character to Barbour. Lying at some dis-
tance to the west of the Allegheny ridges,
its surface is of an irregular type, with
numerous rounded hills. In large areas the
land is comparatively level, however, and
easily cultivated. As in Barbour County
the Tygart River flows through the center
of Taylor County but in a northwesterly
direction, dividing it into two almost equal
parts. .

Between Barbour and Taylor Counties
the Tygart River executes a change of

GILBERT: MIXED BLOODS OF WEST VIRGINIA | 3

direction, from a northeasterly to a north-
westerly course, and in doing so forms on
its left bank a loop or horseshoe-shaped
peninsula called “‘the Narrows.” This loop
of land, surrounded on three sides by the
glades of Tygart River and on the fourth
or western side by equally impenetrable
thickets of laurel, served as an ideal place

af
/ BARBOUR |
Meriden *

| Philippi ¢ ¢Chestnut \
\ Ridge \

— 32

Fig. 1.—The chief communities in the mixed-
blood areas of Barbour and Taylor Counties,
W.Va.

for the hiding of runaways and refugees of
all kinds. So isolated was this peninsula
that even as late as 1880-1900 it was ac-
cessible only on horseback.

Not far to the south of the Narrows in
Barbour County ran the old Indian Trail
called ‘‘Horseshoe Run Trail,’ which
started from the region of the Northern
Branch of the Potomac in Maryland and
ran across the Cheat River, up its Clover
River Branch, crossed the Tygart slightly
to the north of Philippi, and then con-

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tinued westward into Harrison County (Hu
Maxwell, 1899, map). Along this trail bands
of Shawnee, Cherokee, Delaware, Hurons,
and other tribes made their way in going
across the central Alleghenies in the Co-
lonial period. The natural game refuge in
the Narrows not far off to the north along
the Tygart could not have failed to attract
the attention of hunters who were traveling
this trail.

A considerable period of isolation must
be assumed to account for the long-con-
tinued inbreeding which has characterized
the Guineas for a number of generations.
Before the 1840’s Harrison County com-
prised all the area west of the Tygart, and
Randolph County all the area to the east.
In both of these counties Guinea family
names began to appear about 1815 and to
increase with the formation of Barbour
County in 1843 and Taylor County in 1844.

Originally hunters and farmers on the
ridges, the economic life of the Guineas
expanded with that of the region in which
they grew. They began to cultivate wheat,
buckwheat, corn, hay, and orchard crops
such as apples. Dairying, as well as poultry
and cattle raising, became frequent. Garden
vegetables were raised also. The predatory
industries such as lumbering (in the oak,
poplar, maple stands) and coal-mining en-
gaged their labors. The building of the
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad and other rail
lines employed these people, along with
Irish and other immigrant contingents.
Some hauled coal while others became
domestic servants in homes of nearby
whites. Some became hucksters on market
day, selling blackberries or other produce
in nearby towns. In the coal mines the
Guineas often worked in gangs made up
of their kind. There was undoubtedly con-
siderable contact with the Irish at one time.
In the mines of Marion County they en-
countered at a later date the Poles and
Italians of the New Immigration.

As many left the ancestral hive and set-
tled in cities they took up occupations of
various sorts and took on new names. In
Ohio they settled near Canton, Zanesville,
Athens, Chillicothe, Sandusky, and Akron,
while some went even as far as Detroit.

VOL. 36, No. 1

In these localities their work varied from
gypsum works at Sandusky to gardening
in the suburbs of Chillicothe. Migration
back and forth into Ohio seems to have
been going on from 1880 or earlier.

In Grafton, county seat of Taylor Coun-
ty, the Guineas were almost unknown as a
group until recent years. Only once a year,
on Memorial Day, did any large number
come into town and that was on the oc-
casion of a ball game. Since the building
of the Tygart Dam in 1937 and the for-
mation of the Reservoir, which flooded
out large areas of their original domain,
they have moved increasingly into the
suburbs of Grafton, especially Blueville.
Grafton restaurants and barber shops have
now occasionally put up signs bearing the
inscription ‘‘white patronage only,’ and
color classification of the mixed bloods has
bothered the hospitals and schools.

In Philippi, the county seat of Barbour
County, the Guineas have been known
from the very foundation of the settlement
and were said to have been among the
first settlers of the vicinity (1780). The
chief settlements in this county are at
Chestnut Ridge Community northwest of
Philippi, at Meriden nearby on the Tygart,
around Moatsville, Lick Run, Buchanan,
Galloway, and Clemtown. Clemtown is in
the central area of the Narrows. Almost all
the Guineas are located in compact masses
as small landholders on the ridges in the
central and northern parts of the county.

In Taylor County the chief centers are
West Hill to the south of Webster, Knotts-
ville, and the vicinity of Flemington. The
flooded area around Cecil, now occupied
by the Tygart Reservoir, was also a former
center. Most of the Guineas are in the
southern part of Taylor County, but with
the flooding of large areas in 1937 many
scattered to other parts, thus giving rise to
school troubles. In Marion County coal
towns these mixed bloods are said to live
in the less-favored parts of town along
with the foreign born and the Negroes.
The Guineas, however, have not gone to
the city and industrial areas to the same
extent probably as the West Virginia
Negroes.

JAN. 15, 1946

A number of other counties in northern
West Virginia have small groups of Guineas.
These are Monongalia (to the north around
Morgantown), Grant, Mineral, Preston,
and Tucker to the east, Wirt to the west,
and Braxton and Randolph on the south.
At Big Island Run in Wirt County there
has long been a group of the Male family,
rather dark in color, who were widely re-
spected by their white neighbors for their
industry and honesty. This colony has
decreased much by migration in recent
years. In Garrett County, western Mary-
land, the Guineas long had a small colony
whose significance will be mentioned later.

As in all cases of unusual little groups of
isolated peoples we are constantly met with
the query, ‘‘What do they look like?” This
is a question much easier to pose than to
answer. From the accompanying photo-
graphs of Guinea school children it may
be seen that although there is a consider-
able range in variation none seem to ex-
hibit the marked features of the Negro nor
for that matter of the Indian. Most appear
to be of the classification of ‘‘Near Whites”
or what in the West Indies is called the
““Mustee” type. In fact, the Guineas do
pass for whites outside of the communities
where they have long been known.

Hu Maxwell, in the work previously re-
ferred to, speaks of them as “partly-
colored people” and says that they vary
in color from white to black, often possess-
ing blue eyes and straight hair. According
to another observer a single family of
brothers and sisters may range from the
blackest Negro to a blonde, blue-eyed, fair-
skinned person, with all the shades in be-
tween. Some are perfect Negroes, while
others have a marked Indian look. Most of
the neighboring whites seem to regard the
Guineas as mulattoes, while a few, noting
the angular facial features and the hawk-
_ like eye and nose, will concede an Indian
element. Several informants commented
that the Guinea women seemed to be either
very ugly or very good looking with few
in-betweens.

There can be little doubt that the Guin-
eas, in common with the Wesorts of south-
ern Maryland and the Croatans of North

GILBERT: MIXED BLOODS OF WEST VIRGINIA 5

Carolina, are another example of the triple
racial admixture of Indian, Negro, and
white to be found in a number of places
in this country where circumstances have
favored their development. Only a detailed
anthropometric analysis at some future
date will yield the evidence for physical
typology and the relative proportions of
each group. Several of the Guinea genealo-
gies refer back to full-blood and half-blood
Indian ancestry, but the entry of Negro
blood into the group is not recorded.

According to local white opinion the
habit of inbreeding has weakened the
Guineas. Several informants mentioned the
deformities of the joints, especially of the
arm and leg joints, as occurring at birth
among them in a number of instances.
Among other defects mentioned as occur-
ring are bad hearing, poor sight, harelips,
humpbacked conditions, and mental de-
ficiencies and aberrations. In the line of
diseases tuberculosis and typhoid fever are
given a prominent place.

The size of the family is said to be above
average. One observer mentioned three
families in his neighborhood who had four-
teen or fifteen children each. A family size
of six or seven children is thought to be
common within recent years.

The numbers of the Guineas are not sub-
ject to easy estimate. Hu Maxwell asserted
that at the time he wrote (1899) they to-
taled 1,000 in Barbour County alone. If
this figure be accepted as a conservative
estimate, it must be admitted that since
that time their numbers must have in-
creased considerably in the county. It is
thought by local informants that between
500 and 800 adult voters were of this race
in Barbour County during 1944 and that
this ought to represent a total population
of 3,000 to 4,000. An additional 500 voters
in Taylor County of this race would add
perhaps 3,000 more, bringing the total for
the two counties to a possible 7,000. To
this aggregate must be added an unknown
number scattered in other counties of West
Virginia, Ohio, and Michigan. It is prob-
ably safe to say that the total number of
the Guineas is somewhere between 7,000
and 8,000.

VOL. 36, No. 1

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

PEER GS

Fig. 2.—Members of Male, Croston, and other families in Barbour County, W. Va.

Jan. 15, 1946

Some light may be thrown on the num-
bers question from Table 1, giving the popu-
lation by race in Barbour and Taylor Coun-
ties from 1850 to 1940 (Negroes in the United
States 1920-1932; Negro Population in the
United States, 1790-1915). In a rural
county such as Barbour it seems unusual
to perceive such a marked increase in
Negro population from 1920 to 1940. This
taken in conjunction with the relative
proportions of free Negroes and slaves and
of blacks and mulattoes in 1910 would indi-
cate something of the growth in numbers
of the Guineas. In Taylor County condi-
tions are reversed and the Negro population
seems to outrank the Guineas in numbers.

TABLE 1.—PoPULATION BY RACE OF BARBOUR AND TAYLOR CoUNTIES,
W. Va., 1850-1940

Barbour County Taylor County

Year
: : Free S Free

Whites Nees Slaves} Total || Whites Sere Slaves} Total
1850 | 8,670} 222; 1138 §,005 5,130 69 168 5,367
1860 | 8,728| 135 95 | 8,958 7,300} 51 | 112 8, 958
1870 | 10,312} 386 10,698 9,024 | 343 9,367
1880 | 11,413} 457 11,870 || 11,056 | 399 11,455
1890 | 12,204} 498 12,702 || 11,785 | 362 12,147
1900 | 13,390; 808 14,198 |} 14,553 | 423 14,976
1910 | 14,937} 920* 15,857 || 16,025 | 527 16,532
1920 | 17,208} 820 18,028 || 18,099 | 641 18,740
1930 | 17,657) 971 18,628 || 18,391 | 722 19,113
1940 | 18,651 |1,218 19,919

19,869 || 19,341 | 578

* 71 black and 849 mulatto.

According to the 1930 census only 33
percent of the “‘Negro”’ (1.e., nonwhite or
mixed) population of Barbour County be-
tween the ages of 7 and 13 years were
attending school. This contrasts with the
West Virginia average figures for these age
groups in the ‘‘Negro” population of 93.5
percent for that year and a county range
within the State (outside of Barbour Coun-
ty) of 89 to 100 percent ‘‘colored’’ attend-
ing school. The same 1930 census gives a
figure of 32:3 percent illiteracy for the ‘‘Ne-
gro’ population of Barbour County, which
is the highest in the State of West Virginia
for that year. The preliminary figures for
the 1940 census showed 97.7 percent of the
“Negro” population of Barbour County
between the ages of 7 and 13 attending
school.

GILBERT: MIXED BLOODS OF WEST VIRGINIA 7

The school question regarding the Guin-
eas has been an acute one for a number
of years in both Taylor and Barbour
Counties. According to West Virginia law
white schools are to be separate from
colored. For at least 30 years the Guinea
children have been attending schools sepa-
rate from the white. At the present time
there are two such schools in Taylor
County, a two-room building at West
Hill and a one-room structure at Mount
Airy, southwest of Knottsville. In Barbour
County there are five or six such schools,
at Prichard, Lick Run, Buchanan (Sutton
School), Meriden (Hanging Rock School),
and two at Chestnut Ridge.

School troubles have developed in both
counties from time to time over the segre-
gation issue and the classification of these
schools as ‘‘colored.’”? Apparently, no Ne-
groes attend these Guinea Schools and there
are several Negro schools in the two coun-
ties also. The following citation from the
Grafton News of September 15, 1944, will
explain something of the situation faced in
Taylor County:

Another problem... is the matter that con-
cerns the failure to open the Mt. Airy one room
colored school. Although the school was scheduled
to open, its teacher, Earl G. Mayle, failed to open
it Wednesday, September 6, when the other
schools of the county began the current term.

From the information available it appears that
the residents of that community objected to send-
ing their children to a school that was designated
as a colored school. Apparently fearing that some
difficulty might develop over the matter Mayle
failed to open the school and this week tendered
his resignation to the Taylor County Board of
Education. Mayle had been the teacher at Mt.
Airy for a number of years.

The enrollment at Mt. Airy school, which is
located in Knottsville district, last year was 18
pupils. Unofficial observers have it that only
seven or eight children reported for school on the
opening day, with the other children presumably
being kept home by their parents.

According to stories reaching Grafton there
appears to be an organized movement, on the
part of the parents, objecting to their children
attending a school designated as a colored school.

No indication has been made as to what steps
the board of education will take toward opening
the school or attempting to settle the pertinent
question as to whether the children of the many
families of mixed or unknown races which reside
in that section must attend a colored or white
school.

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Much of the recent school problem in
Taylor County has been due, it is claimed,
to the building of the Tygart Dam in 1937
and flooding of area formerly inhabited by
many Guinea families with consequent
scattering to other parts of the county.
Here the children were faced with trouble
when they tried to enter the white schools.

In Barbour County there has been con-
siderable trouble where white school ad-
ministrators have occasionally failed to deal
with the problem intelligently. It is said
that over 20 members of the Guinea group
were in jail at one time over failure to send
their children to school. The teachers in
the Guinea schools have been mulattoes
and Guineas. Within the past year two
schools have been burned down by persons
unknown. One of these was a new school
with much of the latest equipment. A num-
ber of court suits have been initiated to
determine whether the Guineas were white
or colored. Factionalism among the Guineas
themselves is blamed for some of the school
troubles in this county. One faction is said
to desire the monopoly in the use of one
school over another.

The religious affiliation of the Guineas
appears to be almost entirely Protestant.
Many are members of the Free Methodist
denomination, while others belong to the
United Brethren and the Pentecostal Faith.
In Barbour County the major groups
among the whites are the Methodists and
United Brethren, with the Baptists rank-
ing far behind in numbers. The Negroes
of the county, however, appear to be mainly
Baptist. In Taylor County, on the other
hand, the Baptists are in a majority among
the whites with the Methodists somewhat
less numerous. There are some half a dozen
exclusively Guinea churches in the two
counties of which the ones at Chestnut
Ridge and West Hill are examples. The
Guineas have their own cemetery at Moun-
tain View. Other cemeteries mentioned in
connection with their burials are Shiloh,
Chestnut Ridge, Silent Grove, Prichard,
and Welch.

Politically the Guineas have shown a
strong trend toward the Republican Party
in an area where the general voting list

VOL. 36, No. 1

shows a tendency for Democratic voters
to outnumber the Republican. It is claimed
that in Barbour County the Guineas hold
the balance of power between the two par-
ties. White politicians, it is said, exert
every effort to swing the Guinea vote in
their favor. One such propounded a theory
with which he hoped to win votes from this
group several years ago. He asserted that
just after the Revolutionary War a scientist
bent on breeding a race of supermen brought
the ancestors of the Guineas into the Nar-
rows on the Tygart River to raise them in
isolation from the rest of the world. We
are not told whether this attempt at flat-
tery gained the votes he desired. Another
political figure asserted on the witness stand
that he would be proud to have his daughter
marry a member of the Guinea race.
Neither of these statements accorded with
local white public opinion.

The contempt of some of the neighbor-
ing white people for the Guineas is marked.
They are regarded as the dregs of society,
as outcasts of little consequence or im-
portance. Others among the whites feel
much more sympathetic toward the Guin-
eas and speak of them as capable people
when they are given opportunities for ad-
vancement. The chief complaints which
one hears made are chicken-thieving, boot-
legging of illicit liquor, and similar derelic-
tions. Occasionally there are serious alter- .
cations within the group, ending in homi-
cide or other serious assaults. As before
noted, cases of arson have also been charged
to the Guineas.

The mixed bloods, along with other coun-
try folk, congregate in the town on Satur-
day afternoon and evening to gossip and
meet their friends. In Philippi the court-
house is a favorite rendezvous for Guineas,
and some may be found there at almost any
time. In Grafton they congregate in front
of the A. and P. Store. Fiddle-playing and
singing were favorite recreations with the
older generation. They are said to be par-
ticularly addicted to the old, well-known
Negro spirituals. There is an annual fair
held in September by the Guineas near
Philippi, and this is entirely organized and
conducted by them.

JAN. 15, 1946

In the military draft for World War II
the Guineas of Taylor County have gone
for the most part into the army as whites.
Apparently there was some sort of prior
agreement among them to register as white
rather than as colored. In Barbour County,
on the other hand, draftees are said to have
gone under both categories. The type of
racial classification for the draft can be
ascertained by watching the lists published
in the newspapers whereby the two races
(white and colored) are reported separately.
When Guinea youths migrate or go into
the army they often return to the ancestral
hearth bringing white girls as brides, and
the latter are faced with the social problem
of meeting their varicolored in-laws. This
situation has been said to result occasion-
ally in divorce or annulment due to the
difficulties of adjustment. One such case
was mentioned in which a dramatic racial
denouement occurred when a wealthy bride
drove up to the poor dwelling of her hus-
band’s people in her “fancy”’ car and was
shocked beyond words to discover that
they were locally considered as colored.
In recent years there has been apparently
an increasing resistance on the part of the
Guineas to their classification as ‘‘colored.”’
One doctor in a town hospital had trouble
with a Guinea mother who threatened a
lawsuit because he had listed the child born
to her as “‘colored.”’
Permanent migration out of Barbour

and Taylor Counties has been recom-
mended by local white officials as the best
solution for the individual Guinea. By
moving to a community in which there is
no knowledge of the Guineas as a group
it is quite possible for the individual to
pass into the white classification in many
instances.

Two incidents of this type might be
cited. In a nearby county seat there was
a Guinea man of unusual physique, tall
and sturdy, who worked with a paper and
pulp company. As time went on, by reason
of his skill and industry, he was promoted
to the position of foreman and finally to
plant superintendent. Possessed of a good
income and reputation, he stood high in the
estimation of his neighbors in spite of the

GILBERT: MIXED BLOODS OF WEST VIRGINIA 9

known fact that he was of mixed-blood
descent. His attractive daughter was sent
to a girls’ finishing school in Virginia and
passed without question as white. A man
instructor was attracted to her and the two
were married. Soon afterward the new
bridegroom met his father-in-law and the
latter took him aside and told him the whole
story of the Guinea racial background with
the suggestion that the marriage might be
annulled if he so desired. The bridegroom
did not flinch, however, and accepted the
situation, taking a position with the paper
mill, and never returned to his former
teaching post. He and his wife never had
any offspring, however, so the story goes.

In another instance a Guinea youth
played on a high-school football team in a
town nearby and made a splendid record.
Subsequently he went to a Virginia college
for four years, graduated, and married into
a white family of good status with appar-
ently no trouble ever arising over his race.

In the local courts of Barbour and Tay-
lor Counties a series of lawsuits over school
attendance took extensive testimony from
neighbors, local reputation, birth records,
marriage records, voting records, and
school and church attendance records,
regarding the race of the Guineas. In the
census records persons with Guinea family
names in Barbour and Taylor Counties are
classified as ‘‘mulatto’’ in the period from
1810 to 1880.

If there is such a thing as group char-
acter one of the traits assignable to the Guin-
eas is an interest in skill and cleverness. It
takes the form of a real dexterity and an
emphasis on the clever and the genuine
use of skill. At West Hill the Guineas are
said to have a special “‘telegraphic”’ system
of their own for transmitting news almost
instantaneously, for everybody there seems
to be immediately aware of any stranger
approaching the top of the hill. Quite a
number, moreover, have gone to college
and later served as teachers or professional
men among their own kind or elsewhere.
There is apparently a very marked em-
phasis on education and higher learning.

An instance of cleverness may be cited
from a case occurring about 40 years ago.

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A certain mixed-blood man, A. N., owned
an old gristmill in the Cove District of
Barbour County. For several years his son
R. A. was with a circus but later came back
to work in the mill and put the tricks he
had learned into practice to mystify his
neighbors. It soon came to be noised about
that the old mill was haunted. Boxes and
barrels would move mysteriously across
the floor and other strange things happened.
The local populace for miles around came
to see the curious antics of the ghost. A
certain “Capt.” J. R. undertook to “‘lay”’
the ghost. He went to the mill one evening
and after considerable wrangling R. A. con-
sented to be tied up; this, “Capt.” said,
would show whether R. A. was the ghost.
Barrels began to roll over the floor and
down the stairs, while R. A. struggled with
his bonds and shouted loudly about losing
his grain. A rock or small piece of quartz
dropped mysteriously upon a scale, and
“Capt.”’ wrapped it up in his handkerchief
and took it home for examination in the
daylight. Upon arriving home he locked
the handkerchief and quartz in the drawer.
When morning came he unlocked the
drawer, took out the handkerchief and
untied it, but the quartz had disappeared.
That put an end to “Capt.’s’” attempt to
lay the ghost.

According to one informant the Guineas
can be divided into three sets, locally il-
lustrative of variation in character. These
are (1) the West Hill group of Taylor
County, (2) the Chestnut Ridge group of
Barbour County, and (3) the Clemtown
group on the borders of Barbour and
Taylor Counties.

The first group were characterized by
fairly good behavior, industriousness, and
the fact that they got along very well with
their neighbors. They were still regarded
as in a separate status from the whites,
however, and a few years ago when one
of these persons, a prosperous farmer, at-
tempted to buy a farm in another part of
Taylor County where Guineas were not
previously settled the white neighbors got
together and effectively barred the sale.

The second group lived in an isolated
section somewhat apart from all neighbors

VOL. 36, No. 1

and were extremely backward because of
the poor quality of their land. They were
said also to be more ‘‘mixed up” racially
than the other two groups. Their position
was definitely not good.

The third group had good farmland and
for a long time were very progressive and
frequently prosperous rural folk. They kept
up their taxes and were careful of their ra-
cial affiliations, mixing only with the equally
respected West Hill ‘crowd.’ But during
Prohibition they went in rather heavily for
bootlegging, and this has sadly deteriorated
their previous good reputation in the region.

The Guineas as a whole are strongly
characterized by the spirit of cooperation
in spite of the factions and internal dis-
putes. Whenever the advantage of the
group as a whole is at stake they are quick
to notice it and to bring to bear a common
effort. This is shown in the attitude regard-
ing school classification as “‘colored”’ and
in the agreement to register uniformly in
one county as white for the draft. As pre- |
viously noticed, the phrase ‘‘our people,”’
is employed for themselves and betrays a
certain degree of consciousness of kind. A
certain aggressiveness is also exemplified
in the interest in court or legal procedures,
especially those involving their own status.

The history of a racial minority of this ©
type must be gleaned from local records of
births, deaths, and marriages and from
the census records of persons with the
Guinea family names in the “free colored”’
or the ‘‘mulatto’”’ categories. One thing
that can be established from the outset is
that for a long time the Guineas have
been intermarrying among themselves and
that matings with outsiders have been
definitely in a minority. For instance, an
examination of 31 marriages of Collinses
from 1856 to 1915 discloses that only
three were with persons of non-Guinea
family name (Douglas, Stalnaker, and
Davis), about 10 percent. Similarly, in a
list of 81 Croston marriages from 1858 to
1931 only 8 were with persons of non-
Guinea family names (Kisner, Hunter,
Hendrick, Parsons, DeCost, Ross, Wilson,
and Moore), again about 10 percent.

In explaining the origin of the Guineas

Jan. 15, 1946

some attention must be given to the ex-
istence of still smaller knots of people set-
tled here and there in the region farther
east. For instance, there is the small colony
of half a dozen families of mixed Indian
descent at present located on the Blue
Ridge Mountains near Boonesboro (Wash-
ington County), Md. These may be de-
scended from two family groups named
Perl and Patterson, which were located in
the vicinity of Jefferson, Lander, and Ca-
toctin Mills in 1889. In that year James
Mooney, the Smithsonian anthropologist,
sent out questionnaire forms to a number
of communities in Maryland, Delaware,
and North Carolina on various topics hav-
ing to do with Indians and Indian remains
still in the vicinity. The results are still in
the archives of the Bureau of American
Ethnology at Washington. Among them
is the notice of the above-mentioned small
group.

He gives similar notice about the ex-
istence of three or four families going by
the name of Mail or Male, living in the
extreme western part of Maryland near
Oakland and Deer Park who had tradi-
tionally migrated from Hampshire County,
Va., a few generations before. It is likely
that from these much smaller pockets of
Indian remnants the recruits were drawn
together sometime during the nineteenth
century to form the nucleus of the larger
present-day settlement of Guineas in Bar-
bour and Taylor Counties, W. Va. (Gil-
bert, 1946).

In Table 2 is shown the development of
Guinea family names in selected counties
of Virginia, later West Virginia, and the
increase of their number with each decade
is evidently an index of some process of
multiplication within an isolated area and
with consistent inbreeding. The history of
the race, then, is written largely in the
increase in the family names in limited
areas of the State (Woodson, 1925, pp.
175, 187, 188).

The name ‘‘Male”’ occurs in a few scat-
tered instances in Chesterfield, Norfolk,
and Hampshire Counties of Virginia, in
York and Bedford Counties of Pennsyl-
vania, and in New York City in the census

GILBERT: MIXED BLOODS OF WEST VIRGINIA 11

lists of 1784 and 1790 for these areas. None
of these are in connection with persons
designated as nonwhite.

TABLE 2.—OccURRENCE OF GUINEA FamiILy Names IN CouNTIES OF
VirGInia (LATER West VirGINIA) 1810-1880
(Numbers ol families, free colored or mulatto, with these names in each
decennial census)

Harrison | Randolph Barbour Taylor
Nine County County County County

(1810- (1810- (1850- (1850-

1840) 1840) 1880) 1880)
Adams = 5 15 1 tlh 24
Collins -,-,-,1 } -,1,1,- eB Gd -,-,1,-
Croston -.-,1 2,6, 10,8 -,-,1,1
Dalton 5,1, 4,4 Sy
Dorton BS Seb! Soe

Kennedy (Canada) 1,2,2,1 | -,-,-, 2 2,-,-, 4

Male =, 1,1,5 | =,4,4,10 | 11, 11, 23,35 | 2,4,6;5
Minard (Miner) Se ease
Newman Sey Sw 6, 3,5, 5 2,-7.7
Norris See |) Gy eea -,-,1,-
lle 1,-,1,-

Prichard » 9 4y

In the Virginia census of 1782-1784
there were a number of Collinses, Norrises,
Pritchards, and Newmans, whose racial
character, outside of the fact that they
were not slaves, is unmentioned. The
county records seem to indicate that the
Newmans stem from Loudon County, Va.,
while the Crostons and the Males both ap-
pear originally in Hampshire County of
that state. According to one account the
Pritchards are of slave origin from Hamp-
shire County, Va. The Minards have a
tradition of their Pennsylvania origin.
While the Newmans claim an Irish back-
ground, and the Males an English, the
Minards and Crostons assert a Dutch
origin for their family names. Both Nor-
rises and Males have ancestors of Indian
or half-Indian race in their family genealo-
gies. One or two cases of Portuguese inter-
marriage with Males are recorded. It is
interesting to note that one theory of
Guinea origins traces them back to Span-
iards, perhaps some lost followers of De
Soto. The name Adams is a rare one among
the Guineas but is shared by them with
mixed Indian groups in Virginia and with
the Wesorts in Maryland, another mixed
group. The name Collins, it is also worth
while to note, is one of the commonest
surnames among the Melungeons of Ten-

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

nessee, a mixed group similar to the Guin-
eas. In addition to Adams, the surname
Newman is shared by the Guineas with
the Wesorts of Maryland. The name Nor-
ris or Morris is shared with the Nanticoke
mixed bloods of Delaware.

The derivation, then, of the Guineas is
an extremely complex picture. We can
reconstruct their history tentatively on
the basis of partly runaway slaves, partly
freedmen, partly mulattoes, some stray
Indian families, and perhaps partly recruits
from neighboring mixed peoples of the same
kind such as the Virginia tidewater groups,
the Wesorts and the Melungeons. How this
group first came together, why certain
family lines only were selected for the in-
marrying group, and where the dividing
line exists between true mulatto and Guin-
ea, are unclear parts of the picture. The
tendency to marry only within certain
family lines reminds one of the preferential
mating rules of some of the primitive
Indian societies of North America.

Another puzzling problem is the origin of
the stigmatization attaching to the Guineas.
There are many families of West Virginia,
as in other parts of the United States, who
are proud to claim Indian blood in their
veins and who are not stigmatized for it.
In the case of the Guineas the inference is
that they are all in some degree part Negro
in blood, but this again is difficult to prove
and also difficult to believe. There may be
a lingering idea that these mixed bloods
are mainly of runaway slave origin.

In considering the future prospects of
the Guineas it can not be too strongly em-
phasized that the more thoroughly they
are studied and their origin understood the
better will be their chances of ultimate ab-
sorption and acceptance as members of
the larger ethnic group of undifferentiated
citizens in the United States. Already they
have achieved progress in this direction as
compared with some of their similar mixed
relatives in neighboring States. It might
be worth while to itemize a few of their
characteristics in comparison with the
Wesorts, a similar racially mixed group
some 200 miles eastward near the mouth
of the Potomac (Gilbert, 1945).

VOL. 36, No. 1

The environmental circumstances of the
two groups are somewhat contrasting, the
Wesorts being located on the Coastal Plain
and in the neighborhood of tidal or near-
tidal swamps, while the Guineas are lo-
cated in the Allegheny Plateau area on the
ridges and narrow river valleys protected
by laurel thickets. The economic develop-
ment of the Wesorts has been mainly
along agricultural lines, while that of the
Guineas has been in both agriculture and
the extractive industry of mining. The
Wesorts have been forced by a variety of
factors into Negro institutions or into in-
stitutions whose membership is largely
Negro (schools and churches), while the
Guineas have segregated out in their own
schools and churches. One of the important
factors in Wesort development has been
the large amount of trade relationships
these people have had with Negroes, es-
pecially in urban or suburban environment.
The Wesorts have many, if not most of
their business dealings with Negroes, such
as selling farm produce and buying up
material for salvage. The Guineas do not
seem to have gone much into trade, and
where they have the business dealings have
been more with whites. The (Guinea
churches, being organized on an _ inde-
pendent congregational basis, have been
easier to segregate by themselves than in
the case of the Wesorts, who are Roman
Catholics and attend parish churches in
which either Negroes or whites preponder-
ate.

The location of the Wesorts is in an area
where Negroes make up practically half of
the population, while that of the Guineas
is in an area where Negroes are scarcely
as numerous as the Guineas themselves.
The result is a situation of “‘southern”’ so-
cial surroundings for the former and ‘‘north-
ern’”’ social surroundings for the latter.
The overflow of Wesort population has
been into cities such as Washington and
Baltimore with strongly fixed racial tra-
ditions of segregation, while that of the
Guineas has been to cities of Ohio and
Michigan where conditions are fluid and
possibilities of ‘“passing’’ are more frequent.

In the rural environment there has been

JAN. 15, 1946 -

much more of the dependency relationship
in the case of the Wesorts than in the case
of the Guineas. The former have been
mainly tenant farmers, scattered about
over a wide area, while the latter have
been primarily small landholders concen-
trated in large masses within small neigh-
borhoods. The economic life of the Guineas
is considerably more variegated than that
of the Wesorts and their possibilities of
making a living at present seem much bet-
ter. On the other hand, there is no tradi-
tion of craftsmanship or fine artisan work
among the Guineas as there has been in
past times among the Wesorts.

The sum and substance of this compari-
son seems to indicate an increasing identi-
fication, in the case of the Wesorts, with
the Negro minority while on the contrary
the ties of the Guineas have become in-
creasingly stronger with the whites. In a
biracial society such as the United States
has long possessed the in-betweens tend in
the long run to go over as a body into
either the one or the other of the two larger
groups. In the present comparison the
Guineas seem in a better way to solve their
minority racial status problem than do the
Wesorts through absorption in the larger
racial group.

In the case of the Guineas independent
organization for group ends would seem to
be largely superfluous, if not positively
harmful, in the sense of emphasizing minor-
ity status. In the case of Wesorts it would
seem that group organization would be of
the greatest value in preserving an identity
of group status which is fast being lost
under present tendencies.

GILBERT: MIXED BLOODS OF WEST VIRGINIA 13

It is to be hoped that the present school
controversies involving the Guineas will
soon be solved. Recognition that Guinea
schools are not ‘‘Negro” would be of the
greatest assistance in this direction. A
policy of encouraging greater dispersal for
these mixed bloods would also be helpful.
A modification of segregation to the extent
of granting greater leeway for social par-
ticipation in white churches and schools by
Guineas is to be anticipated. In the long
run complete absorption of these mixed
bloods into the white community is very
likely to take place.

LITERATURE CITED

Anonymous. Board will air Mt. Airy School
problem Thursday. Grafton (W. Va.)
News, Sept. 15, 1944, p. 1, col. 2.

CraiGin, Sir WiLu1aM A., and HULBERT, J. R.
(editors). A dictionary of American Eng-
lish 2: 1193. Chicago, 1940.

GILBERT, WILLIAM H., Jr. The Guineas of
West Virginia (brief communication).
Amer. Anthrop. 48. 1946.

The Wesorts of southern Maryland.
An outcasted group. Journ. Washington
Acad. Sci. 35 (8): 237-246. 1945.

MaxweELu, Hu. The history of Barbour County,
West Virginia: 310-311. Morgantown,
W. Va., 1899.

Mencken, H. L. The American language:
295. New York, 1936.

Rospack, A. A. A dictionary of international
slurs: 37. Cambridge, Mass., 1944.

U.S. Census Bureau. Negroes in the United
States, 1920-1932. Washington, 1935.

. Negro population in the United States,
1790-1915. Washington, 1918.

Woopson, CArTER G. Free Negro heads of
families in the United States in 1830: 175,
187, 188. Washington (Association for
the Study of Negro Life and History),
1925.

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 1

CHEMISTRY.—Salt ribbons and ice ribbons.1 Rotanp W. Brown, U. S. Geo-

logical Survey.

Recently I soaked a sample of clayey
peat in water overnight in a glazed earthen
bowl borrowed from W. H. Hass, one of
my colleagues. The glaze on the bowl was
extensively cross-fissured, the fractures be-
ing barely visible to the naked eye. In the
morning I found the outer surface of the
bowl covered with isolated small ribbons
as well as polygonal patterns of a white
salt growing at right angles to the surface
out of the minute cracks in the glaze (Figs.
1-4). The ribbons were thin, curly, striated,
and fragile, from 1 to 5 mm. long, and were
only lightly attached to the bowl. When I
showed this effect to Dr. Hass and his as-
sistant, Patricia Proctor, they were not
surprised, for they had frequently found
larger and more varied salt ribbons on the
bowls in which they liberate conodonts by
digesting limestones and shales in acetic
acid. Qualitative tests by W. G. Schlecht,
another of my colleagues, showed that the
salt was principally calcium acetate. As
the peat contained no lime I concluded
that the salt ribbons developed from a
reservoir of the salt, residual in the pores
of the bowl from previous use.

The ribbons were probably formed as
follows: Calcium acetate was already pres-
ent in the pores of the bowl, having seeped
in from solutions previously in the bowl.
Fresh water in the bowl permeated the
pores, dissolving the calcium acetate and
pushing the solution forward toward the
surface. The warm temperature and mod-
erate humidity in the room promoted
evaporation from the surface of the bowl,
thus stimulating the capillary flow of salt
solution through the bowl. The salt was
deposited just within the pores and inter-
stices of the glazing, and the flowers or
ribbons were pushed bodily outward as
more solution seeped forward and the
water evaporated. If deposition did not
take place just beneath the surface the
ribbons could not remain attached to the

1 Published by permission of the Director,
Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the
Interior. Received November 16, 1945.

bowl. The curvature of the ribbons is caused
by more rapid growth on one side than on
the other. By touching the tips of several
ribbons with drops of red ink I was able
to see plainly that the ribbons grew from
the base and not from the free end. They
were, therefore, solid structures, without
internal canals.

The deposition of salt at small apertures
produces several kinds of structures simu-
lating the natural helictites (not stalactites
or stalagmites) that sometimes develop on
cave walls and ceilings. R. E. Janssen
(1944), for example, observed two kinds of
salt growths, which he called “pickle helic-
tites,’’ that formed at small holes in the
lids of pickle jars—a solid but delicate
kind, and a hollow, sturdier kind. As the
helictites had already completed their
growth before he discovered them, Janssen
had no opportunity to determine whether
the solid forms grew from their bases or at
the tips by capillarity of materials through
their interiors. The hollow forms evidently
developed somewhat in the manner of
geyser cones. The growth of helictites has,
however, been studied in a series of in-
genious laboratory experiments by L. C. .
Huff (1940). He demonstrated that some ~
helictites, at least, are tubular and grow
at the free end from solutions traveling
along narrow interior channels. By placing
a porous plate over the mouth of a bottle
containing sodium thiosulphate and invert-
ing, Huff obtained artificial salt ‘‘flowers’’
comparable to natural “gypsum flowers.”
These ‘‘flowers”’ were, therefore, formed es-
sentially in the same manner as the salt
ribbons on my bowl.

Although salt ribbons of several kinds
have thus been observed before, I do not
know of any paper that notes the similarity
of the phenomenon to the formation of ice
ribbons. The latter are thin, white, curly
structures that grow to a length of 10 or
more centimeters from the dead stems of
some plants just above the ground in the
early frosty period of winter before the
ground is thoroughly frozen. Sir John

Jan. 15, 1946

Herschel (1833) was probably the first to
report this phenomenon, having observed
ice ribbons on thistles and _heliotropes.
John LeConte (1877) found them on the
stems of a species of composite, Pluchea
[Conyza]. More recently W. J. Humphreys
(1925) has reported fine examples seen on
the stems of the mint, Cunila origanordes,
sometimes called dittany and stonemint.
Perhaps the most spectacular specimens,
however, are those described by W. N.
Clute (1927; 1932) from a composite called

BROWN: SALT RIBBONS AND ICE RIBBONS 15

white crownbeard, Verbesina virginica,
which seems to be the preeminent ice plant.
Although these and other papers have
speculated on the process by which ice
ribbons are formed, some details remain
unexplained. In general, however, there is
agreement that the ground must remain
warm enough to prevent soil moisture
from freezing, thus permitting it to flow
upward in the stems of plants; and that
the temperature, pressure, and humidity of
the air must be such that water permeating

Figs. 1—-4.—Salt ribbons on the outer glazed surface of a bow! (millimeter scale indicates magnifica-
tion): 1, Surface of the bowl showing isolated ribbons and a polygonal pattern in the lower left corner;
2, 4, enlarged views of polygonal patterns from other portions of the bowl; 3, side view of ribbons in a
polygonal pattern. The patterns are governed by the cracks in the glazing. Photographs by Lloyd G.

Henbest.

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

a plant stem will freeze as fast as it appears
at or just beneath the surface of the stem.
Roots are apparently little, if any, involved
in this process, for stems that are carefully
cut and replaced in the ground will pro-
duce ribbons. Passage of the water up
through and across the stem is probably
by way of the vascular tissues, but whether
the death of the stem has enlarged or
altered these passages so as to permit a
freer flow of water is unknown. Ribbons
may be produced on successive nights from
the same stem, raising as much as 60 cc
of water each night. The flow of water
radially across the stem apparently takes
place along the medullary rays, and the ice
ribbons begin as thin crystals at the ends
of these rays beneath the surface of the
stem. The species of plants that habitually
produce ice ribbons should be examined to
see whether their medullary rays resemble
one another closely.

Salt ribbons and ice ribbons thus seem
to have much in common mechanically in
their development. The ice crystals or pil-
lars surmounted by particles of earth or
rock, seen frequently in open ground during
mild, alternately thawing and freezing
winter weather, are coarser structures, but
evidently develop in somewhat the same
manner as ice ribbons from the stems of
plants, namely, by the freezing of water as
fast as it rises from pores in the ground. In

VOL. 36, No. 1

quite a different category from ice ribbons
belong ice stalactites, stalagmites, and foam
‘‘voleanoes,’”’ described by H. J. Schaefer
(1944). The latter resemble geyser cones in
outline and appearance, but are fragile
structures formed by the freezing, under
proper atmospheric conditions, of foam
pushed up slowly but continuously through
holes in ice below waterfalls.

For bibliographic aid in preparing this
paper I am grateful to R. C. Aldredge, li-
brarian at the Weather Bureau, U. 8. De-
partment of Commerce, and to E. P.
Henderson, of the U. &. National Museum.

REFERENCES

CuuTr, W. N. A new frost flower. Amer.
Bot. 33::1,27 1927.
. Frost flowers. Amer. Bot. 38: 1-12.
1932. (See bibliography.)

HERSCHEL, Sir JoHN F. W. Notice of a re-
markable deposition of ice round the de-
caying stems of vegetables during frost.
London and Edinburgh Philosoph. Mag.
and Journ, Sct.) 1833710 Seine 2)
figs. A, B,C. Feb., 1833.

Hurr, L. C. Artificcal helicites and gypsum

flowers. Journ. Geol. 48: 641-659. 1940.
Humpureys, W.J. Ice ribbons. Sci. Month-
ly 21: 511-514. 1925.
JANSSEN, R. E. Pickle helicites. Sci. Month-

ly 58: 345-347. 1944.

LreConts, Joun. Ice fingers around the stems
of plants. Sci. Amer. 36: 212. Apr. 7,
STs

SCHAEFER, VINCENT J. Winter magic. Nat.
Hist. 53: 16-20. Jan., 1944.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the sub-
family Dynastinae, No. 2: Tribe Oryctini (part)... LAWRENCE W. SAYLOR,
Research Associate, California Academy of Sciences.

This paper continues the series on United
States dynastine scarab beetles and in-
cludes the three genera differentiated in
the following key:

1. Apical margin of posterior tibia evenly trun-

cate, never with angulations or teeth (lateral .

view); real apex of clypeus beyond (i.e.,

apical of) the apparent carinate apex; front
male tibia frequently edentate.

| Chetroplatys Hope

Apical margin of posterior tibia never evenly

truncate, always with several angulations,

or teeth; apical carina of clypeus, 7f present,

right at the apical margin............... 2

1 Received September 27, 1945.

2. Mandibles always large, always well exposed,
always armed externally with teeth or else
square in outline (cessus); apical margin of
posterior tibia usually with 1 or 2 sharp
angulations or 1 to 3 or 4 teeth.

Strategus Hope

Mandibles usually hidden beneath clypeus, or
only edges exposed, and always unarmed
externally; usually with 5 to 9 small to large
teeth on outer apical margin of posterior
ELISAs certs ok See OE Xyloryctes Hope

Genus Cheiroplatys Hope

Cheiroplatys Hope, 1837, p. 84; Lacordaire, 1856,
p. 411; Arrow, 1937b, p. 37.

Orizabus Fairmaire, 1878, p. 260; Bates, 1888,
p. 320; Casey, 1915, p. 222.

Jan. 15, 1946

Pseudaphonus Casey, 1915, p. 210; Arrow, 1937b,
p. 35.
Aztecalius Casey, 1915, p. 228.

Arrow lists 32 species in this genus in his
1937 Catalogue; many of these are synonyms
and are here listed as such, and additional
ones from our faunas will probably prove to be
synonymous. This genus is one of those that
occur apparently only in the American and
Australian regions, and the majority of the
species are from New Guinea and Australian
localities. There is a great deal of variation in
the thoracic armature (presence or absence of a
tubercle and strong fovea) as well as in the
height and width of the one or two head
carinae, which may be much worn in numerous
individuals, thus giving them a superficially
different appearance; such is also true of the
front tibia, which normally in the male of
some species, and infrequently also in the fe-
male, may be nontoothed externally, but
broadly rounded or uni- to bisinuate.

KEY TO UNITED STATES CHEIROPLATYS

1. Size very large (21-24 mm); pygidia] punctura-
tion variable, from nearly smooth to densely
subrugosely punctate, but most commonly
the center disc finely and not densely punc-
tate; male front tibia usually rounded ex-
ternally and not toothed; clypeal apex with
short carina, which is usually interrupted at
middle and obtusely bidentate, rarely nearly
entire; clypeal base with a small to large
tubercle, this rarely semicarinate but then
the hardly obvious carina obsolete at sides;
center-apex of thorax deeply foveate and
tuberculate, or entirely plane (i.e., either
evenly convexor flat)... . .clunalis (LeConte)

Size much smaller (14-18 mm); clypeal carinae
variable, not as above; thorax only rarely
foveate or tuberculate.........0..0.00... 2

2. Clypeus strongly narrowed in front, apical
carina much shorter than half the length of
clypeus at base, and strongly elevated and
usually narrowly interrupted at middle, thus

appearing bidentate; front with a large
tubercle, this sometimes a little finely cari-
nate to each side, but never with a strong
raised carina; pygidium always very densely
and finely cribrately punctate over entire
dise, rarely a little sparser at center.
pyttformis (LeConte)
Clypeus very broad in front, apical carina
much more than half the length of the
posterior carina and always raised, entire
and straight; thorax in males usually foveate
at midapex and tuberculate or not, usually
plane in females; pygidial sculpture cribrate
and close at sides, most specimens with small

SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE if

to large midcenter discal area smooth, or
with finely sparsely punctate area.
tsodonoides (Fairmaire)

Cheiroplatys clunalis (LeConte)

Aphonus (?) clunalis LeConte, 1856, p. 23; Bates,
1888, p. 321.

Chetroplatys verticalis Fall, 1905, p. 272. (New
synonymy.)

Orizabus clunalis (LeConte), Casey, 1915, p. 226.

Orizabus ligyrodes Horn, 1885, p. 125.

O. sallet Fairmaire, 1878, p. 262.

O. marginatus Fairmaire, 1878, p. 262. (New syn-

onymy.)

O. cultripes Fairmaire, 1878, p. 261. (New syn-
onymy.)

O. frontalis Casey, 1915, p. 226. (New synonymy.)

O. ponderosae Casey, 1915, p. 228. (New synon-
ymy.)

O. parvitarsis Casey, 1915, p. 227. (New synon-
ymy.)

O. snowi Horn, 1885, p. 124. (New synonymy.)

It is easy to see why so many names have
been proposed for our United States clunalis
when one considers the great amount of vari-
ability here in the width between the clypeal
teeth; the pygidial puncturation; and the
presence or absence of, as well as the depth of,
the front thoracic concavity. In some speci-
mens the “‘apical’’ clypeal transverse carina
(which forms the two lateral teeth) is much
reduced at the middle, leaving the two ends
as rather large isolated teeth; in others the
carina is much less reduced medially and the
teeth are smaller and much closer together.
Some females have the thoracic concavity
entirely lacking and the midcenter apex re-
duced to the faintest tubercle, while others are
plane; in fact, in one series from New Mexico
(58 specimens), 22 totally lacked the thoracic
fovea and of these 22 seven also lacked all
traces of a tubercle, giving some idea of the
variability of these characters. In several dis-
sected females (including Casey’s type of
parvitarsis) the front tibia are edentate as in
most males. Two male examples from Arizona
have the clypeal apex much narrower than
usual and the two apical teeth so close as to be
touching basally, and more reflexed than
usual; in all other external characters as well
as the genitalia, however, they are typical
clunalis. I have seen very large series from
Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico
(Hidalgo and Pachuco); also recorded from
many other Mexican localities under the names
of the synonyms.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Bates separated cultripes from clunalis only
on the nonmargined thoracic base; a Mexican
series from Temascaltepec, D. F. (Hinton
collector), is equally divided between specimens
having the thoracic base margined and not
margined, with all intermediates, and as Bates
suspected at the time of describing cultripes
it cannot be separated from clunalis.

Cheiroplatys pyriformis (LeConte)

Bothynus pyriformis LeConte, 1848, p. 21; Casey,
1915, p. 211 (Pseudaphonus); Ritcher, 1944,
p. 28 (Pseudophonus) (larvae).

Pseudaphonus ovalis Casey, 1915, p. 212.

P. repens Casey, 1915, p. 212.

P. debiliceps Casey, 1915, p. 213.

Pe lucidus-Casey, \95) 213.

P. puncticollts Casey, 1915, p. 335.

This species is found rather uncommonly in
the Southwest; I have seen it from Colorado
and New Mexico only. The variable characters
are mentioned in the species key. The male
genitalia are nearly exactly similar in shape
to tsodonoides, and it is possible that when
larger series are studied the two species may
prove to be variants of one species.

Cheiroplatys isodonoides (Fairmaire)

Orizabus tsodonoides Fairmaire, 1878, p. 263;
Bates, 1888, p. 322 (Chetroplatys); Casey, 1915,
p. 228 (Aztecalius).

I have seen good series from Mexico and one
female from Colorado which I cannot separate
from Mexican females of this species. The two
large and entire clypeal carinae are very dis-
tinctive.

Cheiroplatys brevicollis (Prell)
Orizabus brevicollis Prell, 1914, p. 204.

Prell described this species on three male
specimens from “California (W. Horn) and
Mexico’”’; the species was compared to the
Mexican fairmairei Bates and varied in size
from 20 to 22 mm, and so on size it could be
confused only with clunalis, from which the
male genitalic figures will readily separate it.
I doubt that the species occurs in the United
States but believe that the locality ‘‘Cali-
fornia’ refers to Baja California.

Genus Strategus Hope

Strategus Hope, 1837, p. 87; Casey, 1915, p. 238;
Arrow, 1937b, p. 35; Ritcher, 1944, pp. 34-38
(larvae).

VOL. 36, No. 1

Anastrategus Casey, 1915, p. 231; Arrow, 1937b,
. 3d.

Sir neciies Casey, 1915, p. 245.

Strategopsis Chapin, 1932, p. 302.

Scatophilus Chapin, 1932, p. 302.

This American genus is catalogued at 32
species at present and is limited to the West
Indies and the American continents. Five
species occur in the United States. Various
genera or subgenera have been proposed, and
to one unfamiliar with the many species in the
genus these may seem valid; this is especially
true of those species in which both sexes have
the thorax and head entirely unarmed (cessus
etc.) as opposed to those where the male is
usually strongly armed. Also, mormon appears
to be quite distinct in the elongated mandibular
tooth as well as the frequently unarmed male
head and thorax, but all intermediates occur so
that these names do not stand up. Also, as
Arrow has rightly pointed out (1937b), genera
based on characters entirely sexual are of no
value, since the purpose of taxonomy is to
rightly place all specimens that may come to
hand, and if it is impossible to place the fe-
males of many species unless associated with
the males, then such genera are obviously of no
value whatever.

The larvae feed on decaying vegetable matter
in soil rich in humus, as well as in rotten wood,
and on roots of oak and other trees; detailed
life history and larval character references,
where known, are listed under the individual
species.

KEY TO UNITED STATES STRATEGUS

(Last abdominal sternite of males widely trans-
versely emarginate one-half or one-third before
the apical margin, the line of emargination
with long erect cilia; females with last ventral
plane, ciliate at apex.)

1. Middle mandibular tooth very long and nar-
row, nearly twice as long as the others and
very sharp and suddenly narrowed for the
last half of its length; color always rufo-
castaneous; male with short horn on fore
thoracic margin and two faint, widely sepa-
rated tubercles at midapex; female thorax
tuberculate before midapex; Kansas, Utah,
TOK AG carci sy hicese ears ete aie mormon Burmeister

Mandibles variable, never suddenly narrowed
at middle or very long and narrow....... 2

2. Thorax never with any suggestion of horns in
either sex, midapex with two small nearly
contiguous tubercles; mandibles frem above
nearly square, in some specimens with a
faint sinuation to apical and lateral edge;

Jan. 15, 1946

color normally piceocastaneous; Arizona and
Mirwe Niexice 8S Fe. oe cessus JI.eConte
Thorax horned or not, or midapex either plane
or with one erect tubercle or small horn;
mandibles not as above..............06- 3
3. Thorax with small tubercle at midapex; tho-
racic disc without further horns in either sex;
mandibles with middle tooth much broader
and larger than others but very obtuse; color
normally rufous to rufocastaneous, rarely
rufopiceous; female pygidial apex before and
each side of apex entirely impunctate and
smooth; size 25-28 mm; North Carolina
and Hlorida sf = os. S: splendens Beauvois
Thorax and mandibles not as above or if some-
what similar (female) the size either larger
or pygidium before apex and at each side of
apex coarsely setiferously punctate....... +
4. Size small (24-32 mm); males with the three
thoracic horns normally long and of nearly
equal width near base and throughout; in
male minors the horns sometimes short but
always rather narrow at base, and disc at
center base punctured and smooth, never
coarsely cribrate; females with thoracic
armature as in julianus but thorax notice-
ably flatter and base never coarsely cribrate
before the margin, at most with a few or a
single line of coarse punctures; East
States to Florida and west to Texas.
antaeus (Drury)
Size large (37-46 mm); males with horn arising
from midapical thoracic margin very short to
very long, and each side of thoracic disc
before middle varying from two large and
well-separated gibbosities to two long horns;
if horned, these always much wider basally
than apical horn; base thorax coarsely
cribrate each side of middle base; females
with a small preapical tubercle at middle
thorax, and without the posterior gibbosities;
thorax just before basal margin on each
side of middie very coarsely cribrate;
Mississippi and West to Texas and Arizona,
to Central and South America.
julianus Burmeister

Strategus julianus Burmeister

Strategus julianus Burmeister, 1847, p. 133;
Casey, 1915, p. 242; Nevermann, 1933, p. 181;
Ritcher, 1944, p. 35 (larvae).

S. gaillardi Casey, 1915, p. 244.

S. roosevelti Casey, 1915, p. 241.

S. arizonicus Schaeffer, 1915, p. 47; Casey, 1915,
p. 252.

S. tarsalis Casey, 1915, p. 243. (New synonymy.)

The adults of this common and very wide-
ranging species are commonly attracted to
light; ranges from Mississippi west and through
Central and South America. Casey’s tarsalis
was separated by him because the apex of the
hind tibia of the unique female type lacked

SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 19

the usual center tooth, but in a female from
northern Mexico the left tibia is as Casey de-
scribed, but the right tibia has the usual small
tooth, and specimens from other localities
approach it; the tooth is readily worn in speci-
mens that dig a lot.

Strategus mormon Burmeister

Strategus mormon Burmeister, 1847, p. 130;
Knaus, 1924, p. 142; Knaus, 1916, p. 79
(biology); Casey, 1915, p. 251 (Strategodes).

The unusually long and slender middle man-
dibular tooth is very distinctive; the species is
rather uncommon in most collections because of
its somewhat restricted distribution, being
known from Kansas, Utah, and Texas.

Strategus splendens Beauvois

Strategus splendens Beauvois, 1805, p. 89; Ritcher,
1944, p. 37 (larvae); Casey, 1915, p. 237
(Anastrategus).

S. bosct Beauvois, 1805, p. 89.

Anastrategus carolinensis Casey, 1915, p. 237.

A. cognatus Casey, 1915, p. 236.

A rather uncommon species known from
North Carolina to Florida. As with cessus, the
two sexes here are similar in thoracic sculp-
turing.

Strategus cessus LeConte

Strategus cessus LeConte, 1866, p. 382; Casey,
1915, p. 233 (Anastrategus).

Anastrategus durangoensis Casey, 1915, p. 234.

A. inflatus Casey, 1915, p. 234.

A. tantalus Casey, 1915, p. 235.

A. cavicauda Casey, 1915, p. 233.

Recorded and seen only from Arizona, New
Mexico, and northern Mexico. The thorax is
unarmed in both sexes and the nearly or quite
square mandibles (dorsal view) are very char-
acteristic in fresh specimens, before they have
worn the mandibular margins through digging.
Small females are easily separated from female
Aphonides dunnianus by having the thorax
foveate, the mandibles not rounded exter-
nally, and the basal clypeal carina not entire.

Strategus antaeus (Drury)

Scarabaeus antaeus Drury, 1773, p. 74; Arrow,
1937b, p. 37 (Strategus); Forbes, 1906, p. 34
(biology); Manee, 1908, p. 286 (biology);
Ritcher, 1944, p. 34 (larvae); Casey, 1915, p.
234 (Sitrategus).

Scarabaeus maimon Fabricius, 1775, p. 10.

Strategus syphar Burmeister, 1847, p. 131.

20

VOL. 36, No. 1

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

5S

p | ‘ :
Fia. 1.—(f-g, 1-j, 1, n, dorsal views of mandible; h, head of male; q—s, front male tibia; remainder

are male genitalia.) a, Strategus julianus; b, S. mormon; c, S. splendens; d, S. antaeus; e, S. cessus;

f, S. splendens; g, S. antaeus; h, Cheiroplatys clunalis; 1, S. cessus; j, S. cessus; k, C. isodonoides, l, S.
julianus; m, C. brevicollis; n, S. mormon; o, C. clunalis; p, Xyloryctes gamaicensis; gq, C. pyriformis;

r, C. isodonoides; s, C. clunalis.

JAN. 15, 1946

S. houstensis Knaus, 1925, p. 182.

Strategodes atrolucens Casey, 1915, p. 247.
Strategodes pinorum Casey, 1915, p. 248.
Strategodes septentrionis Casey, 1915, p. 249.
Strategodes divergens Casey, 1915, p. 246.
Strategodes sinuatus Casey, 1915, p. 250.
Strategodes semistriatus Casey, 1915, p. 250.

This is the commonest, most variable, and
widest spread of the United States species,
occurring from Rhode Island to Florida, west
to Texas.

Genus Xyloryctes Hope

X yloryctes Hope, 1837, p. 90; Bates, 1888, p. 323;
Casey, 1915, p. 252; Ritcher, 1944, p. 38
(larvae).

Fifteen species of this genus have been de-
scribed, two of them West Indian in distribu-
tion, eight purely Central America, and the
remaining eight names all applying to the
common and very variable United States spe-
cies called jamaicensis Drury.

Xyloryctes jamaicensis (Drury)

Scarabaeus jamatcensis Drury, 1773, p. 74; Bates,
1888, p. 323 (Xyloryctes); Casey, 1915, p. 254
(Xyloryctes).

S. satyrus Fabricius, 1775, p. 12; Bates, 1888,
p. 323; Hamilton and Hagen, 1884, p. 107,
p. 239 (as Xyloryctes) (biology); Weiss, 1921,
p. 193 (as Xyloryctes) (biology), Ritcher, 1944,
p. 38 (as Xyloryctes) (larvae).

S. americanus Beauvois, 1805, p. 75.

Xyloryctes faunus Casey, 1895, p. 609; 1915, p.

_ 256. (New synonymy.)

X. hebes Casey, 1915, p. 257. (New synonymy.)
X. lacustris Casey, 1915, p. 255. (New synon-
-._ ymy.)

X. tenuicornutus Casey, 1915, p. 255. (New syn-

onymy.)

X. obsolescens Casey, 1915, p. 256. (New synon-
ymy.)

Ranges throughout the Eastern States and
‘West to Arizona and Texas. The Arizona speci-
mens are very close to the common Mexican
thestalus Bates in that the male genitalia are
identical and the central thoracic lobe is more
protuberant than in the Eastern United States
specimens, and the species are separable only
on the much smoother elytral sculpture of
thestalus, which must be listed as only a sub-
species of the earlier-described jamaicensis.
Much confusion has existed as to the proper
name for this species, and Bates and others
refused to accept the earlier name jamaicensis,
but rules of priority demand its adoption, even
though it is unappropriate owing to the species

SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 21

being much more common in the United States
than in Jamaica. Most of Casey’s types are
male minors; nearly all the eastern examples
have the male central thoracic lobe obsolete or
nearly so, whereas the western ones usually
have this lobe obvious to moderate in size.
It varies greatly in size, ranging from 21 to 33
mm in length.

LITERATURE CITED

Arrow, G. J. Coleopterorum catalogus,
pars 156: 44-46, 60-61, 74-77. 1937a.

. Trans. Ent. Soc. London 36: 35-37.
1937b.

Batses, H. W. Biologia Centrali-Americana,
Coleoptera 2 (2): 320-323. 1888.

Bravvois, A. M. J. Pauisor pe. Insectes
recueilles en Afrique et en Amérique: 75,
89. 1805.

BuRMEISTER, H. Handbuch der Entomologie
5: 130-1383. 1847.

CasgEy, T. L. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 8:
609. 1895.

. Memoirs on the Coleoptera 6: 222-
228, 231-257. 1915.

CHaPin, E. A. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 25:
302: 1932.

Drury, D. Illustrations of exotic entomology
2 (Index): 74. 1773.

Fasricius, J. C. Systema entomologiae: 10—
Oia ae

FAIRMAIRE, L. Rev. et Mag. Zool., ser. 3,

6: 260-263. 1878.
Fatt, H.C. Can. Ent. 37: 272. 1905.
Forses,S. A. Ent. News 17:34. 1906.

HAMILTON, J., and Hacrn, H. A. Can. Ent.

16: 107,239. 1884.

Horr, F. W. The coleopterist’s manual 1:
84-90. 1837.

Horn, G. H. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 17:
124-125. 1885.

Knaus, W. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc. 11: 79.
1916.

Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 32: 142.

1924.

Pan-Pacifiec Ent.1:182. 1925.

LACORDAIRE, J. T. Genera des coléoptéres 3:
411. 1856.

LeConte, J. L. Journ. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia, ser.2,1:21. 1848.

. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 8:°

23. 1856.

. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia
18: 382. 1866.

Manegz, A. H. Ent. News 19: 286. 1908.

NEVERMANN, W.H.F. Ent. Blatter 29: 181.
1933.

PRELL, H. Ent. Mitteil.3:204. 1914.

RitcHer, P. O. Kentucky Agr. Exp. Stat.
Bull. 467: 28-38. 1944.

ScHAEFFER, C. F. A. Journ. New York Ent.
Soc. 23:47. 1915.

Weiss, H.B. Ent. News32:193. 1921.

22 ~ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 1

ENTOMOLOGY .—Nine new species of Metachroma (Coleoptera) from the West
Indies... Doris H. Brake. (Communicated by S. F. Buaxks.)

The following species of Metachroma
Dejean were all collected by P. J. Darling-
ton except one, which was taken by J.
Acufia in Cuba. Two species are from Cuba
and one is from Puerto Rico. The remainder
are from the Dominican Republic and are
the first ones to be described from that
country.

Metachroma laevius, n. sp.
Fig. 1

Nearly 4 mm long, broadly oblong oval, very
shiny, head and prothorax reddish, antennae,
elytra, legs, and undersurface yellowish brown;
occiput of head and prothorax polished, elytra
with striate punctures rather indistinct and
nearly obsolete over apical half. Anterior and
posterior thighs mucronate.

Head with interocular space about half its
width, upper half smooth, polished and nearly
impunctate, lower half below the transverse
groove rather shallowly punctate, a short but
not marked median groove. Antennae entirely
pale, second joint as long as third, joints 4-6
subequal and not so thick as distal joints.
Prothorax about a third wider than long with
arcuate sides and a tooth at each corner, disc
a little contracted behind the head, smooth,
polished and with scarcely discernible, fine,
scattered punctation. Elytra with the striate
punctures indistinct over the basal callosities
and sides and toward the apex; surface very
shiny, paler than prothorax. Body beneath
shiny, very lightly pubescent. Anterior femora
with a large tooth, posterior with a small tooth.
Claws toothed. Length 3.7 mm; width 1.9 mm.

Type male, Mus. Comp. Zool. no. 27350; 2
paratypes, one in the U.S. National Museum
(no. 57744).

Type locality—Mount Diego de Ocampo,
Dominican Republic, 3,000—4,000 feet altitude,
collected in July 1938 by P. J. Darlington.

Other localities—Puerto Plata, Dominican
Republic, collected by Donald Hurst.

Remarks.—This is one of the parallel-sided
species of Metachroma with the prominently
toothed femora, the first of this sort to be
recorded from Hispaniola.

1 Received November 15, 1945,

Metachroma acunai, n. sp.
Fig. 2

Between 3.5 and 4 mm in length, oblong
ovate, shining reddish brown, the head with a
darker occiput, each elytron with four more or
less distinct spots down the middle, the lowest
one near the suture; prothorax sparsely but
distinctly punctate, elytra with the striate
punctures distinct throughout.

Head with interocular space approximately
half its width, lower front above labrum and
below tubercles coarsely and densely punctate;
tubercles well marked by a median line and the ©
groove extending about the inner margin of
eyes; occiput finely and not densely punctate
and tending to be darker in color. Antennae
extending at least to the middle of the elytra,
the two basal joints longer and thicker than
joints 3-6, joints 7-11 longer and thickened and
with the apices dark. Prothorax less than a
third wider than long, with arcuate sides, and
a small tooth at each angle, disc a little de-
pressed anteriorly and finely and not densely
punctate. Elytra with striate punctures dis-
tinct to the apex, a little coarser in depression
below the humeri; each elytron with four spots,
in one specimen, the female, small and in-
distinct; these spots located (1) in the middle
of the base, (2) just below the basal spot a
little more toward the humerus, (3) in the
middle of the elytron, (4) near the suture at
about two-thirds the distance from base to
apex. Body beneath shining reddish brown,
faintly pubescent, femora without teeth,
tibiae of middle and posterior pairs emarginate
near apex; claws toothed. Length 3.6-3.8 mm;
width 1.38-1.5 mm. :

Type male, U.S.N.M. no. 57745; 1 paratype
(female) in Museum of Comparative Zoology.

Type locality.— Moa, Oriente Province, Cuba,
collected April 18-22, 1945, by J. Acunia.

Remarks.—The distinct punctation of the
elytra throughout separates this from other
small related West Indian species. In markings
it resembles M. rosae Bryant from Jamaica,
but specimens from Jamaica tentatively identi-
fied as the latter species are larger, more robust,
and with a nearly smooth prothorax having
well-defined markings. This species is named

JAN. 15, 1946

after Mr. J. Acufia, who has sent in a number
of interesting specimens.

Metachroma barahonense, n. sp.
Fig. 3

About 4 mm in length, broadly oblong,
shining, yellow-brown, with a deep brown head
and prothorax, the latter with a large piceous
spot on each side, undersurface deep brown;
prothorax densely and finely punctate; elytral
striae impressed.

Head with a deep median groove extending
nearly to the occiput but with little trace of
transverse groove between the eyes, the groove
about eyes distinct; interocular space less than
half width of head, eyes large; lower front
densely punctate; upper part of head smoother,
with a few inconspicuous punctures; front
pale. Antennae extending below humeri, the
five distal joints deeper in color than the more
slender basal joints. Prothorax not quite twice
as broad as long, with arcuate sides and a
seta-bearing tooth at each corner; disc shining
and finely and densely punctate except about
the edges; a large piceous area on either side.
Elytra shining yellow-brown without markings,
elytral striation impressed, giving a lightly
costate appearance; humeri moderately promi-
nent, a slight basal callosity and a deep in-
trahumeral sulcus. Body beneath deep reddish
brown with the tip of the abdomen paler,
lightly pubescent, legs pale, femora not
mucronate, claws toothed. Length 4.2-4.5 mm;
width 2.3 mm.

Type female and 1 paratype (female), Mus.
Comp. Zool. no. 27359; 1 paratype (female),
U.S.N.M. no. 57746.

Type localitty—Barahona, Dominican Re-
public, collected in September 1938 by P. J.
Darlington.

Remarks.—This is one of the broadly oblong
species and is without markings. The finely and
densely punctate prothorax and the more
distinctly punctate elytra distinguish it from
the other parallel-sided species, Metachroma
laevrus.

Metachroma brevistriatum, n. sp.
Fig. 4
About 2.5 mm in length, oblong oval, shining

pale yellow-brown with the tips of the last
seven antennal joints darker; the prothorax

BLAKE: NEW SPECIES OF METACHROMA 2

punctate in the middle, smooth on the sides,
the elytra only sparsely striate punctate about
the scutellum and a little below the basal
callosity, the apical half usually entirely
smooth.

Head with interocular space about half its
width, polished and with shallow punctation,
very little trace of a median vertical groove,
the transverse groove between and about eyes
well marked. Antennae reaching nearly to
the middle of the elytra, first and second joints
equal, joints 3-6 slender, 7-11 thicker and
more pubescent, 5-11 with darkened tips.
Prothorax not twice as wide as long, with
arcuate sides and an acute tooth at each
corner; disc somewhat contracted anteriorly
behind the head, with a double row of punc-
tures in the depression on either side. Puncta-
tion not dense or coarse and entirely lacking
on the sides. Elytra polished, usually with only
traces of striate punctures on the apical half,
the only row reaching the apex being the one
next to the suture, the others represented by
only a few short lines below and about the basal
callosities. Elytra slightly widened in the
apical half. Body beneath pale, the abdomen
occasionally deeper in coloration, shining,
nearly glabrous. Middle and posterior tibiae
emarginate, claws toothed. Length 2.3-3 mm;
width 1.4-1.8 mm.

Type male and 6 paratypes (3 males, 3
females), Mus. Comp. Zool. no. 27352; 1
paratype (male), U.S.N.M. no. 57747.

Type locality—San José de las Matas,
Dominican Republic, 1,000—2,000 feet altitude;
collected in June 1938 by P. J. Darlington.

Other localities.—Constanza, 3,000—4,000 feet,
Villa Altagracia, Dominican Republic; col-
lected in 1938 by P. J. Darlington.

Remarks.—The small size, pale coloration,
and mere vestiges of pronotal and elytral
punctation make this species distinctive.

Metachroma obesum, n. sp.
Fig. 5
About 2.5 mm in length, ovate, with yellow-
brown elytra and reddish-brown head, pro-
thorax, legs, and undersurface, antennae with
the seven distal joints dark at the base; elytra
with a spot on the humerus connected to
another spot below, two more on the side going
down to the margin, and a row of four across

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

each elytron below the middle; prothorax
distinctly punctate, elytra with striate puncta-
tion in basal half, apex smooth.

Head coarsely alutaceous throughout, a
short deep cleft in middle between the eyes and
the usual groove extending across and about
the eyes; a dark occipital spot running down to
the vertex, interocular space more than half
the width of the head. Antennae extending
below the humeri, four basal joints pale,
remainder dark at the base, second and third
joints about equal in length, joints 4-6 sub-
equal, rest much thicker and longer. Prothorax
more than a third wider than long with rounded
sides and a tooth at anterior and basal angles;
surface alutaceous and distinctly but not
densely punctate, smooth near the margin;
in color deep reddish brown with irregular
darker median areas. Scutellum reddish brown.
Elytra shining pale yellow-brown with piceous
spotting; one on the humerus, three below the
humerus, a transverse row from the margin,
four other small spots on each elytron forming
an interrupted fascia across elytra below the
middle. Striate punctation visible nearly to the
middle of the elytra next to the suture, but
vanishing in apical half and on sides a short
way below the humeri. Body beneath shining
reddish brown, nearly glabrous, the middle
and posterior tibiae emarginate, claws toothed.
Length 2.5 mm; width 1.5 mm.

Type female, Mus. Comp. Zool. no. 27353.

Type locality Constanza, 3,000—-4,000 feet
altitude, Dominican Republic; collected in
August 1938 by P. J. Darlington.

Remarks.—This is an unusually broadly
ovate species and conspicuous because of its

‘elytral spotting and entirely smooth apical
half.

Metachroma darlingtoni, n. sp.
Fig. 6

Between 4 and 5 mm in length, broadly
oblong oval, shining, pale yellow-brown with
a dark streak down the middle of the head, four
or two (coalescing) spots across the pronotum,
and small irregular spots across the base and
below the middle of the elytra; legs banded,
and undersurface more or less darkened;
elytral striae rather deeply impressed.

Head with interocular space less than half
the width of the head, eyes large, a dark streak
down the middle of front, and sometimes

VOL. 36, No. 1

behind the eyes, jaws also dark; a short median
groove and a well-marked one between and
about the inner margin of eyes; upper part of
head shiny, some traces of obsolete punctation;
lower front alutaceous and more distinctly
punctate. Antennae extending below the
humeri, second joint as long as third, shorter
than fourth, the five distal joints a little darker |
and heavier. Prothorax not quite twice as broad
as long with rounded sides and a seta-bearing
tooth at each corner; surface smooth, shining,
impunctate; lower margin slightly sinuate;
pale yellow-brown with two or four spots
across the middle. Elytra pale and shining with
two or three spots across at base, the largest on
the humeri, and a transverse row of small
irregular spots below the middle, sometimes
another between the basal and apical row in the
middle; striation rather deeply impressed,
giving a somewhat costate appearance to the
elytra; humeri prominent and a distinct basal
callosity. Body beneath varying in coloration
but in two of the three specimens mostly dark
piceous, in the third specimen the abdomen
pale. Legs pale, both femora and tibiae with
dark spot; rather pubescent; an inconspicuous
tooth on anterior and posterior femora; claws
toothed. Length 4.2—-5.2 mm; width 2—2.6 mm.
Type female, Mus. Comp. Zool. no. 27354;
one paratype (female) U.S.N.M. no. 57748.
Type locahty—Constanza to Jarabacoa,
Dominican Republic, 2,000—4,000 feet altitude;
collected in August 1938 by P. J. Darlington.
Other locality —Villa Altagracia, Dominican
Republic; collected in July 1938 by P. J.
Darlington.
Remarks.—Deeply impressed striae, spotted
legs and large eyes are the characteristics of
this pretty species.

Metachroma longitarsum, n. sp.
Fig. 7

About 5.5 mm in length, oblong, shining,
deep reddish brown with a dark streak down
head, two large spots on each side of pronotum,
darkened humeri, and two spots down the
middle of each elytron; undersurface and
apices of femora also dark; elytral striae not
impressed, punctures not dense and becoming
indistinct toward apex.

Head with large eyes, interocular space less
than half width of head, a deep groove between
eyes and about inner margin of eyes, and

25

NEW SPECIES OF METACHROMA

BLAKE

Jan. 15, 1946

M. barahonense

.

3.

Z. ™. acunat

1. Metachroma laevius

6M. darlingtoni

5: M. obesum

4.M. brevistriatum

ut
iy

8.M. tricharthrum

i M.longitarsum

/

Fias. 1-9.—New species of Metachroma from the West Indies.

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

another vertical median one between the
frontal tubercles; lower front alutaceous,
punctate, upper front smooth with very fine
scattered punctures, a dark streak down occi-
put, jaws also dark. Antennae reddish brown,
extending below humeri, second joint longer
than third, last five joints somewhat thickened
but not much longer. Prothorax about a fourth
wider than long, with arcuate sides and a
prominent seta-bearing tooth at each corner;
disc polished, finely but not densely punctate
except about edges; deep reddish brown with
large dark areas on either side. Scutellum dark.
Elytra parallel sided and rather convex, with
well-developed humeral prominences; a deep
sulcus within, and a somewhat swollen basal
callosity; shining, deep reddish brown with
piceous humeri, dark streaks along striae in
middle at base and two large spots down the
middle of each elytron and another on the side
between them. Striate punctures not coarse or
very dense, and in apical half, especially on
sides, fading away. Body beneath more or less
piceous, polished, very lightly pubescent; legs
pale except for the darkened apices of femora.
Posterior femora with the slightest trace of a
tooth, otherwise smooth; claws long, with a
tiny basal tooth. Length 5.4 mm; width 2.8
mm.

Type female, Mus. Comp. Zool. no. 27355.

Type locality—Pico ‘Turquino, Oriente,
Cuba, south side, 3,000—5,000 feet altitude;
collected in June 1936 by P. J. Darlington.

Remarks.—This species is striking because
of its size and dark markings, especially of the
femora. The long claws are also conspicuous.

Metachroma tricharthrum, n. sp.
Fig. 8

About 2 mm in length, oblong ovate, very
shiny, pale yellowish brown with deeper brown
head, prothorax and last six antennal joints,
and piceous markings on the occiput, on the
sides of the prothorax, and in the middle at the
base of the elytra and nearly across them below
the middle; sides of prosternum and metaster-
num also dark; elytral striation only partial,
absent in apical half.

Head polished, impunctate, entirely lacking
median vertical groove, transverse groove
between and about eyes deep; margin about
antennal sockets in lower front prominently

VOL. 36, No. 1

developed; a darker area on occiput. Antennae
extending to the middle of the elytra, second
joint nearly as long as first, joints 3-5 slender,
7-11 thickened, last six joints dark. Prothorax |
nearly as long as wide with arcuate sides, the
margin dark, disc polished, and with a dark
piceous area on either side; surface finely and
not densely punctate. Elytra polished, paler
yellow-brown, having a dark piceous area at
base between the humerus and scutellum and
another transverse area below the middle
nearly reaching the suture, margins dark;
only the sutural striae entire, the others only
partial, disappearing at the sides and middle
and over the basal callosities. Body beneath
shiny, sides of prosternum and breast dark,
abdomen and legs pale. Femora with prominent
hairs at apex, tibiae of middle and hind legs
emarginate, claws toothed. Length 2.2 mm;
width 1.2 mm.

Type male, Mus. Comp. Zool. no. 27356.

Type localitty—Maricao Forest, 2,000—3,000
feet altitude, Puerto Rico; collected May
30—June 2, 1938, by P. J. Darlington.

Remarks.—The conspicuous bristles at the
apex of the femora have suggested the name
tricharthrum for this species.

Metachroma cinctipes, n. sp.
Fig. 9

About 5 mm long, broadly oblong, shining,
head and prothorax and most of undersurface
more or less reddish brown with piceous areas,
elytra and legs paler yellowish brown, elytra
with small spots about base and below middle,
the legs, both femora and tibiae with dark
bands. Prothorax nearly as wide as elytra,
polished. Elytral striation distinct.

Head with large eyes, interocular space less
than half width of head, a broad piceous stripe
extending down the front, lower front deeper
brown, jaws piceous, not very shiny, alutaceous
with distinct but not dense punctation; median
and transverse grooves not very distinct,
groove about inner margin of eyes well marked.
Antennae extending below humeri, the outer
joints thicker and a little darker, second joint
longer than third. Prothorax not twice as broad
as long, much broader at base than anteriorly,
with rounded sides and little trace of a tooth at
apical angle, but a well-marked one at base,
lower margin sinuate. Surface polished, nearly

Jan. 15, 1946

impunctate, reddish brown with a large dark
area on either side. Elytra not much wider than
prothorax with small humeri and short intra-
humeral sulcus and very little depression
below, the basal callosities not at all promi-
nent; surface shining, striate punctures well
spaced and distinct; in color pale yellow brown
with remnants of spots about base, a large one
on each elytron below the middle near the
suture, and a smaller one near lateral margin.
Body beneath tending to be reddish brown or
piceous, especially on breast; legs with dark
bands both on femora and tibiae, and the tarsal
joints dark, all femora with a trace of a tooth,
most pronounced on the hind femora. Claws
with short tooth. Length 4.7—-5.6 mm; width
2.8-3.1 mm.

Type female, Mus. Comp. Zool. no. 27357.

PENN: A NEW CRAWFISH OF GENUS PROCAMBARUS 27

Type locality—Mount Diego de Acampo,
Dominican Republic, altitude 3,000—4,000 feet;
collected in July 1938 by P. J. Darlington.

Other localities—Villa Altagracia, Domini-
can Republic, July 1938, San Jose de las
Matas, 1,000—2,000 feet altitude, June 1938,
both collected by P. J. Darlington; Puerto
Plata, Dominican Republic, collected by
Donald Hurst; Mount Basil, northern Haiti,
4,700 feet altitude, September 9, 1934, col-
lected by P. J. Darlington; Furey, Haiti,
collected by W. M. Mann.

Remarks.—This_ species resembles Meta-
chroma rosae Byrant, described from Jamaica,
but specimens from Jamaica tentatively identi-
fied as rosae are smaller, paler, and with much
denser punctures on the elytra.

ZOOLOGY .—A new crawfish of the genus Procambarus from Louisiana (Decapoda:
Astacidae).1 GrorcE Henry PEenn, New Orleans, La. (Communicated by

W. L. Scumirt.)

The new species of crawfish described
herein has been collected on several occa-
sions during the past eight years by differ-
ent carcinologists and though recognized
as an undescribed species has been neg-
lected by each: because of more pressing
duties. Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., of the
University of Florida, and Dr. Rendell
Rhoades, of the Ohio Division of Conserva-
tion and Natural Resources, have both
kindly furnished me with their collections
of the species for comparison with the type
material in making the descriptions.

I take great pleasure in naming this spe-
cies in honor of Mr. Percy Viosca, Jr., of
New Orleans, who collected the type speci-
mens and to whom I have been indebted
for many favors in the past decade.

Procambarus vioscai, n. sp.

Diagnosis—Rostrum with prominent lateral
spines; areola moderately narrow. Thoracic
region of carapace less than half as long as
cephalic region. First pleopod of first form male
terminating in four parts: mesial process? a

1 Aided by a grant from the New Orleans

Academy of Science in 1940. Received November
1, 1945.

long tapering spine projecting caudolaterally;
cephalic process a bladelike process projecting
ventrocaudally; central projection heavy,
blunt-tipped; caudal process very small, blunt-
tipped.

Male holotype (form I).—Body subovate,
compressed dorsoventrally. Abdomen about
same width as cephalothorax.

Areola wide (length five times width); sides
converge dorsally in hourglass type marking,
indistinct caudally; areola 26.8 percent of en-
tire length of carapace; six punctations across
narrowest part of areola.

Rostrum widest at base, gently tapering,
slightly excavate; acumen long (about one-
sixth length of cephalic portion of carapace).
Lateral spines strong. Postorbital ridges ter-
minating anteriorly in long, sharp, antero-
laterally projecting spines.

Surface of carapace bearing fine tubercles
and punctations. Two large spines projecting
anteriorly on each side of carapace along cervi-

2 The terminology used here in describing the
parts of the first pleopod of the form I male is
that proposed by Hobbs (On the first pleopod of the
male Cambari, Proc. Florida Acad. Sci. 5: 55-61.
1942; and Notes on the first pleopod of the male

Cambarinae, Quart. Journ. Florida Acad. Sci. 8:
67-79. 1945.)

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

cal groove. Cephalolateral margins of thoracic
region of carapace each with one strong spine
near anterior extremity of cervical groove.
Abdomen same width as _ cephalothorax,
slightly tapering posteriorly; approximately
equal to cephalothorax in length.
Antennules of usual form.

VOL. 36, No. 1

Antennae nearly equal to total length of
crawfish; of normal form.

Antennal scales extending to tip of rostrum,
with the usual strong spine on outer margin;
triangular in shape, widest point about one-
third of distance from base.

First right pereiopod entirely tuberculate;

Via” 225

»> >> >? 777

ae

ny

aa

9»YI dD)
Siew

?
2S). eae ee 2.

Fia. 1.—Procambarus vioscai, n. sp.: First right pleopod of holotype male form I: A, mesial view;
B, lateral view; C, caudal view; D, annulus ventralis of female allotype; Z, cephalothorax (holotype);

F, right chela (holotype).

JAN. 15, 1946

palm compressed dorsoventrally. Movable
finger terminating distally in a sharp, corneous
tip bent laterad and extending below the tip
of the immovable finger when the fingers are
closed; both margins with small tubercles,
strongest near base.

Immovable finger with inner marginal ridge
bearing small tubercles, and terminating in a
sharp corneous tip bent mesially.

Ischiopodites of third and fourth pereiopods
bearing hooks. Hooks strong, corneous, bent
toward base of the ischiopodite. Hook on third
pereiopod stronger.

First pleopod extending to base of third
pereiopod; tip ending in four distinct parts as
follows: mesial process most prominent, ex-
tending laterad in a long, tapering, slightly
curved spine. Cephalic process corneous, also
prominent, flattened laterally and slightly
curved or excavate on its median aspect, ap-
pearing as a bladelike process. Central pro-
jection corneous, blunt-tipped; line of fusion of
centrocephalic and centrocaudal processes
clearly marked. Caudal process corneous, very
small, blunt-tipped. Rim of apical knob with
a ring of setae which hides all except the mesial
process from view in fresh specimen.

Female allotype—The female differs from
the male in the following points: carapace more
nearly cylindrical in cross section. Annulus
ventralis: sinus originating along midventral
line in a flattened trough just posterior to an-
terior margin, turning slightly sinistrad, cau-
dad for about a third of its length, slightly
dextrad, caudad for another third of its length,
sinistrad, and sharply dextrad, terminating
along the caudal margin in a tubercle. On each
side the surface is depressed so that the an-
terior margin forms a ridge, which in turn is
shaded anteriorly by the projecting edge of the
sternum.

Measurements.—The holotype: carapace,
height 18.5 mm, width 17.4 mm, length 41.3
mm; areola, width 2.0 mm, length 11.1 mm;
rostrum, length 30.2 mm; abdomen, length
42.0 mm; right chela, length of outer margin
24.0 mm, width at widest point 6.6 mm, length
of inner margin of movable finger 16.0 mm,
length of inner margin of palm 13.5 mm. The
allotype: carapace, height 13.5 mm, width
13.5 mm, length 31.1 mm; areola, width 2.0
mm, length 8.5 mm; rostrum, length 22.6 mm;

PENN: A NEW CRAWFISH OF GENUS PROCAMBARUS 29

abdomen, length 32.5 mm; right chela, length
of outer margin 15.7 mm, width at widest
point 5.2 mm, length of inner margin of mova-
ble finger 8.2 mm.

Type specumens.—The male holotype (form
I), no. 79925, a male paratype (form I), no.
79926 from the type locality, and the female
allotype, no. 79931, from Kingsville, Grant
Parish, La., are deposited in the United States
National Museum.

Type locality Big Creek at Fishville, about
3 miles east of Pollock, Grant Parish, La. They
were collected on February 22, 1938, by Percy
Viosca, Jr., from the margin of the creek
among leaves and other debris accumulated on
the lee side of a sandbar. Big Creek is a typical,
swift-flowing, sand-bottomed pinewoods Louis-
iana stream; south of Fishville it joins the
Little River. Other crawfishes collected in the
same ecological niche with P. vioscat were
Procambarus blandingiw acutus, Orconectes creo-
lanus, and another species of Procambarus as
yet undescribed.

Additional specimens examined.—One male
form II, 2 females, and 11 juveniles from Rock
Creek near Kingsville, Grant Parish, La.,
U.S.N.M. no. 79927. One male form I, 2 males
form II, 4 females, and 2 juveniles from Pol-
lock, Grant Parish, La., deposited in the
Alabama State Museum of Natural History
at the request of Dr. Rendell Rhoades. One
male form II and a female from Calhoun,
Ouachita Parish, La. (no. 7-3141-7) ;1 male form
I and 2 females from Richland Creek near
Jackson, Rankin County, Miss. (no. 7-3141-
10a); 3 males form I, 2 females, and 6 juveniles
from Magee, Simpson County, Miss. (no.
7-3141-12); and 1 male form I, 1 female, and
1 juvenile from Big Swamp near Seminary,
Covington County, Miss. (no. 7-3141-13) in
the collections of Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr.,
at the University of Florida.

Relationships.—This species belongs to the
section of Procambarus blandingit, group of
P. spiculifer. Its closest relative appears to be
Procambarus versutus.

Discussion.—Among the series of specimens
examined, those from Calhoun, La., and Jack-
son, Magee, and Seminary, Miss., in Dr.
Hobbs’s collections appear to be of a smaller
race than typical P. vioscat and may subse-
quently be recognized as a subspecies.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, no. 1

ZOOLOGY.—A new genus and species of minute marine stiliferid mollusks from

Florida.

Mrs. Athleen V. Underwood has recently
sent a small collection of minute marine
mollusks to the U. 8. National Museum
for determination, among which is a re-
markable shell that I am unable to place
in any of the known genera. I am therefore
giving it a scientific status here under the
designation of Athleenia burry1, new genus
and species.

Athleenia, n. gen.

Shell minute, elongate-ovate, thin. Nuclear
whorls 3.5, well rounded, smooth, forming a
slender apex. Postnuclear whorls strongly tabu-
latedly shouldered at the summit, marked by
lines of growth only. Periphery and base
rounded. Aperture ovate; columella short.

Type species: Athleenia burryt, n. sp.

The nuclear spire leads me to believe that
the genus is a member of the family Stiliferidae.

I take pleasure in naming the genus for Mrs.
Underwood, whose fine work in collecting
minute mollusks is adding materially to our
knowledge of this usually overlooked field.

Athleenia burryi, n. sp.

Shell very minute, elongate-ovate, thin,
vitreous, translucent. The nucleus consists of
3.5 whorls, which are well rounded and smooth
and form a somewhat styliform apex. The post-
nuclear whorls are strongly tabulatedly shoul-
dered at the summit. The shoulder extends over
about one-sixth of the width of the turns and
terminates anteriorly in a sharp angle. The rest
of the whorls is slightly rounded. Suture con-
stricted. Periphery rounded. Base long, well
rounded. Aperture ovate; peristome slightly
thickened at the edge and slightly angulated at
the posterior shoulder; inner lip concave and

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received October
23, 1945.

Pau BartscuH, United States National Museum.

reflected over the short columella; parietal wall
covered by a thin callus. The entire surface is
marked by feeble inconspicuous lines of growth
only.

Fig. 1.—Athleenia burryt, n. gen. and sp.

The type (U.S.N.M. no. 573616) was dredged
in 400 feet off Carysfort Reef Light, Florida.
It has 8 whorls and measures: length, 2.1 mm;
diameter, 0.8 mm.

I take pleasure in naming the species for
Mr. and Mrs. W. A. Burry, whose dredge
yielded the specimens.

@ bituaries

EpWARD WILBER Berry, paleobotanist,
emeritus professor of paleontology and former
dean at Johns Hopkins University, died early
in the morning of September 20, 1945, at
Stonington, Conn. Mrs. Berry (nee Mary
Willard) died in 1939. Surviving in the im-
mediate family are their sons Charles T. and
EK. Willard Berry. i

Mr. Berry was born at Newark, N. J., on
February 10, 1875. After graduation from high
school he was for a time connected with a cot-
ton-goods commission house and traveled ex-
tensively in the South. From 1897 to 1905,
while managing the Passaic, N. J., Daily News,
he found a hobby in the study of the Cretaceous
deposits of New Jersey and the fossil plants
contained therein. Presently his publications
on these studies attracted the favorable notice
of William B. Clark, head of the department of
geology at Johns Hopkins, and in 1905 Clark
invited him to become his assistant in paleon-
tology at the university and on the Maryland
Geological Survey. By 1917 Mr. Berry had
‘become professor of paleontology, assistant
state geologist of Maryland, and senior geolo-
gist of the United States Geological Survey,
and, besides numerous articles on the Creta-
ceous floras of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, he
had to his credit a large volume on the lower
- Eocene floras of southeastern North America,
_ which gave him an international reputation as
a paleobotanist. This reputation was further
enhanced by his travels in South America and
his publications on South American fossil
plants.

From 1929 to 1942 Mr. Berry was dean of the
School of Arts and Sciences at Johns Hopkins
and provost of the University. In 1930 he ac-
cepted the only degree he ever held—an honor-
ary doctor of science from Lehigh University.
Mr. Berry was elected to the National Acad-
emy of Sciences in 1922. Besides holding mem-
bership in a few foreign scientific societies, he
was a fellow of the Geological Society of
America, Paleontological Society (of which he
was president in 1924), American Philosophical
Society, American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science, the Washington Acad-
emy of Sciences, and others. He was awarded
the Mary Clark Thompson medal of the Na-

31

tional Academy of Sciences, but his climactic
honor was election to the presidency of the
Geological Society of America for 1945.

A bibliography comprising several hundred
titles testifies eloquently to Mr. Berry’s facile
pen and prolific output. Included in this list
are two books—Paleontology and Tree ancestors.
As many of these publications represent,
literally and figuratively, large amounts of
spadework, such as the collection, description,
and illustration of specimens, they contain in-
evitable imperfections which new information
should eventually correct. Some of these also
bear the earmarks of haste reminiscent of Mr.
Berry’s newspaper experience. Nevertheless, a
survey of the contents of his bibliography re-
veals a comprehensive, philosophic outlook and
unquestionably indicates that he belongs with
the immortals of paleobotany.

Although Mr. Berry could be caustic in
criticizing the work of others, he was in reality
an amiable man and will long be remembered
by his former students and professional as-
sociates as a hard worker, independent thinker,
stimulating teacher, and generous friend.

RoLanp W. Brown

Harry VAUGHN Har.an died at Phoenix,
Ariz., on November 6, 1944. He had been a
member of the Washington Academy of Sci-
ences since 1919. Dr. Harlan was as widely
known throughout the world in his particular
field as any American scientist. He was one of
those fortunate individuals whose official duties
took him into many lands, and the friendships
and contacts which he established resulted in a
knowledge and appreciation of his work on a
world-wide basis that not many men attain.

Dr. Harlan was born at London Mills, IIl.,
on February 19, 1882. The family moved to
Kansas when he was a small boy and he grew
up in that State. He was an individual whose
ancestry and early training were reflected in
his character and philosophy of life to an an-
usual degree. His ancestry was Quaker, the
original American member of the family com-
ing to Pennsylvania with William Penn. While
Dr. Harlan himself was not a communicant of
any religious group, everything that he thought,

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

said, and did reflected in a very large measure
the religious teachings and philosophies of the
Quakers. His hatred of sham and show, his in-
tense love of the truth, his kindliness and
thoughtfulness of others, all were a part of this
heritage.

Dr. Harlan graduated from Kansas State
College in 1904, and he received his M.S. from
the same institution in 1909. He received the
degree of Sc.D. from the University of Min-
nesota in 1914.

Soon after graduation from college Dr. Har-
lan accepted a position in the Philippine
Islands, where he remained from 1905 to 1908.
During this period he established experiment
stations at Iloiloand Boayombong. In 1913and
1914 he made a trip to the highlands of Peru
to study agricultural possibilities in that area.
His travel experience included a special survey
of food conditions in Central Europe and the
Balkans immediately after the close of World
War I under the auspices of the U. S. Grain
Corporation and American Relief. Incidentally,
his estimates as to food supplies proved entirely
reliable, although at variance with official re-
ports, and in the end formed the basis of relief
activities in that area. Then finally in 1923 he
traveled in Europe, North Africa, Abyssinia,
and India, searching for materials to be used
in the improvement of barley in this country.
In the course of this exploration he carried out
an extremely successful trip through the then
most primitive areas of Ethiopia where Eu-
ropeans and Americans had been only rarely
if at all before. In 1927 he was sent to Europe
as a special representative of the Department
of Agriculture for conferences on barley grades
and grading in connection with exports of both
feed and malting barley.

On his return to this country from the Philip-
pines, and after an intervening period of gradu-
ate study, Dr. Harlan accepted a position in
the Department of Agriculture in 1910. Placed
in charge of barley investigations in the Bureau
of Plant Industry, he began a long period of
productive research on which he was actively
engaged to the day of his death. His research
on barley covered a broad field of interest as
evidenced in his publications. His first work

VOL. 36, NO. 1

dealt with the morphology of barley in relation
to malting. This was followed by studies on the
classification of barley and the characters of
barley important in breeding and improve-
ment. Then came a series of papers dealing with
growth and development of the barley plant
and of the barley kernel, and in later years
studies on methods and techniques of barley
improvement. During all this period he was
also carrying forward an active program of
barley breeding, and a number of improved
varieties widely grown in the United States
resulted from his efforts. He brought together
one of the world’s largest collections of barley
varieties. A list of 55 papers, collectively a
standard guide and reference on barley, attest
to the immense amount and value of his
work.

Harry Harlan was characterized by a deep

and all-comprehensive love for his fellow man.
Being a man of firm convictions, there were,
of course, many individuals for whom he cared
less than for others; but it can be truthfully
said of him that no one ever came to him in
trouble whom he did not help. Many indi-
viduals, who never knew the source of their
assistance, benefited from his helpfulness. This
was characteristic. He particularly delighted in
helping young people, and he had a long list
of young friends, scientific and otherwise, ex-
tending from one coast of the United States to
the other, and even into foreign countries. The
number of young people who were influenced
by Harry Harlan is remarkable, the more so
since his contacts primarily grew only from
his interest and not as a part of any regular
duties.
_ Harry Harlan was a most loyal and helpful
friend. Association with him was an inspira-
tion. His broad interests and knowledge were a
constant mental stimulus to his associates.
The Washington Academy suffered a real loss
in the death of this member.

He is survived by his wife, Augusta Griffing
Harlan, and two sons, Wilbur Vaughn, of the
U. S. Army, and Jack Rodney, of the Wood-
ward Field Station, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, Woodward, Okla.

M. A. McCay

ie

CONTENTS

PAGE

ErHNoLOGY.— Mixed bloods of the Upper Monongahela Valley, West
Virginia. WILLIAM HAREEN GILBERT, JR.) 00) 00 ee oie.
CHEMISTRY.—Salt ribbons and ice ribbons. RoLAND W. BRowN...... 14

ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles
of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 2: Tribe Oryctini (part).
LAWRENCE W. SAYLOR......... La vial yall a Bil oe en ee 16

EnTomoLocy.—Nine new species of Metachroma (Coleoptera) from the
West Indies. Doris'H. BLAKE.) 6600000 oe a, eee 22

ZooLogy.—A new crawfish of the genus Procambarus from Louisiana
Decapoda: Astacidae). GkorcE HENRY PENN........ ee. 27

ZooLocy.—A new.genus and species of minute marine stiliferid mollusks
from Florida. PauL BARTSCH... 6.0.0. oo oo a 30

OBITUARIES: EpwaRD WILBER Berry; Harry VAUGHN Harban..... 31

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Fesruary 15, 1946 No. 2

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoLUME 36

-Fesruary 15, 1946

No. 2

PALEONTOLOGY .—Stiptocrinus, a new camerate crinoid genus from the Si-

lurtan.}

In the middle Silurian of the central
United States are several species of cam-
erate crinoids that have variously been re-
ferred to Saccocrinus, Periechocrinus, Car-
pocrinus (‘“‘Habrocrinus’’), and Aorocrinus.
These species cannot be assigned to any
described genus. The new genus Sézpto-
crinus is here proposed for their reception.

Stiptocrinus, n. gen.

Genotype.—Stitptocrinus spinosus, Nn. sp.
Generic diagnosis.—

Crown. The genus is represented by a consid-
erable number of thecae, but the arms are
unknown except for their proximal por-
tions.

Theca. As seen, specimens attain a maximum
height of approximately 40 mm. In general
aspect Stiptocrinus strongly resembles
characteristic species of Actinocrinus from
the lower Mississippian. There is a pro-
nounced tendency toward lobation, and
the proportions of the cup to tegmen are
similar. The dorsal cup is high, averaging
about 70 percent of the over-all height of
the theca. The dorsal cup ranges from sub-
turbinate to subglobose in shape, with
somewhat depressed interradial areas. The
tegmen is low and usually has well-defined
depressed interambulacral areas. The the-
cal plates are heavy and typically tumid.
The plates of the dorsal cup may be orna-
mented by discrete subspinous processes,
irregular vermicular ridges, or fairly regu-
lar radiating ridges. In S. nodosus the
plates of the dorsal cup are all strongly
nodose.

1 Published by permission of the Director,
an, Geological Survey. Received December 11,

Epwin Kirk, U. S. Geological Survey.

BB. Three subequal elements, usually mod-

erately large and prominent.

In most species the height and breadth

of the plates are approximately the same.

In some species the height is greater than

the breadth. In S. spinosus the height is

as much as one-third greater than the
breadth.

IBrr. The first primibrach is usually consider-
ably smaller than the radial, and the pri-
maxil still smaller.

II Brr. At least two and in some cases three
secundibrachs may be considered as incor-
porated in the cup. As a rule the JI Brr
diverge from the wall of the theca, giving
the genus its typical lobate form. The se-
cundibrachs are very stout and the two
ranges are typically closely appressed lat-
erally so far as preserved. In species where
there is a small intersecundibrach, the
brachials enclose it completely.

Interradii. The posterior interradius is very
much larger than the others. The primary
anal is equal in size to the RR and is fol-
lowed by the usual batocrinoid range of
three plates. Distad the plates have a
somewhat irregular arrangement. There is
a median series of plates decreasing in size
distad. In most specimens there are but
two or three plates in this vertical series,
but in a few cases there are more. The pos-
terior interradius reaches its. maximum
breadth at the level of the third range,
which consists of five plates. In the other
interradii the first plate is relatively small,
followed by two plates in each of the fol-
lowing ranges.

Tegmen. The tegmen is a low, arched, compe-
tent structure. It is composed of numerous
small stout plates. The anal tube is excen-

RR.

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tric in position. In all specimens known it
has been broken off. Judged by the diame-
ter at the base, it was unusually large for
crinoids of this size.

Arms. The maximum number of JJ Brr found
in place in any specimen seen is four in
series. At this level the two series of a ray
are typically closely united. The structure
suggests a radial trunk, such as is found in
Melocrinus. Indeed, some of the specimens
found in the collections had been identified
as Melocrinus. Distad the rami probably
separate. Associated with a crushed theca
of uncertain specific affinities are two frag-
ments of what appear to be discrete rami.
They are laterally displaced, but seem to
belong to the specimen. If such be the
case, the rami are stout and uniserial.

Column. The column itself is unknown. From
the impression on the basals is appears to
have been relatively large. In one specimen
the lumen shows clearly. It is pentalobate.

Distribution.—Strptocrinus has been recog-
nized in the Cedarville dolomite of Ohio and
Indiana, the Racine dolomite of Illinois, the
Laurel limestone of Indiana, and the Decatur
limestone of Tennessee. There is a specimen in
the Springer collection formerly labeled Di-
merocrinus inornatus and stated to come from
the Waldron of Hartsville, Ind. It is a Strpto-
crinus. At St. Paul, Ind., the specimens seem to
come from several horizons and localities. Un-
fortunately, the original locality labels were not
transcribed when the specimens were put in
the collections.

Remarks.—The only genus with which
Stvptocrinus need be compared is Pertechocrinus.
Saccocrinus, as based on the type species Sac-
cocrinus speciosus, cannot be separated from
Periechocrinus. Pervechocrinus has relatively
very thin plates and an incompetent tegmen
made up of a great many small plates. The
plates of the cup, particularly in the radial
series, are typically very high in proportion to
the breadth. Many of the plates of the higher
ranges of the radial series are incorporated in
the cup. The anal tube is a short incompetent
structure, usually found flattened down on the
tegmen. Strptocrinus, as may be seen in the
description given above, differs to a marked
degrees in all the characters enumerated.

Species referred to the genus.—

VOL. 36, No. 2 |

Stiptocrinus benedicti (S. A. Miller), n. comb.
Saccocrinus benedictt S. A. Miller, 1892, p. 29, pl.
5, figs, 1, 2, “Niagara Group, at St. Paul,
Indiana” (Laurel limestone).—S. A. Miller,
1894, p. 283, pl. 5, figs. 1, 2.—Springer, 1926,

p. 46, pl. 10, figs. 6-10 (non figs. 11-14).
Pervechocrinus ornatus (Hall) (pars), Wachsmuth

and Springer, 1897, pl. 51, fig. 7.

Not Habrocrinus benedicti Slocom (non Miller)
(=Stiptocrinus chicagoensis (Weller), 1908,
p. 295, pl. 87, figs. 6, 7.—Foerste (non Miller)
(=Stiptocrinus sp.), 1917, p. 248, pl. 10, figs.
5a, 5b.

This is apparently the most abundant species
of Stiptocrinus in the Laurel limestone at St.
Paul, Ind. There are 30 or more specimens of
the species in the Springer collection, not count-
ing 4 specimens figured by Springer, but here
removed from the species. At least 15 of these —
specimens are in good to excellent state of
preservation and represent a considerable
range in growth stages. 3

The maximum height of theca among known
specimens is shown by one of Miller’s types, |
which gives 30 mm. Most specimens have a
height of 25 mm or less.

The characteristics of the species are well
shown by Springer’s figures (1926, pl. 10, figs.
6-10). The plates of the dorsal cup, as shown in
fig. 7 are incorrectly drawn. The radials appear
to be considerably higher than wide. Such is not
the case, as the dimensions are nearly equal. -

Specimens shown in Springer’s figs. 11 and
12 have been removed from S. benedicti and
placed in a new species, S. spinosus. Specimen
Fig. 13 represents still another species. As
shown in the tegminal view it is deeply lobate. .
S. benedict is only slightly lobate. The dorsal
cup of fig. 13 is unlike that of either S. benedictr
or S. spinosus. Specimen fig. 14 is here de-
scribed as S. carinatus.

Stiptocrinus carinatus, n. sp.

Saccocrinus benedictt Springer (non Miller)

(pars), 1926, pl. 10, fig. 14.

This species is given a name chiefly to record
its aberrancy in form and ornamentation. As
holotype I choose the specimen figured by
Springer, pl. 10, fig. 14. The specimen is a
fragmentary dorsal cup, preserving the pos-
terior interradius and three rays. The specimen
is somewhat crushed. The tegmen is missing,
and the wall of the cup is preserved up to and
including the first secundibrachs. A smaller

Fes. 15, 1946

specimen, not figured, has a complete dorsal
cup, preserved to the same level as the larger
specimen. This will stand as a paratype. There
is another specimen, larger than the holotype,
poorly preserved, and partially embedded in
matrix.

The cup is broader than high, the small
specimen having an average diameter of 15 mm
and a height of 12 mm. The walls of the cup
diverge more widely than any described species
of the genus, excepting S. nodosus. The typical
plate ornamentation consists of sharp carinae
radiating from the center of the plate to each
angle. This is unusual, as radiating ridges usu-
ally run normal to the faces of the plate. The
basals bear irregular vermicular rounded ridges.

The widely expanding walls of the dorsal cup
and the stellate ornamentation of the plates
readily distinguish this species from any de-
scribed form.

Horizon and locality —Laurel limestone, St.
Paul, Ind. All three specimens are partially
silicified and come from a dolomitic limestone.

Types.—The types are in the Springer col-
lection, United States National Museum. Holo-
type 8 4473; paratype S 4474.

Stiptocrinus chicagoensis (Weller), n. comb.
Periechocrinus chicagoensis Weller, 1900, p. 131,
pl. 13, figs. 7, 8, Niagaran, Bridgeport and

Joliet, Ill. (Racine dolomite).

Habrocrinus benedictt Slocom (non Miller), 1908,

p. 295, pl. 87, figs. 6, 7.

This is the largest described species of Sttpto-
crinus, the height of the theca ranging up to 40
mm or more. It is difficult to form an adequate
picture of the species. Except for the portion
of the exterior figured by Slocom, all we have
are internal casts. The RR are higher than
wide, and the primibrachs are relatively
larger than in any other described species.
There seem to be no intersecundibrachs.

Because of its large size and the proportions
of the plates, it would seem advisable to keep
this species distinct.

Stiptocrinus farringtoni (Slocom), n. comb.

Habrocrinus farringtoni Slocom, 1908, p. 296, pl.
87, figs. 1-5, ‘“‘Niagaran limestone—about 1
mile east of Lemont, Illinois’? (Racine dolo-
mite).

Stiptocrinus howardi (S. A. Miller), n. comb.

Saccocrinus howardi 8. A. Miller, 1892, p. 30,
pl. 5, figs. 3-5, “‘Niagara Group, at St. Paul,

KIRK: A NEW CRINOID GENUS FROM THE SILURIAN 39

Indiana’’ (Laurel limestone).—S. A. Miller,

1894, p. 284, pl. 5, figs. 3-5.

Habrocrinus howardi (Slocom), 1908, p. 297.—

Foerste, 1917, p. 2438.

The validity of this species is questionable.
Not having seen the specimen itself, I am not
competent to pass judgment. In the Springer
collection I have chosen one specimen that may
represent this species. In form of theca this
specimen resembles S. benedicti, and the orna-
mentation is similar. The theca, however, is
strongly lobate, and there are no intersecundi-
brachs. It does not have the broadly truncate
base and subcylindrical cup described by
Miller. Indeed, in a hundred or more specimens
of Stvptocrinus from St. Paul I have seen no
specimens corresponding to Miller’s.

Stiptocrinus nodosus (Springer), n. comb.

Aorocrinus nodosus Springer, 1926, p. 47, pl. 10,
figs. 16, 16a, 16b, ‘‘Decatur limestone, Niaga-
ran; below Grandview, 10 miles above Clifton
on the Tennessee River, Perry County, Ten-
nessee.”’

I think there can be little doubt that this
species is referable to Stiptocrinus. The radial
series is not preserved beyond the first secundi-
brachs, but all the structures shown agree with
those of the genus.

Stiptocrinus spinosus, n. sp.
Saccocrinus benedictt Springer (non S. A. Miller)

(pars), 1926, pl. 10, figs. 11, 12.

There are 15 specimens of this species in the
Springer collection, two of them figured by
Springer as Saccocrinus benedicti, as noted
above. The specimen illustrated by fig. 11 is
chosen as holotype of Stiptocrinus spinosus.
The other specimen (fig. 12) will stand as a
paratype.

This is one of the smaller species of the genus.
The theca of the holotype, an adult individual,
has a height of 20 mm, which seems to be about
average for the species. The paratype, an 1m-
perfect specimen lacking the tegmen and J/Brr,
would have had a height somewhat greater
than this.

The theca is strongly lobate, more so than
any described species of the genus. The dorsal
cup is high, making up about four-fifths the
over-all height of the theca. The sides of the
cup diverge evenly at an angle of about 45°.
The tegmen is low, with strongly depressed
interambulacral areas.

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In the dorsal cup perhaps the most charac-
teristic feature of the species is the propor-
tionally very large radial, and its considerable
excess in height over breadth. In the holotype
the average height of the radials is approxi-
mately one-third greater than the breadth. The
secundibrachs diverge sharply from the wall
of the cup, giving the strongly lobate form
characteristic of the species. There are no inter-
secundibrachs.

The ornamentation of the plates of the cup
is unlike that of any known species. In the holo-
type each basal element bears a pair of sub-
spinous processes. In gerontic individuals, such
as the paratype, there is a considerable accre-
tion of sterom. The space between the processes
is partially filled, and the lateral elevations are
extended distad as rounded ridges. Subsidiary
spinous processes may also appear. The radials
and the primary anal each typically bear a sub-
central spinous process. In gerontic forms two
or three less elevated nodes appear below the
central node, and low rounded ridges may de-
velop. Each of the first primibrachs bears a
central node that tends to extend laterally into
a ridge. The plates of the interradial series also
have more or less sharply defined central nodes.
The pronounced lobation, lack of intersecundi-
brachs, spinous ornamentation, and the rela-
tively narrow straight-sided dorsal cup clearly
distinguish S. spinosus from S. benedict:. The
shape of the cup and the ornamentation are
quite unlike that seen in S. howard..

Horizon and locality—Laurel limestone, St.
Paul, Ind. Two specimens can be placed more
accurately as from the ‘‘State House Quarry.”

Types.—The holotype and paratype are in
the Springer collection, United States National
Museum. Holotype S 4471; paratype S 4472.

The following two specimens will be noted

VOL. 36, NO. 2

merely because of their stratigraphic position
and publication. Neither, owing to poor preser-
vation, can be determined specifically.

Stiptocrinus sp.

Habrocrinus benedicti Foerste (non Miller), 1917,
p. 248, pl. 10, figs. 5a, 5b, ‘‘Muncie, Indiana,
above the horizon of the Cedarville dolomite.”

This is a large species, fully as large as S.
chicagoensis and similar to that species.

Stiptocrinus sp.

Habrocrinus sp. Foerste, 1917, p. 242, pl. 10, fig.
6, ‘‘Cedarville dolomite—Mills Quarry, one
mile southwest of Springfield, Ohio.”

This specimen is of medium size and strongly
lobate. It most nearly resembles S. spinosus,
but the walls of the cup diverge more widely,
and it is much larger than any known S.
spinosus. The ornamentation seems to consist
of irregular vermicular ridges.

LITERATURE CITED

ForrstE, A. F. Notes on Silurvan fossils from
Ohio and other Central States. Ohio
Journ. Sci. 17 (6, 7): 187-204, 233-267,
pls. 8-12. 1917.

Miuuter, 8. A. Paleontology. Advance sheet
from the eighteenth report of the Geological
Survey of Indiana: 1-79. 1-12. Sept.

1892.

Paleontology. In Gorby, 8. 8., 18th
Ann. Rep. Indiana Dept. Geol. and Nat.
Res.: 257-857, pls. 1-12. 1894.

Stocum, A. W. New crinoids from the Chicago
area. Publ. Field Columbian Mus. 123,
geol. ser. 2 (10): 273-306, pls. 82-87, text
figs. Jan. 3, 1908, corrected date (date
on title page, Oct. 31, 1907).

SPRINGER, FRANK. American Silurian cri-
noids. Smithsonian Inst. Publ. 2871:
i-iv, 1-239, pls. 1-33. 1926.

WACHSMUTH, CHARLES, and SPRINGER, FRANK.
The North American Crinoidea Camerata.
Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 20 and 21: 1-837,
83 pls. May 1897.

Fes. 15, 1946

BOTANY.—WNew Asiatic species of the legume genus Campylotropis.!

RICKER: NEW ASIATIC SPECIES OF CAMPYLOTROPIS 37

PL.

RickER, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering.

The species of Campylotropis, long in-
cluded in the genus Lespedeza, are now gen-
erally recognized as composing a separate
genus distinguished by flowers single at an
axil and the keel geniculate instead of some-
what curved. About 66 valid species are
known, which are almost entirely limited to
the Provinces of Yunnan and Szechwan in
China.

Scarcity of herbarium material and prob-
able destruction of many types in Germany
during the war will make adequate treat-
ment of the genus difficult unless satisfac-
tory duplicate types can be found, but from
supposed duplicates of type numbers in
American herbaria it is evident that there
has been a mixup in the distribution of sup-
posedly authentic material in many cases.
Most descriptions in question are, however,
fairly complete, and between them and the
considerable number of sheets of types and
paratypes examined it is believed that there
is little probability of any of the accom-
panying 12 new species having been previ-
ously described.

Photographs of type sheets and natural
size photographs of the flowers, leaves, and
pods have been deposited in the herbaria
of the New York Botanical Garden, Bailey
-Hortorium, Arnold Arboretum, Gray Her-
barium, and Missouri Botanical Garden,
unless the type sheets have been designated
in these herbaria; the photographs are avail-
able as exchange for type photographs from
other large herbaria.

Campylotropis brevifolia Ricker, sp. nov.

Erect shrubs with gray, densely tomentose
stems; petioles up to 1 cm long; leaflets obovate
to obcordate, up to 12 X16 mm, minutely pu-
berulent and dark green above, densely gray-
tomentose below; racemes short, few-flowered,
axillary and terminal, flowers rose-purple, calyx
densely gray-tomentose, 3-4 mm long, teeth
acute, about equaling the tube, standard 8-10
mm long, keel and wings shorter; pods un-
known.

1 Received December 14, 1945.

Frutex erectus, caule griseo-tomentoso.
Foliola obovata vel obcordata usque ad 12 X16
mm, superne subglaberrima, subter dense
griseo-tomentosa. Racemi brevi, axillares,
sparsiflori; corolla roseo-purpurea, ca. 8-10
mm longa; calyx dense griseo-tomentosus, 3-4
mm longus, laciniis acutis, tubo subaequilongis.

Type no. (953) 5604, Dr. H. F. v. Handel-
Mazzetti, in valley of Yalung River between
Datung and Delifu, Szechwan, China, October
14, 1914, in Herbarium of the Arnold Arbore-
tum. Also Szechwan, T. T. Yu, no. 1450,
October 20, 1932. Altitude 1,600 m.

Somewhat resembling OC. — stenocarpa
(Maxim.) Schindl., but that species has the
calyx teeth about twice longer than the tube.

Campylotropis filipes Ricker, sp. nov.

Shrubby, few branches, stems erect, striate,
sparingly appressed, pubescent to glabrous,
10-30 dm tall. Stipules linear-lanceolate, 5-6
mm long; petioles 2.5-3 em long; leaflets nar-
rowly elliptic, lateral nearly sessile, sparingly
pubescent to glabrous above and below, .4—
1.3 X2.2-5.2 cm, acute to obtuse at both ends,
mucronate. Peduncles about 1.5 cm long;
racemes terminal and axillary, 3-4 cm long;
pedicels slender, appressed pubescent, 7-8 mm
long; calyx hirsute, about 3 mm long, teeth
mucronate, about equaling the tube; flowers
reddish-purple (note on specimen); pods gla-
brous, margin ciliate, oblanceolate, about 4 x9
mm.

Suffrutex, ramis paucis, caule erecto, 10-30
dm alto. Foliola angusto-elliptica, subsessilia,
4A-1.3 X2.2-5.2 em. Racemi axillares et termi-
nales, 3-4 em longi. Calyx hirsutus, ca. 3 mm
longus, laciniis mucronatis, tubo subaequi-
longis. Corolla ignota. Legumen oblanceolatum
ca. 4X9 mm, margine ciliato.

Type no. 14832, T. T. Yu, Muli, Guhtzum,
Yunnan, China, December 4, 1937, in Herbar-
ium of the Arnold Arboretum. Altitude 3,100
m.

In the absence of the flowers the single fruit-
ing pedicel at an axis distinguishes this from
Lespedeza, and the habit and leaflets are en-
tirely different from anything seen elsewhere in
the genus Campylotropis.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Campylotropis gracilis Ricker, sp. nov.

Slender shrubs, branches erect to decumbent,
new growth angular and densely tomentose,
older growth becoming woody and sparingly
tomentose; leaves thin, chartaceous, sparingly
pubescent above, glabrous and appressed-
pubescent below, petioles equaling the leaflets;
leaflets oblanceolate to elliptic, up to 2.15
em, apex retuse and mucronate, terminal leaflet
larger; infloresence axillary and terminal, up to
6 cm long, peduncle tomentose, pedicels
slender, tomentose, 0.5—-1 cm long; flowers few,
(rosy?); calyx 3-4 mm long, tomentose, teeth
linear-lanceolate, about equaling the tube;
standard about 1.1 cm long, equaling the keel,
wings shorter; pod unknown.

Frutex gracilis, ramis erectis vel decum-
bentibus, angulatis, dense tomentosis. Foliola
elliptica vel oblanceolata usque ad 2.1 X5 cm,
apice retusa et mucronata. Flores pauci, calyx
3-4 mm longus, tomentosus, laciniis: lineari-
lanceolatis, tubum subaequantibus. Vexillum
ca. 1.1 em longum. Carina alas superans.

Type no. 6508, Dr. A. Henry, Hupeh, China,
1885-88, in Gray Herbarium.

Most nearly resembling C. polyantha (Fr.)
Schindl., but that species has leaflets that are
glabrous above and shorter; it also has longer
calyx teeth and more spreading pubescence on
the pedicels.

Campylotropis hersi Ricker, sp. nov.

Shrub with long, erect, unbranched new
growth (all seen) and closely and finely ap-
pressed-pubescent stems; stipules subulate,
4—5 mm long, petioles up to 2 cm long; leaflets
elliptic to ovate, apex obtuse or acute to emar-
ginate and mucronate; racemes axillary and
terminal, 4-5 mm, cone-like buds only devel-
oped. Flowers and pods unknown.

Frutex erectus, ramis dense appresse pubes-
centibus. Stipulae subulatae, 4-5 mm longae.
Petioli usque ad 2 em longi, foliola elliptica
usque ovata, apice obtuse usque acuta vel
emarginata. Racemi axillares et terminales.

Type no. 1601, Joseph Hers, Nankow Pass,
northern Chihli, China, August 15, 1921, in
Herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum.

Campylotropis huberi Ricker, sp. nov.

Erect shrubs, with stem many-angled, ap-
pressed-canescent. Leaves membranaceous,
stipules subulate, canescent, 4 mm _ long;

VOL. 36, No. 2

petioles 2-4 em long, canescent; leaflets elliptic-
oblong, narrowly obtuse at both ends, up to
1.7X5 cm, sparingly puberulent to glabrous
above, appressed grayish-pubescent below.
Racemes axillary and terminal, peduncle up to
6 cm long with spreading fuscous pubescence,
flowers crowded on the upper half; calyx 3
mm long, teeth acute, 1 mm long; corolla pur-
ple, 10-11 mm long, wings 9-11 mm long. Pod
unknown.

Frutex erectus, caule multiangulato, ad-
presse canescente. Folia membranacea; stipu-
lae subulatae, canescentes, ca. 4 mm longae;
petioli 2-4 em longi; foliola elliptico-oblonga
usque ad 1.7 X5 cm. Racemi axillares et ter-
minales, pedunculo usque ad 6 cm longo; calyx
3mm longus, laciniis acutis 1 mm longis; corolla
purpurea, 10-11 mm longa, alis 9-10 mm
longis.

Type no. B46=746, W. Huber, June 16,
1868, ex Herbarium Meisner, in Herbarium of
the New York Botanical Garden. No locality
given but probably vicinity of Yunnan or
Szechwan, as most of the known species are
from that area.

The shape of the leaflets is quite characteris-
tic and distinct from that of any species seen.

Campylotropis longepedunculata
Ricker, sp. nov.

Erect shrub 1.2 m tall, young stems angular
and densely tawny hirsute; petioles about half
the length of the leaflets, densely hirsute; leaf-
lets elliptic to oblong-elliptic, up to 3.2 X6.7 em
long, dark green and glabrous above, light
green and closely pubescent below, apex retuse
and mucronate; racemes terminal and axillary,
peduncles mostly 11-19 cm long; flowers pur-
ple, numerous on the upper half, pedicels slen-
der, hirsute, mostly 5-8 mm long; calyx hirsute,
4-5 mm long, teeth acuminate, equaling or
slightly longer than the tube; standard 8-9
mm long, keel and wings nearly equaling the
standard; pods about 4X10 mm, elliptic,
acute, hirsute.

Frutex erectus, caule angulato, dense fulvo-
hirsuto; petioli foliolis dimidio breviores, dense
hirsuti; foliola elliptica vel oblongo-elliptica
usque ad 3.2 X6.7 cm, apice retusa et mucro- .
nata. Calyx hirsutus, 4-5 mm longus, laciniis
acuminatis, tubo subaequilongis; corolla pur-
purea, 8-9 mm longa. Legumen ca. 4 X10 mm,
ellipticum, acutum, hirsutum.

Fes. 15, 1946

Type no. 6108, Y. Tsiang, Lung-bing, Tuyun,
Kweichow, China, July 28, 1930. Also no.
8407, Y. Tsiang, Lungli, Kweichow, China,
July 4, 1930. Both in Herbarium of the Arnold
Arboretum.

Most nearly resembling C. grandifolia
Schindler, but that species has the young
growth glabrous or sparingly pubescent, the
leaflets sparingly pubescent below, the inflo-
rescence with spreading pubescence, and the
pods obtuse.

Campylotropis mortolana Ricker, sp. nov.

Erect shrub with branches at first appressed-
pubescent; lower petioles as long as the leaves;
stipules linear-lanceolate, about 3 mm long;
leaflets elliptic to obovate, apex and base
often acute, up to 2 X4.5 cm, glabrous above,
sparingly pubescent to glabrous beneath; in-
floresence of short terminal (and axillary?)
racemes; pedicels stout, 3-4 mm long, with
spreading pubescence; calyx about 3 mm long,
teeth 1 mm long, broadly acute; standard about
1 cm long (purple or violet?), keel 1 cm long,
wings somewhat shorter; pods unknown.

Frutex erectus, ramis adpresse pubescenti-
bus. Stipulae lineari-lanceolatae, ca. 3 mm
longae; foliola elliptica vel obovata, apice et
basi saepe acuta, usque ad 2 X4.5 cm, superne
glabra, subter parce pubescentia. Calyx ca. 3
mm longus, laciniis acutis, 1 mm longis; corolla

ca. 1 em longa.

_ Type sheet in Arnold Arboretum from her-
barium of Camillo Schneider collected at La
Mortola Garden in Italy, August 1903, bearing
the name Indigofera macroptera which suggests
that the labels were mixed in mounting. The
species is most certainly from China and prob-
ably from the Provinces of Yunnan or Szech-
wan which are the centers of distribution of
most of the species of Campylotropis.

The species most nearly suggests C. prainit
but we have not seen the frequently acute apex
leaflets in that species. The petioles and pedi-
cels in that species are long and slender, the
leaflets usually much darker colored, at least
in drying, and the inflorescence not so compact,
and it has many conspicuous long linear-
lanceolate bractlets not found in C. mortolana.

Campylotropis nepalensis Ricker, sp. nov.

Small erect shrubs with much branched to-
mentose stems; leaves very short petioled (2-3

RICKER: NEW ASIATIC SPECIES OF CAMPYLOTROPIS 39

mm); stipules 3 mm long, linear-lanceolate;
leaflets thick, broadly cuneate, apex obtuse,
mucronate and often retuse, up to 10 X15 mm,
glabrous above and veins very prominent, re-
ticulated, tomentose beneath. Inflorescence in
short axillary racemes, pedicels slender, ciliate,
about 5 mm long; flowers (rose purple?), calyx
hirsute, 4-5 mm long, teeth lanceolate, about
equaling or somewhat longer than the tube,
standard 8-10 mm long, keel and wings shorter;
pod unknown.

Suffrutex, ramosissimus, tomentosus. Stipu-
lae lineari-lanceolatae, 3 mm longae; foliola
coriacea, late cuneata, apice obtusa, mucro-
nata, saepe retusa, usque ad 10X15 mm,
superne glabra, subter tomentosa. Calyx hir-
sutus, 4-5 mm longus, laciniis tubo subaequi-
longis; corolla (roseo-purpurea?) 8-10 mm
longa, carina et alis longior.

Type no. 59, Bis Ram, Chaumala, West
Nepal, India, March 23, 1929, in Herbarium of
Arnold Arboretum.

The general appearance of the plant resem-
bles C. stenocarpa (Klotzsch) Schindler, which
has long, terminal, axillary racemes of flowers,
conspicuous close, broadly lanceolate, hirsute
bractlets, and with the leaflets less conspicu-
ously reticulated and much more densely to-
mentose beneath.

Campylotropis purpurascens Ricker, sp. nov.

Shrubs 9-15 dm tall, branches striate,
densely velvety. Stipules linear-lanceolate, 6-7
mm long; petioles up to 2 cm long; leaflets
coriaceous, elliptic, mucronate, velutinous
above, densely sericeous below, up to 1.9 X2.8
cm. Racemes arcuate, up to 8 cm long; rhachis
hispid, flowering nearly to the base: Calyx
about 3 mm long, appressed-pubescent, teeth
arcuate, about equaling the tube; corolla 7-8
mm long, purplish-blue. Fruits unknown.

Frutex 9-15 dm altus, ramis striatis, dense
velutinis. Stipulae lineari-lanceolatae, 6-7 mm
longae; petioli usque ad 2 cm longi; foliola cori-
acea, elliptica, mucronata, superne velutina,
subter dense sericea, usque ad 1.9 X2.8 cm.
Calyx ca. 3 mm longus, adpresse pubescens,
laciniis acutis, tubo subaequilongis; corolla 7-8
mm longa, purpureo-coerulea.

Type no. 17571, T. T. Yu, Shunning, Hila,
Yunnan, China, September 9, 1938, in Her-
barium of the Arnold Arboretum. Not closely
resembling any other species of Campylotropis,

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

but the leaf shape and raceme branches suggest
Lespedeza thunbergii (Vogel) Koehne, except
for the velvety and silky characters of the
leaflets.

Campylotropis reticulata Ricker, sp. nov.

Erect shrub, about 6 dm tall, branches angu-
lar, densely tomentose; leaves glabrous and
with conspicuous, small reticulations above,
appressed-pubescent below; stipules linear-
lanceolate, villose, 4 mm long; petioles villose,
up to 1.5 em long; leaflets oblanceolate to ellip-
tic, coriaceous, up to 1.2 X2.2 cm; inflorescence
axillary and terminal, racemes about equaling
the peduncle, 2-3 cm long; flowers pink; calyx
hirsute, about 3 mm long, teeth linear-lanceo-
late, equaling the tube; standard about 8 mm
long, equaling the keel, wings shorter; pods el-
liptic, acute, hirsute, margin closely ciliate,
about 8 mm long.

Frutex erectus, ca. 6 dm altus; ramis angu-
latis, dense tomentosis. Foliola oblanceolata
usque elliptica, coriacea, usque ad 1.2 X2.2 em.
Calyx hirsutus, ca. 3 mm longus, laciniis line-
ari-lanceolatis tubo aequilongis; vexillo ca. 8
mm longo, carina aequilongo, alis brevioris.
Legumen ellipticum, acutum, hirsutum, mar-
ginum ciliatum, ca. 8 mm longum.

Type no. 9626A, A. Henry, Meng-tsze,
Yunnan, China, in U. 8S. National Herbarium.

C. reticulata most nearly resembles C. erto-
carpa (DC.) Schindl. but is at once distin-
guished by the conspicuous small, oval reticu-
lations of the leaflets. In C. ertocarpa the reticu-
lations are less conspicuous, and much more
elongated, and the leaflets are darker colored.
Henry’s no. 9626, with appressed-pubescent
stems, which is mounted on the same sheet, is
C. neglecta Schindl.

Campylotropis smithi Ricker, sp. nov.

Shrubby, branches appressed-pubescent,
many angled; petioles nearly as long as the
leaves, stipules lanceolate; leaflets elliptic, up
to 1.1 X1.8 em, glabrous above, pubescent be-
neath; racemes terminal and axillary, up to 6
cm long; flowers rose-purple; pedicels up to 5
mm long, calyx hispidulous, about 5 mm long,
teeth lanceolate, about equaling the tube;
standard about 1 cm long, keel and wings
shorter; pods unknown.

VOL. 36, NO. 2 |

Suffrutex, ramis adpresse pubescentibus,
multiangulatis. Folia petiolo subaequilonga;
stipulae lanceolatae; foliola elliptica usque ad
1.1 X1.8 em, superne glabra, subter pubescen-
tia. Flores roseo-purpurea, pedicelli usque ad
5 mm longi; calyx ca. 5 mm longus, hispidulus,
laciniis lanceolatis tubo subaequilongis, vexil-
lum ca. 1 em longum, carina et alis breviore.

Type no. 2268, Harry Smith, near Ta-tien,
Szechwan, China, July 2, 1922, in Herbarium
of the Arnold Arboretum. A fragmentary speci-
men with somewhat obovate obtuse pods from
Yunnan, T. T. Yu, no. 14885, may belong to
this species.

C. smitht suggests a small-leaved form of C.
sargentit Schindler, but our species has quite a
different type of pubescence on the calyx teeth,
the flowers are smaller, and the leaflets more
densely pubescent below.

Campylotropis wangi Ricker, sp. nov.

Erect shrub, stems glabrous below, sparingly
appressed pubescent above; petioles about 1
cm long, appressed-pubescent, leaflets elliptic
up to 1.2 X3.3 em, glabrous above, sparingly
pubescent below; racemes axillary and ter-
minal, glandular-tomentose, peduncles about
equaling the leaves, pedicels 4-6 mm long;
calyx strigose, 4-5 mm long, teeth acuminate,
about equaling the tube; flowers pale purplish
to reddish, about 1 cm long, keel and wings
equal, standard about 9 mm long; pods elliptic,
about 4X9 mm, puberulent, margin ciliate.

Frutex erectus, caulibus subter glabris,
superne sparse adpresse pubescentibus. Petio-
lus ca. 1 em longus; foliola elliptica usque ad
1.23.3 em, superne glabra, subter sparse
pubescentia. Calyx strigosus, 4-5 mm longus,
laciniis acuminatis tubo subaequilongis. Flores
pallido-purpurei usque rubescentes, ca. 1 cm
longi, aliis carinam aequantibus, vexillo ca. 9
mm longo. Legumen ellipticum ca. 4X9 mm,
puberulentum, margine ciliata.

Type no. 70331, C. W. Wang, A-tun-tze,
Yunnan, China, 1,300-3,000 m_ elevation,
September 1935, in Herbarium of the Arnold
Arboretum, and probably no. 63456, C. W.
Wang, Ta-li Hsien, May 1935.

Somewhat resembling C’. capillipes (Franch.)
Schindler, but leaflets more elongated and
peduncles and pedicels with spreading glandu-
lar pubescence instead of appressed.

Fes. 15, 1946

SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 41

ENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles of the
subfamily Dynastinae, No. 3: Tribe Oryctint (part).| LAWRENCE W. SaAYLor,
Research Associate, California Academy of Sciences.

This paper is the third in the series cover-
ing the United States dynastine scarab
beetles and includes the four genera dif-
ferentiated in the following key:

1. Apex clypeus acute and definitely bidentate,
the teeth often worn and nearly obsolete. .2
Apex clypeus acute, either sharply or bluntly
so, but never bidentate................. 3

2. Mandibles definitely tridentate externally, the
basal tooth often worn and barely visible;
thorax not more than two-thirds the length

of the elytra; color rufous to rufocastaneous

or rufopiceous......... Iigyrus Burmeister
Mandibles bidentate externally (caution: ex-
mine from below and laterally to avoid
counting the lacinia teeth as third teeth of

the mandible); thorax about three-fourths

the length of the elytra; color always black.
Euetheola Bates

3. Thorax never foveate; mandibles large and
evenly rounded externally, never toothed;
coloration piceous to piceocastaneous, rarely
rufocastaneous.......... Aphonides Rivers
Thorax always foveate at midapex, and with
midapical tubercle; mandibles tridentate ex-
ternally; coloration bright rufous and
strongly shining......... Oxygryltus Casey

Genus Ligyrus Burmeister

Iigyrus Burmeister, 1847, p. 542; Casey, 1915
p. 178; Ritcher, 1944, p. 25 (larvae); Hayes,
1917, p. 253 (biology).

Tomarus Erichson, 1847, p. 95.

Ligyrodes Casey, 1915, p. 178; Arrow, 1937, p. 35.

Grylius Casey, 1915, p. 189.

Anagrylius Casey, 1915, p. 204.

Ingyrellus Casey, 1915, p. 206.

Euligyrus Casey, 1915, p. 185.

This American genus includes 52 species, ac-
cording to Arrow (1937), but many of them
are not valid; of the 37 names now being used
for our United States species (30 of them
Casey’s), there are in reality only six valid
species, one of these being formerly known only
from Mexico and the other a West Indian
species probably recorded from the States by
error.

KEY TO UNITED STATES LIGYRUS

(Males have last abdominal sternite emarginate
apically)

1. First elytral interval very wide next to scutel-

lum, and very smooth, usually entirely

1 Received September 27, 1948.

impunctate, rarely with a dozen or so very
minute and highly scattered punctures;
male front claw simple and not enlarged;
color rufous to piceous; size large (18-27
mm); known from Baja California and
Mexico, to Honduras; rare in Arizona (Fig.

LEO EST EP EI ir Bee laevicollis Bates
First elytral interval always coarsely and
moderately densely punctured........... 2

. Most of discal thoracic area very smooth and

with scattered, very fine punctures; clypeal
base with two widely separated tubercles;
male front claws simple; color piceous; size
large (21-25 mm); Florida (Fig. 1, 7).
subtropicus Blatchley
Size variable, rarely as large as 18 mm;
puncturation of thorax very variable but
center basal area always with at least a
dozen or so coarse punctures............ 3

. Basal clypeal carina always erect and distinct

(unless worn) and never interrupted at
middle; male front claws always simple and
not enlarged; pygidium very densely, finely,
and scabrosely punctate both near and at
basal corners and often the same along
basal margin; rest of pygidial disc polished
and finely punctate but very variable in
density of puncturation; mid-apex of tho-
racic disc almost always with a small fovea
immediately behind the small marginal
tubercle; widespread over United States,
Baja California, and northern Mexico
(genitalia, Fig. 1, e)...gibbosus (DeGeer)
Basal carina of clypeus always noticeably in-
terrupted at middle, and usually widely so,
frequently appearing bituberose; male front
claws simple or enlarged; pygidial punctura-
tion very variable, if scabrose then very
PT OSS|VOSOi es dt cae gee les co. «vt ge 4

. Male front claws simple and not enlarged;

pygidial puncturation at corners very coarse
but punctures usually not contiguous except
right at corners, puncturation of dise very
coarse and only moderately dense; West
Indies (probably not United States) (geni-
falian Wig. Lopes cuniculus Fabricius
Male front claws enlarged and the inner claw
larger and reflexed; pygidial puncturation of
Temale NOt AaSssaDOVE.. 0.052 = s<ucBe tet y-naeerans 5

. Pygidial puncturation exceedingly dense and

scabrose over nearly all the disc, only a small
midapical area less densely punctured;
Eastern United States, rare to Arizona
(genitalia Pigs th)y eo ak relictus Say
Pygidial puncturation very coarse but not at
all dense and with smooth areas between the
punctures even right at the pygidial basal
angles; United States (Texas) and Mexico to
Costa Rica (genitalia, Fig. 1, g). . sallei Bates

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Ligyrus relictus Say

Ligyrus relictus Say, 1825, p. 194; Horn, 1875,
p. 148; Casey, 1915, p. 183 (Ligyrodes) ; Ritcher,
1944, p. 22 (Ligyrodes) (larvae).

Ligyrodes clypealis Casey, 1915, p. 181. (New
synonymy.)

L. parviceps Casey, 1915, p. 182. (New synonymy)

L. quadripennis Casey, 1915, p. 182. (New

synonymy.)
L. vernicollis Casey, 1915, p. 182. (New synon-

ymy.)
L. dawsoni Casey, 1924, p. 334. (New synonymy.)

Rather widely distributed in the midwestern
and eastern States; I have seen specimens from
Rhode Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Iowa, Indiana, Kansas, and Nebraska. It oc-
curs also rarely west of Kansas and I have seen
specimens from Arizona. The larvae feed in old
manure piles and soils rich in humus. The male
enlarged front claw, the large size, and
dark color will readily place the species over
much of its range. The genus Ligyrodes erected
for this species by Casey is not valid, since the
characters apply only to the male sex and so
females could not be properly placed.

Ligyrus sallei Bates

Ligyrus salle: Bates, 1888, p. 318.

L. aztecus Casey, 1915, p. 184. (New synonymy.)

L. propinquus Casey, 1915, p. 183. (New syn-
onymy.)

This common Central American (Mexico,
Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) species
occurs sparingly in the United States; I have
seen specimens from Brownsville, Tex. It can
be confused in the male only with relictus,
since both have the enlarged front claw, but the
male genitalia are quite different, and the color
of salle, is more rufous and more highly
polished.

Ligyrus cuniculus (Fabricius)
Geotrupes cuniculus Fabricius, 1801, p. 20.
Heteronychus tumulosus Burmeister, 1847, p. 101;

Bates, 1888, p. 315 (Ligyrus); Casey, 1915, p.
205 (Anagrylius) ; Arrow, 1900, p. 181 (Ligyrus).
Ligyrus antillarum Beauvois, 1805, p. 104.

This common West Indian species was said
to be from ‘‘Nord-America, Sud-Carolina”’ and
“Westindien, St. Domingo,” and the original
description was based on a specimen obtained
from a dealer. Since the species is well known
in the West Indies but has apparently not since
been taken in the United States, it is time to

VoL. 36, No. 2

remove it from our lists. Should it ever occur,
the male genitalic drawings will readily place
the species. Bates records it from Mexico,
British Honduras, and South America, but
these records may refer to other, allied species.

Ligyrus gibbosus (DeGeer)

Scarabaeus gibbosus DeGeer, 1774, p. 322; Casey,
1915, p. 204 (Ligyrus); Ritcher, 1944, p. 25
(larvae) (Ligyrus); Comstock, 1880, p. 274
(biology); Hayes, 1917, p. 253 (biology).

Podalgus variolosus Burmeister, 1855, p. 121.

P. juvencus Burmeister, 1855, p. 121.

Geotrupes juvencus Fabricius, 1775, p. 32.

Ligyrus juvencus Burmeister, 1855, p. 542.

L. morio LeConte 1848, p. 20; Horn, 1875, p. 143.

Bothynus obsoletus LeConte, 1848, p. 87. (New
synonymy.)

B. neglectus LeConte, 1848, p. 87. (New syn-
onymy.)

Ligyrus puncticauda Casey, 1915, p. 195. (New
synonymy.)

L. arizonensis Casey, 1915, p. 201. (New syn-
onymy.)

L. brevipes Casey, 1915, p. 202.
ymy.)

L. breviusculus Casey, 1915, p. 196. (New syn-
onymy.)

L. lacustris Casey, 1915, p. 196. (New synonymy.)

L. californicus Casey, 1915, p. 203. (New syn-
onymy.)

L. laticollis Casey, 1915, p. 203.
onymy.)

L. curtipennis Casey, 1915, p. 199. (New syn-
onymy.)

L. effetus Casey, 1915, p. 200. (New synonymy.)

L. farctus Casey, 1915, p. 200. (New synonymy.)

L. laetulus Casey, 1915, p. 197. (New synonymy. )

(New synon-

(New syn-

L. laevicauda Casey, 1915, p. 202. (New syn-
onymy.)
L. laticauda Casey, 1915, p. 197. (New syn-
onymy.)

L. longulus Casey, 1915, p. 1938. (New synon-

ymy.)

L. parallelus Casey, 1915, p. 194. (New syn-
onymy.)

L. remotus Casey, 1915, p. 194. (New synonymy. )

L. rubidus Casey, 1915, p. 198. (New synonymy.)

L. lucublandus Casey, 1915, p. 199. (New syn-
onymy.)

L. scitulus Casey, 1915, p. 203. (New synonymy. )

L. spisstpes Casey, 1909, p. 283. (New syn-
onymy.)

L. texanus Casey, 1915, p. 195. (New synonymy.)

L. virginicus Casey, 1915, p. 193. (New syn-
onymy.)

L. bicorniculatus Casey,
synonymy.)

1915, p. 198. (New

The great variability in size, color, and
sculpturing, as well as the worn surface com-
monly found in this species due to its digging
habits (giving the specimens a superficially

Fes. 15, 1946 SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 43

different appearance), probably was instru-
mental in causing Casey to name every trifling
variant. The specimens also vary greatly de-
pending on the richness of the food supply in

h

the larval state; thus I have seen large series in
which the specimens were all much reduced in
size and very similar, but which had all been
collected soon after emergence from a small

Fig. 1.—Male genitalia: a, Oxygrylius ruginasus; b, Euetheola rugiceps ; c, E. subglabra; d, A phonides
dunnianus; e, Ligyrus gibbosus; f, L. cuniculus; g, L. sallet; h, L. relictus; i, L. laevicollis; 7, L. sub-

tropicus.

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

manure pile where the food (when they were
larvae) had been very scanty; others taken
from rich soil are frequently large and dark-
colored. I have studied over 1,300 specimens
of this species, including all Casey’s types;
these ranged from Baja California and north-

ern Mexico throughout nearly the entire United

States.

Commonly known as the carrot-muck bee-
tle, this species breeds in all types of soil rich
in organic matter, and both adults and larvae
are known to feed underground on many
plants; some of the latter are of considerable
economic importance, as for example sugar-
beets, potatoes, carrots, and other root vegeta-
bles, as well as the well-known rubber sub-
stitute Guayule. Owing to the digging habits
the foretibia and head parts are frequently
greatly worn; I have seen dozens of examples
in which the foretibia were reduced to a mere
stub of one-fourth their former length (all
teeth and tarsi completely worn away), and the
apical clypeal teeth and head carina com-
pletely worn smooth.

Ligyrus subtropicus Blatchley

Ligyrus subtropicus Blatchley, 1922, p. 30.
L. blatchleyit Cartwright, 1944, p. 34. (New syn.)

Known only from Florida (commonest at
Miami). Cartwright in his description and dis-
cussion of blatchleyi in the final analysis gives
only one character for the separation of his
species from subtropicus and that is the punc-
tation of the thoracic impression. In my to-
potype series from the original type series and
collected by the same collector, there is an
individual that exactly matches Blatchley’s
description of his unique female from Dunedin,
Fla.; he says the thoracic depression is punc-
tate with fine punctures as fine as the rest of
the thoracic punctation, and from studies of
many hundreds of Ligyrus I have noted that
this character is just as variable in really large
series as are the clypeal differences, and I am
forced to consider these as one species.

Ligyrus laevicollis Bates
Ligyrus laevicollis Bates, 1888, p. 316; Schaeffer,
1909, p. 384; Casey, 1915, p. 190 (Grylius);
Cartwright, 1944, p. 35.
L. bryanti Rivers, 1891, p. 97; Casey, 1915, p. 190
(Grylius).

Schaeffer was the first to synonymize bryanti
and laevicollis, and rightfully so. Casey then

VOL. 36, NO. 2

resurrected the species, and, bryanti being rare
in collections, no one has studied it adequately
since. I have examined and dissected series in-
cluding small, rufous, highly polished speci-
mens from Baja California measuring 18 mm
long, to large piceous or black, semidull speci-
mens as large as 28 mm, including part of
River’s original series, and all the specimens

are the same in all essential characters, in-

cluding the male genitalia. It has been seen
from Baja California and west coastal Mexico
as far south as Acapulco; also recorded by Bates
as far south as British Honduras. I have seen
one female, 29 mm long, from Phoenix, Ariz.
(August), which other than the size is exactly
the same as Baja California specimens. The
smoothness of the impunctate first elytral inter-
val is very characteristic of this species.

Genus Oxygrylius Casey
Oxygrylius Casey, 1915, pp. 178, 208; Ritcher,

1944, p. 27 (larvae).

Only one species belongs in this genus,
which is valid since the apex of the clypeus is
sharply pointed (and thus unidentate) in both
SEXES.

Oxygryilus ruginasus (LeConte)
Ligyrus ruginasus LeConte, 1856, p. 20; Horn,

1875, p. 143; Casey, 1915, p. 209 (Oxygrylzus) ;

Bates, 1888, p. 316.

Oxygrylius peninsularis Casey, 1915, p. 209. (New
synonymy.)

I have examined large series from all parts
of Baja California, northern Mexico and
Sonoran regions (Posa and Los Mochis in
Sinaloa), New Mexico, and Airzona; also re- —
corded from California. Rare in the United
States, very common in Baja California from
June through October; in one series of 216
specimens from Baja California, all specimens
possess both the thoracic fovea and tubercle,
and differ among themselves mainly in size
and color.

Genus Aphonides Rivers
Aphonides Rivers, 1889, p. 6; Casey, 1915, p. 230.
Anoplognatho Rivers, 1889, p. 101.
One species only is known of this genus, and
nothing seems to be known of the earlier
stages.

Aphonides dunnianus (Rivers)

Anoplognatho dunnianus Rivers, 1889, p. 192;
Casey, 1915, pl 229.

Fes. 15, 1946 —

An unusual, uncommon, and aberrant spe-
cies. The very large and externally rounded
mandibles, the very high transverse clypeal
carina, the very dense and long clypeal mar-
gin of hairs, and cribrately punctate mentum
(ligula), with its dense and long hairs, readily
distinguish the species. The female pygidium is
large and transversely tumid at the middle;
that of the male is very large and evenly con-
vex. The species is known only from Arizona
and Texas but will probably prove to occur in
New Mexico and northern Mexico also. The
males appear to be quite rare, even more so
than the females. Small female Strategus cessus
may be distinguished from females of this spe-
cies by their thoracic fovea and square man-
dibles, and they also have an interrupted basal
clypeal carina.

Genus Euetheola Bates

Euetheola Bates, 1888, p. 314; Casey, 1915, pp.

178, 186.

Five species of Huetheola have been de-
scribed, of which only two occur in the United
States. The genus is close to Ligyrus, but the
species are more oblong-parallel, the thorax is
noticeably longer, and the mandibles when
viewed from above are only bidentate. The

male front tarsi in rugiceps are enlarged but

small and simple in subglabra.

Euetheola rugiceps (LeConte)

Bothynus rugiceps LeConte, 1856, p. 21; Casey,
1915, p. 187 (Huetheola); Baerg and Palm,
1932, p. 207 (biology, also many other refer-
ences, see Arrow, 1937, p. 36); Ritcher, 1944,
p. 24 (larvae).

This sugarcane Libba, or rough-headed
cornstalk beetle, is very commonly and widely
distributed in the Southeastern States. I have
seen specimens from Georgia, Kentucky, and
Texas. Phillips and Fox (1924) indicate that
vegetable matter in poorly drained, or dark and
heavy soils is the main larval habitat, as well
as grasslands. The species may also attack corn
and cornstalks. The male genitalia are close to
those of Ligyrus gibbosus, but the parameres
are shorter and the lateral teeth are larger and
more reflexed.

Euetheola subglabra (Schaeffer)

Ligyrus subglabra Schaeffer, 1909, p. 383; Casey,
1915, p. 188 (Huetheola).

Differs from rugiceps mainly in the practi-

SAYLOR: REVISION OF THE DYNASTINAE 45

cally impunctate (punctures minute and dis-
cernible only under high magnification) tho-
racic disc, as well as by the second and third al-
ternate elytral intervals having a single row of
punctures rather than being confusedly punc-
tate. I have seen a single male from Sinaloa in
northern Mexico, collected in July; the species
was described from a unique specimen from
Nogales, Ariz., but to my knowledge it has not
since been taken in the United States. The
species is very distinct in the genus.

LITERATURE CITED

Arrow, G. J. Trans. Ent. Soc. London 1900:
181. 1900.

. Coleopterorum catalogus, pars 156:
36-41. 1937.

Barre, W. J., and Paum, C. E. Journ. Econ.
Ent. 25:207. 19382.

Bates, H. W. Biologia Centrali-Americana,
Cpe Onteatp 2 (2): 314-318, pl..18, fig. 18.
1888.

Beavvoris, A. M. J. Patisot pg. Insectes re-
cueillis en Afrique et en Amérique: 104.
1805.

BuaTcHLey, W. 8. Can. Ent. 54: 30. 1922.

BurMEIsTER, H. Handbuch der Entomologie
5:101, 121, 542. 1847.

Cartwricut, O. L. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 37:
34-36. 1944.

CasrEy, T. L. Can. Ent. 41: 283. 1909.

Memoirs on the Coleoptera 6: 178-

1915.
Memoirs on the Coleoptera 12: 334.

229.

1924.

Comstock, J. H. U.S. Dept. Agr. Rep. 1880:
4.

DreGererR, C. Mémoires pour servir 4 lhis-

toire des insectes 4:322. 1774.
Fasricius, J. C. Systema eleutheratorum 1:

20532. 704801:

Hares, W.P. Journ. Econ. Ent. 10: 253. 1917.

Horn, iG. H. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 7: 143.
1875.

LACORDAIRE, J. T. Genera des coléoptéres 3:
408. 1856.

LeConrte, J. L. Journ. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia, ser. 2,1: 20, 87. 1848.

_ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 8:
20-21. 1856.

Ritcuer, P. O. gee Agr. Exp. Stat.
Bull. 467: 22- 28, pls. 1-38, pl. 4, figs. 76-79.

1944.
Rivers, J. Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 2,
1:6. 1889.
. Proc. California Acad. Sci., ser. 2, 3:
97-101. 1891.
Say, T. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia
5:194. 1825.

Scuarrrer, C. F. A. Brooklyn Inst. Mus.
Sci. Bull. 1: 15, 383-384. 1909.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 36, No. 2

ENTOMOLOGY .—Four new species of mosquitoes from Okinawa (Diptera: Culic-
idae).1 RicHarD M. Bowart, Lieutenant, H(S), U.S.N.R., and Rosmrr L.
IncRAM, CPhM, U.S.N., U. s. Naval icnical Research Unit No. 2. (Com-

ainecated by ALAN Sean )

During a survey of the northwest coast
of Okinawa, Ryukyu Islands, in August and
September 1945, four new species of mos-
quitoes were collected. Type material will
be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum.
All the type localities are in the Hentona
District except Shana Wan, which is situ-
ated on a bay 4 miles south of the southern
limits of the district.

Anopheles (Anopheles) saperoi, n. sp.

_ Female—Length 4.5 mm; wing 4.0 mm.
Vertex clothed with dark erect scales, some
white erect scales medially in front, pale hair-
like scales between eyes, remainder of head and
its appendages dark, palpus with semi-erect
scales, longest toward base where they are al-
most as long as clypeus. Scutum with sparse
brownish hairlike scales, more numerous and
whitish anteriorly; scutal integument mostly
pale with a distinct unbroken lateral dark mar-
gin (Fig. 2); pleuron dark, devoid of scales,
with two pale longitudinal stripes visible in
some lights. Femora and tibiae dark, latter
with an apical ring involving base of tarsi;
tarsi with very narrow pale bands covering the
joints, indistinct on last two joints of fore- and
midlegs. Wing: first humeral spot absent, sec-
ond humeral spot present but very small, sub-
costal spot very small, apical spot present, no
other costal spots; vein 1 with spots at basal
one-fourth, basal one-third and middle (middle
spot sometimes absent), as well as apical spot;
vein 2 primarily dark, 2.1 with a continuation
of apical spot, 2.2 with spot at basal one-third;
vein 3 mostly pale except at base and apex;
vein 4 primarily dark before fork, 4.1 and 4.2
mostly pale with some dark scales; stem of vein
5 pale with a dark spot before middle, 5.1
mostly pale but dark at base, basal one-third
and apex, 5.2 mostly pale on basal three-
fourths; vein 6 mostly pale with dark spots at
apical two-fifths and at apex; fringe spots ab-
sent except one at apex, covering tips of veins
2.1, 2.2 and 3 (Fig. 1). Seventh abdominal

1 Received November 29, 1945.

sternite with an inconspicuous apical scale
tuft.

Male.—Unknown.

Egg.— Length 0.5 mm. Float large, no frill
noted. (Figs. 3 and 4 are taken from field
sketches made with a dissecting binocular. The
eggs were subsequently lost.)

Larva.—Head (Fig. 6): Preclypeal hair 1
slender, curved; inner clypeal hairs long, sim-
ple and with bases touching; outer clypeal hair
slightly shorter and 4- to 7-branched; posterior
clypeal hair nearly as long as outer clypeal
hair, simple; frontal and occipital hairs as
shown in figure 6; terminal antennal hair 4-
branched and extending slightly beyond dorsal
saber; antennal hair inserted at basal one-.
third of shaft, 3- to 4-branched, usually not
extending beyond middle of shaft. Antenna
spiculate, particularly along inner surface.
Thorax (Fig. 5): Prothoracic hair 1 with 3-6
branches; hair 2 with about 8 branches, rela-
tively slender; hair 3 short and simple; meta-
thoracic palmate hair with many well de-
veloped branches. Abdomen: Palmate hairs
weak on tergite I, well developed with about
20 leaflets on II to VII, the leaflets somewhat
slender on II, leaflets sparsely notched and
shaped as in Fig. 7; lateral hair of segments I
and II stout and many-branched, that of III
similar but weaker, that of IV and V slender
and bifid near base, that of VI simple; anterior
tergal plates small, with concave posterior
border, pecten with 8-9 long and 10-11 short
teeth (Fig. 8).

Type.—Female, Chizuka, Okinawa, August
24, 1945, collected biting (R: Bohart and RE
Ingram [Oller or)

Paratypes.—F ive females, same data as type
but collected between August 25 and 31. One
female paratype, Euka, August 27, 1945, col-
lected biting (R. Ingram collector). An addi-
tional specimen from Chizuka was collected on
September 8 and laid eggs in the laboratory.
Three larval paratypes were reared to the
fourth instar.

Remarks.—This species is related to bar-
birostris van der Wulp, gatert Baisas, and

g

Fes. 15, 1946

umbrosus Theobald. In common with these
species it has only two definite spots on the
costa, narrow tarsal bands, unbanded hind
femur and entirely dark palpus. The adult
differs from the other three species in having
more prominent hind tarsal bands which cover
the joints. Also, it differs from gaterz in having
pale interruptions on the basal one-third of
vein 1; from barbirostris in having a slightly
different wing pattern including an all dark
posterior fringe, a continuous dark lateral
scutal margin and no conspicuous scale tuft on
the seventh sternite; and from umbrosus in the
larger apical fringe spot and the entirely dark
scaled stems of veins 2 and 4. The larva is
distinctive in having a very short antennal
‘tuft, a sparsely branched outer clypeal hair and
a long single hair 4. It further differs from
gatert and umbrosus by its well developed pal-
mate hairs on the abdomen.

This species is named for Capt. J. J. Sapero
(MC), U.S.N., in recognition of his contribu-
tions to malariology and his personal encour-
agement.

Uranotaenia stonei, n. sp.

Male.—Length of body 3 mm; length of
wing 3 mm. Vertex clothed with light brown
broad appressed scales, lighter around eye mar-
gins, a sprinkling of upright brown scales;
torus bare, light brown; antenna thickly plu-
mose; palpus twice as long as clypeus, light
brown; proboscis dark brown, somewhat swol-
len apically, shorter than fore femur. Integu-

ment of thorax light brown; anterior pronotal -

lobe with a few light gray broad appressed
scales; proepimeron with inconspicuous trans-
lucent broad appressed scales; scutum with
light brewn narrow curved scales and many
dark stout bristles, a few pale scales around
anterior margin; a patch of small translucent
scales on upper sternopleuron just below a
small dark integumental spot, lower and upper
sternopleural bristles well developed, post-
spiracular area darkened; scutellum with
brownish broad appressed scales. Wings en-
tirely dark scaled. Legs dark brown, somewhat
paler on femora beneath, front and mid tarsal
claws slightly unequal. Dorsum of abdomen
clothed with dark brown scales, tergites with
inconspicuous pale basal bands on II-VII,
venter pale. Genitalia (Fig. 10): Lateral plate
of mesosome with five prongs in the position

BOHART AND INGRAM: NEW MOSQUITOES FROM OKINAWA 47

of a partly clenched fist; ninth tergite without
bristles along apical margin which is concave;
basal lobe of basistyle with 2 stout bristles and
several smaller ones.

Female —About as in male, abdominal bands
less distinct. Length of body 3.25 mm; length
of wing 3.5mm.

Larva——Length of body 9.0 mm. Head
(Fig. 9): Integument pale; preclypeal spines
short, spatulate; head hairs A, B, C, and d
placed between antennal bases; lower head
hair (B) simple, slender, about as long as
antenna; upper head hair (C) 2- to 4-branched
and slightly shorter than B; hair d inside and
on a level with C, small and 2- to 4-branched;
hair A with 5-7 branches; antenna slender with
simple or bifid hair at apical two-fifths; men-
tum triangular with about 17 large teeth. Tho-
rax: Prothoracic hairs 1—3 on a sclerotized tu-

- bercle, hair 1 with 2 or 3 branches, hair 2 with
5-7 branches, hair 3 with 2-3 branches; hair 0

small and 4- to 5-branched; hair 4 about 8-
branched; hairs 5 and-6 simple, 5 very long;
hair 7 with 3-4 branches; mesothoracic and
metathoracic submedian hairs with 4 setiform
branches; prothoracic pleural submedian hair
with 11-14 stout branches. Abdomen: Lateral
hairs of segments I and II long and stout, of
III-VI long, slender and simple or double; seg-
ments III—VI with stout setiform sublateral
hairs, these also present on dorsum of I-II
and IV—V (Fig. 12). Comb of 15-20 apically
fringed slender teeth not inserted on a plate.
Siphon with large acus just below a sclerotized
plate bearing 2 simple hairs (more dorsal hair
sometimes double); siphon pale brown, about
4 times diameter at base; pecten of about 20
apically fringed teeth, last 2 or 3 larger, more
widely spaced, last 1 or 2 not apically fringed;
pecten extending two-thirds of tube length, end-
ing at insertion of tuft which is 6-7 branched.
Hairs of anal segment as shown in Fig. 11; anal
segment not ringed by plate which has con-
spicuous apical spines; fan plate with 10 hairs;
gills sharply pointed, equal, longer than anal
segment.

Type-—Male, Chizuka, Okinawa, Septem-
ber 1945, collected on damp rocks above a
stream (R. Bohart and R. Ingram).

Paratypes.—Twenty males and 19 females
(same data as type) and 15 larvae on slides
(same locality and date as type) siphoned from
a deep hole of narrow diameter in the rocky

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 2

WERE Sy

ce =
=

i Wa)
NS S Z
Uw AS

CYS EA BS

A
SQ

0

9

Figs. 1-8.—Anopheles saperoi: 1, wing; 2, scutum; 3, dorsal view of egg; 4, lateral view of egg;
5, right prothoracic submedian hairs; 6, dorsal view of larval head; 7, enlargement of leaflets from
palmate hair on fifth abdominal segment; 8, pecten. Fias. 9-10. —Uranotaenia stone: 9, dorsal view
of larval head; 10, male genitalia: mesosome and associated structures, margin of ninth tergite, and
dististyle.

Fes. 15, 1946 BOHART AND INGRAM: NEW MOSQUITOES FROM OKINAWA 49

Fies. 11, 12—Uranotaenia stonei: 11, larval siphon and anal segment, including enlargements
of a comb tooth, pecten teeth, and apical margin of saddle; 12, latera! spine and hair of third ab-
dominal segment. Fie. 13.—Aedes riversi, ninth male tergite. Fic. 14.—Aedes downsi, ninth male
tergite. Fias. 15, 16.—Aedes riversi: 15, lateral view of apex of basal lobe of basistyle; 16, ventral
view of basal lobe-of basistyle. Figs. 17, 18.—Aedes downsi: 17, ventral view of basal lobe of basi-
style; 18, dorsal view of basal lobe of basistyle. Fie. 19.—Aedes riversi, outer lateral view of hind
leg. Fig. 20.—Aedes downsi, outer lateral view of hind leg. Fic. 21.—Aedes riversi, larval comb. F 1a.
22.— Aedes downst, larval comb. Fie. 23.—Aedes riversi, second abdominal tergite of larva. Fie. 24.—
Aedes downsi, second abdominal tergite of larva.

>

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

clay bank above a stream (R. Bohart). Other
adult specimens were collected on damp rocks
near Hedo at the northern tip of the island.

Remarks.—The only species which appear
to be related to stoner are the Philippine
tubanguii Baisas and the two Malayan species
ascidticola de Meijere and xanthomelaena Ed-
wards. All these are inconspicuously marked
brownish mosquitoes, the larvae of which have
fine head hairs. U. stonet, however, has only
a few pale scutal scales behind the head, dis-
tinctive pleural integumental spots and has the
vertex light brown. The larva has the clypeal
hairs placed farther forward than in tubanguii
and the siphon is much longer than in asc’ d11-
cola or xanthomelaena, both of which breed in
pitcher plants. The larva of stonez is distinctive
also in the spatulate preclypeal spines, slender
antenna, stout setae on the abdomen and
toothed margin of the anal saddle.

We are naming this species for Dr. Alan
Stone, to whom we are indebted for countless
favors in connection with our studies on mos-
quitoes.

Aedes (Stegomyia) riversi, n. sp.

Male.—Length 3.3 mm; length of wing 3.0
mm. Head and thorax marked as in most
others of the ‘“‘scutellar1s group.’’ Proboscis
with a ventral longitudinal line of pale scales.
Scutum with a median silvery line, weak pos-
terior sublateral lines and a line over wing
base. Pleural markings largely linear. Abdomi-
nal tergite I with a lateral silvery patch; II-VI
with lateral, oblique subbasal spots which are
continued across dorsum on IV—VI as subbasal
bands; III with a median basal spot; VII with
a dorsolateral subbasal spot; VIII largely
white. Dorsal bands on IV—VI reduced or ab-
sent in some paratypes. Underside of fore- and
midfemora with a line of white scales, narrower
on former; hind femur with basal half broadly
white beneath, knee spot present, outer sur-
face marked as in figure 19; tibiae dark; fore
and mid tarsi with a small basal outer white
patch on first two segments; hind tarsus with
complete basal white bands occupying one-
fifth of first segment, one-fourth of second seg-
ment, three-eighths of third segment, three-
fourths of fourth segment and all of fifth
segment. Genitalia (Figs. 18, 15, 16) with
slender dististyle, ninth tergite strongly convex
apically; and basal lobe of basistyle bearing

VOL. 36, NO. 2

about 8 slender setae along its dorsal edge and
assorted lengths of bristles (structure best seen
when lobe is dissected and mounted laterally).

Female.—Markings as in male except that
abdominal tergites I-VII usually have lateral
subbasal silvery patches, usually those on VI
narrowly and those on VII broadly joined at
middle of tergites.

Larva.—Similar to that of Aedes albopictus,
differing chiefly in details of comb teeth (Fig.
21). Of 26 paratypes examined, all have the
fringe extending at least half the length of
apical barb of most comb teeth; 24 have some
compound comb teeth (usually these are dou-
ble, rarely triple or quadruple), average num-
ber of comb teeth 11 (range 8-14), average
number of compound teeth 4 (range 0-9);
average number of pecten teeth 11 (range
7-16). Submedian hairs of abdominal tergites
with 3 to 5 relatively short branches (Fig. 28).
Anal gills subequal and often very long, 14
paratypes having gills much longer than siphon.

Type-—Male, Chizuka, Okinawa, Septem-
ber 1945, reared from a rockhole along a stream
(R. Bohart and R. Ingram).

Paratypes.—Twelve males, 20 females, Chi-
zuka, Okinawa, August and September (R. Bo-
hart and R. Ingram);.4 males, 8 females, Hen-
tona, Okinawa, September (C. L. Harnage); 1
male, 6 females, Shana Wan, Okinawa, Sep-
tember (R. Bohart and R. Ingram). Paratypes
were reared from rockholes, treeholes, and cut
bamboos, as well as taken while biting or while
resting on damp vegetation. Also, 24 paratype
larvae on slides from Shana Wan, Chizuka, and
Hentona, were taken from rockholes, treeholes,
bamboos, and a bucket in the woods.

Remarks.—This mosquito is a frequent and
annoying biter in the woods. In the key to
adults of.this group by Stone and Farner
(Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 58: 159. 1945)
it runs to quasiscutellaris Farner and R. Bohart
and horrescens Edwards. The basal lobe of the
male genitalia in the three species is similar in
type, but the strong setae in riversy are ar-
ranged along the dorsoapical edge and they are
surpassed in length by many of the bristles.
The larvae of riverst are unusual in having
multiple comb teeth as a general rule, a char-
acter previously known only in marshallensts
Stone and R. Bohart from the Marshall Islands
and the Gilbert Islands. The latter species

Fra. 15, 1946

differs decidedly from riversi, however, in the
reduced white markings of the legs. Aedes
riverst represents the most northerly extension
of the range of the “‘scutellaris’’ group which
heretofore has been known only as far north as
Saipan, Marianas Islands.

The species is named for Commodore T. M.
Rivers, MC(S), U.S.N.R., whose interest has
greatly furthered research on mosquitoes in the
Pacific area.

Aedes (Stegomyia) downsi, n. sp.

Male.—Length 3.0 mm; length of wing 2.5
mm. Very similar to Aedes albopictus, with
white banded palpus, white scaled torus, a
silvery median stripe on vertex and scutum,
silvery scutellum, silvery pleural patches, and
basal spots on first 2 tarsal segments of fore
and mid legs. Differing from albopictus in
details of markings of scutum, hind legs
and abdomen. Scutum without a spot of
silvery broad scales above wing base but
with a few yellowish curved scales at this
point, posterior scutal lines duller and less
sharply defined. Hind femur with basal half
mostly white on inner surface, outer sur-
face mostly white on basal three-fifths, the
white area not drawn out into a line apically
(Fig. 20); a small knee spot present; hind tar-
sus with basal bands occupying one-fifth of
first segment, one fourth of second segment,
one-half of third segment, five-sixths of fourth
segment (about three-fifths in albopictus), and
fifth segment all white (a few dark apical
scales in some specimens) (Fig. 20). Abdominal
tergites I-VII with basal lateral (ventral)
silvery spots, tergite I with a few dorsal apical
pale scales (sometimes absent), II dark dor-
sally, III-VI with weak basal silvery bands
which do not widen laterally into spots (some
paratypes with several or all tergites dark as
seen from above), VIII with a broad basal
band. Genitalia with dististyle slender as in
albopictus; apical margin of ninth tergite
sharply serrate (Fig. 14), basal lobe of basi-
style with bristles and leaflets all of about the
same lengths (Figs. 17, 18).

Female.—About as in male. Palpus broadly
white-tipped, abdominal tergites with basal
bands on II-V, a broad basal spot at middle of
VI and a small basal spot on VII. Some speci-

BOHART AND INGRAM: NEW MOSQUITOES FROM OKINAWA 51

mens all dark dorsally or with incomplete bands.

Larva.—Similar to that of albopictus, differ-
ing in certain details. Description based on 18
paratypes taken from taro, bamboo and tree-
holes: Antennal tuft usually at or slightly be-
yond middle of shaft (usually at apical two-
fifths in albopictus); bristles of thorax and ab-
domen usually stouter and with more branches
(Fig. 24); comb teeth very strong, average
number 9 (range 6—12), fringe rarely extending
beyond basal one-fourth of barb; hair just
ventral to comb averaging 6 branches (range
4—7) (usually 3 or 4in albopictus) ; pecten teeth;
usually more slender with fewer basal teeth,
averaging 9 teeth (range 6-12) (about 13 in
albopictus); siphon tuft nearly always 4-
branched (2 or 3 branches in albopictus);
saddle hair reaching to or beyond apex of longer
anal gill (not reaching beyond three-fourths in
albopictus); gills unequal and broadly rounded
at apex, longer pair shorter than siphon, shorter
pair usually about half as long as siphon.

Type.—Male, Chizuka, Okinawa, Septem-
ber 1945, reared from taro leaf axil (R. Bohart
and R. Ingram).

Paratypes.—Ten males, 8 females, Chizuka,
Okinawa; 7 males, 14 females, Shana Wan,
Okinawa; 1 male, Hentona, Okinawa; 2 males,
Hedo, Okinawa; all paratypes collected by
R. Bohart and R. Ingram and taken biting or
reared from taro, treeholes and cut bamboos
(one paratype from Hedo reared from banana
axil). Also, 16 paratype larvae on slides col-
lected at Shana Wan and Hedo from taro, tree-
holes, and bamboo.

Remarks.—Aedes downst differs from albo-
pictus by the markings of the scutum, hind
femur; fourth hind tarsal segment and ab-
domen. It is probably most closely related to
flavopictus Yamada from northern Japan and
Korea which according to Yamada’s figure of
the male genitalia (Annotationes Zoologicae
Japanenses 10: 53. 1921) has an irregular mar-
gin of the ninth tergite and stout setae on the
basal lobe of the basistyle. This species differs
from flavopictus, however, in having no spot at
the end of the scutal suture, in the more angu-
lar and sharply serrate male ninth tergite and
the stouter setae of the basal lobe of the male
dististyle. Yamada’s original description does
not mention the markings of the legs and ab-
domen of flavopictus except to indicate that

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

they resemble those of albopictus. It should be
noted that Barraud’s figures of flavopictus
(Fauna of British India 5 (Culicidae) : 236. 1934)
do not coincide with those of Yamada.

VOL. 36, NO. 2

The species is named for Maj. W. G. Downs,
MC, AUS, acting island epidemiologist on
Okinawa, in appreciation of his contribution of
specimens and other services.

ENTOMOLOGY .—The genera of beetles of the family Bruchidae in America north
of Mexico... J. C. BRIDWELL. (Communicated by W. L. Scumirt.)

The first species of Bruchidae from our
area was described in the printed inaugural
dissertation, or graduation thesis, of
Michael A. Baeckner presented to the facul-
ty of Upsala under the presidency of Lin-
naeus and defended on December 18, 1752.
In this dissertation, Nozxa insectorum, the
pea Bruchus and the oriental species now
known as Callosobruchus chinensis were de-
scribed in the new genus Bruchus, there
used for the first time as a generic name in
zoology. They are the first species of
Bruchidae described.

Names prior to 1758 are not available,
and it is our great misfortune that, in his
tenth edition, Linnaeus did not adopt the
name Bruchus as he later did but treated
the pea weevil in his genus Dermestes, and
that his citation of the name Bruchus
americae septentrionalis as published by
Peter Kalm, 1756, has been ruled as offering
no availability of the name Bruchus. In
Opinion 5 of the International Commission
of Zoological Nomenclature names prior to
1758 which are cited in synonymy in 1758
or later are not thereby made available for
use. The writer hopes that an arbitrary
ruling by the Commission may make an ex-
ception in this particular case so as to
avoid the great confusion resulting from
long use of the homonym Mylabris Fabri-
cius, 1775, for the very large group of blister
beetles and the relatively recent readoption
of Mylabris Geoffroy, 1762, for the seed
weevils. Such a ruling offers the only solu-
tion to the problems arising from the same
generic name having been extensively used
for more than a thousand species nearly
equally applied to small weevils and to large
blister beetles, but the problems are even
more involved. Unless Bruchus can be
validated as of 1758, this same name as
applied by Geoffroy, 1762, is to be adopted

1 Received December 11, 1945.

for the genus we have known under the
subsequent name Ptzinus. This would in-
crease the number of specific names in-
volved by more than 300. The substitution
of Mylabris for Bruchus and of Bruchus for
Ptinus, as proposed about 75 years ago to
conform with the law of priority, has not
become effective. The above suggestion to
invoke the plenary power to suspend the
rules and arbitrarily validate Bruchus
Linnaeus as of 1758 appears to be the only
solution. Its effect would be to maintain
Bruchus and Ptinus as they have long been
commonly used and to eliminate Mylabris
from use even for the meloid genus. The
older entomologists knew and disregarded
the basis of this confusion.

To the pea Bruchus, which we now know
to have been introduced into America,
other members of the family have since
been added so that now nearly 90 species of
described bruchids are known to be native
to our area or have become established in it -
by the operations of commerce. Besides
these named species about half as many un-
named species have been recognized in col-
lections by L. J. Bottimer or myself. Before
undertaking to describe the novelties it has
seemed desirable for the writer to distin-
guish the groups which he has come to
recognize during more than 25 years’ study
of Bruchidae. The present paper is intended
to make known the groups of Bruchidae in
America, north of Mexico, whether native
or introduced, which he believes should be
considered genera.

The most recent revision of the Bruchidae
of the entire world was published by
Schoenherr in 1839, and there has been but
little advance in the broader classification
of these insects since that time. The ar-
rangement of the species found in the
United States and Canada as listed in the
Leng Catalogue is based upon the revision
of our species by Horn 1873 but Mylabris

Fes. 15, 1946

Geoffroy is substituted for Bruchus Lin-
naeus. Twenty-nine valid and available
generic names with their genotypes were
arranged in five subfamilies by the writer
in 19382 (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 34:
100-106). Two additional generic names,
Sulcobruchus Chujo, 1937, and Specularius
Bridwell, 1938, have since become avail-
able, but these 31 genera are inadequate for
the various forms now known in this family.
Ten of these named genera occur in our
area.

Two of the five subfamilies recognized by
the writer in 1932 consist of single genera.
The Eubaptinae consist of a single South
American species. The Kytorhininae in-
clude only the genus Kytorhinus. The Pa-
chymerinae were treated by the writer in
1929 (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 31: 141—
160) and the genera of Amblycerinae are
herein distinguished.

The fifth subfamily, Bruchinae, includes
more genera and species than all the others
together, but the genera are not easily ar-
ranged into groups. Bruchus in the Old
World and Megacerus in America are so dif-
ferent from the other genera as to warrant
the erection for them of the monobasic
tribes Bruchini and Megacerini. The Old
World genera, of which Bruchidius is the
center, seem to be of common descent sep-
arately from the American genera centering
in Acanthoscelides. It seems advisable to as-
semble Bruchidius Schilsky, Bruchinus
Schilsky, Callosobruchus Pic, Specularius
Bridwell, 1938 (genotype, Specularius eryth-
rinae Bridwell, 19838 =Bruchus impressi-
thorax Pic, 1932), and Sulcobruchus Chujo
into a tribe Bruchidiini. Caryedes Hummel,
Impressobruchus Pic, Pygiopachymerus Pic,
Falsobruchus Pic, Gibbobruchus Pic, Phelo-
merus Pic, Cosmobruchus Bridwell, Dahli-
bruchus Bridwell, and Rhipibruchus Brid-
well may be included with Acanthoscelides
in a tribe Acanthoscelidini. It is premature
to attempt a diagnosis of Bruchidini or
Acanthoscelidini. Both tribes have the pro-
thorax conical or sometimes campanulate.
An impressed line parallel to the lateral
margin of the pronotum, such as is found in
the Pachymerinae, is more often found in
the Acanthoscelidini. In the latter the hind
femur usually bears an armature of teeth

BRIDWELL: BEETLES OF THE FAMILY BRUCHIDAE 53

and denticles, and the hind tibia is armed at
apex with a mucro and a lateral apical tooth
with two to five subdorsal apical denticles.
Aedeagal distinctions between these two
tribes also exist. Accepting for the present
a tribe Acanthoscelidini for the American
Bruchinae, with conical pronotum, we find
two series extremely unlike if extremes be
taken, but the intergradent forms cannot
be very easily separated. The key here given
is designed to establish new genera and to
distinguish all the genera native to or acci-
dentally established in America north of
Mexico. All of them are believed to be nat-
ural groups.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF BRUCHIDAE IN THE
UNITED STATES AND CANADA

1. Dorsum of prothorax without a surrounding
impressed marginal line................ 2
Dorsum of prothorax with a surrounding
impressed marginal line; hind femur ovate,
much broader than the coxa, unicarinate
beneath with a subapical great tooth and
beyond it a crista bearing about 10 den-
ticles (Pachymeninae). 20% aia tia aes
Caryobruchus Bridwell, 1929, C. gleditsiae
(Linnaeus, 1763)

2. Hind tibia with two movable spurs or cal-
caria; hind coxa twice as broad as the
femur (Amblycerimae):: oo es. oo nee 3

Hind tibia with fixed spines or teeth at apex
or unarmed; hind coxa not twice as broad
PCW Gl) 2:5 TS) 1010 PR A ES PRS eae ar +

3. Eyes very feebly emarginate, elytra elongate,
tenth stria reaching nearly to apex; pro-
sternal process separating the coxae to
apex; calearia unequal, the longer more
than half as long as first targal joint.....
I iy eae Amblycerus Thunberg, 1815

Eyes strongly emarginate, elytra subquad-
rate; tenth stria abbreviate, only half as
long as elytron; front coxae not separated
by the prosternal process; calcaria shorter,
SUDGCRUIGIS yest. ee. ce Zabrotes Horn, 1885

4, Only the pygidium fully sclerotized and ex-
posed behind the elytra; mesepimeron
strongly narrowed basally not reaching the
Coxal Cavity, @otuchimae ).2) cee ase 5

Pygidium and preceding tergite fully sclero-
tized and exposed behind the elytra;
mesepimeron not strongly narrowed basally
reaching the coxal cavity; antennae serrate
in female, flabellate in male (Kytorhin-
inae); Alaska, Alberta. Kytorhinus Fischer
von Waldheim, 1809, K. prolizus (Fall,
1926).

5. Prothorax without a median tooth on lateral
margin, front carinate or with a glabrous
line or area; male without specialized spine,
teeth or lamella at apex of middle tibia. .6

54

Prothorax emarginate on the lateral margin
with a single tooth near middle before the
emargination; front without a carina or
glabrous line; male with specialized spines
or processes at apex of middle tibia; hind
femur with outer lower margin more promi-
nent armed near apex with a strong acute

GOOCH: ig oe eR aoe aa eal Wie Deane en
Bruchus Linnaeus, 1767 (1758?) (Schilsky
restr.)

6. Tenth stria of elytron not abbreviated; an-
tennae never flabellate................. 7

Tenth stria not extending beyond the epi-
pleural lobe; front carinate; antennae ser-
rate in females, flabellate in males; pro-
notum conical with sides straight or con-
cave, flanks separated from dorsum by a
carina and impressed Jine; elytra depressed
along the suture, the intervals of varying
width, striae 4 and 5 abbreviated at apex,
hind femur but little incrassate, ventral
margin flattened with both edges carinate,
inner carina simple or with a small obtuse
subapical tooth or crenate or serrulate for
its entire length; pygidium flat, elongate,
vertical: (Mesacenimi)me cn. code wre celts
i Sep goles eae Megacerus Fahraeus, 1839

7. Hind femur not dentate on both inner and
outer edges beneath near apex, if emargin-
ate and subdentate on outer edge then
dorsum and flank of prothorax separated
by a distinct arcuate lateral carina (Acan-
thoscelidini and Sparteus, Bruchidiini). .8

Hind femur with outer and inner edges armed
near apex beneath with a single strong
tooth continued toward base by longitudi-
nal carinae; pronotum conical with convex
sides, lateral carina obsolete; pygidium ver-
tical or subvertical; antennae unlike in the
sexes, subserrate in females, somewhat
longer in males, or strongly serrate, or
subpectinate. (Bruchidiini)..:...........
Maa ta ana oe Callosobruchus Pic, 1902

8. Antennae not extraordinarily long........ 9

Antennae of male longer than the body,
reaching beyond the hind coxa in female;
Striae 2-4 arising from a bituberculate
elevation at base of elytra; hind femur not
as broad as coxa, armed beneath near apex
with three similar denticles; hind tibia
armed with a long slender mucro half as
long as the tibia; pygidium elongate,
oblique in female, more convex and verti-
cal in male; hind femur not reaching apex
of abdomen in female, extending beyond
itin male... .Stylantheus, n. gen.; genotype
S. macrocerus (Horn) (Bruchus macrocerus
Horn, 1873)

9. Hind femur with a strong tooth or spine near
apex, beneath, within, and beyond this one
On more denticles yew 15. te see 10

Hind femur unarmed or with a single tooth
or spine without denticles............. 15

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

10.

11.

12:

13.

14.

15.

16.

2 This species includes also Bruchus untformis
and desertorum LeConte 1858.

VOL. 36, NO. 2

Hind femur strongly incrassate, broader than
its coxa, channeled beneath, outer edge of
ventral margin crenate or serrulate; pygi-
dium of female with a rounded mirror-like

Gibbobruchus Pic, 1913, G. mimus (Say, .
1831)

Hind femur with the outer ventral margin
not crenate or serrulate............... 11

Fourth stria of elytron abbreviate at base
starting from a small tubercle; hind femur
with inner edge beneath serrulate with a
strong tooth beyond the serrulations and
after a space with about four denticles..
Metbomeus n. gen.; genotype M. musculus

(Say) (Bruchus musculus Say, 1831)
Fourth stria not abbreviate at base; femoral
denticles approximate to the tooth..... 12

Hind femur broader than the coxa, subsulcate
beneath armed beneath within near apex
with a strong tooth and 38 or 4 denticles;
scutellum transverse; some of the striae
arising from basal dentiform elevations;
last sternite emarginate in both sexes....
Merobruchus, n. gen.; genotype M. julianus
(Horn) (Bruchus julianus Horn, 1894)

Hind femur not broader than coxa, only 1 or
2 denticles, or if more than 2 denticles the
elytron without basal dentiform elevations

Abdomen elongate, the femur not reaching
apex of abdomen; pygidium subhorizontal,
elongate, bent down at apex in male;
elytra with basal dentiform elevations. .14

Abdomen less elongate, oblique or subvertical
ie rere ios: Acanthoscelides Schilsky, 1905

Scutellum transverse; mucro short; front with
glabrous area expanded toward vertex;
hind femur profoundly channeled beneath
in male. . Mimosestes, n. gen.; genotype M.
sallaet (Sharp) (Bruchus sallaer Sharp,
1885)

Scutellum twice as long as broad; mucro
elongate, frontal glabrous line not expanded
toward vertex; hind femur alike in the
sexes not profoundly channeled beneath. .
Algarobius, n. gen.; genotype A. prosopis
(LeConte)? (Bruchus prosopis LeConte,
1858)

Sides of pronotum convex, surface of dorsum
even; depth of body less than width... .16

Sides of pronotum concave, dorsum uneven;
front strongly carinate; depth of body
about as great as width; elytral striae 5 and
6 abbreviated at apex; pygidium elongate,
convex, oblique. .Neltumzus, n. gen.; geno-
type N. arizonensis (Schaeffer) (Bruchus
arizonensis Schaeffer, 1904)

Pronotum with flanks separated from dorsum
by a lateral carina ending near coxal
cavity ©. BOE SOU ee ee eee 17

Fes. 15, 1946

Pronotum with flanks not separated. by a
carina, the lateral carina vestigial or want-
ADRS as ob RR A RO SA ae a it 18

17. Lateral carina of pronotum simple, in an
even curve, not denticulate; pygidium un-
like in the sexes; hind femur alike in the
sexes, flattened beneath, both edges cari-
nate, the outer more prominent, emargin-
ate before the apical lamella, the inner with
a strong suberect tooth near apex; front
with a glabrous line not expanded above,
or subcarinate; antennae alike in the sexes,
not serrate; hind tibia with mucro much
longer than lateral apical tooth..........
Stator, n. gen.; genotype S. pruininus
(Horn) (Bruchus pruininus Horn, 1873)

Lateral carina abruptly bent downward to
the coxa with a few denticulations before
the middle; pygidium alike in the sexes;
hind femur with inner edge carinate,
emarginate near apex and produced into
a broad flat tooth before the emargination,
with a deep pubescent sulcus at base in
male; front with a glabrous area expanded
above to vertex; antennae serrate, larger
in male; hind tibia with lateral apical tooth
longer than the mucro..Cercidiestes, n.
gen.; genotype C. ulket (Horn) (Bruchus
ulket Horn, 1873)

18. Hind femur beneath near apex with a distinct

DO OUMEOTASOIING 42 ogy cc... Pal ovine Sara cee 19
Hind femur unarmed beneath or at most with
ymmmiuie mdenticle.4. 62..28 Oke os .. 20

19. Hind femur beneath not at all carinate on
either margin, inner margin with a strong
obliquely truncate spine often tridenticu-
late on the truncation. . Althaeus, n. gen.;
genotype A. hebiscz (Olivier) (Bruchus
habisct Olivier, 1795)

Hind femur beneath with inner margin
carinate, the carina extending nearly to
base, microserrulate before the simple spine
Sennius, n. gen.; genotype S. cruentatus
(Horn) (Bruchus cruentatus Horn, 1873)

20. Elytra with striae 4 and 5 abbreviate at apex;
inner margin of hind femur beneath carin-
ate with an apical emargination and a
minute denticle or angulation before it...
Sparteus, n. gen.; genotype S. villosus
(Fabricius) (Bruchus villosus Fabricius,
1792)

Elytra with striae 5 and 6 abbreviate at apex,
hind femora entirely without carinae or
denticles beneath. . Abutiloneus idoneus, n.
gen. and new sp. (Bruchus flavicornis
Schaeffer, 1907, and perhaps Sharp, 1885;
not Bruchus flavicornis Fabricius, 1792)

A butiloneus idoneus is a small species 1.6
to 1.8 mm long by 1.0 to 1.1 mm wide,
densely clothed with pale yellowish to sil-
very pubescence almost concealing the
black integument, the antennae and legs
uniformly clear lemon-yellow. Several lots

BRIDWELL: BEETLES OF THE FAMILY BRUCHIDAE 55

of specimens with the following data have
been examined: San Diego, Tex., E. A.
Schwarz, May 4-7, probably 1879, 9 speci-
mens; Corpus Christi, Tex., F. C. Pratt,
April 12, 1906, one specimen; Brownsville,
Tex., L. J. Bottimer, one specimen ex-
tracted from a seed of Abutilon berlandiert
collected by H. C. Hanson, probably in
1919; Brownsville, Tex., reared by the
writer in 1921 from Abutilon, 37 specimens:
Guerrero, Coahuila, L. J. Bottimer, Decem-
ber 30, 1924, to February 15, 1925, reared
from seeds to A butilon berlandierz, collected
December 9, 1924, 19 specimens; Browns-
ville, Tex., Bibby and Higdon, December
12, 1939, from Abutilon berlandieri, 6 speci-
mens; Brownsville, Tex., I. Shiller, April
1941, with seeds of Abutzlon lignosum, 33
specimens; Reynosa, Mexico, through A. J.
Chapman, April 3-11, 1941, Abutilon lig-
nosum, 12 specimens.

Type locality. Brownsville, Tex.

Type and 97 paratypes.—U.S.N.M. no.
57766. Twenty paratypes in collection of
L. J. Bottimer.

EXCLUDED GENERA

North American Bruchidae have been
placed in 19 genera; 10 of these genonyms
are believed not applicable to any of our
species, for reasons indicated with each
name.

(1) Curculio Linnaeus, 1758, genotype B.
nucum Linnaeus, designated by Latreille,
1810. Type genus of Curculionidae.

(2) Dermestes Linnaeus, 1758, genotype D.
lardarius Linnaeus, designated by La-
treille, 1810. Type genus of Dermestidae.

(3) Mylabris Geoffroy, 1762, genotype
Bruchus pist Linnaeus, 1767, designated
by Bridwell, 1932. I have considered this
a synonym of Bruchus Linnaeus, 1758.
See introductory discussion of Bruchus.

(4) Laria Scopoli, 1763, genotype Laria dul-
camarae Scopoli, designated by Bridwell,
1932, accepted by Barber, 1942 (U. S.
Dept. Agr. Misc. Bull. 468, p. 9) (Pria
Stephens, 1829, genotype Pria truncatella
Marsham, 1802, monobasic. Isogenotypic
with Laria by synonomy, Laria dulca-
marae =Pria truncatella). This species
also appears to be the unnamed type

56

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

upon which Byturus Latreille, 1796, was
erected, but not one of the forms to
which the name is now attached. Hence
Laria is a genus of Nitidulidae. .

(5) Pachymerus Thunberg, 1805, genotype

Pachymerus bactris = Dermestes _ bactris
Linnaeus, 1763, monobasic.

(6) Caryoborus Schoenherr, 1833, genotype

Bruchus (Caryoborus) serripes = Bruchus
serripes Sturm, 1826, by original designa-
tion. This and the preceding are distinct
tropical American genera without species
in our area. Dermestes gleditsiae Lin-
naeus, 1763 =Bruchus arthriticus Fabri-
cius, 1801, referred to Caryoborus by
Schoenherr, 1833 and to Pachymerus by
Pic, 1913, is the genotype of Caryobruchus
Bridwell, 1929. Caryedon fuscus, of which
Caryoborus gonagra (Fabricius) is a
synonym, is a polyphagous species widely
distributed in the Old World tropics. In
West Africa a species of Caryedon is re-
ported under other names as seriously in-
jurious to the peanut (Arachis hypogaea)
but is in all probability this species.
Caryedon fuscus has in late years become
established in Jamaica, Hispaniola, and
Dutch Guiana and may be expected to
become established in the United States.

(7) Pseudopachymerus Pic, 1913, genotype

Pseudopachymerus brasiliensis (Thun-
berg) =Bruchus brasiliensis Thunberg,
1816. Failing to trace Pachymerus to its
source and to find its true genotype,
Schoenherr, 1833, designated Bruchus
brasiliensis Thunberg, 1816, as genotype
of Pachymerus. This species is congeneric
with Bruchus faldermannt Mannerheim,
1827, genotype of Caryedes Hummel,
1827, a tropical American genus without
species in our area. Pedapholus Gistl,
1848, Naturg. Thierreichs X (new synon-
ymy), Adromisus De Gozis, 1881, and
Pseudopachymerus Pic, 1913, substitute
names for Pachymerus Schoenherr not
Thunberg having Bruchus brasiliensis
Thunberg for genotype are synonyms of
Caryedes. Bruchus (Pachymerus) crataegi
Fahraeus, 1839, is a synonym of Bruchus
mimus Say, which has now been referred
to Gibbobruchus Pic, 1918. Sharp, 1885,
Schilsky, 1905, and others have extended
Schoenherr’s misapplication of Pachy-

VOL. 36, No. 2

merus to include some species of Calloso-
bruchus Pic. These have only a slight
resemblance in body form of Sehoenherr’s
pseudotype and have only family charac-
ters in common with the true Pachymerus
as typified by bactris.

(8) Spermophagus Schoenherr, 1833, genotype

ep, eo OF eee

by original designation. The species orig-
inally included in Spermophagus are refer-
able to three well defined genera; Ambly- .
cerus Thunberg, 1815, Spermophagus re-
stricted, and Zabrotes Horn, 1885.
Zacher, 1930, divided the genus into three
genera, Spermophaygus, Zabrotes, and
Euspermophagus, the last proposed as
new. The group to which he misapplied
the name Spermophagus is Amblycerus,
genotype Bruchus robiniae Fabricius,
1781. The type of Spermophagus, S.

eo, 2 e7 eo, @

congeneric with robiniae but with the

genotype of Huspermophagus, which must

therefore be suppressed as a synonym of
Spermophagus if my conclusions are cor- —
scribed as from Mexico but the available
evidence leads me to believe this an error
and that the species is native to the Old
World. The same conclusion has been
reached for S. rufiventris Boheman de-
scribed at the same time from the Crimea
and from Brazil and compared with tié7-
vilitius. Both species were described as
having the abdomen red which is common
in Spermophagus while in Zabrotes the
abdomen is always black. Hence Spermo-
phagus appears to be the proper name for
all Old World Amblycerinae excepting,
perhaps, Pygospermophagus brevicornis
Pic, 1917. This name is based upon a
single male which may be a Spermophagus
with exaggerated secondary sexual char-
acters; the female, when discovered, may
be a normal Spermophagus. Spermo-
phagus has not been described sufficiently
to distinguish it from Zabrotes which it
resembles in its short, compact form, with
the pygidium and last visible sternite un-
like in the sexes and with the lateral
carina of the pronotum complete; in both
genera the eyes are deeply emarginate,
the ventral surface of the hind tibia is

Fes. 15, 1946

flattened and definitely limited outwardly
by a carina or a row of bristles; the scu-
tellum is a small simple triangle; the
short elytra barely cover the base of the
pygidium; the calcaria of the hind tibia
are short and subequal. From Zabrotes,

Spermophagus differs in these four ways:

A. The tenth elytral stria is complete reaching
both base and apex while in Zabrotes this
stria is abbreviate at apex, not extending
beyond the middle of the elytron.

B. In Spermophagus the flanks of the prono-
tum, below the lateral carina are produced
anteriorly into a vertical carina which hides
the hind margin of the eye in repose; this
structure is not present in Zabrotes.

C. In Spermophagus the intercoxal process of
the prosternum, when seen from in front,
is acuminate reaching nearly or quite to
the apex of the coxa and has a vertical
posterior face between the coxae reaching
from their apices to the connecting mem-
brane; this process in Zabrotes, when seen
from in front, is a short triangle separating
the coxae for only half of their length
without a posterior vertical face.

D. The outer apical lamella of the hind femur
is elevated, its apical angle rounded in
Spermophagus while in Zabrotes this angle
is acute. The great majority of species of
Spermophagus are attached to species of
Convolvulaceae, a few to Malvaceae (Hibis-
cus and Urena), host plants not known to

ZOOLOGY.—A new sea anemone from Woods Hole, Massachusetts.

CROWELL: A NEW SEA ANEMONE FROM WOODS HOLE 57

be affected by Amblycerus or Zabrotes. One
African species affects a species of Cassia.
Species of Spermophagus are found in Eng-
land, in Sweden and eastward to Japan,
south to New Caledonia, Australia, (Bru-
chus perpastus Lea, 1899, from Western
Australia being a species of Spermophagus)
and the Cape of Good Hope, but are in
complete confusion, so that application of
names is impossible without study of types.
No species referable to Spermophagus as
here restricted has been seen from any
American locality.

(9) Bruchidvus Schilsky, 1905, as originally
described is too polymorphic to remain
undivided. Bruchidius quinqueguttatus
(Olivier, 1795) is the designated geno-
type, Bridwell, 1932. No American bru-
chid seems congeneric with this species.
Bruchus villosus Fabricius, 1792, has be-
come established in Massachusetts and in
Virginia. It was included by Shilsky in
Bruchidvus under the untenable name
Bruchidius cistt (Paykull) and is the geno-
type of a new genus, Sparteus, above de-
scribed.

(10) Pachybruchus Pic, 1912. The genotype,
Bruchus coryphae Olivier, 1795, desig-
nated by Bridwell, 1922, is congeneric
with the genotype of Megacerus Fahraeus,
1833.

SEARS

CROWELL, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, and Marine Biological Labora-

tory, Woods Hole, Mass.

In 1939, Dr. William J. Bowen brought
to me specimens of a small sea anemone
taken from the Mill Pond, at Woods Hole.
This anemone is noteworthy in several re-
spects: (1) It belongs to a genus hitherto
represented by only one species, and that
from only one locality, the Isle of Wight
in the English Channel. (2) It has evaded
observation until recently, even though it is
abundant at a location almost in the shadow
of the Marine Biological Laboratory. (3) It
possesses nematosomes. These are small
clusters of cells that bear nematocysts and
that move around freely in the coelenteron
without permanent attachment to the body
of the anemone. These nematosomes are
being studied further, since no knowledge of
their function or origin exists. (4) It is well

1 Received December 20, 1945.

(Communicated by Watpo L. ScumiIrTT.)

suited for study by students in general or
invertebrate zoology, in that it is small,
transparent, simple in structure, hardy, and
available at almost all seasons. It has been
used by the classes at the Marine Biological
Laboratory and successfully shipped as far
as Ohio, where it arrived in good condition.

Genus Nematostella Stephenson, 1935

The genus Nematostella was established
by Stephenson to include those Edwardsi-
dae that could not be referred to Edwardsza
because of the absence of nemathybomes
and that could not be referred to Mzilne-
Edwardsia because the outer tentacles are
longer than the inner. From both of these
genera it differs in the possession of nemato-
somes. The type species is Nematostella vec-
tensts Stephenson, 1935.

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Nematostella pellucida, n. sp.

Diagnosis.— With the characters of the genus.
Length of body in extension up to 20 mm.
Width at physa one-sixth the length, tapering
to one-tenth the length below the tentacles.
Body transparent and entirely lacking in ex-
ternal markings. The transparency makes the
insertions of the eight primary mesenteries
very evident. Each, as seen through the body
wall, appears as a double line, tan or dark
brown. The throat is a lighter tan. The lips
are conspicuous, being almost white or yellow-
ish. Scapulus not distinct from scapus. Physa
well developed but not sharply marked off
from scapus. Physa smooth in extension,
wrinkled when contracted.

Tentacles 16, rarely less, in two cycles of
eight each. In normal expansion the tentacles
of a specimen 10 mm long have a length of
4—5 mm in the outer, exocoelic cycle, a length
of 3-4 mm in the inner, endocoelic cycle. In
extreme expansion the tentacles may slightly
exceed the length of the body. Each tentacle
bears four or five whitish marks on its inner
face, and these are equally spaced along the
length of the tentacle. These spots consist of
groups of tiny spherical granules in the gastro-
dermis (endoderm). They appear white by
reflected light and dark in transmitted light.
(See Fig. 6.) The relationship of the tentacles
to the mesenteries is shown by Fig. 2.

There are eight primary mesenteries (macro-
cnemes). The dorsal and ventral pairs are
directive. The muscles of the four lateral
mesenteries face toward the ventral directives
as shown by the semicircles in Fig. 2. There
are no other mesenteries except for eight minute
microcnemes. These are restricted to the bases
of those adjacent tentacles not separated by
primary mesenteries. They do not connect
with the body wall itself, since their length is
only that of the diameter of a tentacle. Their
width is about one-half their length and in a
specimen 10 mm long did not exceed 35
microns. Fig. 2 shows their position and width.
Fig. 7 is intended to illustrate their insignifi-
cance more accurately. The retractor muscles
of the primary mesenteries are simple or
slightly branched as shown in Fig. 3. The
parietal muscles appear as little tufts.

Kggs have been found in specimens less than
10 mm long. These are developed in the usual

VOL. 36, NO. 2

position on all primary mesenteries, below the
throat, between the retractors and mesenterial
filaments. While being anesthetized prior to
preservation the type specimen discharged 10
eggs and about 100 nematosomes. These were
all held together loosely by a mucous substance.
The diameter of the eggs is 175 microns. I
have no other information concerning the re-
production or life history. .

When viewed with a dissecting microscope
the nematosomes can be clearly seen through
the body wall. A few are usually moving about
in the coelenteron. Most of them are at the
insertions of the mesenteries in the body wall.
Thus there are 16 rows, one on each side of the
eight insertions. Within the rows the nemato-
somes are irregularly spaced. They are easily
dislodged but soon return to positions of loose
attachment along the mesenterial insertions.
Their number is variable. For a specimen 10
mm long there are about 20 on each side of
each insertion, or 300 to 400 altogether. Each
nematosome consists of 20 to 30 nematocysts,
radially arranged, and of flagellated cells re-
sponsible for their locomotion. They are nearly
spherical with a diameter of 27-30 microns.
These bodies, the nematosomes, were first de-
scribed by Stephenson (1935) and are known
only in Nematostella and in Milne-Edwardsia
polaris (Stephenson, 1935, pp. 48, 408).

The types and sizes of the nematocysts are:

TENTACLES. (1) Spirulae (Stephenson) or
basitrichous isorhizas (Weill): Capsule 13 to
22u, typically 18 X2.5u; tube spiny for 18y;
tube length 110u. (2) Spirocysts: Capsule
average length 20u.

UprEeR CoLuMn. Spirulae or basitrichous iso-
rhizas: Capsule 9.5 to 11.0uX2.2 to 2.8yn,
average 10X2.5u; tube spiny for lly, tube
length 30 to 60u.

Puysa. Spirulae or basitrichous isorhizas:
Capsule average 9.4X2.5u.

Turoat. (1) Basitrichous isorhizas: Capsule
18u; tube spiny for 18u, tube length 60 to 85y.
(2) Microbasic mastigophores: Capsule 20 x
4.5u; butt (hampe) 24 to 29u; total tube length
Sou.

MESENTERIAL FILAMENTS. (1) Basitrichous
isorhizas: Capsule 18u; tube spiny for 16 to
18u, total tube length 35 to 55u. (2) Micro-
basic mastigophores: Capsule 18 to 23u X4.5
to 5.5u; butt 22u; total tube length 70uy.

Fre. 15, 1946 CROWELL: A NEW SEA ANEMONE FROM WOODS HOLE 59

Fies. 1-7.—Nematostella pellucida, n. sp.: 1, Specimen with body length of 10 mm; 2, diagram of
an actual section through bases of tentacles, showing relationships of mesenteries and tentacles, loca-
tion of retractor muscles at a lower level indicated by semicircles; 3, pattern of a retractor muscle
just below throat; 4, nematosome with nematocysts undischarged (its flagella shown); 5, nematosome
after discharge of some of its nematocysts (diagrammatic), only a few of nematocysts shown (long
tubes of 3 of microbasic mastigophores cut off, as indicated by a line L to tube; smaller nematocysts
are basitrichous isorhizas); 6, diagrams showing appearance of granules of tentacle spots with trans-
mitted light, at left-tentacle shown in side view, at right it is viewed from its inner face (epidermis
Booted, 7, junction of 2 tentacle bases showing a microcneme at its maximum width (gastrodermis
stippled). |

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

NEMATOSOMES. (1) Basitrichous isorhizas:
Capsule 13u; tube 40 to 60yu. (2) Microbasic
mastigophores: Capsule 17 X4.5u; butt 13y,
tube 100u. The first of these types is about
three times more abundant than the more
conspicuous latter type. (See Figs. 4 and 5.)

Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 43768; paratypes in
U. S. National Museum and in author’s col-
lection, Oxford, Ohio.

Locality — Known only from the Mill Pond,
Woods Hole, Mass. This pond is 300 to 400
feet in diameter. The water is nowhere over 2
feet deep, but there is another foot or more of
unconsolidated muck. An 18-inch tile, 200 feet
long, connects the pond to sea water (in the
Kel Pond), and through this tile the tide enters
and leaves. In the only test made the water had
94 per cent of the chlorine content of water in
the harbor. After heavy rains the salt content
is doubtless lower. Marine forms such as the
blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) and the anem-
one Sagartia luciae also are found in the
Mill Pond.

Taxonomic relationships.—It is possible to
describe the present form as a variety or race
of Nematostella vectensis. An attempt to make
direct comparisons of specimens was unsuc-
cessful because of the war. Both N. vectensis
and N. pellucida occur in shallow brackish
pools or ponds. I have treated N. pellucida as
a distinct species partly because of the great
distance between the known localities, and the
impossibility of there being suitable intermedi-
ate brackish pools across or around the Atlantic
Ocean.

The anatomical distinctions are in the pat-
tern of coloration on the body, and in the
tentacle spots. Although coloration in anem-
ones is highly variable, pattern is fairly
constant. Stephenson describes an elaborate,
definite, and constant pattern at the bases of

VOL. 36, NO. 2

the tentacles of vectensis. No hint of any such
markings occurs in pellucida.

N. pellucida possesses four or five definite
spots on the inner face of each tentacle but in
vectensis the markings of the tentacles are de-
scribed as irregular and dispersed.

I believe this American Nematostella, N.
pellucida, should be regarded as a species dis-
tinct from the British N. vectensis. Should
future study produce intermediate forms, and
a change of status seem necessary, this can be
done without confusion.

Observations on living specimens.—In the
normal habitat N. pellucida rests upright in
mud with tentacles, disc, and scapulus exposed
above the surface. It secretes a mucous sub-
stance adequate to hold the walls of its burrow
away from the epidermis. This is not a real
tube, however, and does not persist after the
anemone is removed.

When removed from mud and placed in a
glass dish Nematostella exhibits peristalsis-like
contractions. The circular muscles contract
below the tentacles and the place of contrac-
tion moves slowly the whole length of the speci-
men. A second wave of contraction starts as
the first reaches the end of the physa.

The anemone can tolerate a considerable
dilution of the salt content of water in which
it lives. Specimens remained active and in good
condition after ten days exposure to 1 part sea
water to 2 parts of distilled water. The British
form, N. vectensis, is subject to wide variations
in the salinity of the pools where it lives
(Stephenson).

REFERENCES

STEPHENSON, T. A. The British sea anemones
2. The Ray Society, London, 1935.
WEILL, R. Contribution a létude des cnidatires
et de leurs nematocystes. Trav. Stat.
Zool. Wimereux 10 and 11: 1-702. 19384.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY

There follows a list of persons recently
elected to membership in the Academy, by
vote of its Board of Managers, who have since
qualified as members in accordance with the
by-laws of the Academy. The bases for election
are stated with the names of the new mem-
bers.

RESIDENT
Elected February 12, 1945

JoHN WILLIAM MITCHELL, physiologist, Bu-
reau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural
Engineering, Beltsville, Md., in recognition of
his contributions to plant physiology, in par-
ticular his researches on plant hormones and
growth-regulating substances.

Frs. 15, 1946

Elected June 18, 1946

Sears PotyporE Doo itt yp, plant patholo-
gist, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agri-
cultural Engineering, Beltsville, Md., in recog-
nition of his pioneer work on virus diseases of
vegetables, especially of mosaic disease of Cu-
curbitaceae, including insect-vector relation-
ships, seed transmission of virus, and breeding
of disease-resistant vegetables.

EARLE Hesse KENNARD, physicist, David
Taylor Model Basin, Washington, D. C., in
recognition of his services to the science of
physics, and in particular the development of
theoretical analyses of underwater explosion
phenomena.

Martin ALEXANDER Mason, engineer,
Beach Erosion Board, Washington, D. C., in
recognition of his work in the field of hy-
draulics, particularly researches on oscillatory
waves in water and related shore processes.

DovuceLas EvGENE Parsons, engineer, Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.,
in recognition of his investigations of the fac-
tors affecting the structural properties of rein-
forced concrete members and the strength,
elastic properties, water permeability, and
durability of masonry; also, his successful ef-
forts to increase the reliability and to lower the
cost of reinforced concrete and masonry struc-
tures.

FREDERICK WILLIAM Poos, JR., entomolo-
gist, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran-
tine, Beltsville, Md., in recognition of his
contributions to a knowledge of the bionomics
and control of several insects affecting cereal,
forage, and truck crops, more especially insect
vectors of plant diseases and insects causing
disease-like injuries to plants.

FRANK Wa.LtTeR REINHART, chemist, Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, Washington,
D. C., in recognition of his achievements in
research on the properties of organic plastics,
the film characteristics of cellulose derivatives
used in airplane dopes and lacquers and the de-
velopment of improved methods of evaluating
the physical and chemical properties of plastics.

GaLEN BranpT ScHUBAUER, physicist, Na-
tional Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.,
in recognition of his work on boundary-layer
flow phenomena and wind-tunnel turbulence.

ARNOLD M. Sooxns, chemist, Milton Harris
Associates, Washington, D. C., in recognition

PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY 61

of his contributions to the physical chemistry
of high polymers, particularly fibers.

FRANK EDWARD Topp, entomologist, Bureau
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Belts-
ville, Md., in recognition of his researches, re-
ports, and publications in the field of bee cul-
ture, more particularly on the role of pollen in
the life of the hive; the trapping of pollen; com-
position and properties of pollens; and the
value of honey bees in the pollination of crops.

Dwicut F. WINDENBURG, engineer, David
Taylor Model Basin, Washington, D. C., in
recognition of his contributions to the design
of ship structures and in particular the strength
of vessels under external pressure such as the
hulls of submarines and unfired pressure ves-
sels.

WILLIAM JOHN ZAUMEYER, plant pathologist,
Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul-
tural Engineering, Beltsville, Md., in recog-
nition of the excellent quality of his researches
on the diseases of beans and peas.

NONRESIDENT
Elected June 18, 1945

Gustav EaGuorr, chemist, Universal Oil
Products Co., Chicago, IIl., in recognition of
his contributions to petroleum chemistry, par-
ticularly in connection with cracking processes
and with the reactions and properties of hydro-
carbons.

}k. G. BricKWEDDB, Secretary

CHEMICAL SOCIETY
567TH MEETING

The 567th meeting (61st annual meeting)
was held at the Cosmos Club on January 11,
1945. The reports of officers for 1944 were
read and accepted. The membership of com-
mittees for 1945 was announced. Dr. Epcar
REYNOLDS SmituH, of the National Bureau of
Standards, spoke on Electrolytic transport of
water in relation to the hydration of tons.

568TH MEETING
The 568th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club on February 8, 1945. Dr. Roserr B.
Woopwarp, of Harvard University, spoke on
The total synthesis of quinine.

569TH MEETING

The 569th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club on February 22, 1945. Dr. RoBeErt

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SimHA, of Howard University, spoke on Vis-
cosity, sedimentation, diffusion and molecular
weight and shape of high polymers.

570TH MEETING

The 570th meeting and annual dinner of the
Society was held at the Roger Smith Hotel on
March 8, 1945. The Hillebrand Prize for 1944
was awarded to Dr. Raymonp M. Hawnwn,
National Institute of Health, in recognition of
his work on the chemistry, synthesis, and struc-
ture of the methylene and benzylidene acetals
of sugar alcohols. Dr. Ciirrorp B. PurRvsEs, of
McGill University, spoke on Cyclic acetals of
carbohydrates, to be published in this JOURNAL.

571ST MEETING

The 571st meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club on April 5, 1945. Dr. E. G. Rocuow, of
General Electric Co., spoke on Organosilicon
polymers.

072D MEETING

The 572d meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club on April 12, 1945. Dr. W. F. Jackson, of
the Explosives Department of E. I. du Pont de
Nemours and Co., spoke on General properties
of gun propellants.

573D MEETING

The 573d meeting was held at the University
of Maryland on May 10, 1945. At the general
meeting the Borden Award for research in the
chemistry of milk for 1945 was presented to
Dr. Ben H. Nico.uet, of the Bureau of Dairy
Industry. At the conclusion of the general

meeting, the following divisional meetings were
held:

Biochemistry, J. R. Spies, presiding

Studies on the sex attractant of the female
gypsy moth. H. L. Hatter and FRED ACREE,
JR. (Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran-
tine).

The metabolism of DDT. Hrrsert O. Cat-
VERY, GEOFFREY OFNER, and RuTH OFNER
(Food and Drug Administration).

On the mechanism of the enzymatic oxidation
of catechols. Howarp §S. Mason (National
Institute of Health).

Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry,
A. GABRIEL, presiding

A rapid fluorescent method for determination of
Beryliuum in ores. Mary H. F.Lercuer,

VOL. 36, No. 2.

CHARLES E. Wuits, and Miron S. SHEFTEL
(Bureau of Mines).

Spectrophotometric determination of titanium
an steels. ALFRED WEISSLER (Naval Research
Laboratory).

Standardization of acid with KIO3. PETER
OxrSPER (University of Maryland).

Anton exchange in soils. L. A. Dean and
E. J. Rusins (Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils,
and Agricultural Engineering).

Organic Chemistry, JOHN K. WouFE, presiding
DDT: A new synthetic organic insecticide.
H. L. Hatter (Bureau of Entomology and
Plant Quarantine). .
A method for the measurement of gel strength
and data on starch fractions. W. J. HaMER
(National Bureau of Standards).

Cis-trans isomers of 3-(alpha-naphthyl)-1-
propene. T. H. Harris and C. M. Mackay
(George Washington University).

The oxidation of melezitose with periodate.
N. K. Ricutmyer and C 8S. Hupson (National ©
Institute of Health).

Physical Chemistry, W. J. SVIRBELY, presiding

Dipole moments of diethyl sulphite, triethyl
phosphate, tetraethyl silicate and carbowax 4000.
J. J. LANDER and W. J. SvirBEeLy (University
of Maryland).

Methods of calculating the properties of hydro-
carbons and its application to the refractive in-
dices, densities, and boiling points of the paraffin
and monoolefin hydrocarbons. W. J. Tayuor,
Joan M. Pianocco, and F. D. Rossrni (Na-
tional Bureau of Standards).

Heats and free energies of formation of the
paraffin hydrocarbons in the gaseous state at
1500° K. E. J. Prosen, K. 8S. Prrz5r, and F. D.
Rossini (National Bureau of Standards).

The freezing temperature of benzoic acid as a
fixed point in precision thermometry. F. W.
Scuwas and EK. WicueErs (National Bureau of
Standards).

074TH MEETING

The 574th meeting was held at Georgetown
University on October 11, 1945. At the conclu-
sion of a general meeting, the following divi-
sional meetings were held:

Biochemistry, M. X. SULLIVAN, presiding
The cystine and methionine content of various
proteins and diets. W. C. Hess (Chemo-Medical
Research Institute, Georgetown University).

Frep. 15, 1946

Chemical methods for the assay of penicillin
M. Munpeuu and D. C. Grove (Food and
Drug Administration).

Desaminases for nucleic acids. J. P. GREEN-
STEIN and A. H. CHALKLEY (National Cancer
Institute).

Tests for various biogenous amines. M. X.
SULLIVAN (Chemo-Medical Research Institute,
Georgetown University).

I norganic and Analytical Chemistry,
R. GILCHRIST, presiding

Separation of radioactive arsenic from copper
and germanium. A. T. Ness (National Insti-
tute of Health).

Method for the determination of small amounts
of gold and its use in ascertaining the thickness
of electrodeposited gold plate. W. S. CLABAUGH
(National Bureau of Standards).

A new method for the determination of phenolic
fungicides. S. GotTiirB and P. B. Marsa
(Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul-
tural Engineering).

Spectrophotometric determination of tyrosine
and tryptophane. H. R. Muuuin (National
Bureau of Standards).

Organic Chemistry, H. L. HALLER, presiding

A study of the dehydrochlorination of some
DDT analogues and of the benzene hexachlorides.
S. J. Cristot (Bureau of Entomology and
Plant Quarantine).

_ Oxidation of hydroquinone in the presence of
pyridine. H. W. BAERNSTEIN (National Insti-
tute of Health).

New antimalarials. E. L. May (National
Institute of Health).

The determination of estrone in blood. F. P.
VeItcH (Georgetown University School of
Medicine).

OBITUARY 63

Physical Chemistry, H. S. Mason, presiding

The use of radioactive sodium in the measure-
ment of flow of large volumes of water. D. B.
Cowlk (Carnegie Institution of Washington).

The application of the ultracentrifuge and
associaled instruments to particle analysis. H.
KAHLER (National Cancer Institute).

Spectrographic methods applied to photoperi-
odic response of plants. S. B. HENDRICKs and
M. W. Parker (Bureau of Plant Industry,
Soils, and Agricultural Engineering).

6

575TH MEETING

The 575th meeting was held at the Cosmos
Club on November 8, 1945. Dr. Ben H. Nico-
LET, Bureau of Dairy Industry, spoke on Some
aspects of the chemistry of phospho-proteins. The
election of officers for 1946 was held with the
following results: President, L. A. SHINN;
Secretary, I. C. ScHooNOVER; Treasurer, J. J.
Fauey; Councilors, N. BEKKEDAHL, W. C.
@xciE Nib Drake. Woo ll.-EbAws JE yok.
Hauer, 8. B. Henpricks, H.S. Ispext, B. H.
Nicouet, E. J. Prosen, E. R. Smiru, M. X.
SULLIVAN,’ W.)\J.) SVIRBELY,. J..,.K.) WOLKE;
Managers, R. Gitcurist, B. J. Marr, A. T.
McPuerson, R. A. Osporn, H. A. RUTHER-
FORD, J. L. SVIRBELY.

576TH MEETING

The 576th meeting was held at George
Washington University on December 13, 1945.
Dr. James F. Coucu, Chief of the Tobacco
Section of the Eastern Regional Research
Laboratory, spoke on Rutin and the vitamin P
effect.

Leo A. SHinn, Secretary

Obituary

SoFIE Amaia NorpHOFF-JUNG, distin-
guished physician, died in Washington, D. C.,
on June 6, 1948, after a long illness. She was
born in Bielefeld, Westphalia, Germany, on
April 25, 1867. She received her early education
at the parochial school at Bielefeld until her
fourteenth year, when, following the Nordhoff
tradition, she continued her studies at Sacred
Heart Convent, Toul, France, until 1884.
Shortly afterward the family came to America,

where Dr. Jung accepted a position as teacher
of French and German at Georgetown Con-
vent, Washington, D. C.

Father Murphy, chaplain, suggested that
she take up the study of medicine, which she
did at Columbian College, now George Wash-
ington University, receiving her degree in 1893.
She then went to France and continued her
studies at the Pasteur Institute in Paris under
Louis Pasteur as one of the few American pupils

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of the great scientist. Later she went to Munich
to perfect herself in the special field she had
chosen, was made clinical instructor in ob-
stetrics at the University Hospital in Munich,
and later resident physician at the Frauen-
klinik.

She met Dr. Franz A. R. Jung on her return
trip to America, and they were married shortly
afterward. They established their offices at
1229 Connecticut Avenue in Washington,
building the house according to special plans
suitable for offices and residence, and here they
engaged in-private practice from 1897 to 1923.

In 1914 she and her husband took their
usual summer trip to Europe, she having ac-
cepted an invitation to work in Prof. Gustav
Klein’s clinic to study his methods of treating
uterine cancer, in which she had become greatly
interested while working with him the previous
summer. She and her husband had hardly
arrived in Munich when the war broke out,
and they with hundreds of other Americans
were stranded.

Red Cross work was started and a call for
volunteers was sent out, to which she and her
husband promptly responded. On request,
lectures on First Aid were given by her to
hundreds of Americans. These lectures were
such as she had been giving in Washington
under the auspices of the Red Cross for 20
years. Through the efforts of Ambassador
James W. Gerard, a Red Cross Hospital was
organized, and on September 23 the Stars and
Strips were hoisted over the building at No. 9
Prinz-Ludwig-Strasse. It was called the Ameri-
can Model Hospital and was a success from
the very beginning. Ambassador Gerard was
president of its board and mentions its work
in his book, My four years in Germany. During
the two and a half years of the existence of
the hospital the Jungs remained in charge,
giving all their time and energy gratuitously,
leaving it only to sleep and eat in a nearby
family hotel. When diplomatic relations were
severed, the hospital was closed on February
26, 1917. During this period of uninterrupted
overwork and lack of nourishing food, the
health of both of them gradually gave way
completely. Forced by the revolutions to re-

vou. 36, No. 2

main on in Munich, and without funds, they
were unable to return to the United States
until December 31, 1919. As a result of over-
work and undernourishment, Dr. Franz Jung
died in Washington in January 19238.

On March 10, 1927, the German Government
awarded Dr. Sofie A. Nordhoff-Jung the official
Cross of Honor of the German Red Cross in
recognition of the distinguished services she
had rendered during the war in Germany. The
medal was presented by Baron Maltzan, the
German Ambassador, with an accompanying
diploma and note of congratulation.

In 1923 Dr. Nordhoff-Jung became instruc-
tor of gynecology at Georgetown University
Hospital. In 1932 she was made associate pro-
fessor in gynecology, and in 1939 she became
professor emeritus of gynecology.

For many years she had been interested in
cancer research, and she established a prize
for scientific research in this field. Father
Nevils, of Georgetown University, on page 207
of his Miniatures, says: “In her great zeal for
scientific advance in cancer research Doctor
Jung has set aside a fund whereby every second
year a cash prize of one thousand dollars with
a beautifully inscribed citation is awarded the
scientist who, according to the selection of a
special committee, has done outstanding work
in cancer research.’ In 1927 the prize was given
to Dr. Otto Warburg, director of the Depart-
ment of Biology of the Kaiser Wilhelm Insti-
tute, Berlin-Dahlem. In 1930 it was awarded
to Dr. Alexis Carrel, of New York.

As a memorial to her husband, who was a
distinguished gastroenterologist, Dr. Jung
donated the fourth floor of the Nurses’ Home
at the Georgetown University Hospital, where
a plaque commemorates this gift. For a number
of years she was a benefactress of the George-
town University Hospital, and upon her death
she left a legacy of approximately $200,000 in
trust to it.

Dr. Jung was a member of the Anthropologi-
cal Society of Washington for about 15 years,
of the Medical Society of the District of
Columbia for about 46 years, and of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences for about 44 years.

ANNA BartscH DUNNE.

CONTENTS

PALEONTOLOGY.—Stiptocrinus, a new camerate crinoid genusfrom the
Silurian. Epwin Kirk. ....... geet Lon CEG alk els 0 hp aa eee)
Botany.—New Asiatic species of the legume genus Campyloiron a oe
PL IeRER Se OR URNS gh en

EENTOMOLOGY.—Synoptic revision of the United States scarab beetles :
of the subfamily ae No. 3: Tribe Oryctini (part). Law-
RENCE W SAVLOR. 04 io acs Oe ee

EnromoLoGcy.—F our new species of mosquitoes from Okinawa (Diptera: ets
Culicidae). Ricnarp M. Bonart and Roperr L. Ineram...... 46

Enromo.toGy.—The genera of beetles of the family Bruchidae in Amer- |
ica north of Mexico. J.C. BRIpWELL,........5).0).. 3 ee

ZOooLoGy.—A new sea anemone from Woods Hole, Massachusetts. —

Sears CROWELL........ ee a Vevey eas Gee ee case
Procrerepines: THe AcapEmy (New Members)............. oe oe
PROCEEDINGS: CHEMICAL SOCIETY........ ERIE es Ce CPB af , 104
OpituaRyY:.Sofie Amalia Nordhoff-Jung............. See eae 63.

This Journal Ie Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Leet,

ROA
Vid V Ou iags
y Csi il

VoL. 36 Marcu 15, 1946 No. 3

‘, ¥%, > "

JOURNAL

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OF SCIENCES

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BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

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VOLUME 36

CHEMISTRY.—Cyelic acetals of the carbohydrates.’
Industrial and Cellulose Chemistry, MeGill University, Montreal.

municated by JaMEs I. HOFFMAN.)

In deciding upon a suitable topic on
which to address the Chemical Society of
Washington on this occasion, I could not
help remembering my inconclusive efforts,
as a student of Sir James Irvine, to deter-
mine the structure of benzylidene methy]l-
glucoside. The contrast between what we
knew then about cyclic acetals of the carbo-
hydrates and what we know today is a
very sharp one. It seemed to me that it
might be worth while to review in brief out-
line some of the history of these cyclic ace-
tals and to summarize the great progress
made in that field during the past few years.
_ Ethylene oxide has long been known to
add to ethylene glycol and to yield a poly-
ethylene glycol, and acetaldehyde has long
been known to possess the same molecular
formula as ethylene oxide. If ethylene oxide
combined with glycol, what might acetal-
dehyde and glycol do? This line of thought
led Wurtz in 1861 (/) to heat those two
substances together on the steam-bath for
eight days, and, to his surprise, he found
that the product was not one of simple ad-
dition but had involved the removal of the
elements of water from the starting materi-
als. Wurtz had synthesized the first cyclic
acetal, ethylidene glycol. In the next year
Guenther (2) showed that the synthesis
proceeded much more readily when mineral
acids such as hydrochloric or sulphuric were
present, and at a later date acidic salts like
zinc chloride and calcium chloride, or nearly
neutral salts like copper sulphate, were
shown to be effective (3). Several of the

1 An address delivered at the 570th meeting of
the Chemical Society of Washington, March 8,
1945, on the occasion of the granting of the

Hillebrand Award for 1944 to Dr. R. M. Hann.
Received January 24, 1946.

65

Marcu 15, 1946

No. 3

C. B. Purves, Division of
(Com-

cyclic acetals derived from acetaldehyde,
benzaldehyde, and acetone, and involving
the simple glycols like glycerol and ethylene
and propylene glycol, were synthesized in
the following years. Then in the 1880’s and
1890’s sugar chemists, including Tollens
and Emil Fischer, produced many of the
acetals of the sugars, the glycosides and the
sugar alcohols. For the most part these ace-
tals were beautiful crystalline compounds,
stable, as Wurtz had shown, to alkalis but
readily hydrolyzed by acids. These proper-
ties made them very useful in the separation
and identification of sugar alcohols and
similar substances. Moreover, the fact that
some of the alcohol groups in the parent
acetals were blocked by the acetal rings
made it possible to prepare pure partly
substituted carbohydrates by esterifying or
otherwise modifying these hydroxyl groups
and later, by limited hydrolysis, removing
the acetal constituent. But such budding
synthetical methods were thwarted because
in general there was no way of determining
either the constitution of the product or the
position and the ring structure of the cyclic
acetal groups in the parent substance. It
was plain that the ring structure must be
5-membered in some cases, as it obviously
was in Wurtz’s ethylidene ethylene glycol.
In other cases the structure was obviously
6-membered, as in cyclic acetals derived
from trimethylene glycol. Emil Fischer (4)
seems to have kept an open mind on the
size of the rings in such condensation prod-
ucts, but, unfortunately, he assumed a 5-
membered ring for the glycosides of the
sugars. Since the glycosides are cyclic ace-
tals of a mixed type, the analogy prejudiced
the average worker in favor of 5-membered

fh 2S ‘ACG

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

rings in all cases where there was no positive
evidence to the contrary. As late as 1926
Professor Haworth (5) was able to say, ‘It
seems to be the accepted rule that acetone,
like boric acid, condenses with cis hydroxyl
groups of adjacent carbon atoms.” Al-
though that opinion is probably true with
few exceptions today,? up to 1926 it was
frequently and erroneously extended to
acetals derived from other carbonyl com-
pounds. The error, of course, was a natural
one and received support from Baeyer’s
strain theory, enunciated in.1885, that 5-
membered rings were most likely to be
formed because the formation involved the
least deflection of the tetrahedral valencies
of carbon from their normal positions in
space (7). The decade commencing in 1923
saw the tacit assumption of 5-membered
structures in cyclic acetals overthrown for
the sugars themselves by the work of Hirst
and Haworth in Britain, and for the simpler
cyclic acetals by that of Hibbert at Yale
and later at McGill University. In both
cases it became apparent that 5- and 6-
membered ring structures usually formed
with ease and sometimes existed together in
a state of dynamic equilibrium. It will be
well to pause for a moment to consider some
of the late Professor Hibbert’s publications,
since they repeat and greatly extend much
earlier work and since he was particularly
interested in studying the relative ease of
formation of the 5- and 6-membered types.

In some of his early researches Professor
Hibbert preferred to prepare ethylidene
acetals, not in the usual manner by the use
of acetaldehyde and an acid catalyst, but
by passing acetylene into the glycol in pres-
ence of a little sulphuric acid and mercuric
sulphate (8). This method of acetal forma-
tion originated in Germany (9) and was
used by the late Father Nieuwland (1/0).
The formulas Ja indicate that the open-
chain vinyl hydroxyethyl ether was the in-
termediate when acetylene was condensed

2 But note 6-membered rings in isopropylidene
pentaerythritol, xylose and sorbose. Ingold and
Thorpe (6) suggested that the two methyl groups
in the isopropylidene unit spread the correspond-
ing valencies to the central carbon atom apart,
and narrowed the angle between the other two
valencies forming the cyclic acetal ring. The latter
therefore tended to be 5- rather than 6-membered.

VOL. 36, No. 3

with ethylene glycol. This evidence was
supported by the observation that vinyl hy-
droxyethyl ether, when prepared by other
methods, rearranged with almost explosive

J, PARTITION BETWEM 5 AND 6 MEMBERED RINGS

ETHYLIDENE ACETALS

cHOR ame
as 2 s CH= 0
(@)) pecan ic) See [7Rp=0R-0-cy-cH,0H] — |? SoRen,
CH0R F580, Ci,—0

VINYL HY DROXYLETHYL
ETHER

Ape vee [2 eee 0.3 MOLES
(D) Hezn+[* + s See
CH_OH i ae eS hea
2 | e
EQUIMOLAR AMOUNTS ck, Wise 0.6 MOLES ~
us,

CELORAL ACSTAL

CH _OK

Cc 2 Ccl,cHO ————» HOCH,.cH —-o— cH(OH) col
©) Lor 3 oe aes
conc. CH>—O.
a= anSa | Doel;
25%, CH,—0

violence into the cyclic acetal when brought
into contact with a trace of strong acid (/7).
Professor Hibbert’s plan of research de-
pended upon the Michael Partition Princi-
ple, in which two competitive courses are
created for the same reaction and the rela-
tive amounts of the two products are
determined. In the present case (Ib), equi-
molecular amounts of acetylene, ethylene
glycol and trimethylene glycol were al-
lowed to react in the presence of the catalyst
and the yield of the trimethylene acetal was
found to be approximately twice that of the
ethylene acetal (12). In other words, the
6-membered ring, rather than the 5-mem-
bered ring, was formed in greater amount
and presumably was formed more readily
since the system was homogeneous. The
same result was obtained in similar experi-
ments with other equimolecular mixtures of
an a-glycol and a 6-glycol.

The acetylene method of investigating
ease of ring formation was obviously re-
stricted to the ethylidene series, but Hib-
bert succeeded in generalizing the results by
condensing other carbonyl compounds with
glycols in the presence of an acid catalyst.
Such condensations probably proceeded
through an intermediate open-chain hemi-
acetal such as that shown for chloral and
ethylene glycol (Ic). This particular hemi-
acetal was actually isolated in the crystal-

Mar. 15, 1946

line state by de Forcand in 1889 (13), and
the general occurrence of such addition
products in solution was made probable in
the 1920’s by Professor Adkins and his col-
laborators (14). In order to preserve the
principle of the partition method, the gly-
col used was glycerol, since glycerol is
obviously capable of forming 5- and 6-
membered cyclic acetals simultaneously.
The general nature of Professor Hibbert’s
results (15) is summarized by the formulas
II. One mole of a carbonyl compound, in

ISOMERIC CYCLIC ASETALS OF GLYCEROL WITH p—NI TROBENZALDSEYDE

Ii.

CH.0H
c

|
0,31 P's CHO + oe (+ 40% B50, at 120°)

“v6 C308 ~~
(3)
ese) 0 cola. 0) (a)
ee “2 ea qantas

cE,——0

(3)cHCE

Se: 5
cE, ie) ES te)
ECl gas
. tps " ——<—————ee aay SADE ToS
TRO CIS-TRaYS ISOMERS 100° THO CIS-TRAGS RACEMATES
411 wWethylation Methylation
Hydrolysis Hydrolysis
ca
i? aie:
CHO CHOH
Ce tenon
C0 BS

B-METEYL GLYCEROL (O-METSYL GLYCEROL
this case p-nitrobenzaldehyde, was con-
densed with one mole of glycerol, and the
crude condensation product was found to
consist of two pairs of isomers (16). The
left-hand pair on methylation with silver
oxide and methyl iodide, followed by hy-
drolysis of the acetal ring, yielded 6-methyl
glycerol. Similar treatment of the right-
hand pair yielded a-methy] glycerol. It was
therefore plain that both 5- and 6-mem-
bered rings were formed simultaneously
and in approximately equal amount. As
shown in the formulas, the particular ex-
ample chosen was made complicated by the
occurrence of cis-trans ring isomerism.
When we consider the 6-membered acetal
ring to the left, it is seen that the p-
nitrophenyl group attached to carbon A
may lie either on the same or on the op-
posite side of the plane of the ring as the
hydroxyl group attached to atom B. We
therefore have two cis-trans isomers. Since
the ring has a plane of symmetry AB there
are no asymmetric carbon atoms. The 5-

PURVES: CYCLIC ACETALS OF THE CARBOHYDRATES 67

membered acetal ring to the right also
yields two cis-trans isomers in which the
p-nitrophenyl group and the hydroxy-
methyl group B are on the same or on op-
posite sides of the ring, but each isomer is
theoretically capable of optical resolution
into D and L forms since the carbon atoms
A and C are asymmetric. These possibilities
of isomerism were first pointed out by Emil
Fischer. Peacock, in 1915 (17), probably
succeeded in effecting a partial resolution of
the DL forms of the benzylidene cyclic ace-
tal. It is obvious that if the carbonyl com-
ponent is either formaldehyde or acetone,
carbon A is attached either to two hydrogen
atoms or to two methyl groups and the pos-
sibility of czs-trans isomerism vanishes. Re-
search in the methylidene and isopropyli-
dene series is therefore less complicated
than that in other series. Before we leave
formulas II, we may note that as a rule the
5-membered attained equilibrium with the
6-membered isomers in presence of acid
catalysts (18). Van Roon discovered and
Hibbert confirmed the fact that the position
of the equilibrium was dependent on tem-
perature and seemed to move in favor of the
6-membered structures as the temperature
was lowered. Extensive investigations on
the condensation of glycerol with formalde-
hyde, acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde and sev-
eral similar compounds showed that in
every case except two both types of cyclic
acetals were formed and could be brought
into equilibrium with each other (15). The
two exceptions were chloral (19) and ace-
tone (20) which formed 5-membered rings
exclusively. The chloral acetal was also
peculiar because it was exceedingly resistant
toward hydrolysis with aqueous acid (19).
Another unusual case was tetramethylene
glycol, which produced a 7-membered cyclic
acetal when condensed with acetylene (8).
As a result of such studies, together with
those of Haworth and Hirst, it became clear
that the ring size neither of the sugar gly-
cosides nor of the acetals could be assumed
from a priori reasoning. The structure of
each individual substance had therefore to
be independently established by experi-
mental methods. The methylation method,
originated by Thomas Purdie and Sir James
Irvine at St. Andrew’s University, was the

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

only one of general validity and by its in-

tensive use the constitutions of several of
the more important acetals of the sugars
and sugar glycosides were eventually de-
termined (27).

We may take as an example 4,6-benzyli-
dene methylglucoside (formula Illa) which
has two optically active czs-trans isomers

III. STRUCTURE OF 4,6-BENZYLIDEIS METHYLGLUCOSIDE

HOCH, wee
no (1) Methylation HCOCH, s COOH
ee 0 (2) ane ae g fe See —
sig NGS a CH, OCH
H a HC COOH
HAC A me

C) (b)

(1) Selective OCH CECH OCH
hydrolysis ges 3 |
(2) Methylation HCOCH ete
AC coor
|
FACOCH,
C)

of the type described. Methylation of all
the remaining hydroxyl groups in the sub-
stance, followed by selective hydrolysis of
the benzylidene group by dilute acid,
ylelded a partly methylated methylgly-
coside, 2,3-dimethyl methylglucoside (IIIb).
The positions of the methoxy groups in the
latter were determined by oxidation with
nitric acid to a standard reference sub-
stance, in this case D-dimethyltartaric acid.
The next phase of the work involved first
the removal! of the benzylidene group by
selective hydrolysis, and then complete
methylation of the resulting methylgluco-
side (IIIc) in order to determine its ring
structure. This determination depended
upon an oxidation to trimethoxy-xylo-glu-
taric acid.
Formulas IV illustrate the application of
the method to di-isopropylidene glucose
(IVa). Selective hydrolysis removed one
acetone group preferentially and complete
methylation of the resulting mono-isopro-
pylidene glucose “froze” the oxygen bridge
linking in the sugar in its original position
(IVb). It was then possible to remove the

‘vou. 36, No. 3

other acetone residue, complete the methyl-
ation (IVc) and use the oxidation technique
to determine the ring structure of the sugar.
Sometimes, of course, short-cuts were dis-
covered and one of the more interesting is
shown. Freudenberg and Doser (22) made
the mono p-toluenesulphonyl ester of di-.
isopropylidene glucose and found that the
ester group could be replaced by the hy-
drazine residue. This hydrazino derivative
(IVd), when treated with cold concentrated
hydrochloric acid, passed in nearly quanti-
tative yield to a pyrazole derivative (IVe)
which was oxidized to the well-known
pyrazole-3-carboxylic acid (IVf). The free
hydroxyl group in di-isopropylidene glucose
was therefore attached to the third carbon
atom. Since the cyclic structure of the sugar
occupied the fourth position and since ace-
tal rings are usually either 5- or 6-mem-
bered, the structures of the di- and mono-
isopropylidene glucoses were as indicated.
It will be seen that the methylation method
just outlined was excessively laborious from
a technical point of view, even although it
was often supplemented by other data and
was eventually supported by a series of
partly methylated sugars that served as
reference substances. In these circum-
stances, progress in determining the consti-
tution of the cyclic acetals was slow and it
is not surprising that investigators found it
very much easier to prepare numerous cy-
clic acetals of the carbohydrates than to
determine their constitutions. New experi-
mental methods were required and it is to
these, combined together and in part origi-
nated by Dr. Hann and his associates, that
we must now turn. |
Malaprade in 1934 discovered that aque-
ous solutions of periodic acid cleaved glycols
containing adjacent hydroxyl groups in a
highly selective manner (23). The cleavage
was inhibited by substituents such as acetyl
or benzoyl present on one or both of the
hydroxyl] groups of the glycol. The formulas
V show the way in which various types of
glycol units are oxidized by periodate. The
simplest type (Va) is oxidized to two mole-
cules cf aldehyde, with the consumption of
one mole of periodic acid. No formaldehyde
or formic acid is formed. In the second case,
where one of the glycol groups is a primary

Mar. 15, 1946 PURVES: CYCLIC ACETALS OF THE CARBOHYDRATES 69
IV. STRUCTURES OF ISOPROPYLIDENE GLUCOSES
0
ge rio | saaes
Cue Cie |
Het 0° Selective He-07 14 HOOGH, |
| 0 hydrolysis OQ Hydrolysis | 0
HOCH — ean —_—_— OCR
| Methylation | Methylation |
HG a HC
|
EHoc—0O Ecou fe: O]p)
[= Sate, ige a ae
E.c—o
2° o) H,cOMe H,COCE,
(|
b (C)
Tosylation ( )
Hydrazine
EO—0 N+=CH N =cCH
| Date, | | |
EC—O Conc. HCl cE Eun0, CH
| ° lI a |
Sart | o° ae sat
my aE COOH
EC—0O HCOH
| dae, (f)
HoC—O HCOH
) ©)
VI. DETECTION OF UNSUBSTITUTED PRIMARY ALCOHOLIC GROUPS IN
CYCLIC ACETALS
HCOE HCO «WO FORMALDEHYDE
E 1 MOLE) ————>
(2) a pres f HCO -—«- NO FORMIC ACID |
| zone | HCGéc HCOAc
[ Tosyl chloride | Nel |
HE—0 Fo—O0 EC—0
fet | Pyridine l 100 - 120°
(b) l + BIO, (1 MOLg) ———> HCO + FORMLDEHYDE (1 woLz) CHB CEOs CHyI
B_COH
@) (b) (©)
| 1
ECO stone / HCOH
(©) te + BIO, (1 MOLE) ———> itp + ACETALDEHYDE (1 MOLE) Sender aOR Se Hydrolysis ae Be ek are gl
| i | | cE
2
B,C ce, cr,
| () (€)
ECOH
HCO
(d) ae + HIO, (2 “OLes) —————>—- + FORMIC ASID (1 MOLE)
HCO

Hem ; |

aleohol, a higher aldehyde and formalde-
hyde are produced (Vb). In the third case,
where one end of the glycol unit is attached
to a methyl group, acetaldehyde is one of
the products (Vc), and in the case where
three alcoholic groups are adjacent to each
other, the middle group is removed from the
system as formic acid and two moles of
periodate are consumed (Vd). It is obvious
that the occurrence of any of these four
types of glycol in the molecule of a sugar
acetal can be estimated and detected by
knowing the amount of periodate consumed
and the amount of formaldehyde, acetalde-
hyde, or formic acid evolved. Criegee has
shown that lead tetraacetate oxidizes gly-

cols in essentially the same way and is an
alternate oxidant for periodate (24).

The next new method, ilustrated by
formulas VI, was originated in 1932 by
Oldham and Rutherford (25). They found
that primary alcoholic groups in glucose
derivatives can be distinguished from sec-
ondary alcoholic groups because only the
primary p-toluenesulphonyl esters are un-
stable in presence of sodium iodide in a
ketonic solvent at 100°. The primary alco-
holic groups (Vla) are thereby selectively
changed to alkyl iodide and can be esti-
mated quantitatively by analyzing the lat-
ter (VIc) for iodine. It has since been noted
that the replacement of primary tosyl by
iodine does not always proceed at the same
rate (26), that the presence of unsubstituted
alcoholic groups may promote secondary

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

reactions, and that adjacent tosyl groups
may yleld unsaturates (27). For these
reasons it is usually desirable to reduce the
iodo derivative to a methyl group (VId) and
to hydrolyze the product to Vle. Oxidation
with periodic acid then liberates acetalde-
hyde and estimation of the latter by Nicolet
and Shinn’s convenient procedure (28)
checks the validity of the whole method.
The third new principle, discovered some
three years ago by Dr. Hann and his associ-
ates at the National Institute of Health, is
that methylene acetals engaging primary
alcoholic groups are cleaved by acetolysis
under conditions in which methylene ace-
tals, involving secondary alcoholic groups
exclusively, are nearly stable (29).

The formulas VII illustrate the principle
in the case of trimethylene D-sorbitol (30).
This substance contains cyclic structures

VII. SELECTIVE ACETOLYSIS OF CYCLIC METHYLENE ACETALS

o—cA CH Oke CH,OR
Z t i ) tL : 0 I
CH i —— Cc— asf ——
Oe aN Acetolysis IRE eon 1 NG
oe yore ata? so AcOCH,OCH cH, ———> FOCH CH
Fo—O 2s eZ Ele 5
| l
eS HC— 0— CH,0kc ree
Ec—o7 ¢ H,cOke F,COH
(Q) (b) (C)

engaging the primary alcohol position 1
with secondary alcohol position 3, and
the primary alcohol position 6 with the
secondary alcohol position 5 (VIIa). When
the trimethylene sorbitol is dissolved in
acetic anhydride-acetic acid solution con-
taining 1 per cent of sulphuric acid,
these two methylene acetal rings are
cleaved, the cleavage presumably oc-
curring at the primary alcohol positions
because these positions now carry acetyl,
and the methylene residues remain at-
tached to the two secondary alcohol po-
sitions (VIIb). These methylene residues
are now hemiacetals of formaldehyde which
have become acetylated. Deacetylation
therefore removes them, as well as ordinary
acetyl groups, and the whole procedure re-
places the two methylene cyclic structures
by two primary and two secondary alco-
holic groups (VIIc). It will be seen that the
2,4-methylene acetal ring in the trimethyl-
ene sorbitol survives this selective acetolysis

VOL. 36, NO. 3.

and does not involve any primary alcoholic
groups. If the possible methylene acetal
structures be limited to those of 5, 6 or 7
members, that of the trimethylene D-
sorbitol follows from that of the mono-
methylene derivative. The same research
shows that 1,3:2,4-dimethylene sorbitol is
produced concurrently with the trimethyl-
ene derivative. The structure of the former,
proved independently, supported that as- ©
signed to the latter. |

I would now like to present one typical
example of the way in which these elegant
new methods are used to determine the
structure of the acetals (30). The example
chosen is 2,4-methylene D-sorbitol (VIIc
or VIIIa). This substance contains only one
unsubstituted glycol unit and this glycol
includes a primary alcoholic group. Oxida-
tion with periodic acid will therefore remove

VIII. STRUCTURE OF SORBITOL AND XYLITOL METHYLEYE ACRTALS

fee Vee rer
BC—0 HC—O, HC—0.
roa Sa HIO, Hae CHS wi iD) she CH,
‘ :
|
aA Ho neo
A re HCO HoCOH
a, bon [#00] C)
@) (b)
af, an
— ¢—
§ | Ne Tosylation , Ie INS Acetolysis
—CB ge ee =
Ya | Whe G Todination We | yeu: Saponification
Cig HC—O CH, HC—0
or |
O—CH ‘ O—CH,
© a)

this primary alcohol as one mole of for-
maldehyde; one mole of periodic acid will be
consumed and one mole of a monomethyl-
ene pentose sugar will be produced (VIIIb).
Reduction of the carbonyl group in the
latter gives the corresponding methylene
pentitol, which happens to be internally
compensated and of an optically inactive,
meso type (VIIIc). Since it is stable to peri-
odic acid, it contains no hydroxyl groups
adjacent to each other and the methylene
acetal ring must be in the position shown,
namely, 2,4. The pentitol proved to be
xylitol. It is worthwhile to point out that if
the cyclic structure in the original methyl-
ene D-sorbitol were in the 3,5 position, the
glycol group capable of oxidation by per-

Mar. 15, 1946

iodate would be the 1,2 instead of the 5.6
isomer. The pentose sugar formed would be
the 2,4 methylene D-arabinose and reduc-
tion would yield an optically active 2,4
methylene D-arabitol, also stable to perio-
date.

These conclusions can be checked by
condensing the internally compensated,
optically inactive xylitol with formaldehyde
to obtain 2,4:3,5 dimethylene xylitol
(VIIId). Consideration shows that the al-
ternative structure 1,3:2,4-dimethylene xy-
litol would also form in equal amount and
that it is the optical antipode of the struc-
ture shown. The product is therefore a ra-
cemic mixture of D and L forms. Esterifi-
cation with -toluenesulphonyl chloride
gives an ester that is readily decomposed
by sodium iodide in acetone to an iodo-
derivative (VIIIe). This smooth reaction
demonstrates that the remaining hydroxy
group in the 2,4:3,5 dimethylene xylitol is
of a primary alcoholic nature. The select ve
acetolysis of this derivative, followed by
saponification of the acetyl and acetoxy-
methyl groups in the product, gives the meso
2,4-methylene xylitol (VIIIc). The struc-
tures of all of the compounds in the sorbitol
and xylitol series are therefore established
by unambiguous interrelated methods. In
order to illustrate the precision and power
of these methods, let us assume for a mo-
ment that the ring in methylene D-sorbitol
is in the 2,5 position, as it happens to be in
a certain methylene mannitol (29). The
tosylation-iodination technique would re-
veal the fact that the two primary alcoholic
groups remain unsubstituted, but the fail-
ure to recover formaldehyde in the perio-
date oxidation would show that the second
and fifth hydroxyl groups are substituted.
The position of the methylene bridge as
2,5 would have been demonstrated at once.
This conclusion would have been checked
by the fact that in the 2,5 structure a glycol
group remains in the 3,4 position: the perio-
date oxidation would therefore consume
one mole of oxidant and the product on
hydrolysis would produce two moles of
glyceraldehyde; no formic acid and no
formaldehyde being evolved.

Another reaction that has proved to be
of great value is the selective esterification

PURVES: CYCLIC ACETALS OF THE CARBOHYDRATES wl

of primary alcoholic groups. D-sorbitol, for
example, readily yields a crystalline 1,6-
dibenzoate when limited amounts of ben-
zoyl chloride are used in the benzoylation.
Benzoyl groups are more stable than the
ordinary cyclic acetal during acetolysis and
hydrolysis. If sorbitol 1,6-dibenzoate is
condensed with formaldehyde, the presence
of the benzoyl groups denies the primary
alcoholic positions to the entering acetal
groups and the product is not a trimethyl-
ene sorbitol but a dimethylene sorbitol in
which the rings occupy the 2,4 and the 3,5
positions (31). The latter ring is unusual
because the hydroxyl groups concerned are
trans to each other instead of being czs and
are in the @6 position. This frans six-
membered ring is less stable and can be
selectively removed by acetolysis even
although it contains no primary alcoholic
groups. Whenever required, benzoyl radi-
cals can be hydrolyzed away by alkali
without disturbing acetal rings.

But there is no time to follow the work of
Dr. Hann and his collaborators through all
the intricacies of 5-, 6-, and 7-membered
acetals of the sugar alcohols or to depict in
detail the structures of acetals of mannitol
(29; 32), sorbitol (26, 30,31, 33), dulcitel
(84, 35, 86), adonitol (87), arabitol (38),
xylitol (30, 39), fucitol (40), iditol (47),
rhamnitol (42), and epirhamnitol (26, 43)
containing one, two, or three such rings,
based as these rings are upon formaldehyde,
benzaldehyde, o-nitrobenzaldehyde, or ace-
tone. There is no need here to catalogue
their acetates, benzoates, p-toluenesul-
phonates, their benzyl or acetoxymethyl
ethers or their iodo derivatives. Suffice it to
say that the general methods outlined above
gave satisfactory results in the numerous
cases studied, even when they had to cope
with a very occasional wandering of a
benzoyl group (34) or with the complexities
of cis-trans isomerism (36) in the benzyli-
dene dulcitols. When we close our eyes and
imagine that one of the carbohydrate poly-
alcohols is mixed with a condensing agent
and a carbonyl compound, we can picture
rings of all sizes forming and disintegrating
and competing with each other for the dif-
ferent pairs of alcoholic groups in the carbo-
hydrate structure. We can picture the cyclic

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

structures, formed most, readily, or most
stable, or least soluble, slowly accumulating
in the mélée and eventually crystallizing
from solution as the compounds that are
actually isolated. As far as these products
are concerned, Dr. Hann has very fortu-
nately been able to point out some regulari-
ties that connect the probability of cyclic
acetal formation with the nature of the
pairs of alcoholic groups and their relative
position in space (44). I have had the te-
merity to attempt to summarize his tenta-
tive conclusions as regards methylene and
also benzylidene acetals.

IX. STEREOCHEMISTRY OF CYCLIC METHYLENE ACETAL FORMATION

aie oe iis
DE ce ane
HCOH HC—0O HC—0
ane sl ay i Pl
2
| |
xox He No Sty Kx,
HOCH i Oe >a
rt HOCH mt 0
HCH x lon H COE
Cc
(a) HCOH (b) O—CH, ¢ )
| 1: ae} |
ae et Noe" cH
ES =0 Heo
HC ON fe CH
Pe 2 NZ 2
s —Oo o Benge No
cae ae 5 tee Nis
)
i oie, ic ee
0—CE, O— CE,
(d) (e)

Let us suppose that the 8-carbon sugar
alcohol (formula IXa) is dissolved in ap-
proximately equal amounts of concentrated
hydrochloric acid and 37 per cent formalin.
Of the very large number of cyclic acetals
theoretically possible, it appears that the
pair of alcoholic groups most suited for
acetal formation are of a secondary nature
and are situated in 6 positions, cis to each
other. The only pair satisfying these re-
quirements are the hydroxy groups in the
third and fifth positions of the octitol and
we can assume that a 6-membered 3,5-
methylene acetal will survive in the equi-
libria.

VOL. 36, NO. 3

The next most likely group to attach —
itself, assuming the positions 3 and 5 are no
longer available, is the rather unusual 7-
membered ring formed about secondary
hydroxyl groups that are trans and gamma
to each other. The fourth and seventh
groups are such a pair and the appropriate
structure is [Xc. The third most available
site is a 6-membered ring involving a pri-
mary alcohol. Since the latter seems to be
capable of free rotation, the question of
cis-trans orientation is not important, and
we can assume that a third methylene group
would attach itself between positions 6 and
8 (IXd). Finally, one of the least probable
structures, that forms only if the appropri-
ate hydroxyl groups have not already been
utilized, is the 5-membered ring involving
a primary alcohol (Xe). Our tetramethyl-
ene octitol might therefore be expected to
have methylene groups in the 1,2:3,5:4.7:
6,8 positions. Although the particular octi-
tol was chosen merely as an illustration, it
happens to be L-manno-D-altro octitol and
is not, so far as I know, one of those synthe-
sized by Dr. Hann and his friends in nu-
merous researches in that field (45). This
aspect of Dr. Hann’s collaborations lies
outside the scope of this paper. Let us con-
sider instead the isopropylidene derivatives
of some sugar anhydrides with which Dr.
Hann has worked. |

-D-Glucosan (Xa) has been known for a
long time and is prepared by the destructive
distillation of glucose, starch or cellulose. It
contains three hydroxyl groups all of which
are trans to their immediate neighbors. This
situation is not propitious for condensation
with acetone and no isopropylidene deriva-
tives of glucosan are known. But a mixture
of glucosan and galactosan is readily avail-
able by the dry distillation of lactose and
galactosan possesses a pair of adjacent czs
hydroxyl groups (Xb). Galactosan can
readily be isolated from a mixture with the
glucosan as the isopropylidene derivative
(46) and has therefore been made a cheap
and easily accessible substance (Xc). In the
same way the destructive distillation of
ivory-nut mannan yields D-mannosan (Xd)
which is readily isolated as the isopropyli-
dene derivative (Xe) (47). In addition to
the value of such new beautiful crystalline

Mar. 15, 1946

X. CYCLIC ACETALS AS AIDS IN SYNTHESIS AND ISOLATION

|
4 ‘ a
(Q) (b) (C)
CH CE a
c. | oe | ail
| Me,c. | Me,C. |
HOCH 0) 0-CH ) 0-H fo)
0 = | — > 0 a —> 0 re |
HCOH ECOH HCO R
| | f i
HAC HC =
(d) () (f)

substances as intermediates for the isola-
tion of sugar anhydrides, they offer very
great promise as intermediates in synthetic
work. In each case only one hydroxyl group
is left exposed for further reactions and
synthetical procedures can therefore be
planned to take an unambiguous course.
The free position in the isopropylidene
galactosan is number 2 and the way is open
to prepare derivatives of galactosan and
galactose substituted in the second position
(46). Perhaps more important is the lone
hydroxyl group in isopropylidene mannosan
because it occupies the hitherto inaccessible
fourth position in the mannose molecule.
This is the position engaged by the disac-
charide linkage in the more important di-
and poly-saccharides such as maltose,
starch, cellobiose, cellulose and_ lactose.
Drs. Haskins, Hann, and Hudson (48) have
not only methylated isopropylidene man-
nosan (Xf, R=CH3) and completely hy-
drolyzed the product to the interesting and
new 4-methyl mannose but have also con-
densed it with acetobromoglucose and
acetobromogalactose (Xf, R=tetraacetyl
6-gluco- and 6-galacto-pyranosyl). Selective
hydrolysis with acetic acid removed the
isopropylidene residue from the products.
Acetolysis cleaved the 1,6 anhydro ring and
left an acetylated 6-glucosidomannose and
6-galactosidomannose, epimers of cellobiose

PURVES: CYCLIC ACETALS OF THE CARBOHYDRATES io

and lactose respectively. It would take us
too far afield to follow the subsequent steps
leading to cellobiose and lactose themselves
(48). The syntheses are the first to provide
unambiguous and definite confirmations for
the accepted structures of these two impor-
tant disaccharides. Another synthesis from
4-tosyl isopropylidene mannosan (Xf, R=
tosyl) led by way of a Walden inversion to
what was presumably 3,4-anhydro-D-
talosan (49).

When we come to evaluate the signifi-
cance of these advances, we see that the
cyclic acetals of the sugars have long been’
used as starting materials for the synthesis
of partly substituted cartohydrate deriva-
tives and disaccharides. But it was neces-
sary to determine the constitution of each
of these derivatives in a separate research
that was usually lengthy and round-about.
Today this great range of carbohydrate
chemistry has been illuminated and the
wheel has turned full circle. Cyclic acetals
of definitely known constitution have be-
come among the most accessible of carbo-
hydrate substances. They have been made
available for precisely directed synthetical
operations. Moreover, the simplicity and
elegance of the new methods of investiga-
tion, the clarity of the logic that interprets
the experimental results, and the unambigu-
ous nature of the conclusions are such that
the whole work is likely to become a classic
example of organic chemistry at its best.
The structure of the cyclic acetals of the
carbohydrates is now a subject that could
be most advantageously included as a
special university lecture course for stu-
dents of advanced organic chemistry. We
are proud to think that Dr. Hann has
played the dominant part in these advances
and that his researches have shed fresh
luster, not only upon his fellow workers at
the National Institute of Health, but also
upon his fellow members of the Chemical
Society of Washington.

REFERENCES
(1) Wurtz. Compt. Rend. 53: 378. 1861;
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(2) GuENTHER. Ann. 126:65. 1862.
(3) Apams and Apxins. Journ. Amer. Chem.
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74

(4)
(5)
(6)

(7)
(8)

(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
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(14)

(15)
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(26)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

FiscHer. Ber. 27: 1536. 1894; 28: 1145.
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InGoLp and THoRPE.
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Hitt and Hissert. Journ. Amer. Chem.
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Griesheim Chemische Gesellschaft Pa-
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REICHERT, BatteEy, and NIBUWLAND.
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Journ. Chem Soc.

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Dre Forcanp. Compt. Rend. 108: 618.
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(a) Hartune and ApKINs. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 49: 2517. 1927; (b) ApKINS
and Broperick. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soe.

50: 499. 1928.

TRISTER and HispBEeRT. Can. Journ. Res.
14B: 415. 1936.

HIBBERT and CARTER. Journ. Amer.

Chem. Soc. 50: 3376. 1928.

Peacock. Journ. Chem. Soc. 107: 816.
1915.

HiBBERT, PLaTT, and CarTER. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 51: 3641. 1929.
H1sBERT, Morazain, and PaqurEt. Can.
Journ. Res. 2:131. 1930.

Hispsert and Morazain. Can. Journ.
Res. 2: 214. 1930.

HawortH. The chemistry of sugars.
London, 1929.

FREUDENBERG and Dosmr. Ber. 56:
124325, 1923.

MaLaPraDE. Bull. Soc. Chim. [4] 43:
683. 1928; [5] 4: 906, 1875. 1937.

CRIEGEE. Ber. 64: 260. 1931; 65: 1770.
1932; Ann. 495: 211. 1982.

OLDHAM and RUTHERFORD. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 54: 366. 1932.

Ness, Hann, and Hupson. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 66: 1901. 1944.

(27)
(28)

(29)

(30)

(31)
(32)
(33)
(34)
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(49)

VOL. 36, No. 3

Hann, Ness, and Hupson. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 66: 73. 1944.

NicoueT and SHINN. Journ. Biol. Chem.
138: 91. 1941; Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc.
63: 1456. 1941.

Ness, Hann, and Hupson. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 65: 2215. 1943. |
Ness, Hann, and Hupson. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 66: 665. 1944. |

Hann, Wo.re, and Hupson. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 66: 1898. 1944.
Haskins, Hann, and Hupson. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 65: 67, 1419. 1943.
Wo.re, Hann, and Hupson. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 64: 14938. 1942.
Hann, Mactay, and Hupson. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 61: 2482. 1939.
Hann, Haskins, and Hupson. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 64: 986, 1614. 1942.
Haskins, Hann, and Hupson. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 64: 1382, 187. 1942.
Hann and Huvpson. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 66: 1906. 1944.

Haskins, Hann, and Hupson. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 65: 1663. 19438.

Hann, Ness, and Hupson. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 66: 670. 1944.

Ness, Hann, and Hupson. /
Amer. Chem. Soc. 64: 982. 1942.

Journ.

Hann and Hupson. Journ. Amer. Chem.
Soc. 67: 602. 1945.

Haskins, Hann, and Hupson. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 67: 1800. 1945.
Ness, Hann, and Huvupson. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 66: 1235. 1944.
HANN and Hupson. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 66: 1909. 1944.

Hann, Merritt, and Hupson. Journ.
Amer. Chem. Soc. 66: 1912. 1944.

Hann and Hupson. Journ. Amer. Chem.
Soc. 63: 1484. 1941; 64: 2435. 1942.
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Amer. Chem. Soc. 63: 1724. 1941; 64:
1289, 1490, 1852. 1942: 65: 70. 1943.
Hann and Huvupson. Journ. Amer.
Chem. Soc. 64: 925. 1942,

Mar. 15, 1946 BROWN: PLEISTOCENE PEARL FROM SOUTHERN MARYLAND 75

PALEONTOLOGY .—A Pleistocene pearl from southern Maryland.1| Routanp W.

Brown, U.S. Geological Survey.

In a previous paper? I discussed the oc-
currence of pearls in species of Inoceramus

1 Published by permission of the Director,
U. S. Geological Survey. Received January 2,
1946.

2 Brown, Rouanp W. Fossil pearls from the
Colorado group of western Kansas. Journ. Wash-
ington Acad. Sci. 30: 365-374. 1940.

found in Upper Cretaceous deposits of west-
ern Kansas and tabulated the known dis-
tribution of fossil pearls and pearllike ob-
jects of similar origin. Reference to my table
(p. 370) discloses that, so far as known, only
two Pleistocene pearls have been reported,
one from Mytilus edulis and the other from

Fig. 1.—Exterior of right valve of Arca transversa. Fig. 2.—Interior
of the valve, showing pearl. X8. Photos by Nelson W. Shupe

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Volsella modiolus, both from localities in the
British Isles.

On November 7, 1942, I accompanied
Dr. S. F. Blake, of the U. S. Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural En-
gineering, on a trip to Point Lookout, in
southern Maryland. About 4 miles north-
west of the Point the Potomac River has
cut back into the land forming a long, low,
vertical cliff called Wailes Bluff, well il-
lustrated by Shattuck.? Exposed in the
basal part at and a few feet above water
level is compact, blue, sandy marine clay
filled with Pleistocene shells. Resting on the
blue clay is a lenticular oyster bed and well-
stratified, horizontal, dark sandy clay over-
lain by light-colored cross-bedded sand and
gravel belonging presumably to the Talbot
terrace of the Pleistocene. Fragmentary
leaves and pieces of wood may be had from
the lower sandy clay strata of this unit.

At one spot in the lowermost beds along

3 SHaTtuck, GEORGE B. Pliocene and Pletsto-
cene. Maryland Geol. Survey, pl. 18. 1906.

BOTANY.—WNew bamboos from Szechwan Province, China.'
Department of Biology, National Central University,
(Communicated by AGNES CHASE.)

PAI-cHIEH KENG.°
Chungking, China.

In this paper are described four new spe-
cies and one new variety of Chinese bam-
boos. One of the species and the variety are
known only from sterile specimens, while
the descriptions of the other three species
are based on their floral parts as well as on
their vegetative organs. Illustrations have
been prepared for the species with flowers.
The types of all are deposited in the Her-
barium of the Department of Biology of
National Central University.

Sinocalamus distegius Keng & Keng f.
sp. Nov.

Fig. 1

Species evidenter cognata Sinocalamo affint
(Rendle) McClure, ex qua culmo apice num-

1 Received January 11, 1946.

2 In a previous paper by these authors (Journ.
Washington Acad. Sci. 35 (12): 374-378, figs.
1-18. 1945.) the junior author’s other name,
Keng Kwan-hou, was unfortunately used. He
expects, however, to use the name Keng Pai-chieh
in future publications, hence it is used here.

VOL. 36, NO. 3

the bluff I found a large specimen of the
snail Busycon carica that was filled with
blue mud containing numerous small
marine mollusks. Not long ago, cleaning
out and breaking up this mud, now well
dried, I uncovered a right valve (length,
1 em) of Arca transversa to whose interior
surface at the pallial line toward the poste-
rior was attached an almost spherical peazrl.
As Arca transversa belongs to a genus whose
species do not secrete nacre, or mother-of-
pearl, this ‘‘pearl’’ is not a true pearl in the
strict sense, although its mode of formation
was otherwise undoubtedly similar to that
of precious or ornamental pearls. The out-
side surface of the valve, directly under the
pearl, is free of any scar or blemish, thus
indicating that the inciting cause of the
pearl was not a shell-borer. The location of
the pearl at the pallial line just under the
mantle, however, as well as its spherical
shape, suggests strongly that a sand grain
or other irritating object, either organic or
inorganic, which the mollusk could not
eject, was the cause.

Y1-LI Kene and

quam pendulo, vaginis culmorum dorso inter
pilos setosos valde pruinosis, vaginae nodo
quando juvenili pilis retrorsis brunneis dense
hirsuto, spiculis majoribus, et ovario pilis hir-
sutis brevioribus minoribus inferne obsito dif-
fert.

Arbor circa 10 m alta, 4.5 cm diametro,
apice leviter arcuata sed haud pendula; inter-
nodia teretia, pleraque 20-50 cm longa, juve-
nilia superne leviter pruinosa et pilis albis ad-
pressis deciduis hispida; vaginae culmorum
coriaceae, late oblongae, circiter 4 longitu-
dinem internodiorum aequantes, pleraeque
pilis flavidis vel badiis, dense setosae et ju-
veniles inter pilos farina alba graviter obsitae,
basi persistente circa nodos earum annulo
pilorum 2-3 mm longorum retrorsorum brun-
neorum post casum vaginarum facile decidu-
orum dense hirsutae; limbi longe triangulares
vel lanceolati, saepissime erecti, inferiores
minores rigidioresque, superiores majores mala-
cioresque; rami numerosi, semiverticillati,
ramulis plerisque folia nonnulla ad multa

Mar. 15, 1946 KENG AND KENG: NEW BAMBOOS FROM SZECHWAN, CHINA 77

gerentibus; vaginae foliorum 35-48 mm longae,
praeter basin ut in eis culmorum dense retorse-
que hirsutam glabrae; ligula 0.5-1 mm longa,
truncata; laminae anguste lanceolatae, 5-16
em longae, 8-16 mm latae, acuminatae, supra
glabrae, infra pubescentes, utrinque nervis
secundariis 4-6 percursae; rami floriferi aphylli
vel folia pauca reducta laminis quam vaginis
brevioribus ferentes; spiculae vel pseudo-
spiculae solitariae vel saepe multae in glo-
merulum ad quemvis nodum facsiculatae, vel
paucae vel plures in axillibus foliorum cres-
centes, 13-18 mm longae, 5-7 mm latae, 4—6-
florae, lateraliter leviter compressae, ovato-
lanceolatae, fuscae, pedicello circ. 0.5 mm longo
fultae; rhachillae articuli 1-2 mm longi, glabri;
-glumae 1-2, lemmati similes sed multo brevi-
ores; lemmata chartacea, latissime ovata, 8-10
mm longa, glabra, multinervia, acuta, basi
rotunda, ad margines dense ciliata; palea
lemma aequans vel eo aliquanto brevior, bi-
carinata, inter carinas 2 mm lata binervisque,
glabra sed ad carinas marginesque ciliata; lodi-
culae 3, una posteriore oblongo-ovata, duabus
anterioribus dimidiato-ovatis, omnes circ. 2—4
mm longae (cilia includentes); stamina 6, ad
maturitatem exserta, antheris pallide flavis,
5-6 mm longis, apice penicillatis, filamentis
tenuibus, usque ad 8 mm longis; ovarium cano-
albidum, pubescens, pyramidale vel conicum,
ventraliter sulco lato canaliculatum, circ. 2.5
mm longum, ad maturitatem 2 mm crassum,
stipite circ. 2.6 mm longo stipitatum; stylus
subulatus, 2-8 mm longus, pubescens; stig-
mata 1-2, 5-6 mm longa, asperigilliformia;
caryopsis cremeo-flava, fusiformis, circ. 6 mm
longa, 3 mm lata.

Culms arborescent, somewhat arched but
not drooping at apex, up to more than 10 m
tall, 4.5 em in diameter; internodes terete,
greenish or yellowish at maturity, 20-50 em
or more long, the lower with a wall over 5
mm thick, pruinose above and beset with
deciduous appressed whitish hairs when young;
sheath-nodes prominent, densely hirsute with
retrorse brownish hairs 2-3 mm long, but soon
becoming glabrous and leathery after the culm-
sheaths have fallen off; culm-nodes inconspicu-
ous, dark-colored, 5-10 mm above the sheath-
nodes; culm-sheaths coriaceous, 205X115,
250 X185, 260 X210 mm in size, about half as
long as the internodes or less, densely setose
with yellowish to brownish hairs (and when

young also covered with a pruinose substance),
except for a small glabrous area below the
limb, the apex truncate, 2-6.5 em wide, with
rounded shoulders, the base broad, encircling
the node once and a half; auricles inconspicu-
ous, sometimes fimbriate with a few whitish
setae about 3-5 mm long; ligule truncate, 1-2
mm long, denticulate, the teeth often prolonged
into bristles 3 mm long; limb elongate-tri-
angular to lanceolate, scarcely reflexed, the
lower 13 X5, 30X13, 32 X18 mm in size and
more rigid, the upper 80 X28, 185 X32 mm in
size and much softer, acuminate with involute
margins, constricted at base, glabrous and
striate above, scaberulous beneath; branches
numerous at each node, semi-verticillate,
ascending to spreading, the internodes often
3-13 em long, 2-3 mm thick, the branchlets
bearing several to many leaves; leaf-sheaths
straw-colored to brownish, 35-48 mm long,
glabrous except the densely and retrorsely hir-
sute base, as in the culm-sheaths; ligule 0.5-1
mm long, truncate; blades narrowly lanceolate,
50 X8, 12616, 158 x14 mm in size, acumi-
nate, rounded or attenuate at base into a peti-
ole 1-2 mm long, dull-green and glabrous
above, pale-green and pubescent beneath, with
4—6 secondary nerves on each side, the margins
scabrous; flowering branches aphyllous or bear-
ing a few smaller leaves with blades 12-45 mm
long, 2-7 mm wide; spikelets several to many
at each node and clustered into globular fas-
cicles, or few to several crowded in the axils of
the sheaths, 13-18 mm long, 5-7 mm wide,
laterally slightly compressed, ovate-lanceolate,
dark brown, 4-6-flowered, the pedicel about
0.5 mm long; rachilla-joints 1-2 mm long,
glabrous; glumes 1-2, resembling the lemmas
but much smaller; lemmas chartaceous, very
broadly ovate, 8-10 mm long and wide, gla-
brous, multinerved, rounded at base, acute,
densely ciliate on the margins; palea equaling
or somewhat shorter than the lemma, 2 mm
wide and 2-nerved between the 2 keels, ciliate
on the keels and the margins, otherwise gla-
brous; lodicles 3, the posterior one oblong-ovate,
the anterior two dimidiate-ovate, all about 2-4
mm long (including the cilia); stamens 6, ex-
serted at maturity, the anthers pale yellow, 5-6
mm long, penicillate at the apex, the filaments
slender, up to 8 mm long; ovary grayish white,
pubescent, pyramidal or conical, ventrally sul-
cate with a wide furrow, about 2.5 mm long,

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 3

AS he “GA
~ ACH
SF i. "
Tal ¢
Sle ANG e
) en a4’, §
Ag oy

Fig. 1.—Sinocalamus distegius: 1 and 2, Habit of flowering and leafy branches; 3, culm-sheath,
showing dorsal and ventral surfaces; 4, pikelet; 5, palea with rachilla-joint and flower, the lemma
removed; 6, stamen. (Type.)

Mar. 15, 1946 KENG AND KENG: NEW BAMBOOS FROM SZECHWAN, CHINA 79

2 mm thick at maturity, stipitate, the stipe
about 2.5 mm long, glabrous; style subulate,
2-3 mm long, pubescent; stigmas 1-2, 5-9 mm
long, aspergilliform; caryopsis cream-yellow,
fusiform, about 6 mm long, 3 mm wide.

Type in the Herbarium of the Department
of Biology, National Central University,
Chungking, China, collected from stumps of a
bamboo-grove, en route from Muh-tung, Pa-
hsien to Pai-sha-ching, Nan-ch’uan-hsien,
Szechwan Province, September 2, 1943, by
Keng & son (no. 3865, a flowering specimen).
Other collections of the same species are as
follows.

Szechwan: Mount Omei, H. C. Chow 8714
(a flowering specimen); en route from Pa-
hsien to Nan-ch’uan, Keng & son nos. 3864
(flowering specimen), 3897 (sterile specimen
with culm-sheaths), 3898 (flowering specimen
with culm), 3901 (flowering specimen with
fruits and seedlings), and 3902 (a sterile speci-
men with leafy branches only).

This species much resembles S. affinis (Ren-
dle) McClure in appearance and in the struc-
ture of the spikelets, but it differs remarkably
in the culms’ being erect or slightly arcuate at
apex instead of long-pendulous, in the young
culm-sheaths dorsally pruinose amongst the
setae, and in the sheath-nodes densely hirsute
with retrorse brownish hairs. The larger spike-
lets and the less pubescent ovary of this species
also differentiate it from S. affinis which was
originally described under Dendrocalamus.3

Sinocalamus farinosus Keng & Keng f.
sp. nov.

Tametsi inflorescentia huius specieil ignota
est, ea S. affint (Rendle) McClure et S. dis-
tegio nobis afhnam esse apparet, ab utraque
autem in internodiis culmorum brevioribus
glabris sed quando juvenilibus albo-pruinosis,
et in vaginis culmorum apice truncatis leviter
rubro-bruneis cum ligula laciniata optime evo-
luta instructis differt.

Culmi usque at 10 m alti, 4-6 cm diam.,
apice leviter arcuati, cum muro circ. 5 mm
crasso late fistulosi; internodia teretia, 10—20
cm longa, glabra, ante casum vaginarum viridia
et omnino farina alba obsita, ad maturitatem
flava lucidaque; nodi vaginarum basibus per-
sistentibus cincti, quando juveniles infra ut

3 Dendrocalamus affints Rendle, Journ. Linn.
Soc. Bot. 36: 447. 1904.

supra eos annulo 3-5 mm lato pilorum veluti-
norum flavorum retrorsorum adpressorum ob-
tecti; vaginae culmorum internodiis breviores
vel ea circum aequentes, coriaceo-chartaceae,
dorso pilis badiis 1-2 mm longis setosae, super-
ne ciliatae, apice circiter 1.5-3 cm latae, trun-
catae vel leviter concavae; ligula optime evo-
luta, irregulariter laciniata, circ. 13 mm longa
(longitudinem laciniarum includens); limbi re-
flexi, anguste lanceolati, 4-12 cm longi, 5-12
mm lati, glabri sed ad paginam superiorem mar-
ginesque scaberuli; rami ad quemvis nodum
numerosi, adscendentes vel horizontales, pri-
marli usque ultra 60 cm longi, ramulis folia 4-9
plerumque gerentibus; vaginae foliorum gla-
brae, 6—-7.5 cm longae, efimbriatae; ligula trun-
cata, circ. 1 mm longa; laminae tenues,
lanceolatae, 9-17 cm longae, 15-25 mm latae,
acuminatae, basi rotundae vel in petiolum 2
mm longum attenuatae, superne virides lucid-
aeque, inferne pallidiores minute pubescentes-
que, utrinque nervis secundariis 5—7 percursae,
marginibus scabrae vel altero eorum fere
laeves; inflorescentia desiderata.

Culms up to 10 meters tall, about 4-6 cm
in diameter, with a wall about 5 mm thick, the
internodes terete, 10-21 cm long, those of the
young culms green but heavily whitish-
pruinose with a ring (8-5 mm wide) of ap-
pressed velvety chestnut brown hairs becoming
yellowish brown in age, just above and below
the sheath-node, the hairs both retrorse and
and antrorse below the node but antrorse only
above it, the old culms entirely glabrate;
sheath-node prominent, 3-5 mm below the in-
conspicuous culm-node above; culm-sheaths
equaling or somewhat shorter than the inter-
nodes, reddish brown when young, becoming
pale brown at maturity, triangular in outline,
15-21 em wide, 14-21 cm long, coriaceo-char-
taceous, but the margins much thinner, dor-
sally strigose with blackish hairs 1-2 mm long,
truncate or slightly concave and about 1.5-3
em wide at apex; ligule well developed, about
13 mm long (including the setae), irregularly
laciniate into slender setae 7-10 mm long;
auricles none; limbs small, reflexed, narrowly
lanceolate, 4-12 cm long, 5-12 mm wide,
acuminate, constricted near the base, the mar-
gins scaberulous, involute, thus rendering the
tip subulate, glabrous and striate on the lower
but scaberulous on the upper surface; branches
numerous at each node, the main ones over

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

60 cm long, 6—7-noded, with internodes 3-12
em long, 3 mm thick, the intranode* about 5
mm long, whitish-pruinose and bearing a single
shell-shaped bud; normal branchlets generally
bearing 4-8 leaves; leaf-sheaths glabrous, 6—7.5
cm long, efimbriate, the sheath-nodes 5-7 mm
distant; ligule truncate, about 1 mm long;
blades thin, lanceolate, 9-17 cm long, 15-25
mm wide, acuminate, rounded or attenuate at
base into a petiole 2 mm long, green and lus-
trous above, paler and minutely pubescent be-
neath, with 5-7 secondary nerves on each side,
the margins scabrous or one of them nearly
smooth; vigorous branchlets bearing over 10
much larger leaves, with whitish-pruinose inter-
nodes 2—3.5 cm long; leaf-sheaths keeled above,
glabrous, but ciliate on the outer margins, 8.5—
11 em long; ligule truncate, 2-3 mm long, some-
times ciliate with few to several fimbriate bris-
tles on one side; blades large, lanceolate or nar-
rowly lanceolate, mostly 274.5 cm, rarely
shortened to 14 cm long or narrowed to 2.5
cm wide, pale green and densely pubescent
beneath, with 7-10 secondary nerves on each
side, irregularly and inconspicuously tessellate,
the margins setulose-scabrous; inflorescence

wanting.
Type in the Herbarium of the Department
of Biology, National Central University,

Chungking, China, collected along open field-
side in Fu-lu-kuan, en route from Nan-ch’uan
city to Pai-sha-ching, Nan-ch’uan-hsien, Sze-
chwan Province, September 9, 1943, by Keng &
son (no. 3896). Another specimen of the same
species was collected at Ch’ing-lung-tsu, en
route from Pai-sha-ching, Nan-ch’uan-hsien to
Shuang-tz’u-ch’ang, Pa-hsien of the same
province, September 10, 1943, by Keng & son
(no. 3899).

This species seems to be related to S. affinis
and S. distegius, from both of which it differs,
however, in having culms with shorter glabrous
but whitish-pruinose internodes when young,
and truneate somewhat reddish-brown culm-
sheaths with very well developed laciniate
ligules.

The vernacular name of this bamboo is
‘“‘Liang-shan-tz’t,’’ but whether this bamboo
was originally raised at Liang-shan-hsien, also

4 A new word signifying the portion where the
diaphragm grows inside the culm and from which
the buds or branches arise. Its length is limited by
the sheath-node below and the culm-node above.

VOL. 36, NO. 3

a district of Szechwan, is uncertain. In the re-
gion where this species was collected, it often
grows by the side of S. distegius but is less
common than the latter. This bamboo is used
at Nan-ch’uan as a material in paper-industry.

Bambusa sinospinosa McClure var.
inermis Keng & Keng f., var. nov.

Secundum culmi vaginas internodia arcte
amplectantes, tarde deciduas, confertim cori-
aceas, quando juveniles virides sed pigmento
aurentiaco leviter tinctas, ad maturitatem
stramineas, longitudine striatas, et glabras sed
basi circa nodos earum annulo 3-4 mm lato
pilorum. velutinosorum badiorum cinctas, haec
planta Bambusae sinospinosae McClure prox-
ime accedit. Ab specie posteriore haec varietas
culmis ramisque inermibus solum recedit.

Culmi 3-5 m alti, usque ad 10 cm diametro;
internodia teretia, juvenilia praesertim prope
nodos pruinosa, viridia sed ut in vaginis cul-
morum pigmento aurantiaco leviter tincta,
inferiora 25-30 cm longa; rami ad quemvis
nodum 1-8, inermes, internodiis inferioribus
8-18 cm longis, circ. 7 mm crassis, angustis-
sime fistulosis, ramulis folia nonnulla ferent-
ibus; laminae foliorum longe ovatae vel lance-
olatae, 11-24 cm longae, 28-45 mm latae, basi
cuneatae, petiolo 3-5 mm longo fultae, subtus
costam primam prominentem habentes, utrin-
que nervis secundariis 7—9 percursae; inflores- _
centia desiderata.

Culms 3-5 meters tall, up to 10 em in diame-
ter, the internodes terete or shallowly grooved
on the gemmiferous side, glabrous but pruinose
when young especially near the nodes, green or
slightly orange-colored, the basal ones 25-30
em long; sheath-node prominent with persist-
ent sheath-base, about 5-8 mm (the length of
intranode) below the elevated or inconspicu-
ous culm-node; culm-sheaths tight, tardily de-
ciduous, thickly coriaceous but thinner and
membranous towards the margins, greenish
and orange-tinged when young, stramineous
at maturity, longitudinally striate, dorsally
glabrous, but with a velvety ring of brownish
hairs at base around the node, roughish and
striate within; ligule well developed, mem-
branous, about 5 mm long, erose; auricles
none; limbs erect, dorsally glabrous as in the
sheaths, setulose with brownish hairs between
the nerves within especially towards the base,
the margins involute, cartilaginous and

“Mar. 15, 1946 KENG AND KENG: NEW BAMBOOS FROM SZECHWAN, CHINA 81

smooth; bud large, solitary, about semicircular
in outline; branches 3 at each node, or only one
through the abortion of the lateral ones, en-
closed at base with a series of successively
longer scales (the largest up to 8.5 mm long,
pale stramineous, glabrous, dorsally keeled, ob-
tuse or mucronate), the primary ones with
basal internodes 8—-17.5 cm long, about 7 mm
in diam. -with a calibre 2 mm across, bearing a
few foliiferous branchlets with several to 10
leaves; leaf-sheaths about 8-12 cm long, pale
brown, dorsally densely hispidulous with read-

ily deciduous antrorse brownish hairs, truncate

at apex, the margins scarious; ligule about 1
mm long, fringed at apex with fragile whitish
bristles up to 5 mm long; blades ovate oblong
to lanceolate, often cuneate at base with a peti-
ole 3-5 mm long, acuminate, 11-24 cm long,
28-45 mm wide, deep green above, grayish green
beneath, the midrib prominent, with 7—9 sec-
ondary nerves on each side, the cross veinlets
inconspicuous, both margins scabrous; inflo-
rescence wanting.

Type in the Herbarium of the Department
of Biology, National Central University,
Chungking, China, collected on slope in front
of a cottage, enroute from Shuang-tz’u-ch’ang
to Mu-tung, Pa-hsien, Szechwan Province,
September 10, 1943, by Keng & son (no. 3903).
There are three sheets selected as the type of
the species, one representing the culm, one the
culm-sheath, and the other the leafy branch.

According to the shape, texture, and other
characteristics of the culm-sheaths, and the
branching system of the culm, this plant un-
doubtedly belongs to Bambusa sinospinosa Mc-
Clure.® Since it bears no spines—the reduced
hardened branches or branchlets—on the culm
or branches, the epithet tnermis, meaning un-
armed, is taken as the varietal name.

Bambusa rigida Keng & Keng f., sp. nov.
Fig. 2

Species probabiliter affinis Bambusae nanae
Roxburgh, ex qua culmo multo altiore crassi-
oreque, internodiis glabris pruinosis, et culmi
vagina cum auriculis duabus prominentibus
fimbriatis appendiculata insigniter differt.

Culmi 5-10 m alti, 2-5 cm in diametro, erecti
vel apice leviter arcuati, internodiis inferioribus

* Lingnan Sci. Journ. 19 (38): 411. pl. 19. 1940.

. 23-35 em, superioribus usque ad 45 cm longis,

anguste fistulosis, rigidis, glabris sed juvenil-
ibus copiose albo-pruinosis; vaginae culmorum
pallide brunneae, confertim chartaceae, plerae-
que circ. 4 longitudinem internodiorum ae-
quantes, tarde deciduae, dorso setis prompte
deciduis badiis unilateraliter strigosae, apice
truncatae vel leviter convexae, utrinque auricu-
latae, auricula maxime prominente, semi-
orbiculata, obscure brunnea, saepissime 5-15
mm longa, 15-30 mm lata, cum setis multis
circ. 1 em longis fimbriata; ligula 2-4 mm longa,
aliquanto erosa vel dentata; limbi erecti vel
reflexi, triangulares vel multo elongati, quam
vagina facilius decidui et plerique breviores, ad
paginam superiorem inter nervos minute setu-
losi; rami nonnulli vel multi, adscendentes vel
patentes, primarii internodia inferiora 5-10
cm longa, 4-6 mm crassa habentes, ramulis
superne folia 2-12 inferne vaginas 2-4 sine
laminis ferentibus; vaginae foliorum 25-70 mm
longae, arcte equitantes, striatae, glabrae sed
apice setis 3-9 mm longis paucis deciduis saepe
fimbriatae; hgula truncata, 0.5-1 mm longa;
laminae tenues, aliquanto plicatae, oblongae
vel anguste lanceolatae, 8-24 cm longae, 8—27
mm latae, tenuiter acuminatae, basi in peti-
olum 2-4 mm longum attenuatae, glabrae vel
ad paginam inferiorem saepe puberulae, utrin-
que nervis secundariis 4-9 percursae sed non
tessellatae; rami floriferi aphylli vel quando
juveniles folia ferentes; spiculae ad quemvis
nodum ramorum veteranorum plerumque mul-
tae in massam globularem aggregatae, sed eae
in ramis juvenilibus solitariae vel nonnullae
congestae, meliore evolutae, 3-4 cm longae,
lucide virides vel strarnineae, 3—5-florae, cum
series squamarum deinceps longiorum sub-
tentae; rhachillae articuli compressi, 2-4 mm
longi, glabri sed apice cupulari inconspicue
puberuli; gluma vel squama infra spiculam
maxima circ. 6 mm longa, ovata, multinervis;
lemmata lanceolata, 1-1.5 em longa, 4-8 mm
lata, glabra, dorso superne purpurea, multi-
nervia, costa prima in carinam elevata; palea
lemmate paullo brevior, cremea, bicarinata,
inter carinas 2 mm lata 5-nervisque, carinis
superne ciliatis; lodiculae 3, una posteriore
lanceolata, duabus anterioribus dimidiato-
ovatis, omnes circ. 3 mm longae, albo-scariosae,
inferne nervosae, superne longe ciliatae; stam-
ina 6, antheris linearibus, 4-6 mm longis, pur-
pureis vel pallide flavis, apice penicillatis,

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

demum exsertis pendulisque, filamentis ju-
venilibus brevissimis, ad maturitatem usque
ad 8 mm longis; ovarium triquetrum vel seriore
globulare, stipitatum, circ. 2 mm longum,
omnino pilis albidis hirtellum; stylus 1, pu-
berulus, circ. 2mm longus; stigmata 3, plumo-
sa, brevissima; fructus immaturus.

Culms 5-10 m tall, 2-5 cm in diameter
(breast high), erect or slightly arcuate at apex,
the lower internodes 23-35 cm, the upper up
to 45 em long, narrowly fistulose with a calibre
about 1.5-3 cm across and a wall 1-1.5 cm
thick, rigid, glabrous but copiously whitish-
pruinose especially when still enclosed by the
sheaths; culm-sheaths pale brown, thickly char-
taceous, generally about half the length of the
internodes, tardily deciduous, dorsally strigose
on one side with readily deciduous chestnut-
brown setae, truncate or slightly convex at
apex, auriculate on both sides, the auricles very
prominent but often unequal in size, semicir-
cular, dark brown, mostly 5-15 mm long, 15-30
mm wide, fimbriate with many bristles about
1 cm long; ligule 2-4 mm long, somewhat erose
or dentate; limbs erect or reflexed, triangular or
much elongate, more readily deciduous and
generally shorter than the sheaths, dorsally
glabrous or rarely setose as in the sheaths,
minutely setulose between the nerves within
(on the upper surface of the limb); branches
several to many at each node, ascending or
spreading, the primary ones with lower inter-
nodes 5-10 cm or more long, 4-6 mm thick,
the branchlets 2 to several at each node of
the relatively main axis, bearing 2-12 leaves
above and 2-4 bladeless sheaths below; leaf-
sheaths 25-70 mm long, those with blades
keeled above, tightly overlapping, striate,
glabrous but often fringed at apex with a few
deciduous pale to blackish bristles 3-9 mm
long; ligule truncate, 0.5-1 mm long; blades
thin, somewhat plicate, oblong or narrowly
lanceolate, 8-24 cm long, 8-27 mm wide, finely
acuminate, attenuate at base into a petiole 2-4
mm long, glabrous or the paler lower surface
frequently puberulent, with 4-9 secondary
nerves on each side but with no cross veinlets,
the margins scaberulous or one of them nearly
smooth; floriferous branches aphyllous or with
leaves when young; spikelets on young branch-
lets solitary or several together at each node,
but on the old branches mostly numerous and
crowded into a globular mass at a node, these

VOL. 36, NO. 3

crowded spikelets usually smaller, about 15
mm long, 3—4-flowered (all florets examined
containing stamens only), subtended by many
small scales, the solitary spikelets much better
developed, 3-4 cm long, light-green or stra-
mineous, 3—5-flowered, subtended by a series of
successively longer scales; rachilla-joints com-
pressed, 2-4 mm long, glabrous, but incon-
spicuously puberulent at the cupular apex;
glume or the largest scale below the spikelet
about 6 mm long, ovate, multinerved, the
midnerve often keeled; lemmas lanceolate,
1—1.5 cm long, 4-8 mm wide, glabrous, dorsally
purplish above, multinerved, the midrib ele-
vated into a keel; palea slightly shorter than its
lemma (in the crowded spikelets, the palea only
about 5 mm long), creamy, 2-keeled, about 2
mm wide and 5-nerved between the keels, the
latter ciliate above; lodicules 3, the posterior
one lanceolate, the anterior two dimidiate-
ovate, all about 3 mm long, whitish-scarious,
nervose below, long-ciliate above; stamens 6,
the anthers linear, purplish or light-yellow,
4—6 mm long, penicillate at apex, finally ex-
serted and pendulous, the filaments about 1-2
mm long when young, but at maturity up to 8
mm long; ovary triquetrous or later becoming
globular, stipitate, about 2 mm (including the
stipe about 1 mm) long, entirely hirtellous with
whitish hairs; style 1, puberulent, about 2 mm
long; stigmas 3, plumose, less than 1 mm long;
fruit immature.

Type in the Herbarium of the Department
of Biology, National Central University,
Chungking, China, collected on open roadside
slope opposite the city of P’éng-shan-hsien,
across the river of Min-chiang, Szechwan Prov-
ince, August 17, 1942, by Keng & son (no.
3742). Three sheets of this number have been
selected as type of this species, one representing
the inflorescence, one the culm-sheaths, and
the other the leafy branches. Other collections
of the species are as follows:

Szechwan: Along river banks of Sun-ch’i-ho
Chia-t’an-ch’ang, Chiang-ching-hsien, M. C.
Ts’eng without number (flowering specimen
collected November 29, 1939); on slope at
right side of Ling-ying-ssi, Kuan-tu, Ho-
ch’uan-hsien, April 4, 1943, Keng f. 5015
(flowering specimen); en route from Erh-
t’ang to Ch’ing-liang-sst, Pa-hsien, October 25,
1941, Keng 3681 (sterile specimen); open
ground of the University campus, Sha-p’ing-pa,

Mar. 15, 1946 KENG AND KENG: NEW BAMBOOS FROM SZECHWAN, CHINA 83

Chungking, November 16, 1941, Keng f.
3692 (sterile specimen); Chang-chia-wan,
T’ang-hsia-k’ou, ‘T’ung-liang-hsien, altitude

700 meters, February 27, 1940, K. S. Soo 3
(sterile specimen).

This species is probably related to Bambusa
nana Roxb.,® from which it is easily distin-

© Roxpureu, Fl. Ind. ed. Carey 2: 190. 1824.

guished by the much taller and thicker habit,
the glabrous but pruinose internodes, and by
the culm-sheaths appendaged with 2 very
prominent fimbriate auricles. The native name
of this bamboo is ‘‘Y’ing-t’ou-huang”’ from its
culms, which are rigid and with a small calibre.
The culms are usually used as poles of sedan-
chairs, but are not suitable for textile purposes.

Hi) |

1

\ Wh |
Wi

'
i}

any
ee

=
\\ i

hin

Fig. 2.—Bambusa rigida: 1, Habit of branching system; 2, leafy branchlet; 3, part of culm showing
the diaphragm and bud of a node; 4, culm-sheath showing dorsal and ventral surfaces; 5, apex of leaf-
sheath; 6, part of lower surface of leaf-blade; 7, upper part of culm with flowering branches; 8, spikelet;
9, floret; 10, palea with rachilla-joint attached; 11, lodicules; 12, pistil; 13, ventral view (the side facing
the palea) of ovary; 14, stamen. (Type.)

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Bambusa fecunda McClure,’ described from
Hainan, bears the same vernacular name, but
its scant description reveals that the culms are
at first sericeous below the nodes and the limbs
longer than the glabrous waxy culm-sheaths.
The species here described has glabrous but
farinose culms and prominently auriculate
culm-sheaths mostly longer than the limbs. |

Arundinaria pedalis Keng, sp. nov.
Fig. 3

Species Arundinariae fargesiti E. G. Camus
affinis, ex qua paniculis simplicibus vel racemis
spicularum 4-8, et flosculis minoribus cum
palea ejus lemma aequante instructis praecipue
differt; laminae foliorum huius speciei etiam
multo minores cum nervis secundariis pauciori-
bus.

Suffrutex; internodia rhizomatis 5-20 mm
longa, 2 mm crassa; culmi (inflorescentiam in-
cludentes) circ. 30 cm alti, internodiis inferior-
ibus nudis, 1-5 cm longis, 1-1.5 mm crassis;
vaginae foliorum 2—4.5 cm longae, equitantes,
efimbriatae; ligula firma, cire. 1 mm longa;
laminae herbaceo-chartaceae, 6.5-15 cm.
longae, 9-17 mm latae, acuminatae, petiolis 2—4
mm longis fultae, nervis secundariis 5-7 utrin-
que percursae; inflorescentia spicularum 4-8
composita, inferne inclusa vel breviter exserta,
10-11 cm longa, rhacheos internodiis pubes-
centibus 1-8 em longis; pedicelli compressi,
erecti vel leviter adscendentes, circ. 2 mm vel
inferiores usque ad 2 cm longi, dense praeser-
tim versus apicem adpressi-pubescentes; spi-
culae 4—11-florae, 2-6 cm longae, 3-5 mm latae,
fuscae vel fusco-brunneae, rhachillae articulis
compressis, inter flores 4-5 mm longis, versus
apicem dense adpressi-pubescentibus vel velu-
tinis; glumae 3-4, membranaceae, superne
pubescentes, prima 4-5 mm, tertia vel quarta
7-8 mm, longa; lemmata 7-10 mm longa, sub-
ulato-pungentia, callo pilis canis circ. 0.8 mm
longis dense adpressi-pubescente; palea ejus
lemma aequans, carinis infra’ apicem minute
hispidulum leviter scaberulis, ceteroqui levibus;
lodiculae 3 mm longae, superne fimbriatae;
antherae 5-6 mm longae, nigrescentes vel pur-
pureae; stigmata 2, pallida vel cremea, prope
medium flosculi lateraliter exserta; caryopsis
immatura.

7 Lignan Sci. Bull. No. 9: 9. 1940.

VOL. 36, NO. 3

Dwarf bamboos from monopodial horizontal
rhizome with internodes 5-20 mm long, 2 mm
thick; culms or leafy shoots about 15 em tall,
ending in 1-2 leaves with blades, frequently
with solitary erect or ascending branches below,
the lower internodes naked, 1—5 cm long, 1—1.5
mm thick; sheaths 8-5 towards the apex of the
culms or branches, 2—4.5 cm long, equitant,
efimbriate, glabrous or pubescent above, the
outer margins usually ciliate; ligule firm, about
1 mm long, frequently fimbriate at its apex
with setae 1-2 mm long; blades herbaceo-
chartaceous, 6.5-15 cm long, 9-17 mm wide,
acuminate, rounded or attenuate at the base
into a petiole 2-4 mm long, glabrous or the
paler lower surface puberulent when young,
with 4-6 secondary nerves on either side, dis-
tinctly cross-veined, the margins setulose-
scabrous above, nearly smooth below; flowering
branches usually solitary at the lower nodes of
the culm, 20-25 cm (including the inflores-
cence), long, 2-noded, the internodes up to 9
cm long, pubescent around the nodes, aphyllous
but enclosed by sheaths 2.5-5 em long; in-
florescence a panicle or raceme of 4—8 spikelets,
included below or shortly exserted, 10-11 cm
long with pubescent rachis joints 1-3 cm long;
pedicels (or branches) compressed, erect or
somewhat ascending, about 2 mm or the lower
ones up to 2 cm long, densely appressed-pubes-
cent especially towards the apex; spikelets 4—
11-flowered, 2-6 cm long, 3-5 mm wide, dusky
or dark-brown; rachilla joints compressed, 4-5
mm long between the florets, densely
appressed-pubescent or velvety towards the
apex; glumes 3-4, membranous, successively
longer, pubescent above, the first 4-5 mm, the
third or fourth 7-8 mm long; lemma herbaceo-
chartaceous, ovate-lanceolate, 7-10 mm long,
more or less pubescent towards the subulate-
pungent (rarely acute) apex, multinerved,
reticulate between the nerves above, the callus
densely appressed-pubescent with grayish hairs
about 0.8 mm long; palea equaling its lemma,
narrowly lanceolate with broad inflexed sides,
the keels slightly scaberulous below the mi-
nutely hispidulous apex, otherwise smooth; lod-
icules 3, reddish-brown, oblong-lanceolate or
the anterior two dimidiate-ovate, about 3 mm
long, nervose, fimbriate above with longer stiff
hairs at the apex; stamens 3, the anthers black-
ish or purplish, 5-6 mm long; stigmas 2, pale
or creamy, about 3 mm long, laterally exserted

Mar. 15, 1946 KENG AND KENG: NEW BAMBOOS FROM SZECHWAN, CHINA 85

LA
y yy

Fie. 3.—Arundinaria pedalis: 1, Habit; 2, spikelet; 3, floret, showing the lemma, palea, and
rachilla-joint. (Type.)

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

near the middle of the floret; caryopsis imma-
ture.

Type in the Herbarium of the Department
of Biology, National Central University,
Chungking, China, a rare bamboo collected on
rocky place, P’ang-ch’i, Chiang-pei-hsien,
Szechwan Province, February, 1938, by Ho
Ching (without number).

This small bamboo is probably related to
Arundinaria fargesir EK. G. Camus,’ from which
it differs mainly in having a simple panicle or
raceme of 4-8 spikelets and smaller florets with
palea equaling its lemma. The leaf-blades of
this species are also much smaller and with
fewer secondary nerves on each side than in the
latter species.

REFERENCE LIST OF GEOGRAPHIC
AND PERSONAL NAMES

Because of the near impossibility of lo-
cating on a map of China most geographic
names given in romanization only, this
reference list with characters is given. The
characters are assembled here rather than
given in the text in order to simplify the
printing problem. American botany is now
handicapped by the lack of precision of our
early botanists in recording type localities.
Although very few people, Chinese or
westerners, at this time are interested in the
precise type localities of Chinese species, it
seems desirable to anticipate future needs
and record these localities with all possible
accuracy.—E. H. WALKER.

8 In Lecomte, Not. Syst. 2 (fase. 8): 244. 1912.

VOL. 36, No. 3

Ch’a-han-ch’eng BETE PR
Chang-chia-wan "eet
Chia-t’an-ch’ang ARRES
Chiang-ching-hsien {T @t ¥%
Chiang-pei-hsien 7/L4L 4%
Ch’ing-liang-ssu 7 ysis
Ch’ing-lung: tsui FF FEUS
Chou Hao-ch’ang A #E
Erh-t’ang — JF
Fu-lu-kuan ig ie BA

Ho Ching {PJ
Ho-ch’uan-hsien £>)I| ¥%
Huang-yiian-hsien (2 yA
Keng Kuan-hou Jk JB
Keng Pai-chieh Bk{A 4
Keng Yi-li kU it
Kuan-tu ‘ef Je
Liang-shan-hsien #& [lj #%
Liang-shan-tz’u 4 [lj 2é
Ling-ying-ssu Se We
Min-chiang RYT.
Mu-tung Ai
Nan-ch’uvan-hsien fy )I| %
Pa-hsien FY %
Pai-sha-ching AYP
P’ang-ch’i BEY
P’eng-shan-hsien #2 {lj #%
Sha-p’ing-pa WYER;
Shuang-tz’ti-ch’ang EH $B
Su Chia-hsun # FA Be
Sun-ch’i-ho Aye
Tan-ka-érh FS} 43 fi
T’ang-hsia-k’ou ZI O
Ts’eng Mien-chih (Tsen Mill) 44.2
Tung-liang-hsien $a) Qe
Ying-t’ou-huang WEY BT

ENTOMOLOGY .—Synopsis of the cerambycid beetles of the genus Stenosphenus

Haldeman found in America, north of Mexico.'
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

BECK.)

In the process of studying and rearrang-
ing the species of Stenosphenus in the
United States National Museum, it was
found that the genus had not been treated
in a synoptical way since 1885, when Horn
published a table for separating the six
known species. This table was republished
by Leng in 1887. Since that time one

1 Received January 11, 1946.

W.S. FisHer, U. 8. Bureau
(Communicated by C. F. W. Muzsn-

species has been described by Schaeffer,
five species by Casey, and four species by
Linsley, and it seems advisable to bring
our knowledge of the genus up to date.

Genus Stenosphenus Haldeman

Stenosphenus Dejean, Cat. Coléopt., ed. 3, p. 330
(nomen nudum). 18385; ed. 3, rev., p. 355
(nomen nudum). 1836; Haldeman, Trans.
Amer. Phil. Soc. (ser. 2) 10: 39. 1847; Chevro-

Mar. 15, 1946

lat, zn d’Orbigny, Dict. Hist. Nat. 12: 13-14.
1848; Melsheimer, Cat. Coleopt. U. S., p. 104.
1853;- Thomson, Classification Cérambycides,
p. 372. 1860; Systema Cerambycidarum, p. 433.
1864; Lacordaire, Genera des Coléopt. 9: 122,
130. 1869; Gemminger and Harold, Cat.
Coleopt. 9: 2957. 1872; Crotch, Check List
Coleopt. North Amer., p. 87. 1873; LeConte,
Smithsonian Mise. Coll. No. 265: 316-317.
1873; LeConte and Horn, Smithsonian Misc.
Coll. No. 507: 301-302. 1883; Henshaw, List
Coleopt. North Amer., p. 98. 1885; Horn,
Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 12: 177-180. 1885;
Leng, Ent. Amer. 2: 193-194. 1887; Henshaw,
List Coleopt. North Amer., suppl. 3, pp. 24, 51.
1895; Blatchley, Coleoptera of Indiana, pp.
1031-1032. 1910; Aurivillius, in Schenkling,
Coleopt. Cat., pt. 39, pp. 443-444. 1912; Leng,
Cat. Coleopt. North Amer., pp. 278, 359. 1920;
Leng and Mutchler, Cat. Coleopt. North
Amer., suppl. 1, p. 42. 1927; Linsley, Ann. Ent.
Soc. Amer. 29: 477-478. 1936; Blackwelder,
Cat. Coleopt. North Amer., suppl. 4, pp. 57,
59. 1939.

The bibliography given above for the genus
is not complete, since only the more important
articles are cited, especially those dealing with
the United States species. In the papers by
Melsheimer (1853), Lacordaire (1869), Gem-
minger and Harold (1872), Crotch (1873),
Henshaw (1885, 1895), Aurivillius (1912), Leng
(1920), Leng and Mutchler (1927), and Black-
welder (1939), a number of species of Steno-
sphenus are listed, but since these publications
are only catalogues the citations are omitted
from the bibliographies of the species.

The name Stenosphenus was first used by
Dejean (1835) in his Catalogue des Coléoptéres,
where he included three species of which no
descriptions had been published. Haldeman
(1847) published a description of the genus,
citing Stenosphenus Dej. Cat., including only
Callidium notatum Olivier, under which he
placed discicollis Dej. (nomen nudum) as a
synonym. Thomson (1860, 1864), not knowing
of the paper by Haldeman, likewise described
Stenosphenus Dej. Cat. He also described
Stenosphenus cribripennis Dej. Cat. (nomen
nudum) and designated it as the type of Steno-
sphenus Thomson.

There has been considerable confusion in
regard to the position of this genus in the family
Cerambycidae. Lacordaire (1869) placed Steno-
phenus in the tribe Heteropsini, and was fol-
lowed by Aurivillius (1912). LeConte (1873)
proposed the tribe Stenosphenini for the genus
Stenosphenus, placing it between the tribes

FISHER: SYNOPSIS OF STENOSPHENUS 87

Clytini and Phoracanthini, and stating that its
affinities are equally with Cyllene and Elaphid-
zon. Casey (Mem. Coleopt. 3: 346. 1912)
stated that ‘‘the spinose antennae suggests
some of the next tribe (Clytini), and other
features recall Elaphidion, but, on the whole,
it is very isolated and without close allies.”
Linsley (1936) transferred the genus Steno-
sphenus from the tribe Heterospini to the tribe
Sphaerionini, near the genus Jroneus Bates.

DESCRIPTION OF THE GENUS

Head small, flat between antennae, slightly
declivous, front elongate; cheeks short; eyes
finely granulated, deeply emarginate; antennal
tubercles not or only slightly elevated. An-
tenna inserted on front more or less distant
from mandibles, usually shorter than body in
females, longer than body in males, slender,
punctured, pubescent, and sparsely clothed
with flying hairs; intermediate segments of
males longitudinally carinate in some species:
segment 1 robust, gradually expanded toward
apex; segment 2 small; segment 3 longer than
4, which is subequal in length to each of the
following segments, except 11, which is longer
than segment 10 in the males; segments 3 to 7
or 8 spinose at apices on inner side. Palpi
short, subequal in length, last segments nearly
cylindrical at apices, not impressed. Pronotum
rounded at sides, usually more strongly nar-
rowed anteriorly, without spines or callosities.
Scutellum broadly rounded at apex. Elytra
elongate, slightly convex above; sides sub-
parallel, rarely strongly narrowed posteriorly;
tips truncate, or emarginate with the angles
spinose; epipleura entire at base. Anterior
coxae globose, not angulated externally. Middle
coxal cavities closed externally. Prosternal
process suddenly declivous and perpendicular
at apex. Mesosternum broad, suddenly de-.
clivous anteriorly, truncate or emarginate pos-
teriorly. Legs rather short; femora slightly
expanded toward apices, not spinose at apices,
posterior pair shorter than elytra; tibia longi-
tudinally carinate; first segment of posterior
tarsus as long as following two segments
united. :

Genoty pe.—Callidium notatum Olivier.

Stenosphenus is a moderately large genus,
distributed throughout eastern Canada, eastern
and southwestern United States, Mexico, Cen-
tral America, and Cuba.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The differences in the sculpture of the
prosternum in the two sexes are quite distinct,
except in notatus and pinorum, both of which
have the pronotum distinctly wider than long,
widest at the middle, and the sides broadly
rounded. In these two species the prosternum
is vaguely punctured and feebly rugose in both
sexes. In most of the species the depressed
space extends from one side of the prosternum
to the other and is coarsely punctured in the
males. This space does not extend to the an-
terior margin and is usually divided into two
parts by a smooth space extending from the
anterior margin to the apex of the prosternal
process. In the females the prosternum may be
vaguely punctured, feebly rugose, or almost
smooth. I cannot agree with Schaeffer (Journ.
New York Ent. Soc. 19: 125. 1911) that the
sculpture on the prosternum in front of the
coxae is very variable and cannot be relied
upon for*separating the species, for in examin-
ing large series of various species I found this
character rather constant. Stenosphenus beyeri
Schaeffer is the only species in which this char-
acter can be considered as variable; usually the
depression is not separated by a smooth space,
but at the most this space is very narrow.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF STENOSPHENUS

1. Pronotum distinctly wider than long, equal in
wadthvat base andpapex maul. o tooo ue 2
Pronotum as long as, or longer than, wide, at
most only slightly wider than long, nar-

rower at apex “thanivat base!) i 5)
2a Kemona red yy... epg elie... keuaree 3
Remmonayiolacks ol a hase) Nir en Rie 4

3. Pronotum coarsely punctate, with a smooth
median vitta; elytra black.. .aridus Linsley
Pronotum not distinctly punctate; elytra
chestnut: brown). 2/20. 44 castaneus Casey

4. Pronotum unicolored, red or yellow........
SPAREN A sek Zo gc JO Ae gi ae aici de pinorum Casey
Pronotum bicolored, red, with a blackish,
MLC MIA AAS WOUs sateen: notatus (Olivier)

5. Body uniformly brownish or reddish yellow. 6
Body not uniformly brownish or reddish yel-
low, but black to reddish brown, usually
with the pronotum more reddish........ 7

6. Pronotum distinctly longer than wide; an-
tenna with intermediate segments black,

and one and one-fourth times as long as
body, in, the male. 2 &. Nigricornis, N. Sp.
Pronotum not longer than wide; antenna uni-
formly brownish yellow and only slightly

longerithanm DOGYs ef eo e debilis Horn

7) Hemoraientirely black UOen oii. sea) 8
Femora in greater part red or reddish yellow
Ome a SAREE ESS ys a Co Dee IRR oe LTA 10

VOL. 36, No. 3

8. Punctures and pubescence on elytra arranged
in longitudinal spaces, which are separated
by longitudinal smooth intervals........
Ge YE EO YORE OD .....lugens LeConte

Punctures and pubescence on elytra uni-

formly ‘distributed: Vite 9 (ee eee 9

9. Pronotum distinctly punctured; tips of elytra
truncate =... 2 cn vee beyert Schaeffer
Pronotum not distinctly punctured; tips of

ely tra bispinosé <3". *2te am dolosus Horn

10. Elytra black’) ) eo os Sie a ee eee at
Elytra‘reddish brown’s:] | 22 62 eee 14
11.All femora ‘reddish?". 0.) 22, 0a eae 12

Only posterior femora reddish. Antenna not
longer than body in male, shorter than
body in female; male with punctured de-
pression on prosternum not separated by a
smooth median area....... rosst Linsley

12. Pronotum distinctly punctured; tips of elytra
strongly bispimose #2277470. ae) ey eee ry
LEE Cee a novatus Horn (lucanus Casey)

Pronotum not distinctly punctured; tips of

elytra not strongly bispinose........... 13
13. Antenna shorter than body in both sexes....
Le th A a ela Oe basicornis Linsley

Antenna at least as long as body in female,

longer than body in male... .leprdus Horn
14. Pronotum distinctly punctured; tibiae pale
reddish brown............ pruddent Casey

Pronotum not distinctly punctured; tibiae
plac keine tase oY 8. Late OE te aoe 15

15. Male with punctured depression on proster-
num separated by a smooth median area;
tips of elytra emarginate, bispinose. Female
UnknowmM— se Wace eee arizonicus Linsley

Male with punctured depression on proster-
num not separated by asmooth median area;
tips of elytra not emarginate or distinctly
bispinose. Female unknown............
CHS eet US BRS longicollis Casey

Stenosphenus aridus Linsley

Stenosphenus aridus Linsley, Ent. News 46: 166.
1935.

Black, strongly shining; prothorax and fe-
mora rufous, the former at sides and apex and
latter at apices slightly piceous. Pronotum
transverse, rounded at sides, coarsely, irregu-
larly punctate at sides, smooth at middle.
Elytra rather coarsely, uniformly punctate,
rather densely, uniformly clothed with long,
semierect, pale hairs, apices emarginate, outer
angles dentiform. Prosternum in male coarsely
punctate and depressed on each side of median,
smooth carina. Female unknown. Length 10
mm, width 2.5 mm. This species has not been
seen by the writer and has been placed in the
key entirely upon the characters given in the
original description.

Mar. 15, 1946

Type locality —Zion National Park, Utah.

Type—In the California Academy of Sci-
ences.

This species was described from two males
reared from small branches of Populus fre-
monti collected at the type locality, May 16-
21, 1934, by Donald DeLeon.

Stenosphenus castaneus Casey

Stenosphenus castaneus Casey, Mem. Coleopt. 11:
269. 1924.

Uniformly reddish brown; the thorax slightly
more reddish, strongly shining. Pronotum
widest at middle; sides broadly rounded; sur-
face nearly impunctate, with a few punctures
toward sides, and a few rather long, inconspicu-
ous hairs. Elytra finely, sparsely, uniformly
punctate, sparsely clothed with moderately
long, sem ‘erect, fine, inconspicuous hairs, apices
obliquely truncate, the lateral angle spinose,
sutural angle slightly produced. Prosternum in
female feebly, transversely rugose, and indis-
tinctly punctate, not depressed. Length 10.5
mm, width 3mm.

Type locality —Texas, locality unrecorded.

Type—In the Casey Collection, United
States National Museum.

This species was described from a single
female. In the Museum Collection there is a
male specimen, which is labeled Capitan Moun-
tains, New Mexico, and which agrees with the
type except that the antennae and legs are
slightly darker, and the prosternum is de-
pressed and coarsely, rather densely punctured
and separated at the middle by a smooth,
longitudinal elevation.

Stenosphenus pinorum Casey

Stenosphenus pinorum Casey, Mem. Coleopt. 11:

268-269. 1924.

‘Black to reddish black, strongly shining;
prothorax and underside of head uniformly
reddish yellow. Pronotum widest at middle;
sides broadly rounded; surface indistinctly
punctate, sparsely clothed, especially at sides,
with short, recumbent, yellowish-white hairs.
Elytra sparsely, uniformly, finely punctate,
sparsely, uniformly clothed with short, semi-
erect, whitish hairs; apices separately emar-
ginate, both angles acute, the lateral tooth
slightly longer than sutural one. Prosternum
indistinctly punctate in both sexes. Length
9.5-16 mm, width 4-2.5 mm.

FISHER: SYNOPSIS OF STENOSPHENUS 89

Type locality Southern Pines, N. C.

Type—In the Casey Collection,
States National Museum.

This species was described from a single
male collected by Abram H. Manee. Specimens
have been examined from Florida, District of
Columbia, New Jersey, North Carolina, and
Virginia. This species has been reared from
hickory (Hicoria spp.).

United

Stenosphenus notatus (Olivier)

Callidium notatum Olivier, Entom., Gen. 70, 4:
61, pl. 7, fig. 89. 1795.

Stenosphenus notatus Haldeman, Trans. Amer.
Phil. Soc. (ser. 2) 10: 39. 1847; Horn, Trans.
Amer. Ent. Soc. 12: 178, 180. 1885; Leng, Ent.
Amer. 2: 193. 1887; Hamilton, Can. Ent. 20:
66. 1888; Insect Life 4: 130. 1891; Wickham,
Can. Ent. 29: 149. 1897; Blatchley, Coleoptera
of Indiana, p. 1032. 1910; Craighead, Canada
Dept. Agr. (new ser.) Bull. 27 (Ent. Bull. 23):
72-73, pl. 15, fig. 8, pl. 21, fig. 6. 1928.

Elaphidion notatum LeConte, Journ. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia (ser. 2) 2: 12. 1850.

Elaphidion deflendum Newman, Entomologist,
London, 1: 6. 1840; Haldeman, Proc. Amer.
Phil. Soc. 4: 376. 1847.

Stenocorus discoideus Sturm, Cat. Ins. Samml.,
p. 199. 1826.

Stenosphenus discicollis Dejean, Cat. Coleopt., ed.
3, p. 330. 1835; ed. 3, rev., p. 355. 18386.

Black, strongly shining; pronotum and
underside of head reddish yellow, the former
with large discal black spot. Pronotum widest
at middle; sides feebly, broadly rounded; sur-
face indistinctly punctate, sparsely clothed,
especially at sides, with short, recumbent,
yellowish-white hairs. Elytra finely, sparsely,
uniformly punctate, sparsely, uniformly clothed
with short, semierect, whitish hairs; apices
separately emarginate, both angles acute, the
lateral tooth slightly longer than sutural one.
Prosternum indistinctly punctate in both sexes.
Length 9-16 mm, width 2.5-4 mm.

Type locality—Of notatum, New York. Of
deflendum, Georgia. Of dvscicollis and dis-
coideus, Amerique borealis.

Types —S. notatus, probably in Paris Mu-
seum; deflendum and discicollis, in the British
Museum; discoideus, in the Munich Museum
before the war.

This species 1s widely distributed throughout
the eastern part of Canada and the United
States, as far west as the Rocky Mountains.
It is very common, breeding in the dead limbs
of hickory and pecan, and rarely in Celtis sp.

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The larvae bore into the dead limbs of its host
plants, pupating the latter part of the second
year, and becoming adults before winter, but
remaining in the wood until the following
spring.
Stenosphenus nigricornis, n. sp.

Male.—FElongate, slender, slightly flattened,
moderately shining, uniformly brownish yel-
low, except intermediate segments of antenna,

which are black, and head and pronotum,
which are slightly more reddish.

Head coarsely, irregularly, rather densely

punctate, with a narrow, median groove ex-
tending from occiput to clypeus; antennal
tubercles shining, scarcely punctate. Antenna
one and one-fourth times as long as body; seg-
ments 3 to 7 spinose at apices, the spines
gradually decreasing in length toward apex of
antenna, sparsely clothed with short, recum-
bent, white hairs with a few longer, semierect
hairs intermixed; segment 1 cylindrical, shghtly
expanded toward apex; segment 3 one and one-
half times as long as segment 1, the following
segments gradually diminishing in length ex-
cept the eleventh, which is longer than tenth.

Pronotum distinctly longer than wide,
slightly narrower at apex than at base; sides
slightly rounded; surface sparsely, coarsely,
irregularly punctate, sparsely clothed at sides
with short, recumbent, and long, erect, whitish
hairs.

Elytra at base slightly wider than pronotum
at middle; sides feebly converging from bases
to near tips, which are separately transversely,
sinuately truncate, with sutural and lateral
angles slightly produced; surface densely,
coarsely, uniformly punctate, the punctures
separated by about their own diameter, rather
densely, uniformly clothed with long, semi-
erect, white hairs.

Abdomen beneath smooth; nearly impunc-
tate, rather densely clothed at sides with
moderately long, recumbent, white hairs; last
sternite truncate at apex. Prosternum smooth
in front, the very coarsely punctured area not
divided at middle by a smooth median area.

Length 9 mm, width 2 mm.

Type locality —Yuma, Calif.

Type.—In the United States National Mu-
seum, no. 57688.

Described from a single male collected during
August by H. F. Wickham.

VOL. 36, NO. 3.

This species is closely allied to Stenosphenus
debilis Horn, but it differs from that species
in having the intermediate segments of the
antenna black and the pronotum distinctly
longer than wide.

Stenosphenus debilis Horn

Stenosphenus debilis Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc.
12: 178, 179-180. 1885.

Uniformly brownish or reddish yellow, sub-
opaque. Pronotum widest at middle, broadly
rounded at sides, coarsely, sparsely, irregu-
larly punctate, sparsely clothed with short,
semierect, whitish hairs. Elytra rather densely,
finely, uniformly punctate, sparsely, uniformly
clothed with short, semierect, yellowish-white
hairs; apices separately obliquely, sinuately
truncate, the outer angle short and acute.
Prosternum in male rather densely, coarsely
punctate, not separated at middle by a smooth
space, in female very finely, transversely rugose
and punctate. Length 7.5-12 mm, width
2-3 mm.

Type locality —Utah, locality unrecorded.

Type-——In Horn Collection, Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

This species was described from two males.
Specimens of both sexes have been examined
which were collected in Utah by E. Palmer and
by Hubbard and Schwarz. The females are
slightly more robust than the males, and the
antennae are slightly shorter than the body.
Horn states that the pronotum is longer than
wide, although in all the specimens examined
the pronotum is as wide as long. The type has
not been examined.

Stenosphenus lugens LeConte

Stenosphenus lugens LeConte, Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia, 1862, p. 41; Horn, Trans.
Amer. Ent. Soc. 12: 178, 180. 1885; 13: Proc. p.
xii. 1886; Leng, Ent. Amer. 2: 193. 1887;
Schaeffer, Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 19: 125.
1911.

Stenosphenus hirsutipennis Bates, Trans. Ent. Soc.
London, 1872, p. 191 (note); Biol. Centr.-
Amer., Coleopt., 5: 67. 1880; p. 313, 1885.

Black, shining; head and thorax red. Pro-
notum widest at middle, broadly rounded at
sides, nearly impunctate and glabrous. Elytra,
rather coarsely, uniformly punctate, sparsely,
uniformly clothed with short, semierect, yel-
lowish-white hairs; the punctures and hairs
arranged in longitudinal spaces separated by

4

Mar. 15, 1946

smooth intervals; apices separately emarginate;
angles acute, the lateral tooth slightly longer
than sutural one. Prosternum in male very
coarsely, sparsely punctate at sides, separated
at middle by a smooth, longitudinal elevation,
in the female smooth and indistinctly punctate.
Length 10-14 mm, width 2.5-3.5 mm.

Type locality Of lugens, Texas, no definite
locality. Of hirsutipennis, Mexico, no definite
locality.

Type-—S. lugens, in LeConte Collection,
Museum of Comparative Zoology; hirsuti-
pennis, in the British Museum.

A series of adults has been examined from
Brownsville, Tex., and a number of other speci-
mens labeled hirsuttipennis from Jalapa and
Alomolonga, Mexico. All these specimens were
identical, and uniform in coloration. The
adults have been reared from Huisache (Acacta
farnestana) collected at Brownsville, Tex.

Bates (1885) stated that hirsutipennis dif-
fered from lugens in having a red thorax, but
this statement is incorrect, since both species
have the thorax red, and Horn (1886) placed
hirsutipennis Bates (1872) as a synonym of
lugens LeConte (1862).

Stenosphenus beyeri Schaeffer

Stenosphenus beyert Schaeffer, Brooklyn Inst.
Mus., Sci. Bull. 1 (7): 163-164. 1905; Journ.
New York Ent. Soc. 19: 125. 1911.

_ Black, strongly shining; prothorax entirely

black or in part red. Pronotum widest at

middle; sides broadly rounded; surface coarse-
ly, densely, irregularly punctate, sparsely
clothed with short, semierect, inconspicuous
hairs. Elytra densely, finely, uniformly punc-
tate, rather densely clothed with short, semi-
erect, yellowish-white hairs; apices transversely
truncate, the angles not produced. Prosternum
in male opaque, coarsely, densely punctate and
at most only separated at middle by a very
narrow, longitudinal smooth space, in the fe-
male moderately shining, transversely rugose,

and sparsely punctate. Length 10.5-13.5 mm,

width 2.75-3.5 mm.

Type locality—Palmerlee, Cochise County,

Ariz.

Lectotype —In the United States National

Museum.

Schaeffer described this species from a series
of specimens and labeled them all types with-
out selecting a holotype. A female collected

FISHER: SYNOPSIS OF STENOSPHENUS 91

at the type locality during August is here se-
lected as the lectotype.

Adults have been examined from the follow-
ing localities in Arizona: Miller’s Canyon,
Huachuca Mountains, Santa Catalina Moun-
tains, Redington, and Prescott National Forest.
There is one specimen in the collection labeled
simply ““N. M.” The pronotum varies in color
from uniformly black or red: to red with the
anterior and posterior margins black. This
species has been reared from New Mexico
locust (Robinia neomexicana) and little walnut
(Juglans rupestris).

Stenosphenus dolosus Horn

Stenosphenus dolosus Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent.
Soc. 12: 178, 179. 1885; Leng, Ent. Amer. 2:
1938, 194. 1887; Schaeffer, Journ. New York
Ent. Soc. 19: 125. 1911.

Reddish brown, strongly shining; prothorax
red; legs black. Pronotum widest at middle;
sides broadly rounded; surface indistinctly
punctate and nearly glabrous. Elytra finely,
densely, uniformly punctate, rather densely,
uniformly clothed with short, semierect, whit-
ish hairs; apices separately obliquely truncate;
the lateral angle short and acute; sutural angle
slightly produced. Prosternum with the densely,
finely punctured depression separated at
middle by a narrow, smooth, longitudinal ele-
vation in the male; feebly, transversely rugose,
and indistinctly punctate in the female. Length
7-14 mm, width 2-3.5 mm.’

Type locality —Southwestern Texas.

Type—In the Horn Collection, Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

Described from both sexes. A large series of
adults have been examined from various locali-
ties in Texas. The species has been reared from
mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) and Acacia sp.
The coloration is uniform in the large series of
adults examined.

Stenosphenus rossi Linsley

Stenosphenus rossi Linsley, Proc. California Acad.
Sci. (ser. 4) 24: 45-46, pl. 4, fig. 8. 1942.
Black, shining; posterior femora reddish.

Pronotum narrowed anteriorly, rounded at

sides, surface nearly impunctate, glabrous ex-

cept for a few erect hairs at sides. Elytra coarse-
ly but not closely punctate, clothed with
moderately long, semierect hairs; apices sepa-
rately emarginate; the angles acute or sub-

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

spiniform. Prosternum with depression coarsely
punctate, but not separated at middle by a
smooth, longitudinal elevation in male, de-
pression vague, finely rugose, and punctate in
female. Length 7.5-8.5 mm, width not given.

This species is not represented in the
National Museum Collection and has been
given its position in the key from the charac-
ters given in the original description.

Type locality—San Domingo, Lower Cali-
fornia.

Type—In the California Academy of Sci-
ences.

This species was described from 16 speci-
mens collected on a flowering leguminose shrub
at the type locality, July 19, 1938, by A. E.
Michaelbacher and EK. 8. Ross.

Stenosphenus novatus Horn

Stenosphenus novatus Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent.
Soc. 12: 178-179. 1885; Leng, Ent. Amer. 2:
193. 1887; Horn, Proc. California Acad. Sci.
(ser. 2) 4: 338. 1894; Schaeffer, Journ. New
York Ent. Soc. 19: 125. 1911; Grossbeck, Bull.
Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 31: 325. 1912; Linsley,
Pan-Pacific Ent. 10: 60. 1984; Proc. California
Aead. Sci. (ser. 4) 24: 44-45. 1942.

Stenosphenus lucanus Casey, Mem. Coleopt. 3:
346. 1912.

Black, moderately shining; thorax and fem-
ora red, the former sometimes with anterior
and posterior margins blackish. Pronotum
widest at middle; sides rounded, more strongly
narrowed anteriorly; surface coarsely, sparsely,
irregularly punctate, nearly glabrous. Elytra
rather densely, coarsely, uniformly punctate,
sparsely, uniformly clothed with very short,
semierect, white hairs; apices separately deeply
emarginate, angles spiniform, the lateral spine
longer than sutural one. Prosternum in male
with two densely, finely punctured depressions
separated at middle by a smooth, longitudinal
elevation, in the female very finely rugose and
punctate, but not depressed. Length 9.5-12.5
mm, width 2.5-3.5 mm.

Type locality —Of novatus, Cape San Lucas,
Lower California. Of lucanus, Lower Cali-
fornia, no definite locality.

Type.—S. novatus, in the Horn Collection,
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia;
lucanus, in the Casey Collection, United States
National Museum.

Casey described lucanus from a single male,
which is identical with specimens of novatus

- VOL. 36, No. 3

from the Cape Region of Lower California. A
good series of adults, which show no varia-
tions in color, has been examined from the
following localities in Lower California: Santa
Rosa, San José del Cabo, and Purissima.
Linsley (1942) records it from Miraflores and
San Pedro, Lower California.

Stenosphenus basicornis Linsley

Stenosphenus basicornis Linsley, Pan-Pacific Ent.
10: 60. 1934; Proc. California Acad. Sci. (ser. 4)
24: 45, 1942.

Rufous, shining; elytra and abdomen black;
femora rufous, tibiae piceous at bases, black at
apices; antennal segments 1 and 2 rufous,
following segments piceous. Pronotum nar-
rowed anteriorly, rounded at sides; surface
smooth with a few scattered punctures, and
erect, pale hairs. Elytra coarsely, uniformly,
sparsely punctate, clothed with semierect, pale
hairs, apices sinuately truncate, the angles
dentiform. Prosternum coarsely, cribrately
punctate at sides, and separated at middle by a
shining, longitudinal line in the male, finely and
densely punctate in female. Length 7.8 mm,
width 2.5 mm.

This species is unknown to the writer, and
has been placed in the key entirely upon the
characters given in the original description.

Type locality——Tiburén Island, Gulf of
California.

Type.—In the California Academy of Sci-
ences.

This species was described from three speci-
mens collected on a species of mesquite (Pro-
sopis sp.) at the type locality July 5, 1921, by
K. P. Van Duzee.

Stenosphenus lepidus Horn

Stenosphenus lepidus Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent.
Soc. 12: 178, 179. 1885; Leng, Ent. Amer. 2:
193, 194. 1887; Casey, Ann. New York Acad.
Sci. 6: 34-35. 1891; Schaeffer, Journ. New York
Ent. Soc. 19: 124-125. 1911.

Black, shining; femora red, sometimes black-
ish at apices; thorax entirely red or black,
sometimes red with anterior and posterior
margins black. Pronotum widest at middle,
broadly rounded at sides; surface sparsely,
indistinctly punctate and nearly glabrous.
Elytra rather coarsely, sparsely, uniformly
punctate, sparsely, uniformly clothed with
short, semierect, white hairs; apices trans-

Mar. 15, 1946

versely truncate, the angles only slightly pro-
duced. Prosternum in male with depression
finely, densely punctate, separated at middle
by a transversely rugose, longitudinal space;
in female finely, transversely rugose and in-
distinctly punctate. Length 9-14 mm, width
2-3.5 mm.

Type locality —Arizona, no definite locality.

Type.—tin the Horn Collection, Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

Horn described this species from two males.
The color of the pronotum is quite variable,
being entirely black or red, or black with the
disk reddish. Material has been examined from
the following localities in Arizona: Fort Grant;
Douglas; Ramsey Canyon, Huachuca Moun-
tains; and San Bernardino Ranch, Cochise
County. Schaeffer (1911) placed Stenosphenus
longicollis Casey as a synonym of lepidus, but
it seems to be a valid species.

Stenosphenus pruddeni Casey

Stenosphenus pruddenit Casey, Mem. Coleopt. 3:
346-347. 1912.

Reddish brown; prothorax and legs more
reddish, moderately shining. Pronotum widest
behind middle; sides slightly rounded, more
strongly narrowed anteriorly; surface coarsely,
sparsely, irregularly punctate, sparsely clothed
with rather long, semierect, whitish hairs.
Elytra rather coarsely, densely, uniformly
punctate, sparsely, uniformly clothed with
moderately long, semierect, inconspicuous
hairs; apices transversely sinuately truncate,
the lateral angle spinose, sutural angle slightly
produced. Prosternum feebly, transversely
rugose and indistinctly punctate, but not de-
pressed. Length 11.5 mm, width 3 mm.

Type locality —Canyon of the Colorado, Ariz.

Type—tIn the Casey Collection, United
States National Museum.

Casey described this species from a single
female collected at the type locality by T.
Mitchell Prudden. In the Museum Collection
are two additional females collected at the
same locality, July 12-13, 1901, by Barber and
Schwarz.

Stenosphenus arizonicus Linsley

Stenosphenus arizonicus Linsley, Ent. News 46;
165-166. 1935.

Rufous; antennae, tibiae, and tarsi black;
abdomen piceous. Pronotum strongly narrowed

FISHER: SYNOPSIS OF STENOSPHENUS 93

anteriorly, feebly rounded at sides, smooth with
a few scattered fine punctures, and sparsely
clothed with fine, semierect hairs. Elytra
finely, uniformly punctate, sparsely clothed
with semierect, pale hairs; apices separately
emarginate, the angles spiniform. Prosternum
broadly depressed, coarsely, cribrately punc-
tate on each side of a median, polished elevation
in the male. Female unknown. Length 12.5 mm,
width 3 mm.

This species has not been seen by the writer,
and has been placed in the key entirely upon
the characters given in the original description.

Type locality —Globe, Ariz.

Type——tIn the California Academy of Sci-
ences.

Linsley described this species from a single
male collected at the type locality during
August 1930, by D. K. Duncan.

Stenosphenus longicollis Casey

Stenosphenus longicollis Casey, Ann. New York
Acad. Sci. 6: 34-35. 1891; Mem. Coleopt. 3:
347. 1912.

Brownish black, moderately shining; thorax
and femora reddish, the pronotum slightly
brownish toward sides. Pronotum widest be-
hind middle; sides slightly rounded, more
strongly narrowed anteriorly; surface indis-
tinctly punctate toward sides, with a few mod-
erately long, semierect, whitish hairs. Elytra
rather coarsely, densely, uniformly punctate,
sparsely, uniformly clothed with rather short,
semierect, whitish hairs; apices separately
transversely, sinuately truncate, the angles
scarcely produced. Prosternum with large de-
pression, coarsely, densely punctate, not di-
vided at middle by a smooth, longitudinal
elevation in the male. Female unknown. Length
11 mm, width 2.75 mm.

Type locality —Texas, locality unrecorded.

Type—In the Casey Collection, United
States National Museum.

Casey described this species from a single
male probably received from G. W. Dunn. In
the original description he states that the
prothorax is distinctly longer than wide. The
prothorax of the type was found to be not dis-
tinctly longer than wide, but subequal in
length and width. It seems to be a valid spe-
cies, and not a synonym of lepiduws Horn as
suggested by Schaeffer (Journ. New York Ent.
Soc. 19: 124. 1911).

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Stenosphenus sobrinus (Newman)
Elaphidion sobrinum Newman, Entomologist,
London, 1: 30. 1840; LeConte, Journ. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia (ser. 2) 2: 15. 1850.
Stenosphenus sobrinus Bates, Biol. Centr.-Amer.,
Coleopt., 5: 66. 1880; p. 312, 1885; Horn.
Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 12: 180. 1885; Leng.
Ent. Amer. 2: 194. 1887.

This species was described by Newman from
North America. So far it has not been collected
in the United States, but Horn (1885) states
that this species, described erroneously from

VOL. 36, NO. 3

the United States, is abundant at San Luis
Potosi, Mexico, and should not be included in
our lists.

Stenosphenus pristinus Wickham

Stenosphenus pristinus Wickham, Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool. 58: 463-464, pl. 9, fig. 2. 1914.

This fossil species was described from a
specimen collected in the Miocene shales at
Florissant, Colo. Type No. 2584 in the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

ENTOMOLOGY .—A new African species of Paurocephala Crawford (Homoptera:
Psyllidae: Pauropsyllinae).| Lovisr M. Russeui, U. 8. Bureau of Ento-
mology and Plant Quarantine. (Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.)

This paper provides a name for a psyllid
collected from Urena lobata Linnaeus, a
member of the Malvaceae now grown com-
mercially in the Belgian Congo as a sub-
stitute for hemp. Numerous specimens were
received with the request that the species
be described if new. It is closely related to
Paurocephala gossypii Russell, a pest of
Gossypium (Malvaceae) in the Belgian
Congo. Adults of the two species resemble
each other closely; the nymphs differ con-
spicuously, however, particularly in the
earlier stages. The most salient differences
between the two forms are in the relative
length and slenderness of the antennae of
the adults, in the relative proportions of the
male genitalia, in the color of adults and
nymphs, in the number of sectasetae of the
nymphs and the relative size of the tu-
berclelike prominences bearing them, and
in the presence or absence of cephalo-
thoracic tubercles in the first four nymphal
stages.

Paurocephala urenae, n. sp.

With few exceptions the following descrip-
tion mentions only the characters of urenae
which differ from those of gossypiz. Other char-
acteristics of wrenae (those common to both
species) may be found in the description? of

1 Received November 23, 1945.

2The following additions and _ corrections
should be inserted in the description of gossypi:
Page 116 line 3, for ‘‘segments 1-5,” read ‘‘seg-
ments 1—4’’; page 117 last line and page 118
first line, for “whorls of... segment,’’ read
“whorls of 3 sectasetae each, 1 sectaseta just

gossypw (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 45: 115—
120, illus. 1943).

Adults.—Length to tip of folded wing, 1.75—2
mm; length of body as mounted on slide, 2—2.25
mm; length of forewing, 1.50-1.75 mm, width,
0.50—-0.75; length of hind wing, 1.15-1.85 mm,
width, 0.40—0.50; width of head, 0.50—0.55 mm;
females usually larger than males; bodies
slightly less stout than in gossyp1.

Females pale yellow, males pale orange; each
brownish only on eyes, distal antennal seg-
ment, tip of labium, second tarsal segment and
claws of anterior leg, a small spot before end
of anal vein and at end of Cuz; also occasion-
ally but not characteristically brownish at end
of other veins and at ends of posterior five
tergites of female.

Antenna about one-fifth longer than width of
head, more slender, and the relative length
of some segments different than in gossypt1,
as illustrated.

Genitalia of female about two-thirds length
of rest of distended abdomen.

Genitalia of male with proctiger about one-
fourth longer than wide and about one-tenth
longer than claspers; claspers slender, their
peglike teeth less stout and their sawlike teeth
weaker than in gossy pit.

Fifth-stage nymph.—Length as mounted,

beyond middle of segment, 1 small sensorium
opposite each whorl of sectasetae and opposite
the single sectaseta’’; page 120 line 14, for ‘‘2
sectasetae,’’ read ‘‘1 (or 2, one small basal seta
sometimes replaced by a sectaseta) sectaseta just

before middle of segment, 1 small sensorium
opposite it.”

Mar. 15, 1946 RUSSELL: A NEW AFRICAN SPECIES OF PAUROCEPHALA 95

1.10-1.40 mm. Derm entirely whitish or pale pads less sclerotized than in gossypi27; no sclero-
yellowish. tized spots observed along sutures. Tubercle-
Sclerotic plates less distinct, these and wing like prominences bearing sectasetae, slighly

a : fi Hh a we pie
si saa

Fies. 1-8.—Paurocephala urenae: 1, forewing, X40; 2, male genitalia, X87; 3, inner surface of
clasper, X115; 4, antenna, 115; 5, fifth-stage nymph, X50; 6, sectaseta and prominence from head
of fifth-stage nymph, X460; 7, first-stage nymph, X140; 8, sectaseta and prominence from head of
first-stage nymph, 460. (Drawings by Sara Hoke DeBord.)

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

larger than in gossypii, inner sectasetae no
stouter than outer ones. Sectasetae of sclerotic
plates and wing pads arranged as follows on
each half of body: Head, 18-23; prothorax, 14—
21; mesothorax, inner plate 7-11, outer plate
7-12; metathorax, 10-14; first abdominal, 6-8;
second and third abdominal, each 9-12; fourth
abdominal, 11-16 (2-4 on process); fifth ab-
dominal, 12-17 (3-5 on process); sixth ab-
dominal, 16-21 (4-6 on process); seventh ab-
dominal 16-19 (4-6 on process); posterior
abdominal 8-10 (5 on process); forewing pad,
24-32 dorsal, 23-25 marginal; hind wing pad,
6-12 dorsal, 2 marginal (at apex). A few
minute short setae among (not replacing) sec-
tasetae. No elongate slender setae dorsally near
margin of head. Basal segment of antenna with
1 seta and 1 sectaseta; second segment with
3 setae, | sectaseta, and 1 sensorium; third seg-
ment with 2 setae or (usually) 1 seta and 1 sec-
taseta near base, with 2 whorls of 3 sectasetae
each, | sectaseta just beyond middle of seg-
ment, | small sensorium opposite each whorl
of sectasetae and opposite the single sectaseta,
farther distad 1 large sensorium with a small
seta, a preapical and apical large stout seta
each with a minute sensorium and seta at base.
One pair of sectasetae ventrally rather near
margin on each of abdominal segments 3-6.

Fourth-stage nymph.—Differing from fifth
stage as follows: Length, 0.75-0.90 mm. One
pair of transverse sclerotic plates on meso-
thorax. Tuberclelike prominences bearing sec-
tasetae, larger. Sectasetae arranged as follows
on each half of body: Head, 10-12; prothorax,
9-12; mesothorax, 7-10; metathorax, 5 or 6;
first abdominal, 3 or 4; second abdominal, 5 or
6; third abdominal, 6-8; fourth, fifth, and sixth
abdominal, each 7-9 (2 or 3 on _ process);
seventh abdominal, 9-12 (8 or 4 on process);
posterior abdominal, 6 or 7 (3 or 4 on process) ;
forewing pad, 9 or 10 dorsal, 10-12 marginal;
hind wing pad, 4 dorsal, 2 marginal. A few
short stublike setae present. A pair of rounded
tubercles dorsally on posterior margin of head
and a pair on prothorax just mesocaudad of
cephalic pair. Antennal segment 2 without
small setae, segment 3 lacking 1 whorl of sec-
tasetae and the sensorium opposite it. Legs as
iN gossy pit.

Third-stage nymph.—Differing from fourth
stage as follows: Length, 0.50—0.60 mm. Sec-
tasetae arranged as follows on each half of

VOL. 36, NO. 3

body: Head, 9 or 10; prothorax, 5; meso- and
metathorax, each 3; first abdominal, 1; second
and third abdominal, each 3 (1 on process);
fourth, fifth, and sixth abdominal, each 1
median (unpaired) and 4 others (2 on process) ;
seventh abdominal, 1 median (unpaired) and
5 others (3 on process); posterior abdominal, 4
(3 on process); forewing pad, 4 dorsal, 5 mar-
ginal; hind wing pad, 2 dorsal, 2 marginal.
No stublike setae observed. Antennal segment
2 scarcely differentiated from segment 3, sec-
taseta replaced by a seta; segment 3 lacking
whorl of sectasetae and the sensorium opposite
it. Sectasetae absent from ventral surface near
margin, replaced by setae. Legs, and orna-
mentation of derm ventrally (absent dor-
sally), asin gossyp1.

Second-stage nymph.—Differing from third
stage as follows: Length, 0.40-0.45 mm. Derm
weakly sclerotized; sclerotic plates not defined.
Cephalothoracic tubercles, and prominences
bearing sectasetae, very large and conspicious.
Wing pads small. Sectasetae arranged as fol-
lows on each half of body: Head, 6; prothorax,
4; mesothorax and metathorax, each 2; first
abdominal, 0; second and third abdominal,
each | (on process); fourth, fifth, and sixth ab-
dominal, each 2 (1 on process); each of seg-
ments 2-6 with an additional pair of setal
bases which usually bears a minute, or short
seta but which may bear a sectaseta; seventh
abdominal, 4 (8 on process); posterior ab-
dominal, 2 (on process); forewing pad, 4; hind
wing pad, 1. Antenna 2-segmented; basal seg-
ment with 2 slender setae (0 sectaseta); seg-
ment 2 with a sensorium near base (corre-
sponding to one on second segment in later
stages), without slender setae near base, with-
out sectaseta (of third stage) and the sensorium
opposite it. No setae replacing sectasetae on
ventral surface near margin; other ventral
setae less numerous.

First-stage nymph.—Differing from second
stage as follows: Length, 0.30—0.35 mm. Cepha-
lothoracic tubercles, and prominences bearing
sectasetae, larger. Wing pads smaller. Sec-
tasetae arranged as follows on each half of
body: Head, 5 (or 4, the inner marginal one
sometimes replaced by a stout seta); pro-
thorax, 3; meso- and metathorax, each 2 (outer |
sectaseta of metathorax replaced by a small
seta); first abdominal, 0; second through fifth
abdominal, each 1 (on process); sixth ab-

Man. 15, 1946

dominal, 2 (on process); seventh abdominal, 2
(1 on process); posterior abdominal, 2 (on
process); each wing pad, 1. Basal segment of
antenna with 1 small seta. No setae on ventral
surface of thorax or abdominal segments 1-6.
Egg.— Similar to egg of gossy pit.
Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 57665.

ZOOLOGY .—Resuscitation of the nematode Tylenchus polyhypnus, n.
G. STEINER and FLORENCE E. ALBIN,

after almost 39 years’ dormancy.*

STEINER AND ALBIN: TYLENCHUS POLYHYPNUS 97

- Described from slide-mounted holotype male
and allotype female, and from about 200 para-
types (dry, slide-mounted, and in liquid) col-
lected by Mrs. D. Soyer from Urena lobata
Linnaeus at Gandajika, Belgian Congo, May
1945, No. 443.

SP.,

Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering.

In June 1945 a herbarium specimen con-
sisting of the leaf of a rye seedling collected
early in the fall of 1906 by E. S. Ayres at
Edgerton, Kans., was submitted to us by
Dr. Freeman Weiss, of the Division of
Mycology and Disease Survey of the Bu-
reau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul-
tural Engineering. A note on the herbarium
label stated: ““Rye nematode on rye. An
Amerosporium also present. Disease how-
ever due to nematode.”

Since Edgerton, Kans., had been men-
tioned by E. A. Bessey as a locality where
Ditylenchus dipsact (Kihn) Filipjev oc-
curred on rye, the leaf sample submitted
was expected to be infected with this species.
To our surprise we failed to find the Dity-
lenchus but observed a small number of an
undescribed species of Tylenchus, five speci-
mens of which (two females and three
larvae) revived. To our knowledge this re-
suscitation after almost 39 years is the
longest period of dormancy as yet observed
for a nematode. The previous published
record of maximum length of dormancy of
27 years concerned the wheat nematode,
Anguina tritici (Steinbuch) Filipjev. It had
been established by M. Baker, a friend of
M. Needham, who in 1748 discovered the
nematodes in galled wheat kernels and first
observed their anabiotic behavior. Need-
ham (in Observations sur la physique, sur
Vhistoire naturelle et sur les arts 5 (3):226-
228. 1775) writes as follows: “L’espéce de
vie dont ces vers sont doués, et qui se
conserve pendant des années dans un état
parfait d’extenuation, est trés singuliére.
M. Baker, trés-connu par ses observations

1 Received December 21, 1945.

microscopiques, avoit encore 4 Londre en
1771 du bled rachitique que je lui avois
donné en 1744, et qui presentait fort peu de
temps auparavant les mémes phénoménes.”’

According to a verbal communication
made to the senior writer by Prof. Dr.
Heinrich Simroth in 1913, the wheat nema-
tode had been known to revive after 28
years’ dormancy in galled wheat kept at
the Zoological Institute of the University of
Leipzig, Germany; the experiment after
that period was unfortunately terminated
through the mistake of a laboratory servant
who added alcohol to the sample assuming
this preservative had evaporated.

Thus resuscitation after 27 and 28 years
of dormancy had been observed previously.
The present observation extends the known
length of possible dormancy in nematodes
considerably and also establishes the oc-
currence of this phenomenon in the group
of species united in the now revised genus
Tylenchus. The reviviscence of mature al-
though young females here observed de-
serves emphasis since in some_ species
revival is restricted to the larval stages. The
fact that even the finest morphological de-
tails could be observed in the revived speci-
mens was particularly gratifying; in this
regard special mention should be made of
the cervical papillae, the phasmids, and the
striation of the lateral fields, structures of
such minute and fine character that their
observation is considered difficult in fresh
material. The species here discussed appears
to be new. It resembles Tylenchus filiformis
Biitschli, 1873. Unfortunately the status of
this latter species is much confused; it ap-
pears that various authors have referred to
this species several forms that would best

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 3

Fie. 1.—Tylenchus polyhypnus, n.sp.: A, female, X about 666; B, head end of female, 2,444;
C, anterior end (cer ppl, cervical papilla), 1,000; D, tail end of female (phas, phasmid), X about
1,000; Z, male (shrunken!), X about 666; F, tail end of male, X about 1,000; G, larva (cer ppl, cer-
vical papilla; phas, phasmid), X about 666.

/

Mar. 15, 1946

be considered distinct. It is not our inten-
tion here, however, to present a revision of
these various forms.

Tylenchus polyhypnus,? n. sp.

Biitschli’s description of T. filiformis
refers only to the female, a single specimen
of which was observed. The present new
form differs from this mainly in the follow-
ing diagnostic characters: (a) It is more
slender, a=31.5-39.0 in the female as
against 27.6 in 7’. filiformzs; (b) the distance
vulva to anus in the present form is more
than half the length of the tail (3:4 and
5:6) while in 7. filuformis it is much less
(about 1:3); (c) the female sexual apparatus
is much shorter in the present form; (d) the
buccal stylet is extremely delicate and has
rather small and obscure basal knobs,
whereas the stylet in 7. filuformis is stronger
and is provided with distinct basal knobs.

Description.—(Fig. 1, A—G) Tylenchus of
very small size; body slender, tail elongate,
terminus more or less sharply pointed; head
end truncate; cuticle plainly and rather
broadly annulated; annules of about 1.5y:
lateral fields beginning anteriorly at about
height of middle esophageal bulb, 2u wide
at a corresponding body width of 12yz
bordered by longitudinal striae. Cervical
papillae at about middle of terminal eso-
phageal bulb and therefore located at some
distance behind nerve ring. In female
phasmid a short distance in front of middle
of tail; in the male not yet located but pos-

2 roAvs =a long time; irvos =sleeping.

PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 99

sibly in same location as in female and
therefore not forming a bursal rib. Excre-
tory pore ventrad and slightly back of nerve
ring. Head not set off, its annulation con-
tinuous with that of body. Lips apparently
absent; cephalic papillae and their ar-
rangement not yet located. Buccal stylet
very delicate, in adult female 10y long, in
preadult larvae 8u; its basal knobs small
and obscure; small cheilorhabdions present.
Procorpus cylindrical, not set off from
middle esophageal bulb by constriction;
latter bulb distinct, with small valvulae;
isthmus of esophagus quite long, particu-
larly in the larvae; terminal esophageal
bulb elongate; nucleus of dorsal esophageal
gland cell very prominent; nuclei of ventral
gland cells not seen. Female sexual appara-
tus rather short, postvulvar uterus branch
also short; ovary with single series of
oocytes. The single male observed was a
shrunken unrevived specimen; its copula-
tory bursa short, anteriorly beginning at
level of proximal end of spicula, posteriorly
extending only about length of spicula be-
hind anus. Spicula 14y long, curved, proxi-
mally not capitate; gubernaculum lineate,
4u long. Tail of male apparently shorter
than that of female.
Measurements.—Female: total length =
0.378-0.482 mm; a=31.5-39, B=5-6, y =
4.3-—5.0, v = 59-66 per cent.
Male (shrunken): total
0.298 mm; a=25; B=5, y=6.8.
Type host.—Rye (Secale cereale L.).
Type locality.—Edgerton, Kans.

length =

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington
at its annual meeting held January 15, 1946,
elected the following officers: President, Rr-
GINA FLANNERY; Vice-President, H. W.
KRIEGER; Secretary, Wituiam N. FENTON;
Treasurer, Watpo R. WEDEL; Councilors to the
Board of Managers, W. M. Coss, W. H. GIL-
BERT, JR., MarGaret LaAntTis, JULIAN H.
STEWARD, and G. R. WILLEY.

A report of the membership and activities
of the Society since the last annual meeting
follows:

Life members, 1; Active members, 66; Asso-
ciate members, 30; total, 96. This represents
an increase of 8 over last year.

The members elected during the year were:
Active members—Miss Lucitte KE. Hoye,
Dr. Soton T. Kimpatt, Leonard Mason,
Dr. Marearet Lantis, Lt. (jg), Joy MAHLER,

100

U.S.N.R. Associate members—Dr. Rutu
Benepict, Dr. Forrest E. Cuements, Dr.
Mark GRAUBARD, Miss CLarreE Ho tt, and
Dr. Oscar LEwIs.

The report of the Treasurer follows:

Funds invested in Perpetual Building
Association (with interest to Decem-

bernigils OA lini gk tr REA ee gba $1 , 843 .42
21 shares Washington Sanitary Im-

provement Co. (par value $10 per

SARE) SM ko cee ee eae: oe era mat cn 210.00

2 shares Washington Sanitary Housing

Co. (par value $100 per share)... . 200 .00
U.S. Savings Bond, Series G........ 500.00
Cashiimy bank ye epee.) Cut merely 8) 159.62

$2,913.04

Bills outstanding: None.
Total as of December 31, 1944 2,915.26

DECREASE eas ial ee ees $ Dii2D

The Society was host to the Society for
American Archaeology at its annual meeting on
May 19, 1945, at the Cosmos Club.

All regular meetings were held at the U. S.
National Museum. The Society maintained a
policy initiated early in the war of inviting all
anthropologists resident in Washington, re-
gardless of whether they joined the Society.

A series of discussions of Anthropology and
Contemporary Problems, begun last year, was
continued through the spring, with only one
paper of a technically scientific character; and
the fall meetings were devoted to open discus-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 3

sions of various plans affecting anthropology
as a profession. |

Titles of papers presented before the regular
meetings of the Society were as follows:

January 16, 1945, 725th meeting, WALTER
H. C. Laves, Anthropology in a basic social-
science course. Discussions of Anthropology and
Contemporary Problems, III.

February 20, 1945, 726th meeting, RaLpH
Linton, Anthropology and cultural minorities.
Discussions of Anthropology and Contem-
porary Problems, IV. |

March 20, 1945, 727th meeting, GroRGE F.
CarTER, New World agricultural origins.

April 17, 1945, 728th meeting, RutH BENE-
pict, Interim research in European personality
and culture. Discussions of Anthropology and
Contemporary Problems, V.

May 17, 1945, joint meeting with the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences,, MARGARET
Mrap, Translating scientific findings into lwing |
habits.

October 16, 1945, 730th meeting, An open
discussion of a proposal for an organization of
professional anthropologists.

November 20, 1945, 731st meeting, An open
discussion of alternate plans for achieving pro-
fessional aims in anthropology.

No meeting was held in December 1945, in
view of the annual meetings of the American
Anthropological Association in Philadelphia.

WILLIAM N. Fenton, Secretary

CONTENTS

CuEMistRY.—Cyclic acetals of the carbohydrates. C.B.Purvzis....

Pa.LEontotocy.—A Pleistocene pearl from southern Maryland.

Retanp Wo Browns. OOO a Be GS:

Borany.—New bamboos from Szechwan Province, China. Yr ~
Kerne and Pat-cHieH KEnG......... aie beans Bie a RN a

EKNTOMOLOGY.—Synopsis of the cerambycid beetles of the venus Steno-
sphenus Haldeman found in America, north of Mexico. W. 8.
PESPEBR Dai Okan GA eee siboe gee 2 pe poe nea

Enromotocy.—A new African species of Paurocephala Crawford-
(Homoptera: Psyllidae: Pauropsyllinae). Lovisr M. Russeutt... 94 ~

ZooLocy.—Resuscitation of the nematode T’ylenchus polyhypnus, 0. Sp.,
after almost 39" years’ dormancy. G. STEINER and FLorENcE HE.
BARA. 8S Uae Oi duane ret es ue Oe ene aD cpa Dias oe

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals.

Apri 15, 1946 G Sane. 4

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‘

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 36

ApriL 15, 1946

No. 4

National Responsibility for Research.’ J. HE. Grar, Smithsonian Institution.

If any common ground for international
thinking has emerged from the wide con-
flict just ended it is that the world is looking
forward to a higher level of well-being for
all. Leaders both in Britain and in this
country have given expression to such in-
tentions, and the hopes of most peoples are
in complete agreement. As we survey the
‘colossal destruction of the war in human,
scientific, cultural, and material resources,
it is clear that the attainment of these hopes
is a major challenge to the human race.

Science received world-wide recognition
during and in the period following the first
world war. King Albert of the Belgians ad-
vanced science on a national basis by sub-
sidizing research laboratories in universi-
ties. Industrial research grew rapidly. Even
the man in the street became aware of the
importance of science and invention, for
articles on important scientific and techno-
logical advances appeared in the daily press.
This development was stimulated by the
appointment of science writers by several
metropolitan newspapers. The intelligent
and fair approach of these writers to their
subject did much to bridge the gulf which
had hitherto separated the scientific from
the nonscientific.

In 1938 there was published by the Na-
tional Resources Planning Board under the
title Research, a natural resource, a thorough
study of the relation of the Federal Govern-
ment to research in the United States. In
pointing out that research is a national re-
source, it directed attention to the obvious
need for the development of that resource.
In this admirable study an analysis was
made of the amounts expended by agencies

1 Address of the Retiring President of the
Washington Academy of Sciences, delivered be-
fore the Academy on the evening of February 21,
1946. Received February 25, 1946.

of the Federal Government and of the vari-
ous fields covered. It included as well a
discussion of restrictions on the use of fed-
eral funds for research, including sugges-
tions for improvement, many of which have
since received favorable mention both in
England and in the Bush report in this
country. The section on research in Ameri-
can universities and colleges pointed out
the great use of these organizations in train-
ing research men and in conducting basic
research, a field in which universities excel,
for they are largely free from the responsi-
bility for solving specific problems. The
summary of findings and recommendations
presented many suggestions which recent
studies have shown to be essential to the
increase of research both nationally and
internationally.

The popularization of science was well
under way at the time of the second world
war. General public interest in science was
advanced further by the Germans in their
oft-repeated mention of secret weapons.
During their impressive early successes,
these threats reached every ear—as indeed
they were planned to do. The growth of
allied superiority in the development of new
devices both for offense and defense was
given equal publicity. A parade of new and
improved weapons, culminating in the
proximity fuse and the atomic bomb, left
with the general public the fixed idea that
success in warfare was dependent more on
skilled scientists than on the millions of
bayonets once boasted by a late dictator.

While the war was still in progress and
the outcome by no means certain, the role
of science in the postwar world was the
subject of active discussion in Britain. This
was a logical trend, for Britain is no stran-
ger to state-supported science. In the several
councils for agricultural, medical, and in-

101

102

dustrial research, in various governmental
research laboratories, and in grants to uni-
versities for facilitating fundamental re-
search, there exists a broad base for state-
supported science. Beyond this, there was
a steady drift toward the full utilization of
science in the war effort, an urge that came
from scientists and government alike. Late
in 1941 a meeting of prominent scientists
and representatives of the war science
committees was called by officers of the
Royal Society. The principal subjects for
discussion were postwar problems, includ-
ing those of the immediate postwar period
as well as those relating to the welfare of
the peoples of the Empire. Even in these
preliminary discussions it was stressed that
while a little coordination may be necessary
to guide research into profitable paths and
guard against useless duplication, science
must be kept free from close supervision
which could develop into regimentation.

This trend toward planning for postwar
research continued in succeeding years.
There were people who still insisted that
the development of science should be left
to individual initiative, but they were
fighting a losing battle against those who
said that science should be centrally or-
ganized and that research in many fields
must be expanded ky government action.
The phenomenal success of science in war-
fare, which by this time was turning the
tide of battle, was quoted as a sign that
freedom from want could be insured only
through a full utilization of science. It was
pointed out that this greater, state-sup-
ported research could be directed by com-
mittees representing government, scientific
societies, and research departments. The
development of both pure and applied
science as rapidly as possible was recom-
mended—pure science because it is the
source of ultimate technological advance,
applied science because it translates the
advances of pure science into security and
public welfare. As pointed out in statements
from Nuffield College, however, the distinc-
tion between pure and applied science can
be overstressed, since both methods can be,
and often are, used simultaneously in solv-
ing problems.

There were also differences of opinion

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 4

regarding the relations of science to politics.
While the decline of German science since
the ascendancy of the Nazi party in 1933
was presented as proof that science can not
under all conditions remain free of the
effects of political change, Sir Henry Dale
was a powerful spokesman for those who
wished to keep science free of politics. ‘I
see danger,”’ he said, ‘‘if the name of science
or the very cause of its freedom should be-
come involved as a battle cry in a campaign
on behalf of any political system, whether
its opponents would describe it as revolu-
tionary or reactionary. If science were thus
to be used as a weapon of political pressure,
it would be impossible to protect science
itself from the pressure of sectional poli-
tics.” In general the fear that a state-
supported science would become involved
in politics, or would lose its freedom of ac-
tion, has declined in Britain. A powerful
organization of scientists, and the ability
to present promptly all controversial opin-
ions to a court consisting of an informed
and unprejudiced public opinion, are weap-
ons that would work against any action,
whether by government or by pressure
groups, calculated to limit the freedom of
science or the research upon which it is
founded. Throughout the discussion of an
accelerated, state-supported research, there
has been ample freedom for participation
by all interested persons from government,
industry, and the universities. Representa-
tives of the association of scientific workers
also took an important part in all discus-
sions. And most important to an orderly
consideration of the subject, in Nature
there was a vehicle for prompt and im-
partial presentation of the various opin-
ions. !

A study of the extended discussion relat-
ing to the expansion of research leaves the
clear impression that Britain will develop
sound plans for a wide use of science in the
future, directed both to national security
and the welfare of the peoples of the Em-
pire.

The situation as to the development of
science in Russia is not so completely
known. The general control of research is
vested in the Academy of Sciences, which
directs the efforts of thousands of. research

Apr. 15, 1946 GRAF
men in all quarters of the Soviet Union.
Through its close relations with the uni-
versities, the Academy also has the selec-
tion of the more promising science students.
With the great expansion of universities
and the much larger number of students
enrolled in the science departments, the
research personnel of the Soviet Union is
Increasing on an incredible scale, probably
far ahead of any other nation. The Soviet
Union has shown consistent good judgment
in dealing with all phases of science. Re-
_ search is a respected profession with a pro-
mising career for capable students. It is
publicized widely in the daily press and
scientists become national figures. During
the war, Russia consistently maintained
research on a high plane, and refused to
sacrifice scientists on the war front. Con-
struction of laboratories and research insti-
tutes has proceeded steadily so that at the
present time research facilities in the U.S.
S.R. are probably second to none, either as
to number or equipment. Most important
to the conservation of the time of research
leaders, these laboratories are well staffed
with assistants. At the same time field ex-
peditions on a lavish scale have been con-
tinued, thus adding to a knowledge of nat-
ural resources. If there is a difference in
science as practiced in Russia, it is probably
that science there is more clearly directed
to a purpose.

Further expansion of state-supported
science poses no problem for Russia. The
machinery for directing additional research
now exists, and laboratories and universi-
ties with adequate staffs are available.
Science will certainly continue to expand,
for the leaders apparently realize that an
adequate standard of living involves the
use of science in the development of natural
resources, in the-growth of industry and
commerce, and in further research in mat-
ters Pelating especially to health, food, and
housing.

Elsewhere in Europe there are numerous
signs that a centralized and expanded
science will develop in the near future.
Scientists met the most discouraging ad-
versity in the war years with courage and
devotion and kept alive a distinguished re-
search tradition. With the record of those

: NATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR RESEARCH

103

war years, it requires little imagination to
anticipate a steady and strong growth,
possibly even a great increase in research
throughout Europe.

With science taking giant strides in other
countries, the question might well be asked,
“What of America?” There is need now to
take stock of our place in world science, for
isolation in science is even less possible than
is political isolation. As we review our own
place in science, there is room both for pride
and humility. In the war we gave a crush-
ing demonstration of the scientific and tech-
nological abilities and the industrial might
of the United States. In accomplishing this
miracle, however, we plundered our natural
resources and we raided the ranks of our
younger scientists. The net result is that we
face a postwar world with depleted reserves
both as to scientific personnel and natural
resources. The dearth of trained scientists
is doubly serious, since the shortage touches
teachers as well as research workers. Of
these the teacher shortage may be the most
serious for until the universities and tech-
nical colleges are staffed effectively we can
never hope to make up the present deficit
in scientists. When we consider the planned
increase in science in other countries, it is
obvious that the elimination of our present
deficit in research personnel is only a first
step toward our goal.

Leading scientists are aproed that our
country must embark on an enlarged pro-
gram for scientific research and develop-
ment. They further agree that to accom-
plish this object and insure the security of
the nation and the welfare of its citizens,
federally sponsored science is necessary.
There is disagreement as to details touching
the disciplines involved, to the types of in-
stitutions which should participate, and to
the nature of the administration required. It
seems certain that legislation dealing at
least with some of the needs of research will
be enacted.

The greatest source of danger to a plan
for subsidized research is that the country
as a whole does not truly appreciate the
importance of this subject. With doubtful or
wavering public support, a period of rigid
economy might well cripple or completely
stop such a program. This is a real danger,

104

for science has always been the first casualty
in periods of retrenchment. The continuity
of such a program can be assured only when
the people of this country know that it is
certain to win over a long period—even
more, when they realize that without a
strong, efficiently administered program of
research, we, as a nation, shall be competing
at a great disadvantage in a new world.
We shall be competing at a disadvantage
not only as to national security, and na-
tional welfare, but also in maintaining the
world leadership we won in the period end-
ing with the close of the war. Public sup-
port must be based on public appreciation of
these facts, and only when this occurs will
a program for increasing scientific investiga-
tion receive active and continuing support.
The public should be treated with frank-
ness; it should be informed that research is
a gamble both as to the specific results ob-
tained and the time involved. This is
especially true in the case of basic research,
the type most urgently in need of stimula-
tion.

Is the world preparing to turn to competi-
tion in science, and what has happened to
place science in the forefront of interna-
tional affairs? Science and invention to-
gether had made an impressive record in
the 40 years antedating the war. These
developments touched the daily lives of
millions. An enumeration of a few of the
major industries will illustrate the great
social implications of expanding science. In
1900 there were few telephones. The major
erowth of this huge utility falls within the
forty years under consideration. Within
this same period there came the automobile,
airplane, motion pictures, rayon, and the
radio. These inventions became the bases
for giant industries, giving employment to
millions, paying huge taxes, and providing
conveniences that, while now commonplace,
have had social influences too great to
assess. Most of us knew of these achieve-
ments, but it took the greatest war in his-
tory to crystallize this knowledge into a full
appreciation of science.

We shall consider science as related to
national security only long enough to ad-
mit that we must have adequate research
on weapons related both to offense and de-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 4

fense. To plan otherwise in our present con-
fused world would be unthinkable. Prepar-
edness, more than ever before, is the price
of liberty. We may well remind ourselves
that national security, for the long pull,
should be based on something more lasting,
and less exhausting, than more and bigger
ships, planes, bombs, and guns. It would be
well to be warned by the numerous ex-
amples in history that give weight to the
words of Nietzsche, “‘Simply by being com-
pelled to keep constantly on his guard, a
man may grow so weak as to be unable any
longer to defend himself.” In planning
means of avoiding future wars we must re-
member that in human contacts, whether
om individual or national levels, fear is a
poor substitute for understanding and rea-
son.

Our principal consideration will be given
to research aimed at improving the welfare
of our people. This includes the types of
research concerned with the development of
the country’s resources, its agriculture, in-

_ dustry, and commerce. As a nation can be

only as strong as its individual citizens, the
research program must be directed also
toward the health of individuals, their food,
shelter, and clothing. Since our goal is the
accumulation of new knowledge on a wide
front, all promising sources of information
should be enlisted. It is not a small program,
for its orderly development means the
utilization of both basic and applied re-
search in many disciplines, including not
only those of interest and utility to man,
but also those dealing with man himself and
his relations to other men. It means the
cooperation of institutions of many types,
the universities to train scientists, and to
conduct basic research; private institutions .
to undertake investigations in all categories
and in all fields; Federal agencies to conduct
both basic and applied research of wide
scope; and finally, participation by the
magnificent research services of American
industry. The task ahead calls for the great-
est wisdom that can be brought to bear
upon it. It is a challenge to the government
and to the scientist alike. There must be
cooperation between agencies, for from
these contacts there will arise the encour-
agement and inspiration so necessary to

Apr. 15, 1946

creative achievement. Perhaps I should say
cooperation and coordination; but since the
latter term is susceptible of several defini-
tions, especially as to degree, it should be
used with care. A reasonable amount of
coordination is required to make certain
that the new program of research will be-
come a useful and effective portion of the
nation’s total research. Care must be taken,
however, to see that this program does not
become a super science department with
power over all national research. In the in-
terest of good administration, the authority
to direct and the responsibility for results
must be bracketed together. Beyond this,
there is required the application of a few
general principles that have been demon-
strated to be necessary to any efficient con-
duct of research. Science can not be regi-
mented. At most it can be directed only
along very broad lines, for who can declare
in advance what is of great and what of
little importance? It is obvious that specific
direction could never have developed a
Pasteur or a Kekulé. Their contributions
to science arose from their own inquiring
minds, from a great body of knowledge they
had accumulated, and from disciplined
imaginations. Under close supervision they
would have been superior investigators, but
they would probably be forgotten now. The
degree of supervision and planning must be
determined by a body of men who under-
stand science and appreciate the difficulties
of research, men who are capable of judging
progress and the ability of individuals with-
out looking over a worker’s shoulder or,
even worse, requiring multiple reports.
Accomplishment has been observed over
the centuries, and, while it is susceptible of
broad variations, its recognition by experts
does not require a lifetime. The selection of
wise administrators of research, the deter-
mination of when and how to provide sup-
port, and how much to provide will always
hold the key to success in any expansion
of the research of the nation. Funds can
be provided by law, projects can be as-
signed, but this alone can not assure maxi-
mum results, for organization can not do
what only the genius of individuals can ac-
complish. The statement of Plato, that

“under the influence either of poverty or of

GRAF: NATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR RESEARCH

105

wealth, workmen and their work are equally
liable to degenerate,” is as true now as it
was in his day. We must have understand-
ing of science rather than science worship,
and above all we must: realize that science
is a working tool, a means to an end. In
stressing the use of research for social ends
we are only restating the ideal of Benjamin
Franklin, who made that objective a basic
purpose of the American Philosophical
Society.

The Federal Government is now engaged
in research on many matters that concern
both the individual and the nation as a
whole. The development of national re-
sources and their wise conservation consti-
tute a field in which the government should
lead and cooperate with all others engaged
in similar research. This relates to forestry,
geology, and agriculture in all phases, to
mention a few of those close to national
well-being.

Agriculture has always been closely re-
lated to human progress and still plays a
dominant role in man’s health, food, and
clothing. With industry it will to a great
extent determine his standard of living.
Though plenty and peace may not be in-
variable companions, when the life of indi-
viduals is not a hopeless struggle for exist-
ence class strife within a nation and hostili-
ties between nations certainly tend to dis-
appear. A greater knowledge of agriculture
will bring us nearer to this objective. There
is still much to be learned about the land
and its maintenance, about crops and the
economics of farming. We must learn well
and rapidly, for our new lands are shrinking.
Our last large frontier is in the Arctic, and
we are far from a knowledge of how to uti-
ize it. In these basic matters that affect
all citizens the government should be the
leader and coordinator of research, with
responsibility for its effectiveness and its
extent.

The role of research in solving many of
the problems of nations seems to ke well

- established, and the welfare of a nation in

this industrial age depends very largely on
the continuing extension of the horizons
of knowledge and the practical application
of that added knowledge. The obvious ques-
tion relates to how this may be brought

106

about in this country without incurring
excessive expenditures and thus jeopardiz-
ing the success of the entire program. It
seems clear that the project is of such scope
and size that it must be administered and
subsidized at the national level. The direc-
tion of such a complex program must be in
the hands of experienced men who under-
stand science and appreciate its social
implications. Wide representation on such
a group is necessary from all the agencies
contributing in an important measure to
the success of the program. This would in-
clude the Federal service, universities, pri-
vate nonprofit research organizations, and
industry. This group provided with advice
from committees representing the various
disciplines and with administrators as re-
quired would be fully capable of selecting
broad fields for research, of selecting indi-
viduals or agencies to conduct research, and
of determining the amount and nature of
support required.

The types of national science foundations
thus far suggested are of less importance
than the abilities of the men appointed to
the foundation. If the leaders are chosen
for their qualifications, their distinction,
and their ability and desire to serve, the
administration is in safe hands. The tend-
ency toward honorary or part-time ap-
pointment can be overdone. The program
is too large, too complex, and much too im-
portant to be administered as an avocation.

It is not to be expected that such an or-
ganization could operate at full speed im-
mediately for it must learn as it proceeds.
It could, however, undertake several ob-
jectives with full knowledge that it is on
the right track. One of these relates to pro-
viding additional research men, in part to
make up the acute shortage which devel-
oped during the war, and partly to assure
a supply of well-equipped men to carry
forward the increased research this country
must undertake.

One of the first steps to be taken in in-
creasing trained research personnel is to
eliminate much of the wastage of promising
students who for financial reasons fall by
the wayside before completing their aca-
demic training. The salvage of superior
students from this group is an efficient and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 4

economical plan, for they have completed
part of their training and their capabilities
are already known. Scholarships should be
awarded only to those who can profit from
university training, and the leaders among
the students should be educated just so far
as this education is of use to them and to
society. Those chosen to seek further knowl-
edge should meet the high qualifications
established by James B. Conant, “For the
scholar, the seeker after truth, whether he
be mathematician, archeologist, scientist,
philosopher, poet, or theologian, must come
into the court of public opinion not only
with clean hands but with a consecrated
heart. He must have integrity of purpose, a
disciplined imagination, and the power of
critical analysis of both the problem at hand
and his own contributions. In addition, he
must have high standards of performance
as to the technical aspects of his task.’’ In
granting scholarships it would seem wise to
examine present organizations experienced
in this field to learn whether the existing
machinery or methods for this purpose are
capable of administering a larger govern-
ment-sponsored scholarship program. It
would be wasteful to ignore demonstrated
accomplishment in this specialized field.
In training young scientists it must be
borne in mind that quantity can never take
the place of quality. New ideas, or new ap-
plications of old ideas, do not arise from
oceans of minds. They come from a few
superior minds in which inquiry, knowledge,
and imagination are compounded in favor-
able proportions. Linnaeus long ago noted
that encouragement should be given to
clever students, “for the great discoverers
are among them, as comets among the
stars.” The effectiveness of a training pro-
gram depends almost entirely on the ability
of the teachers, as has been so often demon-
strated where a single preeminent professor
has carried his department to first rank
within the nation. If outstanding students
are to be aided in obtaining the training
necessary to speed research at full efficiency,
it is equally important to relieve the out-
standing teachers of the extraneous duties
which reduce their use as teachers. It may
even be said to be more important, for a
single teacher may train and inspire many

Apr. 15, 1946

discoverers. In any training program it is
thus necessary to seek both students and
teachers. Once these are brought together
in an environment favorable to science, it
will be demonstrated that huge numbers of
investigators are not required to keep our
country among the world leaders in science.

Under the scholarship program the na-
tion will become deeply involved in educa-
tional matters, and it can not escape a direct
interest in the quality of training facilities.
During the war period, colleges and univer-
sities gave close study to their curricula
with the idea of making improvements where
changes were indicated. One change sug-
gested was a broader base in training in the
first college years. The report of the presi-
dent of Pomona College to the alumni illus-
trates how one college has met the changing
trend: “The new curriculum is dominated
by the philosophy that in the first two years
the student should acquire certain funda-
mental skills, appreciations, and bodies of
knowledge.” This is a definite change in the
right direction and agrees closely with Brit-
ish statements on the subject. Broad train-
ing in fundamentals will provide the student
with the confidence and the working tools so
necessary to systematic solution of problems.

Another urgent field for expanding our
educational facilities is the training of spe-
clalists in foreign areas. The need for this
has been expressed very well in the consti-
tution of the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization: ‘‘Ig-
norance of each other’s ways and lives has
been a common cause, throughout the his-
tory of mankind, of that suspicion and mis-
trust between the peoples of the world
through which their differences have all too
often broken into war.’”’ The war showed us
that area experts in the United States were
almost nonexistent. Through the coopera-
tion of the universities and colleges great
strides were made to meet the need for such
knowledge. Training in this field must be
continued since the necessity for such ex-
perts will not be less with the coming of
peace. We must learn more of other peoples
and their problems, for whether we like it
or not we are now neighbor to all peoples of
the world.

Interdisciplinary training should also be

GRAF: NATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR RESEARCH

107

stressed. A research man should have
knowledge of several disciplines beyond the
specific knowledge of the division or sub-
division of his own field of science. With
this added equipment he has a clearer un-
derstanding of his problems and possesses
abilities to use these related disciplines for
their solution. He is not only a better re-
search man on his own, but with this wider
appreciation of the utility of other disci-
plines he is more valuable as part of a
research team. War research demonstrated
that scientists often received their most
useful assistance from coworkers, who
brought to the solution of problems view-
points and methods from widely different
types of work.

The continuing success of the plan to
stimulate research will depend to a large
extent on the understanding and _ intelli-
gence used in the administration of the
program. Its first concern is to outline
policy, to determine what funds are to be
procured, and to learn how to obtain the
maximum of results from the funds at hand.
The latter consideration includes a decision
as to the approximate proportion of the
funds to be expended for security research
and how and where it will be used. The re-
maining portion for welfare research must
be further divided between scholarships and
basic and applied research. As to agencies,
it must be divided among university lab-
oratories and classrooms, private, nonprofit
research institutions, government research
laboratories, whether Federal or state, and
laboratories for the solution of industrial
problems. The selection of laboratories and
men, the terms under which funds will be
available, and the approval of projects will
all have much to do with the degree of
success of the undertaking. Administration
of the program will require the continuing
study and advice of many scientists from
all disciplines. Projects may or may not
succeed, but they should have an honest
chance by being placed in the friendly sur-
roundings of skilled investigators and well-
equipped laboratories. Beyond this each
project should have a fair test as to time.
Year to year allotments with no assurance
against reduction or termination are not
likely to attract the best minds. Utilization

108

of our leading scientists for stop-gap experi-
mentation would be unfair both to the man
and to the nation. No practice should be
adopted as adequate until its soundness has
been demonstrated. One example will suf-
fice. We speak of basic and applied research
as two separate fields, which must be kept
distinct. Some believe that the basic re-
search workers would be unable to apply
their findings to practical use and that ap-
plied research workers would be of little
use for fundamental research. This may
hold for a small number of scientists, but a
large number of men have shown by their
work during the war that the same general
qualities are required for superior research
of either type. Basic and applied research
are now used together by the London, Mid-
land, & Scottish Railroad under a plan by
which research men from the railroad and
its cooperating universities are exchanged
for temporary periods. From preliminary
observations it seems that both basic and
applied research will profit from this ar-
rangement. It is a further step in breaking
down the cell walls that have, in varying
degrees, insulated one worker and one prob-
lem from another.

Those who will be responsible for the
administration of public sponsored research
must expect criticism, for they are using
funds in which every one has vested rights.
Public support is absolutely essential to the
continuing success of an accelerated. pro-
gram; and this support to be lasting must
be based on an understanding of the aims
of the program and an appreciation of what
science has done and can do again. There
should be full publicity on all phases of the
operation of the program. It must be neces-
sary not only to be independent of the influ-
ence of pressure groups but also to be able
to prove that independence. Though war-
time science went from one triumph to an-
other, it must be remembered that peace-
time research will be measured by different
criteria. During the war the cooperation of
research men was a patriotic duty, and the
cost of projects was entirely secondary to
speed and to success in solving problems. In
times of peace the cost of research programs
will become a matter of major importance
and one for annual discussion.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 4

The results of research touching individ-
ual or national well-being should be given
the widest distribution. This should be the
standard method not only of diffusing use-
ful knowledge but also of reporting prog-
ress. Used intelligently, it will make unnec-
essary the collection of multiple reports,
questionnaires, form, and records, which at
best accomplish little more than delay the
work and drive out those investigators who
prefer research to the piecemeal discussion
of it. Publication of results should be
prompt and full, and adequate distribution
should be made nationally and internation-
ally. This will serve not only to speed re-
search but also to prevent needless duplica-
tion of effort.

Whether publication should be under-
taken in more than one language is prob-
lematical. I should incline to advocate that
each nation publish in its own language and
leave to an international catalogue and
abstracting service the task of furnishing
abstracts and serving as a clearing house
for providing translations in such languages
as may be requested. This would be no great
change from the International Catalogue
of Scientific Literature, which after years of
effective service to science suffered so
grievously from the first world war that it
never recovered. If the nations truly wish
to cooperate, let them resurrect this useful
service with such changes as the needs of the
present day may require.

Although our discussion has been con-
cerned largely with the national aspects of
such a research program, there are many
who will regard it as only one part of a
larger problem. The real objective of this
undertaking for the increased use of science
depends largely on who happens to be ex-
plaining its purpose. To one, science may
insure national security; to another, it may
mean the economic welfare of the nation;
while a third might look at the world and
see international cooperation and under-
standing and enduring peace. Science util-
ized more widely can raise the standard of
living in America, it can provide Jobs, it can
turn the wheels of industry and fill ships
with exports. It can increase the comforts
of individuals; and, as far as weapons may
be concerned, it will certainly increase the

Apr. 15, 1946

security of our nation. All this, however, is
the answer to only a part of the question as
it affects Americans. Our welfare over any
long period is related to the welfare of other
peoples, for now as never before poverty
and misery in one part of the world affect
the prosperity and well-being in all parts of
the world. Thus our standard of living can
not be completely and permanently inde-
pendent of that of other peoples.

As a preliminary to improving the eco-
nomic status of peoples, it is urgent to speed
the work of recovery in all countries. This
heavy task calls for international coopera-
tion in all fields of science. Obviously those
nations that have suffered the least must
assume the leadership in this program of
restoration. The question as to where this
cooperation should start or what it should
undertake is one of some magnitude. The
most urgent need is in those countries that
were overrun by the Axis, in which science
was destroyed in part and scattered. The
first step is to help each nation to help
itself by organizing exchanges of current
literature, abstracts, and translations as
rapidly as possible and to bring victims of
a scientific blackout up to date on recent
world research. Restoration of the scientific
literature in war-area libraries is a large
task, but an early beginning should be
made. Contacts between workers on similar
problems should be established and assist-
ance given, if only advisory, on research
materials, equipment, and other facilities.
International contacts and meetings con-
cerned with science should be expedited and
the exchange of students and teachers pro-
moted. The preliminary operations in these
fields are largely multilateral in nature and
they should fall within the scope of inter-
national organizations. Of these the one
covering the broadest field is the newly
formed UNESCO; and there are others of
lesser scope, some of which are ready for
operation. It is too early to make promises
as to the activities of UNESCO, for it is
still in the preliminary stage of organiza-
tion. Specific programs have been proposed
covering such subjects as the social prob-
lems of housing, language teaching, and sur-
veys for rehabilitation of the educational
systems in devastated countries. It will un-

GRAF: NATIONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR RESEARCH

109

doubtedly serve on a world-wide basis to
promote the free flow of information, both
cultural and scientific, and to encourage the
exchange of students, teachers, scientists,
and artists. It will be a general source of
information to facilitate giving to nations
the educational, scientific, and cultural aids
lost in the war. In undertaking these ac-
tivities, however, the projected aid is on an
advisory rather than on an active partici-
pating level.

The more active operating programs in
international cooperation will include those
on a bilateral basis. Such projects, arranged
through the Committee for Scientific and
Cultural Cooperation, are already in opera-
tion in many places in this hemisphere.
Projects of this type, now active, include
such diverse fields as agriculture, anthro-
pology, geology, tidal studies, vital statis-
tics, and meteorology. There is included
also cultural cooperation in many fields of
the humanities and the exchange of person-
nel, including scientists. These projects,
which must be of value to both participants,
are operated on the level of the people, and
active participation by both countries is
required. The objective of the program is to
further understanding between the nations
and peoples of this hemisphere, to advance
their interests, and to maintain peace. That
the plan is successful in advancing interna-
tional relations has been demonstrated re-
peatedly. Authorization for the extension of
this program to other parts of the globe is
now before Congress. Cooperation in science
on a world-wide scale, in improving eco-
nomic conditions within nations, can con-
tribute much toward removing a fertile and
continuing cause of wars. We must remem-
ber that any discussion relating to the wel-
fare of peoples can not avoid consideration
of ways and means for preventing wars,
which cause losses in human and material
resources, beyond appraisal. The last war
cost this country alone over a million casu-
alties and 354 billions of dollars. These par-
tial costs show clearly the futility of plan-
ning a comfortable standard of living, if
wars, on the modern scale, are permitted to
recur at intervals.

The question has been asked as to
whether science is not given an undue por-

110

tion of the projected program and whether
the well-being of peoples would not be ad-
vanced further by including the humani-
ties. These have always been international
in character and thus furnish a meeting
ground on which races, creeds, and nations
may find common appreciation and under-
standing. The humanities play an impor-
tant part in the progress of mankind, and
obviously the advancement of human wel-
fare and peace must include the humanities
in ever-increasing amounts. One answer to
this question is that a program including
the humanities is now operating under the
guidance of our State Department and it
will expand as it receives further support
from the United Nations Organization and
from other programs of international scope.
It is a separate program and should remain
so, both as to direction and support. Per-
haps the principal answer to the question is
that survival and recovery are the immedi-
ate needs, and science has demonstrated its
ability to function in emergencies. Science

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 4

is ready to go ahead now and it has world-
wide support. In addition to meeting im-
mediate needs, science can do much to spon-
sor international good-will for it too is truly
international in character. Science has an
important role in pointing the way to the
recovery, well-being, and peace of the
world; but it will make its greatest contribu-
tion to human welfare when it realizes the
necessity for pooling its efforts with those
from other sources of assistance. Thus,
whether we consider our problem from
the national or world-wide viewpoint, all
science might well adopt the ideal to which
Hugh Taylor, in speaking for the physical
sciences, gave such eloquent expression:
‘“‘In the free world to which we still dare to
look forward, with the soldiers and states-
men, artists, humanists, philosophers and
priests, we must integrate our scientific
skills with the social and spiritual aspects of
human life and nature. That goal attained,
we shall not lack either direction or sup-
port.”

ETHNOLOGY.—An Iroquois Condolence Council for installing Cayuga chiefs in

1 Do.

Three of us white people stood shivering
in the November afternoon on the common
at Lower Cayuga Longhouse (Fig. 2).
Robert and Marcelle Hatt had parked the
Cranbrook Institute Buick alongside a row
of Indian cars, and I had backed the Li-
brary of Congress Recording Laboratory
sound truck abreast of the others and dis-

1A lecture on ‘The Six Nations of Canada’
given before the Royal Canadian Institute,
Toronto, January 12, 1946. Published by per-
mission of the Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Received February 7, 1946.

Field work for this paper derived support in
1941 and 1943 from the American Council of
Learned Societies, in 1945 from the Viking Fund,
Inc., Cranbrook Institute of Science, the Library
of Congress, and the Smithsonian Institution. In
the narration the writer has checked his own ob-
servations made on November 20, 1945, with the
explanations of Deputy Chief Howard Skye,
interpreter, which form the warp of the fabric,
and into these he has woven speeches taken from
a long Onondaga text describing the same cere-
mony which Chief John A. Gibson dictated to
Dr. A. A. Goldenweiser in 1912 as the final fifth
of a 525-page account of the founding of the
League, that much having been translated from
Onondaga to English by the late Simeon Gibson
and the writer in 1948.

WiuuiAM N. Fenton, Bureau of American Ethnology.

mounted without locking the doors, re-
marking to Joe Williams, a Seneca from
Allegheny, that my cameras would be safe
since there were no other white people
around. Inside the longhouse the Cayuga
and Oneida chiefs were still rehearsing the
Six Songs of Farewell to the Dead Chief.

Smoke of the cooking, intended for the
chimney, drifted out the door of the cook-
house just east of the longhouse. One of the
two male cooks for the new chiefs, Patter-
son Davis (C.),? ladled meat, chunks of
boiled beef, out of a great iron cauldron
into a wooden trencher. This was part of a
quarter of beef that we had procured in
Caledonia the day before of William Smith,
butcher to the Six Nations. In olden times
eight men were appointed to procure veni-
son for the feast; they went out all abreast
driving the game until eight deer fell. Nor
was there any corn bread, hulled white corn
soup being the only aboriginal dish. I re-

2C., Cayuga; M., Mohawk; Oe., Oneida; Oa.,
Onondaga; S., Seneca.

Apr. 15, 1946

marked to Mrs. Silversmith who oversaw
the preparations for the feast that women
are customarily feast cooks at Tonawanda
and Allegheny among the Senecas where
men wait on the women, but she confirmed
what we saw at Six Nations on Grand
River—men usually do the heavy cooking
for longhouse feasts. Evidently the Cana-
dian Iroquois matrons hold their clansmen
in firmer control than their Seneca sisters
on the American side.

But both sexes fulfill the role of ‘“‘hanging
the kettles for the chief’ (honwanajiahaa-
nink ne’ hoyadéneh). Each matron enlists a
man and a woman. Mrs. Bomberry had
two cooks: Patterson Davis, an official of
the longhouse, and his half-brother Free-
man (‘‘Spike’’) Gibson, one of the two male
leaders of Seneca Longhouse. Bob Bill,
Howard Skye, and his sister Mrs. Silver-
smith served Jemima Gibson. All cooks,
being Cayugas, belonged to the proper side.

A car lurched through the gate and
chugged up the common. It disgorged a
stout Cayuga chief, Hagya’’trone’ (Alex
Nanticoke), and a younger deputy, S‘oheés
(Howard Skye). They were returning from
Onondaga Longhouse, some two miles west,
and they hustled inside to report. About
noon the Three Brothers side (Mohawk-
Onondaga-Seneca) had dispatched a scout
(haihwakdon’’na’) to find out the state of
preparations at the Four Brothers (Oneida-
Cayuga-Tuscarora-Tutelo) fire. He went
first to Lower Cayuga Longhouse, but find-
ing no one there he returned partway to
the matron’s fire where the cooks were
eating. Jemima Gibson who sponsored the
ceremony and her maternal relatives and
in-laws had set a dinner for the Cayuga
chiefs and the cooks whom she had enlisted
to work at the longhouse. The Onondaga
runner, who drove a Ford, was told that
the Four Brothers would send a messenger
when ready. On returning to the longhouse
from dinner, Desga’he’ (Chief Alex General)
arranged to send a runner to Onondaga.
Howard Skye was appointed, and Hagya’’-
trone’ drove him. Arriving at Onondaga
Longhouse, the Cayuga messenger found
the chiefs inside rehearsing the Requicken-
ing Address. They stopped on seeing the
messenger who said, ‘‘I am bearing a mes-

FENTON: AN IROQUOIS CONDOLENCE COUNCIL

111

sage of the Four Brothers who sent me to
say, ‘Now preparations have been com-
pleted.’ So that is the sum of my message.”

With the return of the Cayuga messenger,
everyone knew that the Three Brothers
had taken up the path and would arrive
momentarily. Warriors were detailed to
kindle a small fire near the gate. They
cleared away the leaves and dry weeds just
east of the path leading from the road to ~
the common, where a cook carried embers
from the main fire. They build the wood’s-
edge fire as soon as they hear the singer
chanting the Hai Hai on the path, recount-
ing the Roll of the Founders of the League,
while the procession of Condoling chiefs
nears the fire of the grieving tribes.

About 3 o’clock ‘““Keya’dawennn .. . (My
nephews,” the prolonged cry of the crier
who marches beside the singer, floated over
the elm and shagbark hickory trees to reach
us before we heard the voice of the Hai Hai
singer. The cry meant that the singer had
just completed the roster of a committee of
founders representing one of the Five Na-
tions. The shout of the ‘‘uncles’”’ quavered
on the cold wind. I shivered, transported
three centuries to the reedy shores of Cay-
uga Lake, wondering how that cry must
have sounded coming over the forest from
Onondaga near modern Syracuse. The clear
voice of the Haz Hazi next reached us. The
singer was Roy Buck, a warrior in his
thirties, whom the chiefs of Three Brothers
side were grooming for this role at the re-
hearsals.

The procession passed Peter Atkins’s at
Six Nations Corners and neared the gate.
In advance came Sam Silversmith (Oa.)
and Bill Henry (M.) at the head of a double
column. Next came the singer and the crier.
Then walked Onondaga chiefs Gowena’-
sen’donh (Peter Buck) and Tadodaaho’
(Joseph Logan), followed by the rest of the
chiefs; most of them carried canes, of which
one was carved with ball and socket. The
scouts also carried sticks. (Fig. 3.)

Anciently the two warriors, who guard
the singer (denhunwadiya’dadtn’”’), prob-
ably ranged far ahead as scouts. It was
Howard Skye’s opinion that in olden times,
at the founding of the League, warriors of
enemy nations lurked in the forest. Evi-

112

dently the order of march did not follow the
roll call of nations—from Mohawk to
Seneca—and it is not certain that this order
was customary; at any rate there were two
warriors, a singer and crier, the chiefs and
deputies, such as were in attendance, in
double column. One wonders that the sys-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 4

tematic Iroquois had overlooked the chance
to regiment the line of march.

WELCOME AT THE WOOD’S EDGE

The Oneida and Cayuga chiefs, their
deputies, matrons, warriors, and the follow-
ing public came down the common and

Eulogy Peth of Three Brothers

™M. Oa.
the Clearminded 28 J* S
4 Welcome/al Woodksedge
K
Ore Os
x our Brothers

tn Mourning

THREE BROTHE
ROTHER S WEN, Four BROTHERS

CWS Xl ajiA & |
>| MM. 02 ie = — A= — == Cleae
a aaadalx——-1—~x [alan |

WOMEN

Condolence
LB Speaker ———+ Route of Chanter
Aa Chief ———-—-> > ** Wamphin
® Matron SS SS Curtain Wire
F Fére x Messenger
yt light
§ Cane+Wampum

Charge tothe new ChiefS3
Fig. 1.—Diagram of the Condolence rite and the Charge to the new chiefs.

Apr. 15, 1946

ranked themselves in this order facing the
fire, the road, and the oncoming procession.
The procession of visiting chiefs, followed
by their public—a motley crowd afoot and
in automobiles—turned in the gate and
took up similar positions across the fire but
toward the road. The two guardians of the
singer ranged out to flank the front line of
ehiefs. On reaching the fire the singer
stopped, and Sai’’go-na (Big Knife), David
Thomas (Oa.), took a central position next
to Chief Logan as speaker for the Three
Brothers. Deputies formed the second line,
matrons and the public ranged behind. At
the wood’s-edge fire was enacted a scene
worth filming (Fig. 1): the two crowds di-
vided by the fire and five yards of common;
dead chicory and frosted asters; smoke
arising through bony limbs of shagbark
hickories above the Three Brothers; cars,
women, babies, men in finely tailored suits
and overcoats, some in overalls, but none
in native costume. One of the scouts glanced
apprehensively in our direction where we
stood apart east of the fire so as to review
equally both moieties. But we held to our
pledge not to take pictures, and the scouts
relaxed when they saw we meant it.

A representative of the Four Brothers
side, a tall spare figure whom we recognized
as Alex General, who bears the title
Desga’he’, belonging to the Upper Cayuga
band, stood to the fore near the fire leaning
on his cane and waiting for the Three
Brothers to come up and form ranks across
the fire. Now he took up his cane and paced
slowly to and fro chanting the measured
phrases of welcome. This act they call
Deyothnyongwaarakte’, ‘Beside the thorny
brush,” or “At the Wood’s Edge.” The
words in Mohawk are as printed in Horatio

Hale’s Iroquois book of rites (1883), but in

performance the phrasing is entirely dif-

ferent, as I discovered on recording the

chant. In chanting, sentences are not dif-

ferentiated and it takes all one’s breath to

express one word:

Onenh wenisseraa’::-de’—now today

wagadyerengoo’:--wa—was I greatly startled

deshawennawe’rade’—by your voice coming

ne’ po wes ---don’—to this clearing (open-
ing).

One is reminded of high Anglican mass.

FENTON: AN IROQUOIS CONDOLENCE COUNCIL

113

Desga’he’ had typed out the words from an
old penciled script by John Doctor, and
there is no telling whether Doctor had it
from Hale or from the same source. But
Desgahe’ managed without the book until
toward the end, there being not quite a
hundred ‘words’ (phrases) to remember.
Thus for centuries the grieving tribes had
greeted the condolers, ‘‘Great thanks that
you have passed safely diverse obstacles and
dangers that beset your journey [except for
200 yards of clay, a gravel road connects
Onondaga and Lower Cayuga Longhouses];
journeying you passed places where the
Founders on whom their faith rested used to
meet.”’ The Cayugas speaking say, ““My
Father’s Clansmen, how can your minds be
at ease when you kept seeing the traces of
our forefathers, and barely persceptible is
the smoke still rising at the places where
they used to smoke in council, they who sus-
tained our minds, and you saw on your
journey the traces of their labors? How then
can your minds be at ease, when from your
eyes tear drops hang repeatedly, My
Uncles? Thanks greatly that you have
reached here safely. Now we both have
come together (with tears in our eyes) and
sat down (across the fire) [but they now
stand].”’

The chanter goes on to conjecture the
awiul calamity of a death on the trail, or
some similar disaster to one of the chiefs.
But the founders ordained that a fire be
made at the wood’s edge, where they shall
condole each other briefly; they will employ
but three words, reserving the principal
matters for inside the house where the main
business is transacted; then shall they rub
down each other’s bodies; there shall they
be taken by the arm and seated on the
main bench. :

A list of town names founded by several
maternal lineages concludes the chant.
First come settlements of the Wolf clan,
the two clans of the Turtle who are off-
spring, and the Bear clan who are Brothers.
Some place names are now obscure; others
resemble town names of seventeenth-cen-
tury Iroquoia. These were the clans of
ancient times (belonging to the Mohawk
and the Oneida).

114

THREE RARE WORDS OF REQUICKENING?®

The first chant ended abruptly. Once
more Desga’he’ stood in the central position
before the fire resting on his cane. Hagya’-
trone’, at his elbow, produced the first three
strings of Requickening, which are of varie-
gated purple and white wampum beads.
Originally a horizontal pole resting in forks
of two uprights held the wampum strings
at the fire beside the trail. But today Chief
Alex Nanticoke, who keeps the wampums
for the Cayugas, let the three short strings
hang from his hand. Nor had the Condoling
phratry set up cross poles for receiving the
strings. It was a surprise to me to see the
Mourning chiefs send over the first three
strings to the Clear-minded, because Hewitt
(1944, p. 70) assigned this role to the latter;
but it was to clarify such issues that I had
waited ten years and come to Canada to
witness the ceremony. 7

We did not record Chief General’s words in
Cayuga because Hewitt and Goldenweiser
had them from earlier informants. With the
first string the speaker for the mourners
acknowledges the Creator’s part in making
the day and causing the number of persons,
who have come on the road with tears in
their eyes, to reach the appointed place
where the fire rests at the wood’s side. The
Four Brothers think it wonderful. Now he
wipes away their tears with the white fawn
skin of pity to enable them to look around
with clear eyes and notice passing persons.
Having calmed them, his messenger (How-
ard Skye) took the first string of wampum
over the fire to the Three Brothers where it
was received by Chief Logan. Similarly, the
speaker proceeded to remove obstructions
from the ears (second string) and throat
(third string) of the Clear-minded.

Now enabled to see, to hear, and to
breathe freely, the speaker for the Three
Brothers replies to the mourners. The
Clear-minded confirm what the Lower folk
(Cayugas live down the Grand River) have
done, giving them to understand that they
approve of the number of matters so far
uttered. ‘‘Further,”’ say the Three Brothers,
“what befell you is not a one-sided affair

3 See the author’s edition of J. N. B. Hewirrt,

The Requickening Address of the Iroquois Con-
dolence Council, This JOURNAL 34: 65-85. 1944.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 4

[it affects both moieties], which is the pur-
pose for the Three Brothers’ coming. What
a calamity has befallen the Four Brothers.
Yea, a seat is vacant in the place where you
all customarily assembled. Now a man has
died toward whom the people used to look
and direct their minds. Now the bench is
vacant. And consequently you the Four
Brothers are in the midst of great tears.”

Now the Three Brothers customarily
Wipe away the tears to enable the Four
Brothers to see what transpires on earth,
etc. Here a deputy for the Condolers car-
ried the first string back over the fire where
it was grasped by the Cayuga wampum
keeper (since both sides have their own sets
of Requickening strings, the strings go back
in succession to the owners).

And so the speaker for the Three Broth-
ers, the Clear-minded, proceeded to open
the ears and remove the obstructions from
the throat of the grieving Four Brothers,
sending back the two remasning strings, one
at a time, by his deputy as he completed
each word.

Now somewhat assuaged—able to see,
hear, speak, and breathe freely—by the
Three Rare Words of the Wood’s Edge
ritual, and fortified in their minds by the
return of their wampum strings, the mourn-
ing Four Brothers (via their speaker) say,
‘‘Now have we completed it. The prelimi-
nary words are over. We both have rubbed
down each other’s bodies. Everything on
our side is now ready; they shall take you
by the arm and lead you to the principal
bench (ganakdagweniyo’’geh, the main
bed), and there shall one seat you in the
place where the entire business will be
carried to a conclusion, as many matters as
remain for us. Thus the appointed warrior
chief will take you by the arm there and he
will place you where benches have been
prepared for you.”

It was at this point that I saw Howard
Skye for the Cayugas and Albert Thomas
for the Oneidas, the designated Chief war-
riors for the Four Brothers, step across the
fire and turn together to face the west
entrance to the longhouse. The two war-
riors stood together, as custom dictated, in
front of the two who led the procession on
the road, the singer and the crier for the

Apr. 15, 1946

Three Brothers. Meanwhile the host of the
Four Brothers, having turned away from
the fire, were making for the east door of
the longhouse to find seats. Supposedly the
chiefs precede the crowd into the building.
Actually, many from both sides had
crowded in already to preémpt the best
seats at each end.

Then the two appointed as head warriors
say, “Onenh dwa’den’dya,”’ ‘“‘now let us
proceed.”’

Again taking up the Roll Call at the
place where he left off when they reached
the fire, Roy Buck, who was following the
path, started the procession of Three
Brothers toward the west door of the lodge.
Those names of founders that were not sung
before on the road are sung now up to the
door. It was 4 o’clock as we entered the
longhouse behind them, having passed
’ nearly an hour shivering by the fire.

At the door of the longhouse it is custom-
ary to have another man appointed to take
over the Roll Call and recommence from
the beginning inside the house, regardless
of where the first singer leaves off. We came
in and took seats on the left bank behind

the chiefs, who occupied two opposite —

benches lengthwise of the house in the
northwest corner, and a third bench placed
across the west end of these facing the Four
Brothers side. The latter sat on two oppos-
ing benches similarly placed in the north-
east corner; I could not see a third bench
from where we sat against the north wall
behind the speaker’s bench. Men occupied
the north half of the house at both ends;
women and children sat to the south. Mid-
way of the house a wire stretched across
the room, as if to demarcate the zone of the
Clear-minded from the Mourners, and a
blue quilt, fitted with curtain rings hung in
folds against the north wall. As we seated
ourselves, Onondaga Chief Peter Buck,
who holds the title Gowena’sefdon’, was
walking slowly to and fro, cane in hand, the
whole length of the house on the men’s
side, chanting the Eulogy of the Founders.
Now it was apparent why the Hai Hai
singer must rehearse. He must have the
words fixed in his mind; he must remember
the Roll Call, how the chiefs are related,
as brothers or cousins, and how to divide the

FENTON: AN IROQUOIS CONDOLENCE COUNCIL

115

words to fit the tune. From the moment
he crosses the door sill confusion greets him.
The mourning side is seated, but his own
crowd is coming in. Escorted to the bench —
prepared for them, the chiefs sit down, but
the crowd scrambles for seats along the wall.
The west door keeps banging (and the
Lower Cayuga Longhouse door creaked
badly). The air is already fouled: chiefs
light up their pipes and cigars; the stoves at
each end alternately radiate intense heat or
smoke. Babies cry. But the measured
phrases of the Roll Call go on inexorably
for an hour?:

Hai Hai Now continue to listen

Hai Hai Our grandfathers of old

Hai Hai You did establish it

Hai Hai The Great Law (League)
(Seventeen ‘‘words”’ precede the first name),
Hai Hai (four times)
Hai Hai Continue to hear us
Hai Hai You who were proprietors
Hai Hai Ne Dekarihoken
Hai Hai They were related as brothers

* 1 * *

Hai Hai that was the number of you
Hai Hai you did work together

Hai Hai you did found

Hai Hai The Great Law

Hai Raksot (Grandsires)

And so he goes on, mentioning all the
names through the rosters of five tribes on
both sides of the fire, as they are sires or
offspring of each other, going through it to
the very end as far as it was completed when
the League was founded. Moreover, while
he is walking to and fro performing the
ceremony, each time he comes to that part
of the chant when he says:

Hai Hai ne’to hona’deedjon’’na
Hai Hai swa’ deihwakhahon’’gwa
(“That was the number of you founders’’),

then the chief so denominated cries in ap-
probation “‘yoo hen™®——”’ (in falling tone),
and all the chiefs of his phratry in unison
confirm (in low tone) “‘hii:: ye?’ (stress-
ing the last).

And likewise on their side of the fire,
when the tribal chiefs of the Four Brothers
hear their titles announced, one after an-
other each chief of that nation himself

4J. N. B. Hewitt and W. N. Fenton, Some
mnemonic pictographs relating to the Iroquois Con-
dolence Council, This JOURNAL 35: 301-315. 1945.

116

raises the shout of approval, and his own
phratry of chiefs support him.

But when the enumerator reaches the
vacant title for which the ceremony is going

forward to install a candidate, both on the.

road and inside the house, according to
_-Roy Buck, he inserts an address to the
deceased chief and his ancestor:

Hai Hai Know that she (society) is grieving

Hai Hai They are mourning

Hai Hai In their minds

Hai Hai When he did pass away

Hai Hai He on whom we depended

Hai Hai He carried away with him

Hai Hai the minds of them

Hai Hai who subsist on the stumpé

Hai Hai as the tree puts forth suckers

Hai Hai Now thou deceased one listen (hear

me)
Hai Hai You were a principal one (a chief)
Hai Hai You Daga’en’yonk

There is only one principal candidate
named, in this case Haga’en’yonk, first on
the Cayuga list, for whom the Condolence
is performed; if others are then installed
they remain unnamed.

And then the enumerator continues as
before until he completes the roll of the
Five Nations. The Roll Call ends abruptly
without flourish, leaving the singer midway
of the house, from whence he returns un-
ceremoniously to his place among the Clear-
minded chiefs and sits down.

It was now 5 o’clock. It was gathering
dusk outside, and the six windows, three
on each side of the house, no longer ad-
mitted enough light to illumine the interior,
although the logs above the wainscoting
had been whitewashed. Originally built of
pine logs, sometime after A. C. Parker
and F. W. Waugh photographed it (ca.
1912), Lower Cayuga Longhouse evidently
was rebuilt and clapboarded on the outside
when, presumably, the transoms above
both end doors were boarded shut. Now
the two messengers for the visiting chiefs,
Sam Silversmith and Bill Henry, who had
guarded the singer on the road, took down
the oil lamps from the chandelier at their
end of the house, adjusted the wicks, lighted
them, and put them up again. Simultane-
ously, Bob Bill and Freeman Gibson, two
of the cooks who hang the kettles for the

5 The chief’s maternal family and clansmen.

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VOL. 36, NO. 4

chief, fulfilling further their duties to the
matrons who appointed them, came in
from the cook house and lighted the lamps
on the Four Brothers’ side.

SIX SONGS

Meanwhile the two servants of the con-
doling chiefs drew the quilt curtain half-
way between the groups of chiefs screening
the mourning Four Brothers from the
Clear-minded who were about to sing.
Across the room the women folk could see
the whole length of the house.

While this was going on, at the Three
Brothers’ fire before us, a cane was put
across between opposing benches at the end
toward the curtain and the Four Brothers’
fire. Seneca chiefs sat toward the curtain
end, Onondaga chiefs in the middle, Mo-
hawks at the end toward the door, and on
the flanking bench facing the far fire.
Seneca Chief Adam Burning, holder of
Sha’degeonyees, ‘‘Skies of Equal Length,”’
held one end of the cane; Thadoda/ho’
(Onondaga) grasped the near end; beside
the latter sat the Speaker. Over this hori-
zontal stick were draped in order all 14 (?)
Requickening strings. When all was ready,
Chief Logan, who at the rehearsal had been
appointed to perform this role for the side
of the Clear-minded, raised the first of the
Six Songs. The old chief leaned forward
resting elbows on knees, hands clasped; and
most of his colleagues assumed the same
position. Their heads were together as if
deliberating some solemn question in coun-
cil. Indeed, singing the Hymn of Farewell
to the Dead Chief is a solemn occasion for
which they had practiced. Now they ex-
celled themselves. No other song is so sacred
to the Iroquois. Nothing else quite embodies
their feeling for the League. It is tragic but
understandable that they will not sanction
recordings. Chief Logan drew a deep breath,
closed his eyes, and his clear baritone voice
sang out:

Hai Hai hi hii hi: ] repeat
Gayanerenh De skennon—

— — — wero nehi
Hai Hai, etc.

The leader went over the song to its very
ending (yenh!); then another appointed
one, young Roy Buck, picked up the song

Apr. 15, 1946

a second time from the beginning, where-
upon all the chiefs of the Three Brothers’
side sang in unison, continuing through the
entire song until the last hzh fell away, and
in unison they echoed, “‘yenh!”’ The long
sustained notes, the breathing in unison,
the division of the words to fit the meter so
that a verbal suffix commences a new line,
and the characteristic ending strike an out-
sider all the more if he knows the music.

1. Hai Hai Gayanerenh deskenon—weronne’

Hai Hai
Hail Hail the League, I come to greet it.

2. Hail Hail my nephrews (offspring), I come
to greet you.

3. Hail Hail The Warrior chiefs, I come to greet
you.

4, Hail Hail the Matrons, I come to greet you.

5. Hail Hail Our grandsires—what they de-
creed.

All but the sixth song are sung in se-
quence. In performance, as in recordings
from David Thomas, I recollect that Chief
Logan sang no. 2 as his first, greeting the
nephews before the League. Also, contem-
porary ritualists are confused about the
fourth song, as to whether wagonniqi refers
to the Matrons or to something that was
established by the founding great grand-
fathers. Hale gives it as obsolete for ‘‘wom-
ankind.”’ As the response to the fifth song
died away, a deputy of the Clear-minded
drew the curtain aside. It was then a quar-
ter past five.

At the rehearsal, the Clear-minded chiefs
had appointed Peter John to take the next
part. Being a Mohawk it is easier for him
to remember the words of the ritual. He
arose, cane in hand, adjusted his spectacles,
and glanced at the text, which he had writ-
ten out in a notebook, before starting to
go the length of the house between the two
fires on the men’s side, chanting,

GAHAWENHAA’’pDI’, ‘‘OVER THE FOREST”

1s
Hai Raksothaa‘-hi’h
(The chanter prolongs the penultimate of each
phrase.)
Hail, Grandfathers,
now continue to hear us.
Now do they weep mournfully,
your very grandchildren.
Now at this time
it has become ancient (people are no longer
interested),

FENTON: AN IROQUOIS CONDOLENCE COUNCIL

117

that which you all did establish,

the Great Commonwealth (the League).
Hail Grandfathers, Hail.

Only that it were true

that you might continue to hear us.

2.
Hail, Grandfathers.
This is what you said,
that society would become destitute;
and that they who are coming in later times
shall pass this way (in the ceremony).
Hail, Grandfathers.
Even now,
one is uncertain
just how to recite the ritual,
as they were wont to perform it.

3.

Hail, Grandfathers.

Now at this time,

has it grown old,

what ye did establish,

the Great League;

you have it as a pillow under your heads,
beneath the ground,

where your bodies are resting

ye who combined your affairs into
the Great Law (or the League).
Would that it were really true
that you might still hear us.

4,

Hail, Grandfathers.
Isn’t this what you decreed:
In the far future this institution shall be carried

on,

that the law shall be continued
by our grandchildren’?

Hail, Grandfathers!

Having intoned four verses, Peter John
returned to his place among the condoling
chiefs, the curtain was stretched again, and
Chief Logan lifted up the final verse of the
hymn, the sixth song:

6. teiyatonde’k ne’i- he
teiyatonde:kh 1&
Ronkesota tciyatonde’k ne’i :] D. C.
Continue to listen, my Grandfathers.

As before, the singer went over the song
completely before his assistant picked it up,
when all the Lords of the League among his
colleagues repeated it.

Once more the curtain was “lifted.” It
was now a quarter to six.

Peter John again stood up and resumed
chanting, continuing from where he left off
to recite the laws of the League, as he
passed to and fro the length of the house.
During Part 2 of “Over the Forest’ he

118

consulted his notebook, interrupting the
regular cadence of the chant, so that the
words did not advance with his nee as
when reciting from memory.

The founders decreed that these things
would make the house firm, 1.e., reinforce

the League. ‘‘Having completed the struc-

ture, we made marks of identification; we
crowned ourselves with symbolic horns of
authority.”

The founders provided for succession to
office. When a chief’s life sways as a giant
tree between life and death, then shall his
antlers of office be lifted off and set on the
bed between him and the wall, for it would
not do if they should be borne away into
the earth by a‘person passing away while
invested with horns. Should this happen,
they said, we should all perish. The found-
ers thought, in such an event, it would be
the proper way and it would strengthen the
league to replace one person with another
of equal status. Should the mistake be
made that anyone suffers the consequences
of being murdered, then shall the corpse be
placed properly next to the wall where it
shall rest in the darkness.® (Likewise his kin
are in darkness of mourning.)

6 The late Simeon Gibson thought that this
passage refers to former platform burial, either
outside or within the house. At the founding of
the League the proper way to care for a corpse was
to dress it and put it up overhead on the ceiling
(not upstairs, as there were no stairs, but on the
shelf over the bed where it is dark), and abandon
the house altogether. That was their ‘‘system’’
and they knew no better. This former practice is
attested in tales of the Vampire Corpse. Young
men sleep in abandoned dwellings to be awakened
by gnawing; in the morning a companion is dead,
mangled, and they find a corpse overhead with
bloody mouth. Survivors return home and notify
chiefs in council who consider and decide to

change the “‘system”’: ‘‘Henceforth we shall bury
a dead person underground.”

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 4

The founders decided that, lest sunlight
might discover the corpse to a child who
habitually rummages everywhere, they
would save her a possibly awful experience
which would torment her mind until she
learned why the corpse was lying there;
they would uproot a lofty pine tree, making
a great hole, and there into the pit they
should cast this thing and the swift current
would carry it away. Then would they reset
the pine tree, and never should their grand-
children see it again.

And they provided for a Condolence to
strengthen the house. ‘‘Allowing that now
we all wear symbols of identification, we are
all invested with antlers, the pity of it
being that ere we may return to our seats
something may astound our momentary
repose. In the event of a loss,” they said,
“this is what we shall do: we shall place a
pole across and on it hang a pouch [of some
burrowing species (?)], and in it we will
drop a string, the short string of mourning,
to go to either side that is mourning. Where-
upon the Clear-minded shall remove it and
follow the path and go to the place of
mourning. There at the edge of the dust (at
the bare spot around a building) one shall
speak words of sympathy which at once
will lift up the mind of the mourning person
and comfort her. Now shall the person take
up the path (resume her duties) of the Great
Law (in the League).

Finally, the originator of this Confederacy

you yourself, Deganawii’dah;

and his son, Ho’datche’hde’
chief),

ye both were joint proprietors;

and his father’s clansman, Dehadodaa’hoh
(Onondaga),

ye both were founders;

and his son, Haga’en’yonk (Cayuga),

(Oneida head

Fig. 2 (upper).—Lower Cayuga Longhouse. From the distant road the condoling chiefs of the Three
Brothers tribes entered the near (west door); the mourning Four Brothers, including the Cayuga
hosts, used the far door next to the cookhouse. Photo by courtesy of Cranbrook Institute of Science.

Fig. 3 (middle).—The Clear-minded or condoling chiefs of the Three Brothers Side before taking
up the path for Lower Cayuga: (left to right) James Martin, Tekartho’kenh (M.), Peter John, honorary
Mohawk chief and chanter, Deputy chief Levi Hill, Charles Silversmith, Hahstawen’ serintha’ (M.);
Freeman Green, Gane’sch’ henh (Oa.), Joseph Logan, Thadodaého’ (Oa.), William Jacob (?), Honon-
urtéhdth (Oa.), Peter Buck, Gowenna’séndonh (Oa.), Eulogy singer; Johnson Sandy Ganonhgei’ dadwi’
(S.), Doorkeeper; and William Henry (Mohawk), runner for the chiefs. Absent from the picture were
pee Thomas (Oa. ), Speaker, and Roy Buck (Cayuga borrowed by Onondagas), singer of Eulogy on
the Road.

Fie. 4 (lower).—The matron stands with the candidate for chiefship who is crowned with the sym-
bolic antlers of office. Jemima Gibson, matron, and her brother Chief John Hardy Gibson (C.).

).

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Apr. 15, 1946

ye both were principals;

and that one, a father’s clansman,

Sgania’dai’yo (Handsome Lake) (Seneca),

you, his cousin,

a joint proprietor,

Sha’degaenhieiis (Skys of Equal Length).

(These were the founders.)

Now this is what they considered:

In later times additions would be made to the
framework,

to the great sooty rafters.

Hail, Grandsires.

Now are we failing

your very grandchildren.

Hail, Grandfathers!

Ending on this note of humility, the
chanter returned to the bench of the Clear-
minded. It was 6 o’clock by the time Peter
John had finished. When he was seated,
Sai’’goonah, Great Knife (David Thomas),
as speaker for the Clear-minded, stood up
and addressed the Four Brothers, resuming
the Thirteen Matters of Requickening.

REQUICKENING (PART II)

Although not himself a chief, David
Thomas has the confidence of the Onondaga
council and speaks for them. From the years
that they were team mates at Lacrosse,
Chief Logan and David (Da’wit) Thomas
have relied on each other. Now they col-
laborate in ritual. ‘Old Da’wit,” as he is
affectionately called, is one of the finest
orators among the Six Nations. Of Christian
parents, he grew up, nevertheless, among
the longhouse people, marrying a daughter
of Old Chief David Skye with whom he
took up residence. The old chief used to
rise early before daylight; Da’wit would get
up and ‘“‘make fire,” when the old man
would begin to talk about the old people,
their customs, traditions, and ceremonies.
Once fairly started, Chief Skye would keep
on whether or not anyone was listening.
But Da/wit, then a young man, would
listen—chin in hands, elbows on knees,
and eyes shut—concentrating on the old
chief’s words. Thus he heard much of the
Deganawii’dah legend of the League’s es-
tablishment; that is how he became versed
in the lore of the longhouse, the religious
festivals of thanksgiving; and by participat-
ing in the ceremonies and by dint of long
practice he became a longhouse speaker.

FENTON: AN IROQUOIS CONDOLENCE COUNCIL

rug

Thus Iroquois society leaves a way open
for an individual to achieve what cannot
be ascribed to him if his maternal family
does not possess a title.

What are the qualities of a good speaker?
What is it that Da’wit has that others
lack? He waits for his audience before
speaking. Then he commencesslowly inalow,
well-modulated tone of voice. He isa master
of the period, allowing as much time for
his words to sink in as passed in utterance,
meanwhile standing with eyes nearly closed
concentrating on what follows. As he warms
up to his topic, the pace quickens and the
words flow in swift cadence at a high tonal
plane, which falls away at the end of a
clause or sentence. This is the “‘preaching”’
style employed in the Requickening Ad-
dress, as in other ritual speeches and pray-
ers that are recited from memory. What im-
presses the white man, even after a decade
of association with the Iroquois, is the utter
equanimity of public speakers who carry
on ‘‘in a crowd,” as they say, undisturbed
by crying babies, doors that bang and
groan, the coming and going of children,
adolescents, women, and men who get up
and go out—even their colleagues, the chiefs
for whom they speak. Such poise demands
not only concentration but knowing the
stuff of ritual thoroughly. Besides the
‘“‘preaching”’ style, there is the oratory of
the council. Argument calls up a wealth of
figures of speech in which the lore of the
longhouse abounds; and on such occasions
Da’wit employs gestures as graphic and
artful as his voice. Irony, even sarcasm,
and above all a sense of humor appeal to
the Iroquois as Indians.

Having cleared the “eyes,” the “ears,”’
and the ‘‘throats” of the mourning phratry
of the deceased chief at the wood’s edge,
the speaker now proceeds to requicken the
remaining organs and faculties that were
impaired by the awful hand of Death.
Grief, says the fourth ‘‘word,’’ wrenches
the internal organs, and the speaker re-
arranges them by pouring in the “‘water of
pity.”

The fifth burden wipes clean the bloody
husk mat bed.

A sixth lets daylight into the deep dark-
ness of grief. The mourning phratry regains

120

sight of the sky, which the Master of Life
intended as a source of happiness. The
eighth burden restores loss of the Sun with
all that sunlight implies to a horticultural
people.

The mourner’s mind rolls atop the fresh
grave of the dead chief, which calls for a
ninth black string of wampum. Death, the
Great Enigma, has scattered the bones of
the Founders; the Clear-minded send over
a string (of white wampum in some sets;
half black and half white in others) called
“Twenty Matters’? with which they ‘do
bind up the bones of the chiefs and the
nation’’; Twenty is the penalty for homi-
cide. (This string goes over to the Four
Brothers but does not come back until the
next Condolence.)

Moreover, death has stomped in the
Council Fire and kicked around the fire
logs; the eleventh string restores the Coun-
cil Fire (civil government) so that neighbor-
ing people may see the smoke arising and
take heart.

The twelfth burden acknowledges the
preeminence of Iroquois woman: birth of
men, attending the hearth, preparing food,
care of all that is planted; an early death
leaves that much empty space in future
society for the children she did not bear,
and since she lacks female descendants the
ashes of her maternal family become cold.
The warriors are woman’s assistants.

The Federal Chief follows the path of
duty (XIII); his nephew (warriors) and a
niece (women folk) are his immediate
care; and the matron warns him when he
strays from the path, but if he throws her
warning over his shoulder, then the head
warrior warns him of drifting from his col-
leagues and puts him back on the path.
The nephew and niece appear a third time,
and the chief warrior of the family lifts the
horns of office and hands them to the owner
of the title, thereby releasing the man of
further duties as a civil chief.

The fourteenth burden admonishes that
“anything can happen on earth,” even in-
sanity or suicide following so grievous a
calamity as the death of a chief. Certain
plants growing on earth are not to be fooled
with; some are medicines but included in
them are some poisonous plants that will

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VOL. 36, NO. 4

kill a person should she lose her head and
fool with them.’ (A string, half ees and
half white.)

The last burden of Requickening speaks
of the ‘“‘torch of notification,’”’? by which
they learned of the chief’s passing, and re-
turns to the pouch on the pole the short
(purple) string which both sides own
equally and use for this purpose. The string
symbolizing the torch is pure white.

“These are the number of Condolence
Messages.”

As he spoke each of the 12 condolence
messages in the longhouse, Da’wit lifted
the appropriate string of wampum from
the cane beside him between the benches,
where the ‘‘words’” were ranged in se-
quence, and held the string in his clasped
hands until the end of the message when it
says: “Now, my offspring, you Federal
Chief, whom I have held to my bosom, the
Word (attesting wampum string) of thy
Ado’nni (father’s clansmen) is on its way
to thee.’ Here the deputy for the Three
Brothers took the string from his extended
hand and carried it over to the Four Broth-
ers’ side where it was received and hung on
the cane. In all, 12 strings crossed from fire
to fire during three-quarters of an hour.

But there was one other. This explains
why some informants speak of Thirteen
Matters inside the house, although Howard
Skye said but 12 strings crossed the fire in
the present ceremony. The speaker now re-
quested the Four Brothers to pay strict
attention. ;

Now the Three Brothers have been noticing |
that the mat (or bench) is empty where your col-
league used to sit. The Founders of the League
ordained how many trees shall stand erect on both
sides of the fire and how to proceed in case a body
topples on either side. In that event it shall be
urgent that they shall show the candidate’s face
in front of the chiefs and the public, and that also
they shall stand him erect and mention his name.
That is why the Three Brothers came here be-
cause now the bench is empty where his bench used
to be on whom the minds depended. Now that one
is gone wherever it took him.

Now then, point out to us the one who is to be
our colleague: so that we may think that the num-

ber of words that we have spoken here shall be ful-
filled.

7Frnton, W. N. Iroquois suicide. Bur. Amer.
Kthnol. Anthrop. Pap. No. 14, Bulletin 128, pp.
80-137. 1941. See also footnote 10.

Apr. 15, 1946

Now, therefore, our means of notification (the
short string of black wampum that was brought
to the Three Brothers by a runner when the
Cayuga chief died) now goes back to you. (Dep-
uty carries short string across.)

Now shall you know that the Three Brothers
have completed the ceremony, for this is the num-
ber of words.

Three hours had passed since the Condol-
ing phratry had entered the longhouse; it
was now nearly 7 o’clock. With the end of
the address, Da’wit said, “We are now
going to rise as a group and withdraw a
little way as far as the edge of the brush to
kneel and crouch there until further no-
tice.’’® At once the chiefs made motions as
if to leave. Some made a noise with canes;
others got their hats and coats, picked up
canes, and a few stood up. Across the room,
Howard Skye, as messenger or chief war-
rior (sometimes a chief does this) for the
Four Brothers, stood and briefly addressed
the guests, ‘““My uncles, we ask you kindly
to remain until further notice. That is all.”’

Somewhat composed, the Three Brothers
sat down to await a reply.

MOURNERS RETURN CONDOLENCES

It was now the obligation of the mourning
Four Brothers to return the condolences of
the Three Brothers. Accordingly, their
deputy drew the curtain. There on a cane
before the Four Brothers rested the 13
strings of wampum, which are the words of
the Three Brothers. There with them also
rested the Six Songs. But they too had re-
hearsed and they had appointed a singer
and a speaker.

Only four chiefs represented the Four
Brothers, of whom three are Cayuga and
the other holds an Oneida title. Besides
Desga’he’ and Hagya’throne’, there was
Deyotoweh’gon, “Doubly Cold,” a title
which Sam Jamieson holds, and only
Howanhtcade’nhon, ‘‘Covered with Mist,”
in the person of Levi Jacobs, sat for the
Oneida Nation. S‘ohee’s, as deputy for
Deyotowe’hgon, acted for the side; and
Charley Van Every, home from Lockport,
N. Y., carried the Six Songs, followed by

8 This being the old custom to retire and await
summons to hear the reply of the home council.

FENTON: AN IROQUOIS CONDOLENCE COUNCIL

121

Alex Nanticoke. This fragmentary dele-
gation for the Younger Brother nations sat
mixed without regard for rank or tribal
affiliation, nor was my informant certain
how they should sit.

The Four Brothers’ side returned the Six
Farewell Songs of the dead chief at one sit-
ting behind the curtain, beginning at 6:50
and singing 20 minutes. They were not in
so good voice as the Three Brothers. The
manner of singing did not change: the first
singer went through the song and the fol-
lower led off from a lower note; then all the
chiefs of that side joined in. But the words
differ. It is as if the past chief himself sings:

. The Law has come to greet me.

. My Father’s kindsman comes to greet me.
The warrior comes to greet me.

. The cook’ has come to greet me.

. Our grandfathers, what they created.

. Continue to hear us, our Grandfathers, con-
tinue to hear us.

Doe WN

The last is the same as the sixth song sung
by the Condolers.

The deputy for the mourners put back
the curtain for the last time, and Desga’he’,
who made the principal addresses for that
side, stood. He proceeded in great delibera-
tion to return the burdens of Requicken-
ing. Confirming each burden, however, was
briefer than condoling. Not quite a half
hour sufficed. And of the 12 strings that
Da’wit had sent over, only 11 were returned
by the deputy, one at the end of each mes-
sage. Dr. Hatt counted 10 coming back;
Howard Skye said he delivered 11 to the
Three Brothers’ side, that the Four Broth-
ers kept the one called Ne’Dewas’hen’
niuihwa’ (Oa.), “The Twenty Matters.’
This string is passed over by the Condoling
phratry to confirm the tenth burden which
Says,

9 Jemima Gibson said that each chief has a
godri’hont, a female official, who is appointed in
her own maternal family, at the same time that
the chief is raised, for life and who is replaced at
death by another, but is not the same as the
goyanehgo-nah, or Matron who appoints her. Her _
duties are to cook the corn soup in making a new
chief, to make corn bread (if she is smart), and to
boil the meat. At a special council, if special
meals are needed, the chief may call on his own
eook and ask her to fulfill her duty, i.e., cook the
corn soup. But we have already noted that men
were cooking under the direction of women.

122

“Now then does one! gather your bones to-
gether; —
With Twenty Matters do they bind up your
bones.”’
(i.e., of the living and the dead chiefs).

This string will be returned at the next
condolence held at Onondaga, when the
Four Brothers will send it back; unless a
second condolence falls at the same place,
when the string is sent back ‘‘by a whisper’’
(aja’honskwa’ (Ca.) ). Regularly, this string
keeps going back and forth whenever a
condolence occurs, although, I believe, each
side possesses such a string.

Except for the omission of the Tenth
Matter the reply of the Four Brothers

otherwise was the same as the condolence ©

expressed by the Three Brothers.

In preparing the return of condolences,
the speaker for the mourning brotherhood
will say,

Now today the ruler has made just as he pre-
pared the daylight and even the earth, and he
created us people, and, therefore the number of
us present. Now we are two groups met together,
my uncles. And, moreover, already did you make
an address, and so it is the turn of the Four
Brothers to reply. Therefore you shall all think
that we have accepted it too, just as you de-
livered it. Now you did finish speaking. Further-
more, this is how our grandsires have ordained;
they composed words for carrying on on which-
ever side of the fire the chief may have died.
And then the clearminded shall come in at the

door (of the mourner). Accordingly you are follow-

ing this path, my uncles. And what is more it
isn’t just on one side (death may befall either
side): it is happening to both of us alike. Thus
from day to day they are toppling over close to
thy person, they are dying continually, thy very
newphews and even thy grandchildren. Conse-
quently right now it is twisting within your mind.
Therefore, now they have poured in the decoction
of sweet flag (water of pity), and when it has
settled down it will permeate throughout your
body. Then shall you feel well disposed in the
future, and you shall continue to enjoy health for
a day at least.
= ir George 40 eae ay Pe

This is the way the Four Brothers may do, re-
peating then the 13 (?) strings exactly as given by
the Three Brothers.

SHOWING THE NEW CHIEF’S FACE

It was 8 o’clock by the time the Four
Brothers had sent the last of the Requick-

0 Throughout the ceremony, as in Iroquois gen-
erally, the third person singular feminine, “she,”
stands for society; “‘it is as if a woman is doing
it.”

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VOL. 36, NO. 4

ening strings back by their deputy. Now
Desga’he’, their speaker, took the center of
the floor beside their fire, and, leaning on
his cane, addressed the Three Brothers:

You now have the completed words of both of
us, the number of my father’s kinsman. And now
it will be possible to show his face right here be-
fore the crowd. Now one will raise him to a stand-
ing position in front of the chiefs and also one
shall call his name, which is that of the dead
chief. Now another thing, one will place him in
the vacancy. Now, moreover, my father’s kins-
men, you shall think that events have transpired
here just as you specified when you did say, ‘“Now
show us the new man who will be our coworker
from now on.’’ Therefore, be alert for this is the
real thing! Now you shall take a good look at him.
For we are now going to show you your future
colleague!

Although others besides myself including
some of the Chiefs on the Three Brothers
side knew who was going to be the chief,
no one let on, and the tension built in five
hours of ceremonial reached a climax. The
building overflowed with anxious humanity ;.
just before this Dr. Hatt had counted over
80 persons over on the women’s side, but:
now others crowded in at both doors,
standing up to the stoves, to see the new
chief. Probably the crowd touched 250 at
its peak. Jemima Gibson, matron of the
family holding the title Haga’enyonk, arose
as Desga’he’ was speaking and crossed
calmly from her place among the Cayuga
matrons in the southeast corner to where
her brother was sitting in a complimentary
place among the Cayuga men in the north-
east corner. Taking her brother Hardy by
the arm, she raised him to his feet and es-
corted him to a position just flanking the
fire on the speaker’s right (Fig. 4). As this
action occurred, the Chiefs of the Three
Brothers’ side and the multitude craned
their necks to see the new chief. There they
stood, the speaker in the middle of the
house, the matron on his right, and the can-
didate on her right, facing the Three Broth-
ers’ side.

Now the speaker for the Four Brothers
side went on, ‘‘Now all of you look here, for
he is standing here before you, the one who
was appointed by the owner of the title
which reposes in that continuing lineage,
the Bear Clan, whose bench was made
empty where their late great one used to

Apr. 15, 1946

sit.”’ (Here the speaker mentioned that the
deceased Haga’enyonk, the late Abram
Charles, was a member of that clan, and
that he had been qualified as a chief when
yet a boy, but he did not state the details
of his elevation.) “‘And further, this one
(the candidate) who came and stood there
in front of you is the one whom they are
crowning with antlers (of office) and hence-
forth you all shall denominate him Haga’-
en’yonk.”” (This name he repeated for
emphasis. )

Actually, the candidate was crowned the
moment the matron stood him up.

“Now, therefore, here is the means by
which you may hear the title, Haga’en’-
yonk.”’ (He held in his hand a string of
white wampum which, when he had finished
speaking he passed to his deputy who car-
ried it across the fire.) “It shall now go
across the fire; it is the word of all who have
combined their voices with the proprietress
of the chief’s name, comprising both the
siblings and the cousins who sanctioned it;
and also the entire group of relatives have
approved it; even the tribes known as the
Four Brothers are of one voice. Now,
therefore, it shall cross the fire, now their
word by means of which you shall be noti-
fied, is on its way over my Father’s Kins-
men, the Three Brothers” (string).

Ordinarily the matron of the nominating
maternal family chooses a lady to stand
with the new chief, to serve as his guardian,
and also to cook for his feast, according to
Simeon Gibson. But Jemima, the matron
herself, stood alone with her brother, and
no man was installed as deputy to run his
errands. Younger members of the family
had refused to accept responsibility. Ac-
cordingly, the orator referred only to the
matron, if he said, ‘‘Furthermore, this per-
son will be his guardian to stand at his
back as the women owners of the chief’s
title have severally agreed, and they have
attached her to his kody and stood her to
the forefront at the head of the women of
the maternal family of that clan when they
stood him in the chiefship. She shall be
called (name of head female of chiefly
family), for which this string of wampum
will cross the fire.”

The deputy of the Four Brothers carried

FENTON: AN IROQUOIS CONDOLENCE COUNCIL

123

the string of notification across to the
Three Brothers’ side. The first chief took
it, handled it, and passed it on to his cal-
league; and so the string went around the
fire in a counterclockwise direction. Each
chief touched the string as it passed among
them; taking hold of the wampum is tan-
tamount to consent. Each chief has his own
string, called “‘his guardian.” This goes over
the fire, and every chief handles it as it
circulates in the council confirming the ap-
pointment. Earlier informants said that
this string is returned with a speech, but
Howard Skye asserted that this string is
gone so far as the matron is concerned. One
such string, anyway, is kept by the matron
who watches the chief. Jemima, the matron,
returned to her place among the women,
leaving her newly crowned candidate to the
scrutiny of the Three Brothers.

But the Three Brothers did not reply as
yet, because the Four Brothers had yet
another candidate. The installing speaker
continued; yet another title was vacant in
the Cayuga roster. Mrs. Charles Bomberry
of the Ball Clan arose and led forth Bull
Johnson, a Cayuga Warrior in his forties.
She stood on the speaker’s left, her candi-
date at her left; a man who was to be his
deputy, and a third youth, who was being
installed as a longhouse official, manifested
subordinate rank to the first by standing
in echelon formation to the rear at his right.
To these Desga’he’ pointed with his cane
and announced that the first was being
installed as Gadji’nonda/wehe’, in the Ball
Clan, and that as such the latter and the
previous candidate, Haga’en’yonk, were as
“sons to each other,” a relationship that is
difficult to explain but that the Iroquois
accept with equanimity. Each Cayuga
chief has one matron and two assistants: a
guardian or deputy who is the chief warrior
and an official for ceremonial occasions.
These things having been explained, and
the status of the others in relationship to
the federal chief having been defined, the
matron and the third male candidate for
longhouse office retired, leaving the two
leading Cayuga chiefs, Gibson and Johnson,
and a lone deputy, facing the Three Broth-
ers’ side.

With respect to the first office to which

124

Hardy Gibson had been raised, the Onon-
dagas, to wit, Joseph Logan and Peter
Buck, asked for the details attending ele-
vation of his predecessor, the late Chief
Abram Charles. The Onondagas wanted to
know how the previous candidate was quali-
fied. Their speaker mentioned that this
office had originally belonged to the Deer
Clan. How was it that the Bear Clan now
had it? The Four Brothers acknowledged
this as a fact but stated that the present
candidate was being installed on the same
basis as his predecessor. The Deer Clan
then had no suitable candidate, the title
had virtually been transferred to the Bear
Clan, and meanwhile the ashes of the Deer
Clan had become cold. This would mean
that the family line had died out.

The Onondagas next asked the candidate
whether he had ever voted in an election
for the elective council, which superseded
the confederate council of life chiefs when
_ the Indian Act went into effect about 1928.
To this question Hardy Gibson replied
that he was always a follower of the old
system of chiefs, that they might recall that
he had served as a deputy to his late uncle
in the old council, and that he intended to
keep up the old system for the benefit of
generations to come. He was finally asked
to speak. He acquitted himself well, amaz-
ing many that he commanded so well the
ancient forms relating to the League.

In the examination of the second candi-
date it came out that this title also had
belonged to the Deer Clan. But Mrs.
Charles Bomberry is Dowen’he’gaa’ (Ball
Clan) and, having no eligible candidate in
her family line, she was conferring the
honor on Bill Johnson, a member of the
same clan, according to my notes, but it
was my impression at the ceremony that he
had been selected from another line. If,
however, both leading Cayuga chiefships
were originally in the Deer Clan, or even in
the same clan, we may have a clew to why
they are called ‘‘the two sons’ and why
each calls the other ‘‘son.”’

Again the candidate was questioned as
to whether he had ever voted for the elec-
tive chiefs. Some persons in the crowd
thought this unnecessary because the can-
didate had always been identified with the

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VOL. 36, No. 4

Onondaga Longhouse, where he is known
as a great worker, but others around me,
members of the Mohawk Workers Party,
considered the answer quite important.
But the candidate demonstrated that he
will probably make a good chief; he side-
stepped the issue by saying that the only
way is the old way. The Onondagas were
satisfied. The Mohawk workers were not,
but since they were not chiefs it did not
matter. The Three Brothers were satisfied.

CHARGE TO THE NEW CHIEFS

It was now 8:40. Having seen the string,
and all taken hold of it, the speaker for
the Three Brothers then stood to say:
‘“‘Now it is indeed fulfilled: we have looked
over the new one on whom you have placed
the antlers of office and also his guardian
the lady who owns the title; we accept both
of them as we are notified by your word.
Therefore the Three Brothers have now
sanctioned (accepted) the two new candi-
dates whom you have elevated. Now then
get ready to hear something, you two candi-
dates on whom they have just placed the
antlers of chiefship.”” Whereupon the
speaker sat down.

It was Chief Logan, Tadoda’ho himself,
the leading chief of the confederacy who
arose to make the charge. This was a great
moment because Chief Logan not only
holds an important office but he is a forth-
right person of great integrity. The public
knew that the chiefs had entrusted. this
responsibility to him knowing he would ful-
fill it as the occasion demanded. Carrying
a heavy bent wood cane of a type stock
men employ in grading animals, Chief Lo-
gan crossed to the Four Brothers’ side and
confronted the two newly installed chiefs
(Fig. 1). Speakers vary in how they dis-
charge this role. According to my inform-
ants Chief Logan said:

It is an amazing thing that what the Founders
of the League established many years ago is still
going on at the present time. The Founders of the
League believed that a child was born of virgin
birth and so he remained to do away with the
blood-feud and other causes of unhappiness
among the people in the early days. And that sys-
tem has worked right up to the present day. Now
you two are the leading Cayuga chiefs; Daga’-
enyonk and Gadji’nonda’weheh. As such you are

Apr. 15, 1946

as sons to each other. Each shall call the other
“my son.’”?’ You two are the firekeepers of the
‘Cayuga Nation. It is your duty to preside to-
gether at the councils of your tribe. But although
you two are the leading Cayuga chiefs, you are
no higher than the rest. All chiefs are of the same
height.

Having addressed these and other re-
marks to the chiefs and the public, Logan
emphasized the following virtues of chief-
ship menacing each of the new chiefs with
his cane, as if everything depended on
them:

You should do all in your power to protect and
benefit the people and their children as well as
the generations to come. Everything depends on
_ you. The welfare of the people depends on how

you deport yourselves. Remember always that
the chief’s skin is of seven spans in thickness
(wa’sagondaden’sta’ djowenhgaa’da’) (the span
of the thumb to middle finger, measured as an
inch worm jumps). You will hear a lot of people
talking, criticizing. Seven spans of skin will pro-
tect you. You will live clean lives so that the
people will have great respect for you. You both
know the evil spirit and the good spirit.

I am in a hurry now (turning away). There are
many more things that I should say, but I am
now at the point where I need food. (The speaker
always makes a joke of this sort to prompt the
cooks; sometimes he says the young girls want
to dance.) But I trust that you will do the right
thing.

Chief Logan had already returned to his
place when he remembered an addendum.
“T almost forgot,” he said, “that you should
know when the chiefs hold their councils.
They meet on the first Tuesday of the
month at the Onondaga Longhouse. It is
your duty to attend.”

At the end, after the Three Brothers had
accepted them and charged them with their
responsibilities, Hagya’trone’ and Desga’he’
solemnly took the two new chiefs by the
arm and seated them among their col-
leagues.

The above account, observation coupled
to remarks of informants, compares unfa-
vorably with a typical text for the same
(John A. Gibson to A. A. Goldenweiser,
1912):

CHARGE TO THE NEWLY INSTALLED
CHIEF AND His GUARDIAN

They have thickened your skin so that it is
now seven spans of the measuring bug, which
henceforth shall be the thickness of your skin.

FENTON: AN IROQUOIS CONDOLENCE COUNCIL

125

And this means too that your mind shall be firm,
not letting anything penetrate it (gossip espe-
cially), for possibly something pointed might
stick into your skin when you come to take up
your work for the cause of Righteousness, Peace,
Justice, Law, and the League. For, indeed, you
have now become the protector of the families of
your nation.

And this is what he will say, ‘‘You shall be good
natured, and what is more you shall love the
people. And don’t distinguish between any man,
whether he be wealthy or poor, good natured or
evil natured, or even very wicked; all of them
you shall love equally not excepting anyone. And
furthermore, in your consideration don’t ever per-
mit yourself to be selfish, thinking only of your
self, but always remember the elderly people, the
children too, and even those who are yet unborn
under the ground have their faces coming this
way. Always think of them in your deliberations
so that everyone shall continue to be well dis-
posed toward the successive generations of fam-
ilies. And then shall your grandchildren continue
to prosper.”’

These are all of the words.

[And now turning to the matron and the deputy
chief, whose responsibility it is to guard the chief.]
Now, moreover, you shall obey that woman who
is guarding your body as chief; and as for you
yourself (addressing the matron) never let it hap-
pen that you spoil the word of your great one who
is representing your maternal family.

Now, therefore, all of you chiefs shall be of one
mind toward the newly installed one who will be
your co-worker. You may now resume your com-
bined duties toward the Great Law (League).

So these are the number of words. Now this
ends the message of the Three Brothers.

With the seating of the new chiefs, we
made a break for the door along with others
who had sat through five hours of continu-
ous ceremonial. Outside the moon had come
up and it was crystal cold. Men returning
from the brush were gathered in little knots
to talk, others walked the circuit around the
building that had been worn bare by genera-
tions of dancers cooling off. We paused to
chat a moment with Tom Longboat, one-
time Olympic marathoner, who had re-
tired from Toronto to live in leisure among
his Onondaga tribesmen. Tastefully attired
in a dark overcoat of good make, a silk
muffler in Paisley design, and a gray felt
hat, Tom removed the pipe from his
mouth, smiled, and remarked that he had
enjoyed the ceremony, which he too was
seeing for the first time. We went back in-
side to recover our seats. But that was a
vain hope because others had taken them.

126

FEAST

We stood in the crowd by the west stove
as pairs of cooks carried in steaming kettles
slung on poles over their shoulders. Coming
in at the far end of the building, they set a
kettle down between the benches occupied
by the Three Brothers’ chiefs, and another
for the Four Brothers. Others bore in
trenchers and basket trays of chunk beef,
which was distributed to the chiefs who eat
first before the public. Deputies of the
chiefs shared in this work, carrying the
great baskets of sliced white bread from
Jones’s bakery in Caledonia, which they
distributed among the crowd in a counter-
clockwise direction. Nearly 150 pounds of
beef, a hundred-odd loaves of bread, a
sack of flour, 12 quarts of Indian white
corn, and assorted groceries had gone into
the cooking. The whole expense devolved on
the family of the new chief and his kin-
dred. (Actually the Viking Fund through
the Smithsonian Institution and the Cran-
brook Institute of Science had subsidized
the feast.) But even so it was a small feast
per person; Hardy Gibson told me that it
used to be even more expensive to install
a chief a generation ago. Then when less
cash flowed into the Reserve, it neverthe-
less cost several hundred dollars. One had
to buy a steer or two and the matron en-
listed a number of women to make the corn
bread. More labor went into the prepara-
tion and a larger crowd attended.

While the cooks were bringing in the
kettles and during the hour from nine until
ten that passed in feasting, several of the
Three Brothers’ chiefs were moved to speak.
It is customary at this time for the hosts
to inquire whether any of the chiefs have
dreamed something, 1.e., had an inspiration.

Meanwhile when outside we had missed
the final address of the Four Brothers re-
leasing the condoling chiefs at the end of the
Charge to the new chiefs; the speaker for
the Clear-minded Three Brothers had said,
‘““‘Now that together we have finished the
work and all is clear between us, you and I
are free.’’ And the Four Brothers replied:

Now then, my father’s kinsmen, together you
and I have finished everything. Therefore you

shall be informed that the Four Brothers have
prepared a feast. Accordingly the time being

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 4

shall be devoted to this. And so let us eat together
for a while. As soon as our meal is finished then
the time shall be devoted to rejoicing together
because the new one has been elevated that he
may strive for the welfare of ongoing generations
of our families. Now then we all shall rub antlers
(name of the social dance of chiefs), you chiefs.
Now, moreover, it is up to the crowd to have

good time. ;

So now, my father’s clansmen, I now let escape
from my hands our womenfolk. Accordingly you
shall use them properly. Don’t anyone treat
them too roughly! (This remark always elicits
much laughter. )

So now another thing. Time may also be de-
voted to something else. Perhaps one of you may
have had a dream (some news to relate). Then in
that event let us amuse our minds with dreams.

Meanwhile they eat the feast. Usually
before anyone has an inspiration among the |
Three Brothers, one of them will reply,
‘““‘No, we have no dreams to relate. We are
young people yet and do not sleep much.”
(The implication is that they are out all
night and have no time to dream.) But
sometimes one may reply, ‘‘We have only
one man here who sleeps much, and he has
an inspiration.”’ Then the speaker tells what
he has dreamt, which is sometimes a pre-
tense.

On the present occasion, Jim Martin
(Tekariho’kenh), the leading Mohawk Chief,
was speaking when we returned to the long-
house. Not being at home in Mohawk and
rather weary of Iroquois anyway, I was not
listening, except in a general way, to what
seemed to be a tirade directed at the Indian
Act and the Indian Department in Ottawa.
Chief Martin interspersed his Mohawk
with enough English to let me think that I
need not pay attention, when I was brought
up short with, ‘““Ne’ Washington, Ne’ Lon-
don, Ne’ Moscow Ne’ Atomic Bomb!”
The Condolence Council of the Iroquois in
the Atomic Age!

One other speaker addressed his remarks
to a felt need for returning to the ways of
the ancestors. He hoped that in the con-
templated revision of the Indian Act that
a way would be open for a return to govern-
ment by life chiefs.

RUBBING ANTLERS

Chief of the Three Brothers’ side con-
ducted the social dance that followed the

Apr. 15, 1946 REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALA FROM NEW ENGLAND AND GRAND BANKS

feast. Roy Buck and another acted as floor
managers, picking out the singers and dance
leaders.

Leading off with the Trotting or Stand-
ing Quiver Dance, Onondaga Chiefs Peter
Buck and Joe Logan turned out all the
chiefs from both sides. They chugged
around in fine humor, Pete Buck leading
and Joe Logan supporting him, and the
column of chiefs rubbing antlers was soon
lengthened by a throng of dancers until the
circle lapped itself three times. One won-
dered that these old men could keep up the
pace.

Tcin’ha’, or Garter Dance, came next.
Roy Buck and Billy Buck, a famous singer,
were the leaders. They soon had a throng
following them. By this time the house was
filled with dust and smoke and the heat of
dancing. Outside couples were walking
around the building cooling off. John Buck
III, who lays cable for the telephone com-

ZOOLOGY .—Rhizocephala from New England and the Grand Banks.'

127

pany in Hamilton, approached me because
he understood that I had succeeded John
Hewitt who had employed his father as
informant. While we were talking, Jake
Styres joined us, also the son of a chief who
had served Hewitt. Jake might have been
Deputy Chief to the newly installed Haga’-
en’yonk, but he had demurred when the
matron approached him. Employed for
years as a miller in Caledonia, he has been
too long among the white people, and mat-
ters relating to chiefship, he said, were too
deep for him. Successful though they may
be, the younger Iroquois decline to accept
such responsibility lightly. He, too, was
seeing his first Condolence.

We returned inside for the Fish Dance.
It was now after 11 o’clock. The crowd
danced until after 12, we were told, but we
went out to our cars that were now cov-
ered with frost and drove home to Ohswe-
ken to put down our heads for the night.

EDWARD

G. REINHARD, Catholic University of America.

This paper, although dealing with only
three species, includes all but one of the
Rhizocephala at present known from the
North American coast between Cape Cod
on the south and Newfoundland on the
north. The three discussed here are para-
sites of hermit crabs. The other species
known to occur within this region is Sylon
hippolytes M. Sars, which Hoek (1888)
reported under the name 'S. challengeri as a
parasite of the shrimp Spirontocaris spinus
collected by the Challenger Expedition off
Halifax, Nova Scotia.

The Rhizocephala from Greenland and
Canadian waters, tcgether with others from
the eastern North Atlantic, have been
treated in an extensive paper by Boschma
(1928). Two of the species we include here
were covered by Boschma from the stand-
point of anatomy, taxonomy, and distribu-
tion, viz. Peltogaster paguri Rathke and
Clistosaccus paguri Lilljeborg. Discussion of
these will therefore be limited to new in-
formation on geographical distribution and

1 Received December 18, 1945.

notes on the larval stages of the first men-
tioned. The remaining species is new and its
description is published herewith.

The collections of the United States
National Museum, through the kindness
of Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, have been used in
the preparation of this article. It also con-
tains hitherto unpublished results of field
work done by the author at Woods Hole,
Mass., and Lamoine, Maine.

Family PELTOGASTERIDAE Lilljeborg
Genus Peltogaster Rathke
Peltogaster paguri Rathke

Fig. 1

Material examined.—All the specimens enu-
merated in the following list were found on
Pagurus pubescens Kroyer:

Off Newfoundland, 45° 44’ 00” N., 49° 45’
00” W., 35 fathoms, June 25, 1885; three
specimens on three hosts, Albatross coll.
U.S.N.M. no. 80456. (Sectioned one.)

Off Nova Scotia, 44° 28’ 00” N., 60° 15’ 15”
W., 36 fathoms, July 7, 1885, eight specimens

128

on eight hosts, Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. no.
80453. (Sectioned one.)

Off Nova Scotia, 43° 37’ 00” N., 49° 56’ 30”
W., 36fathoms, June 24, 1885, two specimens on
two hosts, Albatross coll. U.S.N.M. 80455.

Frenchmans Bay, Maine, littoral zone, July
and August, 1938-1941, 455 specimens on 424
hosts, E. G. Reinhard coll. (Sectioned many.)

Casco Bay, Maine, 1873, one specimen on
one host, U. 8. Fish Comm. coll. U.S.N.M.
80458. (Examined by clearing.)

Off Cape Cod, Mass., 42° 01’ 00” N., 68°
00’ 30” W., 86 fathoms, August 30, 1883, one
specimen on one host, Albatross coll. U.S.N.M.
no. 80457. (Examined by clearing.)

Fig. 1.—Larval stages of Peltogaster pagurit
Rathke: A, Early nauplius, about 24 hours after
hatching, 150; B, cypris larva as it appears
when serving as a complemental male, 150. (1,
dorsal shield; 2, frontal horns; 3, unpigmented
eye; 4, frontal glands; 5, frontal filaments; 6,
labrum; 7, pigmented vesicle; 8, inner margin of
dorsal shield; 9, caudal spines.)

Peltogaster pagurit was first recorded for
North America by A. S. Packard, Jr. (1866),
who found a single specimen at Eastport,
Maine. Boschma (1928) questioned the validity
of this record and more so that of S. I. Smith
(1884) who mentions this rhizocephalid on
Pagurus pubescens off Laborador. His conten-
tion was that these two localities lie too far

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 4

north for this species and that in all proba-
bility the parasite in question was Clistosaccus
pagurr.

It is now possible to state on the basis of the
distribution records given in the present paper
that Packard’s identification was doubtless
correct. The occurrence of Peltogaster paguri
on the coast of Labrador, however, must still
be held suspect.

Larval stages.—Nilsson-Cantell (1921) de-
scribed and figured the first stage nauplius
larva of Peltogaster paguri. In essential de-
tails his figure is a good representation of the
nauplius before it is quite ready for expulsion
from the mantle cavity. The shape then is
somewhat triangular, and the frontal horns are
directed outward and slightly backward. The
size at this time is about 0.21 mm.

The nauplius described here (Fig. 1, A) is
the free-swimming larva some 24 hours after
it has been normally expelled from the mantle
cavity. In this stage it is longer, about 0.28
mm excluding the shield, and somewhat egg-
shaped in dorsal view. The frontal horns are
now tilted forward and the anterior margin of
the animal, while still convex, is slightly in-
cised in front of the eye.

A prominent dorsal shield, extending be-
yond the tips of the frontal horns and the
caudal spines, encloses the frontal, lateral, and
caudal margins of the animal. It is a trans-
parent, girdle-like covering, marked with ribs
that form small diamond-shaped patterns.

The larva itself is colorless, as are the numer-
ous fat droplets that it contains, but it pos-
sesses two pigmented vesicles, golden-orange in
color, located at the level of the third pair of
appendages, which are very distinctive in the
living animal. The eye is unpigmented.

In side view the dorsal surface of the nau-
plius is convex, the ventral surface somewhat
flattened except for an indentation at the
anterior margin of the abdomen. The first and
third pairs of appendages are about equal in
length, while the second pair is slightly longer.
All bear long hairs at the distal extremities.
The number and position of these hairs are
shown in the drawing. The spines at the tip
of the abdomen are fairly long and slender.
Mouth, alimentary tract, and anus are ab-
sent. Labrum and frontal filaments are present
as in other rhizocephalan nauplii.

It is difficult to understand why Nilsson-
Cantell remarks that in the larva of Pelto-

:

Apr. 15, 1946 REINHARD: RHIZOCEPHALA FROM NEW ENGLAND AND GRAND BANKS

gaster pagurt ‘ein deutlich abgesetztes Riick-
enschild fehlt.’”’ The dorsal shield is present in
the majority of nauplii that are normally re-
leased from the egg membranes, but since it
is not very securely fastened to the animal it
may often be lost. It is possible, however, that
the nauplii that Nilsson-Cantell studied were
too immature to possess a distinct dorsal
shield.

The cypris male (Fig. 1, B) is a slender larva
entirely enclosed in a bivalve shell except for
the antennae which project considerably be-
yond its anterior edge. The dimensions of the
shell average 0.37 mm in length, 0.08 mm in
height, and 0.03 mm in thickness. Its surface is
smooth and colorless. The living animal within
the shell shows spheres of orange color, which
are scattered fat globules of various sizes.

The prominent antennae resemble a pair of
grasping legs. Each is composed of four seg-
ments attached to a forklike tendon at the base.
The first two segments are cylindrical, the
third is broadened somewhat, and the fourth
forms a sharp spine for piercing. These organs
are inserted at a distance of about half their
length from the extreme forward tip of the
shell and emerge through the ventral gap be-
tween the valves. A small eye spot is located in
front of the antennal tendons. The only other
visible appendages are the short swimming
legs. These consist of a basal segment and two
small rami, each ramus being 2-segmented
and terminating in several long stiff hairs that
project through the posterior gap of the shell
to form a conspicuous caudal tuft.

Clusters of these cypris larvae have been
found on a number of occasions within the
incipient mantle openings of the very young
external sacs of Peltogaster, and a previous
paper has dealt with their function in the re-
productive cycle of this species (Reinhard,
-1942a).

Peltogaster naushonensis, n. sp.
Fig. 2

The host of this rhizocephalid is a small
hermit crab Pagurus annulipes (Stimpson),
which is abundant and of general distribution
throughout Vineyard Sound and Buzzards Bay
on every sort of bottom from 2 to 17 fathoms
(Sumner, Osburn, and Cole, 1913). It is rather
surprising that this parasite has escaped ob-
servation until now, and credit is due Martin
D. Burkenroad for calling the author’s atten-

129

tion to it. Mr. Burkenroad brought in a live
specimen at Woods Hole, Mass., on August
25, 1943. A few days later the author examined
35 hosts from the same locality and obtained
one additional specimen. During the following
summer Dr. John A. O’Brien, Jr., secured two
more examples of this parasite through ex-
amination of 36 P. annulipes, also at Woods
Hole. The infestation rate therefore appears to
be about 4 to 5 percent.

Sections were made of the first two speci-
mens obtained. One set of sections, designated
as the type, has been deposited in the collec-
tions of the U. 8. National Museum.

Types.—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 80916 (five
slides), Tarpaulin Cove, Naushon Island, Vine-
yard Sound, Mass., 8 fathoms, on Pagurus
annulipes (Stimpson), collected August 25,
1948, by M. D. Burkenroad; paratype,
U.S.N.M. no. 80917 (whole specimen), Woods
Hole, Mass., collected August 1944 by J. A.
O’Brien, Jr.

Diagnosis —Sacs solitary, length about two
and one-half times breadth; stalk at center af
dorsal surface with small shield; mantle open-
ing at anterior end. Colleteric glands simple,
accompanied by ganglion near their midregion.
Testes short and saccular, at region of stalk,
with long straight vasa deferentia. Retinacula
absent.

Description. —The living animal is pale pink
in color and its roots light green. The external
sac is small, in conformity with the size of the
host, and measures in the type specimen 4 mm
in length and about 1.5 mm in width and thick-
ness. The other specimens were of the following
dimensions: 3.2 mm by 1.2 mm; 3.0 mm by
1.2mm; 2.8 mm by 1.1 mm.

The mantle opening has the form of an
elliptical slit guarded by an elevated sphincter.
The stalk is located at the center of the dorsal
surface and arises from a thin slipper-shaped
chitinous shield. In its general external features
the animal resembles a small Peltogaster pagurt
except that it is already mature at a size when
the latter species would be less than half-
grown. All four specimens had the mantle
cavity filled with eggs.

The mantle is rather thin and measures
13u to 18u in thickness over much of its extent,
although occasional areas may measure as
much as 45u. In the type specimen the visceral
mass is distended with strings of eggs and has
an obovate form in cross section. In the other

130

specimen sectioned the form of the visceral mass
is much narrower since ovarian eggs are rela-
tively few.

In studying the serial sections in order, the
colleteric glands appear first. These begin
immediately in front of the shield and continue
to the level of the middle of the stalk. They are
dorsolateral in position and have a simple or
forked lumen. Just before reaching the stalk
the sections begin to show the ganglion, whose
main mass coincides with the anterior edge of
the stalk. The ganglion has the appearance of a
squat triangle, its apex extending ventrally
between the colleteric glands and its base di-
rected toward the shield. |

The left testis begins immediately behind
the ganglion and appears in the same sections
which contain the posterior portions of the
colleteric glands. The right testis begins some-
what farther back, posterior to the colleteric
glands. Both are short bag-shaped organs
whose entire extent is confined to the limits
of the stalk. Each measures about 130u in

Fic. 2.—Peltogaster naushonensis, n. sp.: A,
Ventrolateral view of type specimen from Pagurus
annulipes (Stimpson), Woods Hole, Mass., X15;
B, portion of cleared specimen, region of stalk,
showing position and shape of testes, 70. (1,
mantle opening; 2, attachment to host; 3, right
testis; 4, stalk; 5, chitinous shield.)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 4

length. The testes are enveloped by a heavy
connective tissue theca of wavy fibers but do
not possess a basement membrane.

The vasa deferentia are about twice as long
as the testes. They emerge abruptly and extend
as straight tubes a distance of about 264u to
emerge on the lateral surface of the visceral
mass near the posterior limit of dorsal shield.

In the shape of the testes, the position of the
ganglion, the uncoiled vasa deferentia, and the
absence of retinacula this species is sharply
distinguished from Peltogaster pagurt Rathke.

Family CLisTosaccIDAE Boschma
Genus Clistosaccus Lilljeborg
Clistosaccus paguri Lilljeborg

Material examined.—Off Newfoundland, 45°
44’ 00” N., 49° 45’ 00” W., 35 fathoms, June
25, 1885; one specimen on Pagurus pubescens
Kroyer, Albatross coll. (Sectioned.)

Off Nova Scotia, 44° 28’ 00” N., 60° 15’ 15”
W., 36 fathoms, July 7, 1885; four specimens
on one Pagurus pubescens Kroyer, Albatross
coll. U.S.N.M. no. 80454. (Sectioned one.)

Clistosaccus paguri has previously been col-
lected in the Atlantic waters of the Western
Hemisphere only from the west coast of Green-
land (Boschma, 1928). These records extend
the known range of this species south to the
Grand Banks, where it overlaps the northern
limit of Peltogaster paguri Rathke. At both
stations Clistosaccus pagurt and Peltogaster
pagurt were present on the same species of host
crab.

The specimen collected off Newfoundland
measured 20 mm in length. It was sectioned
and gave evidence of being a senescent indi-
vidual with degenerating visceral mass and
greatly atrophied testis and colleteric glands.
The four parasites on the other crab varied
from 11 to 13 mm in length. This host, a female
of 20 mm carapace length, also bore two scars
where former parasites had been attached.
One of the larger clistosaccids was sectioned
and the internal anatomy was found to be
characteristic of this species.

The first-mentioned specimen and three of
the four others were unusual in having the
mantle opening directed backward. Such a re-
versed orientation often occurs in cases of mul-
tiple parasitism (Reinhard, 1942b). The C-
shaped mantle opening and broad stalk of
attachment, important external diagnostic

Apr. 15, 1946

features pointed out in the case of specimens
from the Northwest Pacific (Reinhard, 1944),
were likewise present in these specimens from
the North Atlantic.

LITERATURE CITED

Boscuma, H. Rhizocephala of the North Atlantic.
Danish Ingolf Expedition 3 (10): 1-49. 1928.

Hoek, P. P. C. Description of Sylon challengeri,
n. Sp., a parasitic curruped. Appendix A in:
Report on the Crustacea Macrura collected
by H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-
76, by C. Spence Bate. Zool. Challenger
Exped. part 52: 919-926. 1888. _.

NILsson-CANTELL, C. A. Cirripeden-Studien.
Zur Kenntniss der Biologie, Anatomie und
Systemattk dieser Gruppe. Zool. Bidrag
Uppsala 7: 75-378. 1921.

PackarpD, A. S., Jr. Observations on the glacial

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

131

phenomena of Labrador and Maine, with a
view of the recent invertebrate fauna of Labra-
dor. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 1: 210-
303. 1866.

REINHARD, E. G. The reproductive réle of the
complemental males of Peltogaster. Journ.
Morph. 70: 389-402. 1942a.

. Studies on the life history and host-

parasite relationship of Peltogaster payuri.

Biol. Bull. 83: 401-415. 1942b.

. Rhizocephalan parasites of hermit crabs
from the Northwest Pacific. Journ. Washing-
ton Acad. Sci. 34: 49-58. 1944.

SmiTuH, S. I. Review of the marine Crustacea of
Labrador. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 6: 223-232.
1884.

SuMNER, F. B., OsBpurn, R:. C., and Cote,
L. J. A biological survey of the waters of Woods
Hole and vicinity. Bull. Bur. Fisheries 31 (2):
549-860. 19138.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
625TH MEETING

The 625th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, January 10, 1945, Presi-
dent L. W. CurRisr presiding.

Informal communication.—C. Mutton dis-
cussed caliche-top-coated cobbles from a glacial
moraine in northwestern New Jersey.

Program.—C. L. Gorpon: Attack of minerals
by acids at elevated temperatures. Refractory
‘metals and alloys of the platinum group, such
as the native grain platinum minerals, can be
- easily prepared for analysis by solution with
hydrochloric acid and suitable oxidants in
sealed tubes at temperatures up to 300° C.
The method is less laborious than preparing
solutions by fusion methods and has another
advantage in that the solution obtained does
not contain undesirable amounts of alkali
salts. The solution of many refractory oxides
and silicate minerals is successfully attained by
the simple method of sealing the mineral with
hydrochloric acid in a Pyrex glass tube and
heating. On the microscale this method re-
quires no other precaution than that the heat-
ing be conducted in a uniform manner.

Details of the sealed tube technics are pub-
lished as Research Papers 1614, 1621 and 1622
in the Journal of Research of the National
Bureau of Standards.

As a result of trials of the method of silicate
minerals it was found that decomposition of
the albite-anorthite series of plagioclase feld-

spars was not uniformly graded from complete
for anorthite to none for albite. There is an
abrupt change at AbsAngo corresponding to
about 58 percent silica, above which solution
was not appreciable and below which solution
was complete. This is thought to be the first
clearly defined evidence for “‘resistance limits”
(as shown by Tammann for several series of
alloys and for a series of synthetic mixed
crystals) in an isomorphous natural mineral
replacement series.

K. J. Murata and W. G. ScHLEcHT: Chemi-
cal behavior and crystal structure of szlicate
minerals. The two kinds of behavior, gelatiniza-
tion and separation of insoluble silica, shown
by silicate minerals when decomposed by acids,
have been correlated with the internal struc-
ture and composition of the minerals (Amer.
Min. 28: 545-562. 1943). A further study of
44 minerals with continuous, 3-dimensional
silicon-oxygen and aluminum-oxygen struc-
tures, such as feldspars and zeolites, has been
made, and the way in which the aluminum-
silicon ratio determines their behavior is em-
phasized. Such minerals with an aluminum to
silicon ratio smaller than 1:2 will separate in-
soluble silica, while those richer in aluminum
will gelatinize.

On the assumption that the acid treatment
dissolves away aluminum from the alumino-
silicate structures and leaves behind silicon-
oxygen clusters, the gelatinization behavior is
thought to depend on the sizes of these clus-

132

ters. If they are small enough to dissolve in the
acid, they will form a gel; otherwise they will
separate as insoluble residual silica. X-rays do
not show the arrangement of the silicon and
aluminum atoms with respect to each other in
the crystal structure; but the behavior of the
minerals toward acids shows that in the
gelatinizing minerals the arrangement must be
such that small clusters of silica are released
when the aluminum is dissolved away. A
theoretical study shows that such a arrange-
ment cannot be random, but must have as
regular a pattern as possible, in the ranges of
composition that occur. Calculation of the dis-
tribution of cluster-sizes shows that in a ran-
dom arrangement there would not be enough
of the smaller clusters to form a gel.

The limiting aluminum-silicon ratio of 1 to 2
for gelatinization in 3-dimensional silicate
structures is the same as the resistance limit to
attack found by Gordon and Wichers (see pre-
ceding abstract) for plagioclase feldspars
heated with acid in sealed tubes. This ratio may
be considered a resistance limit for an alumi-
num-silicon solid solution series, with a three-
dimensional structure—a limit arrived at in-
directly, by using different individual minerals
to represent the various aluminum-silicon
ratios. As predicted by Tammann, the struc-
ture can have a sharp resistance limit to attack
only if the two kinds of atoms are symmetri-
cally distributed in the structure.

This study is described in Contributions to
Geochemistry, 1942-45, U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull.
950 (in press).

A. J. Boprntos: Structural control of the
magnesite vein system in the Red Mountain
district, Calif. The Red Mountain district is
on the border of Santa Clara and Stanislaus
Counties, Calif., 31 miles southeast of Liver-
more. The magnesite deposits are in an ultra-
basic intrusive body consisting chiefly of peri-
dotite and dunite. There are five deposits in the
area, the two largest being operated by the
Western Mine. The magnesite is a vein mineral,
deposited in premagnesite serpentinized shear
and crush zones. Throughout mineralization
the sites of mineral deposition have been
closely controlled by structural features, as
shown by: limitation of the large deposits to
serpentinized shear and crush zones; localiza-
tion of ore bodies within the shear and crush
zones; and localization of high-grade shoots
within ore bodies. The length and width of ore

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 4

bodies are most variable, but the vertical extent
is limited, rarely exceeding 400 feet in depth.
Postmagnesite minerals, including chalcedony,
opal, hydrated magnesium silicates, dolomite,
and calcite, are deposited in the fractures pro-
duced by recurrent movement in the shear and
crush zones. The magnesite is eryptocrystal-
line, white, and porcelanic in appearance, and
was deposited mainly as nodular bodies re-
placing serpentine and also as fissure-filling in
open fractures. Magnesite at Red Mountain is
considered to have been deposited near the
surface from low-temperature hypogene solu-
tions.
626TH MEETING

The 626th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, February 14, 1945,
President L. W. CURRIER presiding.

Program.—G. H. EspENSHADE: Tungsten de-
posits 1n Vance County, N. C., and Mecklen-
burg County, Va.

M. Fueiscuer, 8. K. NeuscHgt, and J. M.
AXELROD: Occurrence of tungsten and vanadium
in manganese oxide minerals and ores. ‘The
occurrence of tungsten in manganese oxide ores
was first noted by Penrose in 1890 and since
has been discussed by several authors. Vana-
dium has been reported in four analyses of
manganese oxides. New analyses in the Chemi-
cal Laboratory of the Federal Geological Sur-
vey have shown that these elements occur
commonly in manganese oxide ores, especially
in those from the southwestern United States.
Over 50 new occurrences have been noted, and
many more will doubtless be found by syste-
matic chemical testing.

In some deposits the tungsten and vanadium
content of the ore varies directly with the
manganese content, indicating that the tung-

_sten and vanadium are in the manganese-oxide

mineral. This is not true of a few deposits, in-
cluding that at Golconda, Nev. X-ray study
and chemical analysis show that tungsten and
vanadium occur most frequently in manganese
oxides that contain barium. Over three-fourths
of the tungsten-bearing samples studied are
the barium manganate psilomelane. Over two-
thirds of the vanadium-bearing samples studied
are either psilomelane or hollandite.

No generalization can yet be made as to the
origin of the tungsten-bearing and vanadium-
bearing manganese oxide ores. Many are of
hydrothermal origin, but some appear to be
secondary.

Apr. 15, 1946

T. G. Payne: Stratigraphic and structural
features, lower Matanuska Valley coal foeld,
Alaska. High-volatile bituminous coal is pro-
duced from a Tertiary sequence. The sequence,
about 6,000 feet thick, is subdivided into four
parts, in ascending order: (1) 2,500 feet of
alternating beds of sandstone, finer clastics,
and some coal, mostly nonminable, (2) 600 feet
of conglomerate, in two facies derived from
different source areas, interbedded with arkosic
sandstone, (8) 1,200 feet of coal measures, and
(4) 1,700 feet of conglomerate and sandstone.
These parts indicate alternating periods of
weak and strong orogenic movements. Second-
order cycles in the coal measures began with
dominance of river sedimentation forming
sandstone, containing channel conglomerates
locally at the base, grading upward into flood-
plain silts and silty clays containing a few
widely spaced coal beds. After this, relative
quiescence led to long-sustained regional
swamp and stagnant-lake conditions forming
alternating beds of minable coal, bone, clay-
stone, and intermediate types. Relative uplift
of the source area, with increased stream gradi-
ents, started a repetition of the cycle.

Stratigraphic intervals change in thickness
laterally, as a result of differential compaction
of sediments having marked lateral textural
differences. Amount of compaction is evalu-
ated to determine original sedimentational
thickness used in correlation.

Mines are at both ends and along the north
limb of a canoe-shaped syncline cut by two
sets of transverse faults of horizontal displace-
ment. An underthrust strike fault coincides
with an area of tight subsidiary folding on part
of the north limb.

627TH MEETING

The 627th meeting of the Society was held
of the Cosmos Club, February 28, 1945, Presi-
dent L. W. CurRIER presiding.

Informal communication —L. HENBEST re-
ported on blasted limestone near Jemez
Springs, N. Mex.

Program.—J. F. McA.uisTER: Geology of
quicksilver deposits in Chile.

G. C. Harpin, Jr.: Fluorspar deposits of the
Babb fault system, Ky.

D. KE. Wurst: Localization of the antimony
deposits of Mexico. Most of the world’s anti-
mony deposits seem closely related to the cir-
cum-Pacific belts of Tertiary and Quaternary

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

133

vuleanism and diastrophism. Nearly all the
Mexican production, which is about 20 percent
of the world total, is from a belt 1,400 miles
long by 10 to 100 miles wide, in the pre-
Tertiary rocks adjacent to the northeastern
border and ends of Mexico’s large area of Ter-
tiary lavas. The antimony deposits are prob-
ably related to the Tertiary volcanic activity,
though possibly less closely than most of the tin
and quicksilver deposits.

The antimony deposits are largely in lime-
stone, but some are in other types of rocks.
The deposits in limestone are accompanied by
silicification and locally by replacement by clay
minerals; solution cavities are common. The
original ore mineral was stibnite, that is gen-
erally oxidized; deposits in limestone commonly
carry small amounts of mercury.

The dominant structural controls are faults,
fractures, and anticlinal axes; chemical control
may be important. In the three most produc-
tive districts, the ore is near contacts of lime-
stone with overlying shale, adjacent to the
feeding channels. In contrast, in most other
districts in limestone, the shale is lacking. Six
major districts are described; in one the ore
is probably related genetically to the source
of the associated quartz prophyry.

Mining has not gone below a depth of 600
feet, because of the relatively low value of the
ore, and the horizontal control of the ore
bodies by structure or lithology. The grade of
the ore may also be related to the surface, but
evidence is lacking. Wherever favorable struc-
ture exists, however, the deposits undoubtedly
extend below the depths of present mining.

628TH MEETING

The 628th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, March 14, 1945, Presi-
dent L. W. CurrimER presiding.

Program.—H. T. U. Smitu: Rock streams in
the Blue Ridge. Bare, streamlike accumula-
tions of boulders along valley bottoms occur at
widely separated localities along the Blue
Ridge from southern Pennsylvania to West
Virginia. The boulders are loosely packed, un-
sorted, heterogeneous in size and shape, and
range up to about 12 feet in length. The sound
of running water beneath the surface is audi-
ble. The accumulations are up to 1,800 feet in
length and 100 feet in width. Surface gradient
is generally 3° to 5°. The boulders are of
quartzite derived from neighboring slopes and

134

ridges. They are now lichen-covered, are under-
going disintegration in place, and show no
evidence of appreciable present-day movement.
The rock streams appear to be “fossil” forms,
and are best explained as a product of wide-
spread movement of frost-riven blocks down
valley slopes by solifluction under periglacial
conditions of Pleistocene time, with subse-
quent localized removal of interstitial material
by running water. This explanation applies also
to the boulder-choked valleys and subdued,
overgrown talus slopes which are more wide-
spread in the area.

L. Hensest: Correlation of the marine Penn-
sylvanian rocks of northern New Mexico and
western Colorado. The lower limestone mem-
ber of the Sandia formation, in the southern
Sangre de Cristo Range, seemingly unfossilifer-
ous and formerly classed as Pennsylvanian,
proves to contain Endothyra bailey: (Hall), a
Mississippian foraminifer characteristic of the
Leadville limestone. This member, also present
locally in the Sandia Range, resembles the
Leadville of the San Juan Mountains and ex-
tends the Mississippian 200 miles southward.
Pennsylvanian deposition began with ter-
restrial clastics on a deeply weathered, uneven
surface at many widely distributed localties.
These clastics range in age from Springer to
Morrow and correlate with the intensely red
Molas formation. An extensive marine invasion
of Morrow age is indicated by a wide distribu-
tion of the Millerella fauna. Millerella charac-
terizes the Glen Kyrie shale member of the
Fountain formation; part of the Belden shale
member of the Battle Mountain formation of
Brill at Glenwood Springs and Salida; basal
Hermosa, subsurface in San Juan County,
N. Mex.; and the lowest Pennsylvaniar. lime-
stone beds in Moffat County, Colo., and in
adjacent parts of Utah. Fusulinella faunas
(Atoka age) characterize the basal 100 feet of
the Hermosa formation, San Juan Mountains,
and a prominently developed zone in north-
western Colorado and adjacent Utah. They
are present in the Crested Butte area, San
Juan County, N. Mex. (Hermosa formation),
Sierra Nacimiento (Madera formation), Sandia
Range (Sandia (?) formation), etc. Fusulina-
Wedekindellina faunas (lower Des Moines age),
characterize the most widely and prominently
developed marine zone in this province. They
occur in the Robinson limestone of Emmons,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 4

the upper McCoy formation of Roth, the
middle and upper type Hermosa formation and
in La Veta Pass and the southern Sangre de
Cristo Range, Sandia Range, Manzano Range,
Sierra Nacimiento, and northwestern Colorado
and adjacent. Utah. The Fusulina girtyr zone
(middle Des Moines) is generally lacking. The
apparently uppermost Des Moines species of
Fusulina are found so far only in the Sierra
Nacimiento and in Juniper and Cross Moun-
tains in Moffat County, Colo. The zones of
Millerella, Fusulinella, and Fusulina-Wede-
kindellina are well displayed in Juniper and
Cross Mountains, but the rocks of equivalent
age become more clastic and less fossiliferous
westward. If rocks of Missouri or Virgil age
are present in the western Colorado uplifts
they are generally represented by redbeds and
clastics barren of Fusulinidae.

G. W. Stose: A description of the geologic
map of South America. A hand-colored first
draft of the geologic map of South America,
compiled under the auspices of the Geological
Society of America, the American Geographical
Society, and the U.S. Geological Survey, to be
published as a special paper of the Geological
Society of America, was presented. It was
pointed out that the Archean complex and
overlying Algonkian sediments in the Brazilian
shield are comparable to pre-Cambrian rocks
of the Appalachians of the United States, that
the Gondwana series of South America culmi-
nates in redbeds and vast basalt flows of late
Triassic age comparable to the Newark series
of the Appalachians, that late Carboniferous
granites and Paleozoic rocks in eastern Colom-
bia may be the southward extension of Ap-
palachian structures in the United States, and
that the late Cretaceous to early Tertiary
granitic intrusions of the Sierras are continuous
with those in the Andes from Colombia to
Patagonia.

629TH MEETING

The 629th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, March 28, 1945, President
L. W. CurRRIER presiding.

Program.—C. Wauruartia: Preliminary re-
port on the physiographic history of part of the
Alaska Range. The results of field studies in
connection with the investigation of coal de-
posits in the Alaska Range and ‘of studies of
aerial photographs indicate that the late Ter-_

Apr. 15, 1946

tiary and Quaternary geology of the Alaska
Range can be summarized as follows: First,
uplift’ of mid-Tertiary mountains, faulting and
folding the coal-bearing sediments, resulting in
the deposition and later deformation of 5,000
feet of continental Nenana gravel. Second, re-
duction of at least part of these mountains to a
nearly level surface. Third, warping of this
surface along east-west axes. The Alaska Range
was uplifted, and the Tanana flats to the north
depressed. The history of this warping is evi-
denced by numerous superimposed streams and
excellently preserved terraces and erosion sur-
faces. Glaciers advanced north from the
Alaska Range on two occasions; the surface on
which the early advance took place is at the
level of the Nenana River at the northern
border of the mountains, and is 2,300 feet
above the river 20 miles to the south. The
terminal moraine of the latest (Wisconsin) ice
advance is preserved at Healy on a terrace 400
feet above the Nenana River. This terrace
merges with the level of the river 20 miles
north. What appears to have been a dome sub-
sidiary to the main uplift of the Alaska Range
has produced the Kantishna Hills. Doming of
these hills has forced the drainage from the
Alaska Range around the southwest end of the
Kantishna Hills. Sediment formation in a man-
ner similar to that prevailing in arid regions
appears to have contributed to the develop-
ment of the various terraces and surfaces as
much as lateral planation of the major streams.
©. P. Ross and J. D. Forrester: The new
geologic map of Idaho. The recently compiled
geologic map of Idaho is expected to be ready
to go to the printer in April 1945. Although a
number of small-scale geologic maps of the
state have appeared, this is the first colored
map in comparable detail that has yet been
prepared for publication. It should be the fore-
runner of others.

The map shows the Tdahio. batholith, and
other intrusive bodies, the wide expanses of
Belt rocks, the highly deformed Paleozoic and
Mesozoic strata, and the extensive and varied
cover of Tertiary and later rocks. The famous
Coeur d’Alene region, marked on the map by a
complex of faults, continues to be the most
productive mining area in the state but during
World War II notable contributions in tung-
sten, quicksilver, antimony and other metals
have been made by mines farther south. The

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

135

Phosphoria formation, one of the map units
conspicuous in the southeastern part of the
state, has long been famous for its phosphate
reserves and more recently for its vanadium.

The geologic map, accompanied by structure
sections and a bibliographic index map, is to be
published under a cooperative agreement be-
tween the U. 8S. Geological Survey and the
Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology.

G. A. Cooper: Stratigraphy of the Caleta
area, northwestern Sonora, Mexico.

630TH MEETING

The 630th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, April 11, 1945, Vice-
president A. A. Baker presiding.

Program.—P. B. Kine: Tectonic map of the
United States. A tectonic map of the United
States was published in 1944 by the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists. A tec-
tonic map is one that depicts by symbols and
patterns the geologic structure—that is, the
lay of the rock strata, their folds and disloca-
tions, and the position of volcanoes, salt domes,
and many other features. The tectonic map
of the United States is the result of long plan-
ning and cooperative endeavor by American
geologists and their organizations. It was com-
piled by the Committee on Tectonics of the
National Research Council. The map is based
in part upon published sources, such as the
numerous maps issued by the Federal Geologi-
cal Survey. In addition, a large amount of un-
published material was furnished by petroleum
geologists. On the map, the structure of the
gently tilted rocks of the central interior region
and the coastal plains is represented by con-
tour lines. To a large extent these contours are
derived from data obtained in the drilling of
numerous wells put down in the search for oil
and gas. The tectonic map is of considerable
academic interest, but it is also being used by
geologists who are searching for new productive
provinces for petroleum and for ore deposits.

A. H. Howuanp: Petrology of the Society
Islands.

S.S. Nyg: Orogeny of the Mexican Plateau and
its relation to ore, oil, and ground water. The
search for ground-water for the irrigation of
guayule in the basins near Torreon! neces-
sitated a consideration of the origin of the

1 By an employee of the Emergency Rubber
Project, U. S. Forest Service.

136

basins. The conclusion was reached that the
excavation of the basins by stream erosion is
impossible and that the basins are the product
of two major periods of down-faulting and
filling with detrital material. The following
hypothesis was offered:

Beginning in late Cretaceous time a great
body of magma was formed beneath the entire
Mexican plateau through the constant addition
of heat. Expansive forces resulting from the
heating of the magma lifted the plateau. Frac-
tures formed along the south and west sides
permitted the extrusion of lavas. The subse-
quent loss of temperature and pressure within
the magma chamber resulted in the structural
failure of its roof and collapse of the basins.
Deformation of the strata in the Eastern Sierra
Madre and south of the Parras Basin resulted
from sliding and falling of these strata on a
pre-Jurassic surface. High temperature ore de-
posits occur in fractures formed during the
lift of the plateau, moderate temperature de-
posits in fractures formed during the first col-
lapse, and low temperature deposits in the
fractures formed during the second collapse.
Oil structures within the plateau were de-
stroyed; mild deformation on the coastal plains
permitted the later accumulation of oil. Frac-
turing during the uplift and basin faultings
provided initial reservoir and channel openings
for the large springs. The first basin fill, derived
largely from shales, contains little, if any, high
yielding water-bearing material. Water for
large-scale irrigation should be sought for in
the secondary basins where there are large
amounts of unconsolidated gravel and sand.

631ST MEETING

The 631st meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, October 24, 1945, Presi-
dent L. W. CurRizEr presiding.

Program.—Mari& L. LinpBErRG: Bromine in
carnallite and sylvite. Both carnallite and syl-
vite from Eddy County, N. Mex., contain 0.1
percent of bromine. The bromine content of
these minerals from Grand County, Utah, is
three times as great. No bromine was detected
in halite, polyhalite, langbeinite, or anhydrite
from New Mexico. Iodine was not detected in
any of these minerals. On the basis of the bro-
mine content of the sylvite from New Mexico,
it is calculated that 7,000 tons of bromine
were present in potash salts mined from the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 4

Permian Basin during the period 1931 to 1945.

H. T. U. Smrru: Giant glacial furrows on
northwest Canada. In the Mackenzie Valley
area west of Great Bear Lake, many ridges and
mountain slopes are cut by glacial grooves on a
scale far larger than previously recorded. Indi-
vidual grooves range up to about 100 feet in
depth and more than a mile in length. The
grooves are essentially straight, parallel, and
closely spaced, forming a characteristic ridge-
and-trough topography. They occur in zones
showing the influence of both topographic ex-
posure and differential erodibility of the bed-
rock. The orientation of the grooves is indif-
ferent to structural trends and to drainage
lines. The alignment of grooves in the several
zones falls into a systematic pattern recording
the advance of a continental ice sheet north-
west along the Mackenzie Valley.

J.B. Mertiz, Jr.: A review: “Atomic Energy
for Military Purposes,” by Henry D. Smyth.

632D MEETING

The 632d meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, November 14, 1945,
President L. W. Currinr presiding.

Program.—C. B. Hunt: Military geology.

633D MEETING

The 633d meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, December 12, 1945, Sec-
retary J. VAN N. Dorr, 2d, presiding.

Program.—Presidential address by L. W.
Currier: “Granitization’” as a regional meta-
morphic process in New England.

53D ANNUAL MEETING

The 53d Annual meeting was held immedi-
ately following the 633d regular meeting. The
reports of the meeting secretary, treasurer, and
auditing committee were read and approved.
Officers for the year 1946 were then elected:

President: W. H. BRADLEY

Vice-presidents: W. F. Fosua@ and J. C. REED

Secretary (2 years): MEpora H. KRIEGER

Treasurer: CARRON

Members-at-large of the Council: ALICE ALLEN,
J. R. Baustey, W. H. Hass, A. H. Koscumann,
and V. E. McKELvEY.

The Society nominated L. W. CURRIER to _
be a vice-president of the Washington Academy
of Sciences for the year 1946.

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May 15, 1946 No. 5

JOURNAL

OF THE

“WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Haratp A. REHDER Wiiuiam N, Fenton James I, HorrMaNn

U. 5. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS ‘

Frank C. KRacexk ALAN STONE

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 36

May 15, 1946

No. 5

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY.—An application of the theory of themes in

culture."
Foundation.

In a paper previously published it was
suggested that dynamic affirmations called
themes could profitably be employed as a
point of departure in analyzing or inter-
preting a culture or a particular round of
life. A theme was there defined as ‘‘a postu-
late or position, declared or implied, and
usually controlling behavior or stimulating
activity, which is tacitly approved or open-
ly promoted in a society.’ In that article
were discussed the actualizations or ‘‘ex-
pressions” of the theme in conduct and be-
lief, the types of expression that are likely
to be found, the clues to the relative impor-
tance of themes, the limiting factors that
ordinarily prevent a single theme from
dominating the culture or disrupting the
cultural equilibrium, and the structure that
results from the balance and interplay of
themes. The examples offered did not con-
stitute an ordered review of the themal sys-
tem of any particular culture, however, but
were chosen primarily to illuminate the
definitions and the theoretical points to be
made. In the present paper I propose to list,
illustrate, and briefly discuss all the themes
I have been able to identify in a given
culture.* The culture I shall analyze in this
manner (and this is a quite arbitrary
choice) is that of the Lipan Apache Indians
of the American Southwest.

1 Received March 1, 1946.

eee Themes as dynamic forces in culture,
p. :

3 The opportunity to perfect the method, or-
ganize the material, and write this paper was
made possible by a John Simon Guggenheim
Fellowship. I am grateful to Commander A. H.
Leighton, Medical Corps, U.S.N.R., Dr. Doro-
thea C. Leighton, Dr. William H. Kelly, and Dr.
William N. Fenton, who read this article in
manuscript, for helpful comments and criticisms.

Morris Epwarp OPpter, Fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim
(Communicated by WitiiaM N. FEnTon.)

Before introducing the themes of Lipan
culture and the supporting evidence that
seems to me to validate them, it may be
helpful to explain how they were deter-
mined. After the information had been ob-
tained in the field, the notebooks were read
and headings were supplied to guide the
typist. Before the typed materials were
filed under conventional categories they
were proofread and corrected. Large sec-
tions of the data have been consulted from
time to time in the preparation of articles
and monographs. Thus, constant handling
of the material over a long period had made
me thoroughly familiar with it and in-
creasingly conscious of the principal Lipan
doctrines and postulates that were affirmed.
When I decided to test the theory of themes
by applying it to this particular body of
material, I again gave the entire set of notes
a close and uninterrupted reading so that
I might appreciate the extensions and rami-
fications of any theme recognized in an
early phase of the survey. It was only after
this that I systematically worked through
the data, brought together the items of
belief and behavior that seemed to be in-
spired by a common affirmation or incen-
tive, and endeavored to express the ruling
and unifying doctrine as a statement that
I have called a theme. I had no idea how
many themes would result from this treat-
ment. I could not foresee what proportion
of the material would be found to be an ex-
pression of one or another of the themes and
so would be absorbed and utilized by means
of this method. The approach has been
thoroughly experimental and, in terms of
execution, largely inductive.

In a description of a culture in terms of

137

“ny 21 BE

138

themes, particularly in an outline summary
account such as this, the emphasis is bound
to be upon ideology, values, and stimuli to
activity rather than upon an inventory of
techniques of manufacture and material
possessions. By the very definition of a
theme, the point of departure must be the
warm, normative, subjective aspects of the
culture rather than the practical, objective
facets that Merton, following Alfred Weber
and R. M. MaclIver, has given the technical
term “civilization.” The apparent slighting
of items relating to geographical setting,
technology, and material culture may dis-
turb those who are used to the orthodox
ethnographic tradition and who expect to
learn early in any study of a native people
what plants they use, how they tan skins,
and how they fashion weapons. Actually, a
full exposition based on the themal ap-
proach would provide the details of ma-
terial culture and technical proficiency,
though, to my mind, this is not its primary
task. For instance, a complete discussion of
the moral-social virtue industry (theme
17) would necessarily indicate what indus-
trious men and women are trained to do and
would consequently offer a clear picture of
the division of labor and the nature of the
daily tasks.

— One other introductory comment may be
in order. Because themes are generaliza-
tions from many particulars and because
many of them have an abstract and philo-
sophical flavor, they may be confused by
some with ideal rather than actualized or
expected patterns of behavior. It must
therefore be emphasized again that the
themes listed below are distilled from the
details of the culture as it functioned or is
alleged to have functioned and therefore
represent requirements and guides to ac-
tion and not merely pious hopes.

Theme 1. The elements of the universe are actually
or potentially animate and personified

E The traditional “history” of the Lipan
begins in an underworld at a time when

4 MeErRTOoN, Civilization and culture. While the
distinction is an extremely helpful one, I am not
enthusiastic over the use of the term “‘civiliza-
tion’’ in this sense.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 5

animals, birds, plants, and rocks were also.

people and all shared a universal language.
The elements of the natural world did not
assume their present forms until the ‘“peo-
ple” of the underworld had emerged and
were traveling sunwise around the surface
of the world. Then it was, for instance, that
the Juniper People halted their journey at
a certain spot and the gay necklaces of
green beads they wore became the juniper
berries that the Lipan have gathered for
food ever since. The earth to which the
people of the emergence came is described
as a woman, and those who live upon her
body are considered to be her children.’
Large rocks are her teeth. Earthquakes
occur when she becomes excited, when she
is dissatisfied with the weather. |
The sun and the moon, too, traveled for
a time with the people of the emergence.
Male characteristics are attributed to the
sun, and, in his personified guise, he is
identified with Enemy Slayer, the culture
hero. The moon is most often thought of
as a woman and is associated with Changing
Woman, the culture heroine and the mother
of the culture hero. Before they left the
people of the emergence, these two promised
that they would always keep moving in the
heavens, guiding and watching over those
with whom they had journeyed. The sun, in
particular, is a model of industry and vir-
tue. He never tires of telling earthlings,
“Do not lie in bed; get- up when I do.”
The morning glow is the sign that he is
mixing his paints. Early in the morning he
daubs his face with red ochre and starts
out. In summer he travels closer to the
earth, in winter farther away; therefore
winter is the most dangerous as well as
the most inclement of the seasons. In sum-
mer he travels slowly, causing the days to
be long and giving the plants which sus-
tain man a chance to grow. But if the people
are practicing sorcery and courting evil,
Sun grows angry and it becomes unseason-
ably hot or cold. Should the misbehavior

5 Very few Lipan survive today, and many
traits of the aboriginal culture are no longer prac-
ticed. To prevent confusion and to obviate the
necessity for constant change of tense, however,
the historical present will be used throughout in
describing Lipan culture.

6.
“— = oom

May 15, 1946

persist, the sun, who hates sorcery above
all things, hides his face and an eclipse
occurs. Then the old people bring the pegs
which are used to stake out hides and shake
them together so that the sun’s wrath will
not be felt close by. |

In the beginning, when all objects of the
world were animate and personified, the
fruit and old age were placed in the care of
Walking Rock. It was he who prayed to
the Thunder People to bring rain and to
allow the fruit to ripen; it was he who first
daubed white clay on the heads of people
and thus brought gray hair and old age into
being.

The Lightning (or Thunder) People are
winged sky beings who are, unfortunately,
easily aroused to jealousy and anger. The
greatest danger, however, is from their
children, who are inclined to be mischievous
and to shoot their arrows (lightning) care-
lessly. Not only is Lightning animate, but
it is essential to the animation of man.
There is lightning within every human be-
ing. Wind, too, enters the body by way of
the throat at birth, and life lasts only as
long as these two vital qualities remain.

Peyote is a small cactus with narcotic
properties which is found along the Rio
Grande watershed in Texas and northern
Mexico. When its crown, the ‘‘peyote but-
ton,” is cut off and chewed, exhilaration
and color visions result. A widespread re-
ligious cult has grown up around the use of
this plant. In each Lipan peyote ceremony,
a large “button” is placed back of the fire
and is closely watched by the ceremonialist
in charge. This ‘‘chief peyote,” I was as-
sured by Lipan, can see and understand
better than a man and functions to reveal
and to prevent wrong-doing and evil
thought. By means of this plant the pious
can come into contact with the Peyote
People who have meetings of their own,
who eat each other with impunity and who
grant power and ceremony to those who
seek to know their ways well.

In their own settings, animals are de-
scribed as having human sensibilities. Ac-
cording to one account, a Lipan woman
finds shelter from a storm in a bear’s den.
The parent bears are absent when she

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

139

arrives, but, because she treats the cubs
with affection, the elders spare her life and
ultimately guide her back to her home.
Nevertheless, while she is with them, the
bears make her wash in yucca root suds,
for the human odor she exudes is most ob-
noxious to them. This is a neat reversal of
the objection of Lipan to various animal
odors.

Often what appears to be only a bird
may actually be the alternative form of a
being that controls the means to wealth
and prestige. The cowbird, for example, is
associated with the capture and taming of
wild horses. For the benefit of one to whom
the acquisition of and control over horses is
a religious as well as a secular quest, Cow-
bird may assume the form of a little man
with quirt in hand, clinging to the neck of
the stallion that runs at the head of the
herd. Should the quirt fall to the ground
during pursuit, it is recovered by the Lipan
and prayed to reverently. As likely as not,
a vision experience and a power grant will
result from such an encounter.

All this is but a sampling from the rich
store of tale and belief emphasizing the
animate and human attributes of objects
and beings of the earth and skies. Conse-
quently, in terms of interest and desire, it
is a small, intimate universe in which the
Lipan dwell. Consciousness, human char-
acteristics, and concern for the people of
earth bring the mightiest and most remote
elements close. On the other hand, the
familiar, the small, and the inert are mag-
nified in importance by the tradition that
they were once powerful and alive and may
become so again to the discerning. Vitality,
power, animation are not formally fixed
and immutable. They are like beams of
light that shine now here, now there. The
feelings, attitudes, and place of all things
must be considered, for to the very end of
his days the Lipan does not know what may
yet succor him and what may be instru-
mental in his undoing.

Theme 2. The universe ts pervaded by diffuse super-
natural power, which may become specific for
those psychologically prepared to receive tt

The objects, forces, and beings of the
Lipan world usually become animate or

140

personified in order to aid the deserving
or to punish the erring. The aid offered a
human being may be for the occasion only
or it may consist in the granting of a cere-
mony which insures supernatural help in
recurring crises. A ceremony properly per-
formed is a claim on the help of the source
from which it came. Therefore particular
ceremonies are extremely useful for spe-
cific tasks or occasions. A shaman who has
a power grant and a ceremony from the
buffalo, for instance, conducts his ritual
before a buffalo hunt. A person who knows
a ceremony from the horse or from some
creature associated with the horse, such as
the cowbird, conducts a curing rite when
someone has fallen from a horse or requires
his good luck with horses restored. Thus
supernatural power is so funneled to the
human scene that it offers assistance and
relief in most contexts within the range of
Lipan experience. Accordingly, appeals to
supernatural power are an indispensable
adjunct to any important undertaking.

In terms of their interests and needs
Lipans constantly seek to tap this vast
reservoir of supernatural power. One man,
for example, felt that he could learn
“something to live by’”’ from peyote. He
gathered the plants and prepared the
peyote ‘“‘buttons.’”’ Then he cleansed him-
self in suds prepared from yucca root and
built a brush shelter. Next he rolled a
cigarette and blew smoke to the cardinal
directions, beginning with the east and
moving sunwise. He then sprinkled pifion
pollen on one of the peyote ‘‘buttons,”
held it to the directions, and picked it up
and laid it down four times before chewing
it. He did this with four peyote ‘‘buttons”’
and repeated the ritual for four nights. On
the fourth night he placed peyote under his
pulow. That night, in the vision he sought,
he was touched on the side of the head
four times. He heard voices and rose to
greet a man and a woman who had come
to guide him to a ‘‘power home.” They led
him into a little hill, and, though he was
young, he was courageous and followed
them without fear. Once inside, he bravely
asked the supernaturals who lived there
for the “highest power” that can be ob-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 5

tained through peyote. He was granted
ceremonial knowledge which he used to
good advantage against sickness and ene-
mies, and he became a well-known leader
of the peyote ritual.

Another Lipan liked nothing better than
to pursue and capture wild horses. On one
of his expeditions, as he marveled at the
ability of the wild stock to elude him, he
saw the author of his difficulties, a little
man (Cowbird) who clung to the fleetest
stallion and led the herd to safety. In the
spirited chase the little man and the horses
again escaped but not before Cowbird had
dropped the little quirt he had been flour-
ishing. The Lipan recovered this and placed
it under his pillow. Cowbird missed _ his
whip, thought constantly of his loss, and
was therefore drawn to the intrepid Lipan.
He appeared to the Lipan in dreams and
visions and taught him prayers and songs.
Thereafter this man was most successful
in raising good horses and performed a
powerful ceremony over those who had any
mishap with these animals.

These are only two of the many exam-
ples that could be cited to indicate the
Lipan belief in supernatural power, which
becomes differentiated and manifest as it
reaches man through various media. This
does not mean that power quests always
succeed or that the claims of individuals to
supernatural power are always accepted;
there are frank admissions of failure to ob-
tain desired supernatural help and con-
siderable scepticism concerning the au-
thenticity of the representations of par-
ticular individuals. But belief in the reality
of supernatural power and in the ability of
Lipan men and women to receive its bene-
fits and warnings is a fundamental theme
of the culture and is expressed in the count-
less activities, possessions, and exchanges
that enter into the ritual round.

Theme 8. Life and the life forces are
constantly threatened by evil
and danger

Lipan reaction and behavior are marked
by a strong consciousness of the evils and
dangers that beset men. In fact, many of
the activities to which the Lipan devote an
enormous amount of energy and thought

May 15, 1946

are protective in nature. The recognition
of evil and danger is woven into the very
fabric of sacred legend and the Lipan
world view. When the Lipan emerged from
the underworld they were greeted by hostile
monsters as well as by kindly supernat-
urals. A Monster Buffalo, a Monster Owl,
and Monster Eagles were among those who
had to be vanquished before the earth was
inhabitable for man. Another bird of “evil
influence” is the raven, who willed that
there should be death, who set himself
- against the life forces, and -is responsible
even today for much sickness and con-
tamination. The ghosts of the dead seek to
draw their relatives to them at an untimely
age, and contact with corpses or graves
may give them their opportunity to ac-
complish this. Malicious and envious tribes-
men (witches) may use supernatural power
for evil rather than for good ends; power
itself, when personified, may make sugges-
tions that only witches would gratify.
Water Monsters wait in rivers and water
holes to seize and drown the unwary man
or horse. Any contact with a snake or even
with the spot where a snake has been can
cause serious affliction. The Thunder or
Lightning People are easily moved to
jealousy, anger, and retaliation, and their
children are ‘‘mean’’ and mischievous,
often “shooting thunder flints” (sending
lightning) without provocation. Even
dreams may be a frightening signal of sick-
ness or death; dreams of fire, of flood, of the
dead, or of witches are particularly discon-
certing.

In this manner the Lipan have personi-
fied the general insecurities they feel and
the inimical forces they can not name or
can not directly control. But they have a
vivid appreciation of the more explicit and
observable dangers, too, and a constant
uneasiness about them. The likelihood of
injuries during the realistic slingshot and
arrow battles by means of which the youths
are trained is freely admitted, but the prac-
tice is explained with the simple comment,
“When there are many enemies the boys
have to be trained to be active.”’ In a story
told to the boys to impress them with the
need for being wary of all strangers, ‘‘Fool-

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

141

ish People” are described who meet a first
group of Comanches on a friendly basis and
later, without careful investigation, er-
roneously assume that a second group is
approaching in the same frame of mind.

The general tension and anxiety the
Lipan feel is perhaps illustrated by the
following incident. In order to tease his
sleeping wife an old man discharged his
grandson’s tamped popgun near her head.
Unfortunately the old woman was dreaming
that she and her relatives were being pur-
sued by Mexican soldiers. In her dream
the noise of the toy became a Mexican gun
discharged at her head. She kicked and
writhed so long and was so hard to arouse
from sleep that her husband was seriously
alarmed.

Theme 4. Security and harmony are
attained largely through the conquest
of fear and danger and through
self-discipline

If the Lipan are acutely conscious of the
evils and dangers that beset them, it must
also be said that they do not quail from
pitting themselves sturdily against their
seen and unseen foes. Because their ene-
mies are strong and remorseless, they train
their young men to meet them on equal
terms. They take the view that from the
beginning life has been a series of hazards
to be overcome. It was Enemy Slayer, the
Lipan culture hero and exemplar, who, im-
mediately after the emergence, slew the
man-eating monsters in a series of mar-
velous adventures. In those early days the
large and evil animals challenged the
smaller, kindlier ones to a contest of
“hidden ball.’’ A victory for the large ani-
mals would have meant perpetual darkness
for mankind. By their shouts and threats
the protagonists of unending night at-
tempted to frighten and weaken their op-
ponents, but the small animals persisted
and finally saw the sun rise on their
triumph. Since that time man has had to
war relentlessly against the seemingly su-
perior forces that seek to intimidate and
overawe him.

The theme of the conquest of fear and
weakness is often found in ceremonial
contexts. Supernatural power favors those

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

who are not easily terrified. In visions, when
persons who seek ceremony are led into
power homes, fearsome animals and ob-
stacles usually bar the way. The ceremonies,
or at least the most important power
grants, ultimately are gained by those who
show no signs of fear or doubt at this time.
Peyote is said to test its adherents severely
in this manner. Some, when they first chew
peyote, are said to see frightening visions.
If they become alarmed and leave the place
of meeting in panic, the unpleasant epi-
sodes they envision may occur. The proper
course is to remain, to force unpleasant
thoughts aside, and to continue to eat
peyote until desirable visions appear.

A peyote story relates how four men eat
the plant in order to find out more about
its ways. Old Man Peyote (the personifica-
tion of the peyote plant) enters and fells
one of the four with a savage blow on the
head. While the spirit of the victim is being
led by Old Man Peyote to the power home
to learn more about the ritual uses of the
plant, two of his companions, frightened at
the blood and the presence of the body, run
out of the tipi. The third man understands
what is occurring, however, and persuades
his companions to return and continue the
ceremony for four days. By this means the
unconscious man is brought to life again
and additional knowledge is gained. Had
all three men broken off the ritual in fright,
their stricken friend would have remained
dead.

This fierce determination to conquer fear
and to overcome danger has resulted in a
cult of bravery that has many expressions.
Lipan children allow pith from the inside
of the sunflower stalk to burn to ash on
their outstretched arms in order to demon-
strate their courage. Or they touch burning
brands to one another’s fingernails, in the
same spirit. Another test is to drop a turtle
in hot coals, and to use the bare hands to
keep it covered. If the animal escapes from
the embers, the child is said to be a coward
who will run away from danger. Obviously
it takes a brave youngster to continue to
heap hot coals on with his bare hands.

Fearlessness ranks high on the scale of
Lipan social virtues, as we shall point out

later. There is a whole cycle of stories about
a fearless man who overcomes a buffalo
bull, puts a fierce peccary to flight, insults
a Mexican army officer, and even kicks a
snake—though he becomes ill as a result
of this last rash act. A favorite story re-
counts the deed of a small group of Lipan
men who lead a strong raiding party of the
enemy away from the camps and out into
the plains. There they face the foe and beat
him off.

The requirements of the manly code in-
vade the social realm as well. A badly
deceived husband finds his wife and her
lover sleeping together. He shoots an arrow
into the man but before he can kill the
woman she wakes and pleads for her life.
He feels compassion and affection for his
erring wife surge over him, but with a de-
termined effort, he conquers his “‘weakness”
and executes her too.

Theme 5. The mastery of life forces which
maintains security ts a result of agreement
and compact and consequently 1mposes
restraints and obligations

In the Lipan view the struggle against
evil and danger is an interminable one in
which the hostile forces are at best con-
trolled and modified rather than elimi-
nated. Partial victories ending in truce and
agreement are the rule; a disregard of the
means by which evil is held in leash may
loose misfortune upon the entire community
again. The margin by which man maintains
control over his destiny is a narrow one; he
must constantly pacify elements of his
world that would otherwise turn against
him and upset the precarious favorable
balance he has achieved. And so man must
adhere rigorously to his obligations, ritual
and social. In order to keep on even terms
with men and supernaturals he must exer-
cise and enforce the restraints that prevent
breaches of faith and conduct. He remains
aware of his insecurity and modestly seeks
to rally all beings and forces, great and
small, to his cause.

This conception of the relation of man
to his world is presented time and again in
the most important Lipan traditions. In
the tale of the slaying of the monsters by
the culture hero, for example, Enemy

VOL. 36, No. 5>

a Je

May 15, 1946

Slayer, though he was mighty, gave to
mankind an example in humility by re-
questing the aid of the tiny gopher in con-
quering the Monster Buffalo. When this
monster had been vanquished it was al-
lowed to live on in reduced size on condition
that 1t would permit mankind to use its
flesh and hide. Though the buffalo as-
sented, it, too, exacted conditions. From
these are derived the rules and ritual for
hunting and butchering the buffalo. When
these are violated, Buffalo has the right to
hide from man and to withhold its flesh
and skins.

The antelope, eagle, and other animals
that originally preyed on man were sub-
dued and agreed to cooperate with man-
kind under roughly similar conditions.
Their continued submission and good will
are likewise dependent upon the self-dis-
cipline and adherence to covenant that
mankind shows.

It is no different in regard to the horse.
The faithful service and even the good
health of the horse are one side of a bargain
that men, too, must heed. Thus, children
are taught that they should not throw sad-
dle blankets around, that they should not
strike horses on the head with a whip, and
that they must not get in a saddle when it is
in a tree or is lying on the ground. If these
cautions are disregarded the horses of the
family will suddenly acquire sores on their
backs, or good horses will mysteriously ‘‘go
down” in a few days.

Deer, too, can withhold their favors from
those who fail to treat their flesh and hides
with the conventional respect. The deer,
who have the wind for their messenger, are
always aware of the position of the hunter
and surrender themselves only when they
see fit to do so. Deer are under no obligation
to reveal themselves to individuals who fail
to show due respect for the rules and ob-
servances of the hunt.

Many other observances and restrictions
are followed because they are man’s part
of a covenant. For that reason the unused
part of a plant gathered for medicinal pur-
poses is put back in the ground. The plant is
willing to give of its root but requires a
respectful handling of its leaves in return.

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

143

The supernaturals perfected the sweat
lodge for man and gave rules concerning its
proper use, but the person who erects one
without knowing the appropriate songs and
prayers will smother to death. The masked
dancers can aid mankind at the time of
sickness, but the efficacy of the rite is
marred if someone calls the name of an
impersonator. In short, there are many ani-
mals, supernaturals, and natural objects
that have been forced to help mankind or
that have agreed to help mankind, but
they do so only at a price. Lipan who desire
an ordered round of life and a minimum of
insecurity agree and insist that the price
be paid. Therefore this theme has become
an important conservative force in Lipan
culture, for few dare neglect the duties and
the rites which insure an uninterrupted
flow of services, sacrifices, and benefits from
animals, natural forces, and the super-
naturals.

Theme 6. Socially approved contacts with the
supernatural must occur within the limits
of a recognized ritual frame

As we have seen, the Lipan are greatly
concerned over the existence and _ per-
sistence of evil and danger. They recognize
that men may claim benevolence falsely
and that some kinds of supernatural power
may even prove malefic. Therefore, while
the need for supernatural help and cere-
mony is keenly felt, it is quite as strongly
urged that traffic with the supernatural
should be carried on in terms of a recog-
nized and reassuring pattern. I know of a
case of a violent conflict between two Lipan
that occurred because one was asserting
claims to power without recourse to the
ordinary ceremonial conventions of prayer,
song, and other common elements recog-
nized as constituting a beneficent rite. The
second man, who was made extremely
nervous by “‘religious’’ conduct which did
not invoke familiar patterns and symbols,
ordered him to stop and threatened him
with physical violence if he did not do so.
Another person explained to me how he
came to feel that a shaman, whom he at
first viewed with suspicion, was really
“doing only good’”’ with his ceremony. This

144

practitioner sang ‘‘strong’’ songs, which
mentioned ‘‘all the good and holy things,”
and he managed to crowd most of the highly
respected elements of Lipan ceremonialism
into his rite. When he heard and saw this,
the sceptic was convinced that any pro-
cedure that depended so entirely upon sym-
bols and references valued and accepted in
Lipan religious life could not be unworthy.

As a result of this attitude, Lipan re-
ligious thought and behavior are held to a
ritual frame that consists of a specific set
of acts, references, and symbols, though
they may be differently arranged and
slightly varied according to the occasion.

In requesting a shaman to conduct his
ceremony it is necessary to proffer him a
cigarette or four ceremonial gifts. The gifts
usually include tobacco and often suggest
the nature of the ceremony desired and the
shaman’s source of power. Thus, a bridle
may be one of the gifts of supplication in
requesting a ceremony for the purpose of
repairing a mishap with a horse. The smok-
ing of a cigarette or the acceptance of the
gifts indicates the shaman’s willingness to
act.

The shaman will probably require that
the structure in which he carries on his
ceremony have the door facing the most
important ritual direction, east. In what-
ever he does there is an association of color,
direction, number, and sunwise circuit. In
prayer, for instance, the east is mentioned
first and 1s referred to as black; south comes
next and is blue; the circuit continues to
the west, which is named yellow; fourth and
last is the north, ordinarily associated with
white. As this suggests, four is the Lipan
sacred number; what does not happen in
fours or multiples of four can hardly be of
ceremonial significance.

A shaman usually begins a ceremony
with the puffing of tobacco smoke to the
cardinal directions in sunwise order, be-
ginning with the east. A prayer of four
parts and the singing of songs in groups of
fours follows. The songs often contain
numerous references to Changing Woman,
the mother of the culture hero, and to
Enemy Slayer, the culture hero. A drum
(much less frequently a rattle) is used to
accompany the singing. For some rites a

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VOL. 36, NO. 5

fire is ceremonially kindled. At intervals
the shaman uses the sacred substances and
objects he has brought with him, pollen
(by far the most frequently employed
sacred substance), red ochre, yellow ochre,
and white paint. These are sprinkled to the
directions, applied to the head, face, or
body of the patient or the subject, or they
are touched to objects that are to be purified
or sanctified. Sometimes, to indicate mutual
spiritual participation in the rite and its
purposes, the marking of the face or body
with pollen or paint is reciprocal; the re-
ligious leader and the observers mark the
patient or central figure and are marked
by him in return. If the patient or subject
is a woman her hair will be worn loose and
flowing. In dressing or marking the patient
or subject, the right side is given precedence
over the left and the lower part over the
top. If special clothes are prepared for a
ritual they will be made of buckskin for a
male and of doeskin for a female. Food
eaten at a ceremony is ordinarily blessed
and sprinkled with a cross of pollen. The
cross, a symbol of the four directions, is
often found in ritual contexts. If the food
is to be eaten by the patient, a ritual feint
brings it to the mouth four times before
it is finally consumed.

There are still other common Lipan cere-
monial objects and observances that are
fitted into ceremonies whenever possible or
practicable. There is much smudging and
incensing to purify and to drive away evil.
Sage is usually burned for such purposes.
Ritual bathing for purification is practiced
on occasion. If anything is to be ritually cut
this is done with a flint or obsidian blade.
Eagle feathers (symbolizing life and ac-
tivity), abalone shell (a symbol for the
north star and for those things that stead-
fastly guide men through life), and the
‘“‘age stick” (a wooden cane, a bow, or a
fire poker representing the hope of long
life for the subject) are frequently in evi-
dence. There is the constant attempt to
identify the patient with persons or forces
that are growing or that have already
reached old age. Thus, a child is held to a
one-day-old moon; a hair-cutting ceremony
is deferred until the plants of spring begin
to grow; or a very old person is sought to

May 15, 1946

carry on certain ceremonies for a young
child. The path of successful and long life
is sometimes represented in ritual by four
steps to the east through which the patient
or a child is led. Ritual objects which are
not to be used again are placed on plants,
bushes, or trees, to be ‘“‘taken back”’ or
absorbed by the ‘“‘power” with which they
are associated.

Theme 7. The essentials of tribal existence are fixed
and ordered by events of the past, by tradi-
tional practices, or by supernatural
sanction

In the Lipan view life is less an adven-
ture than a fulfillment. There are choices
and alternatives, but the existence even of
these is a result of predestination rather
than of man’s strivings. Life and death
merge into a cycle that began in the under-
world of legendary times and that is finally
completed when the individual returns to
the underworld at the end of his earthly
term. Ritual is a reenactment. The tradi-
tional rites are conducted exactly as Enemy
Slayer and other protectors and protago-
nists of the legendary period performed them,
or they are carried on precisely as the super-
naturals rehearse them in the vision experi-
ence fundamental to the power grant. The
lens of consciousness is so adjusted that the
Lipan see their own world in extremely
sharp focus and consequently discern little
else; they know what to expect and what to
anticipate.

Accordingly Lipan culture seems to its
carriers not only to be the time-honored
way but also the inevitable way. The in-
formant who undertook to explain to me
the necessity for incessant fighting and
raiding expressed this view perfectly. He
pointed out that sooner or later enemies
would come and steal Lipan horses. Those
who suffered loss would go to the chief to
complain, and a pursuit party would be
organized. If its members overtook the
raiders a fight would ensue. Conversely,
when Lipan horses became too few in
number, the herd of some alien tribe would
be raided. The enemy would nearly always
follow and must be outdistanced or out-
fought. These exploits would become a chal-
lenge or a cause for revenge and would

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

145

lead to a cycle of expeditions and reprisals.
My informant saw no way in which this
round of events could be arrested.

The Lipan speak often of a “‘path,”’
‘trail,’ or ‘‘way”’ of life. Thus, there are
the well esteemed among them who
“follow Enemy Slayer’s way”’ or the inept
who ‘‘follow Coyote’s way.’ But whether a
Lipan follows this trail or that, he is ex-
pected to remain in some beaten and well-
recognized path. To be as foolish and fickle
as Coyote is forgivable; to be aberrant in
unfamiliar or unsanctioned ways is the real
offense.

Great emphasis is laid upon the prece-
dents through which norms of conduct were
established and in terms of which proper
behavior is rationalized. When Enemy
Slayer contended against one of the
monsters he sought the help of Lizard.
Lizard created a path to the monster,
stopping four times along the way to
escape detection. By following this course
without deviation and halting at the very
same points, Enemy Slayer was able to
reach and destroy his opponent. The lesson
is patent: the past holds the clues to ap-
propriate behavior, and it is only by the
conscientious repetition of traditional ways
that life’s obstacles can be overcome.

It is impossible here to list all the evi-
dence indicating that the Lipan consider
their modes of activity predestined by the
experiences of the supernaturals and ani-
mals of the early times. Enemy Slayer
made arrows, scalped the monsters to prove
to his mother that he had slain them, and
in other ways established the ‘‘work”’ and
interests of Lipan men. He created the
horse and explained the rules of the horse
ceremony. Then he went on raiding ex-
peditions to obtain horses and led war par-
ties against the enemy. Of the Lipan he
said, ‘““They must do what I have done.
They must follow my way and rules.” Ex-
plained an informant, “‘That’s why the
Lipan went out raiding after horses and
fought their enemies when they met them.”
The important Lipan games (such as the
woman’s stave game and the hoop-and-
pole game of the men) are the ones the
animals of the emergence played when they
first came to the upper world. Such unal-

146

terable realities as death, arguing and the
necessity for sewing clothes are traced to
the acts of Raven during the legendary
period. After the first death, Owl offered
to take care of the corpse and thus became
associated with the dread event of death for
all time.

Even the common forms of perversity
are attributed to occurrences in the distant
past that have served as a model for the
unworthy ever since. Because of the mis-
behavior of Coyote, the trickster, men
swear falsely on occasion, disobey those in
authority, seduce their neighbors’ wives,
and even commit incest. Thus is sin
vouched for by tradition. In practice this
means that the familiar or acknowledged
foibles and lapses of mankind are usually ac-
cepted philosophically and with a reason-
able amount of indulgence. The Lipan are
not perfectionists. They recognize many
paths of life, some of them admittedly de-
vious since the first days of mankind.

Theme 8. Within the tribal pattern freedom of choice
for the individual is respected and the
social amportance of the individual
4s recognized

The importance of pattern and the em-
phasis of the deeds of the heroes and super-
naturals of the earliest epoch do not pre-
vent a recognition and appreciation of in-
dividual differences by the Lipan. As we
have seen, it is frankly asserted that some
men follow Enemy Slayer’s way and some
follow Coyote’s example. Enemy Slayer is
a mighty warrior, raider, and hunter, but
it is recognized that individual Lipan men
vary markedly in ability in respect to these
pursuits. Changing Woman is the paragon
of womanly virtues and the ideal set be-
for all Lipan girls, but that there are dif-
ferences among women in the performance
of the tasks that Changing Woman pre-
scribed is no secret. There are a great many
indications that individuality, personality
differences, and variations in ability and
performance are expected, accepted, and
respected.

Expressions of this theme play upon the
individual from birth to death. In fact, the
personality and disposition of the woman
chosen to receive the child at birth are

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VOL. 36, NO. 95

closely scrutinized; a woman who is lucky
with children and liked by them is sought
for the task. Not long afterward, when the
ears of the child are pierced, the services of
a person of similar qualifications are ob-
tained.

Some personality traits qualify indi-
viduals for specific tasks and others pre-
vent participation in certain activities. For
instance, persons known to be quick-
tempered are not permitted to take honey
from a beehive; the bees, it seems, sense
the irritability of their despoiler and become
angry and negativistic too. Wide differ-
ences in bravery and in fighting and raiding
ability are recognized as well. A story is told
of turtles who go on a raid. Though they
talk loudly they return empty-handed.
Particular individuals are said to be
“clumsy like the turtles.’”’ Another story —
tells of a fight between Lipan and Co-.
manche. A Lipan who is coming tardily to
the scene of the fight happens upon a cap-
tive Comanche woman. He seizes her
blanket and, with this as his spoils, returns
to his camp instead of continuing on to the
battlefield. Although tales of heroism are
more common, instances of cowardice are
acknowledged. In one episode a Comanche
and a Lipan are described as advancing to-
ward each other, shooting arrows. The
Lipan becomes frightened and retreats,
with disastrous results. According to an-
other story, a brave but foolhardy Lipan
engages in argument with a Mexican of-
ficer. His companions, who fear trouble and
do not wish to become embroiled in the dis-
pute, decide to leave the scene.

Even when a response is of a general
rather than an individual character, per-
sonal rather than group ends may be in-
volved. If someone calls a Lipan’s personal
name at a time of emergency, it is difficult
for him to refuse assistance no matter what
the cost or danger. If someone sings his
ceremonial or even his social song without
permission, he becomes very angry. If an
unrelated person uses his personal property
without his consent, trouble is likely to
arise.

In matters pertaining to ceremony the
personal equation is especially pro-

May 15, 1946

nounced. An individual may tell others of
his experiences with the supernaturals or
not, as he sees fit. A woman had an extraor-
dinary experience with a prairie dog about
which she said nothing for a long time be-
cause she hoped for a vision and a power
grant from this source. Only when she was
satisfied that the animal was no longer
likely to bless her in this manner did she
describe her experience. A Lipan woman
told me quite frankly that she was not
going to discuss her own supernatural
power, which was her protection, for fear
that it would shorten her life. An old Lipan
man gave me a short and obviously incom-
plete account about a giant spider and then
refused to talk about it further, saying that
this story was more important to him than
any of the others. A Lipan may teach his
ceremony to others or refuse to do so as he
decides. Often those who are being in-
structed in ritual complain that their
teachers are “‘holding something back”’ or
‘“‘are not giving it all until they are ready
to die.’’ Individual ceremonialists take
minor liberties with the traditional cere-
monial pattern occasionally. Slight varia-
tions in the color—directional symbolism
are not infrequent, for instance. Indi-
viduals may accept or refuse proffered
power, and there are interesting tales of
both types of reactions and the reasons
that impelled them. The attitude of the
individual Lipan toward any given power
claim or ceremony shows a wide range of
variation and reflects all degrees of scepti-
cism, moreover. Belief in the religious round
as a totality is universal, but belief in a
certain practitioner or claim may be de-
cidedly weak. One story relates how a
Lipan rubbed a purported symbol of super-
natural power between his legs in contempt.
A number of less extreme instances of
‘doubt have also been recorded.

Another concept pertinent to this theme
is that an individual should never entirely
lose control of his destiny. No matter how
generous his inclinations, he should never
give all the proceeds of the hunt away. He
retains certain parts of the kill without
which the envious cannot interfere with his
hunting ability. In like manner, he hesitates

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

147

to teach all his ceremonial lore to another,
at least not until he feels that his last days
are approaching.

It must be remembered, finally, that an
individual does not have to participate in
all group enterprises. If he wishes to ac-
company a war party he signifies this by
joining the dance held the night before the
expedition is to start. If he does not partici-
pate he is not expected to depart with the
others. If he has no need for horses he sees
no point in joining a raiding party. When
an antelope hunt is being planned, a crude
charcoal drawing of the animal is carried
around to the various camps. Then those
who wish to take part gather and organize
the venture. A rabbit hunt is arranged in
much the same manner. A Lipan engages in
most of the fundamental activities of the
tribe, for at the level of subsistence at which
he lives there are few group enterprises
which he can long ignore. But this is usually
because of his needs and desires rather than
because of a press for conformity.

Theme 9. The Inpan are culturally distinct
from and are morally superior to all
other groups of people

The Lipan are heirs to a tradition that
breeds cultural isolation and ethnocentric-
ity. It is their belief that when the people
of the emergence traveled around the earth,
though the other strains grew faint-hearted
or weary and halted their journey prema-
turely, they alone fulfilled their mission and
reached the place of designation. It is ad-
admitted that individual Lipan sometimes
act in a reprehensible or unworthy manner,
but other Indians, white Americans, and
Mexicans are said to show by their mass
demonstrations of foolish and abandoned
conduct that they ‘follow Coyote’s way”’ as
a group. Sweeping characterizations of other
peoples, which label them ‘‘foolish,” ‘“brag-
garts,”’ “dirty,” unwilling to “listen to any-
thing good,” “mean,” ‘“‘enemies,” and the
like, come easily to the Lipan and are fre-
quent in my notes.

As a result of this contrasting estimate of
themselves as a group and of others, it is
natural for the Lipan to believe in their
cultural pre-eminence, creative power, and
leadership. Even the existence of the Catho-

148

lic church and the activities of the padre are
attributed to the Lipan culture hero! Ac-
cording to the Lipan version, before he left
the earth, Enemy Slayer built a church,
called a padre to him, and instructed him to
pray and to teach the people.

Theme 10. Women are physically and morally
weaker than men, are more susceptible to
contaminating influences than are men,

and are themselves a source of
contamination to men

The fundamental attitudes that Lipan
culture fosters in regard to women are curi-
ously ambivalent. The evidences of esteem
and respect for women will be reviewed
later. In this section only the penalties and
handicaps under which women labor will
be discussed.

Great emphasis is laid upon the greater
strength and physical toughness of the male.
In explanation of this it is said that the male
fetus takes ten ‘‘moons”’ to form within the
mother whereas the female fetus requires
only nine. Men are expected to swim across
rivers; women are pulled across in bull-
boats. Women are discouraged from ac-
companying men on the warpath, for their
dependence and weakness ‘‘make it all the
harder.’”’ If enemies are sighted in time as
they are approaching a Lipan encampment,
the women and children are sent to the hills,
where they can hide without complicating
the task of the men.

Closely related to the greater physical
weakness of the woman is her tendency to-
ward excitability. In the stories and ac-
counts, when news of the approach of
enemies reaches the encampment, the wom-
en are portrayed as rushing about in panic
to gather their possessions and break camp.
The men, especially the leaders, seek to
calm the women and issue orders. That the
women occupy an inferior status is sug-
gested also in the tendency of the men to
insult each other by reference to the female
sex. Nothing angers the Lipan warriors
more as they line up to fight their foes of the
Plains than to be told in sign language that
they are ‘just like women”’ or that they
should “return home and do women’s
work.” The Lipan fighting men hurl similar
jeers at their foes.

The comparative weakness of the woman

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vou. 36, No. 5

is considered to extend to the moral sphere,
as well. All traditional stories of unfaithful-
ness and perversion have women as the
chief culprits.

Moreover, some of the less pleasant and
desirable chores fall to the lot of the women.
For instance, the woman sleeps on the side
toward the fire; it is her duty to tend it and
to rekindle it in the morning. In addition,
there are a number of minor but interesting
disqualifications levied against women. A
woman may not play the musical bow. She
may not approach the level place where the
men play the hoop-and-pole game. She
may not wear clothes made of skins smoked
during the tanning process. She allows the
men to keep track of time for all formal oc-
casions.

As so often is the case, special cautions
apply to women during pregnancy or at the
time of menstruation. A pregnant woman is
prohibited from watching the masked
dancers perform. A menstruating woman
must refrain from touching a man’s hair lest
she cause it to fall out. In fact she avoids
contact with men as much as possible dur-
ing the period, for men may become rheu-
matic as a result of touching or even of
smelling menstrual blood. Menstruating
women are expected to stay away from
curing rites, for their presence only makes
the condition of the patient worse.

Women are alleged to suffer from some
particular sensitivities to sickness or evil
influence. It is a hazard for anyone to
handle feathers of the eagle, crow, or raven,
but the danger is more pronounced for the
women. Women avoid passing through an
ant hill; a woman stung by an ant is likely
to develop a high fever.

The two points at which women are re-
stricted in ceremonialism have to do with
the sweatbath and the rites centering
around the use of peyote. Women are barred
from the sweatbath, which, indeed, is often
used by men who have been made ill by
contact with menstrual blood. At one time
women were never permitted to come near
the place where a peyote ceremony was in
progress. Later, when peyote became more
commonly used for curing purposes, the rule
was relaxed and women were brought into
the tipi for short periods to be healed. The

May 15, 1946

justifications for barring women are that
peyote makes men particularly sensitive to
odors, and that men who have eaten peyote
vomit (a harbinger of evil) if they detect the
body odor of a woman. In fact, the incom-
patibility between peyote and women is so
great that a man who is eager to learn the
lore of peyote is urged to ‘‘go out by himself
and to stay away from women.” For the
same reason the tipi in which a peyote meet-
ing is to be held is never erected near a camp
where women are likely to be living.

Theme 11. Women play an important part
in the social, economic, and religious
life of the tribe

In spite of the disabilities and restrictions
to which women are subject, they play an
important and recognized role in Lipan cul-
ture. It may very well be that some of the
emphasis upon feminine weakness that has
been noted functions to keep the woman
bound to the home, dutifully domestic, and
at least partially dependent upon a body of
male relatives. Yet it is well understood that
the woman contributes generously to all
phases of Lipan life. The gathering of the
wild food plants with which she is occupied
provides as much for the larder as does the
hunting in which the man is engaged. Resi-
dence after marriage is matrilocal; it is the
woman who acts as the stable nucleus of the
new family unit. Sons depart from the pa-
ternal encampment at marriage. It is the
girls who bring strong young men, the sons-
in-law, to aid their father with his tasks.
Consequently, the birth of girls is weleomed
in a family and there is no inclination to-
ward female infanticide.

If women suffer certain disadvantages,
they enjoy many equalities and even have
prerogatives, too. With the exceptions al-
ready discussed, women obtain supernatu-
ral power and perform ceremonies on a par
with men. Because only women may make
clay bowls for pipes, those that the men use
in ceremonies must be obtained by them
from women. The ceremony performed over
anew tipi is entirely in the hands of women;
it is an old woman who selects, blesses, and
marks the poles and who sanctifies the beds
and the firepit. At a birth all men and boys
must stay away from the place of confine-

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

149

ment; otherwise the woman in labor will
have aera trouble.

One of the most important Lipan rites is
held over the pubescent girl. Much food is
stored away well in advance for the event,
and the ceremony is an occasion of general
rejoicing on the part of the community that
a girl has been reared to maturity. The
maiden who is the central figure of the rite
is called ‘‘Changing Woman” during this
period and is considered to have power for
things beneficial. Small children are brought
to have their bodies pressed by her so that
they may grow strong and straight.

The women, too, have their own game of
chance, the stave game. Men are not for-
bidden to play or to watch it, but since it is
considered rather effeminate for a man to
take too active an interest in it, the women
have this type of recreation pretty much to
themselves.

Though women take no active part in the
deer hunt, they contribute to the good for-
tune of the hunter by performing certain
acts at home. A woman whose husband is
hunting prays for his good luck and safe
return and, in anticipation of the hides he
will bring, lays out the implements with
which she tans buckskins. Women actually
participate in the antelope hunt, and the
men practice something akin to chivalry at
this time. A man is not permitted to over-
take a woman who is pursuing an antelope.
or to kill the animal for himself. If a woman
hits an antelope with her rope, the man
nearest the scene must dispatch it for her.
The men are also obliged to kill an antelope
that a woman ropes. Furthermore, men are
expected to give meat to women who arrive
from the rear empty-handed just after the
antelope hunt.

While warfare is primarily man’s concern,
Lipan women are not entirely passive in
relation to it. At the war and scalp dances
women only are permitted to utter a formal-
ized call signifying applause. At the time of
the war dance old women whose relatives
have indicated their intention to join the
war party may throw their husbands’
quivers on their backs and dance among the
men. On the return of the war party,
prisoners are turned over to women who
have lost family members in the fight, to be

150

stabbed by them in the throat with lances
and knives.

The Lipan woman is relatively secure in
her marital and social position. The home,
the household equipment, and her personal
effects belong to her and are inviolate. She
eats with her husband and is treated by him
on a plane of equality. If a separation takes
place and the man has left his possessions
behind, the angry wife can simply throw
his belongings out of the door. In case of
divorce, children remain with the mother.
A woman who learns that her husband is
unfaithful can let him know of her discovery
by killing his favorite horse. She is viewed
sympathetically if she goes as far as to at-
tack her rival physically. A woman is well
protected from a husband’s abuse or impo-
sition by virtue of her residence among her
own relatives. If the husband proves to be
an indifferent son-in-law and a poor pro-
vider, his wife’s relatives are likely to drive
him away or to ‘‘take away the girl.” If a
man is mistreating his wife, her father and
unmarried brothers can be expected to in-
tervene and send the quick-tempered
husband away. At the same time, they have
no desire to lose the services of an industri-
ous son-in-law and brother-in-law, and
therefore they can be expected to defend the
man and discipline the wife when the fault
is clearly hers.

Theme 12. Children are particularly susceptible to
natural and supernatural dangers and
must be aided and protected by
various rites and practices

It is not astonishing that the Lipan, with
their heavy sense of danger and lurking evil,
are particularly concerned for the safety
and well-being of their children, the group
among them that seems most helpless and
vulnerable. In the Lipan view, the hazards
of the early period of life are so great that if
a child is to grow up to be healthy and free
from serious defects, constant protective
rites must be performed and many precau-
tions must continually be taken.

At birth the first soft hair is cut from the
head with an obsidian blade. If this is not
done the child’s forehead will remain small.
A few days after birth the ears are pierced
so that the child will have good fortune,

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VOL. 36, No. 5

will listen to what it is told, and will obey
the parents and keep out of mischief. The
mother and grandmother carry out a little
rite, using pollen and the ritual feint, when
the child is first placed in the rawhide car-
rier. A baby is not fed anything from the
head of an animal before he is weaned;
otherwise he will be tongue-tied.

When the child is ready to walk and eat
solid food, the first moccasins ceremony,
held to insure long life and good health for
the child, is performed. In the spring when
the child is about two years old, there is a
hair-cutting ceremony in which he is blessed
and identified with growing things.

At all times great care is taken in dispos-
ing of the baby’s feces. If they are carelessly
left on a path where someone steps in them
and scatters them, the child will suffer from
a digestive ailment. It is a common practice,
when the moon is one day old, to lift a child
to it four times and pray that he will grow
tall and strong, be active, and remain in
good health. A general protective ceremony
to enable him to grow up safely and to have
good fortune throughout life may be per-
formed for a child at any time by a shaman.
Often, too, in order that a child may grow
strong and straight he is brought before the
pubescent girl to have his body pressed and
molded by her. Parents who want their
child to have a particularly lucky name
communicate their desire to one who is
known to have great supernatural power. If
this person can not think of an appropriate
name at once, he waits until one is suggested
to him in a dream and then formally be-
stows it on the child.

Children are sedulously guarded from
certain evil influences to which they are
said to be extremely sensitive. Death and
allthat it involves are most baneful to them;
therefore children are shielded from the
sight of a corpse or a grave and are insulated
from any mention of death. Scalps are kept
far from camp so that children who are
playing will not encounter them. The eagle,
red-tailed hawk, and owl are believed to
give serious diseases to children and are not
brought into a home frequented by young
people. Crow and raven feathers are said to
cause swelling of the joints, and children

May 15, 1946

are instructed never to touch them. Chil-
dren are advised to chew and swallow the
first four hailstones they find when a storm
strikes; then they will be less afraid of
thunder and lightning and less likely to be
harmed by them.

All kinds of amulets are attached to the
clothing of children or are brought into
contact with them to guarantee specific
abilities, protection, or simply “‘good luck.”
The yellow tip of cholla or a piece of rock
crystal is tied to clothing for good fortune.
The skin of the red tree squirrel is attached
at the back so that the child will learn to
climb trees and rocks readily. Seeds of the
wild gourd are strung and worn as a wrist-
let to immunize against epidemic. The tail
of a cottontail rabbit is fastened to the moc-
casin of a youngster to make him swift of
foot. The right paw of a badger sewed to the
back of his shirt will help a child develop
strength for wrestling and lifting. So that
he will be able to carry heavy loads in the
future, a child is gently struck on the back
with a beaver tail.

It is felt necessary to protect the future
and prospects of the young to the very
threshhold of maturity. As a supplication
for long life the first cigarette smoked by a
youth must be rolled and blessed by an old
person. The youth who is ready to venture
upon his first raid or war expedition is taken
by his parents to an elderly person. He is
blessed by this person and receives instruc-
tions from him concerning his obligations
and the proper behavior during this period.
Theme 13. Childhood ts a period of preparation for

adulthood rather than an important phase
of life in itself

As we have seen, childhood is thought of
as a period when dangers have to be offset
and combated so that the young may reach
maturity. In keeping with this emphasis
upon survival to maturity rather than upon
childhood’s pleasures, there is a logical
stress upon learning the tasks appropriate
to adulthood. Childhood is a condition to
leave gratefully and as quickly as possible;
it is only a training ground for the period of
existence during which the individual finds
greater security and the opportunity for
self-realization.

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

151

The whole temper of instruction in child-
hood can be judged from the constant ad-
vice to act in ways that will confer future
benefits. Youngsters are told to chase rock
wrens if they wish to be limber and to run
after butterflies if they hope to become long-
winded. From earliest years the child hears
stories having a didactic purpose: the boy
listens to the tale of the worthless turtles
who return from the raid without plunder;
the girl is told about the ‘foolish woman”’
who knows so little about the care of in-
fants that she inadvertently kills her own
baby. It is not long before the little girls are
holding a puberty rite in play and are an-
ticipating the role they will one day be
called upon to fill.

Play is cleverly directed into channels
that lead toward the tribal economy. Par-
ents encourage children to play “‘bucking
horses’’ with the small children astride the
older, telling them that the game will help
them to capture and tame wild horses one
day. Children play a game in which a stick
is thrown through a hoop called the ‘‘deer”’
or “‘buffalo.”’ They also play realistically at
buffalo-hunting or horse-raiding, relying
upon the accounts of their elders for the
details.

As soon as possible the adults see to it
that a transition is made from play to
reality. Boys are directed to tend and water
the horses; girls are sent for water and wood.
As soon as they are strong enough to handle
the equipment, children are taught to use
the firedrill. At a relatively tender age boys
build bird blinds and perfect their aim from
its cover. |

The children respond to the cult of
bravery and the demonstrations of bravery
to which they are exposed and test each
other with gusto. To prove their fearless-
ness and fortitude they allow a burning
brand to be applied to their fingernails,
they lie down and allow one of their number
to stand on their calves, they burn pith to
ash on their outstretched arms, and they
catch snapping turtles in the water.

The final stages of training are arranged
for the young people by the adults. They
are forced to plunge into icy water and are
then ordered to build their own fire in the

152

open with a firedrill. For the boys, mock
battles are organized in which the sides use
shields, bows, and blunt arrows, slings, and
lances of sunflower stalks. The relation be-
tween learning to dodge with precision and
future survival is made painfully clear to
the growing boys at this time.

After puberty the girl is made to feel that
the fulfillment of her destiny depends upon
the mastering of all woman’s crafts and tasks
and the founding of a home of her own. Into
the boy is instilled the manly conception of
acquiring booty and horses of his own.
Thus, both the boy and the girl are normally
eager to assume adult status and obligations
as early as the ranks of their elders will open
to receive them.

Theme 14. The extended domestic family 1s the basic
social and economic unit and the one to which
first allegiance and duties of revenge
are due

The extended family as it is defined and
understood by the Lipan consists ideally of
a man and woman, their unmarried daugh-
ters and sons, their married daughters, and
their sons-in-law. Therefore the women of
the family camp-cluster or extended family
are all blood kin, whereas some of the men
are blood kin and some are united to the
family through marriage. These affinal rela-
tives are not indifferent to the family they
left when they wed, but, as we shall
presently see, Lipan society binds them to
the family they join at marriage by obliga-
tions and sanctions extraordinarily demand-
ing and uncompromising. Consequently, a
Lipan is expected to resent an insult to the
relatives by marriage with whom he lives as
much as do the other members of the family.
It is an affront to mention the name of the
recently deceased before his blood relatives;
it is more provocative still to do so in the
hearing of his affinal relatives. In short,
everything that is expected of a blood rela-
tive is required also of a relative by marriage,
and a solidarity and common interest
among its members are achieved that make
of the extended family the basic productive
and social unit of Lipan society.

The family, as it is defined above, is an
autonomous and, as far as the band or tribe
is concerned, a mobile unit. Its members

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VOL. 36, No. 5 ~

may decide to stay behind the main body,
to push ahead of the others, or to undertake
some venture of their own. That they nor-
mally stay with or near a larger body of
tribesmen is due to the greater security,
livelier social life, and more frequent eco-
nomic advantages that come from this
course, and not because of orders from
above.

In addition, the family is the most promi-
nent functioning economic unit; together
its members plan work and the utilization
of the products acquired. Whether the
women cook together or separately, no
branch of the family goes hungry while an-
other branch has food. The feeling of re-.
sponsibility for family members is always
close to the surface. In the myths and tales
a common assertion of the father in respect
to his food-getting activities is, ‘“With this

I feed my children.”’

The consciousness of family solidarity
and responsibility fans out into all aspects
of the culture. The child is considered to be
reared by the family as a collectivity. In
advising a grandchild, a grandparent often
reminds him, “‘We’ve had a hard time to
raise you.”’ Marriage is obviously an agree-
ment between families. When a boy hints
that he is interested in a certain girl he is
likely to be told, ‘‘We will try to get that
girl for you.” And the effort is a joint one,
for the members of the group discuss strat-
egy and together assemble the objects
constituting the marriage gift. At the time
the question is put to the girl’s parents,
they consult with the members of the ex-
tended family before announcing a decision.
If the answer is in the affirmative, these
relatives of the girl, as a reward for their
contribution to her education and growth,
are allowed to divide the wedding presents
among themselves. The interfamily under-
standing established at a marriage is one
that should be honored as long as possible.
If a married man dies, his unmarried
brother should properly assume his place
and his duties. When a married woman dies,
her unmarried sister is expected to take her
place.

The quest for supernatural power is not
untouched by this theme. Power is often

May 15, 1946

described as “something with which to
watch over my children and my family.”

At a time of trouble, members of the
family of the person in difficulty have first
responsibility and they take care of the situ-
ation alone if they can. For example, a
woman’s horse ran away with her during an
antelope hunt. Her relatives had to turn
around and chase the unruly mount; the
others went on to secure the game.

The central place of the family is also
evident in the practices of raid and warfare.
If a family member is captured cr killed the
men of his group immediately set out to
rescue him or to obtain revenge. If they are
living in a large encampment they appeal to
the chief to organize a large, strong party.
The mission is publicly announced, and
all those who wish to show their sympathy
or indignation can join the venture. In an
expedition of retaliation members of the
injured family exert considerable influence
even if they are not of chiefly rank. A nar-
rative is told of a battle between Lipan and
Comanche in which the Lipan finally gained
the upper hand and seemed about to exter-
minate the enemy. The slaughter continued
until the father of the man over whose death
the battle had started motioned to allow the
few remaining Comanche to flee. As a final
gesture of his victory and revenge he wished

the few survivors to straggle back to the.

Comanche camps to tell the story of their
defeat.

A warpath episode neatly reflects the
Lipan attitude toward the obligations of
family members. A small group of Lipan,
among them a prominent chief, were pur-
sued by a large force of the enemy. The
chief was wounded and could ride no far-
ther. A decision had to be made concerning
who would remain with the wounded man
and attempt to fight off the enemy until aid
arrived and who would ride to safety and
notify the camps. The answer was obvious
to the chief, for some of his followers were
family members and some were not. To the
latter he said, ‘‘You are not related to me.
Go back. These others are related to me.”

It has already been mentioned that male
prisoners are turned over to the women of
families who have lost members in battle for

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

153

execution, and that a woman whose relative
has pledged himself to go to war by joining
the war dance may dance on this occasion
also. If the Lipan have lost a warrior, the
next time an enemy scalp is taken, a cere-
mony is performed over it so that the
mourning relatives ‘‘will not be so sad.”

Since so much in the way of activity,
restraint, decision, and authority stems
from the family, it is inevitable that most
of the tensions and anxieties should involve
this group of kin as well. Nowhere is this
more apparent than in regard to witchcraft
fears and in the reaction to death. All Lipan
recoil from the thought of death or of ghosts
or from contact with a corpse. To the family
members of the deceased, however, the
presence of death is particularly contami-
nating and harrowing.

Theme 15. Relatives of different degree have
particular roles to perform in respect to the
individual; depending on the relation-
ship involved they are expected to act
either as protectors, friendly rivals
and critics, or as teachers and
disciplinarians

The essence of the obligation of the Lipan
parent toward the child can be summed up
in the word “‘protection.’’ This protective
attitude begins even before the birth of the
child; it is the Lipan dictum that ‘‘a woman
must be careful when carrying a child; a
child is like an egg.’’ Husband and wife
discontinue sexual intercourse as soon as
they discover that the woman is pregnant;
to do otherwise would result in the child’s
death, they believe. To prevent harm to the
fetus, the pregnant woman refrains from
eating certain foods; she believes that if she
eats of a fetal animal the child will be born
with impaired eyesight, that if she eats liver
or intestines, the umbilical cord will be
wound around the child, that if she partakes
of the stomach of an animal the child will
have a film over his eyes, and that if she eats
the kernels of hard-shelled nuts the child
will be handicapped by a small, upturned
nose. After the child is safely born the
parents still must postpone sexual inter-
course until he has been weaned, for if the
mother should become pregnant while the
child is nursing he will suffer from a serious

154

stomach disorder. Some of the amulets and
ceremonies by means of which the parents
seek to shield the child from danger and
malice have already been described. It is
the parents who lecture the child about
wandering too far from camp and who at-
tempt to instill in him a sense of the sur-
rounding dangers. If the children play
games considered too dangerous the parents
are ordinarily the ones to intervene.

Since the Lipan parent is cast so com-
pletely in the role of provider and protector,
the society reacts harshly against the
mother or father who shirks these duties.
A significant Lipan story tells of a woman
who abandons her children to marry a man
from whom she conceals that she is a
mother. The children undergo severe hard-
ship but survive and prosper. Years later
they find their mother in reduced circum-
stances. The girl refuses to give her mother
food; the son slays the erring woman.

At the time of the girl’s puberty rite,
visitors come from a wide area to con-
gratulate the parents on having brought
their daughter to maturity; it is recognized
that an important goal in the lives of the
hosts has been fulfilled. It will not do to
oversimplify the position of the parents,
however, for they have many other func-
tions in respect to the child besides the one
mentioned here. They have a share in the
child’s education and instruction, the bond
between parent and child is often warm and
affectionate, and so on. But Lipan culture
is particularly sensitive to danger and alert
to those inimical forces that seek to strike
at the young. It is not surprising, therefore,
that the parents have been made to feel
primary responsibility for the safety and
well-being of their children.

In Lipan society the grandparents, par-
ticularly the maternal grandparents, take
much responsibility for the care and instruc-
tion of the young. The convenience of such
an arrangement is apparent. The father and
mother are often away on economic errands.
Older people, such as the grandparents, are
more likely to stay behind and can therefore
attend to the camp chores and supervise the
children. When a mother dies, the maternal
grandparents usually open their home to
the children. If the father does not stay in

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VoL. 36, No. 5

his deceased wife’s encampment to reestab-
lish the family unit, the children usually
remain with the grandparents permanently.
Since, with matrilocal residence, a daughter
remains near her parents throughout life,
it is convenient for her to seek their advice
and cooperation in connection with prob-
lems regarding the rearing of her children.
The grandmother assists the mother in the
little ceremony performed at the time the
child is placed in the rawhide carrier. It is
the grandmother who brings her grandchild
to a pubescent girl to be blessed. At the
time of the girl’s puberty rite, her grand-
mother gives her pertinent advice and helps
her mother prepare her. The grandparents
often conspire with the parents to discipline
the child. The parents, for instance, tell a
disobedient child that he is going to be
thrown to the coyotes if he does not behave.
The grandparents help with the pretense by
imitating the cry of the coyote from a dis-
tance.

But the grandparents do much more than
simply assist the parents with problems of
child care on occasion. They accept pri-
mary responsibility for the instruction of
the young. The grandparents are the ones
who tell the traditional stories, many of
which are of a didactic nature, to the young
people. The grandfather normally teaches
the boy to shoot arrows and performs the
ceremony over his first kill; the grand-
mother guides the girl in the acquisition of
many household skills.

Lipan society has empowered the grand-
parent to deal as roughly and directly with
the child as is thought necessary for his
proper education and training. In the eyes
of the Lipan child the figure of authority
and strict discipline is not the parent but
the grandparent. And, interestingly enough,
the psychic phenomena that are usually in-
duced by resentment and repressed antago-
nism are most often attached, when they
appear, to the grandparental image. The

terrifying hoot of the owl is likely to be in-

terpreted as the voice of the deceased grand-

parent; in stories of the underworld more

often than not it is the grandparent who
wishes to retain the visitor in the land of the
dead. The Lipan grandparent is free with
threats if he thinks they will quiet his

May 15, 1946

charge or chill him into better behavior. He
threatens to give the child to the Lipan
boogy-man (the call of the poorwill is his
voice), to throw the child to the fishes, to
castrate him, or to cut his throat.

The tenderness of the grandparent to-
ward the grandchild is masked by a rather
rough and coarse “‘joking relationship.”’ In
terms of one aspect of this ‘“‘teasing”’ it is
the grandparent’s privilege to play practical
jokes on the grandchild, to duck his head in
water, poke his horse when he is mounted,
and the like. The grandchild retaliates as he
can. The other face of this ‘joking relation-
ship” is the right of grandparent and grand-
child to banter with each other about
marriage and sex. A grandmother will re-
mind her grandson that she intends to
marry him when he grows up and that she
will be jealous of any woman who attempts
to interfere. She sharpens a knife ominously
to indicate what is in store for any rival.
The grandfather will declare that any man
who takes his “wife” away from him will
have to give him a horse to prevent trouble.
After the grandchildren are married, the
grandparents engage, but only when the
grandchildren are present, in mock bicker-
ing with their mates.

This socially sanctioned custom of great
freedom in the discussion of intimate mat-
ters makes of the grandparent a logical
person to instruct the grandchild in sex, and
_the conveying of such information is one of
the recognized functions of the Lipan
grandparent.

Another special Lipan relationship in-
volves the mother’s brother and _ his
nephews and nieces (his sister’s children).
In the case of the niece and uncle, the re-
lationship rarely goes beyond teasing and
bantering; in the case of uncle and nephew,
however, it is marked by pranks, contests,
and active rivalry, as well. Uncle and
nephew pour water on each other, hide each
other’s moccasins, and one of them may at-
tempt to startle the horse upon which the
other is riding. If one of them is on horse-
back and the other is on foot, the rider may
run down the pedestrian, acting as if he
intends to strike him with the whip. Or to
show how lazy and worthless he deems him
to be, a Lipan will remove the saddle from

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

155

this relative’s horse and arrange the saddle
blanket over it to resemble a bed. More
important, the uncle and nephew compete
to see who can accomplish the bravest feats
in riding, raiding, and fighting. In this way
they set standards for one another, and each
stands ready to ridicule the other in the
event of poor performance or failure. It is
plain that this is one of the devices by
which the culture keeps martial spirit and
manly competition at a high pitch.

Lipan siblings (brothers or sisters) and
cousins of the same sex are friends and
comrades. But they, too, have a formalized
joking relationship, one in which they tease
each other about mates. One woman, for
example, put on a man’s hat, made her way
at night to her cousin’s bed, imitated the
voice of a man who stayed in the home but
who was absent at the time, and stroked
her relative’s breasts and thigh. When the
victim became indignant the hoax was re-
vealed. The man who had been imitated
was married to a cousin of the two young
ladies involved and so, in joking parlance,
was a “husband” to them. This willingness
to joke about so delicate a subject is con-
sidered proof of brotherly, sisterly, or
cousinly amity and indicates that ‘‘all can
get along together.”

The relations between siblings or cousins
of opposite sex, however, are marked by the
greatest restraint. When a child is old
enough to take admonitions seriously, he
is warned to utter no ‘‘dirty word” before
his sister and never to relieve himself in her
presence. Warnings and restrictions are
added, until, by the time of puberty a boy
will not use the dish from which his sister
eats,-he will not touch her clothes, he will
not sit where she has been resting, and he
will not enter a dwelling in which she is
alone. The very lice of a sister are extremely
poisonous for the boy. A bite from one of
these lice causes skin erruption which can
be cured only if the relative from which it
came chews the afflicted spot. The attitudes
and behavior patterns that mark the con-
duct of brother and sister toward each other
are observed by cousins of opposite sex also.
In fact, restraint between cousins may be
even more inflexible, for, if one of the princi-
pals (usually the woman) decides to show

156

the ultimate in respect toward the other,
total avoidance is substituted for mere reti-
cence. This, incidentally, is the only in-
stance in which Lipan society sanctions a
relationship of total avoidance.

Theme 16. The obligations of the married man and
woman to their relatives-in-law are extremely
comprehensive and solemn

In order to guarantee the smooth func-
tioning and the productive capacity of the
extended domestic family, the fate and
interests of the young men who join the
unit at marriage are strongly linked with
those of his relatives-in-law. This is accom-
plished by making the in-law obligation of
service and obedience, and particularly the
son-in-law obligation, one of the funda-
mental tenets of the culture.

When a Lipan is about to marry, his
father tells him, ‘Now you’re going to
marry that girl. Do what her relatives tell
you no matter how hard it is. Put your
camp on the dangerous side. Be the first to
shoot at the enemy. That’s the way married
life is.”” It is the son-in-law’s primary duty
to provide for his wife’s parents. The very
marriage gifts are a token of this; they
represent the willingness of the young man
to help his wife’s relatives with his posses-
sions. It is cause for most unfavorable
gossip if a man is stingy toward his in-laws
and refuses to give them anything within
reason for which they ask.

The less desirable and more precarious
tasks of the encampment are likely to fall
to the lot of the son-in-law, especially dur-
ing the first years of marriage. He may be
asked to break dangerous horses, to ride out
to identify persons unknown who are ap-
proaching the camp site, to get horses that
are grazing at a distance, or to care for
visitors’ horses. If a man performs his duties
indifferently or if he treats his wife badly,
his relatives-in-law may send or drive him
away. If he fails even more completely,
worse may befall him. A story is told of a
man who flees the camp during an enemy
attack in which his wife and child are slain.
When he returns his life is threatened by
stern relatives-in-law who upbraid him for
deserting his post and neglecting his wife
and child. A female cousin of the slain wife

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

intercedes for him and saves him, but he has
to pay the family and this woman much
property before he is allowed to go else-
where and remarry.

Once a son-in-law proves his worth, how-
ever, his wife’s family looks on him with
favor and will help and defend him. If the
wife threatens to divorce a good provider,
her family will bring pressure upon her to
live with him again. When the woman is
plainly at fault in some domestic dispute,
her kin often side with the husband. There
is a tale of an unfaithful wife who feigned
death to disappear and go to her lover.
When her deception was discovered, her
family gave the husband a free hand in
dealing with her. Though he slew her, they
required no mourning of him and offered
him another daughter in her stead. The
Lipan family is slow to reject a relative-in-
law who is considerate and useful. A Lipan
whose wife wished to divorce him and marry
another gave the woman pause when he
shrewdly asked, ‘“‘Do you think he will be as
good to your parents as I have been?”

Although the main burdens of the
relative-in-law obligation fall upon the mar-
ried man, the Lipan conception of marriage
as a compact between two families implies
that the woman is not without duties to-
ward her husband’s kin, as well. In fact, a
woman’s kin, when she is about to marry,
tell her to be a good wife and to obey her
relatives-in-law. Actually the demands of
her relatives-in-law upon her are very mod-
erate. Once in a while, to remind her of her
duties and of their existence, they ask her to
do something for them.

It is at the time of death that the super-
vision of the relatives-in-law over the indi-
vidual becomes most sweeping and onerous.
The widower is obliged to remain with his
dead wife’s relatives. He obeys all the rules
of mourning; he cuts off some of his hair and
leaves the rest uncombed; he dresses poorly;
he shuns social events. He continues, never-
theless, to hunt and provide for his parents-
in-law. After approximately a year, this
family, if they wish to retain his services,
offer him a sister or cousin of his dead wife
in marriage. He is obliged to accept. If they
have no fault to find with him during the

VOL. 36, No. 5 . :

May 15, 1946

mourning period but have no girl to offer
him, they must set him free. The severing of
the ties is accompanied by formal expres-
sions of regret and by the presentation of
gifts to the family by the young man. If it
is the man who is eager to gain his freedom,
after a reasonable term of mourning, he of-
fers ‘“‘to buy his way out” and, with the help
of his own family, amasses the amount of
property upon which there has been agree-
ment. —

At the death of her husband, the widow,
too, falls under the control of her relatives-

in-law. She remains in her own encamp-.

ment, but she is required to mourn in the
traditional manner and must accept as hus-
band the brother or male cousin of her de-
ceased husband if her relatives-in-law so
decree. If she wishes to make marital ar-
rangements of her own, she must first gain
the consent of the family to which she is
bound.

If a widower or a widow takes the mourn-
ing requirements too lightly, attends social
functions too soon after the death or re-
marries without permission, the relatives-
in-law become greatly incensed and, with
public sympathy solidly behind them, seek
vengeance. A woman of the aggrieved
family may bite off the tip of the nose or the
ear of the offending widow. A man who re-
marries without permission may have his
horse confiscated or may be stabbed at the
first opportunity. The woman who dares
marry him, though he is still committed to
another family, may be attacked. Because
of this danger, the family of the new wife, in
an attempt to compound the matter, some-
times offers presents to the outraged rela-
tives. It is important that some understand-
ing be reached, for “‘the families never for-
get it.”’ A typical case is that of a man who
remarried without the permission of his
dead wife’s family. Years later, at a social
gathering, a woman of the outraged family
turned on him, reminded him of his offense,

and stabbed him. He wrested the knife from |

her and killed her on the spot. A general
fight ensued in which two of his relatives
who came to his rescue were killed. Clearly
the Lipan show by the vigor with which
they enforce them how important they hold

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157

the son-in-law—daughter-in-law obligations
to be.
Theme 17. Industry, generosity, and
bravery are the cardinal moral-
social virtues

There are a good many character traits
and personal attributes that the Lipan rate
highly. Truthfulness, wisdom, attention to
etiquette, cheerfulness, piety, and modesty
in women evoke commendation. But there
are three moral—social virtues that are set
aside from all others for special emphasis
and notice. These are industry, generosity
(kindness), and bravery.

The sun is the symbol of the need for in-
dustry. When human beings were first
created, Sun ordered them to arise early in
emulation of him. The old people constantly
remind the children of the importance of
doing something useful at as early an age as
possible. To impress this upon them, even
in. jesting, one old man repeatedly de-
scribed to his grand-children how he used to
get up before dawn to suckle at his mother’s
breast, go out to hunt, and return to suckle
again.

Those who guide the young never lose
sight of the cardinal virtue of industry. At
the birth of a male infant, the midwife holds
him up and prays, ‘‘May he grow up to be
well, to live long, and to become a good
hunter and warrior.”’ She prays that the girl
child may be a “good worker.’’ At the first
moccasins ceremony a little boy is given a
small bow and arrows so that he may excel
in hunting; the girl receives an awl so that
she will be proficient at sewing. The elders
take care to channel children’s play in the
direction of adult work patterns. The
mother seeks to interest the girl in “playing
camp” and carrying wood, for example. As
soon as a girl is considered old enough to
handle fire safely, she is taught to cook.
Boys and girls are urged to hunt pack rats,
which are utilized as food. The girls poke
the brush to force out the rodents; the boys
shoot them with arrows as they run.

The Lipan conception of industry in-
volves accomplishment as well as activity.
The children are always reminded of the
“foolish people’? who brought back only
rawhide from the raid and of the turtles who

158

talked a great deal about the rigors they had
undergone but who secured nothing on the
raid. The young Lipan who has a reputation
for sloth has a difficult time indeed. Even
though men are attracted to her, their rela-
tives will oppose union with a lazy girl. A
boy of doubtful work habits is likely to re-
ceive a negative answer from the family of
the girl he wishes to marry. Even if he is
accepted his lot will be hard, for he faces
the displeasure and petty persecutions of
relatives-in-law who feel that he is provid-
ing inadequately for them.

Generosity is another attribute that
Lipan culture encourages and holds in great
esteem. Any younger person who hesitates
to contribute his full share of goods or
services when he is called upon for help is
told, ‘You'll get it again as you go along.
When you are old you'll be helped too.” If
neighbors need assistance, parents and
grandparents urge their children to volun-
teer aid; when sickness or trouble strikes
nearby, girls are told to go to the disrupted
household to carry water and wood, and
boys are sent to care for the horses. It is a
Lipan rule that a friendly visitor has to be
fed, even if a horse must be killed to supply
the meat. If the visitor’s horse is tired and
he must go on, he is given a substitute
mount. If he has no horse and has a long and
arduous journey ahead, he is presented with
one. If his moccasins are worn out, he is
supplied with new ones.

Men who return from raid or war with
spoils keep relatively little for themselves;
at the victory dance they distribute most of
what they have seized from the enemy,
often to the poor and needy. Hunting cus-
toms are marked by canons of generosity
too. When two men are hunting together,
it is not the man who brings down the game
but his companion who is entitled to the
hide and as much oc! the meat as he wants.
A successful hunter, if he is asked for food
when he is going through the camps, is ex-
pected to honor the request without hesita-
tion. Of course, those who take meat from
the hunter usually exercise moderation and
are guided by their actual needs, for they
know that they are subject to similar de-
mands when the situation is reversed. But

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VOL. 36, No. 5

the successful hunter ordinarily does not in
the least resent these requests and is likely
to distribute meat to surrounding camps as
a neighborly gesture in any case.

It is not difficult to establish that bravery
is one of the outstanding virtues recognized
by the Lipan. We have already seen that
Enemy Slayer, the culture hero, is essen-
tially a warrior and raider and is credited
with establishing what is, in effect, a cult
of bravery. The tests of fortitude and cour-
age to which the growing child is subject
and the Spartan rigors of the child training
and hardening process have already been
described. Lipan story-telling sessions are
usually enlivened by accounts of the heroic
deeds of Lipan fighters. To be called a cow-
ard, a “crow,” or a. “woman’sJor tombe
charged with avoiding danger because “‘you
always want to live a little longer” is a
provocation beyond endurance. As an ex-
ample of how true Lipan act, the anecdote
is told approvingly of a small group of Lipan
whose horses were stolen by a much larger
force of the enemy. Because of their superior
numbers the enemy felt perfectly secure and
moved eastward at a leisurely pace. But the
Lipan said among themselves, ‘These
people think we are cowards. Let’s show
them. Let’s follow them and fight. Let’s die
bravely!”

Participation in the war dance is a pledge
to be brave and join the expedition. Feather
headdresses and headdresses ornamented
with buffalo horns can be worn only by
those with significant war deeds to their
credit. One of the bravest acts possible is
to enter a fight armed only with spear and
shield, for a warrior without bow and ar-
rows must engage his foe at close quarters.
To be the first to touch a fallen enemy is
considered an extremely heroic feat, too, for
the companions of a downed foe usually
rush forward to save him and to prevent his
scalp from being taken; therefore hand-to-
hand combat is precipitated. At the victory
or scalp dance a warrior is permitted to de-
scribe his deeds and to call upon others to
verify his statements. He also has the
privilege of conferring upon children names
associated with his war deeds.

The Lipan explain that bravery and com-

May 15, 1946

mendable exploits in war result from train-
ing, self-control, and decisiveness. These
qualities are operative during peace as well
as in time of battle. Therefore, those who
can accept adversity in peacetime stoically
or who show these admirable qualities in
mastering a difficult domestic situation are
said to have ‘‘a brave heart’ also. Such a
man was the one who, upon discovering
that his wife was carrying on an affair with
a rival, took his bow and arrows, went to the
man’s dwelling, and questioned him closely
as to whether he cared for the woman and
whether he would marry her if she were free.
The man answered in the affirmative
throughout. The husband then divorced the
woman and bade the two marry. Had the
rival indicated at any point that he was not
infatuated over the woman but was merely
enjoying himself at the expense of the hus-
band’s reputation and prestige, the husband
was prepared to kill him on the spot. By
demonstrating that he controlled the situa-
tion and that he made the final decision, the
husband, even though the episode ended
without bloodshed, proved that he pos-
sessed ‘‘a great heart.”

Theme 18. A leader is a man who is more zealous
than most in the discharge of the principal
social—moral virtues and who ts will-
ing to assume the responsibility

of office

All discussions, explanations, and stories
bearing on the subject of leadership estab-
lish that the Lipan leader or ‘“‘chief’’ is the
man who most conspicuously exemplifies
the three prominent social—moral virtues. A
man destined to be chief may display
greater than ordinary seriousness and in-
dustry. He establishes a reputation for
earnestness and for being a good provider.
Then he shows courage and daring in raid
and war. As a result of his industry and
bravery he brings home meat and enemy
possessions. But he sympathizes with the
widow and the orphan and gives almost all
his property away. Always he gives judi-
ciously and wisely to those who deserve aid.
His industry, bravery, and generosity do
not go unnoticed but are increasingly the
topic of approving comments. He is now so
well considered that people defer to him and

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

159

constantly ask his advice. He has many

visitors whom his wife always feeds well.
Sooner or later some emergency arises and
he is appealed to or asked to make a de-
cision. If he takes command and gives direc-
tions and the crisis is resolved successfully,
his leadership is thereafter assumed.

The chief does not dress elaborately; in
fact his clothes may not be so fine as those
of other men. A story is told to illustrate
this. —Two Chiricahua Apache who were
captured asked to be allowed to speak to
the chief. The chief was pointed out to them
but they ignored him and insisted on ad-
dressing a man who was better clad. This
finally angered the leader and he ordered
them put to death. The only insignia of
rank the leader wears are a downy eagle
feather and an abalone shell attached to the
scalp-lock. The shell, a symbol for the north
star, suggests the steadfastness of the
leader,

In times of crisis or emergency the chief
issues orders on his own initiative. When
time will allow a discussion of any problem
that troubles the group, however, a council
of family heads is held. At this council the
chief’s views ordinarily count heavily, but
it is the consensus that carries the day. For
the most part, then, the chief is the spokes-
man for the pecple rather than a strong
source of authority. He announces the dates
of movements and expeditions. He de-
livers the homilies on preparedness and
good conduct which everyone expects and
no one, seemingly, ever tires of hearing. The
chiefly qualities are a magnification of the
ordinary virtues which the Lipan extol, and
the chief’s voice is the medium for express-
ing those things that most of his followers
accept or wish to see undertaken.

Theme 19. Long life (old age) 1s an
important goal for the individual
to reach

We have already noted the Lipan’s frank
recognition of the evils—sorcery, disease,
enemies—that continually threaten the in-
dividual as he travels the path of life. So
acute are the dangers felt to be that exist-
ence itself is interpreted as a challenge to
the death forces, with a long, full, and satis-
fying life as the brave goal. In keeping with

160

this mood, Lipan ceremonialism is largely .

an elaborate device to preserve or protect
life, and most of the ceremonies are curing
rites or rites performed to prevent antici-
pated sickness and disaster. There is
scarcely a religious song or prayer that does
not include a reference, direct or oblique, to
the desired longevity.

Because young people are believed to be
tender and susceptible and to lack protec-
tive power of their own, many of the rites of
childhood contain prayers or practices de-
signed to guard them during this critical
period and to help them live to an old age.
A prayer that the child may live long is
uttered at the very time of birth. A general
protective rite lasting two or four nights is
often performed over an infant to increase
his life expectancy. If a child’s kin have
been moving from one locality to another,
when they return to the place where the
baby was born, he is made to roll on the
ground, an act thought to help ensure a
long life. In the first moccasins ceremony,
the four steps to the east the boy takes as he
leans upon the bow and the four steps the
girl takes as she supports herself with the
‘“‘age stick” are considered a prayer for long
life and an instrumentality for reaching
great age. At a girl’s puberty rite, an aba-
lone shell is pressed to her body; if it ad-
heres to her, this is considered a harbinger of
the long life she will enjoy. In the ceremony
conducted when a new tipi is erected, the
fire poker is referred to as the ‘‘age stick”’
and is considered a symbol of the long life
desired for the occupants.

In the belief that persons who have lived
many years can transfer this ability to those
starting out in life, the aged are often as-
sociated with the young on special oc-
casions. Thus, old people are sought to act
as shamans for the first moccasins cere-
mony, for the spring hair-cutting ceremony,
for the ceremony held at the erection of the
new tipi, and for the ceremony of purifica-
tion following a death. An old person is
asked to roll the first cigarette for a youth
and to give instruction to a boy who wishes
to join his first raiding party. A name con-
ferred on a child by an old person is con-
sidered particularly lucky. An old woman is
the first person to mark the face of the

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VOL. 36, No. 5 ~

pubescent girl with pollen, and she often
brings her grandchild with her and helps
him perform the same act. In dealing with
the young, the wisdom attributed to the old
is emphasized. The grandmother tells a girl,
“You will live to be old like me if you listen’
to my advice.”’

Because of their greater “‘toughness” be-
fore evil onslaughts, gained during the
years, old people, it is thought, can prepare
and bury a corpse with reasonable im-
munity.

Those who die while they are still young
or active are removed from life when their
aims are unfulfilled, when they are strug-
gling for recognition, affection, position, and
favor. Therefore, they may die dissatisfied —
and vengeful, and their ghosts are greatly
feared. But the person who dies, not from
sickness or by violence, but simply because —
his body wears out, is beyond earthly cares
and desires and dies serene and without
rancor. There is no fear of his ghost; the
usual mourning observances are waived. In —
fact, as his death approaches, his relatives
gather around him for a last blessing and to
pray that they will live to be as old as the
one who is going from them.

Theme 20. Death, except of the very old or the very
young, 1s extremely contaminating to the
survivors, and the corpse, the grave,
and the ghost inspire intense fear

Death not only brings economic dislo-
cation and personal grief but also a sense of
contamination and anxiety. Whenever pos-
sible, an elderly person, preferably one with —
“‘ehost power,’’ is hired to prepare and bury
the corpse. If it can be managed, the burial
takes place the very day of death. His
personal property is buried with the dead
person. What can not be carried to the
grave is destroyed at the home. In a cere- ~
mony at the grave the deceased is requested
to remain in the land of the dead and is
urged to refrain from persecuting his living
relatives. The burial party returns by a dif-
ferent route from the one it took to the
grave; to do otherwise would be to invite
the ghost to follow. After their return, the
members of the burial party bathe them-
selves thoroughly.

Meanwhile the close relatives of the de- —
ceased destroy the dwelling in which the —

May 15, 1946

death occurred, burn the property of the
dead, destroy any property of their own
that was closely associated with the dead
person, cut the ends of their hair and allow
the rest of it to hang loose, discard their
good clothes, and wail. They stay by them-
selves in semi-isolation for four cr eight
days. All the dwellings of the encampment
are moved for a short distance in the op-
posite direction from the burial site. The
relatives burn sage, scatter ashes, and en-
gage in other practices aimed at keeping the
ghost at a distance. If necessary they hire
a shaman to conduct a purification rite.
Relatives will not utter the name of the
dead, and others may not mention the
name in their presence. A relative will even
refrain for some time from using the kinship
term by which he has addressed the de-
ceased.

This studied effort to eliminate any men-
tion of the dead and to destroy any object
that would remind one of him has for its
purpose the prevention of the return of the
ghost. To think of the dead too often, to
dream of the deceased, to venture too near
a grave, or even to whistle at night ‘‘draws”’
ghosts. And since a person who sees a dead

relative is himself doomed to die soon, this is.

additional cause for terror. It is the practice
of ghosts to invite their relatives to join
them; they offer food to the living, and if
this is eaten, the one who has tasted the
- food of the underworld must relinquish this
life. Therefore, a ghost experience evokes
the greatest uneasiness. States of extreme
anxiety, fainting, hysterical seizures, and
insanity are usually diagnosed as ‘‘ghost
sickness.” The ghosts of witches plague the
living through the medium of owls. The
hoot of an owl shortly after a death is there-
fore one of the most ominous and frighten-
ing of sounds. In the call of the owl, a Lipan
listener hears a human voice and often
recognizes the message of a departed rela-
tive.

The devastating fear and contamination
that ordinarily accompany death are
greatly relaxed when the deceased is an in-
fant or a very old person. Apparently, the
infant has not yet suffered social injuries
that his ghost must avenge; the aged per-
son has presumably shed his grudges as the

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

161

years have passed over him and as physical
weakness has grown upon him.

COMMENTS AND PERSPECTIVE

It has been the dual purpose of this paper
to show that a culture about which we have
reasonably full information may be system-
atically examined for the fundamental as-
sumptions or themes that indicate its pur-
pose and direction and to demonstrate that
these themes can be used as nuclei around
which the significant facts of behavior and
belief can be meaningfully grouped.

Still, to list 20 of these cultural affirma-
tions and to devote a page or two to ‘‘ex-
pressions”’ or illustrations of the workings
of each theme, does not exhaust the possi-
bilities of the approach. A further step, of
course, is to trace the interrelations of the
themes and the manner in which they aug-
ment or limit one another. In Lipan culture,
for instance, the theme of the comparative
weakness of women is balanced, though not
overshadowed, by the theme of woman’s
social importance. The limiting influence of
each of these themes upon the other results
in a solution whereby the formal symbols of
political power are vested in the men,
though the women enjoy economic equality
and a large measure of social protection.
Also, the acceptance by the culture of the
principle of individual choice and individual
differences (theme 8) somewhat offsets and
relieves the rigidity of the doctrine of pre-
destination in regard to elements of the
tribal pattern (theme 7). On the other hand,
the three predominant moral-social virtues
have undoubtedly been underscored and
strengthened by the circumstance that. they
and not birth or some other condition, have
become the criteria of chieftainship.

It is certain that a more sustained and
sensitive study of the themes and their ex-
pressions, of their interpenetrations, and of
the structure and equilibrium that result
from their relations is desirable. Such a
treatment, however, is more than can be
accomplished in a paper of this length; to
present the full account of themal organiza-
tion and dynamics in a culture requires a
contribution of monographic proportions.
Consequently, as my next major piece of
writing, I hope to expand this preliminary

162

description of Lipan culture to book length
and to make the methodological core of the
effort a full exposition of the themal ap-
proach) ~~

In the course cf writing this paper certain
questions have arisen in my mind or have
been put to me by others, and it may pre-
vent misunderstanding if they are dealt
with briefly here.

The first question has to do with the
reality, or at least the distinctiveness, of
themes. One may ask whether the carrier of
the culture is aware of the themes I have
described. It is clear that the Lipan is fully
cognizant of some of them and quite as ex-
plicit in discussing them as I have been. He
has no difficulty in telling you that children
are particularly vulnerable to dangers, that
women are in many respects weaker than
men, or that the obligations of the married
person to his relatives-in-law are funda-
mental. On the other hand, I doubt very
much that a theme more abstract and philo-
sophical in tone, such as that “‘security is
attained largely through the conquest of
fear and danger”’ could be obtained in just
that form from the average Lipan. This
does not, to my mind, in any way invalidate
the theme. The Lipan does not preen him-
self upon being a philosopher or a social
scientist. He sees no reason why behavior
patterns that come to him traditionally and
with which he complies easily and naturally
should be reduced to least common verbal
denominators. That the Lipan would not be
likely to utilize an over-all category that
classifies the conquest of fear at the time of
a power vision with the conquest of physical
fear does not exempt the social scientist,
whose purposes are quite different, from
doing so.

A related and perhaps more important
question is whether the existence and char-
acter of themes are susceptible to empirical
investigation and _ verification, whether
comparable methods and efforts can be ex-
pected to yield equivalent results. Would
another social scientist, interested in the
same approach and the same people, arrive
independently at the identical number and
statement of themes? Only a test case can
settle this with certainty, but my guess 1s
that the results of such investigations by

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VOL. 36, No. 5

two informed field workers would be com-
parable. I doubt that many of the themes I
have defined would be overlooked by any-
one thoroughly familiar with the culture or
that they would fail to be recognized for
what they are by one who has been schooled
in the method and interest. It is likely that
another worker would phrase some of the
themes differently and perhaps more aptly.
It might very well happen that some themes
(such as 1 and 2 or 3 and 4) which are now
separated, would be combined and that two
or more themes would be recognized where
I have felt that one would serve (theme 15).
But I doubt whether any major shift in the
content of the total list of postulates would
be likely to occur. }

In a friendly and helpful letter, Kurt H.
Wolff, of Ohio State University, has asked,
among other things, how one can differenti-
ate for certainty between a theme and an
expression of a theme. I confess I see no
great difficulty here. As I conceive of them,
themes are propositions that serve as the
stimulus or rationalization for acts and be-
liefs. The acts and beliefs are the expres-
sions. Consequently, themes can be con-
sidered to be the broadest directives of a
unified nature implicit in a culture. If an
item or a trait has to be explained, vali-
dated, or interpreted in terms of another
and broader concept, we may be sure that
it is no theme.

In another letter, after indicating his in-
terest in the method A. L. Kroeber, of the
University of California, made a very
pertinent observation which deserves some
comment in the light of this experience in
applying the theory to a substantial body of
data. Dr. Kroeber wrote: ‘The value of the
approach will depend on how great a part
of any culture you can apply it to. Picking
off a certain number of themes but leaving
the great mass of the content of the culture
a nonthematic chaos may be stimulating,
but will leave the tool not too helpful. If
you could attach most of a culture to a
series of themes and then group these
themes, you would have in hand a method
of organization that might well be of funda-
mental importance. I hope you will try to
see how far you can apply the method.”
With Dr. Kroeber’s caution in mind, I was

May 15, 1946

particularly interested to know whether
most of the Lipan material could be identi-
fied, without violence to its essential mean-
ings, with one or another of the themes
which had been recognized. I believe it is
obvious even from the condensed and ab-
breviated description of Lipan culture of-
fered in this paper, that the results have
been extremely gratifying. It will be noted
that the range of interests and activities it
was possible to subsume under the various
themes was wide indeed. There was very
little, and certainly very little of impor-
tance, which was not dynamically related to
one of these themes.

Even if the possibility of analyzing a cul-
ture by means of themes is granted, it is
only reasonable to ask whether there is any
particular advantage to be gained by em-
ploying this method rather than some
other. Many cultural anthropologists will
grant that when we informally discuss the
native groups we have studied in the field
we are often sprightly and interesting, but
when we endeavor to write about these
same groups the results are too often
labored and uninspired. In our oral attack
we are anecdotal and vivid. We emphasize
what seemed important. Unconsciously we
reach out for themes in terms of which to
characterize the culture. In our written ef-
forts, however, we are subdued and re-
strained by the formula or outline which is
the badge of our craft. We have felt obliged
to give, more or less mechanically and in
this order, the location and geographical
setting of the tribe, the essentials of the ma-
terial culture and economy, the social life,
the political life, and the art and religion.
The monograph tends to run to flat de-
scription, items are arranged rather than
weighted, one fact is treated like another.
As a result, anthropological monographs,
despite essential differences in the cultures
portrayed, are in spirit remarkably alike.
The unique organization that purpose lends
to the culture is lost; the flavor and élan of
the culture somehow does not emerge. In
my opinion one remedy for this is to deal
with subjects as they constitute a force in
the culture and not as they appear on a
topical outline.

There is another decided advantage to be

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

163

gained from a cultural analysis based on
guiding principles of general interest. Stu-
dents of comparative cultures, when they
are limited to routine description, find
themselves in the unfortunate position, as
far as the intelligent layman or those out-
side their field of specialization are con-
cerned, of presenting a quaint but uncon-
vineing picture of unfamiliar behavior in a
foreign setting. Those whom we would like
to reach can not believe that these odd-
ments may possibly be of significance to
them or that those who gather such material
can be moved by anything other than an
eccentric’s interest. Not long ago a college
president, who saw no room for social an-
thropology in his curriculum, asked me if
anthropology were not a very ‘‘technical”’
subject. By ‘“‘technical’’ he meant esoteric.
Recently, too, a social scientist asked me if
I could not recommend a cultural anthro-
pologist for his department who was not an
antiquarian but who was interested in the
problems of our modern society! I suspect
that the appalling misapprehensions that
these views reflect will persist as long as the
culture trait is the measure of anthropologi-
cal sapience. But I am also convinced that
if we subordinate practices to purposes in
the treatment of our material, the practices
which are the raw data of our discipline will
be better appreciated and understood. The
person who is told that the Lipan raided
their neighbors for horses. shrugs his
shoulders and fails to see in this fact any-
thing pertinent to his problems, to, for in-
stance, the account of the United Nations
difficulties he is following in the daily
paper. But if you can show him that
the Lipan raided and were raided because
they conceived themselves to be enmeshed
in a predestined cycle of hostilities from
which they saw no way to extricate them-
selves, he may sense a parallel between
this and the periodic catastrophes that he
uneasily awaits. Let us help him find the
similarities.

The Lipan needed horses, but the man-
ner in which they obtained them was waste-
ful in the extreme. When they stole them
from an alien tribe, the enemy warriors
pursued the raiders. Some of the horses
tired. Rather than to allow them to fall into

164

enemy hands for use in continuing the pur-
suit, the animals were killed. Other animals,
though they survived, were irretrievably
damaged by the difficult journey. The
enemy then staged a raid of retaliation. As
a result, more horses were run to death or
shot. The men who fought over them were
often done to death as well. Hach episode
added to the mountain of animosity and the
vows of vengeance. A respite in which the
stock might breed in safety would have
made all these Indians rich in horses, but
none of them knew how to arrest a process
they had come to think inevitable.

Our citizen of a modern state works with
feverish energy between wars to create
wealth, build cities, and rear children.
Every two decades a large share of this
wealth is destroyed, cities are razed, and the
children are decimated. Each time he rises
from the ruins of his cities and his hopes,
mutters a phrase he has learned about the
inevitability of war and the fighting pro-
pensity of man and, like an ant that has
been momentarily diverted from its goal,
begins anew the creative phase of his con-
structive—destructive cycle. Just as the
Lipan chief occasionally spits into a hole
with a representative of an alien people and,
thus having symbolically buried the dif-
ficulty, prevents a particular battle, our
citizen of the modern power creates some
inadequate peace organization, a concession
to his temporary self-disgust and war-
weariness. But neither the Lipan nor the
representative of the modern state acts with
conviction. Neither boldly challenges the
theme and its extensions which are the core
of his troubles. Each really believes that no
matter how economically wasteful and logi-
cally absurd his recurring outbursts are,
they are part of a tradition which he is
helpless to alter significantly. The citizen of
the modern state may require a wider stage
for his posturing, and his eruptions may be
more expensive and lethal, but he is moved
and victimized by a theme which, in es-
sence, is not greatly different from the one
to which the Lipan bow. It is at the level of
motivation and purpose that the similarities
and differences between the behavior and
conceptions of men and groups of men need
to be explored.

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VOL. 36, NO. 5

It may be asked, in conclusion, whether
the theory of themes that has been de-
veloped here is original. I should dislike to
think so, for, unless a person possesses a
degree of creative ability that I do not
claim, such novelty usually means a failure
to make the best use of the achievements of
forerunners or a lack of appreciation of the
work of contemporaries. Anything original
that I have done amounts to a synthesizing,
refining, and testing of the ideas of others
and an attempt systematically to apply the
concepts that have resulted to a concrete
body of material. To estimate correctly an
intellectual debt is a difficult task and one
that is certain to leave many worthy credi-
tors unpaid. Here I shall not try to do more
than to name a few social scientists of whose
contributions to the growth of the views set
forth here I am particularly conscious.

The ‘‘elementary ideas” and “‘folk ideas”
of Adolph Bastian, which I studied as a
student of Prof. Robert Redfield, suggested
to me, in spite of their vagueness and mysti-
cism, that the anthropologist has for some
time seen the necessity for discovering
broadly construed and widely shared con-
victions which might make more intelligible
the manifold particulars of human thought
and behavior. Berthold Laufer’s little
classic, Some fundamental ideas of Chinese
culture, indicated how vivid, exciting, and
understandable a culture can become when
it is described in terms of its underlying
interests and characteristics by one who
knows it intimately. Prof. J. R. Kantor’s
failure to group what he named “‘institu-
tions” into larger and more unified wholes
weakens his theoretical position, but his
insistence on defining an institution as a
stimulus for cultural conduct directed my |
attention toward the dynamic aspects of
the problem.$ In a series of brilliant lectures
that gifted teacher Prof. Edward Sapir
again emphasized for me the importance of
common goals, aspirations and purposes by ©
identifying areas of psychological unity as
well as areas based on a similarity of ma-
terial culture. In Prof. Ruth Benedict’s
work I felt the endeavor to cut through

6 Kantor, An essay toward an institutional
conception of social psychology and The instatu-
tional foundation of a scientific social psychology.

May 15, 1946

minutiae to the cultural imperatives that
mold and direct behavior and personality,
though I could not follow her when she
phrased the results psychologically rather
than culturally and condensed her concep-
tion to the point of characterizing a people
in a phrase or by reference to a prevailing
mood.’ Prof. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown’s for-
mulation of social structure, social integra-
tion, and the forces of opposition and soli-
darity in society (the last largely derived
from Durkheim) have been helpful in work-
ing out my view of the ‘‘limiting factors,”
though I do not, of course, follow him in his
one-sided enthusiasm for the data of social
organization. In my first paper on this
subject I acknowledged my debt to the
writings of Prof. Talcott Parsons, Dr. Wil-
liam H. Kelly, and Prof. Clyde Kluckhohn.
Personal contact with Professor Kluckhohn
and the opportunity for discussion with him
have been particularly helpful in shaping
and clarifying my thinking on this topic. I
recognize, in my notion of the equilibrium
that is achieved in each culture as a conse-
quence of the interrelation of the themes,
the stimulation of the writings and criticism
of Dr. Alexander H. Leighton and Dr.
Dorothea C. Leighton’; they, in turn, ac-
knowledge their debt in respect to this out-
look to Dr. Adolf Meyer, of Johns Hopkins
University.

The vitality of the theory of themes may
be measured not only by the number of able
thinkers who have contributed to it but also
by the parallel developments in theory
which are even now under way. Only a few
weeks ago Dr. Edward H. Spicer, of the
University of Arizona, mentioned to me
that he has been concerned with describing
the ‘‘value system” of the Yaqui Indians.
He had thought of applying the term ‘‘foci”’
to those values or attitudes around which
interest is centered in Yaqui society and
which seem to stimulate and guide activity.
It is not difficult to see the similarity in
character and function between my ‘‘theme’’
and Dr. Spicer’s ‘‘focus.”’

7 BeneEpictT, Psychological types in the cultures
of the southwest and Patterns of culture.

8 Lecture notes from Prof. Radcliffe-Brown’s
course in Primitive Society.

° See especially A. H. LerauHton, The governing
of men.

OPLER: THE THEORY OF THEMES IN CULTURE

165

For a second illustration I call attention
to a recent book by Prof. Ralph Linton, of
Columbia University.!° In discussing what
he calls a ‘‘value-attitude system,’’ Profes-
sor Linton writes: “A value may be defined
as any element, common to a series of
situations, which is capable of evoking a
covert response in the individual. An atti-
tude may be defined as the covert response
evoked by such an element.’ Except for
the restriction implied by the word “‘covert,”’
we have constructs remarkably close to the
theme, its expression, and the themal sys-
tem. By such “‘coincidences”’ as these I am
led to believe that what I have tried to
present here is nothing individual or per-
sonal but an approach that represents a
growing and fruitful trend in social theory.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BENEDICT, RutuH. Psychological types in the
cultures of the Southwest. Proc. Internat.
Cong. Americanists 23: 572-581. 1930.

. Patterns of culture. Boston and New
York: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1934.
Kantor, J. R. An essay toward an institutional
conception of social psychology. Amer.
Journ. Sociol. 27: 611-627, 758-779. 1922.

. The institutional foundation of a scien-
tific social psychology. Amer. Journ. Sociol.
29: 674-685. 1924.

KLUCKHOHN, CuLypE. Patterning as exemplified
in Navaho culture, in Language, culture
and personality (Leslie Spier, ed.). Me-
nasha, Wis.: George Banta Publishing Co.,
1941.

. Covert culture and administrative prob-
lems. Amer. Anthrop. 45: 213-227. 1948.

KLUCKHOHN, CLYDE, and KELiy, Winuiam H.
The concept of culture in The science of
man in the world crisis (Ralph Linton,
ed.) New York: Columbia University
Press, 1945.

LAUFER, BERTHOLD. Some fundamental ideas
of Chinese culture. Journal of Race Devel-
opment 5 (no. 2): 160-174. 1914.

LEIGHTON, ALEXANDER H. The governing of
men. Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1945.

Linton, Raupu. Cultural background of person-
ality. New York: Appleton-Century, 1945.

Merton, Rospert K. Civilization and culture.
Sociology and Social Research 21: 103-—
113. 1936.

OputeR, Morris Epwarp. The kinship systems

10 Tinton, The Cultural background of person-

ality.
1i Tbid., pp. 111-112.

166

of the Southern Athabaskan-speaking tribes.
Amer. Anthrop. 38: 620-633. 1936.

. The use of peyote by the Carrizo and the
Lipan Apache tribes. Amer. Anthrop. 40:
271-285. 1938.

. Further comparative anthropological data
bearing on the solution of a psychological
problem. Journ. Soc. Psych. 9: 477-483.
1938.

. Myths and legends of the Lipan Apache

BOTANY .—The fern studies of Mirbel.!

Charles Francois Brisseau de Miuirbel
(1776-1854) was a French student of bot-
any, particularly well known for his studies
on plant anatomy and physiology. In his
younger years he devoted himself to tax-
onomy also, but his work in this field has
been neglected. The present paper is a
review of his contributions to our knowl-
edge of pteridophytes.

The original Histoire naturelle générale et
particuliére of George Louis Leclerc, Comte
de Buffon (1707-1788), did not contain a
special section on plants, nor did either of
the two subsequent editions. After the
death of Buffon, C. S. Sonnini edited an
amplified edition of Buffon, entitled Cours
complet d’histoire naturelle, in 127 volumes.
This edition is severely criticized by French
scholars? because of the great amount of
new material added. It contains a sec-
tion on plants subtitled Histoire naturelle
générale et particuliére des plantes. This
botanical part forms volumes 107 to 124 of
the whole work but is usually cited sepa-
rately. Of it, volumes 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 are
the work of Mirbel, volumes 1 and 2 (107
and 108 of the whole) having been issued
separately also, under the title Travrté
d’anatomie et de physiologie végétales. The
systematic portion of the work of Mirbel
begins with volume 4 (dated 1803), in
which the ferns and fern allies appear on
pages 61-74. Thirty-three genera (five of
them new) are given brief diagnoses, but no

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
ae en Institution. Received January

2 Cf. P. FLourens, Histoire des travaux et des
idées de Buffon, pp. 1-363. 1850.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 5

Indians. Mem. Amer. Folk Lore Soe. 36.

New York: Augustin, 1940.

. The Lipan Apache death complex and

its extensions. Southwestern Journ. An-

throp. 1: 122-141. 1945.

. Themes as dynamic forces in culture.
Amer. Journ. Sociol. 51: 198-206. 1945.

Parsons, Tautcotr. The structure of social
action, a study vn social theory. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1937.

C. V. Morton, U.S. National Museum.

species are mentioned. In the introduction
Mirbel states that this synopsis of the gen-
era is to be followed by a detailed discussion
of the species.

However, Mirbel’s fuller treatment did
not appear in the same series but in another
voluminous work entitled Suite a Buffon,
which was printed in Paris by Deterville.
Fifteen volumes of this work are subtitled
Historre naturelle des végétaux, the first two
of which are by J. B. Lamarck, the others
by Mirbel. This work is rare, and there are
apparently only two copies in the United
States, one belonging to the Massachusetts
Horticultural Society, the other to the Uni-
versity of Illinois. The latter institution has
very kindly lent volume 5 (volume 70 of the
whole) to the library of the Smithsonian
Institution. This volume is also dated 1803.

The rarity of this publication has perhaps
contributed to the general neglect of Mir-
bel’s work. It was not available to Christen-
sen when he was preparing his Index
Filicum, his references having been supplied
by Dr. A. Gepp of the British Museum.
Also it is to be remembered that original
studies published in works of encyclopedic
scope are likely to be overlooked or soon
forgotten, as witness the new species of fern
here published by Mirbel that has not been
placed or even indexed up to the present
time. The same genera, and Isoétes in addi-
tion, are treated as in the preceding work
and the generic diagnoses are essentially the
same; but in this later work, which Chris-
tensen erroneously places first, the discus-
sions are elaborated and many species are
mentioned or described. A synopsis of the

May 15, 1946

classification presented in this work fol-
lows:
Family 1. Filices.

Division 1.

1. Ophioglossum L.

Division 2.
. Osmunda L.
. Ramondia Mirb.
. Schizaea J. EK. Smith
. Marattia Swartz

. Onoclea L. (syn. Gleichenia J. E. Smith)
. Danaea J. E. Smith
Division 3.
8. Acrostichum L.
9. Riedlea Mirb.

10. Polypodium L.

11. Cyathea J. E. Smith

12. Candollea Mirb.

18. Pyrrosia Mirb.

14. Davallia J. E. Smith

15. Dicksonia L’ Her.

16. Hymenophyllum J. E. Smith

17. Trichomanes L.

18. Asplenium L.

19. Hemionitis L.

20. Darea Juss.

21. Adiantum L.

22. Belvisia Mirb.

23. Blechnum L.

24. Pteris L.

25. Lonchitis L.

26. Vittaria J. E. Smith

27. Woodwardia J. E. Smith
* 28. Lindsaea Dryand.

Family 2. Marsileae.
1. Pilularia L.
2. Lemma Juss. (syn. Marsilea L.)
3. Salvinia Juss.
4. Isoétes L.
Family 3. Equiseta.
1. Equisetum L.

“IO Or GW DO

Mirbel’s classification appears odd today
in its grouping together in the same genus
such diverse species as Osmunda regalis and
Botrychium Lunaria, or Polypodium vulgare
and Dryopteris Filix-mas, but this had long
been the conventional treatment, following
the highly artificial system of Linnaeus,
who grouped all the species of ferns under
the 12 genera Onoclea, Ophioglossum, Os-
munda, Acrostichum, Pteris, Blechnum,
Hemionitis, Lonchitis, Asplenium, Polypo-
dium, Adiantum, and Trichomanes. No
significant advance was made in this classi-
fication for 40 years, until in 1793 Sir James

MORTON: THE FERN STUDIES OF MIRBEL

167

Edward Smith established eight new genera,
all now well known: Woodwardia, Vittaria,
Davallia, Cyathea, Hymenophyllum, Schi-
zaea, Gleichenia, and Danaea. As may be
seen by comparison with the synopsis given
above, Mirbel’s classification is essentially
that of Linnaeus and Smith, with five new
genera added. This was undoubtedly a con-
servative treatment for the time, but not so
much so as that of Lamarck and Poiret (En-
cyclopédie méthodique, 1783-1808), wherein
all the 444 species then known are squeezed
into the 12 traditional Linnaean genera.

The early years of the nineteenth century
saw a revival of interest in the ferns. Swartz,
Cavanilles, Roth, Bernhardi, Willdenow,
and Richard were all describing new gen-
era and species in rivalry with each other.
Shortly before 1803 such generally accepted
genera as Athyrium, Polystichum, Aspidium,
Diplazium, Lygodium, Botrychium, and
Tectaria had been published, but none of
these are mentioned by Muirbel, doubtless
because publications were slow in being
distributed at the time, -as is attested by
Lygodium, which received some seven ge-
neric names within three years, i.e., Lygo-
dium Swartz (1801), Ugena Cay. (1801),
Odontopterts Bernh. (1801), Gusopteris
Bernh. (1801), Ramondia Mirbel (1802),
Hydroglossum Willd. (1802), and Ctezszwm
Michx. (1803).

Mirbel’s work on ferns was overshadowed
by that of his more distinguished contem-
poraries, and his influence on the develop-
ment of fern classification must be consid-
ered negligible. However, the Rules of
Botanical Nomenclature require that his
new genera be taken into account. This was
first done by L. M. Underwood,’ who re-
garded three of Mirbel’s five genera as
valid. Underwood has not been generally
followed and, as it appears, rightly so, for
some exceptions must be taken to his choice
of type species. He arbitrarily typified the
genera on the species first cited, but this
method has no sanction. No definite rules
have been or perhaps can be laid down. The
type must be selected on the basis of usage
and common sense. It should be the species,

3 Review of the genera of ferns proposed prior to
1832, Bull. Torrey Club 6: 247-283. 1899.

168

if any, that the publishing author had fore-
most in mind, that which is illustrated, or
that which agrees best with the generic
diagnosis. I give below some notes on the
typification of Mirbel’s genera. The first
two offer no difficulties, since they are
based on a single species each. The third is a
natural genus also. The remaining two are
based on confused concepts and must be
typified more or less arbitrarily.

Pyrrosia Mirb. Hist. Nat. Pl. 4: 70. 1803; Hist.
Nat. Veg. 5: 91. 1803.

This genus is based on a new species, P.
chinensis, which is identified by Ching’ with
Acrostichum lingua Thunb. (1784), a common
Chinese species of the genus generally known
as Niphobolus or, more recently, as Cyclo-
phorus. Although it is unfortunate that the
well-known name Cyclophorus must be aban-
doned, Ching is justified in taking up the name
Pyrrosia, for the genus is too small and unim-
portant to make the conservation of Cyclo-
phorus desirable.

Riedlea Mirb. Hist. Nat. Pl. 4: 65. 1803; Hist.
Nat. Veg. 5: 71. 1808.

This genus contains a single species only,
Rk. sensibilts Mirb., based on Fala mariana
Osmunda facie racemifera Pluk., Mantissa 80,
pl. 404, f. 2, 1700. This is the basis also of
Onoclea sensibilis L. (1753), the type species of
Onoclea LL. Mirbel retains the name Onoclea
for O. polypodioides L. (1771), 1.e., Gleichenia
polypodioides (L.) J. E. Smith, but under the
present Rules of Nomenclature this is unjusti-
fiable. His reason for discarding Onoclea sensi-
belts 1.. is that Linnaeus describes that as hay-
ing the capsule [i.e., sporangium] 5-valved. The
“capsules” of Linnaeus were doubtless the
spheroidal, very tightly inrolled fertile leaf
segments of Onoclea, which in age split irregu-
larly, sometimes into five valvelike segments.
The genus Riedlea is a straight synonym of
Onoclea L. and also a nomen abortwum.

Ramondia Mirb. Bull. Sci. Soc. Philom. Paris
2: 179. 1802; Hist. Nat. Pl. 4: 65. 1803; Hist.
Nat. Veg. 5: 55. 1803.

This genus is founded on two species: R.

4 On the fens Pyrrosia Mirbel. Bull. Chinese
Bot. Soc. 1: 61. 1935.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 5

scandens (l..) Mirb., based on Ophioglossum
scandens L., and R. flexuosa (1.) Mirb., based on
Ophioglossum flecuosum L. It is a synonym of
Lygodivum Swartz, published a year previously.

Candollea Mirb. Hist. Nat. Pl. 4: 69. 1803;
Hist. Nat. Veg. 5: 86. 1803.

This genus is founded on four species: Can-
dollea heterophylla (1..) Mirb. (based on Acro-
stichum heterophyllum L.), Candollea longifolra
(Burm.) Mirb. (based on Acrostichum longi-
foltum Burm.), Acrostichum lanceolatum L.,
and A. polypodioides I.. New combinations for
the last two species under Candollea are not
technically made by Mirbel, although Chris-
tensen so indexes them. Underwood took the
first species as type; and therefore, since Acro-
stichum heterophyllum L. belongs to the genus
Drymoglossum Presl (1836), he took up Can-
dollea in place of that name. However, Mirbel’s
generic diagnosis disagrees with Drymoglossum
and it seems certain that Mirbel misidentified
A. heterophyllum 1. His plants came from
Bourbon and Java, whereas, according to
Christensen’s revision of the genus, Drymo-
glossum heterophyllum is known only from
Ceylon. Mirbel’s plant from Bourbon was un-
doubtedly Cyclophorus spissus (Bory) Desv.,
which was originally described from Mauritius,
and that from Java must have represented
some other species of Cyclophorus. Thus, inas-
much as Mirbel’s first species is based on a con-
fused concept, it is obviously not a suitable
choice as generic type.

The second species, Acrostichum longrfolium
Burm., from Java, has been considered a doubt-
ful member of Cyclophorus, but recently it has
been definitely identified by Backer and Post-
humus? with Cyclophorus acrostichoides (Forst.)
Presl, a common Asiatic species. Acrostichum
longifolium Burm. may therefore appropriately —
be taken as the type of Candollea, which there-
by becomes synonymous with Pyrrosia Mirb.
Since these two genera are of the same date,
Ching’s action in recognizing Pyrrosia as the
valid name and reducing Candollea to syn-
onymy must be accepted by the Rules. The
following new combination is necessary: Pyr-
rosia longifolia (Burm.) Morton, based on Acro-
stichum longifolium Burm. Fl. Ind. 228. 1768.

5 Varenflora voor Java. 1939.

May 15, 1946

The third species mentioned by Mirbel,
Acrostichum lanceolatum L., is also a species of
Pyrrosia, according to Ching the same as
Cyclophorus spissus. The fourth species, Acro-
stichum polypodioides L., is mentioned by Mir-
bel as atypical of the genus Candollea, which
it indubitably is, being, in fact, the common
Polypodium polypodioides (..) Watt. It is to
be noted that Candollea Mirb. antedates the
flowering plant genus Candollea Labill.

Belvisia Mirb. Hist. Nat. Pl. 4: 65. 1808;
Hist. Nat. Veg. 5: 111, 114-118. 1803.

Unlike the preceding genus, which is reason-
ably natural, the present is a meaningless
jumble similar to the original Nephrodvum
Michx. or Gymnogramme Desv. It consisted of
five species that are now considered to repre-
sent five genera belonging to three families, as
follows:

Acrostichum spicatum L. (= Hymenolepis Kaulf.,

Polypodiaceae).

Acrostichum septentrionale L. (=Acropteris Link
fi.e., Asplentwum sect. Acropteris], Polypodi-

aceae).

Acrostichum australe L. (=Actiniopterts Link,
Polypodiaceae).

Acrostichum digitatum L. (=Schizaea J. E. Smith,
Schizaeaceae).

Acrostichum siliquosum lL. (=Ceratopteris

Brongn., Ceratopteridaceae).

Christensen lists these species under Belvisia,
but Mirbel did not technically make any new
combinations under this generic name.

Belvisia antedates all the genera cited above
except Schizaea. Underwood chose the first
species cited as type and therefore took up the
name Belvisia in place of Hymenolepis Kaulf.
(1824). However, this species is definitely men-
tioned by Mirbel as atypical of the genus, and
it is therefore not available as the type species.

MORTON: THE FERN STUDIES OF MIRBEL

169

Mirbel’s description as a whole agrees best
with Ceratopteris, but it would be most unfor-
tunate to change the name of this genus, which
has given its name to a family of ferns. A typi-
fication on Acrostichum australe would involve
adopting Belvisia in place of Actiniopteris Link.
Schizaea scarcely agrees with the generic diag-
nosis. Therefore, it seems best to typify Bel-
vista on the second species cited, Acrostichum
septentrionale L. This species is now placed in
Asplenium, as the sole representative of the
section Acropteris. If this peculiar plant is ever
accorded generic rank, Belvisza will replace
Acropteris Link (1833) as the generic name. The
justification for this typification is given by the
fact that the only illustration of Belvisia cited
by Mirbel is Lamarck Tabl. Encyl. pl. 865,
figs. 2 and 8. I do not know what figure 2 may
represent, but figure 3 is a fairly good repre-
sentation of Acrostichum septentrionale.

Finally I wish to call attention to one
new species published by Mirbel that has
been overlooked: Lindsaea erecta Mirb.
Hist. Nat. Veg. 5: 126. 1803. The original
description is as follows:

Il est une autre espéce de lindsée crois-
sant 4 l’Isle-Bourbon, qui n’a été décrite
par aucun auteur; ses tiges sont tracantes,
et jettent, comme la précédente, de distance
en distance, des feuilles droites, pennées,
& folioles alternes, lancéolées, alongées,
étroites et redressées. J’appelle cette espéce
lindsée dressée (Lindsaea erecta).

From the above description this is ap-
parently a synonym of Schizoloma ensifo-
lium (Swartz) J. Smith, a species based on
Iindsaea ensifolia Swartz (Journ. Bot.
Schrad. 1800?: 77. 1801), described from
Mauritius.

170

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 5

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

ASTH ANNUAL MEETING

The 48th annual meeting of the Academy,
held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club,
January 17, 1946, after the 338th meeting of
the Academy, was called to order at 10:00 p.m.
by the President, Joun E. Grar, with 23
persons in attendance.

The minutes of the 47th annual meeting
were approved as published in the JouRNAL 35:
230-236. 1945.

The reports of several officers and of the
Committees of Auditors and Tellers were read
and accepted. These reports are recorded at the
end of the minutes.

After the acceptance of the report of the
Committee of Tellers, the President declared
the following duly elected to the given offices:

Huau L. Drypen, President,

F. G. BrickweEppE, Secretary,

Howarp 8. RappLeye, Treasurer,

Max A. McCauu and Watpo L. ScxHmirt,
Board of Managers to January 1949.

The Secretary presented for the Affiliated
Societies their nominations for Vice-Presidents
of the Academy as follows:

Philosophical Society of Washington—FRan-

cis M. DEFANDORF

Anthropological Society of Washington—T.
DALE STEWART

Biological Society of Washington—FRANxK
THONE
Chemical Society of Washington—Lro A.
SHINN

Entomological Society of Washington—CarL
F. W. MuESsEBECK

National Geographic Society—ALEXANDER
WETMORE

Geological Society of Washington—Louis W.
CURRIER

Medical Society of the District of Columbia—
FREDERICK O. CoE

Columbia Historical Society —Gi1LBERT GrRoOs-
VENOR

Botanical Society of Washington—L. Epwin
Yocum

Archaeological Society of Washington—Not
functioning during the National Emergency

Washington Section of the Society of American
Foresters— WILLIAM A. DAYTON

Washington Society of Engineers—FRANK B.
SCHEETZ

Washington Section of the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers—FRANCcIs B. SILSBEE

Washington Section of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers—WaLTER RAMBERG

Helminthological Society of Washington—
Mario MouuaRri

Washington Branch of the Society of American
Bacteriologists—CHESTER W. EMMONS

Washington Post of the Society of American
Military Engineers—CLEMENT L. (GARNER

Washington Section of the Institute of Radio
Engineers—HERBERT GROVE DoRSEY

Washington Section of the American Society of
Civil Engineers—OwEnN B. FRENCH

The Secretary was instructed by the mem-
bers present to cast a unanimous ballot for
these nominees.

The President, Jonn E. Grar, announced
the recipients of the Academy’s Awards for
Scientific Achievement for 1945 as follows:

Inthe Biological Sciences, HENRY K. Townes,
Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine,
in recognition of his distinguished service in the
morphology and taxonomy of the insect super-
family Ichneumonoidea.

In the Engineering Sciences, KENNETH L.
SHERMAN, Department of Terrestrial Magne-
tism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, in
recognition of his distinguished service in ad-
vancing the technique of atmospheric electric
measurements.

In the Physical Sciences, RoBerT SIMBA,
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition
of his distinguished service in the physical
chemistry of high polymers and the theory of
their physical properties.

The Retiring President, Joon E. GRrar, ap-
pointed Past Presidents Harvey L. Curtis
and CLEMENT L. GARNER to escort the incom-
ing President, HucuH L. Drypsn, to the chair.
Dr. DrypEN adjourned the meeting at 10:50
P.M.

The following reports were presented at the
meeting:

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY

During the Academy year, January 18, 1945,
to January 17, 1946, 23 persons were elected
to membership, 21 resident and 2 nonresident.
Of these, 13 resident and 1 nonresident quali-
fied for membership, 5 resident accepted
membership but have not yet qualified by pay-
ment of dues and 1 person declined member-
ship. Three persons, 2 resident and 1 non-
resident, elected to membership on January 14,
1946, have not yet been notified of their elec-

May 15, 1946 PROCEEDINGS
tion. Fourteen persons elected to resident
membership in the preceding Academy year
qualified during the present Academy year just
ending. The new members were distributed
among the various sciences as follows: 5 in
chemistry; 4 each in botany and entomology;
3 each in engineering and physics; 2 each in
anthropology and meteorology; and 1 each in
bacteriology, biology, geology, mathematics,
and zoology.

Four members of the Academy (8 resident
and 1 nonresident), having retired from the
active practice of their profession, were placed
on the retired list of members to enjoy all the
privileges of active membership without further

payment of dues. Five members (1 resident
and 4 nonresident) resigned in good standing.

The deaths of the following five members
(2 resident and 3 nonresident) were reported
to the Secretary:

Merton B. Warrt, Washington, D. C.,
June 5, 1945.
FLORENCE Bascom, Williamstown, Mass.,

June 18, 1945.
Epwarp W. Berry, Baltimore, Md., Septem-

ber 20, 1945.

Eumer O. Wooron, Arlington, Va., Novem-
ber 20, 1945.

Tuomas Barsour, Cambridge, Mass., Janu-
ary 8, 1946.

Of these Merton B. WalITE was an original
member of the Academy.

On January 17, 1946, the status of member-
ship was as follows:

Regular Re- Hon- Patron Total
tired orary
Resident...... 432 37 2 0 471
Nonresident... 156 26 16 1 199
AMOUNT ee BG oe 588 63 18 1 670

The net changes in membership during the
past year are as follows:

Regular Retired Hon- Patron Total

orary
Resident...... + 3 aig 0 0 + 4
Nonresident... +14 0 0 0 +14
Mota. 2.2% +17 +1 0 0 +18

During the Academy year 1945 the Board of
Managers held 6 meetings, with an average at-
tendance of 20 persons. The following impor-
tant matters were considered by the Board:

1. In 1945 the American Association for the
Advancement of Science allotted to the
Academy $163 for grants, in support of re-

; THE ACADEMY

171

search, to members of the Academy and its
Affiliated Societies. This allotment added to
allotments in the two preceding years makes a
total of $520.50 the Academy now has for re-
search grants. The main purpose of these
grants is to aid worth-while research projects
that lack adequate means of financial support.
A.A.A.S. grants may be used for purchases of
equipment and supplies but are not to be used
in defraying costs of publication.

In accordance with a motion voted by the
Board of Managers at a meeting October 16,
1944, a notice was printed in the November 15,
1944, issue of the JouRNAL calling attention to
the A.A.A.S. grants held by the Academy and
announcing that the Academy would receive
applications for grants in support of research
from members of the Academy and its Affiliated
Societies. Notices were sent to the Secretaries of
the Affiliated Societies and to the local uni-
versities. Applications were to be received by
the Secretary not later than February 1, 1945.
No request for a grant was received from any
member of the Academy or Affiliated Society.
Undoubtedly, the Board of Managers will in
1946 again invite applications for grants in aid
of research.

2. The Academy received a request from the
Honorable H. M. Kilgore, Chairman of the
Senate Subcommittee on War Mobilization, to
testify concerning legislation for the establish-
ment of a National Research Foundation to
promote scientific research and development
with federal funds. In response to this request
the Board of Managers sent a letter supporting
the establishment of a National Research
Foundation and made some suggestions in con-
nection with Senate Bills 1287 and 1295 upon
which the Academy was asked to comment.
An appreciative letter was received from Sena-
tor Kilgore in acknowledgment of the Acad-
emy’s letter.

During the Academy year, eight meetings of
the Academy were held as follows, beginning
with the 33lst meeting and ending with the
338th meeting:

On February 14, 1945, CLEMENT L. GARNER,
as retiring president presented an address en-
titled The utility of geodetic control surveys
(published in this JouRNAL 35. 1945.)

On March 15, 1945, the 1944 Academy
Awards for Scientific Achievement were pre-
sented to NoRMAN H. Torpine, National Insti-

172

tute of Health, for work in the biological
sciences; to GALEN B. ScHUBAUER, National
Bureau of Standards, for work in the engineer-
ing sciences; and to GrorGE A. Gamow,
George Washington University, for work in the
physical sciences.

On April 19, 1945, LeLaANp OuLps, vice
chairman, Federal Power Commission, ad-
dressed the Academy on River basin authorities
and the new community.

On May 17, 1945, MarcareT Mnap, execu-
tive secretary, Committee on Food Habits,
National Research Council, addressed the
Academy on Translating scientific findings into
living habits.

On October 18, 1945, FrRmp C. BisHopp, as-
sistant chief, Bureau of Entomology and Plant
Quarantine, addressed the Academy on War
insecticides.

On November 15, 1945, Cuaupr E. ZoBELL,
associate: professor of marine microbiology and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 5
director of the American Petroleum Institute ©
Research Project 438A, Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, University of California, La
Jolla, addressed a joint meeting of the Geo-
logical Society of Washington and the Academy
on the Microbial transformation of petroleum
hydrocarbons.

On December 20, 1945, Witttam F. FosHac,
curator, Division of Mineralogy and Petrology,
U. 8S. National Museum, addressed the Acad-
emy on Paricutin’s first year.

On January 17, 1946, W. M. Staniny, mem-
ber, Rockefeller Institute for Medical Reccareh:
Princeton, N. J., addressed the Academy on
Recent advances 1n our knowledge of influenza
virus and vaccines.

All meetings were held in the Assembly Hall
of the Cosmos Club with the exception of the
May 17 meeting which was held in the Audi-
torium of the U. 8. National Museum.

IF’. G. BRICKWEDDE, Secretary.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER

CASH RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS

RECEIPTS

Bromiduess O44) PAs P sy Re PATE Teal St ITS) 2 ANRC, Ceca ce.) PO eae ba 5.00

From duese O43 eek ER eS je LCE 2 2 erect = Gene a 10.00

Hromsanwess yl O44 eu sic swieroccon 4 ise POR ake 6 Lo) SRY ae oes ES 40 .00

Horomia dues, OA Gio oc eee he snes ea metas ae ck ol ar. Gupte” ica olt Wines Ree ee a 2,691.25

Mr om dwes. LOA Gc at oes kena w ie [ye aa a Ae Meee ae Re oe aT, 30.00 $2,776.25

KromWourNan, oulbscmptions; WO4201 95 tao) oa ee, ee 6.00

Kront JOURNAL Subscriptiome: 1943 .;. ta tage Ol UA eae Sen eee 11.40

EromyouRNaT, Sulbscmptlons 1944. 2 cs... eee Ge ane ee eee 41.28

HEOMPJOURNAT SU bSeriotiong. L945 2 ice igi, leas ene cdi eee ak ee 373 .36

Enom- JOURNAL. SUbscriptions: 1946.35.02... . 2s: 5 nee oan Shes 490.80

PromJOuURN AIS Subscriptions: VO4 72 ee a Sea oy Se ee 2.70 925 .54

MEO. OURN AL Salesian 2. fai ge Loe. ss further parc: . See alae eg Lanes 488 .12

From, JOURNAT, IVeprints, LOA sil pce 6 ik oats tions ma weed eden ae 194.27

From. J OURNAT ree primts, hOAG 2 ok es Genie isle a. extagen arate ee 469.10 663 .37

Krom UDinrectory/S2daWidistr ClO Use Men Pir sete. ee ee ee ee 1.00

KromelnterestacosDividends.s.% me: gtivatio: 2Ge ps Pee ee Bee eee ee 1,099.25

Erom: Yetta, Konmamiet aly: irae eet) Peal ccs 2 als, MER) RUM ee 1,000.00
SPOtAL RE CENDESE ccc Mat ce sree eal ee, ote UT eer ioileas sahil’ GAR SiN BS oBdA ot ocageC aie $6,913.53

Cash#Balance: Vane lLevOa nas a. Cee Sk ete AE Po on en 2,244.80
Lotal tobe accounted fom: ewe pecpyeyira ghee nk coe eae rea ele nee $9,158.33

1944 1945 Total
DISBURSEMENTS

RorsSeeretary Ss’ Onmices Sor esi ae yee iy tree) ig ae RRO $138.50 $ 211.59 $ 350.09

For Treastirer’ ssOMmce yk i) Se ROS ED oe AORN, &, , 35.65 97.89 133 .54

Kori Custodian &SubsereiMien caters. apt ey a 0. aeeeeee chee & 6.54 — 6.54

Kor, JOURN AL——Primting Miavlimgn 4 cbs cid ook eke 242 .57 2,425.08 2,667.65

Hom JourRNAL-—Ullustrationsp sick cri ion ae eres aie 19.90 428 .06 447 .96

May 15, 1946 } PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY

PonwOwuRNAL——heprints.s. oo oie. he oA 54 os ee owen Bae alee 60.99 430 .82
PormsOuRN AD, Ofice— Clerk: oon... ee Gives oe cde divas 20 .00 220.00
For JouRNAL Office—Postage, Binding & Misc. 2.99 16.23
Hormirector ood) Wds.. os... ok ca alee cn SEO OS 2.25
Hor Wieetines. Committees <. >... pt BEES S80; 47.15 274.35
Poumone rs sO00}certes G. Bond 6.2 oid. iat oe eee he ek 1,000.00
For Debit Memos, Refunds, ete.
For Refund of overpayment, Shapovalov................. 0.35
Homiseruna ues (1945). BH. W. Berry... eee. 5.00
For Refund Dues (1945) H. R. Morgan.................. 5.00
For Exchange on Canadian Check....................... 0.64
For Check (Weibe) returned on account more than 6 months
Fal APMIS Sep Scitech ti ALAC in ne cha ORs OH d ees bs 4.00
TISHDL 0.5 cal bh oie AOR aS Sede beh ha eee ae RO ae eR $574.29 $5,121.26
Wachmmolance: Weel 1 94D 2 i.e 5 eis esi wae PP ea ww ee
piven tiea Pe ae tema See Sen Say 8 clin os Faslaps Per athe, gow by osote wate
RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE
Balance as per cash book, 12/31/45.......... DO Sie AS Pern SCI:
Balance as per Am. Sec. & Trust Co.
SRL EMITE ENGR AyOME) ee. ang ac etseee bc see he ee ey oe ey shee oe $3 ,677 .64
Fer oMut PAOLO OSKUCMiat se SUNN Pia eid ou ae ic eee lee, ol 186.97
$3 , 864.61
Checks outstanding, not cashed
ING. LOTUS gy ai eae nies gia chet eieg ot Rea aot eS $ 5.41
RUS I eet DEE se ee ee EGON TS ee se aces 21.86
SMR an org 8 ACES a. SER by 6 ee 260 .92
TESS) ooo Na Rage i RR a tne MMM e ORI 2 OR 104.49
TDD). cud gueier teeta ces ener ee ents Eo nn Sana IEA AMORA "ca ea 20 aOR 9.15 401.83
INVESTMENTS
Washington Sanitary Improvement Co. (stock)
Cennmeaey No; 434—-L00 shares'at $10) 0 se etme ten See es $1,000 .00
Sermiecate NO: 430-—l00'shares at O10 eter. eee es ee ek 1,000 .00
Wermncate No: 527-——'"S'shares at'$10). 002 JV... ISS NE B.S 80 .00
CermucatenNonwos9—= 9) lxshare). ati $l0ui. u0.!.. ie fae. 2alld oeileatis. — 10.00
@ertuacate, Nio:582—200, shares at $10). ae... ee 2 ,000 .00
Potomac Electric Power Co.
PUESMALCS «Oy DLCLCITed SuOCK——COSt.. 23.0 Cate oe oe Oe in ce ees
City of New York—3% (Transit Unification) (Due—June 1, 1980)
SerpmeatesNo: DeZ0USGHi. 6 ot SOR 2S Labs, 2 Oe ee SONORA in. 500 .00
GeriiieateINio! CrilOsSix aniwow. 32k S25 eek. Senay oieody Pee 2 100.00
Wemiineater NOC. HLOSO ia ces ais ab A seh be «ov uote a beetr aes anakbs, Sees aie 100 .00
Wer uMdCaLeMNOrs © wlO4Ois net oo ih ene Boe Mn oa a te 100 .00
Chicago Railways
Bond No. 1027—5% Registered for $1,000.00
Pucker N92 (200-00 pald= Bala cessor dy oot wee eee. se
First Federal Savings & Loan Assn.
Perna te, NOm a Ol me ye Pee ee ke weer ee ur eee ee $4 ,000 .00
Wermicate Nowa. LOGsn tad. Momeni Bir Se ue Ae YN Bee 8 1,000 .00
Northwestern Fed. Savings & Loan Assn.
Certiticateu NOs aC Omnia hae eo ee en. cc chapee ton ears wile wooo nies $4 ,500 .00

Wentiicater NO Aas Rin ee Ey hee oy ee a na SOs Sk Aas hiwdins 500.

00

$5,695.
3,462.

$9,158.

$3,462

$3 ,462

$ 4,090

2,247

800

750

$ 5,000

5,000

78

78

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50

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174

United States Government

Series G Bonds—No. M 332990

M 332991
M 332992
M 332993
M 1808741
M 2226088

M 2982748 G(10/44)....

M 4126041

American Security & Trust Co.

SaMwMnes ACCOUNG cus eee ncn: hereon
ARO Galle eee eee es. eee Reo NES Yetnete

LG Cre) RR is Mp. eRe er Anca PME leg NER ta UE ie
FotaltAssets: Dee. Sl 1044 i ae ee ea ok
MotalvAssets Decrol O45 en eee eee sd

METER SE eu ered ese ile ea RO PR RO

REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE

The accounts of the Treasurer of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences for the year 1945
were examined by your auditing committee on
January 11, 1946. The report of the Treasurer
was checked with due care and was found to be
in agreement with his records. The disburse-
ments were all found to be duly authorized and
to be supported by cancelled checks or by debit
memoranda except for the few outstanding
checks noted in the report. The securities
of the Society were inspected and found to
agree exactly with the list given in the report
and to have all coupons attached that are not
yet due.

The work of the committee was greatly
simplified and lessened by the excellent manner
in which the records have been kept and by the
systematic and orderly arrangement of the
books and of the report. Your Treasurer de-
serves the commendation of the Society for

No. No.
Sciences papers pages
1945 1945
BiclogicalWaenuc. sao oe 42 218.0
iB sicalemencci iter ues: 2 28.7
Anthropological.) .. ai echo o 11 97.3
Geological be ow ees 4 22.0
Medtealitersans ten coins 1 30
HWCONOMIC Hes oe ee eee — —
Obituaries and Proceedings.... — 34.7
Nay Cl @ sxe Bye. at a 3s fa oarsmen Meo ones — 4.0

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 5

oete hs ait eae EOD
SRN hye ete aD east gs 1,000 .00
ied: SOP AR eae hn 1,000.00
ba ih We ak: ree OS 1,000.00
A OR, aRVee 1,000.00
JE Otay bade Chien, 1,000.00
Pi Te 1,000.00 8,000 .00
POG, BELA EO. SPORT 46.87
nibs AU OAs se vic ata Ay Si $25 , 934.37
1 Das ene Se iy ete 3,462.78
lal Sais ia oo ae $29 397.15
yA Seton ina RcaTe SBN og $28,179.17
JN Gia earainal nie eae 29,397.15
ADEE Nie ES Tn 7 ae 5 Miata $ 1,217.98

Howarp 8. RAPPLEYE, Treasurer

another year of outstanding service. It should
be noted that owing to the difficulty of obtain-
ing adequate assistance he has done a great
deal of his own clerical work and has thus ef-
fected an appreciable saving for the Society.
C. H. Swick, Chairman.
C. P. CLAUSEN |
T. D. Stewart.

REPORT OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS

Volume 35 of the JouRNAL was intermediate
in size between that of 1943 and 1944. Certain
of the trends noted during 1944 continued dur-
ing this year. It is believed that they may lead
toward a JOURNAL with a better balance of dif-
ferent subjects, especially as soon as the
physical sciences are again more adequately
represented. Volume 35 consisted of 12 issues
and contained 408 pages distributed among the
sciences and compared with 1944 as shown in
the table:

ey ey ee ed
eee

Percentages No. No. Percentages
by pages papers pages by pages
1945 1944 1944 1944
53 .4 40 198.2 47.6

7.1 3 35.9 8.6
23.8 12 105.6 25.4
5.4 5 13.8 S58
0.8 2 22.5 5.4
— 1 2.8 0.7
8.5 — 33.2 8.0
1.0 — 4.0 1.0
100.0 63 416.0 100.0

May 15, 1946 PROCEEDINGS

This volume includes the addresses of the
retiring presidents of the Academy, the Philo-
sophical Society, and the Geological Society;
also the 13th Joseph Henry Lecture of the
Philosophical Society.

The decline from 63 papers printed in 1944
to 60 printed this year is probably not sig-
nificant except as it reflected a tendency of
scientists to relax momentarily during the
latter part of the year as a natural reaction
from the tense working during the war years.
We again call attention to the large number of
papers presented by nonmembers of the Acad-
emy. Of the total of 60 papers presented only
32, or 53 percent, were presented by members
of the Academy. This should be a challenge to
our members. In several cases nonmembers
presenting papers for publication were later
elected members of the Academy.

The editors are pleased to report continued
small increases in the number of illustrations,
25 halftones and 51 line cuts appearing in this
volume. A well-chosen appropriate illustration
is often as valuable to the reader as several
pages of text.

As has been indicated in some previous an-
nual reports, the placing of papers under such
labels as Biological, Geological, Anthropo-
logical, and General is somewhat arbitrary.
Although other editors might make a some-
what different assignment of labels for some
of the papers, this is not of great significance.
It is obvious that there is a predominance of
biological papers, and that the physical sciences
and geology are not adequately represented
partly because so many engaged in the physical
sciences and geology have been working on
problems ‘restricted for reasons of security.”’
It is pleasing to note the continued receipt of
papers under the general classification of

anthropology (ethnology, linguistics, etc.).
The editors have had some unusual condi-
tions during the year, and it is obvious that
the editors for this next year may also have
abnormal conditions confronting them. Our
contract with the printer provides that in-
creases in the schedule of wages shall be passed
on to the JouRNAL. With the increase in the
cost of living this may at any time mean an in-
crease in printing cost. About the middle of the
past year it seemed quite possible that the end
of the fighting might mean an increase in the

> THE ACADEMY

175

number of papers and thus an increase in the
size of the JOURNAL. Our experience during the
closing months of 1945 was that many scien-
tists who might have been authors of papers for
a short time took life somewhat more easily
than during the strenuous years of the war and
did not submit papers for the JouRNAL. For
these reasons the editors did not use all the
funds available. The recommendation is made,
however, that no decrease be made in the ap-
propriations for the JouRNAL for the ensuing
year. As illustrations, tables, and mathematical
formulae often are used to replace paragraphs
and even pages of descriptive matter, their use
should be encouraged rather than discouraged
by charging the author for excess illustrations
and for excess typesetting charges made by the
printer. It is recognized that at present the
JOURNAL could not be expected to accept an
unlimited number of illustrations for printing
without charge, but the editors believe that the
appropriation should be sufficient to provide
for a more liberal policy with regard to illustra-
tions, tabular material and the like than has
been possible during recent years.

The Board of Managers appropriated to the
editors for printing, illustrating, and mailing
the JournnaL and for other incidental items
$3,200; for clerical assistance $240; for postage
and incidentals $50—a total of $3,490. Of this
sum the total amount of $240 was expended for
clerical assistance; and postage and inciden-
tals cost $18.80. Printing, illustrating, and
mailing the JoURNAL cost $3,139.68. To this
must be added $13.24 representing the cost to
the Academy of free reprints of obituaries. The
total paid out is thus $3,152.92. From this
figure there is to be subtracted $265.59, the
amount charged authors for excess illustrations,
excess typesetting charges, and exceptional
galley changes, leaving $2,887.33, or about $300
less than the appropriation.

The figures given above are not the final ones
for volume 35, but are probably not far from
correct.

The editors acknowledge with appreciation
and thanks the assistance to the JOURNAL in
many ways of Mr. Paut H. Oruser, editorial
assistant, whose experience in editorial work
for scientific publications is of great benefit.
He has been unsparing of his time in working
for this JouURNAL. The editors also acknowledge

176

the assistance of the associate editors and

thank all who have assisted in any way.
Lewis V. JUDSON
Harautp A. REHDER
Wo. N. FENTON

REPORT OF THE CUSTODIAN AND SUBSCRIPTION
MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS

SUBSCRIPTIONS:
Nonmember subscriptions in the United States....... 118
Nonmember subscriptions in foreign countries........ 43
Inactive nonmember subscriptions in foreign countries
(estimated i yes hace cre ee Mien eas eens 20
Subscriptions, Geological Society of Washington...... 13

INVENTORY OF STOCKS AS OF DECEMBER 31,
1945:

Reserve Sets of the JOURNAL:
Bound Volumes 1-29 and unbound Volumes 30-

BY} 3 NS hockh CS SORA GRY One ee ar A oe ie ge te or 1 set

Unbound Volumes 1-35.................0005. 3 sets

Unbound Volumes 11-35..................... 6 sets

Unbound! Volumes’ 16=35))-5.25..%. 2.2.24... 11 sets
Miscellaneous numbers of the JOURNAL........... 19,451
Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Volumes) J=13sinclusives 2s: cpeiysio cee elec cele 50 sets

In 1939 the Board of Managers directed the
Custodian of Publications to set aside 8 com-
plete sets of the JourNaL from Vol. 1 to cur-
rent volume 35; 6 additional sets from Vol. 11
to current volume 35; 11 additional sets from
Vol. 16 to current volume 35. These sets were
to constitute the Reserve Sets and were to be
sold only as a complete set. Subsequently it
has been possible for the Custodian to assemble
two complete sets from some of the early
numbers, especially those between Vols. 1 and
10, donated to the Academy by various mem-
bers. These early numbers are becoming far
more difficult to obtain, either through gifts or
by purchase.

Since 1939 six reserve sets have been sold. A
request was received on January 14, 1946, for
the purchase of another complete set, which
will leave us with only three complete sets.

In addition to the above reserve sets a mis-
cellaneous series of volumes and separate num-
bers of the JoURNAL, consisting of 19,451 num-
bers is maintained for sale. Complete sets of the
Proceedings of the Academy, Vols. 1-13 (1899-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 5

1911), together with Directories, are also
available for sale.

Most of these numbers and volumes, includ-
ing four complete sets from Vols. 1-35, are
stored, without cost to the Academy, in the
Smithsonian Institution and the U. S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey. Some of the volumes
from Vols. 23-35 are housed by the George
Banta Publishing Co., at Menasha, Wis.

SALES AND EXPENDITURES:

During the year 1945 one reserve set was sold
to the University Library, Lund, Sweden.
Approximately 200 separate numbers of the
JOURNAL were sold to various individuals and
libraries.

1 Reserve: Setin. 03 3.60%, 2 8 toe ee eee $210.00
Net sales of miscellaneous numbers............... 100.12
Total sales. 22: sissies 23d: eh ee eee $310.12
Expenditures
Postage and office expenses.............2000ee00. $ 11.85
Express charges for shipment of Reserve Set to New
York:City oo. 8.2.8 1 93 2S oe eee 2.80
Total expenses... =). 403 Goss ee eee $ 14.65
1945 Budgetary allotment.....................-. $ 75.00
Expenditures for 1945: .° 4.25... seen woe eee 14.65
Balance 18... wi SRS. ee eee $ 60.35
Net gain for the year 1945....................--. $295 .47

F. M. Setzer, Custodian and
Subscription Manager of Publications.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TELLERS

A total of 262 envelopes were delivered to
the Committee by the Secretary.

The count of valid ballots showed the follow-
ing elected:

President, Hucu L. Dryben,

Secretary, F. G. BRicKWEDDE,

Treasurer, HowarpD S. RAPPLEYE,

Board of Managers to January 1949, Max A.
McCauu and Wa.po L. Scumirt.

H. F. Stimson, Chairman
GALEN B. ScHUBAUER
KENNETH L. SHERMAN.

Submitted by F. G. BRICKWEDDE, Secretary.

RRIS EpwaRp OPL

AS;

Ady ay 4

JUNE 15, 1946 No. 6

JOURNAL... =

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Haraup A, REHDER WiiiiaM N, FENTON JAMES I, HoFFMAN
U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

FRANK C. Kracrexk ALAN STONE
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Tra B. HANSEN RawurpH W. ImMuay
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

ALBERT E, LONGLEY Waxpo R. WEDEL
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIBTY

Int C. SCHOONOVER
CHEMICAL SOCIETY

PUBLISHED MONTHLY
BY THE
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
450 AHNAIP St.
AT MENASHA, WISCONSIN

Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Menasha, Wis.
Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925,
Authorized January 21, 1933.

‘This J OURNAL, ee official 0 organ i t
- (1) Short original papers, written or communic
_ proceedings and programs of meetings o

: notes of events connected with the scier

ee ME Saat may “he cent ta: any raneanee of t
quested that contributors consult the latest numbers of tl
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v

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 36

JUNE 15, 1946

No. 6

ETHNOLOGY.—Some Eastern Cherokee bird stories... JOHN WitTTHoFT, Univer-

sity of Pennsylvania.

The following stories, a series of tales col-
lected during the course of ethnological
field work among the Cherokee of Qualla
Reservation, North Carolina, in the winter
and summer of 1944-45, are representative
of Cherokee bird lore. They are a portion of
an extended body of Cherokee tales about
animal life. The majority are new versions
of stories previously published. Neverthe-
less, important variations occur and seem
worthy of being placed on record. Some of
the variant features are no doubt due to
changes that have taken place since the
time that the earlier published series were
collected, yet it seems probable that many
of the diversities were in existence prior to
that time and may represent differences in
the traditions of various localities and even
of various families or larger groups. A more
careful collection of tales from the other
communities of the Eastern Cherokee and
of the Oklahoma Cherokee would perhaps
permit the comparison of variants of the
more common tales and might lead us to
more definite conclusions as to the amount
of time involved in literary change of this
sort among the Cherokee. More important,
the comparison of data derived from folk-
tale sources, with data from studies empha-
sizing linguistics, ceremonial life, material
culture, and similar fields, from various lo-
-ealities, might help us to delimit and de-
scribe the various streams of tradition that
have survived among existing Cherokee
communities.

_1 This study was made possible by a grant-in-
aid, for field work among the Eastern Cherokee,
from the Department of Anthropology Research
Funds of 1944 and 1945 of the University of Penn-
sylvania. Received February 7, 1946.

(Communicated by W. N. FENTON.)

The stories presented were obtained from
three of the more conservative informants,
Will West Long and Mollie Sequoyah, of
the Big Cove community, and Moses Owl,
of Birdtown. Further study in these two
localities and in the other Eastern Cherokee
communities would probably uncover more
tales, if the bird subject were given specific
attention.

THE BIRD THAT SAYS “‘SOMEBODY’S
COMING!’ AND THE BIRD THAT LIES?

Once an old woman lived all by herself in a
cabin in the woods. Children used to go there
to visit her because she gave them all sorts of
good things t> cat. She would coax them to her
house with flattery and dainties, and they
would eat and play !n her yard. Sometimes she
would admire a child, and say, ‘‘You have such
beautiful hair. Come here and let me see it.”’
Then she would play with the child and run
her fingers through his hair and lead him off.
No one would ever see the child again.

When this had happened several times, the
people went to some of the conjurors, who dis-

2 This story is one of.a class of Liver-eater and
Stone Coat stories, all of which are variants of a
most important theme in Cherokee mythology.
The Stone Coat is the legendary source of a large
portion of the medical and magical lore of the
Cherokee and the source for the conjuror’s magis
cal stones. The stories of the Liver-eater in most
versions show close resemblances to the Stone
Coat story and have either been derived from it
or have become confused and blended with it.
Some of these versions appear in the following
places: Moonry, James, Myths of the Cherokee.
19th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.: 316, 319, 466,
469. 1900; Mooney, JAMEs. Cherokee and Iroquois
parallels. Journ. Amer. Folklore 2: 67. 1889; Trr-
RELL, JAMES W., The demon of consumption. A
legend of Cherokees 1n North Carolina. Journ.
Amer. Folkore[ 5: 125-126. 1892 (badly mutilated
version of Liver-eater); TEN Kats, H., Legends
of the Cherokees. Journ. Amer. Folklore 2: 54. 1889.

177

yy 17%

178

covered that this woman was a witch. They
said that she plunged her abnormally long
index finger into the child’s throat just above
the collar bone and drank its blood. The people
gathered together to kill her, in accord with
old Cherokee law.

This old woman expected that the people
would come to kill her, so she kept two birds,
which stood watch to warn her if anyone ap-
proached. One of these birds was the te‘ik‘alili’
(chickadee, Penthestes atricaptillus), and the
other was the u‘dz‘uga’, ‘‘crest’’ (tufted tit-
mouse, Boeolophus bicolor), just like the chicka-
dee but larger. This larger bird liked to play
tricks, and so he would perch on her shoulder
and say ‘“‘SSomebody’s coming!” for a joke.
When he had fooled the old woman several
times, she became angry and said, ‘‘All right,
I’m going to teach you a lesson. I’m going to
punish you for playing tricks and turn you
loose to look after yourself.’’ So she pulled his
tongue out and cut it off and then drove him
away. Thus he became known as the bird that
lies, and he still has only a little stump of a
tongue.

When the people finally did come to kill the
witch, the chickadee warned her, but now she
thought he was lying too. While she was threat-
ening him, the people came in and took her by
surprise. She was trapped, and so she ran into
the fireplace and jumped out through the low
chimney-hole, turning herself into a bird to
escape. |

She became the tsulyena’, ‘‘deaf” (the yel-
low-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapicus varius, here
called “‘red-headed woodpecker’’). She still
wears the red bandanna that she had on her
head. She was very old and deaf, so the bird is
still deaf, depending entirely on its eyes to
warn of the approach of humans. She is still
running away from people, and so the bird
watches you from behind a tree trunk when you
meet her in the woods.’

THE GIRL WHO MARRIED THE ‘‘YELLOW
NIGHTINGALE’ (Mollie Sequoyah)

Once a strange young man appeared at a
Cherokee house and stayed for several days.

3 Mooney, JAMES, Myths of the Cherokee: 281,
calls the nuthatch ‘“‘deaf” (tsulie’na), but my in-
formants pointed out the yellow-bellied sapsucker
as this bird.

4 Mooney, JAMES, Myths of the Cherokee: 281,
gives a somewhat different version of this tale.

- JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 6

He fell in love with his host’s daughter and
asked permission to marry her. The old people
were cautious about entrusting their daughter
to a stranger, but he assured them that he
was a hard-working farmer and would make a
good, dependable husband. They agreed to the
proposal, and the young people were quickly
married. |

Soon after they were married, the young man
began to prepare ground to make a crop. One
morning he took the team to his field to plow
and was not back home yet when his wife had
dinner ready that evening. She went to call
him but could only find the team, waiting to
return home, with a little bird perched on the
plow. She thought nothing of it and went back
home, where he soon appeared.

The next day he went out to plow again.
About noon his wife decided to take some corn
bread and hominy juice (a favorite Cherokee
beverage) to him for lunch. When she arrived
at the field she could find no trace of her hus-
band, but the team was working without him,
directed only by a bird who sat on the fence
calling out orders to them, ‘‘Hoo, hoo, hu, hu.”
This bird was the huhu (yellow-breasted chat,
Icteria virens, locally called “yellow nightin-
gale’’).

The girl now realized that her husband was
only a bird. She hurried home without being
seen. When her husband arrived that evening
she drove him away, saying, “I don’t want
you; you’re only a huhu and not a man at all.
Go back to the swamp.” So he left and has
lived in the swamps ever since.

HOW THE BOBWHITE GOT HIS WHISTLE®
(Mollie Sequoyah)

When the rabbit had been beaten in his race
with the turtle, by the turtle’s ruse of posting
his relatives along the track, the rabbit became
angry and decided to get even with the turtle.
Soon he met the bobwhite (ogugwe’, Colinus
virgunanus, locally called partridge) and had
a good idea. The bobwhite, unlike most birds,
had no whistle, and he rather envied the birds
who did. The rabbit told him, ‘‘You know, the
turtle has a very pretty whistle, and it isn’t
much use to him. Why don’t you go borrow it

5 Mooney, JAMES, Myths of the Cherokee: 289,
gives a shorter account of this story. The story
‘“‘Why turtle’s shell is cracked,”’ here referred to,

has been published by Mooney, Myths of the
Cherokee: 279.

>

June 15, 1946

from him.”’ The bobwhite understood what he
meant and said, ‘‘Do you really think he’d let
me borrow it?”’ The rabbit assured him that it
could be done, and so the bobwhite went on his
way looking for the turtle.

After a while the bobwhite met the turtle
along the road, whistling as he went. ‘Well,
well,” said the bobwhite, ‘‘what a nice whistle
you have. Will you let me see it?” The turtle,
flattered, showed his whistle to the bobwhite.
“That’s a very nice whistle,” said the bob-
white, ‘‘Won’t you let me try it for just a
minute?” “Well,” said the turtle, flattered but
cautious, “I might. But be careful and don’t
lose it. I need it very badly. When I’m travel-
ing alone, rolling downhill, sometimes I get
stuck on my back, and then I have to whistle to
my relatives to come and turn me over. When
T rolled over a cliff and broke my shell to pieces,
I’d have died if my relatives hadn’t come to
carry me home. So be very careful of my
whistle; it’s very important to me.”

The bobwhite took the whistle and tried it.
It felt so good to be able to use such a whistle,
like other birds. ‘‘Could I try it a little while
I’m flying?” he asked. The turtle agreed but
warned him not to go too far. The bobwhite
flew around the turtle’s head for a few minutes
and then he flew up the road a little way. ‘“‘Hey,
come back,” the turtle yelled. The bobwhite
came back and asked if he could fly around a
little more with the whistle. He felt so good
with such a nice whistle. Finally he flew away
and never came back. Ever since, the bobwhite
has had the turtle’s whistle, and the turtle has
had no voice at all.

HOW THE TURKEY GOT HIS RUFF AND THE
TURTLE HIS JEWELS® (Mollie Sequoyah)

Soon after the rabbit had helped cheat the
turtle of his whistle, he met the turkey on the
road. ‘‘What nice beads you have,” he told the
turkey. ‘‘They’re all right,” said the turkey,
“but they’re so smalland not very pretty.” ‘‘The
turtle’s wife has a very pretty necklace; why
don’t you trade with the turtle?” said the
rabbit.

Shortly after, the turkey met the turtle, and
said, ‘‘Look at these jewels I have.” The turtle
admired them, and the turkey talked about

§ Mooney, JameEs, Myths of the Cherokee: 287,
has.a closely related tale, ‘“‘How the turkey got his
his beard.”’

WITTHOFT: SOME EASTERN CHEROKEE BIRD STORIES

179

them so much that the turtle thought that they
were something really valuable. ‘Why don’t
you trade with me for them?” the turkey asked.
The turtle said he didn’t have any jewelry at
all, so how could he trade? But the turkey said
that he would give the jewels to him in ex-
change for his wife’s necklace, and then the
turtle and his wife could both wear beads, as
there would be enough for both. So the turtle
ran home and got his wife’s necklace, and
traded with the turkey. Ever since then the
turkey has worn the turtle’s wife’s grand neck-
lace of ruffs, and the turtle and his wife have
had to be content with the beads, which can
still be seen in the round colored markings on
the turtle’s neck.

HOW THE BUZZARD BECAME BALD’
(Mollie Sequoyah)

Once the buzzard (Su’li,? turkey buzzard;
Cathartes aura) had beautiful feathers and a
crest on his head and was a very proud bird,
who would not stoop to eating carrion, but only
fresh-killed meat. There came a time when he
had almost nothing to eat. A cow (Mooney’s
version, loc. cit., involves a buffalo), annoyed
by the buzzard’s pride, decided to play a trick
on him. The cow lay down near where several
other cows had died some time previously, and
waited for the buzzard. Finally the buzzard
saw the cow and flew down and began to tear
at the cow’s hindquarters. The cow just lay
there and played dead, until the buzzard
thrust his head into the anus of the cow and
so was caught. Strangling, the buzzard pulled
very hard and got free, but his crest and all
the feathers on his head were torn out. Ever
since, the buzzard has been bald, and has lost

7 Mooney, JAMES, Myths of the Cherokee: 293,
refers to this story. The same tale is recorded
for central Algonkian tribes as a portion of the
Nanabus cycle in the following references:
SKINNER, ALANSON, Plains Ojibwa tales. Journ.
Amer. Folklore 32: 282. 1919; SKINNER, ALANSON,
and SATTERLEE, JOHN V., Folklore of the Me-
nomini Indians. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Anthrop.
Papers 13 (3): 202-203. 1915.

8 Su’li is likewise the Creek (Muskhogian) term
for the buzzard, according to LouGHRIDGE, R. M.,
and Hopes, D. M., Muskogee dictionary: 12. 1890.
James Mooney (Myths of the Cherokee: 239,
430) tells of the buzzard’s role in shaping the
mountains, according to one Cherokee tale, and
points out that this role is exactly the same that
the buzzard performs in Creek and Yuchi mythol-
ogy, thus giving us another link with the mythol-
ogy of the Cherokee’s southern neighbors.

180

all his pride, so that now he eats only spoiled
meat and is careful to remove the eyes of a
carcass first, to make certain that it is dead.

OWLS

Among the Eastern Cherokee the owls,
and incidentally other night birds, are gen-
erally regarded as messengers foreboding
disaster. Especially the long-eared owl?
(Asio wilsonianus) is considered to be a
metamorphosed witch, who comes in that
guise to steal the life of a weak or sick per-
son and so prolong his own life. The witch
also comes as a spy, or to do other evil. But
this is only an owl-imitator, not a real owl,
and does not mean that every owl is a
witch, but that each owl heard around the
house at night may be such an evil spirit
and may incite terror in the hearts of the
family. Such an owl, however, is probably
more often considered as a bad omen, fore-
telling possible misfortune. .

A serious house fire on the reservation
some time ago resulted from a defective
flue, but the next morning a dead screech
owl was found perched at the top of the
chimney. One person was heard to conjec-
ture that the origin of the fire was clear, and
it was intimated that the owl had been sent
to do damage to the owner.

Many of the Cherokee, however, are not
inclined to accept the owl as a witch, or to
interpret the screaming owl that stays near
the house as anything but an omen and a
warning. According to Mollie Sequoyah,
“Some people say that owls are witchy, but
it isn’t true. They only come to warn you
when you're going to have trouble.’’ Maude
Welch says that an owl, nighthawk, or
whippoorwill calling around the house at
night is a sign of sickness or death. Will
West Long says that, traditionally, if an
owl called around the house for four suc-

* The long-eared owl, Asio wilsonianus, is called
s‘ki-li’, onamotopoeically, but s‘ki-li’ is also one
of two names for a witch and is said to mean
“Something bad or ugly looking,” according to
Will West Long. According to James Mooney
(Myths of the Cherokee: 284) the name for this owl
means witch.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 6

cessive nights, it was a sign that someone
was going to die, at least within three
years. Will states that witches are apt to
come as any night animal or bird, the dread
“‘raven-imitator”’ being the worst, and the
owl-imitator being one of the least potent
witches; according to Mollie Sequoyah they
are apt to come as hawks or as night ani-
mals or birds. Apparently the owl is only
one of the various guises that a witch may
assume.

The most interesting account of the su-
pernatural nature of the owl is that given by
Will West Long.

THE OWL AND THE FIRE

The fire of the Indians (not the fire of
white people, made with matches, but the
old traditionally preserved “real fire’ of
mythological origin and the periodically re-
kindled ‘‘new fire’ of the Cherokee) is an
old woman (according to Will West Long,
called virtually “old woman” akaya’li-ké
and “‘white or peaceable woman” akaya’-
line‘ga, while ordinary fire is atsila’‘ or
a‘ti'la’). She needs to be fed, just as people
do. The Cherokee were accustomed to offer
some of each meal to the fire, and when the
pot boiled over they would say, ‘The fire
wants to drink.” All native foods must be
offered to the fire, but not pork, white
bread, and such introduced foods.

If one neglects to feed the fire, she comes
at night in the guise of an owl or a whip-
poorwill and cries for proper treatment and
threatening vengeance. If not satisfied then,
she will cause sickness or death in the house-
hold. To prevent this, bread and meat must
be thrown on the fire for four successive
nights, while the proper traditional for-
mula is repeated, and the owl or whippoor-
will will be satisfied and leave. Especially,
one must not kill or injure the bird.

Once the bird spoke to the people. It
said, ‘‘You families! When I screamed up on
the mountain, you hated me. Don’t you
know, I was only warning you that some-
thing would happen because you didn’t feed
me. The owl in the woods is the same as the
fire on the hearth.”

June 15, 1946

DALLEMAGNE ET MELON: PROPRIETES OPTIQUES DE L’0S

181

BIOPHYSICS.—Nouvelles recherches relatives aux propriétés optiques de los: La
biréfringence de l’os minéralisé; Relations entre les fractions organiques et

inorganiques de l’os.1

M. J. DALLEMAGNE et J. MéLon, Université de Liége.

(Communicated by FRANK C. KRACEK.)

INTRODUCTION

La connaissance détaillée des propriétés
physiques de l’os peut nous permettre
d’éclaircir de nombreux problémes restés
sans solution jusqu’a présent. Ceux-ci con-
cernent aussi bien la nature des constitu-
ants organiques et minéraux que leur mode
de groupement respectif.

Au point de vue de leur nature, la qualité
chimique des microcristallites minéraux
nest plus entiérement du domaine de
Vhypothése; nous savons que leur constitu-
ant principal est le phosphate tricalcique a
et non l’hydroxylapatite ou la carbonato-
apatite comme beaucoup d’auteurs s’étaient
crus autorisés 4 le déduire des spectres de
diffraction des rayons X (4.5.6.). Il reste
toutefois, en ce qui concerne les éléments
minéraux de l’os, des questions de détail a
résoudre, particuliérement |’état chimique
moléculaire du magnésium, du sodium et du
potassium: des travaux en cours nous offrent
& leur sujet des perspectives intéressantes.
Par contre, la fraction organique de 1’os est
encore trés mystérieuse: en effet, nous ne
connaisson pas encore les relations exactes
existant entre la molécule d’osséine et celle
de gélatine. On ignore également s’il existe
entre l’osséine et les phosphates des rap-
ports dépassant le domaine de la physique:
la question d’une combinaison organo-
minérale a été soulevée plusieurs fois, mais
n’a jamais regu de support expérimental
concluant. Stella (15) admet la possibilité
d’une liaison d’ordre chimique entre |’os-
séine et les sels osseux. D’autre part,
Antoniani et Usuelli (2), étudiant la mise
en solution de l’os total, font remarquer que
les phénoménes observés par eux relévent
des lois de la chimie colloidale: ils en in-
férent que les sels osseux sont combinés 4
losséine.

Enfin, Caglhoti (8) démontre par la
méthode de diffraction des rayons X que le
microcristallite de phosphate osseux dont
axe optique est disposé parallélement aux

1 Received December 20, 1945.

chaines polypeptidiques de |’osséine, corre-
spond par sa longueur 4 deux radicaux
d’amino-acides constitutifs de celle-ci. Cet
auteur considére que l’intrication des ré-
seaux minéral et organique est tellement
réguliére qu’elle pourrait faire admettre
Vexistence d’une combinaison. Nous croy-
ons pouvoir trouver matiére 4 confirmer
ou a4 infirmer ces conclusions dans |’étude
des caractéres optiques des deux réseaux.

Au point du vue purement physique, la
structure submicroscopique de l’os n’est
pas encore connue avec le détail désirable:
nous possédons quelques données éparses
qu’il est nécessaire de contrdéler, de coor-
donner et surtout de compléter. Les mé-
thodes physiques d’investigation que nous
utilisons, relevant surtout de Jloptique
cristalline avec toutes les ressources de ses
procédés expérimentaux, nous offrent la
possibilité de pénétrer plus avant dans le
domaine de la chimie et de I’architecture
moléculaire osseuse. Elles ont déj& rendu
de grands services 4 l’étude des systémes
dispersés colloidaux: or, 4 plus d’un point
de vue, par la nature méme de son substrat
organique, l’os fait partie du domaine col-
loidal. Le chercheur qui entreprend de
telles études trouve d’ailleurs dans l’os un
matériel de choix 4 cause de l’organisation
moléculaire méme de ce tissu: celle-ci peut
singuliérement faciliter la résolution des
problémes qui se posent.

Le présent travail, basé sur un certain
nombre de données établies antérieure-
ment, tout en formant par lui-méme un
ensemble expérimental complet, ne rend
compte que d’une étape de nos recherches;
celle-ci a plus spécialement pour objet les
propriétés optiques de la fraction minérale
de l’os. De plus, il ne se limite pas aux ques-
tions relatives aux microcristallites miné-
raux et a leur groupement architectural,
il touche d’autres territoires d’investigation,
surtout celui de l’osséine, et en ce sens, il
constitue la base de recherches que nous
poursuivons actuellement. Celles-ci per-
mettent l’espoir de faire connaitre la struc-

182

ture submicroscopique de l’os avec des
détails nouveaux: en méme temps, elles
apportent des confirmations précieuses aux
faits déja établis par nous-mémes au sujet
de la nature chimique de I’os.

BASES THEORIQUES DES RECHERCHES
DEFINITION DE LA BIREFRINGENCE

Ce travail ayant pour objet létude des
propriétés optiques de lédifice cristallin
minéral enrobé dans l’osséine et tout par-
ticuliérement de sa biréfringence, il nous
semble indispensable de rappeler la défini-
tion et les bases théoriques de cette
derniére.

Un rayon lumineux tombant sur un cris-
tal le traverse et en sort dédoublé, mais ces
deux rayons sont polarisés 4 angle droit.
Les vibrations lumineuses de ces derniers
se produisent done dans deux plans dif-
férents orientés 4 90° l’un de l’autre. De
plus, les deux rayons polarisés ne se propa-
gent pas dans l’épaisseur du cristal 4 la
méme vitesse et celle-ci n’est pas la méme
que dans l’air. Le rapport entre la vitesse
de passage de la lumiére dans l’air et celle
de son passage dans un corps constitue
l’indice de réfraction de ce corps. Puisque
les deux rayons polarisés nés dans ce cernier
le traversent 4 des vitesses différentes, 4
chacune de celles-ci correspond un indice de
réfraction déterminé et propre au corps
considéré.

Jusqu’é présent, nous avons supposé
qu’il tombe sur le cristal un seul rayon
lumineux dans une incidence quelconque.
Kn réalité, dans les conditions expéri-
mentales, une infinité de rayons tombent sur
le corps et se polarisent tout en le traver-
sant. Pour caractériser le cristal, on retient
généralement le plus rapide et le plus lent
de ces multiples rayons lumineux polarisés,
c’est-a-dire son plus petit (n,) et son plus
grand (n,) indice de réfraction.

La différence de temps que mettent ces
deux rayons pour traverser le cristal s’ap-
pelle retard. Celui-ci s’exprime ordinaire-
ment en espace: le retard est la différence
des épaisseurs d’air que les vibrations
lumineuses parcourraient dans le temps
qu’elles mettent 4 traverser le cristal. On
lexprime en millimétres ou, pour la facilité

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 6

de lécriture, en millioniémes de milli-
métre (up).

Le retard rapporté 4 l’unité d’épaisseur
n’est autre que la différence entre les deux
indices de réfraction d’un rayon traversant
le cristal et s’appelle la bzréfrongence dans
la direction considérée, mais on entend
généralement par biréfringence du cristal,
la différence des deux indices extrémes.

La biréfringence se met en évidence 4
Vaide du microscope polarisant: en lumiére
blanche et entre nicols croisés, le cristal se
pare de couleurs particuliéres appelées
teintes de polarisation dont la tonalité dé-
pend de la différence entre les deux indices
de réfraction pour une épaisseur donnée.
Pour employer une autre expression, chaque
teinte de polarisation caractérise le produit
de l’épaisseur du cristal par sa biréfringence,
c’est-a-dire, le retard. On mesure ce dernier
& Vaide d’appareils spéciaux comme le
compensateur de Berek et on en déduit la
biréfringence.

Celle-ci est une propriété de beaucoup de
milieux: elle n’est pas spécifique de l'état
cristallin proprement dit. Aussi n’a-t-elle
pas toujours la méme cause.

LES DIFFERENTS TYPES DE BIREFRINGENCE

(1) Biréfringence propre (Eigendoppel-
brechung).—Le cas le plus classique est
celui des milieux cristailisés: ceux-ci sont
caractérisés par une disposition réticulaire
des atomes. Chaque axe de direction quel-
conque traversant le cristal passe par des
successions différentes d’atomes: cependant,
le long des axes de méme direction, l’alter-
nance des atomes de diverses espéces est
toujours identique pour une architecture
atomique déterminée.

Si un rayon lumineux suit ces directions
au travers du cristal, il vient buter succes-
sivement sur des atomes qui affectent sa
vitesse: cette influence n’est pas identique
pour tous les assemblages linéaires d’atomes.
On comprend donc que la vitesse des rayons
lumineux ne soit pas la méme dans chacune
des multiples directions qu’ils peuvent em-
prunter dans le réseau. A cause de la
spécificité de la répartition atomique dans
les différents réseaux cristallins, la vitesse de
passage du rayon lumineux sera toujours

JuNE 15,1946 DALLEMAGNE ET MELON: PROPRIETES OPTIQUES DE L’0S

la méme pour un corps donné dans un
axe déterminé. Par conséquent, les indices
de réfraction doivent étre considérés comme
des éléments spécifiques de la nature
chimique des corps.

La biréfringence étant la différence entre
les deux indices principaux d’un cristal, elle
est également spécifique de |l’agencement
du réseau cristallin et de la nature chimique
des atomes qui constituent celui-ci. C’est
la biréfringence de ce type qui est la biré-
fringence propre d’un cristal homogéne.

La biréfringence ne varie jamais en fonc-
tion de l’indice de réfraction du liquide dans
lequel le cristal est plongé. Elle n’existe pas
pour tous les corps cristallisés: ceux qui
appartiennent au systéme cubique ne
possédent gu’un seul indice de réfraction.
Ils sont appelés pour cette raison optique-
ment isotropes. Les corps biréfringents sont
anisotropes.

Ajoutons enfin qu’un milieu ne présen-
tant pas de structure réticulaire ne posséde
pas de biréfringence propre.

(2) Biréfringence de forme ou de structure
(Formdoppelbrechung).—Dés 1863, Schultze
a constaté que la biréfringence des cara-
paces de diatomées varie selon |’indice de
réfraction du milieu dans lequel elles sont
plongées. C’est la premiére observation
ayant pour objet la physique optique des
systémes complexes.

Beaucoup plus tard, les travaux de
Wiener (1) ont amené de grandes précisions
au sujet de cette branche de l’optique et
ont permis d’énoncer une propriété fon-
damentale des systémes complexes: ils sont
formés par des particules isotropes ou aniso-
tropes réguliérement ordonnées et noyées
dans un milieu isotrope ou anisotrope, mais
d’indice de réfraction différent du premier.

Les recherches plus récentes encore
d’Ambronn, de Frey, de Wissling (1) prin-
cipalement, sur les propriétés optiques de
ces composés (mixed bodies ou Misch-
kérper) ont également amené de précieuses
contributions 4 l’étude des ces questions.

On connait deux types de biréfringence
de forme:

(1) Celle que les auteurs allemands ap-
pellent Stabchendoppelbrechung, que nous
traduisons par biréfringence de batonnets:
elle se présente quand le corps complexe est

183

constitué de cylindres placés parallélement
les uns aux autres et inclus dans un milieu
quelconque solide, liquide ou gazeux, mais
d’indice de réfraction différent de celui des
cylindres ou batonnets.

(2) Celle que les mémes auteurs appel-
lent Plattchendoppelbrechung ou biréfrin-
gence de plaquettes: dans ce cas, les élé-
ments plongés dans le milieu quelconque
accusent la forme de plaquettes 4 orienta-
tion paralléle.

Les conditions nécessaires 4 l’apparition
de la biréfringence de forme dans les corps
complexes soni:

(a) L’indice de réfraction des plaques ou
des batonnets doit étre différent de celui
du milieu ambiant;

(b) ’épaisseur des plaques et le diamétre
des cylindres ainsi que la distance qui les
sépare doit étre petite par rapport a la
longueur d’onde de la lumiére;

(c) pour qu’il s’agisse d’une biréfringence
de forme pure, les plaques et les cylindres
ne doivent pas présenter de biréfringence
propre: quand cette derniére existe, elle
s’ajoute 4 la biréfringence de forme ou s’en
soustrait.

(@)
(o, (9)

C’est & Wiener (1) que revient le mérite
d’avoir proposé une explication de la biré-
fringence de forme en prenant comme base
la théorie électromagnétique de la lumiére.
En ce qui concerne le fondement mathé-
matique, nous ne considérerons avec quel-
ques détails que la biréfringence de baton-
nets, puisque seule elle intéresse l'étude de
lédifice moléculaire osseux.

Soit un corps constitué comme le repré-
sente schématiquement la Fig. 1. Deux
éléments différents le composent: des cy-
lindres d’une nature chimique donnée et la
substance ambiante d’une autre nature.

Appelons respectivement 7: et 62 indice
de réfraction et le volume relatif des cylin-
dres et ne et 62 ceux du corps qui remplit les
intervalles compris entre les cylindres: il est
bien entendu que 6:1+=1.

Un corps mixte de ce type est anisotrope
et se comporte comme un corps optique-
ment uniaxe, l’axe optique étant paralléle
a axe des cylindres. Appelons n, et n, ses
deux indices de réfraction principaux. A

134

condition qu’il soit incolore, la théorie de
Wiener donne pour le calcul de ces deux
indices les expressions suivantes:

Na? = 61M? + boN9”
é (di +1)ni?+ bono?
no? =n? ——____—_
(6:+1)ne?+ 62n1?

La biréfringence de forme est By =na—No:
la théorie démontre qu’elle est toujours
positive.

Lorsque ni=7e, c’est-a-dire lorsque les
indices de réfraction des cylindres et du
milieu ambiant sont identiques, la biré-
fringence de forme est nulle, le corps est
done complétement obscur dans toutes ses
positions entre nicols croisés, 4 condition
qu’aucun de ses deux composants ne pos-
séde de biréfringence propre.

La Fig. 2 (courbe b) montre comment la
biréfringence de forme du corps complexe
varie en fonction de l’indice de réfraction
d’un des deux composants. Quand les in-
dices de réfraction de ces derniers sont
identiques, la biréfringence de forme est
nulle: elle s’éléve d’autant plus que les
indices de réfraction des cylindres et de la
substance ambiante deviennent différents.

(1)
(2)

Fia.
corps complexe formé de cylindres noyés dans une
substance ambiante.

1.—Représentation schématique d’un

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VOL. 36, NO. 6

En ce qui concerne la biréfringence de
plaquettes, signalons qu’au contraire de la
biréfringence de batonnets, elle est toujours
négative, mais que les corps complexes qui
la présentent sont également uniaxes.

(3) Biréfringence de forme combinée a une
biréfringence propre.—Si une des substances
constitutives du corps complexe posséde
une biréfringence propre, la courbe que l’on
obtient en l’immergeant dans des liquides
d’indices de réfraction différents est une
résultante de la biréfringence de forme et
de la biréfringence propre. Rappelons que
cette derniére n’est nullement influencée
par les variations de l’indice de réfraction
du milieu ambiant. Dans le cas d’une
biréfringence de batonnets et d’une biré-
fringence propre négative, on obtient la
courbe a de la Fig. 2: l’assemblage de cyl-
indres plongé dans un corps possédant le
méme indice de réfraction que ceux-cl
accuse une biréfringence négative corre-
spondant 4 la biréfringence propre. La
courbe c de la méme figure se rapporte 4 un
corps possédant une biréfringence propre
positive.

On peut obtenir des courbes de mém
allure en portant en ordonnées le retard

—
POSITIVE

BIREFRINGENCE

——————
NEGATIVE

INDICE DE REFRACTION ——>

Fig. 2.—Courbes de biréfringence de forme
combinée ou non 4 une biréfringence propre.

JUNE 15, 1946

pour une épaisseur donnée au lieu de la
biréfringence, celle-ci étant en effet directe-
ment proportionelle au retard.

(4) Autres types de biréfringences.—Toutes
les actions physiques capables de provoquer
Vorientation ordonnée des molécules dans
les solides ou les liquides peuvent entrainer
Papparition d’une biréfringence: citons, par
exemple, la biréfringence qui se manifeste
a application d’une force de traction ou de
pression a la gélatine, au verre, 4 la celloi-
dine; d’autre part, la biréfringence de flux
que |’on observe en orientant des molécules
allongées dans une solution obligée 4 passer
sous pression dans un tube capillaire.

LA BIREFRINGENCE DE L’OS MINERALISE

Quand on immerge une lame d’os total
(par exemple, d’environ 100u d’épaisseur)
successivement dans chacun des liquides
constituant l’échelle des indices de réfrac-
tion, les teintes de polarisation observées
entre nicols croisés demeurent les mémes
quels que soient les caractéres optiques du
liquide d’immersion.? Lorsque nous débar-
rassons cette méme lame de ses matiéres
organiques, par ébullition dans la glycérine
renfermant 6 per cent de potasse (os
minéralisé), nous observons que l’aspect
iconographique général de los ne s’est
nullement modifié, mais cette fois, les
teintes de polarisation varient avec l’indice
de réfraction du liquide dans lequel la lame
est immergée. Cette observation a déja
été commentée par Schmidt (14) qui l’avait
attribuée 4 la biréfringence de forme. Cet
auteur a constaté également que los
minéralisé posséde une biréfringence propre.

L’os minéralisé constitue le matériel de
choix pour de telles recherches: on peut
considérer, d’aprés les observations de
Schmidt, qu’il obéit aux lois de la biré-
fringence de batonnets, ceux-ci étant repré-
sentés par les espaces abandonnés par les
longues molécules organiques détruites par
la potasse.

Nous avons cherché & préciser les ré-
sultats purement qualitatifs obtenus par
Schmidt en nous efforgant d’obtenir des

2 A condition que ces liquides ne soient pas
miscibles 4 l’eau, ce qui est d’ailleurs le cas pour
la plupart d’entre eux: nous envisagerons en dé-

tail, dans une publication ultérieure, son attitude
dans les liquides miscibles 4 l’eau.

DALLEMAGNE ET MELON: PROPRIETES OPTIQUES DE L’0S

185

valeurs numériques que nous pourrons com-
parer 4 celles que nous avons obtenues pour
Vos total. Nos recherches sont basées sur un
certain nombre de données que nous avons
publiées antérieurement: nous allons les
rappeler succinctement.

VALEURS EXPERIMENTALES DETERMINEES
ANTERIEUREMENT

(1) Buiréfringence de Vos total.—Aprés
avoir revu la topographie générale des
canaux osseux et constaté qu’elle présente
un parallélisme étroit avec celle des élé-
ments cristallins (7), nous avons pu établir
les conditions indispensables dans lesquel-
les il faut opérer pour déterminer la biré-
fringence de los total (12). Celle-ci est
faible: elle est trés proche de 0.004 et elle
est positive.

(2) Les indices de réfraction de Vos total
et de los minéralisé.—Nous avons mesuré
V indice de réfraction de l’os total et de l’os
minéralisé par trois méthodes qui se con-
trodlent mutuellement: procédés de la frange
de Becke et de Schroeder von der Kolk en
lumiére monochromatique (A=5891 A) et
apparition des franges colorées en lumiére
blanche. L’indice de réfraction des liquides
dans lesquels les fragments de substance
sont immergés est mesuré au moyen du
réfractométre d’Abbe (6.8.10).

Nous avons obtenu les résultats suivants:

Os total: n=1.574.
Os minéralisé: n=1.590.

L’indice de l’os total a été déterminé sur
des fragments d’os sec: l’importance de
cette remarque sera discutée ultérieure-
ment.

(3) Poids spécifique de los total et de Vos
minéralisé.—Nous avons démontré que la
précision de ces mesures est soumise 4
certaines conditions et particuliérement au
remplissage parfait par le lquide d’im-
mersion (l’eau) des canaux vasculaires et
des cavités cellulaires de los total (10).
A ces espaces s’ajoutent dans l’os minéralisé
le volume laissé libre par les molécules
organiques hydrolysées par la potasse. En
un mot, les mesures de poids spécifique doi-
vent se faire dans un vide aussi complet que
possible de fagon 4 ce que le liquide d’im-
mersion puisse pénétrer librement dans
tous les espaces creux de la substance. Pour

186

pouvoir travailler sur une faible quantité de
matériel pulvérisé, nous avons mis au point
une méthode de micropycnométrie dans le
vide que nous donne d’excellents résultats
(13). Pour l’os total, nous avons déterminé
un poids spécifique de 2.35 et pour l’os
minéralisé de 2.99.

(4) Indice de réfraction de la substance
organique de lVos.—Cette détermination a
été faite sur du matériel décalcifié par
V’acide chlorhydrique 4 3 per cent dans
VYeau ou dans l’alecool méthylique absolu.
Aprés décalcification compléte en un temps
trés court (en moyenne 24 heures), les
plaquettes d’os de 50 4 100yu d’épaisseur
sont lavées et séchées. Nous avons trouvé
par les méthodes énumérées plus haut une
valeur constante de 1.547 pour une série
d’échantillons d’osséine séche (6). Nous in-
sistons sur ce caractére de siccité et nous
reviendrons sur cette question ultérieure-
ment.

VALEURS EXPERIMENTALES NOUVELLES
BIREFRINGENCE DE L’0S MINERALISE

Méthode de travail

Préparation des lames.—Le matériel uti-
lisé pour ce travail est le fémur de bovidé.
De fines lames d’os de 4 mmX4 mm
environ sont sciées au niveau de |’extré-
mité diaphysaire: nous choissons cette zone
de l’os dans le but de trouver dans nos
coupes des plages orientées dans tous les
sens, ce qui nous permet de choisir les
régions les plus favorables 4 nos recherches.
Ces lames, d’une épaisseur de 0.5 mm sont
régularisées et amincies 4 la lime. Elles sont
ensuite débarrassées de la graisse médul-
laire, qui imbibe fréquement la substance
organique fondamentale, par trempage
dans le chloroforme. Elles sont enfin séchées
a la température ordinaire.

Nous enregistrons schématiquement par
dessin au faible grossissement du micro-
scope ensemble des canaux et des plages
osseuses situées entre ceux-cl. Nous re-
cherchons les zones au niveau desquelles la
structure du tissu est favorable aux mesures
de retard et nous en retenons de 5 4 10
présentant des caractéres sufisamment nets
pour permettre de les retrouver aisément.
Il est, en effet, indispensable que les nom-
breuses mesures de retard que nos re-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 6

cherches exigent se fassent rigoureusement
aux mémes points de la lame. Ces plages
repérées sont soigneusement dessinées au
fort grossissement avec assez de détail pour
permettre un repérage précis.

Mesure du retard de los total.—Pour les
mesures de retard au niveau des zones re-
pérées, la lame osseuse set plongée dans un
liquide non miscible 4 l’eau, le bromoforme.

Les mesures de retard sont exécutées au
moyen du compensateur de Berek.

Pour la lame que nous choisissons comme
exemple particuliérement démonstratif et
qui nous a permis l’expérience la plus com-
pléte, la valeur de retard obtenue au niveau
des zones repérées donne une moyenne de
462uy.

Minéralisation de Vos total—Aprés la
détermination du retard, nous immergeons
la lame dans de la glycérine renfermant 6
per cent de potasse et chauffée 4 290°. Le
blanchiment de la substance aprés la
premiére période de noircissement nous
indique la fin de la destruction des matiéres
organiques.

La lame devenue trés fragile est lavée
abondamment dans l’eau distillée chaude
jusqu’a neutralité du liquide de lavage, puis
elle est séchée a l’étuve 4 105°C. Le sé-
chage 4 cette température n’influence nul-
lement les propriétés optiques des lames
minéralisées: nous savens qu’il modifie au
contraire la biréfringence des lames d’os
total.

Détermination de la courbe des retards en fonction
de l’ indice de réfraction des liquides d’iummersion

La lame est plongée successivement dans
chacun des liquides hydrophiles ou lipo-
philes dont la nature et l’indice de réfrac-
tion sont indiqués au tableau I et elle y est
maintenue un nombre d’heures ou de jours
suffisants pour que la retard accusé par les
zones osseuses repérées devienne constant.
Nous avons observé, en effet, que si certains
produits donnent 4 la lame une valeur de
retard définitive dés l’immersion, d’autres
tels que la trioléine, la tributyrine, l’es-
sence de térébenthine, le benzoate de
benzyle, le cinnamate d’éthyle et le valéri-
anate d’amyle ne nous mermettent pas
d’enregistrer d’emblée une valeur de retard
constante. Ce sont les premiers qui nous
ont permis de tracer la courbe de biré-

JUNE 15, 1946

fringence de forme et d’interpréter les
valeurs obtenues avec les liquides entrai-
nant des variations progressives du retard.
Lorsqu’aprés son immersion dans certains
de ceux-ci (le valérianate d’amyle, par
exemple), la lame est optiquement positive,
nous observons d’emblée une valeur de
retard nettement inférieure 4 celle que nous
pouvions prévoir d’aprés les résultats ob-
tenus au moyen des liquides ne provoquant
pas de variation. Au contraire, quand la
lame est plongée dans un liquide lui don-
nant un caractére optiquement négatif, le
retard est normal dés l’immersion, mais il
augmente de valeur dans le sens de la néga-
tivité au cours des jours suivants jusqu’a
une valeur constante qu’il ne dépasse plus.
Cette modification du retard dans un sens
ou dans l’autre est plus ou moins rapide
selon les liquides. C’est avec la trioléine
que nous avons observé les variations les
plus marquées et en méme temps les plus

+7000

RETARD en up.

g

INDICE DE REFRACTION

ae) 9
iP9)
ws

~

DALLEMAGNE ET MELON: PROPRIETES OPTIQUES DE L’0S

187

lentes. Dans un cas, 8 jours ont été néces-
saires pour que le retard d’une plage d’os
minéralisé passe de +314 —203uu; dans un
autre cas, la valeur constante ne s’est établie
qu’aprés 15 jours. Le sens et l’importance
des variations observées sont indiqués 4 la
figure 3 qui rassemble nos observations rela-
tives 4 une de nos lames osseuses. Nous
n’avons pas encore pu établir expérimen-
talement la cause de ces variations de retard:
nous notons cependant que les liquides pour
lesquels on les observe sont généralement
formés de molécules 4 chaines de carbone
longues ou compliquées, tandis que les
autres produits accusent des formules de
structure plus courtes et plus simples: ces
molécules pourraient faire intervenir un
élément optique supplémentaire par suite
de leur orientation dans les espaces aban-
donnés par la substance organique de I’os.
Cette orientation se ferait plus ou moins
rapidement selon la viscosité du liquide.

1600

9 fe)
8 i

_Fig. 3.—Variations du retard d’une lame d’os minéralisé en fonction de
indice de réfraction des liquides dans lesquels ‘elle est plongée.Les points
représentent la valeur initiale du retard; les‘cercles, la valeur finale si
celle-ci est différente de la premiére. Les fléches indiquent le sens de la

variation.

188

Nous insistons sur le fait que l’explication
que nous proposons aux phénoménes ob-
servés reléve uniquement du domaine de
Vhypothése.

Interprétation de la courbe des retards

A la Fig. 3, nous notons en ordonnées les
moyennes des retards observés au niveau
des zones étudiées d’une lame minéralisée
et en abcisses les indices de réfraction des
liquides dans lesquels cette lame a été
immergée.

La courbe est tout 4 fait comparable a
celle représentée 4 la figure 2 (courbe a).
Nous avons pu poursuivre la recherche
jusqu’aé lobtention du retard négatif maxi-
mum: ces expériences sont le plus souvent
interrompues par destruction accidentelle
des lames minéralisées.

Nous avons déterminé au cours de
recherches antérieures (6.8.10) l’indice de
réfraction de l’os minéralisé: il est de 1.590.
Or, c’est précisément pour une valeur trés
voisine de celle-ci que le retard négatif
maximum de notre lame apparait. Cette
premiére coincidence montre déjaé que nos
observations s’accordent avec la théorie de
la biréfringence de forme.

L’étude de cette courbe nous permet de
tirer une série de renseignements précis au
sujet des propriétés optiqués des lames d’os
minéralisé.

Biréfringence propre de la_ substance
minérale osseuse.—lLe retard négatif maxi-
mum de la lame étudiée est —250up. D’autre
part, le retard mesuré au niveau des mémes
zones de la plaque avant la minéralisation
était de +462uy. Ajoutons enfin que la
biréfringence de l’os total est 0.004, ainsi
que nous l’avons déja rappelé.

A laide de ces trois données numériques,
nous pouvons calculer la _ biréfringence
propre de la substance minérale osseuse.

I] semble a priori trés simple et exclusive-
ment nécessaire pour déterminer cette
derniére d’appliquer la formule B=R/E,
FR étant le retard et # l’épaisseur. En réalité,
quand on s’adresse 4 un corps de structure
aussi compliquée que l’os, de telles déduc-
tions sont impossibles: elles ne sont per-
mises au sujet de l’os que dans des cas
particuliers que nous avons étudiés en
détail dans une publication antérieure (12).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 6

En dehors de ceux-ci, nous sommes foreés
d’utiliser un procédé indirect qui seul peut
nous donner des résultats de valeur in-
discutable. Voici la base de notre raisonne-
ment.

D’une part, l’axe optique de l’os total a
Ja méme orientation que celui de los
minéralisié. D’autre part, rappelons-le,
Varchitecture minérale cristalline de los
total ne subit aucune variation au cours
de la minéralisation ainsi que le montre
examen microscopique d’une lame d’os
total et de la méme lame minéralisée.

Par conséquent, connaissant le retard
(R,) au niveau d’une zone topographique-
ment précisée d’une lame d’os total et le
retard (Rm) au niveau de cette méme zone
aprés la minéralisation de la lame, nous
sommes en droit d’écrire que les deux re-
tards mésurés sont dans les mémes rapports
que les biréfringences correspondantes (B,
et B,,). Cela peut s’exprimer par la relation

+462 +0,.004
950) ee
dot By = —0.0022

== jpomeaemOUL

qui constitute la biréfringence propre néga-
tive de l’os minéralisé.

Notons cependant qu’en toute rigueur
cette proportion n’est pas exacte: elle n’est
admissible que lorsque les biréfringences
sont faibles, comme c’est le cas pour le
matériel que nous étudions. L’exemple
sulvant montre que nous sommes en droit
de l’utiliser: considérons deux cristaux uni-
axes ayant, le premier, une biréfringence
positive de 0.004 et un indice ordinaire
n=1.48, le deuxiéme, une biréfringence
négative de 0.002 et un indice ordinaire
n=1.59 et taillons-en des lames orientées 4
45° de l’axe optique. Le calcul montre que
les biréfringences de ces lames sont respec-
tivement 0.001996 et 0.001001. Leur rap-
port est done 1.994. On voit qu’il est
pratiquement le méme que le rapport des
biréfringences de ces cristaux (2.000), la
différence ne portant que sur la troisiéme
décimale. Notons de plus que nous avons
choisi, pour cet exemple, des lames tail-
lées & 45°, ce qui constitue le cas ou l’erreur
est la plus forte. Nous pouvons done con-
sidérer que le rapport utilisé est vrai a4

JUNE 15, 1946

moins de 0.3 per cent prés. I] n’en serait plus
de méme si les biréfringences 4 comparer
étaient élevées, au-dessus de 0.020, par
exemple.

Biréfringence de forme de l’os minéralisé.—
En établissants des proportions du méme
type que celles utilisées pour le calcul de la
biréfringence propre, nous avons pu dresser
la liste des biréfringences de forme, pour
les différents milieux d’immersion (ta-
bleau 1).

L’ensemble de ces résultats nous permet
de tracer les trois courbes représentées 4 la
Fig. 4: courbe de biréfringence de forme, de
biréfringence totale et de _ biréfringence
propre de l’os minéralisé. Nous avons repré-
senté par des points noirs les valeurs dé-
terminées expérimentalement figurant déja
au graphique 3, mais en regard d’une or-
donnée graduée en retard. Nous avons in-
scrit également (cercles) les valeurs théo-
riques déduites des formules de Wiener pour
la biréfringence de forme. Nous pouvons
constater que la courbe tracée le long des
points expérimentaux passe également par
les points théoriques. Nous pouvons en
déduire que la fraction minérale de l’os est
bien soumise aux lois de physique optique
que Wiener a établies pour les corps com-
plexes dont un des constituants présente la
forme de batonnets.

D’aprés sa nature méme, la biréfringence
de forme ne peut s’exprimer par un nombre
comme la biréfringence propre: elle est, en
effet, différente selon l’indice de réfraction
du liquide dans lequel la lame d’os miné-
ralisé est plongée. Dans le cas qui nous
occupe, elle s’exprime graphiquement par
une courbe du type parabolique et, mathé-
matiquement, par une équation du 2éme
degré telle que celle-ci, By =0.156 (n1—ne)?
qui répond avec une précision suffisante
aux différents points établis expérimentale-
ment.

Indice de réfraction de la substance or-
ganique de ’os.—Nous avons déterminé par
les méthodes habituelles l’indice de réfrac-
tion de lames d’os taillées 4 une épaisseur
assez réduite pour pouvoir étre décalcifiées
en quelques heures par l’acide chlorhy-
drique 4 3 per cent dans l’eau ou dans le
méthanol. L’avantage que nous voyons au
séjour trés limité dans les liquides décal-

DALLEMAGNE ET MELON: PROPRIETES OPTIQUES DE L’0OS

189

cifiants est d’éviter l’altération chimique de
la substance organique fondamentale. Aprés
cette opération, les lames sont abondam-
ment lavées 4 l’eau ou au méthanol, puis
séchées 4 létuve a 105° pendant 2 heures.
L’indice de réfraction que nous avons

-

1
re)
ro)
ro)
—y

N FT O ODO N N
SR RTS SN he
A a oe a

a

as
W
fos)
On
On
te)
oO

Fie. 4.—En ordonnées: la biréfringence.

En abcisses_ : l’indice de réfraction.
A, Courbe de biréfringence de forme calculée 4
partir de la courbe de biréfringence totale. B,
Courbe de biréfringence totale avec points thé-
oriques (cercles) et points déterminés expéri-
mentalement (points noirs). C, Courbe de biré-
fringence propre: a, Projection de la biréfringence
de los total (déterminée expérimentalement) sur
la courbe de biréfringence totale; 6, projection du
point correspondant de cette courbe sur l’axe des
abcisses=indice de réfraction de la substance
organique fondamentale; c, indice de réfraction
de la substance minérale de l1’os; la valeur ainsi
déterminée est égale 4 celle qu’on obtient par
mesure directe.

190

mesuré (6) sur le matériel ainsi préparé est
1.547.

TABLEAU 1.—VALEURS MOYENNES DES BIREFRINGENCES
TOTALES ET DES BIREFRINGENCES DE FoRMES CALCULEES A
PARTIR DES RETARDS Mrsurés au NIVEAU DE REGIONS
REPEREES D’UNE LAME D’0S MINERALISE PLONGEE DANS
DIFFERENTS LIQUIDES.

Indice | Retard en py Biréfringence
ae de
Tiare réfrac- Ren Con- de
tion Initial stant Totale forme

RUM os sae ee ee 1.333 | +931 | +931 | +8.1 ] +10.3
Acétal diéthylique.| 1.380 | +555 | +555 | +4.8 |} + 7.0
Alcool butylique n.| 1.392 | +472 | +472 | +4.1 ] + 6.3
Valérianate d’amyle| 1.413 | +209 | +263 | +2.2 | + 4.4
Tributyrine....... 1.438 | + 50} +1381 | +1.0 | + 3.2
Tricapryline...... 1.448 | + 61 + 61 +0.5 | + 2.7
Cyclopentanol....} 1.455 | + 47] + 47] 40.4 | + 2.6
Tétrachlorure de

carbone........ 1.460 — 04 — 04 0 SF BoP
Acétate de bornyle.| 1.465 | — 30 | + 01] —0.3/} + 1.9
Prioléine= 6354 22.5- 1.469 ae all —208 | +0.3 Se B®
Essence de térében-

thine Wes pests 1.474 — 31 — 93 —0.3 + 1.9
Cinnamate d’éthyle| 1.559 | —239 | —320 | —2.1}|} 40.1
Benzoate de ben-

VAig ayes ete nc aa sitaciee 1.569 —238 | —311 —2.1 + 0.1
Bromoforme...... 1.596 | —253 | —253 | —2.2 0

D’autre part, cet indice de réfraction
peut étre déterminé par une méthode in-
directe basée sur les résultats de notre
étude de la biréfringence de forme de l’os
minéralisé.

Comme nous le savons, la biréfringence
de l’os total est une biréfringence de forme:
par conséquent, la substance organique
fondamentale dans laquelle les éléments
cristallins minéraux sont noyés peut étre
considérée comme un des liquides dans
lesquels les lames d’os minéralisé ont été
plongées au cours de notre détermination
de la courbe de biréfringence totale (ré-
sultant de la combinaison de la biréfrin-
gence propre avec la biréfringence de forme)
plus précisément encore, la substance
organique fondamentale correspond au
liquide dans lequel l’os minéralisé accuse
une biréfringence égale a celle de l’os total,
c’est-a-dire 0.004 (12). Par conséquent, en
reportant sur cette courbe (Fig. 4B) la
valeur de la biréfringence de l’os total,
l’axe que nous abaissons sur l’abcisse passe
par l’indice de réfraction de la substance
organique fondamentale. Cette interpola-
tion est indiquée graphiquement 4 la méme
figure. Elle nous indique que la substance

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 6

organique fondamentale accuse un indice
de réfraction de 1.385, valeur bien différente
de celle que nous avions mesurée expéri-
mentalement sur le matériel sec.

Une telle contradiction entre nos résul-
tats trouve une explication trés simple.

L’os vivant, tissu doué d’un réseau cireu-
latoire abondant dont nous avons rappelé
Yorganisation (7) est imbibé des liquides
plasmatiques. Les molécules d’eau qui con-
stituent la majeure partie de ceux-ci sont
elissées comme les microcristaux de la
fraction minérale de l’os entre les molécules
allongées de la substance organique fonda-
mentale qu’elles imprégnent. Cette sub-
stance organique fondamentale, que nous
recueillons aprés la décalcification de l’os,
est formée d’un ensemble de molécules
orientées qui semblent s’apparenter 4 la
gélatine, sinon s’identifier avec celle-ci.
Quoiqu’il en soit, si chimiquement leurs
propriétés d’imbibition sont trés proches, il
existe entre la gélatine et l’osséine une dif-
férence importante que révélent les études
optiques: pour s’orienter et manifester une
biréfringence, les molécules de gélatine
doivent subir une traction ou une pression
(1), tandis que les molécules de la substance
organique fondamentale de l’os sont natu-
rellement orientées 4 l’état de repos. Toute-
fois, cette orientation n’est absolument
parfaite et ne devient totalement super-
posable 4 celle de l’os total que pour un
degré d’imbibition d’eau déterminé, voisin
de la saturation. C’est done 4 l’état de
saturation d’eau que nous devons étudier
les propriétés physiques de la substance
organique fondamentale. Partant de cette
idée, nous avons mesuré l’indice de réfrac-
tion de l’os décalcifié aprés l’avoir laissé
séjourner 24 heures dans l’eau distillée
(n=1.833). Nous avons pu déterminer le
chiffre de 1.380, valeur s’accordant par-
faitement avec celle que l'étude de la biré-
fringence de forme de ]’0s minéralisé nous a
fournie. Notons bien d’ailleurs que l’indice
de réfraction de l’eau est proche de celui des
liquides plasmatiques (plasma, n=1.3540;
sérum, 2 = 1.3481).

On peut donc admettre qu’a l’état sec,
l’os décalcifié a un indice de réfraction de
1.547, mais que, dans les conditions d’im-
bibition optima, cette valeur passe 4 1.380.

June 15, 1946

Notons d’ailleurs qu’elle varie entre ces
deux extrémes avec le degré de l’imbibition.
Ajoutons encore que nous avons pu
extraire de l’os une substance durcissant 4
la dessication, jaune et transparente. Nous
Vobtenons en quelques heures de 1’os total
dégraissé et finement pulvérisé, en le
traitant par de l’eau distillée dans un ap-
pareil de Soxhlet. L’eau d’extraction ne
dépasse pas la température de 60°C. La
substance obtenue par ce procédé, beau-
coup moins brutal que les méthodes habi-
tuelles de préparation de la gélatine, ne
montre aucune biréfringence et ne dif-
fracte pas les rayons X: ses molécules con-
stitutives ne sont done pas réguliérement
orientées; elle accuse 4 l'état sec un indice
de réfraction, 1.544, trés voisin de celui de
Vos décalcifié sec. Comme nous l’avons déja
observé pour ce dernier, |’hydratation
abaisse considérablement cet indice.

VOLUMES RELATIFS ET POIDS SPECIFIQUES DE LA
FRACTION MINERALE ET DE LA FRACTION
ORGANIQUE DE L’0S TOTAL

L’étude de la courbe de biréfringence de
forme nous a fourni des renseignements
nouveaux indispensables pour l’application
a l’os de la théorie de Wiener. Toutefcis,
d’autres données numériques nous man-
quent encore et tout particuliérement le
volume des constituants organiques et des
constituants minéraux de 100 gr. d’os. Nous
les appelons respectivement A; et A2; pour
les caleuler nous nous bascns sur les valeurs
expérimentales suivantes:

(1) Poids spécifique de l’os frais hydraté.

Il a été mesuré par la macrométhode
pycnométrique classique sur des fragments
de fémur frais:ceux-ci ont été immergés
dans l’eau dés qu’ils furent recueillis chez
animal de fagon 4 ce que lair n’ait pu
pénétrer dans les canalicules osseux et
fausser nos résultats. Nous avons obtenu
1D —2.00.

(2) Poids spécifique de la fraction miné-
rale de l’os, Dz =2.99 (10).

(3) Teneur de l’os frais en matiéres
minérales.

L’os frais normalement hydraté est pesé,
puis séché, pulvérisé et bouilli dans la
glycérine renferment 6 per cent de po-
tasse: il est de nouveau pesé. Nous retrou-

DALLEMAGNE ET MELON: PROPRIETES OPTIQUES DE L’0S

191

vons 67.7 per cent du poids primitif: c’est
la valeur Pe.

(4) Teneur de l’os frais en eau d’im-
bibition: l’os frais est pesé, séché a |’étuve
& 105° et pesé 4 nouveau: la perte pondérale
est 13.8 per cent.

(5) Teneur de l’os frais en matiéres
organiques:l’os frais est pesé, puis décal-
cifié par l’acide chlorhydrique 4 3 per cent
dans le méthanol pur. II est ensuite séché
et pesé. Nous retrouvons 18.5 per cent du
poids primitif.

L’eau d’imbibition étant exclusivement
liée & Vosséine, nous devons considérer
comme fraction organique de l’os frais
Vensemble des molécules détruites par
KOH et des molécules d’eau, soit P2=32.3
per cent.

Nous utilisons ces données numériques
de la fagon suivante: Le poids des matiéres
minérales de l’os est égal au produit de leur
poids spécifique par leur volume, P2,= Dz,
XAe: nous pouvons extraire A, qui vaut
P2/De (4). Donc A; = 23.30 ec.

Comme cent grammes d’os frais occupent
exactement un volume de 50 centimétres
cubes, Ai = 50.00 — 23.30 = 26.70 cc. Un cen-
timétre cube de ce matériel renferme donc,
selon la terminologie de Wiener, 6; et 6s
représentant les volumes relatifs des con-
stituants organiques et minéraux de I|’os:

23.30

= =0(0.466 cc de matiére minérale
50.00

2

= ().534 cc de matiére organique hydratée.

Le poids spécifique de l’os décalcifié nous
est donné par l’expression

P, 263280

x

Nous avons cherché 4 controéler ce ré-
sultat par la méthode pycnométrique
directe et nous avons obtenu une concor-
dance parfaite. Ces mesures ont été exécu-
tées sur des lames d’os décalcifié.

Il est encore possible de décomposer la
valeur 6; et de déterminer la part qui revient
aux molécules organiques et 4 leur eau d’im-
bibition: nous obtenons pour les premiéres

192

0.258 cc. pour 1 ce. d’os total hydraté et
pour l’eau 0.276 ce. :

En résumé, l’os contient en volume pour
100:

matiéres minérales......... 46.6
matiéres organiques........ 25.8
Syl GlavonlonloykaWoieongan son. 27.6

Ces données nous serviront de base pour
application de la théorie de Wiener a
l’os et pour d’autres recherches qui feront
objet d’une publication se rapportant aux
propriétés optiques de la fraction organique
de l’os.

APPLICATION DE LA THEORIEE DE WIENER
AU CAS PARTICULIER DE L’OS

Les dennées numériques que nous avons
pu déterminer directement ou que nous
avons obtenues par calcul, nécessaires 4
Vutilisation des formules (1) et (2) dé
Wiener (page 184) sont les suivantes:

(1) Vindice de réfraction de l’os minéralisé, soit

nz = 1.590,

(2) Vindice de réfraction de l’osséine, soit 11

=1.385

(3) le volume relatif des constituants miné-

raux, 62.=0.466,

(4) le volume relatif des constituants or-

ganiques, 6,=0.534.

Au cours de recherches antérieures, nous
avons mesuré directement la biréfringence
de Vos total hydraté ainsi que l’indice de
réfraction de l’os sec. D’autre part, |’indice
de réfraction et la biréfringence de forme
de l’os total hydraté vont nous étre fournis
par l’application des formules de Wiener:
de la confrontation des résultats directs et
indirects, nous pourrons tirer des conclu-
sions importantes.

Remplagons les signes employés par
Wiener dans ses formules par les valeurs
numériques correspondantes: formule (1):
Na” = 0.534 X (1.385)?-+0.466 (1.590)? =
2.2024, d’ou nots calculons n,=1.4841, soit
le plus grand indice de 1’os frais que l’on
puisse mesurer; formule (2):

No = (1.590)?
1.534 X (1.3885)?+-0.466 X (1.590)?
1.534 (1.590)?-+ 0.466 X (1.385)?

d’ou nous tirons no=1.4775, soit le plus
petit des indices du méme matériel.

= 2.1830,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 6

Biréfringence de l’os total frais —De ces
valeurs, nous obtenons pour la biréfrin-
gence de forme de l’os, nga—mo = 0.0066. Or,
nous savons que la biréfringence totale de
Vos est la résultante d’une biréfringence de
forme positive dépendant aussi bien des
proportions de la fraction organique que de
celles de la fraction minérale, et d’une
biréfringence propre négative, appartenant
exclusivement 4 la _ fraction miunérale
B,=B;—B,: nous avons déterminé expéri-
mentalement cette résultante et la biré-
fringence propre, et nous avons trouvé
B,=0.004 et B,=0.0022. On en déduit
B;=0.0062, valeur trés proche de 0.0066
fournie par l’application de la formule de
Wiener.

En utilisant deux méthodes dont les
points de départ sont trés différents, Pune
s’appuyant en effet sur la mesure des in-
dices de réfraction et la composition
chimique, l’autre sur des mesures de retard,
nous obtenons des chiffres tout 4 fait com-
parables: nous pouvons donc attrikuer 4 nos
résultats relatifs 4 la biréfringence un
caractére de valeurs exactes.

Indices de réfraction de Vos total—lLa
valeur des indices de réfraction de l’os total
que nous obtenons par calculs au moyen des
formules de Wiener (ng=1.4775 et no
= 1.4841) est trés différente de celle. que
nous avons mesurée directement sur l’os sec
(n =1.574).

Pour essayer d’expliquer cette discor-
dance, nous nous sommes basés sur les en-
seignements fournis par notre étude de
Vindice de réfraction de l’os décalcifié: en
effet, ce matériel 4 l’état de siccité accuse
un indice de réfraction de 1.547, mais 4
état d’hydratation de l’osséine, ce chiffre
s’abaisse 4 1.385, valeur controlée d’ail-
leurs au cours de l’interprétation de la
courbe de biréfringence de forme.

Nous avons donc repris des mesures
d’indice de réfraction de l’os total, mais
cette fois, nous nous sommes adressés 4
los frais normalement hydraté par les
liquides plasmatiques: nous comptions, en
effet, que les 13.8 per cent d’eau inclus
dans la fraction organique de Vos total
pouvaient influencer l’indice de réfraction
de celui-ci. Nous avons vu que |’indice de
réfraction on de l’os décalcifié s’abaisse de

JuNE 15, 1946

0.162 sous l’influence de l’absorption des
45.2 per cent d’eau dont |’osséine est ca-
pable de s’imbiber. Ainsi, il était 4 prévoir
que l’indice de réfraction de l’os total frais
serait inférieur a celui de I’os total sec.

C’est précisément ce que nous avons pu
observer par la détermination directe de
Vindice de réfraction de l’os frais: ces me-
sures ont dé étre exécutées avec des précau-
tions particuliéres, car elles sont rendues
extrémement difficiles par la nature méme
et les propriétés de la fraction organique de
Vos. Pour obtenir des valeurs exactes, nous
ne pouvons utiliser que des milieux d’im-
mersion d’hydrophobie maxima dans
Véchelle de Hoffmeister. Nous reviendrons
ultérieurement sur ces questions quand nous
traiterons particuliérement des propriétés
physiques de l’osséine. Qu’il nous suffise de
signaler ici que nous avons obtenu par
mesures directes une valeur n=1.481 qui
est exactement située entre les deux indices
Na et no déterminés d’autre part au moyen
des formules de Wiener.

Ici, encore une fois, nous arrivons & ac-
corder parfaitement les résultats des me-
sures directes de l’indice de réfraction avec
ceux que l’on obtient 4 partir de la courbe
de biréfringence de forme en prenaut la
précaution de déterminer et d’utiliser les
conditions indispensables 4 des recherches
précises.

Soulignons particuliérement le fait que
les recherches optiques exécutées sur l’os
ne suivent exactement les lois physiques
théoriques que si le matériel utilisé ap-
partient au squelette tel qu’il existe dans
Vorganisme, hydraté, irrigué, vivant,
comme si l’eau d’imbibition en représentait
un élément fondamental au méme titre
que les microcristallites minéraux et les
molécules d’osséine.

x

DISCUSSION RELATIVE A LA COMBINAISON
CHIMIQUE ENTRE L’OSSEINE ET
LES SELS OSSEUX

Nous rassemblons en Tableau 2 ré-
capitulatif les valeurs que nous avons dé-
terminées expérimentalement et celles que
nous avons obtenues par calcul 4 partir des
courbes de biréfringence de forme établies
pour une série de lames osseuses minérali-

DALLEMAGNE ET MELON: PROPRIETES OPTIQUES DE L’0S

193

sées. La comparaison entre ces deux groupes
de chiffres montre qu’ils sont trés proches les
uns des autres, sinon identiques.

Cette similitude des résultats enregistrés
par les deux méthodes nous permet des
remarques importantes:

(1) Les valeurs expérimentales sont ob-
tenues par des études successives ayant
pour objet l’os total, l’os minéralisé et 1’os
décalcifié pris individuellement. Par con-
tre, les valeurs calculées découlent ex-
clusivement de la courbe de biréfringence
de forme établie pour l|’os minéralisé.

(2) La théorie mathématique de la biré-
fringence de forme est basée sur le principe
initial d’une juxtaposition purement phy-
sique entre les deux constituants du corps
complexe, les cylindres et la substance
ambiante.

TABLEAU 2.—TABLEAU RECAPITULATIF DES
VALEURS D£TERMINEES

Determi-
nations Valeurs
expéri- calculées
mentales
Indice de réfraction de l’os total sec. . 1.574 _
Indice de réfraction de l’os total frais 1.481 {ng =1.4841
\no =1.4775

Indice de réfraction de l’os minéralisé 1.590 1.590
Indice de réfraction de l’os décalcifié

SOG TA hoe ath Sa archers 1.547 —
Indice de réfraction de l’os décalcifié

SAbUPGsdeeAUs eset echoes terse eee 1.380 1.385
Biréfringence de forme de l’os frais...| +0.0062 | +0.0066
Biréfringence totale del’osfrais...... +0.0040 —
Biréfringence propre de la fraction

minérale desostmiee oso —0.0022 _—
Poids spécifique de l’os total sec..... 2.35 —
Poids spécifique de l’os total frais... . 2.00 1.98
Poids spécifique de l’os minéralisé.... 2.99 —
Poids spécifique de l’os décalcifié sa-

tRLbRENG Metthh ls A dino malo one Cb OO Oe ae — Al
Volumes relatifs: os total........... 100.0+

fraction minérale................ 46.6%

fraction organique............-.. 53.4%

fraction organique séche.......... 25.8%

Eauecsrm bicion aeeiasils oe celeni-ie ie 27.6%

C’est done en admettant a priori l’ab-
sence de tout lien chimique entre la frac-
tion minérale et la fraction organique de
l’os que nous parvenons, en prenant comme
bases exclusives les caractéres physiques de
la substance minérale de l’os, 4 remonter
aux propriétés et constantes optiques de
Vos total et 4 vérifier nos valeurs expéri-
mentales; d’autre part, nous arrivons 4

194

établir certaines propriétés physiques de la
substance organique de l’os, contrdélées
également par des méthodes directes.

Une des conclusions 4 tirer de nos re-
cherches est done qu’ll n’existe pas de
liaison chimique primaire décelable entre
la fraction minérale de l’os et l’osséine.
Nous faisons done opposition aux conclu-
sions d’Antoniani et Usuelli (2). A notre
avis, le fait que la mise en solution de Il’os
obéit aux lois de la chimie colloidale n’im-
plique pas nécessairement |’existence d’une
combinaison entre l’osséine et le phos-
phate: il pourrait dépendre simplement de
ce que la décalcification de l’os total se
passe dans un milieu soumis 4 ces lois.
Enfin, la régularité d’intrication des deux
réseaux, organique et minéral, observée par
Caglioti (8), ne constitute pas non plus
un argument décisif en faveur d’une éven-
tuelle combinaison entre eux; elle n’est que
le témoignage de relations physiques par-
ticuliérement précises.

En ce qui concerne la liaison entre le

phosphate -tricalcique et des éléments ap- ©

partenant 4 la chimie organique, nous de-
vons répondre & une objection que l’on
pourrait tirer de nos travaux antérieurs
(6).

Nous avons, en effet, sur la base de cer-
taines données expérimentales, posé l’hy-
pothése que le phosphate tricalcique ne se
trouve pas sous la méme forme dans los
minéralisé que dans l’os total: le premier
est du phosphate tricalcique a: il ren-
ferme donc deux molécules d’eau pour neuf
atomes de calcium. Dans 1’os total, la place
de cette eau serait tenue par un petit
radical organique ne possédant aucun des
caractéres de |’osséine et subissant l’hydro-
lyse sous l’action de la potasse 4 290°.

Nous n’avons nullement tenu compte de
cette hypothése au cours de ce travail parce
que nous n’en avions pas la_ possibilité
technique. Si elle est fondée, nos résultats
actuels laissent prévoir que les caractéres
physiques du phosphate tel qu’il se trouve
dans l’os total et ceux du phosphate tri-
calcique a de l’os minéralisé sont trés pro-
ches. Ce fait n’est d’ailleurs pas étonnant si,
comme nous le supposons, il s’agit d’une
molécule organique trés simple.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 6

CONCLUSIONS

(1) La biréfringence de Il’os total résulte
de la combinaison d’une_biréfringence
propre négative des cristallites minéraux et
d’une biréfringence de forme positive du
type biréfringence de batonnets dépendant
autant des propriétés de la fraction or-
ganique que de celles de la fraction minérale
de l’os.

(2) Ces combinaisons de biréfringence
sont soumises aux lois purement physiques
de loptique cristalline: la fraction or-
ganique de l’os, représentée par |’osséine,
n’accuse done aucun lien chimique per-
ceptible aux méthodes physiques avec le
phosphate tricalcique, élément principal de
la fraction minérale.

(4) L’os ne répond, avec fidélité aux lois
physiques régissant ses propriétés optiques
que lorsqu’il est physiologiquement hy-
draté.

(4) La présence de l’eau dans Ios frais
ne semble pas relever exclusivement d’une
simple imbibition: les molécules d’eau jouent
un role structural submicroscopique.

(5) La décalcification rapide par l’acide
chlorhydrique ne modifie pas les propriéts
optiques de la fraction organique de
l’os: Posséine par sa séparation d’avec les
sels osseux ne subit done pas d’altération
chimique perceptible 4 l’étude physique.

BIBLIOGRAPHIE

(1) Ampronn, H., et Frey, A. Das Polar-
isationsmikroskop. Akademische Ver-
lagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, 1926.

(2) ANToNIANI et Usun iit. Sulla natura
del fosfato di calcio della ossa: 9. XIV™
Congr. Intern. Physiol. Rome, 1932.

(3) Cacuiot1, V. Sulla structura delle ossa.
Atti V Congr. Chim. Pura ed Ap-
plicata: 320. 1935.

(4) Dattemacne, M. J., et Brassnur, H.
La composition et la constitutson de la
substance minérale osseuse. L’étude de
la substance minérale osseuse par la
méthode de diffraction des rayons X.
Acta Biol. Belg. 4: 440. 1942.

(5) DauttemaGne, M. J., et Brasszur, H.
La diffraction des rayons X par la sub-
stance minérale osseuse. Bull. Soe.
Roy. Sci. Liége 11: 451, 488. 1942.

(6) DatuemaGne, M. J. La nature chimique
de la substance minérale osseuse. These
d’agrégation de Venseignement supérieur.
Gordinne, Liége, 1943.

JUNE 15, 1946

(7) DatutEMaGneE, M. J., et Méton, J. La
topographie des canaux vasculaires et la
topographie cristalline de Vos. Bull.
Soc. Roy. Sci. Liége 12: 558, 607.
1948.

(8) DaLLeMaGNE, M. J., et Mtton, J. Les
indices de réfraction de Vos, de la dentine,
du cément et de lémail. Acta Biol.
Belg. 1944. (sous presse.)

(9) DatteMaGcne. M. J., et Méton, J. La
proportion des éléments minéraux et
organiques dans les differentes régions du
systéme haversien de los. Acta Biol.
Belg. 1944. (sous presse.)

(10) DatLtemacne, M. J., et Mé&ton, J. Le
_ poids spécifique et indice de réfractron
de Vos, de l’émail, de la dentine et du
cément. Bull. Soc. Chim. Biol. 27:

85. 1945.

HOFF: A STUDY OF SOME PSEUDOSCORPIONS

195

(11) DatuemMacne, M. J., et Méton, J. La
calcification des lamelles osseuses con-
stitutwes du systéme haversien. Arch.
Biol. 56: 248. 1945.

(12) Méton, J., et Dattemacne, M. J. La
boréfringence de los tutal. Bull. Soc.
Roy. Sci. Liége. 13: 254. 1944.

(13) Méton, J., et Dattemacnge, M. J. Une
méthode de micropycnométrie: descrip-
tion d'un dispositif permettant d’opérer
dans le vide. Ann. Soc. Géol. Belg. 67
(B): 98. 1944.

(14) Scumipt, W. J. Der Feinbau der anor-
ganischen Grundmasse des Knochen-
gewebes. Ber. Oberhess. Ges. Nat.
Heilkundr. Gieben. 15: 219. 1938.

(15) Sretia, G. Sullo stato del carbonato e del
fosfato dz calcio nella ossa e nel sangue.
Arch. Fisiol. 25: 606. 1927.

ZOOLOGY .—A study of the type collections of some pseudoscorpions originally

described by Nathan Banks.

C. CLtayTon Horr, Quincy College, Quincy, Ill.

(Communicated by Epwarp A. CHAPIN.)

Through the kindness of Dr. Waldo L.
Schmitt and Dr. Edward A. Chapin, of the
United States National Museum, type
specimens of several species of pseudo-
scorpions originally described by Nathan
Banks (1895, 1901) were made available for
study. The present paper is concerned with
redescriptions of Banks’s Garypus floriden-
sis, “Garypus”’ bicornis, ‘‘Chelanops”’ arizo-
nensis, “‘Chelifer” mirabilis, and ‘‘Chelifer’’
hubbardi. Unless otherwise indicated, ob-
servations and measurements have been
made on specimens cleared in beechwood
creosote and mounted in Canada balsam.
Previous to mounting, the body, but not
the appendages, was treated with potassium
hydroxide solution. Measurements were
made with a calibrated ocular micrometer,
and the figures were outlined with the aid
of a camera lucida.

1 Received January 4, 1946. This study was.

aided by a grant from the American Association
for the Advancement of Science through the
Illinois State Academy of Science.

Suborder DrPpLospHYRONIDA Chamberlin, 1929

Family GARYPIDAE Hansen, 1894
Garypus floridensis Banks, 1895
Figs. 1-3
Garypus floridensis Banks, 1895, Journ. New York
Ent. Soc. 3: 9; non With, 1906, Danske Vid.
Selsk. Skrifter, 7. Rekke, naturvidensk. og
mathem., 3: 41, fig. 9, pl. 2, figs. 4a—-d; non
With, 1907, Journ. Linn. Soc. London, Zool.,
30: 70-72, pl. 9, figs. 26-28; Chamberlin, 1921,
Can. Ent. 53: 191; Chamberlin, 1930, Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 10) 5: 612; pro parte
Beier, 1932, Das Tierreich 57: 220; Roewer,
1937, zn Bronn’s Klass. und Ord. des Tierreichs
5 (div. 4, book 6): 268.

The National Museum collection of cotypes
consists of one male, one female, and one early
nymph. The male was mounted on a slide and
designated as the lectotype. The female and
the nymph are stored in alcohol. The nymph
was not studied.

Male.—Body fairly stout, appendages mod-
erately slender; ‘‘body pale brown, legs and
palpi, except claw, pale brownish yellow, claw
red-brown” (Banks, 1895); length of body 4.6

196

mm. Carapace subtriangular in outline, the
width very little less than the length, the an-
terior margin bilobed; carapace weakly granu-
lar before the eyes, otherwise nearly smooth;
posterior carapacal margin with 14 setae, all
stublike and very short; posterior transverse
furrow fairly well marked; two pairs of eyes, the
anterior eye of each side with well-developed
convex lens, directed laterally and anteriorly;
posterior eye of each side with more weakly
developed lens, directed laterally and pos-
teriorly; eyes nearly contiguous; length of cara-
pace 1.27 mm; width greatest posteriorly and
equal to 1.25 mm; width across carapace at a
level between the eyes 0.7 mm. ‘‘Abdomen
depressed, much broader behind than in front,
broadest on 7th segment, scutz [sic!] short and
quite broadly divided” (Banks, 1895); tergal
scuta in part irregularly marked by scalelike
sculpturing, anterior two tergites with fine
granules on the anterior part of each, partly
smooth, little sclerotic; all tergites except 1 and
11 divided; tergal halves with no more than
14 short and stubby setae. Sternites much like
the tergites except the setae are a little less
numerous and are longer and terminally acute;
pleural membranes rugose; abdomen about 3.4
mm long, 2 mm wide in mounted lectotype.
Chelicera: Yellow in color; inner margin
very much S-shaped, a marked concavity near
the base of the fixed finger making the base
appear distorted; surface of base smooth; setae
acuminate; the three setae of the flagellum
bladelike and with a few long and slender ser-
rations placed unilaterally at and near the end
of each; length of chelicera 0.387 mm, width of
base 0.235 mm; length of movable finger 0.32
mm. Fixed finger with outer margin dis-
tinctly convex; lamina exterior flatly convex
in the central portion; tip of fixed finger very
sclerotic, apical tooth with two conical den-
ticles on the inner surface; inner margin of
fixed finger with five or six retroconical teeth,
the proximal one much reduced; serrula in-
terior of 20 or more plates, the distal five or
six modified. Movable finger a little curved;
apical tooth very dark reddish brown and
sclerotic; subapical lobe approximate to the
apical tooth; a weak denticle may occur on the
inner margin of the subapical lobe; galeal seta
apparently not reaching the tip of the galea;
both galeae terminally broken in lectotype;
serrula exterior of between 25 and 30 plates,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 6

probably about 27 (position of serrulae pre-
cludes accurate count).

Palpus: Moderately slender; surface ap-
parently unsculptured except for granules on
the maxilla and very weak granules on a part
of the chelal hand and on the fingers, these
last somewhat conspicuous; setae stubby, short,
a little longer on the chelal fingers than else-
where. Maxilla about 0.8 mm long, 0.4 mm
wide. Trochanter with stout pedicle; flexor
margin well rounded; length 0.63 mm, width
0.38 mm. Femur very slender; pedicle barely
indicated; outer margin flatly convex except
more convex in the distal one-third; inner mar-
gin weakly concave in the basal one-half,
weakly convex beyond but with a weak con-
cavity near the distal end; length 1.5 mm,
width 0.34 mm. Tibia stouter than the femur;
pedicle about as wide as long; inner margin
weakly convex in the basal half but very
weakly concave beyond; outer margin flatly
convex (to almost a little concave) in the basal
two-thirds, more convex beyond; length 1.31
mm, width 0.352 mm. Chela with the flexor
margin evenly convex from the pedicle to the
finger base; extensor margin very flatly con-
vex; hand widest near the center; fingers very
slender, gently curved; length of chela with-
out pedicle 2.25 mm, width 0.6 mm; length of
hand without pedicle 1.08 mm, depth of hand
0.56 mm; movable finger 1.26 mm long. From
the side, ventral margin weakly but evenly
convex; dorsal margin somewhat irregularly
convex; hand deepest in the distal one-third
and little narrowed at the base of the fingers;
fingers little curved. Marginal teeth of chelal
fingers small, conical, cusp-bearing, about 70
on the movable and about 80 on the fixed
finger. Movable finger with four tactile setae:
t about one-sixth of the fingér length from the
tip; st near the midpoint of the finger; sb about
one-fourth of the finger length from the base;
b midway between sb and the finger base;
nodus ramosus not observed. Fixed finger with
et near tip of finger, if about one-sixth of finger
length from tip; est almost one-third of finger
length from tip; zst about one-third of finger
length from base; eb less than one-sixth of
finger length from base, esb a little nearer eb
than ist; isb and 1b separated by about three
areolar diameters and a little distal to the level
of esb; nodus ramosus not determined because
of granular nature and color of finger.

June 15, 1946

Legs: Slender; setae stubby, short, peglike
except on the flexor margin of the tibia, meta-
tarsus, and telotarsus where the setae are
stout, relatively long, and acuminate; surface
of legs not sculptured. First leg with pars
basalis deepest at the very distal end, flexor
margin nearly straight except at the proximal
end, extensor margin conspicuously convex
near the distal third, distal one-third of podo-
mere swollen, length measured along the ex-

HOFF: A STUDY OF SOME PSEUDOSCORPIONS

197

tensor margin 0.63 mm, depth 0.19 mm; pars
tibialis much shorter than the pars basalis,
flexor margin convex, extensor margin little
convex, length 0.4 mm, depth 0.185 mm; tibia
somewhat S-shaped, length 0.54 mm, greatest
depth across the distal end 0.13 mm; tarsal
podomeres subcylindrical; metatarsus 0.38 mm
long, 0.106 mm deep; telotarsus 0.825 mm
long, 0.1 mm deep. Fourth leg with slender
trochanter, flexor margin nearly straight, ex-

why yt ty
4 v4

/

\
/\ ! 4
vy 1 Z

Figs. 1-3.—Garypus floridensis Banks, 1895, male lectotype: 1, Anterior portion of carapace to
show the eyes; 2, dorsal view of palp, tactile setae of chelal fingers omitted; 3, lateral view’of chela,

marginal teeth not shown.

Fias. 4, 5.—Pseudogarypus bicornis (Banks, 1895) Ellingsen, 1908: 4, Spines of first pedal coxae
(A, entire coxae of male lectotype; B, portion of coxae of tritonymph cotype); 5, dorsal view of palp;
male lectotype, tactile setae of movable finger omitted.

Fies. 6—8.—Pseudozaona mirabilis (Banks, 1895), n. comb., male lectotype: 6, End of movable
cheliceral finger; 7, dorsal view of palp; 8, lateral view of chela, teeth of chelal fingers omitted.

198

tensor margin markedly convex, length 0.61
mm, depth 0.26 mm; pars basalis 0.38 mm
long, 0.283 mm deep; pars tibialis with a
straight flexor margin continuous with that
of the pars basalis, extensor margin very
weakly convex, length 0.96 mm, depth 0.27
mm; entire femur 1.25 mm long; tibia slender,
weakly S-shaped, length 1.01 mm, depth great-
est at the distal end and equal to 0.15 mm;
tarsi subcylindrical; metatarsus 0.46 mm long,
0.13 mm deep; telotarsus 0.4 mm long, 0.11
mm deep; telotarsus with a stiff, weakly curved,
and short pseudotactile seta placed 0.25 mm
from the proximal margin of the podomere.

Genital complex: Posterior operculum with
six to eight marginal setae and 12 to 14 setae
in a-compact double row on each lateral rim
of the aperture; anterior operculum with nearly
35 setae, some scattered, but chiefly in a group
just anterior to the aperture.

Female—Examined only for details ob-
servable in the alcoholic specimen; apparently
very similar to the male except that the palpal
podomeres, especially the chela, are a little
more slender. Body length about 4 mm. Palpal
femur 1.5 mm long, 0.335 mm wide; tibia 1.33
mm long, 0.345 mm wide; chela without pedicle
2.25 mm long, 0.56 mm in width; chelal hand
without pedicle about 1.08 mm long; movable
finger at least 1.3 mm long.

Type localitty—tLabel accompanying collec-
tion reads: “under driftwood, ocean beach, nr.
St. Lucie, Indian Riv., Fla., April 19, 1880.
Coll. Hubbard. Type No. 4192 U.S.N.M.”

Remarks.—This is the first detailed descrip-
tion of G. floridensis. Erroneously designated as
this species, With (1907) described several in-
dividuals in a collection from Mustique Island.
With’s specimens are discussed under G. withi,
new species, as given below.

Garypus withi, new species
Garypus floridensis With (non Banks, 1895), 1906,
Danske Vid. Selsk. Skrifter, 7. Rekke, natur-
vidensk.-og mathem., 3: 41,*fig. 9, pl. 2:
figs. 4a—d; With, 1907, Journ. Linn. Soc. Lon-
don, Zool., 30: 70-72, pl. 9, figs. 26-28; pro
parte Beier, 1932, Das Tierreich 57: 220.
Under the name G. floridensis, With (1907)
described in detail a pseudoscorpion species
from Mustique Island, Windward Islands,
West Indies. On comparing With’s description
with the lectotype of Banks’s G. floridensis,
it appears obvious that With did not have the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 6

Florida species described by Banks. For this
reason, the species described by With is here
redesignated as G. witht, new species.

The chief differences between G. witht and
G. floridensis are as follows: The eyes of each
side in floridensis are approximate but they are
well separated in witht (With, 1907, fig. 26);
the pars basalis of the first leg of floridensis is
distally much more widened and bulging than
in witht (With, 1906, fig. 9); the serrations of
the flagellar setae are much coarser and longer
in floridensis than in witht (With, 1906, pl. 2,
fig. 4b); and the length of the movable chelal
finger is equal to the length of the femur in
witht but appreciably shorter than the femur
in floridensis.

Suborder MonospHyronipA Chamberlin, 1929
Superfamily FEaELLoIpEA Chamberlin, 1931
Family PSEUDOGARYPIDAE Chamberlin, 1931

Pseudogarypus bicornis (Banks, 1895)
Ellingsen, 1908
Figs. 4, 5
Garypus bicornis Banks, 1895, Journ. New York

Ent. Soc. 3: 8-9; non Pseudogarypus bicornis

Ellingsen, 1908, Boll. Lab. Zool., Portici, 3:

218; pro parte Banks, 1911, Pomona Journ.

Ent. 3: 637; non Chamberlin, 1923, Ent. News

34: 162-166, pl. 5, figs. 1-22; non Chamberlin,

1931, Stanford Univ. Publ., Biol. Sci., 7 (1);

231-232, figs. 6-H, 02L, -N, 1120. 1Sneiee

18-B, 24-D, 29-J, 38-K, 41-A, 8) -@ =p aoe

-L, 51-A, -B; non Beier, 1932, Das Tierreich

57: 239-240; pro parte Roewer, 1937, 1n Bronn’s

Klass. und Ord. des Tierreichs 5 (div. 4, book 6):

271.

The type collection of this species consists
of four individuals, of which one is a male
lacking one of the palps. This specimen was
mounted on a slide and is here designated as
the lectotype. Of the other specimens, two are
tritonymphs and one is an earlier nymph. One
of the tritonymphs was mounted and is briefly
described below. The earlier nymph is not in a
condition suitable for study.

Male.—Description based on the lectotype.
“Length, 2.5 mm. Brownish yellow, the cepha-
lothorax and palpi darker than the other por-
tions, a pale spot on the middle of the last
two or three ventral segments. Cephalothorax
narrow, somewhat triangular, much longer
than broad, with a high elevated ridge each
side, about parallel with the side margins, the

JUNE 15, 1946

space between the ridges concave in anterior
portion, convex behind; the anterior margin
of the elevated portion is rounded; each lower
anterolateral angle of the cephalothorax is
prolonged into a conic tubercle, or horn, which
is slightly longer than broad at base. There
is a trace of the posterior suture, but the an-
terior one is very obscure; on each side there
are two prominent eyes about their diameter
apart, the posterior one on a tubercle and look-
ing backward. The abdomen is broad and de-
pressed, narrower at base than at posterior
margin, broadest on the 6th segment, the seg-
ments plainly divided” (Banks, 1895). Cara-
pace 0.7 mm long, 0.5 mm wide across the
posterior margin; width of carapace at a level
between the eyes 0.85 mm; abdomen 1.85 mm
long, about 1.5 mm wide. Carapace and ter-
gites granular; intertergal spaces and pleural
membranes marked by wavy striations, pleural
membranes rugose.

Chelicera: Yellowish brown in color; base
stout; outer and dorsal surfaces granular; setae
including the flagellar ones so damaged that
observations could not be made. Fixed finger
short, terminally acute, lamina exterior ves-
tigial; movable finger short, stout, little curved,
apical tooth conical and short, galeae and
galeal setae broken from both chelicerae, ser-
rula exterior with probably about 17 plates
(condition of specimen precludes an exact
count); length of chelicera measured from base
to tip of movable finger 0.29 mm, width of base
0.14 mm; length of movable finger 0.105 mm.

Palpus: Slender ;surface granular and marked
by scalelike or netlike markings; setae evi-
dently lost through long preservation in alco-
hol; orange or dark brownish yellow in color.
Maxilla 0.49 mm long, 0.24 mm wide. Tro-
chanter stout; pedicle very narrow; basal mar-
gin of trochanter beyond the pedicle nearly
straight; flexor margin almost straight, ex-
tensor margin rounded; length of trochanter
including pedicle 0.32 mm, width 0.22 mm.
Femur subcylindrical; extensor margin flatly
convex; flexor margin weakly concave in the
basal portion, slightly convex near the distal
fourth, weakly concave beyond; pedicle no
longer than wide and fairly well set off from
rest of podomere; length 1.09 mm, width 0.201
mm. Tibia pedicellate, gradually increasing in
width toward the distal end; flexor margin
basally concave, then a little convex, then

HOFF: A STUDY OF SOME PSEUDOSCORPIONS

199

weakly concave or nearly straight beyond the
midpoint; extensor margin flatly convex;
length 0.53 mm, width 0.19 mm. Chela with
both flexor and extensor margins of the hand
flatly to weakly convex; pedicle displaced a
little towards the outer side; fingers very
slender, long, and straight; length of chela
without pedicle 1.82 mm, width 0.275 mm;
chelal hand without pedicle 0.51 mm long;
movable finger 0.8 mm long. Side view of chela
not obtained. Teeth spaced, not contiguous;
peglike, not conical; probably between 35 and
40 teeth on each chelal finger. Tactile seta of
movable finger difficult to observe with cer-
tainty in present material; t appears to be some-
what more than one-fifth of the finger length
from the tip, st is less than one-half as far from ¢
as the latter is from the finger tip and much
nearer to ¢ than to sb; sb near the midpoint of
the finger; 6 about as far from sb as st is from f.
On fixed finger, it is about one-fifth of the finger
length from the tip; et is twice as far from the
finger tip as from the level of 7; ast near the
midpoint of the finger, est very little distal to
ist; esb and eb about three areolar diameters
apart and with eb about one-fifth of the finger
length from the base; isb very little distal to
the level of esb and 2b very little distal to the
level of eb.

Legs: Granular, surface marked by netlike
lines; few remaining setae indicate that in-
vesting setae were short and acuminate, much
longer on the flexor surface of the tarsi than
elsewhere. First leg with each coxa displaying
five to seven spines in the triangular posterior
portion; coxa granular and marked as other
podomeres of leg; trochanter with a narrow
pedicle, rest of podomere globose, length 0.255
mm, depth 0.145 mm; pars basalis pedicellate,
flexor margin nearly straight, extensor margin
weakly concave, length 0.4 mm, depth 0.11
mm; pars tibialis with both margins weakly
convex, length 0.34 mm, depth 0.114 mm; tibia
markedly bent near the proximal one-third,
flexor margin convex and extensor margin
concave beyond the proximal one-third, length
0.32 mm, depth 0.084 mm; tarsus weakly
curved, extensor margin a little convex, flexor
margin a little concave, length 0.53 mm, depth
0.065 mm. Fourth leg with trochanter rela-
tively slender, fusiform, length 0.37 mm, depth
0.14 mm; pars basalis and pars tibialis with
much the same shape as in the first leg; pars

200

basalis 0.31 mm long, 0.1 mm deep; pars
tibialis 0.45 mm long, 0.12 mm deep; tibia very
slender, suddenly bent near the base, S-shaped,
length 0.57 mm, depth 0.08 mm; tarsus
markedly curved with the flexor margin evenly
concave, length 0.72 mm, depth 0.065 mm.

Genital complex: A group of four setae on
each lateral rim of the aperture; anterior
operculum with 25 setae arranged in a compact
group anterior to the aperture and, in addition,
a few setae scattered on the surface; posterior
operculum with nearly 25 setae in a compact
group just posterior to the aperture, few other
setae on the face of the operculum.

Female.—Not available for study.

Tritonymph.—Description based on one
mounted tritonymph. As noted by Banks
(1895) the general appearance of the trito-
nymph is not much different than that of the
adult. Body length 2.3 mm; carapace 0.57 mm
long, 0.5 mm wide; ocular breadth 0.33 mm;
abdomen 1.75 mm long, 1.45 mm wide.

Chelicera: Much as in the adult; flagellum
with two entire setae; plates of serrula ex-
terior not determined; length of chelicera 0.27
mm, width of base 0.13 mm, length of movable
finger 0.095 mm.

Palpus: General appearance, sculpturing,
and chaetotaxy as in the male; podomeres a
little stouter (except perhaps the chela) but of
same general shape except that the outer mar-
gin of the tibia is a little concave near the
center. Trochanter 0.28 mm long, 0.2 mm
wide; femur 0.9 mm long, 0.185 mm wide;
tibia 0.45 mm long; 0.175 mm wide, chela with-
out pedicle 1.13 mm long, 0.24 mm wide; hand
without pedicle 0.44 mm long, 0.225 mm deep;
movable finger 0.7 mm long. In side view, both
dorsal and ventral margins of the chelal hand
are nearly straight to very weakly convex;
fingers slender, the fixed nearly straight, the
movable gently curved. Marginal teeth of
chelal fingers peglike, not contiguous, much
as in the male lectotype; fixed finger with 36
teeth, movable finger with 30 teeth. Movable
finger with three tactile setae: t between one-
third and one-fourth of the finger length from
the tip, st within the distal one-half of the
finger and about two-thirds as far from ¢ as ¢
is from the finger tip; the third seta, probably
sb, located about one-third of the finger length
from the base; st appreciably closer to ¢ than to
sb. Fixed finger with et about one-seventh of

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VOL. 36, No. 6 |

the finger length from the tip; zt one-half as
far from et as the latter is from the finger tip;
est just proximal to the midpoint of the finger,
ist very little distal to est; esb about one-fourth
of the finger length from the base, eb about
three areolar diameters basal to esb; isb a
little basal to the level of esb, 7b wanting; near
the very tip of the fixed finger occur two setae,
each a little less well developed than the regular
tactile setae, these being suggestive of the pair
of setae (designated usually as xs) found near
the finger tip in certain groups of the Hetero-
sphyronida.

Legs: Chaetotaxy and sculpturing as in the
male; like the adult in general shape but a
little smaller in size and many podomeres a
little stouter. Coxa of each first leg with four
spines like those in the lectotype; first leg with
trochanter 0.21 mm long, 0.121 mm deep; pars
basalis 0.32 mm long, 0.097 mm deep; pars
tibialis 0.28 mm long, 0.095 mm deep; tibia
0.24 mm long, 0.075 mm deep; tarsus 0.43 mm
long, 0.06 mm deep. Fourth leg with tro-
chanter 0.34 mm long, 0.13 mm deep; pars ba-
salis with extensor margin very weakly con-
vex, length 0.24 mm, depth 0.099 mm; pars
tibialis 0.837 mm long, 0.117 mm deep; tibia
0.45 mm long, 0.076 mm deep; tarsus 0.59 mm
long, 0.063 mm deep.

Type locality —Label with collection reads:
“Specimen Ridge, Yellowstone Nat. Pk. Aug.
12, 1891. (In their cells moulting.) H. G. Hub-
bard. Type No. [U.S.N.M.] 4191.”

Superfamily CHELIFEROIDEA
Chamberlin, 1931

Family CHERNETIDAE Menge, 1855
Subfamily CHERNETINAE Beier, 1932
Tribe HESPEROCHERNETINI Beier, 1932

Dinocheirus arizonensis (Banks, 1901)
Beier, 1933

Chelanops arizonensis Banks, 1901, Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus. 23: 589, pl. 22, fig. 2; Chamberlin,
1923, Proc. California Acad. Sci. (ser. 4) 12:
379-380, pl. 3, figs. 8, 30.

Hesperochernes arizonensis Beier, 1930, Ann.
Naturh. Mus. Wien 44: 213-214, fig. 9.

Epaphochernes arizonensis Beier, 19382, Das Tier-
reich 58: 173-174, figs. 181, 182; Beier, 1933,
Zool. Jahr. (Syst.) 64: 537.

Dinocheirus arizonensis Beier, 1933, Zool. Anz.
104: 100; Chamberlin, 1934, Pan-Pacific Ent.
10: 128, figs. D, E, Q, T, U, Z; Roewer, 1937, in
Bronn’s Klass. und Ord. des Tierreichs 5 (div.
4, book 6): 302.

JUNE 15, 1946

The U. 8. National Museum cotype collec-
tion of this species contained three individuals.
On examination, two of these were found to
belong to “Chelifer’” hubbardt Banks, 1901, a
species that lives with D. arizonensis. The
single individual of D. arizonensis, a female,
has been indicated as the lectotype and is
briefly described below.

Male.—Not in cotype collection; previously
described by Chamberlin (19238b, 1934) and
Beier (1930).

Female.—Since the female lectotype agrees
well with the descriptions and figures given by
Chamberlin (1923b, 1934) and Beier (1930),
the present description is restricted chiefly to
measurements. Body 4.2 mm long; carapace
1.2 mm long, nearly 1 mm wide across the
posterior margin; eye spots very weak; 10
setae in an irregular row along the posterior
carapacal margin; posterior transverse furrow
a little closer to the posterior carapacal mar-
gin than to the median furrow. Abdomen with
tergites except the eleventh divided; medial
interscutal spaces wide and rugose; each first
tergal half with seven setae, maximum number
of setae on any half-tergite is nine; setae stout,
terminally denticulate, not clavate; tergal
scuta weakly granular. Sternites except the
eleventh divided; very weakly sculptured;
setae acuminate, long; each fourth sternal half
with five or six setae; maximum number of
setae on any one sternal half is 12; each an-
terior stigmatic plate with three setae, each
posterior plate with two; pleural membranes
marked by wavy, rugose striations.

Chelicera: Brown in color; fixed finger with
five retroconical denticles on the inner margin;
galea stout, probably six terminal and sub-
terminal simple rami in the distal two-thirds
of the galea; serrula exterior of 20 or 21 ligu-
late plates; length of chelicera measured from
the tip of the fixed finger to the basal margin
0.31 mm, width of base 0.2 mm; movable finger
nearly 0.25 mm long.

Palpus: Setae paucidenticulate to subacumi-
nate except acuminate on fingers and maxilla;
most setae relatively long. Trochanter 0.61
mm long, 0.37 mm wide; femur 0.96 mm long,
0.38 mm wide; tibia 0.96 mm long, 0.41 mm
wide; chela without pedicle 1.61 mm long,
0.65 mm wide; chelal hand without pedicle
0.85 mm long, 0.65 mm deep; movable finger
0.9 mm in length. Marginal teeth of chelal

HOFF: A STUDY OF SOME PSEUDOSCORPIONS

201

fingers small, conical, cuspid; more than 50
marginal teeth on each finger, extending al-
most the entire length of the finger; movable
finger with nine external and six internal acces-
sory teeth; fixed finger with seven external and
eight internal accessory teeth; accessory teeth
confined in general to the distal one-half of each
finger. Tactile setae of fingers as shown by
Chamberlin (1934, fig. Q), except ¢ and st of
the movable finger are removed a little farther
from the finger tip and on the fixed finger, ist
is considerably distal to est.

Legs: First leg with trochanter 0.25 mm
long, 0.2 mm deep; pars basalis 0.22 mm deep;
pars tibialis 0.182 mm deep; entire femur 0.72
mm long; tibia 0.56 mm long, 0.13 mm deep;
tarsus 0.51 mm long, 0.085 mm deep. Fourth
leg with trochanter 0.45 mm long, 0.228 mm
deep; pars basalis 0.37 mm long, 0.225 mm
deep; pars tibialis 0.69 mm long, 0.24 mm deep;
entire femur 0.96 mm long; tibia 0.81 mm long,
0.152 mm deep; tarsus 0.58 mm long, 0.105
mm deep, tactile seta 0.35 mm from the proxi-
mal margin of the tarsus.

Genital complex: Essentially as pictured by
Chamberlin (19238b, pl. 3, fig. 30).

Type locality —‘‘Oracle, Ariz.; July, 1898;
EK. A. Schwarz;in Dasylirion wheelert, U.S.N.M.
5431.”

Pseudozaona mirabilis (Banks, 1895),
n. comb.
Figs. 6-8
Chelifer mirabilis Banks, 1895, Journ. New York
Ent. Soc. 3: 4.
Chelodamus mirabilis R. V. Chamberlin, 1925,
Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 57: 237.
Parachelifer (?) mirabilis Beier, 1932, Das Tier-
reich 58: 241; Roewer, 1937, in Bronn’s Klass.
und Ord. des Tierreichs 5 (div. 4, book 6): 313.

The U. 8. National Museum collection con-
sists of two cotypes, one male and one female.
Both of these have been mounted on slides;
the male is designated as the lectotype.

Male.—Description based on the lectotype.
Body and carapace fairly stout; palps and legs
very slender; body, carapace, and legs light
yellowish brown, palps deep reddish brown;
length of body 2.8 mm. Carapace moderately
granular; anterior margin well rounded, other
margins weakly convex; setae fairly numerous,
multidenticulate, subclavate to virtually cla-
vate; posterior margin with a row of 13 setae;
transverse furrows well marked, the posterior

202

one much closer to the posterior carapacal
margin than to the median furrow; eye spots
not distinguished; length of carapace 0.96 mm,
width greatest across the posterior margin and
equal to 0.86 mm. Tergites of abdomen di-
vided except the eleventh; not very sclerotic;
weakly sculptured, the interscutal areas much
more granular than the scuta themselves; setae
subclavate to clavate, each fourth tergal half
with six or seven setae, maximum number on
any tergal half is seven. Sternites little sclero-
tic, very weakly sculptured; sternites 4 through
10 divided; setae acuminate; each fourth half-
sternite with three or four setae; some central
sternal halves with as many as 10 setae; each
anterior stigmatic plate with three setae, each
posterior plate with one; pleural membranes
striated, very rugose; abdomen oval in shape,
1.85 mm long, 1.35 mm wide.

Chelicera: Dark yellow in color; moderately
stout; subbasal seta very weakly denticulate,
basal seta entire; flagellum of four setae, of
which two are long, two are relatively short;
on one chelicera, one of the short setae is
broken while on the other chelicera, one of the
long setae is missing; length of chelicera about
0.31 mm, width of base 0.17 mm; length of
movable finger 0.255 mm. Fixed finger little
curved, in poor condition for study; apparently
five retroconical teeth on the inner margin of
the finger. Movable finger somewhat straight;
apical tooth unequally bicuspid; subapical lobe
conical and located at very base of apical tooth;
inner finger margin with one or two weak den-
ticles at the level of the insertion of the galeal
seta; serrula exterior apparently consisting of
about 19 plates; galeal seta extending little
beyond the tip of the galea; galea with six sim-
ple rami arranged along most of the length
of the galea.

Palpus: Surface of maxilla and trochanter
and the flexor surface of the femur and tibia
finely granular, granules on the extensor sur-
face of the femur hardly discernable, extensor
surface of the tibia and the entire chelal hand
and fingers virtually smooth; setae of maxilla
acuminate; setae otherwise subclavate to
clavate becoming paucidenticulate on the ex-
tensor side of the tibia and the chelal hand;
setae of chelal fingers acuminate. ‘‘Palpi slen-
der; trochanter pedicellate, tubercled above
near tip; femur slightly longer than cephalo-
thorax, gradually enlarged from base to near

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VOL. 36, NO. 6

tip, inner margin straight, outer slightly con-
vex; tibia three-fourths [sic!] as long, and
slightly broader than femur, quite long pedicel-
late, outer margin slightly and evenly convex;
inner margin convex at base, then nearly
straight; hand about as long as tibia, slightly
convex on outer margin, quite strongly and
evenly on the inner margin, tapering to the
fingers, which are about as long as the hand
and quite strongly curved” (Banks, 1895).
Measurements of palpal podomeres when seen
from the dorsad as follows: trochanter 0.56 mm
long, about 0.27 mm wide; femur 1.03 mm
long, 0.26 mm wide; tibia 0.98 mm long, 0.28
mm wide; chela without pedicle 1.58 mm long,
0.39 mm wide; chelal hand without pedicle
0.82 mm long, 0.37 mm deep; movable finger
of chela 0.86 mm long. From the side, chela is
slender; pedicle displaced far towards the ven-
tral margin of the hand; ventral margin of
hand evenly and weakly convex, dorsal margin
much more convex; fingers slender, the fixed
one nearly straight, movable finger a little
curved. Marginal teeth of chelal fingers small,
conical, contiguous, cusp-bearing; many mar-
ginal teeth so worn or broken that an accurate
count is difficult; probably 60 or more mar-
ginal teeth on each finger; apparently 10 ex-
ternal and two internal accessory teeth (some
may be broken) on the fixed finger; accessory
teeth of movable finger not accurately deter-
mined; all accessory teeth relatively weak.
Movable finger with tactile seta ¢ within the
distal one-third of the finger; sb about one-
fifth or a little less of the finger length from the
base; 6 midway between sb and the proximal
finger margin; st slightly proximal to the mid-
point of the finger and a little nearer ¢ than sb,
nodus ramosus at a point midway between ¢
and st. Fixed finger with et almost one-sixth of
the finger length from the tip; 7 a little closer
to et than the latter is to the finger tip; est
located a little proximal to the midpoint of the
finger, ist a little distal to the midpoint, est
and ist separated by a distance less than the
width of the finger at the level of ast; 2b and asb
about as far from the finger base as zt is from
the finger tip; esb a little proximal to the level
of ib, about one-fourth of the finger length
from the proximal finger margin; eb about four
areolar diameters basal to esb.

Legs: Very slender; not noticeably sculp-
tured; setae chiefly multidenticulate to sub-

JUNE 15, 1946

clavate except acuminate on the flexor surface
of the tarsi; tarsal claws simple. First leg
with trochanter 0.23 mm long, 0.153 mm deep;
pars basalis 0.17 mm deep; pars tibialis with
flexor margin nearly straight, extensor margin
a little convex, depth 0.133 mm; entire femur
0.67 mm long; tibia S-shaped, length 0.51 mm,
depth, 0.098 mm; tarsus deepest near the cen-
ter, extensor margin a little concave, flexor
margin a little convex, length 0.51 mm, depth
0.076 mm. Fourth leg with pars basalis 0.8 mm
long, 0.17 mm deep; pars tibialis with the two
margins almost parallel, slightly curved
throughout its length, 0.67 mm long, 0.17 mm
deep; entire femur almost 0.9 mm long; tibia
weakly S-shaped, very slender, 0.8 mm long,
0.11 mm deep; tarsus subcylindrical, a little
narrowed distally, length 0.57 mm, depth 0.084
mm.

Genital complex: About 15 setae on the sur-
face of the posterior operculum and four very
small setae on the posterior rim of the aper-
ture; anterior operculum with about 20 setae,
an accurate count impossible in lectotype.

Female.—Description based on a single co-
type. Essentially like the male; body length
3.6 mm. Carapace with 12 setae along the
posterior margin; length of carapace 0.96 mm,
greatest width across the posterior margin and
- equal to 0.97 mm. Tergites like those of the
male; maximum number of setae on any tergal
half is eight; sternites and stigmatic plates as
in the opposite sex; length of abdomen about
2.65 mm, width 1.9 mm.

Chelicera: Essentially like that of the male;
six well-developed but simple rami arranged
more or less unilaterally along the entire
length of the galea, the basal rami much longer
than the more distal ones; length of chelicera
about 0.32 mm, width of base 0.175 mm,
movable finger about 0.26 mm long.

Palpus: Chaetotaxy, sculpturing, and shape
of podomeres as in the lectotype. Measure-
ments of palpal podomeres as follows: maxilla
0.56 mm long, 0.87 mm wide; trochanter 0.59
mm in length, 0.8 mm in width; femur 1.11
mm long, 0.28 mm wide; tibia 1 mm long, 0.31
mm wide; chela without pedicle 1.65 mm in
length, width 0.425 mm; chelal hand without

pedicle 0.85 mm long, 0.415 mm deep; movable .

finger at least 0.85 mm in length. Chelal fingers
with marginal teeth much as in the lectotype;
accessory teeth somewhat more numerous than

HOFF: A STUDY OF SOME PSEUDOSCORPIONS

203

in the male, about 12 external and eight to 10
internal accessory teeth on each finger; all
teeth small, sometimes broken, and difficult to
count accurately. Movable finger with ¢ in the
distal one-third of the finger, sé near the finger
midpoint; sb about one-fourth of the finger
length from the base; b midway between sb and
the proximal finger margin. Fixed finger with
est and ist very near the midpoint of the finger,
the former slightly proximal to the latter; 7sb
and 2b on about the same level; other tactile
setae as in the male.

Legs: Shape of podomeres, chaetotaxy, and
sculpturing much as in the male. First leg with
trochanter 0.255 mm long, 0.17 mm deep; pars
basalis 0.187 mm deep; pars tibialis 0.145 mm
deep; entire femur 0.725 mm long; tibia 0.55
mm long, 0.11 mm deep; tarsus 0.51 mm in
length, about 0.08 mm in depth; tarsus with
both margins very weakly convex. Fourth leg
with trochanter 0.41 mm long, 0.2 mm deep;
pars basalis 0.342 mm in length, 0.175 mm in
depth; pars tibialis 0.72 mm long, 0.182 mm
deep; entire femur 0.98 mm long; tibia 0.85
mm in length, 0.125 mm in depth; tarsus 0.61
mm long, 0.091 mm deep.

Genital complex: Posterior operculum with
12 setae arranged in a marginal row; anterior
operculum with a single row of 11 setae an-
terior to a group of 15 setae scattered on the
face of the operculum.

Type locality —The label accompanying the
cotypes reads: ‘Indian Cave, Barren Co., Ky.
July 24, 1881. H. G. Hubbard. U.S.N.M.
4195.” Banks (1895) also reports the species
from a cave at Pennington Gap, Va., but the
specimens from this locality were not seen by
the present writer.

Remarks.——The present species shows close
relationship with the two other species of
Pseudozaona: P. communis Beier, 1932, the
genotype from Mexico, and P. wuniformis
(Banks, 1914) Hoff, in press, from Costa Rica.
From P. communis, P. mirabilis differs by hav-
ing a much smaller body; the palpal femur,
tibia, and movable chelal finger measure about
two-thirds of the length of the same structures
in P. communis, and the palpal femur and tibia
as well as the podomeres of the fourth leg are
more slender in P. mirabilis. Pseudozaona
mirabilis is little smaller than P. uniformis but
the palpal femur and tibia, as well as the fourth
leg, are much more slender.

204

Family CHELIFERIDAE Hagen, 1878
Subfamily CHELIFERINAE Simon, 1879
Tribe CHELIFERINI Chamberlin, 1932

Parachelifer hubbardi (Banks, 1901)
Chamberlin, 1932

Chelifer hubbardi Banks, 1901, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 23: 588-589, pl. 22, fig. 9; Chamberlin,
1923, Proc. California Acad. Sci. (ser. 4) 12:
3/4—375, pl. 2, fig. 10; pl. 3, fig. 33:

Parachelifer hubbardt Chamberlin, 1932, Can.
Ent. 64: 19; Beier, 1932, Das Tierreich 58: 240;
Roewer, 1937, 2n Bronn’s Klass. und Ord. des
Tierreichs 5 (div. 4, book 6): 313.

Two specimens, one male and one female, of
Parachelifer hubbardt were found in the type
collection of Dinochetrus arizonensis, these two
species having, according to Banks (1901), the
same type locality and occurring in the same
collection. While the present individuals may
be from the original type collection, they are
not labeled as types and therefore cannot be
considered as such. The male has been mounted
on a slide; the female was studied as an alco-
holic. While these individuals are available,
it seems advisable to give the following meas-
urements and observations to supplement
meager descriptions already existing in the
literature.

Male——Body 3.1 mm long; carapace 1.05
mm long, ocular breadth 0.51 mm; each seta
of the carapace inserted on the side of a con-
spicuous tubercle, 18 of these tubercles be-
tween the posterior transverse furrow and the
posterior carapacal margin and, in addition,
there is present a keel-like structure resembling
somewhat the lateral keels of the tergites and
located at each posterolateral corner of the
carapace; each of these structures bears two
setae. All tergites except the last two with
well-developed keels; tergites 1 through 4 not
divided; 14 to 16 clavate setae on the central
tergal halves; sternites 5 through 11 divided;
posterior stigmatic plate with one seta, an-
terior stigmatic plate asetaceous; pleural mem-
branes weakly and irregularly striate.

Chelicera: Fairly stout, dorsum of hand with
netlike markings; basal seta with a few ter-
minal and subterminal denticulations, sub-
basal seta with only one or two subterminal
denticulations; longest flagellar seta with a few
serrations along one edge; length of chelicera
nearly 0.28 mm, width of base 0.16 mm, mov-
able finger 0.19 mm long. Fixed finger with

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VOL. 36, No. 6

three strongly developed retroconical denticles
near the distal end of the inner margin. Moy-
able finger with moderately well-developed
subapical lobe; serrula exterior of 18 or 19
ligulate plates; galea with four simple rami
confined to the terminal one-half; galeal seta
extending a little distance beyond the tip of the
galea. ;

Palpus: Proximal podomeres moderately
granular, chelal hand finely granular, chelal
fingers almost smooth; setae short and multi-
denticulate to paucidenticulate, except acu-
minate on the chelal fingers; some setae on the
basal half of the femur inserted on tubercles
raised slightly above the general surface of
the podomere. Shape of palpal podomeres
much as shown by Chamberlin (1923b, pl. 2,
fig. 10) for a female paratype at the Museum
of Comparative Zoology. Palp of present speci-
men with measurements as follows: trochanter
0.57 mm long, 0.29 mm wide; femur 1.33 mm
long, 0.235 mm wide; tibia 1.21 mm long, 0.263
mm wide; chela without pedicle 1.74 mm long,
0.45 mm wide; chelal hand without pedicle 0.89
mm long, 0.4 mm deep; movable finger 0.91
mm long. Tactile setae of movable finger with st
a little proximal to the midpoint of the finger
and a very little closer to ¢ than to sb; sb just
within the basal one-fourth of the finger, 6 mia
way between sb and the proximal finger margin;
nodus ramosus about two areolar diameters
proximal to tactile seta ¢. Fixed finger with est
just proximal to the level of ast and both est
and ist a little proximal to the midpoint of the
finger; it midway between ist and the finger
tip; et on a level midway between i and the
finger tip; other setae near the base of the
finger; nodus ramosus about midway between
the levels of tactile setae at and ist.

Legs: Granular, becoming somewhat scale-
like in sculpturing on the tibia and the tarsus
of each leg; setae paucidenticulate becoming
acuminate on the flexor surface of the tarsus of
each leg; extensor surface of the pars tibialis
and trochanter of each leg with some setae in-
serted individually on tubercles, more con-
spicuous on the pars tibialis of the fourth leg
than elsewhere. First leg with measurements
as follows: depth of pars basalis 0.21 mm;
depth of pars tibialis 0.163 mm; entire femur
0.79 mm long; tibia 0.625 mm long, 0.185 mm
deep; tarsus 0.545 mm long, 0.115 mm deep,
the depth greatest across the distal end and

JUNE 15, 1946

measured only to the base of the tarsal spine,
not including the spine. Fourth leg with pars
basalis 0.32 mm long, 0.2 mm deep; pars tibi-
alis 0.93 mm long, 0.304 mm deep; entire
femur 1.1 mm long; tibia 0.92 mm long, 0.152
mm deep; tarsus 0.69 mm long, 0.11 mm deep.

Genital complex: Posterior operculum with
numerous (probably about 40) very fine setae
well scattered on the face of the operculum
and 10 setae on the very posterior rim of the
genital aperture; anterior operculum very seta-
ceous, bristly in general appearance.

Female.—In general like the male. Body 2.7
mm long; carapace 1.04 mm long, 1.12 mm
wide across the posterior margin; diameter just
behind the eyes 0.55 mm. Carapace tubercular
much as in the male; tergites without keels; all
tergites divided; about as many tergal setae as
in the male. As near as can be determined from
specimen in alcohol, the chelicera including the
galea resembles closely that of the male. Palps
shaped as in the male and like the one figured
by Chamberlin (1923b, pl. 2, fig. 10); palpal
podomeres slightly more slender than in the
male; trochanter 0.6 mm long, 0.31 mm wide;
femur 1.52 mm long, 0.25 mm wide; tibia 1.36
mm long, 0.285 mm wide; chela without pedi-
cle 1.88 mm long, 0.485 mm wide; hand with-
out pedicle 1.02 mm long; length of movable
chelal finger 0.975 mm. Legs much as in the
male; measurements not secured. Genital com-

plex very simple.

Locality —Oracle, Ariz., July 1898, in Dasy-
lirion wheelert.

Remarks.—A study of the present individuals
of P. hubbardi indicates the advisability of call-
ing attention to three particulars which per-
haps should be deleted from the revised diag-
nosis of the genus Parachelifer as given by
Beier (1932). At least one of our specimens dis-
agrees with Beier’s generic diagnosis as follows:

HOFF: A STUDY OF SOME PSEUDOSCORPIONS

205

The first four abdominal tergites are not always
divided, this being contrary to Beier’s state-
ment ‘‘Tergite geteilt’’; the tactile seta ist of
the fixed chelal finger may be distal to est and
not as Beier states: ‘‘Tasthaar ist etwas proxi-
mal von est gelegen”’; and the setae of the
palps are at the most subclavate and not as
Beier indicates: ‘‘Borsten des Korpers und der
Palpen kurz, gekeult.”’

LITERATURE CITED

Banks, NatHan. Notes on the Pseudoscor-
pionda. Journ. New York Ent. Soe.
3: 1-18. 1895.

Some spiders and other Arachnida
from southern Arizona. Proc. U. 8. Nat.
Mus. 23: 581-590. 1901.

Berer, Max. Die Pseudoskorpione des Wiener
naturhistorischen Museums. III. Ann.
Naturh. Mus. Wien 44: 199-222. 1930.

Pseudoscorpionidea. II. Subord. C.
Cheliferinea. Das Tierreich 58: i-xxi, 1-
294. 1932.

CHAMBERLIN, J.C. The genus Pseudogarypus
Ellingsen (Pseudoscorpionida—F eaellidae).
Ent. News 34: 146-149, 161-166. 1923a.

New and little known pseudoscor pions,

principally from the islands and adjacent

shores of the Gulf of California. Proc. Cali-

fornia Acad. Sci. (ser. 4) 12: 353-387.

1923b.

. The arachnid order Chelonethida.
Stanford Univ. Publ., Biol. Sci., 7 (1):
1-284. 1981.

. On two species of false scorpions col-
lected by birds 1n Montana, with notes on
the genus Dinochetrus. Pan-Pacific Ent.
10: 125=132. » 1934.

WiTu, C. J. Chelonethi. An account of the
Indian false-scorpions together with studies
on the anatomy and classification of the
order. Danske Vid. Selsk. Skrifter 7.
Rekke, naturvidensk. og mathem., 3:
1-214. 1906.

On some new species of Cheliferide,

Hans., and Garypide, Hans., in the British

Museum. Journ. Linn. Soc. London,

Zool., 30: 49-85. 1907.

206

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 6

ICHTHYOLOGY .—Distributional records for North American fishes, with nomen-

clatorial notes on the genus Psenes.!
seum.

In reducing the extensive backlog of un-
identified fishes in the U. 8. National Mu-
seum during the past year and a half, spe-
cies were found that ranged beyond the
published limits of their distribution, or,
constituting rare records, seemed worth
while for publication. The lst, including
fresh-water and marine species, treats the
fresh-water forms first, and both groups are
arranged in systematic sequence. Intro-
duced as well as endemic species are in-
cluded.

FRESH-WATER FISHES
CATOSTOMIDAE

Thoburnia rhothoeca (Thoburn)

This aberrant sucker was regarded by Hubbs
(1930, pp. 48-45) as confined to the James
River System, Virginia. Later Schultz (1939,
p. 55, fig. 56) recorded it from the headwaters
of the Mayo River, a tributary of the Roanoke
River, also in Virginia. On the basis of collec-
tions made in Virginia in the summer of 1885
by Marshall McDonald, later U. 8. Commis-
sioner of Fishes, the known range of Thoburnia
is now definitely extended to include the Kana-
wha and Potomac River drainages. Specimens
of T. rhothoeca had, however, previously been
assigned to the Kanawha (see Hubbs, 1930, p.
44) but the record was doubted by Hubbs who
failed to take the species in that system. Later
Hubbs and Raney (1944, p. 12) doubtfully in-
cluded it in the Kanawha Basin.

The data for the specimens from the Kana-
wha Basin are as follows: U.S.N.M. no. 39529,
3 adults from Wolf’s [=Wolf] Creek, Giles
County, Va., collected in the summer of 1885
by McDonald. Wolf Creek enters the New
River about 10 miles above the Virginia- West
Virginia boundary line.

The record for the Potomac drainage is
based on a_ single half-grown specimen
(U.S.N.M. no. 1382071) from War Branch,
tributary to Dry River, near Rawley Springs,
Rockingham County, Va., collected by

1 Published by permission of the Secretary,
Smithsonian Institution. Received February 15,
1946.

RoBERT R. Miuuer, U.S. National Mu-

McDonald in the summer of 1885; original
number 137. Dry River is a tributary of the
North Fork of the Shenandoah River. In addi-
tion to this definite record, there is a possibility
that 12 yearling to adult Thoburnia (U.S.N.M.
no. 181125) from ‘‘Waynesborough and vicin-
ity,”’ original number 20, collected by McDon-
ald in 1885, also represent material from the
Potomac drainage. Waynesboro is on the
South Fork of the Shenandoah River in
Augusta County, Va.

CYPRINIDAE
Agosia chrysogaster Girard

In the United States the genus Agosia (re-
stricted to Agosia chrysogaster Girard, thus far
the only known species of the genus) has not
been recorded north of the Gila River Basin of
southern Arizona, from which drainage it
ranges southward into Sonora, Mexico. Its
occurrence in Big Sandy River in Mohave
County, Ariz., a tributary of Williams River,
Colorado River Basin, is therefore of consider-
able interest. Fourteen young to small adults,
U.S.N.M. no. 131685, were collected by Frank
Stephens in Big Sandy Creek [=River] on
July 17, 1902. That ‘Big Sandy Creek”’ is the
same as what is now called Big Sandy River is
proved by Stephens’s account of his travels in
1902 (Condor 5: 75); for this reference I am
grateful to Lawrence M. Huey, of the Natural
History Museum, Balboa Park, San Diego,
Calif. Although the identification to genus
is without question (teeth 4—4; scale with radii
on all fields; maxillary with a barbel; anal
elongate, with 7 rays; mouth small, subtermi-
nal, nearly horizontal), the specific allocation
is uncertain, for the specimens are mostly
small and poorly preserved. Except for a few
channel forms and Plagopterus argentissumus
Cope, the fish fauna of the Gila River (includ-
ing the Colorado below the Gila) is remarkably
unlike that of the vast remainder of the
Colorado River Basin.

Hesperoleucus mitrulus Snyder

The most recent account of the distribution
of this species (Schultz and DeLacy, 1935,

JUNE 15, 1946 MILLER: DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR NORTH AMERICAN FISHES

p. 379) gave the range as streams tributary to
the north end of Goose Lake, Lake County,
Oreg. It has been known for several years, how-
ever, that mitrulus is one of the distinctive
elements of the upper Pit River fauna (Sacra-
mento System), to which Goose Lake was
tributary in historic times, for several collec-
tions of this species from the vicinity of Likely
and Alturas, Modoc County, Calif., are pre-
served at the University of Michigan. The
lowermost record in the Pit River for mitrulus
is based on two adults, U.S.N.M. no. 132089,
collected by the late J. O. Snyder in Big
Valley, just north of Bieber, Lassen County,
Calif. The small fins (dorsal 8, anal 7) and the
presence of radii on all fields of the scales have
been used to distinguish mitrulus, but similar
characters occur in some headwater popula-
tions of symmetricus on the west slope of the
Sierra Nevada and these two species may
eventually be found to intergrade.

Rhinichthys osculus (Girard)

Now that Apocope is relegated to the syn-
onymy of Rhinichthys (Hubbs, 1940, p. 200),
where Gilbert (1893, p. 229) properly placed it
years ago, the genus Rhinichthys comprises one
of the commonest elements of the western
fresh-water fish fauna. With few exceptions, the
western members have lately been regarded by
Hubbs and others as forming a widespread
species, 2. osculus. In examining the types of
Argyreus osculus (U.S.N.M. no. 50), I find
that in two of the three specimens there is a
definite, though weak, frenum; thus at least
five forms of R. osculus (subgenus A pocope)
are now known with this structure varyingly
developed (always strongly developed in the
subgenus Rhinichthys).

Although this species is known from streams
of the Pacific coast as far south as the Santa
Ana River drainage (Culver and Hubbs, 1917,
p. 83, as Agosia nubila carringtonit), it hereto-
fore has not been recorded from the Santa
Clara River Basin, just to the north. Neither
is it known to occur in the Ventura or Santa
Ynez Rivers, the next drainages northward,
but it has been taken recently (by R. G. and
R. R. Miller in 1940; material at the Univer-
sity of Michigan) in the Cuyama River Basin,
next to the north.

On October 14, 1945, 388 young to adult
(U.S.N.M. no. 1382342) were seined by R. G.

207

Miller and Larry Gianettoni, about 12 miles up
Elizabeth Lake Canyon from U. 8. Highway
99, and 144 young to adult (U.S.N.M. no.
132346) were collected in Castaic Creek,
53 miles up from the same highway; both lo-
calities are in Los Angeles County, north of
Saugus. The stream in Elizabeth Lake Canyon,
to which Castaic Creek is tributary, joins the
Santa Clara River during floods just below
Newhall Ranch, or about 4 miles upstream
from the Los Angeles-Ventura County line. In
addition, four adults were seined by the same
collectors in the Santa Clara River between
U. S. Highway 99 and the railroad bridge a
short distance upstream, Los Angeles County,
on October 21, 1945; U.S.N.M. no. 132851.
Despite the fact that the streams of the Santa
Clara River Basin have been collected rather
thoroughly in habitats that appear to be well
suited to Rhinichthys below the Los Angeles-
Ventura County line during the past decade,
and also in the main river from that point to
its source region, no Rhinichthys were found
heretofore. The possibility that the species was
introduced as bait by trout fishermen must
therefore be seriously considered. However, the
absence of this genus in previous collections
from the Santa Clara Basin is not logically ex-
plained, for the other two fresh-water fishes of
southern California, the sucker Pantoseus
santa-anae Snyder and the minnow Gila orcut-
tiv Kigenmann and Eigenmann, are abundant
there.
Chrosomus oreas Cope

Dr. Leonard P. Schultz has kindly called
my attention to what appears to be the first
collection of this species from the New River in
western Virginia. It is based on U.S.N.M. no.
107582, 12 specimens 36.5 to 54 mm. in stand-
ard length, collected by L. P. Schultz and E. D.
Reid on July 16, 1938, in Little River and
Sugar Run (tributaries to New River, Kan-
awha system) above Snowville, Pulaski
County, Va. Examination of preliminary
counts and measurements made by Dr. Schultz
on this material and three other collections in
the Roanoke River system (from which the
species was described) indicates that the New
River sample is very slightly finer-scaled.
Raney (in Hubbs and Raney, 1944, p. 12)
also took this species in the Kanawha system,
and it is known elsewhere from the headwaters
of the James and Roanoke Rivers, Va.

208

AMEIURIDAE
Ameiurus natalis (LeSueur)

In a recent account of exotic fishes in the
Pacific Northwest, Chapman (1942, pp. 12-13)
listed only Ameturus nebulosus and Ameturus
melas. A third introduced species, the yellow
bullhead or catfish, Ameturus natalis, is now
recorded for the first time from Oregon. The
record is based on an adult, U.S.N.M. no.
108817, from McBee Lake, Benton County,
collected by Stuart J. Couper. The letter by
Mr. Couper transmitting this specimen was
written on February 24, 1939, but no date of
collection was given. It agrees well with the
diagnosis of A. natalis by Hubbs and Lagler
(1941, p. 62) for it has 25 anal rays, a broadly
rounded caudal fin, and whitish mental barbels.
The yellow bullhead was not mentioned in the
papers covering Oregon fishes by Schultz and

DeLacy (1935), Schultz (1938), or Griffiths.

(1940).

MARINE FISHES
NOMEIDAE
Psenes regulus Poey

Since widespread distribution is character-
istic of oceanic fishes, it is therefore not sur-
prising that this species, previously known
north of the coasts of Cuba only by a single
record from off Beaufort, N. C. (Smith, 1907,
p. 223), is represented by four small to large
adults taken off North and South Carolina.
The data for these specimens, all collected by
the Albatross, is as follows: 2 small to large
adults, U.S.N.M. no. 132237, station 2603, lat.
34°38/30” N., long. 75°33/30” W., taken at the
surface approximately 55 miles east of Cape
Lookout, N. C., on October 18, 1885; 1 adult,
U.S.N.M. no. 131629, station 2626, lat.
32°27'30”" N., long. 77°20’30” W., collected ap-
proximately 155 miles east of Charleston,
S. C., on October 21, 1885; 1 adult, U.S.N.M.
no. 39329, station 2628, lat. 32°24’00” N., long.
76°55'30” W., collected about 175 miles east of
Charleston on the same date. U.S.N.M. no.
131629 was taken over a depth of 353 fathoms
and U.S.N.M. no. 39329 over a depth of 528
fathoms. The large beam trawl used by the
Albatross to collect these specimens had no
closing device and therefore fished from the
bottom to the surface. P. regulus is obviously

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

-

VOL. 36, NO. 6

not a deep-water fish and was evidently taken
by the trawl at or near the surface, as were the ~
two specimens represented by U.S.N.M. no.
132237.

In all four, the dorsal rays are XI, I, 15 and
the anal rays III, 15 and there are about 50 to
55 scales in the lateral line; the large round to
oblong dark spots, well portrayed by Goode
and Bean (1895, fig. 229), and the shape and
proportions of the body and its parts agree
very well with the original description of
regulus by Poey.

No one seems to have noticed that Goode
and Bean (1895, p. 221, fig. 229, pl. 63) re-
corded this species under the name P. macu-
latus, based on the third specimen listed above
(U.S.N.M. no. 39329). Not only was this fish
misidentified by them but also their records for
both P. pellucidus and P. ‘“‘maculatus”’ are con-
fused and erroneous. The specimen they credit
(in paragraph 3, p. 221) to the account of
pellucidus is actually the fish referred by them
to maculatus, for the longitude, latitude, and
depth are precisely as given for U.S.N.M. no.
39329, on which figure 229 was based (original
drawing in files of Division of Fishes). The
data given in paragraph 4, “N. lat. 27°49’,
W. long. 76°12’, over a depth of 633 fathoms,”’
obviously were meant to go with the account
of pellucidus and to apply to figure 228, not to
figure 229. In addition, however, these data are
almost surely erroneous, for figure 228 was
based on U.S.N.M. no. 35415, station 2171,
lat. 37°59’30” N., long. 73°48’40" W., collected
at the surface by the Albatross on July 20,
1884. Unfortunately, this specimen was dis-
carded some years ago, but the catalogue
book, the data on the original drawing, and
the index card all agree on this location and dis-
agree with the one given by Goode and Bean.

Psenes pellucidus Liitken

The type locality of this species seems to
have been generally overlooked or misinter-
preted.? It was described by Liitken (1880, p.
516, 1 fig.) from the Straits of Surabaja,
Java, hence in the Indo-Pacific (not the At-

2 Fowler (1936, p. 664, footnote) pointed out
the correct type locality under the account of P.
maculatus (note that his figure 298 is really of
P. regulus for it was based on figure 229 of Goode
and Bean).

JUNE 15, 1946 MILLER: DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR NORTH AMERICAN FISHES 209
TABLE 1.—VARIATION IN DorsaL FIN Rays 1N SPECIES OF PSENES!
Dorsal spines Dorsal soft rays
Species No.
EXE Te eee len | Nee ONS 22 23 eae ome On s2ie elon Oe OOn note oom too

MCW UCLOUS © os wk ee see's sans — — == 12 SB a es IP as so | ppt a By | c= S| PRR ee as 12 1
PDELUCLAUS Fy... = = = 14 — | — | — | — | — | — | — 1 Q°| °3 tee 14
CMIDATASID. 20252 oJ .¥eke 2 ses = = — 1 a a eS ee il
cyanophrys*..... Stee RO 4 2 — — — | | 1 1 3 [es | ee ee ee ee 6
MILE DCU SO Mees ieisteye cis «1°. (5 3 — — — =| — | = | ? 2 | ea a ie el ec 3
chapmant®, ............ —_— x — — Se RC eee Pe ee ee ee eee Se 7?
METIMECTLOUUS Nok. <r wvoeels caren: — — 2 == essai ca se Re | ca | Se I le ae 9

1 The dorsal fin formula for P. regulus Poey is XI, I, 15.

2 Liitken did not differentiate between spines and soft rays, merely stating that the first dorsal had 12 rays, the second dorsal
84; I assume the 12 rays are spines and that there is one spine in the second dorsal, leaving 33 soft rays. Regan (1902, p. 125)

wrote the formula as XI, I, 34.

3 American material, North Atlantic; perhaps distinct from true pellucidus (Indo-Pacific; see text).

4 Including count by Hubbs (1929, p. 36) of IX, I, 25.

5 Meek and Hildebrand (1925, p. 409) wrote that the soft dorsal rays of pacificus varied from 26 to 28. On reexamining the
three types (U.S.N.M. nos. 82196-97) I count 27 in two, but the rays are broken in the third specimen which may have had 26 or 28.
6 Fowler (1906, p. 119) did not indicate how many specimens were counted or what the individual frequencies were.

lantic).2 The American form, also pellucid,
which has been passing under the name pel-
lucidus, may really be distinct from the Indo-
Pacific species. If so, the name edwardsit may
be available for it, since it is doubtful if Eigen-
mann’s species is distinct from American
‘‘nellucidus’”’ (Tables 1 and 2). With the in-
sufficient material at my disposal (particularly
the lack of Indo-Pacific specimens) it is prob-
ably best to continue recognizing pellucidus
and edwardsit as currently understood. A revi-
sion of Psenes and its close allies is obviously
needed. The grouping shown in Tables 1 and
2 seems to give interesting leads toward such a
study.

The groups may be briefly and tentatively
characterized as: (1) pellucidus-group, with
an increased number of fin rays, very fine scales
(about 120-140), and -transparent body; (2)
cyanophrys—group, with an intermediate num-
ber of fin rays and large scales (about 50-65);
and (8) ‘‘maculatus’’-group, with few fin rays
and large scales (about as in cyanophrys—
group). Psenes regulus is so different in colora-
tion and fin-ray number that‘it is evidently not
very closely related to any of the above.

The records for P. “‘pellucidus,”’ all based on
collections taken by the Albatross, are as fol-
lows: U.S.N.M. no. 83793, 3 young to half-
grown, station 2711, lat. 38°59’00” N., long.

3I am greatly indebted to Dr. Adam Bgving,
associate in zoology, U. S. National Museum, for
translating Liitken’s account of P. pellucidus and
P. maculatus.

70°07'00” W., September 16, 1886, about 265
miles east of Cape May, N. J.; U.S.N.M. no.
83795, 1 young, station 2102, lat. 38°44’00” N..,
long. 72°38'00” W., November 5, 1883, about
125 miles east of Cape Henlopen, Del.;
U.S.N.M. no. 83794, 1 young, station 2742, lat.
37-4630" N., long. 73°56’30” W., September
17, 1887, about 85 miles east of the peninsula
of Maryland; U.S.N.M. no. 38172, 4 half-
grown, station 2724, lat. 36°47’00” N., long.
73°25'00” W.,October 23, 1886, about 150 miles
east of Cape Henry, Va.; U.S.N.M. no. 38192,
4 young to adult, station 2731, lat. 36°45’00”
N., long. 74°28’00” W., October 25, 1886, about
95 miles east of Cape Henry, Va., U.S.N.M.

TABLE 2.—VARIATION IN ANAL Rays IN SPECIES OF PSENEs!

Number of anal soft rays
Species No.
22/23 )/24/25|26)27/28)29/30/31/32

DAMES 5 65 ob6560640 | | | | | | Li 1
CAN COCMIS 356 Soca oo —|—|—|—/—|—_|_|_ 3} 7| 3] 1]| 14
COAVOTOS Uap ee ee —|—|—|—|——|—| 1] —|—|—]}_ 1
CYUQNOPRTYS®. 2 As os oss —|—|—|—] 4) 1) 1]—J——|— 6
DGCURCUS I.) ot onen ee ee —|—)|—|—| 1} 2;—— ——i—}}_ 3
CRAPMOANtdae ee —| X| X} Xj}—|/—) 25 |—|—|—|]} 7?
maculatus... eee: 2) 1———|—|—|—|—|— | }|_ 3

fin was preceded
In

1 In all material examined by me the anal
by three spines; this agrees with published accounts.
P. regulus the anal fin formula is III, 15.

2 Despite the fact that Liitken clearly indicated the anal fin
formula (3.31), this has been repeatedly written as III, 34.

3 American material, North Atlantic; perhaps distinct from
true pellucidus (Indo-Pacific; see text).

4 Including count by Hubbs (1929, p. 36), of III, 26.

5 Note that Fowler (1906, p. 121) in his description of chap-
mani wrote, ‘larger example with 28 rays.’’ I assume he was
speaking of anal rays.

210

no. 181524, 1 half-grown, station 2402, lat.
28°36'00" N., long. 85°33’30” W., March 14,
1885, in the Gulf of Mexico about 80 miles
south of Cape San Blas, Fla.

Psenes maculatus Litken

The common application of this name to the
Atlantic Psenes, which has few (usually 22
or 23) soft rays in both dorsal and anal fins,
must now be seriously questioned. Liitken
clearly indicated (1880, p. 519) that his species
(or at least the largest specimen he described)
has teeth on the palatine bones and at least
a single tooth on the vomer. According to cur-
rent ideas, the genus Psenes is distinguished
from Nomeus and Cubiceps by lacking teeth on
both the palatine bones and the vomer. Liitken
strongly suspected that his ‘“‘Psenes maculatus”’
was really the young stage of a Cubiceps, but
Collett (1896, p. 31) insisted that this inter-
pretation was wrong, although he seems to
have overlooked or ignored the palatine and
vomerine dentition. I have not observed pala-
tine (or vomerine) teeth in the few specimens
representing six or more species of Psenes I
have examined (Tables 1 and 2); neither have
I seen in Psenes a body form as slender as that
portrayed by Liitken (1880, pl. 5, fig. 2) for his
largest specimen (94 mm., total length). On the
basis of these data it seems highly improbable
that Liitken’s maculatus belongs to the genus
Psenes. Without a revisionary study and a
more thorough search of the literature than
I have made, I do not think it wise to sub-
stitute a new specific name for what has been
passing as Psenes maculatus. There is a good
chance that a name may already be available.
I therefore refer to the species in my tables as
“maculatus.”

The data for the National Museum material
of “maculatus” are as follows: 2 young (iden-
tity uncertain) and 1 adult, U.S.N.M. no.
83792, station 2711, lat. 38°59’00” N., long.
70°07'00” W., taken in the open Atlantic di-
rectly east of Cape May, N. J. and south of
Nantucket Island, Mass., by the Albatross on
September 16, 1886; 1 young, U.S.N.M. no.
131517, station 2223, lat. 37°48’30” N., long.

69°43'30” W., collected by the Albatross in the .

open Atlantic east of Delaware and south of
Nantucket Island, on September 7, 1884; and
1 young, U.S.N.M. no. 126652, from ‘‘sar-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO.6

gasso weed’’ in the open Atlantic east of the
West Indies, lat. 21° N., long. 51° W., collected
by Dr. C. C. Craft on the yacht Carnegie.

Psenes cyanophrys Cuvier and
Valenciennes

Hubbs (1929, pp. 34-86) added this species
to the known fauna of continental United
States, but I am not aware of any other pub-
lished records of P. cyanophrys from our
North Atlantic coast. The following northern-
most American record of this species is there-
fore of interest: 1 large adult (117 mm.,

_ standard length), U.S.N.M. no. 64120, seined

at No Man’s Land, an island just south of the
western tip of Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., by
Vinal N. Edwards in 1904. The distinctive
coloration of cyanophrys—longitudinal, lighter
streaks between the scale rows following the
outline of the gently arched lateral line above
but running horizontally below the lateral
line—is well developed in this specimen, and it
agrees well in other characters with current
definitions of cyanophrys.

GADIDAE
Urophycis chesteri (Goode and Bean)

Until recently this deep-water species has
been regarded as ranging from the Gulf of
St. Lawrence southward to off Cape Lookout,
N. C. Dr. William H. Longley listed 29 speci-
mens from Tortugas, Fla. (in Longley and
Hildebrand, 1941, p. 38), but these specimens
have not been found, and hence their identity
can not now be verified.

The southernmost record based on material
available for examination appears to be an
adult (U.S.N.M. no. 132240) 207 mm. in
standard length, collected by the Albatross
at station’ 2674, ‘lat’ 32732 007 Ne esians.
77°17'00” W., in the open Atlantic approxi-
mately 165 miles east of Charleston, S. C.,
over a depth of 316 fathoms, on May 6, 1886.
The specimen shows the characteristics of this
species: a much-prolonged third dorsal fila-
ment, the depressed length of which (measured
from origin of first dorsal) enters about 2.2
times in. the standard length; very elongated
pelvic fins, the length of the right fin entering
the standard length 1.6 times; and approxi-
mately 90 scales crossing the lateral line, but
as all the scales are rubbed off an accurate

JUNE 15, 1946 MILLER: DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR NORTH AMERICAN FISHES

count is not possible. There are about 14 or 15
gill rakers, and the short chin barbel enters
about 24 times in the length of the orbit. The
fin rays are: Dorsal 9+59, Anal 50 or 51.

Urophycis regius (Walbaum)

The spotted ling, Urophycis regius, has until
lately been known to occur from Nova Scotia
to South Carolina (Hildebrand and Cable,
1938, p. 612). However, Dr. W. H. Longley se-
cured 19 specimens in 60 to 283 fathoms off
Tortugas, Fla. (Longley and Hildebrand, 1941,
pp. 37-38). None of these specimens have been
found, but the occurrence of U. regius as far
south as Florida is now fully substantiated by
specimens in the U. 8. National Museum. The
southern records comprise the following: 1,
U.S.N.M. no. 89528, from Savannah Harbor,
Ga., collected by Ivan R. Tomkins on Febru-
ary 22, 1930; 2, U.S.N.M. no. 89690, same place
and collector, June 1930; 1, U.S.N.M. no.
59028, from Tybee Roads, near Savannah,
Ga., collected by the Fish Hawk in 1891;
3, U.S.N.M. no. 91438, 16 miles off Sapelo
Island lighthouse, about 40 miles south of
Savannah, Ga., collected by the Fish Hawk,
station 8259, on May 3, 1915; 3, U.S.N.M. no.
131251, } mile off Sea Island, near Brunswick,
Ga., taken by Raymond E. and Bette Johnson
in a shrimp trawl, at 2 to 4 meters depth, on
March 17, 1945; 28, U.S.N.M. no. 127461, St.
Simon Sound, near Brunswick, Ga., collected
by W. W. Anderson on November 21, 1930;
2, U.S.N.M. no. 116725, off Fernandina, Fla.,
on shrimp grounds, taken by DeSmidt on
November 8, 1918 (in very poor condition;
identification not positive); 1, U.S.N.M. no.
73012, in Gulf Stream off Cape Florida, Fla.,
4 miles northeast by east of Fowey Rock
Light, over a depth of 156 fathoms, Fish Hawk
station 7518, March 30, 1903; 1, U.S.N.M. no.
73011, Gulf Stream off Key West, Fla., Station
@219, lat. 24°21'55" N., long. 81°58'25” W.,
over a depth of 98 fathoms, collected by the
Fish Hawk on February 14, 1902.

In the short chin barbel (as short as or
shorter than pupil), head not notably de-
pressed (depth about equal to width), moder-
ate scales (less than 100), few rays in first dor-
sal (usually 8 or 9), and in coloration, these
specimens agree very well with the diagnosis
by Hildebrand and Cable (1938, p. 613).

211

Urophycis floridanus (Bean and Dresel)

The known range of the Florida ling, Uro-
phycts floridanus, was given by Hildebrand and
Cable (1938, p. 612) as Beaufort, N. C., to
Pensacola, Fla. (the type locality). It is not
surprising that this range is now extended to
Galveston, Tex., on the basis of the following:
1, U.S.N.M. no. 131191, one mile south of
Timbalier Island (south of New Orleans), La.,
taken in a shrimp trawl at a depth of 5 fathoms
by Horace L. Whitten, February 5, 1945; 2,
U.S.N.M. no. 120087, from Galveston, Tex.,
taken in a shrimp trawl by J. L. Baughman
(specimens received from shrimp fishermen). in
1941.

These specimens are in complete agreement
with the diagnostic characters of this species
as cited by Hildebrand and Cable (1938, p.
613): Chin barbel always longer than pupil;
scales in 110 to 130 oblique series above lateral
line; dorsal 12 or 13-++54 to 59; anal rays 40 to
49; lateral line in a black streak interrupted
by pale spots; first dorsal dusky or black (es-
pecially distally), but not margined with
white as in regius.

SCOPHTHALMIDAE?

According to Norman (1934, p. 270) South
Carolina is the southern limit of the known
range of the windowpane, Scophthalmus aquo-
sus (Mitchill), long known under the name
Lophopsetta maculata. The following lots of this
easily recognized species are from Georgia:
2, U.S.N.M. no. 131253, taken in a shrimp
trawl at 2 to 4 meters 4 mile off Sea Island,
near Brunswick, by Raymond E. and Bette
Johnson on March 17, 1945; 2, U.S.N.M. no.
119251, collected in St. Simon Sound, near
Brunswick, on October 12, 1930; and 2,
U.S.N.M. no. 127496, taken at Brunswick in
1930. The tast two collections were made by
W. W. Anderson.

LITERATURE CITED

CHAPMAN, WILBERT McLeEop. Alten fishes in
the waters of the Pacific Northwest. Cali-
fornia Fish and Game 28 (1): 9-15. 1942.

CoLueTT, Rosert. Poissons provenant des
campagnes du yacht L’Hirondelle (1885—

41 follow Hubbs and Hubbs (1945, pp. 244,
248) and Hubbs (1945, pp. 7-8, fig. 1) in giving
this group of North Atlantic flatfishes family
ranking.

212

1888). Res. Camp. Sci. Monaco 10: i-
viii, 1-198, pls. 1-6. 1896.

Cutver, Georce B., and Husss, Cart L.
The fishes of the Santa Ana system of
streams in southern California. Lorquinia
Ll 482-83. LOLs.

Fow ter, Henry W. New, rare or little known
scombroids, No. 8. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philadelphia 1906: 114-122, figs. 1-3.
1906.
. The marine fishes of West Africa. Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 70 (pt. 2): 607—
1493, figs. 276-567. 1936.

GiuBpert, CHartes H. Report on the fishes of
the Death Valley expedition collected in
southern California and Nevada in 1891,
with descriptions of new species. North
Amer. Fauna, no. 7: 229-234, pls. 5-6.
1893.

GoopE, Grorce Brown, and Brean, TaRLe-
ton H. Oceanic ichthyology. U.S. Nat.
Mus. Spec. Bull.: i-xxxv, 1-553, pls. 1-
1235-1895.

Grirrirus, Francis P. Considerations of the
introduction and distribution of exotic fishes
in Oregon. Trans. Amer. Fish Soc. 69
(1939): 240-243. 1940.

HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F., and CABLE, Lov-
ELLA EK. Further notes on the development
and life history of some teleosts at Beaufort,

N.C. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 48: 505-642,
figs. 1-159. 1938.
Husss, Cart L. Psenes cyanophrys, an

oceanic fish, new for the fauna of the U.S.
Copeia, no. 171: 34-36. 1929.

. Materials for a revision of the catostomid
fishes of eastern North America. Univ.
Michigan Mus. Zool. Misc. Publ. no. 20:
1-47, 1 pl. 1980.

. Speciation of fishes.
198-211. 1940.

. Phylogenetic position of the Citharidae,
a family of flatfishes. Univ. Michigan
Mus. Zool. Mise. Publ. no. 63: i-38, fig. 1.
1945.

and Husss, Laura C. Bilateral sym-
metry and bilateral variation im fishes.

Amer. Nat. 74:

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 6 _
Papers Michigan Acad. Sci., Arts, and

Letters 30 (1944) : 229-310, pl. 1, figs. 1-2.

1945.

and Lacier, Karu F. Guide to the

fishes of the Great Lakes and tributary

waters. Cranbrook Inst. Sci. Bull. 18:

1-100, figs. 1-118. 1941.

and Raney, Epwarp C. Systematic
notes on North American siluroid fishes of —
the genus Schilbeodes. Occ. Pap. Mus.
Zool. Univ. Michigan, no. 487: 1-36, pl. 1,
mapl. 1944.

LoneLey, Wituiam H., and HIiILpEBRAND,
SAMUEL F. Systematic catalogue of the
fishes of Tortugas, Florida. Carnegie
Inst. Washington Publ. 535: i-xiii, 1-331,
pls. 1-34. 1941.

LUTKEN, Cur. Spolia Atlantica. Dansk.
Vid. Selsk. Skrift. Kjgbenhavn, ser. 5, 12:
409-613, 18 figs., pls. 1-5. 1880.

Meek, Seru E., and HitpEBRAND, SAMUEL F.
The marine fishes of Panama. Part II.
Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., no. 226, zool.
ser. 15: xv—xix, 331-707, pls. 25-71. 1925.

Norman, J. R. A systematic monograph of the
flatfishes (Heterosomata) 1 (Psettodidae,
Bothidae, Pleuronectidae): i—viii, 1-459,
figs. 1-817. 1934.

Reean, C. Tate. A revision of the fishes of the -
family Stromateidae. Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 7, 10: 115-131, 194-206. 1902.

Scuuttz, Leonarp P. Keys to the fishes of
Washington, Oregon and closely adjoining
regions. Univ. Washington Publ. Biol.
2 (4): 103-228. December 1936; second
printing March 1938.

. The fresh-water fishes of Virginia. Ex-

plorations and field-work of the Smith-

sonian Institution in 1988: 55-58, figs. 53—

57. 1939.

and DrLacy, AtLaAn C. Fishes of the
American Northwest. Journ. Pan-Pace.
Res. Inst. 10 (4): 865-380. 1935.

SmirH, HucH McCormick. The fishes of
North Carolina. North Carolina Geol.
and Econ. Surv. 2: i-xi, 1-458, figs. 1-188,
pls. 1-21. 1907.

BIOPHYSICS. —Nouvelles poohcnahes gelecives ‘aux propr
- tiques de l’os: La biréfringence de l’os minéralisé;
— les fractions onengues et a de Vos.
MAGNE et J. MBION. 1. cette eee eee

with aannolianel notes on oe genus ‘Psenes.
Mae

as
it

Be This Journal fendered in the International Index fo Peso . licals a

VoL. 36 JuLy 15, 1946 No. 7

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JOURNAL

OF THE

VOLUME 36

Jury 15, 1946

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

No. 7

ETHNOLOGY .—The Cherokee Green Corn Medicine and the Green Corn Festival.'

JoHN WirrHort, University of Pennsylvania.

FENTON.)

The Cherokee in former times celebrated
a major harvest festival, primarily con-
cerned with the ripening corn. This was the
New Corn Festival, held in August when
the green corn first became fit to eat. It

marked the beginning of the winter half of

the year. This festival appears to have been
similar to the Green Corn Festival or Busk
of the Creek Indians, of which we have
much more reliable and complete accounts,
but the Cherokee data are sparse, and there
are few characteristics by which we can
distinguish the Green Corn Festival of the
Cherokee from that of the Creek.?

Among the Cherokee of Qualla Reserve,
North Carolina, the Green Corn Festival

1 This study was made possible by a grant-in-

aid, for field work among the Eastern Cherokee,
from the Department of Anthropology Research

Funds of 1944 and 1945 of the University of

Pennsylvania. Received February 7, 1946.

* The only original accounts of the Cherokee
Green Corn Festival with which I am familiar are:
The unpublished description by John Howard
Payne, written in 1836, included in the Payne
Manuscripts in the Ayer Collection, Newberry
Library, Chicago, and described by Dr. William
H. Gilbert (The Eastern Cherokee. Bur. Amer.
Ethnol. Bull. 133: 388-401. 1943); and the ac-
count dictated by Charles Hicks, which is pre-
sented later in this paper. A comparative study
of the Green Corn and harvest festivals of the
Southeastern Indians, now being carried on by
the author, may result in a better understanding
of the nature and function of these ceremonies,
but until such an investigation has progressed
further, we must leave the comparison in this
incomplete state.

I have in this paper attempted to restrict the
term ‘Green Corn Festival’ to the old periodic
green-corn observance and ‘‘Green Corn Feast’’
to the modern curing ceremony, and ‘“‘Green Corn
Medicine”’ to the herb tea now used by itself and
formerly employed as a feature of the Green Corn
Festival.

213

(Communicated by W. N.

seems to have been the last important major
ceremony to survive. Mooney, in 1914,
states that he saw the last Green Corn
Dance performed there in 1887 and men-
tions that he had seen the performance of a
related festival as late as 1914. This account
follows.

By special permission of some of the Indian
priests Mr. Mooney was able to be present for the
second time at the family ceremony of invoking
the blessing upon the new corn and on those about
to partake of it for the first time. This ceremony,
probably never witnessed by another white man,
is still strictly observed in private at their homes
by most of the full-blood families before tasting
the new corn of the season, the priests who con-
duct the rite going, while yet fasting, from house
to house through the settlement for that purpose.
The so-called Green Corn Dance, the great tribal
celebration of thanksgiving for the new corn, was
last performed in 1887, on which occasion Mr.
Mooney was also present.’

Opportunity was also afforded for special stud-
ies and observations, particularly of the cere-
monial ‘‘going to water,’’ and augury with the
beads to forecast the health prospect and life-
span of each member of the family, before par-
taking of the first corn of the new crop.*

Dr. F. G. Speck, during the course of his
extensive study of surviving Cherokee
dances, found the opportunity to observe
and describe a third Green Corn Ceremony
still in existence in the Big Cove Com-
munity of Qualla Reserve.® This ceremony,

3 Hxplorations and field work of the Smithsonian
Institution for 1914. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 65
(6): 72-73.

4 Hxplorations and field work of the Smithsonian
Institution for 1913. Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 63
(8): 64.

> Speck, F. G., Manuscript on Hastern Cherokee
songs and dances.

JL AS 46

214

however, is not held at any fixed time and

seems to have lost all connection with the
cycle of the agricultural year. It is per-
formed for curative purposes at whatever
time it may be needed by persons suffering
from specified ailments and is accompanied
by a feast provided by the patients and
their families. Apparently one sequence of
the old agricultural festival has continued
its existence after the passing of the Green
Corn Festival and has come into new asso-
ciations, perhaps long before the major,
fixed ceremony had been discontinued.

Will West Long, of Big Cove, dance leader
and authority on Cherokee tradition, is
familiar with the current Green Corn Feast,
and he functions as a leader on occasions
when its performance is required. He has
not seen the periodic Green Corn Festival.
However, drawing on information which he
received from his mother, and from his older
brother, he was able to supply some infor-
mation about this extinct ceremonial com-
plex.

Will West Long’s information reveals
that this Green Corn Festival was held the
night before the first corn was to be eaten.
A medicine was first prepared, and an
emetic was drunk by everyone present, fol-
lowed by “going to water.’’® Then the medi-
cine was administered to all who were pres-
ent at the ceremony. A formula may have
accompanied the going to water,’ but no
formula was required as an accompaniment
to the medicine that followed.’ Then a
series of ‘animal’? and social dances fol-
lowed, lasting all night. This dance series

6 The “going to water’ ordeal is an important
item in Cherokee ritual. The purifying nature of
the river was resorted to as a cleansing and pro-
tective symbol at almost any crisis in the life of
the Cherokee individual or community. This
formalized ceremonial bathing in the water of the
river became an integral portion of many cere-
monial and curative procedures.

For a fuller account of this significant phase of
Cherokee tradition see: Moonry, JAmMEs, The
Cherokee river cult. Jour. Amer. Folklore 13: 1-10.
1900; Moonry, JAMES, and OLBRECHTs, FRANz,
The Swimmer manuscript. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.
Bull., 99: 22-23. 1932.

7MoonEy and OLBREcHTS, The Swimmer
manuscript: 232-234, give a formula like those
used in this connection and, 289-291, a formula
used when “going to water’? on the following
morning.

8 Cherokee

medicinal practice and certain

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 7

seems to have been the same as that found
in the Green Corn Feast used for curative
purposes as described by Dr. Speck.

In the morning the conjuror who served
as dance leader took all the people “to
water” again and then examined each person
with the beads and cloth to see whether
they would live until the next year’s Green
Corn Festival. In this form of divination
the conjuror places two beads (glass beads
were used in recent times, but these are
said to have replaced certain seeds that the
Cherokee formerly obtained at a distance),
one black and one red or white, on a piece
of white cloth, the red (or white) bead to
the conjuror’s right. The cloth is provided
by the person being examined and is given
to the conjuror as a token payment. The
conjuror then speaks to the beads after a
fixed formula, asking first the red bead if
the person is to live until the next year and
then asking the black bead the same ques-
tion. If the red bead moves by itself, the
person is expected to survive the year, and
if the black bead moves, the patient will not
live the year out.®

In case the divination indicated that
someone would not live that long, a similar
Green Corn Feast was held at night. Dances

phases of Cherokee ritual depended in part on
traditional spoken charms, called prayers and
formulas by the Cherokee. These are memorized,
must be spoken very exactly, and are the prop-
erty of a semiprofessional “‘conjuror’’ class. These
formulas have been written in the syllabary in-
vented by Sequoya about 1820, and some are no
longer understandable because of the archaic
forms preserved in them. It is probably the ritual
language of these formulas to which Hicks refers
as a forgotten language in the account previously
quoted.

For a thorough study of Cherokee formulas and
their functions, see: Mooney and OLBRECHTS,
The Swimmer manuscript.

9 Divination seems to have been an im portant
feature in Cherokee culture; it may even once
have constituted a distinct profession. The ob-
servation of the motion of suspended magical
stones and, more important, of beads laid on cloth
or held between thumb and forefinger was re-
sorted to in the foretelling of death, the diagnosis
of disease, the finding of lost and stolen objects,
and the discovery of the identity of a witch or
conjuror responsible for magically caused disease,
to mention but a few of the more important uses
of these divination devices. Different formalized
procedures were resorted to for different purposes,
and in some cases even bits of roots or twigs were
employed instead of beads.

JuLy 15, 1946

were held and no person was allowed to
sleep. The proper formulas were recited
by the conjuror, and further divination by
the beads was tried, until it was found that
the person would live. Then that person’s
life was believed to be secure until the next
year. |

Will West Long’s brother, who died in
1904, was a leader at these ceremonies.
Once when he examined a girl with the
beads under such circumstances, he found
that she would not live until the following
summer. He attempted to arrange the feast
to prolong her life until the next year, but
her family would not cooperate by provid-
ing a feast and helping with the ceremony.
Therefore it could not be held, and the girl
did die the following winter.

It is probably this secondary phase of the
ceremony that has survived as a curative
feature in association with certain forms of
diagnoses and therapy. When we consider
that, among the central features of the
Green Corn Festivals of the Cherokee and
Creek as recorded by the earlier observers,
the expiation of crime and the beginning
anew of all phases of tribal life attracted
much attention, the curative features of
these ceremonies may also have been of
great significance in aboriginal times.

One early account of the Cherokee Green
Corn Festival is contained in an article
dictated by Charles Hicks, second chief of
the Cherokee Nation,!° in 1818 and printed
in the Raleigh Register :"

Before eating the green corn when in the milk,
the people collect in the different towns and vil-
lages at night, and when the
stood in Mr. Hicks’ original’’) comes, the con-
juror takes some of the grains of seven ears of
corn and feeds the fire, i.e. burns them. After
this each family is allowed to cook and eat their
roasting-ears, but not before they drink a tea of
wild horehound. In like manner they observe the
same custom before eating the bean when it fills in
the hull.

10 DRAKE, SAMUEL, Book of the Indians, ed. 8,
4: 55. Boston, 1841.

11 Hicks’s account is taken from a clipping pre-
served in the Bureau of American Ethnology
Serapbook 1: 354, entitled Manner, customs, etc.,
of the Cherokee Indians. Some of this account will
also appear in the manuscript by Dr. F. G. Speck
previously referred to, and I am indebted to him
for the use of his copy of the Hicks article.

WITTHOFT: CHEROKEE GREEN CORN FESTIVAL

(“not under- -

215

The green corn dance, so called, has been highly
esteemed formerly. This is held when the corn is
getting hard, and last four days, and when the
national council sits—a quantity of venison being
procured to supply the dance. It is said that a
person was formerly chosen to speak to the people
on each day in a language that is partly lost—at
least there is very little of it known now. At
such times as the above, a piece of land is laid
off and persons appointed to occupy it—no others
being allowed to use it while the feast continues.

At present, besides the curative Green
Corn Feast, which is performed when re-
quired, the Cherokee have also preserved
one other fragment of extreme importance.
This is the Green Corn Medicine, called
both selu’ djuwa‘nige’i da‘nisdi’gisga’n‘t
(“corn soft, for they are eating’’) and se‘lu’
it‘sehi‘danisdi’gisge@’ni (“corn, new or
ereen, for they are eating’’). Mooney’s data
on the 1913 observance, already quoted,
would indicate that other features had sur- ©
vived as a part of the family ceremony until
at least that date.

This Green Corn Medicine, according to
tradition, was a feature of the Green Corn
Festival, and is probably represented in
Hicks’s account by the reference to “wild
horehound.” It is now no longer preceded
by a purge, however, and is made and ad-
ministered by the head of each household
to his family; it is an individual, not a com-
munity, function, and is performed when-
ever the family’s green corn is ready to eat.
According to Mollie Sequoyah, of the Big
Cove, it is intended to prevent colic caused
by eating corn, the primary food resource
of the Cherokee, and one which is much rel-

ished. The people have been unaccustomed

to eating green corn since the previous year,
and its latency for harm or benefit is be-
lieved to be strong. Children especially re-
quire prophylactic treatment to avert sick-
ness resulting from the first seasonal use of
corn. Will West Long states that it is in-
tended to prevent the increase of stomach
and intestinal worms, which otherwise
would flourish on this choice food and do
great damage to the person so rash as to
eat of it without the medicinal preparative.
None of the really conservative Indians of
the Big Cove settlement would even taste
green corn if they had not previously par-
taken of the medicine. I have seen Will look

216

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 7

PiLants UsED IN GREEN CorN MEDICINE

Translation
‘“Resembling corn’”’

Indian name
selu‘kwo-'ya’”

“Sticks on you, lke’’
“Itself splitting or
growing leaves”’

toleti yusti’
awosa: ulhsi’ yenehi’

unighis‘o gohast‘1’
walelu’ unig‘ legisti’ ‘Hummingbird, taking
sap out of flower’’
gelutna’

wat‘ska’
ugwas‘ta’ luy*da’
unisteleve sti’?
nistele’histi’

“Sticking on”’
“Sticking out”

wistfully at “roasting ears” on the table of
a neighbor with whom he was dining but
refuse the corn because his was not ready
yet and he had not taken the medicine.
Under similar circumstances, Mollie de-
cided that she could eat the corn only be-
cause it was not a variety grown by the
Indians, but ‘‘white man’s corn,” and so
did not require this preventative measure.

The medicine itself is made up, we know,
of the leaves of at least four different plants
and sometimes of more. Apparently the
recipe varies somewhat from family to

22 This name is used for both of the plants here
listed, and either may be used in this medicine.

18 According to Will West Long, the roots and
leaves of the Yucca are also soaked in warm water
and the potion drunk as a medicine for “sugar
diabetes.”’

14 This is merely corn that has seeded itself in a
pasture or fallow field.

15 Leaves and flowers of this plant are also used,
according to Mollie Sequoyah, as one ingredient
in a tea that is given to a woman in childbirth to
“make the child come quickly’’; it is so used be-
cause of the explosive way in which the seeds fly
out of their pods.

16 According to Mollie Sequoyah, gourd seeds
are mashed and soaked in hot water, and the po-
tion is drunk to cure inability to urinate. This is
probably related to the white peoples’ use of
pumpkin seed for the same purpose. (See LEVINE,
Haroup D., Folk medicine in New Hampshire.
Reprint from New England Journ. Med. 224: 487—
492: 11, 14. 1941.)

17 This name is the general Cherokee term for
bur-bearing plants, but the plant specimen was
collected with the informant (as also in other
cases). This plant is used as one ingredient in
several compound medicines recorded by Moonry
aud OLBREcHTS, The Swimmer manuscript: 119,
174.

Jewelweed

Latin name
Apropyron caninum
R. & S.
Yucca filamentosa L.*
Amaranthus spinosus L.
Zea mays L.

English name
Bearded wheat grass lin)s
Adam’s-needle
Spiny amaranth
Volunteer corn™
Wild lettuce Lactuca canadensis L.
Impatens biflora Walt.

Gourd!6
Green amaranth

Cucurbita lagenaria L.
Amaranthus retroflexus L.

Ragweed Ambrosia trifida L.
Wild comfrey Cynoglossum virginianum L.
Ragweed Ambrosia elatior L.

family, but I do not have sufficient data to
indicate how great the differences may be.
These leaves are crushed in the hands and
pounded together in the mortar used to
crush corn into meal and are then steeped
in warm water and the solution drunk by
all the members of the family. Then they
are free to eat the unripe corn for the re-
mainder of the season.

Herewith is a list of the plant ingredients
used by Will West Long. The use of the
first three plants is obligatory, and any one
of the remainder may be used as the fourth
ingredient, the others being added if avail-
able. Will West Long explains that these
plants are all rampant cornfield weeds and
are thus, he supposes, able to overcome the
generative power of the corn imparted to
the worms, except for the volunteer corn
and the plant “‘resembling corn,’”’ which are
used because they appear to be dwarfed
and weakly plants of the same sort as corn.
Any other cornfield weed leaves may be
added to the medicine if the preparator so
desires. A vermifuge, such as Artemisza,
might be as good, the informant suggests,
but is not used in this association.

The medicine as prepared by Mollie Se-
quoyah consists of the leaves of four plants,
used in exactly the same fashion. This medi-
cine is required to prevent colic, which
would plague anyone eating the new green
corn without previously taking the medi-
cine. It is especially necessary for children.
The ingredients are as follows:

JuLy 15, 1946

Galutna’ Gourd
Selu kwoye’ Bearded wheat grass
Waleld unig't egisti’ Jewelweed

uUWwaga’ Volunteer corn

There are several observances in force
concerning the eating of the unripe corn.
The corn is the gift of a culture heroine,
whose name is se‘lu, the same name as that
applied to corn, and the corn came from
her body. These rules for treatment of the
green corn and their explanation, as offered
by Mollie Sequoyah, have their basis in the
myth of the origin of corn, as do some of the
features of the Green Corn Festival. Two
versions of the story of the Corn Mother
are represented later in this paper.

One must not blow on a roasted ear of
green corn in order to cool it, as this would
cause a thunderstorm. The Thunders are
the sons and husband of Selu, the Corn
Mother, and would resent such disrespect-
ful treatment of her. After the green corn
has been eaten, the cobs must be kept in
the house for four days, because Selu’s body
lay outdoors on the ground for that length
of time after she had been killed by her son.
The all-night dancing and wakefu ness of
the Green Corn Festival are the observa-
tion of the original admonition that they
should stay awake all night and dance, so
that the corn would grow and mature over-
night.

The story of the origin of Corn, as told
by Mollie Sequoyah, differs in some impor-
tant features from the published accounts
and from versions I have collected from
other parts of the reservation.'® Collection
of further variants from existing groups of
Cherokee both in North Carolina and Ten-
nessee and in Oklahoma, and comparative
study of these myths, might throw further
light on Cherokee economic and ceremonial
practices involving corn, besides making a
contribution to the comparative study of a
major myth distributed from the Creek In-

18 The principal versions of the Selu tale are
recorded in the following sources all by JAMES
Mooney: Myths of the Cherokees. Journ. Amer.
Folklore 1: 98. 1888; Cherokee and Iroquois par-
allels. Journ. Amer. Folklore 2: 67. 1889; Myths
of the Cherokee. 19th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer.
Kthnol. 242-245, 248, 431-434. 1889.

WITTHOFT: CHEROKEE GREEN CORN FESTIVAL

217

dians of the Southeast to the Malecite of
Nova Scotia.!®

MOLLIE SEQUOYAH’S VERSION

Once a man and wife lived by themselves,
with their little boy. As the boy grew older, he
noticed that, while his father went hunting, his
mother always went into a little storehouse
(called na‘wedola’, an archaic term, in this
story) where she obtained corn, beans, and
similar vegetables for her family. When he was
older, he began to wonder how she managed
this, because she was always bringing food

from the storehouse, but never carried any-

thing into it.

One day he hid by the storehouse and
watched her through a crack in the wall when
she entered. He saw her shake herself and beat
her body with her hands, and corn and beans
came spilling out onto the floor from beneath
her dress. Her son thought, ‘‘Why that stuff is
only excrement, and she makes us believe it’s
food.” When his mother came out of the store-
house, he killed her. In anger, he dragged her
body all over the stump-filled clearing and then
threw her body on the ground next to the
branch (small mountain stream, the general
Cherokee water supply). He chopped off her
head and set it up in the window of the house,
where the father would see it when he returned.

When the father returned after four days,
he was very angry with his son. They went to

‘the branch in order to bury Selu’s body. There

they found a little boy playing in the grass. He
had been born from the blood flowing from
Selu’s severed neck. They took him back, and
he grew up to become the younger Thunder
brother. When they returned to the cabin,
they could see the blades of the first corn grow-
ing among the stumps in the clearing where
her body had been dragged. The father said
that they must stay awake all night, singing
and dancing to keep themselves from falling
asleep. They did this, and the corn was full

19 Some of the non-Cherokee sources are as fol-
lows: SWANTON, JOHN R., Myths and tales of the
Southeastern Indian. Bur. Ainer. Ethnol. Bull.
88: 9-17 (Creek), 230-234 (Natchez). 1929;
Morean, Lewis H., League of the Iroquois 161,
162, 199. Rochester, 1851; Mrcnuuine, W. H.,
Malecite tales. Can. Dept. Mines, Geol. Surv.
Mem. 49: 87. Ottawa, 1914; Sprck, F. G.,

Penobscot tales and religious beliefs. Journ. Amer.
Folklore 48: 75. 1935.

218

grown and ripe by sunrise. In the beginning the
corn could be planted in the evening and gath-
ered ripe in the morning. Later, when the
people became careless, they fell asleep one
night while the corn was growing, and ever
since corn has required a much longer growing
season. This occurred when the father and sons
were traveling west, in order to take up their
station as the Thunders.

MOSES OWL’S VERSION

Moses Owl tells a somewhat different
version of the story:

A couple lived in the woods with their only
child. After awhile they found that he was
playing with another little boy. They conspired
to catch this little boy, and had their son lead
him into a big trap with a door that was
propped in place. The son dropped the door,
imprisoning them both.

This little boy, who had been born of the
blood of the game that his mother washed
in the branch, was very wild and fought for his
freedom, but eventually he was tamed and
taught to talk and was raised as the twin
brother of their son.

The tame boy was well-behaved, but his wild
brother was contrary-minded and was always
getting himself into trouble, and leading his
companion into mischief. Finally, when they
were almost grown, the mischievous brother
suggested that they follow their father when
he went hunting. They saw him remove a
stone from the mouth of a cave, enter, and
return with a deer on his back. He kept all the
game that was in existence in this cave. After
he had left, the boys removed the stone, but
they did not know the proper charms for con-
trolling these animals, so they all escaped. Ever
since, the game has. been free in the woods,
instead of being the monopoly of one person,
so that now everyone has the same right to the
animal resources, but they have to search and
work for what they get from the hunt. When
the father saw the game loose in the woods, he
knew what had happened, so he met the boys
on the road, gave them a severe beating, and
sent them on home to their mother. When they
came to the house, they sneaked up and peered
through a crack in the logs, because they were
afraid she would give them a beating too. There
they saw Selu standing over a basket, shaking

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 7

herself, and the corn pouring from beneath her
skirts into the basket.

The wild boy said she was a witch. He ran
to the door and killed Selu with an arrow. His
brother ran after him, angry and intending to
kill him, but the wild boy threw Selu’s body
over his shoulder and ran off. The brother pur-
sued him until he had to drop the body in order
to escape. In each of his footprints a cornplant
had sprung up, and an ear of ripe corn lay.
where he had dropped Selu. Ever since the
people have planted and cared for the corn,
and gathered Selu’s bright gift each autumn.

The sketch of the Green Corn Festival
and of its background and derivatives,
which is here presented, gives us an idea of
the specific evolution of one element in
Cherokee culture for a period of over a
century. It appears that disintegrative in-
fluences were already active against this
ceremonial observance and later, after the
Removal (1838), the few communities of
the Cherokee left in North Carolina were
exposed to much stronger acculturative
forces. It is interesting to note the gradual
breakup of this most important ceremonial
complex and, at the same time, the tenacity
with which the more conservative families
retained, and perhaps modified, important
parts of the ritual series. |

Dr. Leonard Bloom, in a recent article,?°

_has attempted to discover indices of Chero-

kee conservatism by a correlation of the
data he has collected on Indian blood per-
centage, clan affiliation, linguistic habit,
and crafts. Without discussing his data
here, we may suggest that cultural factors
used in such a correlation should be not
crafts, which are subject to economic moti-
vation, but rather factors that have little
or no economic survival value. Such non-
material traits as the use of Sequoya’s
syllabary in writing and the use of the
Green Corn Medicine would permit a better
determination of the relationship of blood
to linguistic habit and other cultural traits,
in terms probably of households rather than
individuals. Such correlations of a number
of nonmaterial traits would show degrees of
conservatism, with probably only a very
conservative nucleus of a few “full-blood”’

20 BLooM, LEONARD, A measure of conservatism.
Amer. Anthrop. 47: 630-635. 1945.

JuLy 15, 1946

families still preserving some use of the
Green Corn Medicine.

From the collection of data here pre-
sented it appears that the Cherokee in
aboriginal times celebrated a major com-
munity festival when the green corn first
became mature enough to eat; this festival
persisted, probably in an abbreviated form
as late as 1887. Portions of this ritual be-
came separated from the obsolescent Green
Corn Festival and at present are found as

STEERE AND CHAPMAN: MOSSES OF EL SALVADOR

219

two separate survivals, a Green Corn Feast
held for curative purposes whenever it may
be required and a Green Corn Medicine,
which is prepared in the separate house-
holds of the more conservative Cherokee
and administered to all members of the
family as a prerequisite to eating the green
corn. Continued adherence to this medicine
ritual indicates the strong conservatism of
a certain minority of ‘“‘full-blood’’ Cherokee
households.

BOTAN Y.—Mosses of El Salvador.t Witu1AM C. STEERE, University of Michigan,
and Dorotuy E. CHapman, Office of Foreign Agricultural Relations. (Com-

municated by E. H. WALKER.)

The moss flora of one Central American
republic, El Salvador, has remained al-
most completely unknown up to the pres-
ent time, even though the mosses of neigh-
boring countries have been rather exten-
sively collected and studied. Our knowledge
of the mosses of El Salvador has been con-
fined until now to a list of 11 species in-
cluded in a catalogue of the plants of the
republic.? These 11 species are Erythrodon-
tuum squarrosum, Fabronia flavinervis, Fu-
naria calvescens, Orthostichidium excavatum,
Pilotrichella viridis, Porotrichum cobanense,
Leptodonttum sulphureum, Mittenotham-
num diminutivum, Papillaria nigrescens,
Pireella pohlt, and Polytrichum angustifo-
lium, of which only the first six are dupli-
cated in the collections of Chapman and
Kovar reported upon here. The fact that
these recent larger collections have not du-
plicated completely all species of earlier col-
lections demonstrates conclusively the need
for further bryological explorations in El
Salvador, especially since many species
common elsewhere in Central America are
not represented in these collections. El Sal-
vador is so nearly a blank on the bryological
map that it is necessary to report as new to
its flora such common and widely dis-
tributed mosses as Fissidens kegelianus,
Trematodon longicollis, Octoblepharum albi-

- 1! Contribution from the Department of Botany
and the Herbarium of the University of Michigan.
Received April 11, 1946.

* Standley, P. C., y 8. Calderén. Lista prelimi-
nar de las plantas de El Salvador (Musci, pp.
18-19). San Salvador, 1925; ed. 2, 1941.

dum, Anoectangium euchloron, Bryum argen-
teum, Pohlia cruegert, Philonotis glaucescens,
P. gracillima, and Sematophyllum caespito-
sum. One may still wonder why several
other ubiquitous species as Macromitrium
mucronifolium, Taxitheium planum, Hy-
ophila tortula, Rhacopilum tomentosum,
Neckeropsis disticha, and N. undulata have
apparently still not been collected in E] Sal-
vador.

As a consequence of the lack of informa-
tion concerning the mosses of El Salvador,
it seems thoroughly worth while to give
rather full data pertaining to the stations
from which the present collections came.
The following geographical and geological
data on the collecting stations are based on
information furnished by Dr. Anton Kovar,
botanist at the Centro Agrénomo de El Sal-
vador:

COLLECTING STATIONS OF DOROTHY E.
CHAPMAN

Station A. La Ceiba, 6 km west of San Sal-
vador, is at an altitude of 2,279 feet above sea
level. It is near the upper limit of the Lower
Arid Tropical Zone, where the temperature and
relative humidity are comparatively high and
uniform throughout the entire year, regardless
of the season. The mean annual humidity is
75 percent, dropping in the dry season to
+70 percent and rising in the rainy season to
87 percent. The mean annual temperature is
74°F., with a maximum of about 90°F. and a
minimum of 60°F. A year’s average rainfall,
based on recordings taken over a 12-year
period, is +64 inches. The soil is well-drained

220

voleanic pumice. The mosses were collected on
July 25, 1945, along the edges of the driveways
and flower beds of the Experimental Station on
otherwise bare soil, except for a few growing on
living trees.

Station B. Santa Tecla, 12 km west of San
Salvador, is at an altitude of 2,842 feet. It is
near the lower limit of the Upper Arid Tropical
Zone. Because of its peculiar location between
the San Salvador Volcano and the Pacific
coastal mountain range, this site is more humid
than are other parts of the same zone, and it
rains here more than in many other sections
of the country. The maximum temperature
averages 75-80°F., with a minimum of +45°F.
The mosses were collected on July 24, 1945,
along the driveways, roads, and fields of the
Centro Agrénomo de El Salvador and its im-
mediate vicinity. The soil here consists of a
top black soil layer of variable thickness, with
voleanic ash beneath it, and underlying these
a thin layer of talpetate (cemented and imper-
meable volcanic ash); then old lava flows un-
derneath all.

Station C. The rim of the crater of the San
Salvador Volcano is at an altitude of 6,132
feet. Although it is still in the Upper Arid
Tropical Zone, a high degree of humidity is
present in the form of dew carried by the winds
from the Caribbean coast. Even during the
driest season of the year, the soil and vegeta-
tion are often covered with droplets of con-
densed water vapor. No specific data are avail-
able as to the rainfall, relative humidity, or
temperature. The soil is talpetate. The mosses
were collected July 28, 1945, along the path on
the crater rim among heavy herbaceous growth.

Station D. The automobile road from Santa
Tecla, up the San Salvador Volcano at an alti-
tude of 4,225 feet, is in the middle of the Upper
Arid Tropical Zone. No data are available on
the humidity and temperature, although both
are probably lower than at Santa Tecla.
However, at this particular site a mist often
occurs, even at the beginning of the dry season.
The soil is composed of volcanic ashes. The
mosses were collected on July 28, 1945, along
the steeply cut banks of the road on soil and
on tree trunks.

COLLECTING STATIONS OF DR. ANTON KOVAR

The three localities, El Pil6n de los Naranjos,
El Jardin, and Cerro del Manzano, are in the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 7

western part of El Salvador. The west of El
Salvador is in general somewhat higher than
the east, and there is more of the original vege-
tation left. No rainfall data are available, but
it can be said that the average annual rainfall
is somewhat higher than in San Salvador. In
San Salvador it is about 71 inches; in the region
where these specimens were collected, espe-
cially at the higher altitudes, it is not below
80 inches. No temperature data are available.
Judging from similar situations on the voleand
of San Salvador and from personal observa-
tions, Dr. Kovar estimates that the tempera-
ture varies from 5 C. as a minimum to 25°C.
as a maximum. The soils are of volcanic origin,
and more or less disintegrated, especially at
El Jardin and El Manzano. El Cerro del Pil6én
seems of more recent origin, although it is de-
cidedly older than the volcano of San Salvador.

Cerro del Manzano (January 14, 1946). The
site is at about 5,200 feet altitude. The forest
shows clear signs of transition between the

Upper Dry Tropical Zone and the Humid ——

Upper Tropical Zone (cloud forest). The local-
ity has a northern exposure.

El Jardin (December 27, 1945; January 15,
1946). At 6,500 feet altitude, this station lies
wholly within the Upper Humid Tropical Zone.
It is a ridge about a mile and a half long run-
ning from west to east. The locality is on the
northern slope.

El Cerro del Pilén (January 16, 1946). At an
altitude of 6,500 feet and south of El Jardin,
which protects it against the humid northern
winds from the Atlantic coast. The vegetation
is decidedly xerophytic. There is a marked
difference between the northern and southern
slopes of the central voleanic chain. Although
this chain is much nearer to the Pacific Ocean,
given the prevailing northern winds the north-
ern slopes from 5,000 feet and up receive more
moisture than the southern slopes. Therefore
the northern slope has a cloud forest whereas
the southern slope at the same altitude has
xerophytic vegetation. Yet as one goes from
west to east the Humid Upper Tropical Zone
is less marked. While it is very noticeable on
the volcano of Santa Ana, it is somewhat less
so on the volcano of San Salvador. On the vol-
cano of San Vicente it can be noticed only on a
small area near the top. San Miguel Volcano
does not show it at all; probably the mountain
chains in Honduras stop all the moisture.

JuLy 15, 1946

In El Salvador the rainy season in all
zones starts during the month of May and
ends the latter part of October. During this
period storms may be of great violence with
an extremely heavy rainfall. Throughout
the dry season, which lasts from November
to April, there are occasional rains, usually
in early November and early January.

In the following list it is interesting to
note that the mosses from the Upper and
Lower Arid ‘Tropical Zones, such as
Aloinella catenula, Barbula bescherellet, and
Globulina globifera, are most closely related
to those of dry uplands in Mexico and Gua-
temala, whereas the mosses from the cloud
forests of the Humid Upper Tropical Zone,
as Rigodium gracile, Atrichum oerstedianum,
and Squamidium leucotrichum, are most
closely related floristically to those of Costa
Rica, the West Indies, and northern South
America.

FISSIDENTACEAE

Fissidens kegelianus C. Miill. On soil, La
Ceiba, Chapman A-6; on soil, Santa Tecla,
Chapman B-21.

Distribution: Not uncommon at lower al-
titudes throughout tropical America.

Fissidens repandus Wils. ex Mitt. On soil,
Santa Tecla, Chapman B-19; on soil, sum-
mit of Volean San Salvador, Chapman C-2;
on soil, road up Volcano San Salvador from
Santa Tecla, Chapman D-3; on soil, El Jar-
din, December 27, 1945, Kovar 6a.

Distribution: Florida; Mexico; West In-
dies; northern South America. The type lo-
cality is near Quito, Ecuador, and not Mex-
ico, as stated by Grout (North American
Flora 15: 176. 1943).

Fissidens varder Thér. On rotten wood,
Cerro del Manzano, Kovar 18a.

Distribution: Greater Antilles; Guate-
mala.

DITRICHACEAE
Trematodon longicollis Michx. On soil,
Cerro del Manzano, Kovar 9, 14b, 170.

Distribution: Cosmopolitan throughout
the warmer climates of the world.

DICRANACEAE
Campylopus filifolius (Hornsch.) Mitt. El
Jardin, December 27, 1945, Kovar 38.
Distribution: Central America; Brazil.

STEERE AND CHAPMAN: MOSSES OF EL SALVADOR

221

LEUCOBRYACEAE

Octoblepharum albidum Hedw. On bam-
boo roots, Montserrate, near La Ceiba, 800
meters alt., January 11, 1946, Kovar 8.

Distribution: Throughout tropical and
subtropical climates of the whole world.

POTTIACEAE

Aloinella catenula Card. On soil, Santa
Tecla, Chapman B-7.

Distribution: Mexico; Guatemala.

Anoectangium euchloron (Schwaegr.)
Mitt. On earth, Santa Tecla, Chapman B-
12; Cerro del Manzano, Kovar 16.

Distribution: Southern United States;
throughout tropical and subtropical Amer-
ica; Asia.

Barbula_ bescherellei Sauerb. On soil,
Santa Tecla, Chapman B-17; summit of
Volcano San Salvador, Chapman C-6; road
up Volcano San Salvador from Santa Tecla,
Chapman D-1.

Distribution: Southern United States;
Mexico; Guatemala.

Globulinella Steere gen. nov. (Globulina
C. Miull., 1897, nec Globulina Spegaz., 1889).

Globulinella globifera (Hampe) Steere n.
comb. (Seligerza globifera Hampe, Bot. Zeit.
28: 49. 1870; Trichostomum obtusifolium
Hampe, zbzd. 28: 49. 1870; Globulina globzf-
era C. Mill., Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital. n-s.
4: 39. 1897, Broth. in E. & P., Nat. Pflan-
zenfam. 1(3): 404. 1902; Gyrowezsia obtusi-
folia Broth., ibid. 1(3): 389. 1902.) On soil,
Santa Tecla, Chapman B-4.

Distribution: Mexico; Honduras.

Globulinella globifera, based on Seligeria globi-
fera Hampe, is a clear-cut, unmistakable spe-
cies that has been collected only a few times
since its original discovery. Immediately pre-
ceding the description of S. globifera is the
diagnosis of another proposed new species,
Trichostomum obtusifolium Hampe, which was
later transferred to Gyroweisia by Brotherus
(1902). In reading the original descriptions of
these two new species, which grew intermixed
in the same type collection, one cannot help
being impressed by their great similarity.
Parallel phrases from the original descriptions
are compared below:

222

Trichostomum obtusifolsum

‘“‘Dioicum, . . . saturate viride, gregarie.

Caulis brevissimus paucifolius

Folia margine erecto concava, inferiora minora,
obtuse ovata,...sicca involuto-conglobata,
integerrima humida subcucullato-concava. .

Nervo lutescente apice evanido

Cellulis basilaribus subquadratis hyalinis, caeteris
dense aggregatis minimis granulosis, griseo-
viridi opacis.

Folium perichaetiale unicum convolutum.

Seta gracillima erecta (4—6’’’) e flavo demum ru-
bens

Theca erecta angusta, parce oblique elliptico-
cylindrica

Peristomium annulo hyalino circumdatum, in-
tense rubrum, dentibus profunde bifidis, cruri-
bus subulatis rugulosis

Operculo brevi conico-rostrato Calyptra angusta
fuscata”’

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 36, No. 7

Seligeria globifera

“‘Dioica?, .

fuscata.
Caulis brevissimus erectus, conglobatus.

Folia in globulos convoluta, ovalia, subcucullato-
concava, obtusissima, integerrima...

.. gregaria, lutescente viridis, infra

... Nervo crasso lutescente apice abrupto

Cellulis basilaribus subquadratis laevioribus,
pellucidis, in superiori parte folii dense aggre-
gatis, minoribus, lucide granulatis.

(Folia) perichaetialia convoluta, longiora, erecta

Seta gracillima 4—6 linearis flavide rubens

Theca oblongo-cylindrica, annulata

Peristomii dentibus brevibus subulatis, torulosis
rubris.

Operculo conico-subulato Calyptra angusta, de-
mum fuscata”’

An analysis of the above comparison shows
more similarities than differences. The only
serious distinction between the two species
seems to be in peristome structure, since it is
implied that the Selsgerra has 16 undivided
teeth, an important generic character. How-
ever, Brotherus (1902, fig. 260) illustrated and
described Globulina globifera with the teeth
divided in the manner of many genera of the
Pottiaceae, undoubtedly on the basis of au-
thentic material. Hampe, himself, in comparing
the two species, offers the following note con-
cerning his Seligerra globifera: “Ex habitu
Trichostomi obtusifolit, cum eo commixtum
lecta; colore lutescente viridi aliena, inter
Seligerias ob thecam cylindricam singularis.”’
Most mosses differ to some extent in color be-
tween new and old growth, and this color dif-
ference is especially conspicuous in the Pot-
tiaceae, where the new leaves are usually a
bright yellowish or bluish green and the old
leaves a dark green, red, or brown to black.
It is probable that the specimen seen by Hampe
contained plants of several seasons, showing
the color differences he stresses. Furthermore,
several Mexican specimens named C'yroweisia
obtusifolia by Cardot and Thériot are clearly
Globulina globifera. For additional evidence of
the close relationship of-these two species, the
opinion of Andrews’ may be cited. In speaking
of the genus Gyroweisia, he says: “G. obtusi-
folia (Hpe.) Broth. from Mexico is a plant in

3 Andrews, A. L. The status of Gyroweisia in
North America. Bryol. 25: 97-100. 1922.

many ways suggesting relationship with the
Mexican species of the genus Globulina C. M.”
Another similar opinion is that of Miller,* who
says: ‘‘Das niedliche Pflanzchen, welches diesen
Typus begriindet, -nimlich Seligeria globifera
Hpe., welche Strebel in den 60er Jahren an
Kalkfelsen bei Veracruz in Mexico sammelte,
hat ganz die Tracht eines kleinen Tricho-
stomum, etwa des T. obtusifolium Hpe., mit
welchem es zusammen wachst.”’

Consequently, there seems to be no valid
excuse for keeping separate Hampe’s two spe-
cies based on one type collection, and it is
therefore proposed to put the less well known
Trichostomum obtusifolium into the synonymy
of Seligerta globifera, although the strictest
interpretation of priority of place might indi-
cate the opposite procedure.

Since Globulina boliviana has been trans-
ferred to Barbula by Hilpert,® after a careful
study, the only other species which belongs
here is Globulinella peruviana (R. 8. Williams)
Steere n. comb. (Globulina peruviana R. S.
Williams, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 43: 325.
pl. 17, f. 8-15. 1916).

Rhamphidium macrostegium (Sull.) Mitt. On
rock, Cerro del Pilén, Kovar 28a.

Distribution: West Indies; Mexico, Costa
Rica; South America.

4 Miller, C. Genera muscorum frondosorum,
vi+474 pp. Leipzig, 1901. i

6 Hinpert, F. Studien zur Systematik der
Trichostomaceen. Bot. Centralbl. 50(2): 585-706.
1933.

Juuy 15, 1946

- Tortula caroliniana Andrews. On tree, sum-
mit of Volcano San Salvador, around crater,
Chapman C-4.

Distribution: Southern United States; Mexi-
co; Guatemala, Costa Rica.

FUNARIACEHAE

Funaria calvescens Schwaegr. On soil, La
Ceiba, Chapman A-2; on soil, Santa Tecla,
Chapman B-1; on soil, road up Volcano San
Salvador from Santa Tecla, Chapman D-6;
Cerro del Manzano, Kovar 14, 17.

Distribution: El Salvador; throughout all
tropical and subtropical regions of the world.

SPLACHNACEAE

Splachnobryum bernoullit C. Mill. On soil,
La Ceiba, Chapman A-1; on soil, Santa Tecla,
Chapman B-5.

Distribution: Guatemala, Honduras; Mex-
ico.

BRYACEAE

Anomobryum semiovatum (Brid.) Jaeg. On
soil, Santa Tecla, Chapman B-6.

Distribution: Costa Rica; South America.

Brachymenium capillare Schimp. On soil,
summit of Volcano San Salvador, Chapman
C-5 (a juvenile state).

Distribution: Mexico; Costa Rica.

Bryum andicola Hook. On roots, summit of
Volcano San Salvador, around crater, Chap-
man C-3; on rotten wood, El Jardin, December
27, 1945, Kovar 5a, on humus, Kovar 6.

Distribution: Mexico; Honduras,
Rica; West Indies; South America.

Bryum argenteum Hedw. On soil, La Ceiba,
Chapman A-4; on soil, Santa Tecla, Chapman
B-2; on soil, summit of Voleano San Salvador,
around crater, Chapman C-1 (var. lanatum);
on soil, road up Volcano San Salvador from
Santa Tecla, Chapman D-5; Cerro del Man-
zano, Kovar 9a, 14a, 17a.

Distribution: A weedy species truly cos-
mopolitan in all parts of the world.

Epipterygium tmmarginatum Mitt. On soil,
Santa Tecla, Chapman B-3.

Distribution: Guatemala.

Pohlia Cruegerit (Hampe) Andrews. On earth,
Santa Tecla, Chapman B-8.

Distribution: Southern United States;
widespread in tropical America.

Costa

STEERE AND CHAPMAN: MOSSES OF EL SALVADOR

223

Pohlia papillosa (C. Mill.) Steere n. comb.
(Bryum papillosum C. Miull., Syn. 1: 326.
1849.) On soil, Cerro del Pilén, Kovar 28.

Distribution: West Indies; Costa Rica;
northern South America.

BARTRAMIACHAE

Philonotis glaucescens (Hornsch.) Paris. On
soil, Santa Tecla, Chapman B-16.

Distribution: Southern United States; wide-
spread in tropical America.

Philonotis gracillima Aongstr. On soil, La
Ceiba, Chapman A-3; on earth, Santa Tecla,
Chapman B-16.

Distribution: Widespread in tropical and
subtropical America, usually at lower alti-
tudes.

Philonotis sphaericarpa (Hedw.) Brid. On
soil, summit of Voleano San Salvador, around
crater, Chapman C-7.

Distribution: Florida; West Indies; Mexico;
Central and South America; usually at higher
altitudes.

PRIONODONTACEAE

Prionodon densus (Hedw.) C. Mill. On tree,
El Jardin, December 27, 1945, Kovar 4a; Janu-
ary 15, 1946, Kovar 20; on tree, Cerro del
Pilén, Kovar 31.

Distribution: West Indies; Mexico; Central
and South America.

PTEROBRYACEHAE

Orthostichidium pentagonum (Hampe) C.
Mill. On tree, Cerro del Pilén, Kovar 30.

Distribution: Mexico; British Honduras,
Costa Rica; South America. The report of
Orthostichidiwm excavatum from Cerro del
Guayabal, El Salvador, by Standley and Cal-
derén should undoubtedly be referred here.

METEORIACEAE

Meteoriopsis patula (Hedw.) Broth. On
branch, Cerro del Manzano, Kovar 11; epi-
phytic, El Jardin, January 15, 1946, Kovar 23.

Distribution: Very widespread in tropical
and subtropical America.

Pilotrichella flexilis (Hedw.) Jaeg. Epiphy-
tic, El Jardin, January 15, 1946, Kovar 19;
epiphytic, Cerro del Pilén, Kovar 29.

Distribution: West Indies; Mexico; Central
and South America.

224

Piletrichella rigida (C. Mill.) Besch. Epiphy-
tic, Cerro del Pilén, Kovar 35.

Distribution: Mexico; Guatemala, Costa
Rica; Honduras. The report of Pulotrichella
viridis from Ahuachapdn, El Salvador, by
Standley and Calderén, almost certainly refers
to this species.

Squamidium leucotrichum (Tayl.) Broth.
On twig of cypress, Cerro del Manzano, Kovar
11a; on small branch, El Jardin, January 15,
1946, Kovar 22.

Distribution:
South America.

West Indies; Costa Rica;

PHYLLOGONIACEAE

Phyllogonium fulgens (Hedw.) Brid. On tree,
El Jardin, December 27, 1945, Kovar 4.

Distribution: West Indies; Central and
South America.

NECKERACEAE

Homalia glabella (Hedw.) Mitt. On rock,
Cerro del Pilén, Kovar 33.

Distribution: West Indies; Mexico; British
Honduras, Honduras, Costa Rica; northern
South America.

Neckera urnigera C. Mill. On tree, Cerro del |

Pil6n, Kovar 30a.

Distribution: Mexico.

Porotrichum cobanense C. Mill. On rock, El
Jardin, December 27, 1945, Kovar 2a; on tree,
Cerro del Manzano, Kovar 10, 18b; on rock,
Cerro del Pil6én, Kovar 26; epiphytic, Kovar 37;
on rock, Kovar 88.

Distribution: El Salvador, Guatemala,
British Honduras, Costa Rica, Panama.

LEMBOPHYLLACEAE

Rigodium gracile Ren. & Card. Epiphytie,
Cerro del Pilén, Kovar 34a.
Distribution: Costa Rica.

HOOKERIACEAE

Lepidopilum haplociliatum (C. Mill.) Paris.
On twig, El Jardin, December 27, 1945,
Kovar 1.

Distribution: Guatemala, Costa Rica.

FABRONIACEAE

Fabronia flavinervis C. Mill. On wood, La
Ceiba, Chapman A-5; on tree, Santa Tecla,
Chapman B-10; on roadside tree, road up Vol-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 7

cano San Salvador from Santa Tecla, Chap-
man D-7.

Distribution: El Salvador, Guatemala, Hon-
duras, Costa Rica; Mexico.

BRACHYTHECIACEAE

Brachythecium stereopoma Spruce. On soil,
summit of Volcano San Salvador, around
crater, Chapman C-9.

Distribution: West Indies; Costa Rica;
South America.

ENTODONTACEAE

Erythrodontium densum (Hook.) Paris. On
wood, Santa Tecla, Chapman B-11.

Distribution: Mexico; Costa Rica; South
America.

Erythrodontium squarrosum (C. Mill.) Paris.
On tree, Santa Tecla, Chapman B-9; on tree,
road up Volcano San Salvador from Santa
Tecla, Chapman D-2.

Distribution: El Salvador,
South America.

Costa Rica;

PLAGIOTHECIACEAE

Stereophyllum mexicanum R. S. Williams.
On wood, Santa Tecla, Chapman B-14.
Distribution: Mexico.

SEMATOPHYLLACHAE

Sematophyllum caespitosum (Hedw.) Mitt.
On wood, Santa Tecla, Chapman B-13; on
twig, El Jardin, December 27, 1945, Kovar 2.

Distribution: Widely distributed through
the tropics and subtropiecs of the whole world.

HYPNACEAE

Microthamnium lehmanii Besch. On dead
wood, Cerro del Manzano, Kovar 12, 18;
epiphytic, Cerro del Pilén, Kovar 29.

Distribution: Costa Rica.

Microthamnium reptans (Hedw.) Mitt. On
rotten wood, El] Jardin, December 27, 1945,
Kovar 5; epiphytic, Cerro del Pil6én, Kovar 34.

Distribution: Very widespread in tropical
America.

POLYTRICHACEAE

Atrichum oerstedianum (C. Mill.) Mitt.
On soil, El] Jardin, December 27, 1945, Kovar
7; on soil, Cerro del Pilén, Kovar 36.

Juuy 15, 1946

Distribution: Costa Rica, Honduras.

Pogonatum lebmannianum Schimp. On
soil, Cerro del Manzano, Kovar 13.

Distribution: Mexico; Costa Rica.

JENKINS AND BITANCOURT: A NEW SPHACELOMA

225

Polytrichum juniperinum Hedw. On soil,
Cerro del Pilén, Kovar 25.
Distribution: In temperate and cold climates

-of the whole world.

BOTANY.—A new species of Sphaceloma causing scab of plantain (Plantago).1
Anna E. JENKINS, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, and A. A. Brrancourt, Instituto Biologico, S40 Paulo, Brazil.

In 1938 a specimen of Sphaceloma on
plantain (Plantago formosana), which he
had collected at Tathoku, Formosa, on May
16, 1928, was sent to the senior writer by
K. Sawada of the Taihoku Imperial Univer-
sity. The specimen showed abundant leaf
and peduncle spotting (Fig. 1, I). In 1939,
the writers found the same type of spotting
on plantain (P. rugelii) in Washington,
D. C., near the entrance to the Smithsonian
Institution Building and on the grounds of
the Washington Monument. Subsequently
they collected specimens of the same fungus
in New Jersey, Michigan, Indiana, and
Illinois. The record of the fungus in Indiana
previously made (5) is based on the collec-
tion in Indiana, here illustrated (Fig. 1,
A-H and J—M).

These several collections, together with
others now available, reveal that this fungus
is widespread in eastern United States. It
was extremely abundant in the District of
Columbia area during the summer and au-
tumn of 1940, when it was isolated in pure
culture (Fig. 1, N). Mature inflorescences
of the Plantago showed that it was P. ru-
geliz. Unfortunately, because of the lack of
mature inflorescences, it has not been possi-
ble among some of the other specimens
available to determine whether the host
species is P. rugelit or P. major. Two early
specimens examined, hitherto unidentified,
are from Still Pond, Md., October 10, 1891,
K. F. Smith, and Arlington, Conn., October
27, 1900, G. P. Clinton. In the former case
the leaves were collected because of the
presence of Hryszphe cichoracearum DC. on
them, but the Sphaceloma (6) spot also is
abundant. The label of this specimen does
not bear the collector’s name. The hand-
writing, however, may be distinguished as

1 Received March 22, 1946.

that of Dr. Erwin F. Smith, who was study-

ing peach yellows at Still Pond at this time.
His bulletin on the subject (10) refers to a
visit to Still Pond as late as July 24, 1891
(loc. cit., foot note p. 48); that of October 10
doubtless was too late for similar record.

Since this pathological condition and the
pathogen have not been accorded recogni-
tion as taxonomic entities, the disease is
here termed ‘‘scab of plantain,’”’ and the
fungus is proposed as a new species.

Sphaceloma plantaginis, sp. nov.

Spots on leaves and scapes, including bracts
and calyx, few to numerous, scattered, al-
though may be more abundant on lower part
of leaves and peduncles; on leaves diaphyllous,
usually more prominent above, circular to sub-
circular, minute to 1.5 mm in diameter, co-
alescent, usually in small groups, often with
raised margins, either hyperplastic or necrotic,
or hyperplastic in outer area and necrotic in
central pale area, necrotic tissue collapsed,
often reduced to the imperfectly formed upper
and lower epidermis, papery and translucent
except for veins, which remain after the other
tissue has become lacerated and dropped away;
on scapes circular to elliptical, occasionally
elongate, on peduncle often depressed, minute
1—1.5, rarely 2 mm in diameter, at first water-
soaked in appearance, occasionally ‘‘neutral
red’? usually (on dry specimen) ‘‘deep vina-
ceous’’ to “‘russet vinaceous,’’ sometimes “‘pale
grayish vinaceous, central area or occasionally
entire spot paling to dirty white or white;
hyphae subcuticular, becoming intraepidermal,
disrupting the epidermis, forming a more or
less extensive superficial hyaline stroma up to
15u thick, this sometimes extending below
the epidermis, as a loose prosenchyma, or form-
ing a naked hyaline stroma projecting hori-

2 Colors in quotation marks are based on Ridg-
way (9).

_ 226

zontally from the margin of the perforation,
up to 50» thick; acervuli absent, sparse or
abundant, amphigenous, more often epi-
phyllous, in one case as many as 40 dotting the
necrotic center of a leaf spot 0.5 mm in diame-
ter, viewed from above, circular to elliptical,
15u to 65u in diameter, may be confluent,
hyaline to brown; conidiophores closely
grouped, pointed, 8-10 by 2.6-8.3u, hyaline to
colored, in culture as many as 16y long, pro-
duced at right angles to the hyphae, bearing
apical and lateral conidia as illustrated by
Doidge and Butler (3) for what was later
identified (4) as Sphaceloma on citrus; conidia
sessile on the hyphae or stroma, as well as
pleurogenous on conidiophores, spherical to
elliptical or oblong, often bigultulate, usually
5-10 by 2-4u, swelling and becoming 2-celled
and colored.

Maculis foliicolis sparsis, minutis usque 1.5
mm latis, amphigenis, frequenter margine
elevata cinctis, parte centrali papyracea hya-
lina, primo castaneo-rubra et deinceps in medio
albicante. Maculis in inflorescentiis, in pe-
dunculis et petiolis, magis elongatis, 1-1.5 mm,
raro 2 mm latis, in medio depressis.

Acervulis amphigenis, communiter tantum
epiphyllis, punctiformibus, nigris, 15—65y latis,
distinctis vel saepe confluentibus. Conidio-
phoris arcte connatis, acutis, 8-10 X2.6-3.3y,
hyalinis vel obscuris, conidiis sphaericis, el-
lipticis vel oblongis, frequenter 2—guttulatis,
hyalinis, 5-10 X2.5yu.3

Hosts, distribution, and specimens examined :4

3 We are indebted to D. P. Pickel for the diag-
nosis in Latin.

4The specimens cited have been deposited in
the Mycological Collections of the Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineer-
ing (USM), Plant Industry Station, Beltsville,
Md., and in the herbarium of the Secgéo Fitopa-
tologia, Instituto Biologico (IB), Sao Paulo,
Brazil. Of the few undivided specimens, those
represented only in the Mycological Collections
are indicated by a dagger (f); those only in the
Instituto Biologico, by a double dagger (tf). Speci-
mens marked with an asterisk (*) have been se-
lected for numbers in the Jenkins-Bitancourt
‘““Myriangiales selecti exsiccati’’? (MSE), fascicles
5 and 6, in process of issue.

Grateful acknowledgement is made to those
who contributed or assisted in collecting speci-
mens, and also to the Grain and Seed Division,
Agriculture Marketing Service, United States
Department of Agriculture, and to Dr. 8. F. Blake
for identifications of Plantago maior and P. rugelit.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 7

ON PLANTAGO SP.

Connecticut: Arlington, Oct. 27, 1900,
G. P. Clinton} (Ex. Herb. Dept. Plant Pathol-
ogy and Botany, Conn. Agr. Exp. Station).
MaARryYLANpD: Olney, Sept. 28, 1941, A. E. Jen-
kinst; vic. Rockville, Aug. 31, 1945, A. K.
Jenkins}; Still Pond, Oct. 10, 1891, E. F.
Smitht. MassacuusreTts: Cambridge, June
1940, L. Grosinskyt; Marshfield, Aug. 8,
1942, O. C. Boyd*; Waltham, June 26, 1941,
J. G. Horsfall and A. E. Jenkins. Micuiean:
East Lansing, Sept. 24, 1939, A. A. Bitancourt
and A. E. Jenkins. New Jersey: Bloomfield,
Sept. 15, 1939, A. A. Bitancourt and A. E.
Jenkinst; Highland Park, Sept. 20, 1940,
P. P. Pirone*. New York: Walton, July 7,
1942, A. E. Jenkins}. PENNSYLVANIA: Herndon,
July 14, 1940, A. E. Jenkins. VERMONT:
Plymouth near birthplace of Calvin Coolidge,
June 27, 1941,-A. E. Jenkins. VirGinia:
Williamsburg, May 25, 1940, A. E. Jenkins.
West VIRGINIA: vic. Elkins, Aug. 15, 1944,
R. E. Atkmson and P. R. Miller.

ON PLANTAGO FORMOSANA Masam.

Formosa, Taihoku, May 16, 1928, K. Sa-
wada. Taihoku is the type locality for P. for-
mosana, which was described in 1932 (cf. 8).
From the diagnosis and from Sawada’s speci-
men, it would appear that this species of
Plantago is more or less closely related to
P. major. The spotting on the Formosan
gathering is minute on leaves; otherwise it
resembles infected growth of P. major and
P. rugelii from this country. It seems reason-
able for the present at least to regard the
Sphaceloma on P. formosana as S. plantaginis
as is here done. P. major is found in Formosa,
where several varieties of it have been de-
scribed (cf. 7). It is possible that sooner or later
the Sphaceloma will be found there on this
species, on one or more of its varieties and on
still other species of the genus. i

ON PLANTAGO MAJOR L

MassacuuseEtTts: Grafton, Sept. 14, 1940,
O. C. Boyd*. Boyd (2) states that this Spha-
celoma disease was observed in several parts
of Massachusetts in 1941. QuEBEc, Rimouski,
Sept. 20, 1939, J. Bt. Caron, Comm. E. Le
Page (host as given on specimen is P. major).

Fig. 1. Sphaceloma plantaginis. A-H, on Plantago rugelii, vic. Attica, Ind., Sept. 26, 1939: A—C, in-
fection originating on upper leaf surface, A, also showing two infected peduncles; D and E, infection
originating on lower leaf surface, E, on vein (A-E, X1); F, leaf spots (X12); G, a, infection on sepals
(<6); H, on stem, acervuli visible as dark punctate masses ( X12). I, on P. formosana, Taihoku, Formosa,
a, spotting on peduncle (X1); 6, on leaf (X34). J-M, from specimen from Indiana, J, vertical section
through upper part of a hyperplastic leaf lesion, a, acervulus, 6, hyperplastic leat tissue, between a and
bh, lacerated leaf tissue interspersed with loose prosenchyma (500); M, petiole canker dotted with
acervuli (a) (X20); K, b, acervulus from M, rupturing epidermis (a); L, a, another acervulus from M,
rupturing epidermis (b). (K and L, X500.) N, old culture on Thaxter potato agar, (1). Photographs by
M. L. F. Foubert (A—H, J and N), R. L. Taylor (1), and Bitancourt (K—M).

JuLy 15, 1946

ON PLANTAGO RUGELII Dene.

District oF CoLtumBia: NW Section: Vic.
Bureau of Standards, June 11, 1944, J. A.
Stevenson}; park at Connecticut Ave. and
Kalorama Road, Aug. 31, 1940*, and Sept.
12, 1940*, A. E. Jenkins; California Street west
of Connecticut Ave. July 23, 1941, A. E. Jen-
kins*; SW Section: Grounds, Washington
Monument, east of Monument, June 30, 1940*,
and Oct. 24, 1940*; northwest of Monument,
Aug. 27, 1939*; west of monument, Sept. 13
_and 14, 1940*, and Oct. 24, 1940*, A. E. Jen-
kins; The Mall, 14th Street between Madison
Drive and Constitution Ave., July 14 and 16,
1941, A. E. Jenkins*; Madison Drive, between
12th and 13th Streets, June 5, 1940*; July 3,
1940;* Sept. 10, 1940* and July 21, 1941%*,
A. E. Jenkins; May 31, 1942, M. Bensaude and
A. EK. Jenkins}; grounds, U. 8. National
Museum, west of Museum, July 28, 1941*;
July 10, 1942*; southwest of Museum, June
3, 1940*, A. E. Jenkins; near entrance to
Smithsonian Institution Building, Aug. 8,
1939, A. A. Bitancourt and A. E. Jenkins{;
Aug. 28, 1940, A. EK. Jenkins*; east of Freer
Art Galley, May 31, 1940, L. Grodsinsky and
A. E. Jenkins*; June 30, 1940*; also Aug. 30,
1940*, and June 23, 1941*; A. E. Jenkins; vic.
Freer Art Gallery, July 10, 1942, A. E. Jen-
kins*; 12th Street near Maryland Ave., Aug.
28, 1940*, and Aug. 28, 1941*, A. E. Jenkins;
SE section: Vic. Library of Congress Annex,
Oct. 25, 1941, A. E. Jenkins and A. Mar-
chant. Intrvois: Urbana, University of Illi-
nois campus, Sept. 27, 1939, E. E. Honey,
A. A. Bitancourt, and A. E. Jenkins. IN-
DIANA: Attica, several miles west, Sept. 26,
1939, E. E. Honey, A. A. Bitancourt, and
A. E. Jenkins* (type, USM 74085; IB 3413;
MSE 253). Marynanp: Beltsville, grounds,
Plant Industry Station, Oct. 4 and 18, 1940,
A. E. Jenkins*; Thurmont, Hi-Catocton
Camp, June 9, 1940, E. O. Regis, R. Davidson,
and A. E. Jenkins*. New York: Fishkill, Sept.

JENKINS AND BITANCOURT: A NEW SPHACELOMA

227

18, 1939* and July 4, 1945, A. E. Jenkins; Ith-
aca, near Cornell Univ. campus, July 16, 1940,
F. M. Barrus and A. E. Jenkins*; on campus,
Sept. 4, 1942, A. E. Jenkins*; State Street.,
Sept. 4, 1942, A. E. Jenkins; New York City,
New York Botanical Garden, June 23, 1942;
vic. New York Botanical Garden, July 3, 1945,
A. EK. Jenkins. Onto: Wooster, Sept. 1940,
P. E. Tilford*. PEnNsyLtvanta: Walnut Shade,
July 14, 1940, M. L. Bombard and A. E.
Jenkins* (leaves and scapes from this specimen
photographed in Dept. Plant Pathology, Cor-
nell Univ., July 15, 1940). Vireinia: Chatham,
Nov. 1, 1940, F. A. Wolf*. Wisconsin: Madi-
son, Aug. 1942, A. 8. Costa*.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Brrancourt, A. A., and A. E. JENKINS.
New discoveries of Myriangiales in the
Americas. Proc. 8th Amer. Sci. Congr.
Washington, 1940, 3: 149-172. 1942.
(p. 154, footnote 13.)

2. Boyp, O. C. The weather and disease situa-
tion in Massachusetts in 1941. 26: 2-10.
1942.

3..VDo0men, i. M., and .E..J..Burine. ke
cause of citrus scab. Trans. Brit. Mycol.
Soc. 10: 119-121. 1924.

4. JENKINS, A. E. Present generic status of the
citrus-scab organism. Phytopath. 26:
68-70. 1936.

5. . Elsinoé and Sphaceloma species in
the United States, Puerto Rico and Guam,
Phytopath. 30: 12. 1940. (Abstract.)

6. and A. A. Brrancourt. Revised de-

scriptions of the genera Elsinoé and
Sphaceloma. Mycologia 33: 338-340.
1941.

7. Kawakamt, T. A list of plants of Formosa.
119 pp. Taihoku, 1910.

8. Masamune, G. Symbolae florae Australi-
Japonicae I. Journ. Soc. Trop. Agr. 4:
191-97. 1932: (p: 192.)

9. Ripaway, R. Color standards and color
nomenclature, 45 pp. Washington, D. C.
1912.

10. Suiru, E. F. Additional evidence of the
communicability of peach yellows and
peach rosette. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1,
65 pp. 1891.

228

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 7

ENTOMOLOGY .—The Philippine mosquitoes of the genus Aedes, subgenus Aedes.!
JEAN LAFFooNn, PhM1c, U.S.N.R., U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 2.

(Communicated by ALAN STONE.)

The majority of the specimens of mos-
quitoes used in this study were collected in
the Philippines by members of a field unit
of U. S. Naval Medical Research Uint
No. 2. Additional material studied included
specimens in the collections of the U. S.
National Museum, Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, California Acad-
emy of Sciences, Philippine Bureau of
Health, and the Museum of Comparative
Zoology. I am indebted to Dr. Alan Stone,
Dre Re Roberts] Dr, Pos. Ross hE,
Baisas, and Dr. Joseph Bequaert, respec-
tively, for the opportunity to see these spec-
imens. Dr. K. L. Knight, Dr. R. M. Bo-
hart, and Dr. Stone offered numercus help-
ful criticisms and suggestions concerning
this work. Dr. Ross kindly furnished the
larval figures of hamistylus and campylo-
stylus. Space in which to carry out this
study was provided by the Division of lie
sects, U. S. National Museum.

About 50 species are now recognized in
the subgenus Aedes. Of these the great
majority are Oriental and Australasian.
Thirteen species are known from the Philip-
pines, six of them being described in this
paper as new.

The terminology of the female genitalia
as used here is principally that employed
by Crampton (1942). The term “cowl” is
avoided since it has been used to denote
different structures by various authors. The
term ‘“‘atrial plate’’ has been used by several
writers. However, for the purpose of this
paper, the term ‘“postatrial plate’’ (or
plates) is applied to those structures form-
ing the posterior wall of the atrium, and the
term ‘“‘preatrial plate’ (or plates) for those
forming the anterior wall. The preatrial
plates, along with the preatrial sclerite,
normally are folded over the postatrial
plates. To obtain a good view of the impor-
tant structures, it is necessary to mount
the specimen with the preatrial sclerite and
plates extended anteriorly, as shown in the
figures. Careful manipulation with fine dis-

1 Received May 2, 1946.

secting needles is necessary to accomplish
this.

The terminology used for the larval head
hairs is that adopted by Marshall (1938).

The only Oriental and Australasian spe-
cies for which neither male nor female geni-
talia have been described or figured are
carmentti Edwards (Australasian), szmilis
(Theobald) (Australasian), incertus Ed-
wards (Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and New
Guinea), and perditus (Leicester) (Malay
Peninsula). These species can be separated
from all known Philippine species by the
following characters: incertus (according to
Edwards, 1924) has complete, conspicuous,
white basal abdominal bands in both sexes;
perditus (according to Leicester, 1908) has
two long, sharp spines near the base of the
larger claw of the male foreleg; szmalis
(according to Theobald, 1910) has all
claws of the female simple; and carmenti
(according to Edwards, 1924) has dark up-
per sternopleural scales.

Because of the extreme external similar-
ity of the Philippine species in many re-
spects, the individual descriptions would be
very repetitious if all the characters com-
mon to all species were noted in each de-
scription. However, some of these characters
may well be valuable in distinguishing spe-
cies as yet unknown. Therefore, a descrip-
tion of characters common to the known
Philippine species follows:

Male antenna plumose, torus with a few
tiny dark scales ventrally or medially or
bare. Clypeus bare, dark brown. Palpus
short in both sexes. Proboscis and labellum
brown. Head scales mostly flat dark brown,
with a pale lateral patch and some brown,
upright, forked scales on nape. Scutal and
scutellar scales narrow and curved. Ppn
with about four bristles along the posterior
margin. Patches of broad white scales on
the propleuron, upper and posterior median
pottions of the sternopleuron, and on the
upper part of the mesepimeron. Forecoxa
with a small dorsal patch of flat pale
scales, a larger patch of brown scales be-
low these, and a small patch of flat pale

JuLy 15, 1946 LAFFOON: PHILIPPINE MOSQUITOES OF GENUS AEDES 229

scales ventrally on the anterior aspect; mid
and hind coxae each with a patch of pale
scales. Femora pale below to or nearly to
apex, remainder of legs entirely dark.
Wings dark-scaled. Tergite I always with
white scales along lateral border.

KEY TO MALES

1. Abdominal tergites II-VIII always with some
white or yellowish basolateral markings,
sometimes produced onto dorsum, some-
times reduced to a few scales; hind claws
SESE SESIMIN LC) Para w.gh he Siok eee bile ial a « 2

Abdominal tergites II-VIII entirely brown;
mesepimeron never with more than 3 or
4 hairs behind scale patch; about 5-10
small upright forked scales on nape on
each side of midline; about 12 verticillate
bristles on most antennal segments.....11

2. Anterior median portion of sternopleuron
with about 15 hairs; sternites almost en-
LIOR SING? (yy OUR eon e i ae 3

Anterior median portion of sternopleuron
without hairs, or with only 1 or 2 (rarely up
EOcabpout oS ImywmbrosuUS) Oe Oe eka 5

3. Ninth tergite with a very large median
Y-shaped process about as long as basistyle,
each branch with an additional hairy
branch on-its<ventral surface. ..0.0.. 0...
Ae ete: macrodixoa Dyar and Shannon

Ninth tergite without such a process...... 4

4, Basistyle with a group of about 8 stout spines
on the inner ventral margin; paraproct
short; two very long processes arising near
apex of basistyle, one with about 3 stout
Spimesmmean tip). |. sas: uncus (Theobald)

Inner ventral margin of basistyle without a
group of stout spines; paraproct longer
than basistyle; a broad process near apex of
basistyle with a row of about 4 heavy
Spimestapicallyciscis.. i. oy. nubicolus, n. sp.

5. Meteusternum with numerous fine hairs; fore
and mid legs with claws unequal, the larger
ones uniserrate, the smaller simple; basi-
style with a group of about 8 stout spines
on the inner ventral margin near the base. .6

Meteusternum without hairs; basistyle with-
out such a group of spines: ............ 8

6. Apicodorsal prolongation of basistyle very
wide with its two distal forks about equal
in length; only 2 other long apical processes,
sometimes a more ventral short spine also
visible (Fig. 9); Balabac....adustus, n. sp.

Apicordorsal prolongation of basistyle other-
wise; three other long apical or subapical
DEOCESSESBDLESEMGE . ke. fun. eh teeae 2 7

7. Apicodorsal prolongation of basistyle very
wide (Fig. 7); Mindanao, Basilan, and
EOWA heen, Sens aes Se johnsoni, n. sp.

Apicordorsal prolongation of basistyle much
narrower (Fig.8); Luzénand Mindoro.....
ce eee Been we margarsen Dyar and Shannon

8.

10.

11.

12:

At least 10 hairs on posterior and ventral
parts of mesepimeron, usually more numer-

Mesepimeron with a number of bristles along
upper margin but with no hairs ventral to
scale patch and never more than 3 or 4 be-
Inn git yore ae ee setey.. Pe ee ae a 10

. About 12 verticillate bristles on most anten-

nal segments; upper sternopleural scale
patch usually extending to anterior median
angle of sclerite; claws of fore and midlegs
equal, toothed; abdominal sternites II-VII
with a wide basal white band, covering at
least basal two-thirds of each segment; dis-
Gistylersimaple: asl. 2.5 panayensis Ludlow
About 20 verticillate bristles on most antennal
segments; upper sternopleural scale patch
never extending to anterior median angle of
sclerite; claws of foreleg unequal, both
toothed; claws of midleg equal, both sim-
ple; sternites entirely brown, or with a few
white scales on basal one-third; dististyle
forkedpiaepnecee tics. b.5c008 3 ve umbrosus Brug
Scutal integument reddish brown; smaller
claws of fore and midlegs each with a small
tooth; sternites II-VII with about basal
two-thirds of each segment white; basistyle
with a large patch of flat white scales lat-
erally; paraproct forked beyond middle...
hh ds Ep ets Lee campylostylus, n. sp.
Scutal integument blackish brown; smaller
claws of fore and midlegs simple; sternites
II-VII entirely brown; basistyle with flat
brown scales only; paraproct simple......
SADIE OP Oe he ere nigrotarsis (Ludlow)
Larger claw of midleg simple, smaller claws of
fore and midlegs each with a small tooth
(genitalia as in Fig. 2)... hamistylus, n. sp.
Larger claw of midleg with a prominent tooth,
smaller claws of fore and midlegs simple. 12
Hind claws each with a prominent tooth
(genitalia as in Fig. 3)....:..robertst, n. sp.
Hind claws simple (genitalia as in Fig. 6)...
ies) heathen dal rcs Buea 4 dux Dyar and Shannon

KEY TO FEMALES

. Abdominal tergites JI-VIII always with some

white or yellowish basolateral markings,
sometimes produced onto dorsum, some-
times reduced to a few scales; hind claws
allivayisssimnp le trsyretane: sia tee sole on pager 8s 2
Abdominal tergites II-VIII entirely brown;
about 5-10 small upright forked scales on
nape on each side of midline; mesepimeron
never with more than 3 or 4 hairs behind
Scalenmatchitt : Ame pape: Dati tie epee seria Fes 8

. Anterior median portion of sternopleuron

with about 15 hairs; sternites almost en-
finelyiwhited:. kek LOS eaees oe aes 3
Anterior median portion of sternopieuron
bare of hairs or with only 1 or 2 (rarely up
HO) AUOOUNG hrlo VMOES elect suse bo 55 Soe 4

. Atrial hairs confined to median area; preatrial

230

platessiot- amited (4G ~aree ae eta. these
ERATE Ee macrodizoa Dyar and Shannon
Atrial hairs not confined to median area;
preatrial plates united for greater part of
them Jemeth 0h 1s. uncus (Theobald)
4. Meteusternum with numerous fine hairs... .
hier shan adustus, n. sp.
johnsont, n. sp.
margarsen Dyar and Shannon
Meteusternum without hairs.............
At least 10 hairs on posterior and ventral
parts of mesepimeron, usually more numer-

Or
Ou

Mesepimeron with a number of bristles along
the upper margin but no hairs ventral to

the scale patch and never more than 3 or 4
behind ate ai MOS Teo. ee ae ee 7

6. Upper sternopleural scale patch usually ex-
tending to anterior median angle of sclerite;
sternites II-VII with a wide basal white
band covering at least basal half of seg-
ments; postatrial sclerite not trilobed.....

ESE gh a ce Re One AR panayensis Ludlow
Upper sternopleural scale patch never ex-
tending to the anterior median angle of
sclerite; abdominal sternites entirely dark
brown or with some white scales on basal
one-third; postatrial sclerite trilobed......

Ey EEE EACLE St Uae, AOA RTE umbrosus Brug

7. Scutal integument reddish brown; sternites
II-VII with about basal two-thirds white;

no large round dark preatrial plate.......

Me SM neice SNE GEAR; campylostylus, n. sp.
Scutal integument blackish brown; sternites
II-VII entirely brown; a large round heay-

ily pigmented preatrial plate in addition to

the paired preatriall plates... Bon aie... ..

se SAS ATS go noms eee nigrotarsts (Ludlow)

8. Hind claws simple; a pair of hairy processes
anterior to the spermathecal eminence... .
Pn cease ae Seana dux Dyar and Shannon
Hind claws toothed; no paired hairy processes
anterior to the spermathecal eminence.. .9

9. Postatrial area with areas of densest scleroti-
ZAtIONy as slaonwvan Wine boy NG) ee en:

Sha VR. ehettare 4 cape i mantis) hamistylus, n. sp.
Postatrial area with areas of densest scleroti-
zation as shown in Fig. 15..robertsz, n. sp.

KEY TO KNOWN LARVAE

1. Comb scales with a complete apical fringe, no
prominent terminal spine; pentad hair 2 of
abdominal segment VIII with 4-5 branches;
mentum with 11-13 teeth on each side. .
RS At SeM ee we eee hk hy umbrosus Brug

Comb scales with a distinct terminal spine;
pentad hair 2 of abdominal segment VIII
witht l—3) branchesset. a... ieee. Mae}. 2

2. Mentum with 8-11 teeth on each side; anal
gills 1.0-1.5 times as long as anal plate...
“te he cl ae RS eRe duz Dyar and Shannon

Mentum with 13 or more teeth on each side;
anal gills at least 1.7 times as long as anal
FOALS ered Mer iar vires Peat teeea ate meme Lt ie 3

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 7

3. Head hair 5 with at least 5 branches (very
rarely 4); head hair 6 with at least 4

branches. oc. be. ss ee Se ee 4
Head hairs 5 and 6 with not more than 3
branches’ each 2... : 1!) . Cees Soe)

4. Mentum with 18-20 teeth on each side; pro-
thoracic hair 2 single; prothoracic hair 8
double. “rasa See campylostylus, n. sp.

Mentum with 14-18 teeth on each side; pro-
thoracic hair 2 single or double (usually
double); prothoracic hair 8 single or double
(usually single}: > ae se eee
TEER AAD johnson, n. Sp.

margarsen Dyar and Shannon

5. Dorsolateral hair (hair 6) of abdominal seg-
ment I single; pentad hair 1 of abdominal
segment VIII single, pentad hair 3 with 2-3
branches; anal gills at least 5 times as !ong
as anal plate... \4 igs. 2 robertst, n. Sp.

hamistylus, n. sp.

Dorsolateral hair of segment I with 2 or more
branches; pentad hair 1 with 3—5 branches,
pentad hair 3 with at least 5 branches; anal
gills not more than 3.5 times as long as anal
plate 2, ROG nigrotarsis (Ludlow)

Aedes (Aedes) robertsi, n. sp.

Male.—Wing: 1.8-2.1 mm. Head: About 10
verticillate bristles on most antennal segments;
torus brownish yellow dorsolaterally, remainder
dark brown, bare or with a few flat dark scales
on median aspect. Head scales mostly flat dark
brown, a lateral patch of flat white scales; 2 or
& pale scales between the eyes; about 5 dark-
brown, forked, upright scales on nape on each
side of midline. Thorax: Integument of scutum
and scutellum dark brown, clothed with golden-
brown, narrow, curved scales, black in some
lights. Apn brown, with about 7 large bristles,
bristles, bare or with some flat pale scales.
Ppn brown, bare. Pleuron brown. Anterior
median portion of sternopleuron bare. About
10 bristles on upper part of mesepimeron, re-
mainder of mesepimeron without bristles or
hairs. Meteusternum bare. Claws of fore and
midlegs unequal, the larger ones toothed, the
smaller ones simple; claws of hind legs small,
equal, toothed. Abdomen: Tergites all brown
except for a pale lateral patch on segment I.
Sternites entirely brown. Genitalia (Fig. 3):
Basistyle with a large apical prolongation di-
rected mesad, joined to the prolongation of the
opposite side by a short sclerotized bar. Pro-
longation with a stout spine on inner posterior
surface, directed medially and posteriorly, then
curving ventrally and posteriorly. Two strong
bristles close to outer base of prolongation,
several other bristles very close to these, a total

JuLy 15, 1946 LAFFOON: PHILIPPINE MOSQUITOES OF GENUS AEDES 231

4 panayensis

|.umbrosus 5 2. hamistylus 3.rober tsi

8.margarsen

1O.uncus Il. nubicolus 12. macrodixoa 13. campylostylus

Fics. 1-13.—Male genitalia. D, dististyle; P, paraproct.

232

of about 20 bristles on the basistyle. Dististyle
curved, enlarged before middle, two patches of
hairs on enlarged portion, the proximal patch
with about 8 hairs, the distal patch with about
6; tip of dististyle hooked. Paraproct long,
curved dorsad.

Female-—Wing: 2.3-2.7 mm. Torus with
some flat dark scales on median aspect. Claws
of all legs equal, toothed. Genitalia (Fig. 15):
Cercus and postgenital plate unusually narrow.
Postgenital plate barely emarginate. Postatrial
area with characteristic thickened areas. A
large hairy median preatrial plate, posterior
portion extending into postatrial area (if the
preatrial area is not extended in mounting, the
plate will resemble a small hairy sphere). Pre-
atrial sclerite very broad laterally, anterior
margin with a pair of submedian lobes (poorly
seen in most views).

Larva.—Head: Hair 11 (antennal tuft) single,
smooth, inserted at or just beyond middle of
shaft; hair 4 small, with 2-3 branches; 5 with
with 2-3; 6 with 2-4; 7 with 2-5; 8 with 2-4;
9 with 3-6; 14 with 2-3. Mentum with 16-19
teeth on each side. Abdomen: Hair 7 of segment
I and hair 6 of segments I-VI all single. Comb
scales with a distinct terminal spine and a fine
lateral fringe, arranged in an irregular row,
9-12 in number. Pentad hair 1 of segment VIII
single; hair 2 with 1-3 branches; hair 3 with
2-5; hair 4 single; 5 with 3-5. Siphonal index
3.6-3.9; 5-8 pecten teeth, distal tooth inserted
at 0.6—-0.8 the length of the siphon, teeth with
2-5 small lateral denticles on the ventral side,
spacing between the teeth nearly regular; hair
tuft inserted at 0.75—0.90 the siphonal length,
distal to and about in line with the last pecten
tooth, 1-3- branched. Isc 2-3-branched; lh 1-2
branched, about one-half as long as anal plate;
ventral brush with about 12 tufts, all tufts with
several branches, anterior two sometimes only
1—2-branched; anal gills extremely long, ap-
parently about 6 times as long as anal plate.

Holotype—Male, in Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia, from Tacloban,
Leyte, September 15, 1945, collected as a larva
in a gravel-bottomed residual pool in a dry
stream bed (H. R. Roberts).

Paratypes—Eight males, 11 females, 13
whole larvae. Same data as for holotype. De-
posited in the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia, U. 8. National Museum, British
Museum, and California Academy of Sciences.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 7

Remarks.—This species is very closely re-
lated to uniformis (Theobald) (India) and
abditus Barraud (India), and apparently to
fragilis (Leicester) (Malay Peninsula), inde-
corabilis (Leicester) (Malay Peninsula), and
yusafi Barraud (India). The hind claws of both
sexes, where known, of these species are toothed
(hind claws of indecorabilis have not been
described). This condition is found also in
roberts: and hamistylus but is unknown in any |
other members of the subgenus except the
female of esoensis Yamada. Yamada (1921)
states that the hind claws of the female of that
species are subject to variation, sometimes
being simple, sometimes with one or more
teeth. A. roberts: and. hamistylus differ from
fragilis, indecorabilis, and yusafi in lacking
white markings on the abdominal tergites;
from wniformis in the shape of the apical pro-
longation of the basistyle, in possessing a spine
on the border of this prolongation, and in other
details of the male and female genitalia; and
from abditus in details of the sclerotized areas
of the postatrial area of the female. Verrallina
malayt Leicester, which has been considered a
synonym of wncus, is related to the species
mentioned (on the basis of the description of
Leicester, 1908) and is possibly synonymous
with fragilis.

This species is named for the collector, to
whom I am indebted for the opportunity of
seeing many of the specimens used in this
study.

Aedes (Aedes) hamistylus, n. sp.

Adult—Apparently indistinguishable from
roberist except by the following characters:
Male with claws of foreleg unequal, both
toothed; claws of midleg unequal, the larger
one simple, the smaller one toothed. Male
genitalia (Fig. 2): Apical prolongation of
basistyle more rounded than in robertst, base
of its inner posterior projection larger, with
only a short blunt projection arising from it.
Basistyle with 2 bristles close to outer base of
prolongation, but with an area free of bristles
for some distance anterior to these, a total of
about 10 bristles on the basistyle. Female geni-
talia (Fig. 16): Very similar to robertsz, but the
areas of densest sclerotization in the postatrial
area differing.

Larva (Fig. 25).—Apparently indistinguish-
able from robertst.

Juuy 15, 1946

Holotype—Male, U.S.N.M. No. 57974,
from Cape Melville, Balabac, June 23, 1945,
collected as a larva in a gravel-bottomed resid-
ual pool in a dry stream bed (Jean Laffoon).

Paratypes.—F¥orty-one males, 63 females, 8
whole larvae, 4 larval skins, 1 pupal skin (all
skins associated with adults). BaLaBac: Cape
Melville, June 1945 (A. T. Fitzjarrell, D. R.
Johnson, Jean Laffoon). Minporo: San José,
April and May 1945 (E. S. Ross). Deposited in
U. S. National Museum, British Museum,
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,
and California Academy of Sciences.

Biology.—Dr. EK. 8. Ross has supplied the
following notes in a personal communication.
‘““My series was collected in a Pandanus swamp.
The larvae were never observed breathing at
the surface and seemed able to remain indefi-
nitely at the bottom because of the possible
gill function of their long anal papillae with
pronounced tracheation. They were collected
by dredging leaves from the bottom. Pupae
were common at the surface. In the laboratory
the larvae seemed to prefer hiding under leaves
in the culture jars, ‘attaching’ to the surface by
means of their mouth brushes. The papillae
appear bluish white and are held widely out-
spread.”’

Aedes (Aedes) dux Dyar and Shannon

Aedes (Aedes) dux Dyar and Shannon, 1925, p. 81.
(Type locality: Philippine Islands. Holotype
male in U.S.N.M.)

Aedes (Aedes) macrodixoa Dyar and Shannon, Bo-
hart, 1945; p. 65 and fig. 52 (female only).

Male.—Wing: 1.6—2.0 mm. Head: About 10
verticillate bristles on most antennal segments;
torus dark brown, sometimes paler dorso-
laterally, bare. Head scales mostly flat, dark
brown; a lateral spot of pale flat scales; some-
times a few narrow curved scales bordering eye,
a few pale flattened scales between the eyes;
about 5 tiny, dark brown, forked, upright scales
on nape on each side of midline (often hidden).
Thorax: Integument of scutum and scutellum
dark brown, clothed with golden-brown, nar-
row, curved scales, black in some lights. Apn
with about 8 bristles, bare. Ppn bare or with a
few narrow scales along dorsal margin. Pleuron
brown. About 3-7 bristles along the upper
margin of the mesepimeron, remainder of
mesepimeron without bristles or hairs, oc-
casionally 1 or 2 hairs behind scale patch.

LAFFOON: PHILIPPINE MOSQUITOES OF GENUS AEDES

233

Meteusternum bare. Claws on fore and mid-
legs unequal, the larger ones toothed, the
smaller ones simple; claws on hind legs small,
equal, simple. Abdomen: Tergites entirely
brown except tergite I pale-scaled laterally, last
few tergites sometimes with an indefinite baso-
lateral patch of brown scales somewhat paler
than those on the remainder of the abdomen.
Sternites brown. Genitalia (Fig. 6): Basistyle
very short, along the inner margin a heavy,
double-tipped spine, a shorter curved spine,
and a projection with 2 small spines near tip.
Dististyle inserted near outer margin apically,
enlarged near base and curved posteriorly be-
fore apex, numerous hairs near middle. Para-
procts slender, fairly long, tenth tergite dis-
tinct, with numerous minute hairs.

Female.—Wing: 2.1-2.6 mm. Torus with a
few rather narrow dark scales on inner aspect.
Claws on fore and mid legs equal, toothed;
claws on hind leg equal, simple. Genitalia (Fig.
19): Postgenital plate emarginate. Postatrial
sclerite narrow, barely convex posteriorly,
weak medially. Postatrial plate with a pair
of hairy, fingerlike processes articulated an-
teriorly, a row of short hairs extending medially
and posteriorly from the base of these. Preatrial
sclerites widely disjoined.

Larva (Fig. 29).—Head: Hair 11 with 5-10
branches, inserted before middle of shaft; hair
4 very small, with 3-5 branches; 5 with 2-4;
6 with 3-4; 7 with 7-12; 8 with 2-3; 9 with 1-3;
14 with 2-5. Mentum with 8-11 lateral teeth.
Abdomen: Hair 6 of segment I double, oc-
casionally triple; hair 7 of segment I single;
hair 6 of segment IT double, occasionally triple;
hair 6 of segments III—-VI single. Comb scales
with a distinct terminal spine and a fine lateral
fringe, 8-13 in number. Pentad hair 1 with 3-6
branches; 2 with 1-2; 3 with 5-8; 4 single; 5
with 6-10. Siphonal index about 2.6; hair tuft
4-8 branched; 7-13 pecten teeth, last tooth
inserted before middle, all teeth usually having
a well-formed lateral denticle on the ventral
side, tending to be somewhat smaller on the
distal teeth, sometimes 3-4 lateral denticles,
dorsal side of spines usually bare, sometimes
with a small denticle; distal 1-3 teeth some-
what more widely spaced than those nearer
base. Isc 5-8 branched; lh single, about as long
as anal plate; ventral brush with about 12 tufts
of which at least the anterior one is off the
well-developed grid, each tuft many-branched;

234 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 7

2l.uncus 22.macrodixoa 23.iohnsoni 2 4.campylostylus

Fic. 14, a and b.—Genitalia of a male from Balabac (see remarks under adustus).
Fies. 15-24.—Female genitalia. C, cercus; PGP, postgenital plate; POS, postatrial sclerite; POP,
postatrial plate; PRP, preatrial plate; PRS, preatrial sclerite.

JuLy 15, 1946

anal gills slightly tapering, bluntly tipped, 1.0-
1.5 times the length of the anal plate.

Biology.—The larvae have been collected in
fresh water in footprints in a ricefield near a
mangrove swamp. N. Angeles reared a series
from eggs in the laboratory in fresh water.
Causey (1937) stated that “larvae were found
in fresh and brackish water.’’ The adults have
been taken in light traps.

Distribution.—Specimens have been exam-
ined from the following localities: Luzon:
Camp Nichols, Rizal (Pvt. Carraway, J. J.
Larkin, R. F. Longacre, G. McDonald); Las
Pinas, Rizal (F. E. Baisas); Tungkong Manga,
San José, Bulacan (N. Angeles); Manila (D.
Fox, Harry Hoogstraal); Subic Bay (M. J.
MacMillan); Camp Stotsenberg, Pampanga.
Mrinporo: Caminawit Point (G. H. Penn);
MinpAnao: Zamboanga (K. L. Knight, Jean
Laffoon). Previously recorded from Luzén,
Java, Singapore, and Siam.

Remarks.—The male and female genitalia
readily separate this from all other known
species except stgmoides Barraud, which Causey
(1937) considered a synonym of dux. However,
Barraud states that the holotype of stgmoides
has white basolateral abdominal spots, and as
Philippine specimens of dux lack such spots,
this synonomy must be considered question-
able at present. The female which Bohart
(1945) figured as macrodixoa has been examined
and found to be duz.

Aedes (Aedes) johnsoni, n. sp.

Male. Wing: 2.5-2.9 mm. Head: Over 20
verticillate bristles on most antennal segments;
torus brownish yellow dorsolaterally, remainder
dark brown, a few very small, rather narrow,
dark-brown scales medially. Head scales mostly
flat, dark brown; a lateral patch of flat white
scales; usually some narrow, curved, golden
scales behind the eyes, extending downward for
a short distance between the eyes; a number of
dark brown, forked, upright scales on nape,
sometimes a few pale flat scales near their
bases; often a few golden, narrow, curved scales
along the midline, sometimes extending for-
ward to the eye border. Thorax: Integument of
scutum and scutellum dark brown, clothed
‘with golden-brown, narrow, curved scales,
black in some lights, paler scales on anterior
margin of scutum and above the wing base.
Apn with about 12 large and some smaller

LAFFOON: PHILIPPINE MOSQUITOES OF GENUS AEDES

235

bristles, bare or with a few flat white scales,
rarely with a few pale narrow curved scales.
Ppn usually with light-brown, narrow, curved
scales on the dorsal half, sometimes with a few
flat pale scales, sometimes bare. Pleuron dark
brown. Anterior median angle of sternopleuron
without scales or hairs. A number of bristles
along the upper margin of the mesepimeron,
numerous fine hairs posterior and ventral to
the scale patch, ventral one-fourth of sclerite
bare. Meteusternum with numerous fine pale
hairs anteriorly. Claws on fore and mid legs
unequal, the larger ones with a distinct tooth,
the smaller ones simple; claws on hind leg small,
equal, simple. Abdomen: Tergites dark brown
with basolateral white spots on segments II-—
VIII with apices directed dorsoposteriorly,
sometimes barely produced onto the dorsum
of some segments. Sternites II—VII with white
scales basally, brown scales apically; sternite
VIII all white. Genitalia (Fig. 7): Basistyle
with a long, wide, flattened prolongation apical-
ly on the dorsal aspect, this process much wider
than any of the other processes, prolongation
with a deep rounded notch apically, the an-
terior fork about twice as long as the posterior.
Ventral to this prolongation three other sub- °
apical processes, the first split near the tip,
the second a 3—4-branched forklike process,
the third a long simple process. About 8 strong
spines on ventral aspect of basistyle near base.
Dististyle subapical, slender, curved, 2 hairs
arising before tip. Paraproct very long, simple.

Female—Wing: 2.8-3.6 mm. Torus with a
few dark scales medially. Claws of fore and mid
legs equal, toothed; claws of hind legs equal,
simple. Abdominal spots somewhat larger than
in male, usually visible from above on segments
II-VIII. Sternite VIII mostly brown. Genitalia
(Fig. 23): Postgenital plate emarginate. Post-
atrial sclerite narrow, unevenly rounded. Post-
atrial plate broad, with a characteristic pos-
terior arm. Postatrial hairs confined to median
area. Preatrial plates proximated but not
united.

Larva.—Head: Head hair 11 with 3-5 feebly
plumose branches, inserted before middle of
shaft; hair 4 very small, with 4-7 branches;
5 with 5-10; 6 with 4-8; 7 with 10-14; 8 with
1-2; 9 with 3-6; 14 with 3-5. Mentum with
14-18 teeth on each side (average of 102 cases,
15.7). Thorax: Prothoracic hair 2 single or
double (usually double); hair 8 single or double

236

(usually single). Abdomen: Hair 6 of segment I
double; hair 7 single, rarely double; hair 6 of
segment II double, occasionally triple; hair 6
of segments III-VI single, one or more some-
times double. Comb scales with a distinct
terminal spine and a fine lateral fringe, 10-14
in number. Pentad hair 1 of segment VIII with
4—6 branches, 2 double, 3 with 3-7, 4 double,
5 with 6-9. Siphonal index about 3.0; 14-20
-pecten teeth, distal tooth inserted beyond
middle, basal teeth with 1-3 small lateral
denticles, distal 2-5 teeth simple or with a very
small lateral denticle, distal 2-5 teeth more
widely spaced than those nearer base; siphonal
tuft 2—5-branched. Jsc 5—7-branched; lh single,
shorter than anal plate; ventral brush with
about 12 tufts, each tuft many-branched; anal
gills lanceolate, pointed, the dorsal pair slightly
longer than the ventral pair, 1.9-3.0 times
length of the anal plate.

Holotype.—Male, with associated larval and
pupal skins, U.S.N.M. No. 57975, from Pasa-
nonco, Mindanao (near Zamboanga), Septem-
ber 18, 1945, collected in a muddy road rut in
a coconut grove (D. R. Johnson).

Paratypes.—F orty-one males, 44 females, 15
- whole larvae, 38 larval skins, 37 pupal skins (all
skins associated with adults). MinpaNnao: San
Ramén, Zamboanga and Pasanonco, September
1945 (K. L. Knight, D. R. Johnson, Jean Laf-
foon). BasttAn: Isabela, September 1945
(K. L. Knight). Leyrs: Tanauan, November
1944 (H. R. Roberts). Deposited in U. 8. Na-
tional Museum, British Museum, Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and Cali-
fornia Academy of Sciences.

Biology.—The larvae have been collected
several times in muddy pools and road ruts.

Adults have been taken in the jungle during ©

the day.

Remarks.—A. andamanensis, margarsen,
adustus, and the present species form a very
closely knit complex. They are distinct from
all other known species in the character of the
prolongation and processes at the apex of the
basistyle. The three Philippine species differ
from other Philippine Aedes (Aedes) in the
presence of numerous fine hairs on the meteu-
sternum. From the description and figures of
andamanensis (Edwards, 1922; Barraud, 1928
and 1934) and from examination of adults and
genitalia of the three Philippine species, it

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 7

would appear that the only method of separat-
ing the four members of this complex is by
means of the male genitalia. These differ from
each other in the character of the prolongation
and processes at the apex of the basistyle. The
three Philippine forms should perhaps be con-
sidered subspecies of andamanensis, but until a
study can be made of their biology and of more
material from various parts of the range, it is
thought best to recognize them as full species.
The larvae of johnsont and adustus are ap-
parently indistinguishable and the larva of
campylostylus is very similar.

This species is named for one of the col-
lectors, D. R. Johnson, whose interest in mos-
quito collecting has added materially to the
knowledge of the Philippine mosquito fauna.

Aedes (Aedes) adustus, n. sp.

Adult.—The external characters and female
genitalia appear to be indistinguishable from
andamanensis, johnson, and margarsen. Male
genitalia (Fig. 9): Very similar to the three
species mentioned. The most ventral of the
processes at the apex of the basistyle is very
short (difficult to find, apparently absent in
some specimens), while in the three closely
related species it is well developed. Only 2-3
branches in the forklike subapical process.
Apicodorsal prolongation of basistyle with an-
terior fork only slightly longer than posterior.

Larva.—Unknown.

Holotype.—Male, U.S.N.M. No. 57976, from
Cape Melville, Balabac, P.I., June 23, 1945
(D. E. Howell), reared from larva collected in a
shaded road rut.

Paratypes.—Six males, 6 females. Same local-
ity and date as holotype (D. R. Johnson, Jean
Laffoon, A. T. Fitzjarrell). Deposited in U. S.
National Museum and British Museum.

Biology.—The larvae have been collected in
shaded road ruts and in a shaded, gravel-
bottomed residual pool in a dry stream bed.

Remarks.—A very unusual specimen was
taken as a larva in the residual pool from which
part of the type series of adustus was taken. It
is inseparable from the male of adustus on
external characters, but the genitalia (Fig. 14,
a and 6) are asymmetrical. One side is rather
similar to adustus, while the other is very odd,
showing some similarity to campylostylus and
some to adustus. The larvae of campylostylus,
hamistylus, and uncus were collected in this

JuLy 15, 1946

same pool. The specimen is in the U. S. Na-
tional Museum.

Aedes (Aedes) margarsen Dyar and
Shannon

Aedes (Aedes) margarsen Dyar and Shannon,
1925, p. 80. (Type locality: Camp Eldridge,
Laguna, Luzén. Male lectotype here designated
from series of 4 male and 4 female cotypes, in
U.S.N.M.)

Adult.—Apparently indistinguishable on ex-
ternal characters or on the female genitalia
from andamanensis, johnsoni, and adustus. The
white markings on abdominal tergites of female
extremely variable; a pale, subbasal, median
spot often present on I, II—VII often with
lateral spots produced well onto dorsum, some-
times forming a complete transverse subbasal
band. Male genitalia (Fig. 8): Very similar to
johnson. and andamanensis except that the
apicodorsal prolongation of the basistyle is
narrower, not much wider than the other sub-
apical processes; 2—4 branches in the forklike
subapical process.

Larva.—Apparently inseparable from the
larva of gohnsont. The mentum has 13-17 teeth
on each side (average of 28 cases, 14.5).

Biology—The larvae have been taken in
road rut pools.

Distribution —Material has been examined
from the following localities: Luzon: Camp
Eldridge (E. Vazquez); Los Banos and Cala-
mias, Laguna (F. E. Baisas); Tungkong Manga
San José, Bulacan (N. Angeles); Subic Bay
(F. E. Zedeck); San Anastacio (A. B. Gurney).
Mrnporo: San José (E. 8. Ross).

Remarks.—Napoleon Angeles has reared a
series from eggs from a known adult at Tung-
kong Manga. The transverse abdominal bands
are complete in some of the females in this
series, and broadly interrupted in others.

Aedes (Aedes) nubicolus, n. sp.

Aedes (Aedes) uncus (Theobald), Bohart, 1945,
p. 66 and fig. 50 (male only).

Male.—Wing: 3.0 mm. Head: Over 20 vertic-
illate bristles on most antennal segments;
torus dark brown ventrally, paler. dorsally.
Head scales mostly flat dark brown, a lateral
patch of flat, white scales, a few pale scales
along eye border and between the eyes, a few
pale scales anterior to nape, about 20 brown
forked upright scales on nape on each side of

LAFFOON: PHILIPPINE MOSQUITOES OF GENUS AEDES

237

midline. Thorax: Integument of scutum and
scutellum orange-brown, clothed with golden,
narrow, curved scales, black in some lights,
paler scales on anterior border of scutum and
above wing bases. Apn orange-brown with
about 10 bristles. Ppn orange-brown with a
few scales on the dorsal half similar to those on
the scutum. Pleuron orange-brown. About 15
hairs on anterior median part of sternopleuron.
About 15 upper mesepimeral bristles and num-
erous hairs on the posterior and ventral parts
of this sclerite, extending into the ventral one-
fourth. Claws of fore and mid legs unequal, the
larger ones toothed, the smaller ones simple;
claws of hind legs small, equal, simple. Abdo-
men: Tergites dark brown, II-VIII with white
basolateral spots with apices directed dorso-
posteriorly, barely visible from above on seg-
ments [V—VII. Sternites mostly white. Genitalia
(Fig. 11): Basistyle with a fairly short subapical
process dorsally, bearing about 4 very heavy
spines apically and several bristles. Inner aspect
of basistyle with a rather small triangular
sclerotized plate. Dististyle subapical, simple,
very broad near middle, about 8 fine hairs near
the widest part. Paraproct simple, very long.
Female and larva—Unknown.
Holotype.-—Male, in Museum of Compara-
tive Zoology, from Sibulan River at 7,000-
8,000 feet on Mount Apo (near Davao),
Mindanao, September 23 (C. S. Clagg).
Paratype.—Male, same data as for holotype.
Deposited in Museum of Comparative Zoology.
Remarks.—This species is apparently indis-
tinguishable externally from macrodixoa and
uncus. The male genitalia are distinct from all
species for which the male is known, but it is
not impossible that this may be the male of
some species of which the female only is known
at present.

Aedes (Aedes) uncus (Theobald)

Culez uncus Theobald, 1901, p. 53. (Type locality:
Selangor, Malay Peninsula. Type: Female in
British Museum.)

Aedes (Aedes) uncus (Theobald), Bohart, 1945,
p. 66 and fig. 56 (female only).

Male.—Wing: 2.6-3.0 mm. Head: Over 20
verticillate bristles on most antennal segments;
torus dark brown ventrally, paler dorsally,
bare. Head scales mostly flat dark brown, a
lateral patch of flat, white scales, a few pale
scales along eye margin and between the eyes, a

238

few narrow pale scales along the midline, at
least 15 dark-brown, forked, upright scales on
nape on each side of midline. Thorax: Integu-
ment of scutum and scutellum orange-brown,
clothed with golden-brown, narrow, curved
scales, black in some lights, paler scales on ante-
rior border of scutum and above wing base.
Apn orange-brown with about 7 large and some
smaller bristles. Ppn brown, with some fine
hairs and a number of scales on the dorsal half
similar to those on the scutum. Pleuron orange-
brown. About 15 hairs on anterior part of sterno-
pleuron. About 15 upper mesepimeral bristles
and numerous hairs on the posterior and ven-
tral parts of this sclerite, extending into the
ventral one-fourth. Claws of fore and mid legs
unequal, the larger ones toothed, the smaller
ones simple; claws of hind leg equal, small,
simple. Abdomen: Tergites dark brown, II-
VIII with white basolateral spots with apices
directed dorsoposteriorly, barely visible from
above. Sternites I-VII mostly white, with a
few brown scales apically; sternite VIII all
white. Genitalia (Fig. 10): Basistyle with two
long processes. Posterior process split near tip,
without bristles, the other with 3-4 large
heavy spines near apex and 2 or 3 small bristles
along length. An irregular row of about 9 stout
spines along inner ventral margin. Inner aspect
with a small subtriangular spine. Dististyle
simple, slightly enlarged near middle, 2 small
subapical hairs and about 10 hairs nearer
middle. Paraproct short, simple.

Female.—Wing: 3.1-3.8 mm. Torus with a
few flat dark scales on inner aspect. Claws of
fore and mid legs equal, toothed; claws of hind
leg equal, simple. Sternite VIII all brown.
Genitalia (Fig. 21): Postgenital plate deeply
emarginate. Postatrial sclerite wide, very con-
vex, widened laterally. Postatrial plate of char-
acteristic shape. Postatrial hairs fairly long,
some of them well removed from median line.
Preatrial plates united for most of their length.

Larva.—Unknown.

Biclogy.—The larvae have been taken in
various types of temporary ground pools, in-
cluding shaded grassy ground pools, a leaf-
filled jungle pool, a sunlit rocky pool, and a
shaded gravel-bottomed residual pool in a dry
stream bed. Adults have been captured biting
man during the day in shaded areas.

Distribution.—Specimens have been exami-
ined from the following localities in the Philip-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 7

pines: Cunton: (Jean Laffoon). Panawan:
Puerto Princesa (Jean Laffoon, R. C. Me-
Gregor, J. P. Toffaleti); Irahuan River Valley
(D. R. Johnson). Batasac: Cape Melville
(D. R. Johnson, Jean Laffoon). Previously re-
corded from the Malay Peninsula and Palawan.
Bohart (1945) records this species from Mount
Apo, Mindanao, but the specimens on which
this identification was based are the types of
nubicolus.

Remarks.—This species is apparently indis-
tinguishable externally from macrodizoa and
nubicolus. The male genitalia agree well with
the figure given by Edwards (1917). As Ed-
wards stated that the male he figured was only
arbitrarily associated with the type female of
uncus and as the female genitalia of the holo-
type of wncus have not been described, it is
possible that the present species is not true
UNCUS.

Edwards (1913, etc.) has considered Ver-
rallina malay: Leicester to be a synonym of
uncus. Leicester (1908) described malayi as
having all the. claws toothed. This and other
characters described by Leicester indicate that
malayi is not a synonym of uncus, but is re-
Inted to uniformis and the other species dis-
cussed under robertst. It is possibly synonymous
with fragilis, as suggested by Leicester in his
original description.

Aedes (Aedes) macrodixoa Dyar and
Shannon

Aedes (Aedes) macrodizoa Dyar and Shannon,
1925, p. 77. (Type locality: Infanta, Tayabas,
Luzén. Male holotype in U.S.N.M.)

Aedes (Aedes) macrodixoa Dyar and Shannon,
Bohart, 1945, p. 65 and fig. 48 (male only).
Male.—Wing: 2.3-2.8 mm. Head: Over 20

verticillate bristles on most antennal segments;

torus brown to dark brown ventrally, paler
dorsally, bare. Head scales mostly flat, dark
brown, a lateral patch of pale flat scales; 2 or

3 pale narrow scales between the eyes, a few

pale scales along the eye margin, sometimes a

few pale narrow scales along midline, at least

15 dark brown, forked, upright scales on nape on

each side of midline. Thorax: Integument of

scutum and scutellum orange-brown, clothed
with golden-brown, narrow, curved scales,
black in some lights, paler scales on anterior
border of scutum and above the wing base. Apn
orange-brown to brown, with about 9 bristles,
bare. Ppn brown, with some narrow curved

Jury 15, 1946

scales on the dorsal half similar to those on the
scutum, sometimes with a few flat white scales.
Pleuron brown. Anterior median portion of
sternopleuron with about 10-15 hairs. About
Z0 bristles along upper margin of mesepimeron,
numerous hairs posterior and ventral to the
scale patch, extending into the ventral one-
fourth of this sclerite. Meteusternum bare.
Ciaws of fore and mid legs unequal, the larger
ones toothed, the smaller ones simple; claws
of hind legs small, equal, simple. Abdomen:
Tergites dark brown, II-VIII with basolateral
white spots with apices directed dorsopos-
teriorly, not visible from above. Sternites I-
VII almost entirely. white, but usually with a
few brown scales apically; sternite VIII all
white. Genitalia (Fig. 12): Basistyle with a
conical lobe subapically on the ventrolateral
aspect (appearing triangular in flat prepara-
tion) with 1 or 2 very heavy bristles apically
and several more slender bristles before the tip;
dorsad and mesad to this a long process with a
‘single bristle on the outer margin before the
middle. On the inner ventral margin near the
base a fairly long process with a single bristle
on the inner margin before the middle. A short,
blunt, nonsclerotized process on the inner
aspect close to insertion of dististyle. Dististyle
simple, without hairs or bristles. Basistyle with
a patch of about 8-12 long bristles near inner
dorsal margin, remainder of dorsal aspect with-
out bristles. Sclerotized portion of paraproct
very short. Ninth tergite with a very large Y-
shaped process posteriorly, each fork with a
very hairy ventral branch, main branch smooth
dorsally, with a few hairs ventrally.

Female.—Wing: 3.0-3.8 mm. Torus with a
few flat dark scales on inner aspect. Claws of
fore and mid legs equal, toothed; claws of hind
legs equal, simple. Abdominal spots visible
from above on segments II—VII. Sternite VIII
all brown. Genitalia (Fig. 22): Postgenital plate
emarginate. Postatrial sclerite wide laterally,
narrowed and slightly convex medially. Post-
atrial plate broadly united with postatrial
sclerite, shape characteristic. Postatrial hairs
very short, confined to median area. Preatrial
plates not united.

Larva.—Unknown.

Biology—Adults were bred from larvae
taken in a temporary leaf-filled pool. The adult
has been captured in dense jungle during the
day.

LAFFOON : PHILIPPINE MOSQUITOES OF GENUS AEDES

239

Distribution.—Specimens have been exam-
ined from the following localities: Luz6n:
Infanta, Tayabas. Mrnporo: San José (EK. 8.

Ross). LrytTe: Tacloban (H. R. Roberts).
MINDANAO: Mercedes (Jean Laffoon); Parang

(J. C. Gregory). The only valid previous record

of this species is of the holotype.

Remarks.—This species is apparently indis-
tinguishable externally from uncus and nubi-
colus. The female which Bohart (1945) identi-
fied and figured as macrodixoa has been exam-
ined and found to be dux. The male figured by
Brug (1932) as macrodixoa from near the Upper
Digoel River in southern Dutch New Guinea is
an undescribed species. Additional specimens
of this new species from New Guinea are in the
National Museum. It differs from macrodixoa
in the shape and length of the subapical pro-
jection of the ventral aspect of the basistyle
and in the number of bristles in the patch
along the inner dorsal margin of the basistyle
(8-12 in macrodixoa, 16-22 in the form from
New Guinea).

Aedes (Aedes) nigrotarsis (J.udlow)

Pseudoskusea nigrotarsis Ludlow, 1908, p. 52°
(Type locality: Infanta, Luzén. Holotype fe-
male, U.S.N.M. No. 57979.)

Pseudoskusea mediolineata Ludlow, 1908, p. 332.

Male.—Wing: 2.2-2.6 mm. Head: over 20
verticillate bristles on most antennal segments;
torus dark brown, with a few tiny, rather nar-
row, dark scales medially. Head scales mostly
flat dark brown, a lateral patch of flat pale
scales, sometimes 2 or 3 pale narrow curved
scales behind eye margin, sometimes a few
narrow pale scales along midline, 20 or more
forked upright scales on nape on each side of
midline. Thorax: Integument of scutum and
scutellum blackish brown, clothed with golden-
brown, narrow, curved scales, black in some
lights. Apn with about 8 large bristles and some
smaller ones, without scales. Ppn with a few
light-brown, narrow, curved scales on the dor-
sal half. Pleuron dark brown. Anterior median
portion of sternopleuron bare. A number of
bristles along the upper border of the mesepi-
meron, sometimes up to 3 or 4 small hairs be-
hind scale patch, always bare below. Claws on
fore and mid legs unequal, the larger ones
toothed, the smaller ones simple; claws on hind
leg small, equal, simple. Abdomen: Tergites
dark brown with basolateral white patches

240

with apices directed dorsoposteriorly, usually
not visible from above, sometimes barely pro-
duced onto dorsum of segments VI and VII.
Sternites II-VII brown, sternite VIII pale.
Genitalia (Fig. 5): Basistyle with a very broad
rectangular apical prolongation. Ventral mar-
gin with a triangular process near base. Disti-
style slender, curved, with a short subapical
hair and 2 short hairs arising from a short
projection well beyond middle. Paraproct long,
simple.

Female.—Wing: 2.5-3.0 mm. Torus with a
few flat dark scales medially. Claws of fore
and mid legs equal; toothed; claws of hind leg
equal, simple. Tergites II-VII with lateral
spots usually produced onto dorsum to form
complete or nearly complete subbasal trans-
verse white or yellowish bands. Sternite VIIT
brown. Genitalia (Fig. 20): Postgenital plate
slightly emarginate, narrow. Postatrial sclerite
very convex, very wide posteriorly and lat-
erally. Postatrial area with several sclerotized
areas and a large number of long hair-like
processes with numerous branches, apparently
anastomosing. A large, rounded, unpaired,
very darkly pigmented preatrial plate, anterior
to this a pair of smaller plates.

Larva (Fig. 28).—Head: Antenna uniformly
light brown; head hair 11 with 2-5. feebly
plumose branches, inserted before middle of
shaft. Head hair 4 very small, with 4-6
branches; head hairs 5 and 6 with 3 branches
(sometimes 2), the median branch always dis-
tinctly stouter and longer than the lateral
branches; hair 7 with 7-11 branches; 8 with
2-4; 9 with 3-6; 14 with 2-5. Mentum with
16-19 teeth on each side. Abdomen: Hair 6 of
segment I with 3—4 branches; hair 7 of segment
I double; hair 6 of segment II with 2-4
branches; hair 6 of segments III—VI single,
sometimes one or more double. Comb scales
with a distinct terminal spine and a fine lateral
fringe, 8-11 in number. Pentad hair 1 with 3-5
branches, 2 with 2-3, 3 with 7-13, 4 single, 5
with 8-12. Siphonal index about 2.0; hair tuft
2—6-branched; 8-14 pecten teeth, distal tooth
inserted beyond middle; basal teeth with 1-3
lateral denticles; distal 2—5 teeth usually with
only one very small lateral denticle; dorsal side
of spines usually bare, occasionally with one or
more denticles; distal 1-3 teeth more widely
spaced than those nearer base. Isc 7-11-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 7

branched; lh single, about half as long as anal
plate; ventral brush with about 14 tufts; anal
gills lanceolate, pointed, dorsal pair 1.7—2.2
times the length of the anal plate, ventral pair
slightly shorter.

Biology.—The larvae were taken several
times in temporary grassy pools. Adults have
been captured in light traps.

Distribution.—Specimens have been exam-
ined from the following localities: Luzon:
Infanta; Subic Bay (KE. 8S. Zolik); Camp
Nichols, Rizal (Pvts. Carraway, Sinclair, and
Williams); Calauan and Quezon City (F. E.
Baisas); Wackwack and Manila (Harry Hoog-
straal). Samar: Osmena (Jean Laffoon, L. E.
Rozeboom). JINAMOC ISLAND (near Basey,
Samar): (J. T. Medler). Leyte: Tacloban
(H. R. Roberts); Abuyog (O. H. Graham).
Minpanao: Zamboanga and San Ramén
(K. L. Knight, Jean Laffoon). The species has
previously been recorded only from Luzén.

Remarks.—Dyar and Shannon (1925) stated
that many of the smaller specimens of nigro-
tarsis lack abdominal spots. The entire collec-
tion of this species in the National Museum
was examined for this character, and it was
found that all specimens that had previously
been identified as nigrotarsis (probably by
Dyar and Shannon) and that were lacking ab-
dominal spots were actually duz.

This species is closely related to «indicus
(Theobald). As pointed out Bohart (1945), the
ventral process near the base of the basistyle
is triangular in nigrotarsis but long and slender
in indicus. A female of indicus from India was
examined and the genitalia were found to ap-
parently differ from nigrotarsis in not having
the hairlike processes arising as far posteriorly
as in nigrotarsis and in having a narrow longi-
tudinal slit through most of the length of the
unpaired preatrial plate.

Aedes (Aedes) campylostylus, n. sp.

Male.—Wing: 2.2-2.9 mm. Head: Over 20
verticillate bristles on most antennal segments;
torus yellowish brown dorsally, remainder dark
brown, bare or with a few flat dark scales
medially. Head scales mostly flat, dark brown,
a lateral patch of flat, white scales, a few pale
scales along eye margin and between the eyes,
sometimes a few pale scales along the midline,
about 30 dark-brown, forked, upright scales on
the nape of each side of the midline. Thorax:

JULY 15, 1946 LAFFOON: PHILIPPINE MOSQUITOES OF GENUS AEDES 241

Integument of scutum and scutellum dark with a few pale, flat scales. Ppn reddish brown
reddish brown, clothed with golden-brown, with a few narrow, curved scales on the dorsal
narrow, curved scales, black in some lights. half similar to those on the scutum. Pleuron
Apn reddish brown, with about 9 bristles, often reddish brown. Anterior median portion of

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27 umbrosus 28.nigrotarsis 29, dux

Fics. 25—29.—Larvae.

242

sternopleuron bare. About 8 pale upper mesepi-
meral bristles, posterior and ventral parts of
mesepimeron without hairs or with up to about
A posterior to the scale patch. Meteusternum
bare. Claws of fore and mid legs unequal, the
larger ones with a large tooth, the smaller ones
with a small tooth; claws of hind legs small,
equal, simple. Abdomen: Tergites dark brown,
II-VIII with basolateral white spots with
apices directed dorsoposteriorly, sometimes
barely visible from above. Sternites I-VII
white basally, pale brown on apical one-third;
sternite VIII completely white. Genitalia (Fig.
13): Basistyle with a long bladelike process
apically, ventral to this a dense patch of long,
heavy bristles. Ventral margin with a subtri-
angular projection near base, near base of this
a sclerotized triangular projection with a
smaller nipplelike projection arising from its
dorsal side near base. Dististyle subapical,
curved, with 3 hairs near middle. Paraproct
very long, with a short branch arising near
middle.

Female.—Wing: 2.9-3.5 mm. Torus with a
few rather narrow small dark scales medially.
Claws of fore and mid legs equal, toothed;
claws of hind legs equal, simple. Abdominal
spots visible from above on segments II-VIII.
Genitalia (Fig. 24): Postgenital plate emar-
ginate. Postatrial sclerite wide, convex, almost
evenly rounded. Postatrial plate with a very
characteristic posterior arm. Postatrial hairs
fairly short, confined to median area. Preatrial
plates not united.

Larva (Fig. 26).—Very similar to mar-
garsen and johnsoni except as follows: Mentum
with 18-20 lateral teeth (average of 24 cases,
18.9). Prothoracic hair 2 single (in all of 25
cases); hair 8 double (in all of 23 cases). Siphon
with 11-17 pecten teeth. Anal gills 1.8-3.2
times length of anal plate.

Holotype.—Male, with associated larval and
pupal skins, U.S.N.M. No. 57977, from about
4 miles inland along Balsahan River, Palawan
(near Iwahig), June 13, 1945, collected in a
rock hole along river (A. T. Fitzjarrell).

Paratypes.—Thirty-two males, 27 females, 5
whole larvae, 9 larval skins (6 associated with
adults); 6 pupal skins (5 associated with
adults). Pantawan: Balsahan and Irahuan
River Valleys, June 1945 (D. R. Johnson, A. T.
Fitzjarrell, Jean Laffoon). Mrnporo: San José,
April and May 1945 (E. S. Ross). BauaBac:

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VOL. 36, NO. 7

Cape Melville, June 1945 (A. T. Fitzjarrell,
D. R. Johnson, Jean Laffoon). Lryrr: Tac-
loban, September 1945 (H. R. Roberts).
MINDANAO: San- Ramon, September 1945
(D. R. Johnson, K. L. Knight, Jean Laffoon).
Deposited in U. 8. National Museum, British
Museum, Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia, and California Academy of
Sciences.

Biology —Larvae have been taken in rock

holes (twice); a tin can containing clear water

and some leaves (once); gravel-bottomed re-
sidual pools in dry stream beds (twice); in a
shaded, rocky overflow pool close to a stream
(once), and in temporary road rut pools (once).
This species apparently prefers jungle habitats.

Remarks.—The genitalia of both sexes are
different from any others that have been de-
scribed in this subgenus.

Aedes (Aedes) panayensis Ludlow

Aedes panayensis Ludlow, 1914, p. 159. (Type lo-
cality: Iloilo, Panay. Male lectotype, U.S.N.M.
No. 57978, here designated from 49 cotypes in
U.S.N.M.)

Male.—Wing: 2.7-3.1 mm. Head: About 12
verticillate bristles on most antennal segments;
torus yellowish brown dorsally, remainder dark
brown, with a few dark scales medially. Head
scales mostly flat, dark brown, a lateral patch
of flat white scales, a few pale scales along eye
margin and between the eyes, sometimes 2 or 3
narrow pale scales along midline, about 12
dark brown, forked, upright scales on nape on
each side of midline. Thorax: Integument of
scutum and scutellum dark reddish brown,
clothed with golden-brown, narrow, curved
scales, black in some lights. Apn brown with
about 8 bristles and a few pale flat scales.
Ppn brown with a number of narrow scales on
the dorsal half similar to those on the scutum.
Pleuron brown. Anterior median portion of
sternopleuron without hairs, scales of upper
sternopleural patch usually extending to ante-
rior median angle of sclerite. About 10 pale
upper mesepimeral bristles and about 15-20
hairs on the posterior and ventral parts of the
sclerite, extending nearly to the ventral edge.
Meteusternum bare. Claws of fore and mid
legs equal, toothed; claws of hind leg equal,
simple. Abdomen: Tergites dark brown, ter-
gites II-VIII with white basolateral spots with
apices directed dorsoposteriorly, sometimes

JuLy 15, 1946

barely visible from above. Sternites I-VII with
a wide basal band of pale scales, covering at
least the basal one-half, remainder brown;
sternite VIII with brown and white scales.
Genitalia (Fig. 4): Basistyle with 3-4 very
strong bristles in a row close to the inner dorsal
margin; apically a broad flattened process di-
rected mesad; on the inner ventral surface near
_ the base a fairly long slightly curved process.
Dististyle subapical, a fairly stout bristle and
about 5 hairs near the middle.

Female.—Wing: 2.2-2.5 mm. Torus with a
few flat dark scales medially. Claws of fore and
mid legs equal, toothed; claws of hind leg
equal, simple. Sternite VIII brown. Genitalia
(Fig. 18): Postgenital plate emarginate. Post-
atrial sclerite nearly straight posteriorly, weak
medially. Apparently no postatrial hairs. Pre-
-atrial plates with numerous short hairs,
broadly but weakly united medially.

Larva.—Unknown.

Biology —This species is apparently confined
to coastal areas. The larvae have been taken
in slightly brackish water in a beached canoe
and in a shaded, leafy, slightly brackish puddle
in a nipa palm swamp at the extreme upper
limit of the tidal zone. The adults have been
captured biting man in mangrove swamps in
the daytime and resting in a crab hole in a
mangrove swamp.

Distribution.—Specimens have been exam-
ined from the following localities: Panay:
Hloilo (Major Ewing). Caticoan IsLanp (near
~Guiuan, Samar): (J. H. Paullus). Cunion:
(Jean Laffoon). Bauaspac: Cape Melville (D.
R. Johnson), Minpanao: Zamboanga (K. L.
Knight). Mororar: Point Gila (K. L.
Knight). ScHouTmEN IsLanps, DutcH NEw
GuInEA: Aioki Island in Padaido Group (A. G.
Humes). Bohart (1945) recorded this species
from Manila, Luzén, but this record was based
on a misidentification. Dyar and Shannon
(1925) and Bohart (1945) recorded it from
Jolo Jolo, but this record is in error.

Remarks.—In her description Ludlow failed
to designate types. However, she stated that
this species is ‘“‘rather widespread, but the
first specimens were taken at Iloilo, Panay,
P.I. Taken at various times in the various
places.”” Dyar and Shannon (1925) stated,
“Out of a very large series bred at one time by
Major Ewing at Jola Jola, 49 specimens were
found in a bottle labelled types.’’ The 49

LAFFOON: PHILIPPINE MOSQUITOES OF GENUS AEDES

243

specimens mentioned are still in the National
Museum. Only one bears any label in addition
to the type label; this one reads, in what is
presumably Ludlow’s handwriting: ‘Skusea
multiplex Theo. Iloilo, Panay, P.I. Ewing.”
The name was later crossed out and ‘Aedes
panayensis Ludl. Types’’ added to the label.
It is apparent that Dyar and Shannon misread
Ludlow’s label and that the specimens were
from Panay. There are a large number of other
specimens (not types) in the Museum, some
entirely without labels and some _ labeled
“Jola Jola, Ewing.” The latter were probably
incorrectly labelled by Dyar, as they have the
same misspelling. The only reliable record in
the literature, therefore, is for Panay and in-
cludes the type series only.

The claws of the fore and mid legs of the
male of this species differ from all other males
in this subgenus for which the claws have been
described in being equal and toothed. The
closest relatives appear to be dermajoensis
Brug and prioekanensis Brug, on the basis of
the figures of the male genitalia given for those
species by Brug (1931). Both are known only
from Sumatra.

Aedes (Aedes) umbrosus Brug

Aedes (Skusea) umbrosus Brug, 1924, p. 437:
(Type locality: Undesignated, Tanah Grogot»
southeastern Borneo (3 males and 2 females), or
Weltevreden, Java (1 male). Types: 4 males
and 2 females in British Museum.)

Male.—Wing: 2.0-2.4 mm. Head: About 20
verticillate bristles on most antennal segments;
torus dark brown. Head scales mostly flat dark
brown, a lateral transverse line of flat white
scales, a few pale narrow scales between the
eyes, sometimes a few pale narrow curved
scales on each side of midline, a number of dark
brown, forked, upright scales on nape on each
side of midline. Thorax: Integument of scutum
and scutellum blackish brown, clothed with
golden-brown, narrow, curved scales, black in
some lights, paler scales on anterior border of
scutum and above the wing base. Apn dark
brown, without scales, with about 6 large and
6 small bristles. Ppn dark brown, bare or with
a few narrow curved scales on the dorsal half
similar to those on the scutum. Pleuron brown.
Anterior median portion of sternopleuron
usually bare, occasionally with up to about 8
very small hairs. About 10 upper mesepimeral

244

bristles and always at least 10 hairs posterior
and ventral to the scale patch, often much
more numerous. Meteusternum bare. Claws
of forelegs unequal, both toothed; claws of mid
legs unequal, both simple; claws of hind legs
small, equal, simple. Abdomen: Tergites dark
brown, II-VIII with basolateral white spots
with apices directed dorsoposteriorly, not visi-
ble from above. Sternites entirely dark brown,
or with a variable number of white scales on
the basal one-third only. Genitalia (Fig. 1):
Basistyle short and broad, numerous scales
basally on the dorsal aspect, but no bristles.
Two very heavy proximated subapical dorsal
spines, a shorter one basal to these, with a
much shorter one basal to it. Dististyle in-
serted near middle, with a wide basal lobe,
deeply forked, with about 9 bristles on the
enlarged basal portion, 3 near the fork, and 2
very small spines and 2 very small hairs near
the apex. Paraproct rather short.

Female-—Wing: 2.5-3.0 mm. Torus with a
few dark flat scales on the median aspect.
Claws on fore and mid legs equal, toothed;
claws of hind leg equal, simple. Genitalia
(Fig. 17): Postgenital plate rounded or barely
emarginate. Postatrial sclerite slightly convex
medially with nearly square posterolateral
corners, giving a trilobed appearance to the
posterior margin. Postatrial hairs short, pre-
atrial plates rounded, broadly disjoined, with
numerous short hairs.

Larva (Fig. 27).—Head: Hair 11 with 4-8
branches, inserted before middle of shaft;
4 very small, with 3-5 branches; 5 with 3-4;
6 with 2-4; 7 with 6-9; 8 with 3-6; 9 with 2-4;
14 with 2-5. Mentum with 11-13 lateral teeth.
Abdomen: Hair 6 of segment I with 2-3
branches; hair 7 of segment I with 1-2 branches;
hair 6 of segment II double; hair 6 of segments
III-VI single. Comb scales with a complete
apical fringe, no prominent terminal spine, 9-
14 in number. Pentad hair 1 of segment VIII
with 3-5 branches; 2 with 4-5; 3 with 6-11;
4 single; 5 with 8-14. Siphonal index 2.4-3.0;
hair tuft 5—-8-branched; 7-12 pecten teeth, dis-
tal tooth usually inserted before middle, some-
times just beyond, all teeth usually having a
well-formed lateral denticle, tending to be
somewhat smaller on the distal teeth, some-
times 3 or 4 lateral denticles, distal 1-2 teeth
sometimes somewhat more widely spaced than
those nearer base. Isc with 6-10 branches; lh

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VOL. 36, No. 7

single, at least as long as anal plate; ventral
brush with about 12 tufts, the anterior two 1—5-—
branched, the remainder with 6-12 branches.
Anal gills lanceolate, 0.8-1.5 times as long as
anal plate.

Biology.—This species is probably never
found far from the ocean, as all records are
from coastal areas. Adults have been reared
from larvae taken in a slightly brackish,
shaded, leaf-filled puddle in a nipa palm swamp
at the extreme upper limit of the tidal zone and
in temporary, shaded, fresh-water, leaf-filled
ground pools. Females have been captured
biting during the day in a mangrove swamp.
Edwards and Given (1928) report the larvae in
‘‘ynotholes and crab-holes in uncut mangrove.”’

Distribution.—Specimens have been exam-
ined from the following localities: LrytTn:
Tacloban and Palo (H. R. Roberts). Cunion:
(Jean Laffoon). PALAWAN: Iwahig and Puerto
Princesa (D. R. Johnson and Jean Laffoon).
DutcH Borneo: Tarakan Island (off east coast
of Borneo) (A. G. Humes). The species has

_ previously been recorded from Dutch Borneo,

Java, and Singapore.

Remarks.—This species may possibly be a
synonym of butleri (Theobald), as it appears
that the male which has been assigned to but-
leri does not belong to that species, but to
lugubris Barraud, as indicated by the following
facts:

In the original descriptions of butleri and
diurna (Theobald) (which has been synony-
mized with butlert). Theobald (1901 and 1903)
stated that their abdomens have basolateral
spots but no transverse bands. Barraud (1928
and 1934) stated that lugubris (of which he had
no males) has a narrow transverse white band
on the second abdominal segment. There are
two females in the National Museum that have
this character and that agree well with Bar-
raud’s figure of the female genitalia of lugubris.
As one of these specimens was taken as a larva
along with two males and as the females agree
well in external characters with the males, they
are almost certainly one species. All four speci-
mens were collected on the Malay Peninsula
by Leicester and identified by Edwards in 1912
as butleri. The males are cospecific with the
male described and figured by Edwards in
Barraud (1934) as the male of butlert. Since
the females examined are apparently cospecific
with lugubris, this male is therefore lugubris,

Juuy 15, 1946

unless Theobald failed to note the band on the
second abdominal segment in the type of but-
lert, in which case lugubris is probably a syn-
onym of butlerv.

If the male considered here to be lugubris is
not butleri, it is possible that wmbrosus is a
synonym of butleri, as there is nothing in the
descriptions of butleri or diurna to exclude it
and as both butleri and wmbrosus are recorded
from Malaya. Furthermore, Barraud described
and figured the female genitalia of butlert from
India, and his figure and descriptions agree
well with the specimens here considered wm-
brosus.

Edwards (1913) made Stegomyia hatiensis
Carter (known from females only) a synonym
of butlert. In his original description of this
species, Carter (1910) stated that the scutellum
of hatiensis has “‘scales similar to those covering
the greater part of the head,’’ which would im-
ply that the scutellar scales are flat. If this is
true, hatiensis does not belong in this subgenus,
and is probably a Skusea.

These questions can not be satisfactorily
settled until the genitalia of the type females
of butlert, diurna, and hatiensis have been
studied.

The species considered umbrosus in this
paper can be separated from the four speci-
mens mentioned as having been identified by
Edwards as butlert, but which are probably
lugubris, by the male and female genitalia, by
the absence of a narrow transverse subbasal
white band on the second abdominal segment

LOVERIDGE: REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS FROM LIBERIA

245

of the female of wmbrosus and its presence in the
other species, and by the extent of the hairy
area of the lower part of the mesepimeron
(usually extending below the scale patch in
umbrosus, confined to a posterior row behind
the scale patch in butlerz).

LITERATURE CITED

Barraup, P. J. Indian Journ. Med. Res.
16 (2): 357-375. 1928.

. Fauna Brit. India. Diptera. 5: 1-463.
1934.

Bouart, R. M. U. 8S. N. Bur. Med. Surg.
NAVMED 580: 1-88. 1945.

Brue, 8. L. Tijd. Ent. 74: 245-250. 1931.

. Bull. Ent. Res. 23 (1): 73-83. 1932.

CarTER, H. F. Entom. 43: 274-276. 1910.

Causny, ©. R. Amer. Journ. Hyg. 25 (2):
400-420. 1937.

Crampton, G. C. Guide to Ins. of Connecticut
VI: Diptera, Fasc. 1: 10-174. 1942.

Dyar, H. G., and SHANNON, R. C. Insec. Insc.
Mens. 13: 66-89. 1925.

Epwarps, F. W. Bull. Ent. Res. 4: 221-242.
1913.

. Bull. Ent. Res. 7 (3): 201-229. 1917.

. Indian Journ. Med. Res. 10 (1): 249-

2935 V922%

. Bull. Ent. Res. 14 (4): 351-401. 1924.

, and Given, D. H. C. Bull. Ent. Res.
18 (4): 337-357. 1928.
Leicester, G. F. Culicidae of Malaya. Stud.
Inst. Med. Res. 3 (3): 18-261. 1908.
MarsHatu, J. F. The British Mosquitoes: 1-
341. 1938.

THEOBALD, F. V. Mon. Cul. 2: 1-391. 1901.

. Entom. 36: 259. 1903.

. Mon. Cul. 5: 1-646. 1910.

Yamapa, 8S. Ann. Zool. Jap. 10 (6): 45-81.
1921.

ZOOLOGY .—Capt. M. S. Briscoe’s collection of reptiles and amphibians from
Harbel, Liberia.1\ ARTHUR LOVERIDGE. (Communicated by HERBERT FRIED-

MANN.)

Through the courtesy of Dr. Doris M.
Cochran, I have been able to examine the
herpetological collection made by Capt.
M.S. Briscoe, part of which was presented
by him to the United States National Mu-
seum, part to the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, and the remainder to Howard
University. The collection contains a very
large example of Thrasops occidentalis, the
only specimen of this rare tree snake in any
museum in the United States. There are no
fewer than ten other species of snakes not

1 Received April 8, 1946.

taken at Harbel by the Smithsonian-Fire-
stone Expedition of 1940, which collected
there. Captain Briscoe is to be congratu-
lated on taking advantage of this oppor-
tunity to extend our knowledge of the her-
petofauna of the Republic of Liberia.

LIZARDS
Varanus niloticus ornatus (Daudin)

1803. Tupinambis ornatus Daudin, Hist. Nat.
Rept. 8: 353; Malimbe, Cameroon (re-
stricted by Mertens).

juv. (U.S.N.M. 122266)

246

This 360 (185+225) mm monitor, having
five transverse rows of spots between fore and
hind limbs, conforms to this race as defined by

Mertens (Abh. Senckenberg. Naturf. Ges., No.
466:320. 1942) in his recent revision of the
family. V. n. ornatus is the sylvicoline race,
with the typical form occupying the savanna
regions of Liberia.

Mabuya blandingii (Hallowell)
1844. Huprepes blandingi1 Hallowell, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1844: 58; Liberia.
1 (U.S.N.M. 122267)

Quite typical of Blanding’s skink, of which
frenatus (Hallowell) is a synonym. Length
185 (75+110) mm.

SNAKES
Calabaria reinhardtii (Schlegel)
1848. Eryx reinhardti Schlegel, Bijdr. Dierk. 1:
3, pl. —; Gold Coast.
oo! (M.C.Z. 49014; Howard Univ.)

Midbody scalerows 30-32; ventrals 222 (in
both); anal 1; subcaudals 23 (in both); 2 super-
posed loreals, except on left side of U.S.N.M.
122226; preocular 1, except on left side of
M.C.Z. 49014, where there are 2. Larger
870 (800 +70) mm.

Natrix anoscopus anoscopus (Cope)

1861. Tropidonotus anoscopus Cope, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1861: 299;
““Cuba”’ (error, probably Liberia).

o& 2 9 2 (U.S.N.M. 1222387; M.C.Z. 49015;
Howard Univ.)

Midbody scalerows 23-25; ventrals 138-
141; anals 2; subcaudals 64-71; preoculars 1-2;
postoculars 1-2; suboculars 3. Largest 9
565 (4254+140) mm.

Boaedon lineatus lineatus
Duméril and Bibron

1854. Boaedon lineatus Duméril and _ Bibron,
Erpétologie générale 7: 363; Gold Coast.
22 2 (U.S.N.M. 12233; Howard Univ.)

Midbody scalerows 29-32; ventrals 216-
220; anal 1; subcaudals 50-54; preoculars 2;
postoculars 2; temporals 1+2, rarely 1+1.
Largest 9° 779 (680+99) mm.

Boaedon lineatus virgatus (Hallowell)
1854. Coelopeltis virgata Hallowell, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1854: 98; Liberia.

3 (Howard Univ.)
Midbody scalerows 21; ventrals 60; anal 1;

subcaudals 60; preocular 1; postoculars 2;
temporals 1+1. Length 360 (805+55) mm.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 7

I have previously recorded both races of the
house snake from Liberia; now it appears that
both may occur in the same locality. The typi-
cal form is a savanna reptile, while virgatus
with its gray-flanked ventrals and gray sub-
caudals is a sylvicoline race. This arrangement
is paralleled in the Republic by other species
like the savanna Varanus n. niloticus and its
forest-dwelling form V. n. ornatus.

Thrasops occidentalis Parker

1940. Thrasops occidentalis Parker, Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist., ser. 11, 5: 273, figs. 1 and 2a;
Axim, Gold Coast. .

Q (U.S.N.M. 122257)

Midbody scalerows 15; ventrals 187; anals 2;
subcaudals 132; labials 8, fourth and fifth
entering orbit; preocular 1; postoculars 3;
loreal 1; temporals 1+1. Length 1565 (1115
+450) mm.

The occurrence of this rare species in Liberia
was previously known only from a paratype
male from Monrovia. This, the second known
female, is not only the largest example known,
but is the first of its species to reach any
museum in the United States.

Since my revision of the genus Thrasops
(Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 95: 121-247. 1944) C.
M. Bogert has invited my attention to the fact
that Ahaetulla occidentalis Giinther, 1859, was
erroneously placed in the genus Thrasops by
Cope, 1860. As this is a secondary homonym
it in no way invalidates Parker’s use of the
name in Thrasops.

Boiga pulverulenta (Fischer)

1856. Dipsas pulverulenta Fischer, Abh. Geb.
Naturw. Hamburg 3: 81, pl. 3, figs.
la-le; Edina, Grand Bassa County,
Liberia.

J (U.S.N.M. 1222380)
Midbody scalerows 19; ventrals 260; anal 1;

subcaudals 132; preocular 1; postoculars 2;

temporals 2+2. Length 912 (720 +192) mm.

Boiga blandingii (Hallowell)

1844. Dipsas Blandingit Hallowell, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1844: 170; Li-
beria.

J (U.S.N.M. 122255)

Midbody scalerows 23; ventrals 273; anals 2;
subcaudals ?; preoculars 2; postoculars 2; tem-
porals 2 +2. Length 1973+ (1730 +243*) mm.

This is an exceptionally large example, for
Blanding’s tree snake rarely exceeds 6 feet.

JuLy 15, 1946

Psammophis sibilans phillipsii
(Hallowell)

1844. Coluber Phillipsit Hallowell, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1844: 169; Liberia.

fo’ 2 9 (U.S.N.M. 1222538; M.C.Z. 49016;
Howard Univ.)

Midbody scalerows 17; ventrals 161-175;
anal 1; subcaudals 91-97; labials 8, 4th and
5th entering orbit; nasals 2-3; preocular 1;
postoculars 2; temporals 2+2 or 2+3. Largest
2 1262 (880 +382) mm.

Thelotornis kirtlandii kirtlandii
(Hallowell)

1844. Leptophis Kirtlandii Hallowell, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1844: 62; Liberia.

juv. (Howard Univ.)

Midbody scalerows 19; ventrals 174; anals
2; subcaudals 154; preocular 1; postoculars 3;
temporals 1+2. Length 632 (3895+237) mm.

Miodon acanthias (Reinhardt)

1860. Urobelus acanthias Reinhardt, Vid. Medde
Kj¢benhavn 1860: 229, pl. 3; Guinea.

juv. (U.S.N.M. 122250)

Midbody scalerows 15; ventrals 188; anal
1; subcaudals 22; preocular 1; postoculars 2;
temporals 1+1. Length 186 (170+16) mm.
Almost certainly a male, this is about the
tenth known example of the species.

Aparallactus modestus (Ginther)
1859. Hlapops modestus Giinther, Ann. Mag. Nat.
iaiste, ser. o, 4: 161, pl. 4, fig. C; West
Africa.

o 2 (U.S.N.M. 122229; Howard Univ.)

Midbody scalerows 15; ventrals 143-160;
anal 1; subcaudals ?; preocular 1; postoculars
2; temporal 1. Length ”, as tails truncate.

Dendroaspis viridis (Hallowell)

1844. Leptophis viridis Hallowell, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1844: 172; Li-
beria.

oo (M.C.Z. 49017; Howard Univ.)

Midbody scalerows. 13; ventrals 213-218;
anals 2; subcaudals 112-118; preoculars 2 +1;
- subocular; postoculars 3+1 or O subocular;
lower temporal absent in one specimen, having
fused with the labial. Larger &, 1760 (1305
+455) mm.

Causus rhombeatus (Lichtenstein)

1823. Sepedon rhombeatus Lichtenstein, Verz.
Doubl. zool. Mus. Berlin 1823: 106; no
type locality.

LOVERIDGE: REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS FROM LIBERIA

247

73,39 9 (U.S.N.M. 122245-48:
Howard Univ.)

Midbody scalerows 19; ventrals 121-137;
anal 1; subcaudals 17-22; mostly paired; pre-
oculars 2; postoculars 2; suboculars 1-3; tem-
porals 2+8. Largest #, 443 (400+43) mm,
and @ 431 (895+36) mm.

The rhombic night adder, so common in
Liberia, supplied the motif for the pattern on
an armlet, worked in black and yellow grass,
brought back in 1944 by Dr. J. C. Bequaert

- from a village near Kolahun, Republic of
Liberia.

Bitis gabonica (Dumeéril and Bibron)

1854. Echidna Gabonica Duméril and Bibron,
Erpétologie générale 7: 1428, pl. SOB;
Gaboon.

Head and skin (Howard Univ.)

Midbody scalerows 35; ventrals 132; anal 1;
subcaudals 19; upper labials 14-14. A fine
large example of the Gaboon viper.

Atheris chloroechis (Schlegel)

1855. Vipera chloroechis Schlegel, Versl. Akad.
Amsterdam 3: 317.

2 (Howard Univ.) |

Midbody sealerows 29; ventrals 157; anal 1;
subeaudals 58; interorbitals 10+2 circumor-
bitals; cireumorbitals 18-19; upper labials 11.
Length 390 (330 +60) mm.

AMPHIBIA

Geotrypetes seraphini occidentalis
Parker

1936. Geotrypetes seraphint occidentalis Parker,
Zool. Meded. 19: 99; Grand Cape Moun-
tain, Liberia, etc.

1 (U.S.N.M. 122261)

This well-preserved caecilian has 102 pri-
mary and apparently 38 secondary folds. In
the latter respect it does not conform to Park-
er’s definition of the western race. Length
290 (289+2) mm.

Rana occipitalis Giinther

1858. Rana occipitalis Giinther, Cat. Batr. Sal.
Brit. Mus.: 130, pl. 11; Gambia (te-
stricted).

3 juv. (U.S.N.M. 122262-3; M.C.Z. 26136)

Ranging in head and body length from 33-40
mm, these are the smallest bullfrogs of this
species I have seen. As they lack the character-
istic transverse occipital fold connecting the
posterior corners of the orbits, they fail to

248

conform to the key I devised (1941, pp. 13-4
135) to differentiate the nine members of
the genus Rana found in the Republic of
Liberia.

Megalixalus fulvovittatus (Cope)

1860. Hyperolius fulvovittatus Cope, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sei. Phila. 1860: 517; Liberia.

9 (U.S.N.M. 122265)
This 26-mm striped sedge frog is quite

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL, 36, NOt a

typical of the species, with which I have syn-
ony mized Hyperolius vittiger (Peters).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

LovrerRIDGE, A. On a collection of reptiles and
amphibians from Liberia. Proc. New Eng-
land Zoél. Club 17: 49-74. 1938.

. Report on the Smithsonian-Firestone

Expedition’s collection of reptiles and am-

phibtans from Liberia. Proc. U. 8. Nat.

Mus. 91: 113-139. 1941.

Obituary

GLENN Lane Parke&rR died suddenly at his
home on February 12, 1946, having worked
during the forenoon of that day at his office
in the U. 8. Geological Survey. He was born
on December 23, 1884, in the small mining
town of Wickes, near Butte, Mont., received
his early education in the public schools of
Kansas, was graduated in civil engineering by
the University of Kansas in 1906, and con-
tinued in graduate work at that institution
until June 1908. Shortly thereafter he entered
the Federal service as deck officer in the U. S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, from which he was
transferred on January 1, 1909, to water in-
vestigations in the Geological Survey in which
he spent the rest of his life. He served first in
the Seward Peninsula, and later in the Yukon-
Tanana region of Alaska. In April 1911 he was
assigned to the Survey’s Columbia River dis-
trict, and in March 1913 he was made district
engineer for the State of Washington with
headquarters in Tacoma, where he filled this
position until October 1939 when he was made
chief of the Survey’s Water Resources Branch
and was transferred to Washington, D. C. He
continued in the latter position until his death.

During the 26-year term of service as district
engineer in the State of Washington, Mr.
Parker became known as an outstanding au-
thority in national and international problems
related to the quantity, control, and utility of
the waters of the Columbia River Basin. In the
following six years, when he was chief of the
Water Resources Branch, he served as adviser
of the International Joint Commission on
problems related not only to the waters of the
Columbia River Basin but also to those of the
whole Canadian boundary. He served with a
Canadian engineer as a two-man board to di-
vide the waters of the Milk and St. Mary
Rivers, in accordance with a rule adopted by
the International Joint Commission. Since 1944

he served as a member of the International
Columbia River Engineering Board, which is
investigating the international features of the
utilization of the waters of Columbia River.
He was active in the studies of water utilization
in connection with the recently executed treaty
with Mexico which provided for the equitable
division of the waters of the Rio Grande and
of the Colorado and Tia Juana Rivers between
the United States and Mexico. He was ap-
pointed by President Roosevelt as the United
States representative on the Republican River
Compact Commission and in that capacity was
active in drafting the compact between the
States of Colorado, Kansas, and Nebraska for
the division and control of the waters of the
Republican River Basin.

He was author or joint author of many re-
ports on the Nation’s water resources, espe-
cially those of the Pacific Northwest and
Alaska. He was a member of American Society
of Civil Engineers and was active in its affairs,
having served in important committee assign-
ments and as a director during 1939 and 1940.

On December 16, 1914, he married Grace
Imogene Guy, of Washington, D. C., who sur-
vives him. Their only son, Lt. (jg) Glenn Guy
Parker, who enlisted in the Navy on his gradu-
ation from Stanford University in 1941 and
became a dive-bomber pilot, was killed on De-
cember 27, 19438, by the crash in the Southwest
Pacific of a transport plane on which he was a
passenger.

Mr. Parker was a hard and efficient worker,
a keen analyst of great technical ability, and a
cooperative leader in his fields of activity and
interest. He became, therefore, a great producer
of valuable results in the investigation of the
Nation’s invaluable water resources. His record
of accomplishment is his enduring monument.

CarL G. PAULSEN

ae ee -
Pi PO a
Soran!

4a

|

CONTENTS

Erunotocy.—The Cherokee Green Corn Medicine and the Green
Corn Festival. JOHN WITTHOFT............ poe Dee

Botany.—Mosses of El Salvador. Wii1am C. Steers and DorotHy
Th. CHAPMAN gp SNe ce een ds von beg gue ak

Botany.—A new species of Sphaceloma causing scab of plantain
(Plantago). ANNA E. Jenkins and A. A. BITANCOURT........

EntomoLocy.—The Philippine mosquitoes of the genus Aedes, sub-
genus Aedes. JEAN LAFFOON....... DM NG ME | MO i aris

ZooLocy.—Capt. M.S. Briscoe’s collection of reptiles and amphibians
from Harbel, Liberia. ARTHUR LOVERIDGE............... oe

Oprruary: Glenn Lane Parker............ SOS Sa ee het

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Avcust 15, 1946 No. 8

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JOURNAL

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VOLUME 36

Aveust 15, 1946

No. 8

ETHNOLOGY .—Bird nomenclature and song interpretation of the Canadian Dela-

ware: An essay in ethno-ornithology.*

sylvania.

This study is offered as an incentive to
ornithologists and ethnologists concerned
with the topic of bird life in its broadest
_ sense.

To this end an attempt is made here to
show the extent of notions possessed by the
Canadian survivors of Indians constituting
the Delaware Nation, whose earlier historic

habitat was in the latitude of the Middle -

Atlantic Slope. It would accordingly not
be easy to draw definite conclusions as to
the regions in the East where the elements
of Delaware birdlore were endemic. The
Delaware have dwelt in Ontario for a
century and a half. This makes it possible
that their knowledge may be derived from
bird observations in that locality. Or it
may, on the other hand, refer to the regions
whence the tribes once migrated.

We are aware that the question as to the
- quality of appreciation of nature among
uncivilized people has long been an open
one. One may assume obstinately that arti-
ficial sentiments toward nature trans-
mitted in European tradition, in poetry,
and in contemplative literature of the
pastoral and reflective type come only from
the writings of the nature dreamers.? It is,
therefore, not easy for many to decide
whether nature literature, purely oral of
course, existed at all among preliterate
peoples, for it has not been given attention
by early observers who described their life

1 Received May 3, 1946.

2 An interesting and thought-provoking disser-
tation surveying the background of these ideas is
given by Puirip MarsHauyi Hicks, The develop-
ment of the natural history essay in American litera-
ture, Philadelphia, 1924. See also Nature in

American literature, by NORMAN ForrstTER, New
York, 1923.

FRANK G. Speck, University of Penn-

(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

ways. It is only European writers who have
left accounts of native beliefs and notions,
and they seldom gained insight into native
feelings and cogitations regarding nature
intimately enough to treat the matter sub-
jectively. In short, whereas the growth of
nature thought is preserved for us in written
records, for that of aboriginal peoples we
are dependent upon tradition handed down
by word of mouth.

Now, however, the field takes on a wider
horizon, one that must include tribes of so-
called uncivilized levels whose attitude
toward nature was not affected by the Euro-—
pean aesthetic tradition. Boas thought na-
ture appreciation to be a universal trait,
observing as follows. ‘“‘Aesthetic pleasure is
felt by all members of mankind. No matter
how diverse the ideals of beauty may be,
the general character of the enjoyment of
beauty is of the same order everywhere.’

If the Delaware Indian confides to his
companion that the roar of the wind swish-
ing through the summits of pines is the
voice of the trees giving devotion to the
Creator, if the Naskapi of Labrador whis-
pers to us that when the trees on the hill-
side bend under the force of the wind it is
the hand of the Supreme Being combing
the hair of his children, should such
thoughts not be placed alongside the exalted
voice of Isaiah who proclaimed: ‘The
mountains and the hills shall break forth
before you into singing, and all the trees of
the field shall clap their hands.’’ However,
the theme now before us revolves about

3 Franz Boas, Primitive art, Instituttet for
Sammenlignende Kulturforskning, Oslo, 1927,
p. 9

249

Auc 20 ‘4b

250

birds, not trees. It deals with the casual
bird-mindedness not of early man in general
but of a small group of Indians in Canada,
the Algonkian-speaking Delawares, and ex-
plores entirely new fields of thought and
observation in natural history for which
there is, as yet, no system of orthodox in-
vestigation. A short historical review of the
people’s past is apropos.

Almost two centuries have passed since
the historically famous bands of the Dela-
ware Nation departed from their original
haunts in the valleys of the Delaware and
Hudson Rivers and their tributaries in New
Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania, and eastern
New York State. Through vicissitudes of
the earlier century of alternating peace and
strife with Dutch, Swedish, and English
administrators and colonists, the settle-
ments of natives composed of fugitive ele-
ments from as far east as Massachusetts
and Connecticut succeeded in preserving
their entity as members of a confederacy of
prostrated small peoples. They became part
of the loose political body known in later
history as the Delaware Nation. That they
still maintain this political status in the
League of the Six Nations Iroquois in On-
tario is fortunate for students of history,
ethnology, and linguistics.

They have resided since about the middle
of the eighteenth century in the basin of
Lake Erie on its eastern extremity, and
some 40 miles north of it, in a mixed prairie
and deciduous forest horizon of the Alle-
ghenian Life Zone. This habitat is im-
portant to hold in mind for reasons of avian
distribution and environment. Assuming
that ecological factors have to be con-
sidered, after migration of the people from
a more southerly latitude, one can scarcely
fail to wonder how much of their tradition
is rooted in experience in Ontario. The mi-
eration to southern Canada would remove
the people from the range of certain bird
types of the middle states and bring them
into that of some northern forms.

This paper covers one aspect of the
knowledge still preserved in the band,
treating the subject of its birdlore as known
to a few of the elders in the group who are
still conversant with the Delaware idiom.‘

4'The field work of 1944-45 carried on among

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 8

Concerning the idiom itself in which the
bird names, calls, and some interpretations
are given, it may be said that the grounds
for assigning to it a single name coincident
with any of the tribal names are not yet
sufficiently adequate to permit more than
a hyphenated classification, 1.e., Munsee-
Mahican. In a recent paper I have as-
sembled the opinions of other investigators
among the Six Nations Delaware (Brinton,
Harrington, Michelson) who classified it as
a Munsee dialect (Speck, 1945, pp. 7-18).°
Upon closer examination of its morphology,

vocabulary and phonetics, one gains the im-

pression that Mahican contributions to
the speech of the group in question are in
evidence sufficiently strong to make the
suggested hyphenated classification ad-
visable for the present. The insistence of
the people themselves in declaring that |
they are Wapanachki (Wabanaki), as are ©
the Mahican, has been found to be valid
beyond serious question. Through recent
accumulation of material from its speakers
a closer affinity has been discerned among
Wabanaki dialects of northern New Eng-
land than has hitherto been ascribed to
them. This point, I believe, will appear
more firmly supported in considering both
speech and cultural composition of this
eroup when the ornithological vocabulary
to be presented is viewed against that of
the Wabanaki proper, living to the east-
ward. With these suppositions I propose to
leave open the question of constituency of
the band until it can be better ascertained.
Briefly, the Delaware group from which
the bird notes have been recorded on the
Six Nations Reserve is, according to his-
torical testimony, an ethnic composite
group; its dialect is a conglomerate of
Wapanachki (Wabanaki) and Algonkian
speech forms, and its birdlore is similarly
constituted.

A word is called for as to the identifica-
tion of birds and the use of English names
for species by Indian people who know the

these people received substantial support from
the Faculty Research Fund of the University of
Pennsylvania, Grants 555 and 570.

RG. SPECK, The Celestial Bear comes down to
earth; The Bear Sacrifice Ceremony of the Munsee-
Mahican of Canada as related by Nekatcit, Reading
Public Museum, Reading, Pa., 1945.

Ave. 15, 1946

local names only by association with Eng-
lish-speaking communities adjacent to the
reservation. The Delaware informants were
often confused over bird name-identities in
English and the correspondence of those
terms with their own taxonomy. The Dela-
ware bird category indeed also shows, as
might be expected, some confused identities
under a single name.

The Delaware informants were, as we
found, acquainted sufficiently with local
bird types to identify and give their own
“names for about 70 species. Some years
ago I incidentally undertook by similar
means of the ethnological approach to
record names and knowledge of birds in
central Maine from an aged Penobscot
hunter (Wabanaki of northern New Eng-
land) and published the material where it
has seldom been encountered by ornitholo-
gists or ethnologists.6 The Penobscot bird
list and nomenclature accounted for about
the same number of species, seventy-two,
as among the Delawares. Linguistic and
historical implications with the Delaware
data now presented are evidence. A rather
strange coincidence develops, that in-
formants in both groups could name about
the same number of birds through their
experience in the bush by what we may call
casual knowledge and that a noteworthy
proportion of them are similar despite the
differences in environment of the two
Algonkian divisions.

Realizing accordingly the inadvisability
of relying upon bird listing with native
names from the dictation of Indians by
using only name identities in English, I
resorted to the color figures and factual data
given in Reed’s handbooks.’ This pocket
edition was used to check the identities

6 F, G. Speck, Bird-lore of the northern Indians,
Fublic Lectures by University of Pennsylvania
Faculty, 1919-20, 7: 380, Philadelphia, 1921.

7C. A. Reep, Bird guide: Water birds, game
birds, and birds of prey east of the Rockies, 1910,
and Part 2, Land birds east of the Rockies, 1912.
The writer wishes to acknowledge the invaluable
aid rendered in making the recordings by Ernest
S. Dodge, curator of ethnology and natural his-
tory at the Peabody Museum, Salem, Mass., and
his wife, Irene D. Dodge, who were members of
the research party at work on the Six Nations Re-
serve, and participated in the bird sessions with
the Delaware informants throughout the period
of recording.

SPECK: BIRD NOMENCLATURE OF CANADIAN DELAWARE

251

given and to supplement attempts to con-
trol the data. Having used these pocket
bird manuals on frequent occasions in
recording ethno-ornithological data among
Indian tribes in northern and eastern
North America, I have invariably found
them satisfactory. Native informants like-
Wise respond with warm interest to the
stimulus of seeing illustrations emphasizing
those characteristics which would enable
identification to be made without relying
upon mere names. In all, it should be noted
that the matter as presented is not specifi-
cally ornithological but folkloristic.

The native infermants whose knowledge
is now recorded were Josiah Montour, born
1872, whose Delaware name is Xk6‘kwsis,
“Little Snake,” a descendant of the his-
torically celebrated Roland Montour, of
early Mahican descent; Mrs. Jane Battice,
his sister, born 1867; Jesse Moses, Sr., born
1869, likewise of Mahican extraction; his
nephew Jesse Moses, Jr.; Nekatcit, born
in 1859, known by the English name of
Nicodemus Peters. Other sources when re-
ferred to are given in footnotes.

The system of representing sounds
throughout the paper follows the use of
English characters where possible, though
with some different values in cases where
the native terms are not reproducible in
the English alphabet; for instance c repre-
sents English sh, x the ch in German as in
“bach”; Greek alpha a, the u of English
but; 9 (reversed c) as aw in English law,
the inverted a an obscure vowel equivalent
to e in English flower. Syllable accent is
denoted by ’, nasalization of vowel by
the cedilla beneath, and the aspiration,
as the initial h of English, by ‘*. Crossed 1
(4) is sounded like thl (Welsh Jl) and 6
like th in thin. By observing these variations
in the sound values of English orthography,
the reader should be able to reproduce the
bird names with sufficient accuracy to be
understood by the Delaware.

BIRD CALLS, SONGS, AND
INTERPRETATIONS

Students of bird life, writing popularly
or scientifically, have been inclined to at-
tempt to transliterate what they think
they hear birds utter or exclaim. The re-

252

ception of such sounds by different ears
seems to vary according to the national
and linguistic tradition of the listeners. It is
generally admitted, in fact candidly as-
sumed, that few if any successful attempts
have been made to describe bird songs and
calls in English syllables. People in all
ages and areas have tried to make nature
talk in their own tongues. The humanizing
of animal and even plant life has known no
limit in folk tradition. Bird utterances have
been a favorite playground for human
fancy. The Delawares, as well we shall now
see, have been as productive in word
renderings of this character as the English.
And like the latter their taxonomy has
drawn its sources largely from avian call
syllables. Just how these utterances could
be endowed with sense aside from a rough
resemblance to sounds, who can see? How
the singing words of birds as heard by
Delaware ears compared with English ears
or with real vocables in any language, we
can judge. It is worth noting at this point
that the Indians nowhere associate bird
calls with human names nor do they asso-
ciate them with personalities. Who are the
personalities that English tradition asso-
ciates with bird memories; Bob White, Poor
Will, Bob (Robert) Lincoln, Will’s Widow,
Mr. Peabody, for instance?

In the Delaware bird identities listed I
have arranged the creatures in two groups
determined by linguistic derivation of
names. One is descriptive, the other ono-
matopoeic, the grouping in some cases
optional, forty of the listed names being
in the descriptive group, and twenty-
three in the onomatopoeic list. It is a purely
arbitrary one; a new manner of viewing
source material obtained from preliterate
natives. It does not follow any arrangement
recognized by the Indians themselves or by
students of bird life. The people, however,
have devised a rough classification of birds
by form and habit, since we find owls,
hawks, ducks, woodpeckers, swallows, and
some small birds to be designated by collec-
tive terms, and some subdivisions specified.

The generic term for bird is awe‘le’s-us,
and has reference to a creature having the
power to go by flying. The final syllables
-te’sus appear in a large proportion of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 8

bird names, sometimes shortened to -/es or
-ie’o, “‘he who flies,’’ in some names, as the
listing shows. The plural suffix -(w)ak de-
notes the animate classification of birds
with other living organisms.

Among the Delawares now living in
Oklahoma who branched off from the
Canadian divisions before the American
Revolution, an entirely different term de-
notes the Aves, namely tcélas. Its etymol-
ogy can not be clearly traced. Among the
Six Nations Delawates (Munsee-Mahican
speaking) another generic term is found,
namely j7‘ts, for birds in general.

Turning eastward to the Wabanaki
tribes of Maine, New Brunswick, and
Province of Quebec, we find the correspond-
ing class designation to be sips (St. Francis
Abenaki, Penobscot, Malecite), szszp (Mic-
mac). Among the Mahican proper of the
upper Hudson Valley as well as the
Mohegan-Pequot of Connecticut, related
inclusive terms are found, Le., jvts and
dji'ts. This substantive is evidently ono-—
matopoeic. |

The same second position elements
(-lésu(s), -es*), Just given in the Canadian
Delaware series, appear in Wabanaki bird
name endings; -/és‘u, and -es: (shortened
form).

At this point it would seem apropos to
mention that the Delaware, like other Al-
gonkian peoples of the East, hold the im-
pression that bats are classifiable with the
birds. The tribe in question applies the
name pdpi'salaygwunés, “skin-wing bird,”
to any of the bats. The related Wabanaki
of northern New England call the bat
madéganités‘u ,“skin (hide) bird’ (Penob-
scot and Malecite), madaganiids (St.
Francis Abenaki). The mysterious bat has,
indeed, been given an ambiguous zoological
classification among many peoples of the
world, as the word-traditions of both New
and Old World languages show.

To the judgment of an ornithologist the
list of species will seem incomplete for the
region inhabited by the Munsee-Mahican
Delawares. That a number of birds are con-
spicuously missing from the list is apparent.
Many more might be thought to have re-
celved names with more or less accurately
observed characteristics and identities. The

‘

Ave. 15, 1946

two or three members of the Indian band
who knew the language, however, were aged
persons possessing little more than a casual
acquaintance with bird life. Despite the
time and effort given to questioning and
the display of bird pictures, their vocabu-
lary of native bird names was limited to
those given here—and some of them un-
certain as to identity. Mistakes moreover
inevitably lurk in the listings of native
names with bird identities, for which in-
formants and recorders are both re-
sponsible.®

BASICALLY DESCRIPTIVE BIRD NAMES

Miéxkalanéo, ‘‘snake bird,’’ (?) red-tatled hawk
(Buteo borealis (Gmelin)): This hawk is said to
seize a snake and carry it high, soaring before
an approaching storm. The Oklahoma Dela-
ware name is the same as the above.

Wetetcécacalné'ni' tat, ‘“‘small bird killer,”
sparrow hawk (Falco sparverius L.).

Wdpalanéo, “white bird,’ marsh hawk (Circus
hudsonius (Z.)).

dani téo, ‘‘stone bird,’/—Wapdndap wéles'u,
“whitehead bird,’—Mockdndap awéteo, ‘‘bald-
head bird,” bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucoceph-
alus (L.)): The last name may have arisen
through association with local whites. In the
Delaware language of Oklahoma the name is
dixam.

Mi-mi-o (meaning unexplainable), passenger
pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius (L.)): The
meaning of this proper name is lost to the in-
formants. It is therefore optional whether to list
it with the descriptive names or to regard it as
onomatopoeic. Josiah Montour recalls that in
his youth these birds were common and that
the people used a fifteen-foot pole to knock
them down from the trees where they roosted.
The Delawares of Oklahoma call the bird
amt'mi. In the Wabanaki tongues its name is
of a different derivation; blas (Penobscot),
paldz (St. Francis Abenaki), ples (Malecite),
polis (Micmac)—terms whose etymology is not
revealed.

Mowtieo, “moaning bird,’ mourning dove
(Zenaidura macroura carolinensis (L.)): The
name is descriptive only in that it refers to the

8 The nomenclature used in this report is taken
from Forsusn, E. H., and May, J. B., Natural
history of the birds of eastern and central North
America, Boston, 1939.

SPECK: BIRD NOMENCLATURE OF CANADIAN DELAWARE

253

voice of the bird which announces impending
misfortune or death to some member of the
community. In Oklahoma the Delawares have
expanded the idea of its voice into a phrase
name, mdmendhdkema, ‘‘one who prays (or
pleads) earnestly,” and hold the dove in high
sentimental esteem. Unlike the latter, the
Canadian Munsee-Mahican have no sentiment
against killing and eating the dove.

Tcuxkwi's, “diver” —Ahdp‘tcalémur's, “holds
breath when dives,’—Tctykhi's, ‘little (bird),”
mud-hen, horned grebe (Colymbus auritus
(L.)); helldiwer (Podilymbus podiceps): These
two birds of the waterways were so confused in
identity that the informants could not agree on
their correct names. On account of its body
shape the “‘helldiver’’ is jokingly called é6panak,
‘“notato.” The bird figures in folklore of Algon-
kian peoples almost everywhere as a butt of
humor. Penobscot and Malecite give aséps for
its name.

Wdpbowé te, ‘white bird,’ wild goose (Branta
sp.): The Wabanaki names refer likewise to
whiteness; wdmptogwe (Penobscot) wdptuk
(Malecite), while it is mogalé wite in Micmac.

Sak ct-hweo, “black duck” (Anas rubripes
tristis Brewster): The generic term cihwe for
duck goes back to a stem (cz’) for this bird
group fairly uniform over a wide area in the
East and North. Whether it is basically a
mimetic sound or not is not easy to conclude.
The generic term for duck in Eastern Wab-
anaki is madahés'im.

Xwds(@) cihweo, ‘wood duck” (Aix sponsa
(L.)): The name is another of the few Delaware
terms listed that have been taken over from
local white hunters. Other species of duck if
referred to by the Delawares would be de-
scribed by adjectives corresponding to their
local English names.

Paléo, ‘‘chewer (?),’’ wild turkey (Meleagris
gallopavo silvestris Vieillot), (also the domestic
race): Usage has adopted a different descriptive
name for the bird among the Delawares of
Oklahoma who call it tct: kanam, “‘he scratches
(the ground).” A different series of name stems
prevails in Algonkian languages to the east-
ward. They seem to be mimetic in origin, de-
scriptive in usage—néheme (Penobscot), na-
hamd (St. Francis Abenaki), ne‘p (Malecite),
neyhom (Narragansett, Roger Williams).

A'kwdlane, ‘“‘sleeps through the day,” long-
eared owl (Asio wilsonianus (Lesson)); great

254

horned owl (Bubo virginianus (Gmelin)).

Lan: k‘hékos, ‘“‘common, or original owl,’’—
Xéweygewr k‘hdkos, “old fashioned owl,” barred
owl (Stryx varia Barton).

Wadpr k‘hokos, “white owl,’ snowy owl
(Nyctea nyctea (L.)): Essentially the same in
the Wabanaki languages.

Kézwemuwi's, “killer,” screech owl (Otus asio
naevius (Gmelin)): Wabanaki cognates are
kamkdmes'v (Penobscot), kapkdmas' (Male-
cite).

Tcdyga k‘hokos, “‘little owl,” saw-whet owl
(Cryptoglaux acadica (Gmelin)): Some diffi-
culty was met with among informants in reach-
ing conclusions over the identity of the owls
in their own language. The questions were fi-
nally settled as given above, the identities of
the two larger forms made by their vocal ef-
forts. The term k‘hdékos is uniform for the series
with minor variations over a wide area where
Algonkian languages are spoken in the east, as
the following examples will show: kéhus (Okla-
homa, Delaware), kokhokhasv (Penobscot),
kok‘okhds (Malecite), kikugwés (Micmac).

Sak‘ awétes—Sak* awéteo, “‘black bird,” crow
(Corvus brachyrynchos Brehm): Ahasu (see
under Onomatopoeic names).

Putcililetésus, “butcher (derived from
English) bird,’ butcherbird (Lanius sp.): The
name deserves no further comment than to
mention its English origin indicative of a kind
of borrowing with loss of the native equivalent.

Tcatcandxaxkwes, ‘‘striking at hazard on a
tree,” hairy woodpecker and downy woodpecker
(Dryobates villosus (Z.), D. pubescens (Swain-
son)).

Eyo0 awéieo, “dips while flying,” flicker
(Colaptes auratus luteus Bangs): There is no
cognate to this name in Wabanaki idioms. The
Penobscot term is tdwalotc.

Lexdwanitteis; “‘fork-tail (swallow),’’ purple
martin (Progne subis (L.)); barn swallow (Hir-
undo erythrogaster Boddaert): No differentia-
tion of forms could be traced among inform-
ants.

Né ni micémwo8 (né‘ni mtcéo), “lacrosse play-
er,’ chimney swift (Chaetura pelagica (L.)):
The bird’s erratic motions in the air suggest
the movements of Indian ball-players contest-
ing to score a goal. Contrast this ancient idea
in the name with the Penobscot tcimilitas‘ts,
“chimney bird.”

Li lvtcas—M1 liteas, ‘“‘smelling around (flow-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 8

ers),” hummingbird (Archilochus colubris
(L.)): The variations in word form are given as
pronounced by Josiah Montour and his sister,
Mrs. Battice. In the Wabanaki speech we have
anv'tds‘is, ‘“‘the hoverer’’ (Penobscot), nana-
ids'ts (St. Francis Abenaki), yalamés‘tt (Male-
cite), with the same meaning.

Célamxdkwus, ‘‘under the log,’ house wren
(Troglodytes aedon Vieillot): The secretive
flight habit of the bird is explained in folklore
as being due to fear of the ‘‘lion’” by day. A
similar idea of the bird’s habit is revealed in the
Penobscot name alamiabikas‘7's, ‘under hiding
bird.”

Lawdkanikan wétesus, “middle of field
bord,’ horned lark (Otocoris alpestris subsp.).

Olalan‘e, “blue tail (?),” wood thrush (Holo-
cichla sp.): There was some doubt in the in-
formant’s mind whether this name was onoma-
topoeic or descriptive.

A'‘kihes:, “planting bird” —Ehd‘kves’,
‘farmer bird,” mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos
(Z.)): A rendering of the profusion of musical
syllables uttered by the bird in question has
become a tradition among the Delawares of this
band. To their ears the following phrase is a
repeated admonition to plant corn to ward off
famine. It goes tokt: toki:-k ehaki‘ ehakt ski skv
kamut (with variations), “‘toki‘toki:k plant!
plant! urinate! urinate! (to fertilize?) (lest) you
steal!’ Its arrival in their territory is accord-
ingly a sign for the industrious to begin farm-
ing, and a warning to the slothful to avert the
necessity of pilfering the crops of others in the
season of harvest. The transliteration is fur-
thermore a specimen of aboriginal humor.

Considerable discussion arose among three
of the Delawares over the specific identity of
this bird. The question centered about its ap-
pearance in the territory inhabited by them. An
examination of ornithological literature on dis-
tribution of the bird allows for the possibility
of its occasional appearance north of Lake
Erie. Inasmuch as the mockingbird is a non-
migratory species and seldom gets to Canada,
the present bit of folklore may possibly be a
relic of the southern, pre-Canadian lore of the
Delawares.

The Indians of the Reserve expressed no un-
certainty of the identity of the mockingbird
as distinct from the brown thrasher. Illustra-
tions and a lengthy discussion of the differences
in color of the two birds failed to convince them

Ava. 15, 1946

of possible confusion of the two. They assigned
a distinct name to the latter and were aware
of the distinctions in feather markings char-
acteristic of both forms. The conclusion was
therefore reached that the mockingbird was
known to them by observation and by name,
and so the matter will be left for treatment by
students of bird distribution in Canada to be
checked by expert observation. In Oklahoma
the Delawares, who are without question
familiar with the mockingbird, designate it by
reference to its polyglot gift, nehani sk‘ténhes,
“he talks about something.”

Otdn awéles'us, ‘town bird,” English sparrow
(Passer domesticus (L.)): This term indicates
the late acquaintance of the people with the
introduced species and correct observation of
its preferred habitat.

Lan owéles'us, ‘common (or native, original)
bird,’ chipping sparrow (Spizella passerina
(Bechstein)): The distinction between this spe-
cies and the preceding lies in the recognition of
their nativity.

Ciksanale, ‘‘spread tail-feathers,” kingbird
(Tyrannus tyrannus (L.)): The bird’s name is
“belittler, scorner” in the Wabanaki area,
mesdndjes'u (Penobscot).

Wi sawetés'u, ‘“‘yellow bird,” Baltimore oriole
(Icterus galbula (L.)); yellow warbler (Dendro-
ica aestiva (Gmelin)): This name is applied pos-
sibly to the American goldfinch male in sum-
mer plumage, as far as could be learned from
the informants.

Apatcémwes, ‘‘come back bird,’ meadowlark
(Sturnella magna (L.)): The name has refer-
ence to its return north in the spring.

Pkvhixkaléygwes, ‘“‘looking close for some-
thing,’ crossbill (Loxia sp.); nuthatch (Sitta
sp.): The same name was given for both birds
without possibility of clarification.

Ci-wopekli's, “blue bird,’ bluebird (Sialia
sialis (L.)).

Axkokweldapwi'l, ‘cook snake head,” red-
wing blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus (Z.)).
| Cikdks awetésus, “skunk bird,’ bobolink
(Dolichonyx oryzivorus (L.)).

Kowi awétes'us, “cow bird,’ cowbird (Molo-
thrus ater (Boddaert)): Observation by the
Delawares has resulted in the same name prey-
alent among the whites.
Cawdni‘tes, “south, or salt-water, bird,” snipe
(Capella delicata (Ord)); woodcock (Philohela
minor (Gmelin)): Either translation given is

SPECK: BIRD NOMENCLATURE OF CANADIAN DELAWARE

2595

applicable to the species mentioned. The refer-
ence to salt-water indicates the former resi-
dence of the tribe on the middle Atlantic coast
and may therefore be an ancient name carried
to Canada in the migration of two centuries
ago.

Xwdtca cawanites, “big south, or salt-water
bird,” killdeer (Oxyechus vociferus (L.)).

E‘ki-ndyjis, “little counting bird,” brown creeper
(Certhia familiaris americana Bonaparte): So
named from its habit of moving up and down
the bark of trees as if counting out or searching
for something.

BASICALLY ONOMATOPOEIC BIRD NAMES

Mélis—Meéli's, phoebe (Sayornis phoebe
(Latham)): The 2-syllable equivalent of the
call given by these birds seems to be the basis
of their inclusion under one name of reference.

Tcayga méli's, “little mélis,’ wood pewee®
(Myiochanes virens (Z.)).

Tcukwalé’, blackbird (sp.?) (bronzed grackle,
and even red-wing blackbird according to one
source): Again a resemblance to Mohawk
(Iroquois) djékwari's denoting the same bird.
The corresponding Wabanaki name tcagwulisk
also refers to the last two birds whose identity
is combined in Penobscot and Malecite. The
Oklahoma Delawares depart from the term in
calling them tckandk¥. That this is an ancient
name for the blackbird among tribes of the
Atlantic slope area is revealed by the entry in
Edward Topsell’s manuscript (circa 1614) giv-
ing ‘“chugwareo” for the red-winged blackbird
in the Virginia Indian language.?°

Tt tis, bluejay (Cyanocitta cristata (Z.)):
The term is fairly constant in the East; di-dias
(Penobscot), titias, tides'6 (St. Francis Aben-
aki), titus (Micmac).

Tct:cko‘kos, robin (Turdus migratorius L.):
A certain uniformity is to be observed in

® On the islands off the coast of southern Mas-
sachusetts the name ‘‘moneybird”’ is given to the
chickadee, phoebe, and wood pewee. The birds’
calls are heard as equivalent of ‘“‘taubut,’’ mean-
ing ‘‘thank you” in the Algonkian speech of the
Southern New England Indians, the thanks being
intended for the money that the birds refer to as
about to be found. To these Indians the chicka-
dee is understood to say the same thing and is
likewise called the ‘‘moneybird’’ (information
Mrs. C. Ryan, Gay Head Indian settlement,
Marthas Vineyard, Mass., 1925).

10 J. R. Swanton, Newly discovered Powhatan
bird names, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 24:
97-98. 1914.

256

names for the bird in native languages of the
Kast irrespective of their linguistic affinities.
For instance the Cayuga and Mohawk (Iro-
quoian stock) of the Six Nations Reserve and
adjoining the Delawares denote the robin by
tci:ckogo. The Delaware name is evidently
related to the Mohawk, not to the Wabanaki
term wikwiskesu. There was'a Robin Dance
in the ceremonial cycle of rituals of the tribe."

Kaxkéwes, brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum
(L.)); cuckoo (Coceyzus sp.): Kax kax is under-
stood as the sound of their call notes, whence
is derived the name of the birds that emit those
syllables.

Maxkvterlilis, chickadee (Penthestes atri-
eapillus (L.)): The onomatopoeic portion of
this term (-fcv:li'li:) occurs in chickadee names
among Indians over a wide area of the East,
examples of which are given. The constancy of
the name in various unrelated families of speech
is evidently due to the clearness of utterance
of the bird’s canto in the acoustics of most
people. That the common English name chick-
adee is Indian origin in America may not there-
fore be unreservedly true. The Penobscot
equivalent is ktcigiguidsis. Even the far-
away and unrelated Cherokee of North Caro-
lina give it the name tctkil lié.

Pick», nighthawk (Chordeiles minor Forster)) :
The onomatopoeia in this case is an excellent
echo of the bird’s call note. Ornithologists have
recorded a close equivalent, peent (F. M. Chap-
man, Handbook of birds of eastern North Amer-
ica, 1903, p. 238). A larger variety of the crea-
ture is said by the informants to exist in the
country, called xwdtcapi- ck, “big nighthawk.”’
A popular belief also says “if a piece of deer
meat is burned when it appears it will come
down to earth, otherwise it never does.”’ Josiah
Montour mentioned another old folk belief
that the bird fears the ‘“‘lion” by night, as the
wren does it by day, thus accounting for its
erratic flight.

Related forms of the same name are found
in other eastern dialects, pick (Oklahoma Dela-
ware), pesk (Penobscot, Ojibwa), with only
slightly variant forms in Iroquois Cayuga.

A formal term denoting the nighthawk is
pt ckwalanéo when its name is referred to as

1 F. G. Speck, The Celestial Bear comes down to
earth; The Bear Sacrifice Ceremony of the Munsee-

Mahican in Canada as related by Nekatcit, Read-
ing Public Mus. Sci. Publ. No 7: 74. 1945.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 8

the title of a mimetic dance in the series of
rites anciently performed in the Delaware Long
House. The Nighthawk Dance was a ritual in
which certain dancers carried feather wands.
It symbolized peace and war as antagonisms
which are believed to be demonstrated in the
character of the bird (Speck, 1945, p. 76) aris-
ing through the booming sound produced by
the bird in flight. It is connected with the myth
of thunder which symbolizes aerial and terres-
trial warfare.

We'koli:'s (wékwalt:s), whippoorwill (Antro-
stomus vociferus (Wilson)): The sound quality
of this bird’s voice is given in a 38-syllable imi-
tation of its call noticeably constant in native
languages of the East. The name series is most
interesting. :

In Oklahoma the Delawares hear the bird’s
call as tcolulhéwe. In the central Algonkian and
New England dialects the equivalents hold
closer to the Canadian Delaware, viz., wékowis
(Saulteaux), wahonést (Ojibwa, Lake Tima-
gami, Ontario) (given as wawonarssa by Long-
fellow in Hiawatha), kukuwé (Fox of Okla-
homa), makowi's, ‘little child or dwarf”
(Mohegan), wi-polés' (Penobscot), papolés (St.
Francis Abenaki), wekwi ttc (Micmac). The
linguistically unrelated Cayuga (Iroquois of
Six Nations, adjacent to the Delawares) call it
gwekuyé’, while the Catawba (South Carolina)
linguistically distinct from all of the preceding
vive a similar sound-form witkoyga, and the
Cherokee (North Carolina) wagult-‘. Finally we
note the interesting form of the echoic name
among the Dutch settlers of the lower Hudson
Valley as quote-ker-kee, recorded by Neltje
Blanchan (Bird neighbors, 1922). The Canadian
French hear the call as pois pourri, or “rotten
pea.” To none of the northern people is the
bird’s presence a happy omen. The poetical
fancy entertained by the southern Indians that
the whippoorwill does not appear until the
ladyslipper (Cypripedium acaule) blooms so
that the bird can use it for a hat is not revealed
by inquiry among northern tribes so far (F. G.
Speck, Whippoorwills, nighthawks and lady-
slippers, Gen. Mag. and Hist. Chron., Univ.
Pennsylvania 36: 595. 1934).

Médzxkawetes—Mdzkawetdci'c, “red bird”;
Sétcal awetdsos, ‘“‘soldier bird,” scarlet tanager
(Piranga erythromelas (Viedllot)): The first
name listed was given by Nicodemus Peters

Ava. 15, 1946

(deceased 1938), the second by Josiah Mon-
tour. The latter has reference to the red-coated
British soldier so familiar to Indians a century
ago.

Kaskdskwali's, song sparrow (Melospiza mel-
odia (Wilson)): The sound phrase is con-
sidered to be a close reproduction of the first
part of the spring melody of the bird, and from
this its name is derived. The full equivalent of
its utterance is “kaskdskwoalis asi‘‘takoala‘s,
mosa‘si'tepék.”’ The last word of the phrase is
interpreted to say ‘‘cold feet.’’ The reference to
cold feet indicates the suffering that the bird
expects to undergo before steady warm weather
starts in during the uncertainty of a belated
spring.??

The Delawares are conscious of the similar-
ity of their own name for the bird to that given
it by the neighboring Mohawk, who interpret
its song as saying ‘‘kaskdskoli’ sa‘si‘takala‘s,”’
‘Your foot smells foul.”

Equally expressive is the Penobscot euonym
sulsulsuwt for the song sparrow. The tuneful-
ness of names given the bird in many eastern
dialects is noteworthy among people of the
northern latitudes who perceive the return of
spring in the singing syllables of such a melody
as is given forth. In Malecite the term is prac-
tically the same (sulsulsuli:) while St. Francis
Abenaki has kaskaldjds, a closer analogy to
the Delaware name.

Tcuwt yu‘, towhee, Pipilo erythrophthalmus
(L.)); catbird, Dumetella carolinensis (L.));
_ bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus (L.): It may be
imagined that the local name chewink used
generally among whites in parts of the East
has been imitative of the Delaware name, yet
the distinct character of the bird’s call could
be considered as the source of the name in any
group of residents, white or Indian. The occur-
rence of the single Delaware term applied to
three distinct bird forms is a corroboration of
the idea previously expressed in respect to the

2 An appreciation of the same quality of its
song as that sensed by the Indians is shown in the
following words of F. SchHuyLER Maruews: “‘It is
not possible to listen to the melody of the Song
sparrow in early March without realizing for the
time being that we are released from the cold
clutch of winter and set down in the comfortable
lap of spring” (Field book of wild birds and their
music, 1904, p. vi). In the body of his book (pp.
111-123) he devotes about ten pages to attempts
at musical transcriptions and word equivalents of
this bird’s song.

SPECK: BIRD NOMENCLATURE OF CANADIAN DELAWARE

257

basis of classification of birds by their utter-
ances rather than by morphological character-
istics. This is another truly old bird name
among the Indians of the Virginia Algonkian
area, for the Topsell manuscript (1614) gives
‘“chuwheeo”’ for the towhee. (See reference to
Swanton, 1914.)

Mémeo, pileated woodpecker (Ceophloeus pil-
eatus abieticola Bangs): This great bird is a
figure in eastern Indian myth and legend. The
Delawares interpret its call into English, hear-
ing it as wet! wet! wet!, a sign that it will soon
rain. The bird’s beak was used to clean out the
ears of a person afflicted with deafness.

The name méme is unquestionably an old
one, general among Algonkian-speaking tribes
of the North Atlantic region, and an ancient
representation of the bird’s call unchanged
through time. In the Wabanaki tongues we
have méme (Penobscot), mdma (St. Francis
Abenaki), méme (Ojibwa).

Mémazxokwas, ‘‘mémeo red head,” red-headed
woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus (L.)):
The apparent relationship of this to the pre-
ceding bird is responsible for its secondary
name. Exact identity was uncertain.

Mék‘ham, “pump,” bittern (Botaurus lenti-
ginosus (Montagu)): Here is a correspondent
to the utterance of the bird as it has appealed
to European ears, described graphically by
authors as related names appear in the Waban-
aki area; pokhdmanas (Penobscot and St.
Francis Abenaki).

Kézxko, great blue heron (Ardea herodias L.):
This echoic term is another constant in bird
nomenclature of the eastern tribes, viz. kdasko
(kaskv) (Penobscot).

Ahasu, crow (see under descriptive names):
This mimetic term corresponds to Wabanaki
forms, kag6‘s (Penobscot).

A-kawén-eo—M atéwi'te, American and red-
throated loon (Gavia sp.): The first term is a
form of the sound of laughter uttered by the
bird, as the informant added “ha ha kowane,
ha ha, he says.’ The second was not clearly
translatable. It is a cognate with the name ap-
plied to the bird by the Wabanaki people of
northern New England, madéwi ie, Penobscot,
madawitd, St. Francis Abenaki (see Gull be-
low).

Kak», wild goose (Branta sp.), swan (Cyg-
nus columbianus (Ord)): Informants were un-

258

able to differentiate the names of the two birds.
The swan to them is nothing more than a vague
memory. The name is derived from the flight
call of the goose, it would seem.

Akawanéo, gull (species not differentiated)
(Larus sp.): The Delaware notion that the bird
announees itself by the ery dkawa- is related
to the Wabanaki idea in the vocables kr'aksi:s
(Penobscot), kidkvst's (Malecite), kdékwi's (St.
Francis Abenaki) as names for the herring gull.

Po‘pé‘kus, quail (Colinus virginianus (L.)):
The name is derived from its call, which to
European ears suggests bobwhite. The same
name appears in several forms in eastern Al-
gonkian tongues as popékus (Oklahoma Dela-
ware).

Pa‘pd‘ko, ruffed grouse, partridge (Bonasa
umbellus (Z.)): The drumming of the male
bird is denoted by the verb stem of its proper
name.

Ki-kt-pus, chicken (domestic).

Migrational lore of the Canadian Dela-
wares has been collected recently by Jesse
Moses, a member of the group, and placed at
my disposal for use in this report:

All feathered wildlife that cannot endure the
severity of the northern winter migrates south-
ward in the fall in the order of the first to leave
in the fall being the last to return in the spring.

The small birds and ducks are believed to have
chosen their mates before returning north, while
the geese return in flocks leaving the ganders to
battle it out for their mates on the breeding
grounds.

Occasionally some of the hardier birds, such
as the song sparrow and jay, do not go south for
the winter, which indicates an open mild winter.

An early migration either way portends an
early change of season. The non-return of normal
bird life means a lean year, while an unusual num-
ber augurs plenty. The presence in this area of
the snow-field birds, white owl, northern lark,
waxwing, and snow bird, means an unusual depth
of snow and severe cold in their regular habitat.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 8

It is known that birds, ducks and geese, return
to the locality where they were hatched, with the
parent pair having priority in their particular
nesting place.

The V formation of flocks of ducks and geese
in flight is believed to be held for reasons of
protection. In flight the neck can only be carried
in a straight line and the héad has very little
range of turning. So the position and behaviour §
of the leader is transmitted visibly from him or
her, as the case may be, down the line by that
eye of the follower on the inside of the V forma-
tion, while each one in the flight has open vision
on the outward side. Signals of the intention of
the leader are sounded and relayed by others in
the flock.

The sense of direction in flight by day or night
is held by the calling of a manitu, according to
which one is to govern the coming season, be it
winter or summer over which the manitu of the
north or the heat of the south is to rule. There is
another belief that the rolling of the thunder
northward or southward in the late winter months
indicates whether spring is to take over soon or
is to be pushed southward again for a time. These
signs indicate the struggle taking place among the
manitu forces over the question of control of
season.

High-flying flocks are believed to foretell lean ©
physical conditions for the approaching season,
low flying flocks the reverse.

The foregoing observations are recalled from
narrations by my uncle Cornelius Moses and some
other old Delawares.

We have not as yet recorded the belief
among these Delawares that small birds
migrate on the backs of geese, loons, cranes,
or other large birds. That this legend has
not been recorded seems strange in view of
its occurrence among Wabanaki tribes
farther east who are linguistically akin to
the Delawares.

13 The extent and variation of this belief among
northern Algonkian-speaking tribes were made
the subject of some review and discussion in an
article by the writer published in 1921 (Speck,
op. cit., pp. 374-379).

Ave. 15, 1946

ANTHROPOLOGY.—More filed Indian teeth from the United States.

STEWART & TITTERINGTON: MORE FILED INDIAN TEETH

259

T: D.

STEWART, U.S. National Museum, and P. F. Tirrrerineton, St. Louis, Mo.

In 1944 we described in this JouRNAL
four examples of filed Indian teeth coming
from a small area within a radius of 40 miles
of St. Louis, Mo. At the same time we men-
tioned two other examples that had been
reported but that we had not seen. One of
these, originally from Arizona, had been
sent to Australia but has now been de-
scribed by Campbell (1944).2 The other,
from Macon, Ga., was referred to briefly
in our footnote 4, as follows: Dr. Gordon
Willey tells us that a skull with a trans-
verse groove on the labial surface of each
median incisor was found in a Lamar cul-
ture site near Macon, Ga. Efforts to secure
this skull for examination have been un-
successful thus far.’’ Not until February
of this year was this specimen finally
located and sent to one of us (T.D.8.) for
study.’

Since our report brought together un-
expected evidence of a widespread, un-
familiar custom among the late prehistoric
Indians of the United States, we anticipated
that anthropologists with skeletal collec-
tions of these Indians would soon find more
examples and would make them known. So
far, rather surprisingly, only one new speci-
men has appeared, and it was discovered in
an Illinois collection by one of us (P.F.T.).
-This being the case, and a sufficient time
having elapsed for searches of collections
to be completed, it seems desirable to record
without further delay these two unde-
scribed specimens. There is the further
motivation that both of these two new
specimens exhibit transverse grooves of the
upper median incisors, which, heretofore
having been seen only in an isolated tooth,
- gives increased significance to this unique
type of dental mutilation.

1 Received June 17, 1946.

2 Recognizing the importance of this specimen
to American anthropology, the South Australian
Museum courteously has returned it to the U. S.
National Museum.

* We are indebted to Dr. A. R. Kelly for his ef=
forts in locating this specimen and for making it
available for study.

DESCRIPTION

Macon, Ga., skull (46-3/13B:25).—The
burial of which this skull is a part was
found with associated small disk shell beads
in a small mound, known as the Tufts
Mound, near the Ocmulgee River bluffs in
South Macon. Dr. Kelly* characterizes this
mound “‘as presenting an interesting deposi-
tion of a Swift Creek and early stamped
pottery complex over an original ‘pottery-
less’ or ‘pre-pottery’ site.’ He regards the
burial in question as intrusive, because the
associated beads, in his experience, can be
typical of either Macon Plateau or Lamar
burials. This means that the Macon Pla-
teau and Lamar cultural complexes, being
of the Middle Mississippi phase, are late
prehistoric, whereas the Swift Creek com-
plex is much earlier (cf. Waring and Holder,
1945, pp. 22-25).

Inspection of the skull reveals a round-
and high-headed individual (undeformed
(?); C.I. 84.0; Mean Ht. I. 96.0), probably
a female, in early middle age. The sex is
suggested by such things as the small size
(cranial module 148.0), absence of supra-
orbital ridges and muscular markings,
rounded chin, etc. Age is indicated by the
good condition and moderate wear of the
teeth together with beginning ectocranial
suture closure (endocranial closure is ad-
vanced).

The most striking features of this skull
however are two symmetrically placed de-
pressed scars on the frontal bone® and a set
of aligned grooves crossing the upper
median incisors (Fig. 1). There is no reason
to believe that these features or defects
have any etiological connection. The frontal
scars probably are either traumatic in
origin or due to syphilitic gummata. Lesions
seemingly due to syphilis are quite com-
mon in collections of bones from sites of
the Middle Mississippi cultures. On the
other hand the dental mutilation, if such

4 Personal communication, dated February 5,

1946. See also Kelly, 1938, footnote 6, p. 26.
5 Two other sears can be felt better than seen.

260

it is, can be only a deliberately planned
artifact.

As seen under magnification (Fig. 2) the
grooves in the upper median incisors pre-
sent some unusual details. In each tooth the
superior edge of the groove is rounded,
somewhat lobulated, and undercut, whereas
the inferior edge is gradually sloping or
beveled and smooth. The groove in the
right incisor crosses the entire width of
the labial crown surface, but the groove in
the left incisor fails to reach the edges of
the labial surface and especially on the
medial side. Here the groove is almost
completely blocked by intact enamel. The
latter is rounded and somewhat undercut.
This fact makes it difficult to understand
how a crude file could cut as deep as the de-
fect indicates without cutting all the way
across the tooth surface. Indeed, when ob-
served from the side, the continuity of the
two grooves is spoiled by this block, which
suggests that a continuous motion of a
blade file could not have been employed to
produce the two defects.

In the depths of each groove a secondary
carious process has developed. Also, in
each case the enamel surface between the
groove and the neck of the tooth is slightly
pitted as in true hypoplasia. The grooves
themselves do not correspond to the usual
hypoplastic defects, both because of the
atypical beveled inferior edges and because
of the fact that there are no corresponding
defects on the other anterior teeth.®

Hypoplastic enamel usually appears in
all tooth-crowns undergoing development at
the time the disturbance in enamel forma-
tion took place. In the present case the de-
fects in the upper median incisors corres-
pond to the increment level reached at
about the third postnatal year. At this age
the crowns of the lateral incisors, canines,
and premolars, both upper and lower, also
are developing, yet in the present case none
of these show such defects.’

6 The lingual surface of each upper median in-
cisor is shovel-shaped as in most Indians. The
proximal end of the shovel basin, unusually
squared and slightly pitted, is at exactly the same
level as the defect on the labial surface and, of
ee corresponds in direction.

J. Hill, of Cleveland, ele, and Dr.

Daniel e Lynch, of Washington, D. C., both feel

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 8

Contrarily, of course, the distributional
limitation of the grooves and their beveled
edges partly correspond to the conditions in
the next case to be described, the artificial
nature of which is unquestioned.

Dickson skull (D-22).—In August of 1944
one of us (P.F.T.) spent a day at the Dick-
son Mound Museum at Lewistown, Ill.
In the course of examining some of the
skulls of the Dickson collection for filed
teeth the specimen to be described was dis-
covered. Dr. Don F. Dickson states® that
this skull was recovered from a burial ex-
posed over 40 years ago in grading the
upper part of the mound for buildings. The
skull, without its lower jaw, was the only
part saved.

Although there were no cultural associa-
tions with this burial, the Dickson ceme-
tery, according to Cole and Deuel (1937, p.
121), is classified as Middle Mississippi.
Indeed, they say that ‘‘the virtual absence
of materials which might be classed as
Woodland serves to mark [the Dickson
cemetery] as a ‘pure’ Mississippi site.’”’ In
addition, Neumann (1937) reports that
most of the skulls from this site are de-
formed.

On examination the skull shows moderate
fronto-vertico-occipital deformity and ap-
pears to be a young adult female. All the
cranial sutures are open, with the probable
exception of the basilar, which is almost
completely destroyed. The teeth show only
slight wear.

As seen in Fig. 1, the upper median in-
cisors are crossed by a set of aligned grooves
somewhat closer to the incisal edge than in
the previous case. When these grooves are
observed from the side, their alignment and
continuity become more apparent. This
suggests that they were made at the same
time and that the filing instrument made a
continuous sweep across both teeth. This
filing process perhaps was facilitated by the

that the grooves are artificial and both advanced
these arguments in ruling out hypoplasia. We are
indebted to these men for giving us the benefit of
their opinions.

_ 8 Personal communication dated September 14,
1944. We appreciate Dr. Dickson’s kindness in
sending the specimen to the U. S. National Mu-
seum for study.

Fig. 1.—Upper two views show the defects in the median incisors of a skull from Macon,
Ga. (46-3/13B: 25). Lower two views show the defects in the median incisors of the Dickson skull
(D-22).

Fig. 2.—The defects in the median incisors of the skull from Macon, Ga.,
seen in enlargement (X3).

Aue. 15,1946 STEWART & TITTERINGTON
fact that both of the median incisors had
undergone a slight inward rotation. As
seen under magnification, the edges of
these grooves are rounded as from polish-
ing and the striations left by the file are
largely obliterated.

A small /-shaped notch in the incisal
edge of the right median incisor will be
noted. This is perhaps an incomplete ex-
pression of the multilation pattern exhibited
by the-isolated Cahokia tooth described in
our previous paper.

DISCUSSION

The above description leaves some doubt
as to the artificial nature of the dental
defects in the skull from Macon, Ga. This
doubt arises from the fact that these de-
fects have some of the characteristics of
hypoplasia; that is, at some points about
the edges of the defects the enamel is
rounded, lobulated, and undercut. Even the
alignment of the defects is characteristic of
hypoplasia. However, as pointed out above,
the absence of like defects at corresponding
increment levels on the other anterior teeth
rules out generalized hypoplasia.

But we still have to consider the possi-
bility of local disturbances of enamel forma-
tion. According to Bunting and Hill (1940,
p. 94) this may occur as a result of abscesses
on overlying deciduous teeth. Although
such a possibility can not be excluded in
the present case, it would seem highly un-
likely both because of the low incidence of
caries in deciduous incisors among Indians
and because of the high resistance to decay
exhibited by the permanent teeth.

The alternative is to regard these defects
as artificial but altered by secondary caries
and by abrasion resulting from many years
of chewing coarse foods. The age of this
individual favors this view, as does the cul-
tural setting in which the burial occurred.
Nevertheless, without the supporting un-
questionable evidence of the Dickson speci-
men, derived from the same cultural phase,
we should hesitate to characterize the dental
defects in the Macon specimen as artificial.

With this reservation we may pass to the
significance of these new finds. First of all,
it is clear that the type of dental mutila-

>: MORE FILED INDIAN TEETH

261

tion consisting of filed transverse grooves
was not an isolated experiment of the
American Indians. There are now examples
from two different sites in Illinois, and per-
haps one from Georgia. Secondly, so far as
we know, this type of mutilation was
unique to the Indians of the eastern
United States. Thirdly, the belief is sup-
ported that within the United States all
types of dental mutilation were confined to
the peoples of the Middle Mississippi cul-
ture phase in the East and to contempo-
raneous peoples elsewhere. In other words,
all seven specimens thus far described relate
to the late prehistoric period. And fourthly,
dental mutilations were not limited to one
sex.

Finally, we should like to repeat our
belief that tooth grooving, through its
association with tooth notching, indicates
contact with Middle America, where the
latter practice was common. Furthermore,
since tooth grooving seems to be unique to
the area of the United States, this may
mean that “‘distance and a new setting had
released the original custom from _ its
habitual limitations.”

LITERATURE CITED

Buntine, Russet W., and Hitt, THomas J.
A text-book of oral pathology for students
and practitioners of dentistry, 460 pp.
Philadelphia, 1940.

CamMpBELL, T. D. The dental condition of a
skull from the Sikyatky site, Arizona.
Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 34(10): 821—
322. 1944.

Cotr, Fay-Cooprr, and DrvEL, THORNE.
Rediscovering Illinois: Archaeological ex-
plorations in and around Fulton County,
xvi +295 pp. Chicago, 1937.

Kewiy, A. R. A preliminary report on archeo-
logical explorations at Macon, Ga. Bur.
Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 119 (Anthrop. Paper
no. 1): 1-68. 1938.

Neumann, Grore K. Preliminary notes on
the crania from Fulton County, Illinois.
Appendix IV in ‘‘Rediscovering Illinois’’
(see Cole and Deuel) : 227-264. 1987.

Srrwart, T. D., and Tirrertneton, P. F.
Filed Indian teeth from Illinois. Journ.
Washington Acad. Sci. 34(10): 317-821.
1944.

Warne, A. J.,and Hotpnr, Preston. A pre-
historic ceremonial complex in the southeast-
ern United States. Amer. Anthrop. 47:
1-34. 1945.

262

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 8

ARCHEOLOGY .—A prehistoric Indian site on Selden Island, Montgomery County,
Md. RicHaRD G. SLATTERY, Washington, D. C. (Communicated by W. R.

WEDEL.)

On October 21, 1945, Hugh V. Stabler
and the writer explored Selden Island in the
Potomac River, Montgomery County, Md.,
for signs of early Indian settlements. A
chance test pit dug into a low ridge on the
island disclosed disturbed soil mixed with
charcoal, burnt earth, and aboriginal arti-
facts. This discovery led to subsequent ex-
cavations and the partial delineation of a
hitherto undescribed archeological complex.

Selden Island, located about 30 miles
northwest of Washington, D. C., is named
after an early owner. At the present time it
is part of a 700-acre tract of land owned and
operated by W. A. Walker, of Ashburn, Va.
The Potomac River at this point has carved
a passageway through a stratification of
Triassic sandstone, creating a valley 14
miles wide, with 100-foot bluffs on each
side. The island, which is about 2% miles
long by half a mile wide, lies near the Vir-
ginia shore. The highest point on the island
rises about 30 feet above the river level at
normal flow and 200 feet above tidewater.

The site under discussion occupies a ter-
race in the east third of the island about 200
yards southwest of the main stream and is
half a mile east of a brick house constructed
nearly a hundred years ago. At least two
other aboriginal village sites are known to
exist on the island.

At the site in question there was no con-
centration of surface debris to indicate that
prehistoric man had ever occupied the spot.
Recurrent floods have deposited their load
of silt on this part of the island, covering

1 Received April 11, 1946. The exploration of
the Selden Island site was carried out wholly on
week-end excursions by Mr. Stabler and the
writer. We were accompanied on several occasions
by Frank M. Setzler, Dr. T. D. Stewart, and Dr.
Waldo R. Wedel, of the Department of Anthro-
pology of the U. S. National Museum, who offered
their assistance and trained experience in the ex-
cavation of the site and the preparation of this
paper. The writer wishes to convey his gratitude
also to Mr. Walker, who extended his fullest coop-
eration throughout the period of our explorations,
and to Mr. Stabler for assistance and suggestions
during excavation of the site and in subsequent

analysis of data. The specimens from the site have
been deposited in the U. 8. National Museum.

any signs that may have been left by ancient
man. However, an occasional sherd, arrow-
point, or other worked stone may be picked
up on the surface at this point as on almost
any other cultivated spot on the island. It
is perhaps reasonable to assume, therefore,
that these artifacts were brought to the sur-
face by the plow or, in some cases, were
scattered by later Indians.

Since its discovery the site has been exca-
vated by means of numerous test trenches
dug at intervals in a 30- by 35-foot area ad-
jacent to the first pit. Owing to the excessive
overburden of sterile soil (14 to 18 inches)
and our limited facilities, it was impractical
to strip off the entire surface to subsoil
level. For these reasons the exact extent of
the area occupied has not been determined.
The aboriginal features discovered consist
of a series of 12 separate rubbish-filled pits
each conforming to a nearly circular shape
(see table). The walls were generally verti-
cal with little variation from top to bot-
tom; however, three pits, Nos. 3, 9, and 12,
apparently had sloping basinlike walls. The
diameters, measured at the contact between
dark topsoil and_ light-colored subsoil,
ranged from 34 to 57 inches, but generally
held to near 3 feet. The depth varied from
24 to 41 inches (taken from surface) but
averaged about 30 inches. Pit No. 4 was
floored with 60 broken and unbroken rocks
completely covering the bottom of the pit.
Intermingled with these rocks were many
fragments of a single large pottery vessel.
Pits Nos. 6 and 8 had been dug through a
stratum of river-deposited gravel and rock,
much of which had become mixed with the
pit fill. This stratum began at a 24-inch
level and continued through the walls and
beyond the bottom of the excavation. Ab-
sence of this gravel in the other pits opened
indicates that it is of limited or discontinu-
ous occurrence and does not underlie the
entire site.

The pits excavated generally revealed
one point of difference from those on other
aboriginal sites in this area in that there was

Ava. 15, 1946

very little difference in the consistency of
the fill and that of the surrounding walls
except for coloration and even this was not
always sharply defined. The fill in each
contained darkened soil, charcoal, and some
flecks of burnt earth but was without excep-
tion very hard-packed.

There was no evidence in any of the pits
of fire-baked walls, layers of ash, or concen-
trations of charcoal that might indicate use
in cooking, pottery firing, etc. The layer of
rocks found in the bottom of pit No. 4 might
indicate its use as a storage pit, the rocks
placed so as to protect the contents of the
pit from excessive moisture which would
tend to be greatest on the bottom. What-
ever their original purpose, the pits were
finally used as refuse depositories into which
broken articles and rubbish from the nearby
habitations were thrown indiscriminately at
all levels.

There was no positive evidence of large
concentrations of sherds and artifacts out-
side the immediate pit areas as one would
expect to find in so-called ‘‘kitchen mid-
dens.””’ However, occasional sherds and
points were found near the bottom of the
topsoil throughout the entire area exca-
vated.

The table below summarizes pit meas-
urements and contents.

POTTERY

Potsherds were much less abundant in
the refuse pits of the Selden Island site than
on any other village yet explored in the

Pit No Depth Diameter Sherds
inches inches
1 31 39 25
2 26 44 X50 34
3 26 36 74
4 31 36 100
5 24 34 12
6 27 36 43
7 28 38 20
8 41 57 46
9 25 39 34
10 39 42 3
11 26 36 14
12 24 48 2
Test trenches — — 24
Totals 431

SLATTERY: AN INDIAN SITE ON SELDEN ISLAND, MD.

Arrow-

263

area; however, 431 sherds and 1 partially
restorable vessel were recovered from the 12
pits and test trenches. Of this total 93-++ per
cent were tempered with coarsely ground
steatite. The remaining sherds were tem-
pered with very finely divided crystalline
rock.

The closest known quarry of steatite is
located just below Little Falls in Arlington
County, Va., a distance of about 25 miles
(Holmes, 1897, p. 124). The steatite parti-
cles comprising the tempering varied from 1
to 4 mm in diameter and were always used
generously. Holmes (1903, p. 48) comments
as follows on the use of steatite tempering:
‘“‘In the piedmont region of North Carolina
and Virginia vessels are found made of paste
consisting of coarsely pulverized steatite
and barely enough clay to hold the particles
together.’? A coarse paste of this nature ~
ereatly affects the surface smoothness in
weathered pieces. Those sherds not appre-
clably weathered have relatively smooth
surfaces, but are occasionally pitted where
particles of the tempering material have
fallen out.

Sherds of both temper types characteris-
tically have strongly weathered surfaces as
if produced by poor methods of firing or by
extended exposure to the action of soil acids
and water. The sherds are generally soft in
texture and will crumble readily if immersed
in water before being thoroughly dried. Sur-
face treatment of the body sherds was gen-
erally fine cord-roughening produced by a
cord-wrapped paddle; the impressions may

Worked
steatite

Worked Ax
stone fragments

Organic
material

points

_
ORNBROONKRAA

—
ooroooqocoqcoooqoor
qooeooorcoqoqcuoqocuo kK

—
w
oO
iw)

w

264

be vertical, oblique, or crisscross (Fig. 1,
a-c, e, h). In some steatite-tempered sherds
net impressions occur; others have what
appears to be the imprint of twined matting
with heavy warps crossed by a fine tightly
twisted cord weft at intervals of three-
eighths to one-half inch. These latter 1m-
pressions are strikingly similar to those de-
scribed by Holmes (1903, p. 28, pl. 3) as
occurring on “‘salt-pan ware’’ of the lower
Mississippi Valley. All samples of grit-tem-
pered sherds recovered from the pits were
plain cord-roughened with no further elabo-
rations.

Twenty-two steatite-tempered rims were
found; there are none with crystalline tem-
pering. The rim sherds in all cases are
merely extensions of the body of the vessel
and were either smoothed off on the lip,
corded, or notched (Fig. 1, a, b).

Vessel shapes are very imperfectly known
but our sample suggests that they varied in
diameter from 11 to about 30 cm, as meas-
ured from projected arcs on restored frag-
ments. The steatite-tempered vessels in
some or most cases appear to have been flat-
bottomed or nearly so (Fig. 1, a) and often
bear heavy net or fabric impressions on
their under surface. The angle formed by
the body of the vessel and the bottom was
in some cases about 90° but in others seems
to have been less abrupt. In every case the
vessel reached its maximum thickness at
this point. Thickness of body sherds varied
from 4mm to 15 mm; the majority were be-
tween 5 and 9mm.

Coloring was generally light brown
_ throughout with varying darker shades pro-
duced by uneven firing.

Some steatite-tempered vessels had lug
handles protruding for about 15-30 mm at
right angles from the side of the bowl (Fig.
1, 7, 7). Presumably these vessels had two
such grips below the rim. These lugs appear
to be modeled closely from those found on
large steatite bowls of this area for they
were generally flat in appearance and tap-
ered to blunt points. It is believed that the
width and overall size of these lugs varied
proportionately with the size of the vessel.

Two cases of holes in sherds, one being
drilled after firing and the other thrust

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 8

through the wall before firing, were found
among our collection. An illustration of the
latter type is shown in Fig. 1, a.

STONE ARTIFACTS

Stonework at the Selden Island site was
not abundant. Thirty complete and broken
projectile points (16 of which were classifia-
ble as to shape) were recovered along with
two grooved ax fragments, several pieces of
worked steatite, and two rounded marble-
size stones.

By comparison with collections of pro-
jectile points from other piedmont Potomac
village sites, those from the Selden Island
site appear unique only in the absence of
triangular shapes. This type is found in all
cases in greater abundance than stemmed
points on all other sites yet explored in this
area (Stearns, 1940, p.13; Manson, Mc-
Cord, and Griffin, 1944, p. 399). Three of
the 16 classified projectile points possessed
rounded bases; all others were stemmed.
The length of all types varied from 1 to 4
inches. The largest specimen was imper-
fect, and its size is a conservative estimate.

The stones most generally used for the
manufacture of projectile points were na-
tive to the vicinity and include quartz,
quartzite, and rhyolite (Holmes, 1897, p.
73, describes rhyolite quarries at Maria
Furnace, Pa.). In general, the quality of
chipping was good. The points compare fav-
orably with those of similar material from
other sites. A few flakes of chert were found,
but this stone was not represented in any of
the points; its lesser use may have been due
to the scarcity of the material.

As previously mentioned, two fragments
of grooved stone axes were found on the
site: a fragment of one side broken at the
top of the groove and at 1% inches below the
groove, from pit No. 1, and the other, a sec-
tion of one side from half an inch above the
groove to the bit, from pit No. 11. Presuma-
bly the groove completely encircled the im-
plement in both cases, as indicated by sur-
face finds from other sites of this culture.
The fragment from pit No. 1 was fashioned
from an igenous rock (greenstone) and was
much weathered. The other specimen was
shaped from Triassic sandstone and was

“UM GZ ‘g JO YRPIA suru OZI “P Jo FYSIOH
‘pw ‘Ajunoy Adgourosquoy ‘puv[sy uepfeg wou szutod optyoofoad poddiyo pue spioysyog—' | “S1y

14

Aue. 15, 1946

similarly weathered. Stearns (1940) in his
report on the Hughes site and Manson,
McCord, and Griffin (1944) in their report
on the Keyser site do not mention grooved
axes but note that celts are characteristic of
both sites. The writer’s personal experience
in excavating Indian villages of the pied-
mont Potomac area agrees with their find-
ings in regard to the occurrence of celts and
the nonoccurrence of grooved axes on all
sites explored other than the type here dis-
cussed. There is no trace of celts in our col-
lections from this excavation.

One steatite bowl fragment, half an inch
thick, was found in pit No. 10. This was a
section from the junction of the side and
bottom. It is impossible to determine the
size and exact shape of the bowl from this
sample, but the bottom of the vessel ap-
pears to have been flat; the sides approach
it at about 115°, giving the effect of a rather
sharp angle on the outside surface and a
curving radius of about 24 inches on the in-
side surface. This was obtained by thicken-
ing the vessel at the radius to three-quar-
ters of an inch. The vessel plainly shows
marks of aboriginal tools used in the shap-
ing process. Finer tools were used on the in-
side of the bowl than on the outside, as
illustrated by the scratches and gouges oc-
curring on each surface. Several odd pieces
of steatite were found in the pits and they
are believed to have been brought to the
site for use in pottery tempering but were
never pulverized for this purpose.

The two marble-sized stones, one 20 mm
in diameter and the other 26 mm, were
found in separate excavations. The former
was found in pit No. 3 and the latter else-
where while testing. These stones appear
to have been shaped by pecking, but their
use is again speculation. They may have
been for gaming.

Many flakes of quartz, quartzite, and
rhyolite and a number of rejects and blanks
were found in the pits. There were also a
number of flakes and one crude point of
limestone, all much weathered. Several
pieces of worked Triassic sandstone and
two nodules of a coarse conglomerate were
found in the excavations. It is thought that
this latter stone was used for tempering the
grit-tempered sherds found here in a minor-
ity proportion.

SLATTERY: AN INDIAN SITE ON SELDEN ISLAND, MD.

265

ORGANIC MATERIALS

The only trace of organic material aside
from charred wood found in the excavations
consisted of two completely carbonized
hickory nut shells, which were probably
part of the inhabitants’ diet.

BONE MATERIALS

One of the puzzling aspects of the site is
the utter lack of worked or unworked hu-
man or animal bones in the refuse pits. No
single sample large enough to identify has
been found in any of the excavations. The
only traces were very small bits of bone,
none of which equaled the size of one’s
smallest fingernail. Even these tiny frag-
ments were so fragile that they could rarely
withstand separation from the soil that sur-
rounded them. Two or three pieces showed
signs of fire and consequently were in a
somewhat better preserved state. In each
pit excavated it was noticed that many
hard-packed molds with considerably darker
soil in their interiors existed throughout the
fill. This suggests that something had at one
time occupied these molds and had now
completely decayed.

Bone of both animal and human is found
in a comparatively good state of preserva-
tion on all other excavated sites not of this
culture in the Potomac area. It is true that
the mold marks may represent other or-
ganic compounds more readily affected by
decay and that these aborigines possibly did
not place animal bones in their refuse pits.
This would certainly be contrary to the prac-
tices of all locally known woodland cultures.
It might be that this soil is particularly acid
and would dissolve bone structure more
readily, but unless a much longer period of
time is involved this is contradicted by the
existence of the two other aboriginal village
sites on this same island and presumably in
the same soil structure. In both of these
sites bone material is well preserved.

CONCLUSIONS

There are very few detailed descriptive
reports dealing with particular sites along
the Potomac above the District of Colum-
bia. In the light of intermittent surveys and
a rather considerable body of information
derived therefrom, however, it appears that

266

the Selden Island site discussed herein rep-
resents a heretofore virtually unknown cul-
tural horizon. The occurrence of steatite-
tempered earthenware has long been known
but the archeological complex of which it
was characteristic has been unidentified.

Stearns’s report (1940) on the Hughes
site and Manson, McCord, and Griffin’s re-
port (1944) on the Keyser site describe
Potomac Valley pottery assemblages in
which shell-tempered ware predominates.
Vessels are described as having wide
mouths and rounded bottoms; several have
loop handles or applique lugs below a modi-
fied rim which is often deeply notched with
a cord-wrapped stick. In a minority propor-
tion from each site are grit-tempered sherds
which do not have lugs or handles but char-
acteristically have collared rims and conical
bottoms. This ware was found by the writer
to predominate on several village sites in
the immediate neighborhood of Selden Is-
land. A third ware found at the Keyser
site, designated ‘‘Potomac Creek Cord Im-
pressed,” is described as grit-tempered and
conical-bottomed but not possessing col-
lared rims, lugs, or handles (see also Stew-
art, 1939). In all these wares the application
of a cord-wrapped paddle to the outer body
surface is characteristic.

Steatite-tempered vessels from Selden
Island appear to have had flat, or nearly
flat, bottoms and plain unornamented rims,
which were characterized by merely extend-
ing the cord roughening from the body of
the vessel to the lip. The notched lip noted
in shell-tempered ware appears to have been
applied with a rather wide cord-wrapped
stick while the notches on Selden Island
pottery are a series of small indentations
possibly applied with a very small bare
stick or twig. The wide, flat lugs appearing
on the sides of some steatite-tempered ves-
sels differ greatly from the more expertly
fashioned loop handles or rounded lugs ap-
pearing on shell-tempered ware. The stea-
tite-tempered Selden Island sherds are gen-
erally easily distinguished from the more
common shell- and grit-tempered wares on
other sites of the Potomac Valley.

The absence of triangular arrowpoints
and the presence of grooved axes instead of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 8

celts on the Selden Island site further dis-
tinguish this complex from others previ-
ously reported in the area.

The absence of sizable bone fragments in
the refuse pits is contrary to findings at
other Potomac Valley sites, and suggests
greater antiquity rather than different hab-
its of diet or methods of refuse disposal.

The extreme hardness of the pit fill and
the eroded condition of some of the speci-
mens seem to point similarly to a rather
considerable antiquity.

On present evidence, the Selden Island
site under consideration is certainly prehis-
toric. Though stratigraphic evidence is
lacking, it appears to antedate the shell-
tempered pottery horizon represented at
the Hughes and Keyser sites. I suspect that
it also antedates the known local grit-tem-
pered wares, and may even represent the
oldest pottery horizon in the locality. Until
further excavations have been made at this
and other related sites widely distributed
throughout the Potomac piedmont area,
the relationships of the complex must re-
main obscure. As to the people who were its
authors, the complete lack of any skeletal
material leaves their physical relationships
unknown.

LITERATURE CITED

Hoitmss, W. H. Stone amplements of the Po-
tomac Chesapeake Tidewater Province. Bur.
Kthnol. 15th Ann. Rep. Washington,
1897.

. Aboriginal pottery of the eastern United
States. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. 20th Ann. Rep.
Washington, 1903.

Manson, Cart, Howarp A. McCorp, and
JAMES B. Grirrin. The culture of the
Keyser farm site. Pap. Michigan Acad.
Sci., Arts and Lett. 29: 375-418. 1944.

STEARNS, RicHarp E. The Hughes Site: An
Aboriginal village site on the Potomac
River in Montgomery County, Maryland.
Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Maryland No. 6,
Baltimore, 1940.

STEWART, T. Daun. Excavating the Indian Vil-
lage of Patawomeke (Potomac). Explora-
tions and Field-work of the Smithsonian
Institution in 1938: 87-90. Washington,
1939.

. Further excavations at the Indian Vil-

lage of Patawomeke. Explorations and

Field-work of the Smithsonian Institution

in 1939: 79-82. Washington, 1940.

Aue. 15, 1946

BLAKE: WEST INDIAN BEETLES OF GENUS LACTICA

267

ENTOMOLOGY.—Species of beetles of the genus Lactica from the West Indies
closely related to L. tibialis (Olivier). Doris H. Buaxr. (Communicated by

ALAN STONE.)

Olivier described Altica tibialis from a
specimen in the Bose collection from near
Charleston, S. C. There are a great many
pale yellow species of Lactica very similar
in coloration to tzbialzs that occur in Mexi-
co, Central and South America, and also
in the: West Indies. The purpose of this
paper is to draw attention to some of the
West Indian species, at least one of vhich

has been confused with tibialis. * hese
species, although very closely re do
show distinct differences in c ion,
shape, and also in the internal str ~— of
the genitalia. Most of the speciesk. = __. ‘It
with are from the Bahamas and Cu + © >

from Dominica, which isa little mo: | -
ing in its differences, is also included.

doubt more species from other islands ‘

the West Indies will come to light in the
course of time.

Lactica tibialis (Olivier)
Fias. 2, 4

Altica tibialis Olivier, Ent. 6: 702. 1808.
Ailtica ocreata Say, New Species found by Bara-

dino in Louisiana: 7. New Harmony, 1832.
Monomacra tibialis DeJean Catalogue: 413. 1837.
Lactica tibialis Baly (not Olivier), H. Clark,

Journ. Ent. 1(6): 458. 1862.
Lactica tibtalis Harold, Col. Hefte 13: 90. 1875.

Lactica tibialis is represented in the U. S.
National Museum collection by specimens from
North and South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee,
Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, and Missouri, and
one is labeled Michigan. There are three speci-
mens from Brownsville, Tex., that have a paler
coloration. Instead of having entirely dark
tibiae and tarsi, the tibiae in two of these are
darkened only along the outer edge, and in the
third specimen only the apices of the femora,
tibiae, and tarsi are slightly darker. The aede-
agus seems to have a sharper and narrower tip,
although of the same shape. Possibly this is a
southern race, but from the little material at
hand I hesitate to make more than a mention
of the differences.

1 Received March 14, 1946.

Lactica religata (Jacq. du Val)
Fig. 1

Monomacra religata Jacq. du Val, Hist. phys.
Cuba, Ins. 7: 311. 1856; Suffrian, Arch. ftir
Naturg. 34: 193. 1868.

Lactica tibialis Gemminger and Harold, Catalogue
12: 3499. 1876 (not tzbialzs Olivier).

The name Lactica tibialis has been applied
not only to the North American species but
also to the Cuban one. The Cuban species is
similarly colored but in general is a little
smaller. There are also slight differences in the
prothorax, the North American species having
a proportionately wider one with a more
marked obtuse angle anteriorly. Furthermore,

the aedeagus of tibialis is very narrow and
te at the tip, whereas the tip of the Cuban

‘ies Is more broadly rounded.

Lactica dominicae, n. sp.
Fig. 7

Elongate-oblong, pale yellow, impunctate,
faintly shining, mouth parts darker, antennae
except three basal joints dark, legs with dark
apices to femora and tibiae and tarsi dark;
thorax with sides almost straight, very little
widened at base, antennae extending nearly to
the middle of the elytra.

Head with interocular space less than half
width of head; eyes large; frontal tubercles dis-
tinct, a little produced; interantennal area
sharp and keel-shaped, a large puncture
grouped with two or more smaller punctures on
each side of vertex near the eye; mouth parts
tinged with dark. Antennae long and slender,
extending to the middle of the elytra, except
for the basal joints entirely dark, the first joint
entirely pale, the second and third deepening
in color; fourth longest, 5, 6, and 7 subequal
and nearly as long as fourth, the remainder
gradually shortening. Prothorax about a third
wider than long with the sides nearly straight,
very little wider at base than anteriorly; basal
suleus deep and distinct throughout. Elytra
with small humeri, elongate, smooth, faintly
shining. Body beneath entirely pale, lightly
pubescent. Legs pale with apices of femora and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 8

3, Lactica eleutherae
f

N

4. Lacticatibialis Oliv |

©
>

7

| TZ Lactica dominicae

6. Lactica albina

Fias. 1-7.—West Indian species of Lactica.

Ave. 15, 1946

tibiae and tarsi dark. Length 4 mm; width
2mm.

Type male, U.S.N.M. No. 57877.

Type locality—Saltoun Estate, 800 feet al-
titude, Dominica, B.W.I., collected June 30,
1941, by R. G. Fennah.

Remarks.—The distinguishing character of
this species is the thorax with its nearly
straight sides, and also the unusually long an-
tennae.

‘Lactica eleutherae, n. sp.
Fig. 3

Elongate-oblong, shining, pale yellow with
dark antennae. Basal sulcus on thorax deeply
impressed.

Head with interocular space approximately
half width of head, frontal tubercles distinct
with a depression on each side of them on the
vertex, a deep puncture also near the eye; inter-
antennal area not produced but flat; head en-
tirely pale. Antennae with the three basal
joints pale, remainder dark and subequal, not
reaching the middle of the elytra. Prothorax
almost twice as wide as long with slightly
rounded sides, a little broader at the base; a
deeply impressed basal sulcus. Elytra shining,
impunctate, smooth, with small humeri. Body
beneath entirely pale, shining, lightly pubes-
cent. Legs pale. Length 3.2-3.4 mm; width 1.4
mm.

Type male and one paratype, also male,
U.S.N.M. No. 57878.

Type locality—kEleuthera Island, Bahamas,
collected by H. F. Wickham July 9-15.

Remarks.—This species differs from the
Cuban one by having entirely pale legs. It is
also more highly polished and has a more
deeply impressed basal sulcus on the prothorax.

Lactica albina, n. sp.
Fia. 6

Elongate-oblong, impunctate, faintly shin-
ing, entirely pale yellow without dark markings
on legs or antennae.

Head with interocular space approximately
half width of head; frontal tubercles rather flat
and indistinct, interantennal area not sharply
keeled but flat, very little produced; a large
puncture on each side of vertex near eye; en-
tirely pale. Antennae not extending to the mid-

BLAKE: WEST INDIAN BEETLES OF GENUS LACTICA

269

dle of the elytra, entirely pale, fourth and fifth
joints subequal and a little longer than the
remainder, all joints subequal. Prothorax more
than a third wider than long with slightly
rounded sides, broadening a little towards base;
basal sulcus clearly marked. Elytra smooth,
impunctate, faintly shining, humeri small.
Body beneath pale, shining, nearly glabrous.
Legs entirely pale. Length 3.9 mm; width 1.8
mm.

Type female, U.S.N.M. No. 57879.

Type locality—LHEgg Island, Bahamas, col-
lected on May 13 by H. F. Wickham.

Remarks.—This is the only species of the
group from the West Indies that is entirely
pale. Unfortunately, no male has been exam-
ined.

Lactica androsensis, n. sp.
Fia. 5

Elongate-oblong, shining, impunctate, pale
yellow with all except the basal joint of the an-
tennae dark, apex of femora, tibiae, and tarsi
dark.

Head with interocular space approximately
half its width, polished pale yellow with mouth
parts tending to be darker; frontal tubercles
with a depression between and on either side of
them; interantennal area flat, the usual large
puncture near the eye. Antennae not extending
to the middle of the elytra, all but the basal
joint dark, joints 4-11 subequal. Prothorax
not quite twice as broad as long, with sides
slightly arcuate, a little wider at base; basal
sulcus clearly marked. Elytra smooth, pale,
polished, humeral prominences small. Body be-
neath entirely pale and lightly pubescent.
Legs with the apex of the femora, and the ti-
biae and tarsi dark. Length 3.2-3.7 mm;
width 1.6-1.7 mm.

Type male (M.C.Z. No. 27374) and 2 para-
types (1 in U.S.N.M. No. 57880).

Type locality—Andros Island, Bahamas,
collected Aug. 1-10, 1904 by Barber (? Thomas
Barbour).

Remarks.—In coloration this is very much
like the Cuban species and tzbialis, although
the femora are darkened only at the tip,
whereas in the other two the dark extends far-
ther back. The aedeagus is different from
either.

270

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 8

ENTOMOLOGY.—The Aedes (Finlaya) niveus subgroup of Oriental mosquitoes. :
KennetH L. Knicut, Lt. Comdr., H(S), U.S.N.R.2 (Communicated by§

ALAN STONE.)

By Edwards’s’ classification, those mos-
quitoes in the subgenus Finlaya with dark
hind tarsi (including wnicinctus Edwards,
which has the first segment basally banded)
are all included in what he terms ‘‘Group
H.’’ A distinct section of this group is repre-
sented by niveus (Ludlow) and is charac-
terized by having at least the anterior two-
thirds of the scutum covered with white
scales (may be more or less divided medially
in the fe nale; in zdjenensis Brug the light-
colored scutal scales are pale golden) and
by lacking femoral knee spots. At present
there are seven species described in the
niveus subgroup. Of these, specimens of
albolateralis (Theobald) (male only), niveus
(Ludlew), and novoniveus Barrand (male
only) have been examined by the author.
For comparison with zdjenensis Brug,
pseudoniveus (Theobald) (Borneo, Singa-
pore, Sumatra), nzveoides Barrand (India,
Indo-China, Sumatra, Java), and albo-
niveus Barrand (Java, eastern Himalayas),
the literature descriptions were utilized.
Larvae of only nzveus were seen.

In this paper four new species are de-
scribed; and the possibility of a literature
description of niveus being a new species is
pointed out.

KEY TO FEMALES OF THE NIVEUS SUBGROUP

1. A patch of broad white scales on ppn.......2
No broad white scales on ppn..,.......... 3

2. Light-scaled scutal areas pale golden........
Pc RE ar sie 8 ce MS eae AES idjenensis Brug
Light-scaled scutal areas white. niveus of Feng!

1 Received May 2, 1946. The collections re-
ported on here were made under the auspices of
U. 8. Naval Medical Research Unit no. 2. The
material was worked up in space furnished by the
Division of Insects, U. 8S. National Museum. Ad-
ditional specimens were made available from the
museum collections through the courtesy of Dr.
Alan Stone.

2 Research Division, Bureau of Medicine and
Surgery, U. 8S. Navy Department.

3 EDWARDS, F. W. Genera insectorum. Culicidae,
fase. 173: 154. Brussels, 1932.

4 Aedes (Finlaya) niveus Ludlow. Frna, L., The
tree hole species of mosquitoes of Petping, China.
Chinese Med. Journ., Suppl. 2: 512. 1938. This is
apparently a previously undescribed species.

3. A silvery spot in middle of anterior surface of §
mat Gde MAU ae sey eee pseudoniveus (Theobald) §
No silvery spot in middle of anterior surface of §
midfemur (however, there may be a median §
elongate pale marking ventrally on anterior
SUTLACE): 5:2) 5:5 wee ee ee ent nae eee 4g
4. Extent of apical dark area of hind femur
greatly reduced laterally, incomplete or
nearly so ventrally; midfemur largely pale
on. posterior suriacems. = ees nar as 5)
Apical dark area occupies one-fourth or more
of hind femur, lateral and ventral extent
little or not reduced. 22) 2. ane ee 6
5. White scales present along margins of prescu-
tellar bare space; apical dark area of hind
femur broken ventrally...... saperot, Nn. sp.
No white scales present around prescutellar
bare space; apical dark area of hind femur
usually thinly connected ventrally........
RUS JRA eee dorseyt, 0. sp.
6. Scutal white scaled area not extending to lat-
eral margin over most of paratergite; lateral
white scaled areas may be broadly connected
anteriorly ; 0°: 4. se eee laoagensts, n. sp.
Scutal white scaled area extending along lat-
eral margin to wing base, or at least to level
of prealar region: : 432 ee eee eee 7
. Scutal white scaled area not broken medially,
posterior margin may be slightly concave
oo ah thle See eC eee niveus (Ludlow)
niveoides Barraud
novoniveus Barraud®
alboniveus Barraud
Scutal white scaled area broken by a broad
longitudinal median band of dark scales, fre-
quently a line of connecting scales anteriorly

ba |

8. White scales present along margins of prescu-
tellar bare space; midfemur extensively pale
posteriorly, and usually with some ventral
pale scaling on the anterior aspect........
SAP aries cts ae Geen albolateralis (Theobald)

No white scales present around prescutellar
bare space; midfemur dark, a few ventro-
basal pale scales on posterior surface......
wo die Wibte due Gh eae a i lacteus, n. sp

KEY TO THE NIVEUS SUBGROUP BASED ON
MALE GENITALIA®

1. Sclerotized ridge on dorsal (before rotation)
inner basal surface of basistyle with an apical

5 According to Barraud (Fauna of British India,
Diptera, 5: 205. 1934) the females of these species
are indistinguishable.

6 The males of pseudoniveus and idjenensis are
undescribed. The male genitalia of Feng’s niveus
ae not sufficiently described to be placed in this

ey.

Ave. 15, 1946

elbowed spine and a lateral stout hair.....

I ne cs erate ioe ae. alboniveus Barraud

This ridge without an apical elbowed spine. .2

2. Dorsal basal portion of basistyle with a clump
of specialized scales (to be distinguished
from normal abdominal type scales)...... 3
Dorsal basal portion of basistyle with a clump

of long setae, none of them striated (one
specimen of saperoz had 2 setae striated). .7

3. Inner dorsal area of basistyle with a broad
band of uniform (except apically) stiff short

Inner dorsal area of basistyle with a row of stiff

bent setae on inner margin, a few smaller -

Seuae wemimd Ghese. . ier... js jes ve lene ee 6

4. Dorsal basal scale clump of basistyle with
some of scales very broad, others slender and
elongate (Fig. 2); claspette blade distinctly
enlarged medially, enlarged portion clear
CRN) sets Orr Ss lacteus, n. sp.
Dorsal basal scale clump of basistyle with
seales setiform; claspette blade evenly and
only slightly swollen to middle, of uniform
“HESEBTINE: 75 IS oe a eae ae 5

5. Inner dorsal area of basistyle with short stiff
setae extending laterally to longer lateral
setae (Fig. 5). : .niveus (Ludlow)
Inner dorsal area of basistyle with a band of
short stiff setae on inner margin, a bare area
present between these and longer lateral
Seber bie Prete Or at As dorseyt, 1. sp.

6. Dorsal basal scale clump of basistyle with
scales of several different lengths, shorter
ones obovate (Fig. 6); claspette blade dis-
tinctly widened medially, enlarged portion
Glene (iie2-8) 2. os albolateralts (Theobald)
Dorsal basal scale clump with scales narrow,
elongate and most of them of rather uniform
length (Fig. 3); claspette blade only slightly
swollen medially, of uniform texture (Fig.

1122) Pisce ese. A a eked eee | wee laoagensis, n. sp.

7. Blade of claspette widening only slightly to the
middle, of uniform texture. niveoides Barraud
Blade of claspette noticeably enlarged medially

8. Inner dorsal area of basistyle largely free of
setae medially (Fig. 1); appendage of dis-
tistyle over three-fourths as long as disti-
SU UO ING: AUST Ps ae en a mera saperot, n. sp.

Inner dorsal area of basistyle rather uniformly
covered with short bent setae; appendage of
dististyle approximately one-half length of

Pdistictylegs : . . aa. t novoniveus Barrand

KEY TO THE LARVAE OF THE NIVEUS
SUBGROUP?

1.Comb teeth fringed to just before apex; ven-
tral brush with 10 or more tufts......... 2
Comb teeth not fringed beyond middle; ven-
tralibrush with S'tuitsss205 555.20 845 0) +

™ The larvae of pseudoniveus and idjenensis are
undescribed. The larva of Feng’s niveus can not be
taken beyond point 6 in the key, because of the

KNIGHT: THE AEDES (FINLAYA) NIVEUS SUBGROUP

271

2. Most of comb teeth with bases united by a
sclerotized area, 10-12 in number (Fig. 17);
mentum with 6-7 lateral teeth (Fig. 20)...
See eat ato en. aa dorseyt, 0. sp.

Comb teeth not connected basally by a sclero-
tized area, 12-17 in number; mentum with
$-lOMateral teether 22 oo. ds 6 oe. 3

3. Ventral brush with 12 tufts; pecten teeth uni-

formly pigmented (Fig. 15)...lacteus, n. sp.
Ventral brush with 10 tufts; pecten teeth pale
apically(Pig:.16)22 «5-2 . niveus (Ludlow)

4, Basal pecten teeth the largest..............
ion iPS aif. Whey aahag Soar dS, ee novoniveus Barraud

Basal pecten teeth the smallest............ 5

5. Siphon index 4—5; comb teeth fringed at ex-

treme base only......... niveoides Barraud
Siplron indexya.5, OF less \ an as wee wes hoe 6

6. Head hair 5 with 10-16 branches; tufts of ven-
tral brush 4—7 branched; acus usually thinly
attached (ie. -13)= asc e saperot, Nn. sp.

Head hair 5 with 5-11 branches; tufts of ven-
tral brush 2—4 branched;® acus detached. .7

7. Antennal tuft 9-12 branched; subterminal an-
tennal hairs distinctly unequal in length
Bi is Sees PO ES Oe bee alboniveus Barraud

8. Siphon index approximately 2; dorsal anal gills
about 1.5 times the length of the anal plate
(Fe 1) ng aia <2 ieee laoagensis, n. sp.

Siphon index 3-3.5; dorsal anal gills (according
to Barraud, 1934) about the length of the
longersventral brush Waaits 24 8 0.2 tse cet
ee. eee, ee albolateralts (Theobald)

Aedes (Finlaya) saperoi, n. sp.

Male—Wing: 24 mm. Head: Proboscis
black, longer than front femur. Palpus black,
slightly shorter than proboscis, a mesal ven-
tral line of short recumbent dark hairs on the
second long segment, long black hairs at apex
of this segment and along the 2 terminal seg-
ments, apical segment slightly shorter than the
subapical. Vertex with broad yellowish-white
scales, except in the lateral corner and along
the eye margin where they are white, a narrow
area of yellowish-white forked upright scales
on the nape. Thorax: Scutal integument dark;
covered with broadened curved white scales
(except for a narrow submedian longitudinal
band of straight narrow scales) from just before
the wing base of the anterior margin of the

inadequacy of the description. However, it is de-
scribed as having the dorsal anal gills approxi-
mately equal to the anal plate in length. This
would separate it from the remaining species.

8 There are conflicting literature descriptions on
this point for alboniveus; this is also true of the
number of tufts in the ventral brush.

272 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, No. 8

Fics. 1-6.—Inner dorsal aspect of dissected basistyle of male genitalia of Aedes (Finlaya)
(setal rings indicate location of omitted setae): 1, A. saperot; 2. A. lacteus; 3. A. laoagensis; 4,

A. dorseyt; 5. A. niveus; 6, A. albolateralis.
Fies. 7-12.—Lateral aspect of dissected claspette: 7, A. saperoi; 8, A. albolateralis; 9, A.

niveus; 10, A. lucteus; 11, A. dorseyi; 12, A. laoagensis.

Aue. 15, 1946 KNIGHT: THE AEDES (FINLAYA) NIVEUS SUBGROUP 273

AWW RAG,

Figs. 13-17.—Lateral aspect of larval terminal segments of Aedes (Finlaya) (ventral brush
omitted): 13, A. saperoi; 14, A. laoagensis; 15, A. lacteus; 16, A. niveus; 17, A. dorseyt.

Fig. 18.— Dorsal aspect of larval head, A. dorseyt.

Figs. 19, 20.—Dorsal aspect of the mentum: 19, A. saperoz; 20, A. dorseyt.

274

scutum, the white scales extending to the lat-
eral margin along their entire extent; posterior
portion of scutum with narrow and broadened
curved black scales, an area of white scales
around the prescutellar bare space. Scutellar
lobes clothed with broad grayish-white scales.
Apn and ppn blackish brown, apn with broad
white scales, ppn bare (one side of holotype
possesses one broad dark scale dorsally).
Pleuron blackish brown, a patch of broad white
scales present on each of the following: Pro-
pleuron, prealar area, upper sternopleuron, and
lower posterior border of the sternopleuron and
the mesepimeron. Coxae and trochanters pale,
covered with broad white scales, the forecoxa
with a few dark scales intermingled. Fore-
femur dark, anterior aspect with a_ basal
ventral line of pale scales, posterior aspect
with a median pale band from near base to
apex, broadest on basal half and extending to
dorsal margin there, a separate white basal
patch present; mid femur with anterior aspect
dark except for complete ventral margin and
the dorsal basal margin, posterior aspect pale
except for the dorsal apical half; hind femur
creamy white, apical two-fifths black, the black
area incomplete on the ventroanterior and
ventral aspects. Tibiae and tarsi dark. Tarsal
claws of fore and mid legs unequal, both
toothed; of hind leg equal, simple. Wings dark
scaled. Halter pale, knob with dark and pale
scales. Abdomen: Tergites dark scaled; tergite
I with a broad bare hairy sublateral area, lat-
eral margin with a patch of white scales; II
with a basal lateral white patch that becomes
subbasal medially, broadly incomplete medi-
ally; complete basal white bands on IV—VII,
these bands widest laterally, some dark scales
basad of the bands on each segment; a poste-
rior lateral scaleless area on tergites II-V,
these areas with numerous long pale hairs, a
line of similar hairs on posterior margin of each
segment. Sternites dark scaled with basal
white bands. Genitalia (Figs. 1 and 7): Basi-
style with median portion of inner dorsal sur-
face (before rotation) largely free of setae;
basally the dorsal inner surface bears a patch
of elongate thickened setae (under high power,
fine striae are apparently present on 2 of these
in the holotype, indicating that they are pos-
sibly scales; this was not noted in the other
specimens); a patch of broad dusky scales on
the inner ventral margin, 2-3 of the more ex-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 36, No. 8

ternal of these elongated and narrowed; a nar-
row sclerotized ridge with 4—5 stout setae ex-
tends ventrally from dorsal inner basal margin
of basistyle. Dististyle appendage 0.76—0.83 (3
specimens) as long as the dististyle. Blade of
claspette distinctly widened medially, uniform
in texture. Ninth tergite with 1-3 broadened
stout setae on each lobe.

Female.—Wing: 3 mm. Differs from the male
as follows: Palpus approximately one-fourth
to one-fifth as long as the proboscis. Torus
with a few fine black scales on the inner aspect
(these possibly occur on the male but could not
be seen). Vertex dark scaled, a band of white
along the eyes, the band enlarged medially, a
large white area in the lateral corner, the
forked upright scales dark. Scutum with the
anterior white region broken by a broad median
longitudinal dark scaled area, a narrow area of
white scales connecting the lateral white areas
along the anterior margin, the prescutellar
bare space with white scales along the lateral
margins and sometimes across the front. Mid-
femur with ventral pale area of anterior aspect
widened in the middle, dorsal margin may be all
dark. Tarsal claws of fore and mid legs equal,
toothed; of hind leg equal, simple. Abdominal
tergites without lateral scaleless areas on ter-
gites (that of tergite I being sublateral).

A slight degree of color variation occurs in
this species. The scutellar scales in the female
may be a brownish gray, but even then there
are usually a few white scales on the mid lobe.
The pale markings of the femora occasionally
exhibit a slight reduction, the most striking
case of which was a male that had all the poste-
rior surface of the midfemur dark except the
ventral margin. However, in none of the mate-
rial studied was the black on the hind femur
complete ventrally. In one female, the dorsal
abdominal bands were narrowly interrupted
medially.

Larva.—Head: Antenna with hair tuft in-
serted before middle, 10-17-branched; subter-
minal bristles equal. No median mouth brush
hairs were seen with comblike tips. Head hair
4 with 9-15 branches, 5 with 10-16, 6 with 7—
15, 7 with 9-15, 8 with 2-3, 9 with 5-8, 12
with 18-25. Mentum (Fig. 19) with 10-11 lat-
eral teeth. Abdomen (Fig. 138): Some of the
hairs thinly stellate in type. Lateral hairs of
segments I-VI with 2 branches. Pentad hair
1 with 3-6 branches, 3 with 7-8 (one specimen

Aue. 15, 1946

with 11), 5 with 6-7. Comb teeth 8-12 in num-
ber, with fine lateral basal fringe that extends
just onto the shaft. Siphon with surface
roughened by interrupted transverse striations;
index 3—3.5; acus usually thinly attached; hair-
tuft 5-9 branched; 14-24 pecten teeth, basal
teeth the smallest, evenly pigmented (occasion-
ally apical teeth are seen with paler tips), a
stout lateral denticle, 1-3 minute spines fre-
quently present basally; length of apico-dorsal
hair less than one-half the width of the siphon
apex. Anal plate with a patch of minute latero-
caudal spinules, lateral hair 2-5 branched, isc
3-5. Ventral brush with 8 tufts, each tuft 4-7
branched. Anal gills tapered to a rounded tip,
dorsal pair 1.4—2.0 times longer than the ventral
pair and 1.3-1.7 times longer than the anal
plate (in one specimen, the dorsal gills were
slightly shorter than the anal plate).

Types.—Holotype: Male, with larval and
pupal skins, and dissected genitalia (U.S.N.M.
No. 57919), Subic Bay, Luzén, Philippines,
June 27, 1945 (F. E. Zedeck and E. 8. Zolik),
reared from a bamboo stump. Paratypes (4
males, 6 females, all from Subic Bay, Luzén):
5 females with associated larval and pupal
skins, 2 males without associations, same data
as for holotype; 1 male and 2 females, July 7,
1945 (M. J. MacMillan), reared from a tree
hole; 1 male and 1 female, August 13, 1945
(L. A. Rozeboom and M. J. MacMillan), reared
from bamboo stump. Paratypes deposited in
U. 8. National Museum and British Museum.

This species is dedicated to Capt. J. J. Sapero
(MC) USN, whose cooperation has done much
to further Pacific mosquito studies.

Aedes (Finlaya) lacteus, n. sp.

Male.—Wing: 24 mm. Differs from the de-
scription of saperoi as follows: Vertex with
broad dark scales (appear paler in some lights),
pale scales along the eyes and in the lateral
corner, the upright forked scales dark. Scutum
with no pale scales around the prescutellar bare
space. Scutellar lobes clothed with broad,
dark-brown scales. Forefemur dark anteriorly,
posterior aspect with a broad median pale
band on basal half; midfemur all dark except
for a few ventrobasal pale scales on the pos-
terior aspect; hind femur white, a few basal
dark scales, about apical two-fifths completely
dark scaled. Halter with knob dark scaled.
Genitalia (Figs. 2 and 10): Inner dorsal margin

KNIGHT: THE AEDES (FINLAYA) NIVEUS SUBGROUP

275

of basistyle with a broad band of uniform short
stout curved setae, the area immediately ex-
ternal to this band free of setae; basally the
dorsal inner surface bears a clump of narrow
acutely tapered scales, immediately basad to
these is a transverse line of 6 very broad scales
and a clump of about 6 elongate mixed slender
and broad scales, the slender ones being acutely
tapered and longer than the broad scales; the
sclerotized ridge on the dorsal inner basal
margin of the basistyle with 10-12 stout setae.
Dististyle appendage 0.73 as long as the
dististyle. Blade of claspette distinctly en-
larged medially, the enlarged portion being
clear. Ninth tergite with 3 bristles on each lobe.

Female.—Wing: 3 mm. Differs from the fe-
male description of saperoi as follows: Palpus
very small, approximately one-eighth as long
as the proboscis. Scutum with the broad median
band of dark scales extended to anterior mar-
gin, the 2 lateral white-scaled areas not con-
nected, no white scales around the prescutellar
bare space. Scutellar lobes covered with broad
dark scales. Forefemur dark anteriorly, poste-
rior aspect with a broad median pale band on
basal half; midfemur dark, a few ventrobasal
pale scales on the posterior aspect; hind femur
white, a few basal dark scales, about apical
one-third all dark. Halteres with knob dark
scaled. Abdominal tergites without complete
bands (possibly some shrinkage has occurred).

Larva.—Head: Antennal shaft with hair tuft
just before middle, 6—8-branched; subterminal
bristles distinctly subequal. Median mouth-
brush hairs with comblike tips. Head hair 4
with 9-13 branches, 5 with 9-11, 6 with 8-9,
7 with 10-12, 8 with 1-2, 9 with 2-4, 12 with
6-8 (main branches only). Mentum with 9-10
lateral teeth. Abdomen (Fig. 15): No stellate
hairs. Dorsolateral hair of I with about 6
branches, the lateral hair with 2; lateral hair of
II with 5-6; of III-VI with 2. Pentad hair 1
with about 5 branches, 3 with 8-10, 5 with 5-7.
Comb teeth 13-17 in number, broadened,
finely fringed to just before apex. Siphon dark
with apical fifth pale; smooth; index about 3;
small detached acus; hair tuft 11-branched;
20-24 very dark slender pecten teeth, basal
teeth the smallest, evenly pigmented, a stout
lateral denticle; length of apicodorsal hair
nearly equal to width of siphon apex. Anal
plate with a prominent patch of laterocaudal
spines, lateral hair 1-—2-branched, isc 8-10.

276

Ventral brush with 12 tufts, each tuft 6—-14-
branched. Anal gills somewhat lanceolate,
dorsal pair 1.8—2.3 times longer than the ventral
pair and about 1.2 times longer than the anal
plate.

Types.—H olotyne: Male, with dissected geni-
talia (U.S.N.M. No. 57920), Cape Melville,
Balabac Island, Philippines, June 1945 (Jean L.
Laffoon and D. R. Johnson), reared from a
tree hole. Paratypes: 1 female, 2 larvae, same
data as for holotype. Deposited in U. 8. Na-
tional Museum.

Discussion.—A female specimen in the U.S.
National Museum from Parang, Mindanao
(J. H. Paullus), is possibly this species, but in
the absence of a male positive identification is
not possible.

Aedes (Finlaya) laoagensis, n. sp.

Male.—Wing: 2-2.5 mm. Differs from the
description of saperor as follows: Vertex dusky
medially, remainder pale, upright forked scales
dark. Scutum with only a very few pale scales
along the prescutellar bare space (this area
rubbed in holotype). Scutellar lobes all dark
scaled. Forefemur dark, with a median pale
area on the posterior basal half, the pale area
reaching the dorsal margin basally; midfemur
dark, with a small ventral line of pale scales
extending from near base to just beyond
middle on posterior aspect; hind femur white
with about apical one-third dark. Halter knob
dark scaled. Although the holotype has the
abdominal tergites banded as in saperoi, the
male from Baguio has them incomplete on at
least the first six segments. Genitalia (Figs. 3
and 12): Basistyle with a line of short stiff
curved setae along inner dorsal margin, fol-
lowed laterally by a line of thinner setae, a bare
area, between these and the setae of the lateral
margin; basally the dorsal inner surface bears a
clump of elongate narrowly lanceolate scales
(the male from Baguio has a few of the scales
noticeably shorter than the others but not dif-
ferently shaped; this area in the holotype ap-
pears to have lost some scales); the sclerotized
ridge on the dorsal inner basal portion of the
basistyle with approximately 7 slender setae.
Dististyle appendage 0.70—0.72 as long as the
dististyle. Blade of claspette not noticeably
enlarged medially, uniform in texture. Ninth
tergite with 1—3 bristles on each lobe.

Female.—Wing: 2.3 mm. Differs from the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 8

female description of saperoi as follows: Palpus
approximately one-fifth as long as the probos-
cis. Torus bare. Lateral white-scaled areas of
scutum broadly connected anteriorly, lateral
margin of scutum before wing base dark scaled
halfway to scutal angle (nearly all of margin
along paratergite dark scaled). No white scales
around the prescutellar bare space. Scutellar
lobes dark scaled. Forefemur dark, pale scales
on basal median posterior aspect; midfemur
dark, broad pale area ventrally on basal half
of posterior aspect; hind femur white; apical
one-third all dark.

Larva.—Head: Antenna with hair tuft in-
serted before middle, 5-6-branched; subtermi-
nal bristles equal. Inner mouth-brush hairs
with very small fine comblike tips. Head hair 4
with 8 branches, 5 with 6-7, 6 with 5-6, 7 with
8-9, 8 with 2, 9 with 4-6, and 12 with 11-12.
Mentum with 9 lateral teeth. Abdomen (Fig.
14): Dorsolateral hair of I with 3 branches,
lateral hair with 2; lateral hairs of II-VI with
2 branches. Pentad hair 1 with 5-6 branches,
3 with 7-8; 5 with 6. Comb teeth 8 in number,
with lateral fringe on basal half. Siphon largely
smooth, transverse striations present basally;
index about 2; detached acus; hair tuft 6—7-
branched; 12-13 pecten teeth, basal teeth the
smallest, evenly pigmented, a stout lateral
denticle, 1-3 smaller spines generally present;
length of apicodorsal hair distinctly less than
one-half the width of the siphon apex. Anal
plate with a patch of short laterocaudal spines,
lateral hair 3-branched, isc 3-branched. Ventral
brush with 8 tufts, each tuft 3—4-branched.
Anal gills broadly lanceolate, dorsal pair about
2.0 times longer than the vental pair and 1.5
times longer than the anal plate.

Types.—Holotype: Male, with dissected geni-
talia (U.S.N.M. No. 57921), Laoag, Ilocos
Norte Province, Luzén, Philippines, June 1945
(Harry Hoogstraal), reared from a tree hole.
Paratypes: 1 female, 1 mature and 1 immature
larva, same data as for holotype; 1 male,
Baguio, Luzén, August 1945 (S. E. Shields),
reared from a tree hole. Deposited in U. 8.
National Museum.

Discussion.—On the basis of the adult key in
this paper, 3 female specimens (2 with as-
sociated larval skins) reared from tree holes
at Subic Bay and San Fernando, Luzén (M. J.
MacMillan), appear to be this species but dif-
fer slightly in adult and larval characters.

Ava. 15, 1946

These differences could quite possibly be due
to the species being based on such scanty
material. Two of the adults have the white-
scaled scutal area complete, while the third has
this area medially broken by a dark-scaled area
as in the type female of laoagensis. Other dif-
ferences are: Wing, 3 mm; torus with minute
black scales. The larva differs as follows: Head
_ hair 4 with 8-10 branches, 5 with 6-8, 6 with
4-7, 8 with 2-3, and 12 with 12-16. Mentum
with 9-10 lateral teeth. Comb teeth 8-10 in
number. Siphon index 2.7 (from skins); acus
attached; hair tuft 4-6-branched; 14-21 pecten
teeth. Lateral hair 2-4-branched. Dorsal anal
gills approximately equal to the anal plate in
length.

In the U. S. National Museum, there are 4
female specimens (Luzén: Rizal, Laguna, and
Tayabas Provinces) which also would appear to
be laoagensis on the basis of dark scaling on the
lateral scutal margin above the paratergite.

In the absence of males and because of the
slight differences given above, none of this ma-
terial was included in the type series.

Aedes (Finlaya) dorseyi, n. sp.

Male.—Wing 2.5 mm. Differs from the de-
scription of saperoi as follows: Vertex with
brownish-yellow scales (Median area darker in
some lights) except in the lateral corners and
along eye margins, where they are white;
forked uprights pale. Scutum with no white
scales around the prescutellar bare space.
Lateral scutellar lobes with broad dark scales,
median lobe with broad pale scales. Prealar
area bare (one broad white scale on one side)
Coxae all pale scaled. Forefemur with anterior
aspect dark on apical half or more, pale basally,
posterior aspect pale except for dorsoapical por-
tion; midfemur with anterior aspect dark, pos-
terlor aspect pale yellow except dorsoapical
margin, dorsal and ventral margins pale; hind
femur pale, apical one-sixth dark scaled dorsal-
ly, the dark scaling reduced laterally and nearly
interrupted ventrally. Genitalia (Figs. 4 and
11): Inner dorsal margin of basistyle with a
band of stiff curved setae, those near the apex
being considerably longer than the others;
basally the inner surface bears a clump of very
long, extremely narrow scales; the sclerotized
ridge on the dorsal inner basal margin with 5-7
stout setae. Dististyle appendage 0.50 as long
as the dististyle. Blade of claspette not notice-

KNIGHT: THE AEDES (FINLAYA) NIVEUS SUBGROUP

207

ably enlarged medially, uniform in texture.
Ninth tergite with 2—4 stout setae on each lobe.

Female.—Wing: 2.66 mm. Differs from the
female description of saperoi as follows: Palpus
approximately one-sixth as long as the probos-
cis. Torus bare. Forked upright scales of vertex
yellowish brown. The lateral white-scaled areas
of the scutum not connected anteriorly; no
pale scales around the prescutellar bare space.
Scutellar lobes with broad dark scales, mid lobe
may be partially pale-scaled. Femora marked
as in the male (dorseyz), dark-scaled apex of
hind femur may be narrowly interrupted ven-
trally. Halter dark-scaled, or with dark and
light scales. Abdominal tergites V-VIII with
complete basal bands.

Larva.—Head (Fig. 18): Spicules of antennal
shaft distinctly finer than in the other species
described in this paper; hair tuft before middle
5-7-branched, subterminal bristles subequal.
No mouth-brush hairs were seen with comblike
tips. Head hair 4 with 4-7 branches, 5 with 3-7,
6 with 4-6, 7 with 7-10, 8 single, 9 with 3-4,
12 with about 9 main branches. Mentum (Fig.
20) with 6-7 lateral teeth. Abdomen (Fig. 17):
With sparse stout stellate tufts on I and II.
Dorsolateral hair of I with 4 branches, lateral
hair with 1—2; lateral hair of II with 3; lateral
hairs of [II-VI double (once 3). Pentad hair 1
with 3—5 branches, 3 with 3-5, 5 with 4. Comb
teeth 10-12 in number, with pale lateral fringe
to just before apex, all connected basally by a
sclerotized area except frequently the end one.
Siphon smooth; index about 2.5; small detached
acus present; hair tuft 5—7-branched; 20-25
pecten teeth, basal teeth the smallest, tips
pale, a stout lateral denticle, 1-3 minute spines
frequently present basally; length of apico-
dorsal hair approximately one-half the width
of the siphon apex. Anal plate with a prominent
laterocaudal patch of spines; lateral hair 2-3
branched; isc about 7-branched. Ventral brush
with 10 tufts, each tuft 4-7-branched. Anal
gills somewhat budlike (only visible in one
specimen) in shape, dorsal pair 1.3 times longer
than the ventral pair and 0.5 as long as the anal
plate.

Types.—H olotype: Male, with dissected geni-
talia (U.S.N.M. No. 57922), Garakayo, Palau
Islands, August 1945 (C. K. Dorsey and H.
Dybas), reared from a tree hole. Paratypes:
2 larvae, same data as holotype; 5 males, 5
females, 3 larvae, Peleliu, Palau Islands, March

278

and August 1945 (C. K. Dorsey), the larvae
reared from a steel drum and a tree hole. Para-
types deposited in U. 8. National Museum.

This is the first member of the niveus sub-
group to be described from the Australasian
region.

This species is dedicated to one of the col-
lectors.

Aedes (Finlaya) niveus (Ludlow)

1903. Stegomyia niveus Ludlow, Journ. New York
Ent. Soc. 11(3): 189. (Female.) (Type
locality: Oras, Samar. Female lectotype
in Brit. Mus.; lectoparatypes (all fe-
males) in U. S. Nat. Mus.)

1910. Stegomyia pseudonivea Theobald, Mon. Cul.
5: 176. (Male only.) (No pertinent de-
tails of male genitalia. Andaman Is.
specimen in Brit. Mus. The female of
pseudonivea, described in 1905, is another
species.)

1931. Aedes (Finlaya) niveus (typus) (Ludlow),
Brug, Arch. Hydrobiol. Supp.-Bd. 9: 25.
(First association of male genitalia and
larva. Sumatra. Bali.)

Male.—Wing: 2.75. Differs from the descrip-
tion of lacteus as follows: A few broad dark
scales along dorsal margin of ppn (rarely a
number of these scales are present). Midfemur
all dark except for a line of pale scales on the
basal half of the posterior aspect. Genitalia
(Figs. 5 and 9): Inner dorsal surface of basistyle
covered with short, stiff, curved setae, those
near the apex being considerably longer than
the others; basally the dorsal inner surface
bears a sparse clump of very long setiform
scales; the sclerotized ridge along the dorsal
inner basal margin with 6-9 stout setae. Disti-
style appendage 0.56-0.66 (4 specimens) as
long as the dististyle. Blade of claspette only
slightly enlarged medially, uniform in texture.
Ninth tergite with 3-4 stout setae on each
lobe.

Female.-—Wing: 2.75 mm. Differs from the
female of lacteus as follows: Palpus approxi-
mately one-fifth to one-sixth as long as the
proboscis. Scutum with the anterior two-thirds
solidly white scaled, the white scaling extending
along the lateral margin to a level with the pre-
alar area, no white scales around the prescutel-
lar bare space. Midfemur dark, a line of ventro-
basal pale scales on posterior aspect, these may
extend onto ventral aspect. Abdominal tergites
from V on with complete dorsal bands.

Larva (10 larval skins, associated with adults,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 8

from Palawan and Luzén).—Head: Antenna
with hair tuft inserted just before middle,
7—13-branched; one subterminal bristle from
one-third to one-half the length of the other.
Median mouth-brush hairs with prominent
comblike tips (visible in only one specimen).
Preclypeal spines distinctly slenderer than in
the other species described here. Head hair 4
with 7-11 branches, 5 with 6-12, 6 with 6-10,
7 with 8-14, 8 with 1-3, 9 with 3-5, 12 with 10—
15. Mentum with 8-10 lateral teeth. Abdomen
(Fig. 16): Prominent stellate tufts present.
Dorsolateral hair of I with 4-7 branches, the
lateral hair with 1-2; lateral hair of II with
3-6; lateral hairs of III-VI with 2, rarely single.
Pentad hair 1 with 5-7 branches, 3 with 5-7,
5 with 4-8. Comb teeth 12-16 in number, with
prominent lateral fringe to just before apex.
Siphon smooth; dark, except for apical portion;
index approximately 2; acus detached; hair
tuft 6-11-branched; 17—23 dark pecten teeth,
basal teeth the smallest, each tooth pale apical-
ly, a stout lateral denticle, one or more minute
spines usually present on basal portion; length —
of apicodorsal hair more than one-half the
width of the siphon apex. Anal plate with a
group of prominent laterocaudal spines, lateral
hair 1-8 branched (usually double), zsc 7—9-
branched. Ventral brush with 10 tufts, each
tuft with 5-12 branches. Anal gills broadly
lanceolate, dorsal pair 1.1—-1.3 times longer than
the ventral pair and 0.55-1.0 as long as the -
length of the anal plate.

Brug (1939)° states that the larva of niveus
(Netherlands Indies) does not have the acus
detached. Otherwise, the Philippine material
checks well with his description. The larva oc-
curs commonly in tree holes (frequently in
mangrove areas) and bamboo stumps. One
record from deep sheltered rock holes exists.

Taxonomic discussion.—Ludlow sent a speci-
men of this species to Theobald and allowed
him to quote her description (Mon. Cul. 3:
139. 1903). This specimen was designated as
type (lectotype) byBarraud (1934). A series of
three females bearing red type labels (Type No.
27792) exist in the U. S. National Museum.
Although the lectotype has not been seen for
comparison, these are considered lectopara-
types on Ludlow’s inclusion of them in the
original type series.

It is unfortunate that the first association of

9 Brue, 8. L., Tijdschr. Ent. 82: 106. 1939.

Ava. 15, 1946

a male and larva with this species was done from
material collected far from the type locality.
However, recent associated larval-adult col-
lections made by the author and others in the
Philippines have disclosed that a common
member of the niveus subgroup found there has
a male and larva as described by Brug and a
female that fits Ludlow’s description; so it
seems apparent that Brug’s association is
correct.

Ludlow’s specimens have the black area of
the hind femur confined to slightly less than
the apical one-fifth of the anterior aspect, al-
though on the dorsal aspect the black scaling is
more extensive. In this character, her specimens
show a slight variation from the material used
for the above description, in which the black
of the anterior aspect is usually as extensive as
that on the dorsal aspect and is one-fourth or
more of the femur. Ludlow states that the fe-
male tarsal claws are simple but an examina-
tion of a mid leg of one of her specimens showed
that the claws are toothed.

Distribution. Because of the number of
closely related species, literature records of
niveus must be considered with caution, unless
careful descriptions are appended. Feng’s!® de-
scription of nweus is an example of this.

Specimens were examined in the U. 8S. Na-
tional Museum from the following areas:
PALAWAN: Puerto Princesa, Irahuan River,
Tacburos (J. L. Laffoon and D. R. Johnson).
Samar: Oras. Luz6n: Batangas (H. Hoog-
straal), Subic Bay (L. E. Rozeboom). Ap-
parently reliable literature records are from:
South Bengal, Ceylon, Andaman Islands,
Sumatra, Bali, Java, Flores, Malacca, Borneo,
and Siam. The records from China and Japan
are probably not this species. Of the Philippine
records given by Bohart (A synopsis of the
Philippine mosquitoes, NavMup. 580. 1945):
only that for Oras is definitely this species.

Aedes (Finlaya) albolateralis (Theobald)

1908. Stegomyza albolateralis Theobald, Rec. Ind.
Mus. 2: 289. (Female.) (Type locality:
Sylhet, Assam. Type: females, in Indian
Mus.)

1908. Stegomyia nivea Ludlow. Leicester, The
Culicidae of Malaya: 87. (Description
implies a misidentification. )

1922. Aedes (Finlaya) albolaterlis, Theobald. Ed-

10 Feng, L., loc. cit.

KNIGHT: THE AEDES (FINLAYA) NIVEUS SUBGROUP

279

wards, Indian Journ. Med. Res. 10(2):
465. (Misspelling.)

19238. Finlaya nivea (Ludlow). Barraud, Indian
Journ. Med. Res. 11(2): 480. (In part.
Figure of male genitalia.)

1931. A. (F.) niveus var. A. Brug, Arch. Hydro-
biol. Supp. Bd. 9: 25. (First separation
by male genitalia.)

1932. A. (F.) niveus Ludlow. Edwards, Genera
insectorum, fasc. 194: 154. (In part.
Questioned synonymy of albolateralis.)

A damaged male of this species from Doom
Dooma, Assam (D. E. Hardy), was available
in the U. S. National Museum. It agrees with
Barraud’s (1934)" description except that the
mid femur is largely dark (a small basal ventral
line of pale scales is present on the posterior
aspect). Barraud does not show complete
setal details of the inner dorsal surface of the
basistyle so that a figure has been prepared
for this paper (Fig. 6). Also, he shows the tex-
ture of the blade of the claspette undifferen-
tiated, whereas in the specimen examined here
the enlarged portion of the blade is clear
(Fig. 8).

A single unassociated larva (collected from
a tree hole on Culion Island, Philippines, Jean
L. Laffoon) was taken that checks well with
Barraud’s (1934)" description of this species.
It differs slightly as follows: Antennal hair tuft
7-8-branched. Head hair 4 with 13-14 branches,
7 with 9. Mentum with 8 lateral teeth. Dorsal
anal gills 1.6 times as long as the anal plate and
about 1.2 times as long as the ventral pair.

Distribution —There are apparently reliable
literature records of this species from: Assam,
North Bengal, western Himalayas, north
Kanara, and Malaya. The records from Japan
are doubtful.

Aedes (Finlaya) novoniveus Barraud

1934. Aedes novoniveus Barraud, Fauna of British
India, Diptera, 5: 211. (Males and fe-
males.) (Type locality: Mungpoo, Dar-
jeeling Dist., eastern Himalayas. Type:
Male, in Brit. Mus.)

Male.—Wing: 2.5 mm. Resembling the de-
scription of saperot but differing as follows:
Vertex covered with white scales, forked up-
rights brownish yellow. Scutum completely
covered with white scales except on the pre-
scutellar space, which is bare. Scutellum with
broad white scales. Forefemur asin saperoz but
with the posterior pale area only extending

u Fauna of British India, Diptera, 5: 205.

280

slightly beyond middle, and reaching the dorsal
margin along most of its length; midfemur
dark, a patch of white scales basally on the
ventral aspect, posterior aspect white basally,
the white extending apically along ventral
margin; hind femur white, apical one-fourth
completely dark. Genitalia: Basistyle with inner
dorsal surface covered with slightly curved
short stiff setae; basally the dorsal inner sur-
face bears a sparse clump of long setae; the
sclerotized ridge on the dorsal inner basal por-
tion of the basistyle not visible in the specimen
available but figured by Barraud as carrying a
row of about 8 setae. Dististyle appendage 0.5
as long as the dististyle. Blade of claspette dis-
tinetly widened medially, the enlarged portion
of a clear texture. Ninth tergite with 4 stout
setae on each lobe.

Taxonomic discussion.—Neither female nor
larval specimens of this species were available.
The specimen (U.S.N.M.) used for the above
description of the male is from the Cameron’s
Highland, Federated Malay States, and was
reared from bamboo. It was identified (without
use of genitalia) by Edwards in 1923 as niveus.

Distribution.—Eastern Himalayas, Assam,
and Malaya.

Aedes (Finlaya) idjenensis Brug
1934. Aedes (Finlaya) niveus var. tdjenensis Brug,
Bull. Ent. Res. 25: 513. (Sex not stated,
but female by inference.) (Type locality:
Eastern part of the Malay Archipelago.
Location of type not recorded.)

This form is specifically distinct on the pos-
session of a patch of flat broad scales on the
posterior part of ppn. Feng’s® niveus is ap-
parently a closely related species.

Aedes (Finlaya) niveus subgroup,
unidentified species

Four females, which were reared from a tree
hole at Zamboanga, Mindanao (Jean L. Laf-

122 Fnea, L., loc. cit.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 8

foon), appear to be yet another species of the
niveus subgroup. However, in the absence of
males, the species is not named here.

* In the key to adults these specimens key to
niveus and the other species grouped there.
They differ from niveus (at least Philippine
specimens) 1n possessing white scales along the
prescutellar space and in having a prominent
median ventral band of silver scales on the
anterior aspect of the midfemur. In connection
with this last character, it is not completely
clear from the description of pseudoniveus
(Edwards, in Barraud’s Fauna of British
India, Diptera, 5: 105. 1934) just what the
median silver spot of the midfemur is like in
that species. Therefore, it is possible that this
species should go to pseudoniveus in the adult
key.

The larvae (3 isolated skins) go to alboniveus
in the key given in this paper. Unfortunately,
Barraud’s (1934) description of the larva of
alboniveus is too fragmentary for complete
comparison. Because of this fact, a brief de-
scription of the Mindanao larva is given here.
Antennal hair tuft 9-14-branched; subterminal
bristles distinctly unequal. Head hair 4 with
15-19 branches, 5 with 8-14 ,6 with 10-12, 7
with 12-14, 8 with 2-3, 9 with 6-9. Mentum
with 9-10 lateral teeth. Lateral hairs of abdomi-
nal segments I-VI double. Comb teeth 8-10 in
number, fringed on basal portion of shaft.
Siphon index approximately 3.4; acus detached;
hair tuft about 4-branched; 14-16 pecten teeth,
a stout lateral denticle present, 1 or more
minute spines present basally; length of
apicodorsal hair less than one-half the width
of the siphon apex. Lateral hair of anal plate
double. Ventral brush with 8 tufts, each tuft
3-4-branched. Anal gills extremely elongate,
slender, dorsal pair 1.2 times longer than the
ventral pair and 3.4 times as long as the anal
plate.

18 Fauna of British India, Diptera, 5: 210.

Aua. 15, 1946

BARTSCH: A NEW WEST AMERICAN MARINE MOLLUSK

281

ZOOLOGY.—A remarkable new genus and species of West American marine mol-
lusks.1 Paut Bartscu, U.S. National Museum.

Some time ago the U. S. National Mu-
seum received a lot of a very remarkable
minute marine mollusk transmitted to us
for identification by Mrs. Carrie L. Simons.
An examination of the radula proves this to
be rhipidoglossate, while the operculum is
thin, corneous, and multispiral. I believe the
genus to be a member of the superfamily
Trochaceae, with the genotype Coronadoa
simonsae, n. sp., here described.

Coronadoa simonsae, n. gen. and sp.

Shell minute, helicoid, thin and translucent,
yellowish white, the nucleus consisting of one
well-rounded smooth turn. Postnuclear whorls
strongly rounded, provided with scalariform
ridges, which extend from the summit to the

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received March 25,
1946.

umbilical area; these ridges are a little more
closely crowded on the first postnuclear turn
than on the succeeding, becoming evanescent
on the last half of the last whorl. Periphery of
the last whorl rounded. Base well rounded, with
an impressed umbilical chink. Aperture very
large, subcircular; outer lip rather thin; inner
lip very broad, showing a decided excavation;
operculum thin, multispiral. The radula has a
5-cusped rachidian tooth followed by three tri-
cuspid laterals and a 9-cusped major lateral,
which is succeeded by 14 4-cusped marginals.
The shape of these teeth is shown in Fig. 1.

This little mollusk was discovered by Mrs.
Carrie L. Simons, for whom the species is
named. The greater diameter of the type,
U.S.N.M. No. 346654, an average specimen,
is 0.6 mm and the altitude about 0.5 mm.

Of the finding of these specimens Mrs.
Simons says that they were collected by Frank

Figs. 1-3, Coronadoa simonsae, n. gen. and sp.: 1, radula; 2, operculum; 3, shell.

282

Stephens, of the San Diego Society of Natural
History, on North Coronado Island, which is
almost inaccessible, rising precipitously from
the deep water with no beach, so that landing
here is effected with great hazard. Mr. Stephens
brought a small quantity of sand, really
crushed rock, which he found under one rock
at the water’s edge in April 1921.

BOTANY.—A< second species of Hackelochloa.'!

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 8

U.S.N.M. No. 346655 contains a lot of addi-
tional specimens, while the major portion is in
Mrs. Simons’s collection. Mrs. Simons esti-
mates that there are about 250 specimens of
this species in the sending she transmitted.
Mrs. Simons’s collection is now in Stanford
University.

Rutu CHEN-Y1inG Cuow, U.S.

National Museum. (Communicated by AGNES CHASE.)

During the identification of grasses from
Burma collected by R. O. Belcher and M.
L. Steinecker my attention was called to
Hackelochloa. This genus, since its estab-
lishment by Otto Kuntze (1891), has re-
mained monotypic, containing the single
species Hackelochloa granularis (L.) Kuntze.
In the Burmese collection a second species
of the genus was found. Comparing the
specimen with the type collections in the
U. S. National Herbarium, this was found
to be identical with Hackel’s Manisuris
porifera, which up to date has not been
transferred to the genus Hackelochloa.

The establishment of the genus Hackelo-
chloa in honor of Professor Hackel and the
description of Manisuris porifera by Hackel
occurred in the same year (1891), if not
simultaneously. Not realizing the differ-
ences between the generic concept of
Hackel and of Kuntze, one may wonder
why the two botanists, who were evidently
in touch with each other’s work, could have
failed to transfer Manisuris porifera to
Hackelochloa. Hackel was a strict ‘‘con-
servative’ taxonomist. His concept of
genera was very broad. He refused to ac-
cept Kuntze’s Hackelochloa in spite of the
honor, including it in Manisuris.

Manisuris porifera Hack. was published
with a brief description and comparison with
Mamnisuris granularis. This generally in-
accessible description is quoted below to-
gether with a more detailed description
drawn from specimens from Burma, Ton-
kin, and Sumatra in the U. S. National
Herbarium.

1 Received June 24, 1946.

Hackelochloa porifera (Hackel), nov. comb.

Manisurts porifera Hackel, Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr.
41: 48. 1891. 5

“Spiculis ¢ depresso-semiglobosis, gluma I.
basi utrinque poro rotundo ab articulo dis- .
tincta, grosse foveolata et tribus rugis elevatis
transversis pluribusque longitudinalibus brevi-
bus notata.

“Culmi, folia, inflorescentia ut in M. gran-
ulart. Spicae ca. 3 cm longae; spiculae 2.5 mm
longae, non globosae, sed depresso-semiglo-
bosae, brunnescentes, callo 1 mm longo sub-
quadrato foveolato in reliquam glumam sensim
abiens. Gluma JI. basi utrinque ita excisa, ut
inter se aximque pori rotundi relinquantur,
dorsa rugis v. costis valde elevatis subreticu-
latis inter se foveolas profundas relinquentibus
notata. Reliquae glumae ut in M. granulart.
Spiculae pedicellatae (pedicello adnato neu-
trae) 3 mm longae, oblongae, fusco-rufes-
centes; gluma prima Onervis, II. 3nervis,
reliquae @ [wanting].

“Sikkim: Dikeeling ad 3000’. C. B. Clarke
nr. 975.”

Plants annual; culms up to 1.5 or 2 m tall,
rooting at the basal nodes, much branched
above; sheaths much shorter than the inter-
nodes, 3 to 5 cm long (about one-fifth to one-
half as long as the internodes), papillose-hispid,
hairs straight, erect or spreading; ligules fim-
briate-membranous; blades flat, up to 20 em
long, 1 to 2 em broad, base subcordate, both
surfaces hirsute.

Racemes solitary, terminating the culm and
branches, 2 to 4 cm long, 1 to 1.5 (rarely 2)
mm broad; peduncle somewhat clavate below
the raceme; spikelets in pairs along the rachis,
the fertile sessile, the sterile pedicellate, the

Aue. 15, 1946

pedicel and rachis-joint adnate; fertile spikelets
obovate, dorsally compressed, the margins in-
flexed, about 2 mm long, 1.5 mm wide, more
or less vertically arranged on the rachis, thus
appearing as a single vertical row; first glume
coriaceous, with sharply raised angular ridges
surrounding thin round spaces, thus appearing
porous or pitted, closely appressed to the
rachis, covering the entire floret; second glume
adnate to the rachis, small, pale, covered by the
first glume; glumes of the sterile spikelets char-
taceous, often purplish (in dried specimens);
lemma and palea obsolete.

Hackelochloa granularis, the type of the
genus, is found in tropical and subtropical
countries of both hemispheres. In the U. 8. Na-
tional Herbarium there are specimens from
India, Ceylon, South China, Formosa, Philip-
pine Islands, East Indies, Australia; and east-
ward to the Hawaiian Islands, United States,
Central America, West Indies, and South
America. H. porifera, so far as known, is
limited to the eastern hemisphere—India,
Burma, Tonkin, and Sumatra.

Hackelochloa porifera is slightly taller and
somewhat more robust than H. granularis. In
Hi. granularis, the sheaths rarely exceed 3 cm
long, whereas those of H. porifera often range
from 3 to 5 em. However, the variation in size
and general habit of the plants may be influ-
enced by environmental and physiological con-
ditions and therefore are unreliable to serve as a
criterion for specific distinction. The two spe-
cies are best differentiated on the size, shape,
_and the arrangement of the spikelets. In H.
granularts the spikelets are globose or subglo-
bose, seldom exceeding 1 mm in diameter, and

CHOU: A SECOND SPECIES OF HACKELOCHLOA

283

more obliquely arranged on the rachis, each
raceme therefore bearing two distinct rows of
alternate fertile spikelets with the glumes of
the sterile spikelets above. The first glume of
the fertile spikelets in H. granularis is verrucu-
lose, finely reticulate or granulate with margins
inrolled downward like a pouch. The fertile
spikelets in H. porifera, on the contrary, are
oval, half as broad as long, almost vertically
arranged on the rachis with the tip of one
spikelet pointing nearly directly at the base of
the next one of the alternate row, the two rows
of fertile spikelets thus appearing as a single
one. The first glume of the fertile spikelet is
strongly reticulated with prominent ridges and
pitted thin spots, with margins sharply bent in-
ward and ridged at the edge like turtle shell,
and closely appressed to the rachis. The sterile
spikelets, composed of glumes only, are lateral
in position.

Type specumen.—C. B. Clarke no. 975 in
Herb. Hackel, from Sikkim, India; fragment in
U.S. National Herbarium.

Other specimens studied.—Burma: Mytky-
ima-Sumprabum Road, on open roadside, clay
bank, Belcher & Steinecker 819, October 16,
1945. Tonkin: Balansa 4940, September 21,
1891. Sumatra: east coast, Vale of Tangga,
Asaham, steep jungle path to Adian Langge,
Bartlett 8085, May 12-21, 1927; vicinity of
Rantau Parapat, Bila, Rhamat Si Toroes 1731,
1788, March 28-May 10, 1932; Tapianoeli
Division Padang Si Dimpoean, Subdivision
Padang Lawas, along the Aek Roppak, near
Hoeta Imbaroe, Rahmat Si Toroes 4742, June
22-30, 1933.

Obituary

Tuomas Barsovur, director of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology of Harvard College, died
in Boston, Mass., on January 8, 1946, the im-
mediate cause of his death being a cerebral
hemorrhage. Son of wealthy parents, he was
born on Marthas Vineyard Island on August
19, 1884, and was graduated from Harvard
University in 1906, returning to that institution
for the master’s degree (1909) and for the
Ph.D. degree (1911). Before completing his
studies he made extensive collecting trips to the
West Indies, Chile, Mexico, India, and
Malaysia, and this field work was continued,

at intervals, in various parts of the world,
throughout his later life.

At an early age Barbour elected to follow
zoology as a profession. In fact, the reason for
his selecting Harvard University as the insti-
tution for his undergraduate and graduate
training was the unique zoological facilities
offered by the museum that Louis Agassiz
founded and that later became an integral part
of Harvard University; and when Dr. Barbour
appointed as director of the Museum in 1927,
he was fourth in succession from Louis Agassiz.
In 1928 he was appointed as professor of

284

zoology, and in 1944 as Alexander Agassiz
professor of zoology. From the time that he
received his Ph.D. degree in 1911, when he
was appointed to an assistant curatorship in
the Museum, to his untimely death in 1946
(for he had not attained his sixty-second birth-
day), he was constantly associated with the
Museum of Comparative Zoology, serving as a
volunteer servant of Harvard University, with
only a token salary, for zoological research was
his abiding interest; and the extraordinary
zoological facilities that were available to him
at Harvard were exploited to great advantage
during the ensuing busy years.

He was fortunately in a position where he
could be of great service. From his ample
private income he granted distinctly large sums
to support work in which he was interested, not
only to the Harvard Museum of Comparative
Zoology, but to other institutions as well, in-
cluding the Barro Colorado Island Station in
Panama, which to a considerable degree owes
its existence to Dr. Barbour’s continued sup-
port, the Atkins Institution of the Arnold
Arboretum in Cuba, and the New England
Museum of Natural History. In relation to
those institutions and projects in which he
had confidence he was not only liberal within
his means, but, what is better, intelligently
liberal.

A prolific writer on an extraordinarily wide
range of subjects in zoology, Dr. Barbour’s
technical titles number nearly 400. In his own
words, he was ‘‘by inclination an old-fashioned
naturalist, many tell me the last of the breed.
My colleagues prefer to know more and more
about less and less, and so are infinitely more
erudite than I.’’ He was a world authority on
the classification of reptiles and amphibians,
but he wrote with authority also on such
diverse subjects as ornithology, mammology,
conchology, ichthyology, entomology, and
paleontology. Outside of his strictly zoological
interests his services were in demand in other
quarters, for, among other distinctions, he
served as president of the New England
Museum of Natural History, a trustee of Rad-
cliffe College and of the Carnegie Institution of
Washington, a member of the Advisory Board
of the Guggenheim Foundation, a member of
the Council of the Harvard University Li-
brary, and a syndic of the Harvard University
Press.

Because of his retentive memory, wide in-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 8

terests, command of the English language, and
his human attributes, in his later years he de-
veloped an extraordinary talent for preparing
popular publications. The narrow specialist
seldom or never attains such a position. Begin-
ning with his Naturalist at large (1943), which
is in part autobiographical, and closing with
the posthumous A naturalist’s scrapbook (1946),
he succeeded in popularizing certain aspects of
his zoological interests in a most striking
manner; in fact, the picture he painted of
what man has done to nature in Florida within
the present century in his That vanishing Eden
(1944) is actually having a profound effect on
the manifestly much-needed conservation pro-
gram in that State, as to its water, land, and
biological resources.

In the course of his productive career, Dr.
Barbour was the recipient of many distin-
guished honors, having been elected to mem-

bership in such domestic and foreign societies

as the National Academy of Sciences, the
American Philosophical Society, the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Royal
Asiatic Society, the Royal Geographic Society,
the Linnean Society of London, the Zoological
Society of London, the Nederlandsche Dier-
kundige Vereen, and the Havana Academy of
Sciences. In the academic field he was the re-
cipient of the S.D. degree from the University
of Havana (1930), from Dartmouth College
(1933), from Harvard University (1940), and
from the University of Florida (1944).

Dr. Barbour was a commanding figure in
any gathering, for he was 6 feet 5 inches tall
and proportionately stout, weighing in excess
of 300 pounds. He did not hesitate to express
his ideas, and this he could do in a very trench-
ant manner. His judgment was excellent and
his conclusions usually well taken. His sense
of humor was very keen, and many Barbour-
isms will doubtless persist for a long time to
come. His very numerous friends at Harvard
University and elsewhere will long keep his
memory green. His lasting position as an out-
standing zoologist is assured.

He was the son of William and Adelaide
(Sprague) Barbour of New York City. He is
survived by his wife, Rosamond Pierce Barbour
of Boston, three daughters, Mrs. Mary Bigelow
Kidder, Miss Julia Adelaide Barbour, and Mrs.
Louisa Bowditch Parker, and two brothers,
Robert Barbour and Frederick K. Barbour.

EvMeR D. Me&rRrRiILu

EN sya

CONTENTS

ETHNoLoGY.—Bird nomenclature and song interpretation of the Cana-
dian Delaware: An essay in ethno-ornithology. Frank G. SprcxK.

ANTHROPOLOGY.—More filed Indian teeth from the United States.
LD. Stewart ang PoE? PirrerRincTon:. 3. 0

ArcHEoLoagy.—A prehistoric Indian site on Selden Island, Mont-
gomery County, Md. RicHarp G. SLATTBERY.......... Boe

ENTOMOLOGY.—Species of beetles of the genus Lactica from the West
Indies closely related to L. tibialis (Olivier). Doris H. Buaxs. .

ENTOMOLOGY.—The Aedes (Finlaya) niveus subgroup of Oriental
mosquitoes. KmNNETH L. KNIGHT................ le te ee

ZooLtoacy.—A remarkable new genus and species of West American
marine mollusks: ° PAUL BARTBCH. ) 022007 ora eV ee

Borany.—A second species of Hackelochloa. Ruta CHEn-YING
CHOU Ss 265 Pe I ee ;

OBITUARY’ Thomas Barbour. >... 2 hia ee ee eee :

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Page

249

259

262

267

270

SEPTEMBER 15, 1946 No. 9

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 36

SEPTEMBER 15, 1946

No. 9

PHYSICS.—On understanding electric breakdown in solids.1 R. J. SEEGER, The

George Washington University.

The seventeenth century marks the be-
ginning of the modern study of electricity
and magnetism. In the year 1600 William
Gilbert of Colchester published his monu-
mental work De magnetite, magneticisque
corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure. In
this book he mentioned 20 materials, such
~as glass, which behave like amber in that
when they are rubbed they have the power
of attracting light objects. The Greek word
for amber being electron (Hdextpov), he
designated these materials by the word
electric, i.e., like amber (it is only later
that such bodies were believed to be
charged or loaded with a quasi-fluid elec-
tricity). He remarked further that certain
other substances, notably metals, do not
have this characteristic feature. They,
therefore, may be regarded as being non-
electric.

More than a century later Stephen Gray
pointed out that this distinction between
electric and nonelectric substances is not
fundamental but rather accidental in that
it depends to a great degree upon another
physical property, namely, conduction.
For example, if a piece of glass is brought
_ temporarily into contact with an electrified
body (one that has been made electric),
upon separation the glass itself will not be
electrified. On the other hand, if a metal
is brought temporarily into contact with an
electrified body (with proper precautions),
it will be found to be electrified upon re-
moval. In the latter case there has been a

1 Address of the retiring president of the Philo-
sophical Society of Washington, delivered at the
1226th meeting of the Society, January 15, 1944,
when the author was on War Leave with the Bu-
reau of Ordnance, Navy Department. Received
April 26, 1946.

transfer of some of the electrification by
contact—a process known as conduction.
It is this very property, indeed, that causes
the electrification of a metal to be com-
monly unnoticed when the metal is held in
one’s hand and rubbed. In this instance
the electrification is immediately shared
with the much larger earth by way of the
person’s body. If precaution is taken to
prevent such a transfer, a metal or any
other substance can be made electric by
being rubbed. What Gilbert called electrics
are essentially nonconductors; so-called
nonelectrics are in reality conductors.
Nowadays it is customary to differenti-
ate conductors and nonconductors (more.
commonly called insulators) in terms of
their ability to carry an electric current.
Thus if a conductor connects a source of
positive electrification (the state of polished
glass when rubbed with silk) with a source
of negative electrification (the state of hard
rubber when rubbed with fur), it is said to
carry an electric current, which is mani-
fested in thermal, magnetic, and chemical
effects (under certain conditions). No mat-
ter how weak the electrification (measured
by its so-called voltage), there will always
be an electric current—correspondingly
weak, of course. On the other hand, if an
insulator such as table salt (or any other
alkali halide) is made to connect the same
sources of electrification, it will be found
to carry no electric current. Even though
the voltage is considerably increased, an
electric current is barely detectable. Only
when the voltage across each centimeter
of material is about 100,000 volts is there
a significant current, which slowly in-
creases with still further voltage increments.

z 285

ofp 23 OP

286

In the neighborhood of 500,000 to 3,000,-
000 volts per centimeter, however, the
electric current suddenly becomes appreci-
able. The insulator then behaves like a
conductor. The understanding of this phe-
nomenon of electric breakdown is the pur-
pose of our brief survey this evening.

First of all, however, a digression may be
permissible in order to clarify our terms.
What do we mean by the phrase under-
standing a phenomenon? In this regard
there is an interesting expression used by
Plutarch to characterize the spirit of early
Greek astronomy. The mathematical as-
tronomer Aristarchos of Samos is described
by him as seeking “‘to save the phenomena”’
of the heavens. For the nightly pageant of
the sky seems even now to be readily un-
derstandable in terms of circular motions
of the sun, the moon, and the stars about
the earth, but on the face of it there is
one disturbing anomaly—the irregular be-
havior of the planets. These wanderers, as
their name signifies, move apparently in
loops. The essential need, therefore, is to
save face, to make the idea of celestial
circular motion safe despite the appear-
ances, or—to use the Greek word for ap-
pearances—to save the phenomena (owt ev
7a dawoueva). Now how is it possible thus
to save a phenomenon? By getting a
proper point of view—usually a wider one
from a higher level—that will merge both
the regular appearances and the irregular
appearances into a single scene! In this con-
nection one is reminded of a spectator seek-
ing a high seat to focus his attention on the
stage of a Greek amphitheater. Indeed, it
is noteworthy that the etymological root
of the word theater is the same as that of
the word theory, namely a view. When we
are theorizing, we are simply trying to get
a proper point of view. Thus we can save
the phenomenon of electric breakdown by
arranging a more inclusive theory which will
enable us to view wholly the regularities
of conductors and of insulators together
with the apparent irregularity of electric
breakdown. Our problem can be formulated
briefly as follows: how is it theoretically
possible for an insulator to become a con-
ductor? In order to answer this question,
however, we need to review theoretically

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ©

VOL. 36, NO. 9 ©

two other questions: What is a conductor?
What is an insulator? |

We begin by noting that most of the
chemical elements are metals, and: conse-
quently conductors. Hence we may profit-
ably examine a metal as a typical con-
ductor. Now almost any textbook of gen-
eral physics makes the differentiation that
metallic conductors contain electrons (mi-
nute masses with negative electrification)
that are free to move, whereas insulators do
not, so that an electric current is equivalent
to a continuous electronic shift in an elec-
tric field of force. Leaving aside for the
moment the precise validity of this dis-
tinction, we pursue the clue that the
macrocosmic property of conduction may
be explicable in terms of these universal ele-
mentary particles. Incidentally, it is gen-
erally recognized, of course, that ascertain-
ing the attributes of such elementary par-
ticles is properly the domain of physics,
but it is less emphasized that the theoretical
interpretation of the properties of ordinary
matter in terms of these very same parti-
cles is an equally important physical prob-
lem (less glamorous, but not less signifi-
cant). That such electrons may be inside

a metal is an experimental inference from

the fact that the jarring of a metal by heat,
by ultraviolet light, or by X-rays may result
in the emission of electrons. Moreover, it is
reasonable to regard these electrons as the
loosely held) ones on the outside of the
metallic atoms—the very valence electrons
that take part in chemical combinations—
which may even be considered as shared
freely by all the atoms. Thus for our im-
mediate purpose we may picture a metal
as virtually a box, somewhat like an or-
dinary box which can hold things, never-
theless a particular kind of box which can
hold “‘free’”’ electrons.
A—
Simple model of a metal

Let us examine more closely our crude
model of a metal as a box. For simplicity of
argument we shall consider a one-dimen-
sional box, represented by the straight line
AZ in the accompanying figure. By defini-
tion, then, within AZ free electrons are
found; outside AZ there are none. Now
physically what do we mean when we say

Serr. 15, 1946

there are free electrons inside a metal
box? To answer this we must bear in mind
our modern concept of an electron as an
elementary particle characterized funda-
mentally by its electric charge, its mass,
and its so-called spin, and existing momen-
tarily in a certain state of energy. Because
of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, of
course, any precise specification of the
energy state of an electron precludes the
possibility of locating it exactly. All we
can say -a priorz is that an electron may be
here, there, or elsewhere in a given region
(AZ). To predict specifically which place
is more or less likely we need to know the
function that satisfies a certain partial dif-
ferential equation (Schroédinger’s), which
happens to be analogous to that of a
vibrating string. The solutions of this equa-
tion have a wavelike character, and these
so-called wave functions describing the
state of an electron in the box are charac-
terized by a set of parameters (quantum
numbers) which are determined by the
boundary conditions (at A and at Z). Each
state of motion can be regarded as similar
to that of a finite, uniform string with fixed
ends; namely, a definite nodal pattern with
varying amplitudes of vibration. The most
remarkable feature of such motion is this
restriction of allowable patterns, viz., that
only certain wave functions with particular
energy values are possible, in other words,
only certain frequencies of vibration; in
short, a discrete spectrum of wavelengths.
Hence an electron in such a box may have
any one of a group of energy values, called
energy levels if ordered (usually so close
together that they are said to be quasi-
continuous), and may be any place in the
box (the probability of a given position de-
pends on the square of the wave function).
Because of Pauli’s exclusion principle, how-
ever, no more than one electron in a system
can be regarded as being associated with
the same wave function, although it so
happens in this case of an electron gas
that for each energy value there are actually
two wave functions (said to be a state of
spin degeneracy). Thus only two electrons
may be regarded as having the same lowest
energy value (in this instance not zero);
two other electrons may be looked upon as

SEEGER: ELECTRIC BREAKDOWN IN SOLIDS

287

occupying the next higher energy level;
two others the next higher one; etc. Hence
even at a temperature of absolute zero
there are electrons that have energy about
100 times the average energy of a molecule
of a gas under normal conditions of tem-
perature and of pressure. Strange as this
fact may seem in itself, it is less significant
than one of its consequences, namely, that
only the electrons with the highest energy
values can have their energy increased by
small amounts, inasmuch as such incre-
ments are not sufficient to raise electrons
from the lower occupied levels to the vacant
levels, which all have high energy values.
It is for this very reason that comparatively
few electrons share in the distribution of
thermal energy and that, consequently,
the electronic contribution to the specific
heat of a metal at room temperature is
small in comparison with that of the atomic
residues.

For ordinary electric fields of force
(measured by the voltage per centimeter),
too, the possible increments of energy are
so small that only those electrons in the
higher energy levels are involved in the
process of conduction. Upon collisions of
these high-speed electrons with the atomic
residues of the metal lattice the newly
acquired kinetic energy of the electrons is
transformed into random vibrational en-
ergy of the lattice, i.e., into thermal en-
ergy—a process which is commonly charac-
terized as electrical resistance. The mean
free path between collisions of these so-
called conduction electrons with the atomic
residues at room temperature turns out to
be not the interatomic distance, but rather
a distance 100 times greater. Of course, at
absolute zero the mean free path would be
infinite (cf. the electrical resistance of a
pure metal is approximately proportional
to its absolute temperature so that it
would seem to extrapolate to zero at abso-
lute zero—in other words, a metal would
become a perfect conductor). These facts
appear paradoxical until it is recalled that
at absolute zero the atomic residues form a
perfectly regular array; the resulting lattice
is effectively a grating with its grating
space several times smaller than the wave-
length of the fastest electrons so that their

288

passage is practically undisturbed. To use
a different analogy, the conduction elec-
trons behave like a perfect fluid which ad-
justs its irrotational flow to conform to all
the boundaries.

We now have a preview of electrical
conduction, 1.e., a theory based upon a
simple model. Under normal conditions
there are just as many electrons moving in
any given direction in a metal as in the
opposite direction; hence the net quantity
of electricity passing through any plane is
zero. Upon application of a field, however,
those electrons having the highest energy
values continuously acquire additional
speed in the direction of the field, and in
turn, continually lose these gains of kinetic
energy upon collision with the atomic resi-
dues. Thus the original dynamic equilibrium
is unbalanced and a net quantity of posi-
tive electricity is transferred in the direction
of the field—this virtual electronic shift
constitutes the electric current. The essen-
tial feature of this view is that compara-
tively few electrons are involved, whereas
for the classical picture all the so-called
free electrons were regarded as participat-
ing equally in the transfer of electric charge.
In one respect, of course, the net result is
the same; for the transfer of any quantity
of electricity depends upon three factors,
namely, the magnitude of each elementary
charge, their number, and their speed.
Although there are fewer electrons involved
in the new picture, they are all moving so
much faster that the electric current 1s ap-
proximately the same.

This heuristic picture of the process of
electrical conduction does not contain an
adequate concept of a conductor, perhaps,
because the latter must be intimately
linked up with the concept of an insulator.
Accordingly we reconsider the usual dif-
ferentiation of these two physical objects in
terms of free electrons. Now in what sense
are the valence electrons in our box-like
conductor free? On the one hand, of course,
they are completely free—free to move
anywhere in the box. On the other hand,
only the few conduction electrons are free—
free to gain energy continuously from an
applied electric field. The following analogy
summarizes our concept of free electrons in

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 9

a conductor. A valence electron in a con- —
ductor is as free as an actor who belongs to
a certain company and who is privileged
to play any role of the cast provided it is
not being played by another member.
Now then what about similar electrons in
insulators?

As soon as we glance at a table of elec-
trical conductivities (the measure of the
amount of electric current conducted by a
particularly shaped material of unit volume
in a field of unit strength), we observe that
some important factor must have been
neglected in our simplified theory. For
from our present viewpoint of the pre-
ferred position of the high-energy electrons
we might be led to suppose that all metals
would have the same electrical conductiv-
ity, whereas we intuitively feel that a
metal should be a better conductor the
more valence electrons it has. The experi-
mental data do reveal valence dependence,
but of the opposite tendency. For example,
univalent sodium is a better conductor than
divalent beryllium, which, in turn, is a
better conductor than trivalent gallium.
What we have overlooked is the attractive
effect of the increase of the unbalanced
positive charges on the atomic residues as
the number of valence electrons increases.
The atomic lattice evidently cannot be
neglected!

For each individual atom itself may be
considered effectively a small box that
holds comparatively few electrons. Conse-
quently it, too, has a certain discrete set of
energy values, which may be regarded as
associated with specific electronic orbits.
Now if two such atoms are a great distance
apart, the cloud of revolving electrons sur-
rounding one nucleus shields its effect on the
electrons about the other nucleus. On the
contrary, if the outer electronic orbits of
the two atoms overlap, the outer electrons
of one atom are now influenced by the at-
traction of the nucleus of the other atom.
In other words, the electric potential

(measured by the work required to bring a
distant positive unit charge to a point) in
the region between the two atoms is low-
ered and electrons concentrate there (this
condition is enhanced by the virtual at-
traction of two electrons with opposite

RAYMOND J. SEEGER

President of the Philosophical Society of Washington, 1943

Sept. 15, 1946

spins). Thus the potential energy of the new -

configuration is lowered and the state is
more stable; hence the atoms remain to-
gether as a molecule. Now a metal is merely
a collection of such neighboring atoms, es-
sentially a large molecule with atomic
residues spaced at regular intervals and
influencing the immediate electrons in pro-
portion to the number of valence electrons.
Thus our box-like metal may be thought of
as containing a large number of smaller
boxes arranged so as to give it an internal
periodic structure. The motion of the elec-
trons themselves in our one-dimensional
model is evidently not so much like that of
a uniform string with fixed ends, as we
have previously supposed, but more like
that of a row of similar beads connected by
similar springs and fixed at the ends.

By way of orientation, therefore, let us
review the analogous classical problem of a
chain having N similar, equally spaced
beads with similar springs as links, the end
beads being fixed. In this case the possible
energies for longitudinal vibrations form a
discrete set of N values, but because of the
dispersion of the elastic waves they are all
confined within a narrow band, for which
the highest frequency corresponds to a
minimum wavelength equal to twice the
minimum distance of separation of the
beads. Even though overtones as such do
exist, they are associated with the same band
of energy values (actually, there is a perio-
dicity in reciprocal wavelengths resulting
from the periodicity of the bead _ spac-
ing). Let us modify our problem so that
the chain now consists of N massive beads
alternating with N light ones. Then if each
neighboring pair is roughly grouped as a
single bead, the resulting motion will be
similar to that in the preceding problem;
there will be N discrete levels, both beads
of a pair moving together. In addition,
however, another band of higher-energy
values exists; 1t corresponds to the higher-
frequency motion in which the massive
beads and the light beads move in opposite
directions. It may be noted that the lattice
vibrations of an alkali-halide crystal, which
contains alternately positive and negative
ions, are actually analogous to those of this
second example. In this case, too, there are

SEEGER: ELECTRIC BREAKDOWN IN SOLIDS

289

two motions of the oppositely charged
ions: the acoustical branch with little phase
difference and the optical branch with much
phase difference. For the latter type of
vibration there is a rapidly varying rela-
tive displacement of the charges and, con-
sequently, electromagnetic radiation; it is
this kind of motion (transverse, however)
that is the mechanism of the infrared (so-
called “restrahlen’’) absorption character-
istic of the alkali halides.

In general, the vibration patterns for an
electron in a solid are much more complex
even than those of the above illustrations,
but their distinctive feature is essentially
the same, viz., distinct bands of discrete
energy values with gaps occurring at elec-
tron wavelengths for which diffraction oc-
curs. (The condition for diffraction, of
course, depends upon the grating space.)
Inasmuch as the interatomic distances vary
in different directions, it may happen that
the bands overlap in certain directions, 1.e.,
a given range of energy values may be for-
bidden if the electrons travel in one direc-
tion, but allowed if they move in other
directions.

On the basis of such band structures, we
are now able to distinguish theoretically
between a conductor and an insulator. We
shall have need to bear in mind our previ-
ous observation that because of so-called
spin degeneracy there can be two electrons
(with opposite spins) associated with each
energy value. Consider the univalent metal
sodium. For N sodium atoms there are N
valence electrons. Consequently the N
energy levels of the conduction band (cor-
responding to the 3s energy level of a sodium
atom) is only half full; the higher-energy
levels of this band are vacant (in addition,
there is an overlapping of bands). There-
fore, the high-energy electrons of the metal
can receive the relatively small increments
of energy supplied by ordinary electric
fields. Hence sodium is a conductor! The
alkali-halide sodium chloride, on the other
hand, is an insulator. Why? In this case
there are 8N valence electrons for N mole-
cules. One band (corresponding to the 2s
atomic level of chlorine) is filled with 2N
of these electrons and another one (cor-
responding to the 2p atomic levels of

290

chlorine) is filled with the remaining 6N
electrons, whereas a third band _ (cor-
responding to the 3s level of the sodium
atom) is entirely empty. Thus there is a
gap between the uppermost filled band and
the neighboring empty band so that no
electrons can receive small increments of
energy. On the other hand, consider the
bivalent metal beryllium. In line with our
argument for sodium we might expect the
2N valence electrons here to fill the conduc-
tion band and thus to fulfill the condition
for an insulator. Beryllium, on the con-
trary, 1s a conductor. What happens is that
the overlapping of the bands in different
directions causes a resultant band that is
only partially full, allowing some of the elec-
trons to receive small increments of energy.
The vacant energy levels, however, are
not so plentiful as in the case of sodium so
that fewer electrons are able to participate
in the conduction process; hence the elec-
trical conductivity of beryllium is less than
that of sodium.

In summarizing the answers to our two
review questions we note first that valence
electrons are just as free to move through-
out an entire insulator as they are through-
out a conductor. The essential difference,
however, is that in a conductor some of
these electrons are free to receive small in-
crements of energy whereas in an insulator
none are able to do so. Completing our
previous analogy we remark that in an in-
sulator there are just as many roles as
actors whereas in a conductor there are
more roles than actors.

We return now to our primary question,
viz., how is it possible for an insulator to be-
come a conductor. The answer would seem
to be straightforward: the increment of en-
ergy must be sufficiently great to allow a
high-energy electron to jump from its own
band, which is full, to the next higher band,
which is empty. This presumably could be
accomplished by a great increase in tem-
perature—only the solid would melt before
that temperature could be attained. It could
undoubtedly be made possible also by a very
strong electric field—only an insulator ac-
tually breaks down for fields smaller than
those that would be expected theoretically.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 9

Evidently there is some latent mechanism
that accounts for electric breakdown.

It is not unreasonable to seek a clue in
the phenomenon of electric breakdown of a
gas. When the voltage applied across a gas
is slightly less than that required to pro-
duce breakdown, free electrons are able to
gain sufficient energy over several mean
free paths to knock out other electrons
upon collision with atoms (ionization by
collision). Presumably these latter electrons
would be able to free still other electrons,
etc. Nevertheless, breakdown does not
take place. Why? Can there be some con-
tinual loss of energy analogous to friction
in mechanics? Indeed, there does exist such
a process, the so-called excitation of a mole-
cule, in which an electron is removed only
to an outer orbit instead of infinitely far
away, as in the case of ionization. Such an
electron, however, soon returns to its
initial orbit either by radiating, or by in-
creasing the kinetic energy of a colliding
molecule (so-called collision of the second
kind); in either case its excess potential
energy is irretrievably lost. This excitation
process is initiated neither by very slow
electrons, which do not have sufficient en-
ergy; nor by very fast electrons, which do
not have sufficient time. For some inter-
mediate speed, however, the probability of
excitation, and consequently, of the loss of
energy, is a maximum. This speed, then,
is the one at which breakdown occurs. Any
electron having a slightly greater speed will
have a net gain of energy, so that it can
continuously acquire sufficient energy to
produce ionization instead of mere excita-
tion. In this manner other electrons are
freed. These, in turn, are accelerated, they
ionize Other molecules and free more elec-
trons—thus an avalanche soon results! It
is tempting to consider this same mecha-
nism of electronic excitation as effective also
in a solid—but without success, inasmuch
as the lowering of the atomic ionization
potential by the atomic residues in a solid
causes it to be not appreciably different
from the excitation potential.

On the other hand, the excitation of lat-
tice vibrations does afford an analogous
frictional mechanism for electrons acci-

Supr. 15, 1946

dentally present in every insulator. Here,
too, very slow electrons have insufficient
energy for excitation and fast ones have in-
sufficient time. Only moderately fast elec-
trons have a significant probability of ex-
citing these vibrations. Again we have a
maximum space rate of energy loss. It
has been suggested by von Hippel (1) that
the applied electric field required for an
equal space rate of energy gain may be
taken as the criterion for electric break-
down; for, an electron in a slightly greater
field will experience a net gain of energy
and thus eventually acquire sufficient en-
ergy to produce ionization. Thus other elec-
trons will be freed, accelerated, etc., until
an avalanche of such free electrons is
formed, i.e., breakdown occurs. Let us ex-
amine this process more closely.

Consider the behavior of a low-speed
electron as it passes a positively charged
atomic residue in a lattice (the ion may be
considered effectively free if the time of
passage is much less than the period of a
lattice vibration). Along the path of motion
(assumed to be linear as a first approxima-
tion) there is a component of the force of at-
traction, which first speeds up the electron
and then slows it down so that the net effect
is null. At right angles to the path, however,
the component of the force of attraction
acts always in the same direction and thus
produces an increment of impulse. The in-
creased kinetic energy given to the atomic
residue can be calculated from a knowledge
of the force acting and of the time of
passage. Now the force we are concerned
with in the dielectric medium must not be
computed from the so-called static di-
electric constant, which includes the influ-
ence of the electric polarization due to dis-
tortion within an atomic residue, as well
as the effect of the relative displacement of
the residue as a whole. The dielectric con-
stant for a high-frequency electric field
(e.g., light), on the other hand, is due solely
to such electronic distortions inasmuch as
the more massive ions do not have time to
get under way. Evidently the difference
between these two effects measures the
force responsible for the ionic displacement
alone. Using this value, then, we can cal-

SEEGER: ELECTRIC BREAKDOWN IN SOLIDS

291

culate the increment of energy received by a
single ion per unit length of path. What re-
mains to be done is to sum such incre-
ments for all ions influenced by the passing
electron. Of course, the very distant ions
need not be included inasmuch as the time
of passage for them is of the same order of
magnitude as the time of a lattice vibration
so that the ions are no longer approxi-
mately free; instead they follow adiabati-
cally the electron motion. The very near
ions, too, are omitted in this classical calcu-
lation since 1t becomes invalid when dis-
tances are of the order of the wavelength of
an electron. (It should be mentioned, how-
ever, that the problem can be formulated
just as well completely in quantum me-
chanical terms, but this evaluation, in turn,
involves an approximation that also lacks
rigorous justification.) Thus the space rate
of energy loss can be determined as a func-
tion of electronic velocity; its maximum can
be ascertained. It is this maximum space
rate of energy loss that must be set equal to
the applied electric field for a quantitative
expression of von Hippel’s criterion for
electric breakdown.

Calculations have been made in this
manner by Teller and myself (2) for the
alkali halides; the results are in essential
agreement with observations. More re-
cently Attwood and Bixby (3) have applied
our theoretical expression to data for carbon
tetrachloride and have found agreement
here, too, although the formula was not
derived originally for such a substance. It
should be noted also that a formula ob-
tained by Frohlich (4) is equally satis-
factory. Frohlich, too, utilizes von Hippel’s
frictional mechanism, but he introduces a
distinctly different breakdown criterion
namely, a field in which acceleration is con-
tinuously possible for all electrons having
energy sufficient for ionization. The distinc-
tive feature of his picture is that it re-
quires very fast electrons for initiating the
breakdown process, whereas our theory
starts with compaiatively slow electrons. As
yet, no decisive experiment has been made
to test these hypotheses. Still one other cri-
terion should be mentioned. In an informal
communication Seitz (5) has suggested

292

that breakdown occurs when an electron
can produce a secondary electron over a
path length determined by the number of
electrons needed to comprise an avalanche.
The consequences of this hypothesis are at
present only in a qualitative form.

In searching for an answer to the ques-
tion, how is it possible for an insulator to
become a conductor, we have found clues to
the phenomenon of electric breakdown. Our
understanding, however, must remain only
partial until we can account for the depend-
ence of breakdown upon various physical
factors such as temperature and trapping.

Buehl and von Hippel (6) have found
that the electric breakdown for potassium
bromide is 25 per cent less at 200° absolute
than at 300° absolute. Moreover, the
breakdown field increases steadily with in-
crease of temperature up to 50° Centigrade
after which it decreases monotonically.
Now the frictional mechanism, it is true,
yields a temperature dependence in that
according to Planck’s partition law the
vibrational energy is a function of tempera-
ture. This theoretical prediction, however,
gives a less rapid increase than that ob-
served and allows for no decrease at all.
At present, there is no completely satis-
factory explanation of the actual variation
with temperature; perhaps, because it is
closely related to the other important
factor, namely, the possibility of capture to
the free electrons involved. Let us turn our
attention to this so-called phenomenon of
trapping.

In alkali-halide crystals there exist vari-
ous defects in the ionic lattice. For exam-
ple, there are vacant places owing to the
shifting of some ions to interstitial posi-
tions and owing to migration of others to
the surface. (In either case the vacated re-
gions may be occupied by neighboring ions,
thus making ionic conduction possible.)
Now a negative-ion vacancy in an elec-
trically balanced lattice is effectively a
positive charge; thus it behaves like an
empty box that can hold free electrons.
Thus associated with such a vacancy are
discrete energy levels, which happen to be
just below the conduction band. Experi-
mental evidence of trapping of electrons in

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 9

such vacancies in alkali-halide crystals is
found in the existence of ultraviolet
absorption peaks, which are related to
the raising of electrons from such discrete
energy levels to the conduction band.
Furthermore, certain varieties of these
crystals have characteristic colors, e.g.,
yellow for sodium chloride, signifying the
comparatively small energy change in-
volved in any absorption of visible light so
that the existence of so-called F-centers
(Farbenzentren, color centers) has been
long postulated by Pohl.

Suppose more than half the free elec-
trons having sufficient energy for ionization
are captured by such vacancies in a crystal.
Then an avalanche can never result; break-
down cannot occur! It is important, there-
fore, to calculate the probability of capture
of an electron by various processes. This
problem, however, presents considerable
mathematical difficulties. An initial step
has been made by Meyer (7), who has
investigated trapping by a negative-ion
vacancy. We shall illustrate his method for
a one-dimensional problem.

Consider an electron moving in a straight
line under the influence of an applied elec-
tric field and a capture center. There are
four special cases depending upon the
initial direction of motion of the electron
relative to the capture center and to the
applied field. Let us consider specifically
an electron moving away from a capture
center in the direction of the applied field.
The attracting force of the capture center
can be approximated by the field of force
of a hydrogen-like ion in a dielectric (this
procedure is sufliciently accurate at least
for the outer electron orbits). Owing to the
lattice vibrations, as we have just seen,
there 1s a “‘frictional’”’ force, too; it can be
shown to be proportional to (In v?)/v? (v is
the speed). The problem, then, is to deter-
mine the minimum distance from the cap-
ture center for an electron with a given
initial speed to escape to infinity. Inasmuch
as numerical integration of the equation of
motion is required in each instance, it is
more convenient to formulate the problem
in terms of a finite path of motion.

Consider that critical point where the

Sept. 15, 1946

applied field is just balanced by the oppos-
ing field of the capture center. If the elec-
tron can reach this point with slightly
greater than zero speed, it will henceforth
be effectively under the influence of the
applied field and will accordingly escape to
infinity. The problem, therefore, may now
be restated as finding the minimum speed
an electron must have at any given dis-
tance in order for it to arrive at the critical
point with zero speed. Unfortunately this
procedure, too, involves considerable nu-
- merical work, which, in turn, can be re-
duced by the following computational
scheme. Suppose the electron is initially at
rest at the critical point. Allow it to move
toward the capture center with a reversed
frictional force. Its speed at each point
can then be calculated. If the direction of
motion at any point is now reversed, the
electron will just reach the critical point.
For slightly higher speed the electron will
escape. If the actual speed of an electron
at a given point is smaller than this calcu-
lated critical value, the electron will not
escape. In other words, if an electron is
actually closer to the capture center than
the point for which its given speed is equal
to the critical value, it will remain cap-
tured. In this manner the cross-sectional
radius of capture for various speeds of an
electron has been estimated for the four
possible initial conditions relative to the
capture center. The calculations have been
carried out in the case of sodium chloride
for several applied fields of the order of
magnitude of those occurring in breakdown.

The effect of trapping in sodium chloride
can then be estimated on the basis of the
above calculations. It is found that if there
are (10)!§ capture centers per cubic cen-

SEEGER: ELECTRIC BREAKDOWN IN SOLIDS

293

timeter, less than half of the free electrons
will be trapped so that an avalanche will
result. On the other hand, if there are three
times as many such centers, half of the
electrons will be captured before they reach
13 per cent of the velocity needed for
ionization so that the breakdown phenome-
non cannot occur. Somewhere in between
these two values for the number of capture
centers the effect of trapping becomes sig-
nificant. Now alkali-halide crystals usually
have only (10)' to (10)#* capture centers per
cubic centimeter (the number is greater in
the case of single crystals). Hence the influ-
ence of trapping should become important
for alkali-halide crystals only if they are
prepared specially so as to have a greater
density of capture centers.

Thus our theoretical understanding of the
phenomenon of electric breakdown is con-
tingent upon further experimental knowl-
edge of the controlling factors.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Von Hrpret, A. Ergeb. d. Exakt. Na-
turwiss. 14: 79. 1935; Journ. Appl.

Phys. 8: 815. 1937.

(2) Szecer, RR. J.,zand Trtier, Ess Rhys:
Reva 5420 51 5-aa938> 56020 352-, 31939:
58: 279. 1940.

(3) Arrwoop,S.8S.,and Bixsy, W.H. Journ.
Franklin Inst. 235: 259. 1943.

(4) Fropnicn, H. .Proc.. Ray Soc. A 160:
130. 1937; Phys. Rev. 56: 349. 1939;
Reports on Progress in Physics 6: 411.
1939.

(5) Seitz, F. Informal communication to
C. F. Meyer, 1942.

(6) BurHL, R. C., and von Hipret, A. Phys.
Rev. 56: 946. 19389.

(7) Meyer, C. F. The theory of the motion
and capture of electrons in crystal dtelec-
tric media. George Washington Univ.
Ph.D. thesis. 1942.

294

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 9

PHYSICS.—Forces between linear circuits according to O’ Rahilly.1 FRANK WENNER,
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Forces between linear circuits (that is,
coils of insulating wire with currents in
them) have beeen investigated from time
to time during the past more than 100 years.
Of the workers in this field mention may be
made of Ampere, Weber, Maxwell, Web-
ster, Peirce, Mason and Weaver, Gray,
Curtis, Helmholtz, Page and Adams, and
Cullwick. In addition, many others have
had something to say on the subject.

These investigations have led to a par-
ticular way of looking at the situation,
namely: that each element of any one cir-
cuit acts directly on each element of the
one or more other circuits and that what we
observe is the sum of such actions. It is
customary therefore to state the effects ob-
served by means of formulae which fre-

quently are presumed to be statements of

laws of actions between elements of circuits.

One of such formulae usually arrived at
on an analysis of the actions of two closed
circuits on each other may be written as
follows:

d?F = PI,I2(3 cos di Cos de

1
—2 cos y)dsidso/r?. m)

Here P represents the effective permea-
bility of the ambient space (most writers
omit a symbol for the permeability and
state that the formula applies in a vacuum
or in air); J; represents the current in one
of the circuits; and I». represents the cur-
rent in the other circuit.

Referring to Fig. 1, ds, and ds, represent
elements of the lengths of the two con-
ductors; r represents the distance between
ds; and dss; ¢; represents the angle between
r and ds; ¢2 represents the angle between
r and dse; y represents the angle between
ds; and ds. In general ds; and dse are not
coplanar. Also, d?F represents the compo-
nent of the force acting on ds, and dse in
the direction of the line joining them.

It is to be understood that the symbols

1 Paper presented in part at the March 30,
1946, meeting of the Philosophical Society of
Washington. Received May 15, 1946.

d?F, P, 11, Is, dsi, ds2, and r represent physi-
cal quantities, not merely numbers of units
of physical quantities, while ¢:, ¢2 and y
represent numerics, that is, numbers.

Of other similar formulae those more
commonly used are

@r=PIil, COS ydsids2/r? (2)
and 7
d?F = PII, cos 61 cos dodsids2/r?. (3)

Now O’Rahilly states that the correct
formula, is?

@F = idee (dsoar) jie (4)

where d?F ds, ds. and r represent vectors.
If formula (4) is written in such a way that
we may attribute to the symbols the sig-
nificances stated above it becomes

@Fr=PIhI, sin i sin gods so/r?. (5)

In case W represents the mutual potential
energy of the two circuits and the ambient
space it follows from formulae (1), (2), (3),
and (5) that
dW = PIyI2(3 cos ¢1 Cos 2 6)
—2 cos y)dsidsodr /r? |
aw=PIil,. COS ydsydsedr /r? 7)
dW = PII, cos $1 cos dodsidsodr/r? (8)
GW =PIyI, sin $1 sin dedsidsedr/r?. (9)
Now let it be assumed that ds; or dsz is
moved, without rotation, in the direction

of the line joining them, from the distance
r to infinity. Then there would be involved

the
f On 1 — ae

Obviously therefore formulae (1), (2), (8)
and (5) lead to the following expressions
for the mutual potential energy of two
circuits, namely:

(10)

2 O’RaHILLY, ALFRED, Hleclromagnetics—a dis-
cussion of fundamentals: 519. 1938.

Serr. 15, 1946

w=PLbg b (3 cos ¢1 COS de

—2 cos y)dsidso/r

Ww=PLb$ g cos yds\dso/r

W=PLbg p COS $1 COS d2dsids2/r (13)

(11)

(12)

w=PLLg b sin ¢; sin ¢odsidso/r. (14)

Of these expressions for the mutual poten-
tial energy of two circuits that given by
formula (12) and generally attributed to
Neumann has been used more than any
other. That given by formula (13) will be
found to work out best in case of a helix
and a concentric circle in the plane of the
end of the helix.

Fig. 1.—Diagram showing the geometry in-
volved in formulae purporting to be statements
of laws of force actions between elements of two
linear circuits, in the special case in which ds,
and dsq are coplanar. (DTM 77864.)

Formulae (11), (12), and (13) become
identical on integrating around either cir-
cuit and on a second integration, that is,
around the other circuit, give a result
generally considered to be correct.

Formula (14) leads to the conclusion
that there is no mutual potential energy
associated with two adjacent circuits and
consequently no force acting between ad-
jacent coils of insulated wire in each of
which there is a current. Thus, taking what
O’Rahilly insists is the correct formula at
its face value we are led by what appar-
ently are proper steps to a conclusion con-
trary to what we find by experiment. How-
ever, it should be pointed out that his for-

WENNER: FORCES BETWEEN LINEAR CIRCUITS

295

mula (4) may be juggled in such a way as to
give a result in conformity with the result
obtained by the use of either of the formulae
(1), (2), or (3).

With reference to these force formulae,
namely (1), (2), (8), (4), and (5), it is
hardly appropriate to say that any one is
correct or incorrect. No one has been proved
or disproved by direct experiment. Except
to the extent that (4) and (5) are equiva-
lent, each is in definite conflict with every
other. When applied to actual circuits for-
mulae (1), (2), and (3) lead directly and (4)
indirectly to the same result. Consequently
no one of them should be considered to be
a statement of a law of physics. They are
merely postulates or working hypotheses
which should be judged entirely on the
basis of their usefulness in applied physics.

Here this matter has been discussed in
such a way as to make the conclusions
reached and those which may be reached
independent of units. As illustrations con-
sider the application of force formula (3)
to a particular pair of circuits. Then if
conditions are more or less ideal and if C
is considered to represent the length
£ F COS G1 COS do dsids2/7r, it follows that—

(1) The mutual potential energy of the
system

W 1s PILL.C. (15)

(2) The component in the direction x of
the force, acting between the coils,

(3) The effective permeability of the
ambient space

(4) The product of the two currents
ios Ff PdC fax. (18)

(5) The mutual inductance of two coils
and the ambient medium

M is PC. (19)

If formula (3) is combined with the ex-
perimentally established law for induced
electromotive force and with Ohm’s law it
follows that a resistance

Ris PC/T (20)

296

where T' is the effective period of a recur-
ring action in a mechanism which in one
respect behaves like a resistor. (A Lorenz
apparatus 1s one of several types of me-
chanism which in effect produce a potential
drop or electromotive force proportional
to an impressed current and consequently
has associated with it a resistance.)

If R’ is the resistance associated with a
standard resistor and if by measurement it
is found that R’= AR it follows that

i ARC T. (21)
It also follows that
Pe AC, (22)

As to the significances of formulae (15) to
(22) inclusive, all of which involve force
formula (3), 1t should suffice to point out—

(a) That formula (20) serves to define
resistance as a quantity of the electromag-
netic system of measurements.

(b) That formula (21) serves in the meas-
urement of the resistance associated with
a standard resistor in terms of standards of
length, time and permeability, and

(c) That formula (22) serves in a meas-

urement of the effective permeability as-

sociated with an ambient space in terms of
standards of resistance, time and length—

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 9

that is, in the measurement of permeability
as a quantity of the international system of
measurements.

Possibly it should be explained that as
presently used in applied physics—

(a) The electromagnetic system of meas-
urements involves the use of length, mass,
time and permeability as basic quantities
and the definition of all units of the system
in terms of standards of these 4 quantities.

(b) The international system of meas-
urements involves the use of length, time,
electromotive force and resistance as basic
quantities and the definition of all units of
the system in terms of standards of these
four quantities.

It may be noted that it is not until a
need for a law of physics, whether hypo-
thetical as are the force laws considered
here or experimentally established as is
Ohm’s law, has arisen does it become ne-
cessary to select a system of measurements.

Furthermore, having selected a system
of measurements, it is not until it becomes
desirable to record results of measurements
that it becomes necessary to select stand-
ards, define units, and split experimentally —
established equalities of quantities into two
equalities, one of numerics and the other
of units of quantities. :

BIOCHEMISTRY.—Faits expérimentaux sur la stabilisation anti-oxygénée de la
bilirubine par les protéines plasmatiques et hypothése sur la nature de la cénapse
albumino-bilirubinique du plasma.’ G. Barac, et R. Roseman (Baltimore,
Md.)?, Institut de Clinique et de Policlinique Médicales, Université de
Liége, Belgique (Directeur: Prof. Dr. L. Brull). (Communicated by JAMES

I. Horrman.)

INTRODUCTION

Les recherches de Vun de nous sur le
mécanisme de l’élimination rénale de la
bilirubine Vont amené 4A étudier létat
physico-chimique du pigment dans le
plasma, aprés qu’il eut constaté que la

1 Received March 1, 1946.

2 Nous exprimons notre vive gratitude 4 Mon-
sieur le Professeur E. J. Cohn, Department of
Physical Chemistry, Harvard Medical School, et
& Monsieur le Professeur H. Neurath, Depart-
ment of Biochemistry, Duke University School
of Medicine, qui ont eu la grande amabilité de
mettre 4 notre disposition les cinq fractions de
protéines plasmatiques et les albumines cristal-
lisées, utilisées au cours de nos recherches.

bilirubinémie totale n’est pas le seul fac-
teur qui régle la bilirubinurie (2). D’ail-
leurs, importance de |’état physico-chimi-
que des constituants plasmatiques, au
point de vue de leur élimination rénale, a
été démontrée, dans cet Institut, par
Brull, dans un travail fondamental en 1930
(8). En ce qui concerne la bilirubine, s’il
est actuellement établi (10, 13, 14) que,
dans le plasma, elle est liée a l’albumine,
il n’existe, par contre, 4 notre connaissance,
aucun fait expérimental permettant une
hypothése concernant l’endroit de la molé-
cule bilirubinique ot cette liaison s’effectue.

Serr. 15, 1946

Et cependant, la connaissance de cet en-
droit serait d’une grande importance, au
point de vue du mécanisme biochimique
de la bilirubinurie. En effet, comme la
bilirubinurie ne s’accompagne générale-
ment pas d’albuminurie, il en résulte que:
(1) Ja bilirubine doit étre séparée de sa

cénapse avant son apparition dans l’urine; -

(2) suivant l’endroit de la molécule bili-
rubinique ot sa liaison avec |l’albumine est
réalisée, ainsi que d’aprés la nature de
cette derniére, la séparation du pigment
reconnaitra forcément des mécanismes bio-
chimiques différents. En effet, si, par ex-
emple, la bilirubine est combinée 4 l’al-
bumine par les fonctions carboxyles du
pigment, si, en d’autres mots, il s’agit d’un
bilirubinate d’albumine, la scission se fera
suivant un tout autre processus que si
cette lhaison a leu au niveau d’une autre
fonction et par un moyen différent.
Partant du fait que l’acide ascorbique
ainsi que certains autres anti-oxygénes et
réducteurs, 4 micro-molécules, stabilisent la
bilirubine en solution alcaline (/, 3), ayant
constaté, d’autre part, que le plasma nor-
mal, additionné de bilirubine ou le plasma
ictérique, tous les deux alcalinisés, agissent
de la méme facon (4), ’un de nous s’est
attaché 4 l’étude du mécanisme de cette
réaction. Il a pu démontrer que les pro-
téines plasmatiques totales délipidées et,
dans une certaine mesure, une préparation
d’albumine plasmatique, non purifiée, sont
actives, cependant que divers lipides, ex-
aminés isolément, ainsi que l’ensemble des
lipides plasmatiques chloroformo-solubles
sont sans effet. La conclusion de ces re-
cherches fut que la stabilisation anti-oxy-
génée de la bilirubine dans le plasma était
due trés vraisemblablement aux protéines,
voire surtout 4 l’albumine. Et comme la
différence chimique entre la bilirubine et
sa forme oxydée la biliverdine se caractér-
ise par la transformation du groupe mé-
thane, reliant les deux noyaux pyroliques
du milieu, en méthine, il était 4 supposer
que, dans le plasma, c’est en cet endroit
de la molécule bilirubinique que l’albumine
agit comme anti-oxygéne par sa liaison
avec le pigment. Suivant cette interpré-
tation, lorientation de la molécule bili-
rubinique était telle que ses fonctions car-

BARAC & ROSEMAN: STABILISATION DE LA BILIRUBINE

297

boxyles étaient dirigées vers la phase
aqueuse du milieu. Cette explication, toute
provisoire, demandait de nouvelles expé-
riences, notamment au moyen de protéines
plasmatiques plus individualisées.

Grace 4 l’aide bienveillante du Labora-
toire de Chimie Physique de |’ Université
Harvard et 4 celle du Laboratoire de Bio-
chimie de l’Université Duke, qui ont bien
voulu mettre 4 notre disposition une série
de protéines plasmatiques, nous avons pu
entreprendre ces recherches. Les résultats
obtenus jusqu’a présent constituent la
premiére réalisation de notre programme
dans ce domaine et forment une partie
des données de ce travail.

OBJET DU TRAVAIL

(1) L’albumine plasmatique est-elle réal-
lement anti-oxygéne vis-a-vis de la bili-
rubine?

(2) Peut-on obtenir cet effet stabilisa-
teur avec n’importe quelle protéine plas-
matique?

(3) Peut-on obtenir un résultat analogue
avec l’un des acides aminés constituant la

-molécule albuminique ou avec le mélange

de tous les acides aminés de cette molécule,
a la concentration de lalbumine plas-
matique habituelle, ou bien s’agit-il d’une
propriété de la molécule albuminique, con-
sidérée comme telle?

(4) La propriété anti-oxygéne du plasma
se manifeste-t-elle, dans les mémes condi-
tions, également vis-a-vis d’autres molé-
cules facilement oxydables tels certains
polyphénols?

TECHNIQUE DES MESURES

Nous utilisons comme méthode d’ana-
lyse la photométrie directe du pigment et
comme appareil le photométre graduel de
Pulfrich. Nous nous servons du filtre Sus,
auquel correspond le maximum d’absorp-
tion du pigment dans ces conditions, ainsi
que l’un de nous 1’a établi précédemment au
moyen de cet appareil (/) et confirmé ses
résultats avec A. Lambrechts, en utilisant
la méthode spectrophotométrique visible
(JD).

RESULTATS EXPERIMENTAUX

Vitesse doxydation de la bilirubine en
solution alcaline pure.—7,5 mgr. de bili-

298

rubine Hoffmann-LaRoche, identique a
celle de Fischer, d’aprés Heilmeyer, sont
dissous dans un litre de NaOH N/100. La
solution est conservée au laboratoire, 4 la
lumiére ordinaire, au contact de l’air. Elle
est sulvie périodiquement au photométre.
La Fig. 1 montre que le maximum de la
transformation subie par la bilirubine a
lieu pendant les 7 premiéres heures et que
dans la suite elle se ralentit considérable-
ment.

Heures

Fic. 1.—Vitesse d’oxydation de la bilirubine en
solution alealine pure.

Protéines et stabilisation anti-oxrygénée de
la bilirubine en milieu alcalin. Essais avec
les solutions d’albumine Cutter et de globuline
Intly—En partant d’une solution d’al-
bumine Cutter, utilisée pour transfusion,
et d’une solution de globuline Lilly, nous
préparons, par dilution, au moyen de
NaOH N/100, des solutions ayant respec-
tivement 90 et 84 gr. de protéines p. 1000.
A chacune nous ajoutons de la soude solide
jusqu’& obtention d’un pH de 10, vérifié
au moyen du papier indicateur Merck.
Chaque solution est alors partagée en
deux parties. A l’une nous ajoutons un vol-
ume égal de soude centinormale. Elle ser-
vira de témoin. A |’autre, nous ajoutons

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 9

un volume égal d’une solution fratchement
préparée de bilirubine a 15 mgr. p. 1000
de NaOH N/100. Chacune des solutions
bilirubiniques est photométrée périodique-
ment avec son témoin correspondant, la
différence des valeurs enregistrées cor-
respondant 4 la bilirubine seule. Le Tableau

' 1 contient les résultats obtenus. On voit

que dans la solution albuminique la bili-
rubine reste stable au moins pendant 73
heures, et que dans la solution de globuline
la stabilité du pigment dure 3 heures.

Essais avec les diverses fractions de pro-
téines plasmatiques ‘‘Harvard.”—2 gr. de
chaque fraction (9) sont additionnés pro-
gressivement de NaOH N/100 jusqu’a ob-
tention d’un volume de 25 cc. On agite au
moyen d’une baguette en verre pour ob-
tenir une dissolution compléte. Comme ci-
dessus, nous ajoutons de la soude solide
pour obtenir un pH de 10. La moitié du
volume de chaque solution est additionnée
d’un volume égal de NaOH N/100 et sert
de témoin, 4 l’autre moitié on ajoute un
méme volume de bilirubine & 15 mgr. p.
1000 dans NaOH N/100. Les examens ont
lieu comme ci-dessus. Les résultats figurent
au Tableau 1. On voit que seule la fraction
V, comprenant 100 p. 100 d’albumine,
est nettement active puisqu’elle stabilise la
bilirubine au moins pendant 30 heures.

Essais avec deux albumines plasmatiques
cristallisées ‘“‘Duke.’”’—Nous avons réalisé
des essais avec deux albumines plasma-
tiques cristallisées, ’une humaine, l’autre
bovine. La préparation des solutions bili-
rubiniques et témoins est la méme que Ci-
dessus, la concentration en albumines étant
de 40 gr. p. 1000. Nous donnons dans le
Tableau 1 les résultats obtenus. Ceux-ci
montrent que dans ces milieux la bilirubine
est stable au moins pendant 7 heures et
que dans la suite il y a une légére diminu-
tion de cette stabilité.

Acides aminés et stabilisation antt-oxy-
génée de la bilirubine en milieu alcalin.
Action des acides aminés examinés 1solé-
ment.—La molécule d’albumine plasma-
tique comprend 13 acides aminés. En sui-
vant les données de Lehnartz (12), nous
avons utilisé pour chaque acide aminé sa
concentration albumino-plasmatique cor-
respondant 4 45 gr. d’albumine par litre.

Sept. 15, 1946

Solutions
protéiques
additionnées
de
Bilirubine
Cutter
Lilly
Protéines
Harvard
Fract. I
Fract. II
Fract. III
Fract. IV
Fract. V
Albumines cris-
tallisées Duke
Humaine
Bovine

TABLEAU 1

BARAC & ROSEMAN: STABILISATION DE LA BILIRUBINE

299

Ki em.|Ki em.}/Ki em.|Ki em.|Ki em.|/Ki em.|/Ki em./Ki em.|Ki em.|Ki em.|/Ki em.) Ki em.|Ki em.|Ki em.|Ki cm.

Init. | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés | aprés

We) aN SPS eel Sy Bh dete Wee eles fy Ie, By Ielee j TOI EL Pb IS l5 yy) 3X0) Jela yes) SL, 17/8} Jel.

0.45 | 0.46 | 0.43 0.45 0.43 0.43 0.45 | 0.45 | 0.45 | 0.43 | 0.43

0.48 | 0.48 0.45 0.44 | 0.42 | 0.40 | 0.41 0.35
Oz4 2570530) | 0E26) | (025 0.19 | 0.17
0.41 | 0.31 0.24 | 0.20) | 0).22 0.21 0.19
Insoluble
0.46 | 0.40 0.30 0.28

0.42 | 0.438 0.42 0.42 0.41 0.41 | 0.40 | 0.40 | 0.42 | 0.38 | 0.35
0.51 | 0.50 0.50 0.50 | 0.49 | 0.47 | 0.45 0.44 | 0.45
0.48 | 0.46 0.46 0.46 | 0.46 | 0.46 | 0.41 0.42 | 0.42

} |

Les valeurs de K (coefficient d’extinction) de ce Tableau représentent la différence des coefficients d’extinction des solutions
bilirubiniques et de leurs témoins correspondants.

TABLEAU 2

Solution e Ka em. | Kiem. | Ki cm. | Ki cm. | Kiem. | Ki cm
3 af Ki em. E R . s . 5
d’ac. aminé In aprés aprés aprés aprés aprés aprés Remarques
+Bilirubine j 30’ il Jel. ale B lal Jal. 8 H.
Alanine 0.60 0.58 0.53 0.49 0.45 0.36 0.33
Leucine 0.16 OF 0.14 Verdissement rapide de la solution dés
l’addition de la solution de bilirubine.
Ac. glutamique 0.58 0.53 0.50 0.46 0.42 0.33
Ac. aspartique 0.17 0.15 0.12 Méme remarque.
Sérine d.l. 0.37 0.24 0.18 0.04 Méme remarque.
Cystine 1. 0.48 0.39 0.33 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.21
Lysine l. 0.32 0.20 0.19 0.12 Méme remarque.
Arginine d. 0.51 0.42 0.37 0.28 On22 OFS
Phénylal. d.l. 0.21 Oe2 0.09 0.07 Méme remarque.
Tyrosine 0.53 0.53 0.50 0.45 0.40
Proline 1. 0.51 0.46 0.43 0.32 0.29 0.20
Histidine 0.55 0.55 0.52 0.47 0.40
Tryptophane 1. 0.49 0.41 0.38 0.29 0.25 0.21
Mélange des
13 ac. aminés
-+ Bilirubine 0.47 0833 0.25 0.20 0.18 0.16 OM
TABLEAU 3
K; cm. | K;3 cm. K; cm. Kos cm. Ko.s cm. Ke-s em. Kos cm. Kos ecm. ae ape
Filtre Sol. aq. ale. de Plasma Plasma Plasma Plasma Plasma 7 iia
Ss! I alc. T ale.+ If alc. II ale.+ II ale. + Mares Boies
Hivdtog Byer | Naren tel quel Hydroq. tel quel Pyrog. Adrén. Init. 8 H.
43 0.23 1.00 0.14 0.43 0.60 0.27 0.72 0.32 0.61
47 0.19 0.62 0.07 0.38 0.56 0.26 0.61 0.29 0.40
50 0.15 0.36 0.02 0.31 0.46 0.18 0.45 0.18 0.25
53 0.09 0.25 0.01 0.20 ORST 0.07 0.28 0.04 0.09
57 0.03 0.14 0 0.14 0.33 0.03 0.16 0.02 0.04
61 0 0.10 0 0.13 0.25 0.02 0.11 0 0.02
66.6 0 0.03 0 0.11 0.17 0 0.05 0) 0
72 0 0 0 0.08 0.09 0 0 0 0
75 0 0 0 0.09 0.09 0 0 0 0

300

La quantité de chaque acide aminé cor-
respondant a 100 cc. de solution est neu-
tralisée par de la soude 4 10 pour-cent puis
ajoutée de NaOH N/100 jusqu’a 50 cc et
de 50 cc de bilirubine 4 15 mgr. p. 1000de

NaOH N/100. Le Tableau 2 donne les—

résultats obtenus. Ceux-ci indiquent que
pas un seul acide aminé ou plus exactement
pas un seul dérivé sodique correspondant
n’est anti-oxygéne vis-a-vis de la bilirubine.

Action du mélange de ces 13 acides aminés.
—Dans cette expérience nous procédons
comme ci-dessus, en opérant sur le mé-
lange de ces 13 acides aminés. Le Tableau
2 contient les résultats obtenus. On voit
que dans ce milieu la bilirubine s’oxyde
pratiquement avec la méme vitesse qu’en
solution alcaline pure.

Cas particulier de la cystéine.—Les solu-
tions sont préparées d’aprés le procédé ci-
dessus en utilisant les concentrations sui-
vantes de chlorhydrate de cystéine: 470,
235, 100, 50, 25, mgr. pour-cent. Les
résultats obtenus montrent qu’a partir de
la concentration de 100 mgr. p. 100, la
cystéine est nettement active. Toutefois, a
concentration égale, son activité est moindre
que celle de l’acide ascorbique.

Essais sur la stabilisation anti-oxygénée
de quelques polyphénols facilement oxydables
dans le plasma alcalinisé—Nous avons
opéré sur les polyphénols suivants: hydro-
quinone, pyrogallol, adrénaline. Comme on
sait, ces polyphénols s’oxydent en solution
alcaline en dérivés colorés.

Absorption visible des dérivés colorés de
ces polyphénols en solution alcaline pure.—
20 mgr. de chaque polyphénol p. 1000
de solution, sont dissous dans de la soude
N/100. Les couleurs développées instantané-
ment sont analysées immédiatement au
photométre.

Absorption visible des dérivés colorés de ces
polyphénols dans le plasma _ alcalinisé.—
Deux plasmas humains frais, citratés au
dixiéme, sont alcalinisés 4 pH 10, au moyen
de soude solide. A 10 ce du premier plasma
on ajoute 7 mgr. d’hydroquinone. Le
deuxiéme plasma est partagé en trois échan-
tillons. A deux d’entre eux on ajoute re-
spectivement 5 mgr. de pyrogallol et la
méme quantité d’adrénaline, le troisiéme

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, No. 9

servant de témoin. A l’exception du plasma
additionné d’adrénaline ow la coloration se
développe lentement, les deux autres plas-
mas additionnés d’hydroquinone et de
pyrogallol changent trés rapidement de
couleur. Le Tableau 3 réunit les résultats
obtenus pour ces polyphénols en solution
aqueuse alcaline ainsi que dans les plasmas
alcalinisés de méme que l’absorption de ces
derniers avant l’addition de ces substances.
On voit, d’aprés ces résultats, que le plasma
alcalinisé n’est pas antixoygéne vis-a-vis
de Vhydroquinone et du pyrogallol, mais
que, par contre, il empéche |’ oxydation de
Vadrénaline pendant une certaine durée
(Gay

DISCUSSION

Les résultats expérimentaux décrits dans
ce travail montrent tout d’abord que l’oxy-
dation de la bilirubine en milieu alcalin
est considérablement retardée par l’al-
bumine plasmatique, confirmant ainsi l’hy-
pothése de l’un de nous sur le role de cette
protéine dans l’effet anti-oxygéne du plasma
vis-a-vis de ce pigment. En effet, nous
avons obtenu ces résultats non seulement
avec la solution d’albumine Cutter, mais
également avec la fraction V Harvard,
ainsi qu’avec deux albumines plasmatiques
cristallisées, une humaine, |’autre bovine.
Ils montrent, de plus, que la seule présence
d’une protéine quelconque n’assure pas
nécessairement cette stabilité, car parmi les
différentes fractions de protéines Harvard
expérimentées, seule la fraction V, conte-
nant 100 pour-cent d’albumine, est nette-
ment active. On peut évidemment se de-
mander comment il se fait que la solution de
globuline Lilly est douée d’une certain
activité. Remarquons tout d’abord que nous
ignorons la composition de cette solution en
ce qui concerne sa teneur en substances ré-
ductrices et autres stabilisateurs éventuel-
lement présents. D’autre part, nous avons
opéré, dans ce cas, sur une concentration
de globuline voisine de celle de |’albumine
plasmatique pour comparer l’activité de
ces deux espéces de protéines. Cette con-
centration est, par contre, trop éelvée
lorsqu’on envisage la teneur globulinique
totale du plasma normal ou ictérique. Ce-

Sept. 15, 1946

pendant, nous n’excluons pas actuellement
la possibilité d’une certaine activité anti-
oxygéne des globulines plasmatiques vis-a-
vis de la bilirubine, mais nous estimons que
la question demande de nouvelles recher-
ches que nous n’avons pas encore réalisées
faute de produits. Notons d’autre part, que
Vaction de l’albumine n’est pas uniquement
de nature colloidale. L’un de nous, a en
effet montré précédemment que ni la gomme
arabique, ni l’amidon, ni le glycogéne ne
sont anti-oxygénes vis-a-vis de la bilirubine,
quoiqu’utilisés 4 concentration élevée.

Un deuxiéme fait qui résulte de nos ex-
périences est le suivant: la propriété anti-
oxygéne du plasma alcalinisé n’est pas
générale puisqu’elle ne s’exerce pas &
Végard d’autres substances facilement oxy-
dables, tels certains polyphénols.

Si ’on compare maintenant la durée d’ac-
tivité des solutions d’albumine Cutter,
fraction V Harvard, albumines cristallisées
~ Duke, sensiblement de méme concentra-
tion en albumines, on voit que la differ-
ence est assez appréciable. Nous ignorons
actuellement la signification de celle-ci.

Nous attirons d’autre part l’attention sur
Vinactivité totale des acides aminés con-
stituant la molécule albuminique, examinés
isolément ou en mélange. Nous poursuivons
nos recherches dans ce domaine.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) A la concentration albumino-plas-
matique habituelle, l’albumine plasmatique
est anti-oxygéne 4 l’égard de la bilirubine
en milieu alcalin.

(2) Cette action anti-oxygéne n’est pas
commune a toutes les protéines plasma-
tiques.

(3) Cette propriété de l’albumine est due
a sa molécule envisagée comme telle.

(4) La propriété anti-oxygéne du plasma
alcalinisé est nulle vis-A-vis de certains
polyphénols facilement oxydables, dans les
mémes conditions ot elle se manifeste a
Végard de la bilirubine.

(5) Les expériences décrites dans ce
travail sont en faveur de l’hypothése sui-
vant laquelle, dans le plasma, la liaison

BARAC & ROSEMAN: STABILISATION DE LA BILIRUBINE

301

albumino-bilirubinique se ferait de telle
fagon que les fonctions carboxyles de la
bilirubine seraient orientées vers la phase
hydrique du milieu.

BIBLIOGRAPHIE

(1) Barac, G. Stabilisation et dosage de la
bilarubine dans le liquide duodénal. Bull.
Soe. Chim. Biol. 21: 1163. 1939.

. Brlirubinémie totale et élimination

rénale de la bilirubine chez Vhomme normal

et lactérique. Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol.

(sous presse).

. Sur la stabilisation de la bilirubine

en solution alcaline. Compt. Rend. Soc.

Biol. (sous presse).

. Sur la stabilisation de la bilirubine

dans le plasma alcalinisé. Compt. Rend.

Soc. Biol. (sous presse).

.et Rosmman, R. Sur la stabilisa-

tion anti-oxygénée de la bilirubine par les

acides aminés. Compt. Rend. Soc. Biol.

(sous presse).

. Sur la stabilisation de la bilurubine
en milieu alcalin par les acides aminés et
les protéines. Comp. Rend. Soe. Biol.
(sous presse).

(7) Baca, Z. Recherches sur la physiologre et

la pharmacologie du systéme nerveux auto-

nome. Sensibilisation a Vadrénaline et a

Vexcitation des nerfs adrénergiques par les

anti-oxygéenes. Bull. Acad. Roy. Méd.

Belgique 15: 627. 1935.

Bruiu, L. Contributions a lI’ étude de I état

physico-chimique des constituants minéraux

et du glucose plasmatiques. Arch. Intern.

Physiol. 32: 188. 19380.

(9) Coun, E. J. Blood proteins and their
therapeutic value. Science 101: 51. 1945.

(10) DutizrRE, W. L., et Minne, R.: Sub-
stances quantitativement entrainées avec les
protéines sériques dans la précipitation par
Vacide trichloracétique et dans lultrafiltra-
tion. Cholestérol et bilirubine. Compt.
Rend. Soe. Biol. 126: 440. 1937.

(11) LamBrecuts, A., et Barac, G.: Le
spectre de la bilirubine en milieu alcalin.
Bull. Soc. Chim. Biol. 21: 1171. 19389.

(12) Lennartz, E. Chemische physiologie.
Springer, Berlin, 1937.

(13) PEpERsEN, K. O., et WALDENSTROM, J.
Studien tiber das Bilirubin in Blut und
Galle mit Hilfe von Elektrophorese und
Ultrazentrifugierung. Zeitschr. f. Physi-
olog. Chemie. 245: 152. 1937.

(14) Snapper, I., et Benpren, W. M. On the
physico-chemical conditions of the bilirubin
un the blood serum and urine. Acta Med.
Scand, 98:77. 1938.

(2)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(8

S|

302

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 9

ETHNOLOGY .—Susquehannock Indian religion from an old document. C. A.
WesLAGER, Archaeological Society of Delaware.

In 1943 a translation was made by Ira
Oliver Nothstein of a graduation disserta-
tion submitted June 14, 1731, to the faculty
of Upsala University by Tobias Biorck, a
Swedish student.2 The dissertation was
written in Latin according to the custom
of the time. Apparently no importance was
attached to it, inasmuch as it remained un-
translated for more than 200 years. The
student, as we know today, was the son of
the Rev. Eric Biorck, a missionary sent to
America in 1697 by Charles XI of Sweden.
He served as minister of the Holy Trinity
(Old Swedes) Church in Wilmington, Del.,
where his oldest son, Tobias, was born.
When the minister and his family returned
to Sweden in 1714, Tobias was then 11 or
12 years old. The dissertation which he
later presented at Upsala described the
planting of the Swedish Church in America
and contained among other things a section
devoted to native custom and religion. To
the student of the American Indian these
comments by a contemporary observer
are worthy of careful review, especially
since they relate to a tribe of Indians now
considered extinct, the Susquehannock,
alias the Minquas, an Iroquoian-speaking
tribe that occupied the Susquehanna River
region in Pennsylvania. It should be em-
phasized that of the few contemporary
accounts relating to the Susquehannock
nothing of their religion and little of their
cultural pattern have been previously re-
corded.®

1 Received June 18, 1946.

2 The planting of the Swedish Church in America,
by Tosias E. Brorck, translated and edited by
IrA OxuiverR Norustein, D.D., Augustana Col-
lege, Rock Island, Ill., 1943.

3 John Smith wrote the first detailed account
of these Indians whom he called the ‘‘Sasquesa-
hanocks,’”’ commenting on their large stature and
warlike nature. He said: ‘“‘They can make neere
600 able and mighty men, and are pallisadoed in
their Townes, ete.”’ Travels and works of Captain
John Smith, edited by ARBER and BRADLEY, p.
54. Edinburgh, 1910.

A complete record of the historical references
to the Susquehannock is given by H. FRANK
EsHiEMAN, Lancaster County, Pa. Indians, Lan-
caster, Pa., 1908, and their geographical position

is discussed by Wriu1AM N. Fenton, ‘Problems
Arising from the Historic Northeastern Position

When the present writer undertook the
preparation of a paper calling attention to
that part of the translation dealing with
the Susquehannock religion he found that
a prior translation had been made by the
late Walter Hullihen, president of the Uni-
versity of Delaware. In comparing Hul-
lihen’s unedited and unpublished transla-
tion of the Indian section with that made
by Nothstein, the writer was confronted
with major differences in interpretation,
and it became obvious that a third transla-
tion was needed to resolve the discrepan-
cies. Miss Evelyn Holst Clift, a member of
the faculty of the Department of Ancient
Languages, University of Delaware, was
consulted, and she subsequently made a
third translation, carefuly comparing the
differences in the two prior translations. It
should be emphasized that she worked only
with the Indian excerpts of the manuscript,
disregarding the ecclesiastical portions re-
lating to the Swedish Church. Miss Clift
states that she finds that her translation
more closely resembles Hullihen’s, with
some alterations, than it does Nothstein’s.
Her translation follows, with footnotes by
the present writer:

Let us now come to the Indians, the ancient
race of the American land, whom the Swedes
call Wildar, unquestionably because they exist
as wild men in the forests and deserted places.
America is so crowded with them that it is be-
lieved that 300 separate peoples are found there
using each a different tongue. They are said,
however, to be growing less and less numerous

of the Iroquois,’’ Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 100:
159-251.

Previous to 1763 the Susquehannock, also
known as the Conestoga, are frequently men-
tioned in the Colonial Records of the State of
Pennsylvania. These documents show that the
Susquehannock had been defeated by the Five
Nations Iroquois and their numbers greatly re-
duced as a result of warfare. In 1763 remnants
of the tribe were exterminated by Scotch-Irish
fanatics, the so-called Paxton Boys, near Har-
risburg. For an account of this massacre see C.
HaAue Sipz, Indian wars of Pennsylvania: 463.
Harrisburg, 1931.

4A typewritten copy of this translation is
available at the Memorial Library, University of
Delaware, Newark, Del.

Sup. 15, 1946

and to be almost disappearing. Some of these
are more powerful than others. We note now
only the heathen Minckusi as being among the
braver, around Canistowa and Susquehana.®
They received the first Swedish settlers in
America with such kindly feeling that, when
other heathens wished to attack the Swedes
with weapons, they came to their defense say-
ing: “You must leave them in peace and quiet.
But, if you wish to fight, you must fight with
us.”’ Hence, too, they called them Hissimus,

that is, brothers (in their tongue).* Their terri- -

tories are customarily described as to bounda-
ries by rivers and certain hills. The king has a
common name, Sacheman, meaning the same as
“Dominus” (Lord). This ‘domination’ in
truth is especially noticeable in the handling of
matters of greater importance, whether in con-
nection with other heathens or with the
Christians. In all other matters he is no more
than equal of the rest. In very many particu-
lars the customs and lives of these people are
identical in type with the life of the Lapps.
They are tall of stature and very erect.’ More-
over, they are faithful, chaste, just, compas-
sionate, not miserly, and happy in disposition.
But in the treatment of captives they are
rather severe.

As far as their religion goes, if it is to be
called a religion, they recognize two Gods or
spirits, which they call Manetto’s. They say
that the one is the ruler of celestial matters, the
other of terrestrial. They perversely believe
that the first, since he is good, need not be wor-
shiped or feared, but that the second because he
is evil is to be both feared and worshiped.

5 Canistowa refers to Conestoga, a name used
to refer to a creek and also Indian settlements on
the creek. Biorck uses ‘‘Minckusi’’ to designate
the Minquas or Susquehannock tribe. Lindestr6m
uses the word ‘‘Minquesser’ (see Geographia
Ameritcae, PETER LINDESTROM, translated by
AMANDUS JOHNSON. Philadelphia, 1925). There
is no doubt that Biorck has delimited his com-
ments to the Minquas as the above text clearly
reveals.

6 Other contemporary documents confirm
Biorck’s statement that the Minquas and Swedes
were on very friendly terms. Gov. Johns Rising
wrote that the Minquas considered them as their
‘“‘protectors.”’ This relationship was a product of
a deliberate attempt on the Swedes’ part to culti-
vate friendship with the Minquas because of the
great quantities of beaver pelts obtainable in the
Minquas country. See AMaNDUs JoHNsON, The
Swedish settlements on the Delaware, vols. 1 and 2.
Philadelphia, 1911.

7 Note that John Smith also wrote that these
Indians were tall.

WESLAGER: SUSQUEHANNOCK INDIAN RELIGION

303

Master A. Hesselius has portrayed the form of
this (divinity) just about as it was cut on the
door of a Swedish-American settler. They in-
dulge in various superstitions, taking an omen
from various birds, snakes, and other animals
which seem more fitting to them. As familiar
spirits (genii) and household gods they have
images of these objects of superstition, which
they carry with them, ascribing to them their
successes in hunting and every other fortunate
event. It is even a custom at times for the
images of these household gods to be inscribed
and pricked on their arms and bones with a cer-
tain kind of thorn in such a way that they re-
main indelible; furthermore, it is customary for
them to be cut into trees so that one can see
from them what heathens are dwelling in this
or that tract of land or have had their domiciles
there before.

That after this life our heathens expect a

8 Andreas Hesselius, who succeeded the senior
Biorck as minister as the church in Wilmington,
left a journal to which Tobias Biorck refers in
the above. The Journal was published in Swedish
at Upsala, 1938, Andreas Hesselit Anmarkningar
Om Amerika, by Nits Jacopsson, but no English
translation has yet been published. Under date
of June 10, 1712, Hesselius entered the following
in his Journal:

‘Sag iag hoos en swensk Handelsman en figur,
som Indianerna sielfwa hade malat sin Manettos
skapnad, med then the fruchta och dyrcka:
Liknelsen kommer narmast til ett warg-Hufwud,
some grijnar och pustar uth eld och r66k: Krop-
pen ar en drakekropp, mycket tiock, men
smalnar ut wid stiertten, ther nagra sillsamma
kruus och characterer synas: Eljest hafwer
Kroppen inga fotter eller wingar, untan allenast
ett par utrackta armar och hinder med kloor
pa fingren utspinde til at grijpa nagot.”’

A free translation of-the excerpt would be ap-
proximately as follows:

“T saw a figure which the Indians themselves
had painted at a Swedish merchant’s, the image
of their Manetto, whom they fear and worship:
the figure nearest resembles the head of a wolf,
grinning grimly and emitting fire and smoke,
the body is like the body of a dragon, very thick
but tapering at the tail where some peculiar orna-
ments and characters are seen. There are no feet
or wings attached to the body. Only a pair of
arms stretched forth, the fingers of the hands were
provided with claws and those extended as if
they were about to take hold of something.”’

In his graduation dissertation Tobias Biorek
included a sketch of the figure which he identifies
as ‘‘Manetto Inditanorum.” (See illustration, p. 33,
of the Nothstein translation.) His sketch con-
forms closely with the above description. It
should be noted that both Iroquois and Algonkian
religious concepts included a “holder of the
heavens” and an “earth bound twin brother,”
which are doubtless the basis for the above re-

marks relating to ‘“‘good” and ‘‘bad”’ Manito.

304

more blessed one is indicated by the pipes, to-
bacco, and bottles made of animal skins, etc.,
which the others deposit in the mounds with
the bodies. This they do in token of friendship,
in order that, wheresoever the entrance to the
better life befalls them at some time they may
themselves enjoy the same furnishings. All days
are held by them at one and the same value. No
one is more sacred to them than another. In
their sacrificial services, through which they
believe the evil spirit is appeased so that noth-
ing unfortunate may rush upon them, they be-
have in so many different ways that they would
drive any sane person to stupefaction, even to
amazement. These sacrifices, according to the
matter in hand and the season of the year, are
made with first-fruits of the harvest, of the
hunt, of fishing, etc. The program and plan in
accordance with which these (sacrifices) are in-
stituted will be immediately apparent from the
twofold example which is here appended.

The first sacrifice, after the successful hunt of
a stag, is said to have been as follows: some
people, a few, surrounded a hut which had been
duly constructed and covered with bark and
skins. Where the sacrificer had put tobacco on
top of little stones which had been brought into
the hut and heated with fire, another man, fol-
lowing him, poured water over them. Where-
fore, because smoke thereupon rises on high, in
like manner the sacrificer saying in a higher
voice, repeated, Kdnndka, kénndka, or some-
times hoo, hoo, turns his face toward the east.
Moreover, when the sacrificer had become si-
lent, the others, sitting near, made ridiculous
sounding noises as they tried to imitate the un-
couth sounds, some of the African cock
[guinea-hen?] others of the squirrel, others of
other animals. Amid this noise there were dis-
tributed to the guests two roasted stags, with
bread made out of grain, ground Majis (which
we usually call Turkish wheat) called by them
Kankis.? Moreover, the sacrificer ate nothing
meanwhile.!°

9 This obviously refers to corn.

10 Some similarities between this ceremony and
a sacrificial feast recorded by Zeisberger among
the Delawares may be distinguished. See Davin
ZEISBERGER, History of the North American In-
dians, ed. by HuupEert and ScHWARZE: p. 137.
Frank G. Speck, Oklahoma Delaware cere-
monies, feasts and dances, p. 59, 1937, also dis-
cusses sacrifice feasts among the Delawares
wherein family groups often celebrate the first

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 9

The second example Master A. Hesselius saw
with his own eyes. This sacrifice was made from
the first-fruits of roots which are not very dif-
ferent from nuts and are dug up by the heath-
ens in the swamps; they are there [i.e., among
the heathens] called Tachis, in English hopnuts.
These, first dried by the heat of the sun, they
cook beneath the open sky in a jar or a bronze
kettle placed on the fire. While this culinary op-
eration is being conducted and while the others
are leaping around in a circle, an Indian woman
finally comes forth, with her hair loosened over
her shoulders, and with a spoon stirs the food
again and throws a part of the same food into
the fire, an action which those dancing around
approve by the shout which they utter. After-
wards they consume the food as if it were food
prepared on this occasion for themselves. These
and other sacrifices of the Americans are usu-
ally called, in their native language, Kinticka,
that is a rather well-known [or rather crowded]
gathering or wedding."

taking of produce of the chase. Dr. William N.
Fenton, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, in
a personal letter dated August 10, 1945, has kindly
given me the following information relative to a
Five Nations rite, which bears some similarities
to Biorck’s account:

“In September, about the time of the first
deer hunt, the Little Water Medicine Society
meets to renew the strength of the Medicine. At
this session four groups of songs are sung of which
the third, sung only at this meeting, is to renew
the fur on the animals who then don winter coats.
Certain aspects of the ceremony suggest that the
original meetings were held in a sweat lodge. A
basket of tobacco is set out for the members to
contribute a share. Some of this is used to invoke
the spirit members, the animal tutelaries, and
the rest is smoked. At Tonawanda pinches of
tobacco are set out for each group of songs—eight
in all—four pinches and two pinches per group for
the male and female songs. Between songs when
the fire is down, they raise up the light—kindle
the fire and pass berry water. At the end is a
terminal feast. The conductor passes a hog head,
anciently a bear or deer head, and all the members
Kah Kah! like crows or buzzards picking at a
dead careass. There is also cornbread, I think. ...
I do not recognize [the meaning of] Kannaka.”

11 As in the first ceremony described, there are
elements in the second suggestive of both Algon-
kian and Iroquoian rites. The use of fire is remi-
niscent of the fire symbolism among the Dela-
wares described by FRANK G. SpEcK, Delaware
Indian Big House Ceremony: 47. Harrisburg,
1931. The Delawares were not pyrolatrists, but
fire, as a spirit force, subordinate to the Great
Spirit, was considered an agency of purification
and invigoration. Similarly, the sacrifice of the
first fruit also harks back to Delaware religious
beliefs. SpEcK, zbid, p. 12, discusses and analyzes

SEPT. 15, 1946

CONCLUSIONS

The description written by Tobias Biorck
purports to be an account of certain cus-
toms and religious practices of the Minquas
or Susquehannock Indians. His informa-
tion was based on boyhood observation in
America and information received from
Andreas Hesselius and doubtless from his
father Erick Biorck. While his remarks are
inconclusive, nevertheless they represent

the term ‘‘kinticka”’ or ‘‘ka’ntika,’’ meaning “‘he
is dancing.”’

In addition, the ceremony described could well
resemble an earlier Iroquois ceremony of the
pattern described by William N. Fenton, Tona-
wanda Longhouse Ceremonies: Ninety Years After
Lewis Henry Morgan, Bur. Amer. Ethnol.
Anthrop. Papers, No. 15. Smithsonian Institu-
tion, 1940.” ;

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: THREE NEW SPECIES OF AEDES

305

the only contemporary account of Susque-
hannock ceremonial rites and as such war-
rant consideration. It would be extremely
hazardous to draw conclusions from the
comments of a Kuropean who was un-
schooled in ethnological techniques and
who entertained religious prejudices; never-
theless, in the absence of other data, the
account must be accepted at face value.
According to details given by Biorck, the
Susquehannock, although an Iroquoian-
speaking people seem to have practiced
ceremonial rites akin to the Delaware, an
Algonkian people. Since the latter are be-
lived to have been the older occupants of
the region, one may be justified in infer-
ring that the Susquehannock ceremonial
pattern had undergone change due to
Algonkian influence.

ENTOMOLOGY.—Descriptions of three new species of mosquitoes of the genus
Aedes, subgenus Finlaya, from New Guinea. WiLLARD V. Kina, Colonel, and

Harry Hoocstraau, Captain, Sn.C., A.U.S.

STONE. )

Aedes (Finlaya) tsiliensis, n. sp.

This is a distinctive species, characterized
by a large white scutal patch, white markings
on the femora and tibiae, and apical as well as
basal white rings on the first segment of the
mid and hind tarsi.

Male——Head: Proboscis dark-scaled, slightly
longer than fore femur. Palpus about as long
as proboscis; long segment with a white ring
in the middle, apical segment completely
white, sub-apical segment all dark; long slen-
der bristles ventrolaterally from last two seg-
ments and apex of long segment. Antenna al-
most as long as proboscis, densely plumose,
the long hairs directed mostly in two planes.
Clypeus black, nude. Scales of vertex narrow
curved, a median area silvery white, bordered
on each side by an area of dark and scattered
white scales, a patch of broad white scales
laterally extending forward as a narrow line
along eye margin; numerous upright forked
scales on vertex, palest in median area. Thorav:
Scutum covered across front half with coarse,

1 From the 19th Medical General Laboratory,
U. 8. Army. Contribution No. 11 from the
Entomology-Mammalogy Department. Received
July 2, 1946.

(Communicated by ALAN

lanceolate, silvery-white scales, continued over
upper half of posterior pronotum. (Central
part of disk of holotype and paratypes rubbed,
with a few remaining fine white scales pos-
teriorly. The original notes on this species read:
“Mesonotum with a striking patch of linear
white scales across front half and upper part
of ppn and a broad line around antescutellar
space.”’) Scutellum with narrow and lanceolate
silvery-white scales on each lobe (partly
rubbed). Postnotum black, nude. Anterior
pronotal lobe largely covered by broad silvery-
white scales and long black bristles. Posterior
pronotum covered on upper half with narrow
silvery-white scales, smaller than those on
scutum. Postspiracular area black with about
six bristles. Patches of broad silvery-white
scales on upper and lower posterior sterno-
pleuron, on paratergite, in front of prealar
bristles, and a wide patch on mesepimeron
curving from upper posterior to middle an-
terior borders; no lower mesipmeral bristle.
Propleuron with broad silvery-white scales
and about six bristles. Wing length 3 mm;
scales dark except for a short line of white
scales at base of costa and vein 1; lateral scales
of veins 2 to 4 elongate, those on the tips

306

slightly shorter and broader; anterior fork
cell about one and a half times as long as its
stem arising slightly closer to base of wing than
posterior cell; posterior cross vein closer to base
of wing than mid by more than its own length.
Haltere stem yellowish, knob dark. Coxae
with patches of silvery-white scales. Fore fe-
mur dark, with a narrow basal white ring and
a large white spot midway of posterior surface;
mid femur similar but in addition with a con-
spicuous apical white spot; hind femur com-
pletely white on basal half, the apical half dark
except for an apical white ring, lengthened be-
low. Fore tibia with an anterior apical white
spot about one-fifth its length, the posterior
surface entirely dingy white; mid tibia with a
narrow subapical white ring extending basad
as a line to middle on dorsal surface; hind tibia
with a small dorsal apical white spot only. Fore
tarsus all dark; mid tarsal segment 1 with a
white ring on basal and apical thirds, segment
2 white on basal third; hind tarsus with a basal
white spot and a narrow apical ring on seg-
ment 1, and a narrow basal ring on segment 2;
other segments all dark; fore and mid tarsal
claws subequal, the larger claw toothed. Ab-
domen: Tergites IV to VI with dorsal basal
median white spots about half length of seg-
ment, narrowly separated from lateral spots;
tergites II, III, and VII with median spots
much smaller; large basal lateral silvery spots
on tergites II to VII, those on anterior seg-
ments about half length of segment, on pos-
terior segments almost full length; tergite VIII
almost entirely silvery-scaled; sternites silvery
basally, black apically, without erect scale
tufts; coxites silvery-scaled on outer surfaces.
Hypopygium (Fig. 1, from a paratype): Coxite
four times as long as mid width, strongly com-
pressed laterally, the outer surfaces densely
clothed with scales and bristles; subbasal lobe
in the form of an elongate ridge covered with
long bristles; apical half of coxite with a dense
patch of long, striated, pointed scales along
the inner margin of the lower fold and fine
bristles from the upper fold. Style two-fifths
as long as coxite, slender, curved, finely pilose
basally and along inner side, with a short, sub-
apical hair; terminal appendage nearly one-
fourth length of style. Paraprocts strongly
curved and heavily sclerotized apically, each
ending in two or three large and two or three
small teeth. Phallosome bullet-shaped. Stem of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 9

harpago slender, curved, pilose basally, with
one long and one shorter subapical bristle;
blade not quite as long as stem, arising slightly
subapically, greatly widened basally and tap-
ered to a blunt tip. Ninth tergite with well
separated lobes, each bearing four stout
bristles.

Female and larva.—Unknown.

Types.—H olotype: Male (K107) reared from
larva collected in a tree hole at Tsili Tsili on
the Watut River (a branch of the Markham
River) in the former mandated territory of
eastern New Guinea, September 1943 (W. V.
King collector). Paratypes: 2 males (one in very
poor condition) same data as above. The holo-
type and one paratype are deposited in the
United States National Museum.

Remarks.—This species is very distinct from
any other Australasian Finlaya but appears to
be related to several Oriental species described
as having a white patch on the scutum, apical
and basal banding on some of the tarsal seg-
ments, and nontufted scaling of the abdominal
sternites. A. (F.) gubernatorius (Giles) of
India, the closest of these, differs in having the
scales on vertex and posterior pronotum all
broad, tarsal markings more extensive, male
palpi all dark, coxite without modified pointed
scales, etc. Other Indian species of this group
(A. assamensis (Theobald), A. cogilli Edwards,
etc.) have, in addition, flat scales on the scutel-
lum. A. (F.) seoulensis Yamada of Korea (also
known from Peiping, China) has narrow scales
on the posterior pronotum and scutellum, as in
tsiliensis, but differs (according to available
description) in having broad scales on most of
the head vertex, and apical and basal banding
on the second as well as the first segment of the
hind tarsi and the first segment of the fore
tarsi. In the male the blade of the harpago is
slender for entire length and the coxite lacks
the patch of pointed scales.

Aedes (Finlaya) plumiferus, n. sp. -

This species (Fig. 6) is immediately recogniz-
able in the known Australasian fauna by the
large tufts of scales on the abdominal sternites.
The scutum has a large anterior patch of
silvery-white scales, and the first segment of
the mid and hind tarsi have apical as well as ~
basal white rings.

Male.—Head: Proboscis about equal to
fore femur, black; palpus all black, slightly

Smupr. 15, 1946 KING & HOOGSTRAAL: THREE NEW SPECIES OF AEDES

Saar

———
_—=
——ss_
>=
—— Ks,
—_2—
—

NeSSatN

th)
\ any Say
\ AWAY y ai yi,
We
Wty iS
\ My
BI\S v
\} iy 3
\ { j/
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0.1 mm.
ee

0.4 mm

Fias. 1-4.—Male genitalia: 1, Aedes tsiliensis; 2, A. plumiferus; 3, A. quasirubrithoraz; 4. A. keefev.

308

shorter than proboscis, the apical segment
about two-thirds as long as preapical, slightly
turned downward; scattered long bristles from
two apical segments; antenna densely plumose,
the long hairs mostly in two planes. Vertex
completely covered with broad appressed
silvery-white scales, and pale upright scales
posteriorly; a few black bristles along eye mar-
gin. Thorax: Front third to half of scutum (in-
cluding all of fossae) covered with coarse sil-
very-white scales, continued posteriorly as a
median line that forks around antescutellar
space; a large transverse patch of white scales
anterior to wing root separated from the an-
terior white by a stripe of fine black scales
of about equal width. Mid lobe of scutellum
with a median patch of lanceolate white scales,
a few similar scales on the side lobes. Anterior
pronotal lobe with broad white scales and long
dark bristles. Posterior pronotum with a cen-
tral patch of broad white scales; three or four
dark bristles on posterior border. About four
pale postspiracular bristles. Large dense
patches of broad silvery-white scales on upper
and lower sternopleuron, an elongate patch on
upper mesepimeron, a small patch in front of
prealar bristles, and a stripe on paratergite.
Propleuron with broad white scales and about
five bristles. Fore and mid coxae with small
patches of white scales anteriorly. Trochanters
pale, followed by a black ring at base of all
femora. Fore femur all dark except for a broad
ventral stripe on most of basal half and a few
pale scales at apex; mid femur dark above,
mostly white on lower and posterior surfaces
except for a broad dark subapical band; hind
femur all white except for the basal ring and
a broad black ring on subapical third, longer
above than below. Fore tibia with a pale stripe
beneath and an apical white spot above; mid
and hind tibiae all dark except for apical (or
slightly preapical) white spots (incomplete
rings). Fore tarsus all dark; mid tarsus with
basal and apical white rings on segment 1 and
a basal ring on 2; hind tarsus with a small spot
at base of segment 1 and comparatively broad
white rings at apex of 1 and base of 2. Fore
and mid tarsal claws unequal, the larger
toothed. Wing 2.7 mm., dark except for a few
white scales at base of costa; lateral scales of
veins 2 to 4 long and linear; first fork cell a
little longer than its stem; cross veins well
separated. Abdomen: Strongly compressed

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 9

laterally, the tergites black, segments 3-6
with faint basal bands of dusky scales (prob-
ably discolored), joined to slightly enlarged
lateral spots (a male paratype shows complete
basal segmental white bands); a few slightly
raised scales on posterior border of the dorsal
median ridge of the last few segments; pale
bristles on posterior and lateral borders of
segments. Sternites 3-7 with large prominent
tufts of erect black scales, the anterior ones
on each segment long and narrow, the others
decreasing in length posteriorly; a small spot
of white scales at base of sternites, the rest of
the recumbent scales dark. Hypopygium (Fig.
2, from a paratype): Coxite (C) narrowly coni-
cal, 3.5 times as long as mid width, the outer
surfaces densely scaled and with scattered long -
bristles; inner margin with numerous long fine
hairs along the middle third; margin of upper
fold toward base with a double line of fine
bristles, longest basally; basal lobe lacking.
Style (S) slightly curved, not quite half as long
as coxite, pilose on inner side; terminal ap-
pendage (TA) about half as long as style, with
a small groove at tip. Harpago (H) with a
short stem; blade about three times as long,
slender, slightly expanded toward tip (not
flattened in mount). Paraproct dark, beak-
shaped at tip, with a subapical tooth. Phal-
losome broad, truncate apically. Lobes of ninth
tergite produced, with six bristles on one side,
seven on the other.

Female.—Differs from male as follows: Pal-
pus about one-fifth length of proboscis; scales
of head vertex all dark except for a median
double line of broad white scales, slightly
wider in front and ending in a small patch of
narrow white scales between the eyes (median
white not visible on paratypes); margin of eyes
with a line of white scales, the front row of nar-
row ones, the back row of broad ones. Anterior
white patch on scutum covering less than half
of fossae. (Median area of scutum, except for
the anterior one-fifth, denuded; in paratype
females the white patch extends about level
with scutal angle, indented behind, and a few
white scales in front of and around antescutel-
lar space.) Scutellum denuded (paratypes have
a median line of narrow white scales, bordered
by broader dark ones on mid lobe, and mixed
narrow and semibroad dark scales on side
lobes); wing length 3.4 mm; first fork cell
about half again longer than its stem; fore and

Sepr. 15, 1946

mid tarsal claws equal, toothed; abdominal
tergites with small basal lateral spots of silvery
white scales on segments IJ to VII; VIII very
small, nearly all white, the sternite large; cerci
short and broad, partly retracted.

Larva (only one damaged skin available).— —

Antenna rather short (length 0.25 mm), glab-
rous, a single fine hair arising at apical fourth
and reaching beyond tip of shaft; at apex, a
long and a short hair and a short spine about
equal in length to the apical appendage. Pre-
clypeal spines about two-fifths length of an-
tenna, rather stout, straight. Head hair A un-
usually small with four fine branches, arising
behind antennal base; B single, rather. short
(slightly longer than antenna), arising well in-
side of and about level with base of antenna;
C a long single hair well back of B at about
middle of head; d minute, about 5-branched,
inside of and slightly behind B. Mentum with
seven stout teeth on each side of a large median
tooth. Lateral hairs of abdominal segments
strong, the upper one on segment I with four
branches, the lower bifid, the hair on II trifid,
on II-VI bifid; submedian hairs with three
rather fine branches, nonplumose, the bases
not surrounded by sclerotized plates. Comb of
Sth segment a patch of about 35 scales, each

a aL
at \ y : ' K
{ |
P
| Se on
0.5 mm

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: THREE NEW SPECIES OF AEDES

309

apically rounded and fringed apically and later-
ally. Siphon stout, length 0.65 mm, index
about 2:1; pecten of about 20 teeth extending
a little beyond middle of tube, each tooth with
a single stout median or sub-median denticle,
and a fine fringe between denticle and base;
hair tuft of five branches opposite the last
pecten tooth. Anal saddle not completely en-
circling the segment, the posterior border with
rather long spines; dorsal subcaudal hair of
four equal branches; one pair of slender gills
visible, a little longer than saddle.
Types.—Holotype: Male (344), reared from
larva collected in buttress hole of a large rain-
forest tree about 250 feet elevation, Hollandia,
Netherlands New Guinea, November 21, 1944
(W. T. Nailon). Allotype: Female (344), same
data. Paratypes: Two males, 3 females and 1
larval skin as follows: 1 male (terminalia mount
only) and 1 larval skin in poor condition (No.
1985, 220th M. 8. U.), from tree hole, Hol-
landia, New Guinea, 1945; 1 male, 3 females
(No. 166 and 165, respectively, Univ. of
Queensland), ‘‘resting in treehole in shade,’
Lae, eastern New Guinea, August 1944 (Cpl.
IF. J. Armbrust). Holotype and allotype de-
posited in U. S. National Museum. Paratypes
from Lae (which were examined through the

Fig. 5.—Head and terminal appendages of larva of Aedes keefez.

310 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 36, No. 9

kindness of Miss E. L. Marks) are to be re- Remarks.—The larvae in Lots 226 and 344
turned to the University of Queensland. Two were associated with those of Aedes (Finlaya)
additional females (Lot 226) are at hand but —notoscriptus (Skuse), A. (Stegomyia) albolineatus
their markings are badly discolored from wet- (Theobald), and Megarhinus splendens (Wiede-
ting with the mounting medium. These were mann).

reared from larvae from a tree hole near lot 344 A. plumiferus belongs to a small sub-group
October 27, 1944 (H. Hoogstraal and J. of Oriental species having tufts of long scales
Toffaleti). on¥the abdominal sternites, both apical and

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BV Escuanro

Fig. 6.—Ornamentation of adults of Aedes plumiferus.

Serr. 15, 1946

basal white rings on the first tarsal segment
of the mid and hind legs and a large patch of
white on the scutum. These species include A.
prominens (Barraud) and A. khazani Edwards
of India, A. melanopterus Giles of the Philip-
pines, and A. watasei Yamada of Japan. It dif-
fers from the first two in having narrow scales
on the scutellum, only white scales on the head
in the male and a median white strip on the
head in the female. The posterior pronotum is
also bare of scales in prominens. A. wataser
(of which only the female has been described)
differs in having tufts of long scales on ter-
gites 5-7 similar to those on the sternites,
broad basal segmented white bands on the
venter and flat scales on the scutellum. From
a comparison with specimens of A. melanop-
terus recently obtained in the Philippines,
plumiferus is found to be very similar, although
the larva is distinct. In the male of melanopterus
the palpi seem to be somewhat shorter, failing
to reach the base of the labella, the blade of
the harpago is more distinctly widened at the
apical third, the lobes of the ninth tergite have
four bristles each instead of six or seven, the
base of the style is swollen and the bristles
near the base of the coxite form more of a
patch. The principal difference between the
larvae is in the submedian hairs of the ab-
dominal segments. In melanopterus (two speci-
mens of which were examined through the
kindness of Dr. K. L. Knight) these hairs are
branched from two to six times and are un-
usually long and stout, sparsely plumose
and have a small sclerotized plate around
the basal papilla. In plumiferus the hairs are
less than half as long, 3-branched, nonplumose,
and not arising from a plate. A typical hair on
segment 5 measured 0.22 mm, compared with
0.48 mm for a hair on the same segment of
melanopterus. Other minor differences were
noted as follows: preclypeal spines in melanop-
terus somewhat stouter and distinctly curved,
saddle hair double instead of single, dorsal
subcaudal hair of anal segment of six branches
instead of four, and spines on posterior border
of saddle about twice as long, especially toward
the lower corner.

Aedes (Finlaya) keefei, n. sp.

This species is somewhat above medium size
and has an ornamented scutum consisting
of faint median and submedian golden lines

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: THREE NEW SPECIES OF AEDES

dll

and wider lateral curved lines. The hind tarsal
segments have broad basal bands and segment
5 is entirely white. It is closely related to the
Australian species A. (F.) quasirubrithorax
(Theobald).

Female.—Head: Proboscis dark-scaled, about
equal in length to fore femur. Palpus dark-
scaled, one-sixth as long as proboscis. Torus
tan. Clypeus black, nude. Vertex with scat-
tered lanceolate silvery scales, a denser bor-
der along eyes, and numerous dark upright
forked scales; lateral surface with broad silvery-
white scales. Thorax: Scutum and pleura with
yellowish-brown integument; scutum covered
with fine dark-brown scales, three small patches
of white scales with yellowish tinge on anterior
border; faint median and submedian lines each
represented by a single broken line of silvery
scales reaching the middle of scutum; laterally
with a narrow line of white scales extending
from the anterior margin to the scutal angle,
there broadening around the posterior border
of the fossa and then continuing as a narrow
line nearly to the scutellum; a few narrow pale
scales over the wing bases. Scutellum densely
clothed with silvery white scales, broad ap-
pressed ones on mid lobe, long lanceolate ones
on side lobes, narrowest at outer side. Post-
notum yellowish, nude. Anterior pronotal lobe
with lanceolate white scales with yellowish
tinge, and with dark bristles. Posterior pro-
notal lobe with black, moderately broad, spatu-
late, appressed scales on upper two-thirds,
somewhat narrower ones on upper margin and
a few broad pale scales low down; six dark
bristles along posterior margin. Paratergite
with broad white scales. About eight post-
spiracular bristles. Sternopleuron with a patch
of broad white scales on upper half, another
on lower posterior border; long bristles along
upper and posterior margins. A small patch
of white scales at base of prealar knob. Mese-
pimeron with a patch of broad white scales on
anterior half extending from upper margin
to lower third; yellowish bristles above the
white patch. Propleuron with broad white
scales and a group of about 14 long pale bristles.
Wing length: 3.8 mm. All scales dark; lateral
scales of veins 2 to 4 long and narrow, those
on the tips slightly broader and_ shorter;
anterior fork cell amost one and a half times as
long as its base, arising about level with pos-
terior fork cell; posterior cross vein more basal

312

than mid by at least twice its own length.
Haltere entirely yellow. Coxae with pale scales,
a patch of dark ones on anterior surface of fore
coxa. Fore and mid femora each with a broad
line of pale yellowish scales on inner surface
for about half its length; basal two thirds of
both inner and outer surface of hind leg pale
yellow; knee spots silvery white on all legs.
Tibiae completely dark. Fore and mid tarsi
with distinct white basal rings on segments 1
and 2, and a small spot on 3; hind tarsus with
broad white rings on segments 1-4, that on 4
about two-fifths length of segment, segment 5
entirely white; fore and mid tarsal claws about
equal and toothed. Tergites dark-scaled with
metallic reflection, narrow median basal pale
spots on III to VI almost connected with
lateral spots; large silvery white basal lateral
spots on II to VII, becoming gradually larger
on the apical segments, extending full length
of segment and onto dorsum; sternites broadly
pale-scaled basally, with narrow posterior dark
bands; eighth sternite compressed laterally,
small, scaleless; cerci broad, partly retractly.
Male.—Differs from female as follows: Pal-
pus about equal in length to proboscis, the
two apical segments turned downward; a ven-
trally directed row of long bristles from tip of
long segment and basal portion of subapical
segment, sparse short bristles on remainder of
the two apical segments; white basal spots on
the two apical segments, about one-third their
length, and a white ring in the middle of long
segment; antenna densely plumose, the long
hairs arranged mostly in two planes; first fork
cell about a third longer than its petiole; ab-
dominal tergites III-V with complete, rather
wide, white basal bands, a narrow one on VI.
Hypopygium (Fig. 4): Coxite long (0.45 mm)
and slender, nearly four times as long as mid
width, heavily scaled on outer surfaces, inner
fold extending to tip; basal lobe lacking, repre-
sented by a small patch of bristles, the basal
one of which is much longer than the others;
apical half of the margin of lower fold with a
dense line of long bristles, slightly modified,
their stems showing one or two striations;
above these on both the upper and lower folds,
several rows of long very fine hairs. Style very
slender, slightly more than a third as long as
coxite; terminal appendage about one-fourth
as long as style. Harpago with a long slender
stem (reaching about to middle of coxite), its

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VOL. 36, NO. 9

basal half sparsely pilose; blade slightly shorter
than stem, much widened near base, curved
and tapered to a slender tip. Paraproct with
a black, beak-like tip and a small subapical
tooth. Phallosome broad, simple. Lobes of
ninth tergite produced, each with three bristles.

Larva (Fig. 5)—Head about 0.8 mm long,
half again as wide; antenna long and slender,
about two-thirds as long as head, spiculate,
a single hair from middle of shaft, reaching
beyond tip of shaft; two long and two short
apical bristles and a finger-like appendage.
Preclypeal spines long and slender. Head hair
A a large tuft of about 10 branches, B and C
long and single, B about level with base of an-
tenna, C slightly ahead and inside of B, d a
multiple tuft of rather long hairs between the
bases of B; e single or forked at middle, f with
about 7 branches. Anterior submedian pro-
thoracic hairs 1 to 3 set on a plate, No. 1 a
short tuft of about six branches, 2 long, single,
3 long, bifid. Upper lateral hair of abdominal
segment I with five or six branches, the lower
with four; lateral hair on II 3-branched, on III
to V double; submedian hairs long, double.
Comb of eighth segment a long, even, curved
row of about 18 teeth, each rounded and evenly
fringed. Air tube short and stout, index about
2:1 (length 1.2 mm); acus present; pecten of
about 20 closely set teeth on basal half of tube,
the individual tooth long, sharp, with 5-7
denticles on one side of the widened basal
half, the teeth progressively longer toward tip
of pecten; tuft of two or three branches beyond
pecten. Anal saddle covering a little more than
half of segment, spiculate on posterior border;
lateral hair single; one or two small tufts in
front of ventral grid; dorsal subcaudal tuft
with about ten branches, the ventral sub-
caudal hair single as usual. Anal gills small,
slightly longer than the saddle.

Types.—H olotype: Female (K 128B-83) reared
from larva collected in a stump hole near K. B.
Mission, Milne Bay, Papua, New Guinea,
October 1943 (Chaplain A. M. Keefe collector).
Allotype: Male from same lot. Paratypes: 1
male, 8 females (with several larvae and pupal
skins and whole larvae) as follows: 2 females
(K 128B-3), same data as holotype; 1 male
(H-1-1) seven females (H-313-1, H-1-5, H-1-2,
H-1-10, H-1-7), ‘‘Hilimoi, Milne Bay, Papua,
N. G. Penn & Bick” (probably late 1943); 1
female (46 B) “‘Sariba Is. N. G. 1-10-44. T. K.

SHpT. 15, 1946

Ruebush” (probably in Milne Bay area).
Holotype and allotype deposited in U. 8. Na-
tional Museum. The paratypes from Hilimoi
and Sariba Islands were examined in the col-
lection of this museum. One paratype from
lot K 128B-3 to be deposited in the museum of
the Division of Economic Entomology, Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research, Can-
berra, A. C. T., Australia.

Remarks.—This species is very similar in gen-
eral appearance to A. (F.) quasirubrithorax
(Theobald) but differs distinctly in having
broad (instead of narrow) scales on the mid lobe
of the scutellum, and small, flat, black scales
(instead of narrow yellowish ones) on the up-
per half of the posterior pronotum. The scutal
pattern is also less distinct. In this respect
most of the New Guinea specimens of quasi-
rubithorax that have been examined have a less
distinct pattern than specimens from Australia
but seem otherwise to be very similar. In the
male genitalia of quasirubrithorax (Fig. 3,
from a Hollandia, New Guinea specimen) most
of the modified scales on the inner margin of
the lower fold of the coxite are distinctly
broader than those in keefer and the wider
ones show three or four striations.

From the original collection at Milne Bay
(K 128B-3), seven adults were reared by the
senior author from larvae that were thought to
represent a single species. The adults were
found to consist of one male, three females of
a new species, and two males, one female of
quastrubrithorax. The larvae had not been
individually isolated but all the skins were
saved. A tentative association of the larvae
of the two species was made on the basis of the
number of each (four of one and three of the
other). This association was later confirmed by
larvae in the U.S. National Museum associated
with a collection of adults of the new species
from Hilimoi, Milne Bay. The larval material
consisted of several whole larvae and three lar-
val skins, at least two of which appeared to be

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: THREE NEW SPECIES OF AEDES

313

associated by subnumbers (‘1:7” and ‘'1:10’’)
with individual adults. In the Museum collec-
tion there was found also a series of adults and
larvae of quastrubrithorax bearing Roberts lot
numbers and likewise collected in the Milne
Bay area. While the larvae of the two species
are very similar, two slight differences in hair
branching, which appeared to be constant, were
noted. In quastrubrithorax head hair B was
double or sometimes triple on each of fourteen
larvae examined (including those in lot K
128B), and hair 3 of the submedian prothoracic
group was single on each; in keefei head hair B
was single on at least one side, usually on both
sides, on nine specimens, while prothoracic hair
3 was usually double. In specimens of both
species the airtube is distinctly shorter in
comparison to the diameter (index about 2:1)
than that shown for Australian quasirubrithorax
by Lee (Atlas of mosquito larvae of the Austral-
asian Region, 1944, p. 62), in which the index
is 3:1 or more. The comb scales are also
apically fringed instead of bare as illustrated

_ by this author.

A. quasirubrithorax has not previously been
reported from New Guinea. In addition to the
Milne Bay records, we have three females and
a male (lots 811 and 848) reared from larvae
collected in tree holes in March 1945 by mem-
bers of the 19th Medical General Laboratory
in the Hollandia area of northern Netherlands
New Guinea, and one female from the island
of Kiriwina (east of New Guinea) collected
in August 1943 by the 5th Malaria Survey
Unit.

We have also a female (Lot 796) collected
while biting on Mount Defonsero in the Cy-
clops Range, Hollandia area, in March 1945
(W. R. Fullem and H. Cook collectors), which
differs from both the previously mentioned
species in having broad white scales on all
lobes of the scutellum. The specimen is so
badly denuded and broken, however, that its
relationship can not be determined.

314

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VOL. 36, NO. 9

ENTOMOLOGY.—WNotes on some Ashmeadian genotypes in the hymenopterous
superfamily Chalcidoidea.| A. B. GaHan, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and
Plant Quarantine, and O. Prcx, Division of Entomology, Department of

Agriculture of Canada.

In Ashmead’s monograph of the Chalci-
doidea (Mem. Carnegie Mus. 1: 225-551.
1904) a number of new genera are proposed
with the designation of a genotype for each.
Many of these genotypes were manuscript
species for which the only characterizations
given in the work were the descriptions in
the generic keys. Type localities were indi-
cated for none of those species. In a few
instances a species was cited as the geno-
type of a particular genus on one page and
a different genotype listed for the same
genus on another page. In one instance a
typographical error resulted in a name en-
tirely different from that which the author
obviously intended. Several of these Ash-
mead genera and species have been rede-
scribed by Girault as new under the same
or different generic and specific names. A
few have been treated by other authors.
These subsequent references are scattered
and not always easily traced.

The object of this paper is to list these
genotypes together with their type locali-
ties and pertinent citations to subsequent
literature and to clear up, so far as possible,
the confusion regarding some of the species
involved. Fortunately we have been able
to consult not only the types in the United
States National Museum but also those
from the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh,
the two collections comprising practically
all the material that formed the basis of
Ashmead’s monumental work.

In the second part of the monograph (pp.
394-551) a number of the new genera and
their genotypes are more fully described.
These species have not been included in
the following list unless supplemental data
of interest needed to be added. Likewise
excluded from the list are those genotypes
of which descriptions had been published
prior to publication of the monograph.

1 Received July 3, 1946.

(Communicated by C. F. W. MuESEBECK.)

Alloderma maculipennis Ashmead: 273, 365.?
Type in U.S. National Museum, from Syd-
ney, New South Wales, Australia. Ashmead’s
type redescribed as Coelocybelloides bi-
oculatus Girault (Mem. Queensland Mus. 5:
224. 1916).

Alophus flavus Ashmead: 353, 365, 520. Type
in collection of Carnegie Museum, from
Chapada, Brazil. On pages 353 and 365
Ashmead cites A. flavus as type of the genus,
but on page 520, following the description
of the genus, he includes only one species,
viz., ‘‘Alophus brasiliensis sp. n.’’ There are
no specimens in the U. 8. National Museum
collection and none in the Carnegie Museum
collection labeled A. flavus Ashmead, and
apparently there is no description of an A.
flavus in the literature other than that in the
generic key on page 353 cited above. It seems
apparent that the specific names flavus and

brasiliensis both refer to specimens in the
Carnegie Museum collection labeled Alophus
brasiliensis. Since flavus has page precedence,
and since that name has been cited as the
genotype by Ashmead, and later by Gahan
and Fagan in their genotype catalog of chal-
cidoid genera (U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 124:
10. 1923), we shall retain the name flavus for
the species and consider brasiliensis a
synonym. Alophus preoccupied, replaced by
Alophomyia Ashmead (Proc. Ent. Soc.
Washington 6: 126. 1904).

Aphobetoideus comperei Ashmead: 328, 366.
Type in U. 8. National Museum, from Swan
River, New South Wales, Australia. Species
redescribed by Smith and Compere (Uniy.
California Publ. Ent. 4: 312. 1928).

Aximogastra bahiae Ashmead: 261, 367, 463.
Type in U. 8S. National Museum, from
Bahia, Brazil.

Aximopsis morio Ashmead: 259, 460; pl. 22, fig.
6. Type in collection of Carnegie Museum,
2 The numbers cited following the specific

names refer to pages in the Mem. Carnegie Mus.
1, 1904.

’

Sept. 15, 1946

from Santarém, Brazil. On page 367 Ash-
mead indicates A. bahiae Ashmead as the
genotype, but this is evidently a confusion
with Azimogastra Ashmead, of which A.
bahiae is the type.

Blatticida pulchra Ashmead: 305, 368. Type in
U.S. National Museum, from Mulgoa, New
South Wales, Australia. Reared in December
1891 from roach eggs on orange leaves by
A. Koebele.

Brachycaudonta californica Ashmead: 283, 368.
Type in U. S. National Museum, from Los
Angeles County, Calif.

Bruchobius laticeps Ashmead: xi, 314. Type in
U. 8. National Museum, from Washington,
D. C. Species redescribed by Crawford
(Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 45: 250. 1913).

Cecidoxenus nigrocyaneus Ashmead: 274, 369.
Type in U.S. National Museum, from Flem-
ington, New South Wales, Australia. Ash-
mead’s types redescribed as Parachryomalla
secunda Girault (Insecutor Inscitiae Men-
struus 5: 154. 1917).

Ceratosmicra petiolata Ashmead: 251, 369.
Type in U. 8. National Museum, from
Chapada, Brazil. Specific name preoccupied
by (Smicra) Ceratosmicra petiolata (Cresson)
and lissa proposed to replace it by Burks
(Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 88: 348. 1940).

Chrysoatomus zealandicus Ashmead: 342, 370.
Type in U.S. National Museum, from Swan
River, Australia.

Decatomothorax gallicola Ashmead: 273, 372.
Type in U.S. National Museum, from New
South Wales, Australia.

Diaulus begint Ashmead: 356, 372. Type in
U. S. National Museum, probably from
Sherbrooke, Quebec Province, Canada, and
collected by Abbé Begin. Generic name pre-
occupied, replaced by Dvaulinus Schulz
(Spolia Hym., p. 146. 1906). Genus dis-
cussed and species redescribed by Crawford
(Proc: U: 8. Nat. Mus: 43: 183, 1912).
Diaulinus a synonym of Solenotus Foerster,
according to Girault (Indications in new in-
sects... p. 3. 1925. Private publ.).

Eisenia mexicana Ashmead: 233, 373. Type in
U. 8. National Museum, from San Blas,
Tepic, Mexico. Generic name preoccupied,
replaced by Secundeisenia Schulz (Spolia
Hym., p. 146, 1906).

Encyrtaspis brasiliensis Ashmead: 290, 373,
492. Type in U. S. National Museum, from

GAHAN & PECK: SOME ASHMEADIAN GENOTYPES

315

Pernambuco, Brazil. Genus and species more
fully described by Gahan (Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 71 (art. 4): 9. 1927; 94: 363. 1943).

Epinaeoideus melanocephalus Ashmead: 374.
Nomen nudum according to Gahan and
Fagan (U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 124: 55. 1923).

Epipteromalus algonquinensis Ashmead: 319,
374. Type in U. S. National Museum, from
Algonquin, Il]. Ashmead’s types redescribed
as Polycystus gibbus Girault (Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus. 58: 212. 1920). Epipteromalus con-
sidered a synonym of Trichomalus Thomson
by Kurdjumov (Rev. Russ. Ent. 13: 4.
1913).

Euophthalmomyia pallidipes Ashmead: 339,
375. Type in U. S. National Museum, from
Washington, D. C.

Eutrichosoma mirabile Ashmead: 291, 375.
Type in U. 8. National Museum, from
Helena, Mont.

Froggatiia polita Ashmead: 238, 375. Type in
U.S. National Museum, from Sydney, New
South Wales, Australia. Generic name pre-
occupied, replaced by Eufroggattta Ash-
mead (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 6: 126.
1904).

Hubbardiella arvzonensis Ashmead: 339, 378.
Type in U. 8. National Museum, from
Chiricahua Mountains, Ariz. Genus and
species redescribed from Ashmead types as
Miromphalomyia perilampoides Girault (En-
tomologist 49: 249. 1916).

Koebelea australiensis Ashmead: 238, 378.
Type in U. S. National Museum, from
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Gen-
eric name preoccupied, replaced by Eukoe-
belea Ashmead (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington
6: 126. 1904).

Melanosmicra immaculata Ashmead: 251, 448.
Type in collection of Carnegie Museum from
Chapada, Brazil. Genus declared a synonym
of Ceratosmicra by Burks (Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus. 88: 348. 1940).

Mirocerus psyllae (=peyelae, typographical
error) Ashmead: 309. Type in U.S. National
Museum, from Peradeniya, Ceylon. The
type specimen is plainly labeled psyllae and
was bred from a psyllid by E. E. Green.

Mischosmicra kahlit Ashmead: 251, 381. Type
in U. S. National Museum, from Lawrence,
Kans. Synonym of Ceratosmicra debilis Say,
according to Burks (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus.
88: 345. 1940).

316

Mormoniella brevicornis Ashmead: 316, 382.
Type in U. S. National Museum, from Al-
gonquin, Ill. Genotype based on same speci-
mens as Nasonia brevicornis Ashmead, geno-
type of Nasonia Ashmead, according to
Brues (Can. Fint. 42: 260. 1910). Synonym of
Mormoniella vitripennis (Walker), according
to Gahan (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 71 (art. 4):
5. 1927).

Nasonia brevicornis Ashmead: 317. See under
Mormoniella brevicornis Ashmead.

Nesomytia albipes Ashmead: 344, 382. Type in
U. 8S. National Museum, from Atami, Ja-
pan. Species redescribed as new by Ashmead
(Journ. New York Ent. Soc. 12: 161. 1904).

Notanisomorpha collaris Ashmead: 356, 382.
Type in U. S. National Museum, from Cedar
Point, Md. Genus and species redescribed by
Crawford (Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 43: 185.
1912).

Octosmicra laticeps Ashmead: 252, 382. No type
specimens have been located, and the type
locality is unknown. Five species from Brazil
are listed on pages 450 and 451, but laticeps is
not among them. Burks (Proc. U. 8. Nat.
Mus. 88: 263. 1940) synonymized the genus
with Spilochalcis Thomson.

Pachycrepoideus dubius Ashmead: 239, 383.
Type in U. S. National Museum, from East
Lansing, Mich. Genus and species fully de-
scribed by Girault and Sanders (Psyche 17:
110. 1910).

Parapteromalus isosomatis Ashmead: 320, 384.
Type in U. 8. National Museum, from Ur-
bana, Ill. Ashmead’s types redescribed as
Merisus carinatus Girault (Soc. Ent. Stutt-
gart 31: 57. 1916).

Parasaphes iceryae Ashmead: 328, 384. Type in
U. S. National Museum, from Columba,
New South Wales, Australia. Generic name
preoccupied, replaced by Parasaphodes
Schulz (Spolia Hym., p. 146. 1906). Ash-
mead’s types redescribed as Amuiscogaster
ruskint Girault (Insecutor Inscitiae Men-
struus 5: 144. 1917).

Paraspalangia annulipes Ashmead: 334, 384.
Type in U. 8. National Museum, from Col-
lege Station, Tex. Ashmead’s types rede-
scribed as Stigmatotetrastichus emersont Gi-
rault (Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 9: 304. 1916).

Paraterobia nigriceps Ashmead: 284. Type in
U. 8. National Museum, from Tumut, New
South Wales, Australia. Ashmead types re-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. 9

described as part of the type series of
Perilampoides aurantiscutum Girault (Mem.
Queensland Mus. 5: 224. 1917).

Pentasmicra brasiliensis Ashmead: 225, 384.
Type in collection of Carnegie Museum,
from Corumba, Brazil. Genus and species
more fully described by Kahl (Ann. Carnegie
Mus. 13: 265. 1921). Genus declared a
synonym of Spilochalcis Thomson by Burks
(Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 88: 264. 1940).

Pheidoloxenus wheelers Ashmead: 328, 385.
Type in U.S. National Museum, from Texas.
Species figured and redescribed by Wheeler
(Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 23: 17. 1907).
Ashmead types redescribed as new under the
same generic and specific names by Girault
(Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 8: 273. 1915).

Pristosmicra sexmaculata Ashmead: 386.
Neither genus nor species described, and ap-
parently no type specimens exist. Name is a
nomen nudum.

Schwarzella arizonensis Ashmead: 256, 388.
Type in U. 8. National Museum, from Ari-
zona.

Scotolinx gallicola Ashmead: 354, 388. Type in
U. 8. National Museum, from Liverpool,
New South Wales, Australia. Ashmead types
described as new under the same generic and
specific names by Girault (Mem. Queensland
Mus. 5: 218. 1916).

Scymnophagus townsendi Ashmead: 319. Types
in U. 8. National Museum, from San Luis
and Monterey, Mexico. Genus a synonym of
Xenocrepis Foerster, according to Kurdju-
mov (Rey. Russe Ent. 13: 6. 1913). Rede-
scribed as Xenocrepis mexicana Girault (Ent.
News 27: 227. 1916) with same specimens as
types.

Spathopus anomalipes Ashmead: 272. Type in
U.S. National Museum, from Jacksonville,
Fla. Included in key to genera of Pireninae
by Ferriere (Mitt. Schweiz. Ent. Ges. 16(1):
86. 1934).

Stenomestoideus melleus Ashmead: xi, 355, 389.
Type in U. §S. National Museum, from
Washington, D. C. Redescribed as Steno-
mestoidea mellea Girault (Proc. U. 8. Nat.
Mus. 51: 48. 1916) with same specimen as
type.

Stigmatocrepis americana Ashmead: 273, 389.
Type in U.S. National Museum, from Jack-
sonville, Fla.

Stylophorella perpleca Ashmead: 275, 389. Type

Smpr. 15, 1946

in U. 8. National Museum, from San Diego,
Tex. Genus a synonym of Picroscytus Thom-
son, according to Crawford (Can. Ent. 41:
98. 1909). Picroscytus Thomson is a synonym
of Artholysis Foerster, according to Gahan
and Fagan (U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 124: 115.
eS) ao

Tachardiaephagus thoracicus Ashmead: 308,
390. Type in U. S. National Museum, from
Ceylon. Generic and specific synonymy, ref-
erences, and descriptive notes given by Fer-
riere (Bull. Ent. Res. 19: 171. 1928).

Tachinaephagus zealandicus Ashmead: 304,
390. Type in U. 8. National Museum, from
Queanbeyan, New South Wales, Australia.
Generic and specific synonymy discussed by
Gahan (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 40: 210.
1938).

Trichencyrtus chapadae Ashmead: 291, 392,
495. Type in collection of Carnegie Museum,
from Chapada, Brazil. The type is labeled T.
robustus, but evidently it is the specimen in-
tended as the genotype and referred to on
page 291 as chapadae. (See Gomes, Bol. Soe.
Brasil Agronomia 5: 287. 1942.)

Trigonogastra auratus Ashmead: 330, 392. Type
in U. S. National Museum. This type bears
only the label ‘“‘Ac. Cat. 595A,” but it is be-
lieved to have been from Lansing, Mich.

Tropidogastra arizonensis Ashmead: 323, 392.
Type in U.S. National Museum, from Santa
Rita Mountains, Ariz. Type redescribed as
Dinarmus arizonicus Girault (Insecutor In-
scitiae Menstruus 4: 109. 1916). Genus

JOHNSON: A NEW PHILIPPINE RAT

317

synonymized with Cheiropachus Westwood
by Gahan (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 40:
220. 1938).

Uroderostenus pleuralts Ashmead: 3438, 392,
511. Type lost; from St. Vincent, West In-
dies (H. H. Smith, collector). The type was
originally deposited in the U. 8. National
Museum, but only the empty pin remains.

Xanthoatomus albipes Ashmead: xi, 360. Type
in U. 8. National Museum, from Washing-
ton, D. C. Although he published the name,
Ashmead apparently never placed the name
label on any specimens, but certain speci-
mens previously standing under the generic
name in the U. 8. National Museum collec-
tion, as arranged by Ashmead, were without
much doubt the ones to which he intended to
apply the name. These specimens were re-
mounted on slides and studied by A. A.
Girault, who identified them as Pentarthron
minutum (Riley) (Bull. Wisconsin Nat. Hist.
Soc. 9: 155. 1911), now known as Trichogram-
ma minutum (Riley). Records of the Bureau of
Entomology and Plant Quarantine show that
these specimens were reared from eggs of
Hyphantria textor Harris collected in the vi-
cinity of Washington, D. C., August 18,
1883. Since these specimens are believed to
be the Ashmead types and since Girault’s
identification appears to be correct, the genus
Xanthoatomus Ashmead should be consid-
ered a synonym of T’richogramma Westwood,
and the species X. albipes a synonym of 7’.
minutum (Riley).

MAMMALOGY.—A new Philippine rat. allied to ‘Bullimus”’ bagobus Mearns.'

Davip H. JoHNSON.

On the basis of a single specimen from
Todaya, at 4,000 feet altitude on Mount
Apo, southern Mindanao, Mearns (1905, p.
450) founded a new genus and species of rat,
Bullimus bagobus. Thomas (1907, p. 141) re-
corded a second specimen from 3,000 feet
altitude on the same mountain and synony-
mized Bullimus under the then broad genus
Mus. Apparently no further specimens have
been recorded. Bullimus has been treated
subsequently as a valid genus by Hollister
(1912, p. 30; 1918, p. 324) and by Taylor
(1934, p. 411), and as a synonym of Rattus
by Ellerman (1931, pp. 148, 159).

1 Received July 25, 1946.

(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

Surveys of rodents conducted in 1945
and 1946 by units of the Medical Depart-
ment of the U. S. Navy in the vicinity of
Guiuan, southeastern Samar Island, re-
vealed the presence there of a closely re-
lated subspecies. The first specimen was
taken at Mercedes on March 7, 1945, by
Lt. Jesse E. Barker, U.S.N.R., and was
added by him to a collection being made by
an advance part of Naval Medical Research
Unit no. 2. Subsequently Lt. (jg) Wil-
lard W. Lahnum, U.S.N.R., working in
cooperation with Epidemiology Unit no.
61, collected additional specimens near
Mercedes and on nearby Calicoan Island.

318

Six specimens have thus come to the United
States National Museum, where they been
compared with the type specimen of
bagobus.

Rattus bagobus barkeri, n. subsp.

Type specimen—uvU.S.N.M. no. 278141,
young adult male, skin and skull, collected
March 7, 1945, by Jesse E. Barker, prepared by
D. H. Johnson, original no. 276.

Type locality.—Village of Mercedes, 5 miles
north of Guiuan, southeastern Samar Island,
Philippine Islands. Altitude about 200 feet.
(See Fig. 1.)

Diagnosis—Differing from Rattus bagobus
bagobus in smaller size, sparser and less woolly
pelage, predominantly gray (rather than whit-
ish) underparts, relatively broader and more
angular skull, larger audital bullae, narrower in-
terbullar space, and smaller molar teeth.

Characters —Size large; tail shorter than
head and body; males larger than females (see
Table 1). Ears large, rounded, and leathery,
practically naked on both surfaces. Scales near
base of tail in 9 annular rows per centimeter.
Hind foot broad, sole bare to heel, tarsal part
elongate, toes relatively short and _ stubby.

SAMAR ISLAND

CALICOAN
ISLAND

Fig. 1.—Map of the southeastern part of
Samar Island, showing localities mentioned in the
text.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 9

A B

Fig. 2.—Occlusal surfaces of (A) right upper
and (B) left lower molar teeth of Rattus bagobus
barkerz, n. subsp., type specimen. X6.

Mammary formula (in type of bagobus and
three females of barkerz) 1-8 =8.

Color of type specimen (capitalized color
terms are from Ridgway, 1912): Upperparts in
general Bister, in detail a mixture of black and
Sayal Brown; sides paler than back, with Pink-
ish Cinnamon to Cinnamon hair tips underlain
by Neutral Gray basal color; underparts Drab
(mottled on throat and chest with Army Brown
patches, which are thought to be adventitious
stains); chin whitish; tail black above and be-
low and completely to the tip (with considera-
ble reddish-brown discoloration from the pre-
dominating coral clay of the region) ; feet black-
ish with a sprinkling of short silvery hairs;
vibrissae black, extending back beyond ear.
Old adult specimens are darker, near Vandyke
Brown or Bone Brown on the midback; the un-
derparts in no. 282149 are unusually pale, the
hairs silvery to the base, with a variable red-
dish tinge resulting at least in part from ad-
ventitious staining; in no. 282146 the terminal
18 mm of the tail is yellowish white.

Skull with elongate rostrum and prolonged
frontal region; nasals ending anterior to level
of lacrymal processes; temporal ridges well de-
veloped, with pronounced angle at fronto-

Sept. 15, 1946

parietal suture; incisive foramina ending ante-
rior to root of M!; palate narrow, ending oppo-
site posterior edge of M?; greatest zygomatic
breadth opposite frontoparietal suture; bullae
large and inflated, each with a dentlike depres-
sion on its outer side; molar pattern essentially
as in type specimen of bagobus: upper molars
with outer row of cusps reduced; no outer cusps
on first lamina of M? and M?; external acces-
sory cusps anterior to third lamina of M, and
first and second laminae of M, (Fig. 2).

Measurements.—See Table 1.

Distribution. Known only from the extreme
southeastern peninsula of Samar Island and
from adjacent Calicoan Island (Fig. 1).

Remarks.—Other rats trapped in the vicinity
of Guiuan were Rattus everetti, R. mindanensis,
-and a member of the Rattus exulans group;
these were abundant in the casually cultivated
coconut-grove and yam-patch association that
characterizes the low-lying inhabited parts of
the area. In contrast, Rattus bagobus seemed to
prefer the vicinity of the native jungle, most of

JOHNSON: A NEW PHILIPPINE RAT

319

which was confined to the elevated coral ridges.
The type specimen was taken at a place where
the two associations meet, and according to in-
formation supplied by Lieutenant Lahnum, his
specimens were all taken in the high forested
country.

This species seems to be a specialized mem-
ber of the Rattus xanthurus group, which is lim-
ited geographically to Celebes and the Philip-
pine Islands. Other Philippine species of the
group (see Ellerman, 1941, p. 190) are albigula-
rus, everetti, gala, luzonicus, and tagulayensis;
with these I should also place Rattus tyrannus
Miller of Ticao Island, which has been errone-
ously assigned to the Rattus norvegicus group by
Taylor (1934, p. 427) and Ellerman (1941, p.
184). All these species are represented in the
U.S. National Museum, either by types or by
referred specimens. From all of them Rattus
bagobus differs in its usually unicolored tail and
its elongate rostrum. The nearest relative seems
to be Rattus luzonicus from Mount Data, Lu-
zon, but the latter has much smaller bullae and

TABLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS IN MILLIMETERS OF SPECIMENS OF THE Two SUBSPECIES OF RATTUS BAGOBUS

Length Length} Length
: Head 4 Ear, | Condy-| Length| Zygo- | Inter- sashes of in- eel of of
Specimen and i Hind : : of ae of audi-
eet and | Tail Foae from | lobasal matic | orbital ak cisive ‘ee upper | lower
aad body notch | length | nasals |breadth| breadth foram- Y | molar | molar
trum : bullae
ina TOW TOW
No. 278141 (@) _)
Mercedes, Samar \ 236 187 53 28 54.1 23.1 26.8 7.6 10.7 9.9 10.7 9.1 9.4
barkeri, type J
No. 282149 () |
Mercedes, Samar 267 178 51 — 57.4 24.4 — That iE) 11.3 10.4 9.1 9.5
barkeri )
No. 282148 ()
Calicoan I., Samar 254 191 54 —_— 58.6 25.3 — Vf!) 10.8 10.6 11.0 9.2 9.4
barkeri j
No. 282145 (2)
Calicoan I., Samar 250 200 — — — P33 0 — 7.9 10.4 10.7 _ — —
barkeri J
No. 282146 ( @)
Calicoan I., Samar 269 175 50 — — — —_ — — — — —
barkerz J
No. 282147 ( 9)
Calicoan I., Samar 213 162 48 — 51.5 21.4 25.4 CoB 10.1 9.3 10.3 7.8 7.9
barkeriz J
No. 125248 ( 9)
Mt. Apo, Mindanao?| 2751] 1282 54 — 53 .6 33 (6) 26.7 Wot 9.9 10.7 9.9 9.6 9.4
bagobus, type J

1 Hxternal measurements from Mearns (1905, p. 451), made on dry study skin.

2 Tail apparently incomplete.

320

larger molar teeth. There are no satisfactorily
constant characters by which ‘‘Bullamus” can
be retained.

LITERATURE CITED

KELLERMAN, J. R. The families and genera of
living rodents. Vol. 2: Muridae, x1i+690
pp. British Museum (Natural History),
London, Mar. 21, 1941.

Houuister, N. A list of the mammals of the
Philippine Islands, excluswe of the Cetacea.
Philippine Journ. Sci. (Sect. D) 7 (1): pp.
1-64. Feb. 1912.

. A review of the Philippine land mam-

mals in the United States National Museum.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 46: 299-341, pls.

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for the Advancement of Science have been
allotted to the WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF
ScieNcEs for the purpose of making grants
in aid to young and promising scientists
who have worthy research projects but lack
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 9

2-29.) Wee. 31,1 9N3,

Mearns, Epcar A. Descriptions of new genera
and species of mammals from the Philip- —
pine Islands. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 28:
425-460. May 138, 1905.

Ripeway, Roserr. Color standards and color
nomenclature, iv +44 pp., 53 pls. Washing-
ton. © 1912:

Taytor, Epwarp H. Philippine land mam-
mals. Philippine Bur. Sci. Monogr. 30,
548 pp., 25 pls. June 30, 1934.

Tuomas, OLpDFIELD. The Duke of Bedford’s
zoological explorations in eastern Asia.
III. On mammals obtained by Mr. M. P.

Anderson in the Philippine Islands. Proc.
Zool. Soc. London 1907: 140-142. June
12, 1907.

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 36

OcToBER 15, 1946

No. 10

PHYSICS.—Some experiments relating to the electrical conductivity of the lower

atmosphere.
Institution of Washington.

The factors that affect the electrical
conductivity of the Earth’s atmosphere
vary considerably with altitude above the
ground. In the present paper the discus-
sions are intended to apply to those condi-
ditions that are encountered specifically
in the Earth’s lower atmosphere, that is,
in the portion accessible to measuring in-
struments. There will be briefly described
some of the more commonly employed
methods of measuring the conductivity and
a presentation made of a few results of
measurements at some widely separated
localities. Attention will also be called to
some of the more important factors affect-
ing this element, and finally some experi-
ments will be described that have been
carried out for the purpose of gaining a
better understanding of the manner and the
extent to which these factors operate in
regulating and controlling the conductivity
of the lower atmosphere.

It is well to bear in mind that, while con-
siderable effort has been devoted to the
isolation and the evaluation of various
factors that affect the conductivity of the
atmosphere at considerable altitudes, little
attention has been given to such problems
concerning the lower atmosphere.
greatest effort has been devoted to measure-
ments of this conductivity, in order to
secure a knowledge of its magnitude and
character of variation with time and place
under various conditions. Little effort has
been given to learning why the conductivity

* Address of the Retiring President of the
Philosophical Society of Washington, delivered
at the 1258th meeting of the Society on January
5, 1946. Received August 27, 1946.

The

G. R. Wart, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie

varies in any particular manner. The desire
to learn more concerning the underlying
factors that contribute to the control of the
conductivity of the lower atmosphere and
how they operate has been a stimulus to the
initiation of the experiments to be dis-
cussed.

The air about us is one of the best insu-
lating substances known, comparing closely
with amber, which is widely used and
valued because of this peculiar property.
Its conductivity is so small that it was long
a question whether it existed at all. A
conductor in air was found many years ago
to lose its electric charge gradually. It was
thought, however, that this might be due
to the slow escape of charge over its sup-
ports. Coulomb, more than 160 years ago,
first observed that the charge on a con-
ductor inside a vessel disappeared at a rate
proportional to the amount of charge on the
body and that this rate appeared too great
to be accounted for by the loss over the
insulating supports. He believed that the
air did actually conduct electricity and ex-
plained this on the basis of molecules of air
coming into contact with the conductor,
then being repelled with a resulting transfer
of charge to the walls of the surrounding
vessel. Later investigations, including those
by Matteucci, Warburg, Boys, and Linss,
furnished further evidence that the loss of
charge by a conductor in air is not entirely
due to its escape over the insulating sup-
ports. It was not, however, until the begin-
ning of the present century that definite
proof of this was obtained. H. Geitel and
C. T. R. Wilson in the same year carried out
experiments that took complete account of

aa o21

OCT 16 46

O22

the loss of charge over the supporting in-
sulators and found that the surrounding air
did conduct electricity. In Geitel’s experi-
ments a correction was applied for the loss
over the insulators. In Wilson’s experiments
the arrangement was such that a loss of
charge over the insulating supports was
prevented from occurring.

Experiments at the Cavendish Labora-
tory, at the beginning of the century under
the direction of J. J. Thomson, threw con-
siderable light upon the manner in which a
gas conducts an electric current. The con-
ductivity of a gas was observed to increase
under the influence of X-rays and radio-
active matter. When such influences were
withdrawn, the conductivity of the gas
gradually returned to normal. The con-
ductivity was also found to diminish when
the gas passed through glass wool and when
it was slowly drawn between highly charged
metal plates. To explain such electrical
characteristics it appeared necessary to as-
sume that the action of the X-rays and the
radioactive matter was such as to produce
electrically charged particles of both signs
in the gas. The glass wool filtered the
charged particles out of the gas while the
action of the field between the charged
plates removed the charged particles from
the gas to the plates. The oppositely charged
particles, after being produced, gradually
recombined, thus accounting for the gradual
reduction of the conductivity of the gas
after the removal of the X-rays or radio-
active matter. The charged particles in the
gas were called ‘“‘ions,’”’ as were also the
charged particles in an electrolyte, which
render the electrolyte electrically conduct-
ing. The ions in a gas similarly give the
gas its conductivity, the positive and nega-
tive ions accounting for a positive and nega-
tive conductivity, respectively.

A number of different types of apparatus
have been developed for the measurement
of the conductivity of the air. One of the
earliest was that devised by Elster and
Geitel [see 7 of ‘‘References”’ at end of
paper] in Germany during the early part of
the present century. It consisted essentially
of an electroscope to which was connected
a small metal cylinder on which an electric
charge could be placed. Over this cylinder

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

another and larger earthed cylinder was
fitted in order to protect it from the disturb-
ing influences of the Earth’s field. It was
later shown that the measurements with
this apparatus were somewhat open to ques-
tion. It was used by E. Schweidler without
the outer cylinder and in a location where
it was not subjected to the Earth’s electric
field. In this way more accurate values of
the conductivity were secured. Another and
more precise method of measuring the con-
ductivity of the air was developed by
Schering (2), likewise in Germany. In the
more improved form of the Schering ap-
paratus a horizontally stretched wire, some
20 meters in length, is surrounded by an
earthed open-mesh wire cylindrical screen
at a distance of about 50 cm. The horizontal
wire is connected electrically to an electrom-
eter, which in some cases was adapted for |
automatic recording work. This type of ap- —
paratus has had considerable use at various
stations in Europe in recording the con-
ductivity of the air. Swann (3) showed that
this type of apparatus, however, is subject
to considerable error under conditions of
little wind. He also pointed out the impor-
tance of installing the apparatus where it
would not be influenced by the Earth’s
electric field.

The apparatus that is most commonly
used today and that is free from the objec-
tions raised against most of those previously
developed was designed by Gerdien (4) and
described by him in 1905. It consists es-
sentially of a cylindrical condenser, the
inner member of which is connected elec-
trically with an electrometer or electro-
scope. A fan draws a stream of air at a
more or less constant rate through the outer
cylinder. The inner cylinder, after being
isolated from a battery, gradually loses its
charge by catching oppositely charged ions
which are drawn out of the passing stream
of air. From the rate at which this electrode
loses its charge, together with the constants
of the apparatus, the conductivity of the
air may be computed.

An improved form of Gerdien apparatus
was designed by Swann (4) at the Depart-
ment of Terrestrial Magnetism for auto-
matically recording the conductivity of the
air. The improvements included (1) the use

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE

‘of a more sensitive electrometer, the steady
deflections of which depend upon the
value of the conductivity, and (2) means
for the avoidance of an error which occurs
in the earlier form of apparatus and which
is due to the collection of radioactive matter
on the cylindrical condenser.

Measurements of the conductivity were
carried out over the ocean aboard the ex-
perimental vessel Galilee as early as 1907
by the Department of Terrestrial Magne-
tism. Later measurements were made over
the ocean aboard the Carnegie on the six
cruises from 1915 to 1921, and on the
seventh cruise during 1928 and 1929. Con-
tinuous records of the conductivity have
been obtained by the Department at several
land stations since 1917, when the first
recording apparatus was installed on top
of the main laboratory building in the
suburbs of Washington. At the present time
continuous records of the conductivity are
being obtained at three widely separated
land stations, namely, the Watheroo Mag-
netic Observatory in Western Australia,
the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory in

|" utr 6, 1937
20 : 24

fh xt
NSE EMER

cit inna

323

Peru, at an altitude of 3,350 meters, and the
Tucson Magnetic Observatory of the Coast
and Geodetic Survey in Arizona.

The value of the conductivity of the
lower atmosphere varies greatly from place
to place over land and has both a diurnal
and a seasonal variation. The causes for
such variations will be discussed later. In
Fig. 1 is shown the type of automatic daily
record being obtained at the Department’s
observatories. In the reproduced records of
positive and negative conductivity from
Huancayo one sees that a zero point is ob-
tained each hour. This zero is the result of
the removal of all ions from the air-strearh
before it reaches the central cylinder. Be-
tween zeros the magnitude of deflection
from the zero position affords a measure of
the conductivity. The apparatus is a
duplex system that records simultaneously
the positive and negative conductivity. The
bottom record is for the Earth’s electric
field (potential gradient) for the same day.
This field results from an electric charge on
the Earth’s surface. The daily variation in
potential gradient, as may be seen, is largely

75° WEST MERIDIAN HOURS

lili: te |

VERTICAL SCALE IN UNITS OF es ESU

VERTICAL SCALE IN UNITS OF '10°4ESU

Aida dtuatet Mhvd cnddal KGRRMObbaauelne san daad OL i il min (valk (ANN
i

Hit

Fig. 1.—Electrograms, Huancayo Magnetic Observatory,

VERTICAL SCALE IN VOLTS PER METER

I MA il
sti ii ua ' Hi i uM i l

0- 100 200 300
eee ee

‘‘quiet’’ day during dry season.

O24

opposite in character to that for the con-
ductivity. This is due to changes in the
conductivity of the atmosphere. Whether or
not a decrease in conductivity is accom-
panied by an increase in potential gradient
depends on whether this decrease is con-
fined to a relatively thin layer of the atmos-
phere or whether it extends throughout the
entire vertical column of the atmosphere.
It might be explained that as a consequence

46 20

| feeeapee icbnoud tive, [FT
H | 1 | ' \ 7 ’ 4 t eh | i | “5

VERTICAL SCALE IN UNITS OF 10-4 €. ESU. ae ee eee

NEG. ITIVE Aaae

rae

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

120° EAST MERIDIAN HOURS

VOL. 36, NO. 10

of the Earth’s charge an electric current:
passes to the Earth through the atmosphere
and is known as the ‘‘air-earth current.”
From Ohm’s law one can write G=z/h,
where G is the value of the potential
gradient, 7 is the value of the air-earth cur-
rent density, and 2) is the total conductivity
of the air. If the value of \ varies only in a
thin layer of the atmosphere, the value of 2
is not appreciably affected; consequently

AUGUST 30; 1936

ow, VERTICAL SCALE IN UNITS OF 10-4 ESU”

VERTICAL SCALE IN VOLTS GER METER

Fig. 2.—Electrograms, Watheroo Magnetic Observatory,

RAINFALL IN INCH

— From eh —_________________ 9.42
MARCH 17, 1937

AY 1
i)

75° WEST ME. hea HOURS

Ph aT

VERTICAL SCALE IN UNITS OF 10-4 ESU

cc

VERTICAL SCALE IN UNITS OF 104 ESU

| nn
VERTICAL SCALE IN VOLTS PER METER Ot Ua capone eegtegat 17 regan ti anana

Por TIAL PAD eane ‘NT

““quiet”’ day.

SEE NOTE

INU aT |

| | |
CANA

Fig. 3.—Electrograms, Huancayo Magnetic Observatory, rainy day. (Note: Clearing in morning
after 105.5, early afternoon March 18, increasing cloudiness, distant rain, and thunder to southwest

at 145).

G. R. Wait

President, Philosophical Society of Washington
1945

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE

the gradient in this layer will vary as the
value of 1/d. Since this is the type of daily
variation found at Huancayo, it is con-
cluded that such changes in conductivity
are confined to a relatively thin layer of the
lower atmosphere. On the other hand, if the
decrease in conductivity occurs uniformly
throughout the entire vertical column of the
atmosphere, the value of both 72 and } will
be diminished in the same proportion. The
value of the ratio 2/A, and consequently
that of G, will then remain unaltered. This
is largely the condition prevailing at
Watheroo, as may be seen from Fig. 2,
which shows a typical fair-weather diurnal-
variation curve for the conductivity of each
sign and for the potential gradient. During
a thunderstorm not only is the potential
gradient often disturbed but the conduc-
tivities may also be affected when these
disturbances are great. In Fig. 3 is shown
the type of record frequently obtained dur-
ing a thunderstorm. The bottom curve
represents the atmospheric potential gradi-
ent at Huancayo, which was recorded
simultaneously with the conductivities of
both signs. It is apparent that, at times of
very intense electric fields, the conduc-
tivity of the air was likewise disturbed.
The effect, in general, is such as to cause a
diminution in the value of the conductivity
of only one sign. The conductivity of the
opposite sign at that particular time appears
more or less undisturbed. The sign affected
depends upon whether the potential-gradi-
ent curve is above or below the base line.
When above the base line, the potential
gradient is positive (negative charge on the
ground) and the negative conductivity is
affected. When below, the opposite takes
place. That is, the sign of conductivity
affected is always the same as that of the
charge on the ground below the point of
observation. The reduced conductivity,
which is due to reduced number of ions per
unit volume in the atmosphere, is attributed
to the fact that the intense field removes
the ions almost as fast as they are pro-
duced.

The conductivity of the air over the open
ocean proceeds generally uniformly with
time. The influences of land areas may often
be observed many miles out to sea. This

325

may be illustrated by the record of con-
ductivity of the air over the ocean as ob-
tained aboard the Carngeze during her last
cruise, and shown in Fig. 4. It is apparent
that the conductivity was steady relatively
far from land, but less steady near land.
Incidentally, the conditions determining
the ionic equilibrium over the ocean, and
hence the average value of the conductivity
of the air over this region, appear to undergo
a gradual change through the years. The
change is of such a nature as to cause a
gradual decline in the conductivity. To
illustrate the character and magnitude of
such changes, a plot of the mean conduc-
tivity over various areas of the oceans is
shown in Fig. 5, the data of which were ob-
tained aboard the Carnegie. Each point on
this plot represents the mean conductivity
for a particular leg of a cruise. Each mean is
composed of a number of observations since
In general one set was taken each day. For
example, in the case of the leg labeled
Europe-America, there were 13 observa-
tions for the 1913 point and 20 observations
for that of 1928. A possible cause for the
decline in conductivity will be discussed
later.

The presence of appreciable quantities of
smoke has a marked effect upon the con-
ductivity of the air. This is illustrated by
the diurnal-variation curves of the con-
ductivity at Watheroo, together with curves
for certain other atmospheric-electric ele-
ments which are shown in Fig. 6. Two sets
of curves for the conductivity are given,
one for the case when there was consider-
able smoke in the air, the other with little
smoke. It is apparent that the presence of
smoke reduces the conductivity. The manner
in which this is accomplished will be taken
up later in this article. It might be noted,
however, that the value of the air-earth cur-
rent density is also reduced when smoke is
present. Since the dimunition of the current
is relatively less than that of the conduc-
tivity, the decrease in the latter does not
extend throughout the entire vertical
column. That is, the smoke does not extend
all the way up to the upper conducting
layer.

The average value of the conductivity of
the air varies considerably from place to

x

326 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 10

“ee “APPROACHING FS GCG: err
SEPTEMBER 23 1929 -

“LEAVING HONOLULU Bt=g GMT
—OCTOBER 2 2-3 “3 1929 -——

aos an ra
3 i

Hig. 4.—Air conductivity over the ocean recorded on the Carnegie.

19/6 1918 1920 1922 1924 1926

LEGEND

EUROPE -AMER/CA
Xx— — — —X_ HONOLULU-SAMOA
O— -——-—-O0 SAMOA—GUAM
t——----4-+ CALLAO-BALBOA

ian ate A) SOUTH ATLANTIC (BETWEEN S.AMERICA AND AFRICA)
|

Fig. 5.—Decline through the years in conductivity of air over the ocean.

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE 327

place over land as illustrated by diurnal
variation curves for the total conductivity
(positive plus negative) for two seasons of
the year for the three land stations as shown
in Fig. 7. The mean conductivity at Huan-
cayo is somewhat greater than that usually
encountered over land and that at Wash-

Lard

ington is somewhat less. The lower air
pressure at a high altitude station such as
Huancayo will result in an increased con-
ductivity due to an increase in velocity of
the ions. Neither the high values observed
at this station, as compared with those
observed at Washington, nor the large

4 8 ¥ 16 20
120° EAST MERIDIAN HOURS a
of iS
4
®ee- ==
180 Ss
# 7
DK: —-—-—— 60 SMOKY DAYS /
48 NON-SMOKY DAYS /

cer)
9

rN
is)
VOLTS PER METER

%
is)

SUM POSITIVE ANDO NEGATIVE

CONDUCTIVITY (A, +A_)

Fig. 6.—Diurnal variation of atmospheric-electric elements at Watheroo for smoky and non-
smoky days during February, 1925-1934.

328

amplitude can be entirely explained in this
way. The conductivity of the air at Wash-
ington, on the other hand, is very low,
attributable in part to the influence of the
city. To secure information concerning the
influences of a city on various atmospheric
electric elements, a survey was carried out
several years ago in and about the city of
Washington by the Department of Ter-
restrial Magnetism (6) that included,
among other elements, the total conductiv-
ity (A, +A_) of the atmosphere. The values

14x 10-4

JUNE - AUGUST

JANUARY - MARCH
oe

—x

ie)
SCALE IN ESU

ee
cue

PA NOVEMBER -MARCH
Ho Safe o eKe Ke aKa mK mo ate o aren

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LOCAL MEAN HOURS

i eee
ae

i a
ee f=

Bk, HUANCAYO, PERU

VOL. 36, No. 10

of the total conductivity during this survey
are given on the map shown in Fig. 8.
Within the city limits, as may be seen, the
values are much smaller than those in the
nearby rural areas, the smaller values being
confined to a rather restricted region within
the city. As a further check on these results,
a more recent but briefer survey was carried
out by means of a quick-acting portable
conductivity apparatus mounted on a sta-
tion wagon. The apparatus responded to the
conductivity of the air as the wagon was

Por = aXo

ia iA:
Pikes
hy ae

WATHEROO,
WESTERN AUSTRALIA

ers MAY - “SEPTEMBER

i Ke a aye = Ke ao” a
NOVEMBER-MARCH

f.

lites ae,
Ke

Fic. 7.—Total conductivity of atmosphere for 1930, at Watheroo, Huancayo, and Washington.

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE

329

LEGEND

9 5 10 Miles

---- Main Highways

0 5 10 Kilometers

+--+ Principal Railroads

+—+- Minor Railroads

©) Location and number of station
0.75 Observed total conductivity in 104 E.5.U

N
(1a Congressional

Airport

Virginia

-
---

Bei “CD “Merrifield

=
-~ “#--- 3.21
Alexandria ‘
Reservoir.

Sg Fairfax

SB Silver \\ Mill ,

pring Yo). Priest
088 of Bridget

@

216
/

» Fort Washington

Fie. 8.—Conductivity of air in Washington area observed during October, 1930.

driven along the road at about 20 miles per
hour, so that all the results were taken
within a few hours of one another. On the
previous survey the observations extended
over several weeks. The results of the later
survey are given on the map of Washington
and vicinity and shown in Fig. 9. The agree-
ment in the results of the two surveys is

extremely good, both showing very low
values within the city and a gradual increase
to higher values, amounting to some three
or four fold, as one approaches the open
country. What are the conditions within a
city which produce a less conducting
atmosphere? Such conditions, one might
point out, are not confined to the surface

330

layer of air but extend above the city to
considerable heights. One might well ask
why the conductivity of the lower air varies
as much, let us say, as one order of magni-
tude from place to place and yet does not
amount to so much as two orders of magni-
tude. To answer these and other questions
it is necessary to inquire into the causes of
the conductivity of the atmosphere and to
examine the factors that control or regulate
its value. Recalling that the conductivity,
d, is given by the equation \=nek, where

7
SW FALLS CHURCH

!
i
i

‘“
“

SI
\
i]
]
4
(
\

{+
(
!
|
|
I
I
t
\

] a= =>

1.374 SPRINGFIELD

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

nm is the number of smallions per cc, e is the -
value of the unit electrostatic charge, and k
is the mobility of the ion, it is apparent that
to affect the value of \ one of the three
factors indicated above must be altered.
The value of e has been accurately de-
termined, and various investigations have
shown that only one charge is normally
found on the ion to which the conductivity
of the air is principally due. The value of
k for this ion has also been measured and
found to vary within rather narrow limits

wil

S.C BAILEY S
ae CROSS ROADS

Fie. 9.—Electrical conductivity of the atmosphere (in 10~¢esu), Washington, D. C., and vicinity,
March 21, 1945.

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE -

for conditions encountered in the lower
atmosphere. The remaining factor, the num-
ber of ions per unit volume, must be the
principal vyariable and the _ controlling
factor.

Only one type of ion has been referred to
thus far in discussing the conductivity of
the atmosphere because the conductivity
may be attributed almost exclusively to it.
All the types of ions present in the atmos-
phere however, contribute to the conduc-
tivity; to obtain the total conductivity, one
must sum up the individual contributions.
In Washington, for example, there are three
discernible ion types, the so-called small
ion of molecular dimensions, the large or
Langevin ion, which has a diameter about
two orders of magnitude greater than that
of the small ion, and the intermediate ion
(7) with a diameter intermediate between
the other two types. The conductivity due
to the three types of ions thus becomes
A=e(nk-+n;k;+NK) in which e represents
the electronic charge and n, n;, and N
represent the number per cc of the small,
intermediate, and large ions respectively;
k, k;, and K represent the corresponding
mobilities. Typical values observed around
Washington are given in Table 1:

TABLE 1

Small Intermediate Large

ions ions ions
Number per cc... 200 150 5000
Mobility!........ Lem 0.7 5X10 *

1 Values are in cm/sec/volt/cem.

Calculating the conductivity by substitu-
tion of the above values one obtains:
A = 4.3X10—-7[100-+3.5+0.8] = 0.45 «10-4
ESU. From this it may be seen that the
intermediate ion contributes only 3.5 per-
cent, while the large ion contributes only
0.8 percent of that contributed by the
smail ion.

The large ions do not generally contribute
in great measure to the conductivity of the
lower atmosphere; their importance is due
to the influence they exert upon the number
of small ions present. Hence, the large ions
set a limit to the value of the conductivity
and, if numerous, regulate the value of the
conductivity of the atmosphere. Thus, we

331

have an explanation of the very low value
of conductivity for the smoky days at
Watheroo and also that obtains within the
city, and the relatively higher value in the
open country districts. Within the city, for
example, the large ions are relatively more
abundant than in the rural areas. The
reason for this is that they are produced
abundantly in the exhaust gases of auto-
mobiles and by practically all other forms of
combustion. The particle that is liberated
in such a process acts as a center or nucleus
around which moisture condenses from the
atmosphere to form fog, mist, or cloud and ~
is known as a condensation nucleus. All
condensation nuclei found in the lower
atmosphere do not necessarily originate
from combustion, but this plays a most im-
portant part. Not all the condensation
nuclei in the atmosphere are electrically
charged. In Washington about a fourth are
electrically charged and hence are large
ions. The number of positive and negative
large ions are approximately equal except
under special circumstances. Just why the
number of small ions in the air is reduced
when condensation nuclei are present, de-
serves consideration.

The number of small ions in a given
volume of air, if we assume that none is
mechanically brought into the volume or
removed, depends upon how fast they are
produced and how fast they recombine and
combine with the charged and uncharged
condensation nuclei. In a closed vessel freed
from condensation nuclei the equation lead-
ing to ionic equilibrium, if the number of
positive and negative ions is equal, is
dn/dt=q—an?, where a is the coefficient of
recombination of the smallions. In a volume
containing charged N and uncharged No,
condensation nuclei, this equation must be
modified in view of the combinations be-
tween the nuclei and the small ions. If the
positive and negative large ions are equally
numerous the corresponding equation be-
comes dn/dt=q—an?—nNn—noNon, where
N and N, are the number per ce of charged
nuclei of one sign and uncharged nuclei re-
spectively while 7 and 7 are the coefficients
of combination between the small ions and
the respective nuclei. Under equilibrium
conditions for large ions and condensation

332

FROM GRAPH:
LOGe @'=0.20+0.75 LOGe x’

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

es
ee

EXPERIMENTALLY DETERMINED
VALUES OF @ AND K

a K
cm/SEC/v/CM
16x 10-5 1.4
76x 10-8 2.5 x 107
11x 1078 1.9.x 1073
71 x 10°79 1.2.x 1074
6.0 x 1079 10x 10-4
6.4x 10-9 8.0 x 10-4
3.1.x 1079 3.2x 10-4
a'=109a
K'=104K

Fria. 10.—Empirical relationship between mobility (K) and recombination coefficient (a) of
gaseous ions.

nuclei, the relation may be written approxi-
mately 7Nn=noNon, hence, when dn/dt=0,
g=an?+2nNn. For average conditions in
Washington the value of the term an? is
only a few percent of the quantity 2yNn and
may be neglected in nearly all cases, whence,
the above equation becomes g=27Nn. For
a constant value of g, the number of small
ions per cc is consequently inversely pro-
portional to the number of large ions.

A similar equation involving the number
of condensation nuclei, Nu, per cc in the
place of the number of large ions may be
written in view of the known relationship
between the number of charged and un-
charged condensation nuclei. The number
of condensation nuclei is equal to the sum of
charged and uncharged nuclei, that is,
Na=Ni+N2+WN,_. If every charged nucleus
has a single charge then Ni; and WN» refer
to both the number of unit charges and to
the number of charged condensation nuclei,
positive and negative, respectively. If we
assume on the basis of the above equation
that 7Nn=noNon and g=27Nn, it follows
that g=2n/[(n/no) +2]Nan, which may be
rewritten g=2wNy4n where w acts as the
combination coefficient between small ions
and condensation nuclei. To test the valid-
ity of the above equation it is necessary to
secure not only measurements on the num-
ber of small ions per cc but also on the
number of condensation nuclei.

An apparatus was developed more than
50 years ago by John Aitken (8), a Scotch

engineer, for counting condensation nuclei
in the atmosphere. A small model of a
larger laboratory apparatus, which he car-
ried in his coat pocket, was used by Aitken
and is the type of instrument most com-
monly used today. The apparatus operates
on a principle similar to that of the Wilson
cloud chamber. It employs an air pump by
which the air pressure in a small chamber
is suddenly reduced. The resulting expan-
sion of air is not sufficient to permit the
condensation of moisture (water being
present in a saturated blotter) around small
ions, aS in the case of the Wilson cloud
chamber, but it does permit the condensa-
tion around the nuclei because this takes
place at a lower supersaturation. Visible
droplets of water thus formed fall under the
force of gravity, and the number of nuclei
per ce in the outside atmosphere is deter-
mined from the number cf droplets falling,
if the volume of air used as a sample and
the constants of the instrument are known.

Two separate instruments are used for
counting the ions of the atmosphere, since
a single instrument can not be suitably de-
signed for counting both the large and the
small ions. The small-ion counter as used at
the Department is so placed that the air-
stream enters this instrument before it
enters the large-ion counter. The small and
large ions are, therefore, taken from the
same sample of air. Each ion-counter is
provided with its own electrometer, the de-
flections of which provide a measure of the

yams

ee ee

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE

number of ions collected. These apparatus
have been used extensively to record ion-
content of the open air and in closed rooms.

In the development of the equation
q=2ynNn we considered as negligible the
recombination between large ions. Though
it is quite certain that the recombination
coefficient a for this ion is small, there is
some doubt as to the value for the large ion
found in the air. Kennedy made the first
determination of the value of a and ob-
tained 6.310-'°. Later Hogg obtained a
value of 1.7X10~°. The value of a@ varies
with the size of the ion, and it seems prob-
able, therefore, that Hogg’s measurements
applied to a smaller ion. Although size of
the ion can not be directly determined, it
may be inferred from the value of the mobil-
ity K, which can be measured. Under the
circumstances it was considered important
that determinations be undertaken of both
a and K for the same ion. The writer has
accordingly made measurements over a
wide range of mobilities. The lowest mobil-
ity is applicable to the large ion of the
atmosphere (10-4 em/sec/v/em), while the
highest is about two orders of magnitude
greater. Only a summary of the results will
be presented without describing the meth-
ods employed in the determinations. The
values of a and K are found to fit an em-
pirical equation of a simple form. The plot
of log , a’ against log, K’ results in astraight
_ line that includes the values by others for
the small ion shown in Fig. 10, from which
it is seen that log. a’ =D+S log, K’, where
a’ =10%, K’=104K, and where S and D
are constants having the values 0.75 and
0.20, respectively. Unfortunately, no ade-
quate theoretical consideration has been
given to any possible relationship between
a and K. A recent consideration by W. E.
Harper applies only to pressures of about
10 atmospheres and consequently fails to
meet the need in the present instance.

In correlating the total nuclei and the
large ions it is important to know whether
each large ton carries more than one charge.
Determinations of the number of unit
charges per large ion have been made at the
University College, Dublin, in ordinary
room air. Mr. Torreson and the writer (9)
made similar determinations in the labora-

333

tory in Washington for ions in outdoor air
as well as for ions artificially produced from
burning gas. To determine the charge per
ion the following procedure was followed:
the nuclei-content, N4, of the air is taken
before it enters the ion counter and again
after it has passed through the counter, the
latter count giving the number (No) of un-
charged nuclei. The difference between the
total number of nuclei and the number of
uncharged nuclei (V4—WNo) represents the
number of charged particles. The total
number of charged particles is then com-
pared with the total number of unit
charges measured with the large ion counter
to obtain the charge per ion. The results by
Nolan, Boyland, and deSachy, at Dublin,
for room air show that the charge per ion
is unity. From the results by Torreson and
the writer similar results were found for the
outside air in Washington and for ions
artificially produced from burning gas.
Table 2 illustrates the results obtained in
the latter case. From all these results it
seems justifiable to assume that in general
the charge per large ion is unity as has
previously been found for the small ion.

TABLE 2.—NUMBER OF PARTICLES IN CHAMBER (180 CuBiIc
METERS) AFTER EXTINGUISHING FLAME, CORRESPONDING
NuMBER OF UNIT-CHARGES PER ION, AND PROPORTION OF
PARTICLES UNCHARGED.

Particles per liter Per-
Number cent of
Time Pout Na—WNo | of unit- va
min-| Total Un- tively charges files
utes (Na) charged dented Dials per aes
( (N+) particle | charged
5 |175.6 | 141.5 | 15.85 | 15.90 X<103 1.00 81
6 |128.0 95.0 | 15.32 | 15.35 X103 1.00 74
7 97.5 67.5 | 14.50 | 13.95 K103 1.04 69
8 89.0 60.0 | 18.76 | 13.49 X103 1.€2 67
9 88.0 60.0 | 18.42 | 138.02 X103 1.03 68
10 87.5 60.0 | 12.85 | 12.80 103 1.00 °69
11 87.0 60.0 | 12.39 | 12.56 X108 0.99 69
12 86.5 60.0 | 11.95 | 12.33 X10? 0.97 69
IMiean sess at coe avels chan eta esto seuclhoreeaee 1.01 71

Simultaneous records of the small and
the large-ion content of the outdoor air in
Washington, D. C., were obtained by Mr.
Torreson and the writer (9) over the period
of a year beginning in October 1932. The
resulting data have been separated accord-
ing to seasons and are shown in the form of

oo4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 10

diurnal variation curves in Fig. 11. The the warm season. This is in large part due
large-ion content of the air during the cold probably to the increase in smoke and
season is considerably greater than during gases given off by domestic fires. The diur-

16
75° WEST MERIO!4N MEAN HOURS |

|
COLE WEATHER
(OCTOBER 1932 TO MARCH 1933)

\

~
&

LEGEND |
LARGE /ONS
a LN ELE HONS

| —_—--__
Sees a =

* WARM WEATHER
(APRIL TO SEPTEMBER, 1933)

SMALL IONS PER CC (Nz)

\ LARGE IONS PER CC (Wy)

Fia. 11.—Seasonal diurnal—course in positive large ions and positive small ions—cold weather (October
1932 to March 1933) and warm weather (April to September 1933), Washington, D. C.

SCALE OF N

(A) COLO WEATHER
OCTOBER, 1932—MARCH, 1933

47-18 Is
8 — 22-29

sacle
e

[n= 41.7 x 10-4 + 3.00 10-7 N
IF q=2Nn + Kn
THEN 2n/q= 3.00 x 10-7

8

(NOTE: HOURLY INTERVAL NOTED
NEAR EACH POINT)

(8) WARM WEATHER
APRIL- SEPTEMBER, /933

U/n=39.5 % 10-5 + 2.74.4 10-7.
iF q= anna t Kn :
THEN 2n/q= 2.74 x 1077

Fig. 12.—Relation between large and small ions at Washington, D. C.

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE

nal variation in large ions is to be explained
probably in a similar manner. The small-ion
content varies more or less in a manner in-
verse to that of the large-ion content for
both seasons as is to be expected on the
basis of the equation g=27Nn. For a better
quantitative comparison of the inverse rela-
tionship between the two types of ions in
the air, the reciprocal 1/n of the small-ion
content is plotted against each correspond-
ing value of the large-ion content for the
two seasons, and the resulting curves are
shown in Fig. 12. From the relationship
indicated by the two curves it is seen that
the value of 1/n varies directly as the value
of N, but it is not zero when the value of NV
is zero. The general relationship between
the two elements is expressed in the equa-
tion 1/n=AN-+K’. The value of q is
usually regarded as approximately con-
stant, and the equation may be rewritten
as: gq=2nNn+Kn. It indicates that the
small ion is removed from the atmosphere
not only through combination with charged
and uncharged nuclei but also by some
other process since the ordinate at the
intercept is too great to be accounted for
by recombination of the small ions. One
possible explanation of such removal is by
attachment to gross particles which are too
large to be counted either by the large-ion
counter or the nuclei counter. Recently J. J.
Nolan (10), of University College, Dublin,
found a similar relationship between the
small-ion content and the condensation-
nuclei content of the air, employing data
from four land stations. These results taken
with those obtained in Washington give
further indication of a need for a revision
of the equation as given above.

We have shown that variations in the
numbers of condensation nuclei alter the
number of small ions, but since the number
of small ions is also affected by g, the rate
at which they are produced, special con-
sideration must be given to the variation
of gq with time and the factors that govern
its variation. The ionization, or production
of small ions in the atmosphere, is chiefly
attributable to the cosmic rays and radia-
tions from radioactive matter in the soil
and atmosphere, as indicated in Table 3.
Radioactive matter, such as radium, thor-

335

ium, and actinium, is found distributed
throughout the Earth’s crust. As these ele-
ments decay, there are formed radon,
thoron, and actinon, which behave chemi-
cally like the group of inert gases, argon,
neon, etc. These gases tend to escape from
the soil into the air. There occur, therefore,
in the atmosphere not only radioactive
gases but also each successive radioactive
product such as radium A, radium B, ete.
All the radioactive gases as they decay give
off alpha rays only. Some of the decom-
position products give off alpha rays only,
others beta and gamma rays, and still
others all three. A precise determination of
q can be secured by measuring the effects
not only of the beta and gamma rays but
also of the alpha particles, which are so
easily stopped that they can penetrate only
a few centimeters of air.

TABLE 3.—IONIZATION! OF THE AIR BY COSMIC RAYS AND BY
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS IN THE Soll, AND AiR.

Source of ionization
: f (In percent of total)
Radioact ive Total
material @oamne
es B Y rays
Radium |. 30 1 1 _ 32)
Thorium{’” *"" | 18 1 = == 19/
Radium \. : =e 1 32 = 33
: in soil
Thorium{
16 16
To taleernses tc 48 3 33 16 100

1 As estimated by Hess.

In view of the difficulties, previous at-
tempts were confined to rough estimates of
qg, obtained at a particular time, never con-
tinuously, or throughout a whole day. But
even such attempts to estimate the char-
acter of the diurnal variation were regarded
as of considerable importance.

In our investigations use was made of an
ionization chamber and electrometer, ar-
ranged to give an automatic record of the
ionization inside the chamber. The walls of
the chamber were constructed of sufficiently
thin material to permit the penetration of
alpha particles from the radioactive matter
outside producing ions within. Thin cello-
phane (the alpha-ray stopping power of

336

2

(he s € ce or aL
go (Radium 8)

|

PER CC PEA SEC IW CH

®eCOMPUTED VALUES

We oe ing la
VIE.
Fie. 13.—Ionization-decay following thunder-

shower (mean 8 showers, Washington, D. C.,
summer 1933).

& 12
| 75° WEST MERIDIAN HOURS

=~
NM

.

3k
ION PAIRS/CC/SEC IN CHAMBER

| SOlL WET (MEAN 10 DAYS)
|

®

NS

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

which corresponded to about one and one-
half centimeter of air) stretched over an
open mesh brass cylindrical screen, was
used to form the outer wall.

The complete ionization of the outside
atmosphere can not be measured by such
an apparatus because a portion of the
alpha particles are absorbed while passing
through the wall and because the radioac-
tive matter enclosed within the chamber
gradually decays. The apparatus is, how-
ever, capable of furnishing interesting and
valuable information concerning the varia-
tions in q of the outside atmosphere.

During the first summer of operation it
was frequently found that during an intense
thunderstorm the ionization of the air in-
creased by as much as 100 or 200 percent.
MeNish and the writer have investigated
this matter (17) and have found that the
most rapid increase in ionization generally
occurs with the beginning of the heaviest
rainfall. After the passing of the storm the
rate of ionization slowly returns to normal.
The rate of return closely coincides with the
rate of decay of radium B, as may be seen

16

AUGUST 1935

SOIL DRY (MEAN 10 DAYS)

Bie /
~ x,

~
N

NS
YK =

~
9

Xe

SS

C/SEC IN CHAMBER

NO SNOW ON GROUND (MEAN 8 DAYS)

O

/ON PAIRS /C

]

Fic. 14.—Measured rate ion-production inside thin-walled chamber, Washington, D. C.

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE

from the curves of Fig. 13. These results are
interpreted to mean that, at the time of the
formation of the thunderstorm, convective
action carries radioactive matter from the
vicinity of the ground into the clouds,
where it is dissolved in the moisture of the
cloud. As the clouds pass the station the
radioactive matter is brought down with
the rain, thus increasing the amount al-
ready present. A thundercloud, in accord-
ance with this theory, contains radioactive
matter in a greater or lesser amount. This
radioactive matter will result in an increase
in the electrical conductivity of the air in
the vicinity of the cloud.

The rate of ionization of the air near the
ground was found to vary considerably
with the condition of the soil. A reduction
in value occurs when the soil is covered
with snow and when it is wet. These re-
sults are illustrated by Fig. 14, which per-
mits a comparison of diurnal variation
curves of the rate of ionization when the
soil is dry with that when it is wet and also
when the ground is covered with snow with
that when it is not. It is apparent that the
wet soil and also the covering of snow have
appreciably reduced the rate of ionization
of the air. The reduction in the case of the
wet soil was greatest during the early-
morning hours, thus altering somewhat
the character of the diurnal variation curve.
In attempting an explanation of the re-
duced ionization in the two cases cited, it
should be recalled that much of the ioniza-
tion of the air is due to the presence of
radioactive matter and that this matter
originates from radioactive gases that came
from the soil. A blanket of snow and the
moisture in the small capillaries in the soil
inhibit the escape of the radioactive gases
and consequently reduce the amount of
radioactive matter in the atmosphere re-
sulting in a reduction in rate of ionization.

From the curves just shown it is appar-
ent that an important diurnal variation
occurs in the rate of production of small
ions in the lower atmosphere with somewhat
different characteristics in summer and
winter. The rate of production for both
seasons passes through a maximum during
the early-morning hours and a minimum
during the evening. The diurnal variation

O37

is more pronounced in summer than in
winter. It is probably due to the fact that
during the night hours radioactive matter
accumulates in the lower atmosphere and
is dispersed vertically as the wind increases
in morning hours. It is probable that the
more pronounced convective air currents
are responsible for the greater diurnal var-
lation in summer. This diurnal variation,
together with that of large ions, accounts
in large part for the diurnal variation in
conductivity of the air.

It seems reasonable to suppose that a fall
in barometric pressure has a tendency to
drive radioactive gases from the soil. An
increase in temperature of the soil would
have a similar effect. As a consequence, the
amount of radioactive matter in the air
would show an increase under such circum-
stances. Some observers seem to have found
an increase in the radium A content of the
air with a falling barometer and also with
ah increase in temperature while others
have found no such effects. McNish and
the writer have secured continuous records
of the ionization of the atmosphere for both
decreasing barometric pressure and increas-
ing temperature here in Washington; the
results are shown in Fig. 15. Inspection of
the curves fails to disclose any important
changes in the ionization with changes in
barometric pressure or temperature, thus

indicating that any effect is not pronounced.

Any possible relationship can, therefore, be
disclosed only by statistical treatment em-
ploying a considerable number of da‘a.
For some of the tests the apparatus for
counting the small and large ions was set
up in the main building where, it » was
hoped, conditions would be more uniform
and to some extent subject to control. It
was believed that the various elements to
be measured, in contrast to results ob-
tained outside, would probably not vary
greatly through the day. The measure-
ments soon proved this belief to be falla-
cious. On Sundays no diurnal variation was
observed. On other days it was found to be
large. Furthermore, the variations sug-
gested dependence on the occupancy of the
building by people. When they came to
work in the morning the number of large
ions in the room began to increase and the

338

number of small ions, as a result, to de-
crease. When the building was vacated at
night the reverse changes occurred.
Throughout the week there appeared to be
Superimposed on the systematic diurnal
variation a gradual accumulation of large
ions in the room and the number of small
ions accordingly showed a gradual decrease
in number. At 1 o’clock on Saturday, when
occupancy of the building terminated for
the weekend, the number of large ions be-
gan gradually to decrease. This decrease
prevailed until Monday morning when the
building was again occupied. The number
of small ions always showed the opposite
changes in rather faithful detail. These re-
sults are summarized by the curves shown

a

(9
Bay
Bisae ed

Bo

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

<a
7 se
2?
<
Soc
eee
-o-or™
eats
oe
of
Gewin en
—_—s
f
bas

3
satus 3764 1ON- PRODUCTION
ey ike __ BAROMETRIC
c |@ PRESSURE
~ =
7v SO% Sie eee ATMOSPHERIC
he , | fg | TEMPERATURE
“ V/yle {8 R INOICATES DAYS
’ K2 <6 | OURING WHICH RAIN
\ 1\ FELL

VOL. 36, NO. 10

in Fig. 16. Not all the reasons for these
changes have as yet been ascertained; two
of the more important, however, are as
follows: (1) Tobacco smoke from other
parts of the building entered the room in
spite of attempts to seal the room from
other parts of the building, and no smoking
occurred in the room itself; (2) particles, —
considerably larger than those constituting
tobacco smoke, are given off in the human
breath and accumulate in the air of the
room. Many of the particles in the tobacco
smoke and in the breath are electrically
charged and are consequently large ions.
Other tests have shown conclusively that
every exhaled breath ‘contains several
hundred million particles, the great major-

LEGENO

a

Fic. 15.—Rate of ion-production in closed chamber and meteorological conditions—means
6-hour intervals at Washington, D. C

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE

S

| POSITIVE SMALL IONS
MOBILITY >0.8 CM/SEC/VOLT/CM

SMALL IONS PER CC (M4)

POSITIVE LARGE IONS|
MOBILITY >0.0003 CM/SEC/VOLT/ CM
1

NOTE ROOM IS OCCUPIED FROM 8” TO
MONOAYS TO FRIDAYS, FROM 8° To
SATURDAYS, ANO UNOCCUPIED SUNDAKS

(“)

< ARGE (ONS PER CC

4 SATURDAYS 4 SUMOAYS
NOON NOON

Fig. 16.—Effect of occupancy on numbers of small and of large ions inside room 210 in main labo-
ratory, Department Terrestrial Magnetism, Washington, D. C., November 17 to December 7, 1933.

le 12 18

6 l2 12

| 75° WEST MERIDIAN HOURS

WEEK DAYS Ce)

———

ROOM OCCUPIED

MONDAYS (5)

Near

ROOM OCCUPIED

\
1ON - PAIRS/CC/SEC

LARGE 10NS/CC

SATURDAYS (3) SUNOAYS (4)

KK

ROOM OCCUPIED

G
1)
>

»
2
ie)
S

-N
x
BS
ry

Fig. 17.—Ionization, small-ion content and large-ion content in room 211, Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism, February 1938.

ity of which are probably electrically
charged and nearly equally divided between
the two signs. Incidentally, the presence of
these particles makes it possible for us to
see our breath on a cold day (to use the
popular expression) because the particles
act as condensation nuclei.

Upon measuring the ionization with a
thin-walled chamber inside our laboratory
room it was found that this element also

underwent a diurnal variation suggestive of
an effect due to people occupying the
building. In Fig. 17 are shown diurnal vari-
ation curves for this element and those for
the small- and large-ion content of the alr.
The days are grouped to provide curves for
Mondays, Saturdays, other week days, and
Sundays. From these curves it is seen that
the ionization varies in a manner similar to
that of the small-ion content. In one ex-

340

periment a thick-walled chamber (of suf-
ficient thickness to stop all alpha radiation
from the radioactive matter) was used, and
very little change in ionization occurred.
In another an extremely thin-walled cham-
ber was employed and a large diurnal vari-

8

75° WEST MERIDIAN HOURS

IONIZATION IN CHAMBER WITH THIN WALL
AOMITTING Qt RADIATION (I,) p
2

oo Ke oXe eS errNeo

U e 5 — . of iS

DIFFERENCE (I;-Ip) OR THE IONIZA TION

DUE TO G& RADIATION ONLY

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

IONIZATION IN CHAMBER WITH THICK
WALL ABSORBING ALL A RAD/A-

VOL. 36, No. 10

ation in ionization was observed. A com-
parison, using data for week days, of
ionization in the thick-walled and a very
thin-walled chamber, is shown in Fig. 18.
Their differences are also plotted as a
diurnal variation curve. This shows how the

| 16

(OATA OF SEPTEMBER 1944)

PAIRS /CC/SEC

/ON-

TION (Ip)

\
.
\

Fig. 18.—Ionization measurements in closed laboratory room of building occupied by people
2 only during work hours.

se 20
s

WEST MEPBIBDIAN MEAN HOURS

Fig. 19.—Records in closed room showing effect of burning sulphur on large ions, ionization in thin-
walled chamber, and small ions plus intermediate ions, March 19-20, 1934 (potential of ionization-

chamber negative with respect to earth).

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE

alpha-ray ionization varies. The variation
of beta and gamma, ray ionization through
the day is presented in the curve for the
thick-walled chamber. These results sug-
gest that the radioactive materials, par-
ticularly those giving off alpha radiation,
gradually disappear from the air when the
building is occupied by people. This is in-
terpreted to mean that particles, smoke-
particles and those exhaled in the breath,
act In some manner to reduce the amount
of radon in the air. In any case, if such par-
ticles are the fundamental cause of the ob-
served reduction in the ionization of the air,
a test should reveal this fact. Records of
the ionization of the small-ion and of the
large-ion content of the air of a room be-
fore, during, and after the introduction of
smoke, are shown in Fig. 19. These are
clear indications that smoke does reduce
the ionization of the air as measured with a
thin-walled chamber.

There seems to be no simple way of
accounting for a reduced amount of radon
in the air resulting from the introduction
of smoke or other particles. Air containing
a large number of these particles has an in-
creased stopping power for alpha radiation.
Calculation clearly indicates, however, that
this effect is small and can not account for
the change in ionization as observed. The
agglomeration of particles and the adher-
ence of radioactive matter to them in-
creases the rate at which they fall out of the
air. It is impossible to reject entirely this
explanation. Preliminary tests, however,
make it appear unlikely that radioactive
material is removed from the air in this
way. Other possible ways of accounting for
the observed results might be suggested.
One might, for example, point to the in-
creased tendency for radioactive matter to
cling to solid objects particularly when as-
sociated with electrically charged particles
in the air. However, if radioactive matter
clings to both the cellophane-covered cham-
ber and the walls of the room without dis-
tinction, one would expect a resulting in-
crease and not a decrease in the measured
ionization of the air. At present no attempt
will be made to explain observed results. It
is hoped that additional experiments may

d41

be carried out to assist in the solution of this
problem.

A summary of the results of an experi-
ment that has been found of interest is
shown in Fig. 20. The experiment was de-
signed to determine whether an equal num-
ber of positive and negative electric charges
are given off in the human breath. If the
breath contains more charges of one sign
than of the other, the body must retain the
sign of charge not given off and conse-
quently have a tendency to assume a
charge. If appropriate means are used it is
possible to measure this charging process
and also to test the breath for any charge
that may be present. Such tests have been
carried out using a large Faraday cage
composed of copper-wire screen in the form
of a cube. A human subject was put into
the cage and insulated electrically from it,
his wrist being connected electrically, using
a cloth moistened with a salt solution, to the
fiber system of a single-fiber electrometer.
The electrometer was placed inside and its
outside case connected to the cage. As seen
from the curve, the electrometer fiber
gradually drifted in a direction which in-
dicated that the subject was receiving, or
in this instance was retaining, a positive
charge. A second subject gave the same
results and essentially the same rate of
charging which corresponded to a current
of about 10-“ amperes. If the human sys-
tem retains a positive charge, it must give
off a negative charge. In a second experi-
ment an arrangement permitted the charge
retained by the body to pass to the cage
and thence to ground, while any charge in
the breath remained inside the cage. With
the electrometer fiber now connected to an
insulated plate the electrometer through
induction will show a response to the
charged breath of the same direction as if
this sign of charge were applied directly to
the fiber system. In this experiment the
electrometer fiber drifted in a direction in-
dicating that a negative charge was ac-
cumulating in the cage as was to be ex-
pected. The rate of drift, considering the
relative capacities of the system in the two
instances, was quantitatively of the right
amount to agree with that found in the

342

TIME IN MINUTES
10 5 O

(O1VISIONS)
+

+
N%

©
s
S
ly
a
&
:
w
1S)
=
wu

SUMMARY OF RESULTS

UNIT
CHARGES
PER

CURRENT

ceva)

WV/dt

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

FOR A, & Ap

CHARGES BLOWN
OUT OF CAGE

X
_—_—
——

FAN

S=SULPHUR INSULATOR
E=ELECTROMETER

CHARGES ACCUMULATE
IN CAGE

CHARGES BLOWN
INTO CAGE

BREATH

AMPERES
2.9x10~'4+
2.8X 10~!44
2.8.x /07/4t
2.4X 10~'4y

1.0 X10-'4y,

VOLTS/SEC
4.4x 10-4
4.2x 10-4
4.3x 10-4
7.2X 10-4
3.0x 10-4

tif C=60 CM */f C=30CM

CHARGES BLOWN
OUT OF CAGE

CLLILILLILLALAL AL

Fie. 20.—Experiments demonstrating that people exhale negative and retain positive charges.

first experiment. On the assumption that
the human breath contains a negative
space-charge, then it was deemed possible
to obtain the effect by placing the subject
outside the cage and blowing the charges
into the cage with an electric fan. Two sub-
jects were so placed and a fan so situated
that their breaths would be gently blown
into the cage. The gradual drift of the elec-
trometer fiber again indicated that the
breath is negatively charged, and that the
quantitative agreement with the previous
tests is good. The subjects were suddenly
removed from the vicinity of the cage while
the fan continued to blow as before. The
electrometer fiber drifted back toward zero,
thus indicating that the space-charge was

gradually removed from the cage, as was
to be expected. Additional tests were made
and some repeated, all showing the same
general results. The above results indicate
that each breath contains about 700,000
more negative than positive charges. From
other tests, which I am unable to discuss
at this time, it is estimated that each
breath contains around a thousand times
this number of each sign. That is to say,
in a thousand positive charges given off in
the breath, there will, on the average, be
one thousand and one negative charges
given off. The whole field of breath par-
ticles is almost entirely unexplored, and
one can only hope that some day it may be
more adequately investigated.

Oct. 15, 1946 WAIT: ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LOWER ATMOSPHERE

SUMMARY

1. To understand why the conductivity
of the lower atmosphere varies so greatly
with season, through the day, and from
station to station, and even in going from
city to rural community nearby, it is neces-
sary to understand why the number of small
ions varies under those conditions.

2. The number of small ions per cc for
equilibrium-conditions depends on two fac-
tors—the rate of production and the rate of
destruction. The rate of destruction in a
locality where there are many condensation
nuclei is proportional to the sum of two
terms, one containing the number of nuclei
per cc and the other approximately a con-
stant for a given time and place.

3. Contributing toward the production
of small ions are the cosmic rays and the
radioactive material in the soil and air.
The amount of radioactive material in the
outside air is subject to considerable vari-
ation. A blanket of snow and a moist soil
reduce the amount of radioactive gas es-
caping from the soil, and consequently the
amount in the atmosphere.

4. An important diurnal variation in the
rate of production of small ions occurs. A
maximum rate occurs due probably to an
accumulation in the air of radioactive mat-
ter during the night and the early morning
hours. This is probably an important con-
tribution to the early morning maximum
in conductivity of the air noted in all the
diurnal variation curves shown. The rate
of production begins to decline as increased
mixing of the air sets in later in the day.

5. The decrease in conductivity of the
air during smoky conditions as compared
with nonsmoky conditions, shown from the
Watheroo data, is due to the destructive

343

effect of smoke particles on the small ions.
Likewise, the decreased conductivity in
Washington as compared with that in the
country districts is largely due to the ac-
cumulation in the city of smoke and gases
from automobiles, domestic fires, etc., and
the destructive effects that the particles in
the smoke and gases have upon the small
ions.

6. The gradual reduction in conductivity
of the air over the ocean is probably due to
the gradual accumulation through the
years of smoke and gases from ocean-going
vessels. It is also possible that some ac-
cumulation occurs because of industrial
fires on nearby continents.

Thus we see that, like a living thing, the
conductivity of the lower atmosphere finds
survival increasingly difficult in our modern
industrial age. Civilization is taking its toll
of this as it is of the many more tangible
things.

REFERENCES

(1) Physik. Zeitschr. 1: 11-14, 245-249. 1899;
Ann. Physik (4), 2: 425-446. 1900.

(2) Diss. Gottingen, 1904; Ann. Physik (4)
20: 174-195. 1906.

(3) Terr. Magn. 19: 23-27. 1914.

(4) Physik. Zeitschr. 6: 800-801. 1905; Terr.
Magn. 10: 65-79. 1905.

(5) Carnegie Inst. Washington Year Book
No. 16: 279-281. 1917. Terrestrial mag-
netism and electricity, edited by J. A.
Fleming, ‘‘Physics of the Earth,” chap.
8: 241-248. 1939.

(6) Terr. Magn. 36: 33-40. 1931.

(7) Phys. Rev. 48: 383. 1935; Terr. Magn. 40:
425-431. 1935.

(8) Collected Scientific Papers. Cambridge
University Press, 1923.

(9) Terr. Magn. 39: 47-64, 111-119. 1934.

(10) Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. (A), 46: 77-90.
1940.

(11) Monthly Weath. Rev. 62: 1-4. 1934. -

344

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

PALEOBOTAN Y.—Alterations an some fossil and living floras.1 RoLtanp W.

Brown, U.S. Geological Survey.

Since my last roundup of changes in
fossil floras new specimens and new infor-
mation have appeared and now warrant
another statement. Such periodic over-
haulings seem to me essential to the progress
of paleobotany because they concentrate
attention on the weak spots, invite dis-
cussion, and stimulate more precise work
before publication. Sometimes these revi-
sions find little favor. Thus, E. W. Berry
objected (9)? to some changes I proposed
(18) in the Eocene Wilcox flora of the
Gulf States on the alleged ground that
they were unsubstantiated by facts and that
his overspeciation was justified by the
principle that in the study of a fossil flora
‘it is a sound method for a refined analysis
to precede an attempted synthesis.’’ Space
does not permit a detailed reply to these
criticisms. In part, however, I herewith
submit two new species, Betula taylorana
and Comptonia mississippiana, in support
of my opinion that the Wilcox flora con-
tains scattered remains of temperate spe-
cles.

Although the changes here suggested in-
volve miscellaneous floras, particular at-
tention focuses on the flora of the Latah
(Miocene) and related formations in Wash-
ington and Idaho. The Miocene collections
of the United States National Museum
have grown steadily as a result of the gen-
erous cooperation of local collectors such
as E. E. Alexander, C. O. Fernquist, and
Kenneth Buxton, of Spokane, Wash., and
Boyd Olson, of Orofino, Idaho. In 1941 I
visited many of the Washington and Idaho
localities and obtained significant new ma-
terial, particularly diagnostic fruits and
seeds; and in 1943 I. G. Sohn, also of the
U. 8S. Geological Survey, obtained a col-
lection in the Latah formation near Elk
River, Idaho. Late in 1945 the Johns
Hopkins University deposited in the Na-
tional Museum all its Mesozoic and Ceno-

1 Published by permission of the Director, Geo-
logical Survey, U. 8. Department of the Interior.
Received June 28, 1946.

2 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to the
Literature Cited.

zoic plant collections. These include many
specimens from South American localities.

Many of the changes here proposed have
been projected as a result of consultation
with Dr. Daniel I. Axelrod, whose friendly
criticism and intelligent collaboration are
gratefully acknowledged. He, however, is
not to be held responsible for any errors I
may have perpetrated.

TROCHILISCACEAE
Trochiliscus greenei (Ulrich) Brown, n. ote
Moellerina greenet Ulrich (48), p. 34, pl. 3, figs.

8, 8a-8e.

Trochiliscus Aodomieas (Wieland) Peck (44), p

108, pl. 12, figs. 14-21. See synonymy.

In Peck’s review of North American Char-
ophyta he discussed Moellerina greener de-
scribed by E. O. Ulrich as a foraminifer from
the Onondaga limestone (Devonian) at the
Falls of the Ohio, near Jeffersonville, Ind., and
Louisville, Ky. Peck copied (44, pl. 9, figs. 2a—
2f) Ulrich’s figures and pointed out that the
spirals of the specimens as figured are sinistral,
the only known exception to the rule that the
spirals of all pre-Pennsylvanian trochiliscids
are dextral. For this reason Peck suspected that
the original figures may have been reversed
and, as the Ulrich types were thought to be
lost, he refrained from using the Ulrich name.
The types, however, are not lost but are pre-
served in the United States National Museum.
The spirals are dextral. Dr. Ulrich explained to
me on May 8, 1940, that the sinistral spirals
were an inadvertence, he having drawn the il-
lustrations by camera lucida directly on litho-
graphic stone. Consequently, in printing, a re-
versed image of the original resulted.

I see no difference between Ulrich’s Moelle-
rina greener and Peck’s Trochiliscus devonicus,
founded on a record and name only by G. R.
Wieland, and specimens subsequently collected
by Peck at Wieland’s locality.

Occurrence: Devonian. Onondaga limestone.
Falls of the Ohio, near Jeffersonville, Ind., and
Louisville, Ky.

PINACEAE

Pseudolarix bienensis (Hu and
Chaney) Brown, n. comb.

Cedrela bienensis Hu and Cheney (28), p. 54, pl.

Oct. 15, 1946 BROWN: ALTERATIONS IN SOME FOSSIL AND LIVING FLORAS

30, fig. 3 [not fig. 2, which is Rhus miosuc-

cedanea Hu and Chaney].

This winged seed lacks the distinguishing
features of Cedrela seeds but resembles closely
those of the conifers Keteleeria and Pseudolariz.
As the nutlet is rounded rather than triangular
and only about one-fourth the total length of
the seed I consider that the seed represents
Pseudolarix. The true identity of this seed neces-
sitates a modification of the statement by Hu
and Chaney (pp. 6, 109) that “the Shanwang
flora as now known is made up exclusively of
angiosperms.”

Occurrence: This species is an item in a large
flora from an outcrop of laminated Miocene
shale, called by the Chinese ‘“‘the book of ten
thousand volumes,’ near Shanwang in Shan-
tung Province, China.

SALICACEAE
Populus lindgreni Knowlton Fig. 12
Populus lindgrent Knowlton (29), p. 725, pl.

100, fig. 3.

Although several species of Populus were re-
ported in the first papers on the Latah flora,
the specimens subsequently proved assignable
to other genera. In recently acquired material,
however, there are several authentic examples
of Populus lindgrent Knowlton, which was de-
scribed originally from the Payette formation
of Idaho, now believed to be synchronous, or
nearly so, with the Latah formation.

Occurrence: Miocene. Latah formation.
Vera, Wash. (Fig. 12); collected by C. O. Fern-
quist. East of Orofino, Idaho; collected by
Boyd Olson.

MyYRICACEAE
Comptonia mississippiana Brown, n. sp.
Fig. 9

Leaves as in the living sweetfern, Comptonia
peregrina (Linnaeus) Coulter, except that the
lobes are more acute and in many instances are
deeply toothed. Judged by the numerous de-
scribed species of Comptonia the genus was
widely distributed in the North Temperate
Zone during the Tertiary, but only one species
survives and that occupies relatively dry hill-
sides and open woodland borders from Michi-
gan to Nova Scotia and south to Tennessee.

Occurrence: Eocene. In _ bauxite-bearing
strata low in the Wilcox formation in sec. 36,
T.35., R. 2. E., Tippah County, Miss.; col-
lected by Louis C. Conant.

345

BETULACEAE
Betula taylorana Brown, n. sp. Fig. 14

Leaves 8-15 cm long, acuminate, rounded at
the base, with double-serrate margins, the
teeth of nearly uniform size, rounded to acute.
Secondary veins slightly spreading, straight, or
gently curved, the basal pairs branched. Petiole
5-10 mm long. Seven fragments represent this
species, which, except for the rounded base,
resembles the yellow birch, Betula lutea Mi-
chaux, of moist uplands and stream banks in
eastern North America south to North Caro-
lina and Tennessee.

Occurrence: Eocene. Ackerman formation.
Jim Taylor farm in Chester County, 4 miles
northwest of Silerton, Hardeman County,
Tenn.; collected by F. 8S. MacNeil.

FAGACEAE
Quercus axelrodi Brown, n. sp.
Rigs hs

Leaf oblong-lanceolate to narrowly elliptic.
On several smaller specimens the apex is acute
and base cuneate to somewhat rounded. Mar-
gin entire in basal quarter of the blade, but
evenly toothed distad with large, rounded,
slightly hooked, blunt-tipped teeth directed
toward the apex. Sinuses between the teeth
relatively shallow and scalloped. Secondary
veins evenly spaced and fairly straight in upper
half of the blade, somewhat irregular and
spreading in the lower half.

Although these leaves might be compared
casually with those of the chestnut oak, Quercus
montana Willdenow, their sharper, hooked
teeth point toward closer comparison with
those of the chinquapin oak, Q. muhlenberg: En-
gelmann. The latter species is comparatively
rare in the Atlantic States but abundant in the
Mississippi Basin.

I name this species for Dr. Daniel I. Axelrod,
who has been assiduous in the study of the late
Tertiary floras of California and adjoining
States.

Occurrence: Miocene. Latah formation. Vera
Wash. (Fig. 13); collected by R. W. Brown.

- Brickyard locality, Spokane, Wash.

ULMACEAE

Zelkova drymeja (Lesquereux)
Brown, n. comb.
Rhus? drymeja Lesquereux (36), p. 416.
Myrica drymeja (Lesquereux) Knowlton (32),
p. 394. [Exclude item Knowlton, 1916, p. 256,
pl. 20, figs. 1, 2.]

346

Callicoma microphylla Ettingshausen. Lesquereux
(37), p. 246, pl. 48, figs. 2-4.

Myrica callicomaefolia Lesquereux (39), p. °146,
pl. 26, figs. 5-14.

Myrica fallax Lesquereux (39), p. 147, pl. 32,
figs. 11-14 [not figs. 15, 16].

Ulmus brownellit Lesquereux (39), p. 160, pl. 28,
figs. 2,4. —

Fagopsis longifolia (Lesquereux) Hollick. Knowl-
ton (31), p. 265, pl. 20, fig. 5.

The leaves included in the foregoing synon-
ymy are in general asymmetric, linear-lanceo-
late in outline, with acute to attenuate apices,
and evenly serrate margins, the teeth being sin-
gle, sharp triangular, and only rarely somewhat
rounded to mammillate. The large suite in the
Florissant collection of the U. S. National Mu-
seum contains no broad-ovate specimens with
large round-mammillate teeth. Consequently,
I conclude this species differs from Zelkova
hesperia particularly in this feature and from Z.
nervosa in having leaves that are more lanceo-
late in outline.

Occurrence: Oligocene. Lake beds at Floris-
sant, Colo.

Zelkova hesperia Brown, n. sp. Fig. 3
Ulmus brownellit Lesquereux. Chaney (21), p.

113, pl. 12, figs. 3, 6, 7, 8; pl. 13, figs. 1, 3, 6.

[Exclude the synonymy.]

As the types of Ulmus brownellia Lesquereux
from Florissant, Colo., are herein referred to
Zelkova drymeja (Lesquereux) Brown, the spe-
cies from the Crooked River region of Oregon,
being regarded as different, requires a new spe-
cific name.

The leaves of this species display considera-
ble variation in outline and dentition. They are
more or less asymmetric, tend to be ovate-
lanceolate in form, with acute to blunt apices,
and evenly serrate margins, the teeth being
single, sharp-angular in some instances but
rounded-mammillate in others, as in the figured
specimen.

This species was originally compared with
Ulmus parvifolia Jacquin, but the latter, al-
though admittedly bearing some single-serrate
leaves, has preponderantly double-serrate foli-
age. I have never seen a double-serrate leaf in
Zelkova hesperia, though this could be possible,
as it is rarely in the living species of Zelkova.
However, the regular, shghtly curving, but un-
branched secondaries, with an exceptional sec-
ondary forking near the midrib, and the clear-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 36, No. 10

cut regularity of the teeth, are features that dis-
tinguish these leaves as Zelkova and remove
them from Ulmus.

The species differs from Zelkova drymeja at
Florissant, Colo., chiefly in having broader
variants among its leaves and in the teeth being
more conspicuously rounded.

Occurrence: Oligocene. Gray Ranch (now
McCullough), 11 miles east of Post, on Crooked
River, Oreg.; collected by R. W. Brown.

Zelkova nervosa (Newberry) Brown,
n. comb.

Planera nervosa Newberry (42), p. 508; 43, p. 83,
pl. 67, figs. 2, 3; Brown (10), p. 284, pl. 71,
figs. 7-9; Brown (11), p. 56. [See synonymy.]

Myrica minuta Knowlton (33), p. 157, pl. 37,
fig. 12; Brown (1/1), p. 54, pl. 9, figs. 1, 2. [See
synonymy.|
In my discussions of the species here synon-

ymized I referred to the possibility of their
being Zelkova. Recent collections have yielded
additional twigs bearing characteristic leaves
and fruits that confirm the validity of the trans-
fer to Zelkova.

These leaves are in general only slightly
asymmetric, with occasional conspicuous ex-
ceptions. They are linear-ovate to elliptic in
outline, the widest portion of the blade being at
or just below the midpoint of the midrib. The
teeth are single, serrate, sharp or rounded, re-
celving the slightly curved, unbranched sec-
ondary veins.

This species differs from Zelkova drymeja and
Z. hesperia chiefly in having foliage that is not-
ably more elliptic in outline.

Occurrence: Eocene. Green River formation.
At numerous localities in Colorado.

Zelkova ungeri Kovats

Zelkova ungert Kovats. Hu and Chaney (28), p.
Al, pl. 15, figs. 1, 3, 4; pl. 16, figs. 1, 3.

Carpinus mioturczaninowit Hu and Chaney (28),
p. 33, pl. 9, fig. 2 [not other figures].

Acer miohenryt Hu and Chaney (28), p. 59, pl.
33, fig. 3c; pl. 34, fig. 2; pl. 35, fig. 2 [not other
figures].

The large, rounded, mammillate, simple
teeth, the generally unbranched secondaries,
but with occasional forks starting well in to-
ward the midrib, identify these leaves as Zel-
kova. They can be matched from almost any
tree of Zelkova serrata Maximowicz.

Occurrence: Miocene. Shanwang, China,

Oct. 15, 1946 BROWN: ALTERATIONS IN SOME FOSSIL AND LIVING FLORAS O47

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R

Fies. 1, 2.—Koelreuteria mizta (Lesquereux) Brown, n. comb. Fie. 3.—Zelkova hesperia Brown, n.
sp. Fries. 4-6.—Exbucklandia oregonensis (Chaney) Brown, n. comb. Fas. 7, 8.—Seeds of Liquid-
ambar sp. Fie. 9.—Comptonia mississippiana Brown, n. sp. Fie. 10.—Halesia columbiana Brown,
n. sp. Fie. 11.—Mahonia simplex (Newberry) Arnold. Fie. 12.—Populus lindgrent Knowlton.
Fig. 13.—Quercus azelrodi Brown, n. sp. Fic. 14.—Betula taylorana Brown, n. sp. Fie. 15.—Rhedo-
dendron chaneyi Brown, n. sp. _ All figures natural size.

348

BERBERIDACEAE
Mahonia simplex (Newberry) Arnold
Fig. 11
Mahonia simplex (Newberry) Arnold (1), p. 58,
pl. 1, figs. 1-8, 6-7; ple 2, figs. 1-2.
A small, fragmentary leaflet, bearing only
the terminal and one lateral, sharp-pointed

lobe, apparently represents this species, the’

first time to be reported from the Latah forma-
tion.

Occurrence: Miocene. Latah formation. Near
Elk River, Idaho; collected by I. G. Sohn.

LAURACEAE
Persea lanceolata (Berry) Brown, n. comb.
Laurus similis Knowlton (34), p. 41, pl. 23, figs.,

4, 5, 6; pl. 24, fig. 2; Berry (4) p. 259, pl. 58,

fig. 2; Brown (13), p. 174.

Umbellularia lanceolata Berry (4), p. 260, pl. 59,
foes les

In 1937 I intimated that these leaves from
the Latah formation might belong to Persea.
Further consideration leads me now to make
the transfer. The leaves originally described by
Knowlton from Comstock, Oreg., as Laurus sim-
ilis were transferred by Sanborn to Persea
pseudocarolinensis Lesquereux, which was de-
scribed from Middle Eocene deposits near
Colfax, Calif. Potbury also identified the latter
species at La Porte, Calif., in deposits of late
Kocene or early Oligocene age.

These leaves do not represent Umbellularia,
because they lack the characteristic, although
sometimes obscure, paired basal veins (incipi-
ent primaries) seen on the leaves of that genus.
Considerable variety is displayed by the Latah
leaves, but the dominant forms appear to be
relatively long and narrow. They resemble the
leaves of the living redbay, Persea borbonia
(Linnaeus) Sprengel, of the southeastern
States.

Occurrence: Miocene. Latah formation. Spo-
kane, Wash.

HAMAMELIDACEAE
Exbucklandia Roland W. Brown, n. name
(for Bucklandia Robert Brown)

In 1825 the name Bucklandia was published
in the Tentamen of Sternberg’s Flora der Vor-
welt to include fossil stems of eycadeoid affinity.
The authorship of the name has been attributed
to both Presl and Sternberg, but this is now im-
material. In 1832 Robert Brown used the name
Bucklandia for a genus of the witchhazel fam-
ily, Hamamelidaceae, represented by one spe-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 36, No. 10

cies, B. populnea, a tall tree of the eastern
Himalayas and the mountainous areas of
southern China. Inasmuch as the 1825 ey-
cadeoid name has priority, the witchhazel genus
requires a new name. For this I propose Hz-
bucklandia, the derivation of which is obvious.
The single species becomes Exbucklandva
populnea (Robert Brown) Roland W. Brown.

Exbucklandia oregonensis (Chaney)
Brown, n. comb. Figs. 4-6

Cercis oregonensis Chaney (19), p. 177, pl. 16,

figs. 3, 4.

Ficus? washingtonensis Knowlton (34), p. 40, pl.

25; pl. 26, figs. 1-3.

Meibomites lucens Knowlton (34), p. 44, pl. 28,
fig. 10. |

Mabomins knowltont Berry (4), p. 253, pl. 56,
lee) Oe

Ceres spokanensis Knowlton. Brown (13), p. 177,
pl. 54, figs. 8, 9 [not other figures].

In 1937 I considered that the leaves from the
Latah formation described by Knowlton as
Ficus? washingtonensis and the pods he called
Cercis spokanensis were produced by the same
species of plant. This opinion was based on the
somewhat swollen appearance of the top of the.
petiole at the base of the blade, which is a fea-
ture common to most leguminous leaves and
leaflets. Recently, however, at the suggestion
of Dr. D. I. Axelrod, I compared the leaves
with those of Exbucklandia populnea (Robert
Brown) Roland W. Brown, a hamamelidaceous
species inhabitating the mountainous areas of
Kwangsi, Kwantung, and Yunnan, China, at
elevations of 5,000 feet, more or less. The simi-
larity in outline, even to the occasional pointed
lobes, in venation, in texture, and in the some-
what alate top of the petiole, were so striking
that I looked for confirmation of the identifica-
tion among the fruits and seeds in the Latah
collections where I found the fruit and seed
here illustrated. Similar associated leaves and
fruits occur on Layng Creek near Rujada, Oreg.
The fruits are heads, 1.5-2 cm in diameter,
composed of five or more perfect and several
aborted capsules. The peduncles are relatively
slender as compared with those of Hxbucklandia
populnea. The seed, which superficially resem-
bles those of Liqguidambar but is twice as large,
is winged, the nutlet being obliquely set, of
about the same length as the wing, rounded at
the proximal end and sharp-pointed at the dis-
tal end, thus presenting a somewhat triangular
appearance. The wing is not divided lengthwise

Oct. 15, 1946 BROWN: ALTERATIONS IN SOME FOSSIL AND LIVING FLORAS

by a conspicuous line or vein as in Liquidambar,
but this feature may be obscure or absent in
fossil seeds of Liguidambar, as illustrated in
Figs. 7, 8.

This disposition of the foliage of Cercis
oregonensis Chaney and Ficus? washingtonensis
Knowlton leaves the pods called Cercis spo-
kanensis Knowlton as originally described but
does not explain their affinity. They appear to
be too large, thick, and blunt for acceptance as
Cercis. Somewhat similar and perhaps identical
pods were described from Bridgeton, N. J., by
Hollick (26, p. 49) as Mezoneurum bridgetonense
(pl. 258, figs. 1-7) and Lonchocarpus novae-
caesareae (pl. 259, figs. 6-8). These two species
are, In my opinion, a single species, but whether
they are referable to either Mezoneurum or
Lonchocarpus remains to be determined. Hol-
lick tentatively regarded the Bridgeton de-
posits as late Tertiary or Pleistocene. The La-
tah pods may be related to the foliage now
called Sophora spokanensis Knowlton, but the
latter may be a mixture of several legumes
which cannot yet be differentiated.

Occurrence: Miocene. Eagle Creek forma-
tion, near Bonneville, Oreg. Latah formation,
brickyard locality, Spokane, Wash. (Figs. 4, 5)
collected by E. E. Alexander. One mile east of
Layng Creek Ranger Station, near Rujada,
Oreg. (Fig. 6); collected by R. W. Brown and
A. G. Simson.

ROSACEAE

Amelanchier couleeana (Berry)
Brown, n. comb.

Phyllites couleeanus Berry (6), p. 42, pl. 18, fig. 12.

Amelanchier scuddert Cockerell. Berry (4), p. 252,
pl. 55, fig. 4.

Amelanchier grayt Chaney. MacGinitie (40), p.
58.

Amelanchier magnifolia Arnold (2), p. 89, pl. 4,
figs. 1, 4; text figs. 2, 3.

Amelanchier dignatus (Knowlton) Brown (12), p.
577 [not pl. 69, figs. 5, 6, which need reidentifi-
cation]; Brown (18), p. 176, pl. 53, fig. 11.

Amelanchier dignata (Knowlton) Smith (47), p.
514, pl. 13, fig. 2.

Amelanchier elliptica Smith (47), p. 514, pl. 13,
fig. 1.

Amelanchier subserrata Smith (47), p. 514, pl. 13,
fig 7.

In 1935 I erred in transferring Celastrus dig-
natus Knowlton (30, p. 71, pl. 11, fig. 5) to

Amelanchier, later finding that it is a specimen
of Zelkova oregoniana (Knowlton) Brown.

349

Occurrence: Miocene. Grand Coulee, Wash.,
and other localities in adjacent states.

FABACEAE

Cladrastis oregonensis (Knowlton and
Cockerell) Brown, n. comb.

Fraxinus oregonensis Knowlton and Cockerell.
Knowlton (32), p. 296.

Umbellularia oregonensis (Knowlton and Cocker-
ell) Chaney (20), p. 60, pl. 1, figs. 1, 3, 5, 7;
Chaney (21), p. 117, pl. 14, fig. 2.

Cladrastis oregonensis Brown (14), p. 415, fig. 1.
Comparison of the fossil leaves most re-

cently identified as Umbellularia oregonensts

with similar living leaves of Umbellularia shows
that the fossils lack a significant feature of most

Umbellularia leaves, the pair of obscure basal

primaries. Furthermore, in the fossils the sec-

ondary veins display constant smooth curva-
tion, whereas in Umbellularia the secondaries
are somewhat irregular, and are almost
straight for some distance after emergence
from the midrib until they curve upward ab-
ruptly toward the adjacent secondary. Finally,
the relatively short, thick petioles of the fossils
are finely striated transversely, which is an al-
most infallible indicator of leguminous affinity.

The outline, venation, and petiole of these

leaves can be matched in leaves of some Asiatic

species of Cladrastis, particularly C. platycarpa

(Maximowicz) Makino. As a fossil pod of

Cladrastis has already been described from the

same locality the presumption seems reasona-

ble that the pod and leaves confirm one an-
other. It is further possible that the small fossil
pods called Micropodium ovatum (Lesquereux)

Brown also belong with this species or that the

leaves represent two species not readily separa-

ble.
Occurrence: Oligocene shales on Bridge

Creek and Crooked River, Oreg.

SAPINDACEAE
Koelreuteria miointegrifoliola
Hu and Chaney
Koelreuteria miointegrifoliola Hu and Chaney

(28), p. 64, pl. 38, fig. 1 [not pl. 38, fig. 3, nor

pl. 39, fig. 3 (which is identical with pl. 8, fig.

5), both being referable to a species of Jug-

landaceae].

Comparison of the leaflets assigned to this
species with the leaflet of Koelreuteria integri-
foliola Merrill (pl. 39, fig. 2), although suggest-
ing some similarities, shows that they differ

350

in three important particulars: the marginal
teeth are sharp serrate-dentate rather than
blunt and crenate; they lack petioles; and they
have no prominent intersecondaries. The leaf-
lets, therefore, are not referable to Koelreu-

teria, but to one of the juglandaceous species of -

the same flora.

With the elimination of these leaflets only
the capsule now represents Koelreuterta mioin-
tegrifoliola. Speculation, however, prompts an
inspection of the remainder of the flora for pos-
sibilities of Koelreuteria foliage. Other pin-
nately compound-leaved species described by
Hu and Chaney are: Atlanthus youngi, Cedrela
bienensis, Prstacia miochinensis, and Rhus
miosuccedanea. Of these, Cedrela bienensis is re-
moved by transfer (see Pseudolarix) to other
genera. The leaflets and fragmentary seed (pl.
30, figs. 4, 5, 8, 9), referred to Atlanthus young,
are mixed. The illustration reveals nothing con-
clusive as to the correct identity of the seed.
The leaflet (fig. 4), with its numerous, sharp,
serrate teeth, certainly does not represent
Atlanthus. The remaining leaflets, together
with those of Pistacia miochinensis and Rhus
miosuccedanea are, therefore, under suspicion
of harboring among their number some that be-
long to Koelreuteria, but without having the
actual specimens for comparison with living
material I hesitate to make any specific trans-
fers.

Occurrence: Miocene. Shanwang, China.

Koelreuteria reticulata (Ettingshausen)
Brown, n. comb.

Dalbergia reticulata Ettingshausen (23), p. 37, pl.
4, fig. 5 [not fig. 6, which is Copazfera longestt-
pitata Kovats].

Tmesipteris reticulata (Ettingshausen) Hollick
(25) ps 250!

Phyllites reticulatus (Ettingshausen) Florin (24),
p. 255.

Ptelea macroptera Kovats (35), p. 51, pl. 1, fig. 2.

Koelreuteria macroptera (Kovats) Edwards (22),
ep ualely:

Ettingshausen’s specimen is a fragmentary
valve without evidence of seeds, but the reticu-
lations are fairly clear. Kovats’s specimen is a
large, fragmentary valve with the impressions
of two rounded seeds, but the reticulations are
obscure. As both specimens came from the
same strata near Tallya in northeastern Hun-
gary, I see no practical reason for regarding
them as different species. Whether this species
should also include specimens from the Mio-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

cene of Switzerland and Bohemia, erroneously
identified by Heer and Brabenec, respectively,
as Salvinia reticulata (Ettingshausen) Heer,
must depend on the finding of better material.
What reported leaflets should be assigned to
this species is also debatable. Ettingshausen
(23, p. 36, pl. 2, fig. 10) identified as Rhus
paulliniaefolia what are apparently the apical
three leaflets of a compound leaf. These leaflets
came from the same locality as the valves here
referred to Koelreuteria reticulata and could, by
comparison with the leaflets of some living spe-
cies, have come from a species of Koelreuteria.
However, caution is indicated because Ettings-
hausen also reported from the same strata one
leaflet referred to Sapindus falcifolius Al
Braun (p. 33, pl. 4, fig. 1) and another to S.
hazlinskyi Ettingshausen (p. 338, pl. 4, fig. 2
both of which could also be duplicated from liv-
ing species of Koelreuterva.

Occurrence: Miocene strata near Tallya,
Hungary.

Koelreuteria nigricans (Lesquereux)
Brown, n. comb.

Myrica nigricans Lesquereux (37), p. 132, pl. 17,
figs. 9-12.

Rhus nigricans (Lesquereux) Knowlton (33), p.
168.

Myrica ludwigit Schimper. Lesquereux (37), p.
133, pl. 65, fig. 9.

Myrica undulata? Heer. Lesquereux (37), p. 131,
pl. 17, figs. 6, 7 [not fig. 8, which remains. It is
from Elko, Nev., not Green River, Wyo.]

Myrica alkalina Lesquereux (39), p. 149, pl. 45A,
figs. 10-15; Brown (10), p. 288, pl. 71, figs.
2, 3.

Myrica zachariensis Saporta. Lesquereux (39), p.
146, pl. 45A, figs. 6-9 [not pl. 25, fig. 5, which
is a Florissant specimen].

Myrica sp. Knowlton (33), p. 157, pl. 37, fig. 2.

Planera variabilis Newberry (43), p. 83, pl. 66,
fig. 7 [not figs. 5, 6].

Rhus variabilis (Newberry) Knowlton (33), p.
167; Brown (11), p. 59, pl. 11, figs. 1-4.

Rhus myricoides Knowlton (33), p. 188, pl. 37,
figs. 9-11; Brown (10), p. 287, pl. 73, fig. 9.

Comptonia insignis (Lesquereux) Cockerell.
Brown (11), p. 54.

Staphylea viridifluminis Hollick (27), p. 96, pl. 2,
fig. 3.

Koelreuteria viridifluminis (Hollick) Brown (11),
p. 62, pl. 10, fig. 10; Brown (17), p. 865, fig. 1
(N, O).

In my previous publications on the flora
from the Green River formation I have repeat-
edly suggested the reference to Koelreuteria
of most of the species here synonymized. The

Oct. 15, 1946 BROWN: ALTERATIONS IN SOME FOSSIL AND LIVING FLORAS

aggregation is diverse, but I see no escape, be-
cause I find abundant intergradations. The
leaflets now assigned to Koelreuteria nigricans
are distinguished by being petiolulate and gen-
erally, but not always, elliptic in outline with
the widest part of the blade midway between
base and apex, whereas the leaflets of Rhus are
nearly always sessile with a lanceolate to ovate-
lanceolate outline, except in R. copallina Lin-
naeus, whose leaflets may also be elliptic in
outline, but the rachis is more or less alate.

The valves of Koelreuteria nigricans are
elongated elliptical. One figured specimen
(Brown, 11, pl. 10, fig. 10) shows the broad
placental flange to which the seed was at-
tached.

Occurrence: Middle Eocene. Green River
formation. Numerous localities in Colorado
and Wyoming. Lesquereux’s locality citation
for Myrica undulata? Heer (figs. 6, 7) as Elko,
Ney., is incorrect and should be “near Green
River Station, Wyo.”’

Koelreuteria mixta (Lesquereux)
Brown, n. comb. Figs. 1, 2

Rhus mixta Lesquereux (38), p. 30, pl. 9, fig. 13;
MacGinitie (41), p. 142, pl. 35, figs. 1, 4; pl. 36,
ita
Soon after MacGinitie’s study of the Middle

Eocene Chalk Bluffs flora of the Sierra Nevada

had been published I discovered among the

National Museum collections from Independ-

ence Hill, Calif., the capsular valve of Koel-

reuteria here figured. It compares in size with
the largest of Koelreuteria alleni (Lesquereux)

Edwards from the lake beds at Florissant, Colo.,

but the reticulate venation has a tendency to-

ward elongation, whereas in K. alleni the retic-
ulations are rather evenly polygonal to squar-
ish. No impressions of seeds are evident.
Although MacGinitie found a favorable com-
parison between the leaflets of Rhus mixta and
leaflets of some living species of Rhus, there is
at least one suspicious difference, namely, that
the fossil leaflets are distinctly petiolulate (see

MacGinitie’s pl. 35, fig. 1; pl. 36, fig. 1),

whereas the leaflets of Rhus are generally ses-

sile or nearly so. I am therefore swayed to be-
lieve that these leaflets represent Koelreuteria.

Not all the leaflets are toothed, some, as that

figured, being entire. These leaflets resemble

rather closely some of Koelreuteria nigricans

(Lesquereux) Brown of the Green River for-

dol

mation in Colorado and Wyoming. MacGinitie
synonymized Astroniwm oregonum Chaney and
Sanborn with Rhus mixta, but I hesitate to do
so, inasmuch as no capsules of Koelreuteria have
been taken, or at least not reported, from the
Goshen and Comstock deposits.

Occurrence: Middle Eocene strata at You
Bet (Fig. 2) and Independence Hill (Fig. 1),
near Colfax, Calif.; collected by R. W. Brown
and Cooper Curtice, respectively.

STYRACACEAE
Halesia columbiana Brown, n. sp.
Fig. 10
Fruit 3 em long, two-winged, oblong in out-
line, tipped by the blunt remains of the style.
Peduncle broken. This fruit resembles closely
those of the silverbell tree, Halesia diptera El-
lis. The latter is a small tree that inhabits wet
woods and borders of swamps in the southeast-
ern United States. I have seen no leaves in the
Latah collections that could be assigned be-
yond doubt to this species.
Occurrence: Miocene. Latah formation.
Brickyard locality, Spokane, Wash.; collected
by R. W. Brown.

ERICACEAE
Gaultheria pacifica Brown, n. sp.
Arbutus matthest Chaney. Brown (13), p. 184, pl.

59, figs. 5, 6 [not fig. 1, which is transferred to

A. itdahoensis (Knowlton) Brown].

Soon after I identified these leaves from the
Latah formation as Arbutus matthest Chaney,
originally described from Oligocene strata on
Crooked River, Oreg., I realized that I had
made a mistake. They compare much more
favorably with the leaves of Gaultheria than
with those of Arbutus. The few, widely spaced,
long, looped secondaries that curve upward
toward the acute apex, the numerous, minute
sharp, serrate, marginal teeth, and the rounded
to cordate bases are notable identifying fea-
tures. Among the 90 species of Gaultheria whose
distribution is in the warmer regions of the
Americas, Asia, and Australia, the closest living
match for the fossils seems to be G. shallon
Pursh, of the Pacific coastal region. The pres-
ence of G. pacifica in the Latah flora, as judged
by the climatic requirements of G. shallon, em-
phasizes the relatively mild, moist character
of the Latah environment. This species appears
to be the first recognized fossil Gaultheria from
the Western Hemisphere. Several species based,

Jo2

in my Opinion, on somewhat dubious evidence,
as judged by the illustrations, have been de-
seribed from European localities.

Occurrence: Miocene. Latah formation,
Brickyard locality, Spokane, Wash.

Rhododendron chaneyi Brown, n. sp.
Fig. 15

Leaves 15-20 cm long, lanceolate to elliptic
in outline, with cuneate to rounded base, the
form of the apex being unknown. Margin en-
tire, heavy. Petiole 3.5 cm long, stout. Midrib
stout, straight to slightly curved; secondaries
evenly spaced, camptodrome, smooth to some-
what irregular, with short intersecondaries.
Five incomplete specimens represent this spe-
cles.

These leaves are smaller, slenderer, less ob-
lanceolate in outline, and thinner in texture
than the leaves of Rhododendron maximum Lin-
naeus of eastern North America. The species,
however, was probably adapted to climatic
conditions similar to those under which the lat-
ter thrives. Most of the fossil rhododendrons so
far described from North America leave con-
siderable to be desired as regards convincing
identity. Probably all can be referred readily to
other genera.

I name this species for Dr. Ralph W. Chaney,
who has contributed much to the progress of
paleobotany in the United States.

Occurrence: Oligocene. About 11 miles east
of Post, on Crooked River, Oreg., collected by
R. W. Brown.

ADDITIONAL CHANGES

Arbutus matthest Chaney. Brown (13, p. 184,
pl. 59, fig. 1) = Arbutus idahoensis (Knowlton)
Brown.

Arisaema hesperia Knowlton (34), p. 29, pl.
10, fig. 1 =Liquidambar pachyphyllum Knowl-
ton. This specimen is a much worn sweetgum
fruit as can be seen by comparison with the
better preserved specimen (Fig. 10) shown on
the same plate but identified by Knowlton as
Liquidambar.

Cebatha heteromorpha (Knowlton) Berry
(6), p. 87 =Cocculus heteromorpha (Knowlton)
Brown, n. comb. Cocculus is the currently ac-
cepted name for this genus.

Cedrela bienensis Hu and Chaney (28), p. 54,
pl. 30, fig. 2=Rhus miosuccedanea Hu and
Chaney.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

Cedrela? pteriformis (Berry) Brown. Smith
(47), p. 516, pl. 14, fig. 2=Quercus simulat
Knowlton.

Celastrus dignatus Knowlton (30), p. 71, pl.
ll, fig. 5=Zelkova oregoniana (Knowlton)
Brown.

Cercocarpus praeledifolius Berry. Brown (13),
p. 177, pl. 56, fig. 13 =unidentified leaf. I find,
on recomparison, that this leaf is not the same
as the type, and there is considerable doubt.
that the latter represents Cercocarpus.

Engelhardtia tuckert Smith (45), p. 226, pl. 1,
fig. 4=Acer sp. This is a fragmentary three-
lobed leaf. In 1941 I collected an almost ex-
actly identical specimen at the same Hog
Creek, Idaho, locality, but it is somewhat bet-
ter preserved and has several teeth on the
lobes.

Glyptostrobus? staminate aments. Berry (4),
p. 239, pl. 63, fig. 1 = Taxodium dubsum (Stern-
berg) Heer.

Hicoria washingtoniana Berry (6), p. 35, pl. |
11, fig. 4=Magnolia dayana Cockerell. The
margins of this broken leaf and its counterpart —
are entire, not crenate as described and illus-
trated.

Limnanthemum circularis (Chaney) Brown
(16), p. 352 =Nymphoides circularis (Chaney)
Brown, n. comb. The currently ‘accepted name
for Limnanthemum is Nymphoides and the
genus is considered as belonging to the Gen-
tianaceae rather than the Menyanthaceae.

Liquidambar europaeum Al. Braun. New-
berry (43), p. 100, pl. 47, fig. 3 =Sparganium
sp. Although Liquidambar is present in the
flora from the shales on Bridge Creek, Oreg.,
this fruiting head, originally attributed to
Liquidambar, has _ single-beaked carpels,
whereas those of Liquidambar are two-beaked.
Fossil fruits of Liquidambar are coarser in ap-
pearance than those referred to Sparganium
and usually display several deep cavities.

Liquidambar fruit. Knowlton (34), p. 42, pl.
10, fig. 10 = Liquidambar pachyphyllum Knowl-
ton.

Magnolia spectabilis Knowlton. Berry (8), p.
93, fig. 1 =Nyssa hesperra Berry.

Nyssa knowltoni Berry. Brown (18), p. 184,
pl. 62, figs. 1-3 = Nyssa hesperva Berry.

Nyssa knowltoni Berry (4), p. 261, pl. 59, fig.
7 =Ptelea miocenica Berry. Without seeing the
specimens themselves I hésitate to pass judg-
ment on the identity of the leaves identified as

Oct. 15, 1946 BROWN: ALTERATIONS IN SOME FOSSIL AND LIVING FLORAS

Nyssa knowltoni by Arnold (2, p. 97, pl. 8, figs.
it):

Populus, pistillate ament. Berry (4), p. 243,
pl. 63, fig. 7=Taxodium dubtum (Sternberg)
Heer.

Quercus deflexiloba Smith (47), p. 506, pl. 8,
fig. 4=Quercus pseudolyrata Lesquereux.

Quercus merriami Knowlton (34), p. 35, pl.
19, figs. 4, 5 =Quercus payettensis Knowlton.

Quercus spokanensis gracilis Berry (7), p.
110, pl. 20, figs. 4, 5 =Quercus eoprinus Smith.
The specimens described by Berry, when com-
pared with the specimen described by Knowl-
ton as Quercus spokanensis, which is a Cas-
tanea, are found to be distinct, warranting the
omission of the term spokanensis. As gracilis
was once used by Newberry for a species of
Quercus, which is now a synonym of Dryophyl-
lum subfalcatum Lesquereux, the term eoprinus
becomes valid.

Quercus ursina Knowlton. Berry (8), p. 92,
fig. 8 =Quercus pseudolyrata Lesquereux. This
specimen, as well as a number of others that
are more typical of the species, comes from
Grand Coulee, Wash. They are the first re-
ported specimens of this species from the Latah
formation.

Rhamnus idahoensis Brown (13), p. 181, pl.
56, fig. 4= Viburnum lantanafolium Berry.

Rhododendron idahoensis Smith (46), p. 480, pl.
13, figs. 6, 10 =Castanopsis perplexa (Knowlton)
Brown.

Salix florissantt Knowlton and Cockerell.
_ Berry (4), p. 242, pl. 64, fig. 16 =Salix hesperia
(Knowlton) Condit.

Salix spokanensis (Berry) Brown (18), p.
168, pl. 46, fig. 8 =Sophora spokanensis Knowl-
ton. A reexamination of the petiole of this
specimen shows transverse striations character-
istic of most leguminous leaves and leaflets.
Under occurrence and in the plate legend this
specimen was erroneously listed as from Idaho
City, Idaho. It is from Spokane, Wash. The
specimens remaining in Salix spokanensis as
given in my 1937 synonymy perhaps repre-
sent a mixture. Some seem to be small leaves
of Salix hesperia (Knowlton) Condit. Others
may not belong to Salix. However, I am not
yet prepared to resolve this difficulty.

Sapindus idahoensis Smith (47), p. 518, pl.
13, fig. 6=Quercus simulata Knowlton. The
long petiole of this leaf removes the specimen
from Sapindus.

353

Sequoia langsdorfi (Brongniart) Heer. Knowl-
ton (33), p. 26, pl. 9, figs. 3-6; Berry (7), p.
104 = Tavodium dubium (Sternberg) Heer. All
the material from the Latah formation in the
National Museum collections, heretofore as-
signed to Sequova langsdorfi, has stalked leaves
without the prominent, twisted, decurrent
bases characteristic of Sequova.

Smilax lamarensis Knowlton. Berry (4), p.
240 plioaetue. to: Berry (7), ;.ps, 105,) pl. 19:
fig. 7=Smilax magna Chaney. Although two
species of Smilax could very well have been
present in the Latah flora, the specimens so
far reported could equally well have been pro-
duced by the same Miocene species.

Theobroma fossilium Berry (5), p. 8, pl. 1,
figs. 18, 14. This specimen, considered by
Berry to be the first fossil record of Theobroma,
is a section of the forepart of a reptilian jaw.
Berry mistook the bony structure for the
pulp, and the teeth for the seeds of a chocolate-
bean pod. Although described among Tertiary
plants, the specimen, as stated by Berry, came
from near Leiva, Department of Boyaca, Co-
lombia, where Cretaceous strata crop out.

Umbellularia dayana (Knowlton) Berry.
Brown (13), p. 174 [not pl. 52, fig. 18, which
remains unidentified], all items except the
original Salix dayana from the Mascall forma-
tion =Cedrela pteraformis (Berry) Brown.

Undetermined leaf. Brown (13), p. 186, pl.
53, fig. 13 = Salix hesperia (Knowlton) Condit.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Annotp, C. A. Some fossil species of
Mahonia from the Tertiary of eastern

and southeastern Oregon. Contrib.
Mus. Pal. Univ. Michigan 5 (4): 57-66.
1936.

. Observations on the fossil flora of
eastern and southeastern Oregon. Part
Palidem, 51(8)3.78 M025 1937.

(3) Berry, E. W. Living and fossil species
of Comptonia. Amer. Nat. 40: 485-524.

(2)

1906.

(4) . A revision of the flora of the Latah
formation. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof.
Paper 154: 225-265. 1929.

(5) —. Tertiary fossil plants from Co-
lombia, South America. Proc. U.S. Nat.
Mus. 75, (24): 1-122" 1929.

(6) .A Miocene flora from Grand
Coulee, Washington. U.S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Paper 170: 31-42. 1931.

(7) . Miocene plants from Idaho. U.S.

Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 185: 97-125
1934.

354

(8) . Additional Miocene plants from
Grand Coulee, Washington. Bull. Tor-
rey Bot. Club 65: 89-98. 1938.

(9) . The Lower Eocene flora of south-

eastern North America. Journ. Wash-
ington Acad. Sci. 35: 87-89. 1945.

(10) Brown, R. W. Additions to the flora of
the Green Rwer formation. U.S. Geol.
Surv. Prof. Paper 154: 279-293. 1929.

. The recognizable species of the

Green River flora. U.S. Geol. Surv.

Prof. Paper 185: 45-77. 1934.

. Miocene leaves, fruits, and seeds

from Idaho, Oregon, and Washington.

Journ. Pal. 9: 572-587. 1935.

. Additions to some fossil floras of

the western United States. U.S. Geol.

Surv. Prof. Paper 186: 163-206. 1937.

. Fossil legumes from Bridge Creek,

Oregon. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci.

27: 414-418. 1937.

. Further additions to some fossil

floras of the western United States.

Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 27: 506—

olitee All OSi(,

. New species and changes of name

in some American fossil floras. Journ.

Washington Acad. Sci. 30: 344-356.

1940.

. Some prehistoric

Umted States. Journ.

861-868. 1943.

. Temperate species in the Eocene
flora of the southeastern United States.
Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 34:
349-351. 1944.

(19) CHanny, R. W. The flora of the Eagle
Creek formation. Contrib. Walker
Mus. 2: (5): 115-181. 1920.

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

trees of the
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(18)

(20) . A record of the presence of Umbel-
lularva wn the Tertiary of the western
United States. Carnegie Inst. Wash-
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(21) . Geology and paleontology of the

Crooked River Basin, with special refer-
ence to the Bridge Creek flora. Carnegie
Inst. Washington Publ. 346 (4): 45-
Sono 2ie

(22) Epwarps, W.N. The occurrence of Koel-
reuterva (Sapindaceae) in Tertiary rocks.
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 9) 20: 109-
Mere al Die

(23) ErTINGSHAUSEN, C. Beitrag zur Kennt-
niss der fossilen Flora von Tokay.
Sitzungsb. Akad. Wiss. 11: 779-816.
1853. .

(24) Fiorin, Rupour. Hine Ubersicht der fos-
stlen Saluinia Arten mit besonderer Be-
riicksichtigung eines Fundes von Salvinia
formosa Heer im Tertiadr Japans. Bull.
Geol. Inst. Upsala 16: 243-260. 1919.

(25) Houuicx, ArTtuur. Fossil salvinias, in-
cluding description of a new species.
Bull: Torrey Bot. Club 21: 2538-257.
1894.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

(26) . New species of leguminous pods
from the yellow gravel at Bridgeton, New
Jersey. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 23:
46-49. 1896.

(27) . New species of fossil plants from

the Tertrary shales near De Beque,
Colorado. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 56:
93-96. 1929.

(28) Hu, H. H., and Chaney > Ro Wa 4
Miocene flora from Shantung Province,
China. Carnegie Inst. Washington
Publ. 507. 1940.

(29) Knowuton, F. H. The fossil plants of
the Payette formation. U. 8. Geol.
Surv. Ann. Rept. 18 (3): 721-744.

1898.

. Fossil flora of the John Day Basin,

Oregon. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 204.

1902.

. A review of the fossil plants in the

United States National Museum from

the Florissant lake beds. Proc. U. S.

Nat. Mus. 51: 241-297. 1916.

. A catalogue of the Mesozoic and

Cenozoic plants of North America.

U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 696. 1919.

. Revision of the flora of the Green

River formation. U. 8. Geol. Surv.

Prof. Paper 131: 133-182) 1923:

. Flora of the Latah formation
of Spokane, Washington, and Coeur
D’ Alene, Idaho. U. S. Geol. Surv.
Prof. Paper 140: 17-50. 1926.

(35) Kovarts, Junius. Fossile Flora von Tall-
ya. Arb. Geol. Gesell. Ungarn 1:
39-52. 1856.

(36) LesquErEux, Leo. The lignitic forma-

tion and its fossil flora. U.S. Geol.
Surv. Terr. Ann. Rept. for 1873 (7):
365-425. 1874.

. The Tertiary flora.

Surv. Terr. Rept. 7. 1878.

. Report on the fossil plants of the
auriferous gravel deposits of the Sierra
Nevada. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool.
©: 2) 1-625 Sse

(39) . The Cretaceous and Tertiary floras.
U.S. Geol. Surv. Terr. Rept. 8. 1883.

(40) MacGinitiz, H. D. The Trout Creek
flora of southeastern Oregon. Carnegie
Inst. Washington Publ. 416 (2): 21-68.

(30)

(31)

(32)

(33)

(34)

(37)
(38)

33.

. A Middle Eocene flora from the
Central Sierra Nevada. Carnegie Inst.
Washington Publ. 534. 1941.

(42) Newspurry, J. S. Brief descriptions of
fossil plants, chiefly Tertrary from west-
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Mus. 5: 502-514. 1888.

(41)

(43) . The later extinct floras of North
America. U.S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 35.
1898.

(44) Pack, R.. EB. The \ North) Ameniean,
trochiliscids, Paleozoic Charophyta.
Journ. Pal. 8: 83-119. 1934.

Oct. 15, 1946 SPECK: ETHNOHERPETOLOGY OF THE CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE

(45) SmitH, Heten V. Notes on fossil plants
from Hog Creek in southwestern Idaho.
Papers Michigan Acad. Science, Arts,
and Letters 23: 223-231. 1938.

. A flora of eastern American aspect

in the Miocene of Idaho. Bull. Torrey

Bot. Club. 66: 465-481. 1939.

(46)

ETHNOLOGY .—Ethnoher petology

FENTON.)

Interest along lines of study in the
shadowy historical background out of which
the natural sciences emerge from the clas-
sical age of thought has scarcely yet gone
far enough to make place for the present
paper. Yet to venture ahead of time because
it is important to record data on the animal
lore of preliterate peoples leads to inquiry
into newly opened fields of ethnozoology.
Like the now-recognized subject of ethno-
botany, the scope of ethnozoology will
deepen and broaden as it assumes a place
in the curriculum of research. Ethnoher-
petology indeed offers unlimited prospects
for exploration into native cultures far and
wide, beginning with study in the environs
of Indian tribes in the Americas.

No attention has been given so far to a
treatment of native faunal lore among
Indians of North America which might sug-
gest that a rudimentary native system of
zoological taxonomy existed. It might have
been assumed that at least some beginnings
of such a system would exist among tribes
of mankind so familiar with animal appear-
ances and habits.

The purpose of the present short paper,
then, is to present hitherto unrecorded
data on reptilian nomenclature of two un-
related tribal groups of the southeastern
United States in order to illustrate the
character of such an arrangement of rep-
tiles based upon observation of descriptive
details and habits.?

1 Received April 26, 1946.

* Some of these ideas were touched upon in a
short article presenting data on northeastern
Algonkian reptile identities and reptile lore (F. G.
Speck, Reptile lore of the northern Indians, Journ.
Amer. Folklore 36 (141). July-Sept. 1923). See
also F. G. Speck and E. 8. Dover, Amphibian

of the
FRANK G. Speck, University of Pennsylvania.

355

(47).

.A Miocene flora from Thorn
Creek, Idaho. Amer. Midl. Nat. 25:
473-522. 1941.

(48) Unricn, E.O. Descriptions of new Silur-

tan and Devonian fossils. Contrib.
Amer. Pal. 1: 3-35. 1886.
Catawba and Cherokee Indians.

(Communicated by W. N.

The two tribes from which the data here
presented have been taken are the Ca-
tawba of the piedmont in northwestern
South Carolina, near the border of the
Upper and Lower Austral Zones, and the
Cherokee of the mountains of western
North Carolina, in the Transitional Zone.
The reptilian biota of these regions differs
considerably as the listing shows. The lin-
guistic and cultural backgrounds of the two
peoples are decidedly unrelated; the Ca-
tawba constitute a southeastern branch of
the Siouan linguistic family; the Cherokee
fall into the Iroquoian linguistic stock.

The Catawba material, I may say, is the
accumulation of facts relating to reptiles
and amphibians recorded during some years
of continued but intermittent field work
with the last four Indians who used the
Catawba language. Chief Sam Blue was the
principal source consulted in the revision
of name identities of reptiles written down
from dictation of older informants now de-
ceased. A recent return-trip to the region
gave an opportunity to review and revise
the data previously obtained and to prepare

and reptile lore of the Six Nations Cayuga (Journ.
Amer. Folklore 58 (230). 1945).

In the preface to K. P. Scomipt and D. D.
Davis’s Field book of snakes of the United States
and Canada, p. XI, 1941, the authors review the
present situation in respect to reptile study: ‘In
the past, study of American snakes has dealt
chiefly with taxonomic problems. We believe that
as purely taxonomic problems become less pro-
ductive, interest will gradually shift to topics of
broader biological interest. With this in mind, we
have placed particular emphasis on life history,
habits, behavior, and ecology. Description has
been restricted to what is necessary for identifica-
tion of specimens.”’ Here also the subject of ethno-
herpetology is unsensed as a possible line of
investigation.

306

the list for final publication.’ It is hardly
possible now that more complete informa-
tion along these lines can be expected, since
the language and culture of the Catawba
have become obsolete.

Departmental cooperation in projects of

research in the Cherokee Nation resulted in
the Cherokee material which is prepared
from notes made in the field on the same
occasions while collecting culture elements
of the Eastern Cherokee. A number of in-
formants were consulted, especially West
Long of the Big Cove settlement. The notes
have been extended by additions con-
tributed by John G. Witthoft, University
of Pennsylvania, who accompanied me on
several trips of investigation.

An element of classification is evident in
the material. Aside from the use of descrip-
tive terms to denote the creatures some
terms refer to ideas of pure folklore. But
some remark may be made concerning the
sources of reptile and amphibian names,
both scientific and popular, in the European
tradition of taxonomy. The naming system
for reptiles (and the same may be said for
other animal forms) among Catawba and
Cherokee reminds the nature historian of
the technical naming principles established
by Linnaeus and others who long ago set the
tradition of taxonomy by using Greek and
Latin definitives in zoological classification .4

3 Acknowledgements are made to the Faculty
Research Fund, University of Pennsylvania
(Grant 570), and the Field Research Fund in
Anthropology for 1945, for support of the under-
taking.

4 Compare, for instance, the following scientific
reptile designations, translated from Greek and
Latin into English, with the Indian terms in the
lists: Crotalus horridus, “rattler bristling’; Sis-
trurus miliarius, “‘rattletail containing a thou-
sand’’; Agkistrodon piscivorus, ‘‘fish-hook tooth
fisheater’’; Heterodon contortrix, ‘“‘different-tooth
twister’; Coluber constrictor, ‘“‘serpent squeezer’’;
Diadophis punctatus, ‘‘crowned-snake spotted’’;
Lampropeltis getulus, ‘‘shining-shield African’’;
Masticophis flagellum, ‘‘whip-snake whip’”’; Elaphe
guttata, ‘“‘deer spotted’’; Liopeltis vernalis,
‘“‘smooth-shield springtime’’; Opheodrys aestivus,
‘“‘tree-snake summertime’; Thamnophis, ‘‘thicket-
snake’’; Hutaenza, “‘beautiful band’’; Natrixz sipe-
don, “‘swimmer tube-tooth’’; Cemophora coccinea,
““muzzle-bearing scarlet.”

I must acknowledge the aid given me in tracing
sources and meanings of these terms by Dr. W. W.
Hyde and Miss Anna K. Stimson, of the Univer-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

The correspondence, indeed, between
science and folklore in the naming of ani-
mals seldom evokes even passing thought
among those who habitually use them, for
most of us have blindly taught ourselves to
take our own word traditions for granted in
the quaint logic of science without seeking
for their derivations.

In Indian systems of animal classification
we find that groupings are usually deter-
mined by external features and habits of
motion rather than by morphological dis-
tinctions. So the Catawba would insist that
the whale is a fish as firmly as the biologist
would deny it.

The tribal sources of observation from
which nomenclature is drawn are only oc-
casionally alike; the differences are due to
differences in the cultures of Catawba and
Cherokee, ethnic groups possessing un-
related languages and legendary heritages,
and to their inhabiting different biotic
zones.

CATAWBA REPTILE LIST
I. The Snakes

An essentially simple twofold classification of
reptiles seems to have been achieved in the
thought process of the Catawba which resulted
in the naming of forms by groups embraced
under classifying denominatives. Roughly com-
pared with the taxonomy of biology one group
of the class Reptilia may be correlated with the
subclass Chelonia, designated in Catawba by
the term kayé (‘‘turtle’” in free rendering), an-
other with the subclass Crocodilia by the term
hi, “alligator.” The category of reptiles cor-
responding to the order Ophidia we find de-

sity of Pennsylvania. I have also made use of
E. C. JAEGER, A dictionary of Greek and Latin
combining forms used in zodlogical names, Balti-
more, 1931, and D.S. Jorpan, Manual of the verte-
brate animals, Yonkers-on-Hudson, 1929, for the
same purpose.

To Dr. R. M. Stabler, Department of Zodlogy,
University of Pennsylvania, I am indebted for
critical reading of the material as presented and
for his comments on its arrangement. By his ad-
vice as a taxonomist I have not included names of
subspecies or authors of descriptions in the list-
ings of identities. The nomenclature follows L.
STEJNEGER and T. BarsBour, A check list of
North American amphibians and reptiles, Cam-
bridge, 1933.

Oct. 15, 1946 spECK: ETHNOHERPETOLOGY OF THE CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE

noted by the term ya, “snake” in general.
(Without digressing from the topic of reptiles
at this point, it may be noted incidentally that
group designations include other classes of the
faunal realm, tcy, “‘insect’’; yi’, ‘‘fish’’; kutcin,
“bird’”’; and so on—all generalizing collective
terms. )

The Catawba binomial system of phylogeny
then drops to a designation for species by the
use of specific modifiers of the generic term ya,
as the following list will show. One might add
that a possible recognition of subspecific char-
acters is vouched for by use of the modifiers tu,
“little,” and tard, ‘‘big,’”’ as suffixes to some spe-
cific names.

The list of 17 specific snake names known to
informants is as follows’:

1. ya swa’?, “‘snake chief,” king, or greatest,
rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus). The snake of
paramount importance in the nature lore of the
Catawba, and the Creeks as well, who denote it
similarly (tcit-o mi’k:o, ‘‘snake chief’).

2. ya mantugrere, “‘snake home in ground,”
ground rattlesnake (Sistrurus miliarius).

3. ya pa’kata tcesa, ‘“‘snake narrow-necked,”’
copperhead (Agkistrodon mokasen).

4. ya yAmure, “‘snake staying in water,’ wa-
ter moccasin (Agkistrodon piscivorus).

5. ya hi ska’ kwatcere, ‘‘snake head spreads,”
hog-nose snake (Heterodon contortrix). ya wi
tip‘, ‘snake spotted.”

6. ya waktciye, ‘“‘snake black,” black racer
(Coluber constrictor).

7. ya tu waktciye, ‘“‘snake little black,” ring-
necked snake (Diadophis punctatus). The Ca-
tawba regard this reptile as an immature form
of the black racer.

5 Herpetological identification was checked by
use of excellent color plates in The snakes of
Maryland, H. A. Kelley, A. W. Davis, H. C.
Robertson, The Natural History Society of
Maryland, Baltimore, 1936.

The symbols used in writing native terms in
both languages of the notations are those cus-
tomarily adopted by students of American lin-
guistics. It may be noted for the convenience of
those who are not concerned with details of pho-
netic transcription that the following letters dif-
fer from their use in English orthography, their
equivalents being: c for English sh, a (Greek al-
pha) for the u sound of English but, a (inverted e)
for the almost silent ein English her, a cedilla be-
neath a vowel to denote nasalization, the symbol
? for the glottal stop, ‘ to indicate an aspiration
after a vowel or consonant, and the raised period
to show lengthening of vowel. 9 (reversed c) is
used in Cherokee to denote aw as in English law.

307

8. ya migrahore, “snake chief,’ king snake
(Lampropeltis getulus). The specific term is a
synonym of the term given for rattlesnake. To
the informant this is a ‘‘boss of snakes.’’? The
term ya suré, “snake wild,” was also given for
this animal by Sally (Brown) Gordon in 1928.

9. ya tirfre ha, ‘“‘snake thunder present,”’
milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum). The
identification of this species was uncertain to
the informant.

10. ya yisp4 he, ‘‘snake whip,’’ coachwhip
(Masticophis flagellum). The informant, Sam
Blue, had heard that this creature could ‘‘stand
up and whistle!”’ |

11. ya namottiksa he, “snake in ground
stays,’ corn snake (Elaphe guttata).

12. ya tu nomdémusare, “snake small in
ground stays’ (Cemophora coccinea).

13. ya wodésona, ‘‘snake cow male” (or
“bull snake”’ locally), gray rat snake (Elaphe
obsoleta confinis). This form was not well known
to the informant.

14. ya wanka’, “snake green,” rough green
snake (Opheodrys aestivus). ya ya’a’, ‘“‘snake
(pertaining to) woman.”’ The second name was
obtained from Margaret Brown in 1920.

15. ya yomaterd, “snake garter,’’ garter
snake (Thamnophis sirtalis). The name applied
to this form is manifestly of local English ori-
gin.

16. ya yayamomure, “‘snake in water les”
(Natrix stpedon).

17. ya yatce”’mowane, ‘‘snake in branch
(creek) stays,’’ queen snake or leather snake
(Natrix septemvittata).

)

OTHER CREATURES CLASSIFIED AS SNAKES BY THE
CATAWBA

1. ya kat‘k’at‘hore, ‘“‘snake jointed,’ glass
snake (Ophisaurus ventralis). The modifier here
is equivalent to ‘“‘breaks into pieces.”’ The ‘‘glass
snake”’ is included in the list because of its
snakelike character in Catawba esteem. It was
not familiarly known to the informant who had
encountered it only rarely. Said he, ‘‘Unless the
pieces of its body are thrown into the river or
burned, it will come alive again.”’

2. ya ciyé, “snake (in) mud,” eel.

An attempt to identify other species known
to literature of the region did not yield results
with Indians questioned even with the help of
the color plates and descriptions of appearance
and habits.

358 - JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

REPTILES IN CATAWBA FOLKLORE®

Snake lore among the Catawba includes ref-
erence to the fabled hoop snake (ya tara tara?
hore, ‘“‘snake rolling”). Chief Sam Blue when
questioned about the creature claimed to have
seen it himself, and he said it had a brownish
color. The legend of its existence is evidently
one derived from white neighbors with whom
the Indians have been associated for over a cen-
tury.

The folklore of reptiles is unduly meager in
the surviving body of tradition among the Ca-
tawba. Fables relate how a monster serpent
dwelt in a turgid eddy of the Catawba River
near one of the ancient villages. The serpent
killed people by sucking blood from their necks
or from under their arms. Another child-killing
snake monster of the river constricted its vic-
tim. The symbolism of the snake in tribal tra-
dition is that of enmity, and the people usually
kill snakes for this reason when they are en-
countered. The poisonous species are cate-
gorically denoted by the term ya sigri’, “snake
mean, polluted, unfit, spoiled, dirty,” according
to the divergently ‘‘unfavorable’”’ meaning indi-
cated by the adjective modifier.

Several snake taboos are to be noted as told
by Mrs. Susan Owl and Margaret Brown a
number of years ago.

To narrate stories after dark is to invite an-
noyance from snakes. If a snake hears a person
relating tales it will he in wait in the path for
him or her.

Likewise, if a person mentions aloud his
business or intentions regarding travel, a snake
may hear it and le in wait for him. Conse-
quently the wary are advised when about to
travel anywhere to speak of going “‘day after
tomorrow” instead of ‘‘tomorrow,”’ in order to
deceive the snake. Indeed ‘if he knows where
the traveler is going he will try to lie in wait for
him!’

6 Few writers in this field have touched upon
the folklore of snakes, and then only to deal
briefly with popular beliefs of the American
countryside among which the ‘“‘hoop snake,”
“milk snake,’ “glass snake,” ‘“‘swallowing of
young”’ stand out. (See K. P. Scumipt and D. D.
Davis, Field book of snakes of the United States and
Canada, 1941, for a section on Folklore of Snakes
(pp. 7-10) and references to K. P. Scumipt and
R. V. MeEppEN for more extensive reference to
essays on snake lore.) In an article, The hoop snake
story, K. P. Scumrpr quotes references to the
hoop-snake legend in the South and suggests a
Negro origin for it as a possibility (Nat. Hist. 25
(1): 76-90. 1925).

VOL. 36, No, 10

The story is told of an old man years ago
who had a watermelon patch visited by girls
who would steal them. To keep them out he
put white-oak splints around the field and
caused them to be transformed into snakes
when intruders came.

In Catawba tradition, as far as a conclusion
can be reached, all snakes are maleficent, and
that means potentially poisonous in their rela-
tionship to man. Whether the baneful influ-
ences are exerted through spiritual or physio-
logical mediums (fangs or teeth) is not consid-
ered to be precisely essential to personal protec-
tion and welfare. Only in the case of death and
disablement resulting from the bite of rattle-
snake, moccasin, or copperhead is observation
of cause and effect specified. The hog-nose
snake is equally feared, and, in the estimation of
some of the people, others as well. Hence snakes
may inflict injury and death, through tongues
or teeth in direct contact, and inflict sickness,
misfortune, or ill fate through mysterious toxic
agencies of a spiritual nature. These concep-
tions are vaguely garbled and vary individually
as might be expected among folk whose minds
are trained to reason by tradition drawn from
two realms, the real and the unreal.

II. The Turtles

The four reptiles of this category recognized
by the Catawba are all denoted by the classify-
ing term ka or kay4, ‘‘turtle.’”’ The latter term
may have semantic relationship with that for
snake (ya).

1. kai, “turtle” (or possibly ‘‘scratcher’’),
box turtle (Terrapene carolina).

2. kaya, ‘‘turtle snake” (locally, cooter ter-
rapin), members of the genera Malaclemys,
Chrysemys, and Pseudemys, without distinc-
tion.

3. kayd skaterd, ‘terrapin head big,” snap-
ping turtle (Chelydra serpentina).

4. kayd somi'? “terrapin soft,” soft-shelled
turtle (Amyda ferox). The flesh of this creature
is prepared and eaten by the Catawba.

The attempt to identify with precision the
native names of the musk and mud turtle
proved unsuccessful. The following names were
taken down as applicable to one or the other:

1. ka somi’?, ‘turtle soft,’’ musk turtle, or
stinkpot (Sternotherus odoratus).

2. kaya tef‘re?, “terrapin mud (?),”’ mud tur-
tle (Kinosternon subrubrum), also a variant

Oct. 15, 1946 sPECK: ETHNOHERPETOLOGY OF THE CATAWBA AND CHEROKEE

term k4’i‘e applied loosely to both creatures at
different times by Mrs. Owl (1920) and Mar-
garet and Sally Brown and Sam Blue in later
years.

III. The Lizards

The Catawba denote the saurians by the col-
lective term wapiré?, ‘‘lizard’’; one hardly capa-
ble of analysis at present unless the primary
element wap may have reference to something
round in form. Three true lizard forms are rec-
ognized as follows. Salamanders are included
with them in the Catawba arrangement.

1. wapiré? hiskg sakq’re, “lizard head red”
(locally scorpion), blue-tailed skink (Eumeces
fasciatus). The name is derived from the red-
dish head of the fully adult male. The young
phase of the reptile with striped back and blue
tail was known to the informant correctly as an
age phase of the same creature. This knowledge
seemed noteworthy for Indians since it is not
usually so understood among surrounding
whites.

2. wapiré? wa’ka?, “lizard green,’’ American
chameleon (Anolis carolinensis). The Catawba
believe the chromatic stages of the animal to be
due to its need to simulate the color of its im-
mediate background.

3. wapiré?, “lizard,” swift or fence lizard
(Sceloporus undulatus). The tailed amphibians
are also included in the nomenclature of lizards,
owing to their lizardlike form of body.

4. wapiré? yatci’re, “lizard (in) branch (of
_ river or spring)” (Desmognathus fuscus auricu-
latus). Found abundantly on the reservation in
the ‘‘branches”’ of Catawba River in the usual
haunts under stones, and the informants gave
the same native name to all the other varieties
known within their range.”

IV. The Frogs and Toads

In the native system of zoonomy there seems
to be no grouping of the suborders of the Anura,
there being but one inclusive term for the fam-
ily Bufonidae and another for the Hylidae and
Ranidae. The distinction usually observed is
that of size, which is indicated by suffixes de-
noting “large” and “‘small.”’

1. ara°’rai, frog, specifically bullfrog (Rana
catesbevana), an inclusive term for all forms of
the genus Rana. It is onomatopoeic, a native

7 Questioning informants about the occurrence

of the mudpuppy in Catawba River revealed that
it was not known to the Indians of the reservation.

309

reproduction of the sound impression of the
voice of Rana, although it referred specifically
to the green frog (Rana clamitans) as heard in
1946 in the swamps of the reservation. Chief
Sam Blue mentioned a belief among the Ca-
tawba that when the frog’s voice is heard “‘fish
bite well” (arq’?rai kauhatcu’re yi'sdhewe).

2. ka’re, frogs known as ‘‘knee-deep’’’ (Hyla,
Acris, and Pseudacris, undifferentiated).

3. watcikamu, ‘‘(?) suck,’ toad (Bufo, spe-
cies undifferentiated). Why the same name
should apply to the leech remains unexplain-
able.

An instance of folk belief in linkage by meta-
morphosis between Bufo and Rana was given
by Margaret Brown, an aged Catawba woman
who died in 1922. She related how the people
believed that the toad laid eggs “‘which turn
into tadpoles and after a certain length of time
these turn into bullfrogs.”’

CHEROKEE SNAKE NAMES AND IDENTITIES

The following list of 14 species with their
Cherokee native names and explanations rep-
resents the knowledge possessed by Will West
Long, a linguistic purist and traditionalist of
the Big Cove settlement, Qualla Reservation of
the eastern Cherkokee, Swain County, N. C.
Big Cove is an elevated basin (above 3,000
feet) at the foot of the main ridge of the Great
Smoky Mountains. In the lower levels of the
reservation, however, the Indians are ac-
quainted with more reptilian forms, and such
names and identities are added from notes
made there recently by John G. Witthoft.

West Long, who knew only the forms in his
own district, by his own testimony was unac-
quainted with the water moccasin, the whip
snake, the scarlet snake, the ‘‘glass snake,” and
even the milk snake. Therefore for them he had
no native names that could be definitely as-
signed to species. We found no authoritative
sources to check occurrences of these creatures
in the district of the Big Cove to which the list
applies. A complete local collection of forms
found there would be necessary to settle this
point of distribution in the immediate neigh-
borhood. West Long, furthermore, disclaimed

8 An explanatory folk narrative told by Chief
Sam Blue relative to the locally popular name
‘“‘knee-deep”’: “Said the bullfrog on the edge of
the swamp, ‘Come on in!’ Another frog cried out,
‘How deep?’ The tiny peepers called out, ‘knee
deep’!”’

360

knowledge of the legendary hoop snake. Witt-
hoft, however, obtained a reference to it from
other sources.

The lack of correspondence between the
Catawba and Cherokee snake lists is accounted
for, in part, by the differences in topography of
their respective habitats. Certain forms are not
known to the mountain regions. Moreover, the
two peoples belong to unrelated families of
speech (Catawba is of the Siouan linguistic
stock, Cherokee is Iroquoian), whence the total
nonrelationship of their reptilian terminologies.

In presenting the material from the Chero-
kee here no attempt is made to include refer-
ence to reptile lore of the tribe. The extent and
wealth of such matter would require a compre-
hensive monograph, which would cover much
of the religious and ceremonial life of the peo-
ple. Reptiles, indeed, play a highly important
role in Cherokee tradition.

Where the technical designations for snakes
correspond with those in the Catawba list they
are not repeated.

The Cherokee generic term for snake is 1'natd.

1. udz6 nata‘, ‘now you see snake,”’ rattle-
snake.

2. kadzét'', “rattle,” ground rattlesnake.
The term is identical with that for the gourd
rattle carried in the hand of a dance leader.

3. w’s tagi: asko/li‘, ‘brown head,’’ copper-
head. Also tsitik tadzistaf, ‘‘with fire eye.”

4. ki‘zi'dzuli'‘, “feces has in it,’ hog-nosed
snake. The term is not explainable in origin be-
yond the possible idea that the forcible hissing
of the creature was caused by an excess of sub-
stance in its abdomen producing the described
condition.

5. ka?lek‘gi‘, “che climbs up a tree,’’ black
snake.

6. ka?lek‘gf at‘a‘, “blacksnake young,” ring-
necked snake. This is regarded as a young phase
of the black snake.

7. wuckoliha inat‘?anihé, ‘‘boss snake king,”
king snake (informant, Amanita Tramper).
Neither the animal nor its name was known to
West Long.

8. nat’ uga’wityahj, “snake king,” milk
snake (questionable).

9. gigé inata‘’, “red snake,’ corn snake.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 10

West Long had encountered the species only
once and was not certain of its identity.

10. uk‘suh{, “substance in the eye,” moun-—
tain blacksnake. West Long could offer no ex-
planation for the origin of this name.

11. selikwodyi", ‘‘green,’’ smooth green snake
(doubtful) and rough green snake.

12. odali‘ak‘tiya’ (odalfk* tiya, shortened
form), ‘‘mountain guard,” yellow-striped
chicken snake. The name describes the habit of
the creature to lie atop the mountain, among
rocks it is said, to watch the movements of
other animals. The common idea is that it acts
as a guardian observer of life on the mountain.
The same term is applied to the garter snake
through its similarity in stripes to the preced-
ing. Observation has apparently been lax
among the Cherokee in regard to differences in
appearance and habit of these reptiles. Some
doubt rests in the identity of the 4-lined
chicken snake referred to.

13. konégwodi‘, “goes underground and
pushes soil up,’’ water snake and queen or
leather snake. The term is general for all phases
of the genus Natriz. Color variations are de-
noted by descriptive terms.

14. nat’ at‘ kalagski‘*, “snake pottery
breaking,” worm snake (Carphophis amoena
amoena). Explanation of this name is beyond
the ability of anyone questioned regarding its
application. It was stated that if the worm
snake is placed on the head of any one infested
with lice the vermin will disappear.

Jimsie and Tahquette Wallace, of Adam’s
Creek, near Birdtown, on the reservation about
16 miles from the Big Cove and at a lower alti-
tude, recognized the following varieties (notes
contributed by J. G. Witthoft) :

15. djogés aktiya, garter snake and red-
bellied brown snake.

16. toled@, glass snake.

17. onegast aniisti’, “hoop snake.”’ There are
said to be two varieties, neither of which the
informants have seen. They are somewhat skep-
tical about the existence of this snake but say it
may have existed in the lowland environment
that some of the Cherokee formerly inhabited.

18. waskati', milk snake.

CONTENTS

Page

Puysics.—Some experiments relating to the electrical conductivity
of the lower atmosphere. G. R. WaiT........ adds « wsleile a

PALEOBOTANY.—Alterations in some fossil and living floras.
ROLAND Ws BROWN «2. 0000s ol vo ak he a ... 344

ETHNoLoGy.—Ethnoherpetology of the Catawba. and Cherokee
Pndians. “WRank (5. SPHCH 5 9000 uo Be ee eae wha Sia nee

This Journal is indexed in the Internationa! Index to Periodicals

Pee Ran. ene NS ig ee
‘Vou. 36 | NovemBer 15, 1946 No, 11
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JOURNAL

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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 36

PHYSICS.—Fahrenheit and Roemer.
Standards.

In 1910, Kirstine Meyer (1) announced

the finding in Copenhagen of a notebook of

Ole (or Olaf) Christensen Roemer, the noted
Danish astronomer. Its title is Adversaria,
and it contains entries concerning ther-
mometers, of which Roemer made several
for his own use. She was especially im-
pressed by the fact that he used the number
7% to denote the ice-point, and that the
same number, or an integral multiple of it,
was similarly used by Fahrenheit for certain
of his earlier thermometers. She was right
in inferring that such an occurrence of this
fractional number indicated an attempt to
correlate the scales used by the two men.

But, being unduly anxious to add to

Roemer’s already most enviable reputation,
she bent every effort to convince the reader
that it was from Roemer that Fahrenheit
obtained everything that was needed for

_ designing his celebrated thermometers, and

even that Roemer was the first to realize
the advantage of basing a thermometer
scale on two fiducial temperatures, each
determined by a natural phenomenon. She
misread the evidence and reached false
conclusions.

Those conclusions were repeated and
amplified in 1913 (2) and again in 1937 (38).
To the last, J. N. Friend (4) replied, criticiz-
ing it rather mildly. They have reappeared,
summarized In a single paragraph, in a
booklet issued late in 1944 by I. Bernard
Cohen (5), who seems to have approved of
them.

The persistence of these errors for more
than three decades seems to call for a study
of the evidence on which they rest and an

1 Received September 11, 1946.

NOVEMBER 15, 1946

No. 11

N. Ernest Dorsry, National Bureau of

exposition of their erroneous nature. Such
is the prime purpose of this article. Inci-
dentally, there are offered certain sugges-
tions, more plausible than those of Meyer,
regarding Fahrenheit’s indebtedness to
Roemer, and new suggestions regarding the
nature and the origin of the change Fahren-
heit made in his scale in 1717. And finally
the Cohen summary of 1944 (5) of Meyer’s
conclusions is quoted in extenso, for com-
parison with the corresponding, but in part
quite different, conclusions reached in this
study.

It seems well, however, to consider at
once the last sentence of Cohen’s summary,
expressing Meyer’s ultimate conclusion as
to the indebtedness of Fahrenheit to
Roemer. That sentence is this: ‘‘Thus it is
quite clear that it was Roemer who in-
vented the modern thermometer and that
the Fahrenheit thermometer should, in all

fairness, be called the Roemer thermom-

eter!’

Whatever the debt that Fahrenheit may
have owed to Roemer, the last assertion in
that sentence can not be accepted, for the
very simple reason that Roemer did not
publish any of his ideas about thermometers
or any account of his work either with or
upon them, nor did he, so far as we now
know, do anything to make his thermome-
ters generally available to scientific men.
He made the thermometers for his own
personal use. All that we know about them
has come to light within the past 36 years,
after two centuries of oblivion. On the other
hand, Fahrenheit produced a_ superior
thermometer, improved its construction
from time to time, readjusted his scale in
1717 so that it would accord more accurates

361

362

ly with its nominal fiducial points, dis-
tributed his thermometers widely, and
published brief descriptions of their gradua-
tion and use. His thermometers became
highly valued throughout the scientific
world. To him belongs the credit.

It is not a question of who first had the
idea or first made the instrument, but of
who first made the idea or instrument avail-
able to the scientific world. No one can
know how many may have had the same
idea or made the same type of instrument,
but kept it all to themselves, perhaps re-
cording the idea or method of construction
in personal memoranda that may some day
be brought to the notice of the world. The
bringing of such memoranda to notice is of
great value for the light they throw on the
activities of the man but is valueless for
establishing his claim for priority over one
who actually gave the idea or instrument to
the world.

Meyer’s earlier statements regarding
Fahrenheit and Roemer rested almost ex-
clusively on Roemer’s Adversaria, which
was published in 1910 by the Royal Danish
Academy, as a beautiful volume of 271
pages (6, 17), under the editorship of Thyra
Eibe and Kirstine Meyer, and were made
prior to the publication (7) in 1936 of
Fahrenheit’s letter of April 17, 1729, to
Boerhaave. That letter was, however, con-
sidered in her reply to Friend (8).

Hence it is necessary to consider carefully
both what is said in Adversaria regarding
Roemer’s thermometers and what the letter
tells of the relation between the two men.
But first one should recall something of the
status of the science of heat at that time,
and of the various practices that had al-
ready been proposed, and perhaps adopted,
for defining thermometer scales. For Roemer
(5) and Fahrenheit (7) were great travelers,
and an important and avowed purpose of
their travels was to meet men of science
and to learn what was being done and
thought in the world of science. At that
time the construction and use of thermom-
eters furnished a very live subject indeed,
and it is inconceivable that either man
should have failed to discuss it with those
he met. It seems entirely fair to assume that

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11

each knew, or by his travels became ac- —

quainted with, the general state of affairs
and that each made use of the information —
he obtained. That would be entirely proper.
And no one should give to either the credit
for having initiated or for having taught the
other anything that was already generally
known.

At the time with which we are concerned, J

it was very generally believed that heat was
a substance that could be added to or re-
moved from a body and that the thermom-
eter reading gave an indication of how much
heat the body contained (8, p. 858). Conse-
quently, it seemed most elegant for the zero
of the scale to correspond to the condition
of zero heat, to the lowest possible tempera-
ture. The lowest temperature that had been
observed was that produced by a mixture
of snow, water, and sal ammoniac (NH.,Cl),
or perhaps, sea salt: roughly O°F. And it
seems that, up tothe severe winter of 1708
—09, noair temperature nearly solow as that
had been recorded by any thermometer.
That temperature therefore became a pre-
ferred zero for thermometer scales, and
some seem to have thought that it was the
absolute zero—the temperature at which
there is no heat in the body.* However that
may be, quite alittle excitement was caused
when the temperature at Copenhagen in
1708-09 fell almost to that zero.

True, Amontons (9) had a different con-
ception of heat, and he properly inferred
from his air-thermometer that the absolute
zero was far lower than that obtained by

2 Muncke [8, p. 859+] has written: ‘‘Der strenge
Winter von 1709, wobei er [Fahrenheit] sicher
die Temperatur mit seinen noch unvollkommenen
Thermometern mass, fiihrte ihn auf den wichtigen
Schluss, das der Punct das schmelzenden Eises
nicht der eigentliche Nullpunct der Warme sey,
aber leider, glaubte er, in der damals erlebten
grossten Kilte diesen Punct gefunden zu haben,
und nahm ihn daher als den Anfangspunct seiner
Thermometerscale.’’ Muncke is surely wrong in
thinking that the winter of 1708-09 convinced
Fahrenheit that the zero of heat lay below the
ice-point; for it was already known that a mixture
of w ater-ice-N HCl had a temperature much
lower than the ice-point. That very low tempera-
ture seems to have been the temperature which
he and many others regarded as indicating zero
heat. To them the surprising thing was that in the
winter of 1708-09 the air temperature came within
a small fraction of a degree of that low tempera-
ture.

Nov. 15, 1946

means of the water-ice-salt mixture. But he
was ahead of his time.

Another temperature to which great im-
portance was attached from the time of the
earliest thermometers was blood-heat or
body temperature. That term was believed
to define a definite temperature, but it was
variously understood. For example, it was
taken as the temperature in the bodies of
cows (10) and deer (10), the temperature of
the human body (11), of a pullet sitting on
eggs (11). It remained for Fahrenheit (12)
to specify explicitly that blood-heat is to
be understood as the temperature registered
by a thermometer when in the mouth or
armpit of a healthy man. As we know today,
and as Fahrenheit may have known, even
that temperature is far from constant. Did
he refer to the lowest, the highest, or sonte
intermediate temperature?

Both the ice-point and the boiling point
of water were by many experimenters be-
lieved to be variable. That is not surprising.
At the time, nothing was known about phase
equilibrium. The ice-point was variously
defined as the simple cold of snow (1657-67)
(13), cold snow (1669, Fabri) (14), as the
temperature at which water begins to
freeze (1665, Huygens; 1701, Newton) (14,
11), as that of melting snow (1701, Newton)
(11). The boiling point was defined as the
temperature of water when it is boiling, the
thermometer being immersed in the water.
That temperature depends not only on the
atmospheric pressure, an effect that was
beginning to be recognized, but also on how
vigorously the water boils. Newton (11) re-
ported that water begins to boil at 33° on
his scale and boils vehemently at 34 to 344
—a difference of 14 of his degrees, cor-
responding approximately to a difference of
8°F

Various other natural phenomena were
proposed from time to time as means for
specifying fixed temperatures. But until
Fahrenheit’s improved thermometers be-
came generally available, temperature meas-
urements by different observers could not
be satisfactorily compared, and _ conse-
quently it was exceedingly difficult to reach
a general agreement as to whether, and if
so, under what conditions, the several pro-

DORSEY: FAHRENHEIT AND ROEMER

363

posed phenomena do actually specify fixed
temperatures.

Two distinct, but entirely valid, princi-
ples had been proposed and used for defining
a thermometer scale. One (Boyle, 1665
(14); Hooke, 1664 (14); etc.) involves the
choosing of a single fiducial temperature
defined by a natural phenomenon, and the
choosing of a definite thermometric liquid.
A numerical value is assigned to the fiducial
temperature, and starting from that point
a scale is so laid out that each step cor-
responds to a certain fixed specified fraction
of the volume of the thermometric liquid
when at the fiducial temperature.

The other, and older, principle (Sanc-
torius, 1612 (74); Sagredo, 1615 (15); the
Florentine thermometers, 1657-67 (13);
Fabri, 1669 (14); Newton, 1701 (11); etc.)
involves the assigning of a value to each of
two conveniently separated temperatures
defined by natural phenomena, the dividing
of the space between those two readings into
steps of equal change in volume, and the
extending of the scale beyond those fiducial
temperatures, as may be desired. (In prac-
tice it was usually assumed that the tube
was cylindrical, but as early as 1665 Boyle
had called attention to errors arising from
irregularities of the tube, and to the de-
sirability of dividing the tube into lengths
of equal volume.)

In Table 1 are given the natural phe-
nomena defining the two fixed points of
each of a number of scales that had been
proposed—and mostly used—prior to 1702.
(The meeting of Fahrenheit and Roemer
was in 1708.) In some cases the numbering
of the divisions was such as to suggest that
the lower end of the scale was supposed to
indicate, at least approximately, the tem-
perature of an ice-salt mixture.

Although the definitions of these fiducial
temperatures leave much to be desired, it is
obvious that the principle of defining a
thermometer scale in terms of two fiducial
temperatures was known for upward of a
century before Fahrenheit’s visit to Roemer.

Turn now to Roemer’s Adversaria (17),
from which all we know about Roemer’s
thermometers seems to have been derived,
and on which Meyer bases her extravagant

364

claims. As the title indicates, it is a note-
book in which Roemer jotted down ideas,
proposed procedures, preliminary computa-
tions, certain results obtained by himself or
by others, curios in which he was interested,
etc. For example: On 16 consecutive pages
there are entries on the following subjects:
Astronomical calculations (pp. 79-80);
speed of travel of porters, travelers, runners,
horse with load, etc. (80-83) ; monthly rain-
fall in Paris, 1689-1704 (83); astronomical
notes (84-85); rate at which a horse ( man)
can raise water to each of certain heights
(85-87); magic squares (87-94, continued
from 36-42); atmospheric refraction (94).
This strictly casual nature of the contents
of Adversaria should be kept in mind in any
attempt to interpret them.

Roemer’s notes are in Latin, occasionally
in Danish, and at various places P. Horre-
bow, a contemporary, has written in
memoranda, sometimes, but not always,
signed. It seems certain that those memo-
randa were inserted after Roemer’s death.
Some of them refer to Roemer’s widow.

References to thermometers occur as
follows: On pages 11-12 Roemer states that
air expands by one-ninth of its volume when
its temperature is increased from 8 to 18
degrees of his thermometer (“in calore
meorum thermometrorum’’), and that water
expands by 1/200 of its volume under the
same conditions. Since his 8 lay near 0°C.,
the ratio of these two expansions is about
right; and the expansion of air indicates
that each of his degrees corresponds to
about 3°C.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11

On page 119 are recorded the observed
linear expansions of 6 metal rods (Au,
Cu, Ag, Sn, Pb, and Fe) for the range
63 to 303 on his thermometer. By comparing
those values with the coefficients of expan-
sion as given in the Smithsonian Physical
Tables, one finds, for one of his degrees,
values ranging from 1.80°C. (Fe) to 2.18°C.
(Au), the average being 1.95°C., which is
only 65 percent of the value derived from
the data on pages 11-12.

- After some pages devoted to the setting
up and testing of several approximate
formulas for the rapid subdivision of a
conical tube into sections of equal volume,
there comes on page 210 a memorandum
entitled ‘“Originale thermometrum con-
struere” (to construct an initial thermome-
ter; 1.e., one not dependent upon another),
in which are instructions for the making of
such an independent thermometer that will
read 73 in snow-and-water, and 60 in boiling
water. The dependence of the latter tem-
perature upon the vigorousness of the boil-
ing, and its resulting indefiniteness, are not
mentioned. Neither is the effect of varia-
tions in the atmospheric pressure. If one
assumes that this 60 corresponds exactly to
100°C., then each degree will correspond to
1.90°C.

' This is the sole reference in Adversaria to
Roemer’s 60-degree thermometer, and it
should be noticed that he does not say that
he ever constructed such an instrument.
The verb ‘‘construere’’ occurring in the title
is in the infinitive; the section merely tells
how such an instrument might be con-

TABLE 1.—HarRLyY THERMOMETER SCALES BASED ON Two FipuciIAL PoInts

Year Name Lower temperature Upper temperature Ref,
1612 Sanctorius Snow Approach of candle (14)
1615 Sagredo Snow and salt Snow (14)
Prior to 1667 Florentine Snow or ice Midsummer sun! (13)
1669 Fabri Snow in cold weather Direct summer sun (14)
1670 ‘de la Hire Air when freezing Deep vault (14)
de la Hire Snow and salt Solidifying tallow (16)

1688 Dalencé Freezing water Melting butter (14)
Dalencé Freezing water Deep vault (14)

1694 Renaldini Melting ice Boiling water (14)
1701 Newton Melting snow Temp. of human body (11)

1 Lambert [16], on the authority of Borelliand Malpighi, has stated that the temperature in the sun on the hottest day in summer,
in Florence, is the same as that in the body of a cow, a deer, etc. That is, within the then current limits of PE LOES. the upper
temperature is essentially blood-heat, and it may have been chosen for that reason.

Nov. 15, 1946

structed. And it makes no mention of dif-
ficulties that one might expect to encounter
in trying to use 100°C. as a fiducial point for
an alcohol thermometer. However, it is
probable that he did make at least one such
thermometer.

From this section, Meyer concluded that
the fiducial points defining Roemer’s scale
were the ice-point (marked 73) and the boil-
ing-point (marked 60). But, as Friend (4)
has pointed out, it is most improbable that
Roemer’s lower fiducial point was the ice-
point. It is almost incredible that an experi-
enced investigator would assign a fractional
number to a fiducial point. But having
otherwise established his scale, it would not
be at all unreasonable for him to use, for its
reproduction, other temperatures defined
by natural phenomena that are more con-
venient to use than those defining the
fiducial points. Those other temperatures
will in general not be represented by integral
degrees on his predetermined scale. Their
proper nonintegral designations must be
determined experimentally, directly or
otherwise. Whence one should regard the 74
as the experimentally determined value of
the ice-point on his scale; and should infer
that his lower fiducial point lay 74 of his
degrees below the ice-point. That would
place his zero near the temperature of a
water-ice-NH,Cl mixture, which, as has
been seen, was widely held to be the most
elegant starting point. That was probably
the temperature which he desired his zero
to represent. But whether the 74 was direct-
ly determined by experiment, or was ar-
rived at in another way as a mere, but
satisfactory, approximation to the distance
of the water-ice-NH.Cl temperature below
the ice-point, is another matter, which will
be considered more fully in connection with
the Fahrenheit letter. |

Then, after some remarks by Horrebow,
zome other pages (211-213) devoted to the
subdivision of conical tubes.

Page 214 is a facsimile of Roemer’s plot
of the daily temperatures, presumably at
Copenhagen, during the severe winter of
1708-09. There is no statement about either
who took the temperatures or what ther-
mometer was used. The days are arranged

DORSEY: FAHRENHEIT AND ROEMER

365

in a vertical column, and the temperatures
are recorded to the right in a grid com-
pleted by 9 vertical lines, each correspond-
ing to a degree. These lines are numbered
at their tops 8, 7, 6, - - - 2, 1, 0. Above those
numbers, and in another hand, possibly
Horrebow’s, are written the same numbers
in reverse order. Above them and inverted
is written, Meyer says by Horrebow, the
remark ‘‘mutaverat ergo Roemerus primum
suum propositum,”’ which Meyer (1) inter-
prets, probably correctly, as meaning that
Horrebow concluded from the numbering
of those vertical lines that Roemer had
changed the designation of the ice-point
from 73 to 8. Indeed, in an earlier note (p.
211) Horrebow states, apparently on the
authority of this sheet, that Roemer de-
noted the ice-point by 8. The only ground
for such a conclusion is Roemer’s failure to
rule a line at 74. But why should one expect
him to rule such a line? It would have
merely introduced confusion in the grid. He
knew where the ice-point lay—just halfway
between lines 7 and 8. That remark by
Horrebow seems to me to be totally un-
justified; indeed, I have found nothing to
indicate that Roemer ever denoted the ice-
point by 8. That statement of Horrebow’s
was, however, fully accepted by Meyer. In
fact, it was seized upon as evidence that
Fahrenheit’s 32 for the ice-point was taken
from Roemer, being merely 4 times his 8.
As will be seen presently, Fahrenheit’s 8,
or 32, had nothing whatever to do with the
numbering of the degrees on Roemer’s
thermometer.

There seems to be in Adversaria nothing
more bearing upon Roemer’s thermometric
work.

Whether the discrepancy between the
several sizes of Roemer’s degree as derived
from his data for expansivities and from his
instructions for constructing the 60-degree
thermometer—3°C. (pp. 11-12), 1.95°C.
(p. 119), 1.90°C. (60-degree thermometer)
—arises from experimental errors or from
discrepancies between the thermometers,
is not known. No detail of the experimental
work is recorded, and nothing is said about
the thermometers except that they were his
own. These data, however, and they are all

366

we have, scarcely justify Meyer’s conclusion
that Roemer’s thermometers were superior
instruments. Any such conclusion can rest
only on his general reputation.

However, Adversaria shows beyond doubt
that Roemer was well acquainted with the
procedures that must be followed and the
care that must be taken in the construction
of thermometers if they are to be accurately
reproducible. He fully realized the impor-
tance of subdividing the stem into lengths
corresponding to equal volumes; he advised
the rejection of tubes that are neither
cylindrical nor conical, and he gave con-
venient methods for dividing the latter into
lengths that would be sufficiently nearly of
equal volumes. These approximate methods
were proposed for the purpose of reducing
the computational labor that is involved in
an exact division.

Turn now to Fahrenheit’s letter of April
17, 1729, to Boerhaave, which contains all
that is known about Fahrenheit’s inter-
course with Roemer. That letter seems to
have been written in reply to a question as
to how he was led to his great improvement
of the thermometer. From a German? trans-
lation (7) of that letter, the portions of
present interest may be Englished as fol-
lows:

As for the means by which I have succeeded
in the way of improving thermometers, I am
most pleased to tell you that I received the
first suggestion thereto in the year 1708, during
a conference with the renowned Roemer in
Copenhagen; for as I visited him one fine

“Was nunmehr die Mittel betrifft durch
welche ich auf den Weg der Verbesserung der
Thermometer gelangt bin, so sei Ihnen freund-
lichst mitgeteilt, dass ich Ao. 1708 durch den
Verkehr mit dem trefflichen Roemer in Kopen-
hagen dazu die erste Anregung erhalten habe,
denn als ich eines sch6nen Morgens einmal zu
ihm kam, fand ich, dass er einige Thermometer
in Wasser und Eis stehen hatte, welcher er spater
wieder in warmes Wasser taucht, welches blut-
warm war, und nachdem er diese beiden Grenzen
auf simtlichen Thermometern angegeben hatte,
wurde die Halfte des gefundenen Abstandes
noch unterhalb des Punktes in dem Gefiss mit
Eis zugefiigt, und der ganze Abstand wurde in
225 Teile geteilt, unten anfangend mit 0, sodann
7% Grad fiir den Punkt im Gefiiss mit Eis und
225 Grad fiir denjeniges des blutwarmen, welche
Teilung ich auch bis zum Jahre 1717 verwendet
habe, nur mit dem Unterschiede, dass ich jeden

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 36, No. I1

morning, I found that he had placed in a mix-
ture of water and ice some thermometers which
he later dipped again into warm water which
was at blood-heat, and after he had marked
these two limits on all the thermometers, he
added downward from the point corresponding
to the vessel of ice [and water] one half of the
distance so determined, and divided the entire
distance into 223 parts, beginning with 0 at.
the bottom, then 74 degrees for the point in
the vessel of ice [and water], and 224 for that
at blood-heat, which division I also used until
the year 1717, except that I divided each de-
gree into four smaller parts. In this manner
were divided the scales of the two thermometers
that Professor Wolf reported upon in Acta
Lipsinia in August, 1714. Since this division
is inconvenient and inelegant on account of the
fractional numbers, I decided to change the
seale, and instead of 22% or 90, to use 96, which
I have done ever since, and which, although it
was not so intended, I found to agree approxi-

Grad noch in 4 kleinere teilte. Und in dieser
Weise waren auch die 2 Thermometer geteilt,
iiber welche der Herr Professor Wolf in den Acta
Lipsinia Anno 1714 mense Augusto berichtet.
Da diese Teilung wegen der gebrochenen Zahlen
unbequem und nicht angenehm ist, beschloss ich
die Skala zu andern und statt 225 oder 90, 96 zu
verwenden, deren ich mich nachher stets bedient
habe und welche, obwohl dieselbe eine zufallige
ist, wie ich fand, wenn auch nicht vollig, dann
doch ann&hernd mit der Teilung des Ther-
mometers iibereinstimmt, welches im Pariser
Observatorium hingt. Nachdem ich so die erste
Grundlage zur Verbesserung der Thermometer
bei Hrn. Roemer gelegt hatte, fing ich an einige
Biicher ttbher Barometer und Thermometer zu
lesen, und da ich hoérte dass in den Franzésischen
Memoiren der Académie des Sciences hiertiber
viel mitgeteilt wurde, legt ich mich mittels einer
guten Grammatik und eines Worterbuchs auf das
Studium der Franzésischen Sprache, welche ich
auch wegen des Latein in kurzer Zeit so weit
beherrschte, dass ich die Schriften des Societat zu
lesen und tibersetzen vermochte, wodurch mir
dazu ein grosses Licht in meinen Augen aufging,
unter welchen dann hauptsiéchlich die Abhand-
lungen von Maraldi, de la Hire, und Amontons
viel beigetragen haben, speziell der letztgenannte,
weil er sich sehr grosse Mithe gegeben hat den
Thermometern eine feste Unterlage zu geben.
Von den Englandern, welche tiber das Barometer
geschrieben haben, habe ich nur Boyle’s Schriften
gelesen, so weit dieselben ins Lateinische tber-
setzt sind, diejenigen der Societat habe ich nie-
mals zu lesen angefangen als zum ersten Male
im Jahre 1724, als ich als Mitglied aufgenommen
wurde. Seit jener Zeit habe ich es so weit ge-
bracht, dass ich auch deren Schriften lesen und
zum grossten Teil verstehen kann. Die sind
somit Kurz gesagt die Mittel, durch welche ich
auf den Weg der Verbesserung gelangt bin,
womit ich hoffe dass Eurwohlgeboren zufrieden
sein werden... .”’

Nov. 15, 1946

mately, though not exactly, with the division
of the scale of the thermometer that hangs in
the Paris Observatory. After I had in this way
obtained from Herr Roemer the first basis for
an improvement of thermometers, I set about
reading some books on barometers and ther-
mometers, and as I heard that much concern-
ing them had been reported to the French
Academy of Sciences, I undertook the study of
French with the aid of a good grammar and a
dictionary. On account of [my knowledge of]
Latin, I had in a short time so far mastered it
that I could read and translate the papers of
the Academy.

There has been much dispute (J, 2, 3, 4,
18) regarding the definition of Roemer’s
thermometric scale and the origin of the
strange number (74) assigned to the ice-
point. As has already been seen, it appears
quite certain that the 73 is an experimental-
ly derived value, and that the lower fiducial
point is intended to be, at least approxi-
mately, at the extreme low temperature of a
water-ice-NH.Cl mixture. The procedure
here described by Fahrenheit throws ad-
ditional light on the subject.

It will be noticed that the temperature
of the warm bath is exactly 15 of Roemer’s
degrees above the ice-point, and that 15 is
exactly one-fourth of the range of his 60°
thermometer. And the zero is exactly half
of this 15 below the ice-point, thus placing
the ice-point above the zero by exactly one-
eighth of the entire range from zero to the
boiling-point.

These successive halvings remind one of
Roemer’s procedure in determining the ap-
proximate equivolume lengths of a conical
tube, as given in Adversaria. In that, he
halves the whole, then halves the halves,
then halves the quarters. Possibly he was
accustomed to using a 1-to-2 proportional
divider. The amount of work he expended
in deriving approximate formulas for an
expeditious determination of the successive
_lengths indicates that he was impatient of
exact computations that were long and
laborious, and replaced them, if possible,
with shorter, more expeditious, approxi-
mate ones. All of which suggests that the
73 may have been arrived at in a similar
way, and was adopted for a similar reason.

DORSEY: FAHRENHEIT AND ROEMER

367

That reason is not far to seek. As re-
marked by Fahrenheit (12), the experi-
mental realization of the lowest tempera-
ture attainable with a water-ice-NH,Cl
mixture is difficult; and is more difficult in
warm weather than in cold. The faster the
ice melts, other things being the same, the
lower is the concentration of the salt in the
water adjacent to the ice, and the higher the
temperature of the mixture. The uncer-
tainty so caused must have been very an-
noying and time-consuming in the adjusting
of thermometers; and Roemer’s apparent
temperament would lead him to seek a more
expeditious method for inferring approxi-
mately that temperature from another that
could be determined more readily. Such a
temperature is the ice-point, which he found
to he above his lower fiducial point by ap-
proximately one-eighth of the entire range
of his 60° scale. Consequently, he placed his
zero so that it was exactly one-seventh as
far below the ice-point as the boiling-point
was above the latter. That, in his opinion,
placed it sufficiently near the temperature of
the water-ice-NH,Cl mixture for all practi-
cal purposes. Such an inferring of the posi-
tion of his zero greatly expedited the work,
and increased the concordance between the
several thermometers so adjusted. And it
was entirely satisfactory if the relation used
was correct. But if the relation were in error,
then his lower fiducial point would cease to
be defined by a natural phenomenon (the
lowest temperature of a water-ice-NH,Cl
mixture), and would become merely that
temperature which lies below the ice-point
by an amount that is exactly one-eighth of
the difference between his two fiducial
points. By reference to Table 2, it will be
seen that his zero lies at 6.3°F., and so is a
rather poor approximation to the low
temperature of the ice-salt mixture.

Much discussion (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 14,
18, 19) has also arisen over Fahrenheit’s
statement that the 223 bath was at blood-
heat. It may easily be seen that 224% on
Roemer’s 60° thermometer corresponds to
83.4°F., approximately, where, as_ else-
where in this paper, °F. refers to the
Fahrenheit scale of today. We now call
98.6°F. blood-heat, which is markedly

368

higher than the temperature corresponding
to 224 on Roemer’s scale. But that does not
tell the entire story. The question is this:
What would be the reading on the scale of
today of the temperature that Roemer re-
garded as blood-heat? To that question we
have no answer, unless it be Fahrenheit’s
statement regarding the 224 bath. A similar
question arises regarding the temperature
which Fahrenheit regarded as blood-heat.
Such questions have been quite generally
overlooked in discussions of the older
scales.

One thing, however, is certain. There
were only two ways in which Fahrenheit
could have used Roemer’s 224 in graduating
his own thermometers. Either he must
have known of a natural phenomenon,
realizable in Amsterdam, that yielded that
temperature, or he must have had a ther-
mometer, carried back with him to Amster-
dam, with which he had determined the
temperature of the 224 bath. There is no
indication in the letter, or elsewhere, so far
as I know, that he had such a thermometer.
And he states most explicitly that he
understood that the bath was at blood-heat.
There seems to be no doubt that he relied
on that understanding to enable him in
Amsterdam to reproduce the temperature
of Roemer’s 22% bath.

Whether Roemer told him that the bath
was at blood-heat, thus indicating that he
thought that temperature to have the very
low value of 83.4°F., or whether Fahrenheit
either misunderstood Roemer or jumped to
the conclusion that the warm bath was at
blood-heat, it is impossible to determine
with certainty. But in accordance with
what has just been written in reference to
the 74, I am inclined to think that the 223
point was determined solely by the condi-
tion that it should lie above the ice-point by
exactly one-fourth of the total range of
Roemer’s 60° thermometer. If such were the
case, then Fahrenheit was mistaken in
thinking that the temperature of the 223
bath was blood-heat.

Actually it makes very little difference
whether or not Roemer did regard the bath
as being at blood-heat. If he did, then Fahr-
enheit’s scale would not agree with his un-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11

less each man accepted the same actual tem-
perature as blood-heat; and it will presently
be seen that they could not have done so.
If Roemer did not regard the bath as being
at blood-heat, then again Fahrenheit’s scale
could not have agreed with his except by ac-
cident, because of Fahrenheit’s mistaken
impression that the bath was at blood-heat.
In spite of Fahrenheit’s very laudable desire
to make his scale accord with Roemer’s,
such an accord was necessarily absent unless
each man accepted 83.4°F. as blood-heat;
and Fahrenheit certainly did not accept
that value.

In the letter to Boerhaave, Fahrenheit
states that prior to 1717 he denoted the
ice-point by 74 and the temperature which
he accepted as blood-heat by 223, “‘which
division I also used until the year 1717.”
“Since this division is inconvenient and
inelegant on account of the fractional num-
bers, I decided to change the scale, and
instead of 224 or 90, to use 96, which I have
done ever since.”

Like his other writings about the gradua-
tion of his thermometers, this is decidedly
vague—perhaps intentionally so, for com-
mercial reasons. Just what does the last
quoted sentence mean? A mere multiplica-
tion by 4 removes the fractions. What
change, or changes, did he actually make?
Did he merely designate by 24 (or 96) the
mark that had previously been designated by
221°? Or was blood-heat thereafter supposed
to be denoted, not by the 224 mark, but by
a higher one, to be designated by 24? Was
the thermal size of a degree the same after
the change as before? Relying solely on the
information given in the letter, no one can
be sure of what he actually did. The dif-
ficulty lies in the fact that two points are
necessary for defining his scale, and he
writes of only one.

But the problem is not entirely insolv-
able. One can make a very fair guess as to
how he determined and numbered his initial
scale. Furthermore he states in his letter
(written in 1729) that he was still using the
later (1717) scale at that time, and there
seems to be no known record indicating that
he ever changed that scale. Hence it seems
fair to assume that the Fahrenheit scale of

Nov. 15, 1946

today, except for a possible factor of 4, is
the same as his 1717 scale; and so one can
reason back to his earlier scale and conclude
with fair certainty exactly what change he
did make. That may be done as follows:

In accordance with his understanding of
Roemer, he graduated his early thermome-
ters in terms of the temperature of the ice-
point and of that of blood-heat (as under-
stood by him), choosing the size of the
degree so that exactly 15 lay between those
two points, and assigning to each division a
number reckoned from a zero supposed to
correspond to the lowest temperature of an
ice-salt mixture and placed by inference at
a point that was half as far below the ice-
point as that was below the division cor-
responding to what he thought was blood-
heat. And following Roemer’s procedure, he
determined the position of the blood-heat
mark by immersing the new thermometer
in a bath adjusted in terms of an auxiliary
thermometer. By using always the same
thermometer for adjusting the bath, he
obtained a high concordance between his
several thermometers. It is known that
Fahrenheit devoted much study to ther-
mometers. He considered the effect of
changing the glass. He studied discrepancies
between mercury and spirit thermometers.
So it is not at all unreasonable to suppose
that he studied the lowest temperature of
the mixture of water-ice-NH.Cl, and the
temperature of blood-heat as observed in
different warm blooded animals and under
different conditions; and that, as a result of
such studies, he found that blood-heat (de-
fined as the temperature in the mouth or
armpit of a healthy man) was higher than he
had previously thought, seeming to be
about 16 of the degree divisions of his ther-
mometer above the ice-point, instead of 15,
as he had previously supposed; and that the
temperature of the ice-salt mixture lay a
little more than the assumed 74 divisions
below the ice-point. Hence, he accepted 16
for the first; which, with Roemer’s one-half
relation, led to 8 for the second. That is, he
lowered his zero by one-half, thus raising by
the same amount the numerical designation
of each of his other degrees and eliminating
the halves from the numbers that cor-

DORSEY: FAHRENHEIT AND ROEMER

369

respond to the ice-point, to blood-heat, and
to the boiling-point; and the 16th degree
above the ice-point (i.e., his 24th degree)
he called blood-heat.

If this guess is correct, then reckoning
back from the Fahrenheit scale of today,
one finds that his new scale of 1717 was
either that designated in Table 2 as °F. or
F.” (.e., one-fourth of °F.), and that his
earlier scale was F.’=F.” —0.5.

Whence it appears that the Fahrenheit
scale of today resulted from blunders.
Fahrenheit’s letter seems to indicate quite
clearly that he initially desired to per-
petuate Roemer’s scale, but he did not ob-
tain from Roemer the proper definition of
the temperature of Roemer’s warm bath.
His mistaken belief that it was at blood-heat
led him to the use of a degree that was sig-
nificantly larger thermally than was that of
Roemer’s, but not so large as it would have
been had he used for blood-heat the higher
temperature adopted in 1717. However,
when he adopted that temperature in 1717,
he retained the same size of degree as he
had previously used, but took for the tem-
perature of the ice-salt mixture defining his
zero a value 2°F. lower than before, thus
retaining Roemer’s one-half relation. That
gave the Fahrenheit scale of today; at least
well within the precision with which he
knew the temperature of blood-heat and
that of the ice-salt mixture.

One may well ask, as many have done:
How did it happen that the boiling-point
on such an unplanned scale is an integral
number (212) of such degrees? It probably
didn’t. However, it obviously departed from
an integral number by not more than
0.5°F., and that departure could be ‘re-
moved by suitably changing the thermal
size of the degree, the change not exceeding
0.5 in 180, and that would require a shift of
the zero by not more than (16/180)°F., the
designation of the ice-point being kept un-
changed at 32°F. Such a shift of the zero
would be entirely negligible as compared
with the uncertainty with which the tem-
perature of the ice-salt mixture was known;
and the change in the size of the degree
would change the numerical designation of
the temperature of blood-heat by less than

370

0.2°F., which is also negligible. Such an ad-
justment was probably made by some one,
possibly by Fahrenheit himself in 1717.
True, he says nothing about any such ad-
justment, but that is in keeping with his
secretiveness regarding other details of his
work.

It would be interesting to know whether
Fahrenheit ever learned that his scales dif-
fered from Roemer’s (°Ro in Table 2).
There seems to be nothing available that
throws any light on the subject, nor is there
anything to indicate whether he knew
Roemer’s numerical designation of the boil-
ing-point.

Another possible assumption, in my
opinion much less probable than the preced-
ing, is that Fahrenheit did not make any
such further study of the temperature either
of blood-heat or of the ice-salt mixture, but
retained the values accepted in his earlier
work, and merely reduced the value of the
degree interval, so that 16 new degrees
covered the same interval as was covered by
15 of his old degrees, If that were the case,
then any given temperature designated by
F, on his early scale would be designated
by F”=16F,/15 on his later one (see
Table 2).

TABLE 2.—CORRESPONDING TEMPERATURES AT FixEep Points
ON EacuH OF SEVERAL SCALES DERIVED FROM ROEMER’S SCALE.

F F’ F,
“1h SS 4F, °Ro
°F/4 | F”—0.5 | 15F”/16
212 53 52.5 49 .69 198.8 60
96 24 = 22.5 90 =
92 == 22.6 = = ae
83.4 — — — = 22.5
32 8 7.5 Ugo 30 so
6.27 — — = = 0
2.0 = 0 = ae aa
0 0 = 0 0 SS

What then may one fairly infer about
what Fahrenheit learned from Roemer?
that is, what that might not as readily have
been learned from others? Not more than
two things: (1) He may have learned the
desirability of using a bath adjusted to
blood-heat by means of an auxiliary ther-
mometer, rather than of using directly the
body or interior of a warm-blooded animal,
for determining the position of the top of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. tet

the thermometer column when the tem-
perature is that of blood-heat. But the ad-
vantage of using such a bath is so obvious
that it may have been well known to him
before he met Roemer. (2) By far the most
important, and perhaps the only, thing he
learned from Roemer was the idea of in-
ferring the position of the top of the column
when at the temperature of the ice-salt
mixture from its position at each of two
other temperatures—the ice-point and (in
his case) blood-heat. The learning of that
trick was of extreme importance.

Meyer makes much of-the-fact that the
numbering of the divisions of Fahrenheit’s
scale suggests Roemer’s scale, and of his
statement (in the letter) that he initially
divided his scale in the same way as did
Roemer. But that indicates no more than
his recognition of the advantage of avoiding
a multiplicity of scales. Roemer seemed to
have a satisfactory and reproducible scale;
so Fahrenheit decided to make his accord
therewith, not because Roemer’s was an
ideal scale, but simply for uniformity.

Unfortunately, apparently on account of a

misunderstanding, each of Fahrenheit’s
scales departed markedly from Roemer’s.
Consequently, one is scarcely justified in
saying, as Meyer does, that Fahrenheit ob-
tained his scale from Roemer.

From all this it seems obvious that al-
though Roemer had clear and correct ideas
as to how thermometers should be con-
structed, (a) his work on thermometers was
of little importance, because he never pub-
lished his ideas and never made his ther-
mometers available to others. (b) How
many thermometers he made is not known,
but a note by Horrebow, in Adversaria,
states that Roemer’s widow had given him
5. (c) From Roemer’s outstanding reputa-
tion, one might infer that thermometers
made by him were very superior instru-
ments, but the very meager available rec-
ords are not sufficient to substantiate that
inference. (d) The principle of defining a
thermometer scale by means of two fiducial
temperatures was well known long before
Roemer’s day, having been proposed and
used by several throughout the century
preceding his work. (e) The fiducial points

Nov. 15, 1946

that Roemer seems to have aimed to use
were the lowest temperature of a mixture
of water-ice-N H.Cl, and the temperature of
boiling water; but nowhere does he mention
any use of the temperature of that mixture.
In his later thermometers, that temperature
was inferred from the ice-point by means of
a none too accurate approximation. (f)
Fahrenheit did not state in his letter to
Boerhaave (April 17, 1729) that he had
learned from Roemer the idea of defining
the scale by means of two fiducial points.
(g) Fahrenheit stated that he saw Roemer
determining the positions, on certain ther-
mometers under construction, of two fixed
points—the ice-point and a point marked
224, which he (incorrectly) assumed to indi-
cate blood-heat, but he said nothing about
either the size of the thermometers or the
use to which they were to be put. (h, 7)
Fahrenheit stated that he at first divided his
scale in the same manner as he had seen
Roemer divide his, but he divided each
division into quarters. However, as has
already been seen, the temperature to which
he assigned 224 was not that to which
Roemer assigned the same number. (J)
Fahrenheit stated that he retained that
type of division until 1717, but he did not
state that his thermometers were limited in
length to 223 (or 90) divisions. (k) He did
not state clearly what changes were made in
1717, but as has been shown it is fairly cer-
tain that they consisted solely in placing his
zero lower by a half of one of his original
degrees, and in designating the resulting
24th (or 96th) degree as blood-heat. (1) He
did not directly state that he retained
Roemer’s ratio of the thermal intervals be-
tween zero, ice-point, and blood-heat, but
he did retain it, and he might have expected
one so to infer from his statement that he
at first divided the scale in the same manner
as he had seen Roemer do it. However, the
temperatures corresponding to his zero and
blood-heat were quite different from those
corresponding to Roemer’s zero and 223.
(m) Roemer did not invent the modern
thermometer, the Fahrenheit thermometer
has never accorded with Roemer’s, and all
credit for it belongs to Fahrenheit alone.

With these conclusions compare the fol-

DORSEY: FAHRENHEIT AND ROEMER

vl

lowing statements composing a section of
I. B. Cohen’s recent booklet (5), mentioned
at the beginning of this article. He gives as
his authorities Kirstine Meyer (20) and the
Fahrenheit letter (7) and relies somewhat
on N. H. deV. Heathcote’s summary (21)
of the latter. They represent Meyer’s con-
clusions, but some are a little more em-
phatic. For convenience in comparison the
several sentences have here been lettered so
as to indicate the corresponding statements
in the preceding paragraph.

“32. (a) Of great importance is Roemer’s
work on the thermometer. (6) Roemer con-
structed many thermometers and used them in
his astronomical work as well as to record the
daily temperature. (c) These thermometers
were designed by him and were superior to
any that had been used previously. (d) He it
was who first realized that the scales of ther-
mometers giving concordant readings must
be based on two fixed points, not just one.
(e) The two points he used were the boiling
point of water (which he marked 60°) and the
melting point of snow or crushed ice (which he
marked 73°), so that a mixture of crushed ice
or snow and sal ammoniac would give a zero
reading). (f) In a letter to Boerhaave in 1729,
Fahrenheit (1686-1736) states that he met
Roemer in Copenhagen in 1708 and from
him learned the fundamental principle of the
two fixed points. (g) Also, that he saw Roemer
in the process of testing small thermometers
for meteorological use; these were divided into
223 parts and had as fixed points 73° (ice
water) and 223° (blood heat). (h) Fahrenheit
adds that he himself adopted the same tem-
perature scale, but with two minor changes.
(1) These were the use of Roemer’s zero (snow
and sal ammoniac) as the lower fixed point
rather than 73, a convenience pure and simple,
and the use of a scale division arrived at by
dividing each of Roemer’s scale divisions into
four such, for ease of reading. (7) Fahrenheit
kept the scale in this form, with 90 divisions,
until 1717. (k) At that time, in order to avoid
the clumsiness of fractions, he replaced the 90
divisions by 96. (/) He ‘retained Roemer’s
general arrangement whereby one-third of the
whole range lay between the zero and the melt-
ing point, and two-thirds between the melting
point and blood temperature; the melting-
point thus became 32° and blood temperature
96°’ (see Heathcote’s article [2/]). (m) Thus
it is quite clear that it was Roemer who in-

32

vented the modern thermometer and that the
Fahrenheit thermometer should, in all fair-
ness, be called the Roemer thermometer!”

It will be noticed that nearly every state-
ment in the quoted section is at least mis-
leading, and some are actually false.

REFERENCES

[1] Meyer, Kirstrnze. Nature 82: 296-298.
1910
[2]

. Die Entwicklung des Tempera-

turbegriffs im Laufe der Zeiten, being

“Die Wissenschaft’? No. 98, 1918.
(Trans. of [20]).

[3] Nature 139: 585-586. 1987.

[4] Frrenp, J. N. Nature 139: 586. 1937.

[5] Conen, I. B. Roemer and the first deter-
mination of the velocity of light. 1944.

[6] Erinn, Tuyra, and Meyer, KIRstTIne.
Ole Rémer’s Adversaria. 1910.

[7] Coumn, E., and Conmn-pEMEESTER, W.

A. F. Verh. Akad. Wet. Amsterdam,
sect. 1, 16 (2): 1-37. 19386.

[8] Muncxz, G. W. Gehler’s: Physikalisches
Worterbuch, new ed., 9 (pt. 2): 825-
1019. 1839.

[9] Geruanp, E. Zeitschr.
mentenkunde 8: 319-322.

fir Instru-

1888.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11

[10] Casor1, FLorian. A history of physics.
i

[11] Newron, Sir I. Phil. Trans. 22 (270):
824-829. 1701. (An English trans-
lation is given by Roger Cotes: Hydro-
statical and pneumatical lectures, ed. 2,
by Robert Smith. 1742.

[12] FanrenuEIT, D. G. Phil. Trans. 33
(382): 78-84. 1724.

[13] Saggi di Naturali Esperienze fatte nell’ Ac-
cademia del Cimento, ed. 3. Firenze, 1844.

[14] Botton, H. C. Evolution of the ther-

mometer 1592-1743. 1900.

[15] GerLanp, FE. Zeitschr. fir Instru-
mentenkunde 13: 340-343. 1893.

[16] Lampert, J.H. Pyrometrie. 1779.

[17] Roemer, OLr. Adversaria, ed. by Thyra

ae and Kirstine, Meyer. 1910. [Cf.

6).

[18] Frrenp, J. N.. Nature 139: 395-398.
1937.

[19] Hiceins, W. F. Journ. Roy. Soc. Arts
74: 946-959. 1926.

[20] Mnyer, Krirstine. Temperaturbegrebets
Udvikling gennem Tiderne og dets For-
hold til vekslende Anskuelser om Var-

a Natur. Copenhagen, 1909. [Cf.

Die

[21] Heatucots,.N. H. prV. Ann. Sei. 2:
133-134. 1937.

ETHNOLOGY .—Bird lore of the Eastern Cherokee.1. JoHnN WittTHort, University
of Michigan. (Communicated by W. N. FEnrTon.)

The Eastern Cherokee of Qualla Reserva-
tion, North Carolina, are the only large
group of the aboriginal peoples of the
southeastern United States who still occupy
a portion of their native habitat. They
represent the only intact ethnic group that
is still in daily contact with the country of
its ancestors, and with the living creatures
that shared that territory. Thus any study
of the ethnobiology of the Southeast must
emphasize the Cherokee data as of primary
importance. This study is intended as one
contribution to the understanding of the
relationship between man and nature in the
southeastern mountains: a relationship that
recognized and utilized the members of
man’s natural environment according to
certain patterns and concepts that were

1 This study was made possible by a grant-in-
aid, for field work among the Eastern Cherokee,
from the Department of Anthropology Research
Funds of 1944, 1945, and 1946 of the University
of Pennsylvania. Received August 30, 1946.

basic to the cultures of the area. That rela-
tionship has nearly ceased to exist, and we
should like to know what were the processes
that led to its loss. In an acculturation
process, the people’s contact with nature
and traditional knowledge of the various
aspects of natural history may be one of the
first constellations destroyed. This may pre-
cede the loss of use of the native language
and is even a-part of it, for the specialized
vocabularies concerned with birds, plants,
insects, and animals are very readily ab-
breviated and simplified. It is possible that
this instability of nature lore explains the
small amount of such information in print
for the smaller Indian remnant groups still
living in the eastern United States.

The North Carolina Cherokee live on the
upper reaches of the Oconalufty River at an
altitude of about 2,100 feet, with nearby
mountains rising as high as 3,000 feet. This
is above the range of chuck-will’s-widow,

Nov. 15, 1946

the red-bellied woodpecker, and the shrike.
_ The adjacent mountains are high enough to
support pure stands of balsam fir, Abzes
balsamea (L.) Miller. Both the flora and
fauna include northern and southern ele-
ments of several zones.

Notes on Cherokee bird lore were
gathered during three visits to Qualla
Reservation in 1945-1946. Data was ob-
- tained from about 15 informants, mainly
from the towns of Big Cove, Birdtown, and
Painttown, but the bulk of the material is
from six persons, generally referred to here-
after by their initials. Will West Long
(W.W.), of Big Cove, age 75, recognized
over 100 Cherokee bird names, all of which
he believed to be traditional. He had a good
knowledge of the birds about him and was
generally able to identify nests and eggs.
Mollie Sequoyah (M.S8.), of Big Cove, a few
years younger than Will, probably knew
nearly as many birds, but I did not con-
centrate on birds when working with her.
Her names and traditions agreed very
closely with Will’s. Cain Screamer (C.S.),
of Painttown, age about 55, recognized
about 50 bird names, and his knowledge of
birds and plants was much less thorough
than that of the older informants. Other
- informants of about his age and conserva-
tism showed a similarly imperfect knowl-
edge of Cherokee natural history. Moses
Owl (M.O.), of Birdtown, age about 60,
- speaks English slightly better than he does
Cherokee and knew Cherokee names for
- about 50 birds, some of which he could re-
call with difficulty. His knowledge of local
White bird names was exceptionally good,
and he is a much better naturalist than his
Cherokee bird vocabulary would indi-
cate. Jimsie Wallace and Takwat Wallace
(J.T.W.), of Adams Creek, Birdtown, father

and son, age about 75 and 50, speak little
- English and are very much men of the
woods. They recognized about 60 bird
names but probably could give more. Some
differences in classification and terminology
are noted between the data from Birdtown
and that from the Big Cove-Painttown-
Wolftown portion of the reservation. Some
linguistic differences are also noted between
these sections, and it seems probable that

WITTHOFT: BIRD LORE OF THE EASTERN CHEROKEE

373

an old areal differentiation exists here. Will
West Long was in some cases able to recall
forms which he had heard in the Oklahoma
Cherokee dialect, and I have included them,
marked Oklahoma. (This is the western
dialect; all the other names are in the
middle dialect, the eastern being extinct.)

Most of the work was done over sets of
bird plates, the most usable of which was a
set of pictures of birds of the Cherokee area ~
selected from the National Geographic
Magazine series. Forbush and May’s Birds
of the Eastern United States was found to
have better drawings, but the book was too
bulky and the pictures of unfamiliar birds
tended to confuse informants, so less use
was made of this work. Chester Reed’s bird
guides are the most convenient, but the
illustrations are so ill-suited to this purpose
that I prefer not to use them—too much
confusion results.2 Dead specimens of birds
I happened to find were used whenever
possible, and names and data were ob-
tained on the live birds I saw when with
informants. I utilized the local English names
asmuch as possible. The authority for most of
the Cherokee bird names and for most of the
folk material is indicated in this study by the
initials of the informant (in parentheses) ;
where no authority is given there was gen-
eral agreement. The small amounts of data
derived from other informants than the ones
listed were included in their information, and
so have not been indicated. The more pro-
nounced phonetic variants are also included
to indicate variability and in the hope that
they may some day be of use to the linguists
studying Cherokee.

Birdlife was of considerable significance
to the Cherokee. Birds had their place in
Cherokee religion, folk practice, and medi-
cine, and the content of the folk traditions
would indicate that the Cherokee found
considerable esthetic interest in them. But
the use of birds and their eggs as food over-
shadowed all other considerations. In the
lean winter months birds of all types were
caught on the snow with a baited cage-fall
or board-fall trap set with a figure-four

2 My own identifications and the terminology
used in this paper are based upon Roger Tory
Peterson’s A field guide to the birds. Boston, 1939.

374

trigger or a pull-stick trigger. In summer,
birds were shot out of trees with a blowgun,
caught in traps, and driven out of brush
heaps at night with torches and beaten
down with sticks. Thee birds were roasted
over the fire and eaten out of their skins.
Children and other persons in the woods and
fields gathered edible plants, mushrooms,
frogs, edible insects, and bird eggs and
nestling birds. These were either eaten on
the spot or carried home for a meal. The
Catawba of South Carolina cooked small
birds into meat pies, such game being
frequently their only food, but the Cherokee
always roasted their birds. According to
Will West Long, hawks, owls, eagles, buz-
zards, crows, wrens, whippoorwills, and
kingfishers were not eaten, but all other
birds were. The head of the crossbill was
not eaten because it tasted strongly of
balsam, but the body of the bird was eaten.
Needless to say, birds and eggs are now
rarely hunted for food, but the older in-
formants gathered much of their bird lore
by killing and eating most of the kinds
about them. This may partially explain the
exceptionally large number of birds recog-
nized and the bulk of folklore pertaining to
them, and may indicate one reason why this
knowledge is not being perpetuated.
Besides the fall-traps, special traps for
turkeys and eagles were known. Will West
Long’s older sister made noose traps for
small birds from strands of her hair, but
Will does not remember how they worked.
The blowgun (tu?gwes‘di’) was a major
hunting implement. It was made of an 8- to
14-foot piece of cane, bored and smoothed
inside, and was hung by one end when not
in use. The daxts (dzidzi—the name of the
thistles with which they were tufted—
Cirsium spp.) were about 9 inches long,
made of hickory or of stems of the bush
clover (Lespedeza capitata L.) and wrapped
with thistledown and bound with thread
at one end, the other end being pointed.
With this weapon birds were shot as they
were feeding or resting and were not dis-
turbed by the sound of the darts. According
to Moses Owl, the shaft of a dart was held
across the lips as an aid in imitating bird
calls. Even rabbits (struck in the neck),

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36; no. I1

squirrels (struck in the eye), and frogs and
toads were taken with the blowgun. A
Cherokee could kill a robin at 40 feet with a
blowgun. ey

Earlier Cherokee studies by James
Mooney and Franz Olbrechts: included
random notes on Cherokee bird lore, some
of which are referred to later in this paper.’
A. L. Pickens published two lists of Chero-
kee bird names, drawn largely from the
published sources and from Will West
Long.‘ The manuscript of his second paper,
preserved in the archives of the Bureau of
American Ethnology, is of considerable
interest because it includes notes by Will
West Long on the names he recognizes and
the names are written in the Cherokee
syllabary.® Pickens’s studies include a num-
ber of names that I have not collected, but
I have not checked these with informants .
and do not know their source. His names
are not phonetically recorded, and many
of his interpretations are highly improbable.

Dyjiskwa” is the general word for bird
in Cherokee, but it is almost never found
as a part of a compound bird name. Will
thinks he has heard a parrot called gawo'‘ni--
sgi’ dji'skwa’, “talking bird,” but no other
bird names are constructed after this
fashion. One of the seven Cherokee clans
is called anidjisskwa’, “‘bird people.’ (The
name for bird is both singular and plural,
but the clan name forms a plural.) One spe-
cial group of birds, the sparrows, receives a
signal honor, for its members are called
djiskwayda, “really a bird, genuine bird.”

The ‘crane,’ as the herons and egrets
are known locally, is called kaskowa, this
being the generic name (W.W.). The ‘‘white
crane’ is probably the American egret,
Casmerodius albus egretta. The great blue
heron, Ardea herodias, called skot?ski, per-

3 Mooney, James, Myths of the Cherokee. 19th
Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.: 1. 1900; Sacred
formulas of the Cherokees. 7th Ann. Rep. Bur.
Amer. Ethnol.: 301-397. 1891. Mooney, JAMEs,
and OLBrRecHTs, Franz, The Swimmer Manu-
script. Bull. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. 99. 1932.

4 Pickens, A. L., A check-list of bird names in
Cherokee. Reprint from Neighborhood Research
3: 116-118. Paducah, Ky., Summer 1941; A
comparison of Cherokee and pioneer bird-nomen-
clature. Southern Folklore Quart. 7: 213-21. 1943.

5 Manuscript no. 4130 in Archives of the
Bureau of American Ethnology.

Nov. 15, 1946

haps referring to ‘feathers on head”
(W.W.), is generally referred to merely as
kaskowa (kanskowgd, C.S.; kaskaw@ kalas-
kowa, J.T.W.). The little blue heron,
Florida caerulea, and other wading birds
were not recognized by my informants.
The great blue heron, at least, was shot and
eaten by the Cherokee when it wandered
into their territory (M.O.).
The Cherokee seem to have very little
knowledge of waterfowl, probably because
of the upland, well-drained country in
which these people lived. All geese, both
wild and domesticated, are called s‘as‘a or
sas‘a. In Birdtown foils are called atdo-ni’,
but the people of the Big Cove and the
adjacent settlements use a different name,
kawo'na. In Birdtown one variety of
atdoni’, the teal, known locally as ‘‘dart
apple,’ has received a distinguishing name,
ekskwaye’. One variety of domesticated
duck, the Muscovie duck, locally called
skogi’ duck (i.e., Muskogie duck), is named
djokskwani’ in Birdtown.® All other ducks
are known by the generic name, and the
different varieties do not seem to be dis-
tinguished by any qualifying adjectives.

The general name for hawk is tawo-di’,
a term generally used instead of the specific
name of each hawk. Digak? da‘nahiga’,
‘long tail,” is the sharp-shinned hawk,
Accipiter velox, and probably also Cooper’s
hawk, Acczpiter coopert; both are called
locally ‘marsh hawk” and “chicken hawk.”’
The red-tailed hawk, Buteo borealis borealis,
is called uwes‘ia‘oski, “love sick,’ because
his: note is such a pe whistle. (He says

jijijijiji , according to Will.)

He is lesa called ‘ Sache hawk” and
“chicken hawk’? and is known also as
tawodehu’, “hawk big’? (W.W.), uta™ta‘wo-
di’, “big hawk” (J.T.W.), and tawo-degwa’,
“hawk big’ (C.S.). Big Cove is named
tawodjhi’, ‘‘hawk place” (W.W.).

The red-shouldered hawk, Buteo lineatus
lineatus, is known locally as the “brown

6 The Creek Indians, southern neighbors of the
Cherokee, also distinguished this variety of duck
by a separate name, fu’tc‘o.su’li, ““duck-buzzard”’
(Loughridge, R. M., and Hodge, D. M., Musko-
gee Dictionary: 139. 1890). This bird may have
been an early introduction among the southeast-
ern Indians.

WITTHOFT: BIRD LORE OF THE EASTERN CHEROKEE

30

rabbit hawk’? and is called gido-diski’,
“live thing on ground, he snatches up”
(W.W., J.T.W.). Will believes that this
name may have originally referred to the
golden eagle and that it does not properly
apply to this hawk. The red-shouldered
hawk is invoked in one of the conjurors’
formulae to carry away disease.’ The marsh
hawk, Circus hudsonius, has simply a
name, ga‘lonudzi’.

The broad-winged hawk, Buteo platypterus
platy pterus, called “pigeon hawk,’’is consider-
ed a fast and most graceful bird and is called
s‘fane wa (Oklahoma form—tlane wa’) or
s‘aniw9‘ng’; the name is said to mimic the
sound of his flight.’ A giant variety of this
bird, called by the same name (specifically
referred to as s‘anewa'.u‘tana’, “pigeon
hawk big’’), is one of the most important
birds in the Cherokee mythology. Like the
giant snakes, these birds were well remem-
bered by all Cherokee and are frequently
referred to as having been recently ex-
terminated.? One rock cliff on the Tennes-
see River was known as sane wohi’ (“‘pigeon
hawk place’’). A pair of these giant birds
once had a nest there. One of them carried
off a live man to their nest, and he ate and
slept with the young birds. When the old
birds were home he was under constant
and hostile surveillance and got no food,
but when they were away the young birds
fed him and played with him. They taught
him a dance, in which he impersonated the
hawk pursuing and catching pigeons. When
the young birds were large enough to fly he
attempted to escape on the back of one of
them. When it had flown a distance from
the nest, he struck it on the head with a
club, stunning it. The bird glided to earth,
and he escaped. The dance he learned is still
known to the Cherokee and is called the
pigeon dance (W.W.). James Adair, a

7 Mooney, Sacred formulas: 356.

8 All sorts of difficulties are involved in identify-
ing the bird that an Indian informant recognizes.
Will identified pictures of the pigeon hawk, Falco
columbarius columbarius, as this bird, probably
because he was misled by a local name, and the
plates were, unfortunately, labeled. The tail of
this hawk which he and Mollie brought me later,
however, belonged to a broad-winged haw I.
Many of the identifications in a study of this sort

remain somewhat uncertain.
° Moongy, Myths: 315.

376

trader among the southeastern Indians in
the mid-eighteenth century, has recorded
what apparently is a reference to this tale.
He says that the Cherokee disliked miserli-
ness and lack of hospitality and had a prov-
erb or jibe that they said of inhospitable
people, “Sinnawah na‘ wora‘, the great
hawk is at home.” (This phrase is in the
extinct Eastern Cherokee dialect.)!°

The eagles are known as awohuli”,
which Will interprets as meaning “across
the highest mountain.”’ Will says that. this
name is used only for the bald eagle, Halz-
aeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus {awosholi”’
C.8.; awovhali’, J.T.W.).

The eagle was a most important bird to
the Cherokee and was a symbol of peace.
The Eagle Dance, equivalent of the wide-
spread Calumet Dance, was a men’s per-
formance in which several dancers carrying
gourd rattles and dance wands decorated
with eagle feathers pantomimed eagles
with conventionalized steps, this dance
being emblematic of peace. Several good
early descriptions of such a dance with eagle
tails exist.1! This dance was performed to
welcome visitors and to greet the dead eagle
when it was carried into the town. Eagle
tails were highly valued, and the killing of
an eagle was a considerable undertaking.”
Formerly special officers were entrusted
with this job. They called the eagle to them
with spoken charms and memorized formu-
lae and then shot the bird. This could
only be done in fall, else the rattlesnakes,
not yet in their dens, would be angered: by
the Eagle Dance songs and attack people,
and an early winter might also appear.
The body of the slain eagle might bring dis-
ease to those who handled it, and so it had
to be left untouched for four days (W.W.).
The body had to be beaten all over with a
stripped sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum
(L.) DC.) switch to drive off the diseases

10 ApAIk, JAMES, History of the American In-
dians: 16. London, 1775. Another variant of the
Roe myth occurs among the Seneca Iroquois of
New York as the origin legend for the Eagle
Dance (W. N. Fenton).

11 TIMBERLAKE, HENRY, Memoirs: 107. Lon-
don, 1765. Moonny, Myths: 281, 492-493.
Wiuuiams, 8..C., Harly travels in the Tennessee
country: 126. Johnson City, Tenn., 1928.

12 Moongy, Myths: 281, 283-284, 453.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11

before it was touched (M.O.). As far as I
know, the last. eagle to be shot on the
reservation was killed about 1937.

Jimsie and Takwat Wallace described an
eagle trap unknown to my other informants. —
A number of long poles were driven into
the ground to form an open tipi-like struc-
ture, with an opening at one side covered
by a sliding door of sticks. This door was
propped up by a stick, and a string ran
from this stick to a hiding place nearby,
where the trapper lay in wait. A small
animal, such as a groundhog, was tethered
by a string to a stake inside of the trap.
An eagle, attempting to catch the animal,
would pursue him into the trap and would
be caught when the hunter pulled the
string. I am not at all sure that such a de-
vice would work, but it may possibly have
been used in some Cherokee communities.

The last eagles in the Big Cove were
killed by a white man in the 1890’s. A
colony of bald eagles had lived: there, un-
molested except for an occasional indi-
vidual killed ritualistically, up to that time:
Will had taken an eagle according to the
prescribed manner in his youth. Abel
Blankenship, a white man who claimed
Indian descent and was thus permitted to
hold one of the better farms in the Big Cove,
contracted with a live-animal dealer to sell
him a live eagle. He set a trap, presumably a
steel trap with the jaws wrapped in cloth
fastened to a baited pole-perch, and caught
an eagle. Figuring that two eagles were
better than one, he trapped the entire
colony of 12 and put them in a chicken-wire
pen. The live-animal dealer was never seen
again, and the eagles died in their cage. _

John Taylor (“Old Man Ducksoup,” de-
ceased), of Birdtown, described to Moses
Owl a peculiar Eagle Dance performance he
had seen in his youth. A group of men
painted as one kind of eagle and wearing
eagle tails, masks, and claws was ap-
proached in a dance by a man and woman
similarly disguised as a different kind of
eagle. In this dance the woman was sur-
rounded and carried off by the other men,
but her partner finally was able to maneu-
ver her away again. We have no other data
on such a dance or on similar costumes,

Nov. 15, 1946

but the whole performance is suggestive of
certain copper and shell art objects from
the mounds of the Creek area, in which
men painted and garbed like several dif-
ferent species of conventionalized rap-
torial birds are portrayed in various se-
quences of a dramatic performance.

The osprey, Pandion haliaetus caro-
linensis, called “‘fish hawk,’’ is known as
kanu‘dju'"wa”’, “lucky at fishing’ (W.W.)
(kane‘djuwa, J.T.W.; konag‘iwa’, C.S.;
kanatsu‘wa”, M.S.). According to Will,
the fat is tried out from the fish hawk’s
throat, mixed with old bear oil, and drunk
as a cure for tuberculosis. The outermost
feather (primary) from the right wing of the
fish hawk is burned, powdered, and steeped
in water; this is drunk for the same pur-
pose.*?

The sparrow hawk, Falco sparverius
sparvertus, is called g‘1-g, because he —
according to the @herakee. x igig io io 4,
He is considered one of the prethic? of the
hawks. Another hawk, called giya‘giya’, is
mentioned in some of the conjurors’
formulae, but the Cherokee now apparently
know nothing of i s identity.“

The turkey vulture, Cathartes aura
septentrionalis, is called su-‘li‘. This is
also the Creek (Muskogean) name for this
bird. The Cherokee are impressed with
the ‘‘buzzard’s” immunity against disease,
offensive odors (which are considered pos-
sible. causes of disease), and corruption.
Drinking the blood of the buzzard is said
to give temporary immunity from all epi-
demic diseases (W.W.). A dead buzzard
hung somewhere near the house is thought
to have a similar effect. In one of the con-
jurors’ formulae, buzzard’s down is pre-
scribed as a dressing for shot and arrow
wounds.'® The buzzard was once a hand-
some and proud bird, and one Cherokee
story tells how he fell to his present low
station in life.1” It is also claimed that when

18 This bird is also invoked by the conjuror as a
piercing agent to carry off disease (Mooney and
Olbrechts, Swimmer Manuscript: 190-191, 266).

2 Mooney, Formulas: 382.

15 LOUGHRIDGE and Hopes, Muskogee Diction-
ary: 12.

16 MoonrEy, Myths: 266. Moonry and OL-
BRECHTS, Swimmer Manuscript: 72, 272.

_ Mooney, Myths: 293. WITTHOFT, JOHN,

WITTHOFT: BIRD LORE OF THE EASTERN CHEROKEE

377

a feeding buzzard sees you staring at him
he vomits up everything in his stomach in
your direction.

The ruffed grouse,
monticola, is known locally as ‘‘pheasant’’
and is called ta’di'sti’, “hear” (gatadiya’,
“T am hearing (now)”’; datadisti’, “I hear
(habitually)’’). If a cyeepade cat eats any
of the meat or entrails of a partridge, it is
believed that the kittens will die within her.
Te prevent this the cat is made to drink a
decoction of the leaves of the patridge
berry, Mitchella repens L. (W.W.). Mooney
records a similar Cherokee taboo against
eating grouse, applied to pregnant women.'8

The bobwhite, Colinus virginianus vir-
gintanus, is called locally “‘partridge’’ and
“quail” and is called **kwe (W.W.) or
g‘ugwe’ (M.S.), perhaps in imitation of its
call. The bobwhite once had no call, but
got his whistle from the tortoise by
trickery.!° The guineafowl is called *°kwe
daga‘nasa‘i‘’, “‘quail domestic”? (W.W.), or
kokwehi’ (J.T.W.), or merely *°*kwe (C.S8.).
This bird is considered as a sort of watch
dog to scare off intruders, and Will tells me
that the guineafowl is most valuable be-
cause it warns of the approach of witches,
especially of invisible ones.

The wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo
silvestris, is almost exterminated in the
Cherokee area but was formerly an abun-
dant and important bird. Both the wild and
domesticated turkeys are called kana’.
(According to Jimsie Wallace, the domestic
turkey is kana’ ina‘ge‘nehi’, “turkey domesti-
cated.”’?) Will thinks that the wild turkey
was also kept as a domestic bird in aborig-
inal times and says that his mother
gathered wild-turkey eggs and hatched them
under a chicken, handling them in leaves
and being careful not to touch them her-
self.

There is more hunting lore concerned
with the turkey than with any other bird.
The turkey hunter knew certain memorized
formulae with which to charm his prey; and

Bonasa umbellus

Some Eastern Cherokee bird stories. Journ. Wash-
ington Acad. Sci. 35: 179. 1946.
18 Mooney, Myths: 295.
19 Mooney, Myths: 289.
stories: 178.

WittTHort, Burd

3718

often wore a mask of bobcat fur made to
look like the face of a bobcat. According to
Will, who has killed turkeys this way, the
turkey was not frightened by what ap-
peared to be a bobcat looking over a stump
or around a tree trunk. These masks were
also used to hunt bobcats and were worn in
certain dances. A small tube of bird bone,
one end held in the mouth and the other
between the cupped hands, could be
sucked to make a good imitation of a
turkey’s gobble (W.W.).2° But the best and
most curious turkey call was used in
Birdtown. A slip of cane or bone, sharp-
ened to a chisellike edge, was set in a corn-
cob. A flat sheet of shale was held over the
cupped left hand, and the scraper, held
perpendicular to the shale, was scratched
across it. By varying the shape of the left
hand and the stroke of the scraper, a very
close imitation of the turkey’s call could be
produced. This instrument was called
kuna‘yeli/st‘di’, “turkey seratch like”
(M.O.).

Several types of traps were used for
turkeys. In the Big Cove, a trench about
10 feet long was dug, slanting down from
ground level at one end to about 3 feet
deep at the other, and about 3 feet wide.
Corn was scattered over the floor of this
trench for several days, so that the turkeys
would overcome their suspicion of this new
feature in the landscape. Then a 3-foot-
square pen of poles was built up like a log
cabin, over the deep end of the trench, and
covered with poles, there being large spaces
between all the poles. The trench was again
baited, and a turkey following the trail of
corn with his head down came to the end
of the trench, put his head up, and was
caught. It is said that he would just stand
there and poke his head out through the
spaces in the pen, never thinking to bend
over and go out the way he came in. All
my Big Cove informants vouch for this
trap, but the Birdtown people are vastly
amused at such an impossible scheme.?!

20 Speck, FrRaNK G., Remarks on Tztkowitz’s
“Musical Instruments of the South American
Indians,”’ Ethnos 2: 94. 1937.

21 Similar traps have been described for Dela-
ware and Rappahannock groups. See: Dopes,
ErNEst S., Notes from Six Nations on the hunt-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11

According to Moses’s father, Adam Owl,
turkeys were taken in Birdtown by means
of a baited wooden hook on a string. The
details are forgotten, except that the points
of the hook expanded when the string was
under tension.

The Cherokee once no doubt wove pete
mantles in which turkey feathers were used,
but no memory remains of such a usage. The
“beard”? (vaneless neck feathers) of the
turkey was used as a fringe around the top
of some of the single eagle feathered Chero-
kee headdresses. This “beard”’ was once the
property of the Tortoise’s wife, but the
Turkey traded the Tortoise some worthless
beads for the neckpiece.”” A bone tube made
of the thigh bone of the turkey was used
by Cherokee doctors to blow certain medi-
cines on the body and into the throat of a
patient. There is no evidence that the
Cherokee ever used the turkey spur as an
arrowpoint.

According to Will West Long, sandpipers
are called kanastu ‘wa’, “they put their legs
in water,’ but Jimsie and Takwat Wallace
insist that this name refers to the killdeer,
Oxyechus vociferus vociferus. The name 1s
preserved in several of the memorized
formulae used for curative purposes. Will
ealls the killd: er, dj‘osto-wa’, and tells of a
medicinal formula in which red, white,
brown, and blue birds of this name are
invoked to cure a patient suffering from
stomach trouble. Gulls are known at uth,
which also means ‘‘turnip”; this name is
also preserved in some of the formulae.
The ‘“‘snipe’ (Wilson’s plover, Pagolla
wilsonia wilsonia, and the woodeock, Philo-
hela minor) is known as gala’soyaha’, ‘‘bill
dragging on ground,” but Will thinks this
name is properly applied only to the wood-
cock.

The mourning dove, Zenardura macroura
carolinensis, called “‘turtledove,” is known as
gule‘diskon‘jhj’, “‘acorn he cries for,” because
the bird is thought to call gule’, gule’,
“acorn, acorn.”’ This name is also thought to

ing and trapping of wild turkeys and passenger
pigeons. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 35: 342.
1945.

22 MOONEY, 287. Bird
Stories: 179.

Myths: WITTHOFT,

Nov. 15, 1946

refer to the passenger pigeon, EHctopistes
migratorius, but an older name for this
bird, wo-yl’, is preserved in several of the
memorized formulae, and Henry Timber-
lake, in 1765, gives ““woey”’ as the name for
_ the pigeon.”?

The yellow-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus ameri-
canus americanus, is known as dati*ga’,
that being the Cherokee imitation of his
call (W.W., M.S.). Jimsie and Takwat
Wallace call this bird djustig‘iski’.

The owls are of some importance in
- Cherokee folklore and are generally con-
sidered birds of ill omen. Jimsie Wallace
gives me the name uguku‘tawo-d1’, “barred
owl, hawk,” for the barn owl, Tyto alba
pratincola, but my other informants recog-
nize neither the bird nor this name. The
screech owl, Otus asio naevius, is called
wahahu’, in imitation of its call, and is
considered rather an inoffensive bird. One
Cherokee family takes its name from this
bird. (Sally Owl, of Birdtown, for example,
was really named sa‘li’ wahahu’.)

The barred owl, Strix varia, is called
uguku, in imitation of its call. According
to a popular Cherokee story, this bird was
once a human being. He courted and mar-
ried a Cherokee girl, but only came to the
house at night and sat in the corner with
his head turned, so that his wife and mother-
in-law never saw his face. One night the
old woman decided to play a trick on him,

so she threw an armload of sumac sticks

on the fire. When they began to flare up
and explode, the husband was startled and
turned to look. The girl and her mother
saw his face, and began to laugh at him,
saying, “Oh, what a funny looking thing
you are!” The husband was so offended and
ashamed that he ran off into the woods and
has remained there ever since as an owl.
Moses Owl, whose name is actually mos‘i’
uguku‘, tells a somewhat different version
of this story. Once a strange and beautiful
bird appeared in the woods, and all the
other birds gathered around and began to
perform tricks and show off to attract her
attention. She paid no attention to any of
them, but she noticed one bird, an owl, just
sitting there and looking off shyly in another

°3 TIMBERLAKE, Memoirs: 71.

WITTHOFT: BIRD LORE OF THE EASTERN CHEROKEE

379

direction. She went over to take a look at
him and decided that she would marry the
owl. ‘That,’ concludes Moses, “is how I
got my wife,” stealing a glance at his
magnificent wife who came from Laguna
Pueblo.

The long-eared owl, Asio wilsonianus, 1s
the most dreaded of birds.?4 Variously con-
sidered as ill omen, witch, or avenger of
breach of taboo, this owl is called s‘a‘kili’,
in imitation of its voice, a word which is
also considered to mean ‘‘witch, wizard,
something repulsive, simulator’ (W.W.).
The scream of the long-eared owl brings
dread and terror to the heart of the con-
servative Cherokee, but the bird must not
be killed.

The whippoorwill, Antrostromus vociferus
vociferus, 18 almost as hated as the long-
eared owl, and its ery is an ill omen.
Witches are believed often to appear as
whippoorwills. This bird is named waguli”’,
because the Cherokee hear its call as
wa‘guli’, wa‘guli’, wa‘guli’’. When I showed
Will a picture of this bird, he said, with
obvious disgust, ‘‘Isn’t that an awful ugly-
looking bird; did you ever see anything
uglier?” The whippoorwill is neither killed
nor eaten. The nightthawk, Chordeiles minor,
is locally called “bullbat’? and is named
ka‘isto-ga’. No special folklore is associated
with the nighthawk.

The chimney swift, Chaetura pelagica,
locally called ‘‘chimney sweeper,” is known
as ani‘gostayi’, “they are sharp” (W.W.)
(nigo‘staye’, C.S.; negosta‘l’, J.T.W., M.O.)
This bird is noted for tts speed and agility
and is invoked by the ball player and a cer-
tain feather from its left wing worn in the hair
to give swiftness in the ball game or in war
(W.W.). According to Moses Owl, if this
feather pointed upward the wearer was
peaceably inclined, but if concealed in the
hair and pointed downward the wearer
was looking for blood. Moses also tells me
that birds were invoked in some of the
memorized love formulae, considered cer-
tain methods for catching the fancy of a
girl. Some of these formulae consisted of
songs to the chimney swift, cardinal, and
blue jay. The aspiring young man sang one

24 WirrHort, Bird Stories: 180.

380

of these songs in the hearing of the girl; if
she looked at him, she was caught; if not,
he had to try something else. Certainly a
rather neat formality, if not effective magic!

The hummingbird, Archilochus colubris, is
called wa‘letu’, which has some reference
to rolling. (Wheel is dagwe‘le lu’; W.W.)
The kingfisher, Megaceryle alcyon alcyon,
known as ‘kingfisher’ or ‘‘woodhawk,”’ is
named tsatto’ (W.W.) (ts‘atiowi’, J.T.W.;
‘zatla‘wa’, C.S.) because his call is inter-
preted as tsatlalala. A magical (spirit) king-
fisher of the same name is invoked in certain
formulae used by fishermen. The kingfisher
is considered a symbol of piercing power
and is therefore invoked in several medicinal
formulae (W.W.). The beak of the king-
fisher was given him by the Dwarfs or Little
People as a reward for assistance he once
gave them.”

The yellow-shafted flicker, Colaptes aura-
tus, is called ‘“‘yellowhammer”’ and named
une ‘gada’, “‘white dirt.”’ Will says this is
because the bird is frequently seen. on the
ground eating insects, when his rump shows
up as a white blotch against the soil. The
pileated woodpecker, Ceophloeus pileatus, is

called the ‘‘wood hen’’ and is considered a —

lazy and stupid bird. Its Cherokee name is

derived from its call, **kwoki’ (W.W.)
(u?wo'ki’, J.T.W.; %ko?’kwokwa’, C.S.;
kwaga’, Carl Standingdeer). The _ red-

headed woodpecker, Melanerpes erythro-
cephalus, is considered a swift and cunning
bird and is the great war symbol of the
Cherokee; similar woodpeckers were very
important in the war-symbolism of many
other peoples in North America, the sym-
bolic ornamentation with woodpecker scalps
by the Plains tribes being one of the more
conspicuous usages. The red-headed wood-
pecker was always invoked for aid by the
ball player and is named in imitation of its
call, dalala’’ (WW )i (dalalas J 0 NW:
dalala’, M.O.; tiata’la’, C.S.).

The yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapi-
cus varius varius, is named dzuli.ena’,
“deaf,’”’ and is generally referred to as ‘‘red-
headed woodpecker,” this local name also
including several other birds. According to
one story, this bird was once an old woman,

2 Mooney, Myths: 288-289.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11

who was deaf.2° The downy and hairy
oodpeckers are called djiskwe‘nu‘za/’
(W.W.) (tiskwe‘nudja’, J.T.W.; g‘isk-
wenu%za’, C.S.), a name that may include
the generic term for bird (djiskwa’).
The kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus, 1s
noted as a fierce and brave bird and is called

ditte’gwa’, ‘‘big skunk,’’ because the Chero-

kee think that is what he says (ditte,
“skunk,” and egwa’, “big’’?) (W.W.). The
great crested flycatcher, Myzarchus crinitus
boreus, is called gala’sgalu‘, in imitation of
his cry, gala’s, gala’s (W.W.). James
Mooney collected a medicinal formula in
which this bird is invoked but did not iden-
tify the bird; Olbrechts has identified it as
the bittern.?7 |

The Cherokee recognize two varieties of
phoebe, one the phoebe, Sayornis phoebe,
the other the wood .peewee, Myzochanes
virens, both of which are called u'le‘ladg’,
“Jost.”” This bird was once a person, who
was left behind by his friends and is still
wandering around in the woods, calling
sk“’ktida‘, “wait for me’ (W.W.). The
least flycatcher, Hmpidonax minimus, is
known as skowaya‘**to'sti’, “looking for
flies’? (W.W.).

The bank swallow, Reparia riparia ri-
paria, has a proper name, tso‘yaga’. Will
remembered another swallow, now rare,
called djo-yagago‘la‘nehi’, ‘‘swallow, winter
lives,’ which appears to be the rough-
winged swallow, Stelgidopteryx ruficollis ser-
ripennis. The barn swallow, Hirundo eryth-
rogaster, is called udi‘gwan!¥zugi’, ‘‘notch,
crotch, fork” (plural, dzunadi-‘gwa!"zug1’;
the ‘“nock” of an arrow is udigwanskwa’,
W.W.). | |

The purple martin, Progne subis subs,
locally called ‘“‘black martin,” is called
tsu'tsu, in imitation of its call (tlu'tlu,
Oklahoma form; tjutju, J.T.W.). As far as
I could discover, the Cherokee of Qualla
Reserve did not put gourds in trees or on
poles as nesting boxes for these birds, al-
though Whites and Negroes in many parts
of the South do so, and Alexander Wilson,
in 1819, noted a similar practice among the

26 WirrHort, Bird Stories: 177-178.
27 Moonry, JAMES, Manuscript no. 2235 in

-Bureau of American Ethnology Archives. Mooney

and Olbrechts, Swimmer Manuscript: 248.

Noy. 15, 1946

Choctaw and . Chickasaw
neighbors of the Cherokee.”®

The blue jay, Cyanocitta cristata, is
named after the sound of its voice, tsas?"ga’.
The raven, Corvus corax principalis, is
called kolang, a name with a similar origin.
An invisible raven whose voice is heard
from the empty sky is believed to represent
a transformation of the worst sort of witch,
the dread “raven imitator.’? The raven
must once have held an important place in
Cherokee tradition, for Timberlake, an
early traveler among the Cherokee, noted
that the second most important honorary
title, “Colona, or the Raven,” a ‘“‘war-
title,’ was conferred on a man who had
killed an eagle and returned with its tail.*°
The crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos, also has
an onomatopoeic name, koga’.

The chickadee, Parus carolinensis, 1s
named tc‘igalili, in imitation of his call. He
is recognized as a friendly bird and often
stays near the house and sings. Sometimes,
however, he appears suddenly and whispers
“tethi, te‘ihi,” then flies away, thus an-
nouncing that ‘‘company is coming,” a
stranger or someone you haven’t seen in a
long time. When I first met Will West
Long, he claimed that my visit had been
foretold by a chickadee. The tufted tit-
mouse, Baeolophus bicolor, is called utzugy’,
“crest,” and is familiar to all Cherokee as
“the bird that lies,”’ because of his role ina
story. According to Mollie Sequoyah, this
bird sometimes foretells a visit in the same
way that the chickadee does, but he is ly-
ing. Jimsie Wallace also knew this bird by
- an alternate name, ali-tegida.

The chickadee and the tufted titmouse
play central roles in the story of the Liver
Eater, and much of the tradition concerning
them centers about several variants of this
tale. Cain Screamer’s version, which is es-
pecially detailed, follows.#

Indians, near

Once there was a man among the Cherokee

28 Bent, A. C., Life histories of North American
flycatchers, larks, swallows, and their allies. U. 8.
Nat. Mus. Bull. 197: 490-491. 1942.

29 Moonry, Myths: 283-294.401. Moonry and
OutBRecuts, Swimmer Manuscript: 206.

30 TIMBERLAKE, Memoirs: 71, 81.

a. For 2 bibliography of variants of this tale,
see: WirrHort, Bird Stories: 177.

WITTHOFT: BIRD LORE OF THE EASTERN CHEROKEE

381

who destroyed people in order to eat their
livers. He had a long, hard index finger, which
he would thrust into their bodies to extract
the liver, and he was able to simulate the ap-
pearance of anyone he pleased and thus no one
knew when he was around. His unfortunate
victims met what they thought was a friend or
relative, only to have him take on his own
form when they were defenseless, and they
died without being able to tell who he was.
Once some of the conjurors detected him in
his disguise, but he proved invulnerable. He
told them, ‘‘You can’t kill me because you
don’t know my name. I haven’t any end as
long as you don’t have my name.”’

A man who was hunting in the woods with
his dog killed a deer and made camp for the
night. A stranger appeared and ate supper
with them. When the man noticed that the
stranger was eating the bones along with the
meat, he realized who it was and he and the
dog slipped off and began to run away as fast
as they could. The Liver Eater ran after them
and they were forced to hide in a hollow log.
He followed their scent to the stump and began
to tap the wood with his hard finger. When he
came to the opening, the dog kept putting his
nose in front of the finger, so that he was un-
able to find the hollow, and finally gave up
and when off. When he appeared at a dance,*
the tee recognized him and someone asked
him, ‘‘What is your name?”’ Without thinking,
he aucwercd: meUSGI re:

The people then beaati to make plans to
kill him. They got all the animals and birds
to help them and to keep track of this crimi-
nal. Then, when they knew something of his
habits, they dug a pitfall on a path which he
often followed. He fell into their trap and all
of the people, birds, and animals quickly
gathered around. He assumed his own shape
and began to grab with his long finger at any-
one who came too close to the edge of the pit,
The people shot arrows at him, but he just
brushed them off. They asked the animals how
he could be killed. The Tufted Titmouse said,
‘Shoot him in the head,” but the head proved
especially tough. They called the Titmouse a
liar, and cut out his tongue. Then the Chicka-
dee offered to find his vital spot, and he flew
around the monster, avoiding the thrusts of
the long finger. Finally this bird came back

382

and told the people to shoot him in the hand,
just at the base of the long finger. This killed
the monster. The people caught the Chickadee,
who was a very plain bird, and painted him as
a mark of his valor, making him a much pret-
tier bird. The Liver Eater was buried in the
pit. Years later some conjurors dug into his
grave, and found his finger, which thev thought
they could use as magical paraphernalia.
Suddenly people began to die mysteriously,
and so the finger was reinterred and the
deaths ceased.

The white-breasted nuthatch, Sztta caro-
linensis (and probably other nuthatches),
is called dawaeyalo’*:, “climbing up and
down on a round thing’ (W.W.; J.T.W.
give tuwe'yu'lo‘ahi’). The brown creeper,
Certhia familiaris americana, is classified by
the Cherokee as a woodpecker and called
ata‘go'luni’, “tracking wood.”

The house wren, T'roglodytes aedon, is an-
other bird often seen in the vicinity of
Cherokee cabins and is called ganu'‘la‘tsi,
which, according to Will, may mean “ribs.”
The winter wren, Nannus hiemalis hie-
malis, is called tsi’tsi, in imitation of his
note, tsitsitsitsi (W.W.). The Carolina
wren, Thryothorus ludovicianus, 1s named
ali‘tama’, the name that most of the
Cherokee seem to use also for the other
wrens. This wren is locally called ‘‘rain-
bird,” and, according to the Cherokee,
when it is going to rain he calls for a drink
by saying sku’dj‘a‘, sku’dj‘a‘; when it is
going to clear he calls dji-‘la‘, dji-‘la’,
“fire, fire.”

The mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos
polyglottos, is an uncommon bird in the
Cherokee locale. According to Will it is
called tsuskg‘.digis‘ski’, “head eating,” be-
cause the head of this bird, eaten, is said to
make a person clever and intelligent. The
eatbird, Dumetella carolinensis, is called
u‘zima’ (W.W.; ute‘ima’, C.8., J.T.W.), ‘not
smooth.’ (Sweet corn is also called unit-
zima’ (plural), because the ear does not
have a smooth surface like the local Indian
varieties.) The brown thrasher, J’oxostoma
rufum, is called wati‘yela’, “imitator.”

The robin, Turdus migratorius, is called
teisgwa’gwa’, in imitation of his voice. The
wood thrush, Hylocichla mustelina, is named

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES |

VOL. 36, No. 11

kawo'?ga’, probably onomatopoeic, and is
commonly known as the “‘swamp sparrow.”
Some of my informants tended to use this
name for several other birds with which
they were not familiar. The bluebird, Szalia
stalts sialzs, is called dsa‘gwolade?’ (W.W.)
or djagwo'li’ (J.T.W.), both forms referring
to his song, which the Cherokee interpret
as gwo, gwo, gwo. The blue-gray gnat-

catcher, Polioptila caerulea caerulea, is
called disi’ because he is heard to say
Chis, CUS,

The golden-crowned kinglet, Regulus
satrapa satrapa, is called atsila’.usti'h',
“fire on head”? (W.W.). The ruby-crowned
kinglet has a proper name, t‘a‘tsala‘ga’,
and Will notes that this bird does not winter
at Cherokee. The cedar waxwing, Bomby-
cilla cedrorum, is called u-no-yi’ (C.S. gives
a plural, univno-yu’), ‘“sand,’’ because it is
said that the bird whispers this word, which
also describes the soft colors of his plumage.
(J.T.W. gives another word for this bird,
kanas‘e‘honi’, which I am unable to an-
alyze.) The vireo, Vzreo olivaceus and
Vireo griseus, is called dja‘tesnali’, ‘stripe
on eyes,” according to Will; he also in-
cludes several warblers under this name.
He notes, however, that this bird builds a
little hanging nest in the fork of a tree
branch.

The warblers represent the most con-
fused family of birds to the Cherokee. Most

of the informants recognize few of these

birds, and most of the specific names are
on the authority of Will West Long. The
Wallaces give a generic name for this type
of bird, yonda‘gediski’. Cain Screamer re-
fers to them as udo‘ni’, while the Wallaces
use this term for the purple finch and prob-
ably several other birds. The best known
bird of the group is the yellow-breasted chat,
Icteria virens virens, known locally as the
‘“vellow nightingale’ and called hu’hu’ in
Cherokee. This bird appears in spring just
at plowing time, and there is a popular
story about its arrival.”

The black-and-white warbler, Mnzotilta
varia, is called djuga‘tsala’la, ‘striped on
face.’”’ Will also tells of a large mythical
bird of the same name and appearance,

32 Mooney, Myths: 288.

Nov. 15, 1946

which flies only at night and comes down
from the mountains to get the sunflower
seeds when they ripen. The worm-eating
warbler, Helmitheros vermivorus, is called
k‘i-yu'gi’, ‘“chipmunk,”’ because its head is
marked like a chipmunk’s. The Black-
burnian warbler, Dendroica fusca, is called
gana?el’, “falling down to the ground,”
because, Will says, he dives to the ground if
you throw a rock at him. The chestnut-
sided warbler, Dendroica pensylvanica, is
named tuya’, which also means “bean.”’
The ovenbird, Sezwrus aurocapillus, Will
calls tsuttslota’, “he has a camp.” The
hooded warbler, Wzlsonia citrina, is da‘k-
testa'li’, “spot on his face.’”’ The redstart,
Setophaga ruticilla, is better known than
the smaller warblers and is called awoa:h-
a‘liyusti’, “like an eagle’ (also by an ab-
breviated form of the name, awo:lade‘’).
The water thrush is locally called the
“branch bird’ (a branch being a small
mountain stream), but I could discover no
Cherokee name for it. Will could not re-
member a name for the yellow warbler,
Dendroica aestia aestiva, but interpreted
its call as go’dada‘

The meadowlark, Sturnella magna, is
generally called nokwisi“’, “star,’’ from the
appearance of its tail in flight, but Will says
that it also has a proper name, uni‘gwe-
~ justi’. The orioles, Icterus galbula and Ic-
terus spurtus, are called wolade, and Will
notes that there are two varieties, large
and small, and that they build a woven,
hanging nest. The grackle, Quiscalus quis-
cula, called blackbird, is known as skwe'l-
ista’ (W.W.) (gwalisti’, J.T.W.). The red-
winged blackbird, Agelazus phoeniceus, and
the cewbird, Molothrus ater, go by the
same name but are also specifically referred

to by Will as skwe'lista‘’ igo'tehy’,
“orackle living in swamp” (plural,
skwe'lista’ igo'tanehi’) and _ skwelista’

sakonage‘l’, ‘‘grackle bluish,” respectively.
The Wallaces have a special name for the
cowbird, so-yida’. The grackle and the
redwing are considered the same species
by some informants.

The scarlet tanager, Pzranga erythro-
melas, and also the summer tanager
Piranga rubra rubra, are called tso-la

WITTHOFT: BIRD LORE OF THE EASTERN CHEROKEE

383

(W.W.) (ts‘o‘"lil’ J.T.W.), a name closely
resembling the word for tobacco (tso:la’)
but seems to have no special significance.
The cardinal, Richmondena cardinalis, is
known merely as “redbird” and named
totsu'wa’ (todjuwa’ is more usual), be-
cause it says to’tsu‘, to’tsu‘. One Cherokee
myth explains the origin of the redbird
from the transformed daughter of the sun.*
The rose-breasted grosbeak, Hedymeles
ludovictana, 1s known as kaya'‘skalena’,
“big beak” (plural, ditaya‘skalena; W.W.).
The indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea, is
called ali‘tsanoska”’, “broiling charcoal,”
an attempt to describe his song, according
to Will. The purple finch, Carpodacus pur-
pureus purpureus, is not a familiar bird to
most Cherokee, but the unusual appear-
ance of this bird has resulted in its name,
u‘dzoneda’, “perfumed,” according to Will.
The pine siskin, Sprnus pinus pinus, found
in small flocks in these mountains, is named
atgiski, “‘boiling”’ (plural, anatgi‘ski’, ‘they
are boiling’’), an attempt to describe the
unique call of this bird. Will notes that a
flock sounds like a boiling pot.

The goldfinch, Spinus tristis tristis,
usually called golden finch, yellowbird, or
flaxbird, is named wad‘aga’. This bird is
noted for its delicacy, and informants re-
marked that it was easily caught in thistles,
spiderwebs, and similar material. One
slightly sticky plant, the Herb Robert,
Robertiella robertiana, is named wad ‘aga‘da-
gani‘iski’, ‘‘goldfinch, he catches, grabs.”
Wataga River, in Tennessee, is probably
named for this bird, as was a Cherokee
town.**

The red crossbill, Loxia curvirostra pusil-
la, is known to few Cherokee, but, accord-
ing to Big Cove informants, it is resident
in the highest zones of the mountains and
sometimes comes down to the Cove in
October, when it is easily lured to the
house-yard by salt. This bird was known as

abayuga‘lohi’, “twisted mouth” (W.W.),
and its head was not eaten.
The towhee, Pipilo erythrophthalmus,

has an interesting local name, Jori’’, but

33 MoonrEy, Myths: 245.
34 BARTRAM, WILLIAM, T'ravels through North
and South Carolina: 352, 373. Philadelphia, 1791.

384

its Cherokee name is tso-wic‘g‘a’; both
names are imitations of the bird’s call. The
Jori:’ is considered a mean little bird who
pulls sprouting corn but is said to be ex-
ceptionally good to eat. A mountain and a
settlement about 12 miles northwest of
Franklin, N. C., noted by Bartram in the
1770’s, were named Joree, probably as a
translation of this Cherokee bird name.*
The junco, Junco hyemalis carolinensis,
known as the snowbird, is called tud‘1’.
(Oklahoma Cherokee form is tluti’; W.W.)
The modern Tennessee Cherokee settle-
ment of Snowbird is named for this bird,
the town being situated on Snowbird Creek.
Sparrows are known generically as

% Ibid. : 353, 355, 366, 373.

BOTANY.—On the identity of Kokonoria.!

Soochow, China.

In a previous number of this JoURNAL,?
under the title Kokonoria, a new genus of
Plantaginaceae from Tsinghar Province,
China, Dr. Yi-li Keng and Mr. Kwan-hou
Keng describe a new genus and species
Kokonoria stolonifera. The description is in
full and is supplemented by detailed draw-
ings of the whole plant and its various parts,
as well as a discussion of its relationships,
which readily enable one to make out the
identity of the plant in question. It is with-
out doubt Lagotis brachystachya Maxim. of
the Scrophulariaceae.

The authors were correct in doubtfully
placing this supposed new genus in the
Plantaginaceae. They mentioned its pos-
sible relationship with the Scrophulariaceae.
In summarizing the characters of the genus,
they notice that it is considerably different
from most of the Plantaginaceae, saying that
‘The genus here described is an isolated one
[in the Plantaginaceae], differing from the
others in having (1) perigynous flowers with
an annular disk giving off two lateral ac-
crescent lobes, (2) subsessile anthers with
divergent anther sacs, (3) solitary linear

1 Received September 19, 1946.
2 Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 35: 374-378.
figs. 1-18. 1945.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, NO. a

djiskwaya’, “really a bird,’ and only one or
two specific sparrows are recognized. The
song sparrow, Melospiza melodia, is, in-
stead, called ts‘ck*zo’-¥? (according to
W.W., the emphatic form is ¥*ts‘iktso‘wa’),
in imitation of its call. Will recognizes two
other sparrows: the fox sparrow, Passerella
tliaca iliaca, called wo'ga‘ada”’, and the
white-throated sparrow, Zonotrichia albi-
collis, tjuniga‘tagohi’, “‘marked on each side
of face.” .

Finally, an introduced domestic bird, the
chicken, bears a Cherokee name that is as
difficult to analyze or interpret as any of
the names for native birds: dzatana’
(W.W.) or djataga’ (C.S., J.T.W.), which
may be only a Cherokee rendering of its
English name.

Hur-uin Li, Soochow University,

(Communicated by Eaprert H. WALKER.)

ovules pendulous from the tip of the ovary
cells, (4) drupaceous fruits with a 2-celled
pyrene, and (5) dorsally compressed but not
peltate seeds without endosperm.’’ These
points are sufficient to warrant the im-
propriety of including the plant in the
Plantaginaceae, but to seek its taxonomic
location elsewhere.

Lagotis is usually placed in the Scrophu-
lariaceae, often in thetribe Veroniceae of the
subfamily Rhinanthoideae. It has single-
seeded cells in the capsule that mark it as
one of the most modified of all Scrophu-
lariaceae. Some authors refer it to the tribe
Selegineae, which is mainly African. Lagotis
is primarily an alpine and Arctic Asiatic
genus of over 20 species. It extends from
Asia Minor through the Himalayas and
eastward to Alaska, there extending to the
edge of the continental North American
glaciation. There are about 12 species in
China, in northern Yunnan, Sikang, Tibet,
Tsinghai, and Kansu, in the western part
of the country. Two species of the genus are
stoloniferous, L. stolonifera (C. Koch)
Maxim. of western Asia and L. brachystachya
Maxim. of western China. The latter species
occurs at altitudes of 2,500-—4,300 meters,
from Tibet to Tsinghai and Kansu. The

Nov. 15, 1946

Messrs. Kengs’ plant, ‘‘collected on the
exposed bare ground of the steppe, near the
ruined city of Ch’a-han-chéng, about 30
miles east of Lake Kokonor, Huan-yiian-
hsien, formerly known as ‘Tan-ké-erh,
Tsinghai Province, August 10, 1944, by
Y. L. Keng and son (no. 5286),” is within
the range of Lagotis brachystachya.
The synonymy of the plant in question
can be adjusted as follows:
Lagotis J. Gaertner, Nov. Comm. Acad. Sci.
Petrop. 14: 533. 1770.
Kokonoria Keng & Keng f., Journ. Washington
Acad. Sci. 35: 374. 1945.
Lagotis brachystachya Maxim. Bull. Acad. Sei.
St. Pétersb. 27: 525. 1883 (Mél. Biol. 11: 300.
1883).-
Kokonoria stolonifera Keng & Keng f., Journ.
Washington Acad. Sci. 35: 375. 1945.

HSIAO: THE GENUS NEELLA REUTER

O36".

Messrs. Keng, working in the interior of
wartime China and without access to exten-
sive library and herbarium facilities, were
unfortunately not able to consult needed
references freely. They have rendered a
good service by giving a very complete de-
scription with excellent illustrations and a
discussion that make identification possible
without the necessity of consulting the type
specimens. If all presumably new species
and genera could be described with this
same degree of thoroughness, taxonomic
botany would have fewer uncertain names
and less confusion. A description that forces
the reader to consult the original specimens
has indeed defied its very purpose.

ENTOMOLOGY .—The genus Neella Reuter, with descriptions of four new species

(Hemiptera: Miridae). Tsat-yu

China.

In 1907 Reuter established the genus
Neella (genotype: Kccritotarsus eucosmus
Stal) including three species, viz., Sysinas
floridulus Distant, EH. eucosmus Stal, and
E. mundulus Stal (Ann. Naturh. Hofmus.
Wien 22: 152-154). Bergroth in 1922 trans-
ferred H. lutescens Stal to this genus (Ark.
for Zool. 14 (22): 17). In 1893 Distant de-
seribed E. vultwosus from Frontera and
Teapa, Mexico. I have identified this
species from a few specimens collected at
Veracruz, Mexico, and consider it as con-
generic with Neella. From the collection of
Neotropical Miridae in the U. 8. National
Museum I have discovered four more new
species, which are described below.

This genus is very close to Tenthecoris
Scott, but the body is more elongate, with
costal margins of hemelytra nearly parallel,
vertex flat or somewhat concave. The
rostrum is long with short but not dis-
tinctly thickened third and fourth seg-
ments. There is no sexual dimorphism as in
Neoneella Costa-Lima, and the cuneus of
female is usually shorter in Neella than in
Neoneella.

1 Received August 28, 1946.

Hsrao, Nankai University, Tientsin,

(Communicated by ALAN STONE).

KEY TO SPECIES OF NEELLA

1. Hemelytra entirely fuscous (except the ex-
ETEMIC ASE): ya pees ys tas oes Ges ae eee 2

. Hemelytra not entirely fuscous............ 4
2. Pronotum entirely reddish or yellowish, legs
entirely pale, hemelytra explanate poste-
TRCN A D'7 aeaaae hie ot oad ons oan eucosmus (Stal)
Pronotum fuscous or partly fuscous, legs with

at least posterior tibia fuscous or partly
fuscous, hemelytra not explanate poste-
TIOT AYR hee eae as dee 3

3. Head, pronotal collar, and calli red, antennal
segments III and IV pale. .. .mundula (Stal)
Pronotal collar and calli fuscous, head also-
tinged with fuscous; antennal segments III

and bVidarke i. vultuosa (Dist.), n. comb.
4. Hemelytra unicolorously rufous or flavous...5
Hemelytra redvand darks oct 3.55 6 ee 6

5. Antennal segment I entirely pale, vertex flat,
rostrum reaching apex of intermediate coxae,
posterior tarsi pale......... unicolor, n. sp.

Antennal segment I dark, vertex somewhat
concave, rostrum reaching apex of posterior
coxae, posterior tarsi fuscous.lutescens (Stal)

6. Pronotum without a broad transverse dark

band-on-postertormdisks: -. ...°. sc. cua aes Qi
Pronotum with a broad transverse dark band
on posterior: diskg ace e s cents) Siena 8

7. Pronotal disk uniformly red, anterior and in-
termediate tibia each with apex fuscous,
ninth abdominal segment concolorous.

floridula (Dist.)
Pronotal disk with a large median fuscous area

386

reaching posterior margin, anterior and in-
termediate tibiae unicolorous, ninth abdomi-
nal segment fuscous.........b¢color, n. sp.
8. Pronotal collar fuscous; dark band on pro-
notum broad, occupying nearly whole disk;
anterior and intermediate tibiae fuscous at
ROKER eet. (Seales eS carvalhot, n. sp.
Pronotal collar pale; dark band on pronotum
narrow, occupying only anterior half of
disk; anterior and intermediate tibiae uni-
COlOKGUsSH eo ee tee aa fasciata, n. sp.

Neella bicolor, n. sp.

Coloration and size similar to that of N.
floridula (Distant) but with distinct dark area
on pronotum, anterior and intermediate tibiae
not darkened at apex, posterior tibia with
nearly apical half dark, and with ninth ab-
dominal segment dark. Antennal segment II
longer and slightly thickened apically. Male
genitalia distinct.

Male.—Body oblong, length 4.95 mm, width
2.15 mm, reddish ochraceous with fuscous,
color on head, calli, and underside of the body
paler; clothed with fine golden simple hairs.

Head vertical, width across eyes 1.16 mm,
length seen from above 0.39 mm, height seen
from side 0.86 mm; vertex flat, width 0.65 mm.
Eyes large, seen from above occupying nearly
the whole length of head, divergent posteriorly ;
frons vertical, slightly convex; clypeus not
prominent, slightly curved posteriorly toward
apex. Rostrum nearly reaching apex of inter-
mediate coxae, length of segments I:II:III
:1V::0.52 mm:0.21 mm:0.21 mm, joint be-
tween III and IV indistinct.

Antennae reddish fuscous, length of segment
I, 0.56 mm, II, 1.06 mm (segments III and IV
missing) (length of antennal segments in the
paratype I:IT:III:1V::0.56 mm:1.06 mm
:38 mm: 0.49 mm, III and IV luteous).

Pronotum, length 0.9 mm, width at base
1.55 mm, at apex 0.77 mm; collar distinctly
thicker than antennal segment I; calli trans-
versely rectangular, separated by a deep
rounded impression in the middle, their poste-
rior margin not reaching side of pronotum but
ended in a deep impression on each side inside
lateral margin of pronotum; posterior margin
of pronotum slightly ecneave before scutellum,
lateral margins sinuate at middle, humeral
angle round, posterior disk finely but distinctly
punctate, with a large fuscous spot occupying
about the middle third and reaching posterior

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11

margin. Scutellum fuscous, width 0.77 mm,
length 0.56 mm, triangular, with a distinct
broad impression at middle of base.

Hemelytra with embolium linear, slightly
convex posteriorly, length of embolium 2.28
mm, inner half of corium, clavus (except basal
fifth}, and inner angle of cuneus fuscous;
cuneus declivent, width 0.86 mm, length 0.9
mm, membrane fuscous, finely rugulose.

The ninth abdominal segment and male
genital parameres fuscous; male genitalia with

. left paramere bent sharply at basal third, basal

portion ovate, apical portion much slenderer
and pointed at apex; right paramere broad,
curvate, tapering and pointed at apex. Legs
moderately long, length of posterior femur 1.5
mm, length of posterior tibia 1.63 mm, apical
half of posterior tibia fuscous, all tarsi pale.
Types.—U.S.N.M. no. 58082, holotype —
male, Porto Bello, Panama, March 1, 1911
(E. A. Schwarz); paratype, male, locality and
collector same as holotype, March 12, 1911.

Neella carvalhoi, n. sp.

Female—Body oblong, length 5.03 mm,
width 2.02 mm, ochraceous with fuscous, —
clothed with fine simple flavous hairs.

Head vertical, width across eyes 1.08 mm,
length seen from above 0.39 mm, height seen
from side 0.86 mm; vertex flat, width 0.56 mm.
Rostrum barely reaching apex of ‘posterior
coxae, length 1.82 mm, length of segment I
0.52 mm, II 0.91 mm, joint between III and
IV indistinct.

Antennae reddish fuscous, length of seg-
ment I 0.46 mm, II 1.04 mm, III and IV miss-
ing.

Pronotum impunctate, length 0.86 mm,
width at base 1.51 mm, at apex 0.69 mim, pos-
terior disk and collar fuscous, extreme humeral
angle pale. Scutellum fuscous, triangular,
width 0.73 mm, length 0.52 mm, basal impres-
sion much broader than that of bicolor, n. sp.

Hemelytra with coloration similar to that of
bicolor, n. sp., emboliar margin very slightly
convex, linear, length 2.58 mm; cuneus width
0.77 mm, length 1.03 mm, membrane fuscous.

Legs moderate in length, posterior femur
1.72 mm, posterior tibia 1.94 mm long; apical
third of anterior tibia and sometimes extreme
apex of intermediate tibia fuscous.

Male.—Color pattern similar to female,

Nov. 15, 1946

width of head seen from above 1.19 mm, width
of vertex 0.49 mm; length of antennal segment
I 0.49 mm, II 1.19 mm. Genitalia similar to
bicolor, n. sp., but the right paramere narrower
and much longer and more twisted.

Types.—U.S.N.M. no. 58083, holotype, fe-
‘male, Trinidad River, Panama, June 10, 1912
(A. Busck); allotype, male, San José, Costa
_ Rica (M. Valerio); paratype, female, same
data as allotype.

This species is named in honor of Dr. José
Candido M. Carvalho, who is energetically
expanding our knowledge of the Neotropical
Miridae.

Neella fasciata, n. sp.

Male—Body elongate, length 4.9 mm,
width 2.15 mm, ochraceous with reddish and
fuscous, clothed with yellow simple hairs.

Head broad, vertical, width across eyes 1.29
mm, length seen from above 0.35 mm, height
seen from side 0.78 mm; vertex somewhat ex-
cavate, width 0.56 mm, more yellowish poste-
riorly; frons tinged with reddish, flat; clypeus
and jugum red, the former not prominent,
discrete from frons on a line connecting lower
ends of eyes. Eyes large, prominent, greatly
projecting over the pronotal collar. Rostrum
yellowish, with extreme apex fuscous, reaching
apex of posterior coxae, length of segments
eit 1 -0.50- mm:(0.63° -mm:0.22 mm
:0.18 mm (joint between II and III indistinct).

Antennae inserted at lower third of inner
margin of eye, linear, length of segments I
HIT: TI: 1V: :0.56 mm:1.25 mm:0.49 mm:0.69
mm, I and II brownish red, III and IV yellow,
much slenderer than I and II, II very slightly
thickened toward apex.

Pronotum yellow, with a transverse fuscous
band behind calli extending to across pro-
pleura; length 0.9 mm, width at base 1.63 mm,
width at apex behind collar 0.99 mm, apical
collar very distinct, a little thicker than an-
tennal segment I; posterior margin slightly
sinuate before scutellum, lateral margin dis-
tinctly sinuate, humeral angle rounded, disk
with punctures at base of hairs. Scutellum
_ fuscous except base, triangular, width 0.77
mm, length 0.65 mm, impressed at middle of
base.

HSIAO: THE GENUS NEELLA REUTER

387.

Hemelytra reddish, with costal margins
nearly parallel; embolium linear, length 2.37
mm; inner angle of corium broadly, clavus ex-
cepting basal fourth, and inner angle of cuneus
fuscous, length of cuneus 0.86 mm, width 0.9
mm, membrane fuscous.

Body beneath yellow. Legs moderately long,
concolorous, length of posterior femur 1.72 mm,
of posterior tibia 1.98 mm. Male genitalia
with left paramere sharply bent at basal third,
much enlarged at base and tapering toward
apex; right paramere broad and rounded at
apex.

Female-—Similar to male in coloration,

length 5.59 mm, width 2.15 mm. Head with
width across eyes 0.86 mm, width of vertex
0.34 mm. Length of antennal segments I:II
SEIN. 053mm: 1226. ann 0:49’ <mm0:63
mm.
Types —U.S.N.M. no. 58084, holotype,
male, Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone,
October 9, 1940, collected at light (J. Zetek,
no. 4691); allotype, female, Barro Colorado
Gatun Lake, Panama, August 1923 (R. C.
Shannon); paratypes, male, Trinidad River,
Panama, May 2, 1911 (A. Busck); female,
Porto,- Bello, Panama April 2210 W9l2(A.
Buseck); female, Piedras Negras, Costa Rica
(Schild—Burgdorf).

Neella unicolor, n. sp.

Female—Body oblong, uniformly ochra-
ceous except the fuscous antennal segments
II and IV and the pale membrane on heme-
lytra, clothed with concolorous simple hairs;
length 4.99 mm, width 2.15 mm.

Head vertical, width across eyes 1.2 mm,
length seen from above 0.43 mm, height seen
from side 0.73 mm; vertex flat, width 0.56
mm; frons convex; clypeus evenly curved pos-
teriorly. Rostrum reaching apex of intermedi-
ate coxae.

Antennae slender, linear, length of segments
Tere TV 0:41 mm 1209s mm: 05555 am
:0.49 mm.

Types.—U.S.N.M. no. 58085, holotype, fe-
male, Yurimaguas, Peru, April 7, 1920 (H. 8.
Parish); paratype, female, Iquitos, Peru, May
5, 1920 (H. S. Parish).

388

ORNITHOLOGY.—Three new North American birds. Harry C.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11

OBERHOLSER,

Cleveland Museum of Natural History.

In the course of the writer’s researches
on the birds of Texas, a number of new
races of North American birds were dis-
covered. Three of these are described below.

Anthus spinoletta geophilus, n. subsp.
ALASKA PIPIT

Subspecific characters—Similar to Anthus
spinoletia alticola Todd, but upper parts some-
what darker, less grayish (more brownish);
lower surface paler or more whitish and more
buffy (less cinnamomeous); jugulum usually
heavily streaked with dark brown.

Measurements (in mm).—Adult male: Wing,
78-87 (average, 83.8); tail, 62.5-69 (65); ex-
posed culmen, 11—12 (11.8); tarsus, 21.5-23
(22.3); middle toe without claw, 13-14.3
(13.8); white on inner web of outermost tail
feather, 33.5-40 (37.8). Adult female: Wing,
75.5-83.5 (average, 78.8); tail, 58-64 (61.3);
exposed culmen, 11.5-12 (11.8); tarsus, 20-22
(21.3); middle toe without claw, 12.3—-14 (13);
white on inner web of outermost tail feather,
29.5-38.5 (33.8).

Type.—Adult male, no. 298525, U. 8. Na-
tional Museum, Biological Surveys Collection;
False Pass, Unimak Island, Alaska; May 14,
1925; O. J. Murie; original number, 2950.

Geographic distribution.—Breeds in south-
western Alaska. Winters south to southern
Mexico. Casual east to New York, Pennsyl-
vania, and the District of Columbia.

Amphispiza nevadensis campicola, n. subsp.
IpAHO SaGE SPARROW

Subspecific characters—Similar to. Amphi-
spiza nevadensis nevadensis but somewhat
larger; upper parts darker, more grayish (less
ochraceous or buffy); and the flanks also more
grayish (less buffy).

Measurements (in mm).—Adult male: Wing,
76.5-82 (average, 79.3); tail, 69.5-77 (72.8);
exposed culinen, 9.5-11.5 (10.8); tarsus, 20-23
(21.8); middle toe without claw, 12.5-14
(13.5). Adult female: Wing, 70.5-78 (73.5);
tail, 68-74 (70); exposed culmen, 9.3-10.5 (10);

1 Received August 29, 1946.

tarsus, 19.8-20.5 (20.3); middle toe without
claw, 12.5-14 (13.8).

Type.—Adult male, No. 34892, Cleveland.
Museum of Natural History; 6 miles south of
Hamer, Jefferson County, Idaho; May 16,
1931; Pierce Brodkorb; original number, 6940.

Geographic distribution—Breeds north to
middle Idaho and eastern Washington; west to
eastern Washington and central northern Ore-
gon; south to southeast central Oregon and
southern Idaho; and east to southern and cen-
tral Idaho. Winters south to southern Cali-
fornia, southern Arizona, and Chihuahua.

Passerella iliaca zaboria, n. subsp.
ALASKA Fox SPARROW

Subspecific characters—Resembling Passe-
rella wliaca iliaca, from eastern North America,
but upper parts including wings and tail aver-
aging darker and much more grayish or sooty
(less rufescent), the reddish brown spots usu-
ally smaller, less numerous, and decidedly
duller; markings on the under surface duller,
less rufescent (darker, more blackish).

Measurements (in mm).—Adult male: Wing,
87-91.8 (average, 88.8); tail 71-77.3 (74.3);
bill (exposed culmen), 11-13 (11.8); height of
bill at base, 7.8-9 (8.3); tarsus, 24.3-25.4
(24.8); middle toe without claw, 15-17 (15.8).
Adult female: Wing, 81-86.5 (83); tail, 67-71
(69.3); bill (exposed culmen), 11-12 (11.5);
height of bill at base, 7.5-8.7 (8.3); tarsus,
23.3-26 (24.8); middle toe without claw, 14-16
(14.8).

Type.—Adult male, no. 187118, U. 8. Na-
tional Museum, Biological Surveys collection;
Circle, Alaska; July 4, 1903; Ned Hollister;
original number, 240.

Geographic distribution.—Breeds north to
northern Manitoba, Mackenzie, and Alaska;
west to Alaska and Alberta; south to Alberta
and Manitoba; and east to Hudson Bay.
Winters south to Texas, Louisiana, and Flor-
ida.

Remarks.—The fox sparrow was originally
described? without more definite type locality

2 Fringilla iliaca Merrem, Avium Rar. Icones
et Descript., pt. 2, p. 37, pl. [X]. 1786.

Nov. 15, 1946

than North America. Since the colored plate
- and the description seem to indicate that they
were derived from a specimen of this species
from eastern North America, the name is

ZIMMER: A NEW SUBSPECIES OF TANAGER

389

hereby restricted to the eastern fox sparrow
from Quebec. As there is no name available
for the western race, it is here named as above.

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new subspecies of tanager from northeastern Colombia.

Joun T. Zimmer, American Museum of Natural History.

by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

Among other interesting material re-
ceived from Brother Nicéforo Maria of the
Instituto de La Salle, Bogoté, Colombia,
are four specimens of the tanager Chloro-
spingus ophthalmicus that can not be re-
ferred to any of the known forms. Since
they are consistently different, it is appar-
ent that they represent an undescribed sub-
species which is described below.

I am grateful to Brother Nicéforo Maria
for the opportunity to examine and de-
scribe this interesting bird and to retain
the type in the American Museum of Nat-
ural History. I am further grateful to
William H. Phelps, of Caracas, Venezuela,
for the loan of the type of one of the allied
forms, and to the Chicago Natural History
Museum for permission to examine impor-
tant critical material in that institution.

In the following description, names of
colors are capitalized when direct compari-
son has been made with Ridgway’s Color

standards and color nomenclature.

Chlorospingus ophthalmicus eminens, n. subsp.

Type—From Gramalote, Department of
Norte de Santander, Colombia. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist. no. 748393. Adult female collected
in November 1940 [by Brother Nicéforo
Maria].

Diagnosis.—Distinguishable from all the
known subspecies of C. ophthalmicus by its
deep black head, darker than in any of the
other forms. In most details it resembles C. o.
nigriceps of central Colombia, but it has a
strong white postocular area lacking in that
form; auriculars are no blacker than the top
of the head; the throat is less heavily spotted.
From jacquett of the Caracas region of Vene-
zuela it is distinguishable by its paler (more
whitish) and somewhat more heavily spotted

1 Received September 3, 1946.

(Communicated

throat, darker green back, and more grayish
belly, and by having the auriculars no darker
than the crown. From venezuelanus of the
Mérida region it is separable by its darker cap,
paler and less heavily spotted throat, lighter
yellow breast, and grayer belly; from falcon-
ensis of the State of Falcén, Venezuela, it
differs by its much paler throat, less olive-
green back, paler yellow breast without any —
brown coloration centrally, grayer belly, and
absence of bright brown on the auricular re-
gion. ,
Range.—Known only from the type local-
ity and Péramo de Tam4, Venezuela.
Description of type-—Top of head black with-
out a positive brownish tone; upper malar re-
gion and most of auriculars similarly black
but with an inconspicuous grayish area on
the upper and posterior auricular feathers,
separating the malar region from the occiput;
loral region dull whitish with black tips; a
prominent white stripe extending from near
the upper anterior corner of the _ orbit
posteriorly to a point above the middle
of the auriculars and broadening behind the
eye to involve part of the feathering of the
lower eyelid. Back Warbler Green x Olive
Green (with dusky subterminal stripes on some
of the feathers, not shown by any of the para-
types) ; upper tail-coverts slightly lighter. Chin
and throat whitish, with a slight buffy tinge,
strongest on the malar region, and with only
moderately prominent dusky tips on the
feathers, obsolete on the throat and the pos-
terior malar area; between the throat and the
malar region the dark tips are lengthened so as
to produce a narrow dark line. Breast Wax
Yellow, darkening to Pyrite Yellow on the
sides and flanks; belly with light gray centers
and white margins, giving a distinctly gray-
ish tone to the region; under tail-coverts with
Yellowish Citrine centers and narrow Stron-

390

tian Yellow margins. Wings sooty, with the
outer margins of the remiges narrowly green
like the back except on the outer primary and
the terminal two-fifths of the next three pri-
maries where the edges are light gray; inner
margins of the remiges whitish; under wing-
coverts pale yellow; bend of wing deeper yel-
low. Tail sooty, with exposed surfaces about
like the back. Bill Gn dried skin) black; feet
pale brownish. Wing, 74 mm; tail, 60.5; ex-
posed culmen, 11; culmen from base, 14.5;
tarsus, 20.5.

Remarks.—Sexes alike. Three other skins
from the type locality (one male, one female,
and one bird of undetermined sex) show no de-
cided differences from the type. The bird with-
out given sex has the breast very slightly paler
than that of the type; the other two have this
area slightly deeper. In all, however, the white
post-ocular marking is equally prominent, the
top of the head is notably blackish, the belly is
grayish, and the throat is only lightly buffy
and moderately spotted—-all characters of
eminens in this combination. A male from
Pdramo de Tama, Venezuela, agrees in essen-
tial details.

I am unable to understand the statement by
the late Mr. Underdown [Ibis (13) 2: 651.
1932] that venezuelanus of the Mérida region
is the darkest-headed subspecies of this group.
In the series at hand, venezuelanus is exceeded
by nigriceps of central Colombia as well as by
the present form. There might be some sus-
picion that the specimens of venezuelanus now
before me had faded sufficiently to reduce the
color of the crown to the distinctly brownish
hue they now exhibit in that region—a color
that is matched by that of the auriculars as it is
in eminens. However, the throat in venezue-
lanus, though more exposed and more likely

ORNITHOLOGY.—Two new hemipodes from southeastern Asva.*
(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

NAN, U. 8. National Museum.

lt

A series of 27 specimens of Turnix susci-
tator from central and northern Siam are
sufficiently distinct from the races of neigh-

1 Published with permission of the Secretary

of the Smithsonian Institution. Received Septem-
ber 30, 1946.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11

to fade than the crown, is deeper in color than
in eminens, as well as more heavily spotted—
characters that are as useful as the hue of the
crown in separating these two forms.

Hellmayr [Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.,
Zool. ser., 13 (pt. 9): 403. 1936] has included
a locality in the Department of Santander,
Colombia, in the range of jacqueti, the Caracas
form. In view of the existence of the present
form and venezuelanus in the terrain between
Santander and the State of Lara, this record is
surprising. The specimens from Santander,
however, I find it impossible to distinguish
from Trujillo skins of jacquett.

Specimens examined.—C. 0. jacqueti: VuNE-
ZUELA: Cumbre de Valencia, 3 &, 2 9; Gali-
pan, 3 o', 4 9; Silla de Caracas, Ga 1 o:-
Colonia Tovar, 3 #, 2 9; head of Chichiri-
wichi Valley, 1 (?); El Limén, Puerto La Cruz,
1 &, 1 9; Caripe, 4 (?); Bucarite; Tocuyo, -
2 (2); Guamito; Trujillo; i ois ier:

C. o. venezuelanus: VENEZUELA: “Mérida,”
4 (?); Escorial, 2 #; Valle, 2 #, 1 92; El Loro,
1 (?); Hechicera, 1 (?); Conejos, 1 #@; Mon-
tafias Sierra, 1 o.

C. o. falconensis: VENEZUELA: San Luis
Mountains, Faleén, 1 o& (type)?; Curimagua,
Faleén, 1 @.

C. o. nigriceps: CoLomBIA: Rio Toche, 1 @;
Santa Elena, 3 o, 3 9, 1-(); La Candela,
1 &; Sabanalarga, 1 @); El; Eden io"
Medellin, 1 (?).

C. 0. eminens: CoLoMBIA: Gramalote, Norte
de Santander, 1 @ (type), 1 o4, 1 94, 1 (?).4
VENEZUELA: Pdramo de Tam4, 1 o.?

2 Specimens in Chicago Natural History Mu-
seum.

3 Specimen in collection of W. H. Phelps, Ca-
racas.

4 Specimens in Instituto de La Salle, Bogota,
Colombia.

H. G. Drtc-

boring areas to justify the establishment of
a new form, which I propose to name—

Turnix suscitator thai, n. subsp.

Type.—Adult female, U.S.N.M. no. 332637,
collected at Nong (or Bung) Boraphet, central
Siam) (at lat. 15°43 Ne; long ss100- 14k),

Nov. 15, 1946

on March 24, 1933, by Hugh McCormick
Smith (original number 6195).

Diagnosis.—The new race is, in series, easily
distinguished from all others of the species by
having the prevailing tone of the upperparts
brownish gray, rather than grayish brown (as in
atrogularis) or rufous (as in blakistonz). It has
the bill intermediate in robustness between
those of atrogularis (Malay Peninsula) and
blakistont (southeastern China) and about
equal to that of plumbipes (Assam).

Range —Central Siam, south at least to
Prachuap Khirikhan (Ko Lak); northwestern
‘Siam.

Remarks.—Birds from: Prachuap Khirkhan
agree in color with topotypes but have the
heavy bill of atrogularis; one specimen from
the type locality and one from Chiang Mai
likewise possess an exceptionally heavy bill.

Examples seen from northwestern Siam
average slightly browner than those from
Central Siam; it is suggested, however, that
this difference would disappear with more
material, since Robinson and Stuart Baker, in
describing interrumpens (Bull. Brit. Orn. Club
48: 60, 1928) observed that ‘‘specimens from
N.E. Siam are very gray, and with further
material may have to be separated and named.”’
Moreover, a single female from Myitkyina
agrees perfectly with certain Siamese birds;
thus it seems likely that the name thai must
be used even for the populations of the Shan
States and northeastern Burma.

I have not been able to separate interrum-
pens, the putative form of peninsular Siam,
from atrogularis of the southern Malay States
and northernmost Sumatra. 7. s. interrumpens
was described as being ‘‘very uniform in the
colour of its upper plumage, having neither the
rich red marking of, blakistont nor the velvety-
black bars and marks of T. s. suscitator or T. s.
atrogularis.’’ Twelve peninsular Siamese birds
before me have the general color of the upper-
parts grayish brown (as in plumbipes and
atrogularis) and the black markings as strongly

DEIGNAN: TWO NEW HEMIPODES

391

present on the average as in any other race.

Of five examples seen from southern Annam,
four agree well enough with thai; the fifth, a
winter-taken female, has the coloration of
blakistoni, but a much heavier bill, and, in
fact, is not too different from a uniquely
rufescent specimen of that taken at Chiang
Mai. :

II

The populations of Turnix suscitator
found in Java and Sumatra (except Achin)
are trenchantly divided from those of
Achin and the Asiatic mainland by having
the massive bill yellow instead of plumbeous,
and a well-marked rufous nuchal collar in
the adult female. My material indicates that
Sumatran birds are not correctly placed
under the name suscitator (Java), and for
them I suggest the name—

Turnix suscitator machetes, n. subsp.

Type—Adult female, U.S.N.M. no.
181157, collected on the Siak River, east-
central Sumatra, on December 20, 1906,
by William Louis Abbott.

Diagnosts.—Nearest T. s. suscitator but
readily separated from it, in series, by
having the nuchal collar and the ground
color of the remaining upperparts distinctly
darker in tone.

Range.—Sumatra (except Achin and per-
haps the southernmost parts); Bangka;
Bilitong.

Remarks.—In this race, as in all others of
the species, a single specimen may match
individual examples of one or more other
forms; the distinctions between subspecies
are obvious, however, when respectable
series are compared.

For the loan of comparative material
from several critical areas, my thanks are
due the authorities of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia and of the
American Museum of Natural History.

392

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 11 |

HERPETOLOGY.—A subspecies of the lizard Xantusia riversiana.| Hospart M. |

SmitH, A. and M. College, College Station, Tex.

HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

Specimens of Xantusia riversiana illus-
trated by Van Denburgh (Occ. Pap. Cali-
fornia Acad. Sci. 10: pl. 51. 1922) and by
Smith (Handb. Lizards: pls. 89; 90. 1946)
indicate a difference in pattern between
topotypic material from San Nicolas Island
and that from Santa Barbara and San
Clemente Islands.

These islands, with Santa Catalina, form
a semicircular group of four off the coast
of southern California. They comprise the
southern group of the Santa Barbara
Islands. Santa Catalina is nearest the
mainland (20 miles) and is slightly the larg-
est. The southernmost, San Clemente, lies
25 miles south of Santa Catalina and is but
little smaller than the latter. The others
lie to the west of Santa Catalina; Santa
Barbara, a very small island, is about 25
miles due west, and San Nicolas, of inter-
mediate size, is about 35 miles southwest
of the latter. :

Oddly enough, the species is not known
from Santa Catalina Island, although it
occurs on all the others and is restricted
to them. Santa Catalina is inhabited by
some three mainland forms of lizards, pos-
sibly four of snakes, and two of amphibians.

Only Xantusza occurs on the other islands,

except on San Clemente where Uta stans-
buriana is recorded. Presence of king
snakes possibly accounts for the absence
of Xantusza on Santa Catalina Island.
Regardless of the reason for the absence
of Xantusza, there is no question that Santa
Catalina is markedly different faunistically
from the other islands, which have a nearly
uniform and almost totally impoverished
fauna.

Isolated as are these islands, apparently
long distinct from the mainland, it is not
surprising that animals in them show some
differentiation. It is not improbable that
the population of Uta stansburiana on San
Clemente has differentiated to some de-
gree. Certainly Xantusia has done so. The

1 Received September 3, 1946.

(Communicated by |

only endemic form recognized at present —
on any island of the southern group is ©
Batrachoseps attenuatus catalinae on Santa
Catalina Island. One other, Xantusia
riversiana, is endemic to the group as a
whole. B. a. pacificus, restricted otherwise
to the northern group of the Santa Barbara
Islands (San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa
Cruz, Ana Capa) has been suggested to
occur on Santa Barbara Island by Bishop -
(Handb. Salamanders: 323. 1943), but this
seems very dubious in view of the com-
pletely different faunas of the northern and
southern groups of these islands (they
share only two—Hyla regilla and Uta stans-
buriana—in the total of 15 forms, eight ~
others in the southern and five others in
the northern group occurring in the entire
group). If Bishop’s suggestion proves cor-
rect it is probable that the name should
apply to B. a. catalinae.

Specimens available at the present time
include one X. riverstana from San Cle-
mente Island and three from San Nicolas
Island.? These differ from one another in at
least four respects not obviously subject
to individual variation within the total
limits observed; it is assumed that further
specimens will prove the relative constancy
of at least some if not all the differences dis-
cerned. Unfortunately, material from Santa
Barbara Island is not readily available to
me; there is little question, however, that
it too will prove to be somewhat different
from the topotypes. .

It is suggested that the population on
San Clemente Island be known as—

Xantusia riversiana reticulata, n. subsp.

Holotype—U. 8S. Fish and Wildlife Service
no. 9228, collected on San Clemente Island in
the summer of 1940; received from C. W. Kern.

Diagnosts.—Similar to Xantusta riversiana
riverstana of San Nicolas Island except: pre-
anals irregular, smaller; gulars nearly uniform,

2T am indebted to Francis M. Uhler for the
privilege of studying these specimens.

Noy. 15, 1946 HUBBS AND RIVAS: SYSTEMATICS OF MELANORHINUS MICROPS

scarcely enlarged medially; pregular fold poorly
developed; dorsal head scales exceedingly
pitted, corrugated, broken up; dorsolateral
light line not evident; dorsal surfaces, including
those of legs, boldly reticulated or spotted with
black.

Description of holotype-—Dorsal head scales
normal, except exceedingly pitted and cor-
rugated, rendering the sutures well-nigh indis-
cernible; central gulars between the anterior
and posterior pregular folds small, 24 from rear
of former and front of latter; anterior pregular
fold poorly defined, with no more than one or
two rows of small szales; largest preanals
scarcely wider than widest abdominal plates;
preanals not clearly in two rows. No evidence
of a dorsolateral light streak; back covered
with clear-cut, dark marks, which effect a
reticulated pattern; limbs and head reticu-
lated and spotted; tail irregularly lined and
spotted above; belly and sides of throat with
rather numerous small black flecks.

The holotype is illustrated on plate 90 of
the Handbook of lizards of the United States
- (Smith, 1946). ;

ICHTHYOLOGY.—Systematics of an
microps (Poey).1 Cari L. Hupss
by Lronarp P. ScHULTZ.)

Among the most distinctive of the many
~ New World Atherinidae are the species that
have been referred to Melanorhinus and to
Mugilops. Although it was evident for
several years, the conclusion that Mugilops
Meek and Hildebrand (1923, p. 271) is a
synonym of Melanorhinus Metzelaar (1919,
p. 38) was first published by Myers and
Wade (1942, p. 139).

Two species of Melanorhinus, both
Tropical, are currently recognized, namely
M. cyanellus (Meek and Hildebrand) of
the Pacific and M. boeket Metzelaar of the
Atlantic. The Pacific representative was
treated in detail by Meek and Hildebrand

1 Contributions from the Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, New Series, No. 289. Received
September 16, 1946. The study was conducted at
the United States National Museum, where re-
search facilities were made freely available. The
junior author is studying under a John Simon
Guggenheim fellowship.

393

Compartsons.—In the three topotypic X. r.
riversiana the sutures between the dorsal head
scales are clearly apparent, although some pits
are present. The central gulars are somewhat
enlarged: a longitudinal count of 20 or 21 is ob-
tained from the rear of the anterior pregular
fold to the front of the posterior. The anterior
pregular fold is well defined and contains three
or four rows of small scales. The largest pre-
anals are as wide as two adjacent, small ab-
dominals, and nearly twice as wide as any one
of the widest abdominals. The preanals are
clearly in two longitudinal rows. All show evi-
dence of a dorsolateral light streak on each
side (see pl. 89, Handb. Lizards. 1946); those
in which the light lines are less evident have
less distinct dark markings. The legs are dimly
marked. The belly and sides of the gular region
are not or sparsely marked.

Remarks.—In pattern X. r. reticulata re-
sembles to some extent the spezimen illustrated
by Van Denburgh (op. cit.: pl. 51, fig. 2) from
Santa Barbara Island. The two populations
may be consubspecifie.

American atherine fish, Melanorhinu®
and Luis R. Rivas. (Communicated

(1923, pp. 271-272, pl. 22, fig. 1), by Myers
and Wade (1942, pp. 139-141), and by
Fowler (1944, pp. 219-220, 244, 408, 497,
fig. 132). Myers and Wade recognized
Mugtlops marinus Meek and Hildebrand as
a synonym of Melanorhinus boekei Metze-
laar. In preparing a supplementary treatise
on the marine fishes of Panama, Hildebrand
(personal communication) has concurred in
this opinion. We now find that the Atlantic
species was named much earlier, as Atherina
microps, by Poey. The synonymy of
Melanorhinus microps follows.

Melanorhinus microps (Poey)

Atherina microps Poey, 1860, p. 266 (original
description; locality not specified, but pre-
sumably Habana, Cuba).—Jordan, 1887,
p. 571 (West Indies).—Jordan and Ever-
mann, 1896, pp. 789, 791-792 (comparisons;
description, after Poey; Havana).—Jordan
and Hubbs, 1919, pp. 48-49 (referred to

394

Atherinopsinae, but of undetermined genus).
—Jordan, Evermann, and Clark, 1930,
p. 246 (Habana). .
Melanorhinus boekei Metzelaar, 1919, p. 38,
fig. 14 (original description; ‘‘oysterpond at
St. Martin’’?).—Jordan, Evermann, and
Clark, 1930, p. 249 (reference).—Myers and
Wade, 1942, pp. 139, 141 (generic position;
genotype; synonymy; dorsal spines).
Mugilops marinus Meek and Hildebrand, 1923,
pp. 271-272, pl. 22, fig. 2. (comparison;
original description; Porto Bello, Panama).
Mugilops marina Jordan, Evermann, and
Clark, 1930, p. 252 (reference; ‘‘Panama
Bay” wrongly given as range and ‘Porto
Bello, Panama Bay” wrongly located as
the type locality).
Melanorhinus marinus Fowler, 1944, p. 462
(reference—WM. boekei overlooked).
Although Jordan and Hubbs indicated in
1919 that it appears to be referable to the New
World subfamily Atherinopsinae, Atherrna
microps has remained an unplaced enigma. Now
it becomes evident to what genus and species
it should be referred. Fortunately, though
brief, Poey’s description covers a number of
crucial characters. In these as in other respects
the diagnosis agrees acceptably with the At-
lantic species of Melanorhinus. The agreement
will be appreciated by one who compares with
recent descriptions or with specimens of that
species the following free rendering of Poey’s
diagnosis of Atherina microps: The small head
is contained 5 times in the total length. The
body is deep—somewhat deeper than the head
is long. The eye is small, 4 in the head length.
The mouth is much smaller than in ‘‘Atherina
latuceps”’ [Atherinomorus stipes] and is very
protractile. The first dorsal is more anterior
than it is in “A. laticeps.’’ The second dorsal
and the anal are longer than in that species.
The ray formula is ‘D. 5-1, 15; A. 1, 19.”” The
anus is close to the anal fin. Color is silvery,
with the back greenish and the scales partly
dotted with brown. The head is rather deep
blue and the lateral band is not sharply defined.
The only species to which this diagnosis
applies is the one currently called Melanorhinus
boeker. As Jordan and Hubbs noted, the many-
rayed anal fin and the location of the anus close
to the anal fin preclude an identification with
any of the few American species of Atherininae
(recently treated by Hubbs, 1944b). The deep
body, the many-rayed second dorsal fin, and the
lack of a sharp lateral band confirm this view.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 36; No. 11 |

All known Atherinopsinae other than the spe-—
cies of Melanorhinus are likewise excluded from
consideration by the lack of a well-defined
silvery band. The dorsal ray formula is also
unlike that of any atherinopsine other than —
Melanorhinus. Only that genus and WNoto-
cheirus Clark (1937, p. 88) have as many as 15
dorsal soft-rays and Notocheirus has no spinous
dorsal. Other features of form, proportions, and
color apply to Melanorhinus. Identification
with the Atlantic species of that genus is made
on the basis of locality, general agreement in
all characters and, specifically, the low number
of spines in the first dorsal fin (Table 1). The
Pacific species, M. cyanellus, has 8 or 9 spines
in this fin, according to Meek and Hildebrand
(1928, p. 272) and Fowler (1944, p. 220).

The only discrepancies between Poey’s diag-
nosis of Atherina microps and other descrip-
tions and specimens of the Atlantic Melano-
rhinus are in the number of dorsal spines and of
anal soft-rays (Table 1). There may be re-
gional variations in ray number, but since the
rays are very small and closely crowded, it is
more plausible to assume that Poey, who
probably used only a hand lens, made too low
a count. Rather high power with good illumina-
tion 1s required for reliable counting.

The approximate variation in ray counts in
Melanorhinus microps has been determined by
counting a series of 28 specimens in the United
States National Museum (no. 9432). Though
the locality is indeterminable, the identification
of this set seems to be assured on the basis of
the number of dorsal spines and of the other
diagnostic features that were pointed out by
Meek and Hildebrand (1928, p. 271). The body
depth measures 3.4 to 3.8 times in the standard
length (86 to 56 mm). The distance from the
caudal base to the dorsal origin when stepped
forward usually extends to the tip of the snout
or a pupil’s length farther forward, rarely al-
most an eye’s length behind or before the snout
tip.

In basic fin structure these 28 specimens
agree with most other Atherinidae, as recently
described (Hubbs, 1944a). The first dorsal fin
comprises a cluster of short, flexible spines, well
separated from the second dorsal, which, as also
the anal, has one short spine, a single un-
branched soft-ray and then a series of branched
rays. The caudal has consistently 9+8=17

principal soft-rays. The pelvic comprises a
flexible spine and 5 soft-rays. In the pointed
pectoral fin the uppermost ray is very short,
the second long but unbranched, and the
others branched. |

In the National Museum we located seven
specimens (no. 37530) labeled ‘‘Atherina
microps? Cuba, 1885, Prof. F. Poey.’’ These,
however, are obviously not the cotypes of
A. microps. In fact, they do not represent the
same species. They are largely disintegrated
but some retain enough flesh and skin over the
posterior sides to show a definite silvery band.
Two complete vertebral columns respectively
comprise 43 and 44 vertebrae, whereas one of
the specimens of M. microps in the series of 28
has only 39 vertebrae. Search through the
disarticulated bones yields premaxillaries with
extroverted dentition, mandibles with ele-
vated rami, and opercles that are quite unlike
those of M. microps (in Melanorhinus the
opercle is extremely high and short and the
articulating socket is much closer to the upper
edge than to the lower). The jaw bones clinch
the identification of this series as ‘‘Atherina’’
araea (we use the binomial, since, on the basis
of a higher gill-raker count and other charac-
ters, the Bermuda form, harringtonensis, seems

Nov. 15, 1946 HUBBS AND RIVAS: SYSTEMATICS OF MELANORHINUS MICROPS 395
TABLE 1.—Fi1n-Ray Counts IN MELANORHINUS MICROPS
| Spines in first dorsal fin
Specimens Author
| 5 6 7 8
a a a ee | |
Atherina microps tyPes............... | Poey x oe = pe
Melanorhinus boekei types...........-. | Metzelaar — | XS —_ —
Mug’lops marinus type......-.-...--. | Meek and Hildebrand — _ 1 =
Mugilops marinus type..........-..-- Recount | — — 1 =
MiESeIN i NO. 9432.7. ee es Original = ! 9 15 4
SS eee |
Dorsal soft-rays
' Specimens Author
| 14 | 15 16 17 18 19
Atherina microps types..........+...+.: Poey —_ xX — — _— —
’ Melanorhinus boekei types............ Metzelaar _ ; oo — . — _ —
Mugilops marinus type.........-----: Meek and Hildebrand — _ 1 — — —
Mugilops marinus type........-.+.--- Recount —_ _— 1 _— — —
U.S.N.M. no. 9432.......... ee oh Original 2 7 6 10 1 2
Anal soft-rays
Specimens Author
19 | 20 | Ziel 22 0 a|2 230 LOA asl Os
eee SS ees See a
Atherina microps types.........-.+-08 Poey x — | — _— — — —
Melanorhinus boekei types............ Metzelaar —_— — — xX | — — —
Mugilops marinus type........-.-..+.--- Meek and Hildebrand — 1 | — — —_— — —
_ Mugilops marinus type Recount — -- —_ 1 —_— —
Been 1000432. ees Geen = | en | ire ite | Se 1

to be specifically distinct). Scales on the speci-
mens as well as loose ones in the jar are also
like those of A. araea and in one trenchant
feature contrast with the scales of Melanorhinus
microps and M. cyanellus. The exposed field is
wholly smooth, whereas this part of the scale
in Melanorhinus is consistently crossed by
many very fine, closely set, almost strictly
vertical circuli. In Melanorhinus, as in the
American Atherininae, in contrast to nearly
all Atherinopsinae, the lateral scales are very
deep, much higher than long; they have few,
almost straight and vertical circuli on the basal
field, and they have evenly rounded postero-
lateral angles and no radii.

Melanorhinus occupies a very isolated posi-
tion in the family but apparently should be
retained in the Atherinopsinae. In the com-
pression of the body, particularly of the belly,
in the truncated head, and in the very high
pectoral fins this genus is approached by
Eurystole and Nectarges (Myers and Wade,
1942). Melanorhinus in turn approaches the
most bizarre member of the group, Notochewrus
hubbsi Clark (1937, pp. 88-90, 1 fig.). All these
fishes have characters that appear to be adap-
tations to surface life in or near the surf. They,
and particularly Melanorhinus, are close coun-

396

terparts of the species of the Indo-Pacific
genus Iso, which, presumably, are of like ha-
bits. Furthermore, Melanorhinus also matches
closely the surface-schooling querimana stage
of Mugil. The resemblance to the querimanas
extends even to the scale structure, which
undergoes an abrupt and profound change
when the querimana postlarva metamorphoses
into the juvenile mullet (Jacot, 1920). In the
querimana, as in Melanorhinus, the circuli of
the apical field are numerous, close-set, and
vertical. In each genus this structure appears
to enhance the silvery sheen of the scale.
Melanorhinus and other atherinopsine genera
named above appear to have had an origin
separate from that of Iso, as also, certainly,
from that of Mugil. The kinships involved
seem to be most effectively expressed by re-
ferring Iso to the Atherininae and by retaining
the convergent American genera in the Atheri-
nopsinae. To follow Myers and Wade (1942,
p- 140) in separating off a monotypic subfamily
Melanorhininae would rather befog the appar-
ent relationships.

LITERATURE CITED

CuarK, H. Watton. Fishes from _ the
Templeton Crocker Expedition of 1934-365.
Copeia, 1937 (2): 88-91, 2 figs. 1937.

Fow.er, Henry W. Results of the Fifth
George Vanderbilt Expedition (1941) (Ba-
hamas, Caribbean Sea, Panama, Galdpagos
Archipelago and Mexican Pacific Islands).
The fishes. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia
Monogr. no. 6: 57—529, 545-583, figs. 1-268,
pls. 1-20. 1944.

Hupss, Cart L. Fin-structure and relation-
ships of the phallostethid fishes. Copeia,
1944 (2):69-79. 1944a.

Relationships of Alepidomus, a new
genus of atherinine fishes from the fresh
waters of Cuba. Oce. Pap. Mus. Zool.
Univ. Michigan, no. 488: 1-10. 1944b.

JacoT, ARTHUR PauL. Age, growth, and scale
characters of the mullets, Mugil cephalus

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 11 |

and Mugilcurema. Trans. Amer. Micr, |

Soc. 39: 199-229, pls. 20-26. 1920.

JorRDAN, Davip Starr. A _ preliminary list —
Proc. }

of the fishes of the West Indies.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 9: 554-608. 1887.

JORDAN, Davip STARR, and EvVERMANN, Bar- |
The fishes of North and —
‘Middle America: A descriptwe catalogue of —
the species of fish-like vertebrates found in —

;

TON WARREN.

the waters of North America, north of the
Isthmus of Panama. U. 8S. Nat. Mus.
Bull. 47 (pt. 1): i-lx, 1-1240. 1896.

JORDAN, Davip Starr, EVERMANN, BARTON —
WARREN, and CLARK, HowarD WALTON.

Check list of the fishes and fishlike verte-

brates of North and Middle America north —

of the northern boundary of Venezuela and
Colombia.

1928 (pt. 2): 1-iv, 1-670. 1930.

JoRDAN, Davip Starr, and Huss, Cari —

Leavitt. Studies in ichthyology. A mono-

graphic review of the family Atherinidae or —

stlversides. Leland Standford Jr. Univ.
Publ., Univ. Ser.: 1-88, pls. 1-12. 1919.
MEEK, SetH E., and HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F.
The marine fishes of Panama. Field Mus.

Nat. Hist. Publ. 215 (Zool. Ser., 15), pt. 1:

i-xi, 1-330, pls. 1-24. 1923.
MeETZzELAAR, J. Report on the fishes collected

by Dr. J. Boeke in the Dutch West Indies —
1904-1905. With comparative notes on —

marine fishes of Tropical West Africa.

In J. Boeke, “Rapport betreffende een |

voorloopig Onderzoek naar den Toestand
van de Visscherij en de Industrie van
Zeeproducten in de Kolonie Curacao, In-
gevolge het Ministerieel Besluit van 22
November 1940’: 1-315, figs. 1-64. ’s-Gra-
venhage, 1919. (Also published under the

thesis title, Over tropisch Atlantische Vis- —

schen, 1919, same pagination.)

Myers, Greorce §., and Waps, CHARLES B.
The Pacific American atherinid fishes of
the genera Eurystole, Nectarges, Coleo-
tropis, and Melanorhinus. Allan Han-
cock Foundation Pacific Exped. 9: 113-
148, pls. 17-19. 1942.

Pory, Fiuipzr. Poissons de Cuba. Espéces
nouvelles. Memorias sobre la Historia
Natural de ia Isla de Cuba, chap. 49: 115—
356, pls. 12-19. 1860.

Rep: U. 8. Comm: Fish. for 3

CONTENTS

Puysics—Fahrenheit and Roemer. N. Ernest Dorsny...........
Erxano.Loey.—Bird lore of the Eastern Cherokee. JOHN WITTHOFT. .
Botany.—On the identity of Kokonoria. Hur-uin Li.......... ey

ENntToMoLoGy.—The genus Neella Reuter, with descriptions of four new
species (Hemiptera: Miridae). Tsai-yu Hstao.... ..........

ORNITHOLOGY.—Three new North American birds. Harry C. OBER-
HOLSHR OO hee ae OE WS

ORNITHOLOGY.—A new subspecies of tanager from northeastern Co-
lombia: JOHN 'T: ZIMMER OYA oe

ORNITHOLOGY.—Two new hemipodes from southeastern Asia. H. G.
DRIGNAN 6 ooo bee Oe ee ee ee er

HerretoLocy.—A subspecies of the lizard Xantusia riversiana. Ho-
BART IV, SMITE 8) ee Las Care Soy anne sie,

IcHTHYOLOGY.—Systematics of an American atherine fish, Melano-

rhinus microps (Poey). Cari L. Husss and Luis R. Rivas....

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Page

361
372

384

389

388

389

390

392

393

Ducempur 15,1946 No. 12

JOURNAL a

WASHINGTON ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 36

DeEcEMBER 15, 1946

No. 12

ETHNOLOGY .—Identification and history of the Small Robes Band of the Piegan

Indians
F. M. SETzLeEr.)

A few years ago Dr. H. H. Turney-High
questioned elderly Kutenai Indians of
northwestern Montana and southeastern
British Columbia about the other tribes of
which they were aware. Among the people
who lived across the Rockies to the east of
the Kutenai they mentioned the—

Little Blankets (k’tsalmaindna). These people
lived in Canada and are said to be related to the
Blood, although Chief Kustata denies that they
are Blood proper. Most informants think that
they were a band of Blood and are now extinct.
Being of the Blackfoot group they were, of course,
enemies.

Chief Paul disagrees in the identification of the
Little Blankets, claiming that they are just the
ordinary enemy seen around Browning, that there
is nothing mysterious about their identity, that
they are just ordinary ‘South Piegan.” (Turney-
High, 1941, p. 28.)

In spite of their lack of agreement as to
the exact identity of these people, it is ap-
parent that the modern Kutenai referred to
the Small Robes (Inuksiks), who were a
large and powerful group on the North-
western Plains little more than a century
ago. A number of references to this group
as Small Robes, Little Robes, Little Robe’s
Band, and even as Little Rogue’s Band
appear in the early literature on the North-
western Plains region. Since the informa-
tion on this once important group is widely
scattered in meager references, some of
which are conflicting, it may be well to
bring it together and evaluate it here, and
to add such information as we were able to
obtain from elderly Indians on the Black-
feet Reservation, Montana, in the years

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution. Received November
6, 1946

JOHN C. Ewers, U. 8. National Museum.

(Communicated by

1942-44, regarding the present numbers of
the Small Robes and traditional history of
the group.

The earliest reference to the Small Robes
was made by the artist-writer George
Catlin, who regarded the Small Robes as a
separate major division of the Blackfoot
group of tribes. Catlin (1841, vol. 1, p. 52)
divided the Blackfoot into “four bands or
families, as follows: the ‘Pe-a-gans,’ of 500
lodges; the ‘Blackfoot’ band, of 450 lodges;
the ‘Blood’ band, of 450 lodges; and the
‘Small Robes,’ of 250 lodges. These bands
constituting about 1,650 lodges, averaging
ten to the lodge, amount to about 16,500
souls.”

Catlin never penetrated the Blackfoot
country, although he did meet some Black-
foot Indians who visited’ Fort Union in the
Assiniboine country on the Upper Missouri
in the summer of 1832. Catlin obtained his
information on the divisions and numbers
of the Blackfoot from the fur traders at the
fort. These men apparently considered the
Small Robes to be a large and separate
major division of the Blackfoot group,
comprising some 2,500 persons, or roughly
15 percent of the total Blackfoot popula-
tion. However, it is well to remember that
American traders had a limited acquaint-
ance with the Blackfoot in 1832. Fort
Piegan, the first American trading post in
the Blackfoot country, had been established
less than’ a year before. Catlin’s estimate
for the entire Blackfoot group appears
high in comparison with the estimates of

‘other and probably better informed, white

men.?

2 See Wissler, 1936. Tables of population esti-
mates pp. 4, 6. The recollections of the aged fur

397

398

At an unrecorded date during his half
century of contact with the Blackfoot
tribes (1804-54), John Rowand, veteran
Hudson’s Bay Company trader, made an
estimate of the population of these tribes.
In addition to the ‘Blackfeet proper,
Piegans, Bloods, Gros Ventres or Fall
Indians, and Girces,’’ he listed a sixth
group, the ‘‘Mountain Tribes,’ compris-
ing the ‘‘Cotones” (Kutenai) and Small
Robes. He reckoned the combined popula-
tion of these two ‘“‘Mountain Tribes’’ at
250 tents or approximately 2,000 souls.
(Hind, 1860, vol. 2, p. 152.)

Father De Smet, who became acquainted
with the Small Robes in the early 1840’s
also considered them a separate tribe of the
Blackfoot group. He definitely character-
ized them as non-Piegan:

The tribe of the Piegans forms a portion of the
six tribes known by the generic name of Black-
feet. The other five are the Blackfeet, properly so

called, the Men of Blood, the Sarcees, the Little
Robes, and the Grosventres.?

At the time of Father De Smet’s early
labors at the Flathead Mission in the Bitter-
root Valley west of the Rockies, the Small
Robes were at peace with the Flathead,
although the majority of the Blackfoot
were hostile. Possibly as early as 1842, the
Small Robes visited the mission, became
greatly interested in Christianity, and per-
mitted many, if not all, of their children to
be baptized by Father De Smet and his
associates.?

In the year 1845, the Small Robes suf-
fered a severe defeat in a battle with the

Crows. Father De Smet mourned their

loss in a letter from the west of October 30,

1845 (Chittenden and Richardson, 1905,
vol. 2, p. 524):

trader Hugh Monroe that the Small Robes
numbered ‘‘more than one hundred lodges’’ in
the second decade of the 19th century may be
nearer the strength of the band in 1832 than
Catlin’s estimate. See also Schultz, 1927, p. 13.

3 Chittenden and Richardson, 1905, vol. 3, p.
949. However, Father Nicholas Point, who
spent the fall and winter of 1846-47 in the
Piegan camps, did not consider the Small Robes
a separate division of the Blackfoot group.
Footnote 5, same page.

4 Tbid., vol. 2, p. 593. See McClintock, 1910, pp.
157-166, for a later Indian tradition of the Small
Robes’ relationship with Father De Smet and
their acceptance of Christianity.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 12

The year 1845 will be a memorable epoch in the
sad annals of the Blackfeet nation. ... The
Crows have struck them a mortal blow—fifty
families, the entire band of the Little Robe, were
lately massacred, and 160 women and children
have been led into captivity.

Denig (1930, pp. 551-554), the fur
trader, probably referred to this action in
a statement written in 1854:

The Crow Indians a few years since, after killing

all the men and boys of 50 lodges of the Black-
feet, took prisoners upward of 200 women and

- children. One of our gentlemen now in charge of

that nation was with the Crow camp when the
battle took place, and for two or three months
afterwards, during which time he sought occa-
sions to liberate about 50 women and send them
home to their people:

However, the destruction of the Small
Robes was not as complete as Father De
Smet at first feared. A dozen lodges of
Blackfoot accompanied the Flathead-Nez
Percé camp on its fall buffalo hunt east of
the Rockies in 1846, during which this
allied force met and defeated the Crows in
a fierce battle. De Smet complimented the
small Blackfoot group on their bravery
exhibited in the fight (Chittenden and
Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, pp. 578-579):

The little party of Blackfeet, animated by a
spirit of revenge for the loss of half their tribe,

massacred the preceding year by the Crows...
did signal service in the combat.

In view of De Smet’s conception of the
Small Robes as a distinct tribal division of
the Blackfoot, we may conclude that the
Blackfoot members of that party must
have been Small Robes. De Smet’s earlier
statement relative to the massacre of the
entire tribe should be revised in the light
of this later reference to the “loss of half
their tribe” in the battle with the Crows in
1845.

Whether a considerable number of the
Small Robes men, as well as the women,
survived that battle, or whether a por-
tion of the Small Robes were not engaged,
we do not know. It is certain that the
Small Robes, though greatly reduced in
numbers, continued their existence as a
group. The fur trader Charles Larpenteur
met them south of the Missouri in the
summer of 1848. He attempted to obtain
horses from them, but they refused, as

‘Dec. 15, 1946

they had quarreled with their old friends
the Flathead and feared, correctly, that
Larpenteur would use the horses to carry
_ arms and ammunition to their new enemy.

A band of Blackfeet, called the Little Robes,
after the name of their chief, instead of following
the rest of the tribe north after trade was over,
remained on the south side of the Missouri.
Some of Little Robe’s young men happened to
have a fight with the Flatheads; some one of
each party was killed and horses were stolen.
So the peace was broken and the Flatheads re-
turned to their country as fast as they could.
(Larpenteur, 1898, vol. 2, pp. 259-260.)

The peace referred to was the one
established through the efforts of Father
De Smet in September 1846, between the

Flathead and the Blackfoot tribes at the |

Piegan camp east of the Rockies. Now the
Small Robes, who must have been in-
fluential in the making of it, were among
the first to break the peace.

In 1850, Thaddeus A. Culbertson, on the
authority of Malcolm Clark, who was then
in charge of the American Fur Company’s
post at Fort Benton, identified the ‘‘Little
Robes”’ as one of the bands of the Piegan
(Culbertson, 1851, p. 144). Three years
later, J. M. Stanley, artist for the Pacific
‘Railway Survey, included the ‘‘Little
Rogue’s band of 30 lodges” in his enumera-
tion of Piegan bands (Stanley, 1855,
p. 449). The sound similarity between
“Rogue’s” and ‘‘Robe’s’” is so close as to
suggest the likelihood that an error was
made in recording the interpreter’s English
translation. Certainly there is no other
authority for the existence of a Piegan band
by the name of Little Rogue’s. Thus, in less
than a decade, and primarily as the result
of war casualties in a single battle, the
Small Robes were reduced from a large
band to a group of 30 lodges, much the
smallest of the five Piegan bands enumer-
ated by Stanley.

In the winters of 1855 and 1856 the Small
Robes were characterized as a group of
unwelcome loafers about Fort Benton. The
band is mentioned in several brief entries in
the Fort Benton Journal (McDonnell,
1940) during that period:

Jan. 9, 1855. A few lousey Pagans from Little

~ Robes band arrived with a horse and a Robe or
two to trade... [p. 16].

EWERS: SMALL ROBES BAND OF PIEGAN INDIANS

399

Jan. 16, 1855. Sent an Indian to Little Robe
Camp to see if these Indians had not picked up
our horses... [p. 18].

Dec. 16, 1855. ...in the afternoon Camp of
“Little Robes” arrived-with their Lodges which
they have pitched in the Prarie behind .. . [p. 56].

Dec. 18, 1855. Little Robe Band moved Camp
and intend settling for the present at Pablos
Island to dress what Robes they have... [p. 56].

January 9, 1856. A Little Robe Ind. passed
with one Robe to trade being all we have got
for the past two days... [p. 58].

January 138, 1856. The Little Robe band moving
Camp from across on “‘Chantier’ looked in to loaf
and anoy us but gave us no Robes... [p. 59].

January 26, 1856. Some Little Robes paid us
another loafing visit for the 100th time...
[p. 61].

This pitiless description of the remnant
of the once powerful Small Robes is in
striking contrast to Lt. Bradley’s opinion
of what might have been their lot had it
not been for the battle with the Crows in
1845. Writing 70 years ago, Lt. Bradley
said of “‘the Little Robe band of Piegans’”’
(Bradley, 1923, pp. 281-282):

At the time the whites first became acquainted
with the Piegans (1831), though avowedly a part
of the Piegan tribe, they lived wholly by them-
selves, seldom meeting with the remainder of the
tribe and showing so marked a line of separation
that by one or two writers they were classed as a
separate tribe. Had they not unfortunately suf-
fered utter extermination a few years later at the
hands of the Crows, it is probable that long ere
this their tribal independence would have been
universally conceded.

George Bird Grinnell (1892, pp. 209, 225)
identified the Small Robes as a Piegan
band. In his diagram of the Piegan camp
circle of about 1850-55, he placed the
lodges of the Small Robes in the south-
eastern portion of the circle, indicating that
the Small Robes were considered an inte-
gral part of the Piegan tribe. Clark Wissler
(1911, p. 11) listed the Small Robes as a
Piegan band.

In our investigations on the Blackfeet
Reservation, Montana, from 1942-44, it
was found that only two families, the Day
Riders and the Calf Robes, were considered
by the older Indians to be members of the
Small Robes band.®

6 Research performed under the auspices of
the U. 8S. Indian Service, while the writer was
Curator, Museum of the Plains Indian, Brown-
ing, Mont.

400

Mike Day Rider (born 1871), senior
surviving member, said that the Small
Robes were always a Piegan band, joining
the Piegan camp circle each summer for
the tribal sun dance. He had “always
been told” that the Small Robes had once
been a very large band. However, he knew
nothing of any disastrous battle with the
Crows in the early days or of his people’s
early interest in Christianity. He recalled
that the Small Robes were said to have
been more friendly toward the Flathead
than other Piegan bands; that the Small
Robes had even furnished ammunition to
the Flathead for use in fighting the other
bands of the Blackfoot. Mike said that the
Small Robes broke up as a residential group
while the Blackfeet Agency was at Old
Agency, about 60 years ago. Lodge Pole,
the last chief of the Small Robes, died in
the 1890’s. Day Rider had not heard of a
chief of the band by the name of Little
Robe. He recited the following tradition of
the derivation of the name of the band:

A long time ago there was a young woman of
this band who was very pretty. Many young men
wished to marry her, but she refused them all.
Her father asked her to marry a certain young
man he had selected for her. Still she refused.
Later the young woman found a sweetheart of
her own choice. She doubled a year old buffalo
calf robe over her head and neck like a scarf and
went to meet him. That is how the Small Robes
band got its name.

Richard Sanderville (Chief Bull), who is
not a Small Robes member, cited additional
traditional evidence regarding the history
of the band. His version of the origin of the
band name differed from Mike Day Rider’s:

The band was named after the peculiar custom
of its members of wearing pieces of buffalo robes,

smaller than whole robes, as shawls thrown over
their shoulders when visiting other bands.°

He said that the Small Robes once fought
a bitter battle with the entire Crow camp
in the Judith Basin country south of the
Missouri, and that the chief of the band,
who went by the name of Little Robe, died
of wounds received in that battle. He had
heard that some of the Small Robes
women, dressed as men, took active part in

6 McClintock, 1923, p. 251: They were called
“Small Robes, because of the size of their robes.”

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 36, No. 12

the fighting. Sanderville was also familiar
with the tradition of Small Robe friendship
with the Flathead:

They were very friendly with the Flatheads,
and frequently joined them in hunting buffalo on
the plains. At one time, before the 1855 Black-
foot Treaty, the Piegans fought the Flatheads on
the Musselshell River. On that occasion the Small
Robes helped the Flatheads by supplying them
with Piegan ammunition.

Sanderville stated that the Small Robes
were always a Piegan band, joining the
other bands each sun dance season in the
great camp circle. He understood that the
Small Robes were once a very large band.

Other elderly Piegan Indians, who were
not members of the Small Robes band, be-
heved that it was at one time very large,
more friendly toward the Flathead than
other Piegan bands, but definitely a band
of the Piegan tribe, not a separate division
of the Blackfoot group.

CONCLUSIONS

In the early part of the 19th century the
Small Robes were probably the largest band
of the Piegan Indians. Catlin’s estimate of
the band’s size in 1832 is probably high. We
estimate conservatively that the band may
have numbered as many as 150 lodges and
nearly 1,500 souls before the smallpox epi-
demic of 1837. Although there is no record
of Small Robes losses in that disaster,
doubtless their numbers were considerably
lessened by that plague. In Father De
Smet’s time (1844), the Small Robes prob-
ably numbered 80 or more lodges. Of these,
the men of approximately 50 lodges were
massacred in a bitter fight with a large body
of Crow Indians in 1845. By 1853, the Small
Robes numbered about 30 lodges. Since
that date their membership has decreased
until, at the present time, only two families
of this once powerful band remain—the
Day Riders and Calf Robes of the Black-
feet Reservation in Montana.

Because of the large size of the Small
Robes band prior to 1845, and their relative
independence of action (which was made
possible by their numerical strength), the
group was considered by Catlin’s sources of
information, by the experienced Canadian

Dec. 15, 1946

trader John Rowand, and by Father De
Smet to have been a major division of the
Blackfoot group of tribes, distinct from the
Piegan. This independence of action was
most marked in their friendship for the
Flathead, whom most Piegan regarded as
tribal enemies. Not only did the Small
Robes join the Flathead on their buffalo-
hunting excursions on the plains east of the
mountains, but also they journeyed across
the Rockies to pay friendly visits to the
_ Flathead camps in the Bitterroot Valley. At
the Flathead Mission they came under the
influence of Father De Smet and his asso-
ciates, who baptized the Small Robe chil-
dren in the Christian faith. The Small
- Robes were probably the first of the Piegan
_ bands to accept Christianity. This was be-
fore the Small Robes’ crucial battle with
the Crows in 1845, which, in one tragic ac-
tion, reduced the position of the Small
Robes from one of power and influence to
one of minor importance. Never again did
the Small Robes play a significant role in
the history of the Northwestern Plains.

Only when we realize that information on
the history of other Blackfoot bands before
1850 is practically nonexistent, can we ap-
preciate the significance of this fragmentary
sketch of the Small Robes. Had not George
Catlin, John Rowand, and Father De Smet
failed to recognize the Small Robes’ Piegan
affiliations, we should know considerably
less about the band than we do. In reality,
far from being a little-known band, as some
writers have suggested, we have greater
knowledge of the history of the Small Robes
than of any other band of the entire Black-
foot group.’

7 In Larpenteur, 1898, vol. 2, p. 259, footnote,
Editor Coues states: ‘‘These do not appear to
have been a well-known band.’’ Chittenden and
Richardson, 1905, vol. 2, p. 524, editors’ foot-
note... “‘they seem to have been little known,
and were probably not a large band.”

EWERS: SMALL ROBES BAND OF PIEGAN INDIANS

AQ]

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402 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 12

PALEONTOLOGY.—A new palaeoniscoid fish from the Lower Permian of Texas.!
Davin H. Dunk iz, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by C. Lewis

GAZIN.)

In a recent review of the vertebrate fos-
sils originally described by Fritsch (1879-
1904) from Kounova, Czechoslovakia, Dr.
A. 8. Romer (1945a) demonstrated a strik-
ing similarity and essential contemporaneity
between this late Stephanian assemblage
from Europe and the early Autunian
fauna from the Wichita Group of Texas.
Of interest in this connection, as men-
tioned by Romer (1945a, p. 423), is a new
palaeoniscoid fish from the Texas forma-
tions which is referable with sufficient prob-
ability of correctness to the genus Progyro-
lepis Fritsch from Kounova. The remains
of ray-finned fishes are notably rare both
at Kounova and in the Texas Redbeds.
The present description is offered in order
to make known not only a genus common
to both localities but also only the third
addition to the actinopterygian fish fauna
of the Texas Permian formations, since that
fauna was last comprehensively reviewed
by Hussakof in 1911 (Case, 1935; Dunkle,
1939).

The single specimen, on which this re-
port is based, was collected in 1933 by the
Museum of Comparative Zoology Expedi-
tion of Harvard University. The scattered
remains are contained in a highly calcare-
ous, gray clay and were incompletely re-
covered on a number of weathered pieces
of this matrix. On preparation, several of
these fragments were found to fit together.
The conditions of preservation prevent con-
sideration of general body proportions and
little detail can be offered regarding the
structure and position of the fins, and the
roofing, temporal and opercular series of
bones. Discernible with fair accuracy, how-
ever, is an obliquely crushed and badly
distorted skull, which shows the sphenoidal
and orbitotemporal portions of the neuro-
cranium, certain elements of the primary
branchial arches, the cheek plates, both
upper and lower jaws, the gular plates, and
the branchiostegal rays. In addition, there
are preserved many. disassociated scales

1 Received October 31, 1946.

from various parts of the body, portions of
two fins, and several axial supports.

The specimen was collected by Dr.
Theodore E. White, and its study permitted
by the courtesy of Prof. A. S. Romer,
curator of vertebrate paleontology, Mu-
seum of Comparative Zoology. |

~

Superorder CHONDROSTEI
Order PALAEONISCOIDEA
Family PALAEONISCIDAE, s. str. (Aldinger,
1937)
Genus Progyrolepis Fritsch (1892)

First mentioned by Fritsch in a faunal list
of the Kounova material published in 1883, the
species spectosus was originally assigned to the
Triassic genus Gyrolepis. There seems slight
doubt that this is the same form for which the
generic name Progyrolepis was subsequently
proposed in 1893. Aside from a reference by
Woodward (1891, p. 501) to Elonichthys speci-
osus, this fish apparently has received little at-
tention by later writers, although Romer
(1945b, p. 579) accords it valid generic rank as
a member of the restricted femily Palaeonis-
cidae (Aldinger, 1937, p. 229).

Structurally the form may be briefly char-
acterized as follows: medium-sized, fusiform
fishes; skull broad and low with large forwardly
situated orbit, and very oblique suspensorium.
Frontal wider behind than forwardly. Supra-
temporal-intertemporal large, preceded in an-
terior sequence by a small dermosphenotic, and
a much enlarged postorbital. Maxillary with
short exposed infra-orbital portion; peculiar
long, low, triangular postorbital expansion; and
deeply produced posteroventral angle. Man-
dible without coronoid or angular processes. A
pair of preoperculi present on either side.
Branchiostegal rays are numerous, about 15
pairs. Median gular small, and the posteriorly
succeeding single pair of lateral gulars only
moderately enlarged. Dentition consisting of
a more lingual series of large conical teeth ir-:
regularly interspaced with smaller ones. Bones
of the head ornamented with pustulate tuber-
cles and short irregular ridges of ganoine.

Scales small and only moderately thick;
mostly rhomboidal; ranging from ones slightly

Dec. 15, 1946

deeper than long to examples only one-third as

high as long. All with a robust, internal, verti-
eal rib. Peg-and-socket articulation developed
only on some of the flank scales. Ornamented
with coarse, diagonal ridges and grooves.
Ganoine restricted to the crests of the ridges.
Fin rays closely articulated; each segment
being ornamented with a few longitudinal
ridges. Fulcra minute.
Genotype.—Progyrolepis specitosus Fritsch.

Progyrolepis tricessimalaris, n. sp.

Type—M.C.Z. Cat. Fos. Fishes No. 6619;
an obliquely crushed skull largely lacking the
roofing, temporal, and opercular series of bones;
also several associated fragments showing body
scales, portions of two fins and several axial
supports.

Geological horizon—Admiral formation,
Wichita Group of the Lower Permian.

Locality —In Rattlesnake Canyon, 9 miles
southeast of Dundee, Archer County, Tex.

Diagnosis.—An early Permian form that dif-
fers from the late Pennsylvanian European
genotype in a more uniformly tuberculated
ornamentation of the head bones; lack of
basally ornamented teeth; and a proportionate
enlargement of the grooves and somewhat more
regular ridge pattern of the scale ornamenta-
tion.

Description—The left lower jaw measures
4.9 em in length. This dimension would seem
to indicate a medium-sized fish possessing a
total skull length of about 7 cm and a total
body length not much exceeding 35 cm. The
skull is proportionately long, low and .moder-
ately broad. From these points, it may prove
permissible to assume that in general body
proportions the fish was slenderly fusiform.

The endocranium is incomplete. Two pieces,
however, which roughly include the anterior
two-thirds of the neurocranial complex, are pre-
served. The retention of recognizable shape by
these parts seems due to rather complete ossi-
fication. In texture, they are coarsely granular
with a thin investiture of delicate perichondral
bone. No sutures have been detected within
these preserved portions of the braincase.

The anterior of the two endocranial parts is
observable in dorsal view. Its left margin is
covered by the displaced remnants, from the
left side, of the frontal, the postorbital and
fragmentary elements of the palatoquadrate

DUNKLE: A NEW PALAEONISCOID FISH

403

complex. The right margin is entire and is
traceable from a transverse plane in the hind
portion of the orbit forward to an apparently
complete anterior extremity. This extremity is
presumably the tip of the sphenoidal ossifica-
tion rather than the anterior limits of the eth-
moidal calcification, since the part is uniformly
narrow and is without the forward, laterally
expanded structures which among other func-
tions house the anterior myodome and enclose
the olfactory organs. The dorsal surface is
gently convex from side to side, and is com-
pletely covered with the thin lamella of peri-
chondral bone. In consequence, it seems doubt-
ful that the anterior fontanelle, normally large
in the palaeoniscoids, was extended as far for-
ward as the sphenoidal region. A low shelf ex-
tends transversely across the roof showing the
position of the frontopostrostral suture. Two
notches are shown on the right margin of the
part. The more anterior of the two is ‘situated
near the anterolateral extremity of the post-
rostral bone. The posterior notch occupies the
position of the anterolateral angle of the fron-
tal. Both are assumed to have accommodated
branches of the superior ophthalmic nerve to
lateral line sensory organs of the supraorbital
canal.

The posterior of the two preserved endo-
cranial parts comprises the orbitotemporal re-
gion and is exposed in dorsolateral aspect from
the left side. Recognizable structures on this
part are the longitudinal, median dorsal, cra-
nial vault which is crushed down into the lower
and more laterally lying parts of this neuro-
cranial region. These latter show with clarity
the anterior reaches of the fossa bridgei, the
posterodorsolateral wall of the orbit, and post-
orbital process, and the vertically disposed con-
cavity posteriorly adjacent to the postorbital
process into which the spiracular canal has its
ventral opening, and against which the ascend-
ing wing of the parasphenoid articulates. A
foramen pierces the observable part of the
orbital wall. A similar foramen in Péeronisculus
(=Glaucolepis) (White and Moy-Thomas,
1940) is thought by Nielson (1942) to convey a
vein. A well-pronounced spiracular groove
traverses the floor of the fossa bridgei forwardly
and laterally from behind to enter the large
spiracular canal. At the point of juncture be-
tween the spiracular canal and groove a dis-
tinct notch may be remarked, which very

404

probably transmitted the otic branch of the
facial nerve. An extremely narrow and poorly
defined area, devoid of the perichondral la-
mella, in the median dorsal line has been tenta-
tively identified as the anterior fontanelle. It
arises well back opposite the postorbital proc-
ess and extends posteriorly for an undeter-
mined distance. A median and backwardly
projecting process of bone from its anterior
margin appears to partially divide the vacuity.
Whether this apparent posterior restriction of
the anterior fontanelle has any taxonomic or
phylogenetic significance, or is merely a case of
more complete ossification, has yet to be deter-
mined. As thus incompletely revealed the endo-
cranium of the present specimen offers no struc-
tures at wide divergent development from any
of the few palaeoniscoid braincases yet known
in detail. It seems to agree most closely to those
of Palaeoniscid B from the Kansas Pennsyl-
vanian described by Watson (1925), and of
Pteronisculus from the Greenland Triassic
studied by Nielson (1942).

Regarding the dermal bones investing the
neurocranium, ventrally, the parasphenoid is
not evident. The portion of a bone is displayed
between the displaced anterior extremities of
the mandibles but is too imperfectly exposed
for other than tentative identification as the
vomer. Dorsally, the posterior half of the left
frontal alone is preserved of the roofing bones
adjacent to the median line. The left margin of
this element is hidden, but the bone is indicated
to be of irregular shape, much wider behind
than in its forward part, and to have articu-
lated with its opposite member in a rather
sinuous, overlapping, median suture. While
partially impressed on the sphenoidal ossifica-
tion the entire outline of the postrostral plate
can not be determined. Dorsolaterally in the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

‘

VOL. 36, No. 12

position of the temporal bones, the lateral
edges and in narrow extent the external sur-
faces of three elements are exposed. The most
posterior of these three is long and is termed
the supratemporal-intertemporal. The middle
element of the series is small, and in bearing a
curved segment of the infraorbital sensory
canal is called the dermosphenotic. The third
and most anterior of the three bones is identi-
fied as the postorbital despite an inability to
demonstrate the infraorbital canal. The poste-
rior extremity of this latter element is wedged
between the dermosphenotic dorsally, and the
circumorbital series ventrally. It’is extended
notably far anteriorly, presumably paralleling
the lateral edge of the frontal, to assume in
greater or lesser degree the role of the supra-
orbital bones.

The orbit appears to have been rather large
with its hind margin situated at the middle of
the maxillary length. Only the most postero-
dorsal and next anteroventrally succeeding
infraorbital bones are present. These are nar-
row and the former shows the infraorbital sen-
sory canal. Although bony tissue remains in the
position of the suborbitals, the number and
shape of these components of the cheek can
not be determined.

The gape of the mouth is wide and the sus-
pensorium is very oblique. The maxillary is of
the usual palaeoniscoid form but is remarkable
in the great proportionate length and lowness
of its vertically expanded postorbital portion,
which is correspondingly triangular in outline
rather than quadrangular. Its posteroventral
angle is produced downward to overlap widely
the proximal end of the mandible. It seems
probable that the maxillaries articulated with
each other anteriorly although this can not ac-
tually be observed. The forward portions of

Fie. 1.—Progyrolepis tricessimalaris, n. sp. (M.C.Z. Cat. Fos. Fish No. 6619). Photographs of the
fragmentary skull in (A) dorsolateral aspect from the left side and in (B) inferior view with (C and
D, respectively) corresponding explanatory sketches. Approx. X 3.

a.hy, Groove for afferent hyoid artery; Ang, angular; Art, articular; ba, branchial arch elements;
Chy, ceratohyal; Cla, clavicle; D, dentary; Dp?, dermopalatine; Dsph, dermosphenotic; f, fulcra; fa,
anterior fontanelle; fb, fossa bridgei; Fr, frontal; gp, gular pit line; Jnf, infraorbital; lep, lepidotrichia;
Lg, lateral gular; m. cp, notch for posterior portion of coraco-arcualis muscle; Md, mandible; Mg
median gular; Mk, Meckelian ossification; Mz, maxillary; Ot, orbitotemporal portion of neurocranium;
Pop. 1, dorsal preoperculum; Pop. 2, ventral preoperculum; p. po, postorbital process; pg, remnants
of palatoquadrate ossifications; Pto, postorbital; Rbr, branchiostegal rays; ro, notch for otic branch
of facial nerve; S?, suborbitals; s, scales; Sang, surangular; sci., infraorbital sensory canal; sc.p, pre-
opercular sensory canal; sc.s, supraorbital sensory canal; so, notches for branches of the superior
ophthalmic nerve to lateral line sensory organs in supraorbital canal; Sph, sphenoidal portion of the
neurocranium; spic, spiracular groove and canal; St-it, supratemporal-intertemporal; V?, vomer; and
v, foramen for vein.

Dec. 15, 1946 DUNKLE: A NEW PALAEONISCOID FISH ; 405

both palatoquadrates are preserved but have
been badly weathered. The remnants appear to
be composed of lamellar bone but no sutures
have been definitely established. On the right
side, a slender dentigerous fragment occurs

which may pertain to a dermopalatine ossifi-
cation.

The mandible is large. It is low and slender
anteriorly but progressively increases to a
maximum depth posteriorly. The dorsal mar-

Fic. 1.—(See opposite page for legend.)

406

gin maintains a constant gentle concave profile
throughout the total observable length of the
complex and shows no evidence of a coronoid
development. The Meckelian cartilage is well
ossified posteriorly where exposed. The articu-
lar is high and robust. The quadrate articulates
with it dorsally and a well defined vertical
groove occupies its broad posterior margin.
The determinable dermai bones of the mandible
consist of the usual large dentary, a narrow,
posteroventral angular which shows no appre-
-ciable dorsal expansion on either the external
or internal faces of the lower jaw, and a short,
moderately high supra-angular.

The maxillary and lower jaws are provided
with both large and small series of teeth. As
preserved, these have been badly eroded but
appear to exhibit an irregular arrangement al-
though the large ones generally are more lin-
gually placed than some of the small ones. All
are sharply conical, somewhat incurved, with
“enamel” caps in their distal thirds, and with-
out evidences of vertical striations or other
ornamentation on their bases.

Of the bones associated with the hyoid arch
only the ceratohyal, the preoperculum, the
gulars and the branchiostegal rays are con-
tained in the recovered fragments. The cerato-
hyal is a large element, considerably flattened
during preservation. It appears composed of
cancellous bone with a thick investment of
dense lamellar tissue. It is deepest behind and
tapers forward with no marked anterior deep-
ening. A groove for the afferent hyoid artery
traverses the edge of the element as exposed.
The preoperculum is represented by two ele-
ments on either side. The large dorsal one of
these is of characteristic form and while very
obliquely inclined, the angle between the
rather broad posteroventral, vertical shank and
the slightly expanded anterodorsal portion is
noticeably obtuse. The second preoperculum is
small, somewhat deeper than long and appears
to be firmly attached to the posteroventral ex-
tremity of the dorsal member. The median gu-
lar plate is relatively small and considerably
wider anteriorly than posteriorly. It is flanked
posterolaterally by a single pair of moderately
enlarged gulars. The radii branchiostegi num-
ber a possible 15 on each side. They decrease in
both length and width from front to back. The
anterolateral angles of each seem to be pro-
duced in greater or lesser degree. The area of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 12

overlap on the first by the lateral gular is al-
most a third as wide as the exposed orna-
mented portion of the ray laterally, but is ex-
tremely narrow mesially.

Remnants of the branchial arches are dis-
played. None, however, are complete and it is
impossible to interpret them in relation to each
other or to the visceral skeleton as a whole. The
elements consist of long, thin, rod-like struc-
tures which in some cases are apparently hollow
with walls made up. of concentric layers of
dense bone. Generally, the bars are thicker
proximally and all are longitudinally grooved, |
posteriorly.

Only small segments of the lateral line sen-
sory canals have been detected. These are indi-
cated on the accompanying drawings and call
for no further discussion.

The dermal bones of the head possess an ap-
parently complete layer of ganoine. This is
raised into fine and closely set tubercles which
are apically tumid even in the best preserved
examples. Each has an internal pulp cavity
and externally bears a few, comparatively
coarse radial striae. On the frontal these tuber-
cles, while not losing their identity, are aligned
in short irregular ridge series. This partial fu-
sion also occurs on the maxillary in a zone adja-
cent to and paralleling the orbital and more
posterior dorsal margin; on the dorsal preoper-
culum parallel to the anterior edge of the ven-
tral shank; on the mandible next to its oral
margin; and completely covers in irregular ar-
rangement the gular plates and branchiostegal
rays.

In one of the unassociated fragments of
matrix there is contained a number of attenu-
ated rods of cancellous tissue rimmed with
dense bone. In form, these structures appear
similar to the “‘rifle-shaped”’ axial supports
which Stensid (1921, p. 189) termed the
basidorsal elements of the vertebral column of
Burgeria.

Little can be said regarding either the ap-
pendicular girdles or the paired and unpaired
fins. The right clavicle is incompletely pre-
served and can be seen in external aspect. It is
convex in transverse section and the dorso-
lateral margin is strongly notched for the inser-
tion of the posterior division of the posterior
coraco-arcualis muscle. The surface is orna-
mented with the typical pustulate tubercles
which are sometimes irregularly arranged in

Dec. 15, 1946

short ridges. The two fin remnants can not be
identified. The rays composing each are sim-
ilar: closely articulated; and ornamented with
by no more than four coarse longitudinal ridges
of ganoine. Of this ornamentation of the
lepidotrichia, it may be further stated that the
posterior three ridges are strong while the an-
terior one is usually less pronounced; trends
obliquely toward the anterodistal angle of each

DUNKLE: A NEW PALAEONISCOID FISH

407

segment, or may even be obsolete. The paired
fulcral scales are minute.
The specimen shows quantities of well-pre-
served scales. Unfortunately all are scattered,
and it has not been possible to determine from
what body part any particular example was
derived. Generally, however, the scales may be
considered as small, averaging only 3.0 mm in
length. A few are oddly sigmoidal in form, but

Fig. 2.—Progyrolepis tricessimalaris, n. sp. (M.C.Z. Cat. Fos. Fish No. 6619). A, Axial supports,
Approx. X2. B, Outline of flank scale with lines indicating the crests of ornamental ganoine ridges.
Approx. X8. C, Transverse section through scale. Approx. X30. D, Horizontal section through scale
showing arrangement of canals in cosmine layer and dashed lines indicating the pattern of external

ganoine ridges. Approx. X23.

=

ca, Vertical canals traversing bony footplate; cac, horizontal canals in cosmine layer; can, canaliculi:
cos, cosmine layer; fp, laminated bony footplate; ga, ganoine; and sf, Sharpey’s fibers.

408 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36. No. 12

by far the majority are rhomboidal. None are
much deeper than long, and commonly the
height is one-half to one-third the length. All
show a moderately produced anterodorsal
angle; a nondenticulate posterior margin; al-
most uniform thinness; and a strong internal
vertical rib which is in no case sharply de-
limited from the surface of the scale. Peg-and-
socket articulations have been observed only on
the scales which are as high as long. On these
latter, also, the anterior area overlapped by
the preceding scale equals one-fourth the length
of the scale. On those which are longer than
high, the covered area amounts to one-fifth or
less the length of the scale.

The ornamentation on the scales is strong.
Differences in the sculpture on scales from vari-
ous body regions can not be shown as great,
and the variations manifest seem to be chiefly
minor modifications of one basic pattern. The
markings consist of striations. These are gen-
erally coarse, sharp-edged with broad concave
grooves between, and traverse only slightly
sinuous courses across the face of the scale. On
the larger, more equilateral scales two to three
ridges arise across the dorsal margin, and five
to eight along the anterior edge, just behind the
overlapped area. The former are short, usually
entire, and extend downward and backward in
a somewhat steeper angle than do the latter,
longer striae. The first long ridge originates in
line with the anterodorsal angle of the scale
and is directed back toward the middle height
of the posterior margin. The long ridges on the
large scales cover only the anterior two-thirds
of the external surface area. The more dorsal
ones, on a few examples, are seen to bifurcate
anteriorly. Ventrally, two long ridges fre-
quently anastomose posteriorly, and sometimes
a tubercle is present between the divided ante-
rior ends of the two. On the posteroventral
third of the external area the ridges break down
into elongate tubercles, which, while occa-
sionally of irregular disposition, are usually
aligned along the same linear axis of the ante-
riorly preceding ridge. On the scales which are
generally longer than high, there is to be ob-
served neither a decrease in size nor a change
in the disposition of the ridges and interspaced
grooves. The differences in ornamentation be-
tween the high and low scales consists merely
of a reduction, commensurate with the external
area, in the number of these markings. Those

scales having the least height may entirely
lack the striae arising along the dorsal margin,
and the ridges originating along the anterior
margin may be decreased in number to as few
as two. Here, also, the long striae are not al-
ways broken down posteriorly into tubercles,
but may extend to the posterior edge of the
seale.

Attempts to section the scales were generally
unsatisfactory because of the fractured condi-
tion of the structures. The bone, cosmine and
ganoine layers, however, were observed in
several hand-ground preparations. The bony
footplate consists of relatively few successive.
lamelli. Ascending canals are enclosed within
this layer posteriorly and centrally, and evi-
dences of the dense bundles of Sharpey’s fibers
were encountered in all sections. The cosmine
layer is apparently very thin, and is indicated
to have been disposed in isolated bands poste-
riorly, although the arrangement of these bands
could not be determined. Bone cell spaces are
irregularly distributed throughout this and the
preceding layer except immediately around the
canals, where they appear concentrically ar-
ranged. The canal plexus of the cosmine layer
is an anastomosing network of irregular radial
and longitudinal tubes. The canals lay at dif-
ferent levels. The canalicular system appears
densely developed in the longitudinal sections
but only sparsely evidenced in the transverse
ones. The ganoine is restricted to the ridges of
the striations. No ascending canals were found
penetrating either the ganoine or the dentine
floor of the interspaced grooves.

Remarks.—In determining the currently de-
scribed fish, a number of Permo-Carboniferous
genera were arbitrarily omitted from consider-
ation. These include Geomichthys, Gyrolepi-
dotus, and Trachelacanthus. All are incom-
pletely known fish types for which adequate
references are not available to this writer.

Of other genera, this Texas species has been
shown to be remarkably similar to the Euro-
pean Progyrolepis speciosus in size; the struc-
ture of the frontal, maxillary, and mandible;
the dentition; and squamation. In fact, the dif-
ferences between the two species, consisting
mainly of variations in the ornamentation cf
the head bones and scales, are minor. It seems
probable, however, that differences of greater
magnitude will become apparent when more
complete specimens of both are found.

Dec. 15, 1946

Based on fragmentary material, Progyrolepis
ean be only incompletely defined at this time.
In consequence, certain doubts as to the ex-
clusiveness of its definition and to the relation-
ships of the form probably must be still enter-
tained. The genus bears strong resemblances
to the elonichthyids, the palaeoniscids, and
the pygopteryids. These three families appar-
ently represent the, as yet, quite tentative
grouping of a number of closely allied genera
whose interrelationships have not been entirely
worked out. The combination of morphological
features outlined in the foregoing generic char-
acterization is suggestive of an interesting
early attainment of the structural condition of
the Triassic paleoniscid Pteronisculus, and has
prompted the present interpretation of structure
in support of the recent assignment of Progyro-
lepis to the restricted family Palaeoniscidae
(Romer, 1945b).

In conclusion, while certain enticing paleo-
geographical questions are presented by the
occurrence of presumably the same genus al-
most contemporaneously in both the eastern
and western hemispheres, speculation on the
points seems useless until the genus is more
adequately understood.

REFERENCES

ALDINGER, H. Permische Ganoidfische aus
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1—392, figs. 1-105, pls. 1-44. 1937.

Casz, E. C. A new palaeoniscid fish, Euryl-
epidoides socialis, from the Permo-Car-

MILLER: A NEW CYPRINID FROM THE GRAND CANYON

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boniferous of Texas. Contr. Mus. Geol.
Univ. Michigan 4: 275-277, 1 fig. 1935.

DunxkeE, D. H. A new palaeoniscid fish from
the Texas Permian. Amer. Journ. Sci.
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Fritscu, A. Fauna der Gaskohle und der
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Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine
der Permformation Béhmens 3 (2): 118-120
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Hussakor, L. The Permian fishes of North
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ton, no. 146: 155-175, figs. 53-56, pls.
26-32. 1911.

Nretson, E. Studies on Triassic fishes from
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somus. Palaeozool. Groenlandica 1: 1-403,
30 pls. 1942.

Romer, A. 8S. The late Carboniferous verte-
brate fauna of Kounova (Bohemia) com-
pared with that of the Texas Redbeds.
Amer. Journ. Sci. 243: 417-442. 1945a.

Vertebrate paleontology, ed. 2: viii

_ +687, 377 figs. Chicago, 1945b.

STens1Io, E. A. Triassic fishes from Spitzbergen.
Pt ee XXVAl OUT, 7 Ol 11es:, Sone pis:
Vienna, 1921.

Watson, D. M.S. The structure of certain
palaeoniscids and the relationships of that
group with other bony fishes. Proc. Zool.
Soc. London 1925: 815-870, figs. 1-30,
pls. 21925:

Waits, E. I., and J. A. Moy-THomas. Notes
on the nomenclature of fossil fishes. Pt. II.
Homonyms D-L. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,
98-103. 1940.

Woopwarp, A. S. Catalogue of the fossil
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London, 1891.

ICHTHYOLOGY.—Gila cypha, a remarkable new species of cyprinid fish from the

Colorado River in Grand Canyon, Arizona.

tional Museum.

The fish fauna of the vast Colorado River
Basin of western North America is the least
well known of the major drainages of the
West. Our knowledge of the ichthyology of
this river began with the surveys during the
middle of the last century by Captain Sit-
greaves, the Pacific Railroad Surveys, and
by the United States and Mexican Bound-
ary Survey. Since that time, however, only
one of its major tributaries, the Gila River

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution. Received Novem-
ber 8, 1946.

Rosert R. Mier, U. 8. Na-

of southern Arizona, has been moderately
well explored throughout for fishes, and
even in that comparatively small watershed
the job is incomplete. The greater portion
of the Colorado remains virtually un-
touched.

In the narrow and barren inner gorge of
the Grand Canyon, the Colorado River is a
swift, silt-laden stream, subject to intense
floods. It thus provides a habitat that fishes
of usual body form can not resist, and a
type of environment that has remained un-
explored by collectors. While I was exam-

410

ining the fish collection at Grand Canyon
National Park in the fall of 1942, a single
specimen obtained from this part of the
Colorado River caught my attention. Sub-
sequent study has shown it to be of unusual
interest in possessing remarkable adapta-
tions for life in torrential waters, and the
specimen is now the holotype of the novelty
described below.

No fewer than 12 nominal species refer-
rable to the genus Gila have been at-
tributed to the Colorado River fauna (Jor-
dan, Evermann, and Clark, 1930, pp. 114,
119). Information now at hand indicates
that no more than two species, Gzla robusta
and the novelty recognized herein, are
known to inhabit the basin. None of the de-
scribed forms has attained the extremes of
specialization and the bizarre appearance of
this new species.

Genus Gila Baird and Girard
Gila cypha, n. sp.
Fig. 1

Diagnosis.—A strongly compressed Gila with
the sides of the body slightly convex and with
a prominent abrupt hump over the occiput;
body almost entirely devoid of scales (except
for about 80 in lateral line) which have basal
radil; fins expansive, falcate; snout fleshy;
mouth inferior; eye very small.

Holotype—The holotype (U.S.N.M. no.
131839) is a specimen about 305 mm in stand-
ard length and was taken by N. N. Dodge
near Phantom Ranch in the western end of
Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona. It was
caught in swift water on hook and line, pre-
sumably in the nearby Colorado River at or
near the mouth of Bright Angel Creek.

Nontypes.—A specimen (U.S.N.M. no 20083)
in fair condition, but lacking data, is referred
to the new species, and it is very reasonable to
assume that it came from the Colorado River
drainage, for cyprinid fishes of this type are
known only from that basin. It is compared
with the holotype in Table 1. Another speci-
men (U.S.N.M. no. 15349), represented only
by the head, nape, and pectoral fins, and like-
wise without locality data, also is referred to
the new species, for it bears the prominent,
abrupt hump which is believed to characterize
G. cypha.

Description.—The form and coloration of

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 36, No. 12

Gila cypha are portrayed in Fig. 1, and the
proportional measurements are given in Table
1. The following description is of the holo-
type. Fin rays: Dorsal ili, 9, the first full-
length ray unbranched and preceded by 3
graduated, rudimentary rays, the first one very
small; anal iii, 11, the first full-length ray un-
branched and preceded by 3 graduated, rudi-
mentary rays; pectoral rays 18 in each fin;
pelvic rays 9 in each fin; principal caudal
rays 20, 18 branched plus a full-length un-
branched ray above and below. 3

Scales in lateral line about 80, embedded
and only slightly imbricated anteriorly and be-
coming more embedded and less imbricated
posteriorly until those on the caudal peduncle
are scarcely evident (drawn too clearly in Fig.
1). Scales above the lateral line deeply em-
bedded and, for the most part, completely
isolated from one another, not evident above
the level of the base of the nuchal hump. Scales
below the lateral line similar to those above,
not evident below the base of the pectoral fin
except in the region behind the pectoral fin.
Back, breast, and belly completely devoid of
scales. Dorsal and ventral surfaces of caudal
peduncle completely smooth and _scaleless,
about three or four irregular rows of embedded
scales above and below the lateral line an-
teriorly which taper off to only one or two such
rows above and below the lateral line pos-
teriorly. In degeneration of squamation, Gila
cypha is closely approached by Gila robusta
elegans Baird and Girard and, to a lesser ex-
tent, by Gila robusta seminuda Cope and
Yarrow (herein tentatively recognized); the
new species is exceeded in this feature by
two unrelated genera of cyprinids, Plagopterus
Cope and Meda Girard, in which scales are
usually completely lacking. Other Colorado
River fishes, such as the ecyprinids Ptycho-
cheilus lucius Girard and Tvaroga cobitis
Girard, and the catostomid Xyrauchen texanus
Abbott, also have lost some of their scales.
This desquamation appears to have taken place
in response to adaptation to a swift-water
habitat, making the body surfaces smoother
and thereby reducing friction. Most of these
fishes also have well-streamlined bodies.

Total gill rakers nine on the left side, 11 on
the right, short and dimorphic; those (two or
three) on the upper limb and the one at the -
angle of the arch are slender, pointed, and

Dec. 15, 1946

curved at the tip, whereas those on the lower
limb are shorter and thicker and all but the
most anterior ones are variously forked. All the
rakers are attached anteriorly to the gill arch
by a broad membrane. Pseudobranchiae weakly
developed.

Dental formula 2, 5-4, 1?, three teeth (1 in

main row, 2 in lesser row) missing on the left >

arch and one tooth (in main row) missing from
_ the right arch, with the definite possibility
that there is also one tooth missing from the
lesser row of this arch (if so, the formula would
be 2,5-4,2 as usual in Gila). The teeth in the
main row are thick, especially toward the base,
bluntly pointed, with a weak grinding surface
on the first two. No doubt the teeth were modi-
fied during the lifetime of the fish, as is char-
acteristic in cyprinid fishes. The only tooth
remaining on the lesser row (right arch) is
well developed, conical, and bluntly pointed.
The pharyngeal arches are unusually small
for a fish the size of the holotype (approxi-
mately 305 mm, standard length). The total
length of each arch, measured from the apex
of the upper limb to the tip of the lower limb,
is only 21.8 mm (left arch) and 22.7 mm
(right arch). The total lengths of the arches of
the largest cotype of Gila robusta Baird and
Girard (=G. r. robusta, U.S.N.M. no. 246,?
approximately 305 mm long) are 31.8 (left
arch) and 32.6 (right arch)—10 mm. longer
than the specimen of Gila cypha of the same
length. In cypha the upper and lower limbs of
each arch (measured from the base of the first
and last teeth of the main row) are almost
exactly equal, whereas in the cotype of
robusta the lower limb of each arch is slightly
longer. Both the upper and lower limbs are
thicker in cypha than in the cotype of robusta.
In U.S.N.M. no. 20083, tentatively referred to
cypha (see discussion under Nontypes and
Table 1), the total length of each arch is
likewise short: 21.7 (left) and 21.2 (right),
with the standard length of the specimen
approximately 315 mm. Unfortunately, the
pharyngeals of the only other specimen re-
ferred to the new species (a head, U.S.N.M.
no. 15349, see under Nontypes) are missing.
In size and shape, the pharyngeals of the

2 JORDAN and EVERMANN, 1896, p. 227, erred
in giving the type the numbers 276, and 277
(which are codfish, according to the National
Museum register).

MILLER: A NEW CYPRINID FROM THE GRAND CANYON

All

new species much more closely approach those
of G. robusta elegans. In the type of elegans
(U.S.N.M. nos. 251 and 20079,° a fish about 245
mm long) the total length of the left arch is
20.5 mm or about one-twelfth the standard
length, as compared with about one-fourteenth
this distance in the holotype of cypha. As in
the new species, the two limbs of the arch are
equal. The main difference between the left
arch of elegans and that of cypha lies in the
greater curvature of the upper limb and
particularly the more compressed form of the ~
lower limb in elegans. Thus the least width of
the lower limb divided into the total length
of the arch gave ratios of 1.5 (type) and 1.4
(U.S.N.M. no. 45404, see Table 1) in elegans
as compared with ratios of 0.9 (holotype) and
1.2 (U.S.N.M. no. 20083) in cypha.

In coloration the holotype of Gila cypha
(originally preserved in formalin, in which it
remained for some time) is brownish—pinkish
brown on the sides and belly and yellowish
brown along the back. On close examination,
most of the head, back, and sides above the
level of the lateral line are densely covered
with dark puncticulations; these extend below
the lateral line in the region above and behind
the pectoral base and near the base of the
caudal fin. The same pigmentation occurs near
the base of the first pectoral ray (left fin par-
ticularly), and also near the bases of the
interradial membranes of the dorsal and caudal
fins.

The following measurements were stepped
off with a pair of precision dividers under a
magnification of about 23 times. Body depth
in standard length, 4.25; head length in stand-
ard length, 4.1; head depth in head length, 1.5;
head width in head length, 1.7; length of
caudal peduncle about 3.3 in standard length;
least depth of caudal peduncle in head length,
4.8, in base of dorsal, 2.8; length of snout in
head length, about 2.7; eye in head, about
13.0, in least depth of caudal peduncle, about
3.0; dorsal and anal bases equal, 1.6 in head;
length of pectoral almost equal to that of

3 Reentered by error as U.S.N.M. no. 20079.
Jordan and Evermann, 1896, p. 227, wrongly
cited nos. 935 and 20265 as the type, Major
Thomas as collector, and included the Colorado
and Gila Rivers in the type locality. The single
specimen was collected by Dr. Woodhouse in
the Zuni River, N. Mex., a tributary of the
Little Colorado River.

412

head; length of pelvic 1.4 in head length;
length of longer (upper) caudal lobe much
greater than head length and about 3.3 in
standard length.

The only other entire specimen believed to
represent Gila cypha (U.S.N.M. no. 20083,
Table 1) differs principally from the holotype of
cypha in having a deeper body (greatest depth
about 3.7 rather than 4.25 in standard length),
a larger eye (10.6 in head and 2.5 in least depth
of caudal peduncle, rather than 13.0 and 3.0),
and a somewhat greater extent and better
development of squamation. The scales above
the lateral line are particularly less degenerate
in this specimen than in the holotype, though
they are embedded and are posteriorly isolated
from each other (as nearly everywhere in the
type). They are developed up to about a level
with the middle (rather than the base) of the
nuchal hump. Below the lateral line the scales
are only very slightly better developed than
in the holotype As in that specimen, the back,
breast, and belly are devoid of scales except for
a few exceedingly minute and deeply embedded
ones scattered at random over the back, par-
ticularly anteriorly. The dorsal and ventral
parts of the caudal peduncle are also smooth
and lack scales, except for a few minute
remnants. There are about six or seven
(rather than three or four) irregular rows of
embedded scales anteriorly above and below
the lateral line along the caudal peduncle
which taper off to three or four (rather than
one or two) nearly indistinguishable rows pos-
teriorly. The other differences in measure-

=>
==

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SSCS \ KS = \
LEE
CRESS
o>
YS
SNS SP
LIBRO
VSS
SSS
SS

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ase EeoS c=

VOL. 36, No. 12

ments (Table 1) between this specimen and
the holotype of cypha lie within the expected
range of intraspecific variation.

Comparisons—Gila cypha obviously be-
longs to the subgenus Gila, as recently tenta-.
tively defined (Miller, 1945, p. 104), even
though its small scales, which lack a basal
shield, have basal radii in addition to apical
and lateral radii; the teeth are 2,5-4,2 (in
U.S.N.M. no. 20083; perhaps only 2,5—4,1 in
holotype), and the dorsal origin is behind the
insertion of the pelvic fins. The only other
species of this subgenus which I now recognize
from the Colorado drainage is G. robusta
Baird and Girard. In the paper cited above,
I listed Gila elegans Baird and Girard sepa-
rately, with the suggestion (long ago advocated
by Dr. Carl L. Hubbs) that it probably repre-
sents an ecological subspecies of robusta. I am
convinced that robusta and elegans are only
subspecifically separable, for the five types of
Gila seminuda Cope and Yarrow (U.S.N.M.
no. 16975) seem to close the gap between
those nominal species (Table 2). It is there-
fore necessary to compare cypha only with
robusta, minacae Meek, and nigrescens (Girard),
the other species of the subgenus Gila.

The new species differ sharply from those
three species and from all of the subspecies of
robusta (as tentatively diagnosed in Table 2),
except r. elegans, in having very degenerate
squamation, expansive falcate fins, a dorso-
ventrally flattened head, an inferior mouth
and a long fleshy snout. In these features
cypha is closely approached by G. r. elegans,

Fig. 1.—Gila cypha, n. sp.: Holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 131839), 305 mm in standard length.
Drawn by Mrs. A. M. Awl.

Dec. 15, 1946

the swift-river representative of the robusta
series commonly called ‘‘bony-tail’’ because of
the hard, pencil-shaped caudal peduncle. The
most conspicuous difference between cypha
and r. elegans is the prominent nuchal hump for,
although I have examined 80 specimens of
elegans from the lower Colorado River (Grand
Canyon to Baja California), representing
yearling to very large adults (up to 385 mm
standard length), none of these has shown more
than a broad, even convexity in the nuchal
region. The degeneration and disappearance of
the scales is far more advanced in cypha than
in typical elegans for in the ‘‘bony-tail” only
the back, breast, belly, and upper and lower
surfaces of the caudal peduncle may be naked,
whereas most of the body and nearly the en-
tire peduncle are naked in the holotype of
cypha. The scales of G. r. elegans also seem to
lack basal radii, for in 26 specimens examined
for this character I found only apical and
lateral radii developed. The scales examined
were taken from the region just above or below

MILLER: A NEW CYPRINID FROM THE GRAND CANYON

413

the lateral line, directly above the base of the
pelvic fins, preferably on the right side of the
body. :

Comparative measurements between cypha
and G. r. elegans, given in Table 1, indicate
strong to slight differences in certain features.
The reliability of these data, however, is
lessened by the few specimens involved and
perhaps also by the possibility of sex-correlated
characters. The deeper but narrower body and
head, slightly longer snout, smaller eye, and
greater distance between the origin of the anal
fin and the base of the caudal fin in cypha are
characters which probably do not show sex
dimorphism. The greater size of all of the fins
in this species, however, as compared with
elegans, might be solely an expression of male-
ness. On the other hand, the more expansive
fins may be the result of adaptation to swift
water, thus providing the species with stronger
appendages for resisting the current. It is in-
deed unfortunate that the body cavities of the
two specimens of G. cypha are eviscerated,

TABLE 1.—PROPORTIONAL MEASUREMENTS OF GILA CYPHA AND GILA ROBUSTA ELEGANS

Character

SHAME sleneiheernmas ke. Ya ees hs sch Ae sl slo.tueme « Soe Mee ©
Measurements in thousandths of the standard length:
WorsaonieimetOstiprotsnOwt.2 os capo ase cists eiees Siete oe
elyiChOrieinelOusup OleSNOUbns ac.2 cs 2 chlcese petee boas elie ssele eae
Amalconietn-GOrcanGdal DASCs erie s cond oe oe ae ee css nce eee te
Rogyeeereatestid eptnrry scuaiee te si ces Se oe ae w heer cass
Giremitiasis io lela ea casa ce eee et ee ep nee ie ee ee

C@audalepeduncle. lenetings:, sen ereekise toto esc enre thas ees

Meastrdep tii tat theta cise iae etaene ran, kk angio Nyame
imteronbital least) bonyawidth. ssn) 5 oe os
Onenrclemonreatestlene thie su: cesbci s Sais sine seri ce sae oe spec Seas
SH OUMGMELEM eG hiny gests heey mein Se oe eee ee a rate See ee
HEiyemmle nc tlimasey vate nicos sist co oy rhe tae reese Sec a arose evened
Ontong, IGRRR SS soos ooo DB Ca clocks DPCIEnS Eien aeeeie eee
IWirourteeverclt hepeer ca tiscasac secs n: oemnas och tS IS ink oo eee es
Wioperawilemethis ee ee icra ie hee cieui ea rete at cen cos
Bvicmeliblewloneth= wrest crac ots es eee Bt eee chee
DWorsalutin.. depressed lengthy. Aahioaperec sie she ces Soe eteutyeyeiene

IB asalglenst berate eran oat. nee eg haem Mince anes Mace eine tase
Anailptimeaaepressed Leng tiys cusses ci ie se a ae ees c

Hea sail elem ort hivysecne we eke eee Ma aM pecan Bess sede Seeds dows towed
Middleveaudaliraysi length: ie seri oct epic son ol cee ce nee tee
iipperimarudalslobewlengt hy. sa: esis ess ees
IRECtOraleslenabhicrspee eee eee Ea OM men me So cckuctaner alle seus
Relviculene thee pry eee a een ere Atay se aes

Gila cypha Gila robusta elegans!
Holo- WESSNEME S| SUESaNe Mis | Urs aNEV ieee Ur Sane ie
type 20083 45404 936 76386
305+ Sse 318+ 325+ 338+
479 487 465 485 484
409 429 409 405 426
441 422 419 408 424
239 276? 222 199 185
117 aS alee 154? 150 140+
237 237 243 228 239
160 169 131 114 129
2 129 151 143 151
298 276 259 289 294

50 51 44 37 37
83 85 89 85 84
74 70+ ue 72 73
85? 89 79 73 81
19 24? 29 25 25
26+ 31? 33 31 32?
89? 101? 92? 85 95?
89 102 86 78 86
87 89 90 83 89
225 220? 214 204 201
145 151 141 138 134
221 211 186 181 187
144 149 146 125 134
87 90? 93 80 -
305+ —_— 247? 226 —
225 219 201 192 198
176 183 157 150 148
?2 22 9? i} Q

1 Material from the lower Colorado River at and near Yuma, Ariz,

2 Eviscerated.

414

making positive sex determination impossible.

The Gila robusta complex provides a fine ex-
ample of correlation between ecology and
morphology (Table 2). This remarkable cor-
relation can only receive passing notice at this
time for the problem has not been studied in
detail and much more material, especially from
the main Colorado, is needed. The small
tributary and brook subspecies, ¢tntermedia,
has a chubby body with comparatively large
scales, small and rounded fins, and a com-
paratively deep caudal peduncle. The large
tributary and smaller river form, robusta, has a
more streamlined body with smaller scales,
larger and slightly falcate fins, and a more
slender caudal peduncle. The swift river-
channel subspecies, elegans, is extremely well
streamlined, with embedded scales (often absent
on back and elsewhere) forming little resistance
to the current, expansive and strongly falcate
fins (caudal fulcra excessively developed), and
a terete, pencil-shaped caudal peduncle.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 12

The apparent end form of this series seems —
to be represented by the highly specialized
Gila cypha, which, on the basis of the inade-
quate material at hand, cannot be aligned as a
subspecies of robusta. If the trend in characters
from intermedia to elegans shown in Table 2
continued beyond the elegans level, the next
form would be expected to have at least 11
dorsal rays and a narrower caudal peduncle
than elegans. The two specimens of G. cypha
have, unexpectedly, only nine dorsal rays, and
the caudal peduncle is deeper than it is in
elegans (Tables 1 and 2). Moreover, the scales
of the new species bear basal radii whereas
those of elegans have only apical and lateral
radii. In this character, cypha agrees with the
otherwise very different looking G. r. inter-
media. Both G. cypha and G. r. elegans occur in
the main Colorado River although the precise
ecologic niche for each form has not been de-
termined. The scanty available data indicates
that elegans collects at the mouths of the clear

TABLE 2.—PROVISIONAL COMPARISON BETWEEN SUBSPECIES OF GILA ROBUSTA AND GILA CYPHA!

Subspecies of G. robusta

G. cypha
(2 specimens)

eee | | eee _ =
_

Character
intermedia? robusta?
Dorsal rays 8 9
(rarely 7 or 9) (rarely 8 or 10)
Anal rays 8 9
(7-9) (rarely 7, 8 or 10)
Pelvic rays 8-8 9-9

(frequently 9-9) (rarely 10-10)

seminuda’ elegans!
9 or 10 10 or 11 9
9 or 10 10 or 11 10 or 11
9-9 or 10-10 9-9 9-9

(rarely 10-10)

Scales

Nuchal hump

Least depth of
caudal pedun-
cle into head
length

Fully scaled; 65-
87 in lateral line;
basal radii usually
present

Absent

2 .6-3 .4

Fully scaled; 79-
96 in lateral line;
basal radii infre-
quent (rarely well
developed)

Slightly arched in
very large fish

3.3-4.3

Back, breast and
belly naked in some;
77-89 in lateral line;
2 out of 5 with very
faint basal radii

Absent in material
examined?

4.1-5.2

Back, breast, belly
and much of caudal
peduncle often naked
or with minute, deep-
ly-embedded scales;
75-88 in lateral line;
no basal radii

Moderate to high but

evenly arched inlarger
specimens

5.0-6.5

Most of body naked;
77-80 in lateral line;
basal radii moderately
to well-developed

Prominent,
anteriorly

truncate

4.6-4.7

1 The counts and measurements recorded here for the subspecies of robusta have been jotted down over a period of five years
during routine identification and examination of collections from the Colorado River drainage.

2 Material from the Gila River Basin only.

2 Based on the five types, 90 to 128 mm in standard length, U.S.N.M. no. 16975, which may be regarded either as intergrades
between robusta and elegans or as an intermediate subspecies (as tentatively done above, as also by Ellis, 1914, p. 57).

4 Material from the Middle and Lower Colorado only (Little Colorado to mouth of Colorado).

6 Exaggerated in the drawing of one of the types of G. robusta (U.S.N.M. no. 246, largest fish) shown in Sitgreaves (1853, pl. 1,

fishes).

Duc. 15, 1946

tributaries and it has been taken some distance
up the larger tributaries.

Habitat and associates—Some conception of
the rate of flow of the swift, silty Colorado
River can be gained by records of the gauging
station approximately 240 miles below Grand

Canyon. Over the period 1917 to 1926, this

rate varied between 1,800 and 174,000 cubic
feet per second, with a variation between low
and high water stages of about 25 feet (Thomp-
son, 1929, p. 733). Dangerous rapids are inter-
spersed throughout the Colorado River, espe-
cially in the Grand Canyon region, and have
proved treacherous, and often disastrous, bar-
riers to explorers of the river. Because of the
scouring action of the river no vegetation can
exist.

Judged from its large, falcate fins, specialized
nuchal hump, inferior mouth, and dorso-
ventrally flattened head, Gila cypha is well
adapted for life in the swift current very near
or on the bottom. The action of the current
against the prominent nape tends to force the
fish down toward the bottom or the sides,
where the flow is not so torrential as in mid-
water. The small eye may represent a de-
generation correlated with reduced light due to
the excessive silt, or it may be a response to the

direct effect of the scouring action of the
- suspended matter, or both.

No scientific survey of the fishes of Grand
Canyon National Park has been undertaken,
but fish have been caught occasionally by an-
-giling and these few specimens (deposited in the
Park collection) give an idea of the associates of
Gila cypha. Among them are the humpback
sucker, Xyrauchen texanus (Abbott), the moun-
tain sucker, Pantosteus delphinus (Cope),
Gila robusta elegans Baird and Girard, and the
introduced channel catfish, Ictalurus lacustris
punctatus (Rafinesque). Two others are to be
expected in the main river as both occur else-
where in the Colorado and are adapted for
channel life: the flannelmouth sucker, Catos-
tomus latipinnis Baird and Girard, and the
Colorado squawfish or “‘salmon,”’ Ptychocheilus
luctus Girard, reputed to be the largest
eyprinid fish in the New World (Jordan and
Evermann, 1896, p. 225).

MILLER: A NEW CYPRINID FROM THE GRAND CANYON

415

Range.—Gila cypha is known definitely only
from the Grand Canyon near the mouth of
Bright Angel Creek. The only other specimens
referred to the new species are without locality
data. The species may be found to be common
in the main channel of the Colorado in Grand
Canyon when that swift-water habitat is thor-
oughly collected. It may not occur below
Boulder Dam, for I have seen a number of
collections from that area and_all the Gila
therein are referable to G. r. elegans.

Etymology.—The specific name cypha, sug-
gested by Dr. Carl L. Hubbs, is from the
Greek xvud7n, meaning hump-backed, in refer-
ence to the striking nuchal hump.

Acknowledgments.—It is a pleasure to thank
the authorities of Grand Canyon National
Park, and particularly Park Naturalist Louis
Schellbach, for allowing me to describe this
novelty and for donating the holotype to the
U. S. National Museum. Through the efforts
of Mr. Schellbach a start has been made on a
check-list of the fishes of the Park, and some
of this material has been included in the
present report.

LITERATURE CITED

Kuuis, Max Mapss. Fishes of Colorado.
Univ. Colorado Studies 11 (1): 1-136,
1 fig., 12 pls., 3 maps. 1914.

JORDAN, Davip STARR, and EVERMANN, BaR-
TON WARREN. The fishes of North and
Middle America. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull.
47, pt. 1: lx +1240 pp. 1896.

JORDAN, Davip STarR; EVERMANN, BARTON
WARREN; and CLARK, Howarp Watton.
Check list of the fishes and fishlike verte-
brates of North and Middle America north
of the northern boundary of Venezuela and
Columbia. U.S. Comm. Fish. Rep. for
1928, pt. 2: iv+670 pp. 1930.

Mi.tuER, Ropert RusH. A new cyprinid fish
from southern Arizona, and Sonora, Mexico,
with the description of a new subgenus of
Gila and a review of related species.
Copeia, 1945: 104-110, pl. 1. 1945.

SITGREAVES, LORENZO. Report of an expedi-
tion down the Zunt and Colorado Rivers:
1-198, 77 pls. 1 map. Washington, 1853.

Tuompson, Davip GrosH. The Mohave Desert
region, Calfornia. U. 8S. Geol. Surv.
Water Supply Paper 578: x1+759 pp., 20
figs., 34 pls. 1929.

416

BOTANY.—Spot anthracnoses in the Pacific Coast States.'

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 36, No. 12

ANNA E. JENKINS,

U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, A. A.
Birancourt, Instituto Biologico, SA0 Paulo, Brazil, and Ftora G. PoLuack,
U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

A summary of the distribution of spot
anthracnoses? in the United States, pre-
pared in 1938 (6) showed that five of these
diseases had been recorded in the Pacific
Coast States (Washington, Oregon, and
California), viz:

(1) anthracnose of grape (Vitis), caused by

Elsinoé ampelina (DBy) Shear;

(2) anthracnose of brambles (Rubus), caused

by E. veneta (Burk.) Jenkins; ©

(3) anthracnose of snowberry (Symphort-

carpos), caused by Sphaceloma symphort-
carpt Barrus and Horsfall;

(4) anthracnose of rose (Rosa), caused by S.

rosarum (Pass.) Jenkins;

(5) anthracnose of Labrador-tea (Ledum),

caused by E. ledz (Pk.) Zeller.

All five diseases were known in Oregon and
all but snowberry anthracnose and rose
anthracnose in Washington. The exception
for California was grape anthracnose, and
the absence of this disease in that state has
since been commented upon by Smith (77).
The existence of gray scab of willow in Cali-
fornia has been traced (3) by virtue of the
presence of typical lesions of the diseases on
herbarium specimens of Salix lasiolepis
Benth. collected in Humboldt County
(1933), Santa Clara County (1904), and
San Diego County (1931). This disease was
recognized as a spot anthracnose in 1943
(9) and its pathogene named S. murrayae
Jenkins and Grodsinsky (3, p. 56) in honor
of its discoverer.

Additional records of spot anthracnoses
in the Pacific Coast States now available
are assembled in this article, and in four in-
stances their pathogenes are described as
new. Findings in western Washington and
Oregon are based on specimens emanating
from the Special Survey in the General
Vicinity of Ports of Entry of the U. S.

Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran-:

tine (1943-45). These were referred to
Jenkins because of their apparent spot

1 Received November 5, 1946.
2 Term adopted for collective reference to dis-
eases caused by Hlsinoé and Sphaceloma.

anthracnose nature, and where identifica-
tion or corroboration was sufficiently posi- -
tive at the time they were reported in
Field’s Summary of the more tmportant
plant diseases taken in connection with the
... Survey... (1). The spot anthracnose
on salal (Gaultheria shallon Pursh), how-
ever, came to attention only in 1946, during
routine examination of the particular Spe-
cial Survey specimen concerned, by Pol-
lack, recent coauthor in the description of a
new species of Hlsinoé (10). The new rec-
ords of spot anthracnoses in southern Cali-
fornia are afforded by specimens collected
in that part of the state in 1942 by H. S.
Fawcett and A. A. Bitancourt, together

-with certain specimens communicated to

the first two writers by Fawcett.

As a result of the Special Survey, rose
anthracnose was found in Pacific County,
Wash. (1, 29, p. 182) and gray scab on
Pacific willow (Salix lasiandra Benth.) both
in Pacific County, Wash. (1, 28, p. 274; 5)
and in Clatsop County, Oreg.

Of particular significance was the dis-
covery in western Washington and Oregon
of a spot anthracnose not previously
known in the United States, namely, an-
thracnose of pome fruits (7, 8). The single
finding on quince from Washington of what.
appears to be this disease (8) had been pre-
ceded. by an earlier discovery in Brazil not
previously reported. At Campinas, Sao
Paulo, in June 1939, Bitancourt discovered
presumably the same leaf spot on quince
leaves, and isolated the pathogene. Follow-
ing the initial discovery of this spot an-
thracnose in the Pacific Northwest, the
Emergency Plant Disease Survey of the
Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agri-
cultural Engineering cooperated in a fur-
ther search for this disease in western
Washington and Oregon. The several coun-
ties in these states in which the disease was
found during 1943-44 are indicated on a
map (8).

Thus far anthracnose of pome fruits has

Dec. 15, 1946 . JENKINS ET AL.: SPOT ANTHRACNOSES A417

been reported only on leaves but in the case Portugal, made in Santos, State of Sao
of apple also on fruit. An example of twig Paulo, in 1932, by J. D. Deslandes. The
attack is available through a Brazilian specimen in question was identified by
interception of a diseased apple twig from Bitancourt who found the perfect stage of

Fig. 1.—A-C, Lesions on Gaultheria shallon from western Washington: A, a, light-colored spots on
upper leaf surface caused by Elsinoé, apparently EH. ledi; b, dark spots caused by Phyllosticta gaultheriae,
Special Survey collection, 1945, X1. B, C, Elsinoé leaf spot on the Bartholomew specimen, 1909;
B, X1; C, a, ascomata, X12. D-—G, Leaf spot on Arbutus menziesit caused by Sphaceloma mattiro-
lianum (2), specimen collected in California by Fawcett and Bitancourt, 1942; D and E, X1; F,
individual leaf spot from D, 5; G, reverse of same leaf spot, X5. H, Sphaceloma leaf spot on
Rhododendron macrophyllum, Special Survey collection in western Washington, 1943, X1. I, Leaf
spot on Cercocarpus betulifolium var. multiflorus caused by S. cerocarpt, specimen collected by Fawcett
and Bitancourt in California, 1942, a, acervuli, X10. J, a, Fructification of S. cercocarpi, a, ruptured
epidermis, 500. K, Cercocarpus leaf spot, X1. Photographs by R. L. Taylor (A—C, H), Bitancourt
(D-G), and Lillian A. Guernsey (I-K).

418

the pathogene (Elsinoé piri (Woronich.)
Jenkins) fruiting on the cankers. Only the
conidial stage of the fungus (Sphaceloma
pirinum (Pegl.) Jenkins) (8) was observed
on the specimens from Washington and
Oregon.

Among new suscepts of spot anthracnoses
discovered as a result of the Special Survey
are the two ericaceous plants, coast rhodo-
dendron (Rhododendron macrophyllum G.
Don) and salal. In the case of coast rhodo-
dendron limited spotting on only two leaves
was observed (Fig. 1, H). The collection was
made in Skagit County, Wash., on August
31, 1943, and Sphaceloma sp. was definitely
evident on the lesions.

The specimen on salal examined by Pol-
lack is from Clallam County and is dated
May 25, 1945. In addition to the light-
colored, purple-margined Elsinoé leaf spot
(Fig. 1, A, a) there is a less distinctive
brown leaf spot surrounded by an indefinite
discoloration (Fig. 1, A, b). This leaf spot
is caused by Phyllosticta gaultheriae Ell.
and Ev.

This same combination of leaf spots or
apparently only the more conspicuous EI-
stnoé spot is represented in the Mycologi-
cal Collections of the Bureau of Plant In-
dustry as Pollack ascertained. Pertinent
specimens are the following: Bainbridge
Island, Kitsap County, Wash., July 23,
1909, E. Bartholomew (KE. Barth. Fungi
Columbiani no. 3160) (Fig. 1, B and C);
Lake Isobel, Snohomish County, Wash.,
February 22, 1931, W. H. Wheeler; Grants
Pass, Oreg., September 5, 1916, J. R. Weir
688 and 691. A fifth specimen of the Hlsinoé
found in the Mycological Collections and
only now recognized as of that genus, trans-
fers the first known record from Clallam
County, Wash., to August 7, 1929. The col-
lector of this earlier specimen is E. P.
Meinecke.

In general appearance this spot anthrac-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, No. 12

nose on Gauliheria resembles that of Ledum.
In either case the Elsinoé produces the per-
fect stage abundantly and there is a simi-
larity in the fructifications. Microscopic —
comparison of the Elsinoé on Gaultheria
with an authentic specimen of L. ledi show-
ing mature spores revealed no appreciable
difference in the two species. Incidentally,
the presence of muriform spores in LE. ledi
is mentioned here, as they are not noted in
Zeller’s (12) revised description of this spe-
cies. On the basis of this favorable compari-
son with H. ledi, the Elsinoé on salal is
identified for the present at least as that
species. It remains to be determined, of
course, whether the Hlsinoé from either sus-
cept is capable of infecting the other.

Among the findings of spot anthracnoses
in southern California were those on the
ericaceous genus Arbutus. On May 21,
1942, in the Santa Ana Botanical Gardens,
Orange County, Fawcett and Bitancourt
observed a prominent leaf spot on A. —
menziesii Pursh (Fig. 1, D-G), from which
Sphaceloma was isolated by Bitancourt. .
This disease is identified tentatively at
least as identical with anthracnose on leaves
of strawberry-tree (A. unedo L.) caused by
S. mattirohanum (Sacc. and D. Sacc.)
Jenkins (4). What is evidently this disease
of strawberry-tree was observed at River-
side, Riverside County, Calif., by Fawcett
in January 1944. To the writers’ knowledge,
these constitute the first records of this par-
ticular spot anthracnose in United States.
Other spot anthracnoses found in California
are those of Catalina cherry (Prunus lyonii
Sarg.) collected in Santa Barbara March 5,
1936, by M. W. Gardner; hollyleaf cherry
(P. tlicifolia Walp.), Griffith Park, Los
Angeles, October 12, 1939, by H.S. Fawcett,
D. E. Bliss, and A. A. Bitancourt (811); and
tree tobacco (Nicottana glauca Graham),
Ventura County, May 12, 1942, by Fawcett
and Bitancourt (911).

Fig. 2.—A, B, Spots on leaves of Ribes grossularia caused by Sphaceloma ribis, Special Survey col-

lection in Western Washington, 19438; A, X1; B, X3}. |
D-F, Spots on Viburnum opulus var. roseum (D and F)

tured epidermis, c, hyperplastic host tissue.

C, a, Acervulus of the Sphaceloma, 6, rup-

caused by S. viburni (E): D, a, dark acervuli on a leaf spot, X12; F, a acervulus, b, ruptured epidermis,

500; F, X1.
Fawcett: G, X1; H, X12.

G, H, Scab of Hedera helix caused by S. hederae, from California, 1942, comm. H. 8S.
I-M, S. hederae on H. helix from North Carolina, Coll. and comm. Westcott:

I, a, Fructification on a lesion, X12; J, a, dark intraepidermal hyphae giving rise to conidiophores (0),
c, ruptured epidermis; K—M, more mature development of the Sphaceloma, a, conidiophores, b, conidia,

x 500.
J—M).

Photographs by Taylor (A, B, D, F, G, H, and I), Guernsey (C), and M. A. Jaeger (EH and

Dec. 15, 1946 JENKINS ET AL.: SPOT ANTHRACNOSES 419

The four remaining spot anthracnoses to Survey affect gooseberry (1, 29, p. 182) and
be reported here appear to be new to sci- snowball (/, 28, p. 970). The distribution of
ence. Those found as a result of the Special all four diseases will be given below follow-

Fig. 2.—(See opposite page for legend.)

420

ing brief diagnoses of their pathogenes. The
translations into Latin were made by Miss
Edith K. Cash.

Sphaeceloma ribis sp. nov., Jenkins
and Bitancourt
Fig. 2, A-C

Maculae in foliis numerosae, conspersae,
interdum in nervis circulares vel sub-circulares,
aliquando paucae coalescentes, plerumque
usque | mm in diam., supra prominentiores
elevatae, griseae margine inconspicuo luteo ex
acervulis atro punctatae; acervuli intraepi-
dermales, dein erumpentes, usque 63y in diam.
et 40u crassi; conidiophora obscura, continua
vel 1-3 septata, usque 15u, e stromate pal-
lido oriunda; conidia variabilia, parva, hya-
lina vel colorata, sphaericalia usque 3u in diam.
ad elliptica, 8 x 5y.

Distribution.—Producing the disease ‘‘scab
of gooseberry” on leaves of Ribes grossularia L.
(Saxifragaceae) in Washington.

Specimen examined.—Chinook, Pacific Coun-
ty, Wash., October 9, 19438, R. F. Wilbur (Wil-
bur 53) (USM 74759, IB 4877, Type).’

Sphaceloma viburni sp. nov., Jenkins
and Bitancourt
Fie. 1, D-F

Maculae in folis paucae usque numerosis-
simae, dispersae, etiam saepe nervisequentes
vel marginales circulares usque triangulares
vel irregulares, minutae ad 2 mm diam., vel
plus minusve extensae, supra prominentiores,
centro griseae usque albae, margine brunneo
interdum ex acervulis atropunctatae, acervuli
intraepidermales, dein erumpentes, compacti,
pulvinati, usque 61-100 in diam. et 21—50u
crassi; conidia non visa.

Distribution.—Producing the disease ‘‘an-
thracnose of snowball” on leaves of Viburnum
opulus var. roseum L. and V. suspensum
Lindl. (Caprofoliaceae) in Washington and
California.

Specimens examined.—On Viburnum opulus
var. roseum L.: Roseburg, Wakiakum County,
Wash., October 8, 1943, F. S. Semans (Wilbur
148) (USM 74690, IB 4679 Type). Chinook,
Pacific County, Wash., November 30, 1944,

3 USM = Mycological Collections of the Bureau
of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.

IB =Secgaio de Fitopatologia, Instituto Biologico
de Sao Paulo, Brazil.

46

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 12

M. J. Forsell (Forsell 1167, 1168, 1169 and
1170).

On Viburnum suspensum Lindl.: Riverside,
Riverside County, Calif., March 28, 1942,
H. 8S. Fawcett, R. H. Buller, and A. A. Bitan-
court 904 (USM 74384, IB 4402).

Sphaceloma cercocarpi sp. nov.,
Bitancourt and Jenkins
Fie. 2, EK

Maculae in foliis plus minusve sparse con-
spersae, interdum marginales, circulares vel
sub-circulares, interdum coalescentes, usque 3
mm diam., supra prominentiores, centro pal-
lidae, interdum margine subelevato purpureo;
acervuli in area centrali papuliformes, intra-
epidermales, dein erumpentes, compacti, pal-
lidi, usque 57—60y lati, 44—70u crassi, interdum
confluentes; stroma valde evolutum, stratum
conidiferum pallidum, compactum, 26y cras-
sum; conidia non visa.

Distribution.—Producing the disease ‘‘an-
thracnose of birch-leaf mahogany” on leaves
of Cercocarpus betulifolius var. multiflorus Jep-
son (Rosaceae) in California.

Specimen examined.—Santa Ana Botanical
Gardens, Orange County, Calif., May 2, 1942,
H.S. Fawcett and A. A. Bitancourt 910 (USM
74383, IB 4404, Type).

Sphaceloma hederae sp. nov.,
Bitancourt and Jenkins
Fie. 2, G-M

Maculae in foliis saepe numerosissimae, con-
spersae, vel in area una dense aggregatae, circu-
lares vel subcirculares, verruciformes, interdum
centro depressae, brunneae, centro pallido vel
obscuro, saepe confluentes, infra prominen-
tiores, 1-5 mm in diam., status Sphaceloma hy-
phomycetoideum potius quam acervuloideum;
conidiophora ex hyphis intraepidermibus, in
caespitibus usque 53—200y in diam., aggregatis,
in longitudinem variabilia, usque 47y longa,
5.3u lata, recta vel curvata, plerumque acuta
vulgo continua, interdum 3-septata; conidia
variabilia parva, hyalina vel colorata, sphae-
ricalia, usque 6y diam. vel elliptica, continua, ad
septata, 2.5-7.8 X1.7-5.3u.

Distribution.—Producing the disease “scab
of English ivy” (2) on leaves of Hedera helwx L.
(Araliaceae), in California, North Carolina,
and Sao Paulo, Brazil.

Dec. 15, 1946

Specimens examined.—Vicinity of Silver
Lake, Los Angeles County, Calif., May 28,
1940, R. G. Woglum (comm., H. 8. Fawcett).
Uplands, San Bernardino County, Calif., about
June 1942, H. Cavers (comm. H. 8. Faweett).
Mar Vista, Los Angeles County, Calif., March
8, 1943, A. Stein (comm. H. 8. Faweett).

Asheville, N. C., October 18, 1946 (Coll. and
comm. C. Westcott) (USM 90270, IB 5101,
Type).

Sao Paulo, Brazil, May 3, 1948, A. A. Bitan-
court. 972. Isolations were made from two of
these specimens, that collected at Mar Vista
and that Sao Paulo by Bitancourt.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Fretps, W. 8S. Summary of the more im-
portant plant diseases taken in connec-
tion with the insect and plant disease
survey in the general vicinity of ports of
entry from June 1943 to December 31,
1944; January 1944 to June 30, 1944;
July 1944 to June 30, 1944: January
OS 100d wae 30.1945. (Us 8. Bur.
Ent. and Plant Quar.). U. 8. Dept.
Agr. Plant Dist. Reptr. 28: 274-275;
969-970. 1944; 29: 181-183; 693-697.

1945. Mimeographed.

(2) BrrancourtT, A. A., and JENKINS, A. E.
Scab of English wy caused by Sphace-
loma. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 33: 1109.
1933.

(3) Gropstinsky, L., and Jenkins, A. E.
Sphaceloma murrayae en diversas espe-

BAKER: NEW MITES OF FAMILY PENTHALEIDAE

421

cies de Salix. Rev. Argentina Agr.
10: 55-58, illus. 1943.

(4) Jenkins, A. E. Additional studies of
species of Elsinoé and Sphaceloma.
Mycologia 25: 213-220, illus. 1938.

(5) Two new records of Sphaceloma
diseases in the United States. Phyto-
pathology 34: 981-983, illus. 1944.

(6) JenxkiIns, A. E., and Birancourt, A. A.
Elsinoé and Sphaceloma diseases in the
United States, Puerto Rico, and Guam.
(Abstr.) Phytopathology 30:14. 1940.

(7) Jenkins, A. E., Forsreuyt, M. J., and
Boye, L. W. Elsinoé piri discovered
on apple and pear in western Washing-
ton and Oregon. (Abstr.) Phytopathol-
ogy 35: 486. 1945.

(8) Jenkins, A. E, Forsrtu, M. J., and
Boyuz, L. W. Identity and known
distribution of Elsinoé piri in Washing-
ton and Oregon. Phytopathology 36:
458-461, illus. 1946.

(9) Jenkins, A. E., and Gropsinsky, L.
Sphaceloma on willow in New Zealand.
Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 26: 1-3, illus.
1943.

(10) Limper, D: -P., .Potuack, F. G., and
JENKINS, A. E. Elsinoé discovered on
Sesbania and Cinnamomum in the
United States. Mycologia 38: 463-472,
illus. 1946.

(11) SmirH, R. E. Diseases of fruts and nuts.
Univ. California. Agr. Ext. Serv. Cire.
120, 168 pp., illus. 1941.

(12) ZeLuprR, M., and Deremian, J. W. An
anthracnose of Ledum caused by a
species of Elsinoé. Phytopathology 21:
965-972, illus. 1931.

ENTOMOLOGY .—New species of North and Central American mites of the fam-

tly Penthaleidae (Acarina).1
and Plant Quarantine.

The family Penthaleidae Oudemans,
1931, is composed of four genera, two of
which contain species of economic impor-
tance.

Essig? and Campbell’? report that Pen-
thaleus major (Dugés)* is a pest of peas in
California and that it feeds on clover, oats,
wild mustard, and lupine. Essig has also
observed it attacking a springtail, Achor-

1 Received October 22, 1946.

* Essie, E. O. California Dept. Agr. Monthly
Bull. 28 (7, 8, 9): 507-508, fig. 1. 1939.

3 CAMPBELL, R. E. California Dept.
Monthly Bull. 30 (3): 312-314. 1941.

4 Notophallus dorsalis Banks, 1902 (Can. Ent.
34: 172), and N. viridis Banks, 1917 (Ent. News

28: 193), are here considered as synonyms of
Penthaleus major (Dugés) (new synonymy).

Agr.

Epwarp W. Baker, U.S. Bureau of Entomology
(Communicated by ALAN STONE.)

utes armatus Nicolet, which was swarming
on the surface of ditch water. It has caused
serious damage to wheat in certain areas in
Texas and has been found on wheat and
barley in Arizona and Oklahoma. In Aus-
tralia this species is a serious pest of clover
and vegetable crops,’ and Andre® records it
as injurious to peas and lettuce as well as
other vegetables in France.

Halotydeus destructor (Tucker) causes ex-
tensive damage to vegetable and legumi-
nous crops in Australia and South

5 Swan, D.C. Journ. Agr. Res. South Australia
38: 365-367. 1934.

6 ANDRE, Marc. Bull. Paris Mus. Hist. Nat.
(2) 4: 284-291. 1932.

422

Africa,’:®»9 but as far as is known it is
not present in North America. A mite iden-
tified as Halotydeus egregius (Berlese) has
been taken from peach-orchard soil in
Texas, but as yet this species has not proved
to be of economic importance.

The genera Stereotydeus and Penthalodes

are represented in the United States, Mex-
ico, and Panama by the new species de-
scribed in this paper. These do not appear
to be harmful and possibly they are pre-
daceous, but since they belong to a family

that contains species of economic impor--

tance they are described.

Penthalodes mytilaspidis Riley, as de-
scribed and figured by McGregor,'! appears
to belong to another family, perhaps the
Anystidae.

Kery TO THE GENERA

i Anal opening-notiyentral.c. 6. Poeie sk. a. 2
Analiopenine vembtrales - &.).1.c see bona cers 3

2. Anal opening dorsal... Penthaleus Koch, 1835
Analopenine postertom inti. (nee os ea
SPOR UMN ES ELIS SRC S A Halotydeus Berlese, 1891

3. No V-shaped indentation on dorsum of body
Re aca Stereotydeus Berlese & Leonardi, 1901

A V-shaped indentation on dorsum of body..

By er LAR oe eee Penthalodes Murray, 1877

Stereotydeus mexicanus, n. sp.
Fies. 1, 2

Female.—Skin pattern reticulate, forming in-
dependent pentagons separated from one an-
other by about their own width on dorsal and

lateral surface of mite. On venter of mite be-.

tween coxae pentagons lacking, only tubercles
without pattern present. Palpus strong, seg-
ment IT especially broad; segment I, 17 long;
II, 674 long with two dorsal pilose setae; III,
18u long with three pilose setae; IV, 23u long
with apparently scven small distal setae, one
of which appears to be simple and the others
pilose. Shield over rostrum trilobed, center lobe
pointed, with same pattern as body; median
anterior tubercle with a pair of short pilose
setae. A pair of pilose sensory setae about 66u

7 Jack, R. W. Agr. Journ. Cape of Good Hope
32: 615-620. 1908.

8 Tucker, R. W. E. Union South Africa Dept.
Agr. Mem. 3: 23-36. 1925.

* Newman, L. Western Australia Dept. Agr.
Journ. 2: 469-475. 1925.

10 Norris, K. Austral. Council. Sci. & Indus.
Res. Pamphlet 84: 1-23. 1938.

11 McGreoor, E. A. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 9 (3):
284-288, pl. 13. 1916.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 12

long; other dorsal body setae about 25y long,
pilose. A pair of medium-sized eyes behind
lateral propodosomal dorsal setae. Six pairs of
long, pilose genital setae, the fourth from the
anterior edge of the plate set laterad from the
others. Leg setae short, pilose; tarsus I with
three sensory organs arranged in a single row.
Body rounded posteriorly. Length of body
380u; including rostral shield 453u; width

about 266y. | |

Male.—Similar to female.

The type female. U.S.N.M. no. 1697, was
collected at Patzcuaro, Michoacan, Mexico, ©
September 1, 1941, by F. Bonet; a paratype, —
to be deposited in the collection of F. Bonet, —
Mexico, D. F., was collected in moss, Orizaba,
Veracruz, Mexico, February 21, 1943, by F.
Bonet. Other collection records are as follows:
On orchid plant, Mexico at Brownsville, Tex.,
September 27, 1942, by Williamson; in moss,
Mount Popocatapetl, Mexico, at about 9,000
feet elevation, December 29, 1942, by E. W.
Baker; in moss, Laguna de Zempoala, Morelos,
Mexico, January 31, 1943, by E. W. Baker;
in moss, Desierto de los Leones, México,
Mexico, November 19, 1948, by C. C. Plum-—
mer. The following Mexican collections were
made by F. Bonet: In moss, Salazar, D. F.,
September 30, 1942; in mushrooms, Desierto
de los Leones, Mexico, July 14, 1941; Nevada
de Toluca, Mexico, April 27, 1941; Gruta del
Palmito, Bustamante, Nuevo Leén, July 17,
1942; wood, Orizaba, Veracruz, January 14, |
1941; in moss, Cuesta de Acultzingo, Veracruz,
January 10 and 16, 1942; Nevada de Colima, ~
Colima, January 20, 1943.

The mite is similar to the Australian species,
Stereotydeus occidentale Womersley, but it dif-
fers in that the dorsal pattern of S. mexicanus
is composed of minute tubercles, forming ~
pentagons, while that of S. occidentale is made
up of small uniform tubercles separated by
their own diameter; the dorsal setae of S.
mexicanus are longer; S. mexicanus is 453y long
and S. occidentale is 650u long; and the palpal —
segments of the Mexican species are longer.

Stereotydeus lattimorei, n. sp.
Fia. 3

Female——Skin pattern not reticulate but
composed of tubercles forming longitudinal
striations over dorsum of mite, and more or less
transverse striations on venter. Palpus short,

Dec. 15, 1946 BAKER: NEW MITES OF FAMILY PENTHALEIDAE 423

Fig. 1.—Stereotydeus mexicanus, n. sp. Dorsal view of body, male. Fie. 2.—Same, ventral view,
male. Fie. 3.—<Stereotydeus lattimorei, n. sp. Dorsal view of body, female. Fig. 4.—Penthalodes
oregonensis, n. sp. Dorsal view of body, female. Fie. 5.—Penthalodes boneti, n. sp. Dorsal view of
body, female. Fig. 6.—Same, ventral view, male. Fie. 7.—Penthalodes turneri, n. sp. Dorsal view of
body, female. Fie. 8.—Same, ventral view, female.

424

strong; segment I, 20u long; II, 83u long, with
two dorsal, pilose setae; III, 33u long, with
three pilose setae; IV, 27u long, rounded, with
several short terminal setae. Shield over ros-
trum trilobed, the center lobe rounded, with
same pattern as body; median anterior tubercle
with a pair of finely haired setae. A pair of
pilose sensory setae not much longer than the
pilose body setae, which are about 60—70yu long.
A pair of large eyes on propodosoma. Genital
setae arranged as in S. mexicanus with one pair
laterad from the others; possibly six pairs of
genital setae although only five pairs seen. Leg
setae short, pilose; tarsus I with the usual three
sensory organs. Body slightly pointed to rear.
Length of body 1,000, including rostral shield
1,142u; width about 700u.

The type female, U.S.N.M. no. 1698, was
collected ‘‘with orchid roots,” from the Canal
Zone, at Brownsville, Tex., February 8, 1946,
by R. B. Lattimore, for whom the mite is
named.

The large size and lack of reticulaticns dis-
tinguish this species from others in the genus.

Penthalodes oregonensis, n. sp.
Fia. 4

Female.—Dorsum of body with V-shaped in-
dentation, skin pattern of tubercles forming
connecting hexagons, covering dorsum and en-
tire venter of mite. Palpus of moderate length
and thickness; segment I, 20u long; II, 40u long
with two short, semiplumose setae; III, about
23u long with three short, semiplumose setae;
IV, 10u long with apparently 6 short terminal
setae, 2 of which appear simple and the others
pilose. No reticulate pattern on shield over ros-
trum, but posteriorly a few tubercles and ante-
riorly with fine hairs; shield broadly rounded,
entirely covering rostrum. Anterior median
tubercle on propodosoma with a pair of simple
setae. Propodosomatic sensory setae of medi-
um length, pilose; other dorsal body setae pi-
lose, shorter. Possible eye lens present on ante-
rior lateral portions of propodosoma. Nine pairs
of pilose genital setae, the middle one laterad
of the others. Tarsus I with three rodlike sen-
sory organs, the posterior one placed laterad of
the other two, which are in line. Body pointed
posteriorly. Length of body 327y; including
rostrum 380u; width 200u.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 1699, and a single
paratype were taken from fir duff, Corvallis,
Oreg., October 28, 1939, collector unknown.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 12

The rounded shield over the rostrum is dis-
tinctive of this species.

Penthalodes boneti, n. sp.
: Fies. 5,6 ~

Female.—Dark brown with lighter dorsopos-
terior and ventral spots; legs light red. Body
rounded, V-shaped indentation present; the
reticulate pattern, which is composed of tuber-
cles, covers the entire dorsum, and laterally and
ventrally the reticulations reach the coxae and
the genital plates, but between the area formed
by the coxae and genital plates the pattern is
no longer reticulate, but entirely tuberculate.
Palpi long, slender; segment I, 20u long; II,
67 long, with a long pilose median seta and a
similar distal seta; III, 63u long, with a poste-
rior seta of medium length and two similar dis-
tal setae; IV, 274 long, with a basal rodlike
sensory organ and at least five terminal setae,
one of which appears to be simple, the others
pilose. Shield over rostrum small, triangular,
with shoulders, the shield reticulate posteriorly
and striate anteriorly. Anterior median pro-
podosomatic tubercle with two short, simple
setae. Propodosomatic sensory setae pilose on
distal portion; dorsal setae pilose. A pair of
lenslike eyes present. Nine pairs of genital
setae, the middle seta laterad of the others,
which are near the inner margin of the genital
plate. Tarsus I with 3 rodlike sensory setae,
the posterior one laterad of the other two,
which are in line; tarsus II with three rodlike
sensory setae, all in line. Length of body 433y;
including rostral shield 513yu; width about 333y.

Male.—Similar but slightly more elongated.

The type female, U.S.N.M. no. 1700, was
collected in moss, Desierto de los Leones,
Mexico, December 5, 1943, by E. W. Baker,
and two paratypes, to be deposited in the col-
lection of F. Bonet, Mexico, D. F., were col-
lected from moss, Cumbre de Acultzingo, Vera-
cruz, Mexico, January 16, 1942, by F. Bonet.
Other Mexican collections are as follows: In
bark, Atoyac, Veracruz, November 13, 1941,
by F. Bonet; in moss, Desierto de los Leones,
Mexico, July 14, 1941, by F. Bonet; in moss,
Cuernavaca, Morelos, August 26, 1939, by F.
Bonet; in rotten wood, Cuautla, Morelos, July
8, 1941, by F. Bonet; in moss, Desierto de los
Leones, Mexico, February 7, 1948, by E. W.
Baker. 7

The lack of ventral reticulation and the type
of dorsal setae are distinctive of this species.

Dec. 15, 1946

The reticulate pattern is similar to that of
Penthalodes ovatus (Koch), but P. bonett pos-
sesses dorsal and posterior setae whose lateral
branches are short, whereas in P. ovatus the
| branches are fewer and may be as long as the
main stem.

Penthalodes turneri, n. sp.
Fias. 7, 8

Female.—Dorsum of body with V-shaped in-
dentation; skin pattern of connecting hexagons
over entire dorsum and entire venter. Palpi
long, slender; segment I, 20u long; II, 40 long,
with a median and a distal nearly semiplumose
setae; III, 40u long, with a basal and two dis-
tal semiplumose setae; IV, 20u long, with ap-
parently six short pilose setae. Shield over ros-
trum small, triangular, reticulate posteriorly
and striate anteriorly. Anterior median tuber-
cle of propodosoma with two short simple setae.
Dorsal body setae almost semiplumose, with

CLARKE: SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS NEALYDA

425

three to five lateral branches; anterior dorsal
setae 6-rayed; propodosomatic sensory setae
pilose on distal half. Genital setae as in other
species. Tarsi I and II as in other species.
Length of body 286u; including rostral shield
333u; width about 214uy.

The type female, U.S.N.M. no. 1701, a
paratype and 4 other specimens were collected
in peach-orchard soil, Stoddard County, Mo.,
September 25, 1936, by W. F. Turner. Other
specimens were collected as follows: In soil,
Tyler, Tex., November 23 and 24, 1939, and
February 23, 1938 by L. D. Christenson; in
soil, Denison, Tex., February 19, 1938, by
L. D. Christenson; in soil, Menard, Tex.,
November 4, 1943, by O. A. Babcock; in rub-
bish in cottonfields, Batesburg, 8. C., Febru-
ary 19, 1910, by H. F. Wilson.

This species is distinctive in that the reticu-
late pattern covers the dorsum and entire
venter, and in the different type of dorsal
body setae. |

ENTOMOLOGY.—Synopstis of the genus Nealyda Dietz, with descriptions of new

species (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera) 1

J. F. Gatgs Cuarke, U. S. Bureau of

Entomology and Plant Quarantine. (Communicated by C. F. W. Muz&sE-

BECK.)

The monobasic genus Nealyda was
erected by Dietz? for Nealyda bifidella
Dietz. Under the genus Didactylota Walsing-
ham*® described the West Indian bzcolor.
Busck? stated that this species was certainly
referable to Nealyda, but the generic trans-
fer was not made until 1925 by Meyrick.5
In 1900 Busck® added two more species, NV.
pisoniae and N. kinzelella. Later Meyrick?
described N. accincta and N. leucozostra
and in this paper two new species, neo-
pisoniae and phytolaccae, are added, bring-
ing to a total of eight the number of de-
scribed species in the genus.

With the exception of bzfidella, which

1 Received November 7, 1946.

2 Dietz, W. G., Ent. News 11: 350. 1900.

3 WALSINGHAM, Lorp, THOMAS DE GRay, Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, 1891: 522.

‘ Buseck A], Proc. U. S- Nat. Mus: 25: 835.

1903.

5 Meyrick, H.,72mn Wytsman, Genera insectorum,
fasc. 184: 24. 1925.

§ Busck, A., Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 23: 229, 230.
1900.

7 Meyrick, E., Exotic Microlepidoptera 3: 5.
1923.

ranges as far west and north as Washing-
ton State, the species are tropical or sub-
tropical.

All the larvae so far known are leaf
miners forming a blotch mine. Pupation
occurs either inside or outside the mine, but
the pupa always is in a flat, whitish or tinted
cocoon from which it does not protrude at
the time of emergence of the adult.

KEY TO THE SPECIES oF NEALYDA

1. Labial palpus conspicuously annulated..... 2
Labial palpus not so marked.............. 6
Zeelread nehticoloredic...<teanic us. ste ee 3
ead darkacoloned’. se. es oer ole ake 5

3. Dark fascia before middle of forewing dark
DROW CORDIACK wees enn Ho ke mae coke 4

Dark fascia before middle deep velvety brown
BSG uae Re eat ape eR nets ee eae kinzelella Busck

4. Tuft of scales on dorsum contrastingly darker
thankdank fascia 54 --ae e pisoniae Buseck
Tuft of scales on dorsum not darker than fascia
NFO ae ee eee phytolaccae, n. sp.

5. Median light fascia of forewing with blotch
Of danrk-colomamecenters... oa. se o2ese see

RPE AE a ls Sse alten an Si neopisoniae, N. Sp.
Median light fascia without such blotch of
dark, Colotea:c S.ca fee eee bifidella Dietz

426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 12

Jneopisoniae 4.phytolaccae la.

Fias. 1-4.—1-la, Nealyda neopisoniae, n. sp.: 1, Inner surface of right harpe; la, aedeagus, lateral
view. 2-2a, Nealyda phytolaccae, n. sp.: 2, Inner surface of right harpe; 2a, aedeagus, lateral view.
3, Nealyda neopisoniae, n. sp.: Ventral view of bursa copulatrix and ductus bursae. 4, Nealyda
phytolaccae, n. sp.: Ventral view of bursa copulatrix and ductus bursae.

| Dec. 15, 1946

6. Fine, leaden, metallic lines before and beyond
AES ee ee accincta Meyric
re

7. Basal half of forewing gray .leucozostra Meyrick
Basal half of forewing fawn color...........
we ee Ba ee ee bicolor (Walsingham)

Nealyda phytolaccae, n. sp.

Labial palpus black and white annulated.
Antenna annulated black and white. Head
pale luteous overlaid with fuscous. Thorax and
tegula blackish fuscous to black basally shading
to pale luteous. Forewing light yellowish brown
basally shading to blackish fuscous or black
slightly before middle where there is a sharp
line of demarcation, with the lighter basal
shade repeated followed by a gradual ‘shading
to blackish fuscous or black at apex; at apical
fourth, on costa, a few whitish scales continue

_ across wing as an ill-defined transverse line;

cilia fuscous strongly overlaid with blackish
fuscous and black. Hind wing and cilia fuscous;
from costa, on underside of male, a yellowish
hair pencil. Legs sordid white overlaid and an-
nulated with blackish fuscous. Abdomen black-
ish fuscous above, paler beneath.

Male genitalia.—Dorsal lobe of harpe slen-
der, slightly constricted before apex, extending
beyond uncus; ventral lobe broad, about two-
thirds the length of dorsal lobe, with divided
distal end. Aedeagus slender, curved, simple.
Vinculum with long, pointed, lateral processes.

Female genitalta.— Ductus bursae with a nar-

row sclerotized ring before ostium; inception of

ductus seminalis well before ostium; signum a
small, weakly sclerotized hook.

Alar expanse, 6-8 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58211.

Type locality.k—Stock Island, Fla.

Food plant.—Phytolacca decandra L.
_ Described from the male type (21-III-1945)
and eight male and eight female paratypes
from the type locality and Bonefish Key, Fla.,
all showing March 1945 dates and reared from
larvae collected by C. L. Griswold.

Paratypes in the United States National and
British Museums.

This species is nearest to N. pisoniae Busck
in genitalia but differs from it by the narrow

CLARKE: SYNOPSIS OF THE GENUS NEALYDA

427

dorsal lobe and the divided ventral lobe of the
harpe.

Nealyda neopisoniae, n. sp.

Labial palpus black and white annulated.
Antenna black with white annulations. Head,
base of thorax and tegula and extreme base of
forewing blackish fuscous with minute white
irrorations; remainder of thorax and tegula,
and forewing to one-third, pale fawn; from
basal third to middle and again at apical third
are bands of dark golden brown separated by a
fascia of pale fawn; in the center of this fascia
is a blackish fuscous blotch with minute white
irrorations; a dorsal tuft at center and the
apical fourth of wing, including the cilia, also
blackish fuscous. Hind wing and cilia very dark
fuscous; from costa, on underside, in male, a
white hair pencil. Legs blackish fuscous irro-
rated and annulated with white. Abdomen
fuscous.

Male genitalia.—Harpe with dorsal arm di-
vided, U-shaped; one element extending be-
yond uncus, dilated distally, the other element
shorter, sharply pointed; ventral lobe fleshy,
weak, about one-half the length of the long
dorsal element. Aedeagus long, curved, simple,
pointed. Vinculum divided into two broad pos-
terolateral processes.

Female genitalia—Ductus bursae with a
sclerotized area from middle to posterior
fourth; inception of ductus seminalis well be-
fore ostium. Signa a large three-pointed
curved plate and a short narrow sclerotized
lateral plate.

Alar expanse, 6-7 mm,

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58212.

Type locality—Jaimanitas, Habana Proy-
ince, Cuba.

Food plant.—Pisonia aculeata L.

Described from the male type, one male and
two female paratypes as follows: Jaimanitas,
Habana Province, two males (22-25-IV-1934,
A. R. Otero); Central Jaronti, two females
(25-XI-30, L. C. Scaramuzza).

This species can be distinguished from all
other members of the genus by the divided dor-
sal element of the harpe and the large signum.

428

ORNITHOLOGY .—New subspecies of birds from peninsular Siam.

NAN, U. 8. National Museum.
I

Study of the birds of southern Siam has
disclosed that two more peninsular forms, a
kingfisher and a shrike babbler, may be
awarded subspecific recognition. For the
former, I propose the name—

Halcyon concreta peristephes,
n. subsp.

Type.—Adult male, U.S.N.M. no. 330226,
collected at Khao Luang (lat. 11° 40’ N.,
long. 99° 35’ E.), a mountain southwest of
Prachuap Khirikhan (Ko Lak), south-
western Siam, on October 6, 1930, by Hugh
McCormick Smith (original number 4235).

Diagnosis—From concreta of Sumatra
and the M lay States, distinguished in
either sex by greater measurements (wing:
111-115 mm, against 102-110 mm; tail:
58.4-63.6 mm, against 49.6-56.7 mm); by
having the rufous of the collar and under-
parts slightly paler, and the center of the
abdomen much more decidedly and ex-
tensively albescent; and, in the female, by
having the buffy-white terminal spots on
the scapulars and upper wing coverts some-
what larger in size.

Range.—Peninsular Siam from Trang
Province at lat. 11° 40’ N.; southernmost
Tenasserijm.

Remarks.—H. c. borneana of Borneo
agrees with perzstephes in measurements but
matches concreta in color characters.

1 Published with permission of the Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution. Received Septem-
ber 30, 1946.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 36, No. 12

H. G. Dete-

(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

et

The white-browed shrike babbler of the
mountains of Peninsular Siam has always
been treated as inseparable from aeralatus
of northernmost Tenasserim and north-
western Siam, with which it agrees well
enough in color; it proves to be a consider-
ably smaller race, which I intend to call—

Pteruthius erythropterus schauenseei,
; n. subsp.

Type.—Adult male, U.S.N.M. no.
311095, collected at 4,000 feet on Khao
Luang (lat. 8° 30’ N., long. 99° 45’ E.), a
mountain west of Nakhon Si Thammarat,
peninsular Siam, on July 20, 1928, by Hugh
McCormick Smith (original number 2260).

Diagnosts.—From_ aeralatus, separable
only by its shorter wing. Six males of
schauenseei have this measurement 69-77
mm (average: 73.5 mm), while 22 males of
aeralatus have it 78-82 mm (average: 79.8
mm); three females of schawenseet have it
72.75 mm (average: 73.3 mm), while 24
females of aeralatus have it 76-83 mm (aver-
age: 79.3 mm).

Range.—Isolated mountains of penin-
sular Siam. The populations of the moun-
tains of the Malay States are variably
intermediate between schauenseez and cam-
eranot (Sumatra).

Remarks.—P. e. robinsont of Borneo
agrees with schauenseez in measurements
but differs from both schauenseet and aera-
latus in the deeper gray of the upperparts
and the stronger pinkish wash on the
flanks.

INDEX TO VOLUME 36

An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

- Anthropological Society of Washington. 99.
Chemical Society of Washington. 61.
Geological Society of Washington. 131.
Washington Academy of Sciences. 60, 170.

AUTHOR INDEX

ALBIN, FLORENCE E. See STEINER, G. 97.

AxELROD, J. M. See Fueiscuer, M. 182.

BAKER, EpwarRD W. New species of North and
Central American mites of the family
Penthaleidae (Acarina). 421.

Barac, G., and Roseman, R. Faits expéri-
mentaux sur la stabilisation anti-oxygénée
de la bilirubine par les protéines plasmatiques
et hypothése sur la nature de la cénapse
-albumino-bilirubinique du plasma. 296.

BartscuH, Paut. A new genus and species of
minute marine stiliferid mollusks from
Florida. 30.

A remarkable new genus and species of

West American marine mollusks. 281.

Birancourt, A.A. See JENKINS, ANNAE. 225,

; 416.

BuakE, Doris H. Nine new species. of
Metachroma (Coleoptera) from the West
Indies. 22.

Species of beetles of the genus Lactica
from the West Indies closely related to L.
tibialis (Olivier). 267.

Bopenios, A. J. *Structural control of the
magnesite vein system in the Red Mountain
district, Calif. 132.

Bouart, RicHarp M., and INeRam, Rosert L.
Four new species of mosquitoes from Oki-
nawa (Diptera: Culicidae). 46.

BRIDWELL, J. C. The genera of beetles of the
family Bruchidae in America north of
Mexico. 52.

Brown, Routanp W. Alterations in some fossil
and living floras. 344.

A Pleistocene pearl from southern

Maryland. 75.

Edward Wilber Berry (obituary). 31.

Salt ribbons and ice ribbons. 14.

CHAPMAN, DorotHy E. See STEERE, WILLIAM

Cox 219,
Cuovu, RurH CuHeEen-yine. A second species of
Hackelochloa. 282.

CuaRKE, J. F. Gates. Synopsis of the genus
Nealyda Dietz, with descriptions of new
species (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera). 425.

CROWELL, Sears. A new sea anemone from
Woods Hole, Massachusetts. 57.

_ Datiemaene, M. J., and Méton, J. Nouvelles

recherches relatives aux propriétés optiques

- de los: La biréfringence de l’os minéralisé;
Relations entre les fractions organiques et
inorganiques de l’os. 181.

Derianan, H. G. New subspecies of birds from
peninsular Siam. 428.
Two new hemipodes from southeastern

Asia. 390.
Dorsey, N. Ernest. Fahrenheit and Roemer.
361.

DunxKLE, Davip H. A new palaeoniscoid fish
from the Lower Permian of Texas. 402.
Dunne, ANNA BartscH. Sofie Amalia Nord-

hoff-Jung (obituary). 63.

Ewers, JoHn C. Identification and history of
the Small Robes Band of Piegan Indians.
397. ;

Fenton, Witu1AM N. An Jroquois Condolence
Council for installing Cayuga chiefs in 1945.
110.

FisHerR, W. 8. Synopsis of the cerambycid
beetles of the genus Stenosphenus Haldeman
found in America, north of Mexico. 86.

FLEISCHER, M., NEuscHEL, 8. K., and AXELROD
J. M. *Occurrence of tungsten and vana-
dium in manganese oxide minerals and ores.
132.

ForRRESTER, J. D. See Ross, C. P. 1385.

GaHANn, A. B., and Prcx, O. Notes on some
Ashmeadian genotypes in the hymenopterous -
superfamily Chalcidoidea. 314.

GILBERT, WILLIAM HARLEN, JR. Mixed bloods
of the Upper Monongahela Valley, West
Virginia. 1.

Gorpon, C. L. *Attack of minerals by acids at
elevated temperatures. 131.

GraF, J. HE. National responsibility for research.
101.

Hensest, L. *Correlation of the marine Penn-
sylvanian rocks of northern New Mexico and
western Colorado. 134.

Horr, C. Cuayton. A study of the type collec-
tions of some pseudoscorpions originally de-
scribed by Nathan Banks. 195.

HooestraaL, Harry. See Kine, WILLARD V.
305.

Hsr1ao, Tsat-yu. The genus Neella Reuter, with
descriptions of four new species (Hemiptera:
Miridae). 385.

Husss, Caru L., and Rivas, Luis R. System-
atics of an American atherine fish, Melano-
rhinus microps (Poey). 393.

INGRAM, RoBertL. See BoHart, RicHarp M. 46.

JENKINS, ANNA E., and Bitancourt, A. A. A
new species of Sphaceloma causing scab of
plantain (Plantago). 225.

429

430

JENKINS, ANNA E.; Bitancourt, A. A.; and
Pouuack, Firora G. Spot anthracnoses in
the Pacific Coast States. 416.

JoHnson, Davin H. A new Philippine rat allied

to “‘Bullimus” bagobus Mearns. 317.
Kenge, Yi-L1, and Keno, Pat-cHreH. New
bamboos from Szechwan Province, China.
76.
Kine, P. B. *Tectonic map of the United States.
135.

Kine, WituarpD V., and HooastRAaL, Harry.
Descriptions of three new species of mos-
quitoes of the genus Aedes, subgenus Fin-
laya, from New Guinea. 305.

Kirk, Epwin. Stiptocrinus, a new camerate
crinoid genus from the Silurian. 33.

Knieut, Kenneth L. The Aedes (Finlaya)
niveus subgroup of Oriental mosquitoes.
270.

LaFFoon, JEAN. The Philippine mosquitoes of
the genus Aedes, subgenus Aedes. 228.

Li, Hour-trn. On the identity of Kokonoria.

384.
LinDBERG, Marie L. *Bromine in carnallite and
sylvite. 136.

LOVERIDGE, ARTHUR. Capt. M.S. Briscoe’s col-
lection of reptilesand amphibians from Har-
bel, Liberia. 245.

McCauu, M. A. Harry Vaughn Harlan (obitu-
anys) ole

Méston, J. See DattEmMagGne, M. J. 181.

MERRILL, ExmMeER D. Thomas Barbour (obitu-
ary). 283.

MILLER, Ropert R. Distributional records for
North American fishes, with nomenclatorial
notes on the genus Psenes. 206.

Gila cypha, a remarkable new species of
cyprinid fish from the Colorado River in
Grand Canyon, Arizona. 409.

Morton, C. V. The fern studies of Mirbel.
166.

Morata, K. J., and ScHuecut, W. G. *Chem-
ical behavior and crystal structure of silicate
minerals. 131.

NeEvuscHEL, 8. K. See Fueiscoer, M. 132.

Nye, 8. 8. *Orogeny of the Mexican Plateau
and its relation to ore, oil, and ground
water. 135.

OBERHOLSER, Harry C. Three new North
American birds. 388.

OpLER, Morris Epwarp. An application of the
theory of themes in culture. 137.

PAULSEN, Cart G. Glenn Lane Parker (obitu-
ary). 248.

Payne, T.G. *Stratigraphic and structural fea-
tures, lower Matanuska Valley coal field,
Alaska. 1383.

Peck, O. See GAawAN, A. B. 314.

PENN, GEORGE Henry. A new crawfish of the
genus Procambarus from Louisiana (Decap-
oda: Astacidae). 27.

Pouuack, Fiora G. See JENKINS, ANNA HE.
416.

Purves, C. B. Cyclic acetals of the carbohy-
drates. 65.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 36, No. 12

REINHARD, Epwarp G. Rhizocephala from New
England and the Grand Banks. 127.

Ricker, P. L. New Asiatic species of the legume
genus Campylotropis. 37.

Rivas, Luis R. See Cari L. Huspss. 393.
RosEMAN, R. See Barac; G. 296. 3
Ross, C. P., and Forrester, J. D. *The new

geologic map of Idaho. 135.

RvussELL, Louise M. A new African species of
Paurocephala Crawford (Homoptera: Psyl-
lidae: Pauropsyllinae). 94.

SayLtor, LAWRENCE W. Synoptic revision of the
United States scarab beetles of the sub-
family Dynastinae, No. 2: Tribe Oryctini
(part). 16.

Synoptic revision of the United States
scarab beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae,
No. 3: Tribe Oryctini (part). 41.

Scuuecut, W.G. See Murata, K. J. 181.

SEEGER, R. J. On understanding electric break-
down in solids. 285.

SLATTERY, RicHarp G. A prehistoric Indian site
on Selden Island, Montgomery County, Md.
262.

SmirH, Hopart M. A subspecies of the lizard
Xantusia rwersiana. 392.

SmirH, H. T. U. *Giant glacial furrows on
northwest Canada. 136.

*Rock streams in the Blue Ridge. 133.

Speck, Frank G. Bird nomenclature and song
interpretation of the Canadian Delaware:
An essay in ethno-ornithology. 249.

Ethnoherpetology of the Catawba and
Cherokee Indians. 355.

STEERE, WILLIAM C., and CHAPMAN, DOROTHY
E. Mbosses of El Salvador. 219.

STEINER, G., and ALBIN, FLORENCE E. Resusci-
tation of the nematode Tylenchus polyhyp-
nus, n. sp., after almost 39 years’ dormancy.

Stewart, T. D., and Tirrerineton, P. F.
More filed Indian teeth from the United
States. 259.

Stosz, G. W. *A description of the geologic
map of South America. 134.

TirrERiInetTon, P. F. See Stewart, T. D. 259.

WaHRHAFTIG, C. *Preliminary report on the
physiographic history of part of the Alaska
Range. 134.

Wait, G. R. Some experiments relating to the
electrical conductivity of the lower atmos-
phere. 321.

WENNER, FRANK. Forces between linear cir-
cuits according to O’Rahilly. 294.

Westacer, C. A. Susquehannock Indian reli-
gion from an old document. 302.

Wuirr, D. E. *Localization of the antimony
deposits of Mexico. 138.

Wirrnort, Joun. Bird lore of the Eastern Cher-
okee. 372.

Some Eastern Cherokee bird stories. 177.

The Cherokee Green Corn Medicine
and the Green Corn Festival. 213.

ZIMMER, JOHN T. A new subspecies of tanager
from northeastern Colombia. 389.

‘Dec. 15, 1946

INDEX

Ao

SUBJECT INDEX

Anthropology. An application of the theory of

themes in culture. Morris Epwarp Op-
meee 137.

More filed Indian teeth from the United
States. T. D. Srewart and P. F. Tir-
TERINGTON. 2059.

Archeology. A prehistoric Indian site on Selden

Island, Montgomery County, Md. Ricu-
ARD G. SLATTERY. 262.

Biochemistry. Faits expérimentaux sur la stabil-

ization anti-oxygénée de la bilirubine par
les protéines plasmatiques et hypothése sur
la nature de la cénapse albumino-bilirub-
inique du plasma. G. Barac et R. ROose-
MAN. 296.

Biophysics. Nouvelles recherches relatives aux

propriétés optiques de l’os: La biréfring-
ence de l’os minéralisé; Relations entre les
fractions organiques et inorganiques de
Vos. M. J. DaLLEMAGNE et J. MELON.
181.

Botany. A new species of Sphaceloma causing scab

of plantain (Plantago). ANNA E. JENKINS
and A. A. BITANCOURT. 225.

A second species of Hackelochloa. RutTH
CHEN-YING CHOU. 282.

Mosses of El Salvador. WILLIAM C. STEERE
and Dorotuy E. CHAPMAN. 219.

New Asiatic species of the legume genus
Campylotropis. P. L. Ricker. 37.

New bamboos from Szechwan Province,
China. Y1-L1 KENG@and Pal-cHIEH KENG.
76.

On the identity of Kokonoria. Huvtr-urn Lt.
384.

Spot anthracnoses in the Pacific Coast States.
Anna E. JENKINS, A. A. BITANCOURT, and
Fiora G. Pouuack. 416.

The fern studies of Mirbel. C. V. Morton.
166.

Chemistry. *Attack of minerals by acids at ele-

vated temperatures. C.L.Gorpon. 131.

*Bromine in carnallite and sylvite. Mari
L. LInDBERG. 136.

*Chemical behavior and crystal structure of
silicate minerals. K. J. Murata and
W. G. ScatecutT. 131.

Cyclic acetals of the carbohydrates. C. B.
PuRvVEs. 65.

“Occurrence of tungsten and vanadium in
manganese oxide minerals and ores. M.
FLEISCHER, 8. K. NeuscuHeEn, and J. M.
AXELROD. 132.

Salt ribbons and ice ribbons. Ronanp W.
Brown. 14.

Entomology. A new African species of Pauro-

cephala Crawford (Homoptera: Psyllidae:
Pauropsyllinae). Lourss M. RvusseE tu.

Descriptions of three new species of mos-
quitoes of the genus Aedes, subgenus Fin-
laya, from New Guinea. Wriuarp V.

Four new species of mosquitoes from Oki-
nawa (Diptera: Culicidae). RicHarp M.
Bowart and Rosert L. INGRAM. 46.

New species of North and Central American
mites of the family Penthaleidae (Acar-
ina). Epwarp W. BaKker. 421.

Notes on some Ashmeadian genotypes in
the hymenopterous superfamily Chalci-
doidea. A. B. GAHAN and O. Peck. 314.

Species of beetles of the genus Lactica from
the West Indies closely allied to L. tibialis
(Olivier). Doris H. BLaxr. 267.

Synopsis of the cerambycid beetles of the
genus Stenosphenus Haldeman found in
America, north of Mexico. W.S. FIsHER.
86.

Synopsis of the genus Nealyda Dietz, with
descriptions of new species (Gelechiidae:
Lepidoptera). J. F. Gates CLARKE.
425.

Synoptic revision of the United States scarab
beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae, No. 2:
Tribe Oryctini (part). LAWRENCE W.
SAYLor. 16.

Synoptic revision of the United States scarab
beetles of the subfamily Dynastinae, No.
3: Tribe Oryctini (part). LAWRENCE W.
SaAYLor. 41.

The Aedes (Finlaya) niveus subgroup of
Oriental mosquitoes. KENNETH L.
Knieut. 270.

The genera of beetles of the family Bruch-
idae in America north of Mexico. J. C.
BRIDWELL. 52.

The genus Neella Reuter, with descriptions of
four new species (Hemiptera: Miridae).
Tsai-yu Hsrao. 385. ,

The Philippine mosquitoes of the genus
Aedes, subgenus Aedes. JEAN LAFFOON.
228.

Ethnology. An Iroquois Condolence Council for

installing Cayuga chiefs in 1945. Wi1-
LIAM N. Fenton. 110.

Bird lore of the Eastern Cherokee. Joun
WittTHort. 372.

Bird nomenclature and song interpretation of
the Canadian Delaware: An essay in eth-
no-ornithology. FRANK G.SPEcK. 249.

Ethnoherpetology of the Catawba and
Cherokee Indians. FRANK G. SPECK. 355.

Identification and history of the Small Robes
Band of Piegan Indians. JOHN C. EwErs.
397.

Mixed bloods of the Upper Monongahela
Valley, West Virginia. WILLIAM HARLEN
Cite Jr i

Some Eastern Cherokee bird stories. JOHN
WitTHorFT. 177.

Susquehannock Indian religion from an old
document. C. A. WESLAGER. 302.

The Cherokee Green Corn Medicine and the
Green Corn Festival. JoHN WuTTHOFT.
20S.

432

General science. National responsibility for re-
search. J. E. Grar. 101.
Geology. *A description of the geologic map of
South America. G. W. Strose. 134.
*Correlation of the marine Pennsylvanian
rocks of northern New Mexico and west-
ern Colorado. L. Henspest. 134.
*Giant glacial furrows on northwest Canada.
Be UL Suir. also:
*Localization of the antimony deposits of
Mexico: D: E. Wurre. 1338.
*Orogeny of the Mexican Plateau and its re-
lation to ore, oil, and ground water. S.5S.
Nye. 135.
*Preliminary report on the physiographic
history of part of the Alaska Range. C.

WAHRHAFTIG. 134.
*Rock streams in the Blue Ridge. H. T. U.
SMITH. 133. —

*Stratigraphic and structural features, lower
Matanuska Valley coal field, Alaska.
eG PAYNES aloo:

*Structural control of the magnesite vein sys-
tem in the Red Mountain district, Calif.
A. J. BoDENLOS. 132.

*Tectonic map of the United States. P. B.
Kine. 135.
*The new geologic map of Idaho. C. P.

Ross and J. D. ForRESTER. 130.

Grants in aid. 320.

Herpetology. A subspecies of the lizard Xantusia
riversiana. Hopsart M. SmitH. 392.
Ichthyology. Distributional records for North
American fishes, with nomenclatorial notes
on the genus Psenes. RosBerr R. MILueER.

206.

Gila cypha, a remarkable new species of
cyprinid fish from the Colorado River in
Grand Canyon, Arizona. RosBertr R.
MiLLeErR. 409.

Systematics of an American atherine fish,
Melanorhinus microps (Poey). Caru L.
Husss and Luis R. Rivas. 393.

Mammalogy. A new Philippine rat allied to
“Bullimus’” bagobus Mearns. Davip H.
JOHNSON. 317.

Obituaries. Barspour, THoMAS. 283. BERRY,
Epwarp WILBER. 31. Haruan, Harry
VauGHNn. 31. Norpuorr-JUNG, SOFIE
AMALIA. 63. PARKER, GLENN LANE.
248.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 36, NO. 12

Ornithology. A new subspecies of tanager from

northeastern Colombia. JoHN TT. ZiIM-
MER. 389.

New subspecies of birds from peninsular
Siam. H. G. DerIenan. 428.

Three New North American birds. Harry
C. OBERHOLSER. 388.

Two new hemipodes from southeastern Asia.
H. G. Dereanan. 390.

Paleobotany. Alterations in some fossil and living
floras. RoLtanp W. Brown. 344.
Paleontology. A new palaeoniscoid fish from the

Lower Permian of Texas.

- DuNKLE. 402.

A Pleistocene pearl from southern Maryland.
Rouand W. Brown. 75.

Stiptocrinus, a new camerate crinoid genus
from the Silurian. Epwin Kirk. 33.

Physics. Fahrenheit and Roemer. N. ERNEST
Dorsgy. 361.

Forces between linear circuits according to
O’Rahilly. FrRanK WENNER. ~ 294.

On understanding electric breakdown in sol-
ids. R. J. SEEGER. ~285.

Some experiments relating to the electrical
conductivity of the lower atmosphere.
Go Ro Warts 232k:

Zoology. A new crawfish of the genus Procam-
barus from Louisiana (Decapoda: Asta-
cidae). GEORGE HENRY PENN. 27.

A new genus and species of minute marine
stiliferid mollusks from Florida. Pau
BartscH. 30.

A new sea anemone from Woods Hole, Mas-

Davin H.

sachusetts. SEARS CROWELL. 57.

A remarkable new genus and species of West
American marine mollusks. Pau
BartrscH. 281.

A study of the type collections of some
pseudoscorpions originally described by
Nathan Banks. C.CiaytTon Horr. 195.

Capt. M. 8. Briscoe’s collection of reptiles

and amphibians from Harbel, Liberia.
ARTHUR LOVERIDGE. 245.
Resuscitation of the nematode Tylenchus

polyhypnus, n. sp., after almost 39 years’
dormancy. G. STEINER and FLORENCE E.
ALBIN. 97.

Rhizocephala from New England and the
Grand Banks. Epwarp G. REINHARD,
PATS

eet
Aut

Ms! >
Arey
i iN

‘
iN

yea!
weet

te

_ Eranotoey. {dea uhibatm aa history o
the hed Indians. Jo OHN 2 Lhe eee

“Texas. , ‘Davip H. Bowness o ty

F IcurHyotoey. —Gila apahe: a | remarkable new eth
! ‘rom the Colorado River i in a eh .
a a a ae

h

Etomozoey. Snopes of the a N realy Dieta with es riptio 2

'

Onnurnonocy. of subspecies of birds from nein Siam, oa
DRI a te ale

Index TO. VOLEME SG. i ae a

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

4

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VOLUME 37, 1947

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JOURNAL

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CADEMY OF SCIENCES

JANUARY 15, 1947

No. 1

| ETHNOLOGY.—Powhatan Algonkian bird names: The Aushouetta (Topsell) or

the Ahshowcutters (Strachey): Richmondena cardinalis.

Giii1aM, Petersburg, Va.

Bayard H. Christy, in an article in The
| Auk, July 1933, entitled Topsell’s ‘Fowles of
Heaven,’ suggests that the bird called
Aushouetta by Topsell is the thrasher(?).
John R. Swanton in Newly discovered Pow-
hatan bird names (Jour. Washington Acad.
Sci. 24 (2). Feb. 15, 1934), from an analogy
to the Penobscot skunt-és, meaning “‘little
fire” or ‘‘little flame,”’ supplied by Speck,
indicates the name Aushouetta refers to the
redstart (Setophaga ruticilla), pointing out
that in Cuba the redstart is called candelita
for the same reason.

The European redstart is a quite similar
bird, but belongs to the family Sylviidae.
It is known in Spain as candelita, suggesting
the Cuban usage is of Old World rather than
native New World origin. Smith gives the
Powhatan Algonkian for ‘‘fire’ as Poka-
water and for “‘little” the words tanks and
chawopo. Such considerations cast some
doubt upon the Penobscot analogy furnish-
ing a reliable clue of identity in this in-
stance.

No trained ornithologist is known to have
been in this colony during the period covered
by the manuscripts involved. Topsell is not
known to have been in America. One may
assume that his drawing was made from a
description furnished by some layman, who
actually saw the bird.

Among those in this colony about that
time was William Strachey. He came with
the announced intention of observing and
recording. He landed at Jamestown on June
10, 1610, and was back in his lodgings at
Greyfriars, London, long enough before
December 13, 1611, to complete and register

1 Received June 14, 1946.

CHARLES EDGAR

(Communicated by JoHn R. Swanron.)

for publication on that date his little volume
Laws (for the Colony of Virginia). The im-
portant fact is that he was in Virginia and
observed and recorded.

His few known manuscripts indicate that
he was acquainted with many branches of
knowledge, though far from a finished
scholar in any. Where he possessed technical
knowledge, he was fond of displaying it,
however imperfect and faulty. He noted
most birds he saw by what he believed their
English names to be but recorded only a few
native bird names. The inference is that he
had no ornithological knowledge and asked
for the native names of birds the like of
which he had never heard of or seen at home.
He saw a bird native to Powhatan lands
notable for its ‘“‘carnation-coloured wings,”
and preserved its Algonkian name as
Ahshowcutters (also spelt Awshocutteis).
There is no doubt that both he and Topsell
tried with slightly different results to record
in the phonetics of the English alphabet the
same word.

The identify of this bird would seem to
be most accurately arrived at by inquiring
what bird common to Powhatan lands to a
lay mind most nearly meets these specifica-
tions: (1) Not native in any form in Eng-
land; (2) thrasherlike in over-all appear-
ance; and (8) readily identified by carna-
tion-colored wings.

Scientifically speaking Setophaga ruticilla
and Toxostoma rufum are both native to
America, but popularly speaking redstarts
and so-called ‘‘thrashers” are both common
in Europe. Topsell’s drawing proves that
the Aushouetta was not a_ redstart;
Strachey’s descriptive phrase, that it was
not a thrasher. The layman would hardly

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

confuse Setophaga ruticilla with Toxostoma
rufum. Nor would the layman be likely to
say that either had red wings. The brown
thrasher has no really red coloring in its
feathers; it is brown. The redstart is mostly
black with a few red feathers in wing and
tail.

There is, however, a bird native to Pow-
hatan lands and unknown as well by scien-
tists as by laymen in any form in Europe.
In sweep of tail, wings, size, and over-all
appearance, a layman might well consider
it thrasherlike. This is more true of the
female than of the male. Almost any orni-
thologist would glance once at its beak, note
the difference from the characteristic
thrasher beak, and conclude it is not
thrasherlike at all. But laymen are prone to
overlook such scientifically conclusive iden-
tifying details.

This bird is migratory through and a
year-round sojourner in Powhatan lands.
It was first classified by English ornitholo-

ENTOMOLOGY .—Notes on Oecophoridae, with descriptions of new species."

VOL. 37, No. 1

gists as Cardinalis virginiensis; by modern
American birdmen as Rzchmondena cardi-
nalis. In winter it often flocks in groups of

‘eight or more pairs. It is the carnation-

colored winged bird of Powhatan countries.
Accepting the Penobscot analogy as valid
without the diminutive, it is the veritable
flame of Virginia tidewater woodlands and
lawns.

We are aware that our methods are based
on practical rather than scientific and tech-
nical considerations. But the methods used
are the same as those by which Topsell’s
drawing and Strachey’s description most
likely were arrived at in the first place. Al-
though we acknowledge that we may not
have established the identity beyond all
possibility of rational dispute, we feel that
properly construed, the available evidence
justifies the assertion that the Aushouetta
and the Ahshowcutiers are one and the same
bird, and that bird is the cardinal.

J. F.

GaTES CLARKE, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

Since the publication of my revision of
the North American Oecophoridae? much
additional material and information have
come to hand. The purpose of this paper is
to bring this information together and pub-
lish it as a Supplement to my former work.
In December 1945 I was able to study cer-
tain types of Walker, Zeller, and Meyrick,
in the British Museum. With information
obtained from this study it is now possible
for me to correct some erroneous concep-
tions and to place properly species formerly
known only from descriptions. In this paper
eight species are described as new, and notes
on distribution, food plants, and synonymy
are given on thirty others. I take this oppor-
tunity also to correct some errors that oc-
curred in my revision.

The accompanying drawings were made

1 Received December 2, 1946.

2 CLARKE, J. F. Gates, Revision of the North
American moths of the family Oecophoridae, with
descriptions of new genera and species. Proc.

Nat. Mus. 90: 33-286, pls. 1-48. 1941.

and the plates composed by Arthur D.
Cushman, chief scientific illustrator, Bureau
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

Unless otherwise indicated specimens
were collected and reared by the author.

For purposes of brevity references to my
revision in the text are given by page or
plate numbers only.

Agonopterix fulva (Walsingham)
Depressaria fulua Walsingham, Trans. Amer.

Ent. Soc. 10: 175. 1882.

Depressaria endryopa Meyrick, Hxotic Muicro-
lepidoptera 2: 223. 1918. (New synonymy.)

I have studied the unique type in the British
Museum. The strikingly distinct genitalia of
this species are unmistakable, and I do not
hesitate to reduce Meyrick’s name to synon-
ymy.

Agonopterix oregonensis Clarke

Since describing this species in my revision
I have reared a series of over a hundred speci-
mens, from several hosts listed below, from
various localities in California and Washington.

Jan. 15, 1947

The species will be found through most of
western North America because of its rather
general feeding habits.

The California localities are as follows: Cot-
tonwood, Tehama County; Pacheco Pass;
Presidio of Monterey and Marina, Monterey
County; Hunter Liggett Military Reservation,
San Luis Obispo County. Washington: Gilmer
and Husum, Klickitat County. In addition I
have received 11 specimens from Dr. W. Harry
Lange, from San Juan Bautista, Calif., reared
from a species of Sanicula.

The larvae from the California localities were
collected in February, March, and April, and
those from Washington in May. The moths
emerged through April and May to the 5th of
June.

Larva: Length 12-14 mm. Head and thoracic
shield black, the latter bisected by a fine brown
line. First thoracic segment light brown, the
legs and spiracles black. Second and third
thoracic and abdominal segments dull yellowish
infused with grayish dorsally. Setae brown.
Spiracles narrowly edged with black. The pre-
pupal larva has three well-defined grayish
dorsal lines and the three terminal segments
edged with grayish. Larvae of this species col-
lected at Hunter Liggett Military Reservation
differ from the above in having the second and
third pairs of thoracic legs with tibia and tarsi
brownish to black exteriorly.

Food plants—Eryngium vaseyi Coult. &
Rose, Lomatium caruifolium (H. & A.) Coult.
& Rose, L. marginatum (Benth.) Coult. &
Rose, L. nudicaule (Pursh) Coult. & Rose, L.
—utriculatum (Nutt.) Coult. & Rose, Sanicula
_bipinnaia H. & A., S. bipinnatifida Dougl., S.
_laciniata H. & A., S. nevadensis S. Wats., and

S. tuberosa Torr.

Agonopterix nebulosa (Zeller)

The food plant of this species, not previously
recorded, is a species of Antennarta. I now have
a series of one o' and four Q 9, the larvae of
which I collected at Lakeview, Chesterfield
County, Va. The moths emerged from May 26
to 30, 1942.

- Tke larva of this species ties the leaves of
the host, as does its near relative antennariella.

Agonopterix fusciterminella Clarke

The range of this species is apparently wide.
Originally it was described from material from

CLARKE: NOTES ON OECOPHORIDAE 3

British Columbia and California. I now have it
from New Mexico (o’, 292 9, July 24-31; no
collector) and Manitoba (2, Winnipeg; no
date or collector).

Agonopterix rosaciliella (Busck)

The first specimens of this species from Cali-
fornia were submitted by Edward C. Johnston,
of Seattle, Wash. They are from the following
localities: Inverness, Marin County, three oo
(28-I-40); Spring Mountain, Sonoma County,
o&, @ (16-III-39, 26-I-40).

Agonopterix pallidella (Busck)
Depressaria pallidella Busck, Proc. U. 8. Nat.

Mus. 27: 765. 1904. |
Depressaria sciadopa Meyrick, Exotic Micro-

lepidoptera 2: 315. 1920. (New synonymy.)

There are two males of sctadopa Meyrick in
the British Museum, both in poor condition.
Of these I have selected the smaller one as the
lectotype. This specimen is labeled ‘Field,
British Columbia (4000 ft., A.J.T., 28-8-18).”’

A study of the male genitalia of the lectotype
shows them to be identical to those of pallidella,
and Meyrick’s name falls as a synonym.

My concept of sciadopa, based solely on
Meyrick’s description, led me to place the spe-
cies in the ciniflonella group of Martyrhilda.
Meyrick’s species is not referable to Martyr-
hilda, but the species described and figured by.
me is referable to Martyrhilda and requires a
name. In the following pages the proper correc-
tion is made and a new name supplied.

Agonopterix sabulella (Walsingham)

In addition to the specimens discussed in my
revision I now have before me a series of nine
specimens from King Mountain, San Mateo
County, Calif. (May and July dates, W. Harry
Lange), reared from Eriophyllum confertiflorum
Gray, and a male and female from Chuckanut
Bay, Bellingham, Whatcom County, Wash.
(13-14-VI-46, J. F. G. Clarke), reared from
Eriophyllum lanatum (Pursh) Forbes.

The Washington specimens are considerably
darker than the California examples, but there
is no doubt as to their identity.

Larva: Length 13-16 mm, subcylindrical.
Head luteous with irregular light brown mark-
ings, darker around margins; ocellar area dark
brown to black. Cervical shield and anal plate
yellowish, the former with a few dark brown

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

markings on lateral and posterior margins.
Thoracic and abdominal segments yellowish
green with three gray-green dorsal longitudinal
stripes. Thoracic legs yellowish. Spiracles small,
black.

The larvae are abundant and together with
Nephopteryx olwalis Packard, nearly strip the
host of its leaves. Young larvae of sabulella
are found in the terminal leaves and buds of
the host, the older ones in the lateral leaves
which they tie to the stalk of the plant.

The food plant grows on the rocky slopes
and beside the railroad tracks around the sea-
shore of Chuckanut Bay, south of Bellingham.

Agonopterix dammersi, n. Sp.
Figs. 1-la, 8

Similar to sabulella but grayer in appearance.

Labial palpus with second segment cream
color interiorly, more ocherous exteriorly; brush
trumpet-shaped, developed only in terminal
half, irrorate with black and suffused with
fuscous; third segment more ocherous with sub-
basal, supramedial, and terminal bands black.
Antenna fuscous. Face ocherous-white. Head,
thorax, tegula, and forewing light grayish
ocherous; thorax sparsely irrorate with black
scales; forewing irrorate with black and with
irregular patches of underlying gray suffusion,
especially toward termen; at basal third and
at end of cell two usually ill-defined, small,
black discal spots; between these, costad, a
moderately large dark shade; along costa and
around termen a series of small black spots;
cilia mottled; on the underside of forewing,
along costa, and around termen, black irrora-
tions. Hind wing fuscous; cilia light grayish
fuscous with darker subbasal and subterminal
bands; on the underside of hind wing, on costa
and around termen, black irrorations. Legs
cream color; first and second pairs strongly
overlaid with blackish fuscous; third pair suf-
fused and irrorate with fuscous. Abdomen
light grayish ocherous above, cream color, with
four rows of black spots, beneath.

Male genitalia——Harpe moderately broad,
sacculus rather narrow; cucullus rounded;
clasper nearly straight, digitate. Anellus longer
than broad, expanded laterally posterior to
middle, sharply convex on anterior edge, with
small lateral lobes. Aedeagus slightly bent;
vesica with a small, finely spinulate, elongate
patch. Vinculum rounded, with large dorsoan-

VOL. 37, NO. 1

terior process. Transtilla a narrow sclerotized
band with large lateral lobes. Socii very large,
compressed.

Female genitalia.— Genital plate rather lightly
sclerotized, broad, strongly convex on anterior
edge at middle. Ostium large, at center of geni-
tal plate. Ductus bursae entirely membranous
gradually tapering into the small bursa copu-
latrix; inception of ductus seminalis just be-
fore ostium. Signum a small, toothed plate at
extreme anterior end of bursa copulatrix. -

Alar expanse, 20-23 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58012.

Type locality.—Forest Home, San Bernar-
dino County, Calif.

Food plant.—Senecio douglasii D. C.

Remarks.—Described from the o' type, two
o' and four Q paratypes, collected and reared.
by Commander C. M. Dammers. One @ para-
type is from Riverside, Calif. (April 24, 1938),
the remainder are from the type locality and
bear dates from June 13 to 16, 1940.

Paratypes in U. §8. National Museum and
Commander Dammers’ collection.

This species can be distinguished from sabu-
lella by its grayer color and by the slender ter-
minal segment of the palpus with its three
black bands; the terminal segment of the palpus
of sabulella never has more than two ill-defined
bands.

The clasper of the harpe of sabulella has a
distinct terminal knob, while that of dammersi
is straight, digitate, and lacks the knob. The
lobes of the ovipositor of dammersi have more
setae than those of sabulella, and the ostium
is at the center of the genital plate in dammerst
but at the posterior edge in sabulella.

In the color key of my revision dammerst
runs to fusciterminella, but can be distinguished
from that species by the complete absence of
any reddish coloring.

Named in honor of Commander Dammers
who has been a friendly contributor to the Na-
tional Collection for many years.

Agonopterix latipalpella Barnes and Busck

In addition to the type series I now have a
series of one o and three 9 2 from San Benito
and Brownsville, Tex. These bear April dates.

Agonopterix murmurans (Meyrick)

Depressaria murmurans Meyrick, Exotic Micro-
lepidoptera 3: 382. 1927.—Clarke, Proc. U. 8S.
Nat. Mus. 90: 39. 1941.

‘Jan. 15, 1947

This species has genitalia similar to psora-
hella but is of quite different appearance.
Until the species is reared or intergrades be-
tween this and psoraliella are found I am re-
taining murmurans as a distinct species.

In the U. S. National Collection there are
three specimens as follows: Utah: Eureka,
(VII-1-11, Tom Spalding); Stockton, 2 (no
date, Tom Spalding). Washington: Pullman, @
(1-X-32, J. F. G. Clarke).

Agonopterix robiniella (Packard)

To the localities previously recorded for this
species a single record for New Mexico (0’,
Jemez Springs, July) may now be added.

Agonopterix posticella (Walsingham)

This species has not been recorded before
north of Oregon. We now have a series of two
o'o' and three 2 2 from Chimacum, Kitsap
County, Wash. (August 2, 1944), reared from
Psoralea physodes Doug].

The Washington specimens are considerably
darker than the California and Oregon ex-
amples, but there is no doubt about their
identity.

Martyrhilda canella (Busck)

In Fig. 44, I figured the wing venation of
this species incorrectly. The figure of the hind
wing shows only seven veins and should show
eight. In the generic diagnosis eight veins are
correctly indicated.

_ Martyrhilda thoracenigraeella (Chambers)

An additional four specimens (three oc", 2 )
of this species have come to hand. These were
collected by E. C. Johnston at Petaluma, Calif.
(2-20-X-1936).

Martyrhilda thoracefasciella (Chambers)

A large series of this species, which has ac-
cumulated, indicates it is widespread through
California and Arizona. In addition we have
one specimen from Pyramid Lake, Nev. (@ , no
date or collector).

Martyrhilda isa, n. sp.

Martyrhilda sciadopa Clarke (not Meyrick), Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 90: 144, pl. 24, fig. 149, 149a;
pl. 41, fig. 236. 1941.

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 58014.

Type locality—Aweme, Manitoba.

Food plant—Unknown.

Remarks.—Under the name sciadopa I dis-

CLARKE: NOTES ON OECOPHORIDAE 5

cussed and figured this species. In the foregoing
pages Meyrick’s name is discussed under
Agonopterizx pallidella (Busck).

The paratypes consist of the specimens listed
in my revision plus the following: Alberta:
Edmonton, four o'o’, six 9 2 (March, April,
and May, Owen Bryant); Manitoba: Aweme,
Q (21-III-05, Criddle); Cartwright, o (1-IV-
05, E. F. Heath); Ontario: Hymers, six o’<",
two 2 2 (August and September). Paratypes
in the U. S. National and British Museums.

Depressaria artemisiella McDunnough

Heretofore recorded only from the type local-
ity in British Colurabia. There is one specimen
in the U. 8S. National Museum from Deer
Creek, Provo Canyon, Utah ce 8-IX-18, Tom
Spalding).

Depressaria artemisiae dracunculi Clarke

The range of this subspecies is now extended
to Manitoba. Specimens submitted are from
Aweme (o’, 9-IX-28; 9, 2-VIII-20. N. Crid-
dle).

Depressaria alienella Busck
Depressaria alienella Busck, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.

27: 765. 1904.

Depressaria nymphidia Meyrick, Exotic Micro-
lepidoptera 2: 223. 1918. (New synonymy.)
Depressaria corystopa Meyrick, Exotic Muicro-
lepidoptera 3: 382. 1927. (New synonymy.)

The types of both of Meyrick’s species are-
in the British Museum.

I have seen the types and have examined the
genitalia of both. The moths agree with speci-
mens in the U. 8S. National Museum from
widespread localities in North America and the
genitalia match perfectly. Meyrick’s names
therefore fall as synonyms of alienella.

Type localities—Kaslo, British Columbia,
Canada (alvenella); Colorado (nymphidia) ; To-
ronto, Ontario, Canada (corystopa).

The widely separated type localities only
emphasize the great range of this species. In
addition to the localities given in my revision
there are now specimens from the following lo-
calities: Arizona: White Mountains (co, August
1925, O. C. Poling); Connecticut: East River
(9, July, Charles R. Ely).

Depressaria constancei, n. Sp.
Figs. 2—2a, 9-9a

This is the largest species of Depressaria I
have seen from North America and resembles
only the following newly described species.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 1

f SS EN
AWS

NS

.

aS

3.betina

WW /
2.constancei

Fies. 1-4.—Male Genitalia

. Agonopteriz dammersi, new species: 1, Ventral aspect of male genitalia with left harpe and
aedeagus removed; la, aedeagus, lateral view.

. Depressaria constancet, new species: 2, Ventral aspect of male genitalia with left harpe and
aedeagus removed; 2a, aedeagus, ventrolateral view to show twist.

. Depressaria betina, new species: 3, Ventral aspect of right harpe; 3a, aedeagus, lateral view.

. Depressaria moya, new species: 4, Ventral view of right harpe; 4a, ventral aspect of anellus: 4b,
aedeagus, lateral view.

JAN. 15, 1947 CLARKE: NOTES ON OECOPHORIDAE 7

5. besma

7. th res A,

ra
Figs. 5—7.—Male Genitalia

5-5a. Depressaria besma, new species: 5, Ventral aspect with left harpe and aedeagus removed; 5a,
aedeagus, lateral view.

6—6a. Depressaria schellbachz, new species: 6, Ventral aspect with left harpe and aedeagus removed;
6a, aedeagus, lateral view.

7-7a. Depressaria thustra, new species: 7, Ventral aspect with left harpe and aedeagus removed; 7a,
aedeagus, lateral view.

8 ' JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Labial palpus with second segment whitish
ocherous, brush suffused with reddish fuscous;
near base a fuscous band exteriorly; third seg-
ment fuscous strongly suffused with red; tip
reddish ocherous. Antenna fuscous strongly
suffused with red basally. Head fuscous, the
scales tipped with cinereous. Thorax reddish
fuscous anteriorly shading to gray posteriorly.
Tegula dark reddish fuscous basally shading to
gray posteriorly. Forewing purplish fuscous,
heavily overlaid with red so that the wing pre-
sents a rich brown-red appearance, and irrorate
and streaked with gray scales; inner angle nar-
rowly black shading to reddish fuscous; at end
of cell a pale gray discal spot preceded by a
narrow fuscous streak and followed by a few
fuscous scales. In some specimens the spot and
streak are obsolete. At outer third there is a
more or less distinct outwardly curved gray
line; cilia fuscous tinged with reddish. Hind
wing fuscous, lighter basally; cilia yellowish
fuscous with dark basal and subterminal bands;
beyond 1b suffused with reddish. Costa of both
fore- and hind wings edged with yellowish be-
neath and whole underside with abundant
fuscous scaling. Abdomen silvery fuscous above,
cream color overlaid with fuscous beneath.
Legs with cream-colored femora overlaid with
fuscous; first and second pairs with tibia suf-
fused with pink and tarsi fuscous with pink an-
nulations; tibia of third leg with numerous
yellowish hairlike scales; tarsi fuscous annu-
lated with yellowish.

Male genitalia—Harpe much narrower be-
yond clasper than at base; cucullus rounded;
clasper straight, slightly exceeding costa,
roughened by many minute, blunt spines;
sacculus narrow. Anellus longer than broad,
broader at middle than at ends; proximal end
slightly concave, distal end strongly so; lateral
lobes absent. Vinculum slightly produced into
a bluntly pointed process. Aedeagus moderately
sclerotized, sharply pointed and twisted so
much so that the distal end cannot be shown
adequately due to foreshortening. Gnathos nor-
mal, an oval spined knob. Transtilla a moder-
ately sclerotized band, anterior edge somewhat
produced at middle and shallowly excavate on
each side; transtillar lobes well developed.
Uncus and socii forming a small hood.

Female genitalia—Genital plate narrowed
and strongly sclerotized at ostium; ostium
triangular. Ductus bursae with a broad crescen-

VoL. 37, No. 1

tic, lightly sclerotized section before ostium,
remainder membranous and spiraled; ductus —
seminalis on right side just before ostium. Bursa
copulatrix large, oval; signum a small, narrow,
toothed plate.

Alar expanse, 24-27 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58007. .

Type localitty—Yreka, Siskiyou County,
Calif.

Food plant.—Lomatium californicum (Nutt.)
Math. & Const. |

Remarks.—Described from the o& type, 12 7 ~
and 13 @ paratypes from Yreka (21-V to 2-VI-
46, J. F. G. Clarke), four 2 paratypes from
Kelseyville, (19-IV to 25-VII-1944, W. Harry
Lange) and 1 o& from Pacheco Pass, Calif.
(16-IV-1939, W. Harry Lange): All the Yreka -
specimens were reared from larvae collected by
the author. Paratypes in the U. 8. National and
British Museums and W. Harry Lange Collec-
tion.

The larvae, from which the Yreka moths
were obtained, were collected on plants growing
along the east side of U. S. Highway 99, about
6 miles north of Yreka. The food plant grows
abundantly on the rocky hillsides and in the
canyons in this region and farther north in
southern Oregon.

The larva is as follows: Length 17-18 mm.
Head testaceous, strongly marked with dark
brown laterally. Thoracic shield pale greenish
brown broadly edged with black. Thoracic
legs pale yellowish. Thoracic and abdominal
segments concolorous, light gray-green above,
pale yellowish green beneath. Spiracles nar-
rowly edged with dark brown. Tubercles pale
whitish green; setae brown. Anal plate light
gray green finely irrorate with brown. In the
early instars the head and thoracic shield are
black.

The habits of this species are similar to many
other species of Depressaria, the larvae being
gregarious in the first instars and then spread-
ing to the leaves of the plants. In the later
stages the larvae are leaf rollers. New rolls are
made from time to time to accommodate the
growing larva.

Larvae and pupae are preserved in the U. 8.
National Museum.

This species keys to jultella, but is at once
distinguished from it by the deep brown-red
color.

This species is named in honor of my good

Jan. 15, 1947

friend Lincoln Constance, of the Department
of Botany, University of California, who has
made all the determinations of the Umbellif-
erae for me and whose keen interest and en-
thusiasm have been a constant source of en-
couragement.

This and the following species, although
Lomatium feeders, present a departure from the
usual species (angustati-multifidae complex)
feeding on these plants, both in coloration and
male genitalia. The female genitalia retain the
features of the other species and the larvae,
like those of angustati, etc., have setal group
VII on the first abdominal segment trisetose.

Both betina and constancei are reddish brown -

in general appearance, though amply distinct
from each other, whereas the other species
(angustalt, multifidae, ete.) are dark fuscous in
general coloration.

The male genitalia of belina and constancet
lack the large, spinous process from the sac-
culus and the aedeagus is atypical.

The above characteristics seem to indicate
that betina and constancei are transitional be-
tween the julvella-heracliana group and that
containing angustati-multifidae.

Depressaria betina, n. sp.
Figs. 3-3a, 10

Strikingly similar to the foregoing species
but smaller and more contrastingly marked.
Labial palpus with second segment creamy
white with reddish-brown and fuscous scales
mixed in the brush; exteriorly basal third
broadly banded with blackish to reddish
fuscous; at apical third an indication of a
narrower similarly colored band; third segment
blackish fuscous, with tip reddish ocherous.
Antenna dark reddish fuscous narrowly annu-
lated with reddish ocherous. Head and thorax
cinereous, the former mixed with some fuscous
scaling, the latter reddish fuscous anteriorly;
- tegula concolorous with thorax. Forewing dull
_ grayish fuscous strongly overlaid with reddish
_ fuscous scales and with the veins indicated by
black streaks; anal angle narrowly black, shad-
ing outwardly to the g.ound color of the wing;
discal spot at end of cell usually well defined,
preceded by a streak of mixed gray and black
scales and followed by a black streak; on costa,
about middle, a small fuscous spot; at outer
third an outwardly curved gray line; cilia
fuscous with reddish suffusion. Hind wing

CLARKE: NOTES ON OECOPHORIDAE 9

grayish fuscous, darker at margins; cilia light
fuscous with darker basal and subterminal
bands; beyond 1b the cilia are narrowly tipped
with pink. Undersides of fore- and hind wings
dark fuscous; costa of forewing pale yellowish
and that of hind wing creamy white. Abdomen
silvery fuscous above, cream-colored, irrorate
and suffused with fuscous, beneath. Legs
creamy white overlaid with fuscous. Fore- and
mid-tibiae and tarsi tinged with pink; hind
tarsi annulated with pale reddish ocherous.

Male genitalia.—Similar to constancer but
clasper not reaching costa, anellus nearly as
broad as long and vinculum more broadly
rounded.

Female genitalta.—Similar to constancer but
the signum three times the size of constancet
and with anterior and posterior points well de-
veloped.

Alar expanse, 19-23 mm.

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 58008.

Type locality—Gilmer, Klickitat County,
Wash.

Food plants—Lomatium triternatum macro-
carpum (Coult. & Rose) Mathias, L. dissectwm
(Nutt.) Math. & Const., L. colwmbianuwm
Math. & Const.

Remarks.—Described from the o& type, 18
o and 11 @ paratypes as follows: Gilmer
(type, 138 o'o and eight 2 2, 30-V to 10-VI-
46); Husum (92, 30-V-46); Lyle (five oo" and
two 2 Q, 5-10-VI-46). All localities are in
Klickitat County, Wash., and all specimens
were reared from larvae collected by the author.

L. triternatum macrocarpum was found on a
steep open hillside growing in a Rhus tozi-
codendron-Balsamorhiza sagittata association
and below this area, a mile east of Gilmer, on
open, rocky rolling ground in which Quercus
and Salix were the dominant plants. L. dis-
sectum may be found growing among the brush
on the roadside at Husum. L. columbianum
grows above the Columbia River on the steep,
rocky slopes. The collections from this plant
were made 1 mile west of Lyle between the

highway and the river.

Feeding of the larvae appears to be limited
to the umbels and leaves, depending on the
host. L. dissectum and L. triternatum usually
have the umbels attacked but, since L. colum-
branum is in fruit at the time the larva of this
species appears, the feeding takes place in the
webbed leaves.

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The larvae of this species and D. constancet
are, like the adults, strikingly similar. The dark
markings of the head and thoracic shield are
more intense in betina than in constancet. The
_ larvae of constancet average larger, and three,
rather indistinct, dorsal longitudinal lines of
betena are lacking in this species.

Larvae and pupae are preserved in the U.S.
National Museum.

With constancer this species keys to juliella
in the color key but like constancei is distin-
guished from that species by the much darker
color. The grayish fuscous ground color of
beivna will separate it from constancet.

Depressaria schellbachi, n. sp.
Figs. 6-6a, 13

Labial palpus ocherous white with a pink
tinge; second segment irrorate with pink-tipped
fuscous scales in the brush and with an indis-
tinct fuscous spot subbasally and apically on
the outside; third segment blackish fuscous, tip
reddish ocherous. Antenna blackish fuscous
with ill-defined narrow lighter annulations.
Head reddish ocherous to reddish fuscous.
Thorax and ground color of forewing reddish
ocherous; anterior part of thorax and base of
tegula blackish fuscous gradually shading to
the lighter ground color. Forewing overlaid
with fuscous; inner angle black shading to
fuscous outwardly; in cell two, sometimes con-
fluent, black longitudinal dashes; in fold, at
basal third, a short black dash; veins 9, 10, and
11 sometimes marked by fine, black, longi-
tudinal dashes; in center of wing at end of cell,
a small reddish ocherous spot; cilia pale fuscous
with a roseate tinge; underside of costa nar-
rowly, but clearly, reddish ocherous. Hind wing
whitish basally shading to dark fuscous at
margins; cilia pale fuscous with a broad fuscous
subbasal band and with a roseate tinge, espe-
cially apically. Legs ocherous-white overlaid
and irrorate with fuscous; tarsi with reddish-
ocherous annuli. Abdomen light fuscous; under-
side with considerable median ocherous-white
scaling.

Male genitalia—Harpe broad basally, abruptly
narrowed to the bluntly pointed cucullus; costa
almost straight, clasper narrow, transverse to
middle, then sharply and outwardly angulate;
basal process from sacculus narrow and almost
of equal width throughout, slightly longer than

VOL. 37, NO. 1

anellus, gently excurved and finely spinulate.
Anellus as broad as long; anterior edge deeply
excavate; lateral edges convex. Aedeagus two-
and a half times as long as costa of harpe, —
slender, evenly curved, sharply pointed; ven-
trobasal process large, shovel-shaped, outer
edge emarginate; dorsobasal process small,
winglike. Transtilla very lightly sclerotized,
lobes mainly indicated by small setae. Gnathos
elongate oval. Uncus and socii greatly reduced.

Female genitalia.—Genital plate narrow, pos-
terior edge emarginate; ostium slitlike; anterior
sclerotized pockets of genital plate small, shal-
low. Ductus bursae with more than half its
length strongly sclerotized, this portion cres-
centic; inception of ductus seminalis well before
ostium. Signum a large oval toothed plate.

Alar expanse, 21-24 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. No. 58013.

Type locality —Shoshone Point, Grand Can-
yon, Ariz., elevation 7,050 feet.

Food plant.—Lomatium macdougali Coult.
and Rose.

Remarks.—Described from the o type, five
co and three 2 paratypes from the Grand Can-
yon (June dates, 1944 and 1946, Louis Schell-
bach, 3d). Paratypes in the U. 8. National and
British Museums and in the Grand Canyon
National Park Collection.

In genitalia schellbachi is nearest to whitmant.
It differs from the latter species in having a
longer basal process from the sacculus and a
longer anellus. In the female, schellbachi lacks
the pronounced anterior and posterior median
points of the signum and the posterior edge of
the genital plate is emarginate. From other spe-
cies of Depressaria in this complex schellbacha
differs by its pronounced reddish coloration.

All the specimens of the type series were
reared from larvae collected by Louis Schell-
bach, 3d, park naturalist of Grand Canyon
National Park. His notes on the larvae, with
my additions in brackets are reproduced below.
It will be noted that the feeding of the schell-
bachi larvae is confined to the leaves.

“On May 28, 1944, two small green larvae,
with black heads, were found on the above
plant [Lomatium macdougali|, deep down in
the leaf stem sheaths of the plant. Attention to
the plant was due to a cobwebby appearance
about the base of the leaves where they leave
the main stem or root. The plant was found

JAN. 15, 1947 CLARKE: NOTES ON OECOPHORIDAE det

9. constancei

7 Mp
i
&.dammersi 10.betina

Fies. 8-11.—Female Genitalia

8. Agonopterix dammerst, new species: Ventral view.

9-9a. Depressaria constancei, new species: 9, Ventral aspect of genital plate to show ostium; 9a,
signum.

10. Depressaria betina, new species: Ventral view.

11-lla. Depressaria moya, new species: 11, Ventral view of ostium and sclerotized portion of ductus
bursae; lla, signum.

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, No. 1

14. thustra

Fies. 12—-14.— Female Genitalia

12. Depressaria besma, new species: Ventral aspect.
13. Depressaria schellbachi, new species: Ventral aspect.
14. Depressaria thustra, new species: Ventral aspect.

Jan. 15, 1947

growing at Shoshone Point (elevation 7,050
feet) on the South Rim of Grand Canyon. The
plant was collected with the larvae and placed
in a rearing jar. During the next few days sev-
eral others were found and brought in to the
workshop. ,

‘Eleven (11) in all were collected and seemed
to be in a more advanced stage than those
reared from the flower head collected on May
9, 1944 [Sparganothis sp.]

‘With the knowledge gained in observing the
specimens from the May 9 larvae, it was found
that this group of larvae, collected feeding on
the leaves, would not touch the flower heads
when offered them. Yet koth groups of larvae
were found on the same species of plants.

“On June 3, 1944, all larvae had entered the
pupal stage and it was noted that the pupae
cases were of a brown color, not black like those
feeding on the flowers of the previous group
[Sparganothis sp.].

“June 18, 1944, two moths emerged. They,
too, were different in color from the previous
group. They were a dark chocolate brown in-
stead of a light straw color.

“June 22, 1944, four more moths emerged.

“July 2, 1944, all moths had emerged. Of the
eleven larvae collected, only seven (7) were
reared to parenthood.”’

The range of the host plant, as given by
Mathias and Constance,? is “Great Basin,
from Western Wyoming to central Oregon,

south to central Arizona.”

Although this oecophorid is recorded only
from the Grand Canyon we may expect to find
it anywhere within the range given for the food
plant.

On coloration schellbachi will key to the whit-
mani-leptotaeniae complex, but can be distin-
‘guished from both those species by the greater
extent of the reddish ocherous coloration of the
forewing.

Depressaria multifidae Clarke

Formerly‘ I recorded the food plant of this
species as Lomatium grayt Coult. & Rose and
discussed how the larvae had been given sub-
stitute food and had refused it. The larvae of
this species do feed on at least one other species

3 Maruias, Miuprep E., and Constance,
Lincotn. North Amer. Flora 28B, pt. 2: 240.

1940.
4 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 90: 187. 1941.

CLARKE: NOTES ON OECOPHORIDAE 13

of the plants of this genus. On May 9, 1946, I
collected a considerable number of larvae feed-
ing in the leaves of Lomatiwm columbianum
Math. & Const., 1 mile west of Lyle, Klickitat
County, Wash. From these larvae I obtained
one o& and 12 Q 9, the genitalia of which show
no differences from those of multifidae.

Presumably the larvae usually pupate in
debris or in the soil at the base of the host,
but one pupa, from which a moth was obtained,
was found in a hollow peduncle. There was evi-
dence in this and other stalks of extensive feed-
ing within, and several were found with exit
holes cut in the apex between the rays of the
umbels. :

The moths emerged in the last week of May
and the first week in June.

Depressaria moya, n. sp.
Figs. 4-4b, 11-lla

A medium-sized, dark-colored moth with a
smooth, shiny appearance.

Labial palpus with second segment buff
colored with fuscous shading exteriorly and in
the brush; third segment blackish fuscous tipped
with light ocherous. Head, thorax, and basal
patch on costa of forewing, ocherous; head and
thorax with some fuscous scales. Antenna
blackish fuscous faintly annulated with paler
fuscous. Forewing fuscous shading to blackish
fuscous basally; outer discal spot light ocherous
preceded by a streak of blackish fuscous and
ocherous scales mixed; between this streak and
costa an ill-defined ocherous patch; cilia pale
fuscous with darker subbasal band. Hind wing
light grayish fusccus, slightly darker toward
margins; cilia light fuscous with dark subbasal
band. Legs buff colored overlaid and suffused
with fuscous. Abdomen shining grayish fuscous
above, buff suffused with fuscous beneath.

Male genitalia—Harpe moderately broad,
cucullus bluntly pointed; clasper exceeding
costa, flattened distally, bluntly pointed, broad-
ened at middle, constricted basally; basal proc-
ess from sacculus moderately stout, tapering
to a sharp point, gently excurved. Anellus
longer than broad, the broadest part being pos-
terior of the middle, on each side there is a
small excavation and the anterior and posterior
edges are concave, the former more so than the
latter. Aedeagus short, curved, pointed with a
roughly rectangular dorsal process and a

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

shovel-shaped ventral process at base. Vincu-
lum narrow, slightly evaginate anteriorly.
Transtilla a narrow, lightly sclerotized band
with well-developed lobes. Socii small, mainly
indicated by a few hairs.

Female genitalia. — Genital plate broad,
strongly sclerotized, anterior edge shallowly
concave. Ostium narrow with small raised
portion of genital plate, on each side, fused
with the ductus bursae. Posterior third of
ductus bursae sclerotized, gently tapered to
membranous anterior section; inception of duc-
tus seminalis from well before ostium on right
side. Signum a large square toothed plate.

Alar expanse, 18-19 mm.

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 58011.

Type locality —Hornbrook, Siskiyou County,
Calif.

Food plant.—Lomatium vaginatum Coult. &
Rose.

Remarks.—Described from the o type and
2 2 paratypes all from the type locality.

The larvae of this species were collected April
7, 1944, by the author. The first larva entered
the soil in the rearing tin on April 12, pupated
on the 14th, and the moth emerged on May 5,
1944.

The host, on which these larvae were found,
was growing abundantly on a grassy hillside
along the east side of U. 8. Highway 99 about
1 mile south of the Oregon-California line. The
plant may be found commonly well into south-
ern Oregon, and no doubt this Depressaria will
be found there also.

The larva is as follows: Length 10-12 mm.
Head and thoracic shield pale whitish green
suffused with pale yellowish brown and vari-
ously spotted with brown to black, especially
laterally. Thoracic: legs pale yellowish with a
brown spot at the distal end of each segment
exteriorly. Thoratic and abdominal segments
concolorous light gray-green above and whitish
green below; last segment entirely whitish
green, this color extending forward onto the
next segment forming a short subdorsal stripe
on each side. Anal plate yellowish. Spiracles
narrowly edged with dark brown. Tubercles,
except center, pale whitish green; center and
setae dark brown. Setal group VII of the first
abdominal segment is trzsetose.

Larvae and pupae preserved in the U.S. Na-
tional Museum.

VOL. 37, NO. 1

This species keys to angustati-multifidae from
which there are no reliable color characters for
separation. Locality and food plant will serve
to separate moya from the above two or, if dis-
sections can be made, the genitalia will estab-
lish the identity. In moya the clasper extends
beyond the costa of harpe but in the other two
the clasper is much shorter. In the females of
angustati and multifidae the sclerotized part of —
the ductus bursae is separated from the ostium
by a section of membrane, but in moya the
ostium and sclerotized part are contiguous.

Depressaria besma, n. sp.
Figs. 5—5a, 12

Labial palpus, head, and thorax light buff;
second segment of palpus with fuscous and
brown scales mixed in the brush; third segment
blackish fuscous except for tip which is buff;
thorax with blackish fuscous and pale brown
scales mixed anteriorly. Antenna blackish fus-
cous, with narrow, pale buff annulations. Fore-
wing fuscous, almost black basally; at end of
cell a well-defined pale buff spot followed by a
few black scales and preceded by a more or
less well-defined black line; veins 9, 10, and 11
indicated by black scaling; around apex and
termen a series of black spots at the ends of the
veins usually preceded by a few pale buff scales;
costa pink tinged; cilia light fuscous with a dark
subbasal band. Hind wing light grayish fuscous,
darker outwardly; cilia sordid buff with a fus-
cous subbasal band. Legs, except second and
third pairs of tarsi, pale buff suffused with fus-
cous; tarsi blackish fuscous, buff annulated. Ab-
domen shining grayish above, pale buff below,
broadly shaded with grayish laterally.

Male genitalia—Harpe broard and short;
cucullus bluntly pointed; clasper exceeding
costa, flattened, excurved, bluntly pointed;
basal process from sacculus slender, pointed
and sharply outwardly angulate from slightly
beyond base. Anellus broader than long,
roughly diamond-shaped; anterior and pos-
terior edges with deep V-shaped excavations.
Aedeagus short, stout, curved, gently tapered
to a point; base with large winglike structure
dorsally and broad shovel-shaped ventral proc-
ess. Transtilla a narrow, lightly sclerotized
band with moderately well-developed lobes.
Vinculum narrow, broader at middle, rounded.
Socii very small. :

JAN. 15, 1947

Female genitalia—Genital plate strongly
sclerotized; anterior edge shallowly concave.
Ostium narrow with a raised portion of the
genital plate, on each side, fused with the duc-
tus bursae. Ductus bursae strongly sclerotized
posteriorly for about one-third of its length,
this part swollen at middle; inception of ductus
seminalis well before ostium from a small,
membranous evagination on the right side of
the ductus bursae. Signum a large oval, toothed
plate.

Alar expanse, 17-20 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58010.

Type locality—Fort Lewis, Pierce County,
Wash.

Food plant.—Lomatium utriculatum (Nutt.)
Coult. & Rose.

Remarks.—Described from the & type and
one o and one @ paratypes, all from the type
locality.

The larvae, from which the type series was

reared, were collected April 30, 1944, by the

author. At this time the larvae were nearly
full fed and entered the soil within a few days
after being collected. The first larva pupated
May 5, but this specimen died. The moths
emerged May 29 and 30, 1944.

The host piants on which these specimens

_were collected were growing on the prairie, 6
miles east of the main gate of Fort Lewis, in an

oak—fir-Scotch broom association.

The larvae of this and the foregoing species
are almost identical, but those of besma may be
distinguished from larvae of moya by the ab-
sence of any brown coloring on the lateral edges
of the thoracic shield.

The moths are immediately distinguishable
by several characters: The thorax of besma is
buff colored and that of moya ocherous. The
outer discal spot of moya is ocherous and there
is no pink tinge along the costa as in besma.

In the male genitalia the anellus of besma is
broader than long, but that of moya is longer
than broad. The most conspicuous difference
between the two, however, is found in the basal
process of the sacculus which is sharply angu-

‘late in besma and gently excurved in moya. In

the females the signum of moya is large and
square, that of besma is oval.

Larvae preserved in the U. 8. National Mu-
seum.

Like the foregoing species besma keys to the

CLARKE: NOTES ON OECOPHORIDAE

15

same place in the color key, and can be sepa-
rated from angustati and multifidae in the same
manner. The separation of moya and besma is
discussed above. The genitalia of besma differ
from those of angustati and multifidae in the
same manner as do those of moya.

Depressaria thustra, n. sp.
Figs. 7—7a, 14

A medium-sized dark species nearest togata
Walsingham.

Labial palpus with second segment ocherous-
white speckled exteriorly with black and suf-
fused with purplish fuscous in the brush; third
segment blackish fuscous except the tip which
is pale ocherous. Head ocherous-brown, the
scales whitish tipped; face buff. Thorax and
tegula ocherous shaded with blackish fuscous
anteriorly. Forewing blackish fuscous with scat-
tered ocherous scaling; especially along costa;
base of wing black, except for ocherous scaling
at costa; discal spot at end of cell ocherous
edged with black; in cell, at basal fourth, an
oblique black dash, between this and the outer
diseal spot an ill-defined line of black and
ocherous scales; veins indistinctly indicated by
a few black scales; around termen there is an
indistinct row of small black spots; costa tinged -
with pink; cilia light fuscous, darker basally.
Hind wing gray, darker toward margins; cilia
very pale grayish fuscous with darker subbasal
and subterminal bands. Legs buff heavily over-
laid with fuscous and mixed with ocherous. Ab-
domen buff overlaid with grayish fuscous.

Male genitalia——Harpe moderately long,
gradually tapered to the bluntly pointed cucul-
lus; clasper very slender, sharply excurved at
distal end; basal process from sacculus finely
spinulate, twisted and sharply pointed. Anellus
broader than long, roughly bell-shaped. Aedea-
gus long, curved, pointed, with a small flat-
tened dorsal process and broad flat ventral
process at base. Vinculum narrow but broad-
ened at middle. Transtilla narrow, weakly
sclerotized, with poorly developed lobes.

Female genitalia.— Genital plate narrow, con-
vex antericrly at middle, without sclerotized
anterior pockets; ostium slitlike. Ductus bursae
membranous before ostium, then curved into
a strongly sclerotized section, the latter ending
about middle of ductus; inception of ductus

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

seminalis just before ostium. Signum a large,
toothed, diamond-shaped plate.

Alar expanse, 18-22 mm.

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 58009.

Type locality—Gilmer, Klickitat County,
Wash.

Food tlant.—Lomatium triternatum macro-
carpum (Coult. & Rose) Mathias.

Remarks.—Described from the o type, 5 o’:

and 9 Q paratypes all from the type locality,
collected by the author. Paratypes in the U. 8.
National and British Museums.

The larvae from which this series was reared
were collected in the small village of Gilmer
where the food plant was growing abundantly
in an open field. The preponderance of larvae
feeding in this locality were this species, but
those found on the same plant a mile farther
east were all betuna. These larvae, like those of
betina, feed in the umbels of the host.

This species is nearest‘ togata, but differs from
it by the evenly curved, thin, hooked clasper
and by the twisted basal process from the sac-
culus. The sclerotized pockets from the anterior
edge of the genital plate are absent in this spe-
cies. The female of togata is not known.

In my color key thustra goes to the angustati-
multifidae couplet. The darker color and the
ocherous scaling of the forewing should separate
thustra from the other two.

Depressaria togata Walsingham

I have examined the type o which is in the
Walsingham Collection of the British Museum.
This specimen is labeled ‘‘Arizona’’ Morrison,
1882, and this locality was entered in the acces-
sion book by Durrant under number 35332
when the type was registered. According to Mr.
Stringer, who worked with Durrant and Wal-
singham, and with whom I have discussed the
matter, the locality was entered correctly and
the type name, printed in caps, establishes be-
yond doubt the authenticity of the type speci-
men.

In publishing the description of this species®
the type locality was recorded as Montana. In
recording the type locality in my revision from
the original publication I used the locality
given. This should be changed to read ARIZONA.

5 Insect Life 1: 254. 1889.

VOL: 37, N04

Inga sparsiciliella (Clemens)

A single specimen of this species was sub-
mitted for determination through the port of
entry at Laredo, Tex. The specimen is from San
Luis Potosi, Mexico, and was reared from
orchids. This is the first association of spar-
siciliella with a food plant and is the first
record for Mexico.

Genus Garrha Walker
Garrha Walker, List of the specimens of lepidop-
terous tnsects in the collection of the British

Museum 35: 1835. 1866. (Genotype: Garrha

sincerella Walker.) :

I have examined the female type of sincerella
in the British Museum and have found several
characters by which it is distinguishable from
Machimia tentoriferella Clemens, the genotype
of Machimia, with which Meyrick synonymizes
Garrha.

In the hind wing of lentoriferella vein 5 is re-
mote from connate 3 and 4; in sincerella, 4 and
5 are approximate. .

The abdomen of the type was sled on but a
comparison of its genitalia with other speci-
mens of sincerella indicate the abdomen is the
original. The abdomen is strongly spined. The
signum is present.

The above characters will separate this genus
from Machimia and I hereby remove Garrha
from the synonymy.

Genus Hoplomorpha Turner
Hoplomorpha Turner, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South

Wales 41: 373. 1916. (Genotype: Cryptolechia
~ abalienella Walker, List of the specimens of

lepidopterous insects in the collection ony the

British Museum 29: 762. 1864.)

This genus has been synonymized with
Machimia by Meyrick. A study of the genotype
abalienella shows that it possesses several char-
acters by which it can be distinguished from
M. tentoriferella, the genotype of Machimia.

In the forewing of abalienella veins 2, 3, and 4
are closely approximate; in tentorzferella, 2 is
remote from 3. The discocellulars of the hind
wing of tentoriferella are inwardly oblique but
in abalienella they are straight except between
6 and 7.

The male genitalia of abalienella differ from
those of tentoriferella in the following respects:
The gnathos is unspined, long, slender, and
curved. Vesica unarmed. The elements of the

Jan. 15, 1947

_ transtilla and anellus are fused strongly to the

middle of the harpe. Clasper divided. Abdomen
strongly spined. -

The female genitalia differ in having the sig-

/ num present and the ductus bursae unsclerot-
ized.

For the above reasons I am removing Hoplo-

morpha from the synonymy under Machimia.
In character the genitalia strongly suggest

Garrha and this genus may be synonymous

with Hoplomor pha.

Cryptolechia trigama Meyrick
Cryptolechia trigama Meyrick, Exotic oes

doptera 3: 476. 1928.

The unique male type, from Fort Davis,
Tex., is in the British Museum. I expressed
doubt (p. 224) about the proper placement of
this species when I assigned it: to Inga, and a
study of the type proved my misgivings were
fully justified. Meyrick’s species is not an Inga
nor does it belong to any other genus now
recorded from North America.

In venation it agrees with Machimia except 7
goes to apex and the termen is more rounded;
but the ciliations of the antenna are shorter and
more numerous. In trigama the second segment
of the labial palpus is smooth in front, in M.
tentoriferella it is rough.

The genitalia of the type of trigama are badly
damaged but the clasper is absent, anellus with

fleshy, flattened lateral processes extending be-—

yond costa of harpe at base, cornuti (2) present.
The gnathos and tegumen are missing. Abdo-
men not spined.

Although the generic dasa of this spe-
cies is still in doubt it would be unwise to add
to the confusion by making another assignment
until adequate material is obtained.

-Cryptolechia diligenda Meyrick
Cryptolechia diligenda Meyrick, Exotic Micro-

lepidoptera 3: 477. 1928.

In placing this species as a synonym of Him-
macia huachucella (Busck) I was entirely
wrong.

Although Meyrick’s short, specific descrip-
tion fits huachucella as well as diligenda the two
are not congeneric, nor is diligenda congeneric
with the genotype of Cryptolechia.

Meyrick’s species is represented by a unique
female in the British Museum, which I have
examined, but until such time as the many

CLARKE: NOTES ON OECOPHORIDAE 17

oecophorid genera of South America are studied
or we have obtained adequate material of this
species from southwestern United States, the
original generic placement should be used.

For the above reasons J am removing dilt-
genda from Himmacia where I had placed it.

Genus Thema Walker
Thema Walker, List of the specimens of lepidop-
terous insects in the collection of the British

Museum 29: 802. 1864. (Genotype: Thema brev-

vitella Walker.)

On page 231 I expressed doubt that Thema
and Pleurota were synonymous. An examina-
tion of Walker’s type in the British Museum,
revealed several differences between the geno-
types of the two genera. 7’. brevivitella has a
long, upturned terminal segment of the labial
palpus; in P. bicostella (Clerck) the palpus is
porrect. On the anellus of brevivitella there are
no lateral processes and the vesica is strongly
armed (a long, spiraled cornutus). The signum
is present, but very weak, in brevivitella and the
ductus bursae is not sclerotized at any point.
The abdomen is spined as in bicostella.

Unquestionably Thema is closely related to
Pleurota but the generic term Thema must be
restricted to breviitella and its congeners and
is hereby removed from synonymy.

Genus Phryganeutis Meyrick
Phryganeutis Meyrick, Proc. Linn. Soc. New

South Wales 9: 742. 1884. (Genotype: Phry-

ganeutis cinerea Meyrick.)

Phryganeutis has been synonymized with
Pleurota but its type differs in several respects
from bicostella.

The terminal segment of the labial palpus of
cinerea is long and upturned, the clasper of the
harpe is strongly developed, uncus present but
reduced, and the gnathos is long and beaklike.
The abdomen is spined.

For the above reasons I am removing Phry-
ganeutis from the synonymy under Pleurota.

Genus Atheropla Meyrick
Atheropla Meyrick, Proc. Linn. Ent. Soc. New

South Wales 9: 758-759. 1884. (Genotype:

Atheropla melichlora Meyrick.)

On page 271 I placed this genus as a synonym
of Eumeyrickia, following Meyrick, but ex-
pressed doubt that the synonymy was correct.

Mevrick’s type, which I have seen, belongs
in the Oecophoridae, not Ethmiidae as it would

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

if a synonym of Humeyrickia. The type of A.
melichlora is in good condition. The abdomen is
strongly spined as in Pleurota, the venation is
the same except 2 is nearer 3 in the forewing in
Pleurota than it is in Atheropla, and the palpi
of the latter are upturned, not porrect as in
Pleurota. In the hind wing of melichlora the dis-
cocellulars are inwardly oblique, as in Pleurota,
from connate 3 and 4 and 5, 6, and 7 are almost
parallel.

The bursa of melichlora is without signum
and is simple.

Atheropla is distinct from Humeyrickia and
I am removing it from the synonymy of that
genus. Whether or not it is synonymous with
some Australian or other genus must await the
study of the other genera.

Genus Paratheta Lower

Paratheta Lower, Proc. Linn. Soc. New South
Wales 24, pt. 1: 100. 1899. (Genotype; P.
ochrocoma Lower, ibid. [Fletcher, Mem. Dept.
Agr. India, ent. ser., 11: 164. 1929 (subse-
quent designation)].)

Mixodetis Meyrick, Trans. Royal Soc. South
Australia 26: p. 172. 1902. (Genotype: Para-
theta ochrocoma Lower, Proc. Linn. Soc. New
South Wales 24, pt. 1: 100. 1899 [Fletcher,
Mem. Dept. Agr. India, ent. ser., 11: 141.
1929, subsequent designation].) (New § sy-
nonymy.)

When Meyrick proposed the name Mizxodetis
for P. ochrocoma Lower and P. calyptra Lower
he omitted any reference to P. lasiomela, the
third species included by Lower in his genus
Paratheta.

Fletcher, following Meyrick, cited the type
of Mixodetis Meyrick as P. ochrocoma Lower.
Thus Mizodetis Meyrick becomes a synonym of
Paratheta Lower.

Paratheta Lower was not described but three
species (P. calyptra, P. ochrocoma and P.
lasiomela) were described in the genus thus es-
tablishing the name.

Meyrick used the name Paratheta for the
three species P. syrtica, P. spodostrota and P
philoscia and designated P syrtica as the geno-
type. Paratheta Meyrick is a primary homonym
of Paratheta Lower and for syrtica and its con-
geners I propose the name:

Pseudotheta, nom. nov.
Paratheta Meyrick (not Lower), Trans. Royal Soc.

VOL. 37, NO. 1

South Australia 26: 173. 1902. (Genotype: P.

syrtica Meyrick, ibid. [original designation].)

The type of P. syrtica (Meyrick) is in the
Meyrick collection in the British Museum.
Since Meyrick did not designate types I have
selected as the lectotype a specimen from the
type series from Sydney, New South Wales
(6-9-84). This is a o of which I have made a
genitalic preparation. The species is referable
to the Oecophoridae and is not related to P.
ochrocoma Lower and its congeners.

The abdomen of syrtica is strongly spined.
Harpe simple, without clasper. Uncus pointed.
Gnathos spoon-shaped, short. Aedeagus stout,
curved, sharply pointed, the distal end some-
what flattened.

Family CosMoPTERYGIDAE
Anoncia aciculata (Meyrick),
n. comb.
Borkhausenia aciculata Meyrick, Exotic Micro-
lepidoptera 3: 468. 1928.
This species is referable to the genus A nonica
as a study of the genitalia of the type reveals.
Aedeagus very long, slender, curved. Harpe
rather long, rectangular; basal process of right
harpe digitate, slender. Gnathos long, slender,
sharply pointed and slightly curved ventrad
distally. From the fused basal portion of harpes
a stout, tubular, strongly sclerotized process
tapers to a needlelike point.

Anoncia astigmatica (Meyrick),
n. comb.

Paratheta astigmatica Meyrick, Exotic Micro-
lepidoptera 3: 467. 1928.—Gaede, in Bryk, Lepi-
dopterorum catalogus, pt. 88:41. 1938.—McDun-
nough, Check list of the Lepidoptera of Canada
and the United States of America (pt. 2, Micro-
lepidoptera), No. 8368, 1. 1929.—Clarke, Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 90: 39. 1941.

This species was described and placed in the
Oecophoridae by Meyrick, but on characters of
wing venation and the genitalia it is clearly a
cosmopterygid. Meyrick’s concept of the Oeco-
phoridae was sufficiently broad to include this
species but since it combines characters of both
Triclonella Busck and A noncia Clarke its trans-
fer to the Cosmopterygidae is mandatory.

Until the Cosmopterygidae are thoroughly
studied I am transferring astigmatica to Anoncia
with which it agrees on all but one character
of the male genitalia.

JAN. 15, 1947

BUCHANAN: TWO NEW WHITE-FRINGED BEETLES 19

ENTOMOLOGY.—A correction and two new races in Graphognathus (white-

fringed beetles) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae).
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

BECK.)

The name Naupactus leucoloma Boheman,
or Pantomorus (Graphognathus) leucoloma
(Boheman), has become familiar to en-
tomologists of this country as specifying
one of several closely related South Ameri-
can weevils, collectively known as white-
fringed beetles, which are now established
in the southeastern part of the United
States. The recognition of the supposed
leucoloma in North America dates from
1936, when I so identified specimens col-
lected in that year near Svea, Fla. Through
the courtesy of René Malaise, of the Stock-
holm Museum, I have recently had the op-
portunity of studying the type specimen of
Naupactus leucoloma Boheman, and there
ean be no doubt that my 1936 identification
was wrong and that this species, in its re-
stricted sense at least, does not occur in the
United States. As the ‘‘lewcoloma”’ of North
American entomological literature is now
without a valid name, it is described as new
in this paper. Another white-fringed beetle,
discovered in North Carolina in 1942, is
also described here for tke first time.

Although no satisfactory way of classifying
the white-fringed beetles as a whole has yet
been worked out, it can be said that, of the
seven distinguishable kinds present in the
United States, two (peregrinus and minor) are
sufficiently distinct to be regarded as species.
The other five, however, along with the true
leucoloma and many similar though still unde-
scribed segregates from South America, exhibit
exceedingly close and peculiarly involved rela-
tionships, and though these segregates are
isolated from one another by parthenogenesis,
it now seems evident that they are not species
in the ordinary sense of the word; and in the
present paper they are treated as races of the
leucoloma complex. In addition, Graphognathus,
formerly considered a subgenus of Pantomorus,
is raised to generic rank. On such a plan the
species and races of Graphognathus now known
from the United States may be tabulated as

1 Received December 3, 1946.

L. L. Bucuanan, U.S. Bureau
(Communicated by C. F. W. Muzsg-

follows, the true leucoloma of Boheman being
included for purposes of comparison:

1. Rostrum distinctly tapering anteriorly, eye
more convex (Fig. 12), lateral costa of dor-
sum of rostrum feebly prominent and not
overhanging side of rostrum; median dorsal
groove of head and rostrum with its apical
portion not or faintly carinate and at most
about twice as wide as basal portion, the
scales each side of posterior half of groove
broadly subovate and lying transversely or
transverso-obliquely and in general directed
toward midline (Fig. 17); scales and setae
along posterior half of midline of pronotum
directed posteriorly (Fig. 25); scales on disc
of elytra subcircular or broadly ovate and
nearly covering surface, the strial lines
scarcely perceptible; a narrow bevel present
on apex of hind tibia (Fig. 21). Length, 7-10.5
mm. Southern Mississrppr: Harrison, Han-
cock, Pearl River, Jackson, Stone, Forrest,
Covington, Simpson, and Hinds Counties.
Southern ALABAMA: Grand Bay, Theodore,
and Mobile........peregrinus (Buchanan)

Rostrum not or less strongly tapering an-
teriorly, eye less convex (Figs. 9-11), lateral
costa of dorsum of rostrum more prominent
and more or less distinctly overhanging the
side of rostrum just beneath it; median
dorsal groove of head and rostrum with its
apical portion carinate or not carinate and
often considerably more than twice as wide
as basal portion, the scales each side of pos-
terior half of groove narrowly ovate to linear
and lying longitudinally or longitudino-
obliquely, the oblique ones directed toward
side margins (Fig. 16); scales and setae along
midline of pronotum directed anteriorly in
general (Fig. 26); scales on disc of elytra ob-
long to broadly ovate and not covering sur-
face so completely, the strial lines (except
pilosus) more evident; hind tibia without
distinct bevel (Fig. 22) except in minor... .2

2. A distinct bevel present on apex of hind tibia
(Fig. 20); setae on disc of pronotum ap-
pressed or nearly so; eye slightly less convex
(Fig. 10); widened apical portion of rostral
groove carinate; body shape characteristic
(Fig. 2). Length 6.5-10.5 mm. Northwestern
Fioripa: Pensacola, Gonzalez, Cantonment,
Bluff Springs, and Century. A single speci-
men at hand is labeled ‘‘Crestview, Fla.,’’
but this locality is doubtful.

minor (Buchanan)

Bevel absent or virtually so (Fig. 22); setae on

disc of pronotum, at least in part, sufficiently

70) JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

elevated to be easily perceptible and some-
times conspicuous; eye a little more convex
(Figs. 9 and 11); rostral groove carinate or
not carinate (leucoloma complex)........ 3
3. Rostrum subevenly tapering from base to apex
(Fig. 9); elytral intervals broadly but dis-
tinctly convex; widened portion of rostral
groove carinate; setae on disc of pronotum
numerous, slantingly suberect, and rather
conspicuous; scutellum slightly impressed;
prevailing color rather dark, about as in
dubius and striatus. Length of type 10.5 mm.
Tucuman, Argentina. Not in United States.
(Fig. 3)....leucoloma leucoloma (Boheman)
Rostrum not tapering as above (Fig. 11);
elytral intervals less convex or flat; other
characters differing with the race........ 4
4. Seales on dise of elytra, except on the short
basal slope, subevenly spread over the in-
tervals and strial rows, the latter thus being
obscured; erect elytral setae a little longer
and finer; rostral groove usually without
carina, occasionally with a short, faint carina
beginning at apex, but usually not extending
posteriorly as far as middle of widened part
of groove. Length 8-11.38 mm. Definitely
known only from Monroe, Conecuh, and
Wilcox Counties, Alabama. (Fig. 4)
leucoloma pilosus (Buchanan)
Scales on dise of elytra more concentrated on
intervals than along strial rows, the latter,
though often feebly defined, more evident
than in pilosus and usually appearing to the
unaided eye as parallel lines which are more
or less distinctly darker than the intervals
(Figs. 5-8); erect elytral setae a little shorter
and stiffer; rostral groove carinate or not
carinate, the carina, when present, usually
longer than yim p2loswsp tps sister 3. ore. oe 5
5. Rostral groove carinate anteriorly; strial lines
usually a little darker and more distinct;
prevailing color brownish, darker......... 6
Rostral groove not carinate; strial lines less
distinct; prevailing color gray or gray-brown,
lnohtert. Warsi: tO, i ee ees 7
6. Elytra more strongly widened posteriorly (Fig.
6), intervals 2 and 4 not or scarcely percep-
tibly paler than adjacent intervals; pro-
thorax narrower (see paragraph following
key); metasternum more convex (Fig. 24).
Length 9-12.7 mm. Southeastern Lovtsi-
ANA: Many localities in St. Bernard, Plaque-
mines, Jefferson, Orleans, St. Tammany,
Tangipahoa, East Baton Rouge, and Iberia
Parishes. Southern Mussissrppi: Harrison,
Pearl River, Lamar, Forrest, Jefferson
Davis, Jones, and Hinds Counties. Southern
ALABAMA: Luverne, Chilton, and Grand
Bay. Geroraia: Many localities between
Cornelia on the north and Irwinville on the
south, and between Columbus on the west
and Sylvania on the east. SourH CAROLINA:
Columbia. The localities Pensacola, Fla.,

vou. 37, NO. 1

and DeLisle, Miss. (one specimen each),
require confirmation
leucoloma striatus (Buchanan)
Elytra little widened posteriorly, sides usually
appearing subparallel (Fig. 5), intervals 2
and 4 in apical halves often paler than ad-
jacent intervals, prothorax broader; meta-
sternum less convex. Length 8.5-12.2 mm.
Southern Mississippi: Moss Point (these
specimens were formerly placed with
striatus), Maxie, Hattiesburg, and Camp
Shelby. Southern ALaBama: Mobile, Toul-
manville, Blakeley Island, Crichton, Prich-
ard, Irvington, Foley, Peterman, Natchez,
Buena Vista, Tunnel Springs, Martins
Station, and Selma. Northwestern FLoripa:
Century. Norra Carouina: Peachland,
Marshville, Polkton, and Burgaw. A few
specimens, not positively identifiable though
probably belonging to dubius, are labeled
‘“‘Nadawah” and ‘‘Neenah, Ala.,’”’ and
‘‘Gulfport, Miss.”
leucoloma dubius (Buchanan)
7. Size slightly smaller; scales and setae along
midline of pronotum in general directed an-
teriorly or somewhat obliquely, a few of
those in a small area about midpoint some-
times dearranged and pointing in various
directions (Figs. 13 and 19); metasternum
less convex (Fig. 23). Northwestern FLoripDA,
southern ALABAMA, and southern Mrssis-
SEPPR LRT Ase leucoloma fecundus, new race
Size a little larger; scales and setae along mid-
line of pronotum about as in fecundus except
in a smali area near midpoint where many
of them often lie either transversely, or at
least more strongly obliquely than in fecun-
dus (Fig. 14); prothorax broader (see para-
graph following key); metasternum slightly
more convex. NORTH CAROLINA
leucoloma imitator, new race

The mean ratio of the length of the prothorax
divided by its breadth for the preceding five
races is as follows, the figures in parenthesis
indicating the number of specimens measured:
ptlosus, 0.800 (48); striatus, 0.828 (216) ; dubsus,
0.801 (357); fecundus, 0.756 (408); tmitator,
0.744 (256).

The distribution in South America of the
white-fringed beetles present in the United
States is still very imperfectly known. Three of
them (dubius, pilosus, and imitator) have not
been definitely recognized among the South
American ccllections at hand. Of the others, a
single old specimen of striatus, labeled ‘‘Cor-
doba” [Argentina], agrees closely with certain
small specimens of this race from the United
States; a specimen, almost certainly of fecun-
dus, was collected at San Antonio, Uruguay,

(GRAPHOGNATHUS

Figs. 1-4.—1, peregrinus, Gulfport, Miss.; 2, minor, Cantonment, Fla.; 3, leucoloma leucoloma, type
Tucumdn, Argentina; 4, leucoloma pilosus, Repton, Ala. Photographs by M. L. F. Foubert.

(GGRAPHOGNATHUS

Fies. 5-8.—5, leucoloma dubius, Mobile, Ala.; 6, leucoloma striatus, New Orleans, La.; 7, lewcoloma
fecundus, Florala, Ala.; 8, lewcoloma imitator, Wilmington, N. C. Photographs by M. L. F. Foubert.

(GGRAPHOGNATHUS

Fries. 9-15.—9, leucoloma leucoloma, dorsal view of head; 10, minor, same; 11, lewcoloma fecundus,
same; 12, peregrinus, same; 13, leucoloma fecundus, median area of pronotum, showing directional trend
of vestiture; 14, leuwcoloma imitator, same, specimen having the transverse arrangement of vestiture near
pee ott unusually well developed; 15, lewcoloma fecundus, side view. Photographs by M. L. F. Fou-

ert.

aN ‘

Daly

uy Watt)

eS
aA
SY Gees

NY

he

Fras. 16-26.—(See opposite page for legend).

Jan. 15, 1947

-by Paul Berry; a few specimens of peregrinus

were collected at Santa Fé, Argentina, by H. L.
Parker; and a specimen of minor was taken at
Buseo, Uruguay, by Silveira. Of the true leuco-
loma of Boheman I have seen only one speci-
men, the type, labeled ‘“Tucuman.”’

Graphognathus leucoloma fecundus,
3 n. race
Pigs lS) 1S

Naupacius leucoloma North American authors,
not Boheman; Pantomorus (Graphegnathus)
leucoloma Buchanan, U. 8. Dept. Agr. Mise.
Publ. 341: 12. 1939; Bull. Brooklyn Ent. Soc.
37: 110. 1942, not leucoloma Boheman; Panto-
morus leucoloma North American reports.

Length 8-12 mm; width 3.4-5.6 mm. Pre-
vailing color above gray or gray-brown, the
elytra sometimes feebly variegated with irregu-
lar gray and brown splotches. Elytra with
scales usually dense on intervals, less dense
along strial rows, the scales abruptly paler
(pearly white) in a broad lateral stripe begin-
ning on humerus and extending to apex; setae
erect or slanting, some of them shorter, more
or less curved;.and more numerous, the others
sparser, much longer, and straight or nearly so.
Pronotum with a curved, not sharply defined,

_sublateral line of pale or whitish scales.

Dorsal surface of rostrum scaly and setose,
the median groove broadly dilated anteriorly,
the dilated part not carinate; lateromarginal
costa shiny, usually bare or nearly so at sum-
mit. Prothorax transverse, upper surface with
appressed scales ranging in shape from ovate to
linear, and with inclined, curved setae, the
scales broader and denser laterally than medi-
ally, vestiture along midline usually directed
longitudinally or somewhat obliquely, except in
a small area located usually just posterior to
midpoint of pronotum where a few of the scales
and setae are sometimes much confused in ar-
rangement: and point in various directions.
Scutellum usually not impressed. Elytral inter-

BUCHANAN: TWO NEW WHITE-FRINGED BEETLES 21

vals broadly, feebly convex, often appearing
flat. Under side and legs scaly and setose. (For
more detailed description see Buchanan, 1939,
pp. 11-13.) 3

Type locality—Florala, Ala. July 14, 1937.
P. N. Annand. On cotton.

Type and 110 paratypes (all from Florala
and immediate vicinity and Lockhart, Ala.),
No. 58152, United States National Museum.

Specimens in the National Museum collec-
tion are from the following localities: Southern
Mississippi: Poplarville and Lumberton. South-
ern ALABAMA: Geneva County, Florala, Lock-
hart, Opp, Flomaton, Evergreen, Atmore,
Vocation, Foley, Drewry, Burnt Corn, Monroe-
ville, Peterman, Tunnel Springs, Beatrice,
Buena Vista, Nadawah, McWilliams, Pleasant
Hill, Martins Station, and Dallas County.
Northwestern Fioripa: De Funiak Springs,
Glendale, Crestview, Svea, Pensacola, Gon-
zalez, Bluff Springs, Byrnville, and Century.

A few specimens collected between 1939 and
1941 are labeled ‘‘Lake Arthur,’ ‘‘Baton
Rouge,” ‘‘Poydras,”’ and ‘‘New Orleans,” La.,
but as no Louisiana specimens have been re-
ported since 1941, the actual establishment of
fecundus at these places may be doubted.
Similarly, the establishment of fecundus at
Gulfport, Miss. (1 specimen), Hattiesburg,
Miss. (1 specimen not now at hand), and at
Mobile, Ala. (2 specimens), needs corrobora-
tion.

Graphognathus leucoloma imitator,
n. race

Figs. 8, 14

Length 8.5-138 mm; width 3.5-6 mm. Pre-
vailing color above gray-brown, size slightly
larger than in fecundus. Head and rostrum as in
fecundus, except that the dilated part of median
groove on dorsal surface averages a little wider
and apparently shallower. Prothorax relatively
a little broader and its upper surface somewhat

Figs. 16—26.—16, Diagram of upper surface of head and rostrum to show directional trend of vesti-
ture in the /eucoloma complex and in minor; 17, same of peregrinus; 18, ventral view of rostrum, showing
the mandibular sulci of Graphognathus; 19, middle of pronotum, showing ‘‘area of confusion”’ (arrow)
sometimes present in lecuoloma fecundus and in other races of the leucoloma complex; 20, minor, apex of
hind tibia, showing bevel; 21, peregrinus, same, the bevel present but not so well defined as in minor;
22, same, showing the narrow, feebly defined area, corresponding to a bevel, sometimes present in
specimens of the leucoloma complex; 23, flat metasternum characteristic particularly of lewcoloma
fecundus; 24, convex metasternum more or less characteristic of leucoloma striatus ; 25, diagram of pro-
notum, showing directional trend of vestiture in peregrinus; 26, same of leucoloma fecundus, and in
general of the leucoloma complex; also of minor. (Area of confusion not indicated; see Fig. 19.) Draw-

ings by Arthur Cushman.

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

more coarsely sculptured than in fecundus;
vestiture at or a little behind midpoint of pro-
notum often transverse or transverso-oblique in
direction. Scutellum densely clothed with white
scales and more often impressed than in fecun-
dus. Otherwise as in fecundus.

Type locality —Wilmington, N. C. July 13,
1942. ACL railroad track. GW RD-47B.

Type and 115 paratypes (all from Wilming-
ton and vicinity), No. 58153, United States
National Museum. ;

Specimens have been examined from the fol-
lowing places in NortH Carouina: Cape Fear,
Wrightsboro, Wilmington, Castle Hayne, Rocky
Point, St. Helena, Burgaw, Jacksonville, Kel-
lum, Atkinson, Ivanhoe, Bladenboro, Lumber-
ton, Hope Mills, Vander, Warsaw, Goldsboro,
Kinston, Dover, and Greensboro.

This race is exceedingly close to fecundus,
and no uniformly reliable way of separating
them is known; and single specimens or small
lots of both races can sometimes be identified
only by locality. Statistical study of long se-
ries, however, indicates that fecundus and
imitator are separate entities, even though they
merge more or less imperceptibly in all charac-
ters and character combinations. Possibly ami-
tator may be something in the nature of a
recent mutation of fecundus but, if so, there
still remains the need, from a taxonomic stand-

HERPETOLOGY.—A new musk turtle from Southeastern United States.

VOL. 37, No. 1

point, of recording those differences that do
exist.

In the many hundreds of specimens of each
race examined, the single feature which has
proved most useful as a distinguishing mark
(though far from an invariable one) is found in
the direction taken by the vestiture on and
bordering the median line of the pronotum.
In most specimens of fecundus the vestiture
along this line points either longitudinally or
slightly mesad (Fig. 13), though in a small area
usually located just posterior to the midpoint
of the pronotum and which may be termed the
“area of confusion” (Fig. 19), there is occa-
sionally a more or less marked dearrangement
of the vestiture, in which case some of the setae —
and scales are more obliquely, or even trans-
versely or backwardly, directed. In general,
however, the vestiture along the median line
of the pronotum in fecundus points longi-
tudinally or nearly so. In imitator, especially
in medium- and large-sized specimens, the
vestiture in the area of confusion is oftener
transverse in direction, or more nearly trans-
verse than in fecundus; and the number of
setae and scales having a transverse or obliquely
transverse direction is usually greater than in
fecundus (Fig. 14). The somewhat coarser
pronotal sculpture of zmitator is also a useful
character in series.

HoBART

M. Smiru and Bryan P. Guass, Agricultural and Mechanical College of

Texas, College Station, Tex.

Included in a small collection of reptiles
and amphibians from Mississippi, kindly
donated to the Texas Cooperative Wild-
life Collections (herein indicated as TC WC)
at the Agricultural and Mechanical College
of Texas by Helmut K. Buechner, is an
adult Sternotherus remarkable as the second
known example of a species anticipated as
long ago as 1895 by Samuel Rhoads, but
neglected and confused with S. minor by
subsequent authorities.

For the use of comparative material
without which our study could have come
to no satisfactory conclusion, we are in-
debted to Dr. Doris M. Cochran, of the

1 Received October 3, 1946.

(Communicated by Herbert. Friedmann.)

U. 8S. National Museum, and Dr. Cornelia
Smith, of Baylor University. We are deeply
grateful to Helmut Buechner for his kind-
ness in providing the Mississippi material.

Sternotherus peltifer,” n. sp.
STRIPED Musk TuRTLE

Holotype—TCWC No. 1205, male, from
Bassfield, Jefferson Davis County, 30 miles
west of Hattiesburg, Miss., collected on June 4,
1946, by Helmut K. Buechner.

Diagnosis—A member of the genus Sterno-
therus with a single sharply defined median

2 From Latin: pelta, a very short buckler or
target in form of a half-moon; fer, bearing. Used

. in reference to the small, slender bridge scutes.

a.

Jan. 15, 1947

keel, gular plates greatly reduced, and two
mental barbels. Similar in these respects to S.
carinatus from which it differs as follows: (1)
axillary and inguinal plates reduced in size,
much longer than broad; (2) second, third, and
fourth vertebral shields broader than long; (3)
humerals short and broad; and (4) carapace
relatively rounded in cross section. Most closely
related to S. minor, from which it differs in
lacking lateral keels. Unique in having distinct
stripes on head and neck and a pair of gular
vestiges.
Description of holotype ——Carapace smoothly
and symmetrically oval in dorsal profile, width
about 0.75 of length, depth slightly greater
than 0.33 of length; rear edge of carapace very
feebly flared, not notched medially. Plastron
narrow, anterior lobe slightly wider and shorter
than posterior lobe (along median line), bridge
slightly less than 0.25 of total plastral length.
Head moderately large; upper jaw very feebly
and lower jaw rather strongly hooked; numer-
ous longitudinal rows of fine papillae on neck;
two chin barbels. Tail extending beyond cara-
pace for more than half its length, very slightly
unguiculate, tip conical; numerous short fine
papillae on tail, dispersed both irregularly and
in rows. Rasping organ small, compact, each
section oval in outline, very well defined.
Dorsal plates relatively loosely imbricate (as
compared with, e.g., S. odoratus); first verte-
bral long and narrow, triangular, apex trun-
cate, greatest width somewhat less than half
greatest length; second, third and fourth verte-
brals diamond-shaped to pentagonal, deeply
overlapping, each a little wider than long; fifth
vertebral pentagonal, only slightly longer than
broad; costals four, typical, anterior longest,
posterior smallest; nuchal very small; mar-
ginals eleven on each side, posterior two on each
side more elevated than others, none less than
about half as high as long, none serrate al-
though posterior edge of each of rear four
scutes on either side slightly overhanging ante-
rior edge of succeeding scute. Median plastral
sutures extensively and other plastral sutures
narrowly bordered by incompletely cornified
epidermis. Gular shields vestigial, paired;
humerals short, broad; pectorals quadrangular,
their median suture more than half as long as
their lateral margin. Abdominals quadrangu-
lar, the lateral portion extending past the bor-

SMITH AND GLASS: A NEW MUSK TURTLE 23

der of the plastron to form the greater part of
the bridges. Axillaries and inguinals much re-
duced, a little more than three times as long
as wide, latter twice size of former, together
barely serving to separate lateral margins of
abdominals from contact with marginals. Fem-
orals and anals quadrangular. Posterior margin
of plastron broadly emarginate, sides of emar-
gination forming an angle of about 105°, width
about half greatest width of posterior lobe; an-
terior margin of plastron truncate and slightly
indented.

Dorsal scutes dark olive-brown, their free
margins outlinea with black; obscure, short,
dark streaks radiating from posteromedial
corner and evident chiefly toward the margin
of each scute. Plastral shields yellow, feebly
edged with brown; naked skin of plastron
whitish. Neck and posterior half of head dark
gray-brown, with bright yellow stripes above
and on sides averaging 1.5 mm in width (same
as dark interspaces), yellow below and with
large dark patches. Frontal region with indis-
tinct round dark spots; a few irregular dark
spots on anterior temporal region; rostrum and
upper jaw clouded, lighter toward lips; lower
jaw with longitudinal brown streaks. Superior .
and anterior surfaces of forlegs dark and with
distinct, irregular, longitudinal light streaks;
hind legs dark, feebly marked; tail likewise ir-
regularly marked, more clearly-toward tip.

Measurements (in mm).—Carapace length
85.7; carapace width (greatest) 63.8; plastral
length (median line) 57.9; maximum width an-
terior lobe 34.2; maximum width posterior lobe
29.6; length anterior lobe 18.7; length posterior
lobe 21.9; bridge length 13.1; width of posterior
plastral notch 15; depth of notch 4.1; median
pectoral suture 11.1; lateral pectoral margin,
17; abdominal width 24.2; inguinal 3 9.5; axil-
lary 1.9X7.8; humerals 6.2 12.2; second
vertebral 22.6 (width) X21.2 (length, maxi-
mum); third vertebral 23.3 20.1; fourth
vertebral 20.8 18.7; fifth vertebral 18.8 x19.5.

Discussion.—The species represented by the
present specimen is somewhat intermediate in
some respects between S. carinatus and S.
minor. It is, however, abundantly different from
both and possesses a few distinctive characters
of its own. No other described species of Ster-
notherus is known to have the peculiarly marked
head and neck, with many well-defined stripes.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

However Rhoads (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-
delphia 49: 384-386. 1895) describes a speci-
men from the Emory River at Harriman,
Roan County, Tenn., with an apparently iden-
tical pattern and similar structure; almost be-
yond question Rhoads’ specimen is referable to
S. peltifer. If properly allocated, it indicates a
considerable range for the species, from eastern
Tennessee to southern Mississippi. The eastern
and western limits of the range are problem-
atical.

It is noteworthy that Stejneger (Proc. U. 8.
Nat. Mus. 62 (art. 6): 2-3. 1923) and Pope
(Turtles U. 8., Canada: 48. 1939) allocate
Rhoads’ specimen with S. minor. The latter
species, however, possesses three keels and has
a spotted head. Rhoads describes his specimen
as being “‘strongly keeled,” and fails to men-
tion lateral keels; likewise he describes stripes
on the head. These features are reproduced in
the Mississippi specimen.

Perhaps of considerable interest is the fact
that S. peltifer shares its range with only one
other of the genus: S. odoratus. It is bordered on
the east by S. minor, on the west by S. cari-
natus, while S. odoratus overlaps the ranges of
all three. These facts suggest that S. peltifer
belongs to the section of the genus including
S. minor and S. carinatus. It is of interest to
speculate that these three forms may even be
subspecies; if not they appear at least to be
members of a single artenkreis.

The probable relationship of S. peltifer, S.
minor, and S. carinatus is indicated by more
than geographic ranges. They are all of similar
superficial appearance (witness the frequent
records by early authors of S. minor under the
name of S. carinatus), and of much the same
body shape and color. Rhoads’ reference of one
specimen of S. peltifer to S. carinatus, while
Stejneger and Pope refer the same to S. minor,
is evidence enough that the several species are
confusingly alike. Differences between them
are as follows:

S. carinatus: axillary and inguinal plates very
large, nearly or quite as broad as long; second,
third, and fourth vertebrals longer than broad;
humerals very large, their median suture at
least two-thirds length of their suture with pec-
torals; head dark-spotted on a light back-
ground; no lateral keels; gular plates absent or
vestigial.

VOL. an no. 1

S. peltifer: axillary and inguinal plates small,
much longer than broad; second, third, and
fourth vertebrals broader than long; humerals
smaller, their median suture not more than one-
half length of their suture with pectorals; head
dark-striped on a light background; no lateral
keels; gular plates paired, vestigial, much
broader than long. ;

S. minor: axillary and inguinal plates
smaller, much longer than broad; second, third,
and fourth vertebrals broader than long; hum-
erals smaller, their median suture not more
than one-half length of their suture with pec-
torals; head dark-spotted on a light back-
ground; lateral keels present; gular plate single,
of normal shape, about as broad as long.

In comparison it can be seen that in the six
characters discussed, S. carinatus is unique in:
three, shares one with S. minor and two with

_S. peltifer. The latter is unique in one, and

shares three with S. minor, which in turn is
unique in one character. It is obvious that S.
peltifer is apparently more closely related to S.
minor than to S. carvnatus.

S. odoratus, which belongs in another group,
has two light lines on each side of the head,
more than two chin barbels, very low margin-
als, and usually a large gular. Its variation is
considerable throughout its range, but these
characters appear to be relatively constant and
indicate relatively little relationship with S.
peltifer. Since it occurs in the same area as the
latter species their relationship is probably not
close; they no doubt represent two entirely
different artenkreisen.

Specimens examined.—Comparative material
available includes the following: S. minor (2):
Baker County, Ga. (Baylor Univ. No. 2058);
Mimsville, Baker County, Ga. (Baylor Univ.
No. 2059). S. carinatus (25): Mississippi: Black
River Crossing (near Vicksburg?) (U.S.N.M.
nos. 59958-60). Louisiana: Hope Villa (= Bul-
lion), Ascension Parish (U.S.N.M. nos. 64603-
13); Mermentau, Acadia Parish (U.S.N.M.
no. 100095); Mermentau River, opposite
Mermentau, Jefferson Davis Parish (U.S.
N.M. no. 100094). Texas: Black Lake (17 miles
NNE. of Bryan) and Wickson Lake, Brazos
County (TCWC, 3); Tom Bull, Harris County
(TCWC, 1); Twin Lakes, Madison County
(TCWC, 4); 3 miles east of Evergreen, San
Jacinto County (TCWG, 1).

JAN. 15, 1947

DEIGNAN: WHITE-BROWED RUFOUS PICULET

25

ORNITHOLOGY.—The southernmost race of the white-browed rufous piculet.

_ Deignan, U. 58. National Museum.

Some time ago (U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 186:
254. 1945) I suggested that the population
of Sasia ochracea resident in southern
Tenasserim and peninsular Siam at the
Isthmus of Kra would require separation
from more northern birds by virtue of the
color of its orbital skin, but then refrained

- from naming it because of doubt as to the

characters of S. 0. reichenow1, described
from central Tenasserim. There is now good
evidence for the belief that the name reiche-
nowt must be employed for the birds tenta-
tively identified as querulivox (loc. cit., pp.
253-254), and since the southernmost race
is thus left without a name, I propose that
it be called—

Sasia ochracea hasbroucki, n. subsp.

Type.—Adult female, U.S.N.M. No.
173000, collected at Maliwun, Mergui Dis-
trict, Tenasserim Division, Burma, on
March 22, 1900 by William Louis Abbott.

Diagnosis.—From S. o. reichenowi (Thay-
etchaung, Tavoy District, Tenasserim),
separable by its much more robust bill and
by having the naked skin of the orbital re-
gion blackish or slaty (in the type “leaden’’)
instead of deep crimson or crimson-like.

Range.—From the Isthmus of Kra and

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received January
2, 1947.

the shores of the Pak Chan Estuary north
(at least on the eastern side of the Malay
Peninsula) to (apparently) about latitude
12°30 UN:

Remarks.—Study of numerous species
has shown that the birds resident in the ad-
joining districts of Tavoy and southwestern
Siam are racially inseparable. Since it is now
known that the population of the latter area
comprises red-orbited birds of the northern
type, it may be asserted with confidence
that topotypes of reztchenowi will be the
same.

I have before me only two specimens from
Maliwun, but four others from the Isthmus
of Kra have been reported by Robinson and
Boden Kloss (Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam
5: 201. 1923) as having the ‘orbits black,
blackish red, dark slate or slate.”

Meyer de Schauensee (Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philadelphia 98: 38. 1946) has recorded
two specimens from Ban Kaeng Sok (at
about latitude 12°40’ N.) as having the or-
bital region black but the bill slender rather
than robust. Since they come from a place —
at a latitude just halfway between those of
Thayetchaung and Maliwun, it would ap-
pear. that the two races intergrade in this
vicinity.

The new woodpecker is named for my
friend Edwin M. Hasbrouck, M.D., a vol-
unteer worker in the Division of Birds,
United States National Museum.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1253d Meeting

The 1253d meeting was held in the Cosmcs
Club Auditorium, October 13, 1945, President
Walt presiding.

Program: ArtTHuR E. Ruarx, Naval Re-
search Laboratory: A plan for scientific progress
im pure physics—Attention was called to the
haphazard methods that have prevailed in
building up our fundamental picture of the
physical universe. All too often great discov-
erles have been made against odds, by individ-
uals working with meager resources. Nothing
can replace the insight of the gifted investiga-
tor. Nevertheless the suggestion is made that
by group effort general plans can be made for
the advancement of pure physics—plans that
would provide favorable conditions for rapid
progress.

To make this point clear, the current situa-
tion in two broad fields of investigation was
surveyed, and lines of advance feasible in the
immediate future were indicated. These fields
are:

(1) The discovery of additional fundamental
particles.

(2) The interaction of fundamental particles
with each other.

Reasons were advanced for the belief that
many elementary particles and combinations
of elementary particles remain to be discovered,
and that some of them may be found by meth-
ods now available. The free magnetic pole was
cited as an example. The incompleteness of our
knowledge of the interactions between known
particles was discussed. Studies of the electron-
electron collision at North Carolina were de-
scribed to illustrate the fact that many man-
years must still be devoted to this fundamental
problem.

It was pointed out that a very light atom
composed of one electron and one positron must
exist. The name “‘positronium’’ was proposed
for this entity. The detection and study of this
atom would provide very desirable checks of
the theory of hydrogenic atoms in general, and
of the interaction of electrons and positrons in
particular.

To insure systematic, continuous attack on

such essential problems, it was proposed that.
a number of institutes devoted to pure physics
should be established, with a life of five years,

and no more. At the end of that time the sci-

entific personnel cf the institute would be re-
quired to make other connections in order to
spread their influence into other institutions—
academic or commercial, as the case might be.
The general scientific position would be re-
assessed and another group of five-year insti-
tutes would be launched with fresh personnel.
The business of the institutes would be dis-
covery, not application of discoveries. (Author’s
abstract.)

1254th Meeting

The 1254th meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, October 27, 1945, President
WalIrT presiding.

Program: T. Casprerson, Karolinska Insti-
tutet, Stockholm, Sweden: Cytochemical studies
of protein metabolism in mammalian cells.

1255th Meeting

The 1255th meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, November 10, 1945, Presi-
dent WalIr presiding.

Program: WavE H. MarsuHatu, Johns Hop-
kins University: The dynamics of the central
nervous system with special reference to vision.—
Electrical examination of the sensory systems
has garnered much information concerning
physiological operation and anatomical organ-
ization. The primary sensory systems from

_periphery to cortex exhibit continuous activity

and sensitivities near the noise level of the en-
vironment. One type of activity is the alpha
rhythms. They are typically observed in corti-
cal neurones when attention processes are re-
laxed, show some characteristics of relaxation
oscillators, and are sufficiently orderly that
Fourier analysis has been useful. The neurones
which conduct and elaborate the impulses from
the periphery show some similar rhythmicity,
and, in general, time functions of activity are
clearly revealed by examination of the systems
by definitely patterned stimuli sequences. An
excitability cycle is then revealed which ex-
hibits a major phase, the duration of which is

Jan. 15, 1947

the same order of magnitude as the fundamen-
tal alpha rhythm of the cortex.

A single stimulus repeated at fixed intervals
elicits a local response at the cortex and by this
means the projection of the periphery on the
cortex has been mapped out, adding a wealth
of detail to the knowledge of anatomical organ-
ization and introducing new facts and concepts
to anatomy, physiology, and phylogeny.

When the time dimension in the stimuli pat-
tern is further examined it is seen that interac-
tion among contiguous neurones occurs in the
reciprocally overlapping and multiplying path-
ways of the ascending neurones of the visual
system. This interaction operates to transmit
and enhance minor activity gradients on the
retina while integrating lines and areas. This
mechanism is directly applicable to the problem
of vernier acuity and contour discrimination.
Theoretical considerations extend to other
problems such as the bipartite field. (Awuthor’s
abstract.)

Mr. H. B. Maris presented an informal com-
munication on cycle analysis.

1256th Meeting

The 1256th meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, November 24, 1945, Presi-
dent WaiIrT presiding.

Program: JoHN Krantz, Department of
Pharmacology, University of Maryland: The
mechanism of action of anti-bacterial drugs.—
The historical development of the arsenical
drugs was considered with special emphasis on
their mechanism of action. The sulfonamides
and their application in the treatment of vari-
ous infectious diseases were reviewed. The dis-
covery of antibiotic substances, such as penicil-
lin and streptomycin, was related with special
attention devoted to their mechanism of action.
(Author’s abstract.)

Raupx W. G. Wycxorr, National Institute
of Health: Shadowed electron micrographs.—
With R. C. Williams, of the University of
Michigan, a method has been developed for
enhancing the contrast in electron microscopic
preparations. This consists in obliquely evapo-
rating a very thin metallic film over the surface
in question. Such directed surface staining
makes it possible to measure the heights of ob-
jects by the lengths of the permanent “‘shadows’’
they cast during evaporation, to see fine detail

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY Zi

on replicas which otherwise would be too trans-
parent to exhibit the structure they contain
and to see the shapes and sizes of objects of
macromolecular dimensions. Lantern slides il-
lustrated the application of this shadowing to
the examination of replicas of different kinds
of surfaces including several prepared for metal-
lographic study, and to the photography of
viruses and biological macromolecules. (Au-
thor’s abstract.)

1257th Meeting

The 1257th meeting, constituting the 75th
annual meeting, was held in the Cosmos Club
Auditorium, December 8, 1945, President War
presiding.

The treasurer reported that the income from
dues and interest on investments was $1,357.20
and that the expenditures were $1,206.72, leav-
ing a net gain of $150.48 on ordinary expenses.
The ordinary expenses were at the rate of $3.45
per member. The total estimated assets of the
Society showed an increase of $927.98 during
the year to $16,649.19 on December 1, 1945.

The Secretaries’ joint report showed an ac-
tive membership as of December 1, 1945, of
347, of whom the following 19 were new mem-
bers: LapisuAv Boor, Witiiam F. Brown,
Victor W. CoHEN, DEAN B. Cowin, BERN-
HARD EpsTEIN, MARTIN GARSTENS, Curtis L.
Hemenway, CuHaries A. Littrie, Jr., A. V.
Masket, Epwarp DER MATEosIAN, RICHARD
G. Nucxouus, Harry PoLAcHEK, ARTHUR HE.
Rvuark, Emit D. SCHELL, WILLIAM SCHWEDER,
JANET SnypER, ALFRED D. Souuins, M. H.
TRYTTEN, and FRANCIS VANE.

The Secretaries reported the death of Roy B.
Hunter and M. L. Zimmer.

Following the report of the Committee on
Elections, the following officers were declared
elected for the year 1946: President, FRANCIS
M. Derranporr; Vice-Presidents, FRep L.
Mowuer and WaLTeR RAMBERG; Correspond-
ing Secretary, FRANCIS E. JOHNSTON; Treasurer,
Frank C. Kracrexk; Members-at-Large of the
General Committee, Scott E. ForspusH and
JAMES H. Taytor.

Program: Paut F. Bartunex, National
Bureau of Standards: The significance of the
symbols of physics—An attempt was made to
clarify the confusion resulting from a failure to
appreciate the meaning of words and symbols.

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The system developed by Korzybski in his book
Science and sanity contains a wealth of perti-
nent material.

The ideas of physics are originally on a non-
verbal laboratory level. A language becomes
necessary for a description of the phenomena.
To be useful in physics and other fields the
structure of the language must be similar to
the observed phenomena. It is through similar-
ity of structure alone that the language of pure
mathematics becomes useful as applied mathe-
matics.

Some common semantic blunders are (Wein-
berg, Amer. Journ.. Physics 7: 104. 1939):

(1) Substitution of facility in manipulation
of symbols for understanding of structural simi-
larity. 2

(2) Use of symbols whose structure does not
correspond to that of the physical referent.

(3) Inability to extend the domain of a phys-
ical symbol.

If one is aware at all times that symbols are
not the things talked about; that not all aspects
of a physical situation can be covered by a
single symbol, and that what appears asa single
symbol represents different aspects in different
contexts—he will gain a flexibility of viewpoint
which is useful in overcoming these difficulties.
(Author’s abstract.)

1258th Meeting

The 1258th meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, January 5, 1946, President
DEFANDORF presiding. :

The retiring President, G. R. Wart, of the
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, deliv-
ered his presidential address on the subject
Some experiments relating to the electrical con-
ductivity of the lower atmosphere. This address
was published in this JouRNAL (36: 321-3438.
1946).

1259th Meeting

The 1259th meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, January 19, 1946, President
DEFANDORF presiding.

Program: G. H. Dinxe, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity: Direct wntensity measurements of spec-
trum lines with phototubes.

1260th Meeting
The 1260th meeting was held in the Cosmos

VOL. 37, No. 1

Club Auditorium, February 2, 1946, President
DEFANDORF presiding.

Program: A. V. Astin, National Bureau of
Standards: The development of the radio proxim-
ity fuze for bombs and rockets.— Radio proximity
fuzes for bombs, rockets, and shells were de-
veloped and produced under a joint cooperative
program involving OSRD, the Army and Navy,
and numerous universities and industrial labo-
ratories. The shell fuze program was the re-
sponsibility of the Navy and Section T of
OSRD with central laboratories at the Applied
Physics Laboratory of Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity. The bomb and rocket fuze program was
the responsibility of the Army and Division 4
of NDRC with central laboratories at the Na-
tional Bureau of Standards. ;

Radio proximity fuzes are sensitive to ap-
proach to a target, either an airplane or the
ground, because of the interaction of a trans-
mitter in the fuze with reflected waves from the
target (Doppler effect). Sensitivity is deter-
mined by radiation characteristics and by —
properties of an audio frequency amplifier for
the interaction signal.

In addition to an oscillator, receiver, and
amplifier a proximity fuze requires an electronic
trigger switch (thyratron), an electric detona-
tor, a booster, a power supply, and safety and
arming features. Tiny wind-driven generators
supplied the power for bomb and rocket fuzes
and an ingenious wet reserve battery energized
the shell fuzes.

Ruggedness and small size were major design
requirements. (A uthor’s abstract.)

L. R. Harstap, Johns Hopkins Applied
Physics Laboratory: The development of the
radio proximity fuze for shells —lIn research one
struggles hard to make apparatus that can
work. Before a device can be produced and used
in quantity, however, it must be engineered to
such a state that it rarely fails. The road from
the research stage to a producible item is a long
and rocky one, especially if the use required
is for military purposes where dependability is
a matter of life and death. In the case of the
proximity fuze, the pressure for production was
so great that there was no time for the usual
production engineering stage in the develop-
ment process. The device went from research to
production immediately and such production
engineering as was absolutely unavoidable had

mre ats

ae, 2

Jan. 15, 1947

to be carried out during the production process
itself. As a result of this situation, the procure-
ment problem undertaken jointly by the Navy,
the Army, the Johns Hopkins University, and
the Bureau of Standards, and the industrial
contractors was far from a routine and boring
assignment. The problems were many and
varied and were soluble only because all parties
concerned, military, industrial, and scientific,
were imbued with the feeling of the urgency and

importance of the overall job. The assignment
proved to be an exercise in tolerance and co-
operation for all personnel involved.

The quality control problem itself led to the
development of new methods and techniques.
The proximity fuze production problem was
essentially the same as the production on a
tremendous scale of extremely high grade radio
sets. There was this important difference, how-
ever. For ordinary radio sets the product can
be bench tested at very frequent intervals
along the production line and a final test made
just before shipment. In the case of the
proximity fuze the final test could be made
only under battle conditions months after
manufacture. Even the so-called ‘‘proving
ground acceptance test,’’ usually considered a
good measure of quality, proved to be inade-
quate since it took no account of the extremely
elusive quality of “‘life’’ in the delicate elec-
tronic equipment involved. Furthermore, even
with the most vigorous expediting, proving
ground firing tests could only be carried out
several days after manufacture, so that at a
manufacturing rate of 60,000 units per day
hundreds of thousands of defective units might
be produced before defects could be uncovered
by the usual proving ground tests. It was for
this reason that a highly specialized ‘‘compo-
nent quality control’’ program was instituted
which proved to be the secret to the solution
of the production problem. Every element in
the entire unit had to be designed and manu-
factured with a margin of safety which would
insure operation even after months of rough
handling in shipment and use. It was the in-
herent and unavoidable conflict between the
demands for quantity and quality that proved
to be, throughout the program, an effective
guarantee against boredom. (Author’s abstract.)

Mr. R. J. SEEGER presented an informal com-
munication in which he described visits with

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 29

certain German scientists during a recent trip
to Germany.

1261st Meeting

The 1261st meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, February 16, 1946, President
DEFANDORF presiding.

Program: R. D. BENNETT, Naval Ordnance
Laboratory: The future of science under govern-
ment.—Both applied and ‘‘pure”’ research have
been important in the development of our na-
tion since its beginning. In the past the Govern-
ment has actively sponsored standardization
work such as that of the Bureau of Standards,
has carried out research in connection with such
general services as weather forecasting, has
done research for enterprises where units are
necessarily small, as in agriculture, but has
supported military research only sporadically.
The war created great interest in all research
but practically stopped the training of scien-
tists. In the competition for trained men the
Government can not meet the offers of indus-
try, can no longer appeal so strongly to pa-
triotism, and can not yet offer security as an
alternative inducement. To meet these prob-
lems, the Advisory Committee on Scientific
Personnel (reporting to the Civil Service Com-
mission) is now studying the problems of the
employment of scientists by the Government
and is sponsoring part-time graduate study by
Government employees in the Washington area
with gratifying results. The return to perma-
nent appointments, an increase in maximum
salaries, and the partial decentralization of
classification and employment procedures are
now in sight. It is hoped that the present un-
flattering opinion American scientists have of
government employment will be revised when
they better understand the problems, aims, and
conditions of government research activities.
(Author’s abstract.)

H. L. Curtis presented an informal com-
munication on a method of measuring curva-
ture of graphs by comparison with standard
curvatures on plastic sheets.

1262d Meeting

The 1262d meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, March 2, 1946, President
DEFANDORF presiding.

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Program: R. M. Paces, Naval Research Lab-
oratory: Radar, its past and its future.

Mr. F. C. BRECKENRIDGE presented an in-
formal communication on Some questions, perti-
nent and vmpertinent, concerning the equivalence
of matter and energy.

1263d Meeting

The 1263d meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, March 16, 1946, President
DEFANDORF presiding.

Program: W. J. Humpureys: The Philosophi-
cal Society in rts youth.—George Washington,
Thomas Jefferson, and other intellectual worth-
ies of their day, men of broad vision and clear
outlook, urged that there be founded in the
Nation’s Capital. a comprehensive scientific
society for the promotion of useful knowledge
and its prompt diffusion to all the world.

They had in mind the incalculable benefits
to humanity that, directly and indirectly, con-
tinuously were coming from the French Acad-
emy, the Royal Society of London, the Ameri-
can Academy of Arts and Sciences, the
American Philosophical Society, founded by
Franklin, before which at one of its meet-
ings Jefferson founded the American branch of
an important science, and at another gave a
mathematical paper of the utmost economic
value. Let there then, they urged, be such an
organization in Washington.

For many years nothing of importance came
of these and often repeated similar suggestions
and convincing arguments by those who saw
the light and wanted to follow it. At last, how-
ever, on March 13, 1871, the end they so
earnestly desired was attained by the founding

of the Washington Philosophical Society, with

a creative scholar of all-inclusive scientific in-
terest for its president—Joseph Henry, Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution.

At first the Philosophical Society covered all
sciences but provided for the friendly separa-
tion of special groups whose interests were more
narrowly restricted. Such groups were formed
until now there are about a score of them in
Washington, each speaking a jargon of its own,
but for all that doing much valuable work. In
the meantime the parent society continued its
unbroken course of growth in membership and
increase of importance.

Among the early members of the Society

VOL. 37, NO. 1

were: Joseph Henry, its first president and a
physicist of the highest rank; Simon Newcomb,
a mathematical astronomer of world-wide rec-
ognition and second to none of his day; Jona-
than Homer Lane, who attained scientific
immortality by proving that the more heat
a star loses the hotter it gets; Alexander
Graham Bell, of telephone fame, whose Wednes-
day evenings at home were memorable occa-
sions to Washington scientists; William Ferrel,
who proved that in the Northern Hemisphere
air pushed north blows eastward, pushed east
blows southward, and so on around the com-
pass; Samuel Pierpont Langley, who with his
bolometer pushed our knowledge of the solar
spectrum far beyond the limit of vision or
range of the photographic plate; and many
others, including two of America’s most noted
scientists, T. C. Mendenhall and C. D. Walcott,
each a president of this Society, who never had
a day’s training at college.

These were only some of the many great sci-
entists who were members of the Philosophical
Society—too great ever to act snobbish.

For a long while after the founding of the
Society many, if not nearly all, of its more emi-
nent members wore full beards. Why they did
so I do not know; perhaps they were frank
enough openly to admit that shaving is a
nuisance.

For 40 years or so after its founding the meet-
ings of the Society were rather formal and
dignified, in keeping with the customs of cul-
tured gentlemen on any important occasion.
Always shirt sleeves were out of order, and
smoking was strictly taboo, not by virtue of
any formal rule or bylaw, but through the then
universally recognized courtesy of one gentle-
man to another. However, the things that more
than all others characterized the Society in its
early days, and still characterize it, were its
desire for useful knowledge and its respect for
those who contribute thereto. (Author’s ab-
stract.)

I. C. GarpneR, National Bureau of Stand-
ards: Scientific and technical development of the
German optical industry during the war.—The
speaker presented the results of a _ three-
months’ trip to Germany during which the
different optical firms were visited and their
scientific personnel interviewed. The investiga-
tion was made under the sponsorship of Army

JAN. 15, 1947

Ordnance. After a brief review of the general
organization of the optical industry in Ger-
many, the production of optical glass, the
methods for producing reduced-reflection coat-
ings, the production of fused quartz of optical
quality, the growing of crystals for optical pur-
poses, and the construction of optical instru-
ments were discussed in some detail. Stereop-
ticon slides were.presented showing the different
types of machines in use in the Zeiss plant.
Slides of general interest presenting the condi-
tions of present day Germany were also shown.
(Author’s abstract.)

In an informal communication Mr. W. J.
HuMPHREYS suggested that mirages may have
given rise to the Biblical report of the parting
of the waters of the Red Sea (see Sci. Monthly
63: 82. 1946).

1264th Meeting

The 1264th meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, March 30, 1946, President
DEFANDORF presiding.

Program: E. K. Piyuier, National Bureau of
Standards: Applications of infra-red spectrome-
try to chemical analyses and molecular problems.
—On account of the war, infrared work has in-
creased greatly. There have been developed
better methods of detecting infrared radiation
and instruments are now being made which are
almost automatic in operation. A slit control
device is described which keeps the total energy
practically constant from 3 microns to 14
microns. Results are given for the percent
transmission of 20 hydrocarbons. Marked
changes produced in the absorption spectra by
isomers are well illustrated in this set of spec-
tra. (Author’s abstract.)

F. WENNER, Department of Terrestrial Mag-
netism: Forces between linear circuits according
_to O’Rahilly.—This paper was published in this

JOURNAL (36: 294-296. 1946).

In an informal communication Mr. K. L.
SHERMAN pointed out that the power required
to “create” electrons with their rest energy and
at a rate which would maintain the Earth’s
charge was equivalent to the power dissipated
in the atmosphere due to the loss of charge from
the Earth during fair weather.

1265th Meeting
The 1265th meeting was held in the Cosmos

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 31

Club Auditorium, April 13, 1946, President
DEFANDORF presiding.

Program: F. J. Brapy, National Institute of
Health: Radioactive antimony in medicine.—
Considerable impetus was given to the study
of antimony compounds in medicine because of
their usefulness in treating two tropical dis-
eases acquired by me ~ bers of the armed forces.
Collaborative work was carried on by four
groups within the National Institute of Health,
the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and
the U. S. Army. Many new compounds were
prepared and tested against the dog heart-
worm, a parasite related to one of man’s para-
sites. All trivalent antimonials tested elimi-
nated the microfilariae from the blood but the
adult parasites were rarely killed. Histologic
examination of these adults revealed that de-
generative changes of the ovaries and uterus
had occurred resulting in sterility of the fe-
males.

Radioactive isotopes of antimony were pre-
pared for tracer studies. In dogs, it was shown
that the blood antimony concentration falls
rapidly after administration of the drug, most
of the antimony being taken up by the liver.
The thyroid and adult parasites also concen-
trated the antimony. The excretion rate was
low, 4 to 21 percent of the antimony being ex-
creted in 36 hours. In white rats the blood-
concentration curve showed a secondary rise
beginning between four and eight hours and
reaching levels never observed in dogs. Human
volunteers were treated with radioactive tartar
emetic, and the blood concentration was found
to be like that of dogs. A mathematical analysis
of these data along with excretion rates indi-
cated that a new compound is formed and
probably no antimony in the blood and excre-
tions is tartar emetic after six hours. The indi-
cations are that this new compound is less toxic
than tartar emetic, that it is more readily mo-
bilized and excreted than tartar emetic, and
that most of it is produced in the liver. (Au-
thor’s abstract.)

In an informal communication Mr. F. B.
SILSBEE showed slides of the characteristic dis-
charge in a positive electric field in air occurring
at one end of a wire simultaneously with the
discharge in a negative field at the other end.

In response to a written request for informa-
tion from an unidentified individual, Mr. L. B.

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TUCKERMAN presented an informal communi-
cation on the concept of a straight line.

1266th Meeting

The 1266th meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, April 27, 1946, President
DEFANDORF presiding.

Program: W. F. Fosnac, U. 8. National
Museum: The Partcutin volcano’s first year —
The development of Paricutin volcano from the
second day of its existence through the destruc-
tion of San Juan Parangaricutiro was shown in
kodachrome motion pictures. Parfcutin Vol-
cano broke out in a cornfield on February 20,
1943, and rapidly grew to a cone 435 meters
high. After a two-week period of local earth-
quakes and subterranean noise a narrow crack
appeared in the soil, from which issued a thin
column of steam. A few hours later, the voleano
threw volcanic bombs over an area of a mile in
radius and began to build its cone. The first
month’s activity was spent largely in the eject-
ing of bombs and coarse material, later followed
by heavy ash falls. The first lava flow began
within two days after the volcano’s birth. The
lava flows are basaltic and very viscous, ad-
vancing at a rate of 1 to 30 meters per hour. A
subsidiary cone, Zapicho, formed in October
1943 and continued in activity for about 23
months. The action of the lava flows, lava
fountains, fumaroles, hornitos, and other vol-
canic features as well as the volcano’s effects
on life in the area were shown. Included were
some views of the interior of the crater during
eruption and of the destruction of San Juan
Parangaricutiro. (A uthor’s abstract.)

1267th Meeting

The 1267th meeting was held in the Cosmos
Club Auditorium, May 11, 1946, President
DEFANDORF presiding.

Program: Four papers on Interior ballistics
measurements. H. L. Curtis, National Bureau
of Standards: Method of recording.—The meas-
urement of a ballistic quantity such as powder
pressure, gas temperature, projectile motion,
etc., is accomplished by causing it to produce a
change in an electric circuit which will deflect
the spot of a cathode-ray oscillograph. The de-
flection is recorded on a rapidly moving film by
photographing this oscillograph spot. The ve-

VOL. 37, No. 1

locity of the film is determined from a short
square-wave signal introduced in the record of
a temperature-compensated tuning fork. The
cross hair of the measuring microscope can be
accurately set between the two parallel lines of
this signal. All events are measured in the same
time scale by having on every trace the record
of some event, such as the ejection of the pro-
jectile. The magnitude of each quantity meas-
ured is shown by a deflection, perpendicular to
the motion of the film, of the oscillograph spot. ©
If the deflection is proportional to the quantity
being measured, the value of the quantity at
any instant is obtained from the deflection and
the instrumental calibrations. If the deflections
occur only when the quantity passes certain
values, the record is in the form of a series of
steps which give the time at which the value
was reached. (Author’s abstract.)

C. Moon, National Bureau of Standards:
Measurement of pressure—The equipment for
measuring the pressure of the powder gases
consisted of a pressure sensitive element, called
a gage, with recording apparatus. The gages
were screwed into holes tapped into the gun
tube at several positions along the bore. The
recording equipment which consisted of a cath-
ode ray oscilloscope with a drum camera was
placed in the laboratory and connected to the
gage by a 75-foot length of shielded cable.
Three different types of gages were used:
Piezo-electric, spring, and resistance-strain.

The piezo-electric gages, which were designed
by Mr. H. 8. Roberts, of the Geophysical Lab-
oratory of the Carnegie Institution, were highly
satisfactory. The spring type gage was designed
and used by Drs. H. L. Curtis and R. C.
Duncan for measuring pressures in 14-inch
guns during the first World War. The natural
frequency of this gage was too low for use in
3-Inch guns.

Two forms of resistance-strain gages were de-
veloped; one a tubular type with a bifilar wind-
ing of one mil advance wire which was placed
on the outside of the tube, the other a piston
type with a grid winding on the shank of the
piston rod.

Such excellent agreement was obtained be-
tween pressure curves from the piezo-electric
gages and the resistance gages that after a time
resistance gages only were used since they were
easier to construct and maintain.

*~

JAN. 15, 1947

The accuracy of the pressure measurements.
is difficult to evaluate. The gages are constant —

over long periods to better than | percent. Er-
rors in pressure obtained are introduced by the
amplifiers, and other sources, so that the final
pressure may be in error by 2 percent. (Awthor’s
abstract.)

H. §. Rosperts, Geophysical Laboratory:
Motion of projectile—Several methods are
available which give a record of displacement
versus time as the projectile travels through
the gun barrel. The microwave interferometer,
developed by Dr. T. H. Johnson at Aberdeen
Proving Ground, is perhaps the most satisfac-
tory. A beam of centimeter wavelength electro-
magnetic radiation is directed across the muzzle
from a radiator to an identical receiver. Part of
the radiation enters the gun, travels down to
the projectile, is reflected by the projectile, and
returns to the muzzle where it combines with
the direct beam. The resulting signal is re-
corded by an oscillograph and exhibits a series
of maxima and minima which correspond to
definite positions of the projectile. The radia-
tion wavelength should be between 35 and 40
percent greater than the diameter of the bore.
The talk was illustrated with oscillograms and
displacement-time curves obtained with a 3-
inch and with a 37-mm gun. (A uthor’s abstract.)

F. C. Kracnk, Geophysical Laboratory:
Measurement of gas temperature—The gas
evolved in the burning of propellants in closed

_ chambers or guns, if it did no work, and if there

were no thermal losses, would be produced at
the adiabatic temperature 7’) of the particular
chemical reaction involved in the burning proc-
ess. In the actual burning adiabatic conditions
are not strictly fulfilled, and hence the tem-

PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 33

perature of the gas is always lower than the
adiabatic. Furthermore, the temperature varies
during the expansion when the gas does ex-
ternal work, and in addition, it may be ex-
pected to fluctuate owing to ignition and
burning irregularities. Since the time of the
entire set of events even in large guns is com-
pleted in a few milliseconds, it is evident that
only a mass-less thermometer could be expected
to follow the actual variations of the tempera-
ture.

It was found that the temperature could be
determined from measurements of the charac-
teristics of the radiation emitted by the gas. At
very low gas densities A the emitted radiation
consists of thermally excited lines and bands
descriptive largely of the inorganic constitu-
ents of the powder, superimposed upon a weak
continuous background. As the density in-
creases the discrete features of the spectrum
merge into the increasingly prominent con-
tinuum until when the product of kAl exceeds
unity, the spectral distribution closely ap-
proaches that of a black body at the tempera-
ture T of the gas. In the above, / is the length
of optical path through the gas, and k is the
mass absorption coefficient which was found to
be of the order of 30 to 120 cm?/gm for the
types of powder gas studied.

In making the determinations, the radiation
was measured through fused quartz windows
by photoelectric tubes of selected spectral re-
sponse, incorporated into suitable circuits for
oscillographic recording. The circuits were de-
scribed, and data given for measurements taken
of the gas temperature in closed chamber and
gun firings. (A uthor’s abstract.)

KENNETH L. SHERMAN, Recording Secretary

@bituaries

EK. O. Wooton.—In 1890 there was organized
at Mesilla Park near Las Cruces, N. Mex., one
of the last Land Grant colleges, first called New
Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanic
Arts, later New Mexico State College. Today,
with so many successful colleges in the South-
west, it is hard to realize the local importance
of this new school, which had no competitors
within several hundred miles except the Uni-
versity of New Mexico. The almost fanatical
eagerness of people of that region, themselves
often barely able to read and write, for better
- education of their children can be realized only
by those who know how they often drudged to
educate their sons and daughters. One of the
members of the first faculty of this college was
Elmer Ottis Wooton, then recently graduated
from Earlham College.

The new college began with primitive equip-
ment and a heavy teaching load. Professor
Wooton’s position for years could scarcely be
called a chair of botany, but rather demanded
a settee to accommodate the varied subjects he
taught. From 1890 until 1911 he had charge
not only of botanical instruction and of re-
search in the Experiment Station, but was as-
signed geology and other subjects. He probably
was the last survivor of that first faculty, which
was joined only a few years later by that ver-
satile and still active scientist T. D. A. Cock-
erell.

In the summer of 1892 Professor Wooton
made a large collection of plants in the White
Mountains of New Mexico, then botanically
unknown, and sets of them, distributed to most
leading herbaria of the world, have become
classical. Sale of the collection enabled him to
study at Columbia University from 1896 to
1898, and determine his plants at the New
York Botanical Graden. There he was associ-
ated with N. L. Britton, P. A. Rydberg, J. K.
Small, L. M. Underwood, and EK. L. Greene,
the last engaged in similar studies of southwest-
ern plants, of which he had been a pioneer col-
lector.

It was here that Professor Wooton began
systematic work upon the New Mexican flora,
interest in which continued the rest of his life.
It culminated in the publication in 1915 by

the U.S. National Museum of the Flora of New
Mexico, in whose preparation the present
writer, who had been his student and assistant,
cooperated. While this is the volume by which
he will be remembered, he published also many
articles upon New Mexican plants, particularly
cacti, native ornamental plants, and grasses.

Returning to New Mexico in 1898, Wooton
was professor of botany until 1900, and pro-
fessor of biology until 1911, and most students
of the college from 1890 to 1911 were in his
classes. A born teacher, he possessed an extraor-
dinary talent for lucid and practical instruction
that held the interest of a student. His influence
was not confined to subjects he was scheduled
to teach but extended to other branches of
knowledge and culture that for him were quite
as important as his official subjects. Both
Professor Wooton and his wife were intensely
interested in music and the cultivation of its
appreciation among the student body.

I do not know what botanical experience
he had before settling in New Mexico, but once
there, the plant life, so unlike that of Indiana,
claimed his attention. He spent his vacations
traveling and camping with a team and wagon,
gaining a more intimate acquaintance with the
country than is possible with an automobile. He
visited all parts of New Mexico, some of them
repeatedly. It was his duty to inspect grazing
lands reserved for support of the college, and
thus he took a special interest in range prob-
lems, which led to his employment for this type
of work in the Department of Agriculture,
where he continued the rest of his active life.
He held various positions in the Office of Farm
Management until his retirement in 1935. Dur-
ing his later years he lived at Arlington, Va.,
with his daughter Esther, after the death of
his wife, whom he married soon after his gradu-
ation from Earlham. Professor Wooton was
born of Quaker stock at Kokomo, Ind., on Sep-
tember 19, 1865, and died on November 20,
1945.

I believe that Professor Wooton in his late
years looked back to his early days in what was
then truly Wild West as the happiest time of
his life. New Mexico, despite some sterner
phases, has a peculiar fascination, based upon

Jan. 15, 1947

its beautiful mountains and plains, its vast vis-
tas, its romantic history, and its varied popula-
tion, to which many people have succumbed. It
is a local saying that whoever lives three years
in New Mexico never leaves, or regrets it ever
afterward if he does. It was unfortunate that
Professor Wooton did leave the teaching pro-
fession, for which he was uncommonly quali-
fied; and good teachers are not common. He
will be remembered gratefully by the college
that he served so long and so loyally; indeed, it
expressed appreciation of his services by the
honorary degree of doctor of sciences in 1932.
Professor Wooton is held today in affectionate
remembrance by hundreds of former students
and other friends, who will not forget his in-
finite patience, his kindness, his shrewd ad-
vice, his keen interest in scientific progress, and
his gentleness except when his sense of justice
was violated.
Pau C. STANDLEY.

EDWARD ALPHONSO GOLDMAN, one of the
outstanding American mammalogists, died
suddenly in Washington, D. C., on September
2, 1946. He had been associated in biological
work for over 51 years with the Biological Sur-
vey and its successor, the U.S. Fish and Wild-
hfe Service.

Goldman was born at Mount Carroll, Ill., on
July 7, 1873, but spent most of his childhood
in Nebraska and California, where his parents
had moved seeking better agricultural oppor-
tunities. His education consisted of grade and
high-school training and later of collegiate
courses fitting his particular calling of natural-
ist.

On March 1, 1892, when only 18 years of
age, Goldman hired out as a personal assistant
to Edward W. Nelson, who later became chief
of the Biological Survey, and together they
formed a friendly scientific partnership that
lasted more than 40 years, terminated by Dr.
Nelson’s death in 1934. Indeed, so close was
this association that the names Nelson and
Goldman were linked almost inseparably, es-
pecially when referring to their natural-history
work in Mexico. No two scientists knew Mex-
ico better, for together or singly they spent
more than 14 years in this republic, crisscross-
ing it from north to south and from east to
west, studying its fauna and flora, and collect-

OBITUARIES 35

ing nearly 23,000 mammal specimens, which
are now housed in the Biological Surveys col-
lection in the U.S. National Museum. Many of
these specimens have through the years be-
come the types of species and subspecies of
North American mammals new to science.

During the more than half a century of Gold-
man’s official connection with the Federal
service he held many positions: field naturalist
of the Biological Survey (1892-1917), chief of
its division of biological investigations (1917-
1925), chief of its division of game and bird
reservations (1925-1928), senior biologist in its
division of wildlife research (1928-1940). He
served one and one-half years as a sanitary off-
cer with the rank of major with the American
Expeditionary Forces in France during World
War I, in charge of rodent-control operations.
At the close of the war he became a Reserve
Major, Sanitary Corps, for the period 1922 to
1937.

Besides his research and administrative work
Goldman become a leading authority in wild-
hfe management. He took a very prominent
part in this country’s negotiations for what
finally become a treaty between the United
States and Mexico, on February 7, 1936, for
the protection of migratory birds and game
mammals. In commending Major Goldman for
the part he played in the successful conclusion
of the treaty, the American Embassy at Mex-
ico City stated that Major Goldman was recog-
nized by the Mexicans as an authority on
Mexican fauna and as one who was more fa-
miliar with the subject than were the Mexicans
themselves.

Although Major Goldman officially retired
in December 1944, when he was appointed
honorary associate in zoology on the staff of
the Smithsonian Institution, he continued with
his work and writings to within a few days of
his death. He had hoped to complete his
Mammals of Mexico, on which he had been
working for many years; a part of this is
planned for publication. His bibliography
covers 206 titles, published over a period of 44
years beginning in 1902, mostly in the field of
mammalogy. He was author of three numbers
of the Biological Survey’s North American
Fauna series: Revision of the wood rats of the
genus Neotoma (1910); Revision of the spiny
pocket mice (genera Heteromys and Liomys)

36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(1911); and Rice rats of North America (genus
Oryzomys) (1918). In 1920 the Smithsonian
Institution published his Mammals of Panama,
based on a faunal survey of the Isthmus that
he made during the construction of the Panama
Canal. He was coauthor, with the undersigned,
of The wolves of North America (1944) and of
The puma: Mysterious American cat (1946),
both published by the American Wildlife Insti-
‘tute. Though Goldman will always be remem-
bered as one of our greatest authorities on the
mammals of North and Middle America, he

also excelled in the fields of ornithology and '

botany. He described well over 300 forms of
mammals; and more than 50 birds, mammals,
plants, reptiles, and mollusks have been named
in his honor.

Major Goldman held membership in the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science (fellow), the Washington Academy of
Sciences, the Biological Society of Washington
(past president), the American Ornithologists’

VOL. 37, NO. 1

Union, the Cosmos Club of Washington, D. C.,
the Explorers’ Club of New York, the Cooper
Ornithological Club, the Washington Biolo-
gists’ Field Club, the Baird Ornithological
Club, and the American Society of Mammalo-
gists, of which he became president in April
1946.

Burial with full military honors took place at:
Arlington National Cemetery on September 6,
1946. Besides his wife, he is survived by three
sons, a grandson, and two brothers.

Goldman was a man who will long be remem-
bered for his many human qualities. Modest
and unpretentious in all he said and did, he
endeared himself to all who knew him. His
understanding, generosity, and almost God-
like even temperament probably account more
than anything else for the fact that so far as
known by his associates he never had a single
personal enemy.

STANLEY P. YounG.

CONTENTS

ETHNOLOGY.—Powhatan Algonkian bird names: The Aushouetta (Top-
sell) or the Ahshowcutters (Strachey): Richmondena cardinalis.
CHARLES EpGaR GILLIAM 8 Sh ope

EntTomMoLoGcy.—Notes on Oecophoridae, with descriptions of new spe-
cies.) JF, GaTes CuARRe oS CeO OTe aye eS eed

ENntomMoLocy.—A correction and two new races in Graphognathus
(white-fringed beetles) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). L. L. Bu-

CELAINVAIN ciaisiyar ei ane 5 etteiie tai far ehbive (ies Seat w plier Gib Cele Mate ete is Seen a ts DOr earn teas ane nD ae

Hrrerrotocy.—A new musk turtle from Southeastern United States.
-Horart'M. Site and Bryan P. GLASS) 30000000 a ae

ORNITHOLOGY.—The southernmost race of the white-browed rufous
piculet. H.G. DEIGNAN...... PU che Sts Sart RY CLG been

PrRocrEpines: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY... 0.020055 0 Se eae

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Page

12

22

ji eee f as a

FEBRUARY 15, 1 947

at Py ey

JOURNAL :

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R i cae, ae ‘ r ss

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Custodian of Publications: Frank M. Setzler, U. S. National Museum.

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 37

HISTORY OF SCIENCE.—An establishment, was established.'
ston, Division of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution.

municated by H. A. REHDER.)

One of the penalties attached to the
presidency of the Botanical Society of
Washington is the retiring address. By
tradition this address may be on any sub-
ject, and at the end no discussion or
questions are permitted, only applause. At
first, I was tempted to discuss the place of
plant physiology in the botanical world and
perhaps dwell to some extent on the physio-
logical work of the Division of Radiation
and Organisms at the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. Then the thought occurred to me that
this year is the 100th anniversary of the
establishment of this Institution and that I
could never again take advantage of such a
wonderful opportunity. Because of the
Institution’s relationship to the develop-
ment of science in the United States, a few
facts and figures connected with its origin
are appropriate at this time.

In September 1835, John Forsyth, then

Secretary of State, was surprised to receive

a dispatch from London enclosing a copy of
the will of a man named James Smithson.

‘An accompanying letter stated that the

nephew mentioned in the will had died and
that the United States was entitled to his
estate. Who was James Smithson and why
should he leave his estate of £100,000 to
the United States of America? These are
fitting questions to be asked on this 100th
anniversary of the founding of the Smith-
sonian Institution.

James Smithson was born in France in
1765, spent most of his life in France and
Germany, and in 1829 died in Italy, where

1 Address of the Retiring President of the
Botanical Society of Washington, read at the
so’th meeting of the Society on December 3,
1946. Received December 20, 1946.

Frpruary 15, 1947

od

No. 2

EARL S. JOHN-
(Com-

he was buried. By the terms of his will most
of his property was left to his nephew,
Henry James Hungerford. The will stated,
“Should the said Henry James Hungerford
have a child or children, legitimate or il-
legitimate, I leave to such child or children
...the whole of my property. ...In the
case of the death of my said Nephew, with-
out leaving a child or children, or the death
of the child or children he may have had
under the age of twenty-one years or in-
testate, I then bequeath the whole of my
property ... to the United States of Amer-
ica, tofound at Washington, under the name
of the Smithsonian Institution, an Estab-
lishment for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men.”’

James Smithson was the natural son of
Sir Hugh Smithson (later the Duke of
Northumberland) and Elizabeth Keate
Macie, a widow and lineal descendant of
Henry VII. As a youth he bore his mother’s
name, and it was not until fourteen years
after graduating from Pembroke College,
Oxford, that he adopted the name James
Smithson. It was perhaps a feeling of in-
justice regarding the circumstances of his
birth that created in him the desire to
perpetuate his name, for in one of the
manuscripts he left we find these words:
“The best blood of England flows in my
veins; on my father’s side I am a North-
umberland, on my mother’s I am related to
Kings, but this avails me not. My name
shall live in the memory of man when the
titles of the Northumberlands and the
Pereys are extinct and forgotten.”

After graduating from Oxford in 1786,
Smithson applied himself to the study of
chemistry. He was very skillful in working

FEB Zz “of

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

with small quantities of chemicals. Today
we might call him a microchemist. ‘It is
said that he was fond of narrating an in-
cident illustrating this faculty. On a certain
occasion he happened to observe a lady
crying, and hastily taking out a small
crystal vessel, he seized the opportunity to
catch one of the teardrops in the hope of
analyzing it and although half of the
precious drop escaped, he succeeded in
detecting in the other half not only ap-
_preciable amounts of muriate of soda but
also the compound of phosphorus known
at that time as microcosmic salt, and
certain other saline substances.”

Smithson was admitted to membership
in the Royal Society of London in 1787, less
than one year after his graduation from
Oxford, one of his sponsors being the
famous Henry Cavendish, discoverer of
hydrogen. At least 27 of his scientific works
were published between 1791 and 1825, all
but two relating to chemistry and mineral-
ogy. It may be of interest to botanists to
know that one of the two was entitled ‘An
Improved Method of Making Coffee.”

Another was entitled “On a Substance

from the Elm Tree, Called Ulmin’’; another,
“A Few Facts Relative to the Coloring
Matters of Some Vegetables.”’ His writings
were well received by his fellow scientists,
and he was held in high esteem not only in
England but abroad. His _ publications
reflected the influence of his extensive
travels in Europe, which gave to them a
cosmopolitan flavor. He seemed to realize
in his day that science knows no national
boundary but is universal for all mankind.

It is interesting to examine in the light
of history the comphecated chain reaction
started by the well-meaning sentiment of a
far-sighted Englishman as expressed in his
bequest to the United States. Three months
after recelving word of this bequest, Presi-
dent Jackson presented the matter to
Congress. This, of course, started a pro and
con discussion. Senator Calhoun of South
Carolina considered it “beneath the dignity
of the United States to receive presents of
this kind from anyone.’ Others argued in
its favor, and finally the Senate by a 31 to
7 vote decided to prosecute the claim.

—_ i

VOL. 37, NO. 2

The man selected to present this claim
in the English Court of Chancery was
Richard Rush, the son of Dr. Benjamin
Rush, of Pennsylvania. He had been bcth
Comptroller of the Treasury and Secretary
of the Treasury, positions that made him
particularly well qualified for the work.
Dr. Rush, years before, had done all he
could to discourage his son from going into
Government service but to no avail. He set
down in writing his several reasons which in
the light of firsthand knowledge of many of
us are Just as interesting today as they were
in 1811:

“Ist. The degradation to which such an
office exposed a man of literary and profes-
sional talents. It was an office that could be
filled by any clerk of a bank.

“2nd. The vexations and poverty of
political life.

‘3rd. His comfortable establishment and
excellent prospects in Pennsylvania, the
State of his ancestors and family. |

“Ath. The sickliness of Washington and
the insufficiency of the salary to support a
growing family.

“Sth. The dishonor which he would do to
his understanding by such an act.

“6th. My age, also my young: family,
which required his advice now and would
still more require it after my death. I offered
to implore him not to accept of the appoint-
ment upon my knees, but ail, all to no
purpose.”

On a salary of $3,000 and an allowance of
$2,000 Richard Rush secured a bond for
$500,000 and set out for England, arriving
there the last of August, 1836. The decree
adjudging the Smithson bequest to the
United States was pronounced on the 9th
of May, 1838, in less than two years. In
view of the difficulties encountered and the
sluggishness of the Court this was quick
action. A ‘‘moral claim” was entered by tho
mother of young Hungerford. She urged
that the “increase and diffusion of knowl-
edge among men”’ begin with the education
of her children. Mr. Rush settled’ for £150 a
year during her lifetime. Immediately fol-
lowing the publication of the court decree,
two men, in no way connected with each
other, appeared for claims and were much

+ Fes. 15, 1947

-

surprised to learn that the case was closed
and could not be opened.

Mr. Rush had the entire Smithson estate
converted into cash and then changed this
into gold for transportation to the United
States. With the bags of gold safely stored
in the hold of the packet Medzator, he set
out for New York on July 17, 1838. On
landing, Mr. Rush received word to deposit
the money in the mint at Philadelphia. This
he did on September 1 by taking a stage into
which he loaded the 105 bags of gold

sovereigns. The receipt given to him by the

Director of the Mint was for $508,318.46,
and I can imagine he breathed a huge sigh
of relief.

The Secretary of the Treasury invested
the funds in State stocks, mainly in Ar-
kansas, at 6 percent interest. This State
having failed to pay its interest in 1846,
Congress made good the deficiency and has

since paid annually the interest at 6 percent

on $538,000, the amount at the time the

Arkansas investment was made.

On December 6, 1838, President Van
Buren informed Congress that the legacy of
Smithson had been received and asked them
to proceed toward carrying out the object
of the bequest. It took Congress eight years
to agree upon a definite plan of organization.
Opinions varied greatly as to the best
method of increasing and diffusing knowl-
edge among men. Among the ideas put

forth were to found:

A great university

An agricultural school and farm
Instruction of females

Courses of lectures

School for the blind

John Quincy Adams, chairman of the
House Committee, appointed to handle

the matter favored an astronomical ob-

servatory. There is no particular reason for
a detailed review of the discussions and
debates that took place. Each year the
President (Van Buren, Harrison, and Polk
in succession) urged immediate action.
Some benefit, however, was derived from
these extended discussions. Congress was
enlightened and public opinion molded.
Finally a bill establishing the Smithsonian
Institution was passed, and on August 10,

JOHNSTON: AN ESTABLISHMENT WAS ESTABLISHED

39

1846, it was signed by President James
Kk. Polk. Congress could now resume such
matters as the Oregon question and a war
with Mexico.

A Board of Regents was soon appointed
and the organization of the Institution
rapidly took form. Careful consideration
was given to the appointment of its first
Secretary. Their choice of Joseph Henry,
of Princeton, N. J., was most fortunate. Not
only was he America’s leading scientist but
also, as later years proved, a most capable
administrator. His program to carry out
Smithson’s instructions have in general been
followed to this day. Congress, then as often
in later years was more interested in physi-
cal impressions of size, utility, and gran-
deur. Henry stuck to his convictions, as may
be seen from his report, ‘‘If physical well-
being were alone the object of existence,
every avenue of enjoyment should be
explored to its utmost extent. But he who
loves truth for its own sake, feels that its
highest claims are lowered and its moral
influence marred by being continually sum-
moned to the bar of immediate and palpable
utility.”

Secretary Henry realized that the funds
at his disposal could easily be exhausted if
many projects for the increase of knowledge
were undertaken directly by the Institu-
tion. His policy of helping others with
grants-in-aid and other forms of fostering
research far surpassed anything that the
Smithsonian could do by itself. Thus a large
amount of scientific knowledge was built
up in the country in various institutions of
learning, and each of these became the
center from which new knowledge was
diffused. It was Henry’s suggestion that the
Institution support telegraphic weather
data reports, and this work eventually
resulted in the establishment of the United
States Weather Bureau.

One of Henry’s original policies was to
establish a system for the ‘‘diffusion of
knowledge.’ The International Exchange
was established whereby books and docu-
ments could be sent duty free to and from
other countries through the Smithsonian
Institution.

Henry helped to organize the American

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Association for the Advancement of Science,
and there has always existed a close bond of
friendship between it and the Smithsonian
Institution. Only this year the Association
has moved to its new headquarters after
outgrowing its long-occupied home in the
Smithsonian Building.

The forerunner of the United States
National Museum appears to have been the
National Institution for the Promotion of
Science, organized in Washington on May
15, 1840. As stated by George Brown
Goode, ‘“‘The establishment of this society
was doubtless to a very large degree due to
the stimulating and inspiring effects upon
public opinion of the Smithson bequest. The
germs of the idea which it represented seem,
_ however, to have existed in Washington at a
much earlier period, for in 1816, or before,
a similar society had been organized in the
capital under the name of ‘The Columbian
Institute for the Promotion of Arts and
Sciences’.”’

For almost 18 years the National Institu-
tion was the official custodian of the na-
tion’s museum materials and of the collec-
tion of Smithson’s books, manuscripts, and
minerals. Goode further states:

The influence of the National Institute upon
the history of science in the United States, and
particularly in educating public opinion and the
judgment of Congress to an application of the
proper means of disposing of the Smithsonian
legacy, can not well be overestimated.

If the Smithsonian had been organized be-
fore the National Institute had exerted its in-
fluences, it would have been a school, an ob-
servatory, or an agricultural experiment sta-
tion.

The formation of a “‘national museum”’ was
one of the professed objects of Poinsett and his
associates in the National Institution, but it
does not appear that they ever dignified with
that name their collections, which were usually

VOL. 605. NO. Ze

modestly referred to as constituting the
‘‘cabinet”’ of the Institution, both in the con-
stitution and in the proceedings of the society.

From 1847 to 1851, however, there was no
use made of the term National Museum, the
collections of natural history which were ac-
cumulating under the care of Professor Baird
constituting for the time being the ‘‘Museum of
the Smithsonian Institution.”

The National Cabinet of Curiosities (the
collection in the Patent Office), carrying with
it a certain official atmosphere, as well as an
annual appropriation, was, however, one of the
parents of the greater establishment yet to
come. Of its marriage with the Smithsonian
Museum, the National Museum of the United
States was the offspring.

In 1857, the Smithsonian Institution having
definitely accepted the responsibility of caring
for the national collections, all the articles de-
posited with the National Institute were re-
moved.

Among the objects transferred to the
Smithsonian Building were James Smith-
son’s valuable collection of several thousand ~
minerals and his books, pamphlets, and
manuscripts. Unfortunately, most of these
were lost in the fire in the Smithsonian
Building of 1865.

To members of the Botanical Society of
Washington the best-known collection
added to the museum is the U. 8. National
Herbarium housed in the Smithsonian
Building. From a nucleus of plants collected
by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition from
1838 to 1842 this collection has grown to
nearly two million specimens. Qualified
students may avail themselves of the
splendid opportunity to study these collec-
tions from many parts of the world. I know
of no better way of concluding this con-
densed discussion of the beginnings of the
Smithsonian Institution than by referring
to the opportunities for research that the
National Herbarium offers to botanists.

Fup. 15, 1947

WILLEY: A MIDDLE PERIOD CEMETERY IN VIRU VALLEY ~ 41

ARCHEOLOGY.—A Middle Period cemetery in the Viri Valley, northern Peru.
GorpDON R. WILLEY, Bureau of American Ethnology.

During a major portion of the year 1946,
the present author, accompanied by various
colleagues of the Institute of Andean Re-
search, conducted archeological investiga-
tions in the Vira Valley on the north coast
of Peru. Although primarily engaged in a
study of prehistoric settlement patterns as
they are found in Virt, he was able, in ad-
dition, to make a number of minor excava-
tions. The opening of a series of graves in a
cemetery, known only by the Virt survey
designation as site V-142, was one of these
subsidiary operations. The graves and their
contents are described in this paper.

THE SITE

The Viri River is one of the smaller
streams of the Pacific watershed which
creates a small oasis valley on its way to the
sea. Today its valley is cultivated for a dis-
tance of about 30 kilometers from the delta
inland and, at its widest point, for about 6
kilometers across the valley. In the upper
reaches of the Huacapongo, the principal
tributary to the Virt, the modern cultivated
strip along the river is no more than a kilo-
meter wide. The lower two-thirds of the
valley is bordered, for the most part, by the
flat, gradually rising plains of the coastal
desert, but in the upper one-third the nar-
row bottomlands lie between walls of rocky
mountainous hills, the lower foothills of the
Andean massif.

The cemetery site, V-142, is in this upper
one-third of the valley, in the Huacapongo
branch, on the north side of the river bot-
tom. (Its location is at latitude 8° 22’ 40”
S., longitude 78° 41’ 8” W.) It is situated on
a sloping boulder-strewn alluvial fan that
extends down out of a quebrada in the
bordering hills. The alluvial deposit is
typical of the valley margin in its upper
zone. The rare but heavy rains of the coast
carry tons of rock and gravel from the hills
toward the drainages. V-142 is on an old
section of the fan that has not been washed
out or covered by more recent alluvial
action. Immediately to the east and west of

1 Received December 10, 1946.

the cemetery site there are evidences of
recent (in terms of human occupation)
floodings, which have cut away sections of
the old fan, together with portions of the
archeological features, probably including
the cemetery. Present-day cultivated areas
are confined to the actual valley bottom,
which les 200 to 300 meters downslope
from the site. It is clear, though, from evi-
dences of ancient irrigation works that in
prehistoric times the now abandoned al-
luvial fans were cultivated. The V-142 cem-
etery lies in the midst of archeological com-
munities, canal systems, walls, and mounds.

The surface of the cemetery looks like any
other open area on the rocky fan. There are
no surface features that can be definitely
correlated with the burials. The presence of
graves was indicated by old diggings reveal-
ing large sherds, human bone fragments,
and other evidences around the open grave
pits. The site is, incidentally, marked by
two surface features not necessarily char-
acterizing it as a cemetery. One of these is
a section of an old, partially destroyed de-
fense wall. This wall is made of boulders, is
about 1 meter wide, and still stands about a
meter or so high. It is probably part of a
continuous system of walls that generally
run parallel to the valley and were con-
nected with some prehistoric phase of oc-
cupation of the alluvial fans. It may either
antedate or postdate the burials of the
cemetery. The other feature is a small
rocky knoll lying just to the south of the
wall section. This mound rises between 1
and 2 meters above the surrounding ground
level and has dimensions of about 10 by 20
meters; its summit is dotted with old grave
excavations. It is probably an artificial con-
struction, quite likely a house or temple
mound of a preceding period into which the -
later interments were made.

In all, the area of the graves at V-142,
including the mound, can be encompassed
within a radius of 35 to 40 meters from a
central point on the wall. Graves were
located by us on both the north and south
sides of the wall.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

GRAVE EXCAVATIONS

Apparently burials had been made with-
out any plan of arrangement. All graves
were merely holes in the rocky soil without
special lining, flooring, roofing, or distinc-
tive form. In depth they ranged from about
one-half meter to 2 meters. As nearly as
could be determined it seemed as though
the original grave pit had been roughly
circular and relatively narrow (1 meter or
less). Twelve graves, in all, were opened in
a period of a few days during June.

Grave 1. In dust and boulders at a depth of
slightly over 1 meter. No identifiable human
skeletal material found.

One globular jar (211-1)? was recovered.
Height 17.2 cm and diameter 19 cm. Has
rounded base and cambered collar with sharp
angle. Ware is coarse and mottled gray-black.
On the collar are appliqué semicircular nodes,
each of which has been impressed with verti-
cally placed incisions. On shoulder, just below
collar, are two fillet strips which almost meet
at opposite sides of vessel. These strips are also
impressed with similar incisions.

Grave 2. Located 1 meter from Grave 1. Pot-
tery vessels were first encountered at depth of
85 ecm. A few badly disintegrated human bone
fragments came from a depth of 1.00 to 1.25
meters. Other vessels were found below this to
depth of 1.50 meters. Eight pottery vessels
were recovered.

Drum-shaped vessel (213-1) (Fig. 1, j).
Height 31 cm, length 33.5 em, width 21 cm.
Has outflared spout or collar. Ends of vessel or
drum are flattened but bulging. Body is barrel-
like or cylindrical with expanded center. There
is a little loop handle parallel to the long axis of
the vessel at the base of the collar. Ware is
polished black. Pressed design covers one end
of barrel. Central element of design is a plain
circle to which are attached 8 radiating rays.
Four rays are pointed, star-fashion; four others
tend to expand toward end. The whole is en-
closed in a circle. On opposite end is a frog
effigy in relief, affixed to top of vessel facing in
toward the collar. Frog lies prone with legs out-
stretched. Eyes are done with appliqué pellets
and back and feet with punctations.

2 Numbers listed are temporary field catalogue
numbers for Institute of Andean Research 1946
season in Peru.

VOL. 37, NO. 2

Drum-shaped vessel (213-2). Height 33.5 em,
length 42 cm; width 26 cm. Very similar to
213-1. At base of collar is small rounded
ridge. On opposite sides of collar are two tiny
nubbins attached to the ridge. No other decora-
tion. Ware polished black.

Plain jar or olla (213-3). Height 29 ecm,
diameter at midpoint 31 cm. Collar markedly
flaring. Rounded base. Polished black.

Plain jar or olla (213-4). Height 21 cm,
diameter at midpoint 24.5 cm. Short cambered
collar with ridge. Polished black.

Globular jar (213-5). Height 17 em, diameter
at midpoint 17.5 cm. Rounded base, short
everted collar. Gray-black, coarse ware. On
one side of vessel just below collar are 2 small
buttonlike nodes.

Globular bottle (213-6). Height 21.2 cm,
diameter 20 cm at midpoint or slightly below.
Narrow mouth and long neck. Neck has basal

bulge, is constricted at midpoint, and rim is —

cambered. Gray-black ware with no slip or
polish. Appliqué strip encircles shoulder. This —
strip marked with crisscross incisions.

Globular bottle (213-7). Height 14.7 cm,
diameter at midpoint 14.5 cm. Flat circular
base, long, slightly outflared spout. Black
polished ware. Five evenly spaced nodes pro-
ject from sides of vessel body.

Stirrup-spout jar (213-8) (Fig. 1, f). Height 24
cm, base 12.7 by 8.1 cm. Lower part of vessel is
rectangular box upon which reclines the seulp-
tured figure of a female animal. Unfortunately
the head has been broken off. Spout attached
to animal’s shoulder and hip. Loop of spout is
squared in cross section and upper spout is
tubular, straight, with thin tapered lip. Small
modeled monkey is placed at juncture of
spout and loop in classic fashion.

Grave 3. Remains of three human skeletons
were found in this grave, in dust and boulders
at a depth of 1.00 to 1.20 meters. Associated
with an infant were:

Globular jar or olla (428-1). Height and
diameter 18.5 em. Base rounded, collar cam- —
bered. Reddish-tan ware without slip.

Small globular jar (428-2). Height 11.5 cm,
diameter at midpoint 12 cm. Cambered collar.
Gray-black ware with no slip or polish.

Associated with skeletal material unidentifi-
able as to age or sex was: Globular jar (429).
Height 16.5 em, diameter 18 cm. Slightly
flattened base, short, cambered collar with very

Fes. 15, 1947 WILLEY: A MIDDLE PERIOD CEMETERY IN VIRU VALLEY 43

i | | a

Fic. 1.—Pottery vessels and stone artifact from V-142 cemetery, Viri Valley, northern Peru:
a, 219-3, Grave 8; b, 219-2, Grave 8; c, 218-1, Grave 7; d, 219-1, Grave 8; e, 220-1, Grave 9; f, 213-8,
Grave 2; g, 437-3, Grave 12; h, 218-3, Grave 7; 7, 430, Grave 4; 7, 213-1, Grave 2.

44

sharp angle. Gray-black, unpolished, unslipped
ware. On opposite sides of vessel, on shoulder,
are two appliqué strips placed vertically. These
have been indented with close-spaced impres-
sions. :

The third skeleton, probably that of an
adult, had no associations.

Grave 4. Remains of a child (bone fragments
only) at depth of about 1-meter in dust and
rock. One pottery vessel was associated.

Pitcher (480) (Fig. 1, 1). Height 20 cm,
diameter slightly below midpoint 16 cm. Has
two nubbin handles at juncture of spout and
body. Each of these perforated with small
hole. Base slightly flattened, body angle
rounded. Gray, unslipped ware with reddish
(oxidized) spots. Band of decoration on bulged
area at juncture of body and spout. Fine
dentated-incised technique (may be shell-edge
stamping). Incised horizontal zone within
which are diagonally placed incised lines.

Grave 5. Remains of a child (bone fragments
only) at depth of about a meter in dust and
rock. One pottery vessel in association.

Globular jar (431). Height 19.5 em, diameter
below midpoint 20.5 em. Short cambered collar
with marked shoulder angle. Gray-black, un-
slipped ware. Six pellet applications on shoulder
each of which has been punched with hollow-
reed.

Grave 6. Burial of small child at depth of 50
cm in dust and boulders. Four vessels were as-
sociated in addition to some beads and copper
ornaments.

Miniature jar (217-1). Height 7.8 cm, diame-
ter below midpoint 7.8 em. Badly made. Two
small loop handles placed vertically at collar-
body juncture. Flattened base. Black, un-
shipped ware.

Miniature jar (217-2). Height 7.5 em, diame-
ter below midpoint 7.7 em. Long neck, out-
flared collar, two small poorly made handles
vertically placed on shoulders. Whole vessel
poorly made. Black unslipped or unpolished
ware. Crisscross incised design on shoulders.

Globular jar (217-3). Height 20 cm, diameter
at midpoint 20.5 em. Slightly flattened base,
short cambered collar. Coarse gray-black ware
with reddish fire spots. Six evenly spaced
appliqué buttons on shoulder each of which has
been punched with broad, deep, vertically
arranged indentations.

Globular jar (217-4). Height 15 em, diameter

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 3/7, NO. 2

at midpoint 17 cm. Short cambered collar with
marked ridge. Polished black ware with soot-
caked base. Slovenly incised band of decoration
around shoulder which consists of crosshatched
elements. There are two vertically placed lugs
on opposite sides of vessel within the zone of
decoration.

In addition, (217-5), 2 small twisted sheets of
copper, 1 small copper bead, 1 copper spindle
whorl, 1 large stone bead, 2 conical pottery
beads, and about 50 tiny brown and white
beads of stone. j

Grave 7. Grave of a child at a depth of 80 cm
in dust and rock. Three vessels were found.

Bottle or jar (218-1) (Fig. 1, c). Height 12
cm, diameter below midpoint 13 cm. Partial
plant or vegetable effigy. Virtually straight
neck. Base flattened. On one side of body is
curved, stemlike projection, obviously in imita-
tion of a plant. Stem-end detail has been
modeled and applied separately. Stem has been
covered with small, flat appliqué nodes. Black
ware showing some polishing striations.

Miniature globular jar (218-2). Height 7 cm,
diameter at. midpoint 8 em. Two small loop
handles are vertically placed at neck, and each
handle has two small protuberances. High
collar, outflared lip. Gray-brown ware, heavily
sooted.

Globular jar (218-3) (Fig. 1, h). Height 16
em, diameter just below midpoint 16.2 cm.
Markedly outflared collar. Redware (firing
color) without polish. On shoulder are 10 ap-
pliqué pellets.

Grave 8. Burial of individual unidentifiable
as to age or sex. Located about 58 meters south
of the wall section. This grave and Grave 12 were
the only two that were found at a considerable
distance from the wall and from the other
graves. In this location there is much less loose
rock, much more abundant earth soil. Grave
was 1.75 meters deep. Three pottery vessels
and some miscellaneous copper fragments were
recovered.

Double vessel, plant effigy (219-1) (Fig. 1, d).
Height 16 cm. Two spouts and flat bridge
handle. Composed of two gourds joined by
connecting tube. Gourds placed in opposing
fashion so that curled stem ends are on op-
posite sides of vessel. Each gourd has annular
pedestal base. Spouts long and tapered. Natu-
ral ware color is orange, but this had been
covered with white slip and painted black and

Fes. 15, 1947

red. Red running scroll designs can be vaguely
made out despite erosion of surface..Two little
modeled birds are perched on the bridge
handle.

Globular jar (219-2) (Fig. 1, b). Height 15.7
em, diameter at shoulder 18 em. Collar
cambered and rounded in profile. High shoulder.
Coarse unslipped redware, somewhat blackened
by soot. Pressed design on shoulder in band
encircling vessel consists of slightly diagonal
rows of nodes. These rows may be single,
«double, or triple. Give vague effect of ears of
corn.

Pitcher (219-3) (Fig. 1, a). Height approxi-
mately 21 cm, diameter at midpoint 16 cm.
Thin, fine sand-tempered ware, buff-red. Ap-
pears to have been covered with chalky white
slip. Upper half of vessel has, however, been
white-slipped in a more solid tone. Horizontal
band decoration in red and black on white
ground. Black used to outline design and red as
filler. Horizontal zone divided into vertical
panels. Wavy lines used as fillers in these
panels. There are two little nubbin handles on
opposite sides of the base of spout.

Two lumps of copper (219-4) about 2 to 4
em in diameter and 7 mm in thickness. Pre-
served fragments of string attached.

Grave 9. Fragments of human skeleton
located at 50 cm below surface in rock and dust.
One vessel associated.

Globular jar (220). Height 21 cm, diameter
at midpoint 20 cm. Cambered collar. Coarse
gray-black ware heavily sooted. Two horizon-
tally placed appliqué strips on opposite sides of
body just below collar. These have been heavily
indented with vertically placed impressions or
punctations.

Grave 10. Burial of child at depth of 2
meters in dust and amidst large boulders. One
vessel associated.

Small globular jar (432). Height 11.2 em,
diameter slightly above midpoint 13 em. Cam-
bered collar. Redware with soot stains. Pressed
decoration in band encircling vessel above
shoulder. Design composed of three rows of
raised dots enclosed by a single line above and
one below.

Grave 11. Burial of child in 60 em of rocks
and dust. One vessel in association.

Pitcher (433). Height 20 cm, diameter be-
tween 15 and 13 cm. Vessel slightly flattened in
vertical plane. Spout slightly outflared. Slight

WILLEY: A MIDDLE PERIOD CEMETERY IN VIRU VALLEY 45

bulge at collar-body juncture. Gray-black un-
slipped ware. On shoulders are opposing pairs
of nodes. Each node is punctated in center with
small round dot.

Grave 12. This grave is located some 60
meters south of the wall, about 2 meters from
Grave 8. A poorly preserved adult skeleton was
found at a depth of 1.50 meters in dust but
with little rock. A single vessel, some copper
fragments, and a carved stone object were
found in association.

Globular jar (437-1). Height 17.5 em, diame-
ter above midpoint at high, angled shoulder 19
cm. Short cambered. collar. Coarse redware
caked with soot. There is a small horizontal
flange on one side of the rim which has a tiny
hollow-reed punctation on its upper side.
Pressed zone of decoration above the shoulder
angle is a band divided by sets of double
vertical lines. There are four panels, each of
which contains a field of relief nubbins in three
or four horizontal rows.

Two heavy pieces of copper (437-2) which
appear to be rough-pounded disks with frag-
ments of string adhering. Diameters 4 and 2.5
em and thickness about 3 mm.

Stone estolica hook (487-3) (Fig. 1, g).
Length 7 cm, width 2.9 cm, thickness 1.7 em.
Carved of a blue-gray stone to represent what
appears to be an ear of corn.

DISCUSSION

The V-142 collection of grave ceramics
falls into four main descriptive categories:
(1) black ware or gray-black ware; (2) a
painted Black-white-red ware; (3) coarse
red-fired ware; (4) and a polished orange
ware. Out of a total number of 28 vessels
there are 13 coarse gray-black, 7 polished
black, 5 coarse red, 2 Black-white-red, and
1 polished orange. As a group the collection
appears, at first glance, to be representative
of the latter part of the Middle Period of
the Peruvian north-coast culture sequence.
This is the temporal subdivision that Ben-
nett (1939, pp. 140-142, 146-147), with
reference to the entire Virti- Moche-Chicama
sector, has designated as ‘‘Middle Moche
II, Sub-period C.”’ He characterizes this
particular time bracket by a north-coast
variant of the widespread Black-white-red
geometric ceramic style, numerically high

A6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

percentages of black ware, pressed decora-
tion, absence of architectural features in
association with graves, well-preserved
cloth, and the frequent presence of copper
artifacts with burials. As a subperiod he has
distinguished it on a grave and site as-
sociation basis from the Epigonal or Coast
Tiahuanaco style, its apparent predecessor.
This distinction in the north gains ad-
ditional support from the chronological

split between Epigonal and the Black-

white-red geometric on the Peruvian cen-
tral coast. At the same time, Bennett
makes out a conclusive case for placing this
“Middle II, Sub-period C” as pre-Late
Chimu on the presence of the Black-white-
red and the absence of the characteristic
Chimu forms in the black ware associated
with it.

The cemetery at V-142 and the collection
found there are consistent with this picture
of the upper Middle Period. There is little
doubt that V-142 can be grouped with
Huaca de la Cruz (Bennett, 1939, pp. 28-
51), Taitacantin (Bennett, 1939, pp. 51-53;
Kroeber, 1930, p. 79), and Huaca Larga
(Bennett, 1939, pp. 51-53), all sites of this
subperiod in the Virti Valley. A more de-
tailed examination of the data shows V-142
vessel forms paralleling closely those from
these three sites. The large percentage of
olla forms with short collars and bulged,
flared, or occasionally angled rims, the
presence of globular vessels with constricted
necks and nubbin shoulder handles, and the
rare occurrences of double-vessels or stirrup-
spout vessels are particularly meaningful
in this comparison. Rarity or absence of
shallow bowls, the absence of tripod legs,
and the presence of appliqué nodes as a
common decorative element are further
similarities between the Huaca Cruz-Taita-
cantin-Huaca Larga group and V-142.

The very few graves and vessels pre-
sented here from V-142 render it impossible
to make valid percentage comparisons of
the styles represented between this site and
Huaca de la Cruz or Taitacantin. There is,
though, at V-142 a suggestion of the pro-
portional relationships among styles or
wares that are seen in the Huaca de la
Cruz and Taitacantin collections. Black and
gray ware has the highest frequency of oc-

VOL. 37, No. 2

currence; orange or red ware is next highest; —
and the Black-white-red style appears in
the minority percentages of 11, 28, and 7 at
Huaca Cruz, Taitacantin, and V-142, re-
spectively.

The two most unusual specimens in the
V-142 collection are the double-vessel plant
efigy and the modeled stirrup-mouth jar.
The first is perhaps less so than the latter.
The long, tapered spouts, flat bridge-
handle, and annular pedestal bases to the
effigy bodies are typical of the Middle to
Late Periods of the north coast. These
forms are, however, more often found in
black ware than in the Black-white-red
style as in this case. This hybridization of
painting style and form is a clear demon-
stration of the fusion and contemporaneity
of the Black-white-red influence and the
plastic tradition of the north expressed in
Middle Period black ware. The stirrup-
mouth jar is more unusual in this collection
in that in form it is nearer the mode of Late
Chimu than any other piece recovered —
from V-142. The stirrup part of the spout.
is characteristically rectangular in cross
section; the upright spout is straight-sided;
and the lip has the typical thinning. The
base of the vessel is rectangular, and the
monkey situated at juncture of stirrup arc ©
and spout is the classic Chimu hallmark.
Kroeber (1926, p. 23) and others have
marked the fact that not all modeled
Chimu pottery is black, and this well-
finished orange specimen, in spite of its
color, could be classified only as Late
Chimu. Its presence in the V-142 context
can best be accounted for by assuming it to
be a part of the inception of the Chimu
stylistic trends that were to dominate Viru
after the close of the Middle Period.

It may be, of course, that Grave 2, the
grave in which the stirrup-spout occurred,
dates slightly later than other graves at the
site, particularly those which contained the
Black-white-red vessels. An examination of
the grave lots with this in mind shows an
interesting split that might possibly indi-
cate a temporal difference. The other ves-
sels in Grave 2 show close resemblances to
those in Graves 1, 8, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 11.
Standing apart from all these are Graves 8,
10, and 12. Grave 8 contained both the

Fes. 15, 1947

Black-white-red pots and one red pressed-
decorated vessel; Graves 10 and 12 yielded
the only other 2 red pressed- decorated ollas
in the entire collection. There are, then,
some grounds for supposing the red pressed-
decorated and Black-white-red graves to be
slightly earlier than the black ware graves,
one of which has a near-typical Chimu
stirrup-mouth jar. In the face of the data
from Huaca de la Cruz and Taitacantin
this slim evidence for a separation is worth
only passing consideration. If at all valid
its real importance may be to keynote the

fact of the transition which was undoubted- -

ly taking place. This transition of ceramic
styles, the gradual disappearance of the
Black-white-red and the red or oxidized
wares and their replacement by the Chimu
forms and black or reduced wares, char-
acterized the Viri Valley in the Middle
Period.

SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON THE AMPHIPOD GENUS COROPHIUM 47

Consistent with this interpretation has
been the surface survey study of ceramics
conducted in Virti as a part of the Institute
of Andean Research program by James A.
Ford. Ford has found the shift from the
Black-white-red or upper Middle Period
into Late Period Chimu to be one of gradu-
ally changing percentage frequencies in
pottery styles, not a major ceramic break.

LITERATURE CITED

BENNETT, WENDELL C. Archaeology of the north
coast of Peru, an account of exploration and
excavation in. Viri and Lambayeque Val-
leys. Anthrop. Pap. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.
37 (pt. 1): 1939.

Kroeser, A. L. Archaeological explorations in
Peru, Part I, Ancient pottery from Trujillo.
Anthrop. Mem. Field Mus. Nat. Hist.
2(1). 1926.

. Archaeological explorations in Peru,

Part II, The northern coast. Anthrop. Mem.

Field Mus. Nat. Hist. 2(2). 1930.

ZOOLOGY .—Further notes on the amphipod genus Corophium from the east coast

of America.!
Museum.

Since the publication of my paper The
amphipod genus Corophium on the east coast
of America (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington
47: 23-32. 1934), additional records have
extended the range of several of the species,
@ new species has been described from
Florida, and the female of C. louistanum
has been discovered. I am giving detailed
figures of the species so far recorded from
the east coast of America, several of which
have not been figured heretofore, and also
a description of the female of C. louzstanum.

In his paper A review of the amphipod
genus Corophium with notes on the British
species (Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. 21 (2):
589-630. 1937), G. I. Crawford has given
extensive references to the literature under
the respective speci:s. I am, therefore, giv-
ing only brief references to the literature of
those species common to both Europe and
America. I am following Crawford in his
convenient division of the genus Corophium

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received November
13, 1946.

CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER, associate in zoology, U. 8. National

into three sections. The species of the east
coast of America fall into these divisions as
follows:

SEcTION A: Segments of urosome separate.

1, Antenna 2, segment 4, different in 7 and @
C. rioplatense, p. 48
2. Antenna 2, segment 4, alike in #@ and Q
C. volutator, p. 51
Section B: Segments of urosome fused; uropods

1 and 2 inserted in notches in the lateral
margins.

1. Antenna 2, segment 4, different in @ and 9
acherusicum, p. 53
crassicorne, p. 53
tuberculatum, p. 53
insidiosum, p. 53
ellisi, p. 59

o unknown... bonellaz, p. 59
2. Antenna 2, segment 4, alike in @ and @
STG SEL AS Te eae Ree no species
Section C: Segments of urosome fused; uropods
1 and 2 attached ventrally; lateral margins
of urosome without notches.
1. Antenna 2, segment 4, different in @ and @
Pen Obta: cy treet Weer ee C. acutum, p. 59
C’. lacustre, p. 59
C. loutsianum, p. 63

2. Antenna 2, segment 4, alike in # and 92

C. simile, p. 63

Leh Lemnos eliietiaiitie se iie-l ey twiiieigeue\e) tere, ehte

eo) ‘elfen cenvewenue® v4.05 se sere x0

aaaaaa

Sg Seely Ohl eLheiie) jena, 'ebie ra’ va) eke) eae ella. se

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Corophium rioplatense Giambiagi
Fig. 1, a-j
Corophium rioplatense Giambiagi, Anal. Mus.
Nac. Hist. Nat. Buenos Aires 34: 1388, figs.
1-3. 1926.
Corophium rioplatense Shoemaker, Proc. Washing-
ton Biol. Soc. 34: 27. 1934.
‘Corophium rioplatense Crawford, Journ. Marine
Biol. Assoe. 21 (2): 605. 1937.

C. rioplatense was described from the Rio de
la Plata in 1926 and has not been recorded else-
where. Senora Giambiagi has kindly sent me a
mature male and female, cotypes of her species,
from which the accompanying figures were
drawn.

Male.—Head without rostrum; lateral lobes
short and rounding. The eyes of the specimens
examined were rather indistinct, but this is
probably due to their state of preservation.
Antenna | reaching almost to the middle of the
fifth joint of antenna 2; first joint without
proximal spines on inner margin, but with a
number of long, forward-curving setae, lower
margin with a single forward-pointing distal
spine; flagellum consisting of six or seven Joints.
Antenna 2, fourth joint with lower margin pro-
duced distally into a curved tooth above which
is a smaller tooth, fifth joint with a small blunt
tooth on lower proximal margin, lower margins
of fourth and fifth joints and flagellum fur-
nished with tufts of very long setae.

Mandibular palp, first joint not produced
distally, but apically rounding with the plu-
mose seta attached somewhat submarginally;
second joint longer than the first and bearing
the usual plumose seta beside which is a shorter
seta. Gnathopod 1, palm evenly convex, with-
out defining angle, armed on inside surface with
four or five slender spines and with several
longer spines where the palm passes into the
lower margin of the joint, entire palm very
finely denticulate; seventh joint with inner
margin bearing a distal tooth behind which are
very fine denticulations. Gnathopod 2, seventh
joint bearing two teeth on inner margin.

Uropod 1, peduncle with three stout spines
on outer lateral margin followed proximally by
a slender spine, and there appears to be a small
spine at the distal angle, inner margin with a
small distal spine; the lower distal margin of
peduncle produced into a long triangular proc-
ess with rounding apex; outer ramus with four
spines on outer margin, and the usual group of

VOL. 37, NO. 2

distal spines, inner margin without spines; in-
ner ramus bearing the same spination as outer
ramus. Uropod 2, peduncle without spines;
rami with distal spines and each ramus with a
single spine on outer lateral margin, but none —
on inner margins. Uropod 8, ramus longer than
peduncle. Telson wider than long. Length of the
male examined about 3 mm from front of head
to end of uropods.

Female.—The female differs from the male
principally in antenna 2. Antenna 1 reaching
to the distal end of the fifth joint of antenna 2;
first joint armed with one spine at the proximal
end of the inner margin (Giambiagi’s figure
shows two spines), lower margin bearing a
single distal spine as in male; flagellum consist-
ing of about seven joints. Antenna 2, short
and stout; fourth joint with lower margin pro-
duced distally into a thin angular lobe bearing
a distal spine above which are three smaller
spines; five spines borne on low protuberances.
on inner surface of lower margin; and two
spines on inner surface, one near the distal edge
of joint and the other about the middle; fifth
joint with a low triangular protuberance bear-
ing a spine situated near the middle of the lower
margin, and a smaller protuberance near the
proximal end of lower margin. Head without
rostrum; lateral lobes short and rounding.
Mandibular palp as in male, but with asingle
plumose seta at the apex of the second joint
Gnathopod 1 as in male, but bearing about
seven submarginal spines on inside edge of
palm. Gnathopod 2 like that of male. The
uropods of the female are partially missing, and
the third uropods lack the rami. The first
uropod on the right side is present and appears
to be uninjured. The peduncle of this uropod
bears no spines, but has three long, slender
setae on the outer lateral margin, and the lobe
or projection at the lower distal end is sharply
triangular; the spine-arrangement of the rami
is about the same as in the male. In Giambiagi’s
figure (3, Ur. 39 ) of uropod 3 of the female the
ramus is equal in length to the peduncle.

The fifth peraeopods are lacking on both the
male and female at my disposal, but, according
to Giambiagi’s drawing (fig. 3, p. 7), the second
joint of this peraeopod, at least in the male, is
very narrow and not at all expanded. The fe-
male measures about 4 mm from the front of
the head to the end of the uropods.

Fes. 15, 1947 SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON THE AMPHIPOD GENUS COROPHIUM 49

The female here figured has fully developed Corophium species
marsupial plates and appears to be fully ma- Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, in 1942, collected a
ture, but the male is smaller and may not have © number of specimens of Corophiwm in brackish
reached its maximum size. water in Ciénaga del Guanavana (swamp), 10

i)

Fig. 1.—Corophium rioplatense Giambiagi, male: a, antenna 2; b, mandibular palp: c, urosome and
appendages; female: d, antenna 1, top view; e, antenna 1, side view; f, left antenna 2, inside view; g,
lower margin of fourth joint of antenna 2, tilted to show protuberances and spines; h, gnathopod 1; 2,
end of gnathopod 2; 7, right uropod 1. Corophium volutator Pallas, male: k, antenna 1;/, antenna 1, lower
margin or first joint; m, left antenna 2, inside view; female: n, antenna 1, lower margin of first joint.

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 2

km north of Sinnamaica, Venezuela. These
specimens were dried out, but after soaking in
warm water they show many characters pos-
sessed by C. rioplatense. Without fresh material

from Ciénaga del Guanavana, and a series of
C’. rioplatense showing growth characters, I do
not feel justified in identifying this Venezuelan
material as C. rioplatense.

Fig. 2.—Corophium acherusicum Costa, male: a, anterior part of animal; 6, head from above; c,
mandibular palp; d, maxilliped; e, gnathopod 1; f, seventh joint of gnathopod 2; g peraeopod 5; h, uro-

some and appendages.

Fes. 15, 1947 SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON THE AMPHIPOD GENUS COROPHIUM 51

_ The characters of the male agree with those
of the male of C. rioplatense; it is without
rostrum and uropod 1 possesses the long spatu-
late distal lobe. In the female young specimens
bear four spines beside the distal spine on the
_ lower margin of the fourth joint of antenna 2;
in older females there are three spines in addi-
tion to the distal spine on the lower margin and
two spines on the inner surface of the fourth
joint, as shown for C. rioplatense (fig. 1, f). On
the upper margin of the distal lobe of this
fourth joint are one or more small spines; the
fifth joint has a protuberance armed with a
spine in the middle of the lower margin as in
C. rioplatense. The inner margin of the first
joint of antenna 1 bears three proximal spines
and the lower margin bears four or five spines.
Giambiagi does not mention the number of
spines on the lower margin of this joint, but
in the female that I have studied there is only
a distal spine, as I have shown in Fig. 1, e.
Gnathopods 1 and 2 are like those of C.
rioplatense. Uropod 1 of the female has the
sharply triangular lobe as in C. rioplatense.
Length of female from front of head to end of
uropods 3.5 to 4 mm. The male is smaller.

Corophium volutator (Pallas)
Fig. 1, k—n

Oniscus volutator Pallas, Miscellanea Zoologica:
192, pl. 14, fig. 20. 1766.

Corophium grossipes Sars, Crust. Norway 1: 614,
pl. 219. 1894.

Corophium volutator Blake, in Procter, Biol.
Survey Mount Desert Region, pt. 5: 255. 1933.

Corophium volutator Shoemaker, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington 47: 23. 1934.

Corophium volutator Crawford, Journ.
Biol. Assoc. 21 (2): 595. 1937.

Marine

C. volutator is much more widely distributed
in Europe than it is in America, where it has
been recorded only from the Bay of Fundy and
the coast of Maine. It is a large species, about
6 mm in length and is the type species of the
genus. I have figured the antennae of the male
and the first joint of the first antenna of the
female. The second antenna of the female,
though smaller, resembles that of the male,
having the curved tooth at the lower distal
corner of the fourth joint, but not the inward-
curving tooth at the upper distal corner. Craw-
ford (1937, p. 596) says of C. volutator, “‘..
forming tubes intertidally in the mud of estua-
rine mud-flats, salt-marsh pools, and brackish

“é
he
xh

TRG,
WNOWAN SS
XY

): SS
x xy ‘A \\

Fie. 3.—Corophium acherusicum Costa, female: a, head and first antennae from above; b, left antenna
1 from above; c, left antenna 1 showing spines on lower margin; d, left antenna 2; e, mandibular palp;
male: f, left antenna 1 showing spine and protuberances on lower margin.

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 3/7, NO. 2

IX

—

Fie. 4.—Corophium crassicorne Bruzelius, male: a, right antenna 1, top view; b, antenna 1, side view;
c, antenna 2, side view; d, antenna 2 showing small spines on inner surface of lower margin; e—h, an-
tenna 2 showing successively younger stages; 7, gland cone of antenna 2; 7, mandible; k, gnathopod 2;
l, top of head showing rostrum and lateral lobes; m, peraeopod 5; n, urosome and appendages; female:
o, right antenna 1, top view; p, antenna 1, side view; q, antenna 2, side view; 7, gland cone, inside view;

s, gnathopod 1; t, gnathopod 2.

Fup. 15, 1947

ditches. In some of the streams running into the
Tamar it lives in almost fresh water associated
with a number of insect larvae. In many of its
localities, however, the water is nearly of full
salinity.’ The specimens here figured were
taken in the Shubenacadie River at Urbania,
Nova Scotia, by the Biological Board of Can-
ada. .=

Corophium acherusicum Costa
ae Figs. 2, 3

Corophium acherusicum Costa, Mem. Accad. Sci.
Napoli 1: 232. 1857.

Corophium acherusicum Shoemaker, Proc. Biol.
Soc. Washington 47: 24. 1934.

Corophium acherusicum Crawford, Journ. Marine
Biol Assoc. 21) (2): 617, fig. 2, P..1937.

Specimens in the national collection which
were formerly identified as Corophiuwm cylin-
dricum Say have proved to be the same species
as C. acherusicum Costa, which has a wide dis-
tribution both in the Eastern and Western
Hemispheres.

Crawford gives as the distribution: Southern
England; coasts of France and Holland; Medi-
terranean; northern coast of Africa from the
Suez Canal to Senegal; Durban Bay; Dar-es-
Salaam; and Lyttleton Harbor, New Zealand.
In the National Museum there are specimens
from the east coast of America from Baffin’s
Bay to Brazil; and from the west coast from
Alaska, Vancouver Island, and California
(Monterey Bay, San Francisco Bay, and New-
port Bay); also from Oahu, Hawaiian Islands,
and from a ship’s bottom at Hong Kong.

Corophium crassicorne Bruzelius
Fig. 4
Corophium crassicorne Bruzelius, Kongl. Svenska
Vet.-Akad. Handl. Stockholm (n. ser.) 3 (1):
15, pl. 1, fig. 2. 1859.
Corophium crassicorne Sars,
615, pl. 220. 1894.
Corophium crassicorne Stebbing, Das Tierreich,
Amphipoda. I Gammaridea: 690, figs. 116-118.
~ 1906.
Corophium crassicorne Blake, 1n Procter, Survey
Mount DesertRegion, pt. 5: 255. 1933.
Corophium crassicorne Shoemaker, Proc. Biol.
Soe. Washington 47: 24. 1934.
Corophium crassicorne Crawford, Journ. Marine
Biol. Assoc. 21 (2): 607, figs. 4 a-f. 1937.

Drake
Amphipoda of the Arctic, Fauna Arctica, 1932,
p. 372) gives as the distribution of this species,

Crust. Norway 1:

Stephensen (The Tanaidacea and

SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON THE AMPHIPOD GENUS COROPHIUM 53

“From southern Spitzbergen and Barents Sea
to Black Sea; Jan Mayen (not Greenland and
Iceland).’’ In 1933 Blake recorded it from
Mount Desert Island, Maine. In 1934 I ex-
tended the range on the east coast of North
America from Bay of Fundy to Gardiners Bay,
Long Island, New York. Two fully developed
females collected by Dr. Wm. H. Dall at
Chichagof Harbor, Attu, Alaska, June 20, 1873,
are undoubtedly this species. I can find no pub-
lished records of the extension of the range of
C. crassicorne since 1934. A. O. Walker in 1904
recorded the species from Ceylon. Dr. Chas.
Chilton in 1921 recorded it from Chilka Lake
and New Zealand, and said that he also had
specimens from Port Jackson, New South
Wales. In 1925 Dr. Chilton recorded it from
Talé Sap, India. It is now thought that these
specimens recorded by Walker and Chilton
should be referred to C. triaenonyx described by
T. R. R. Stebbing in 1904 from Ceylon (Spolia
Zeylanica 2, pt. 5; 25, pl. 6a), as this species
has several characters resembling those of C.
crassicorne.

Corophium tuberculatum Shoemaker
Fig. 5
Corophium tuberculatum Shoemaker, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington, 47: 29. 1934.

Corophium tuberculatum Crawford, Journ. Marine

Biol. Assoc. 21 (2): 623. 1937.

Since the description of this species in 1934,
very fine additional specimens have been re-
ceived at the National Museum, which extend
the range considerably southward. Corophium
tuberculatum is at present represented by speci-
mens from Woods Hole, Mass.; Amityville,
Long Island, N. Y.; Mispitton Cove, Delaware
Bay, Del.; many specimens from Chesapeake
Bay, taken by the steamer Fish Hawk; off
Bogue Inlet, N. C. (Fish Hawk station 8286);
Edisto Island, 8S. C. (taken by T. K. Ellis);
Fernandina, Fla. (taken by Andrew Pizzini);
Sarasota Bay, Fla. (taken by M. W. Williams);
and Deer Island, off Biloxi, Miss. (taken by
M. W. Williams).

This species appears to prefer the waters of
bays and estuaries, and it has not been recorded
outside the east coast of the United States.

Corophium insidiosum Crawford
Figs. 6, 7
Corophium insidiosum Crawford, Journ. Marine
Biol. Assoc. 21 (2): 615. fig. 2 a-g. 1937.

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 2

Suni, ILL
| ‘ sh) Wi / Mae Za
eS
Vee)

<Z
We 7

7. eat
..

Fie. 5.—Corophium tuberculatum Shoemaker, male: a, rostrum, like that of female; b, antenna 1 from
above; c, antenna I, side view; d, antenna 2; e, mandibular palp; f, gnathopod 1; g, gnathopod 2; h,
peraeopod 5; 7, urosome and appendages; female: 7, antenna 2.

Frs. 15, 1947 SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON THE AMPHIPOD GENUS COROPHIUM 55

VES
a=
pie ee |
ZEN N
\\

WAS

—
SSA WW Wo AX

x mS

Fie. 6.—Corophium insidiosum Crawford, male: a, head showing rostrum and lateral lobes; b,
antenna 1, side view; c, right antenna 1 from above, showing inner lobe; d, antenna 1 of young male, side
view showing spines on lower margin; e, mandible; f, mandibular palp of a male from Chile; g, gnatho-
pod 1; h, urosome and appendages; female: 2, antenna 1, side view; j, antenna 1, top view showing the
proximal spine of inner margin and the spines of lower margin; k, antenna 2; 1, mandibular palp; m,
gnathopod 1.

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In reexamining the material in the National
Museum, I have found this species to be pres-
ent on both the east and west coasts of America.
Crawford has already recorded it from Oak-
land, Calif. In the national collection there are
specimens from Newburyport, Mass.; Amity-
ville, Long Island, N. Y.; Oakland Estuary and
Point Richmond, San Francisco Bay, Calif.;
Oyster Bay, Totten Inlet, Puget Sound, Wash.;

VOL. 37, NO. 2

and from an islet off the pier at Talcahuana,
Chile. Crawford gives the distribution as fol-
lows: England; Denmark; Kieler Bucht, Ger-
many; Lake of Venice, Italy; and Oakland, San
Francisco Bay, California. .

The female of this species closely resembles
that of C. bonella1, but males of C. insidiosum
are fairly common, whereas the male of C.
bonellit is unknown.

Fig. 7.—Corophium insidiosum Crawford, male: a, antenna 2 of mature male; b, gnathopod 2;
c, peraeopod 5; d, antenna 2 of young male showing a proximal spine on lower margin of fourth joint;
e, f, top and side views of antenna 1 of young male; g, gnathopod 2 of a young male; female: h, gnatho-
pod 2; 7, seventh joint of gnathopod 2 of a female from Chile; 7, mandible of a female from Chile; k,

peraeopod 5.

Frs. 15, 1947 SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON THE AMPHIPOD GENUS COROPHIUM o7

Fie. 8.—Corophium bonellii Sars, female: a, top of head showing rostrum and lateral lobes; b, right
antenna 1, top view; c, antenna 1, side view showing spines on lower border; d, antenna 2;e, antenna 2
with only one spine on fifth joint; f, mandibular palp; g, gnathopod 2; h, urosome and appendages. .

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 2

NY) \y ‘oe

yy \

Fie. 9.—Corophium acutum Chevreux, male: a, rostrum, like that of female; b, right antenna I from
above; c, antenna I, side view; d, antenna 2; e, antenna 2 of young male; f, mandibular palp; g, gnatho-
pod 1; h, gnathopod 2; 7, peraeopod 5; 37, urosome and appendages; female: k, antenna 1, side view (the
inner margin of first joint bears two proximal spines as in male); /, antenna 2; m, mandibular palp.

Fes. 15, 1947 SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON THE AMPHIPOD GENUS COROPHIUM 59

Corophium ellisi Shoemaker

_ Corophium ellist Shoemaker, Charleston Mus.
Leaflet No. 18: 3, fig. 1. 19438.

The first and up to the present time the only —

known specimens of this species were collected
by T. K. Ellis from the stomach of a ray taken
in Lemon Bay, Sarasota County, Fla. Recently
M. W. Williams collected for the National
Museum very fine mature specimens of both
sexes of C. ellisi at Sarasota Bay, Fla., which
record extends the range a few miles southward
along the west coast of Florida.

Corophium bonellii (Milne-Edwards)
G. O. Sars
Fig. 8
Corophia bonellii H. Milne-Edwards, Ann. Sci.
Nat. 20: 385. 1830.

Corophium bonellit H. Milne-Edwards,

Nat. Crust. 3: 67. 1840.

_ Corophium bonelli Sars, Crust. Norway 1: 616, pl.

221, fig. 1. 1894.

Corophium pseudacherusicum Schellenberg, Fur-
ther zool. results, Swedish Antarctic Exped.
1901-1903, 2 (6): 258, fig. 134. 1931.

Corophium pseudacherusicum Shoemaker, Proc.
Biol. Soe. Washington 47: 25. 1934.

Corophium bonelli Crawford, Journ. Marine Biol.
Assoc. 21 (2): 608, fig. 2 h—-o. 1937.

The description and figures of the female
specimens by G. O. Sars in 1894 have been ac-
cepted by Crawford as fixing the status of C.
bonellit. He has examined some of the speci-
mens used by Sars and has redescribed them
and figured the diagnostic appendages. He has

shown that C. pseudacherusicum Schellenberg
is a synonym of C. bonellit, and has also called
attention to the confusion which has existed
among C’. bonellit, C. acherusicwm, and his new
species C’. insidiosum.

As there has never been a male among the
many thousands of specimens of C. bonellii that
have been taken, Crawford thinks it probable
that the species is parthenogenetic. Partheno-
genesis is of rare occurrence in the Amphipoda.

I have reexamined the material in the Na-
tional Museum in the light of Crawford’s
diagnoses and find that both C. bonellii and
C. insidiosum are well represented. C. bonella
appears to be rather common on the coasts of
Nova Scotia and New England. Proceeding
southward, there are no further records in the
Museum until the Falkland Islands are reached.
There are also specimens from Punta Arenas,

Hist.

Chile. Crawford gives as the distribution
Northern Europe; British Isles; France; Den-
mark; Italy; east coast of North America;
Brazil (500 miles ENE. of Rio de Janeiro);
Falkland Islands; and Punta Arenas, Chile.

Corophium acutum Chevreux
Fig. 9

Corophium acutum Chevreux, Bull. Soc. Zool.
France 33: 75, fig. 6. 1908.

Corophium acutum Chevreux, Mem. Soc. Zool.
France 23: 271. 1911.

Corophium acutum Chevreux and Fage, Faune de
France, 9 Amphipodes: 366, figs. 359, 374. 1925.

Corophium acutum Schellenberg, Trans. Zool.
Soc. London 22, pt. 5: 672. 1928.

Corophium acutum Shoemaker, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington 47; 26. 1934.

Corophium acutum Schellenberg, Fisheries Re-
search Directorate (Egypt). Notes and Mem-
oirs No. 18 (The Fisheries Grounds near Alex-
andria. 10.—Amphipoda Benthonica): 22. 1936.

Corophium acutum Crawford Journ. Marine Biol.
Assoc., 21 (2): 624. 1937.

Corophium acutum Ruffo, Ann. Mus. Civ. Storia
Nat. Genova 60: 147. 1938.

Corophium acutum Salfi, Arch. Zool. Torino 27:
31, figs. 4-7. 1938.

Corophium acutum Ruffo, Boll. Inst. Ent. Univ.
Bologna 11: 123. 1941.

There have been no additional records of C.
acutum from America since the publication of
my paper in 1934. It has been recorded from
Woods Hole, Mass.; Lond Island Sound; Cape
May, N. J.; and from the vicinity of Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil. C. acutum appears to occur very
sparingly in America, but it has a very wide
distribution elsewhere, as it has been recorded
from the following localities: Southern Eng-
land; France; Monaco; Suez Canal; Algeria;
Durban, Natal; Auckland; and New Zealand.

Corophium lacustre Vanhdéffen
Fig. 10
Corophium lacustre Vanhoffen, Sitzungsb. Ges.
Naturf. Berlin 1911, no. 9: 400, figs. 1-4.
1911.
Corophium lacustre Sexton, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon-
don 1912: 664, pl. 74, figs. 13-17. 1912.
Corophium lacustre Shoemaker, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington 47: 27. 1934.
Corophium lacustre Crawford, Journ.
Biol. Assoc. 21 (2): 625. 1937.

Since my paper of 1934 the range of C. lacus-
ire has been extended both northward and

southward along the east coast of the United
States. In 1934 the range extended from Chesa-

Marine

60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 2

<A
aS
SS

KS
we

i i)

tiff
NV i han i LW
iD ies WAL)

f we / K Mfg
ACN WAG,
tl WA
i

Fie. 10.—Corophium lacustre Vanhoffen, male: a, rostrum; b, right antenna 1 from above; ¢, an-
tenna 1, side view; d, lower margin of first joint of antenna 1; e, antenna 2; f, mandibular palp; g, h,
gnathopod 1; 7, gnathopod 2; 7, peraeopod 5; k, urosome and appendages; female: /, rostrum; m, right
antenna 1 from above; n, antenna 1, side view; 0, p, antenna 2.

Frs. 15, 1947 SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON THE AMPHIPOD GENUS COROPHIUM 61

LZ
LF E
ZS ZZ Z
y L —S—S_

WAS =~
\ XS SS:
Y) We

Fig. 11.—Corophium loutstanum Shoemaker, male: a, rostrum and eye lobes; }, right antenna 1 from
above; c, antenna 1, side view; d, antenna 2; e, second joint of antenna 2 showing gland-cone; f, fourth
joint of antenna 2 showing small accessory distal tooth; g, mandibular palp; h, gnathopod 1; 7, seventh
joint of gnathopod 2 of type showing the three teeth on inner margin; j, seventh joint of gnathopod 2
showing two teeth on inner margin; k, peraeopod 5; female: l, right antenna 1 from above; m, right
antenna 1, side view; n, antenna 2 showing spines on inner surface of fourth joint; 0, gnathopod 1;
p, seventh joint of gnathopod 2.

62 _ JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 2

Sh
> at a A é .
RS Y. WY ,

—= =
“eee es Toa
_ ~ SSS
“~S = SS

< :

SSS

S
St
SS
QE

St See

eS

Fig. 12.—Corophium simile Shoemaker, male: a, rostrum; 0, right antenna 1 from above; c, antenna
1, side view; d, antenna 2; e, antenna 2, specimen from May River, S. C.; f, g, h, tubercle on lower
margin of fourth joint of antenna 2 of three different specimens; 7, mandible; 7, k, gnathopod 1; l,
gnathopod 2; m, peraeopod 5; n, urosome and appendages; female: 0, antenna 2; p, antenna 2 showing
spine on lower margin of fourth joint of female from Vineyard Sound, Mass.; q, proximal tubercle on
lower margin of fourth joint of a specimen from New Haven Harbor, Conn.

Fes. 15, 1947 SHOEMAKER: NOTES ON THE AMPHIPOD GENUS COROPHIUM 63

peake Bay to Winyah Bay, 8. C. The National
Museum has since received specimens from
_ Haverstraw on the Hudson River, N. Y. (taken
by H. K. Townes); Fort Raleigh, Roanoke
Island, N. C.; Cooper River and Alligator
Creek, 8. C.; and Welaka, Fla. (taken by the
U.S. Bureau of Fisheries). In Europe this spe-
cies has been recorded from the coasts of Ger-
many, Finland, Holland, France, and England.

C. lacustre extends up the rivers of the east
coast of the United States into waters that are
very nearly fresh.

Corophium louisianum Shoemaker
Fig. 11
- Corophium louisianum Shoemaker, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington 47: 30. 1934.

Corophium louisianum Crawford, Journ. Marine

Biol. Assoc. 21 (2): 626. 1937.

When this species was described in 1934 there
were only two known specimens, both males,
one from Chef Menteur, La., and one from
Biloxi, Miss. During the summer of 1944 M. W.
Williams obtained for the National Museum
mature specimens of both sexes at Biloxi, Miss.,
and at Sarasota Bay, Fla. C. lowisianum is a
tube-building species. ~

In describing the second antenna of the male
(1934, p. 30), I said, ‘“‘“Fourth joint large and
powerful, lower distal corner produced into a
strong, slightly curved tooth, above which on
the inside of the joint is a prominent distal lobe
bearing a notch and setule.’’ While this de-
scription is correct for the type specimen, most
of the fully developed males possess a small
tooth below this notch, as shown by Fig. 11, f.
I also stated in the original description that
pleon segments 4-6 were coalesced with their
united lateral margins raised into a ridge above
the dorsal surface. I should have said that the
united lateral margins of the fourth and fifth
segments are raised into a ridge above the dor-
sal surface. This ridge is very prominent in both
sexes and does not show any interruption be-
tween the fourth and fifth segments. This cor-
rection also applies to pleon segments 4-6 of

Corophium simile, which I described in the
same paper.

The inner margin of the seventh joint of
gnathopod 2 of the male bears two teeth, but
occasionally there are three.

The female resembles the male except in the
antennae. In the female the first joint of an-
tenna 1 does not possess the protuberance on
the upper inner margin or the forward-pointing
tooth on the lower margin, but has only one
proximal spine on inner margin and two small
forward-pointing spines on the lower margin.
In antenna 2 the second joint is produced below
into a curved lobe bearing a small spine; the
third joint bears a short anterior lobe armed
with a short spine; the fourth joint bears on the
lower margin a distal spine and another spine
a little forward of the center; the fifth joint is
without spines. The palm of gnathopod 1 is
convex and passes by an evenly rounding curve
into the hind margin of the joint, and it is
armed on the outside and inside by a row of
notched spines; the seventh joint bears distally
on the inner margin a single forward-pointing
tooth. In gnathopod 2 the seventh joint is
armed on the inner margin with 2 teeth. Fe-
male measures from apex of rostrum to end of
uropods from 4 to 4.5 mm.

Corophium simile Shoemaker
Fig. 12
Corophium simile Shoemaker, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington 47: 28. 1934.

Corophium simile Crawford, Journ. Marine Biol.
Assoc. 21 (2): 626. 1937.

In 1934 the range of C. simile was given as
extending from Vineyard Sound, Mass., to
South Carolina. Since then specimens have
been taken at Lemon Bay, Fla., by Olga Hart-
man; at Sarasota Bay, Fla., by M. W. Wil-
liams; and at Apalachicola Bay, Fla., by A. S.
Pearse. Though this species has a rather wide
distribution, it appears to occur in very sparing
numbers. It has not been recorded except from
the east coast of the United States.

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 3/7, NO. 2

ENTOMOLOGY.—The orchid bugs of the genus Tenthecoris Scott (Hemiptera:
Miridae).1 Tsat-yu Hstao, Nankai University, Tientsin, China, and

Reece I. Saiter, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

municated by PauL W. Oman.)

For many years plant quarantine inspec-
tors at the various United States ports have
been intercepting large numbers of plant
bugs of the family Miridae on Orchidaceae
imported from Neotropical areas. Because
of the absence cf any comprehensive work
treating the group of species involved, the
identification of this intercepted material
has been extremely inaccurate. This paper
has been written in an effort to improve
this situation and to provide names for sev-
eral species not before described.

The genus T'enthecoris was established in
1886 by Scott (8, pp. 64-66). Previously, in
1860, Stal (9, pp. 57-58) had established
the genus LEccritotarsus and included 15
species from Rio de Janeiro. This was found
by Reuter and Bergroth to be a composite
genus, and subsequently all the species,
with the exception of E. semiluteus, were
transferred to other genera.2 Meanwhile,
the existence of Eccritotarsus undoubtedly
delayed recognition of Scott’s genus Ten-
thecorts.

The genus Tenthecoris contains colorful
bugs of medium size. 7’. bicolor Scott, as the
only originally included species, is the geno-
type. Tenthecoris may be separated from
Eccritotarsus and other related genera by
the following combination of characters:
Pronotal collar incomplete; rostrum long,
attaining or surpassing apex of posterior
coxa, third and fourth segments very short,
together distinctly shorter than one-half
the length of second segment (except in
distinctus and ballouz, n. spp.); antennal
segment II of moderate length, not twice
as long as I.

The bicolorous combination of orange to
yellow with black to caerulescent black
seems characteristic of the genus. Judged
from the material studied the color pattern

1 Received November 18, 1946.

2In a paper by the senior author (Proc. Ent.
Soc. Washington 49(2): 59-62. 1947) it is pointed
out, however, that seven of Stal’s original species
must remain in Kccritotarsus.

(Com-

for each species is remarkably stable. The
male genitalia are conspicuous and provide
valuable characters for distinguishing
species. |

The oldest named species now included in
Tenthecoris is generosus, a Mexican species
that was described by Stal (10, p. 323) as
an Eccritotarsus in 1862. Distant described
E. vestitus in 1884 from Guatemala (2, p.
284) and E. exitiosus in 1889 from Trinidad
(3, p. 202). Both species belong to Tenthe-
coris. In 1902 Reuter (5, p. 157) described
E. orchidearum from Brazil and noted its ~
similarity to E. vestitus and EH. exitiosus of
Distant without mentioning the genus
Tenthecoris. Distant (4, p. 202) was the
first to recognize T'enthecoris when in 1904
he published the following statement:
“Tenthecoris, Scott is very closely allied to
Eccritotarsus, Stal. It is described as an
orchid pest, as is also Eccritotarsus exitiosus
Distant and E. orchidearum Reuter. T. bi-
color is very closely allied by description to
Reuter’s species.”

In 1907 Reuter (6, p. 253) appears to have
first become aware of the identity of
Tenthecoris bicolor. At this time he synony-
mized HE. orchidearum (synonymy is ques-
tion in discussion for TJ. bicolor, p. 70)
with 7. bicolor and transferred EH. generosus
Stal (7, p. 154) to Tenthecoris.

In 1942 Costa Lima (/, p. 100) published
a review of the literature pertaining to 7’.
bicolor and provided illustrations suitable for
its identification. As noted above, Distant
had remarked that eattiosus was ‘very
closely allied by description”; however,
Costa Lima was the first to use the com-
bination Tenthecoris exitiosus.

Thus it is seen that prior to the present
paper Tenthecoris contained three species,
viz., bicolor Scott, exitiosus (Distant), and
generosus (Stal). One additional species, Hc-
critotarsus vestitus Distant is here trans-
ferred for the first time to Tenthecoris. Seven
additional species, which we believe to be
new, have been found in the collection of

Fes. 15, 1947

Neotropical Miridae in the United States
National Museum. These new species are
described below. It is regretted that the
locality data on many of the specimens are
incomplete. In all instances the data are
believed to be accurate so far as they are
available; however, it is seldom that more
than the country is provided. This study is
primarily based on material intercepted in
quarantine and, while the locality data in
many cases are of necessity general, host
data are usually complete. |

Tenthecoris confusus, n. sp.
Figs. 5, 19

Male——Body ovate, length 4.6 mm, width
2.19 mm, reddish, with antennae, tibiae, scutel-
lum, and inner half of hemelytra dark (dark
area on dorsum with bluish luster), clothed
densely with short simple flavous pubescence.

Head subvertical, width across eyes 1.12 mm,
length seen from above 0.39 mm, height seen
from side 0.9 mm; vertex somewhat flat, width
0.69 mm, frons slightly convex, clypeus mod-
erately prominent, discrete from frons just
below line drawn between the bases of anten-
nae, apical one-third dark. Eyes not touching
apex of pronotum, seen from side reniform,
occupying nearly one-half the height of head.

Rostrum length 1.75 mm, surpassing apex of.

posterior coxa, length of segments, I:II:III:
ty -0.67 mm:0.73 mm:0.21 mm:0:13 mm,
_ segment I thickest, II slenderer, compressed,
III thicker than II, IV somewhat cone-formed.

Antennae dark, linear, inserted near apex of
interior margin of eye, length of segments,
T:11:111:1V: :0.68 mm:0.85 mm:0.60 mm:0.7
mm, segment I gradually thickened toward
apex, II linear, as thick as I at middle, III much
slenderer than II, IV slenderer than III, ex-
treme base of I, III and IV luteus.

Pronotum finely punctate, length 0.88 mm,
width at base 1.59 mm, at apex 0.83 mm, apical
margin slightly sinuate, lateral margin strongly
impressed behind callus, posterior margin
nearly straight or very slightly sinuate be-
fore scutellum, humeral angle broadly rounded.
Scutellum triangular, with a large triangular
depression at base, dark, extreme base reddish,
length 0.56 mm, width at base 0.6 mm, meso-
scutum reddish.

Hemelytra smooth, embolar margin convex,

HSIAO AND SAILER: ORCHID BUGS OF GENUS TENTHECORIS 65

thickened, length 2.15 mm, corium with inner
angle broadly dark, exterior margin of the dark
area forming a straight line subparallel to em-
boliar margin, clavus dark (except basal one-
fourth), cuneus declivent, length 0.86, width
at base 0.73 mm, membrane dark, finely rugu-
lose, apical margin luteus.

Gula, xyphus, anterior portion of propleura,
metapleura, and posterior coxa tending to lu-
teous. Legs comparatively short, length of pos-
terior femur 1.51 mm, posterior tibia 1.72 mm,
all tibiae dark, tarsi pale tending to fuscous at
apex.

Male genitalia. distinct, with a broad central
portion, bearing a spinose process on left apical
angle and a larger armlike process on right
apical angle, the latter process turned abruptly
downward at apical third; right paramere
broad and long, with a tubercle at apical one-
third, apex broadened, spoon-formed.

Female.—Similar to male in size and colora-
tion, second antennal segment shorter than that
in male. Body length 4.99 mm, width 2.32 mm;
width of head across eyes 1.16 mm, width of
vertex 0.65 mm; length of antennal segments,
I:I1::0.69 mm:0.86 mm (II and IV missing).

This species is closely related to vestitus
(Distant); however, the male genitalia and the
dorsal coloration readily separate them.

Type material—Holotype: Male, Mexico, on
orchids, intercepted at Washington, D. C.,
September 6, 1939, U.S.N.M. no. 58156. Allo-
type: Female, Mexico, on orchids, intercepted
at San Francisco, Calif., May 13, 1938. Para-
types: Veracruz, Mexico, May (1). Guatemala,
on Cattleya, intercepted at San Francisco, Sep-
tember 1, 1938 (1). Costa Rica, in packing of
orchids, intercepted at Washington, D. C.,
October 4, 1933 (1). Venezuela, on Cattleya,
intercepted at Hoboken, N. Y. (1).

Tenthecoris angustimarginatus, n. sp.
Fig. 2

This species is similar in appearance to T.
exitiosus (Distant) but can be distinguished by
the brownish-red costal margin of the corium
and by the relatively shorter second antennal
segment.

Female.—Length 4.35 mm, width 2.17 mm.
Antennae and tibiae black; scutellum, except
for median triangular area, and corium, except
for narrow margin along costa, black with
violaceous reflections; membrane concolorous,

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 2

, 7. angustimarginatus T. bicolor var.

T. bicolor typ.

T distinguendus. T. vestitus
T. venezuelesis

Hsia

| T. distinctus
T. distinctus ‘Left lateral view
T. columbiensis T. .balloui of 9th segment 6

Fies. 1-11.—Indications of the color pattern of the hemelytra and the scutellum in species of Tenthe-
coris. Fig. 12.—As indicated.

Fes. 15, 1947 HSIAO AND SAILER: ORCHID BUGS OF GENUS TENTHECORIS 67

T. distinctus T. vestitus:

Fries. 13—21.—Left (L) and right (R) parameres in species of Tenthecoris. In each case an outside
view (relative to normal position on the ninth segment) is shown. In the case of Fig. 21 a lateral view
of the right paramere is also shown.

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

dark; remainder of body reddish brown to
ochraceous.

Head, width across eyes 1.12 mm, length
seen from above 0.42 mm, height seen from
side 0.91 mm; vertex width 0.7 mm, slightly
convex. Rostrum surpassing apex of hind coxae,
length of segments, I:I1:II1:1V::0.84 mm:
0.73 mm:0.21 mm:0.14 mm. Antennae black
except extreme base of segment I, apical three
segments becoming somewhat lighter; length of
segments, 1: TD:TIt:1TV; 70:64 mm :0°73 mm:
0.49 mm:0.56 mm.

The structural affinities of the female speci-
mens indicate close relationship to vestitus ; how-
ever, examination of the male genitalia will be
necessary to establish this association defi-
nitely.

Type material—Holotype: Female, Tama-
zunchale, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, intercepted
at Laredo, Tex., August 10, 1946, on orchids,
U.S.N.M. no. 58157. Paratype: Same data (1).

Tenthecoris distinguendus, n. sp.
Figs. 6, 14

Male.—Body reddish ochraceous, with dark
markings and pubescence similar to those in
confusus, n. sp.; length 4.73 mm, width 2.32
mm.

Head width across eyes 1.12 mm, length seen
from above 0.43 mm, height seen from side
0.86 mm; vertex width 0.69 mm, compared
with confusus the vertex is more convex, frons
less convex and the clypeus with base lower and
darker at apex. Rostrum reaching apex of pos-
terior coxa, length of segments, I:II:III:1V::
0.77 mm:0.7 mm:0.21 mm:0.14 mm.

Antennae, length of segments, I:II:III:
TV >:0.65" mim:0:85) mm:0.47- nom 20247, ammo
entirely dark except extreme base of I. Length
of posterior femur 1.51 mm, tibia 1.72 mm, tarsi
fuscous.

Male genitalia distinct, right paramere bent
at right angle at middle, broader at base, left
paramere short, left process long; left margin
of ninth abdominal segment strongly impressed
to receive the apical portion of right paramere.

Female.—Similar to male. Body length 4.6
mm, width 2.37 mm. Width of head across eyes
1.19 mm, width of vertex 0.65 mm. Length of
antennal segments, I:I1:II1:1V: :0.7 mm:0.86
mm:0.56 mm:0.49 mm.

Structurally this species is closely related to
venezuelensis, n. sp.; however, the color pattern

VOL. 37, No. 2

resembles that of confusus, n. sp. As indicated
in the key the shape of the lateral basal angles
of the dark area on the scutellum and hemely-
tra provides the most apparent difference.

Type material—Holotype: Male, San Pedro
de Montes de Oca, Costa Rica, October 19,
1935, by 8. and C. Ballou on Epidendrum sp.,
U.S.N.M. no. 58162. Allotype: Female, same
data. Paratypes: Same data (4). Same locality,
collected December 7, 1935, by C. H. Ballou
@):

_ Tenthecoris venezuelensis, n. sp.
Bigs. 7, Ue

Male.—Body ovate, length 4.04 mm, width
2.02 mm, ochraceous, with dark markings on
dorsum similar to those on confusus, n. sp., but
occupying less area on the corium, this area
restricted to the inner apical angle of the
corium, not extending basally beyond apical
third of the claval suture; exterior margin not
forming a straight line. Legs entirely (except
tip of third tarsal segment) and basal two-
fifths of antennal segment I pale.

Head, width across eyes 10.8 mm, length seen
from above 0.3 mm, height seen from side 0.77
mm; vertex width 0.65 mm, slightly convex;
frons a little less convex than that on distin-
guendus, n. sp. Rostrum reaching apex of pos-
terior coxa, length of segments, I:II:III:1V::
0.63 mm:0.7 mm:0.21 mm:0.3 mm.

Antennae dark except basal two-fifths of seg-
ment I, length of segments, I:II:III:1V: :0.56
mm :0.57 mm:0.49 mm:0.5 mm.

Male genitalia similar to those of distin-
guendus, n. sp.

Female.—Similar to male, body length 4.39
mm, width 2.15 mm. Width of head across eyes
1.08 mm, width of vertex 0.68 mm. Length of
antennal segments, I:I]:JII:1V::0.56 mm:
0.69 mm:0.47 mm:0.56 mm.

This species is very close to bicolor Scott but
can be distinguished by its pale tibiae, more
restricted dorsal coloration, and different struc-
ture of male genitalia.

Type material—Holotype: Male, Venezuela,
December 1918, collected by H. Pittier on
orchids, U.S.N.M. no. 58158. Allotype: Female,
same data. Paratypes: Same data (9). Caracas,
Venezuela, May 27, 1941, collected by C. H.
Ballou on Cattleya labiada (5). Caracas, Vene-
zuela, intercepted at Washington, D. C., Sep-
tember 1932, on Cattleya plants (4). El Valle,

Fes. 15, 1947 HSIAO AND SAILER: ORCHID BUGS OF GENUS TENTHECORIS 69

Venezuela, May 27, 1941, collected by C. H.
Ballou on Cattleya labiada (1). Venezuela, in-
tercepted at Washington, D. C., on orchids:
1933, December 8 (1); 1934, October 19 (2);

1936, June 19 (3), August 1 (6); 1937, May 28

(1), June 14 (1), July 7 (2), 15 (2), August 12
(1), November 14 (1); 1988, May 12 (2), June
12 (2), 16 (2), September 9 (2); 1939, May 2
(4), June 20 (1), July 26 (1), September 14 (1);
1940, March 25 (1); 1941, August 18 (1).
Venezuela, intercepted at New York City,
New York, on orchids: 1914, May 29 (1); 1915,
February 2 (1); 1939, April 12 (2); 1940, Febru-
ary 13 (6), May 16 (1). Venezuela, intercepted
at Hoboken, N. J.,on orchids: 1941, April 30
(2), August 18 (1); 1942, September 28 (1);
1943, November 4 (2); 1946, May 21 (1).
Venezuela, intercepted at San Juan, Puerto
Rico, on orchids: 1937, July 1 (1), November 12
(1); 1938, May 6 (1); 1940, May 20 (1). Vene-
zuela, intercepted at San Francisco, Calif., on
orchid: 1936, March 30 (1). Columbia, inter-
cepted at Washington, D. C., on orchid: 1937,
May 29 (2). Colombia, intercepted at San
Francisco, on orchid: 1939, August 1 (1). Brazil,
intercepted at Hoboken, N. J., on Cattleya:
1942, September 28 (2).

Tenthecoris colombiensis, n. sp.
Figs. 9, 17

The coloration of this species is similar to
that of venezuelensis, n. sp., except that anten-
nal segment III is pale. The antennal segment

IL is longer and the male genitalia are distinct.

Male.—Body length 4.52 mm, width 2.06
mm; head with 1.16 mm, length seen from
above 0.43 mm, height seen from side 0.95 mm,
vertex width 0.73 mm. Rostrum surpassing
apex of posterior coxa, length of segments,
PAT TE AV =50-85 mm:0.94 mm:0.24 mm:
0.14mm.

Antennae dark, base of segment I and seg-
ment III pale, length of segments, I:II:III:
ye - 0.99) mom. 1.02 mm:0.71 mim:0.73 mm.

Male genitalia nearest bicolor, right paramere
greatly expanded at apex, left paramere of the
one-armed type also exhibited by exitiosus and
bicolor. Ninth abdominal segment without tu-
bercle at the left dorsolateral angle.

Female.—Similar to male, body length 5.16
mm, width 2.32 mm; width of head across eyes
1.2 mm, width of vertex 0.73 mm. Length of
antennal segments, I:II:III:1V::0.6 mm:1.0

mm:0.68 mm:0.77 mm. Segment II not dis-
tinctly shorter than that of male.

Type material—Holotype: Male, Colombia,
intercepted at Washington, D. C., October 7,
1937, on Cattleya, U.S.N.M. no. 58159. Allo-
type: Female, same data, November 14, 1936.
Paratypes: Same data, May 28, 1937 (4). Same
data, October 1, 1937 (1). Same data, October
28, 1936 (1). Colombia, July 17, 1917, collected
by H. E. Dietz from orchid (1). Colombia, in-
tercepted at New York City, N. Y. (1).

Tenthecoris distinctus, n. sp.
Figs. 10, 12, 20

Male.—Body ovate, length 3.66 mm, width
1.85 mm, shining, reddish with dark on dorsum,
densely clothed with fine, simple, flavous pubes-
cence.

Head subvertical, width across eyes 0.80 mm,
length seen from above 0.38 mm, height seen
from side, from vertex to apex of clypeus, 0.86
mm. Vertex width 0.47 mm, slightly rounded,
frons slightly convex, clypeus moderately
prominent, slightly curvate, discrete from frons
at base, base situated on a line connecting
lower margins of eyes. Eyes seen from side
reniform, occupying about one-half the height
of head. Rostrum short, not reaching apex of
intermediate coxa, length of segments, I:II:
IIT:1V: :0.17 mm:0.29 mm:0.14 mm:0.08 mm.

Antennae linear, inserted above apex of in-
terior margin of eye, length of segments,
P:1L:TIT:1V: :0.42 mm:0.53 mm:0.56 mm:
0.55 mm, segment I constricted at base,
ochraceous, fuscous at apex, II black, III and
IV dark but paler than II.

Pronotum finely distinctly punctate, length
0.98 mm, width at base 1.83 mm, at apex 0.56
mm, lateral margin nearly straight, posterior
margin sinuate before scutellum, humeral angle
broadly rounded. Scutellum black, triangular,
length 0.47 mm, width at base 0.70 mm, with
a median triangular impression at base.

Hemelytra with embolar margin thickened,
slightly convex, length 1.72 mm; clavus black
except extreme base; corium black with exte-
rior margin broadly reddish, red area broad-
ened posteriorly; cuneus triangular, length 0.6
mm, width at base 0.73 mm, cuneal fracture
deep, membrane hyaline, cellular area black.

Body beneath with xyphus and propleura
tending to flavous. Legs moderately long, an-
terior and intermediate tibiae, apex of posterior

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tibia and all tarsi flavous; length of posterior
femur 1.12 mm, posterior tibia 1.29 mm, an-
terior surface of posterior femur mottled with
flavous spots.

Male genitalia very distinct, right paramere
long, slender, and curved, fitting left dorsal
margin of ninth abdominal segment which has
a spinelike process at base, apex pointed; left
paramere small, knoblike, of the one-armed
type; arm not spinose.

Female.—Similar to male, body length 3.78
mm, width 2.02 mm. Length of antennal seg-
ments, I:II:II1:1V::0.42 mm:0.6 mm:0.56
mm :0.53 mm.

This species is not altogether characteristic
of the genus. Its body form, structure of head
and pronotum, and bicolorous pattern un-
doubtedly place it as a member of Tenthecoris;
however, its distinctly smaller size, considera-
bly shorter rostrum of which the segments II
and III taken together are longer than one-half
the length of segment II and the distinctive
male terminalia set distunctus apart from the
other species. The long spinose process of the
left dorsolateral angle of the ninth abdominal
segment is suggestive of Caulotops.

Type material— Holotype: Male, Guatemala,
intercepted at San Francisco, Calif., March 1,
1944, on Odontoglossum bictoniense, U.S.N.M.
no. 58160. Allotype: Female, same data, on
Odontoglossum grande. Paratypes: Same data,
on O. bictoniense (12). Same data, on O. grande
(2). Same data, April 13, 1944, on Oncidiwm
leucochilum (2). Guatemala, intercepted at
Washington, D. C., on Ocineta oeusa, Novem-
ber 10, 19387 (1). Guatemala, intercepted at
New York City, N. Y., on orchids, November
9, 1935 (1). Guatemala, intercepted at New
Orleans, La., on orchids, January 30, 1941 (2).
Guatemala, intercepted at New Orleans on
Primavera log, February 3, 1941 (1). Guate-
mala, intercepted at Washington, D. C., on
Lycaste, October 25, 1938 (1). Guatemala, in-
tercepted at Honolulu, T. H., July 7, 1936 (2).
Mexico, intercepted at Laredo, Tex., on or-
chids, October 30, 1941 (2). Tamazunchale, San
Luis Potosi, Mexico, intercepted at Laredo,
Tex., August 10, 1946, on orchid plants (5).

Tenthecoris balloui, n. sp.
Fig. 11
This species is similar to 7’. distinctus, n. sp.,
in its size and length of rostrum, but can be

VOL. 37, NO. 2

distinguished by the different color pattern.
Dark area on corium occupying less than the
inner half; the anterior margin of the dark area
on hemelytra not forming a straight line. Basal
dark annulation on antennal segment I more
distinct. Clypeus more curvate, and apices of
tarsi tending to fuscous.

Female.—Body, length 3.44 mm, width 1.98
mm. Head across eyes 0.86 mm, length, seen
from above, 0.3 mm, height, seen from side,
1.08 mm; width of vertex 0.52 mm. Rostrum
scarcely reaching middle of intermediate coxae,
length 0.95 mm. Length of antennal segments,
I:II: :0.43 mm:0.65 mm (III and IV missing).

This species is named in honor of C. H.
Ballou whose activities as a collector have aided
greatly in increasing our knowledge of the Neo-
tropical fauna.

Type material—Holotype: Female, Medel-
lin, Colombia, March 29, 1930, collected by S.
and C. H. Ballou on Cattleya gigas, U.S.N.M.
no. 58161. Paratypes: Same data (7).

Tenthecoris bicolor Scott
Figs. 3, 4, 16, 18
Tenthecoris bicolor Scott, Ent. Monthly Mag. 23:

64-66. 1886.

Judged from the source of specimens inter-
cepted at various United States ports, this spe-
cies is restricted to Brazil. The only specific
locality from which 7. bicolor has been received
is Santos, Sao Paulo. All other specimens ex-
cept one are recorded as “‘Brazil on cattleya.”’
Most of these were intercepted at Hoboken.

There is considerable variation among the
specimens of different series, but since the exact
locality of origin is not known it is not possible
to know if this variation is correlated with geo-
graphical distribution. The degree of variation
may be seen by comparing Figs. 3 and 16 with
4 and 18. The former, from ‘‘Santos,”’ represent
the form accepted here as typical since it seems
to agree most closely with Scott’s original de-
scription; length 4.5 mm. The latter figures
represent a slightly smaller and lighter form;
length 4.0 mm. One specimen bears determina-
tion labels as follows: ‘‘Spec. typ. Eccritotarsus
orchidearum Reut.” and ‘‘Tenthecoris bicolor
Scott O. M. Reuter det.’’ This is a female speci-
men as large as the largest examples among the
33 specimens studied. The reddish margins of
the hemelytra are wider and more discrete than

Fes. 15, 1947 HSIAO AND SAILER: ORCHID BUGS OF GENUS TENTHECORIS

in the other specimens while the dark portion
of the corium and clavus lacks the pronounced
metallic blue reflection exhibited by typical
form. The median line of the scutellum which
is marked with reddish to the apex, is also un-
usual even for a teneral specimen. It seems very
likely that this specimen represents a distinct
species, in which case Reuter’s name orchid-
earum will have to be restored. The final de-
cision in this matter must wait study of male
examples.

Type material—Not seen. Should be in the
British Museum (Natural History), London.
Described from ‘‘specimens”’ taken alive in
England ‘“‘on leaves of an orchid from Bahia.”’

Tenthecoris vestitus (Distant), n. comb.
Figs. 8, 21
Eccritotarsus vestitus Distant, Biologia Centrali-

Americana, Rhynchota, Hemipt.-Heteropt.,

1: 284, pl. 28, fig. 2. 1884.

Twenty-five specimens of this species have
been studied. Of these, 24 were intercepted on
Orchidaceae originating in Guatemala. One
specimen indicates Nicaragua as locality of
origin. The interceptions were made at the
ports of San Francisco, Calif., New York,
N. Y., Hoboken, N. J., and Washington, D. C.
Besides “on orchids,’ Laelia superbiens and
Oncidium sp. have been reported as host plants.

The species shows considerable size variation,
ranging from 3.75 mm to 5.10 mm within the
same sex (o").

Type materral—N ot seen; should be located
in the British Museum (Natural History), Lon-
don. Described from ‘‘Guatemala, Pantaleon.”’
Number of specimens not indicated.

Tenthecoris exitiosus (Distant)
Figs. 1, 15
Eccritotarsus exitiosus Distant, Ent. Monthly Mag.
25: 202. 1889.

Tenthecoris exitiosus,
4 (31): 100. 1942.

Costa Lima, Orquidea

Fifty specimens of this species have been ex-
amined. With the exception of two specimens
collected at Port of Spain, Trinidad, February
20, 1895, by T. J. Potter, on orchids, all bear
labels indicating ‘“‘Colombia” as country of
origin. The specimens have been intercepted at
the ports of Washington, D. C., San Francisco,
Calif., and Hoboken, N. J., with the exception
of two taken at “Medellin, Colombia,” March

71

29, 1930, by S. and C. H. Ballou, on Cattleya
gigas. Several of the intercepted specimens also
bear labels indicating Cattleya gigas as a host
plant. The remainder refer either to ‘‘Cattleya
sp. or “orchids.)’

This is a strikingly distinct species having the
hemelytra and corium, with the exception of a
narrow basal area, black with metallic-blue re-
flections. Pronotum and head orange-red; apex
of the hind femora, hind, middle, and apical
fourth of fore tibiae black. Apical half of tylus
black; two basal segments of antennae black,
apical two white. .

Length varies in specimens at hand from 3.75
mm to 4.9 mm.

Type material—Not seen. Should be in the
British Museum (Natural History), London.
Described from ‘‘some specimens”’ originating
in the ‘Botanical Gardens at Trinidad,” where
they were reported as doing much damage.

Tenthecoris generosus (Stal)

Eccritotarsus generosus Stal, Stettin Ent. Zeit. 7
(7-9): 323. 1862.

Tenthecoris generosus, Reuter,
Insektenbiol. 3: 253. 1907.
No examples of this species have been stud-

ied. Stal’s description indicates that the second

antennal segment of this species is unusually
long. Reuter also mentioned this structure,
though it is not known that he saw Stal’s type
specimen. Distant’s illustration of the type

specimen (2, p. 284, tab. 22, fig. 24) indicates a

superficial resemblance to T. exitiosus.

Type material—Not seen. Should be in
Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, Stockholm. De-.
scribed by Stal from one male specimen re-
ceived from Mexico.

Zeitschr. Wiss.

NOTE CONCERNING ILLUSTRATIONS

The accompanying figures of the heme-
lytra are intended to be accurate only so far
as color pattern is concerned. These were
drawn from the insect, and other details,
to a considerable degree, depend upon the
angle from which the wing was viewed. The
claspers must also be considered as dia-
grammatic. In comparing claspers with
these illustrations it is best to place the
entire ninth segment of the abdomen in
KOH until the muscle tissue is dissolved
sufficiently to allow easy dissection. The
claspers should then be placed in glycerin

72

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and studied without a cover glass as it is
necessary to move the parts about in order
to view them in approximately the position
figured.

or

KEY TO SPECIES

. Rostrum scarcely reaching apices of inter-

mediate coxae; smaller species (less than 4
munsinlenoGh) 2.0. 0G0k:, aoain eared. Ae eae 2,
Rostrum reaching or surpassing apices of pos-
terior coaxae; larger species (more than 4
mam. -Im- lenigthi)e atest sehr ees yee eee 3
Dark area of corium throughout two-thirds
of its length equal to or exceeding width of
CLAUS ids ean ee eee ae distinctus, n. sp.
Dark area of corium equaling width of clavus
only at apex of clavus...... balloui, n. sp.

. Hemelytra entirely dark (except the extreme

{ay 2 Ncl ey Pe barinie mide Sy ttine Sanita ai kal a Mads YE lp 4
Hemelytra with lateral margin reddish or
OChPEACEOUS: % eSelk eeee ER er eee 5

. Antennal segment II about twice as long as I.

generosus (Stal)

‘Antennal segment II much less than twice the

lemeitieot [once Getece eters exitiosus (Distant)

. Tibiae dark or With dark markings........ 6

Tibiae without dark markings............ 8
Pale margin of hemelytra with greatest width
usually less, never more than length of
cuneal fracture (see Figs. 3 and 4)....... Cf
Pale margin of hemelytra with greatest width
exceeding length of cuneal fracture (see
IGS Oe oO Sree Sst ae, Sees eters es 8
Cuneus dark except for extreme lateral mar-
rims. Aisi) APN Ee angustumarginatus, lh. sp.
Cuneus yellowish red to reddish. . bicolor Scott
Dark area on corium occupying much less than
inner half of corium; pale portion of corium
with sides almost parallel or gradually nar-
rowed toward base; clypeus distinctly
LUSCOUSE: 6 VeShE PBs Seta ae Wee: 9
Dark area on corium occupying nearly inner
half of corium; pale portion of corium
noticeably narrowed along basal third;
clypeus not distinctly fuscous.

vestitus (Distant), n. comb.

. Basal margin of dark area on scutellum and

clavus nearly on a straight line; basal mar-

10.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)
(5)

(6)

(8)

(9)

(10)

VOL. 37, NO. 2

gin of dark area on clavus and lateral mar-
gin of dark area on corium forming ap-
proximately a right angle.
distinguendus, n. sp.
Basal margin of dark area on clavus distinctly
distad to that on scutellum, and forming,
with lateral margin of dark area on corium,
an obtuse angle of approximately 135°.
confusus, Nn. sp.
Antennal segment II longer than width of
vertex plus an eye; segment III distinctly
paler: than LV %52 = colombiensis, n. sp.
Antennal segment II shorter than width of
vertex plus an eye; segment III not dis-
tinctly paler than IV. . . venezuelensis, n. sp.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Costa Lima, A. DA. Percevejos de Orquideas
(Hemuptera—Miridae—Bryocorinae). Or-
quidea 4 (31): 100-109. 1942.

Distant, W. L. Biologia Centrali-A meri-
cana, khynchota: Hemiptera-Heptero-
ptera, 1, 462 pp., 39 pls. 1884.

. Description of a new species of
Neotropical Capsidae. Ent. Monthly —
Mag. 25: 202. 1889.

———-. Rhynchotal notes, XXI. Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist. [7] 13: 194-206. 1904.

Reuter, O. M. Miscellanea Hemiptero-
logica. Ofv. Finska Vet. Soc. Férh.
44: 141-188. 1902. :

. Eine neotropische Capside als
Orchideenschédling in europdischen
Warmhdusern. Zeitschr. Wiss. Insek-

tenbiol. 3: 251-254, 1 fig. 1907.

. Capsidae mexicanae a Do. Bili-
mek collectae in museo i. r. Vindobonensi
asservatae. Ann. Naturh. Hofmus. Wien
22: 150-179. 1907.

Scorr, J. Description of a new genus and
species of Hemiptera-Heteroptera. Ent.
Monthly Mag. 23: 64-66. 1886.

STat, C. Bidrag till Rio de Janeiro—
traktens Hemiptera-fauna. Kungl. Vet.-
Akad. Handl. 1: 56-58. 1860.

. Hemiptera Mexicana enumeravit
speciesque novas descripsit. Stettin Ent.
Zeit. 7 (7-9): 289-325. 1862.

CONTENTS

Page
History oF Sctence.—An establishment was established. Hart S.
JOHNSTON. (6c . fa es hhc a bee 8 eee ean
ArcHEOLOGY.—A Middle Period cemetery in the Virt Valley, northern
Pern.:. GoRDON-R. WILLEY 4 oe ee ue eae eee 4]
ZooLoay.—Further notes on the amphipod genus Corophium from the
east coast of America. CLARENCE R. SHOBMAKER.............. 47
ENTOMOLOGY.—The orchid bugs of the genus T’enthecoris Scott (Hemip-
tera: Miridae). Tsar-yu Hsrao and Resce J. SAILER......... . 64

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

MAR 21 1947

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BOARD OF EDITORS

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Paes ENFOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

te Pie ie: Raupx W. ImMuay
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ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY Pe Su

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Inp On Sea osorcn . pe ote re
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Vou. 37°

ETHNOLOGY.—An early Cherokee ethnobotanical note.!

University of Michigan.

Most of the published Cherokee ethno-
botanical data have been drawn from the
Cherokee communities still resident in
western North Carolina. These Cherokee
belong to the so-called Middle Dialect
group; almost nothing is known of the
ethnobotany, or indeed, of any traditional
material, from other Cherokee groups. The
small amount of data on Oklahoma
Cherokee herbalism collected by Dr. John
R. Swanton from Indians of Natchez de-
scent living among the Oklahoma Cherokee
agrees neither in usage nor native names
with other published Cherokee material or
with recent data from Qualla Reservation,
North Carolina.2 Thus it is_ especially
gratifying to find an early, if brief, account
of plant usage among the Cherokee of the
Western, Mountain, or Upper Dialect
group, written prior to their removal to
Indian Territory.

John Gambold was a Moravian minister
who served as a missionary to the Cherokee
at Spring Place on the Conasauga River
(now in northwestern Georgia) from 1805
to 1825. His wife, Anna Rosina Gambold,
was a botanist and one of Henry Muhlen-
berg’s correspondents. Her notes and
herbarium specimens contributed much to
early botanists’ knowledge of the Cherokee
country.’ Henry Steinhauer, a botanist who
visited Spring Place about 1817, wrote with

1 Received December 23, 1946

2 SWANTON, JOHN R. Religious beliefs and medi-
cal practices of the Creek Indians. 42nd Ann. Rep.
Bur. Amer. ethnol.: 666—670. 1928. Also scattered
notes in the published works of James Mooney
and Franz Olbrechts, manuscript field notes of
James Mooney in the archives of the Bureau of
American Ethnology, and data from my current
field studies of Cherokee ethnobotany.

3 BARNHART, JOHN HENDLEY. The botanical cor-
respondents of Schweinitz. Bartonia 16: 26. 1934.

HAR 2 4 1947

Marcu 15, 1947

No. 3

JOHN WITTHOFT,

(Communicated by W. N. FEntTon.)

admiration of Mrs. Gambold’s botanical
and ethnological collections.* It is probably
too much to hope that such an important
herbarium and series of ethnological mate-
rial should still be in existence, but letters
and other manuscripts containing ethno-
eraphic data may have survived, awaiting
discovery by some student of southern
botany. A Gambold manuscript, appar-
ently found among Muhlenberg’s papers,
was published in 1818, and includes a list
of plants found in the vicinity of Spring
Place and notes on the Indian utilization of
certain of these plants.> Several of the
usages noted by Mrs. Gambold are known
to my informants at Qualla Reservation;
the other plants, when utilized, are em-
ployed for entirely different purposes. Un-
fortunately, so little is known about
Oklahoma Cherokee ethnology that no
comparison with modern Western Cherokee
traditions is possible. The following series
of notes is copied from Mrs..Gambold’s ar-
ticle; the common and scientific names of
the plants have been changed to a more
modern terminology.®

Red maple, Acer rubrum L. “‘The inner bark
boiled to a syrup, made into pills, and these
dissolved in water, is used in case of sore eyes;
the eyes washed therewith.”

Black cohosh, Cimicifuga racemosa (L.)
Nutt. ‘The root in spirits, these made use of in

4 Tbid., p. 26.

5 GAMBOLD, Mrs. ANNA. Plants of the Cherokee

Country. A list of plants found in the neighborhood
of Connasarga River (Cherokee Country), where

“Springfield 1s situated. Amer. Journ. Sci. (Silli-

3

man’s Journ.) 1: 245-251. 1818.

§ [btd., pp. 250-251. The Latin names used are
those of the 7th edition of Gray’s Manual, but
Small’s Manual of the southeastern flora, New
York, 1933, was consulted to check the ranges and
identifications.

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

rheumatic pains.”

Maidenhair fern, Adiantum pedatum L. “‘A
decoction of the whole plant, used as an emetic
in cases of ague and fever. A very strong
medicine.”

Buckeye, Aesculus sp. ‘“The nuts, pounded,
are used in poultices.”’

False aloe, Agave virginica L. “The root is
chewed in obstinate cases of diarrhoea with
wonderful success. It is, however, a very strong
medicine.”

Onion, Alliwm spp. ‘The Indians are fond of,
for culinary purposes.”

Angelica, Angelica sp. ‘“‘The same.”

Pawpaw, Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. ‘Of
the bark they make very strong ropes.”””

Hercules-club, devils-walkingstick, Aralia
spinosa L. ‘“‘A decoction of the roots roasted
and pounded (green, they are poisonous), is
given as an emetic. A very strong one.”’

Wild ginger, Asarum sp. ‘The leaves dried
and pounded, are used for snuff; fresh, they
are applied to wounds.”

Crossvine, Bignonia capreolata L. ‘“Tea made
of the leaves cleanses the blood.”

Strawberry shrub, Calycanthus floridus L.
“The roots are used as (though very strong)
emetics. The seeds to poison wolves.”

Thistle, Cirsium spp. “Various species. The
roots used in poultices.”’

Redbud, Cercis canadensis L. ‘“‘Children are
fond of eating the blossoms.”

Tickseed, Coreopsis sp. ‘“The whole plant is
much used in coloring. It affords a red color.”

Dogwood, Cornus florida L. ‘The bark of the
root is used to heal wounds, and in poultices.”

American holly, Ilex opaca Ait. “Of the wood,
spoons are made. The berries of use in colics.”
The Qualla Cherokee use Rhododendron wood
for spoons.

Butternut, Juglans cinerea L. “A kind of
pills are prepared from the inner bark, and used
as a cathartic.”” Mountain Whites in western
North Carolina boil the bark of the butternut
(and sometimes walnut) into a thick sediment,
which is rolled into pills to be used as a
cathartic and “spring tonic.” The Qualla
Cherokee consider these barks too strong for

7 I know of no ethnographic data on the use of
this plant for cordage, but Dr. Volney Jones, of
the Ethnobotanical Laboratory, University of
Michigan, tells me that examples of cordage made

from pawpaw bark are known from several south-
eastern archeologic sites.

VOL. 37, NO. 3

internal medicinal usage and do not use this
recipe, although the method of preparation is
reminiscent of the Cherokee method of ‘‘boiling
down”’ herbs.

Sweetgum, Liquidambar styraciflua L. ‘“The
gum is used for a drawing plaster. Of the inner
bark a tea is made for nervous patients.”

Tuliptree, Lirvodendren tulipifera L. “Of the
bark of the root a tea is made and given in
fevers. It is also used in poultices.”’

Fly-poison, Amianthium muscaetoxicum
(Walt.) Gray. ‘“The root is a crow poison; and
a sure, but severe cure for the itch.”

Pine, Pinus spp. ‘‘Boil the root, skim off the
turpentine, spread it on Deer’s skin (tanned)
for a drawing plaster.”

Mayapple, Podophyllum peltatum L. ‘A sirup
is boiled of the root, and given for a purgative,
two pills at a time. A drop of the juice of the
fresh root in the ear, is a cure for deafness. (So I
have been told, I never witnessed it.)”’

Five-finger, Potentilla sp. ‘‘A tea of it is given
in fevers.” |

Wild black cherry, Prunus serotina Ehrh.
“Of the bark a tea is made, and drunk in
fevers.”

White oak, Quercus alba L. ‘““The bark is used
for an emetic.”

Wild rose, Rosa spp. ‘“‘The roots boiled, and
drunk in cases of dysentery.”

Tall blackberry, Rubus sp. “The root good to
chew in coughs.” 4

Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis L. ‘The
root is used for the red die in basket making.”
The Qualla Cherokee also use the bloodroot for
the same purpose.

Lizardtail, Saururus cernuus L. “The roots
roasted and mashed, used for poultices.”

Nightshade, Solanum nigrum lL. “When
young, made use of as the best relished
potherb.”’

Goldenrod, Solidago sp. ‘“‘A tea much made
use of in fevers.”

Wild indigo, Baptista tinctorta (L.) R.Br. “A
blue die.”

Indian pink, Spigelia marilandica L. “In
cases of worms.” This is the general Cherokee
and Creek vermifuge.

American ipecac, Gillenia stipulata (Muhl.)
Trel., and bowmansroot, G. trifoliata (L.)
Moench. ‘‘The whole plant a very good emetic.
Of a strong tea or decoction thereof, a pint is
drunk at a time.”’

Mar. 15, 1947

Spiderwort, Tradescantia sp. (virginica L.)
“The leaves much relished greens for the
table.’ This plant is an important green at
Qualla.

Adamsneedle, Yucca filamentosa L. “The
roots pounded and boiled are used instead of
soap to wash blankets; likewise to intoxicate

CURRIER: GRANITIZATION IN NEW ENGALND 75

fishes, by strewing them pounded on the water.
The same is done with A‘sculus.”’ The use of
Y ucca as a soporific is widespread in the South-
west, and may have diffused from that direc-
tion. The Qualla Cherokee also used buckeye as
a fish poison, but Yucca is used there only for
medicinal purposes.

GEOLOGY .—Granitization and its significance as a regional metamorphic process in
New England.t| L. W. Currisr, U.S. Geological Survey.

In presenting this subject I am taking ad-
vantage of the opportunity to set forth a
hypothesis and an extrapolation on the
results of studies not yet finished. I am
deeply conscious of the incompleteness of
my own field studies for providing data to
support adequately the broad generaliza-
tion implied by the subject. The thesis, how-
ever, is of the sort that requires for its
ultimate substantiation facts accumulated
from many sources and by many workers.
It seems worth while, therefore, to offer a
progress report at this time, and to indicate
the direction in which a working hypothesis
is developing. I am well aware of the ease
with which imagination may subtly trans-
late multiple working-hypotheses into a
multiply-working hypothesis. I hope this
pitfall will be avoided.

Nearly 20 years ago I started rather fitful
field observations in the so-called Cambrian
and Ordovician terranes of east-central
Vermont. In the middle thirties this interest
became a planned program under the aus-
pices of the Geological Society of America,
and many traverses were made across the
Barre, Strafford, Randolph, Woodstock,
and Hanover quadrangles. In 1937 a
Geological Survey project for the detailed
mapping of the Barre quadrangle was
started under my general supervision.
Shortly after, I was obliged to leave the
detailed mapping to my assistant, R. H.
Jahns, in order to start another Survey
project for the study of commercial
granites of New England. Later this project

1 Address of the Retiring President of the
Geological Society of Washington, presented be-
fore the Society on December 12, 1945. Published
by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geo-
logical Survey. Received December 11, 1946.

was merged with the Massachusetts co-
operative program. In the granite studies I
was assisted at various times by H. F. Buie,
R. H. Jahns, and N. E. Chute. During the
War the regular mapping program and
areal studies were suspended, but enough
data have been collected by numerous
geologists to suggest clearly, it seems to me,
a fundamental relation of regional granitic
invasion to general metamorphism in New
England. In the light of my own observa-.
tions in central and eastern Vermont, south-
central New Hampshire, and Massachusetts
supplemented by the study of many thin
sections, in the light of the work of a very
capable field staff, and in the light of the
work of other geologists, especially those
who have done such an excellent job of
mapping in New Hampshire, I believe that
a pattern of igneous and hydrothermal
metamorphism is indicated, and that there
is a broadly proportional relationship be-
tween the manifestations of subjacent
igneous invasion and regional metamorph-
ism. In its broadest aspects this thesis is not
new; those who have been interested in the
literature relating to such problems of
metamorphic geology will recall Barrell’s
paper of 1921.? .

The granite in northeastern Massachu-
setts that is known commercially as the
“Chelmsford Granite’? appears to be an
excellent example of the so-called “‘graniti-
zation”? process, whereby an ‘‘igneous-
looking’’ rock, to use Grout’s expression,?

2 BaRRELL, JosEpH, Relations of subjacent
igneous invasion to regional metamorphism. Amer.
Journ. Sci., ser. 5, 1(1, 3): 174-186, 255-267. Jan.
and Mar. 1921.

3 Grout, F. F., Formation of igneous-looking

rocks by metasomatism. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.
52: 1525-1576. Oct. 1941.

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 3

has been derived from a previously existing
sedimentary rock by a process of metaso-

matic replacement through the action of

solutions derived from a granite magma, or
at least a magma that gave rise to alkali-
bearing solutions. The mode of origin of
this granite seems. particularly significant
in connection with the general metamorphic
problem, and I shall devote the latter part
of this paper to a discussion of this forma-
tion. Because of its relation to meta-
morphism it 1s pertinent to review the so-
called ‘‘granitization theory,’ but I shall
not dwell on the history of its development
because several excellent reviews have ap-
peared in recent years, notably those by
MacGregor and Wilson,’ Rastall,> Shand,°®
and Raguin.’ Also, H. H. Read® has traced
the development of thought regarding the
relation of igneous action to metamorphism.
It is interesting to note that in these discus-
sions granitization and metamorphism have
become mutually involved, for it seems im-
possible to divorce the theories of origin of
many of the regional gneisses from the
theory of ‘replacement granite.”

It is said that the origin of granites is still
one of the outstanding problems of geology,
despite the fact that granites comprise one
of the most widespread and common species
of igneous rocks. The problem is now, of
course, far beyond its status of 150 years
ago, When Hutton’s magmatic theory
countered Werner’s theory of chemical
precipitation from sea waters. Hutton’s
theory won out because it explained ade-
quately certain field relations and structures
that the Wernerian theories were totally
unable to account for. The granite problem
today relates to the sources and derivations
of granite magmas, and the modes of em-
placement. Among other things, it involves
many bodies of granitic rocks whose spatial
relations and structures are still not ex-

4 MacGrecor, MAtcoum, and WILson, GIL-
BERT, On granitization and associated processes.
Geol. Mag. 76(6): 193-213. June 1939.

5 RasTauu, R. H., The granite problem. Geol.
Mag. 2(1). Jan.—Feb. 1945.

6 SHAND, BS. J., Hruptive rocks, ed. 2: 214—226.
1943.

7 Raauin, E., Problemes de la geologie du
granite. Rev. Questions Sci., An. 56, s.5, t.1, f-3:
325-360. May 20, 1937.

8 Reap, H. H., Metamorphism and igneous ac-
tion. Pan. Amer. Geol. 72(4. 5). Nov.—Dec. 1939.

plainable by emplacement of magma in
spaces prepared for its reception by crustal
displacement, by force of intrusion, or by
stoping. It may be objected that such
granites are unusual and unconventional,
and generally show some degree of foliation
or other parallel structure that will place
them in the category of gneisses, rather than
true granites. But many—probably most—
of the so-called ‘‘normal”’ granites possess
a parallel structure in greater or less degree,
which is variously attributed to shearing,
magmatic flow, or internal adjustment to
deformation. Granitic gneisses, gneissic
granites, and apparently isotropic granites
form a perfectly gradational series, and
neither the perfection of the layering or
banding nor the apparent absence of folia-
tion 1s a completely serviceable criterion for
the mode of origin. Alternation of clearly
developed and persistent lithologic layering
implies a preexisting structure of the
country rock in many instances, but the
more thorough and complete the granitiza-
tion of a preexisting rock, the more obscure
are the vestiges of earlier structures and
compositions, so that the structural distinc-
tion between ‘‘orthogneisses” and ‘“‘para-
gneisses’ ultimately breaks down. The
terms orthogneiss and paragneiss, therefore,
beg the question, for often we cannot easily
determine how much of a paragneiss may be
of magmatic origin, or whether a supposed
orthogneiss is in reality preserving a relict
structure. The terms “‘lit-par-lit” and
‘injection gneiss” have been conveniently
used to explain the alternation of feld-
spathic or granitic layers with micaceous
schist layers; for these, the forcible in-
trusion of magma as thin leaves has been
implied, but commonly without any ade-
quate explanation of the mechanical diffi-
culties involved in the process. It is difficult
to comprehend how the thin and delicate
septa could be so spread apart and still
preserve their remarkable continuity and
uniformity of thickness. In some places it is
obvious that large quantities of material
must have been added, but no appreciable
or discernible squeezing aside of the country
rock formations is indicated; rather, con-
tacts show wide zones of gradation from
gneiss to comparatively uninvaded country

MAR: 15, 1947

rock. Moreover, the invading material
seems commonly to have been controlled
by stratigraphic horizons and lithology.
Transitions along the strike are seen to be
gradual, from sedimentary rocks to rocks of
‘Goneous composition.” Lithologic and field
relations in many places have demanded an
explanation for a volume-for-volume re-
placement of material without melting of
the country rocks or the intrusion of magma.
Hence the so-called ‘“‘granitization theory.”

Granitization, therefore, is broadly de-
fined as a process whereby formations have
been changed into rocks of granitic compo-
sition and texture without passing through
a magmatic stage. Some limit it to a process
of recrystallization and replacement of
sedimentary rocks without melting to any
degree. Others broaden it to include con-
version of igneous rocks. Still others include
conversion of either sedimentary or igneous
rocks partly or largely by melting, in-
volving “palingenesis,’ ‘‘syntexis,’” and
“‘anatexis.”’ In some instances local melting
has doubtless taken place, but melting is
certainly not necessary to the process of
feldspathization. That some of the replace-
ment granites were never in a plastic condi-
tion is attested by the consistent preserva-
tion of delicate original structures.

A rock is considered to have been
“granitized’’ when it has been so altered
_ that it approaches closely the composition
and texture of granite. Relict structures
may be lacking in the most highly grani-
tized products, or recognizable with great
difficulty. For sedimentary rocks the ‘‘para-
gneisses’ present the most obvious evi-
dences of granitic invasion, but in the more
completely granitized rocks the evidence is
just as impressive. At one end of a con-
tinuous series are the finer-grained phyllitic
schists, the quartzites, and other rocks of
comparable degrees of metamorphism, in
which the evidences of hydrothermal altera-
tion may be largely microscopic. These
evidences consist of a small amount of
feldspathization and tourmalinization. A
host of hydrothermal quartz veins may ap-
pear in the country rocks. Such, I am in-
clined to interpret, are the conditions in the
low-grade metamorphic zones of east-
central Vermont. So granitization, it seems

CURRIER: GRANITIZATION IN NEW ENGLAND rive

to me, is a poor term by which to describe
this broad and general process of znvasive
metamorphism by hydrothermal solutions
and other salic magmatic derivatives. It is
predominantly a process of feldspathiza-
tion, and the results range from rocks that
in no obvious way resemble granites to
others that are distinguished with difficulty
from so-called “true granites.’’ There is
nothing peculiar or uncommon about the
process that would justify discriminating
between “granitization” and some other
common phases. of igneous metamorphism,
and the process should not be set apart
categorically as one whose manifestations
are found only occasionally, or under
particularly unusual conditions. If the local
rocks were of favorable composition (such
as impure arenytes), were porous enough
to permit thorough hydrothermal invasion,
were situated at strategic points of attack,
and if adequate sources of invasive mate-
rials were at hand, the result would be a
degree of feldspathization so great that a
“replacement granite” was formed. To refer
to magmatically intruded granites as “nor-
mal granites’? in contradistinction to re-
placement granites” is not only to misuse
the term ‘‘normal’’ in more senses than one,
but, more disastrously, to fail to recognize
the common occurrence of an important
general process by becoming lost in admira-
tion of a particularly spectacular local
phase.

Accounting for the sources of granitizing
solutions leads to most interesting specula-
tions and theories, and is indeed a fertile
field for the exercise of scientific imagination.
In his discussion of Read’s papers Rastall
says®: “It always seems that the least satis-
factory part of all this discussion about
emanations and mineralizing fluids and the

rest of it is that we do not know where they

are supposed to come from...if these
fluids can turn almost anything into a
granite, it seems probahle that their own
composition must be something like granite,
and therefore may arise from the lower part
of the sial.” If they originate from local
bodies of granitic magma they fit clearly
into the concept of late stage pegmatitic

2 RASTALE, RoE op. cit:

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

solutions and emanations, but oftentimes
the volume ratios of emanations to local
stocks or batholiths do not seem to be con-
sistent or adequate. The same quantitative
relationship applies equally well, inciden-
tally, to the local derivation of granitic
bodies from basaltic sources unless both of
these, too, be referred to the original
separation of sial and sima in the earlier
stages of the Earth’s history.

In his classic granitization papers relating
to the rapakivi granites of Finland, Seder-
holm!® introduced the term ‘‘migmatite’’
to indicate a mixture of magmatically in-
jected material and layered country rocks.
At first he interpreted remelting.as the most
important aspect of the alteration, but later
he found it necessary to broaden the con-

cept of anatexis so as to involve more than a

melt. Solutions were necessary and these
were ‘exudates’? of magmas. ‘‘Banded”’
gneisses inherited structures from the origi-
nal rocks in part by a process of resolution
and replacement. In the concluding remarks
of his 1923 paper he says, ‘The metamor-
phism of these rocks has been mainly chemi-
cal. A purely mechanical, so-called dynamo-
metamorphism has in most cases been of
very little importance. Even the oldest
volcanic rocks show only the slightest in-
fluence of dynamo-metamorphism.”’ Else-
where in the same paper he says ‘“‘The main
part of the metamorphism has taken place
in obvious connection with the eruption of
granite; it can be defined as a regional con-
tact-metamorphism.” It is interesting to
note that Sederholm considered the veined
granites, or “‘arterites,’’ to be connected in
origin always with a known and nearby
granite, but he also contended, on a quanti-
tative basis, that his feldspathizing “‘ichor’’
could not be the same as the residual liquor
from locally intruded magmas. For the

same area, Holmquist," too, interpreted an

invasive flood of solutions with abundant
mineralizers; he pointed out that many of
the granitic layers and cross-cutting veins

10 SEDERHOLM, J. J., On migmatites and as-
sociated pre-Cambrian rocks of southwest Fin-
land. Bull. Comm. Geol. Finlande, nos. 58 (1928),
47 (1926), and 107 (19384).

11 Hotmauist, P.J., Typen und Nomenklatur der
Adergesteine. Geol. Foren. Stockholm Fé6rh. 43.
1921.

VOL. 37, No. 3

rather closely resembled the country rocks
in composition, but concluded, rather
strangely it seems to me, that there was
lateral secretion of the material under local
high temperatures and pressures. In 1938
Backlund!? argued for the metasomatic
replacement origin of the rapakivis, and
showed that on the basis of porosities and
compositions there was no difficulty in-
volved in transforming a Jotnian sandstone
into a rapakivi granite by addition of soda,
potassium, and alumina up to 20 per cent
or even more, and without essential volume
change. He concluded that the migrating
elements must have passed upward through
well-defined diffusion channels. Incidentally
he states that the rapakivi granites are
among the most radioactive of the granitic
rocks. Two of the important points in his
discussion are the involvement of natural
rock porosities, and the localization of in-
vasion along defined belts with broad diffu- —
sion into the adjacent country rocks.

Sederholm was by no means the pioneer
in the study of granitization. In particular
the French school of the 80’s and 9C’s set
forth ideas that are to be considered as
eranitization theories, though the term it-
self was not used. Michel-Levy, LaCroix,
Barrois, and others studied the granitic
rocks of the Pyrenees and elsewhere, and
concluded that country rocks were changed
chemically by volatiles and solutions, not
necessarily involving fusion temperatures,
so that the rocks passed through the
sequence

sediment —schist ~gneiss ~granite

with no sharp contacts; thus they estab-
lished feldspathization as an extensive hy-
drothermal process under the influence
of “les. cortéges d’emanations,’ or, as
Termier described them, the “colonnes
filtrantes.” To these rising columns of
emanations from great depths Termier at-
tributed not only regional metamorphism,
but also igneous intrusion of the magmatic
type—an extreme view, even for today!
Synclinal depression and melting or remelt-
ing were held accountable for the generation

12 BackLunpD, H. G., The problems of the rapa-
kivi granites. Journ. Geol. 46(3): 339-396.
Apr.—May 1938.

Mar. 15, 1947

of magmas and the freeing of hydrothermal
solutions.

The sources of feldspathizing or. granit-
izing solutions have been attributed vari-
ously, therefore, to deep-seated sialic
sources, to melting of rocks depressed
deeply under geosynclines, to emanations
from local fusions, to emanations from local
uprisings of granite magmas, and even to
reactivation of connate waters, but there is
widespread agreement that, whatever the
sources, the effect has been to alter country
rocks by replacement without essential
volume changes. To students of ore deposits
this process is well founded as a principle;
the regional application of it implicates
much broader tectonic and structural con-
trol. There are so many possible, and even
probable contributing sources that it is
difficult to decide which is probably the
most important unless, as Grout indicates,
the problem is approached quantitatively.
It would ssem that in most instances a
deeper-seated and more general source
than local intrusives is indicated. In the
New England area this appears especially
patent, for the evidences of feldspathization
are very widely spread, and though granitic
intrusives are distributed through most of
the region, few of them have had more than
very slight and local thermal effect. Their
distribution and probable similarity in age,
_however, bespeak a broad, subjacent mag-
matic source. A general zonal pattern of
hydrothermal effects is suggested, not by
the distribution of the exposed granite
masses, but by the distribution of mig-
matitic domes, replacement granites, peg-
matites, quartz veins, and incipient feld-
spathization and tourmalinization in rocks
of low-grade metamorphism. The time
relations, however, appear to be generally
similar.. Together with the feldspathizing
emanations, pegmatites, etc., they appear
to have had a common, subjacent, source.

Volume-for-volume replacement demands
an exchange of elements, but not in stoichio-
metrical proportions. Under granitizing
invasion there is a fixing of alkalis, silica,
and alumina. Bases become fugitive, espe-
cially iron and magnesia and to a less extent
lime. In the low-grade metamorphic rocks
of Vermont there are also evidences that

CURRIER: GRANITIZATION IN NEW ENGLAND 79

considerable amounts of titanium have been
introduced, largely as rutile and titanite. It
would be valuable to know more about the
traveling propensities of aluminum and
titanium, especially in the low-temperature
hydrothermal range. The pattern of the
metamorphism and the compositions of the
rocks suggest that the expelled bases are
driven into the adjacent and overlying
rocks, which might well account for, or help
to account for, the strongly biotitic and
garnetiferous aspects of the broad aureoles
that so commonly seem to be associated
with replacement granites and migmatitic
gneisses. Continued expansion of the
granitized zone would continue to drive the
fleeing bases ahead; ultimately they would
become fixed in higher, or outer, and
broader zones of lower temperature and
pressure, and might well be able to produce
or assist in producing the outermost low-
grade epidotic and chloritic zones of
metamorphism, representing the frontiers
of invasion into which the fugitive elements
have been driven. Of course this is a highly
hypothetical picture, but for New England
it appears to have a considerable degree of
substantiation in fact.

The criteria of ‘‘granitization’’—or per-
haps it is better to call them the diagnostic
features—appear in the many papers that
have been written about specific areas.
They are summarized in Grout’s critical
paper of 1941 (op. cit.). Time does not per-
mit more than a very brief review of a few
of these papers. First, however, I would like
to comment briefly on the three general
types of evidence.

“Granitization” is fundamentally a field
problem, and the most cogent evidence is
found in the field relations and the mega-
scopic field ithologic features. They include
the spatial relations, areal replacement
without proportionate pushing aside of
strata, continuity of regional structures
into the granitic mass, accordance of
country-rock structures with those of the
migmatite, accordance in orientation of
inclusions with the country rock and with
themselves, lithologic similarities between
inclusions and country rocks (making due
allowance for the greater alteration of the
inclusions), gradational boundaries (partic-

SO JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ularly along the strike), relict structures
(especially those of nonigneous origin, such
as drag folds and axial plane schistosity),
mineralogic layering that reflects compara-
tively uniform, parallel, and continuous
lithologic layering. All of these conditions
are to be found, incidentally, in the Chelms-
ford granite of Massachusetts. The field
study involves very detailed mapping of
quarries and other exposures in order to
detect and trace relations of structures that
could not possibly be attributed to mag-
matic flow or segregation. In the Chelms-
ford granite mass, for example, it is possible
to identify original bedding, folds, and a
superimposed schistosity parallel to the
axial planes and consequently at observable
angles to the bedding or “‘banding,”’ yet the
mass 1s so thoroughly granitized that the
stone is one of the most successful com-
mercial granites in the country. The graniti-
zation occurred subsequently or perhaps
nearly coincidentally with the development
of schistosity.

The second group of features is petro-
graphic. The predominant texture of the
granitized rock is such as can be attributed
to metasomatic action according to well-
established criteria of replacement. Among
these criteria are the usual directional
penetrations of some minerals in others,
mottled and streaky perthitic penetrations,
myrmikitic intergrowths, and streaks of
mosaic and uniformly sized quartz grains
that may well reflect the original stratifica-
tion of an arenyte. Porphyroblasts of felds-
par are usual in granitized rocks, and give a
pseudoporphyritic appearance to the re-
placement granite; these metasomes are
commonly unzoned, except for soda enrich-
ment and an abundance of inclusions in the
outer parts. The porphyroblasts also present
ragged contacts with the groundmass,
although exceptionally large ones are quite
euhedral in general outline. Common also
are streaks or grains of epidotic minerals,
and of chloritic minerals that are not
specifically related to biotite as though by
alteration, while other mafic minerals are
scant or wanting. It should be remembered,
however, that the chain of deuteric and
succeeding hydromagmatic reactions pro-
duces such hydrous minerals during the

VOL. 37, NO. 2

declining stages of the consolidation of a
granite magma. More than one variety of
plagioclase as separate entities is highly
suggestive of a nonmagmatic origin. Re-
versal in order of paragenesis among the
consitituent minerals, especially the feld-.
spars, from that to be expected of a magma
of similar composition as the rock in ques-
tion, is also suggestive, but it 1s commonly
difficult or impossible to obtain such evi-
dence because granitization is brought
about chiefly by the alkaline and siliceous
end products of magmatic differentiation.
By and large, then, petrographic evidence
is a corroborative corollary to field evidence,
but is not conclusive in itself, for both the
mineral compositions and the textural rela-
tions of ‘‘magmatic granites” are simulated
by hydrothermal replacement.

The third category is chemical analyses.
There seem to be few things that arouse
the ire and aggressiveness of critics so much
as the failure to give chemical analyses, —
unless it be the author’s interpretation of
his analyses. And I might add that there are
few things that arouse the imaginative
faculties of a geologist more than does a
series of selected analyses.

Chemical analyses are particularly useful
in demonstrating a variability of the re-
placement granite beyond that ordinarily
found in magmatic granites, except of
course in the chilled border zones. Such
variability is not, however, a real criterion.
The comparison is apt to be the less valu-
able the more perfect the replacement, for,
if the process is accomplished by a solution
whose composition is closely similar to that
of a granite magma—especially of alaskitic
type—the approach to complete replace-
ment will tend to reduce the variability and
the difference from a ‘“‘normal’ granite.
Comparison with the alleged ‘average
analysis” of known granites is generally an
unconvincing argument, although it does
serve some purpose in demonstrating ex-
ceptional or uncommon amounts of some
constituents. Indeed, replacement granites
may display a remarkable degree of simi-
larity with associated intrusives and of
uniformity within themselves. This prob-
ably reflects not only the uniformity of
the original rock but also the simplicity of

Mar. 15, 1937

the granitizing solutions. It seems probable,
indeed, that although the constituents of
the rock are reassembled to form a new
suite of minerals, the quantitative change is
not necessarily great. As stated earlier, for
the rapakivis Backlund rationalized as
much as a 20 per cent addition of alkalis and
alumina, but probably the additions are
seldom so great, though I have no quantita-
tive data at hand to support this statement,
except through a comparison of selected
analyses of impure sandstones and well-
known granites. I suggest an addition of
not more than 5 to 10 per cent in most
instances, with the principal changes being
effected by a loss of a few percent of bases
and a gain of a few percent of alkalis and
alumina. In the New England area there
seems to be consistent addition of soda, for
albitization in some degree marks rocks of
all grades of metamorphism. Billings! notes,
too, the introduction of 2 to 3 per cent of
potash in high-grade schist in the Franconia
region of New Hampshire.

It would be highly illuminating if chemi- -

cal analyses of the original sediments could
be compared with the granitized products.
- However, analyses of the unaltered or very
slightly altered parts of the formations
replaced must generally represent parts so
remote from the highly granitized area that
the significance of the comparison is un-
certain. The normal variations in the
original compositions of these rocks may
well be of the same general order of magni-
tude as the changes produced by granitiza-
tion of the same beds elsewhere.

One of the earliest papers published in
this country relating closely to the general
subject of granitization, though not specifi-
cally emphasizing a dominant role for
hydrothermal replacement was that by
Fenner.* This paper should be read by
everyone pursuing the subject. In it Fenner
describes the finely and evenly banded
gneisses. He argued against the possibility
that plastic flow produced the elongated

18 Bruuines, Maruann P., Introduction of
potash during regional metamorphism in western
New Hampshire. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 49(2):
289-302. Feb. 1, 1938.

“ FENNER, C. N., The mode of formation of
certain gneisses in the Highlands of New Jersey.
Journ. Geol. 22: 594-612, 694-702. 1914.

CURRIER: GRANITIZATION IN NEW ENGLAND 81

structure, and argued for a pronounced
fluidity of the invading materials. For part
of the complex, at least, he suggests that
the attributes of a rigid body were retained
and that ‘‘the advance of the main body of
magma would be preceded by that of a more
dilute portion which would be able to im-
pregnate the wall-rock with facility and
initiate processes of transformation and
solution which the more concentrated body
following would carry farther toward com-
pletion.”’

In 1927 Quirke” presented before a meet-
ing of the Geological Society of America a
description of a migmatized quartzite in
the Killarney, Ontario, region which grades
along the strike into granite “that is
scarcely distinguishable from the once
liquid granite of the vicinity.’’ Quirke is
said to have given new impetus to the
granitization idea in America. At any rate
his 1927 paper was startling to many
geologists, but since that time the theory
has been much more widely invoked.

In 1934 Lamey" described metamorphic
effects by the Republic granite in northern
Michigan, and the transitions
quartzite—gneissoid quartzite —~gneiss—gneissic

granite, and

argillaceous rocks—alusite-biotite-staurolite-chlo-
- ritoid-albite schists

This is particularly interesting in the im-
plied relation of chloritoid and staurolite to
granitization.

In 1934 A. L. Anderson! described the
effect of a granodiorite intrusive on quartz-
ite and interpreted the transition

quartzite—porphyritic granite—granite

The granitic mass has a schistose border
zone.
Stark!® (1935) described the replacement

16 QuIRKE, T. T., Are some intrusions replace-
ment deposits? (abstract). Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.
38: 119-121. Mar. 30, 1927. See also by same
author, Killarney gneisses and migmatites. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer. 38(4): 753-770. Dec. 30, 1927.

16 LameEy, C. A., Some metamorphic effects of the
Republic granite. Journ. Geol. 42(3): 248-263.

“Apr._May 1934.

17 ANDERSON, A. L., Contact phenomena as-
sociated with the Cassia batholith, Idaho. Journ.
Geol. 42 (4): 276-392. May—June 1934.

18 Stark, J. T., Migmatites of the Sawatch Range,
Gerergee. Journ. Geol: 43(1): 1-26. Jan.—Feb.

Dace

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

migmatitization of large areas of schists
bordering the Pikes Peak granite in the
Sawatch Range, Colorado. He stressed the
porphyroblastic texture of the schist, and
the gradation of the granite into a mixed
zone of granitic material and _biotite-
chlorite schist, with most of the biotite and
chlorite laminae ending abruptly against
the feldspar porphyroblasts.

G. H. Anderson’? (1937) described the
Pellisier granite in the northern part of the

Inyo Range, California, and discussed its re-

placement origin as a result of the intrusion
of a massive granite that underlies and
- forms the core of the Range. Arenytes,
argillaceous rocks and volcanics were in-
volved in the transformation. One of his
significant points relates to the fugitive
nature of the bases, particularly iron; he
shows that the iron ranges from about 2.5
_per cent in the main body of the granite to
4.5 per cent in the Pellisier granite, and from
5.5 per cent to 9.0 per cent in the overlying
schists, the largest percentage being in the
argillite that overlies the granite.

In 1941,?° Grout gave warning to the fast-
erowing group of proponents of the granit-
ization theory, some of whom, intrigued
by the simplicity of a replacement mode of
origin for many granitic rocks seemed in-
clined, he thought, to apply the theory too
broadly, or with too scant evidence. He
called for more specific data on volume
relationships, textures, relict structures,
relations to orogeny or other periods of
deformation, chemical changes, etc. He
makes a most effective plea for definition of
terms and abandonment of loose terminol-
ogy. He gives an imposing list of criteria to
be satisfied. The criteria are excellent and
the list is surely complete and well worth
study by any student of the subject. He
seems to be very exacting, however, as to
the amount of corroborative evidence
required to prove a replacement origin for a
granitic mass, and I daresay that if an

19 ANDERSON, G. H., Granitization, albitization,
and related phenomena in the northern Inyo Range
of California-Nevada. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.
48(1): 1-74. Jan. 1, 1937.

20 Grout, F. F., Formation of igneous-looking
rocks by metasomatism; a critical review and sug-
gested research. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 52(10):
1525-1576. Oct. 1, 1941.

VOL. 37, NO. 3

equivalent degree of evidence were required
to prove the conventional intrusive origin
of many granite bodies, or their modes of
emplacement, or even the shapes of the
masses, not a little of our accepted geologic
mapping and interpretations would be in
the condition of needing subsequent con-
firmation of preconceived notions. Certainly
there are places where, regardless of the
completeness of the data obtained in the
field, or at least cited by authors—that is to
say, the number of criteria satisfied—
neither forcible intrusion nor stoping, nor
quiet upwelling of magma could be sup-
ported by certain inherent structures and
relationships. Incidentally, since when have
the modes of emplacement and shapes
of granite batholiths been unequivocably
established?

Some other statements in Grout’s paper
cannot be passed by without brief com-
ment. If taken judiciously his paper will
serve a very useful purpose and be truly
helpful. But he says that recent writers
assume the process to be established, and
carry their idea too far, applying it to
masses several miles across. It is my con-
tention that ‘‘granitization” is no longer
merely an assumed process, but is estab-
lished by as clear data and as cogent reason-
ing as the hydrothermal origin of ore de-
posits was, when it was widely accepted as
a sound and established theory. The effects
are discernible over large areas—they may,
indeed, be manifest regionally in all degrees
from incipient feldspathization to the for-
mation of “igneous-looking” rocks. It seems
to be largely the term “‘granitization” that
offers the quarrel. Actually the process is
one of igneous metamorphism in a broad
sense, and if it happens that, by a very —
simple mineralogic change and the opera-
tions of a well-established process the
resulting rock resembles a granite to a con-
siderable extent, it is because the original
composition, texture, and other local geo-
logic conditions were together favorable to
that end point. With other rocks to work
upon, quite different appearing rocks would
have resulted for the most part, although
rocks of granitic composition would still be
the theoretical end product wherever sialic
solutions were the agents.

Mar. 15, 1947

In places the results of intensive graniti-
zation are restricted to the shells or aureoles
of recognizable magmatic granites that may
reasonably be held accountable for the
transformation. To require the discovery of
a responsible magmatic body, however, is
to require fulfillment of an oftentimes un-
fulfillable condition, besides placing a serious
restriction on the exercising of legitimate
scientific imagination.

One statement in Grout’s paper par-
ticularly worries me. At the end of a
paragraph that outlines the various steps
necessary to prove acceptably a case of
granitization, he says, ‘‘Finally, there should
be a careful discussion by experts in the var-
ious branches of geology which might bear
on the conclusion.”’ This is a rather formida-
ble prospect, even aside from the mere task
of assembling the opinions of such a group
of the learned fraternity. Can’t you picture
an eager, well-trained, and keen-minded
young geologist working in an area and find-
ing himself confronted with a granite-looking
rock that defies orthodox pigeon-holing?
What’s his next step? And how does he go
about prevailing upon these categorically
right-minded individuals to come scurrying

to his aid? And them what does he do after >

the consultation of doctors has taken place,
and the smoke of intellectual battle has
finally cleared? Chances are that he'll still
have to weigh the evidence and figure out
the answer himself. In his fundamental
training, however, he should be provided
with a broad enough viewpoint to realize
that the theory of metasomatic feldspathi-
zation on a large scale is rational and well
founded, and is valuable heritage from
deservedly renowned scientists. In spite of
his implied fear that too many geologists
will overstep the bounds of conventional
geologic propriety, Professor Grout does
indeed present students with a broad-
minded concept, for in his valuable and
comprehensive text on _ petrology” he
makes the following statement: “If a
granite magma is introduced into massive
quartzites and so disseminated that its
channels of access are not visible, it may so
largely replace the original as to form a

2! Grout, F. F., Petrography and petrology, a-

textbook. New York, 1932.

CURRIER: GRANITIZATION IN NEW ENGLAND 83

rock indistinguishable from granite. Some
intermediate stages in this series of replace-
ment effects suggest that certain large
masses of granite may be really results of
replacement.’’ He seems just a bit over-
cautious and discouraging in his 1941 paper,
but he has a righteous quarrel with vague
terminology.

A review of the literature leads to the

- view that most complete granitization takes

place in rocks of highly siliceous character,
particularly the impure quartzites. This
suggests that comparatively little quartz is
added in the process; some of it appears as
myrmikitic replacement of feldspar. It
would seem, too, that some alumina may
be added as aluminous silicates, for the
alumina content of many impure quartzites
is rarely high enough, by several per cent, to
equal the requirements of a granitic com-
position. Potash and soda are introduced,
but seme of the potash is derived from the
sediment itself. Some titanium becomes
fixed as titanite.

Highly calcareous beds may develop a
labradorite or bytownite and pyribole-zoisite
facies under equivalent conditions, that is
clearly suggestive of a contact-metamorphic
origin, but may not be closer to a contact
zone with truly igneous material than other
parts of the granitized facies. The term
“Yegional contact metamorphism” has been
applied by some geologists to the regional
metamorphism by igneous agencies acting
over a large area, including facies that are
granitized products.

Fine-grained argillites, such as phyllites,
are relatively compact, and though they
are susceptible chemically they are not
permeated so easily as are the coarser-
grained sediments. Their incompetency
promotes squeezing and flowage rather than
the development of shatter fractures and
porosity, and the metamorphic minerals in
them may be more completely derived
from the inherent rock constituents under
increased thermal gradient than is true of
the more competent formations. Even the
phyllites, however, show the penetrative
effects of hydrothermal solutions. For ex-
ample, a low-to-medium-grade phyllite in
eastern Vermont showed _ saddle-shaped
replacement grains of feldspar on the crests

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of minute crinkles. These feldspar grains
are neither fractured nor distorted, and
they penetrate the rock folia on both limbs
of the minute folds; trains of tourmaline
crystals occupy the fracture cleavages in
the axial planes. Small lenses and veins of
hydrothermal quartz are abundant in the
formation.

Igneous rocks also are susceptible, but
like sedimentary rocks the original composi-
tion influences the completeness of ‘“‘grani-
tization.’’ Gilluly described an outstanding
example,” in which a quartz diorite was
changed to albite granite. He gives a sum-
mary of the microscopic evidence that sug-
gests replacement; similar mineralogic and
textural features are duplicated in the
Chelmsford granite, and other replacement
granites derived from siliceous sediments.

Replacement granites commonly have a
pseudoporphyritic texture. Porphyroblasts
of oligoclase or albite-oligoclase are com-
monly formed as metasomes during the
first wave of invasion. These are succeeded
by the development of potash feldspar in
the groundmass, and these in turn by albite
and myrmikitic quartz. The textures are
predominantly metasomatic.

In the New England area such metaso-
matic phenomena range from incipient feld-
spathization of low-grade rocks to what ap-
pears to be one of the most striking examples
of replacement granite on record, that in the
Westford-Chelmsford area, Massachusetts.
Broad, roughly parallel zones both of meta-
morphic grades and of hydrothermal inva-
sion are suggested by the areal distribution
of facies. I shall outline briefly my concept of
these zones. It is to be emphasized, however,
that they cannot be sharply delineated or
separated completely from one another. A
great deal more detailed mapping is needed
to demonstrate the gradations and com-
plexities, but it already seems clear that the
grade zones of metamorphism are not
susceptible to separation by boundaries as
simple as might be expected of a sequence
determined purely by depth-zone control.
Instead of a simple gradational system the

22 GILLULY, JAMES, Replacement origin of the

albite granite near Sparta, Oregon. U. S. Geol.
Surv. Prof. Paper 175: 65-81. 1933.

VOL. 37, NO. 3

zones overlap and intermingle in detail, as
indeed one might expect where invasive
agencies have been operative and the
metamorphism is a function not only of
depth but also of belts of deformation and
subjacent intrusion.

It is interesting to note that Billings has
abandoned, apparently, his earlier method
of mapping depth zones according to
Grubenmann’s classification of epi-, meso-,
and katazones, and that he favors simple
erade-zone nomenclature for the rocks of
New Hampshire. In his paper on the White
Mountains area he shows mineralized sub-
zones, and says ‘‘The subzones of meta-
morphism of the Mt. Washington area
result from variations in the metamorphic
history in different sections. There is no
evidence that the subzones were buried at
different depths. The temperature, however,
may well have been different from place to
place’? and, ‘‘The gneisses of the Mt.
Washington area formed by processes
identical to those postulated for central
Massachusetts by Larsen and Morris
(1923). The process is similar to that de-
scribed by Currier (1937) in the Chelms-
ford-Westford district of Massachusetts
and at Milford, New Hampshire.’’4

Briefly, the picture that seems to be
shaping up is as follows. From the Green
Mountains axis the metamorphic grade
increases in general toward the east and
southeast, and three major zones appear.

(a) A zone of low-grade metamorphism
in central and eastern Vermont and western
Massachusetts, in which quartz and quartz-

ankerite veins are abundant, and peg-

matites are relatively sparse and small.

(b) East of the low-grade zone a belt of
medium and high-grade metamorphism
that swings southwesterly into and across
Connecticut, and northeasterly through
east-central New Hampshire into Maine.
This zone includes the prominent pegmatite
belt of New Hampshire, central Massachu-
setts, and western Maine; it also includes
most of the migmatitic domes that are com-

23 Bituines, M. P., Structure and metamorphism
an the Mt. Washington area, New Hampshire. Bull.
Geol. Soc. Amer. 52: 924. 1941.

bids Deak.

Mar. 15, 1947

mon in western New Hampshire, and cen-
tral Massachusetts. In this general zone
medium and high-grade facies of meta-
morphic rocks are complexly related.

(c) Generally east and south of zone b, a
belt that is dominated by relatively coarse-
grained granites, gneissic granites, and
paragneisses. Most of the known granite
stocks and ‘“‘batholiths’” of Maine and
Massachusetts, particularly those granites
of coarse texture, lie in the coastal part of
this belt.

A map of known granite bodies that are
clearly intrusive shows that they are dis-
tributed widely through all three belts.
Granite bodies in the coastal area are pre-
dominantly stocklike, and among them are
most of the relatively coarse-grained gran-
ites, such as those of the Jonesboro, Mt.
Desert, Stonington (Deer Isle), Vinalhaven,
Biddeford, and Kennebunkport districts in
Maine, and the Rockport, Peabody, and
Quincy districts of Massachusetts. The
finer-grained granites are more common
farther inland, and, except for a few oc-
currences, as at Redstone, New Hampshire,
the granites of this area are fine to medium
grained and: occur predominantly as sills,
dikes, and small stocklike masses; examples
of these granites are to be seen in the Fitz-
william, Troy, Milford, and Concord dis-
tricts of New Hampshire, and the Acton,
Carlisle, and Fitchburg districts of Mas-
sachusetts. Note that from this catalog are
excluded the markedly gneissic granites
whose origins and forms are not certain, or
that show strong evidences of migmatitiza-
tion. In central and eastern Vermont also
are many granite intrusives which, for the
most part, are relatively small bodies and
whose textures are fine to medium grained.
Examples of these granites are those known
commercially as the Barre, Bethel and
Woodbury granites. It is noteworthy that
the intrusives of zones a and 6b have had
little apparent metamorphic effect upon
the enclosing rocks, and that associated
pegmatites are comparatively small and
few.

The age relations of the metamorphic,
invasive, and intrusive phenomena are not
completely established. For New Hamp-

CURRIER: GRANITIZATION IN NEW ENGLAND

Cd

85

shire, Billings interprets at least three ages
of intrusive rocks; of these the late
Devonian intrusives—his New Hampshire
magma series—were associated with a
period of major deformation, and he be-
lieves that there was no comparable episode
of deformation in the Carboniferous period
or at the close of the Paleozoic era. In
Massachusetts the migmatitic rocks and
pegmatites of the medium and high-grade
belt were assigned to the Carboniferous by
Emerson” and others, on the basis of flora
from the Worcester phyllite. There seems
to be sufficient question, however, about
this correlation to warrant a reexamination
of the fossils. If the fossils should prove to
be assignable to the Devonian, the ap-
parent anomaly of Carboniferous or post-
Carboniferous migmatitization in Mas-
sachusetts disappears. Also the problem of
the apparently anomalous lithology of the
Boston and Narragansett Basins—which
are underlain by comparatively unmeta-
morphosed Carboniferous sediments—will
also be resolved. The rocks of these basins
interrupt the continuity of the coastal belt
of highly intruded and metamorphosed
rocks.

The Chelmsford granite is believed to
represent the metasomatic replacement of
schistose quartzitic beds of the Merrimack
quartzite, in the belt of gneissic granites
and paragneisses. This formation is cor-
related with the Oakdale quartzite of the
Worcester area, a formation below the
Worcester phyllite, and separated from the
phyllite by the Harvard conglomerate. The
strata above and below the Merrimack
quartzite are highly invaded by pegmatites
and replacement veins. The ‘Chelmsford
granite” is well exposed by quarries and by
natural exposures through a belt 15 miles
long and up to 25 miles wide, trending
northeasterly across the Lowell, Tyngs-
boro, Westford, and Ayer quadrangles of
northeastern Massachusetts. The best ex-
posures and quarries are in the town of
Westford. The outcrop. belt conforms
perfectly with the general regional trend
of the sedimentary formations, that is, N.

25 HMERSON, B. K., Geology of Massachusetts and
Rhode Island. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 597. 1917.

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

40° to 45° E. The northeastern and south-
western limits of the granite have not yet
been determined closely, but the mass thins
gradually in these directions. The end zones
as well as the border zones are indefinite,
and are intercalated with the bordering
schists in various degrees of migmatitiza-
tion.

The granite is well “banded.” In most
places the ‘‘bands’”’ or layers (believed to be
relicts of original bedding) are distinct, thin,
remarkably uniform and persistent; in
some places the layers are less distinct but
still definite, and in still other places,
notably on the crests and troughs of folds,
the layers are vague or even wanting.
Several folds can be traced within the
granite, and a schistosity superimposed on
the “bedding” is parallel with the axial
planes, and so cuts across the layers at a
very sharp angle. These features are ex-
posed well in the larger quarries of the dis-
trict in one of which several folds have been
traced and mapped. The remarkable uni-
formity and persistence of the layers, the
folding, and the parallelism of the super-
posed schistosity with the axial planes are
considered to be strong evidence of the
derivation of this granite from a sedimen-
tary schist. Such structures could not result
from either plastic or liquid flow.

Schist and quartzite inclusions in the
granite, to be seen in several of the quarries,
are oriented parallel with the layering and
in accord with the regional structure. Most
of the inclusions are of biotite schist, repre-
senting a reconstitution of the original rock,
and range from elongated masses with
metasomes and thin irregular layers of
feldspar. to mere shreds of biotite that

BOTAN Y.—A new species of Hlsinoé on capulin cherry (Prunus capult).!

VOL. 37, NO. 3

eradually fade out along the strike into the -
granitic rock. A few of the inclusions are of
relatively dense and pure quartzite; they
have irregular but comparatively sharp
contacts with the granite.

The granite is cut by countless thin
pegmatite veins, rarely more than a foot
thick, and mostly but a few inches thick.
Commonly these veins cross the layers at a
large angle; their comblike crystals of
feldspar and muscovite, however, are con-
tinuous with the foliation of the host rock
and are therefore not perpendicular to the
walls of the veins. The contacts are irregular
and vague. Pegmatite veinlets of a later
generation are also present; they have
sharp contacts and in places contain
abundant black tourmaline.

It is not my purpose at this time to
present the details of evidence for a
metasomatic origin of the granite. Such is
planned for a later and more specific paper.
But the mineralogic features, textures, and
structures that characterize the Chelmsford
granite are to be found in all degrees of
development throughout the metamorphic
zones of New England, and it seems neces-
sary to consider the so-called ‘“‘granitiza-
tion” as a regional metamorphic process—a
gradational phenomenon that has left its
impress upon rocks of all grades, and whose
manifestations range from incipiency to
dominancy in the reconstitution and re-
crystallization of the rocks, regionally as

- well as locally. The theory of granitization

cannot be looked upon as a fad. It is a basic
concept, and must be a common and
legitimate recourse for the metamorphic
geologist.

ANNA

E. Jenxins, U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineer-

ing.

On January 4, 1940, a leaf spot caused
by Elsinoé (4) was discovered on capulin
cherry (Prunus capuli Cav.) growing in the
nursery at the Estacién Experimental

1 Received December 6, 1946.

Central, Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria,
at Caracas, Venezuela, by M. F. Barrus, of
Cornell University, then on sabbatical leave
in Venezuela, and by A. S. Muller, then
plant pathologist at the Station. Specimens
were transmitted to the writer with the

Mar. 15, 1947

statement that the diseased tree had re-
cently been introduced from Mexico. It is
possible that the tree was already infected in
Mexico, where the capulin is said to have
originated (cf. 6, note by 8. F. Blake, p. 58,
and 8).

The lesions produced by the Elsinoé
were large and conspicuous and ascomata
were prominent on them. The conidial stage
was rare on the specimen collected in
January but was abundant on a specimen
from the same source, collected on March 1,
1941, by Dr. Muller. In this case the perfect
stage was not seen. The fungus appears to
be new and is described as follows:

Elsinoé pruni, n. sp. (Fig. 1)

Leaf spots conspicuous, few to numerous, as
many as 50 on a leaf, scattered, sometimes
marginal, circular to subcircular, minute to
5 mm in diameter, coalescent, usually in small
groups, up to 5 mm in diam., above, “‘vina-
ceous-buff’’? to gray, including ‘“‘pale mouse
gray,” or whitish, sometimes shading to brown
including ‘‘deep vinaceous-brown,”’ margin
slightly raised, even to finely undulate, brown
to purple, including ‘‘Mars violet,” below
brown often shading to purple, including ‘‘dull
dark purple,” fructifications of the fungus ap-
pearing as dark pustules on the spots; ascomata
numerous, up to 60 on an individual spot,
-pulvinate, with rounded margin, black, up to
200u or more in diam., by 60—80y in thickness,
arising intraepidermally, then becoming erum-
pent, covered with a dark epithecium reaching
15u in thickness, sometimes coalescent; asci
numerous, subglobose to broadly ovoid or
pyriform, 22-30 by 16-22; ascospores fusiform-
elliptical, straight or slightly curved, becoming
3-septate, slightly constricted at the median
septum, hyaline, 14-18 by 6-8.

Imperfect stage, Sphaceloma pruni, n. sp.

Fructifications conspicuously rupturing the
epidermis, becoming erumpent-superficial, cir-
cular to irregular, or elongate, reaching 500u
in length by 200u in width, coalescent or
branching, olivaceous to nearly black, at first in
the form of an acervulus, then sometimes be-
coming sporodochial, often about 50yu in thick-
ness, the palisade of colored conidiophores

2 Colors in quotation marks are based on
Ridgway (7).

JENKINS: A NEW SPECIES OF ELSINOE 87

usually at least 14u thick, individual conidio-
phores 3—5y in diam., often pointed at the tip,
sometimes elongating, hypha-like from conidia
remaining in situ, or otherwise, continuous or
septate, occasionally geniculate; conidia
minute, spherical, hyaline, to narrowly ovoid or
fusiform-elliptical, dusky, up to 15 by 2.6—5y.

Maculae in foliis, superne conspicuores,
paucae usque numerosae, conspersae_ vel
marginales, circulares. vel subcirculares, ali-
quando paucae coalescentes, usque 5 mm in
diam., supra vinaceo-bubalinae usgue grisae vel
albidae interdum brunnescentes, margine sub-
elevato, integro ad subleniter undulato, brun-
neo-purpurascenti, inferne brunneo-purpura-
scenti, ascomata numerosa, pulvinata, atra,
usque 200u in diam. et 60—-80y crassa; epi-
thecium usque 15u crassus; asci in massis
pseudoparenchymoides numerosi, subglobosi
ad late ovoidei vel pyriformes, 22-30 by 16-20;
ascosporae fusiform-ellipticae, hyalinae, 3-sep-
tatae et septum medium paulo constructae, 14—
18 X6—-8u.

Status conidicus, Sphaceloma pruni, n. sp.

Fructificationes conspicue epidermidem per-
fringentes, erumpentes et superficiales, circu-
lares ad irregulares vel elongatae, usque
500 X200uy, olivaceae ad atrae, in forma acervuli
vel sporodochii, saepe ca. 50u in diam.; pali
conidiophorum obscuri, ad minimum 14y
erassi; conidiophora 3—5yu in diam., interdum
supra palos se protrahendentia, hyphoidea;
conidia minuta, sphaeroidea, ad angusta
ovoidea vel fusiform-elliptica, fusca, usque
15—2.6—5p.3

Distribution.—Producing the disease ‘‘an-
thracnose of capulin cherry” (Prunus capuli
Cav.) (Rosaceae) in Venezuela, South America.

Specimens examined.A—PERFECT STAGE: On
leaves of Prunus capuli, Caracus, Sta. Federal,
Venezuela, January 4, 1940, M. F. Barrus and
A. 8S. Muller (HV 3763, IB 4193, CU 31760,

3 Translation into Latin by Miss Edith K.
Cash.
4 Symbols indicating the herbaria in which
these specimens are deposited are as follows:
lel hi Herb. Micol. Exp. Central., Min. Agr. e
Cria, Caracas, Venezuela
IB Sece. Fitopat., Inst. Biol., Sio Paulo,

Brazil

CU Cornell Univ. Plant Path. Herb.,
Tthaca, N.Y.

USM Mycol. Coll., Bur. Plant Indus., Soils,

and Agr. Engineering, U. 8. Dept. Agr.,
Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 3

Fia. 1.—A, Leaf spot caused by Elsinoé prunz on capulin cherry from Caracas, Venezuela, a and ),
collected on March 1, 1941, by A. S. Muller; c and d, on January 4, 1940, by M. F. Barrus and A. 8.
Muller; all X1. B, C, Conidial stage (Sphaceloma) on specimen collected in March, C, abundant
fructifications on light-colored central area of an individual spot (X13), B, a, acervulus in section and
B, b, individual conidiophores and conidia from another section (500). D—F, Perfect stage on speci-
men collected in January, D, individual leaf spot with ascomata showing as dark-colored pustules
on the central area (X7), H, asci (a, b), containing ascospores (c) (500), F, an ascoma with numerous
asc iCa) bs Bar eenes peripheral region, c, outer wall of ruptured epidermis (500). Photographs by

. L. F. Foubert.

Mar. 15, 1947

USM 73419 Type); June 16, 1940, A. S. Muller
(HV 3904, IB 4107, CU 31761, USM 74118).
IMPERFECT STAGE: On leaves of Prunus
capuli Cav., Caracas, Sta. Caracas, Sta.
Federal, Venezuela, March 1, 1941, A. S.
Muller (IB 4194, USM 73780 Type).
Note.—Relative to Sphaceloma on other spe-
cies of Prunus than P. capult, it has previously
been inferred (2, p. 263) that Garbowski’s
(1) report of Hadrotrichum popult Sacc. on
plum (P. domestica L.) from the peninsula
Crimea (south Russia) concerns a Sphaceloma
on that host. (H. populi is, of course, the
Sphaceloma of poplar (Populus), now known as
S. popult (Sace.) Jenkins (2, p. 264). Unfortu-
nately, a specimen of the so-called Hadro-
trichum on plum is not available as Garbowski
informed the writer in 1930. In the abstract re-
porting the Sphaceloma on capulin cherry (3),
reference is made to Sphaceloma on chokecherry
(P. virginiana L.) It is here explained that the
lesions on the chokecherry leaves strongly
suggested the presence of Sphaceloma, but
absolute evidence of the existence of the fungus
on them has not been obtained. Until further
data are available, therefore, this record should
be regarded as provisional. Similarly, lesions
from their appearance attributable to Sphace-
loma (or Elsinoé) are present on a certain

STONE AND PENN: A NEW CULEX FROM NEW GUINEA 89

specimen of hollyleaf cherry (P. ilicifolia
(Nutt.) Walp.) and of Catalina cherry (P.
lyon (Kastw.) Sarg.) from California (5).

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Garpowski, L. Les micromycétes de la
Crimée et des districts limitrophes de
la Russie méridionale en considération
spéciale des parasites des arbres et des
arbrisseaux fruitiers. Bull.-Soc. Mycol.
France 39: 227-260, illus. 1924.

(2) JENKINS, A. E. Elsinoé on apple and pear.
Journ. Agr. Res. 44: 689-700, illus. 1932.

(3) . A new species of Elsinoé on capulin

cherry (Prunus ecapuli) (Abstr.) Phyto-

pathology 32: 11. 1942.

and Brrancourt, A. A. Revised de-

scriptions of the genera Elsinoé and

Sphaceloma. Mycologia 32: 338-340.

1941.

, Brrancourt, A. A., and Pouwack,
F. G. Spot anthracnoses in the Pacific
Coast States. Journ. Wash. Acad. Sci. 36:
416-421. illus. 1946.

(6) Popmnor, W., and Pacuano, A. The
capulin cherry. A superior form of the
northern black cherry developed in the high-
lands of tropical America. Journ. Hered.
13: 51-62, illus. 1922.

(7) Ripaway, R. Color standards and _ color
nomenclature, 43 pp., illus. Washington,
1912.

(8) SranDLEY, P. C. Trees and shrubs of Mexico.
Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 23: 340-341.
1922.

(4)

(5)

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new species of Culex from New Guinea (Diptera, Culicidae).1
Aan StonE, U. S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, and
GrorRGE Henry Prnn, Cornell University.

For some time the writers have had be-
fore them a Culex quite different in colora-
tion from any previously described except
C. binigrolineatus Knight and Rozeboom,?
and differing from that species in the male
genitalia, the larva, and the pupa. Like
binigrolineatus, the larva of this species is
found in the leaf axils of the sago palm (as
well as other plants), and the females of the
two species are scarcely distinguishable.
Because it is desired to refer to this species
in other papers on the mosquito fauna of
New Guinea, it is being described at this
time.

1 Received December 2, 1946.
2 Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 47 (9): 289-295.
945.

Culex bicki, n. sp.

FEMALE: Rather small, the wing length 3

_mm. Scales of head and scutum predominately

white, the mesoscutum with a pair of dark
stripes converging posteriorly. Scarcely distin-
guishable from binigrolineatus Knight and Roze-
boom, the only observed difference being that
the bare portions of the dark mesoscutal stripes
are less apparent, the dark bronzy-brown scales
being more evident.

Mats: Coloration as in female. Long ventral
hairs of proboscis not forming a tuft before
middle, as in binigrolineatus, but scattered on
apical half. Antenna scarcely shorter than pro-
boscis, and palpus longer than proboscis by no
more than half of the fifth segment. Otherwise
as in binzgrolineatus externally. Genitalia (Figs,

VOL. 37, NO. 3

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
stout filaments and about five smaller setae.

Dististyle slender, tapering, a minute seta be-
yond middle, the terminal spine very short,

90
2,3). Basistyle conical, without scales, but with
a number of long hairs on lateral and dorsal
surfaces. Subapical lobe rather large, with two

—

Maantoroy

Fras. 1-7.—Culez bicki, n. sp.: 1, Head of larva; 2, basistyle and dististyle of male genitalia; 3, lateral
plate of mesosome and tenth sternite; 4, apex of abdomen of larva; 5, pecten tooth; 6, comb scale; 7,

abdomen of pupa.

Mar. 15, 1947

broad. Lateral plates of mesosome with five
(rarely more) stout teeth on upper arm, two
apical, two basal, and one median (the holotype
has three teeth in the apical group of one of the
arms); lower arm projecting obliquely with the
apex truncate. Inner edge of tenth sternite with
a row of irregular denticles, the apex with a
number of slender, curved spines; basal arm
short, stout, curved. Ninth tergite simple,
without lobes, evenly clothed with long hairs.

Larva: Head (Fig. 1). Shape and color as in
binigrolineatus, differing only in the following
characters: Antennal tuft consisting of 7 to 10
long, nonplumose hairs, situated between 0.6
and 0.7 length of segment from base; antean-
tennal tuft (A) finely plumose, 5- to 8-branched,
usually 7; lower and upper head hairs (B and
C) finely plumose, 2- to 4-branched, usually 3;
posterior clypeal tuft (D) short, 2- to 3-
branched, usually 3; inner occipital hair (E)
2-branched; outer occipital hair (F) 3- to 4-
branched, usually 3; orbital hair (G) single or
forked beyond middle; and, subantennal hair
(H) inconspicuous, usually single.

Abdomen (Figs. 4, 5, 6). Similar to that of
binigrolineatus, differing chiefly in having the
comb teeth of segment VIII in a straight line,
consisting of 8 to 11 teeth, usually 9; teeth each
with a central blunt spine fringed on either side
by 9 or 10 fine, short hairs. Pentad hairs of
VIII: 1 usually 2-branched, range from | to 3;
2 and 4 always single; 3 finely plumose, 6- to
10-branched, usually 7; 5 finely plumose, 2- to
4-branched, usualky 3. Siphon like that of
binigrolineatus in shape and color, pecten aver-
aging 11 teeth with a range of 10 to 14; 3 pairs
of siphonal tufts, 3- to 6-branched, usually 5,
finely plumose apically. Anal segment as in
binigrolineatus except ventral brush which usu-
ally consists of a pair of bifid, finely plumose
hairs.

Pupa: Cephalothorax. Shape and pigmenta-
tion as in binigrolineatus. Hair 2 prominent, 3-
to 4-branched, slightly plumose; hair 10 usually
3-branched; 11 single, prominent; 12 usually
3-branched.

Abdomen (Fig. 7). Segments II and VIII well
pigmented as well as the ‘‘bridge’”’ between the
float hairs on segment I. Differs conspicuously
from binigrolineatus in that only the larger
posterolateral hairs of abdominal segments
IV-VIII are finely plumose, all others being
nonplumose. All hairs of segment I nonplumose,

STONE AND PENN: A NEW CULEX FROM NEW GUINEA 91

H, S, and T being the strongest developed; seg-
ments II and III without any conspicuously
well-developed hairs; segments IV-VI with hair
B large, 2-branched and finely plumose, and C
large, multibranched and nonplumose; segment
VII with hair 2 most prominent, 4-branched,
and finely plumose; segment VIII with hair A
9-branched and finely plumose. Paddles with-
out apical hairs, but lateral margin finely ser-
rate and tip slightly notched beyond midrib;
midrib weak not reaching hind margin of pad-
dle, which is very thin apically and often diffi- |
cult to discern without special lighting; paddle
sometimes with an irregular line of black pig-
ment near base.

MATERIAL STUDIED: Holotype: Male, reared
from larva in sago axil, Toem, Dutch New
Guinea, VII-17-1944, Edward 8S. Ross. Para-
types: Same locality and collector: 20’,
22 92, same data as holotype; 3c'c", 22 9,
from taro, (?) VI-1944, 19, 23 larvae, from
sago axils, VI-30-1944; 192, VII-10-1944.
Hilimoi, Milne Bay, Papua, 10’, 52 Q, with -
four associated larval skins and six associated
pupal skins, ex Pandanus leaf axil, [X-12-1944,
George H. Bick (through G. H. Penn, Eliza-
beth N. Marks, and T. K. Ruebush); Milne
Bay, Papua, in thick jungle, 1944, Yves Guil-
lory (through Elizabeth N. Marks). Holotype
and paratypes, United States National Mu-
seum No. 58245. Other paratypes to be de-
posited at Cornell University, University of
Queensland, California Academy of Sciences,
and the British Museum.

We are indebted to the collectors and those
who submitted this material to us for the op-
portunity of describing this interesting spe-
cles.

TAXONOMIC POSITION: The assignment of
this species to any of the described subgenera
is difficult. Knight and Roseboom tentatively
placed the closely related binigrolineatus in the
subgenus Neoculex, although admitting that
the only reason for not treating it as a Culicio-
myta was the absence of modified bristles on the
male palpus. There are, however, translucent
bristles on the ventral surface of the palpus
that are not so modified as in Culiciomyia spe-
cies. These two species, binigrolineatus and
bicki, along with two undescribed species from
the Solomon Islands, form a rather distinct
species group that will probably warrant the
erection of a new subgenus.

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ,

VOL. 37, NO. 3

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new genus of flea beetles from the West Indies. Doris H.

BuakeE, Arlington, Va.

Two new species of a genus of flea beetles
that has hitherto gone without a name have
recently been collected, one from the region
of the Pico Turquino, in Oriente Province,
Cuba, the second, the only one of its group
from outside of Cuba, from Puerto Rico.

In his treatment of the Cuban Chryso-
melidae, Suffrian? grouped under Haltica
such related genera as “Graptodera, Crepi-
dodera, Phyllotreta, and Aphthona’ and
others. Frequently, under a section head
designated merely by a letter, he described,
without giving a name to it, a group that
did not belong under any of the genera
known to him. Such a group is that char-
acterized in a brief Latin description under
section c (p. 187) of his treatment of Haltica.
Following this short generic description he
described four species, H. interstitialis,
clathrata, pyritosa, and robusta. Of H. inter-
stitialis he remarked that in habit and color
it reminded him of a species of Helophorus,
a water beetle, belonging to a wholly un-
related group. He also compared it with
species of Phratora (Phytodecta) but stated
that it definitely did not belong to that
genus, being a halticid. In Gemminger and
Harold’s Catalogue (vol. 12, 1876, pp.
3496-3497) these four species were placed
under Disonycha. Heikertinger in the Junk
Catalogue followed Harold’s arrangement,
leaving them still in that genus. Except for
their broadly oblong oval shape and the
short legs with the small spur at the end of
the tibiae, there is not much resemblance
to Disonycha. In fact, they are not very
closely related to any halticid with which I
am familiar. Their short broad thorax and
large eyes suggest some species of Dzbolia or
Megistops, but they lack the large double
spur at the end of the hind tibia. They have
three outstanding characteristics that sepa-
rate them from any related genera—(1) the
peculiar carving of the head, consisting of
a deep groove on either side along the
margin of the eye, (2) the lobing at the
middle of the base of the thorax, and (3) the

1 Received December 20, 1946.
2 Arch. fiir Naturg. 34 (pt. 1): 176, 1868.

deep, striate, often partially geminate,
punctation of the elytra, which tends to
produce interstitial costae. This combina-
tion of characters makes these six species
unique enough to deserve generic separa-
tion. The name Glyptobregma is proposed
for the group. (yAumros carved, Bpeyua fore-
head). Glyptobregma portoricensis 1s selected
as the type of the genus. 3

Of Suffrian’s species I can identify only

-H. pyritosa with complete assurance. The

late Dr. E. A. Schwarz identified a series of
specimens that he collected at Cayamas,
Cuba, as H. interstitialis. Suffrian differen-
tiated interstitialis and clathrata by the dif-
ference in development of the elytral costae,
which in interstitialis were uniform and in
clathrata (Fig. 5) unequally developed (the
2nd, 4th, and 6th being stronger than the
others). In Schwarz’s series, which seems
to be clearly one species, both forms are
found. I have separated them in the key on
the basis of Suffrian’s description, being un-
willing to unite them without some knowl-
edge of the types. I have only two females
from Las Animas, Sierra Rangel, that I refer
with some doubt to robusta. (Fig. 3). Suf-
frian described the species as steely blue
with the breast and outside of the legs
bluish. These have a bluish luster and are
reddish brown beneath without any blue,
and they are slightly larger than Suffrian’s
measurements. Specimens from Cayamas,
Santa Clara Province, Cuba, identified as
pyritosa by Schwarz, agree with Suffrian’s
description of that species.

Description of the genus.—38-5 mm in
length, oblong oval, not very convex. Head
with large and in some species very closely
placed eyes, a small pit between the frontal
tubercles, and on either side a deep furrow
extending along the inner margin and in
some species around the eye. Antennae not
reaching the middle of the elytra, the basal
joint long and curved. Thorax, short and
greatly broadened behind with the basal
margin lobed over the scutellum; coarsely
and deeply punctate, the punctures occur-
ring in groups or irregular rows and produc-

93

AAG pyrifosum (Suf f)

robustum Guff.)

A NEW GENUS OF FLEA BEETLES
aid G:

Spf REORA RE

prone

IneENse

BLAKE

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Mar. 15, 1947

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5.2 G. clathratum(Suff)

am, 2 Ge

11, G. turquinense, n. sp.; 2, G. pyritosum (Suffrian)
- portoricense, n. sp.; 5, ? G. clathratum (Suffrian).

,n. gen.

robustum (Suffrian) ; 4, G

Figs. 1-5.—Glyptobregma

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ing a rugosity of the surface. Scutellum
somewhat sunken. Elytra not much wider
than the thorax, rather flat, and with 10
rows of coarse, deep, and sometimes par-
tially geminate punctation, in some species
forming weak costae between the striations.
Epipleura extending only to apical narrow-
ing. Body beneath with open anterior coxal
cavities. Hind femora thickened, hind tibiae
and usually middle tibiae suleate to some
extent, a short spur at the end of the hind
tibiae. Claws broadly dentate at base.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

1. Yellowish or reddish brown in coloration... .2
Biuevor black wathilusters 25.5 oe eee 5
2. Elytra costate or tending to be costate...... 3

Elytra not at all costate, (Pico Turquino)....
Ree ENS Mead we coe 8 turquinense, n. sp.

3. Elytra with 9 slightly raised interstitial costae
Bait, fe We NS Rehnaa: ee interstitiale (Suffrian)
Elytra without 9 regular costae............ 4

4. Elytra only indistinctly and irregular costate
CRalertoetvico) teens ee portoricense, Nn. sp.
Elytra with straight interstices (2, 4, 6) more
distinctly costate..... clathratum (Suffrian)

5. Piceous: witha brassy: lusters-... eee
se tries ate ies kag ek cticsece pyritosum (Suffrian)
Steel blues. 2st sce eee robustum (Suffrian)

Glyptobregma turquinense, n. sp.
Fie. 1

About 3 mm in length, oval, deep reddish
brown, shining, thorax coarsely and irregularly
punctate, elytra with 10 striae of rather coarse
punctures, not geminate and the interstices
not costate.

Head with the interocular space nearly half
the width of head, eyes large but not distinctly
emarginate near the antennal sockets, a deep
groove above antennal sockets and a depres-
sion in the middle between the tubercles, the
groove extending up on each side of the front
along the margin of the eyes. Antennae not
reaching the middle of the elytra, the four
basal joints a little lighter in color than the re-
mainder, the first joint very long and curved,
third not much longer than second, fourth not
quite so long as fifth. Prothorax about twice as
wide as long at the base, but anteriorly much
narrowed, basal margin lobed above the scutel-
lum; dise coarsely and irregularly punctate, the
punctures being grouped more densely on the
sides and forming thereby a more depressed
area on either side near the basal margin.

VOL. 37, NO. 3 ~

Elytra without any costation between the 10
rows of striate punctures, the punctures show-
ing almost no trace of gemination, and becom-
ing finer in the apical half; humeri well
marked, a distinct depression behind the cal-
losity near the scutellum. Body beneath shin-
ing, deep brown; tibiae of hind legs alone
showing near the apex a slight sulcation, this
not apparent beyond the apical enlargement;
a spur at the end of the hind tibia. Claws
broadly dentate at base. Length 2.9 mm; width
1.6 mm.

Type.—male, M.C.Z. No. 27663.

Type locality —‘‘Coast up to Pico Turquino,
3700 ft.,’’ Province of Oriente, Cuba, collected
June 10-29, 1936, by J. Acufia.

Remarks.—This species is unlike the rest in
not having a long sulcus in the tibiae; in fact,
there is only a trace of channeling near the apex
of the hind tibiae. The eyes are more distinctly
separated than in the other species, and the
aedeagus has a broadly rounded tip in contrast
to the acutely tipped aedeagi of the others. But
in the grooving of the head, the irregularly
punctate thorax, and striately punctate elytra,
as well as the general shape and coloration this
species closely resembles the others.

Glyptobregma portoricense, n. sp.
Fig. 4

About 3-4 mm in length, oblong oval, pale
yellow-brown, the elytra tending to be a little
darker, faintly shining, eyes very large, thorax
irregularly and coarsely punctate, elytra semi-
costate between the partly geminate rows of
punctures.

Head with enormous eyes nearly meeting at
the vertex, and emarginate about antennal
sockets; a distinctly produced carina between
antennal sockets, and a pit between the frontal
tubercles, and above them a deep-cut groove on
each side extending up and around the margin
of the eyes. Antennae reddish brown and not
reaching the middle of the elytra, a long curved
basal joint, third joint shorter than fourth.
Prothorax almost twice as broad as long at the
base, narrowed anteriorly and with a lobe on
the basal margin above the scutellum; surface
coarsely and deeply punctured, the punctures
tending to be grouped or in irregular rows with
finer surface punctures between. Elytra rather
flat with smooth shining humeri and 10 rows
of partially geminate, coarse, deep punctures,

Mar. 15, 1947

producing an irregular costate appearance,
more regular and marked at the apex; a few
fine shallow punctures apparent on the sides.
Body beneath shining reddish or yellowish
brown, finely pubescent. Anterior coxal cavities
open. Hind femora thickened, tibiae of all legs
shallowly furrowed, hind tibiae with a short
spur at the end, claws broadly dentate. Length
3-4.4 mm; width 1.7—-2.5 mm.

Type male and 36 paratypes (2, in M.C.Z.),
Wes NOM No. 58259.

Type locality —Ponce, Puerto Rico, collected
December 30, 1932, on Quercus thompsoni by
R. G. Oakley.

Other localities—Bayamon, P.R., July 14,

RIPLEY: BIRDS FROM NISSAN AND ADMIRALTY ISLANDS 95

1934, on Jasminum sp.; Orocovis, P.R., Octo-
ber 25, 1932, on unknown tree, and Orocovis,
December 22, 1932, on Quercus thompsoni; San
Juan, P.R., Ponce, September 21, 1933, on
leaves of Tabebuza sp., all collected by R. G.
Oakley. Guanica, P.R., collected by C. M.
Matos, July 25, 1914 (Stuart Danforth coll.).

Remarks.—This species closely resembles the
two Cuban species, G. interstitiale and G.
clathratum (Suffrian), being of the same pale
yellow brown coloration and with a broadly
oblong oval shape and very large eyes. It
differs in its more irregularly and less distinctly
costate elytra. The aedeagus has a more taper-
ing tip.

ORNITHOLOGY .—A report on the birds collected by Logan J. Bennett on Nissan

Island and the Admiralty Islands.'

S. Ditton Ripiey, Yale University.

(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

I. BIRDS FROM NISSAN ISLAND

Dr. Logan J. Bennett during his war.

service in the U. 8. Naval Reserve had oc-
casion to be stationed on Nissan Is'and,
sometimes called Sir Charles Hardy Island,
which lies nearly 60 miles east of the south-
ern part of New Ireland in the Bismarck
Archipelago. Forty-three specimens were
collected in August, October, and Novem-
ber of 1944. Only two previous collections
have been made on this Island; by Eich-
horn, recorded by Hartert (On the birds of
Fent and Nissan Islands, east of New
Ireland, Nov. Zool. 33: 33-48. 1926), and
by the Whitney Expedition. Hartert noted
the fact that the avifauna of Nis:an is more
closely related to the Solomon Islands than
to the Bismarck Archipelago. In only four
of the subspecific forms of the immediate
area is Nissan populated by a Bismarck
rather than a Solomon Island form. For
that reason the island is usually classified
zoogeographically as one of the northern
Solomon Islands. It is alse listed politically
as part of the northern Solomons by the
Australian Mandate Administration.

I wish to express my gratitude to the
authorities of the United States National
Museum, who have allowed me to examine
these specimens, as well as to the Bird De-

1 Received November 11, 1946.

partment of the American Museum of
Natural History, which has kindly allowed
me to use comparative material from the
Whitney and Rothschild Collections.

In the following discussion all measure-
ments are in millimeters. The wing measure-
ments are obtained by pressing the wing
flat against the ruler. The culmen measure-
ments are of the full length of the exposed
culmen.

1. Demigretta sacra sacra (Gmelin)
Ardea sacra Gmelin, Syst. Nat. 1, pt. 2: 640. 1789

(Tahiti).

An adult male in dark plumage was taken on
November 2. This species had not been previ-
ously recorded from Nissan by Hartert (l.c.) or
by the Whitney Expedition (vide Mayr and
Amadon, Amer. Mus. Nov., no. 1144. 1941),
although it is bound to occur on every reef and
atoll in the area. This specimen is completing
the molt.

2. Haliastur indus girrenera (Vieillot)
Haliaetus girrenera Vieillot, Gal. Ois. 1: 31, pl. 10.
1822. (‘‘India’’; restricted to new South Wales).
An adult male in worn plumage was collected
on October 28.

3. Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin)

Ealco leucogaster Gmelin, Syst. Nat. 1, pt. 1: 257
1788 (locality unknown; = New South Wales).

A male adult taken on October 30 is the first
record for the Solomon Islands and represents

96

an incursion of typical Bismarck Archipelago
fauna. The wing measurement is 501 mm. This
specimen is molting the tail feathers.

4. Megapodius freycinet eremita Hartlaub
Megapodius eremita Hartlaub, Proc. Zool. Soe.
London 1867: 830. 1867 (Echiquier Island).

Two males collected on August 20 and No-
vember 11 have wing measurements of 216, 221.

5. Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin)
Charadrius fuluus Gmelin, Syst. Nat. 1, pt. 2:
687. 1789 (Tahiti).
Two males and a female were taken in Octo-
ber and November. The males have traces of
dark feathers on the belly. :

6. Numenius phaeopus variegatus (Scopoli)
Tantalus variegatus Scopoli, Del. Flor. et Faun.

Insubr., fase. 2: 92. 1786 (Luzon).

A male collected in August of this common
migrant is a new record for the Island.

7. Actitis hypoleucos (Linnaeus)
Tringa Hypoleucos Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10,
1: 149. 1758 (Europe; Sweden).
Two females were shot in August and No-
vember.

8. Heteroscelis incanus brevipes (Vieillot)
Totanus brevipes Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat.
6: 410. 1816 (no locality; Timor).

A female was taken in November.

9. Arenaria interpres interpres (Linnaeus)
Tringa interpres Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1:

148. 1758 (Europe; Gotland, Sweden).

Two females in winter plumage were col-
lected in November.

10. Sterna hirundo longipennis Nordmann
Sterna longipennis Nordmann, in Erman’s Verz.
Thier. Pflanz.: 17. 1837 (mouth of Kutchni
River, Sea of Okhotsk).
' A pair were shot in November. Both are in
fairly worn eclipse plumage.

11. Sterna sumatrana sumatrana Raffles
Sterna Sumatrana Raffles, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lon-

don 13, pt. 2: 329. 1822 (Sumatra).

Two males were taken in November. There
is no notation as to whether this species breeds
on the Island.

wing
Nissan Island 80'S 246-257 (250.5)
Feni Island

Bougainville and other Solomons 11 io 237-2538 (243.5)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

7A 238-252 .5 (245.5)

VOL. 37, NO. 3

12. Ptilinopus solomonensis neumanni
Hartert

Ptilinopus solomonensis neumanni Hartert, Nov.
Zool. 33: 42. 1926 (Nissan Island).

Two males of this endemic race, taken in
August and November, have wing measure-
ments of 128, 129.5. The November bird is
molting. This race is readily distinguishable
from solomonensis, not only by larger size but —
also by the noticeably paler lilac crown.

13. Ducula pistrinaria pistrinaria Bonaparte

Ducula pistrinaria Bonaparte, Consp. Av. 2:
34. 1855 (St. George, Solomon Islands).

As Hartert noted (l.c., pp. 34-35), there is a
tendency for northern Solomon Islands birds
toapproach Ducula p. vanwycku of New Ireland.
In fact, there seems to be a continuous cline in
coloration running in a rough are from Bougain-
ville to the northeast through Nissan, Feni,
probably Tanga, Lihir, and the mainland of
New Ireland itself. The backs of Solomon
Islands birds are gray-green. Two individuals
in the Whitney series from Bougainville have a
somewhat less grayish, more greenish suffusion
in the color of the back. This tendency is more

‘pronounced in Nissan birds, fully half of which

in the combined U.S.N.M. and A.M.N.H. se-
ries have a distinctly greenish suffusion. Birds
from Feni in the American Museum collection
carry the greenish still further, although they
still show a strong grayish tint. This cline cul-
minates in birds from Lihir Island, which previ-
ously has been included in the range of vp.
pistrinaria (vide Peters, Check-list of birds of the
world 3: 48. 1937). Three specimens in the
Whitney collection of the A.M.N.H. have
backs so strongly greenish in tone, so lacking
in gray, that I believe that the population of
this Island should be included in vanwyckit.
Birds from Feni and Nissan should be main-
tained in pistrinarza, as there is no strong break
in the cline of color. However, a somewhat
complicating factor is that Nissan birds show
a slight size difference compared to the popula-
tions from the rest of the Solomons. Their
measurements, including three males taken by —
Bennett in August, are as follows:

culmen
25.5-27 (26.2)
22-24 .5 (23.5)
23-26 (24.1)

tail
150-159 (154.7)
149-161 (155.2)
144-153 .5 (149.3)

Mar. 15, 1947

The measurements show that Nissan birds,
following the trend of small island populations,
have longer bills than birds from the larger
islands of the Solomons, but that the popula-
tion from Feni to the north has definitely
shorter bills. In this measurement the Feni
birds possibly reflect a cline toward the Lihir
and New Ireland population, which has short
bills (23.5, 24, ete.). I should hazard the theory
that Feni birds express not only a cline in color
and size but also a swamping effect, and that
Nissan has the most isolated population of the
entire group. These differences, of course, are
microspeciational in the sense that they can
only be talked or written about but not de-
scribed in taxonomic terms.

This species belongs to the Ducula aenea as-
semblage. A speciation study of the whole
group would be most interesting.

14. Macropygia mackinlayi arossi Tristram
Macropygia arossi Tristram, Ibis, 1879: 4438

(Makira Harbor, San Cristobal Island).

A male and female taken in August measure;
wing o' 139.5, 2 144; tail o’ 159, 9 161; cul-
micnac. 12:07, 9: 12.

15. Caloenas nicobarica nicobarica
(Linnaeus)

Columba nicobarica Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10,
1: 164. 1758 (Nicobar Islands).
Two males were taken in October and No-
vember.

16. Eos cardinalis (Gray)
Lorius cardinalis Gray, Gen. Birds 3: app., p. 20.
1849. (Solomon Islands).

A male was collected in August.

17. Trichoglossus haematodus massena
Bonaparte

-Trichoglossus massena Bonaparte, Rev. et Mag.
Zool. 6: 157. 1854 (Polynesian Islands).
Two males and a female were taken in

August and October. One August female has

almost obsolete blackish bands on the vermilion

breast. These birds run large in size as would
be expected from a small island population:

wing’ ot 141, 144.5. 9 137-5.

18. Collocalia esculenta becki Mayr
Collocalia esculenta becki Mayr, Amer. Mus. Nov.
no. 486: 16. 1931 (Florida Island, Solomon
Islands). :
Two males were taken in August and Novem-
ber; the former example has more white on the

RIPLEY: BIRDS FROM NISSAN AND ADMIRALTY ISLANDS 97

abdomen than the November bird. Mayr (cit.
supra) writes of Nissan birds that they are
similar to typical becki; but with more white on
the belly and more greenish above. This de-
scription fits our two birds. The present ex-
amples are somewhat smaller than Mayr’s
minimal measurements, having wings of 91 and
93 respectively (his smallest wing length being ~
96).

19. Halcyon chloris bennetti, n. subsp.

Characters.—Similar to Halcyon chloris nusae
Heinroth but differing in having a longer bill,
traces of buff on the lower flanks, and in being
less blackish on the upper parts, especially on
the crown.

From novaehiberniae Hartert of New Ireland,
this race differs in having a longer bill, by the
lack of any pronounced edging to the breast
feathers, and in being more greenish, less black-
ish on the crown and upper parts. The upper
wing coverts and axillaries of bennett: also are
more bluish, less suffused with green.

Compared to albertt Rothschild and Hartert,
of the northern Solomons, (Bougainville,
Fauro, Kolombangara, etc.) this race differs in
the size of the bill and in the color of the lower
parts, which are more whitish, less buffy, in
the paler whitish nuchal collar, and presumably
in the more greenish upper parts.

Only two specimens have been available from
Nissan Island where this species is recorded for
the first time, but in these two birds the tail
measurement also is slightly longer than in any
other specimens measured of the races enumer-
ated above.

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 377009, male adult col-
lected on Nissan Island, August 22, 1944, by
Logan J. Bennett.

Measurements.—bennetti: Males (2. speci-
mens), wing 107, 109, tail 71.5, 73.5, culmen
49.5, 48. nusae: Male, wing 108, tail 69, cul-
men 46. Female, wing 111.5, tail 69.5, culmen
46. novaehiberniae: Male, wing, 104, tail 70,
culmen 43. Female, wing 98.5, tail 64, columen
41. alberti: Males (4 specimens) 105-109
(106.9), tail 64.5-70 (67.2), culmen 40.5—45
(42.7). Female: wing 105, tail 68, culmen 47.5.

Mayr (Amer. Mus. Nov. no. 828: p. 6. 1936)
gives extensive measurements for alberti, of
which the above are only a small sample. There
is considerable variation in size in this subspe-
cies throughout the Solomons as he points out.
However, birds from the immediately adjacent

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

northern Solomons are considerably smaller
than these Nissan birds, and in addition males
of albertt have the underparts bright rufous, to
buffy rufous in some cases. These Nissan males
are much more reminiscent of the color of
Solomon Islands females, a trait that empha-
sizes the disappearance of the rufous or buffy
underparts in the males of the related subspe-
cies in the Bismarck Archipelago.

This new race is named for the collector.

20. Halcyon saurophaga saurophaga Gould
Halcyon saurophaga (Gould, Zool. Voy. Sulphur 1:

39, p. 19. 1843 (New Guinea).

Two males, taken in August and November,
do not show any of the blackish spots as noted
by Hartert (l.c., p. 45) in his series.

21. Monarcha cinerascens im-
pediens Hartert

Monarcha cinerascens impediens Hartert, Nov.

Zool. 33: 40. 1926 (Feni Island).

Two females were taken in August and Octo-
ber. They measure; wing 84, 85; tail 73, 73.5;
culmen 18, 18.5. These birds seem similar to
specimens from nearby Ontong Java, although
possibly they are very slightly paler on the
lower parts.

22. Pachycephala pectoralis dahli
Reichenow

Pachycephala melanura dahli Reichenow, Orn.
Monatsb., 1897: 178 (Credner Island).
Two males in fresh plumage were collected in
August. The wings of these specimens measure
91, 92.

23. Aplonis feadensis feadensis (Ramsay)
Calornis feadensis Ramsay, Journ. Linn. Soc.

London, Zool., 16: 129. 1881 (Fead Island,

Solomon Group).

A pair of this large-billed form were taken in
August and October. Measurements: wing 0
123,92 121.5; culmen:o122; 9. 23.

24. Zosterops griseotincta eichhorni Hartert

Zosterops eichhorni Hartert, Nov. Zool. 33: 48.
1926 (Nissan Island).

A pair of this little-known form was collected
in August.

II. BIRDS FROM THE ADMIRALTY ISLANDS

The Admiralty Islands had been visited
by three expeditions prior to World War II,
and two papers have appeared devoted to
these collections alone (The birds of the

Admiralty Islands, north of New Guinea,

VOL. 37, NO. 3

by Rothschild and Hartert, Nov. Zool. 21.
1914, and On the birds of the Admiralty
Islands, by Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., Lon-
don, June 1877). The Whitney Expedition
for the American Museum of Natural His-
tory collected on several of the Islands, but
no complete report has as yet been issued
on these collections.

Dr. Bennett as well as others in the Naval
Service visited and collected on these
Islands during the course of the war, and
it is to be expected that several papers will
eventually appear devoted to the avifauna
of this group. Dr. Bennett collected on
several of the Islands at different dates
during 1945, as follows:

1. Los Negros, an island to the northeast
and immediately adjacent to Manus. the
principal island of the group This island has
never been collected on previously. Speci-
mens were taken during all months from
February through July.

2. Manus, the largest and best known
from the avifaunal point of view, still has
a relatively large area of untrodden high
interior. Specimens were taken here in |
March, April, and May.

3. Pityili, an islet in a small group west
of the northern tip of Los Negros. It has
presumably never been collected on before.
Some specimens were collected here in April
and May.

4, Hauwei, another islet Just west of Los
Negros, has also probably never been col-
lected on before. Specimens were taken here
in March.

5. Ponam, the westernmost of the group
of islands running along the north coast of
Manus, and west of the tip of Los Negros.
Specimens were taken on this previously
uncollected island in July.

6. Herringan (also called Harengen or
Koruniat), another islet in the Los Negros
chain. It has presumably never been previ-
ously collected on. Specimens were taken in
April.

7, 8. Luo and Butyo Islands, visited by
the collector in May, not readily identifia-
ble. I presume that Butyo is an abbrevia-
tion for Rambutyo and Luo is another spell-
ing for Lou or St. George Island near Ram-
butyo and to the north. Rambutyo was
visited by the Whitney Expedition.

Mar. 15, 1947

1. Fregata ariel ariel (Gray)
Atagen Ariel (Gray), Genera of birds 3: col. pl.
[185]. 1845 (Raine Island).
A subadult male was taken in February on
Los Negros. The label has a notation ‘“‘uncom-
mon.” :

2. Demigretta sacra sacra (Gmelin)
Ardea sacra Gmelin, Syst. Nat. 1, pt. 2: 640. 1789

(Tahiti).

Two males and a female were collected on
Manus and Los Negros. A male and female are
in the dark bluish plumage with white throats.
The single Manus male is in the white plumage.
The female taken in February in molting the
primaries. The species is noted as ‘“‘common.”

_ 3. Dupetor flavicollis gouldi (Bonaparte)
Ardetita gouldi Bonaparte, Consp. Av. 2: 132.

1855 (New South Wales).

An adult male and a subadult female from
Los Negros agree in measurements with those
given by Mayr for Admiralty Islands birds
(Amer. Mus. Nov., no. 1294: 5. 1945). The male
is molting the head feathers in February.

4. Anas superciliosa pelewensis
Hartlaub and Finsch

Anas superciliosa var. pelewensis Hartlaub and
Finsch, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1872: 108
(Pelew Islands).

A pair from Los Negros have wing measure-
ments of: o' 249, Q 228.5, which are slightly
larger than any given by Amadon (Amer. Mus.
Noy. no. 1237. 1943), in his survey of speci-
mens from the approximate area (Bismarck
Archipelago). The species is noted as ‘‘fairly
common.” The species had not been previously
recorded from the Admiralties.

5. Haliastur indus girrenera (Vieillot)
Haliaetus girrenera Vieillot, Gal. Ois. 1: 31, pl. 10.

1822 (India; restricted to New South Wales). ~

A male and a female were collected on Manus

and Los Negros.
6. Accipiter novaehollandiae
dampieri (Gurney)

Urospizias dampieri Gurney, Ibis, 1822: 453 (New

Britain).

A male and a female from Los Negros meas-
ure: wing o& 212, Q 245. The birds were col-
lected in March and noted as ‘“common.”’

7. Pandion haliaetus melvillensis Mathews
Pandion haliaetus_melvillensis Mathews, Austr.

RIPLEY: BIRDS FROM NISSAN AND ADMIRALTY ISLANDS 99

Av. Rec. 1: 34. 1912 (Melville Island, Northern

Territory).

Two females from Manus and Los Negros
are in fresh plumage in April and May. They
were noted as ‘‘common.”’

8. Megapodius freycinet eremita Hartlaub
Megapodius eremita Hartlaub, Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, 1867: 830 (Echiquier Island).

Two males from Pityili and Los Negros have
wing measurements of 212, 216. The birds were
described as “common.” The Pityili specimen
in its more brownish coloration is reminiscent
of M. f. affinis.

9. Rallus philippensis admiralitatis
(Stresemann)

Hypotaenidia philippensis admiralitatis Strese-
mann, Orn. Monatsb., 1929: 190 (Manns,
Admiralty Islands).

A male of this form, which is rare in museum
collections, was taken on Pityili in April. The
wing measures 141.5. The specimen is in rather
worn plumage.

10. Porphyrio porphyrio ellioti Salvadori
Porphyrio elliott Salvadori, Atti Acad. Sci.

Torino, 1879: 1168 (Admiralty Islands).

A male, two females, and an immature fe-
male were collected on Los Negros. The species
was noted as “abundant.” The iris of the young
bird is noted as “greenish gray.’ The adults
have wing measurements of; o& 232, @ 216.
One female is in extreme wing molt in February
and would appear to have been quite flightless.

11. Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin)
Charadrius fuluus Gmelin, Syst. Nat. 1, pt. 2: 687.
1789 (Tahiti).

A pair were taken on Hauwei. The male
shows traces of black feathers on the abdomen.
12. Numenius phaeopus variegatus
(Scopoli)

Tantalus variegatus Scopoli, Del. Flor. et Faun.
Insubr., fase. 2: 92. 1786 (Luzén).

A male and two females were taken on

- Pityili and Los Negros.

13. Actitis hypoleucos (Linnaeus)
Tringa Hypeleucos Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10,
1; 149. 1758 (Europe; Sweden).
A female was collected on Los Negros in
March.

14. Heteroscelus incanus brevipes (Vieillot)

Totanus brevipes Vieillot, Nouv. Dict. Hist. Nat.
6: 410. 1816 (no locality: Timor).

100

Two specimens were taken on Los Negros in
February and March.

15. Arenaria interpres interpres (Linnaeus)
Tringa interpres Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1:

148. 1758 (Europe; Gotland, Sweden).

A female in winter plumage was secured on
Hauwel.

16. Sterna hirundo longipennis Nordmann

Sterna longipennis Nordmann, 1n Erman’s Verz.
Thier. Pflanz.: 17. 1835 (mouth of Kutchui
River, sea of Okhotsk).

Two females from Hauwei add this wide-
spread species to the Admiralty Islands fauna.

17. Sterna sumatrana sumatrana Raffles
Sterna Sumatrana Raffies, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lon-

don 13, pt. 2: 329. 1822 (Sumatra).

A pair taken on Hauwei serves as another ad-
dition to the Admiralty Islands fauna.

18. Thalasseus bergii cristatus (Stephens)

Sterna cristata Stephens, 7n Shaw’s Genl. Zool. 13,
pt. 1: 146. 1826 (China).

Three birds, of which one female is in breed-
ing plumage, were collected on Los Negros and
Hauwei in February, March, and June. Accord-
ing to the labels the species is ‘‘eommon.”’

19. Anous tenuirostris minutus Boie
Anous minutus Boie, Isis, 1844, col. 188 (New
Holland = Raine Island, Australia).
Two males were collected on Los Negros in
February.

20. Ptilinopus superbus superbus
(Temminck)

Columba Superba Temminck, in Knip, Les
Pigeons. Les Colombes: 75, pl. 33. 1810 (Hal-
mahera).

Three males and two females were taken on
Los Negros in March and May. The species is
listed as “‘rare.’”? A May female is molting the
primaries. Wing: co 129, 136, 142; 9 135.

21. Ptilinopus solomonensis johannis Sclater

Ptilinopus johannis Sclater, Proce. Zool. Soc.
London, 1877, 556 (Wild and D’Entrecasteaux
Islands, Admiralty Islands).

Three males and two females were collected
on Los Negros, Pityili and Ponam. The species
was noted as ‘““common” on Los Negros and
‘rare’ on Pityili. Wing measurements of these
specimens are: oO 118.5, 120, 123; 9 115, 119.5.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 3

22. Ducula pistrinaria rhodinolaema (Sclater)

Carpophaga rhodinolaema Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soe.

London, 1877: 555 (Admiralty Islands).

Two males and a female were taken on Los
Negros in March. The species is listed as ‘‘com-
mon.’ One male is molting. Wing measure-
ments: o! 234, 238.5; Q 227.

23. Chalcophaps stephani stephani Pucheran

Chalcophaps stephani Pucheran, Voy. Péle Sud.,
Zool. 3: 119; Atlas, pl. 28, fig. 2. 1853 (Triton
Bay, New Guinea).

A male from Pityili is described as “rare.”

The wing measurement is 137.5.

24. Caloenas nicobarica nicobarica
(Linnaeus)

Columba nicobarica Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 10,
1: 164. 1758 (Nicobar Islands).
A male was collected on Los Negros in
March. This specimen is molting the head
feathers.

25. Trichoglossus haematodus flavicans
Cabanis and Reichenow

Trichoglossus flavicans Cabanis and Reichenow,
Sitzungsber. Ges. Naturf. Freunde Berlin,
1876: 73 (New Hanover).

Two males and three females were taken in
April and May on Los Negros, Pityili, and Luo.
The male from Luo has a strong reddish-
purplish infusion on the feathers of the lower
abdomen. Wing measurements of these speci-
mens are: o' 152, 154, 2 148, 145, 150.

26. Micropsitta meeki meeki Rothschild
and Hartert

Micropsitta meeki Rothschild and Hartert, Bull.
Brit. Orn. Club 33: 107. 1914 (Manus, Ad-
miralty Islands).

Four males of this interesting species were
secured on Los Negros in May. They measure:
wing 59.5, 60.5, 61, 61.5; tail 26.5-28.5; culmen
(excluding cere) 9—9.5.

27. Lorius roratus goodsoni Hartert

Lorius roratus goodsont Hartert, Nov. Zool. 31:

123. 1924 (Manus, Admiralty Islands).

Four males and two females from Los Negros
in March are recorded as ‘‘common.’”’ Two
males are molting. The series measures: wing
Oo 252, 255, Q 231, 238; culmen oc 44—45.5,
2 39, 40.5.

Mar. 15, 1947

28. Ninox meeki Rothschild and Hartert
Ninozx meeki Rothschild and Hartert, Bull. Brit.

Orn. Club. 33: 105. 1914 (Manus, Admiralty

Islands).

A pair of this rare owl and an immature male
were collected on Los Negrosin May and July.
The immature specimen (May) is in partially
downy plumage, especially on the head, neck,
and flanks. The downy plumage is rather pale
buffy, ranging to deep tawny on the nape. The
wings and tail are colored as in the adult fe-
male. In the original description Rothschild
and Hartert did not note that the underparts
of the adult male tend to be more heavily
streaked than in the female. Wing measure-
ments: o' 224, 9 233.

29. Collocalia esculenta stresemanni
Rothschild and Hartert

Collocalia esculenta stresemanni Rothschild and
Hartert, Nov. Zool. 21: 293. 1914 (Manus,
Admiralty Islands).

A single male from Los Negros was taken
June 14. The wing measurement is 95.

30. Collocalia vanikorensis coultasi Mayr

Collocalia vanikorensis coultasi Mayr, Amer. Mus.
Nov., no. 915: 7. 1937 (Malai Bay, Manus,
Admiralty Islands).

One male, taken on Los Negros, March 6,
1945, appears to extend the known range of this
swiftlet, previously recorded only from Manus
Island. The specimen has been compared with
the type and paratypes of coultast by Dr.
_ Mayr, who writes that it agrees with them in
every detail.

31. Collocalia spodiopygia eichhorni Hartert
Collocalia francina eichhorni Hartert, Nov. Zool.

31 (2): 269. 1924. (St. Matthias Island, nw.

of New Hanover.)

One female, taken on Los Negros, February
9, 1945, adds this species to the Admiralty avi-
fauna. This specimen was submitted to Dr.
Ernst Mayr, who writes that it is of this species
and probably not separable from eichhorni.

32. Hemiprocne mystacea aeroplanes
Stresemann

Hemiprocne mystacea aeroplanes Stresemann,
Ann. Orn. Ges. Bayern, no. 5: 38. 1921 (Blanche
Bay, New Britain).

Two males and one female were collected on
Manus and Los Negros in March and April.
The female is molting on the throat. The males
have wing measurements of: 225, 227.5.

RIPLEY: BIRDS FROM NISSAN AND ADMIRALTY ISLANDS

101

33. Alcedo atthis hispidoides Lesson
Alcedo hispidoides Lesson, Compl. de Buffon 9:
345. 1837 (Buru).
A female from Los Negros, taken in April,
has a wing measurement of 72.

34. Halcyon saurophaga admiralitatis Sharpe
Halcyon admiralitatis Sharpe, Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. 17: 251. 1892 (Admiralty Islands).
Two males and a female were collected on
Hauwei. These specimens measure: wing ©
IOFS 2ileae Oe One or the matesis
molting the wing coverts.

35. Halcyon sancta sancta Vigors
and Horsfield

Halcyon sanctus Vigors and Horsfield, Trans.
Linn. Soc. London 15: 206. 1826 (Australia).

Three specimens from Los Negros and
Pityili in May and July are apparently the
first records from the Admiralties for this com-
mon migrant.

36. Cacomantis variolosus blandus
Rothschild and Hartert

Cacomantis blandus Rothschild and Hartert, Nov.
Zool. 21: 290. 1914 (Manus Island, Admiralty
Group).

A male and a female were taken on Manus
and Pityili. They measure: wing o& 113, Q
113.5. The form is noted as being ‘fairly com-
mon” on Pityili.

37. Coracina papuensis ingens (Rothschild
and Hartert)

Graucalus papuensis ingens Rothschild and Hart-
ert, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 33: 107. 1914 (Manus,
Admiralty Islands).

Two males from Manus and Los Negros, col-

lected in February and March, measure; wing
167, 169.

38. Rhipidura setosa niveiventris
Rothschild and Hartert

Rhipidura setosa niveiventris Rothschild and Hart-
_ert, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club. 33: 109, 1914 (Manus

Admiralty Islands).

Males and females were taken on Los Negros
in February, March, April, and May. These
birds have wing measurements of: o 89-89.5,
@ 84, 87. None show signs of molt.

39. Rhipidura rufifrons semirubra Sclater

Rhipidura semirubra Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soe.
London, 1877: 552 (Admiralty Islands).

Two males from Los Negros in March meas-

102

ure: wing 69, 70.5. This is the most brilliantly
colored race of the species.

40. Monarcha alecto chalybeocephalus
(Garnier)

‘Muscicapa chalybeocephalus Garnier, Voy. Co-
quille, zool., Atlas, pl. 15, fig. 1, 1, 589. 1826-28
(New Ireland).

Males and a female of this very widespread
form were taken on Los Negros, Luo, and
Ponam in March, May, and July. They meas-
ure: wing o& 89, 90, 2 82.

41. Monarcha cinerascens subsp.

Three males from Herringan and Pityili,
taken in April measure: wing 88.5 (2), 90; tail
77.5, 78.5, 79; culmen 19, 20. Birds from the
Admiralties and Hermit Islands evidently rep-
resent a condition of exact intermediacy in
color between the pale, buff-bellied Monarcha
c. perpallidus Neumann of New Ireland, New
Hanover, St. Matthias and Squally Islands, the
Tabar Group and Lihir, and the dark, rufous-
bellied M. c. ampediens Hartert of Witu, Feni,
and Nissan. In size they are larger than these
subspecies. As Dr. Mayr has had a paper in
process of publication for some time on these
forms, based on the extensive material in the
Whitney and Rothschild collections, I prefer to
leave the subspecific identification in his hands.

42. Monarcha barbatus infelix Sclater
Monarcha infelix Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon-
don, 1877: 552 (Admiralty Islands).

Three males and a female were taken on Los
Negros in February, March, and May. The
wings of these males measure: 80.5, 83.5, 84.5;
culmen 15-16. This is a strikingly patterned
form.

43. Pachycephala pectoralis goodsoni Hartert
Pachycephala pectoralis goodsont Hartert, Nov.
Zool. 21: 296. 1914 (Manus, Admiralty Islands)
Two adults and an immature male were
taken on Los Negros in February (immature)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Nectarinia flavigastra Gould, Proce.

VOL. 37, NO. 3

and May. The adults measure: wing o' 91, 93;
culmen o 17, 18.

44. Aplonis metallicus purpureiceps
(Salvadori)

Calornis purpureiceps Salvadori, Atti Accad. Sci.
Torino 13: 535. 1878 (Admiralty Islands).

’ Adults and immatures were secured in Febru-
ary, March, and May on Los Negros. February
and March adults are molting. These birds
measure: wing ad. o’ 104, 9 102, 104; tail o
82, © 75, 79; culmen of 18, @ 17.5, 18.

45. Nectarinia jugularis flavigastra Gould
Zool. Soc.

London, 1848: 103 (New Ireland).

Two males and two females were collected on
Butyo and Los Negros in February, March, and
May. The March female is in a postjuvenal
plumage distinguished by somewhat more
fluffy, olivacous feathers on the head and nape.
The wing feathers and scapulars are slightly
more faded-looking and brownish than in the
adult.

46. Myzomela nigrita pammelaena Sclater
Myzomela pammelaena Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, 1877: 553 (Admiralty Islands).

Two males and a female were taken on
Hauwei and Ponam. They measure: wing o 75,
75.5, 2 67.5; culmen o 17.5 (2).

47. Philemon albitorques Sclater
Philemon albitorques Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon-
don, 1877: 553 (Admiralty Islands).

A pair of this large endemic Admiralty Island
species were collected on Los Negros in Febru-
ary and March. The female (March) is com-
mencing the molt. These birds measure: wing
185, 2 179; culmen o& 48, Q 44. Old speci-
mens, even after only 15 years (Whitney col-
lection), become foxed, particularly on the fore-
head and crown, but also on the back, although
Whitney specimens are not so foxed in this re-
spect as are those of the Rothschild collection.

Mar. 15, 1947

WETMORE: THE RACES OF AMAZILIA VIOLICEPS

103

ORNITHOLOGY.—The races of the violet-crowned hummingbird, Amazilia aul

ceps.!

When Ludlow Griscom (Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool. 75: 378. Jan. 1934) deter-
mined that the type specimen of Cyanomyia
salvini Brewster (Auk 10: 214. July 1893),
described from a bird taken at Nacozari,
Sonora, was a hybrid between Amazilia
violiceps and Cynanthus latirostris the status
of the Arizona record of a hummingbird
under the name A mazilia salvini (Brewster)
in the fourth edition of the A.O.U. Check-
list (1931: 183) was left undecided. The
bird in question, from Palmerlee, Cochise
County, Ariz., taken on July 4, 1905, was
reported under the name salvina by Dr.
Louis B. Bishop (Auk 23: 337. 1906). It is
now no. 160998 in the collection of the Chi-
cago Natural History Museum. The offi-
cials of that institution have kindly lent it
to me briefly for examination.

At the same time Dr. Max M. Peet has
sent to me for identification a second speci-
men, from his collection, a male taken by
H. H. Kimball near Paradise, Chiricahua
Mountains, Ariz., July 16, 1905.

Both of these birds prove to be Amazilia
violiceps elliott and are to be recorded as that
race, the supposed form conjuncta described
by Griscom from Sonora proving to be a
synonym.

Berlioz (Rev. Franc. Orn., 1932: 129-132,
533-534; 1938: 9-12) and Griscom (Bull.
Mus. Comp. Zool. 75: 376-378. Jan. 1934)
have cleared up much of the confusion
that has existed regarding individual varia-
tion in the present species and its geographic
forms. Peters (Check-list Birds of the World
5: 75. 1945) has followed Griscom’s ar-
rangement. Determination of the two Ari-
zona specimens has necessitated an exami-
nation of the series of the entire species in
the National Museum and the Museum of
Comparative Zodlogy, with a somewhat
different understanding of the forms and
of the names that apply to them as a result.
My findings are covered in the following
brief synopsis, which agrees in the main
with Berlioz’s determination in 1932 (l.c.,

1 Received January 8, 1947.

ALEXANDER WETMORE, Smithsonian Institution.

p. 132), except that the form he designates
derneddet is properly called virzdzfrons. The
localities in the ranges given below are those
of specimens I have handled personally.

Amazilia violiceps violiceps (Gould)

Cyanomyia violiceps Gould, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.
(ser. 3) 4: 97. Aug. 1859. (Oaxaca.)

Cyanomyia guerrerensis Salvin and Godman,
Biologia Centrali-Americana 2: 290. July 1892.
(Rineén, Acahuitzotla, and Tierra Colorada,
Guerrero.)

Uranomitra atricapilla Simon, Rev. Frang. Orn.
2: 129. Aug. 7, 1911. (Oaxaca.)

Definitely shining and metallic above, the
coloration of the dorsal surface being darker,
the tail coppery color, and the edge of the
wing brownish.

Chiapas Gane Oaxaca (Santa Efi-
genia, Tapana), Guerrero (Acahuitzotla, Co-
quillo).

Gould described his bird from Oaxaca, so
stating definitely in his original description.
This is verified by Hartert (Cat. Birds Brit.
Mus. 16: 196. 1892) in his record of the type,
which he says is from Oaxaca. In spite of this,
Berlioz has spoken of the birds of Puebla as
being typical, though actually they belong to
another form, and Peters through a lapsus
calamz has listed the type locality of violiceps
as Atlixco, Puebla.

Amazilia violiceps viridifrons (Elliot)

Cyanomyia viridifrons Elliot, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. (ser. 4) 8: 267. Oct. 1871. (Putla, Puebla.)

Uranomitra Derneddez Simon, Rev. Franc. Orn.
2: 129. Aug. 7, 1911. (Puebla.)

Similar to violiceps in the coppery iridescence
of the tail and brownish edge of the wing, but
duller, less metallic above, with the dorsal sur-
face lighter, more brownish.

Puebla (Puebla), Morelos
Puente de Ixtla).

This bird is easily distinguished from the
typical form on the characters given. The earli-
est name for it is viridifrons of Elliot. As no
birds from the state of México are at hand, I
am not certain whether they belong to this
race or to elliott.

(Cuernavaca,

104

Amazilia violiceps ellioti (Berlepsch)

Uranomitra elliott Berlepsch, Proc. U. 8S. Nat.
Mus. 9: 561. Sept. 25, 1889. (Mazatlan,
Sinaloa.)

Amazilia violiceps conjuncta Griscom, Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zoél. 75: 377. Jan. 1934. (Alamos, Son-
ora.)

Similar to violiceps except that the tail is
dull green, not coppery, and the edge of the
wing is whitish.

Michoacan (La Salada, Los Reyes, Querén-
daro; Jalisco (Guadalajara, Etzatlan, Chapa-
la, Bolafios, Barranea Ibarra); Sinaloa (Plo-
mosas, Mazatlin); Sonora (Alamos, El Tigre
Mine); Arizona (Palmerlee, Cochise County;
near Paradise, Chiricahua Mountains).

On first examination of the two specimens
from Arizona it was presumed that they were
to be given the name conjuncta of Griscom, but
on comparison of material in the U.S. National
Museum the characters separating this sup-

ORNITHOLOGY.—Two new _ babblers

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 3
posed form from elliott were not apparent.
Subsequently J. L. Peters and I compared the
original set of birds used by Griscom to find
that the skins taken by Frazar that are the
basis of conjuncta have the exact characters
listed in the original description. Study of
other specimens from the National Museum,
however, showed that Frazar’s skins have
undergone a post-mortem fading, since mate-
rial taken by later collectors, some of them
from the same locality as Frazar’s birds, were
indistinguishable from typical elliott. A. v. con-
juncta therefore is a synonym of elliott.

One specimen in the National Museum from
La Salada, Michoacan, has a coppery-colored
tail like violiceps, indicating some transition
toward that form, but others from the same
locality have normal green tails.

Birds from Chihuahua (not seen personally)
supposedly belong here, but the limits of this
race and viridifrons need to be established.

(Timaliidae) from southeastern Asia.

H. G. Detanan, U.S. National Museum.

I

Through the kindness of the authorities
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia and the American Museum of
Natural History, I have been permitted to
borrow comparative material that enables
me to propose two new subspecies of bab-
blers from Siam. The first may be known
as—

Stachyris striolata nigrescentior, n. subsp.

Type.—Adult male, U.S.N.M. no. 169854,
collected at elev. 2,000 feet on Khao Nok Ra,
peninsular Siam at latitude 7°25’ N., longitude
99°55’ E., on January 15, 1899, by William L.
Abbott.

Diagnosis.—Nearest S. s. guttata (Amherst
District, Tenasserim) but distinguished by
having the upper parts a darker russet brown;
the guttate white spots of the upper back
smaller and more numerous, especially at the
center of the back; the white spots of the sides
of the neck fringed with blackish brown rather
than black.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received January
24, 1947.

The new race is very distinct from S. s.
umbrosa (Deli District, northeastern Sumatra)
by its much less nigrescent upperparts (a
majority of my specimens show more or less
blackish wash over the pileum, but not else-
where) and the broader white drops on the
upper back and sides of the neck.

No direct comparison has been possible with
S. s. striolata (Padang Residencies, west cen-
tral Sumatra). Robinson and Boden Kloss have
defined it as much less nigrescent than wm-
brosa, but distinguishable from the bird of
peninsular Siam by its more saturate colora-
tion.

Range.—Peninsular Siam from Trang Prov-
ince north to the Isthmus of Kra; southern-
most Tenasserim.

Specimens examined.—S.s. helenae: 2; S. s.
guttata: 3; S. s. nigrescentior: 12; S. s. umbrosa:
8.

i

The khatya of northwestern Siam, the
Chin Hills of Burma, and presumably of
Karenni proves to be racially distinct from
the bird of the eastern Himalayas, with
which it has been heretofore confused. I
suggest that it be called—

Mar. 15, 1947 PROCEEDINGS

Cutia nipalensis melanchima, n. subsp.

Type.—Adult female, U.S.N.M. no. 330611,
collected on Doi Langka (Khao Pha Cho),
northern Siam at latitude 19°00’ N., longitude
99°25’ E., on November 6, 1930, by Hugh M.
Smith (original number 4292).

Diagnosis —Nearest C. n. nipalensis (Ne-
pal), from which it is inseparable in the male
but differs in the female by having the crown a
deeper slate and the ground color of the mantle
light brownish olive (Ridgway) more or less
washed with ferruginous, rather than a uni-
form bright ferruginous. |

From C. n. cervinicrissa (Perak) distin-
guished in either sex by the much lighter and
less extensive buffy wash over the white under
parts, and in the female by having the mantle
distinctly washed with ferruginous.

: THE ACADEMY

105

From C. n. legallent (southern Annam)
easily separated in either sex by having the
black barring of the under parts restricted to
the sides of the body, and in the female by
having the crown slate, not brown, and the
mantle distinctly washed with ferruginous.

Range.—Northwestern Siam; Karenni?;
Chin Hills.

Specimens examined.—C. n. nipalensis: 6
males, 6 females; C. n. melanchima: 6 males, 7
females; C. n. cervinicrissa: 1 male; C. n.
legalleni: 8 males, 7 females.

Remarks.—In the ground color of the mantle
in the female, melanchima is almost exactly
intermediate between nipalensis on the one
hand and cervinicrissa and legalleni on the
other, as might be expected from its geograph-
ically intermediate range.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED
SOCIETIES

THE ACADEMY
406TH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 406th meeting of the Board of Mana-
gers was held in the Library of the Cosmos
Club on Monday evening, February 17, 1947,
President Scumirt presiding. The following
persons were present: H. 8. Rappiteyn, N. R.
‘Smits, F. M. Serzuer, W. N. Fenton, H. B.
Coins, Jzr., W. W. Dien, F. G. Bricx-
WweDpE, F. L. Mouuer, J. S. Wann, C. F. W.
Murseseck, W. W. Rusey, L. E. Yocum,
W. A. Dayton, C. A. Brrts, A. O. Foster,
H. G. Dorsny, O. B. Frencu, C. L. Gazin,
W.1L. Scumitt, and, by invitation: G. P. WaL-
TON and A. STONE.

The following appointments were announced:

Appointed Members on the Executive Commit-
tee: N. R. SmirH and F. L. Mouuemr.

Archivist: N. R. SM1TuH was reappointed for a
term of three years.

Committee on Meetings: GEORGE P. WALTON,
Chairman, G. W. Vinau, A. R. Merz, E. H.
GRAHAM, and 8. F. HILDEBRAND.

Committee on Membership: W. W. Dieut, —

Chairman, C. W. Emmons, C. W. Cooxg,
J. W. McBurney, E. W. Price, W. D. Surt-
CLIFFE, and M. H. Martin.

Board of Editors of the Journal: ALAN STONE.
W. N. FENTON was designated Senior Editor.
R. E. BLACKWELDER was appointed Associate
Editor for a term of three years to represent the
Entomological Society of Washington.

Committee on Monographs: EK. A. CHAPIN,
Chairman, EK. P. Kiuurp, C. W. Ress, Nor-
MAN BEKKEDAHL, and W. R. WEDEL.

The Board of Managers authorized the Presi-
dent to form two other committees: one to con-
sider the JoURNAL and its improvement, the
other to make recommendations for the ob-
servance of the 50th anniversary of the Acap-
EMY, which falls on February 18, 1948. Ap-
pointed to the first of these committees were:
R. J. SzecEeR, Chairman, W. N. Fenton, G. A.
Coopsr, L. V. Jupson, and H. A. Renper. Ap-
pointed to the second of these committees were:
F. M. Serzier, Chairman, C. B. CLausEn,
K. W. Price, C. E. CHamsuiss, H. 8. BERN-
TON, GILBERT GROSVENOR, C. L. GARNER,
K. -C. CritTenpen, H. G. Dorsry, W. W.
Rusey, and F. G. BRIcKWEDDE.

The Board approved the Treasurer’s budg-
et for the year. This represented an increase of
$950 over the budget for 1946, and consisted of
the following items:

106

SECrevamy ck. Ve ee a ee $ 400.00
Area SURere font) Sie Be a ee ee 250 .00
JOURNAL:

Printing “and: Marling: >... 4 ,000 .00

Ofice Clerk. to c7 cee Tee. t 300 .00

Miscellancous: 2 tet oe 50 .00
Custodian and Subscription Mana-

POT AC SS rs EEO 3 SO Ee Pe 100.00
Meetings Committee.............. 450.00
DECOR. sai. eas ogee Oe 350.00

AB Oa hee SAE SS INIRS Sa eo: Pee $5 , 906 .00

The greatest increase was in the printing and
mailing of the JoURNAL, and this was due
wholly to increased printing costs. The office
clerk was given an annual increase of $60, and
the Meetings Committee an increase of $50,
restoring its allotment to the pre-war figure.
Fifteen dollars was added to the amount budg-
eted last year for the directory yet to be au-
thorized by the Board.

Mr. RappLeyYse reported his authorization by
the Executive Committee for the purchase of
$2,000 of U. 8S. Government Savings Bonds,
Series G.

The Secretary was authorized to include
with the next meetings notice a card requesting
members to consider the JOURNAL as a ready
means of publication.

Mr. Watton, Chairman of the Committee
on Meetings, announced that the policy for the
coming year was to secure Nobel prize winners
as speakers so far as possible.

The Secretary reported the death of the fol-
lowing members: Henry G. Avers, of the
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and former
Treasurer of the AcADEMY, on January 19,
1947; CHARLES ALBERT Browne, formerly of
the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, on Febru-
ary 3, 1947; James Harwoop JEAns, honorary
member, formerly of Dorking, England, on
September 16, 1946; and Wiis L. Jepson,
formerly of the Department of Botany, Uni-
versity of California, on November 7, 1946.

C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Anthropological Society of Washington
at its annual meeting, held January 21, 1947,
elected the following officers: President, Rr-
GINA FLANNERY; Vice-President, WiLLIaAm N.
FrEntTon; Secretary, MarsHaLtL T. NEWMAN;
Treasurer, JoHN C. Ewnrs; Councilors to the
Board of Managers, W. M. Coss, W. H. Git-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 3

BERT, JR., RutuH E. Parpex, D. B. Surmxtn,
G. Re Witiey. .

A report of the membership and activities
of the Society since the last annual meeting
follows: ;

Life members, 1; Active members, 62;
Associate members, 26; total, 89. This repre-
sents a loss of eight since last year.

The members elected during the year were:
Active members—Dr. MarsHatt T. NeEw-
MAN, Mrs. Emin Sapy, Dr. CHaruzs E. Tut-
HILL. Associate members—Dr. E. 8. C. Han-
py, Dr. Jutes Henry, Dr. Ouav R. T. JANssE,
Dr. Lauriston R. SHarp, Mrs. Rosamonp B.
Spicer, R. M. Tatum.

The Society records its deep sense of loss
in the death of Dr. Grorer 8. Duncan, Past
President and member since 1930.

The report of the Treasurer follows:

Funds invested in Perpetual Building
Association (with interest to De-

cember 31) 1946). $1,899.12
21 shares Washington Sanitary Im-
provement Co. (par value $10 ver
share). oo. 208 See 210.00
2 shares Washington Sanitary Hous-
ing Co. (par value $100 per share). . 200 .00
U. S. Savings Bond, Series G..... Pee 500 .00
Cash in bank 2-302) 449s ee ~ 262.62
$3,071.74
Bills outstanding:
To American Anthropological As-
sociation (subscription to Ameri-
can Anthropologist for one mem-
ber-atsbo) oh sarees en ie $ 5.00
3,066.74
Total as of December 31, 1945 2,913.04
Inéréase...i0s0..22.. oe a ee ‘mm Way wer (0)

A spring dinner was held at the Zoo Res-
taurant, May 14, 1946; but all regular meet-
ings were held at the U. 8. National Museum.
The Program Committee for the season, ap-
pointed in October 1946, was comprised of Dr.
MarsHautt T. Newman, Chairman, Dr. Mar-
GARET LantTis, and Dr. RutH PARDEE.

Titles of papers presented before the regular
meetings of the Society were as follows:

January 15, 1946, 732d meeting, WILLIAM
M. SHankuin, The anthropology of the Arab
Bedowin’’ (slides).

February 19, 1946, 733d meeting, J. M.
Cowan, Wartime activities of linguists (re-
cordings).

Mar. 15, 1947

March 19, 1946, 734th meeting, Cora
DuBois, Anthropology in Government.

April 16, 1946, 735th meeting. T. Daun
Srmwart, Anthropology and the melting pot
(slides). Address of the retiring President.

October 15, 1946, 736th meeting, WILLIAM
N. Fenton, Problems of folklore research, 1l-
lustrated by materials from the Eastern Wood-
lands (recordings).

November 19, 1946, 737th meeting, GorDON
T. Bowuss, The impact of the War upon the

OBITUARY

107

Japanese people.

December 17, 1946, 738th meeting, Mary
L. DreGive and Marcarset Cussier, Hopi
horizons (Documentary film, first showing).

The Society voted to affiliate with the Wash-
ington Social Science Federation, and the
Secretary represented the Board at a prelim-
inary organization meeting, but the Federation
remains in abeyance until other groups of
social scientists organize locally.

Wi.uiaM N. FENTON, Secretary

Obituary

GERALD FRANCIS LOUGHLIN was born in
Hyde Park, Mass., a suburb of Boston, on
December 11, 1880. He died suddenly at his
home in Washington, D. C., on October 22,
1946.

His early education was obtained in the
public schools of his native community and
the Boston Latin School. He graduated from
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in
1903 with the degree bachelor of science in
mining geology. He was awarded the degree
doctor of philosophy by Yale University in
1906. From 1906 to 1912 he taught geology
at the Massachusetts: Institute of Technology
and also gave courses at nearby Tufts College
and Boston University.

He was a fellow of the Geological Society of
America and of the Mineralogical Society of
America and a member of the Society of Eco-
nomic Geologists, the American Institute of
Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, the Amer-
ican Association of Petroleum Geologists, the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science, the American Geophysical Union, the
Washington Academy of Sciences, the Geo-
logical Society of Washington, Sigma Xi, and
the Cosmos Club.

After a summer as field assistant with the
United States Geological Survey he served
two years (1904-1906) as a geologist with the
Connecticut Natural History Survey. For this
bureau he made a survey of the clays and clay
industries of the State, and in collaboration
with Joseph Barrell he also prepared a report
on the lithology of Connecticut.

Between 1906 and 1912 Dr. Loughlin worked
during summers for the United States Geo-

logical Survey, and in 1912 he joined the per-
manent staff as associate geologist. From 1917
to 1935 he served successively as geologist in
charge of the sections of nonmetallic and of
metallic resources in the former Division of
Mineral Resources, then as chief of that divi-
sion, and later as chief of the Section of Metal-
liferous Deposits. In 1935 he was made chief
geologist of the Geologic Branch, a position
he held until July 1944, when after 27 years of
administrative services he was relieved of such
duties and appointed staff scientist. This gave
him opportunity to resume geologic research
in New England, to which he had long looked
forward. He brought to this new work renewed
eagerness and enthusiasm, a wealth of broad
experience, a practical scientific imagination,
and a definite promise of further important
accomplishments. His untimely death pre-
vented completion of any part of this work.
Dr. Loughlin’s specialities were ore deposits
and constructional materials, but his interests
and abilities extended much more broadly,
into the fields of igneous petrology, structural
geology, and metamorphism. His bibliography
is large, and his writings show soundness and
versatility. He wrote with an uncommon de-
gree of clarity, but he achieved simplicity and
conciseness in his writings without any sacrifice
of contributory services to the science. As an
adviser in the field and office he was generous
of his time and interest, always ready with
helpful suggestions, a teacher and a counselor
in the most felicitous sense. Had his activities
not been limited by confining administrative
duties, he would doubtless have contributed
even more, and always valuably, to the funda-

108

mentals of geologic science through zealous,
sound, and practical research.

In this short space it is not possible to re-
view his geologic work specifically, but it is in
order to remark upon the general importance
of his contributions. He was an authority in
the field of constructional materials and was
well known and regarded highly by the indus-
try, so that his advice was solicited frequently.
To the geologic profession, however, he was
known best for his work on metalliferous de-
posits, for which he has ranked high among
economic geologists. He contributed largely
to the science of ore deposits and specifically
to the geology of mining districts in Utah,
Colorado, and New Mexico. After it was
realized in 1910 that large deposits of oxidized
zinc ores were present in the Leadville district
and had long been overlooked, Loughlin was
detailed to study the ores. His report on this
subject is outstanding. S. F. Emmons had
already begun a comprehensive study of the
district, and after his death J. D. Irving con-
tinued the work. Irving’s death in 1918 left
completion of the report to Loughlin who had
reviewed the work with Irving, and he was,
therefore, as he put it, ‘the most available to
inherit the task” of assembling and preparing
for publication the classical professional paper
on Geology and ore deposits of the Leadville
mining district, Colorado (1927). It was a tre-
mendous job of critical assembling and col-
lating of data, but he possessed rare ability
in such lines, and the resulting report was mon-
umental. Later he made extensive studies in
the Cripple Creek district and recognized the
unusual and complicated nature of the struc-
tural control on the localization of ores in the
“crater” or basin. He published several papers
relating to the modes of occurrence and finding
of ore both at Cripple Creek and at Leadville.

His chief hobby was music, and he com-
posed and arranged scores. For a long time he
was director of an orchestra composed of young
people of All Soul’s Unitarian Church, and at
various times he directed choral groups, some
of which were composed wholly of Geological
Survey personnel. Until administrative duties
demanded too much of his time and energy he
was a principal organizer and contributor to
the Pick and Hammer shows.

He was fond of sports, and of young people,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 3

with whom he delighted to work and play.
He was ever gentle and understanding with
youngsters, whether his own grandchildren in
whom he took great pleasure, or the neighbor-
hood gang whose scrub baseball games in the
vacant lot or in the street sometimes brought
him to the scene, not as spectator, but as an
active participant. Broken glasses and bruises
sometimes brought a resolve to be more cir-
cumspect, but happily the resolution would
soon be forgotten. He loved to talk of batting
averages and the life histories of major league
baseball players of the past and present with
his young friends.

He was a fond and devoted family man. He
had a warm liking, too, for his fellow men and
never took intentional advantage of: anyone.
He always wanted to be friendly, but he was
naturally reserved and undemonstrative and
as a consequence was often misunderstood. Be-
neath a rather solemn mien, which was begot
of natural shyness, there was a ready, deep
sense of humor that sometimes sparkled with —
dry, good-natured satire but was never mean
or bitter. In a way he was a contradiction;
his shyness and reserve were abandoned when
he disported in a Pick and Hammer show, and
he delighted the audiences with his antics and
excellent mimicry.

Gerald Loughlin never shirked a duty, and
he never sought prominence. He was systematic
and conscientious in the performance of his
offices, and his greatest satisfaction was ob-
tained by accomplishing his tasks as he thought
they should be done. He was incapable of sub-
terfuge or pretentiousness. Personal gains were
never considered in making his decisions. But
he looked into his heart as well as his head, and
he did what he thought was justly demanded
by the particular circumstances. His New
England conscience forbade either disloyalty
to or exploitation of others. He was a good
citizen. It was a part of his fiber that he should
always do what the honesty of his soul de-
manded, so that he seemed indeed to live by
the precept—

To thine own self be true,
And it must follow as the night the day
Thou canst not then be false to any man.

L. W. CurRRIER
Ji 5. WILLIAMS

pal Myers
“

ps
PA lar

.*

Borany. —A new species. oF Blsinoé on n eapulin cherry
Anna E. JENKINS. +01 100252 y eee ees

\

ca : ot . ENTOMOLOGY.—A new species. of Cues oe Ne 7 on a (
eS | Culicidae). ALAN STONE and Guorce Henry PEn. Sa:

a ; ; ENTOMOLOGY. ey new genus of flea beetles from m the
a | , Doris H. ee eo

zilia policene es ota Waraonz.. Ae ee ee

a ae ORNITHOLOGY. —Two new babbice (Fimahidie) ree
Te Asia. H. G. DEIGNAN....-. 160 e eect nett ee es

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY.......004-..0:ceseseue
PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL Socteer 02s as

Osrruary: Gerald Francis Loughlin....... i ce Ln

This Journal is indexed in the International Index to Periodicals x

Aprit 15, 1947 No. 4

~, i» be
% av ae ,
et al TY <— her wae kD "
“SON AL-LISS
Ry one hee i mee pee ee

“WASHINGTON ACADEMY
= OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Wave i
WILLIAM N. FENTON JAMES I. HOFFMAN ALAN STONE
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND
; , ; \ PLANT QUARANTINE

\

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

FRANK C. KRACEE RicHarD E. BLACK WELDER
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY > ENTFOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Ira B. HANSEN Rate W, ImMuay
BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
ALBERT E. LONGLEY Watpo R. WEDEL
BOTANICAL SOCIETY ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Int C, SCHOONOVER
CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL 5

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37

LINGUISTICS.—The word for seal (Pinnipedia) in various languages.'

Apri 15, 1947

No. 4

OE

HaRRINGTON, Bureau of American Ethnology.

The main industry of the Pribilof Islands,
situated in the southern part of the Bering
Sea, concerns itself with the*fur seal (Cal-
lorhinus ursinus cynocephalus). It is there
that the fur seal breeds, under the protec-
tion of the United States Government’s
Fish and Wildlife Service, and that the
harvested skins are partially prepared for
making into coats or the like. It was while
making a study of the Aleutian language on
the island of St. Paul, the larger one of the
two main Pribilof Islands, that I noticed
that although Aleutian has several words
for various aspects of the fur seal, these
words are all age-sex descriptions or are de-
rived from Russian—with one sole excep-
tion, laktiéax, the name of the fur seal it-
self. These facts allow of only one interpre-
tation, which is that originally there was in
Aleutian only one word for fur seal, and that
all the other words are modificatory terms
that have grown up with the development
of the industry.

The name for seal most widely spread in
languages means sea-dog, sea-wolf, sea-calf,
sea-cat, or sea-bear, or some one of these
designations with the combining form sea-
omitted, this terminology being part of a
gigantic extension of terms denoting land
animals into the realm of ocean. The seal is
bewhiskered and sly and therefore lends it-
self to these appellations. Some other lan-
guages have a special word for seal, or words
for two or more species of seal, words which
are different from anything else.

Although especially sea-calf is largely
used in English dialects, the standard high
English word for the animal is ‘‘seal,’’ pro-
nounced siil, these terms having been ap-
plied in early times notably to Phoca vitu-

1 Received January 22, 1947.

APR 15 1947

lina, common seal, the species most usual
off the shores of the islands of Britain and
Ireland. The curious feature of the word
“seal’’ is that it still appears in certain of its
forms in Anglo-Saxon (alias Old English)
with a final h, which is a remnant of an erst-
while syllable -kos. Several Sanskrit names
of animals end in -kas, or this ending alter-
nates with its lack. The declension in Anglo-
Saxon of the word for seal is:

Sing. Bol.
Nom. — seolh séalas
GEN. séoles séala
Dat. séole séalum
Acc. seolh séalas

The h even in Anglo-Saxon disappeared ex-
cept where it is etymofinal. The vowel-
breaking of this word in Anglo-Saxon comes
not from an ancient diphthong, but from
the vowel e being before, or having been be-
fore, lh, while vowel harmony makes the
breaking vary between éo and éa. Modern
Swedish has a survival of this breaking in

‘its secondary form of sal, seal, which is sjal.

(See below.) Scotch and Irish dialects of
English overdo the h into x the stand-
ard spelling having sealch, seal, the pro-
nunciation being selx, while the Shetland
Island dialect of English has in standard
orthography sealkie, pronounced sélki. The
word for seal in English prior to the
recording of English, that is, prior to all
vowel breaking, was *selh, with which one
can nicely compare Old High German sélah,
seal, with an a which has crept in between
the | and the h. The Indo-European form of
the word would have been *selkos, the
Gothic form would have been *silhs. Old
Icelandic selr has already lost its h and goes
back to *selhr. As combining form Old Ice-
landic has the very primitive form sel-, oc-

109

110

curring for instance in sel-skinn, sealskin.
What sel- is still further to be connected
with, if with anything, nobody knows; con-
nection with soul, which in the Gothic form
of the word is saiwala, is plausible.

The German language has as its probably
commonest word for seal: Seehund, falsely
taken to have the etymology sea-dog, but.
Danish selhund, seal, shows that this Ger-
man word may have seal sticking in it as its
first half. The other common German word
for seal is Robbe, feminine, of Low German
origin, naturally since Low German is the
more maritime and original variety, and
without any linking oretymology that is
certain.

The Danish-Norwegian word for seal is
sel or selhund. One should notice that the
vowels of the first word and of the first syl-
lable of the second word differ in speaking
and pronunciation. The regular Swedish
word for seal is sal, but the dictionaries
carry a much less used byform, sjal, pro-
nounced sal and sounding exactly the same
as jal, soul, only sjal, seal, is masculine and
sjal, soul, is feminine. This secondary word
for seal in Swedish is interesting in that it
still preserves the olden vowel-breaking
that is preserved in English orthography, as
has been stated above. A third Swedish
term for seal is salhund, literally seal-dog.
But *sjalhund is never formed for seal; it
would be taken to mean soul-dog. There is
still another word for seal both in Danish-
Norwegian and in Swedish. It is kobbe,
which reminds one in its sounding, except
for the first letter, of German Robbe, seal.
This word, kobbe, appears in Old Icelandic
as kobbi, seal.

Old Icelandic has selr, seal, also kobbi,
seal, which has just been mentioned. Old
Icelandic has also k6pr, young seal, which
is the same word as English cub, applied in
English to a young bear.

The Irish Celtic language has ron, seal.
A Scotch Gaelic dictionary gives the same
word merely with the different spelling ron.
The Welsh language has as its most stand-
ard word for seal: morlo. This word patently
says sea-calf. The common Welsh word for
sea is mor, whereas llo, pronounced Lo, is the
ordinary Welsh word for calf. One can also,
but rarely does, in Welsh say llo mor for seal.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 317 NO. 4

The word for seal in Old as well as in
Modern Greek, and doubtless in early times
applied especially to Monachus monachus,
which is the species common to Greek
waters and to the Mediterranean in gen-
eral, was, and is, phéokee, feminine, con-
nected with Old Greek phtiusa, a pair of
bellows, phuus4oo, I blow, I puff, doubtless
because the seal had as one of its character-
istics that of being a blower. Phéokee is
one of the Indo-European animal names
in -kos; like Latin vetula it appears regularly -
in the feminine, oo ablautes with uu.

Latin had as its own native word for
seal, vitula, which is nothing but the femi-
nine of the ordinary Latin word for calf:
vitulus. Slavic and Sanskrit suggest that
Latin vitulus in origin means little-yearling,
connected with Latin vetus, old, having
years. The Albanian language calls calf
vjete, which reminds one of the Latin word.
The Greek word for seal, phéokee, was early
taken into Latin as phoca, a spelling phoce ~
also occurring, and one can still say in
Spanish foca, as well as to call a seal a sea-
wolf.

Lithuanian and the related Lettish lan-
guage have as the word for seal: ronis,
reminiscent of the Irish word given above,
though exact equivalence is difficult to
show. German Robbe, seal, starts off the
same way.

The Russian language has four words
meaning seal. Two of these four terms are,
or are derived from, the word for cat. The
most distinctive word for seal, which comes
quickest perhaps to a Russian’s mind, is
t¥ulén”, which refers perhaps especially to
hair sea!, but is also the word for seal in
general. A word nérpa, meaning especially
hair seal, and unknown to many Russians,
is of Karelian origin and has in origin been
picked up from Finnish norppa, marble-
seal. Russian morskoy k6ét, sea-cat, is
largely used for the seal, or one says kot,
with morskéy understood. Kot in terrestrial
application signifies a tom-cat. The corre-
sponding feminine is of course morskaya
kétcka, or merely kétcka. The fourth term
is ké6tik, in origin a diminutive of k6ot.
Kk6tik has become standardized to be the
regular name of the fur seal. The first and
third of the Russian words given above also

Apr. 15, 1947 HERMANN: AMAZONIAN VARIETIES OF LONCHOCARPUS NICOU

have usage with metaphorical meaning:
tYulénY means a clumsy person, kot a
bully.

ileyh

The regular Finnish word for seal is hyle.
Norppa, marble-seal, is not to be found at
all in one Finnish dictionary.

BOTAN Y.—The Amazonian varieties of Lonchocarpus nicou, a rotenone-yrelding .

plant.'

Exploration of the llanos and selvas of
eastern Colombia in 1944 for additional
sources of rotenone-yielding plants disclosed
the frequent occurrence there of two bar-
bascos of economic value. One of these was
Lonchocarpus urucu Killip & Smith, until
then definitely known only from Amazonian
Brazil and a single locality in Colombia? but
- suspected to extend into Peru and Vene-
zuela. The second and commoner of the two
barbascos (which, as is so generally the case,
were found only in sterile condition) was
thought to be either L. utzlas A. C. Smith or
L. chrysophyllus Kleinh., until firsthand
acquaintance with L. utzlis at Iquitos re-
vealed discrepancies from the Colombian
plant and subsequent study of authentic
material of L. chrysophyllus in the her-
barium showed that reference of the Co-
lombian collections to this concept was
equally unsatisfactory. They appear, how-
ever, to be a very good match for specimens
annotated by Krukoff and Smith as their
“Lonchocarpus sp. No. 10”? (Amer. Journ.
Bot. 24: 584. 1937), said to occur “in the
region of the Amazon delta and also in
Surinam and British Guiana.”

Intergradations in morphological charac-
ters among all these plants were found to be
so frequent in Colombia that great diffi-
culty was often experienced in arriving at a
satisfactory disposition of a given collec-
tion; indeed, intermediates between L.
urucu and ‘“‘Krukoff & Smith No. 10”
seemed to be the rule rather than the excep-
tion. For this reason it seems better to
treat them as geographic varieties of the
polymorphic L. nicow (Aubl.) DC. rather
than to continue the attempt to maintain
them as specific entities. The following new

1 Received January 3, 1947.

2 Kl] Porvenir, on the Rio Meta, according to
G. Gutierrez (Estudio sobre los principales bar-

bascos colombianos, Supl. Revista Agr. y Ganad.,
1948: 22)

FREDERICK J. HERMANN, U.S. Department of Agriculture.

variety and new combinations are therefore
proposed. Because the plants have been so
little known in Colombia, collections of the
two varieties found in that country by the
writer are cited. Abbreviations employed
for the herbaria containing these specimens
are: C (Instituto de Ciencias Naturales,
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bo-
gota); NA (U. 8S. National Arboretum
Herbarium, Beltsville, Md.), and US (U.S.
National Herbarium, Washington, D. C.).
All localities are in Colombia.

Lonchocarpus nicou (Aubl.) DC., var. lan-
guidus, var. nov. (Lonchocarpus No. 10, Kru-
koff & Smith, l.c.).—A varietate typica recedit
foliolis papyraceis longioribus (16-32 em) longe
acuminatis, sensim in apicem gracilem (2—4 cm)
productis, nervibus secondariis arcuatim ad-
scendentibus.

The large papyraceous leaflets with very
long tips (averaging 3.5 em) are characteristic
of this variety.

INTENDENCIA DEL ViIcHADA: Deep forest
(Monte Arrojo) on lIlanos along the Rio
Vichada, 7 km northeast of San José de Ocuné,
10982 (C; US); same, 27 km northeast of San
José de Ocuné, 11005 (C;NA;US) (approaching
var. urucu). INTENDENCIA DEL Mera: Bank
of small stream in dense forest (Monte de
Machadero, Ocoa), 4 km southeast of Villavi-
cencio, 11123 (C;NA—Tyr8;US); same, 11128
(US); dense forest (Restrepo Woods), 6 km
north of Villavicencio, 11150 (US); dense for-
est (Ladorada Marayal de San Martin), 16
km northwest of San Martin, 11177 (C;US)
(approaching var. urucu); forest near the Rio
Meta, + km east of Puerto Ldépez, 11209
(C;US) (approaching var. urucu). COMISARIA
DEL CaQquETa: Forest near mouth of Quebrada
Las Dalias on the Rio Orteguaza, La Maria
(Hacienda de Ramén Achiardy), 23 km south-
east of Venecia, 11225 (C;US) (approaching
var. typicus); same, 11228 (C;US) (approach-

112

ing var. urucu). INTENDENCIA DEL AMAZONAS:
cultivated at Leticia, 11289 (NA) (approaching
var. urucu); inundated jungle on the Rio
Hamaca-yacu, 70 km northwest of Leticia,
11310 (C;NA;US).

Lonchocarpus nicou var. urucu (Killip &
Smith), comb. nov. (L. urucu Killip & Smith,
Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 20: 81. 1930).—
Distinguished vegetatively from typical L.
nicou and its other varieties by the abruptly
short-acuminate leaflets, the tips not over 1 cm
long. The leaflets are also more thickly coriace-
ous than in any of the other varieties.

INTENDENCIA DEL VicHADA: Thicket along
the Rio Muco near Mutua, 60 km northwest
of San José de Ocuné, 10938 (C;NA;US) and
10945 (US); same, cultivated on Canuco de
Segundo Gallardo, 10940 (C;NA;US); deep
forest (Monte Arrojo) on llanos along the Rio
Vichada, 7 km northeast of San José de Ocuné,
10980 (C;NA;US) and 10981 (C;US).

Lonchocarpus nicou var. utilis (A. C. Smith),
comb. nov. (L. utilis A. C. Smith, Amer.
Journ. Bot. 24: 580. 1937).— Leaflets usually
longer and narrower than in vars. typicus and
urucu, oblong-elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate and
gradually acuminate at the apex. The second-
ary nerves are curved rather than straight and
ascending as in the typical L. nicou.

In view of a recent tendency to submerge
the extensive and predominantly American
genus Lonchocarpus in the chiefly Asiatic
Derris, some apology for the continued ad-
vocacy of the segregation of Lonchocarpus
may be called for. There can, of course, be
little question of the expediency of main-
taining the long-established name Loncho-
carpus from the standpoint of the economic
botanist and of all those who have a com-
mercial interest in the plants and who find
in the generic distinction a convenient
means of differentiating between the prin-
cipal American source of rotenone and the
Asiatic source. The arguments for the in-
corporation of Lonchocarpus in the genus
Derris have been most recently summarized
by J. Francis Macbride in his Flora of
Peru (Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. (Bot.
Ser.) 13 (pt. 8, no. 1): 256-259. 1943). Al-
though one can readily agree in principle
with much of this argument, it does not
seem definitively to establish the necessity
for combining the two genera. Little, if any-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 49.

thing, new is added to the accumulated #
data pertaining to the two groups by this §
summary, wherein reliance is placed chiefly

C

Fic. 1.—Typical leaflets of varieties of
Lonchocarpus nicou: a, var. typicus (Archer
2936); b, var. urucu (Hermann 10980); ¢, var.
languidus (tyPE, Hermann 11128); d, var. utilis
(Krukoff 7684).

Apr. 15, 1947

upon the observations and speculations of
Bentham whose conclusions upon the ques-
tion have been on record for the past 85
years and which nevertheless have not been
put into practice by the majority of botan-
ists who have studied the plants. It is
significant that Bentham was not suff-
ciently persuaded of the validity of his own
conclusions to adopt them himself. Ben-
tham’s statement, ‘‘We must take natural
genera only . . . uniting Lonchocarpus, Pon-
gamia, Piscidia and Muellera with Derris
’ is quoted in favor of the argument
fo pons Lonchocarpus, yet it is later ad-
mitted that Bentham himself did not merge
Pongamia, Piscidia and Muellera with Der-
ris but retained them as distinct genera as
he did, for that matter, Lonchocarpus.
Macbride’s own suggestion for the dis-
position of some of these supposedly theo-
retical genera would appear to raise further
questions. ‘‘Pongama and Piscidia,”’ he
says (l.c. 258), ‘‘are evidently only extreme
developments in the fruit and thus while
purely academic may, especially in floristic
work be conveniently recognized.”’ If Pon-
gama and Piscidia, admittedly “purely
academic,’ may be retained as a matter of
convenience, why not also Lonchocarpus?
The apparent implication in the same quo-
tation that we are to recognize one standard
or usage in monographic work and another
in floristic raises the natural query why,
if we are to permit two separate standards

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES)

113

within the field of systematic botany, we
should not make a like concession to a field
as distinct as economic botany, in which
Lonchocarpus plays its principle role. But
the innovation of sanctioning a double
nomenclatorial standard, considered from
almost any standpoint, would conceivably
accomplish little but the transfer of com-
plications from one locus to another.

Lonchocarpus has been an almost uni-
versally recognized genus for over a century
and the evidence now on hand does not ap-
pear to the writer to be sufficient to warrant
its unequivocal submergence in Derris.
There is just as much reason to unite, for
example, Aster and Erigeron into a single
genus as Lonchocarpus and Derris, yet few
botanists would seriously consider such a
step.

It does not seem advisable to advocate
the change of names that are in widespread
commercial use until taxonomists them-
selves are essentially in universal agreement
upon the necessity for such changes within
their own field. The policy of suggesting
nomenclatorial changes profoundly affect-
ing fields outside of pure taxonomy in
accordance with temporary viewpoints too
often results in the necessity of a periodic
shuffling back and forth from one name to
another until taxonomists have reached
agreement among themselves—and it is un-
derstandable that this does not enhance the
popularity of taxonomic research.

ENTOMOLOGY .—New Guinea species of mosquitoes of the genus Aedes, subgenus

Aedes.
Sn.C., AUS.

Seventeen species of subgenus Aedes, of
which 12 were described as new, are recog-
nized herein from New Guinea and islands
immediately adjacent. In addition, refer-

1 From the 19th Medical General Labora-
tory, U.S. Army. Contribution No. 14 from the
Entomology-Mammalogy Department. Re-
ceived January 16, 1947.

The authors are ‘greatly indebted to Dr. Alan
Stone for much advice and assistance in this
study, and both to him and C. F. W. Muese-
beck for making available the material and
facilities of the Division of Insects of the
U. S. National Museum. They are indebted
also to Jean Laffoon for helpful suggestions.

WILLARD V. Kina, Colonel, and Harry HoogcstTraat, Captain,
(Communicated by ALAN STONE.)

ence is made to two species occurring in
Australia and to several unidentified forms
encountered in New Guinea. The taxo-
nomic study of the group has been distinctly
handicapped by inadequate material, espe-
cially the lack of reared series in which
both sexes and the larvae were definitely
associated. The present classification is
based primarily on the male genitalia, which
fortunately present good distinctions. The
female is known in 11 of the 17 species and
the larva in only 5.

The main recognition characters of the

114

subgenus Aedes, as defined by Edwards
(1932), are as follows: Palpi very short in
both sexes; proboscis, wings, and tarsi uni-
formly dark; male antenna densely plumose;
recumbent scales of head mostly broad and
flat; scutellar scales narrow; lower anterior

mesepimeral bristle lacking, but usually a

group of fine hairs posteriorly; tarsal claws
either simple or toothed; phallosome sim-
ple, divided into a pair of plates or rods;
harpago (claspette) lacking; eighth segment
of female abdomen retractile, the cerci
moderately long and slender.

Common characteristics among the New
Guinea species may be given here and, to
save repetition, omitted in the individual
descriptions except to note variations: Pro-
boscis distinctly longer than femur; head
scales usually all flat and all dark except for
a lateral stripe of creamy-white ones, some-
times a median stripe of broad white scales,
or some narrow white scales on the nape, the
midline, or eye margin; apn (anterior prono-
tum) bare of scales or with an occasional
broad one (heavily scaled in one species,
lineatus); ppn (posterior pronotum) with 4
to 6 posterior bristles, either bare of scales
or with narrow dark ones on upper half and
occasional broad ones below, sometimes a
few hairs in front of the lower bristles;
scutum with fine or narrow curved scales,
usually with little or no ornamentation;
patches of broad, usually white, scales on
the upper and lower posterior sternopleuron
and at about the upper third of the mese-
pimeron; propleuron with flat white scales
and 6 to 8 bristles; sternopleuron sometimes
with scattered small fine hairs; mesepimeron
with a small group of hairs around the lower
posterior corner of the scale patch or with
most of the lower half hairy (all New
Guinea species with some hairs); meteu-
sternum (sclerite below the posterior spira-

cle) bare; lateral scales of the apical part of-

veins 2 to 4 usually elongate and somewhat
spatulate, the tip distinctly broader than at
basal third; hind tarsal claws simple so far
as observed; fore and mid claws of male
usually unequal and simple, of the female
equal in size and frequently with a minute
tooth, sometimes simple or with a large
tooth; abdominal tergites III-VII (some-
times II and VIII) with white markings,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 4.

either lateral spots (usually “‘oblique’’) or
dorsal transverse bands.

A characteristic of the male genitalia of
the New Guinea fauna is the comparative
simplicity of the coxite (basistyle), most of
the species lacking the apical extension and
the elongate lobes or arms found in practi-
cally all Oriental species. This has greatly
reduced the problem of comparison with
species of adjacent regions. Instead of such
processes, a majority of the New Guinea
species have one or more thick spines or
small leaflets arising from the inner margin
of the lower fold, subapically. Two of the
species in the New Guinea list (neomacro-
dixoa and panayensis) and one from Aus-
tralia (A. cunningham: Taylor) have a more
complicated structure.

About midway of the inner margin of the
lower fold of the coxite is a group of two or
more slender bristles set in rather prominent
tubercles. This is referred to as the median
lobe. The basal lobe is represented by a flat
area minutely pilose and bearing a few fine
hairs. The style (dististyle) is attached near
the apex of the coxite. Its basal third is
more or less enlarged while the apical two-
thirds forms a wide flattened arm, more or
less curved or bent, without an apical ap-
pendage. The ninth tergite usually is emar-
ginate posteriorly and bare of hairs; the
ninth sternite usually with a posterior row
of five setae (two short ones alternated with
three longer ones). The anal membrane is
indented posteriorly, the paraproct unde-
veloped and usually represented by only a
very slight lateral thickening.

With the possible exception of neomacro-
dixoa, all the New Guinea species have a
peculiar H-shaped structure visible below
the anal membrane, the homology of which
has not been determined. It appears to be a
bridging of the dorsal arms of the tenth
sternite, with flattened posterior projection
on each side made up in some cases of a
number of elongate, closely appressed,
rounded filaments, and in others of a
striated leaf-shaped membrane. These arms
lie in a perpendicular plane and their forma-
tion is difficult to see except in mounts
where they happen to have become flat-
tened (see Figs. 12 and 16). A somewhat
similar bridge has been observed in some of

Apr. 15, 1947

the Philippine species (including panayen-
sis) but the posterior arms are less de-
veloped or absent, and nothing comparable
to the filaments was noted.

The female genitalia of the New Guinea
group seem to be very uniform and simple
in structure, and unfortunately, offer little
assistance in identification. This was first
pointed out to the writers by J. Laffoon.
With better material, it is possible that a
more thorough study than we have at-
tempted would disclose useful characters.

The larvae (so far as known) have a
spiculate antenna, a single row of comb
scales, the last 1 to 3 pecten spines more
widely spaced than the others, anal segment
not completely ringed by the saddle and 1
to 3 small ventral precratal tufts present.

Only one Oriental species, panayensis of
the Philippines, is definitely known from
the New Guinea region. Another species,
neomacrodixoa, is closely related to the
Philippine macrodixoa. Two common New
Guinea species, carment: and lineatus, occur
in the Solomons and the Moluccas, and
carmentt in northern Australia also. (A.
ceramensis Brug from Ceram is considered
a synonym of carmenti.) The Australian spe-
cies funereus has a limited distribution in
New Guinea. Two Malayan species, A.
butler1 Theobald and A. zncertus Edwards,
have been reported from New Guinea, the
former from Pionierbivak (Brug, 1923) and
_ the latter from Merauke, Papua (Edwards,
1924). The identification of the first was
probably based on females and was proba-
bly incorrect. At least none of the males
examined by us resemble the male of butlerz.
The male of zncertus is unknown but the
Merauke record for this species was based
on a male specimen (for which the genitalia
were not described), which Edwards said
agreed with females from the Malay Penin-
sula. The record now seems very doubtful.
As described by Leicester (1908) under the
preoccupied name of taenzata, incertus dif-
fers from all our species in having a com-
bination of broad basal bands on the ter-
gites (median spots only on the paratype),
tarsal claws toothed, and a median line of
narrow pale scales on the head.

Several of the species are common and
widely distributed in New Guinea. The

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES)

115

adults are often extremely annoying in the
forest during the day. A number of the spe-
cies in the Hollandia area were obtained
only from light trap collections. Larvae of
New Guinea species so far as known have
been taken only from ground pools.

The previously described species are dis-
cussed first, followed by descriptions of new
species, each group being arranged in alpha-
betical order. Keys to adults, male genitalia
and larvae are provided at the end.

Aedes (Aedes) carmenti Edwards

Aedes carmentt Edwards, Bull. Ent. Res. 20: 388.
1924. (Type female, with numerous other speci-
mens, from Maravova, Guadalcanal, Solomon
Islands, and one female from Palm Island,
North Queensland, Australia. )

? Aedes (? Skusea) funereus (Theobald), Edwards,
Bull. Ent. Res. 12: 76. 1921. (Male, from Am-
boina, said to have a short spine at tip of side
piece.)

? Aedes (Aedes) funereus (Theobald), Brug, Bull.
Ent. Res. 23: 79. 19382. (Figure of coxite of
specimen described by Edwards.)

Aedes (Aedes) ceramensis Brug, Bull. Ent. Res.
25: 512. 1934. (Types, 2 males from Ceram,
Moluceas.) (Coxite with a stout subapical
spine and otherwise similar to carmeniz.)

The species was described as closely re-
sembling A. funereus and A. similis except
that the fore and mid tarsal claws of the female
were toothed, scales on the upper sternopleuron
all dark, and abdominal bands incomplete dor-
sally. Adult specimens obtained by the writers,
and adults and larvae from the collection of
Rozeboom, Knight, and Laffoon from the
Hollandia area, agree well with the material
from Guadalcanal.

Adults—Head vertex with all black flat
scales; apn bare of scales; ppn with scattered
dark narrow scales on the upper third and
a patch of fine hairs in front of bristles; scutal
scales mostly dark, with a sprinkling of pale
ones on front margin, over the wing roots,
around antescutellar space (none on median
area) and on scutellum; upper sternopleuron
with a large patch of appressed translucent
scales that usually appear darkish or even
black, and usually in addition rather numerous
small pale hairs below the scale patch and
along the anterior border, with a few longer
dark hairs in the anterior angle; mesepimeron
with a small number of rather long pale hairs
posterior to and just below the scale patch.
Abdominal tergites with lateral white spots,

116 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 4

V UNEREUS}.NY | Pee

"7 SE NTANIUS
<a) Ve
WY, y

Fies. 1-7.—(See opposite page for legend.)

Apr. 15, 1947

or stripes, that extend from the base under-
neath toward the middle of the segments at the
sides and their tips usually showing slightly
from above. Fore and mid tarsal claws equal
and toothed (Fig. 8B) in the female, unequal
in the male with only the larger claw toothed.
Male hypopygium (Fig. 1, Hollandia specimen):
Coxite with a stout subapical spine, bluntly
pointed and slightly curved, with several small
bristles near its base; median lobe with about 5
bristles; basal lobe with about 8 short hairs;
enlarged basal portion of style with a group of
about 6 rather stout bristles on the inner side,
another distinct group of 4 or 5 more slender
bristles on the upper side; arm of style strongly
curved near base, tapered and ending in a
sharp, bent tip.

Larva.—Antennal hair 4-branched; head
hair B, 3-branched, C, 5- or 6-branched; comb
of about 14 scales, each rounded and fringed;
airtube (Fig. 19) long, index nearly 3.0;
pecten with about fourteen spines, the distal
two longer and more widely spaced, the others
with a single lateral tooth at basal third or
fourth; tuft 2- or 3-branched; dorsal subcaudal
hair of anal segment with three branches, one
very long (two-thirds as long as the ventral
hair), the other two short.

Remarks.—Besides the large teeth on the
tarsal claws, the hairiness of the ppn and ster-
nopleuron, and the pale scales around the
antescutellar space are distinct aids in identi-
fication. The larva is very similar to that of
funereus but may differ in having only a single
tooth on the pecten spines instead of one large
and several small basal teeth.

A. carmentt is common in the Solomons, and
the Museum collection contains numerous
specimens from Guadalcanal, Bougainville,
and New Georgia Islands. From New Guinea
there is a large series from Nadzab, Markham
- River Valley, eastern New Guinea, and the
species was common at Hollandia. The larvae
were not often found, however, and only two
males were recorded from our light-traps.

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES)

117

Aedes (Aedes) funereus (Theobald)

Skusea funerea Theobald, Monograph of the
Culicidae 3: 292. 1903. [Type female, Queens-
land, Australia (probably Deception Bay, near
Brisbane).]

Pseudoskusea basalis Taylor, Ann. Rept. Con.
Publ. Health, Queensland, App. 6: 21 1912.
(quoted from Edwards, Bull. Ent. Res. 14: 388.
1924).

Aedes (Aedes) funereus (Theobald), Lee, Atlas
Mosq. Larv. Aust. Region: 76. 1944 (illustration
of larva from Cairns, Australia).

Adults—Head vertex all dark scaled; scutal
extegument and scales very dark; apn nor-
mally bare of scales; ppn with narrow scales
on upper third; mesepimeron with 6-8 hairs
around the lower posterior corner of scale
patch; claws of fore and mid tarsi of male un-
equal, simple, of female equal, each with a
minute tooth. Abdomen with a median and
lateral white spot on tergite II, complete trans-
verse bands on III-VI, and lateral spots on
VII, the bands usually touching the base at
middle and sides but curved slightly away in
between producing a scalloped effect, some-
times slightly removed for entire width of seg-
ment. Hypopygium (Fig. 2, from one of sev-
eral males from Brisbane, Australia, P. L.
Douglas, collector; genitalia not previously
described): coxite with a median dorsal patch
of about 10 stout spinelike bristles; inner mar-
gin of lower fold with a single rather stout sub-
apical bristle (below base of style), a median
group of 6-8 bristles set in prominent tuber-
cles, and a small basal lobe with 4 or 5 fine
hairs. Style of about the usual shape in this
group, with a few hairs toward the apex of the
enlarged basal portion. The group of stout
bristles on the coxite is distinctive among the
known species of this region. A slide mount of
female genitalia (specimen from Cairns) shows
a short, emarginate postgenital plate.

In the larva of funereus as described by Lee
(1944), head hair B is 3-branched, the middle
branch being longer and stouter than the side
branches; hair C, 6-branched; comb of 8th

Fics. 1-7.—Male genitalia of Aedes: 1, carmenti; 2, funereus; 3, trispinatus; 4, bifoliatus;
5, lineatus; 6, leilae; 7, sentanius (SSP subapical spine, S style, SBL subbasal lobe, AM anal

membrane, Ph phallosome, IXT ninth tergite).

Fic. 8.—Claws of fore tarsus: 8A, Minute tooth in female of parastmilis series; 8B, female

of carmenit.

Fic. 9.—Segments 4 and 5 of male fore tarsus: 9A, parasimilis series Type A; 9B, para-

similis series, Type B.

118

segment of about 14 rounded and fringed
scales in a curved row; siphon rather long, index
about 3.5; pecten with the distal three teeth
widely spaced, long and simple, the others
with a stout subbasal denticle and some smaller
teeth; tuft placed beyond last pecten spine at
about the apical fourth, with three branches;
dorsal subcaudal hair of anal segment with
three unequal branches; precratal tufts at most
two.

Remarks.—Although this species has been
reported rather widely from the Australasian
Region, due in part to the misidentification of
Amboina specimens (see under carmentr) by
Kdwards and Brug, authentic records of its
occurrence outside of Australia are few. In the
collections of the U.S. National Museum there
are three males and one female of this species
from Watutu Point, Goodenough Island,
Papua, VII-17-43, B. E. Rees (of which the
genitalia of one male was checked), two slide
mounts of male genitalia labeled Milne Bay,
New Guinea, T. K. Ruebush, and one male
(of which the tip of the abdomen is missing)
and one female, labeled Ladova, N. G., 10-30-
43, T. K. Ruebush No. 58B. The latter locality
is in the Milne Bay area. No specimens of the
species were taken by the writers in the Hol-
landia or Oro Bay areas. Female specimens
from Nadzab and Finschhafen, identified as
this species, are described herein as A. folwfor-
mis. A. funereus has been reported by recent
collectors from the Solomon Islands but none
was found by the senior author among consid-
erable material of this subgenus in the Museum
collections. The form identified from there as
funereus was found to be another new species,
which will be described by others.

Aedes (Aedes) lineatus (Taylor)

Skusea funerea var. ornatus Theobald, Ann. Mus.
Nat. Hung. 3: 79. 1905 (not Culex ornatus
Meigen, 1818=A. (Finlaya) geniculatus Oliver
1791; syn. by Edwards, Bull. Ent. Res. 12: 319.
1921). (Female types from Sattelberg, Huon
Gulf, and _ Friedrich-Wilhelmshafen, New
Guinea. )

Lepidotomyia lineatus Taylor, Trans. Ent. Soe.
London, 1914 (pt. 1): 191. (Female types from
Lakekamu Gold Field and Mekeo District,
Papua.)

Aedes (? Skusea) funereus var. ornatus (Theobald),
Edwards, Bull. Ent. Res. 12: 76. 1921. (Male
and female from Ceram, the male hypopygium
said to be identical with funereus from Am-
boina.)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 4

Aedes (Aedes) funereus ornatus (Theobald), Lee,
Atlas Mosq. Larv. Aust. Region: 77. 1944.
(Description of larva from Milne Bay, Papua.)

Taylor’s name lineatus is available for this
species, which has become well known under
the preoccupied name of ornatus. It is one of the
commonest and most widely distributed spe-
cies of the subgenus, having been recorded from
New Hebrides, the Solomons, New Britain,
New Guinea and adjacent islands, and Ceram.
It is frequently an annoying daytime pest in
and near woods.

Adults—Head with median and _ lateral
stripes of broad yellowish scales, narrow pale
scales in the angle between the eyes and a thin
line part way around the eye margin; apn
covered with narrow-curved yellowish scales
in the female (often a few broad ones lower
down) and with broad white scales in the male;
ppn, with narrow dark scales on the upper
part (more extensive in female) and usually a
few broad pale ones posteriorly. Scutum usu-
ally with distinct or fairly distinct median and
lateral stripes of yellowish or golden scales.
The median stripe extending onto the ante-
scutellar space, the lateral ones curved around
the posterior margins of the fossae; a patch of
golden scales over the wing root and similar
scales on scutellum; pleural bristles mostly
pale yellowish; scale patches large, white;
mesepimeron with a few hairs posterior to and
just below the scale patch; tarsal claws ap-
parently simple in both sexes (not mounted);
abdominal tergites with complete pale bands
somewhat variable in position but usually
about median, curving forward toward base
in the middle, often incomplete on part of the
segments in the male. Hypopygyum (Fig. 5;
Hollandia specimen): Coxite with a narrow
subapical leaflet, often partly furled and ap-
pearing scooplike, a stout bristle arising close
to base of leaflet posteriorly or dorsally, and
two smaller bristles anteriorly, the posterior —
bristle somewhat variable in size and ap-
pearing as a short slender spine in one speci-
men; median lobe with three rather long
bristles; basal lobe with about six short hairs;
style of usual shape, the arm strongly bent, the
enlarged basal portion with a slightly scattered
group of about six bristles, an additional bristle
at about the basal third of the arm, just before
or at the bend.

Larva (Fig. 21)—Head hair B with three

Apr. 15, 1947

branches, the middle one longer and stouter
than the others; C, 4-branched, set well back
of and inside B; d minute, e single, f 4-branched.
Comb of about 10 scales in a row, rounded and
fringed. Siphon comparatively short, index
about 2.0; pecten of about 15 spines, the
apical one or two more widely spaced, simple,
the others usually with one large and one
smaller basal denticle; tuft 3-branched. Dorsal
subcaudal hair of anal segment with about
eight subequal branches.

This species is usually easily recognized by
its ornamentation. Rubbed or poorly marked
female specimens might be confused with folr-
formis, in which case the best distinction is
the presence of narrow scales on the apn. The
subapical leaflet on the male coxite is some-
what similar to parasimilis but the external
markings are distinct. The larva is character-
ized by a rather short airtube and subequal
branches of the dorsal subcaudal hai of the
anal segment. The species has little resem-
blance to funereus, of which it has previously
been regarded as a subspecies.

Aedes (Aedes) panayensis Ludlow

Aedes panayensis Ludlow, Psyche 21: 159. 1914.
(48 cotypes from Iloilo, Panay, P. I.)

Aedes (Aedes) panayensis Ludlow, Laffoon, Journ.
Washington Acad. Sci. 36: 242. 1946. (Desig-
nates a male lectotype and gives a full rede-
scription of the species, with new records from
Aioki Isle, Schouten Islands, Dutch New
Guinea, 1944, and Point Gila, Morotai, Moluc-
cas, 1945.)

Adults (Schouten Islands specimens).—
Head in both sexes with a few broad white
scales on mid line and eye margin, sometimes a
few narrow scales also on midline; apn with
some flat pale scales; scutum with rather coarse
yellowish scales forming a border in front and
laterally and extending onto upper half of
ppn, similar scales above wing roots, around
antescutellar space, and on scutellum with a
sprinkling of finer pale scales on dorsum. Up-
per sternopleuron with white semiraised scales;
hairs on lower mesepimeron rather coarse, ex-
tending more than half way from scale patch
to lower border posteriorly. Claws of fore and
mid tarsi of both sexes equal and each with a
comparatively large tooth. Abdomen with lat-
eral oblique spots on segments II-VIII, ex-
tending slightly onto dorsum. Hypopygiuwm
(Fig. 6 in Laffoon, 1946): Coxite with a wide

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES)

119

flat apical extension directed mesad, minutely
toothed apically on outer edge; a row of 3
stout dorsal bristles toward inner margin of
coxite, an elongate stout arm basally from
inner margin of lower fold, and a small sub-
median lobe with about 10 small bristles.
Style with the basal portion elongate, bearing
one stout bristle and about four smaller ones
near the apex of this portion; arm long, wide,
tapered to a point. Phallosome very small;
paraproct short, stout, bluntly rounded. A
specimen from the Philippines shows a bridge
of the dorsal arms of the tenth sternite (H-
shaped structure) with a short rounded poste-
rior projection on each side. In the female geni-
talia the preatrial plates are hairy and united
medially; the postatrial plate is apparently
bare of hairs.

Larva.—Unknown.

The species was not taken by the present
writers.

Aedes (Aedes) quadrifolium Brug

Aedes (Aedes) quadrifolium Brug, Bull. Ent. Res.
25: 512. 1984. (Type male from Torpedoboot
River, New Guinea; type in British Museum.)

This species was described as having the head
dark, scales on upper sternopleuron and mese-
pimeron dark brown, a row of hairs on the
mesepimeron behind the scales, continued as a
patch of hairs on the lower half, scales of ante-
rior forked vein rather broadly lingulate, abdo-
men dark brown, crumpled, the venter invisi-
ble, style S-shaped with four or five rather
strong hairs on inner border, coxite with four
leaf-like appendages near apex, a small papilla
with two hairs near base and a group of fine
hairs still more basally, on inner side. In the
illustration of the coxite the subapical leaflets
are short and flared. Dark scales on the mese-
pimeron are unusual and this may have been
due to discoloration. The species is not repre-
sented in our material but a related species is
described under the name multifoliwm.

Aedes (Aedes) similis (Theobald)

Pseudoskusea similis Theobald, Monograph of the
Culicidae 5: 189. 1910. (Type female, Kuranda,
Queensland, Australia.)

Aedes (Aedes) stmilis (Theobald), Edwards, Bull.
Ent. Res. 14: 388. 1924. (Reported from Bur-
pengary, Queensland and Saparoea Island,
Amboina. )

The type was described as having pale scales

120

(in some lights) in the middle of the head and
around the eye margins, dull brown scales on
the thorax with pale dull golden areas in front,
over the wing roots and before the scutellum,
the latter with narrow dull golden and brown
scales, the abdomen with median lateral white
spots above, which arise from more lateral
basal white spots, the ungues all simple. Ed-
wards (1924) stated that the scales on the
upper sternopleuron were all white.

Additional notes on the species have kindly
been furnished by Dr. Kenneth L. Knight from
a recent examination of the type female in
the British Museum. His notes may be ex-
cerpted as follows: vertex with some narrow
white scales along eyes medially, some broad
pale scales along nape, extending forward a
ways on mid line; scutal integument dull
reddish brown, scales bronzy, anterior margin
of scutum with rather broad band of narrow
ochreous scales; about 12 hairs on the poste-
rior margin of the mesepimeral scale patch, one
of which arises from the ventral margin; lateral
spots of tergites visible dorsally on margin of
II-VII, extending nearly a third the width of
the dorsum, subbasally, on V-VII.

A pest mosquito commonly encountered in
woods in southeastern New Guinea during
the war agreed fairly well with Theobald’s
description (with the exception of pale scales
on the head vertex) and was usually identified
as similis. Larvae obtained by rearing from
eggs laid by females collected at Milne Bay
were described under this name by Lee (1944).
Inquiries made by the senior author among
Australian workers in 1944 and 1945, however,
disclosed the fact that neither the male nor the
larva of similis was definitely known. A sketch
of the male genitalia of a specimen, possibly
of this species, taken at Camp Mountain, near
Brisbane, has kindly been sent us by Miss E.
Marks. This shows a strong subapical spine
on the coxite, very similar to that found in
carmenti, and the hairs on the base of the style
also appear similar, but the arm of the style
is bent at nearly a right angle at the apical
third instead of merely curved. The larva was
said to be like A. funereus except for a longer
siphon (index of 3.5 to 4.0 compared with 2.7)
fewer comb scales (14-15 instead of 18-22)
and a single large tooth on the pecten spines
(instead of a large and several small side teeth).
The female was said to be very dark, with

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

f

VOL. 37, NO. 4

rather small basal lateral spots on the ab- ~
dominal segments, and the claws simple. Until
similrs is more definitely defined it isimpossible -
to determine whether it occurs in New Guinea.
Edward’s record (1924) from’ Amboina is a
very doubtful one. The simalis-like forms found
in New Guinea are discussed under parasimilis,
n. sp.

Aedes (Aedes) bifoliatus, n. sp.

Male.—Scales on vertex all dark; apn and
ppn without scales, the latter with a few
hairs in front of posterior bristles; scales on
upper sternopleuron pale, translucent; mese-
pimeron with a few hairs just posterior to the
lower part of scale patch; wing 2.2 mm, Ist
fork cell about one and a half times as long as
its stem, the lateral vein scales rather short and
broad; fore and mid tarsal claws unequal,
simple; segments 4 and 5 short, of equal
length; abdomen with narrow transverse white
bands on segments III to V, not basal, incom-
plete ones on VI and VII, segment II all dark
above (in the Milne Bay paratype, segment III
has a median basal spot only, complete bands
on IV-VII, almost entirely basal). Hypo-
pygium (Fig. 4): Coxite with two broadened
leaflets, either flared and crinkled or somewhat
spoonshaped, the distal one longer than the
other, which is usually nearly as wide as long;
toward inner margin of dorsum a row of three
to five (usually four) spinelike curved bristles;
a very stout hair at apex and several a little
smaller on the outer margin; median lobe with
two or three short bristles; basal lobe with
about ten small fine hairs. Style strongly
curved, the tip small and hooked, only three or
four bristles about midway of the inner side
(none on base), one rather stout and set in a
prominent tubercle. Eighth sternite with a
stout rod-like seta from the posterior margin on
each side.

Female and larva.—Unknown.

Holotype.—Male, taken by the authors in a
light-trap collection at Hollandia, May 18,
1945. Deposited in the U. 8. National Museum.

Paratypes.—9 males, as follows: 8 from light-
trap collections at Hollandia on January 18,
19, and 24, March 25, April 3 and 7, and May
5 and 6; male from Milne Bay, New Guinea,
April 11, 1944, H. R. Roberts, No. 136 (slide
46, VII.24a). rae

Apr. 15, 1947

Aedes (Aedes) foliformis, n. sp.

Male—Scales of vertex apparently all dark
on holotype (head shrunken) but two of para-
types with a median stripe of broad pale scales;
upright scales on nape pale brown; scaling of
apn and ppn not discernible; scutum dark, a
sprinkling of golden scales around margins;
pleura very dark; scales on upper sternopleuron
pale; mesepimeron with a few hairs posterior
to and just below the scale patch; wing 2.2
mm; first fork cell about equal its stem, the
lateral vein scales moderately broad; fore and
mid tarsal claws unequal, simple, segments 4
and 5 equal, short; abdominal tergites with wide
transverse bands on segments II to VII, basal
on II and III, subbasal on IV and V, submedi-
an or median on VI and VII. Hypopygium
(Fig. 15): Coxite with three comparatively
long narrow subapical leaflets, (or two leaflets
and a pointed spine), the two proximal ones
somewhat spoonshaped, crinkled or striated,
the tips broadly rounded but with a short
point, the distal leaflet narrower and more
pointed, or reduced to a pointed spine or
heavy bristle; a rather stout bristle just beyond
the group and a smaller one just before
(basad); dorsum of coxite with two or three
fairly heavy hairs and sparse slender ones;
median lobe with two bristles; basal lobe
with about five small hairs; style curved, with
- eight or nine scattered hairs from the mod-
erately enlarged base.

Female——Head with a median white stripe,
consisting of a double row of broad white
scales along posterior half or two-thirds of
midline, sometimes spreading out a little on
nape or with a few narrow pale scales in front
of the stripe and in the angle between the eyes.
apn bare of scales; ppn with narrow dark
scales on upper third, and five posterior bris-
tles. Scutum dark, with fine dark scales, a
sprinkling of whitish or golden scales around
the margins and sometimes faint indications of
median and submedian lines; scutellar scales
pale yellowish or golden. Upper scale patch on
sternopleuron with about two-thirds of the
scales pale, the lower third dark, no hairs
along anterior margin of this sclerite; mese-
pimeron with a few hairs around the lower
posterior corner of the scale patch. First fork
cell a little longer than its stem, the lateral
vein scales long and moderately broadened.

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES)

121

Claws of fore and mid tarsi each with a minute
tooth (hardly visible unless mounted). Ter-
gites II-VII with transverse white bands very
similar to those in lineatus, usually about mid-
way of the segments on VI and VII, curving
forward in middle on the other segments and
touching the base at the midline on II and
III, also curving back to base underneath (the
bands fairly close to the base for the entire
width of the segment in a few specimens). In
the genitalia, the postgenital plate is about as
broad as long, with a shallow emargination.

The females are not definitely associated
with the males but they are from the same lo-
cality and the markings are very similar in so
far as can be determined from the rather poor
condition of the males.

Larva.—Unknown.

Holotype—Male, New Guinea, APO 322
1V-27-1944, E. S. Ross No. 50, with genitalia
slide, 45-V-46 (Gusika, Finschhafen area, east-
ern New Guinea; no collection data), from the
collection of the U. S. National Museum.

Paratypes.—3 males, 26 females as follows:
1 male from a light trap, Hollandia, Nether-
lands, New Guinea, December 4, 1944 (by the
authors); 2 males, same lot as holotype; 15
females from same locality as holotype, Ross
lots Nos. 29, 42, 44, 46 and 49, April and May
1944; 7 females, APO 713-1, New Guinea
August, 8-9, 1944, K. V. Krombein; 4 Eales
same locality, Krombein lots 18 and 30
May 1944 (Nadzab on Markham River, ae
ern New Guinea). A few additional specimens
(3 from Nadzab and 6 from Gusika) are not
included as they are in poor condition.

Aedes (Aedes) leilae, n. Sp.

Male.—Head vertex all dark; apn and ppn
bare of scales, a few hairs in front of the bris-
tles on ppn; scales of scutum and scutellum
all dark; upper sternopleuron with only a few
remaining scales, pale translucent, rather
numerous minute hairs along anterior border:
mesepimeron with a fairly large patch of nl:
on posterior half extending more than half
way from scale patch to lower border; wing
2.2 mm; first fork cell about equal its stem, the
lateral vein scales rather short and prasad:
fore and mid tarsal claws unequal, iniple!
Abdomen with complete basal bands on seg-
ments III-VI, wide except in middle on TE
apparently entirely basal (a stripe of bare ic

122

tegument between the bands and base of seg-
ment but no dark scales), segment IT all dark
above, scaling on base of segment VII indefi-
nite, possibly an incomplete band. Hypo-
pygium (Fig. 6): Coxite simple, without sub-
apical processes or modified dorsal hairs; medi-
an area of lower fold with one strong bristle
and two or three smaller ones; basal lobe with
about 8 small hairs; dorsum with scattered
small bristles, more numerous toward inner
side at basal third. Style broad for most of its
length, bent beyond middle, tapered at apex
with four or five minute papillated hairs on
inner side subapically; 12-15 small hairs scat-
tered along dorsal and inner sides of style from
extreme base to a little beyond the middle.

Female and larva.—Unknown.

Holotype——Male, taken by the authors in
light-trap No. 3, Hollandia, New Guinea,
April 2, 1945, 500 feet elevation (with geni-
talia mount). Deposited in U. 8. National
Museum.

Paratypes.—6 males from light-trap collec-
tions at Hollandia, March 17 and 24, April
7 (2), April 12, and one undated, gen. No. 6
(the last four adults very moldy; genitalia of
all mounted).

Aedes (Aedes) milnensis, n. sp.

This species is represented only by two slide
mounts of the terminal segments of the male
abdomen, the rest of the specimens having ap-
parently been lost. The genitalia, however, are
very distinct and it seems desirable to name
the species as it stands.

Male.—Eighth sternite with two strong rod-
like bristles arising near the posterior corner on
each side, the bristles slightly swollen at basal
third, the tips truncate, the longer one more
than half as long as coxite. Hypopygium (Fig.
10): Coxite with a large dorsal patch of 15 to
20 bristles, a few rather thick, most of the
others finely forked or trifid at tip; basal por-
tion of dorsum with scattered slender normal
hairs; a small sharply pointed leaflet subapi-
cally below base of style, flattened and striated
basally; at apex, one very heavy blunt-pointed
hair and two slightly smaller sharp-pointed
ones; median lobe not visible; basal lobe with
a few fine hairs. Style of about usual shape,
with a pointed tip, 3 or 4 hairs in a group near
apex of the enlarged basal portion.

Female and larva.—Unknown.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 4

Holotype.—Male, represented by slide mount
of terminal segments of abdomen, Milne Bay,
New Guinea, T. K. Ruebush (? 1943); from the ©
collection of the U. 8S. National Museum.

Paratype.—A similar slide of another speci-
men from same locality.

Aedes (Aedes) multifolium, n. sp.

Male.—Scales of head vertex dark, a few on
nape indistinctly palish; apn bare of scales;
ppn with a few narrow scales on upper third
and a very few hairs in front of bristles. Scutum
and scutellum without pale scales (partly
denuded); upper sternopleuron with appressed
translucent scales and a few fine hairs toward
anterior border; mesepimeron with 8 to 10
rather coarse hairs in a stripe beginning poste-
rior to scale patch and ending about midway
to lower border; wing 2 mm; first fork cell 1.7,
times its stem, the lateral vein scales broad-
ened; claws of fore and mid tarsi unequal,
simple. Abdomen (partly denuded) appar-—
ently with only a median spot on segment II,
complete narrow bands or indications on seg-
ments ITI-VI, distinctly removed from base.
Hypopygvum (Fig. 11): Subapical processes of
coxite (of holotype) consist of a row of five
elongate leaflets, broadly rounded at tip, the
forward edge flattened bladelike, the posterior
edge thicker. (In the paratype, which was badly
mutilated in mounting and part of the leaflets
broken off, the distal leaflet on one side appears
to be replaced with a moderate bristle about as
long as the leaflets, this portion being broken
on the other coxite.) Apex of coxite with three
very long, strong hairs; median lobe with three
er four bristles; basal lobe with five or six fine
hairs. Base of style unusually elongate, with
five or six bristles on prominent tubercles to-
ward apex of this portion; arm slender, strongly
curved near base.

Female and larva— Unknown.

Holotype.—Male, taken by the authors in a
light trap at Hollandia, Netherlands New
Guinea, January 18, 1945, with slide mount of
genitalia.

Paratype-—Male, from a light trap same
locality May 7, 1945. Types deposited in the
U. S. National Museum.

Remarks.—The species is close to A. quadrt-
foltum Brug, and the style appears identical.
The holotype of multifolium has five instead
of four subapical leaflets on the coxite, but only

Apr. 15, 1947 KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES) 123

MILNENSIS

I

MULTIFOLIUM

F Es ae a
Va iM
fu gs ai
Ee Se

SIMPLUS \ > ay QUADRISPINATUS

Fics. 10-17..-Male genitalia of Aedes: 10, milnensis; 11, multefolium; DOT CeSt tal,
parasimilis; 14, neomacrodixoa; 15, foliformis; 16, simplus; 17, auadrispinatus.

124

four leaflets and a bristle may have been
present in the paratype. From Brug’s illustra-
tion and brief description, other distinctions
may be noted as follows: leaflets of multi-
folium elongate and bladelike, instead of short
and flared; dorsum of abdomen with white
bands, instead of dark brown; hair patch on
lower mesepimeron less extensive; scales on
the mesepimeron pale, instead of dark as de-
scribed by Brug.

Aedes (Aedes) neomacrodixoa, n. sp.

Male.—Head vertex with flat black scales ex- ~

cept for a small patch of narrow pale scales on
the nape; apn unscaled; ppn with narrow scales
on upper portion; scutum usually with a few pale
scales over wing root, sometimes on median area
of antescutellar space and on scutellum; sterno-
pleuron with appressed darkish scales on upper
third, and a few hairs in the anterior angle;
mesepimeron nearly covered with pale hairs
below the scale patch; wing 2.5-3.0 mm, first
fork cell equal its stem, the lateral vein scales
long and somewhat broadened; fore and mid
tarsus with one claw much larger than the
other and bearing a long tooth; claws of hind
tarsus equal and simple; abdominal tergites
unbanded dorsally, with large oblique spots
laterally. Hypopygiwm (Fig. 14): Ninth tergite
with a large Y-shaped median extension, con-
siderably longer than the coxite, each arm
tapered to a slender tip, bare above but with a
fringe of hairs basally on the inner ventral side
and scattered hairs underneath apically, a
large ventrolateral branch, densely setose, with
a lobelike division on the outer side. Coxite
with a long stout apical membranous arm,
bluntly rounded at tip and bare of hairs; a tall,
columnar apicoventral lobe outwardly bearing
two very stout apical bristles (three in one
specimen) and about six to eight scattered
slender ones; an equally long subapicoventral
lobe on the inner side, finely pilose and with
scattered slender bristles; a stout, tapered rod
from the lower fold near base, with a single
bristle from the basal fifth; a patch of 15 to
20 bristles on the apical half of the dorsum of
the coxite toward the inner margin and a
small group of 4 or 5 bristles on the venter;
inner margin of lower fold fringed medianly
with fine hairs. Style wide, attached near apex
of coxite, bare of hairs, sharply bent near apex
and ending in a blunt recurved tip. H-shaped

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 4

structure of tenth sternite not visible. Lateral
plates of phallosome unusually long and
slender.

Female.—Nape of head with a distinct patch
of narrow pale scales mixed with the dark up-
right scales and extending forward part way on
the midline, a few similar scales in the angle be-
tween the eyes; apn unscaled; ppn with scat-
tered narrow scales on upper third, and about
6 posterior bristles; small patches of golden
scales on front of scutum, over wing root, on
scutellum and saneceriella “space; sterno-
pleuron with a large upper scale patch, the
scales closely appressed but pale in appearance,

fine pale hairs along the anterior border and in

front of the bristles on the posterior border;
mesepimeron with a large patch of hairs below
the scale patch nearly to lower border; fore and
mid tarsal claws with strong teeth; wing 2.7—
3.0 mm (Hollandia specimen 3.5 mm), scales
of first forked vein long, rather spatulate; ab-
domen with a basal lateral spot on segment
II, oblique lateral stripes on IJI-VII extending ~
well onto dorsum on the last three segments
about midway from front to back.

Larva.—Unknown.

Holotype-——Male, taken by the authors in a
light trap, Hollandia, Netherlands New Guinea
May, 9, 1945 (gen. No. iy Deposited i im 0. 5.
National Museum.

Paratypes.—20 males, 14 formes as follows:
2 males from light-trap collections, Hollandia,
trap No. 1, May 16, 1945, and trap No. 2, April
4, 1945. 250 feet elevation; 1 male (Rozeboom,
Knight, and Laffoon No. 221.1), 1 female (No.
221.5), Cyclops Mountains (Hollandia area),
January 1945, 1,000 feet elevation; 17 males
(E. 8S. Ross No. 51, April 23, 1944), 13 females
(No. 50, April 24), and 4:females (No. 29, April
26), New Guinea, APO 322 (Gusika, Finsch-
hafen area, eastern New Guinea), from the col-
lection of the U. 8S. National Museum. Three
additional males and two females of the Gusika
lots are not included as they are in Beer condi-
tion.

Remarks.—This species is very ‘reinetive
among the New Guinea forms not only by rea-
son of the genitalia but by external markings as
well. It is very similar to A. macrodizoa Dyar
and Shannon, of the Philippines, but that spe-
cies lacks the narrow pale scales on the nape.
As mentioned by Laffoon (1946) the male
genitalia differ in having more numerous

Apr. 15, 1947

bristles in the group on the dorsum of the cox-
ite (15-20 vs. 8-12) and a much longer api-
coventral lobe, which is columnar in shape
rather than triangular and has two or three
strong apical bristles compared with one or
two in macrodixoa. The arms of the Y-shaped
process of the ninth tergite of macrodixoa are
wider and more abruptly tapered apically and
the hairy branch apparently lacks a lateral
lobe. A male specimen from the upper Digoel
River (South New Guinea) identified by Brug
(1932) as macrodixoa is probably neomacrodizoa.

Aedes (Aedes) parasimilis, n. sp.

Female (holotype)—Specimen somewhat
shrunken; scales on head vertex apparently all
dark; ppn bare of scales and hairs; five posterior
bristles. Scales of scutum and scutellum all
dark, fine. Upper sternopleural scales dis-
tinctly pale, no hairs visible on anterior mar-
gin; mesepimeron with four or five hairs visible
around lower posterior corner of scale patch.
Wing length 2.8 mm; first fork cell 1.25 times
its stem, the lateral vein scales moderately
widened. Fore tarsal claws (mounted) simple;
segment 4 normal, a little longer than 5. Ab-
domen unbanded dorsally, the lateral spots
rather large, their tips distinctly removed from
base of tergites and visible dorsally on some of
the posterior tergites.

Male.—Known with certainty only from the
genitalia (Fig. 13); coxite subapically with a
flattened blade-shaped leaflet, slightly pointed,
a moderate bristle slightly distal to the leaflet
and 2 smaller bristles set very close to base of
leaflet, dorsally; a single rather stout median
bristle from the lower fold and several fine
hairs on basal lobe; dorsum with fairly numer-
ous moderately long hairs on apical half, two
of them rather stout. Style with eight bristles,
five on the enlarged basal portion, two close
together at the base of the arm and one at its
middle; arm wide, flat, moderately curved,
tapered apically to a small point. H-shaped
structure of tenth sternite present but poste-
rior arms not visible in mount; other parts ap-
pear about as usual.

Larva (Fig. 20).—Antenna spiculate; tuft
about at middle; with four or five lightly
plumose branches. Preclypeal spines long and
slender. Head hair A about 10-branched; B and
C each with three lightly plumose branches, the
central one longer and stronger than the others,

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES)

125

C well back of and inside of B; d minute, about
4-branched, well forward and inside of B; e sin-
gle; f 3-branched. Mentum large, triangular,
with about 18 small teeth on each side. Upper
lateral hair of abdominal segment I 3-branched,
lower single; lateral hair of II 2- or 3-branched,
of III to VI usually single. Comb a single row of
about 13 scales each rounded and fringed; pen-
tad hair 1 much smaller than 5, with six or seven
simple branches. Airtube, index about 2.5, acus
present; pecten of 12-15 spines, the apical two
longer and more widely spaced than the others,
with one or two small side denticles; other
spines with one strong and one or two small
subbasal denticles; tuft 4-branched, inserted
before the last spine; hair on ventral velve 3-
branched. Anal segment not completely ringed
by plate; lateral tuft single; dorsal subcaudal
hair with 3 very unequal branches, the longest
about two-thirds length of the single ventral
subcaudal hair; two small tufts in front of ven-
tral grid; anal gills moderate, equal, a little
longer than saddle.

Holotype-——Female, with larval and pupal
skins, Lot 634-1, 19th Medical General Labo-
ratory, Hollandia, Netherlands New Guinea,
December 22, 1944, reared from larva taken
from a crayfish hole in rain forest, 250 feet ele-
vation (W. T. Nailon, collector).

Paratypes.—A slide mount of two larval skins
and the male genitalia taken from one of the
two resulting pupae, which died after pupation,
King Lot. No. 147, from pools at edge of swamp
in Embi Lakes area, Dobodura, Papua, Decem-
ber 14, 1948 (W. V. King); 7 whole larvae (on
slide mounts), H. R. Roberts No. 136, Milne
Bay, Papua, April 11, 1944 (Faris and Gossing-
ton). The last are from the collection of the
U. §. National Museum, and the other two
types are deposited there.

Remarks.—This is one of the species of which
females have been commonly encountered as
pests in parts of New Guinea and usually iden-
tified as samilis. It differs from similzs in having
the scales on vertex all dark and fewer hairs on
the lower mesepimeron. The larva is the same
as the one described by Lee (1944) from Milne
Bay under this name (the paratype larval skins
from Dobodura having been so identified by
him). Unfortunately, we have only one female
and one male terminalia (neither in the best of
condition) definitely associated with this type
of larva. Five unassociated male specimens at

126

hand have genitalic characters indistinguisha-
ble, or with only slight variations, from those
of the paratype but the specimens show two
types of tarsal characters that indicate specific
differences in the series. One of these, type A
(Fig. 9A), is represented by three specimens,
one from our light-trap collections at Hollan-
dia, 22-IV-45, one from our lot No. 459 at Hol-
landia, 22-XII-44, reared from a sago swamp
pool, and one from lot No. 91, 40th MSU,
Finschhafen, eastern New Guinea, 1944. They
have segments 4 and 5 of the fore and mid tarsi
of about equal length and the claws on each
segment very unequal in size (as usual in the
New Guinea species). The other, type B (Fig.
9B), represented by two specimens (one from
our light-trap collections at Hollandia, 22-ITT-
45, and one from H. R. Roberts lot No. 136,
Milne Bay, 11-IV-45, slide No. 46-VII-28b,
reared from a forest rain pocl), has segment 4 of
the fore and mid tarsi twice as long as segment
5, while the two claws on each foot are small
and about equal in size (claws simple in both
types). All segments of the legs of the type B
specimens are in fact much longer than those of
one measured type A specimen (light trap
22-IV-45), the total length of the fore legs of
the two type B males being 7.5 and 7.0 mm.,
compared with 3.7 for the one type A. The
Milne Bay male bears the same lot number
(136) as the seven paratype larvae, thus indicat-
ing that the type B male is parasimilis. How-
ever, there were three other species reared in
the same collection and several other kinds of
larvae were found in the larval material so the
association is not positive. There are also
seven females from this lot that are very similar
to the holotype except that the claws of the
fore and mid tarsi (at least in mounts from
three specimens) have minute teeth, a charac-
ter that may be variable. Because of the several
elements of doubt, further material will be
needed to settle the identity of the males of the
two types.

The Museum collection contains a rather
large number of female specimens from Milne
Bay, most of them (about 160 in all) from vari-
ous Roberts lots taken in biting collections,
which are referable to the parasimuilis series.
About a fourth of these have the scutal scales
all dark while most of the others have small
patches of golden scales over the wing root or
on the antescutellar space, a small proportion

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2

VOL. 37, NO. 4

being indefinite or with only two or three pale
scales. The tarsal claws of five specimens in
these lots were mounted for examination (in
addition to the three in lot 136 previously men-
tioned). One female in lot 130 had the same
combination of simple claws and all dark scutal
scales as in the holotype. Two others in this lot
with small patches of pale scales on the scutum
also had simple claws. Of two females from lot —
127, each with a few pale scales on the scutum, —
one had simple claws, the other minute teeth
on the fore and mid claws. Of seven females
from the Hollandia area (Rozeboom, Knight,
and Laffoon collections), four from the Cyclops.
Mountains (1,000 feet) had distinct patches of
pale scales on the scutum, and the mounted —
claws of two of these were found to be simple;
three from the vicinity of Lake Sentani had the
scutal scales all dark and one mounted speci-
men showed minute teeth. Thus in the series
examined, there was a negative correlation in
nine of twelve females between the occurrence
of claw teeth and pale scales on the scutum;
two of the others (including the holotype) had
simple claws and a dark scutum while one had
toothed claws and a few pale scutal scales. A
study of reared series will be required to deter-
mine whether the occurrence of minute teeth
(see Fig. 8A) is variable within the species.

Aedes (Aedes) quadrispinatus, n. sp.

Male.—Tori dark; head shrunken in all spec-
imens, broad scales on nape ruffled, more or less
pale, extending forward a short distance along
midline in some specimens (distinct in male
from Goodenough Islands), a few narrow scales
sometimes visible in angle between eyes. Scutal
integument with a median dark stripe or sub-
median dark lines, paler laterally, the scales
entirely dark or with a few pale ones in front;
scutellar scales dark; apn bare of scales; ppn
with scattered narrow scales on upper third and
a few rather long hairs in front of the lower
bristles; four or five posterior bristles. Pleura
dark; upper sternopleuron with a small patch
of appressed translucent scales, some fine hairs
along anterior border; mesepimeron with un-
usually coarse hairs covering most of the pos-
terior half below the scale patch or extending
well toward the lower border. Wing 2.2 mm;
first fork cell about equal its stem, the lateral
scales rather broad and short. Claws of fore and
mid tarsi unequal, simple. Abdomen with a

Apr. 15, 1947

small median white spot on segment II, com-
plete narrow bands on III and IV, complete or
nearly so on V and incomplete in middle on VI
and VII, the bands mostly basal or slightly sub-
basal toward sides (complete and quite wide on
III-VI in Goodenough specimen). Hypopygium
(Fig. 17); Coxite with four heavy, bluntly
pointed subapical spines below base of style,
the distal one the smallest and sometimes re-
duced to a heavy bristle; apex of coxite extend-
ing a little beyond base of style, with three or
four very heavy bristles in a row dorsally, the
distal one the longest; usually one or two mod-
erately strong hairs interspersed with six to
eight slender hairs on remainder of dorsum;
median lobe with two bristles; basal lobe with
10 to 14 fine hairs; style with a greatly enlarged
base, ovoid in shape from above, with four or
five scattered small bristles and three longer
ones from distal edge; arm of style very small
and slender (hardly discernible in the usual
mount), bent into a right-angled beak at tip.

Female—Abdomen with large lateral spots
only, tending away from base slightly at edge
of tergites, extending well onto dorsum of seg-
ment VII and often on V and VI. Claws of fore
and mid tarsi with minute teeth (not visible un-
til mounted). Wing 2.7 mm; first fork cell a
little less than twice its stem. Post genital plate
about as wide as long, very shallowly emargi-
nate. One of the paratype females from Milne
Bay has rather pale broad scales on the nape.
In the females of Ross lot No. 27, the head is so
badly shriveled that the color of the scales on
the nape cannot be discerned.

Larva.—Unknown.

Holotype -—Male, New Guinea, APO 565
(Toem, Northern Netherlands, New Guinea),
VIII-1-44, E. S. Ross No. 27. From the collec-
tions of U. 8. National Museum.

Paratypes—15 males, 35 females as follows:
13 males, 34 females from the same lot as the
holotype (all more or less shriveled), with two
slides of male genitalia and one of the female
(1 additional male and 5 females from this lot,
in poor condition, are not included); 1 male,
Milne Bay, New Guinea IV-11-44, H. R. Rob-
erts No. 136; 1 male, 1 female, Watutu Point,
Goodenough Islands, Papua, New Guinea,
VII-17-43, B. E. Rees.

Remarks.—The two specimens from Good-
enough are included in the concept of this spe-
cies although they differ in certain respects and

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES)

127

perhaps represent a subspecies. Both specimens
have a distinct median stripe of broad pale
scales on the head, the male has a complete
white band on tergite VI and the female, in
which the abdomen is partly denuded, has
nearly a complete line of pale scales on tergite
III and indications of one on IV. The female
also has more distinct pale scaling on the scu-
tellum and the antescutellar space. The pleural
characters are very similar, as also most of the
genitalia, especially the unusual style. Only
three typical subapical spines are present on the
coxites, the fourth one being represented by a
stout bristle on one side (which also occurs in
one side in a Toem specimen). A female speci-
men from Milne Bay (H. R. Roberts No. 220,
IV-11-44) is probably this species and resem-
bles the Goodenough female in having some
pale scales on the nape.

Aedes (Aedes) reesi, n. sp.

Male.—Head vertex dark scaled; apn and
ppn bare of scales (the latter possibly denuded),
scutum and pleura very dark; scales of scutum
and scutellum all dark; scales of upper sterno-
pleuron translucent, very indistinct; mesepime- —
ron with a few hairs posterior to and just below
the small scale patch (none discernible on holo-
type); first fork cell about a half longer than its
stem, the lateral scales rather slender; wing
length 2.2-2.5 mm; fore and mid tarsal claws
unequal, simple, Abdomen with basal white
bands on segments IIJ-VII, broad on posterior
segments, II and VIII all dark (none of the
paratypes, which are more or less rubbed,
shows complete bands). Hypopygiuwm: Coxite
with a single bristle subapically below base of
style; dorsum with an inner and outer row of
strong hairs and 6 to 8 bristles in between; sub-
median lobe with a patch of 12 to 20 long bris-
tles, appearing as a prominent fringe in profile;
basal lobe with about 10 fine hairs. Style with a
pointed arm, moderately curved, a group of
five bristles near base. (Fig. 12).

Female.—Two specimens in the same collec-
tion as the males are probably this species al-
though differing in the abdominal banding.
Thorax very dark; ppn with scattered dark
hairs on upper third in one specimen, two or
three only on other (possibly rubbed); scales of
upper sternopleuron appear dark; a few hairs
posterior to scale patch on mesepimeron; tarsal
claws apparently all simple (not mounted); first

128

fork cell about twice the length of its stem on
- one specimen, slightly shorter on the other, the
lateral vein scales quite slender; wing length
2.2 mm. Abdomen with lateral white spots only,
basal below, extending somewhat obliquely and
the tips showing slightly above, removed from
base, on some segments.

Larva.— Unknown.

Holotype—Male, Vivigani, Goodenough Is-
lands, Papua, New Guinea, VII-8-43, B. E.
Rees (Genitalia slide, 46.VII, 26a). From the
collection of the U. 8. National Museum.

Paratypes—8 males (2 with the genitalia
mounted) and 2 females, same data as holotype
except that one of the males is dated July 9; one
additional slide mount of male genitalia, the
adult for which is missing; same locality as
above but dated July 10.

Aedes (Aedes) sentanius, n. sp.

Male.—Scales of head vertex all broad and
dark. Seales of scutum and scutellum all nar-
row and dark or with a few pale ones over wing
roots and on mid lobe of scutellum; apn bare of
scales; ppn with a few narrow scales on upper
half, and two long and two short posterior
bristles; propleuron with white scales and about
six bristles; scales on upper sternopleuron
translucent, darkish; mesepimeron with a few
pale hairs posterior to and just below the scale
patch. Wing 2.5 mm; lateral scales of the forks
of vein 2 slightly broadened; first fork cell
about one and a half times the length of its
stem. Segments 4 and 5 of fore and mid tarsi
both short, subequal, the claws of each un-
equal, simple. Abdominal tergites with large
lateral spots, extending slightly onto dorsum
on segments VI and VII, either entirely basal
or the more dorsal part slightly subbasal;
sternites with the basal half pale scaled.
Hypopygium (Fig. 7): Coxite with a single
stout, straight subapical spine below the base of
the style and a slightly longer bristle anterior to
its base; median lobe with 3 close-set bristles;
subbasal lobe with about 15 short hairs. Style
with about 8 slender scattered bristles toward
the inner side of the enlarged basal portion.

Female.—As in the male except that there are
usually distinct small patches of yellowish
scales on the front margin of the scutum, over
the wing base, on the median area of the ante-
scutellar space and on at least the mid lobe of
the scutellum; upper fork cell about twice as

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 4

| long as its stem; claws of fore and mid tarsi

each with a minute tooth (not visible until
mounted); lateral spots of abdomen visible
above only on segment VIII.

Larva (Fig. 18)—Antenna nearly half as
long as clypeus, somewhat bowed, with numer-
ous fine spicules; tuft about at middle, with
three to five (usually four) lightly plumose
branches; preclypeal spines long and slender;
hair A with 12 to 16 branches; B with 6-10
branches; C slightly behind and inside of B;
with 7-13 branches; d minute, about 4-
branched, e single, f 3- or 4-branched. Mentum
with 16 or 17 fine teeth on each side. Mesopleu-
ral tufts double, arising from a sclerotized plate
with two or three small spines; metapleural
tufts triple, with an additional long hair. Upper
lateral hair of the lst abdominal segment
triple, the lower single; lateral hair of segment
II double, of III to V usually single; comb of
12 to 16 scales in a fairly regular row, each
rounded and fringed; siphon index from 2.75
to 3.50; acus present; pecten of 11 to 14 spines
extending beyond middle, the apical two or
three more widely spaced and either simple or
with a small lateral tooth, the others shorter,
with a strong subbasal tooth and one to three
smaller ones; tuft beyond last spine, with two
or three branches. Lateral hair of anal segment
single, dorsal subcaudal hair with four or five
subequal branches, less than half as long as the
ventral hair; gills slender, about twice as long as
saddle.

Holotype—Male (lot 1124 19th M.G.L.),
reared from larva from a hogwallow in a sago
swamp at Poee Village on south side of Lake
Sentani (Hollandia area), Netherlands New
Guinea, June 5, 1945 (W. B. Crist and P. L.
Douglas).

Paratypes.—9 males, 5 females as follows: 4
males (1048B, 1120, 1129-9, 1124) and 4 fe-
males (1048C, 1120-5, 1120-8, and 1120-10), all
from the same location and from the same or
similar breeding places as the holotype, April to
June 1945; 2 males from light trap collections
at Hollandia, April 3 and 9, 1945; 3 males (King
No. 140 and 140-1), reared from shallow foot-
prints in dense forest, Dobodura, Papua, New
Guinea, December 5, 1943 (W. V. King).

Remarks.—The male genitalia of this species
are very similar to those of carmentt, differing
principally in the distribution of the bristles on
the style and in the smaller number of bristles

Apr. 15, 1947 KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES) 129

hi Uy)

y
HU HAN!
HH Ha
WHINY

hi
Nie

{ J

18

SENTANIUS

Logg i

ox
ZZ

CARMENTI

Sey LINEATUS

SST

Fics. 18-21.—Head and terminal segments of Aedes larvae: 18, sentantus; 19,
carmenti (siphon only); 20, parasimilis; 21, lineatus.

130

on the median lobe of the coxite; the adults
have simple claws in the male and minute teeth
on the fore and mid claws in the female (vs.
large teeth in carmenti), and the ppn and ster-
nopleuron are much less hairy. The genitalia
and other characters of the adults also seem to
be close to those of the Brisbane species pre-
viously mentioned as possibly being A. svmulis.
The larva, however, differs from this as well as
all other known Australasian larvae in having
more branches in the head hairs and four or five
subequal branches in the dorsal subcaudal tuft
of the anal segment.

A series of 24 females in the writers’ collec-
tion from Hollandia during 1945 (taken while
biting), are identifiable as this species as they
agree in all respects except that about half of
them have from 1-3 broad pale scales in front
of the bristles on the ppn, and one specimen has
a large patch. Two females from Milne Bay
(H. R. Roberts No. 203 and 218, April 1944)
and two whole larvae from Hihilai, Milne Bay
(Roberts No. 68, May 24, 1944) also are this
species.

Aedes (Aedes) simplus, n. sp.

Male.—Head vertex dark; apn and ppn bare
of scales; scales of scutum and scutellum all
dark; upper sternopleuron with a few pale
translucent scales, no hairs visible anteriorly;
about five hairs posterior to and just below
scale patch on mesepimeron; claws of fore and
mid tarsi unequal, simple; wing 1.7 mm, first
fork cell about equal stem, the lateral vein
scales short and quite broad; markings of ab-
domen indistinct, small basal lateral spots visi-
ble on segments V and VI, no pale scales dor-
sally on these segments. Hypopygium (Fig. 16):
Coxite unusually simple for this group, without
subapical processes or modified dorsal hairs; a
few short bristles medianly on lower fold, not
forming a distinct median lobe; basal lobe with
about seven fine hairs. Style moderately curved,
tapered to a small point; two small hairs on the
widened base and five at about the basal fourth.
Lateral plates of phallosome a little longer and
slenderer than usual; posterior extensions of the
H-shaped structure of the 10th sternite with
about eight filaments each (more distinctly
visible than usual in this mount), separated
and rather blunt at tip.

Female and larva.—Unknown.

Holotype——Male, taken by the authors in a

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 4

light trap at edge of rain forest, Hollandia area,
Netherlands New Guinea, February 21, 1945.
Deposited in U. S. National Museum.

Aedes (Aedes) trispinatus, n. sp.

Male.—Head missing in holotype, vertex in
poor condition in the others; apn bare of scales,
ppn with four posterior bristles and scattered
dark hairs in front of the bristles, with a few
toward the upper border; sternopleuron with
the upper scales translucent, closely appressed,
a few fine hairs along anterior border; mese-
pimeron almost entirely covered with fine pale
hairs below the small scale patch; fore and mid
tarsal claws unequal, simple. Abdomen with
complete bands on segments II-VI (VII re-
moved with genitalia), rather wide on IV—-VI,
slightly subbasal toward sides. Wing 2.2; Ist
fork cell 1.5 times stem. Hypopygium (Fig. 3):
Coxite with three strong, rather long, tapered
subapical spines, the distal one smallest, and
one or two slender bristles near their bases; at
apex, two close-set strong curved bristles,
somewhat longer than the longest spine; two or
three strong hairs from dorsum; a rather prom-
inent subbasal lobe, with 10 to 15 bristles; H-
shaped structures of tenth sternite present, the
posterior arms membranous, leaf-shaped;
eighth sternite with the posterior row of about
eight bristles considerably stronger than the
preceding ones.

Female.—Head with a small triangular patch
of broad pale scales on nape; ppn with scattered
dark narrow scales on upper half; and rather
numerous fine hairs in front of bristles, one also
with scattered broad pale scales; scutum pale
brown, the scales entirely dark. Sternopleuron
and mesepimeron similar to male; tarsal claws
apparently simple (not mounted); abdomen
with complete white bands on segments II-V,
complete or nearly complete on VI, incomplete
on VII, entirely basal or slightly removed sub-
medianly on V and VI, joined to large lateral
basal spots. Wing 3 mm; Ist fork 1.5 times its
stem; scales moderately spatulate.

Larva.—Unknown. .

Holotype-—Male, Milne Bay, New Guinea
(Papua), IV-11-44, (H. R. Roberts No. 136,
gen. slide 46, VIII.4e). From collection of the
U.S. National Museum.

Paratypes.—3 males, 5 females as follows: 3
males from light-trap collections by the au-
thors at Hollandia in 1945, one on May 7 (gen.

Apr. 15, 1947

No. 3), one April 6 (gen. No. 7; adult badly
moulded), and one April 17 (gen. No. 11; adult
moulded); 2 females, same lot as holotypes; 2
females (H. R. Roberts No. 203), IV-3-44, and
one female (Roberts No. 127), IV-7-44, from
Milne Bay. Three additional females of Roberts
lot 136 are similar to the paratypes in most re-
spects but the abdomen is not banded. One has
a faint yellowish color at base of segments, the
other two are partly denuded. These are possi-
bly quadrispinatus but the hairs on the lower
mesepimeron and on the ppn are more sugges-
tive of trispinatus. Two of them have a triangu-
lar patch of white scales on the nape.

ADDITIONAL SPECIES

The following unnamed or unidentified
forms have been examined in the Museum
collection:

(1) A series of 26 females from APO 322
(Gusika, Finschhafen area, eastern New Guin-
ea), E.S. Ross Nos. 2, 42, 44, 45, and 49, April
and May 1944. These have a short median
stripe of broad white scales on the head and are
similar otherwise to foliformis except that the
abdomen is unbanded dorsally, having oblique
lateral spots only. The form is possibly the fe-
male of one of the species described herein, or
perhaps belongs to the parasimilis complex.

(2) Four larval skins, J. T. Medler, Malaria
Unit No. 75, New Guinea, 1944 (probably from
Milne Bay), Nos. 7-27, 1, 2, 8, and 4, with pu-
pal skins also of subnumbers 1 and 2, but the
adults missing from the pin mounts. Head hair
B 2-branched; C, 3- or 4-branched; siphon in-
dex 3.2; pecten of 6 to 8 very strong teeth
spaced along tube nearly to apex, a few very fine
fringe hairs visible at base of some of the spines;
tuft 4-branched, inserted near the second spine
from apex; dorsal and ventral subcaudal hairs
of anal segment each single, very long; gills
very long, slender, from 1.5 to 2 times as long as
siphon.

This distinctive larva is similar to two speci-
mens from Guadalcanal (20th MSU No. 776
sub 101 and 102, J. N. Belkin; Stone sp. No. 12)
from which adults were reared and which will
be described by others.

(3) Four whole larvae, H. R. Roberts No.
136, Milne Bay, April 11, 1944. Head hairs B
and C each 2-branched; comb of about 16
elongate scales, rounded and fringed; siphon
index about 2.5; pecten of about 10 spines on

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES)

131

basal half, the apical one more widely spaced,
the others with a single, very large basal den-
ticle; tuft 3-branched, well beyond last spine;
dorsal subcaudal hair with three subequal
branches, less than half as long as the ventral
subcaudal hair.

Of ten other larvae examined from this lot,
seven were parasimilis, two were possibly
carmenti and one differed slightly from lineatus.
Four different species were represented by four
males reared from this lot (bifoliatus, parasimi-
lis type B, trispinatus, and quadrispinatus).
Seven of the reared females belonged to the
parasimilis series, two were trispinatus and two
were near trispinatus. It is very unfortunate
that there were no definite associations of the
larvae with the adults of this interesting lot.

KEY TO ADULTS

Because of the limited number and poor
condition of specimens in a part of the spe-
cies, certain of the external characters em-
ployed in this key are provisional. Some
caution in using the key is recommended,
therefore, particularly with respect to the
extent of white scaling on tergites II and
VII.

1. Abdomen with complete transverse white

DAG SE cxccrs eee Shenae oar ann ee re 2
Abdomen with lateral white spots or oblique
StElpessOllye:. Hos ar ceeee cu teeter ae 10

2. Scutum with median and lateral stripes of
yellowish or golden scales; head with a
median stripe of broad white scales and
narrow pale scales along eye margin; apn
covered with narrow yellowish scales in
female, broad white scales in male; abdom-
inal bands about midway of segments at
sides, curving toward base in middle....
ee Heer = irene s & oop lineatus (Taylor)

Scutum without distinct ornamentation; apn
bare of scales or with only occasional broad

3. Mesepimeron largely covered with hairs be-
low the scale patch or at least extending
more than halfway from scale patch to
lower border posteriorly; abdominal bands
basalior neanivssOs —... 5.5. eee 4

Mesepimeron with only a few hairs posterior
to and just below the scale patch, some-
times extending a short distance below
(less than halfway to lower border)...... 6

4. Tergite II dark or with a median white spot
not joined to lateral spot, bands on VI and
VII sometimes incomplete; hairs on mese-
pimeron comparatively coarse and dark. .5

Complete bands on tergites 2-6; mesepimeral
hairs fine, pale, very numerous; females at

132

10.

le

13.

14.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

least with a triangular patch of broad white
scales on nape.......... trispinatus, n. sp.
Tergite II with a median white spot; band in-
complete on tergites VI and VII; head
with pale broad scales on nape (? always);
upper ppn with scattered dark scales......
Jo eas, ee male of quadrispinatus n. sp.
Tergite II entirely dark above; VI with a
complete band (VII ?); head vertex all
dark; ppn bare of scales (female unknown).
Ne geen NRL EUR ate eta es SO leilae, n. sp.

. Abdominal tergite II (usually VII also) with-

outa transverse, band’ .20 > ta oe vf
Tergite 2 and 7 with complete transverse
white bands, median or submedian on at
least VI and VII; head with a median strip
of broad pale scales in female, probably
alsom male: 8 el vet eh foliformis, n. sp.

. Abdominal bands mostly basal or only

sliphtly-removedes eo: ca. sen. os cee he te 8
Abdominal bands distinctly removed from
base; tergite II with a median white spot;
sternopleuron with a few fine hairs an-
teriorly; upper ppn with scattered dark
scales (female unknown). multifolium, n. sp.

. Tergite II with median and lateral white

spots above; band incomplete on VII....
ot AE cra aot Renee es funereus (Theobald)
Tergite II entirely dark above............ 9

. Tergite VI with a complete band..........

ie A eG RAN, rate ras Ss male of reesi, n. sp.
Tergite VI with band incomplete (female un-
Ki O Wil) Water ee eee bifoliatus, n. sp.
A large patch of hairs on lower mesepimeron,
extending more than halfway from scale
patch to lower border................. 11
Only a few hairs below the mesepimeral scale
patch posteriorly, or not extending below
middle of lowerhalf...ecceg seen 14
Head with narrow pale scales on nape or
broad pale ones on midline; claws of fore
and mid tarsi with large teeth.......... 12
Head all dark or with broad pale scales on
nape; tarsal claws, if present, very small
(claws not described for quadrifolium)...13

. A triangular patch of narrow yellowish scales

on nape; claws of fore and mid tarsi of male
unequal, only the longer one toothed;
apical lobe of coxite and Y-shaped exten-
sion of ninth tergite prominent..........
pcr ie Ame SP ah La ie neomacrodixoa, n. sp.
Head with a few broad pale scales on midline
and eye margin, sometimes 2 or 3 narrow
scales on midline but none on nape; claws
of fore and mid tarsi of male equal and each
toothed; coxite and ninth tergite not as
BVOVES., 02 sco sincere panayensis Ludlow
Head all dark Gemale unknown) :.5.-.. oc)
ts aes RETR DLS SUR BNE tH quadrifolium Brug
Broad pale scales sometimes present on nape.
ie op eee ea female of guadrispinatus, n. sp.
A large tooth present on the claws of fore and
mid tarsi of female and the larger claws of
males; ppn with a comparatively large
patch of fine pale hairs in front of the

15.

16.

Wee

18.

19.

VOL. 37, NO. 4

bristles Gin addition to narrow dark scales
on upper third). ©. 23: carmentt Edwards
Claws of fore and mid tarsi with very small
teeth or simple (all simple in male) ; ppn
with very few if any hairs in front of

bristles: oh. 0.340 ae 15
Head with a stripe of broad white scales on
posterior half of midline.2.. 7.2, me)... :
Unidentified females from Finschhafen area
Head scales dark on midline............ 16
Ppn with scattered narrow dark scales on
upper: third /¢-s. .act See eee Lz,
Ppn-bare -of ‘scales... ¢.4..4 530 eee =: 218

Small patches of fine golden scales on front of
scutum, above wing root, on median area
of antescutellar space and on scutellum;
lateral scales of forks of vein 2 somewhat
broadened, distinctly wider apically than at

basal third..... ae ee sentanius, N. sp.
Scutal scales all dark; lateral scales of vein
2 NINCGr 25 ops ee female of reesi, n. sp.

Males (see key to male genitalia)..........
Sanees parasimilis series and simplus, n. sp.

Females (unknown in simplus)........... 19

Tarsal claws all simple (the validity of this
character has not been fully established). .
Hoke Gia bie lea aetna eee parasimilts, n. sp.

Claws of fore and mid tarsi each with a min-
ute tooth (visible after mounting)........
soa CNS ai dc 2 tas oe .near parasimilis

(The female is unknown or not definitely as-
sociated in quadrifolium, multifolium, bi-
foliatus, leilae, simplus and milnensis; only
the genitalic characters of the last species
are known.)

KEY TO MALES BY THE GENITALIA

. Ninth tergite with a large median Y-shaped

extension, each arm with a large hairy
branch; poxite with several processes in-
cluding a subapical lobe bearing two or
three heavy bristles at tip (plainly visible in
unmounted terminalia) 2. eee
BPA a Merron Baretta neomacrodixoa, N. sp.
Ninth tergite without such an extension... .2
Coxite with a wide flat apical extension, and
a strong elongate arm from inner side of
DASC cm soe tone eee panayensis Ludlow
Coxite without such appendages.......... 3

. Coxite with two or more subapical leaflets or

heavy spines below base of style......... 4
Coxite with a single subapical spine or leaflet,
or with:none. . . 2s. ee eee 9

. Coxite with two flared subapical leaflets on

inner margin and a row of four or five-
spine-like bristles on dorsum; 8th sternite
with a heavy truncate bristle from each side
of posterior margin...... bifoliatus, n. sp.
Coxite with more than two subapical proc-
esses; 8th sternite without modified
bristles). 20 i!) .cLA, SC ea ee 5)

. Three subapical processes present......... 6

Four or five subapical processes present... .7
Coxite with three heavy pointed subapical
spines and a close set pair of heavy hairs at

Apr. 15, 1947

10.

ae

12.

13.

14.

15.

apex; median lobe with 10-12 bristles....
3's 5 RRS ae eee trispinatus, nN. sp.
Three rounded leaflets or two leaflets and a
strong bristle, subapically; no heavy apical
hairs; median lobe with only two bristles. .
» doy & 20) eaten eee era foliformis, n. sp.

. Four heavy spines below base of style (the

distal one sometimes reduced in size), and
three very heavy bristles near apex on
dorsum; arm of style very small..........
2.5 AAG an era ae quadrispinatus, 0D. sp.
Four or five leaflets subapically, no heavy
bristles on dorsum; base of style elongate,
the arm not unusually small... 2... . 5... 8

. Four rather short, flared leaflets on coxite..

MPEGS. ois 5 aes quadrifolium Brug
Five (? sometimes four) comparatively long
blade-like leaflets...... multifolium, n. sp.

. Coxite very simple, without spines or unusual

patewesior pristles: . 2.70. 2 eas 10
Coxite with a subapical spine or leaflet, or
with unusual patches of bristles........ 11
Style with a group of about five hairs at basal
third, the arm curved beyond these and
tapered to a point........ simplus, N. sp.
Style with small hairs scattered on basal two-
thirds, bent at apical fourth, a few minute
papillated hairs near tip..... leilae, n. sp.
A group of rather short, modified bristles on
GOES TMSONGOXILE) 5. 6s sss es bene ves oe 12
Without a distinct group of modified bristles
EUS PILI age eee 3 ar aie ae ae eR 13
Dorsal group consisting of about eight spine-
like bristles, ending in a simple point; a
single subapical bristle below base of style;
eighth sternite without heavy truncate
bristles posteriorly... .funereus (Theobald)
Dorsal patch of ten or more moderately
strong bristles, most of which are forked at
tip or have one or two minute side branches
subapically; a sharply pointed leaflet, flat-
tened basally, below base of style; a pair of
elongate, stout, truncate bristles on each
side of posterior margin of 8th sternite...
oy 3 2S Ses eee eee milnensis, N. Sp.
Inner margin of coxite with a prominent elon-
gate median patch of 12 to 20 long slender
bristles set in prominent tubercles; sub-
apical process represented only by a moder-

ately strong bristle...........- reest, N. Sp.
Median lobe and subapical process other-
TSS. Seca ein aaa eee Sate e aie 14
Subapical process a very stout bluntly pointed
SY OVITIES CSE Re BERS ois a ge tea ne Pe ga RAY 15
Subapical process a slender leaflet, at least
Hapencucapically:..: «bic tiacls cies cect: 16

Style with a group of about 8 bristles on the

inner side of the base, a second group of .

about five smaller ones on dorsal side;
median lobe with about ten bristles......
Bette West Lar Nax, coe ob cis remars carmentt Edwards
Base of style with about 8 scattered slender
bristles, not forming distinct groups;
median lobe with one or two bristles......
SPAS AAG 2 es SUES a Eo? Sh ar Maes Ee sentantus, nN. sp.

KING & HOOGSTRAAL: NEW GUINEA MOSQUITOES (AEDES)

16.

ae

133.

Arm of style with 3 bristles, 1 near middle and
2 near its base (in addition to several on the
enlarged basal portion of style); subapical
leaflet short, blade-shaped, a moderate
bristle distal to it. . .(parasimilis series) 17

Arm of style with a single bristle, arising near
its base; leaflet longer, frequently with the
edges curled, scoop-shaped, a stout bristle
or slender spine distally. . .lineatus (Taylor)

Fore and mid tarsi with one claw distinctly
larger than the other; segment 4 and 5 of
about equal length... .parasimilis Type A

Tarsal claws equal; segment 4 of fore and mid
tarsi about twice aslongas5...... Type B

KEY TO KNOWN LARVAE

. Ventrolateral hair of siphon inserted before

ENdsOrpectemts..): saree eel een ae ee 2
Ventrolateral hair inserted beyond last pecten
SPE Saree ged Bacices se NEL ape eee Be coh Shes 3

. Anal gills normal, shorter than siphon; dorsal

subcaudal hair with 3 unequal branches;
pecten with 12 to 15 spines..... parasimilis
Anal gills very long, 1.5 to 2 times as long
as siphon; dorsal subcaudal hair single,
long; pecten of only 6 to 8 spines, extending
MEAT Vat OME Kec <tc ois Sewer peecege spe-
cies from ? Milne Bay (Medler No. 7-27)

. Head hairs B and C each with 6 or more

branches; dorsal subcaudal hair with 4-5

subequaljboranches. 0222) 585 sentanius
Head hair B at least with no more than 3
brace st ee tos MO tact oem pe coe aan 4

Dorsal subcaudal tuft of anal segment with
about 8 subequal branches; siphon index
lista lysalbOuby2e <i ecah eae as ee es 5

Dorsal subcaudal tuft with 3 branches; si-
plonandex 2.5 Or Mores 2.06... eee oe ee 6

Head hair B 3-branched, C 4-branched......
aS I isae Tag ORs De gar eanne TDR ea am laneatus

Head hairs B and C each 2-branched. .speci-
men from Milne Bay (Roberts No. 136)

Head hairs B and C each 2-branched, pecten
spines with a single, unusually large basal
denticle; branches of dorsal subcaudal hair
Sequel iste cee i APs ee 4 speci-
mens from Milne Bay (Roberts No. 136)

Head hair B 3-branched, C with 5 or 6;
branches of subcaudal hair unequal..... 7

. Pecten spines with a single basal denticle. .

sh ie eh Oe i a A ep a aa es carments
Pecten spines with one fairly large and several
smaller basal denticles........... funereus

REFERENCES

Brua, 8. L. Aanteekening ontrent Muskteten.

Geneesk. Tijdsch. Ned.-Ind. 63: 635-640.
1923.

Notes on Dutch East Indian mos-
quitoes. Bull. Ent. Res. 23: 73-83. 1932.

Epwarps, F. W. A synopsis of the adult

mosquitoes of the Australasian Region.
Bull, Ent. Res. 14: 351-401. 1924.

134

Epwarps, F. W. Diptera, family Culicidae.
In Genera insectorum (P. Wytsman), fase.
194. 1932. 3

LAFFOON, JEAN.
the genus Aedes, subgenus Aedes.
Washington Acad. Sci. 36: 228-245.

Journ.
1946.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Philippine mosquitoes of

VOL. 37, NO. 4

Lez, D. J. An atlas of the mosauito larvae of
the Australasian Region Tribes—Mega-
rhinint and Culicint. Austr. Mil. Forces,
North Melbourne. 1944.

Leicester, G.F. Culicidae of Malaya. Stud.
Inst. Med. Res. 3: 18-261. 1908.

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new species of flea of the genus Opisodasys from Mezico.!

Rosert Travus, Major, P. C., U. 8. Army.

MUESEBECK. )

Among the Siphonaptera I collected when
serving as parasitologist with the Fourth
Hoogstraal Expedition to Mexico in 1941 is
a Series representing an undescribed species
of Opisodasys Jordan, 1933. It is my opinion
that the structure of the aedeagus is of taxo-
nomic importance, and hence details visible
in mounted or remounted specimens are in-
cluded in the description that follows. The
terms used in this section, as well as most
of the others, are based upon the excellent
morphological studies of Snodgrass (1946).

Opisodasys hollandi, n. sp.

This species is separated from all other
North American Optsodasys by the facts that
the male eighth sternum is without bristles and
has a bifid apex and that the male eighth ter-
gum bears a prominent conical lobelike scleroti-
zation along the caudal border.

Nearest Opisodasys perotensis Dampf, 1942,
in general structure of male claspers and ninth
sternum, and in chaetotaxy and spiculose por-
tion of eighth tergum. Distinct in that the mov-
able finger is broader, its caudal margin more
biconvex, and in possessing an apical small
mesial spiniform, a long subapical marginal
bristle, and two stout submarginal mesial spini-

forms on proximal half, instead of three margi-

nal mesial spiniforms (none apical) as in O.
perotensis. Ninth sternum with several rows of
spiniforms, not just with a marginal row. Fe-
male resembles O. perotensis in shape of sperma-
theca and in outline of VII sternum, but in O.
hollandi the upper lobe of the caudal margin of
the VII sternum is acute, not rounded.

The conical sclerotization along the caudal
border of the male eighth tergum suggesting
the sclerotized spur on the ventrocaudal angle

1 Contribution from the Division of Parasitol-
ogy, Army Medical School, Washington, D. C.
Received January 8, 1947.

(Communicated by C. F. W.

of that of O. pseudarctomys (Baker, 1904).

This is a very large species, the males averag-
ing 4 mm in length, the females 4.5 mm.

Male and female—Hwap (Fig. 1): Clypeus
(frons of authors) evenly rounded, with frontal
tubercle median but slight, indistinct, arising
from a small marginal sclerotization. Sparsely
granular cephalad and dorsad of row of bris-
tles. Preantennal region with one row of six
bristles, with the most dorsal bristle the small-
est and bordering the antennal groove; the
ventralmost bristle and the preocular bristles
the longest. Two or three tiny hairs bordering
antennal groove cephalad of the subovate, well-
developed eye. A very small bristlelike projec-
tion at ventral angle of clypeus, between the
small labrum and the well-developed 4-seg-
mented maxillary palpus (M.P.). Epipharyn-
geal stylet (EPX.) arising between maxillary
palpi; very feebly serrate or denticulate api-
cally. Maxillary lobe (MX.) an acute triangle,
extending slightly beyond apex of third maxil- |
lary palpal segment. Maxillary laciniae (LAC.)
(mandibles of authors) about one-third diame-
ter of labial palpus; with apical two-thirds
denticulate or microserrate, the serrations di-
rected ventrad. Lacinial and epipharyngeal
stylets subequal and, like the 5-segmented la-
bial palpi(L.P.), extending slightly beyond apex
of forecoxae. Scape of antenna long, subequal
in length to subovate 9-segmented clavus, with
two or three very small marginal hairs near
insertion, and an apical row of very small
bristles. Pedicel of antenna with somewhat
longer bristles, but those in male extending less
than one-fourth length of clavus, in female less
than one-third. With a series of very small
bristles in two irregular rows along dorsal mar-
gin of antennal groove. Postantennal region
stippled near cephalic and dorsal margins; with
a median row of two bristles and a submarginal
row of five long bristles. Female with an addi-

Apr. 15, 1947 TRAUB: A NEW SPECIES OF FLEA OF GENUS OPISODASYS 135

.
OCS ese

_

pes at
0 LE

eS

wt.
— 2.23 P ee if x
ee
. Se / RR
5 = ! & / £ otter.
bate rcs
3 p
. #y i
‘ iff
i Ay
lf

Fras. 1-3.—Opisodasys hollandi, n. sp.: 1, Head, male; 2, modified abdominal seg-
ments, male; 3, aedeagus. (See p. 139 for list of abbreviations. )

136

tional bristle ventrad to the ultimate very long
bristle extending caudad to pronotal ctenidium.

THorAX: Pronotal ctenidium with about
nine spines on each side, preceded by a row of
fine bristles, and with fine hairs intercalated be-
tween the bristles. Notum of mesothorax with
three rows of bristles: The first very incomplete,
the second of five bristles, the third of four
longer bristles; the last two with intercalated
small hairs. Mesonotum with five or six bristle-
like extensions near caudal margin, suggesting
thin elongate spinelets. Mesepisternum (MP%S.)
in male with an irregular horizontal median row
of four bristles, in female the bristles irregular
in position. Mesepimeron (MPM...) of male with
six bristles in two rows of three, the ventral
two of the caudal row immediately dorsad and
ventrad (though laterad) to the spiracle; the
female with about nine bristles in three irregu-
lar rows of three. Metanotum with three rows
of bristles, the caudal bristles four or more
times the length of the others. Lateral metano-
tal area (supraepisternum of authors) sub-
quadrate, with two large bristles. Metepister-
num with one bristle and that near dorsocaudal
angle. Metepimeron with seven bristles ar-
ranged 3-3-1, the most ventral in the second
row and the most caudal bristle being about
twice the size of the others.

Leas: Mesocoxae and metacoxae with a sub-
median lateral longitudinal sclerotization and a
mesial somewhat trident-shaped longitudinal
sclerotization, the middle branch of the trident
proximally joining the lateral sclerotization.
Femora with one mesial bristle and no lateral
bristles. Most of the dorsolateral bristles of
tibiae paired. With a pair of unequal long
bristles at lateroventral angle of tibae; immedi-
ately proximad a pair of very much smaller
bristles. Actual measurements of male tibiae

Tarsal segment

Leg Tibia
1 2 3 4 5
| epee 247 100 105 87 62 148
1) Doegevrre 408 207 165 122 89 148

100 Desa se, 610 412 287 172 99 155

and segments of tarsi (petiolate base deleted)
shown in micra. Petiolate bases of second
and third protarsal and midtarsal segments
long, more than one-third length of segment.
None of tarsal bristles reaching beyond apex

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 4

of following segment; most of the bristles not
even extending three-fourths of length of follow-
ing segment. Blade of unguis slightly more than
twice length of thickened recurved basal por-
tion.

ABDOMEN: Abdominal terga on each side
typically with two or three short bristles in
cephalic row and six long bristles in caudal
row, the ventralmost bristle inserted just ven-
trocaudad of spiracle. In male, first tergum
with two apical teeth of spinelets per side, sec-
ond and third with one each; female with tergal
teeth 1(2)-2-1(2)-1. Both sexes with one bristle
on basal sternum and with sterna III-VI with
a row of three ventral bristles. Male with three
antepygidial bristles (Fig. 2, A, B.), but dorsal
bristle almost vestigial, reduced to less than
one-tenth length of middle bristle; ventral
bristle somewhat less than half as long as mid-
dle bristle. Female with dorsal bristle some-
what more than one-half length of middle
bristle, and with ventral bristle more than four-
fifths length of middle one.

Modified abdominal segments—MateE (Fig.
2): Seventh sternum truncate; with two basal
bristles. Eighth sternum (88.) reduced; basal

portion with sinuate cephalic margin and a

dorsad-projecting narrow lobe, dorsal margin
concave; produced caudally into a narrow pro-
jection with parallel sides and with an ex-
panded bifid apex. The X-gland (X.G.) of
Wagner conspicuous near base of eighth ster-
num. Highth tergum (Fig. 2, 8T., partim, and
Fig. 8) very large, covering most of body ex-
tending caudad of pygidium; with dorso-
cephalic angle spiculose; dorsal margin sinuate
and bearing about nine very long marginal or
submarginal and two median bristles; caudal
margin with a shallow sinus. Ventral third of
eighth tergum more sclerotized than rest. The
margin of the sclerotization curving dorsad
near caudal margin and forming a prominent
mesial conelike structure; ventral sclerotized
portion with 9 to 13 long bristles, of which all
but two or three are marginal, four or five are
very long and curved ventrad, and two or three
of the marginal are mesial in insertion. Ventral
margin of eighth tergum concave.

Immovable process of clasper (Fig. 2, P., and
Fig. 5), broad and conical, with three small
apical bristles; caudal margin arching caudad
in vicinity of the two long acetabular bristles,
and with very small projections above, be-

Apr. 15, 1947

tween, and below acetabular bristles. Movable
finger (F.) large; with cephalic margin slightly
concave and sinuate; caudal margin strongly
sinuate, forming a dorsal and ventral lobe, dor-
sal lobe narrowing at subconical apex of finger;
ventral margin straight. Finger with a mesial,

a

Nisan
Ponvee ers OEEL IEE "ire

Fies. 4—9.—Opisodasys hollandi, n.
lobe and movable finger; 6, anal stylet, female; 7, modified abdominal segments, female; 8,
eighth tergum, male; 9, spermatheca, (See p. 139 for list of abbreviations.)

TRAUB: A NEW SPECIES OF FLEA OF GENUS OPISODASYS

137

relatively small spiniform near apex; with a
mesially inserted long bristle near middle of
caudal margin of dorsal lobe; and with two
large mesial spiniforms near caudal margin of
ventral lobe, the spiniforms extending distad
for half or more of their lengths; with four

sp.: 4, Distal arm of male ninth sternum; 5, clasper

138

small bristles on cephalic margin; one small
bristle at apex; four or five bristles near caudal
margin, some mesial in insertion, and four or
five small median bristles. Manubrium (MB.)
wide, about three times as long as wide near
base, and about one-third width of tergal
apodeme of ninth tergum (T.AP.9), which
forms apparent dorsoproximal portion of
clasper lobe. Ninth tergum apparently reduced
to a rectangular area between its apodeme and
clasper lobe. Subpygidial sclerite of Wagner
(S.S.) conspicuous, median, shaped like a, dis-
coid seen on end, lying parallel to longitudinal
axis of body. Ninth sternum large, U-shaped,
its proximal arm (vertical, anterior or interior
arm of authors) (P.A.) well sclerotized, digitoid
in shape. Trough of U-shaped ninth sternum
somewhat wider than proximal arm, and bear-
ing a long apodemal rod (A.R.9). Distal arm of
ninth sternum (horizontal, posterior or exterior
arm of authors) (D.A. and Fig. 4) slightly
clavate; with a sinus at proximal fifth, forming
a small proximal lobe with four or five small
marginal bristles, and a conspicuous apical club
armed with four irregular rows of lateral spini-
forms, a row of mesial spiniforms, and scat-
tered bristles, most marginal. Intersegmental
membrane (I.M.) between eighth and ninth
segments arising as a somewhat sclerotized
mesial projection paralleling dorsal margin of
eighth sternum, curving dorsad towards trough
of the U-shaped ninth sternum, and then ex-
tending caudad as a filamentous delicate proc-
ess bearing a series of threadlike tufts.
Aedeagal apodeme (AE.A., Figs. 2 and 3)
elongate, with sides subparallel and with cepha-
lic (proximal) end shortly acuminate and
slightly upcurved. Base of aedeagus proper
curving ventrad, concave, paralleling curve of
dorsal margin of trough of ninth sternum.
Aedeagus (AED. Fig. 3) much shorter than
its apodeme. Lateral lobes of aedeagus (L.L.)
semicircular ventrad of proximal ventral mar-
gin of base of aedeagus, then gently curved
dorso-caudad, covering base of crochets and
half of the acuminate, curved median dorsal
lobe (M.D.L.). Armature of sheath of inner
tube of aedeagus (A.I.T.) paired and bifid;
with a proximal rodlike sclerotization and a
distal, longer, curved, hooklike structure. The
latter associated with a thin curved elliptical
band which loops ventrad and apically termi-
nates in a pair of small sicklelike blades.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 4

Aedeagal crochets (CR.) very large, extending
most of length of end-chamber; subquadrate
except for an elongate ventrad-directed rodlike
arm; proximoventral margin convex; dorsal
margin straight and heavily sclerotized; dorso-
distal margin biconcave; the conspicuous
boomerang-shaped part of crochets consti-
tuting the so-called parameres of authors;
the caudal portion of the boomerang somewhat
beakshaped. Ventral intramural rod of endo-
phallus (I.R.) well developed. Penis rods (P.R.)
not coiled, extending only slightly cephalad of
aedeagal apodeme. Apodemal strut consisting
of a proximal heavily sclerotized, subcordate
lobe and a distal large rhomboidal lobe, asso-
ciated with armature of sheath of inner tube;
with smaller ovoid sclerotizations between the
two.

Tenth abdominal segment conspicuous; with
pygidium convex; the dorsal margin of dorsal
lobe of proctiger (D.A.L.) (tenth tergum of
authors) well sclerotized, although apex is
relatively feeble and with small bristles. Ven-
tral lobe of the proctiger (V.A.L.) very well
developed, subrectangular, longer than the
movable finger of clasper, and with submedian
small bristles and a dorsal and apical row of
long bristles. Proximal ventral sclerite of tenth
segment (P.V.S.) (subanal sclerite of Wagner)
prominent and bearing a mesial, dark sinuate
sclerotization near ventrocaudal angle.

FEMALE: Seventh sternum (Fig. 7, 7S.) with
dorsocaudal margin slightly sinuate and with
caudal margin shaped like an S, with a some-
what acuminate lobe formed by the roof cf the
S and the junction of the dorsocaudal margin;
with an irregular row of large bristles. Eighth
tergum (8T.) with three small bristles near
spiracle; a median group of two or three large
bristles, arising from a somewhat sclerotized
area; ventral and ventrocaudal region with 14
bristles arranged in five irregular rows of 3, 3, 2,
3, and 3, the last three marginal. Eighth
sternum (8S.) narrow, without bristles, dorsal
anal lobe of proctiger (D.A.L.) with about
seven bristles caudad of pygidium and a very
long marginal bristle and a short marginal
bristle near middle of anal stylet; with one or
two long bristles ventrad of insertion of anal
stylet; spiculose dorsad of stylet. Anal stylet
(Fig. 7, A.S., and Fig. 6) somewhat more than
three times as long as wide at base; dorsal
margin concave, especially proximally, ventral

Apr. 15, 1947

margin subparallel to dorsal; with a long ven-
tral bristle at distal four-fifths and a very long
apical bristle; at times with a supernumerary
tiny ventral subapical bristle. Ventral anal
lobe (V.A.L.) (tenth sternum or substylar flap
of authors) well sclerotized; with caudal margin
sinuate; with four stout marginal bristles at
proximal portion and two very long apical
bristles; with four or five small submarginal
bristles near some of the larger ones. Sperma-
theca (Fig. 7, SP., and Fig. 8) with head
roughly oblong; not quite twice as long as wide
at maxima; dorsal margin slightly convex,
ventral margin fairly straight but with a defi-
nite shallow sinus; margin well sclerotized.
Tail of spermatheca about two-thirds as long
as head and about one-third as wide; annula-
tions apparent near apical portion; apex very
densely sclerotized.

Type locality Mexico, state of Michoacan,
vicinity of muncipality of Tancitaro, elevation
6,000—8,000 feet.

Type host—Sciurus poliopus cervicalis Allen,

1890, a tree squirrel.
- Types—Holotype male; 7,800 feet elevation,
July 15, 1941. Allotype female; same, July 1,
1941.

Paratypes—Three males and 8 females;
same. Four females from same host, Michoa-
edn, Tancitaro, Mount San Miguel, elevation
6,500 feet, July 17, 1941, all collected by
R. Traub.

Distribution of types —Holotype and allotype
deposited in entomological collections of Chi-
cago Natural History Museum. Paratypes dis-
tributed among collections of U. S. National
Museum, the Rocky Mountain Laboratory of
the U. 8. Public Health Service (Hamilton,
Mont.), the British Museum; the Dominion
Entomological Laboratory (Kamloops, British
Columbia), and that of the author and various
other siphonapterologists.

The species is named in honor of G. P. Hol-
land, of the Dominion Entomological Labora-
tory, Kamloops, British Columbia, in partial
recognition of his many contributions to the
study of Siphonaptera.

The author is grateful to Cs F. W.
Muesebeck, Dr. H. E. Ewing, and Dr. R. E.
Snodgrass, of the Bureau of Entomology and
Plant Quarantine of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture; to Dr. William L. Jellison and
Glen Kohls, of the Rocky Mountain Labora-

TRAUB: A NEW SPECIES OF FLEA OF GENUS OPISODASYS

139

tory, U. S. Public Health Service; John Gam-
mons, of the Division of Parasitology, Army
Medical School; and to G. P. Holland, of the
Dominion Entomological Laboratory (Kam-
loops, British Columbia) for criticizing parts of
the manuscript and/or checking the status of
this flea.

LITERATURE CITED

BaxksrR, C. F. A revision of American Siphon-
aptera, or fleas, together with a complete
list and bibliography of the group. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 27: 365-469, 17 pls. 1904.

Damrer, A. Dos nuevas pulgas Mexicanas de
genero Opisodasys Jordan 1933. Rev.
Brasil. Biol. 2 (4): 495-511. 1942.

JELLISON, W. L. Opisodasys Jordan 1933, a
genus of Siphonaptera. Journ. Parasit.
35(5): 418-420. 1939.

JORDAN, K. A survey of the classification of the
American species of Ceratophyllus s. lat.
Nov. Zool. 39: 70-79. 1933.

Snope@rass, R. E. The skeletal anatomy of
fleas (Siphonaptera). Smithsonian Maisc.
Coll. 104 (18): 1-88, 21 pls. 1946.

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN FIGURES

A.B. Antepygidial bristles.

AE.A. Aedeagal apodeme.

AED Aedeagus.

A.I.T. Armature of sheath of inner tube of
aedeagus.

AR.9 Apodemal rod of ninth sternum.

A.S. Anal Stylet

CR. Crochets of aedeagus.

D.A. Distal arm of ninth sternum.

D.A.L. Dorsal anal lobe.

EPX Epipharyngeal stylet.

IRs Movable finger of clasper.

I.M. Intersegmental membrane.

TREY. Ventral intramural rod of endophallus.

LAC. Laciniae or maxillary stylets.

L.L. Lateral lobes of aedeagus.

L.P. Labial palpi.

MB. Manubrium.

M.D.L. Median dorsal lobe.

M.P. Maxillary palpi.

MPM. Mesepimeron.

MPS. Mesepisternum.

Mx. Maxillary lobe.

Pe Immovable process of clasper.

Jeg ae Penis rods.

P.V.S. Proximal ventral sclerite of tenth seg-
ment. :

SP. Spermatheca.

8.8. Subpygidial sclerite of Wagner.

T.AP.9 Tergal apodeme of ninth segment.

V.A.L. Ventral anal lobe.

X.G. ‘‘X-gland”’ of Wagner.

Se Seventh sternum.

88. Eighth sternum.

8T. Eighth tergum.

140

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 4

ORNITHOLOGY.—Notes on tailorbirds (Orthotomus) from the Philippine Is-

lands.'
municated by H. G. DEIGNaN.)

A study of the Philippine tailorbirds in
the United States National Museum, which
H. G. Deignan made after the publication
of Birds of the Philippines (1946), by
J. Delacour and E. Mayr, posed some puzzl-
ing questions. He therefore suggested to me
to revise the species cinereiceps and nigri-
ceps, and in particular to investigate the
possibility of a subspecific distinctness of
the Basilan and Mindanao populations of
O. cinereiceps, as well as the possible specific
distinctness of O. samarensis. The ultimate
results have validated Mr. Deignan’s sug-
gestions. A study of these two rare species
was possible only through the courtesy of
the curators of the U. 8S. National Museum,
the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sci-
ences, and the Museum of Comparative
Zoology who lent me material.

Orthotomus cinereiceps Sharpe

The type of this species was collected on
Basilan (Ibis, 1877: 113). The specimen is re-
corded as an adult male, but chin and upper
throat are white, while these parts are sooty
black in a very uniform series of six adult
males before me. An unsexed bird (U.S.N.M.
no. 211076) also has a white chin and upper
throat, but its sex can not be determined since
its tail is molting. There is no difference in the
coloration of males and females according to
McGregor’s Manual of Philippine birds (p.
577), but the remarks in the Catalogue of birds
of the British Museum (7: 222) indicate that the
type may have been a female and that females
always have white on the upper throat. The
only certain female examined by me (M.C.Z.
no. 194584) has much white on the throat and
only an indication of a black collar across the
lower throat. The specimen, which may be
partly immature, has a much shorter tail than
the adult males (40 against 55-59 mm) and
both wings and tail are washed with rufous.
More collecting, particularly of females, is
needed to establish the sequence of plumages
and the amount of sexual dimorphism in this
species.

Received January 21, 1947.

ERNst Mayr, American Museum of Natural History.

(Com-

Three adult males from Mindanao agree in
measurements fairly well with Basilan birds,
but differ in coloration. They belong to an un-
described race which may be named—

Orthotomus cinereiceps obscurior, n. subsp.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 210841, # ad., Cata-
gan (1,100 feet), Mindanao, Philippines; May
19, 1906, Dr. E. A. Mearns.

Description.—Similar to cinereiceps but dark-
er. Crown of a deeper, sootier gray. The green
of the back of a deeper shade of olive; black of
throat extending further down on the breast;
middle of belly ashy gray, not whitish.

Wing, o& 48.5, 49, 50 against 47-51 (49.5)
in cinereiceps; tail 50, 58, against 55, 55, 56,
59 mm.

Range-——Mindanao. Specimens from the
type locality and from Lake Lanao (Philadel-

_ phia Academy) examined.

Orthotomus nigriceps Tweeddale

Chin, throat, and chest of adult males are
entirely black, according to McGregor (op. cit.,
p. 578). These parts are more or less mixed
with white in the two female specimens exam-
ined by me. A female from Buttian, Mindanao,
in the U. S. National Museum, has chin and
upper throat mottled black and white, while
lower throat and upper breast are black with
white, droplike shaft streaks. In a distinctly
immature female in the American Museum, the
crown is grayish black while chin and upper
throat are almost solid white. The lower
throat is white with grayish edges to the
feathers. The tails of both birds seem to be
darker and more rufous than the back, par-
ticularly in the American Museum specimen.
These specimens suggest that there is sexual
dimorphism in this species and that the Butian
bird is the adult female of the species. Addi-
tional material is required to settle the ques-
tion of the plumages of this species.

Orthotomus samarensis Steere

This species agrees in the coloration of its
upperparts, particularly the black crown, and
in the shortness of the tail so well with nigri-

Apr. 15, 1947

ceps that I treated the two forms as conspecific
in Birds of the Philippines (p. 202). However,
samarensis is very distinct in other respects.
It lacks the white superciliary of nigriceps and
differs widely from that species in the color of

ZOOLOGY.—Some Mezxican urocoptid mollusks.

Museum.

Ing. Alberto R. V. Arellano, of Mexico,
D. F., has transmitted to me a small send-
ing of land shells, which among other things
contains a new species of the genus Holo-
spira and extends the range of Bostrichocen-
trum goldmant Bartsch. Of this collection Sr.
Arellano says that they “are from near the
village of Petlalcingo, State of Puebla, very
close to the border of the State of Oajaca
and on the so-called ‘Pan-American High-
way 309 kilometers from Mexico City.
Elevations range from 1,400 to 1,500 me-
ters. Vegetation is luxuriant cacti-mezquite,
with giant cereus (much like the saguaros
of Arizona and Sonora) being a prominent
feature. Country-rock is Cretaceous lime-
stone and marl] and topography consists of
large hills with rounded sides, the valleys
being narrow. Locally the people refer to
the smaller hills (100 meters relief) as
‘mogotes,’ which as far as I know is the only
case in Mexico where this Cuban term is
used.”

The new species may be known as:

Holospira albertoi, n. sp.
Fig. 1

Shell cylindroconic, white, thin, translu-
cent. The nucleus consists of about 1.5 smooth
turns, the last of which is a little wider than
the first postnuclear whorl. The postnuclear
whorls increase very gradually in size until the
middle of the spire is attained; from here on
they are of equal width and render the shell
cylindric. All the postnuclear turns are marked
by slender, sublamellar, retractively slanting
axial ribs, which are separated by spaces three
to five times the width of the ribs; they extend
equally strong from the summit of the whorls
to the umbilicus. Suture very slightly con-
stricted. Periphery of the last whorl well

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of

the Smithsonian Institution. Received Decem-
ber 17, 1946. ;

BARTSCH: SOME MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS

141

the underparts, which are fairly similar in the
two sympatric species nicriceps and cinerei-
ceps. I therefore accept H. G. Deignan’s sug-
gestion to consider Orthotomus samarensis as a
full species.

Pau. Bartscu, U.S. National

rounded. Base slightly contracted, well
rounded, and narrowly openly umbilicated.
Last whorl solute for about one-eighth of a
turn. Aperture subcircular with a weak notch
at the posterior angle. Peristome strongly re-
flected and thickened. Columella very slightly
twisted, slender, hollow, bearing a strong fold
in the penultimate whorl, which is_ well
rounded on its free edge and which extends
one-third of the way across the whorl, approxi-
mating the parietal fold a little more closely
than the basal one. The parietal fold is thin

- Fia. 1.—Holosptra albertoi, n. sp.

and outward-curved and about double the
width of the basal fold, which is slightly in-
ward bent. Both the basal and parietal folds
are inserted in the middle of the turns, and
their free edges point toward each other,
leaving a space of one-quarter of the width of
the whorl between them. The lateral fold is a
mere thread on the inside of the outer lip op-
posite the open space between the basal and
parietal folds. All four folds are confined to the
penultimate whorl.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 543495, was col-
lected by Sr. Arellano ‘from steep west bank
of gully on southeast lower flank of Cerro
Chimeco. The snails were in hardened limonitic
soil developed from the underlying Cretaceous

142

marl. I thought this might indicate that the
snails had been dead for quite a few thousands
of years, but in the vicinity what appears to be
the same type of snail was found (just the
shell) clinging to the underside of loose stones.”’

It has 15.4 whorls and measures: Length,
15.3 mm; greatest diameter, 3.7 mm. U.S.N.M.
no. 543496 contains nine topotypes and some
fragments from the same source. Another lot,
three specimens, U.S.N.M. no. 543497, Sr.
Arellano says ‘‘were collected from the east
and north side of Cerro Sangre de Grado, on
the southwest side of Kilometer 304 on the
‘Pan-Am. Highway.’ The snails were loosely
lying under bushes, and the rock underneath
is Cretaceous limestone; they were collected

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 4

along a footpath through a distance from 500
to 1,000 meters.”

Bostrichocentrum goldmani Bartsch

The type and topotypes of this species,
U.S.N.M. no. 187798, were collected by Dr.
EK. W. Nelson at Tamazulapan, Oaxaca,
Mexico, which is in the province adjacent to
Puebla, not a very great distance from the
present sending consisting of 30 specimens,
U.S.N.M. no. 543498, which were gathered at
the same place as the three U.S.N.M. no.
543497 of Holospira albertot mentioned above.
This is a northward extension of the previ-
ously known range of Bostrichocentrum gold-
mani.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

407th MEETING OF THE BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 407th meeting of the Board of Managers
held in the Cosmos Club, March 17, 1947, was
called to order at 8 p.m. by the President, Dr.
Wa.po L. Scumirt. Others present were: H.5S.
RaprLeyeg, N. R. Smitru, W. N. Fenton, M. A.
McCatu, H. B. Coutins, Jr., W. W. DIEaRL,
F. L. Mouuer, J. 8S. Waprt, W. W. Rusey,
W. A. Dayton, F. B. Stuspez, M. A. Mason,
A. O. Foster, H. G. Dorsry, O. B. FRENCH,
C. L. Gazin, and, by invitation, G. P. Watton,
J. I. Horrman, A. Stonnu, and E. A. CHapin.

The President announced the appointment
of FRANK THONE as the AcaprEmMy’s delegate to
the Council of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science for a period of two
years.

The Chairman of the Meetings Committee,
Mr. WALTON, announced that the April meet-
ing of the AcapEMy would be held jointly with
the Philosophical Society of Washington and
that the speaker would be Dr. P. W. Bripe-
MAN, Nobel Prize winner.

The Chairman of the Committee on Mem-
bership, Dr. DinuHu, presented 10 nominations
for resident membership.

The Secretary reported the death of Ep-
waRpD A. GoutpMAN, formerly of the Fish and
Wildlife Service, on September 2, 1946; How-
ARD S. Roperts, formerly with the Geophysi-
eal Laboratory, on January 20, 1947; and
Admiral CuHarues S. Burier, formerly of
Bristol, Tenn., on October 7, 1944.

The Treasurer, Mr. Rappieye, asked that he

be authorized to issue proxies, as may be re-
quired, to permit shares owned by the Acap-
EMY to be voted at business meetings of the
various organizations in which the ACADEMY
has funds invested. The Treasurer’s request
was approved by the Board.

The Senior Editor, Dr. Fmnton, reported
that the Editors now have on hand a sufficient
number of manuscripts to insure a reasonably
even distribution of subject material in forth-
coming issues of the JOURNAL.

The Board authorized the President to ap-
point a committee to prepare a ‘‘White Book,”
listing the members of the AcapEmMy and the
revised bylaws. F. G. BRICKWEDDE was ap-
pointed Chairman of the committee, with the

_ Treasurer, H. S. Rappieys, and the Secretary,

G. L. Gazin.

It was proposed that the AcapEmy take an
active interest in the sponsoring of a Junior
Academy of Sciences for Washington, D. C.
The President was authorized to appoint a
committee to look into the matter and make
recommendations to the Board. The President
appointed Austin H. Cuarx, Chairman of this
committee, with Eaperr H. Waker and
FRANK THONE.

The President was authorized to appoint a
Legislative Committee to report from time to
time on legislation in Congress pertaining to
scientific work and development.

The meeting was adjourned at 9:10 p.m.

C. L. Gazin, Secretary.

Apr. 15, 1947

OBITUARIES

143

@bituartes

JAMES Horpwoop JEANS was born at South-
port, England, in 1877 and died on September
16, 1946. He was educated at Merchant Tay-
lor’s School and Trinity College, Cambridge;
he became a fellow of Trinity in 1901. In 1905
he was appointed to a chair of applied science
at Princeton, which he occupied until 1909.
Soon after returning to England, he gave up
formal teaching and devoted himself to re-
search. In 1917 he was awarded the Adams
Prize for the essay ‘‘Problems of Cosmogony
and Stellar Dynamics,” and in 1922 he received
the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical So-
ciety. In 1906 he was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society, in 1928 he was created a knight,
and in 1939 he was awarded the Order of Merit.
He was an honorary member of the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences.

Jeans was a powerful applied mathematician
who made fundamental advances in the theory
of gases and the physics of the atom, of the
photon, of quanta, and the physics of the stars
and nebulae. As time went on, he became more
and more interested in astronomy, cosmogony,
_ and allied fields. His writings often reflected the
philosophical aspects of science. This, combined
with a fine mathematical style, banished the
usual dullness of scientific discussions in these
fields. In the discussions in Astronomy and
cosmogony he differs from the work of Edding-
_ ton in his ideas on the internal constitution of
the stars. Some of the ideas advanced may not
be entirely in phase with present developments,
but his conclusion, that the stars in general
have liquid cores and consist of elements of
higher atomic number than 92, is probably
more acceptable now than when it was pub-
lished. Anyone interested in the beginnings,
evolution, and endings of the various members
of our universe must read Jeans’ works on as-
tronomy and cosmogony for a well-rounded
picture of scientific and philosophical thought
on these subjects.

JAMES I. HorrmMan.

HENRY Goprrey Avers, chief mathemati-
cian, Division of Geodesy, U.S. Coast and Geo-
detic Survey, died at his home in Washington,
D. C., during the early morning of Sunday,
January 19, 1947, after an illness that had kept
him away from his office for about four months.

Mr. Avers was born at Elmore, Ohio, on

March 6, 1886, the son of John H. H. and Eliz-
abeth (Nieman) Avers. He was the third of five
children in the family and, with the exception
of his sister Mary, who died in infancy, was the
first of them to pass away. He is survived by his
widow, Helen Nelson Avers; his brother, Ed-
ward J. Avers, of Elmore, Ohio; and two sisters,
Kmma Louise Avers and Mrs. C. H. Renner, of
Monroe, Mich.

Avers attended grammar school and high
school at Elmore; was a student at the Metro-
politan Business College, Toledo, Ohio, 1902-
03; studied at the College of Engineering, Ohio
Northern University, 1906-08; and completed
his formal education at George Washington
University, 1909-13, graduating with an A.B.
degree.

He entered the service of the U.S. Coast and
Geodetic Survey in 1908 as a geodetic compu-
ter. In September 1924 he became chief mathe-
matician, Division of Geodesy, and held at the
same time the position of chief, Section of Lev-
eling, in the same division. This arrangement
continued until August 1929, when he was re-
lieved of direct responsibility for the Section of
Leveling. He continued as chief mathematician
of the division until the time of his death.

During the period from 1917 to 1922, inclu-
sive, Avers made several trips to the field as
chief of party on first-order leveling operations,
doing leveling of high precision in Texas, Mis-
sissippi, Alabama, Kentucky, Wisconsin, New
York, and Vermont.

Avers was a member of the National Geo-
graphic Society Committee of Experts that ex-
amined the records of Commander Richard E.
Byrd and determined that Byrd’s plane flew
very close to the North Pole in 1926 and the
South Pole in 1929.

He was the author of Coast and Geodetic
Survey Special Publication No. 140, Manual of
first-order leveling, first published by the Survey
in 1928 and later reprinted several times. He
was coauthor of several other important Survey
publications. In addition, his contributions to
scientific and technical literature included pa-
pers for the American Geophysical Union,
Mathematical Association of America, Fifth
Pacific Science Congress, the Military Engi-
neer, and Bulletin of the National Research
Council (Physics of the Earth.)

While Mr. Avers’s principal interests cen-

144

tered around the computation and adjustment
of geodetic survey records and the publication
of control-survey data, he had a wide variety of
other interests, as is evidenced by his member-
ships in the following organizations: Mathe-
matical Association of America; Philosophical
Society of Washington; Washington Society of
Engineers; Washington Academy of Sciences
(treasurer, 1930 to 1939, inclusive, and member
of the Board of Managers, 1946); American
Association for the Advancement of Science;
American Society of Civil Engineers (secre-
tary, Division of Surveying and Mapping,
since 1929); American Geophysical Union (sec-
retary, Section of Geodesy, 1929-31, and chair-
man, 1932-35); American Astronomical So-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 4a |

ciety; American Congress on Surveying and ~

Mapping; National Geographic Society; Cos- §f
mos:Club of Washington; Albert Pike Lodge, §
No. 36, F. & A.M.; Albert Pike Consistory,

A.A.S.R.; and Almas Temple, A.A.O.N.M.S.; |
and Reformation Lutheran Church.

Avers was an ardent fisherman, a congenial
companion, and a kind and considerate supe-
rior. He was particularly devoted to his wife,

who nearly all her married life has been an in- —

valid. His passing at the age of 60, has deprived — |

his family and friends of a decade or more of his
companionship, which they wauld normally
have had every reason to expect would be
theirs.

~Howarp 8. RAPPLEYE.

ACADEMY AWARDS

The meeting of the WAasHINGTON ACAD-
EMY OF SCIENCES held on the evening of
March 20, 1947, was devoted to the presen-
tation of its Awards for Scientific Achieve-
ment for 1946. The Awards were presented
as follows: }

‘For the Biological Sciences to WaLpo
RvupoLpH WEDEL, of the U. 8. National
Museum, Smithsonian Institution, in recog-
nition of his distinguished service in con-
tributing to the knowledge of the prehistory
of human ecology in the Central Great
Plains;

For the Engineering Sciences to MARTIN
ALEXANDER Mason, of the Beach Erosion
and Shore Protection Board, War Depart-

ment, in recognition of his distinguished —
service in erosion studies leading to success- |
ful beach invasions by Allied armed forces —
during the War; and

For the Physical Sciences to GEORGE —
WASHINGTON IrvING, JR., of the Bureau of
Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry,
U. 8. Department of Agriculture, in recog-
nition of his distinguished service in bio-
chemistry and especially for work on anti-
biotics in tomato plants.

The recipients each gave brief résumés of
the work for which the Awards were made.
Space will be devoted to these in later num-
bers of the JOURNAL. :

ACADEMY LIFE MEMBER ESTABLISHES BOTANY FELLOWSHIP
AT MINNESOTA

The Board of Regents of the University
of Minnesota has accepted a gift of $15,000
to establish “The Conway MacMillan
Memorial Research Fellowship in Botany,
Charles J. Brand, 1902, Founder,”’ with an
annual stipend of $1,200. Mr. Brann plans
to add to the fund and hopes to interest
other men and women who were trained by
Professor MacMillan in making the fellow-
ship permanent.

The founder of the fellowship is a life
member of the WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF

Screncgs. He is best known for his 20 years’
work in the U. 8. Department of Agricul-
ture in research, administrative, and con-
sultative capacities, his most recent service
being as coadministrator of the Agricul-
tural Adjustment Administration in 1933.
He is also well known in the trade-associa-
tion field as the executive officer from 1925
to 1945 of the educational, legislative, re-
search, statistical, and other activities of
the National Fertilizer Association.

Botany.—The Amazonian varieties of Lonch ar

yielding plant. FREDERICK J. Hermann.

Moca

en TRave. ie aa we

ilaede.

ves Me CU) Gene ery cian aes ECs

ZooLocy.—Some Mexican urocoptid mollusks. Paut Ba

Maas

U py Fi
a ‘ By ite Naess ss
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May 15,1947. ed No 6

Bux

in

‘OF SCIENCES |

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ne

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Von. 37

PHYSICS.—Exploring the fundamentals of aerodynamics.'

National Bureau of Standards.

The selection of a topic for a presidential
address before such a general scientific or-
ganization as the Washington Academy of
Sciences has offered some difficulty. One has
the choice of attempting some broad philo-
sophical discussion of science in relation to
society, military affairs, or the Govern-
ment, of setting forth the contributions of
his own specialized field of science to hu-
man welfare as a means of justifying on
practical grounds its claims to support by
society, or of simply describing the present
status and challenging problems of his spe-
cialized field in extending the frontiers of
human knowledge. I have elected to follow

this last plan, since I could add but little
to the many excellent discussions of the
broader relations of science which are found
both in our own past proceedings and in the
scientific press of today and since I feel that
the constant harping on immediate practi-
cal applications hampers the development
of basic scientific knowledge. The matters of
which I will speak do have applications not
only to improving the performance of air-
craft, its most publicized application, but
also to such diverse fields as improving the
performance of power plants, improving
processes such as drying, mixing, and
evaporation used in the manufacture of
many useful materials, improving ventila-
tion of buildings and many others. But I
prefer to uphold the somewhat old-fash-
ioned view that advances in pure science
need no justification by immediately evid-
ent practical applications. Like a program
of conservation of forests, soil, or other na-
tural resources, the practical benefits lie in

1 Address of the retiring president of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences. Read by title at the
meeting of the Academy on February 20, 1947.
Received February 28, 1947.

May 15, 1947

No. 5

Hucu L. Drypen,

the future and can not be fully foretold.
For some reason our national character-
istics are such as to lessen our enthusiasm
for such investments.

In spite of the fact that the war has
monopolized the time of all scientists and
in particular physicists and aerodynamic-
ists, there has been substantial progress in
our understanding of the fundamentals of
the motion of air. During the war even this
type of material was classified as confiden-
tial or secret, but now, fortunately, these
classifications have been removed. Some of
the work described in this account was done
at the National Bureau of Standards with
the cooperation of the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics. Like many sci-
entists I find myself with the passing of
years occupied more and more with admin-
istration and less and less with the active
day-to-day direction of experimental work.
Therefore I wish specially to emphasize
that the experimental work was directed by
G. B. Schubauer and carried out with the
collaboration of H. K. Skramstad, P. S.
Klebanoff, and W. Squire.

The student of air motion learns to recog-
nize certain recurring typical situations in
the great multiplicity of naturally occur-
ring and experimental situations and to
understand complicated phenomena as an ©
assembly of these idealized typical situa-
tions. This procedure is nothing but the
familiar scientific method of isolating cer-
tain aspects of natural phenomena, recon-
structing idealized and simplified versions
for experimental study, and of attempting
to understand these simplified situations.

The first of these typical situations is
that present near the surface of the forward
portion of a body moving through the air.
No matter how fast the body moves, the air

145

MAY 2 0 1947

146

immediately in contact with the surface is
at rest relative to the surface, i.e., is carried
along with the speed of the body. At a
considerable distance the air is at rest if
there is no natural wind. It is convenient to
observe the motion from the standpoint of
an observer on the moving body, i.e., to
consider the equivalent case of flow around
a fixed object placed in a moving air stream.
At speeds less than the speed of sound the
presence of the object causes the oncoming
air to slow up directly in front of the object
and to be deflected around it. As the air
moves around the object its speed increases
above the free stream speed. These effects

extend to distances comparable with the .

dimensions of the object, but their magni-
tudes are greatest near the body. The re-
sulting field of flow around the forward part
of the object corresponds fairly well to that
predicted from the theory of a fluid without
friction except in a thin film very close to
the surface. Here the speed falls rapidly to
zero at the surface, the rate of change with
distance normal to the surface being several
times greater than in the flow outside. This
relatively thin layer, known as the bound-
ary layer, was first observed by L. Prandtl,
of the University of Gottingen, about 40
years ago. It is produced by the action of
the viscosity of the air. Prandtl developed
the mathematical theory of the flow in a

U, = 70 Fe per Sec

as

Turbulence = 0.85 oF Pogese

Jo=60 Ft per Sec
—_——_———__»>

Turbulence = 4 7o

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

‘VOL. 37, NO. 5

boundary layer starting with the long es-
ablished Navier-Stokes equations for the
otion of a viscous fluid.

The thickness of the boundary layer de-
pends on the size of the object and its
speed through the fluid as well as on the
viscosity of the fluid, the thickness at any
point for geometrically similar bodies being
proportional to the square root of viscosity
times a linear dimension divided by the
speed. The actual thickness for a particular
case is shown in Fig. 1. Here the object is
a long elliptical cylinder of about 4 inches
by 12 inches cross section in an air stream
of 60 and 70 feet per second. The thickness
is only a few hundredths of an inch at the
nose and is considerably less than 0.1 inch
over the entire front portion.

Beginning about 25 years ago it has been
possible to study the distribution of speed
and the character of the motion within
boundary layers.The instruments used are
extremely small probes made of hypodermic
tubing for measuring the pressures pro-
duced by the flow or extremely fine wires
heated electrically whose rate of cooling is a
measure of the air speed, The mechanics of
the flow within the boundary layer has
proved to be the key to the understanding
of many aerodynamic phenomena.

It was soon discovered, first by Prandtl
from indirect evidence such as skin friction

Pap
Q
loner

>.

Fie. 1.—Actual dimensions of boundary layer and typical phenomena for two typical cases of flow
past an elliptic cylinder: a, Air speed 70 ft/sec, initial turbulence of air stream 0.85 percent. Laminar
separation occurs at x =10 inches followed by transition to turbulence and reattachment at 2 =11.2
inches. Separation of the turbulent layer occurs at z=12.1 inches. b, Air speed 60 ft/sec, initial
turbulence of air stream 4.0 percent. Transition to turbulence occurs at x =5.0 inches and turbulent
separation at « =11.5 inches.

!

May 15, 1947 DRYDEN: EXPLORING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

measurements and later confirmed by
others by direct measurement of speed dis-
tribution, that the flow in a boundary layer
does not always correspond to that de-
scribed by the Navier Stokes equations, a
flow that is commonly called laminar since
it may be considered to occur in thin
laminae that slide over each other with only
the friction associated with the viscosity.
The flow is often turbulent, another con-
cept long familiar to hydraulic engineers.
A- precise definition of turbulent flow is
somewhat technical, but as in the case of
many concepts hard to define in words,
every layman is familiar with the pheno-
mena described. He has surely observed the
smoke from a cigarette in a quiet room rising
smoothly in layers, the motion described as
laminar. At some distance above the ciga-
rette, however, unless the air in the room is
_ extraordinarily quiet, this smooth motion
- breaks up into a confused series of whirls
and eddies, a motion described as turbulent.
One characteristic of turbulent motion is
the presence of random speed fluctuations
superposed on the mean flow. The isolation
of these concepts of two kinds of flow, the
development of more precise descriptions,
and the recognition of the two types in vari-
ous parts of the flow field aided greatly in
understanding more clearly what went on
and why in complicated flow fields.
One striking difference in regions of lam-
inar and turbulent flow in boundary layers
is the great increase in skin friction when
the flow becomes turbulent or conversely
the very low skin friction which is obtained
if the boundary layer flow can be main-
tained in the laminar state. During the war
the Germans captured one of our Mustang
aircraft and measured its performance.
They were astounded. To quote from one of
their reports: ‘““There has been much dis-
cussion of the question of the Mustang
wing. The comparison of flight measure-
ments, however, shows quite unmistakably
that the Mustang is far superior aerody-
namically to all other airplanes and that it
maintains this superiority in spite of its
considerably greater wing area.”’

The Mustang wing was of the general
type first developed by E. N. Jacobs and
his colleagues of the National Advisory

147

Committee for Aeronautics in the years
just prior to the war, a type known as
laminar flow wings. These wings are so de-
signed as to maintain the flow in the bound-
ary layer laminar over the greatest prac-
ticable area of the wing surface, a result
accomplished as will be discussed later by
designing the wing section so that the
pressure on the surface centinually falls
from its maximum value at the nose for as
great a distance from the nose as practica-
ble. (See Fig. 2.) The resulting drag of the
wing at the design lift is about one-half that
of a conventional wing for which the bound-
ary layer flow is turbulent except near the
nose. The low drag region is limited to a
certain range of lift coefficient as shown in
Hie!

The development of these wings was
made possible by fundamental studies of
the character of flow in the air streams pro-
duced in wind tunnels and improvements in
wind-tunnel design carried out by the
NACA and by the National Bureau of
Standards. The low drag occurring in flight
is not observed in ordinary wind tunnels, for
in a wind tunnel it is difficult to eliminate
completely the turbulent motion arising
from the blades of the wind-tunnel fan, the
guide vanes at the corners, and the wall
of the wind-tunnel upstream from the
model. The presence of this turbulence
makes it impossible to maintain the bound-
ary layer flow laminar for any considerable
distance.

The residual turbulence in an air stream
can be described in part by the root-mean-
square values of the speed fluctuation. Even
though the turbulent fluctuations amount
to less than 1 per cent of the mean speed,
they produce large effects on the boundary
layer flow; in particular the transition from
laminar to turbulent motion is controlled
by the turbulence present. In free flight the
turbulence is substantially zero. Hence
there has been great interest in the effects
of turbulence in wind tunnel measurements
and in the reduction of turbulence in wind
tunnels.

It is only recently that methods have
been developed for decreasing the turbul-
ence of an air stream. This ‘‘smoothing”’
of an air stream is somewhat analogous to

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, No.5

| || LEE pressure DISTRIBUTION meee

lois 2] CONVENTIONAL AIRFOIL LAMINAR FLOW AIRFOIL ee

a Spe ee a Tal R
ene Pm fy cower aineace eal ae

Li GOBER 1.012 LIFT CORRE 202

E
TOC CELE TC
ee
cM

Fic. 2.—Pressure distribution on conventional and laminar flow airfoils: « =distance from leading
edge, C =chord length, p =the pressure referred to the static pressure of the undisturbed flow, g=the
velocity pressure, which is the product of one-half the air density by the square of the air speed. Note
that reduced pressures are plotted upward, and that the distributions are for the same lift.

Cee ee ee
CONVENTIONAL AIRFOIL LAMINAR FLOW AIRFOIL
cpa
R29 X10 R=9X10 |

repo fete | lel hd Lol
pL tt
elke iba il Tel os) oa i ee
lob ee To ae
OE Ee
ep tee bel fie al of iio bedao[ ALC |
ARE
le be hal pak aie) oe i
a Tl bed oho re [ee ee
CeCe

SECTION LIFT COEFFICIENT | SECTION LIFT COEFFICIENT

Fic. 3.—Drag coefficients for conventional and laminar flow airfoils.

May 15, 1947 DRYDEN: EXPLORING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

the ‘‘smoothing”’ of a rough metal surface.
To smooth a rough casting one uses a coarse
file or rasp which itself has a rough surface.
The rasp actually roughens the surface but
with a finer scale than the gross irregulari-
ties that it ‘“‘smooths.”’ By repeating with
surfaces of ever finer scales of roughness
down to a fine emery cloth, a surface of the
desired smoothness is obtained. An air
stream is smoothed by the use of wire
screens, which remove turbulence of large
scale and introduce some of smaller scale.
Small-scale turbulence decays rapidly, and
if the wires of the screen are sufficiently
fine they produce no turbulence. Ordinary
wind tunnels have speed fluctuations in the
range 0.5 to 1.0 per cent of the mean speed;
low-turbulence wind tunnels have been
built with fluctuations reduced to the order
of 0.02 to 0.05 per cent of the mean speed.

In ordinary wind tunnels it has been ob-
served that the boundary layer near the
nose of a body is laminar even when tur-
bulent fluctuations are present if the state
of flow is judged by the character of the
mean speed distribution. A closer examina-
tion shows that there are irregular velocity
fluctuations present excited by the stream
turbulence and of the character of fluctua-

tions in thickness of the boundary layer.

The laminar state continues to a distance
from the nose, which is controlled by the
amount and scale of the turbulence present,
higher stream turbulence causing transition
to turbulent flow at a point nearer the nose.
G. I. Taylor gave a theory of this effect
some time ago and it is fairly well under-
stood.

When the turbulence of the air stream
is extremely low, a different phenomenon
is observed—regular laminar boundary
layer oscillations. The development of wind
tunnels of low turbulence in fact made pos-
sible a complete understanding of the
processes leading to the transition of the
flow in the boundary layer from the laminar
to the turbulent state. The history of this
advance illustrates the international char-
acter of science. About 15 years ago W.
Tollmien, of Gottingen, published a mathe-
matical theory of the stability of the lam-
inar motion in the boundary layer near a
thin flat plate in an air stream flowing par-

149

allel to the plate. According to this theory
small disturbances of wavelength lying in a
certain region would be amplified, whereas
disturbances of shorter or longer wave-
length would be damped. The wavelength
range and limits are functions of the
Reynolds number, the name given to the
ratio of the product of the speed of the air
stream by the boundary layer thickness to
the kinematic viscosity of the air. The cal-
culations were repeated and extended by
H. Schlichting in 1933. In 1935 my col-
leagues and I at the National Bureau of
Standards under the sponsorship of the
NACA studied the flow near a flat plate
experimentally and failed to find any evid-
ence of the development of the amplified
disturbances described by Tollmien and
Schlichting. Experiments at the California
Institute of Technology, the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, and Cambridge
University, England, likewise failed to show
the amplified disturbances. All these in-
vestigations were made in ordinary wind
tunnels.

In 1940 when a wind tunnel of extremely
low turbulence was available, my colleagues
G. B. Schubauer and H. K. Skramstad re-
peated the earlier experiment and in Au-
gust 1940 obtained records of the velocity
fluctuations in the boundary layer of a flat
plate by means of a hot wire anemometer
as shown in Fig. 4. The frequency of these
spontaneously occurring almost-sinusoidal
oscillations agreed very well with the value
predicted by the Tollmien-Schlichting
theory. Their amplitude increased down-
stream until turbulent motion ensued, at
first intermittently and then continuously.
It was clear that the oscillations were not
observed in the earlier experiments because
of the controlling effect of wind tunnel tur-
bulence.

Schubauer and Skramstad devised an in-
genious method of introducing controlled
small disturbances of known frequency as il-
lustrated in Fig. 5. The disturbances were
produced by vibrating a very thin (0.002
inch) flat ribbon whose mean position was
about 0.006 inch from the plate. A mag-
netic field was produced in the vicinity of
the ribbon by electromagnets on the oppo-
site side of the plate, and an alternating

Jong

_ 150

current of the desired frequency passed
through the ribbon. The amplitude of the
disturbance could be controlled by varying
the current. The ensuing fluctuations of
speed in the boundary layer were measured
by a hot wire anemometer. Frequency,
damping, and wavelength could be inde-
pendently measured.

After this experimental work had been
completed, C. C. Lin, a Chinese student at
the California Institute of Technology,
undertook a revision of the mathematical
theory of the stability of two-dimensional
parallel flows and a clarification of some fea-
tures of the Tollmien-Schlichting theory
which had been adversely criticized. Lin
made a brief report to the National Acad-
emy of Sciences (Proceedings, October
1944) and published a complete account in

U-FLUCTUATIO
LAYER OF

DISTANCE FROM SURFACE

AIR SPEED
TIME INTERVAL BET

4.0

45

5.0

5.5

A

LEADING EDGE IN FEET

6.0

A:

6.25 ANN. bie

DISTANCE FROM

4
8.0 | ih

_Fic. 4.—Laminar boundary layer oscillations near a flat plate.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

= 80 FT. PER SEC.

~———_——_— On. —a—u—_eoeeeer-xrereene eee ee

NY Ua V AAs acme ane ATA UACAVIVIVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVA are

Alp] ewe irene |

Wee rk

VOL. 37, NO. 5

the Quarterly of Applied Mathematics, vol.
3, pp. 117-142, 218-234, 277-301. Lin’s eal-
culation gave slightly different results from
those published by Tollmien and Schlicht-
ing.

Fig. 6 shows the experimental values of
the wavelengths of disturbances which are
neither damped nor amplified corresponding
to the Reynolds numbers indicated, as
compared with the theoretical curves of Lin
and Schlichting. Disturbances lying within
the open loop are amplified; those outside it
are damped. For Reynolds numbers below
420, disturbances of all wavelengths are
damped. The agreement between theory
and experiment is remarkable and similar
agreement is found for the independently
determined frequency locus.

In the free atmosphere the initial dis-

NS IN BOUNDARY
FLAT PLATE

-023 IN.

WEEN DOTS = 1/30 SEC.

Lhe

ah Ke my

May 15, 1947 DRYDEN: EXPLORING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

turbances may be the sound waves from
the engine or propeller. It has been shown
by Schubauer and Skramstad that excita-
tion by intense sound waves does in fact
produce earlier transition from laminar to
turbulent flow, i1.e., nearer the leading edge
of the plate.

This contribution to aerodynamics is the
result of work by German, English, Ameri-
can, and Chinese scientists.

Theoretical computations of the stability
of boundary layers subjected to pressure
gradients were made by German scientists
during the war, and a limited amount of
experimental work has been done in this
country. As previously mentioned, a fall-
ing pressure in the downstream direction
greatly increases the stability, the critical
Reynolds number being much larger than
for the case of uniform pressure. Similarly,
a rising pressure makes the laminar flow
much more unstable and reduces the criti-
cal Reynolds number.

J. Ackeret and his colleagues at the Zur-
ich Aerodynamic Institute have demon-
strated that the transition from laminar to
turbulent flow in the boundary layer can be
prevented by removing a part of the bound-
ary layer by sucking air into the interior of
the body through slots or through a porous
‘surface. He was, in fact, able to restore a
turbulent boundary layer to the laminar
condition. By careful attention to the de-
tailed design of the internal ducting of the
suction system he has obtained extremely
low drag coefficients. These results are also
in conformity with stability calculations
made by German investigators.

H. W. Liepmann at the California Insti-
tute of Technology studied the effect of the
curvature of the surface on the stability of
laminar flow. He observed the laminar
boundary layer oscillations of the Tollmien-
Schlichting type on the convex side of a
curved plate, using the oscillating ribbon
technique of Schubauer and Skramstad
as well as artificial regular roughness of
variable wavelength and acoustic excita-
tion. The results agreed closely with those
obtained at the National Bureau of Stand-
ards, the influence of convex curvature be-
ing extremely small. Hence transition on
the upper surface of a wing will not be

151

noticeably affected by the curvature of the
surface.

For concave surfaces a boundary layer of
small thickness (ratio of momentum thick-
ness to radius of curvature less than
0.00005) also exhibits instability of the
same type due to Tollmien-Schlichting
waves. For boundary layers of large thick-
ness (ratio of momentum thickness to
radius of curvature greater than 0.0005)
the instability is associated with three-
dimensional disturbances of the type pre-
dicted and observed by G. I. Taylor for
flow between rotating cylinders and studied
theoretically by Gortler for boundary layer

flow. For intermediate values of the thick-

ness there is a gradual change from one
type of instability to the other.

if] ot ~ 3

| ~ |

Ihe ~ i

| iI ~~ B ,

| | IN - pi

" i if" if 1

fet oll a
| 3) Pet cou i)

¥ het

(\

Fia. 5. — Apparatus for producing controlled
disturbances in a laminar boundary layer.

152

The mechamism of the instability of the
laminar boundary layer is now quite clear.
Small disturbances are always present aris-
ing from surface roughness, noise, or stream
turbulence, and these will have a certain
spectral distribution of energy. The dis-
turbances are selectively amplified by the
boundary layer until large sinusoidal oscil-
lations are present. These grow in ampli-
tude, become distorted, and finally produce
turbulent motion by a process whose de-
tails are not yet fully understood. If initial
disturbances are large enough, the required
amplification is small and transition is de-
pendent mainly on their magnitude.

Let us now turn our attention to the
turbulent boundary layer. Progress in un-
derstanding the mechanics of turbulent
flow has been slow. Practically all of the
methods available for the computation of
the flow in turbulent boundary layers are
of a type which combine the application of

0.5

0.2

0.1

MOA
fe pe

1000 S00

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

the momentum principle with empirical
relations obtained from a few experimental
studies. Such developments are of import-
ance to the practical engineer but they do
not satisfy one who tries to understand the
basic phenomena.

There have been many attempts to form
a satisfactory conceptual framework for
the construction of a rational theory of tur-
bulent flow. Well over half a century ago
Reynolds considered a turbulent flow as
consisting of a mean flow on which were
superposed fluctuations. He showed that
the effect was to introduce six additional
stress components in the equations of mo-
tion, the components of a turbulent stress
tensor. The shear stresses arose from a cor-
relation between the components of the
fluctuations. However, no method is known
of computing the magnitude of the fluctua-
tions and of the correlations between the
several components.

LIN'S CALCULATION
et
ree Pilea
o

SCHLICHTING'S CALCULATION

igs us
2 Be

4000

Fig. 6.—Experimental values for wavelengths an neutral oscillations for boundary layer of flat
plate as compared with computed values of Lin and Schliciting: 6* =displacement thickness of bound-
ary layer, a=27 divided by wavelength; R =Reynolds number of boundary layer, equal to ratio of .
product of speed outside boundary layer times the displacement thickness to the viscosity.

May 15, 1947 DRYDEN: EXPLORING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

The general analogy between the turbu-
lent fluctuations and the motions of the
molecules of the fluid was noticed long ago,
and attempts made to consider the effect of
turbulent fluctuations as increasing the
viscosity, increasing the rate of diffusion,
and as transferring momentum or vorticity
from one layer to another by processes sim-
ilar to those considered in the kinetic theory
of gases. Prandtl introduced the concept of
mixing length as somewhat analogous to the
mean free path in kinetic theory. The gen-
eral theory was developed in terms of the
- mixing length but some empirical assump-
tion had to be made about the mixing
length itself. Prandtl assumed that it was
related to geometrical parameters such as
distance from the wall and boundary layer
thickness. Von K4arm4n assumed in his
similarity theory that the mixing length
depended on the velocity gradient and
higher space derivatives of the velocity. A
characteristic assumption underlying all of
these theories is that the velocity fluctua-
tions at a point can be expressed quantita-
tively in terms of the mean flow in the
neighborhood of that point. A disturbing
feature is that the mixing length is a con-
siderable fraction (about 0.4) of the thick-
ness of the boundary layer but since an un-
determined multiplication factor is always
present, misgivings on this point have been
‘ignored. |

G. I. Taylor showed how the notion of
mixing length could be defined in precise
terms for a continuum and developed the
foundations of a statistical theory of turbu-
lence.

So long as the experimental material
available for comparison with theoretical
results was confined to measurements of
mean speed distribution, boundary layer
thickness, skin friction, and similar quan-
tities, little progress could be made. Widely
different mixing length distributions give
nearly indistinguishable speed distributions.
The hot-wire anemometer has made pos-
sible measurements of the fluctuations
themselves, of correlations, and of the tur-
bulent stress tensor. Some data have rec-
ently become available from experiments by
my colleagues Schubauer, Klebanoff, and
Squire at the National Bureau of Stand-

153

ards. The results at hand were presented in
a paper at the Sixth International Congress
for Applied Mechanics in Paris last Sep-
tember, which will soon be published. This
is not the occasion to describe the methods
or details of the results. I wish, however, to
summarize the interpretation placed on the
results at the present moment.

Fig. 7 shows the coefficient of shearing
stress plotted against the mean velocity
gradient for traverses of the boundary
layer at three stations. Over extended re-
gions of the boundary layer the velocity
gradient changes very little, yet the shear-
ing stress changes by a factor of 4 or 5.
These curves do not suggest any very basic
relation between the turbulent shearing
stress and the mean velocity gradient.

From the measurements of the compon-
ents of the turbulent stress tensor it is pos-
sible to compute the direction of the prin-
cipal axis of the stress tensor and to com-
pare this direction with the direction of the
deformation tensor. The results are shown
in Fig. 8. The direction of principal dilata-

Fie. 7.—Turbulent shear stress coefficient in
turbulent boundary layer as function of gradient
of mean speed: C; =turbulent shear stress divided
by velocity pressure; w=local mean speed; y=
distance normal to surface; U =mean speed out-
side boundary layer; 6=momentum thickness of
boundary layer.

154

tion in the approximately parallel shear
flow of the boundary layer is at 45° to the
flow direction. The direction of the prin-
cipal axis of the stress tensor is from 10° to
30°. Expressed in more familiar language,
there are directions at any point for which
there is a shear stress but no rate of shear
of the mean flow, and other directions for
which there is no shear stress although there
is a finite rate of shear of the mean flow.
These results can not be explained in terms
of a single scalar mixing length and sug-
gest that the turbulent stresses at a point
are not simply related to the mean flow in
the neighborhood of the point. The stresses
probably depend on the diffusion of turbu-
lence from a considerable distance.

Other types of measurements are in prog-
ress. For example correlation measurements
between fluctuations at points some dis-
tance apart in the same cross section of the
boundary layer show that the correlation
differs from zero over distances comparable
with a large fraction of the boundary layer
thickness. As further experimental meas-
urements on the fluctuations become avail-
able, it is hoped that a more adequate un-
derstanding of the phenomena will be ob-
tained.

In terms of the molecular analogy it ap-
pears that the ‘‘mean free path”’ or scale of

Fia. 8.—Angle between axis of turbulent stress

tensor and the direction of mean flow: a =angle
in degrees; y=distance normal to the surface;
6=thickness of boundary layer.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

the turbulent processes is large compared
with dimensions in which we are inter-
ested. We must think in terms of consider-
able masses of fluid moving more or less
coherently. The process can not be smoothed
by averaging over a small volume because
we can not choose dimensions small com-
pared with those in which we are interested
and at the same time large compared to a
single fluid element. We are therefore ask-
ing ourselves questions of the following
types: (1) Shall we regard the flow as a
mean flow which merely transports and dis-
torts large eddies superposed on the flow,
these eddies being of varying size and in-
tensity? or (2) Shall we regard the flow as
a nonstationary flow made up of traveling
wave systems, each wave extending across
the entire boundary layer and traveling at
a speed determined by the geometry of the
whole boundary layer, the speed outside the
boundary layer, and the physical properties
of the fluid? The search is still for that
method of approach that will be most use-
ful in understanding the flow.

Another of the typical situations in com-
plex flow patterns which has received con-
siderable study is that in which the bound-
ary layer separates from the surface, 1.e.,
the direction of flow very near the surface
reverses. The separation of a laminar
boundary layer is fairly well understood; it
arises in the presence of an adverse pressure
gradient in the flow outside the boundary
layer. After separation the boundary layer
persists as a free boundary layer, 1.e., region
of steep velocity gradient. Transition even-
tually occurs in the free layer and under
suitable conditions the layer may reattach
itself to the body as a turbulent boundary
layer.

Separation of a turbulent boundary layer
also occurs in the presence of an adverse
pressure gradient. We are engaged in a
study of this phenomenon at the National
Bureau of Standards. The results to date
show that as separation is approached the
turbulent shear stress near the wall falls
regularly and smoothly as separation is
approached. The falling stress is due to
decreased correlation between the compon-
ents of the velocity fluctuations and not to
a decrease in their magnitude.

May 15, 1947 DRYDEN: EXPLORING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS

Perhaps the most obvious development
in aerodynamics in recent years is the emer-
gence of widespread interest in high-speed
aerodynamics associated with the develop-
ment of high-speed aircraft, jet propulsion,
rockets, and large missiles. High speeds are
measured in terms of the Mach number, the
name given to the ratio of the speed of the
aircraft or missile to the speed of sound.
Aircraft are now beginning to operate in
the transsonic range, i.e., at Mach numbers
between 0.8 and 1.2, in which region the
local relative air velocity reaches and ex-
ceeds the speed of sound (1127 ft/sec or 767
miles per hour at a temperature of 20°C).
Speeds corresponding to Mach numbers
greater than 1.2 are termed supersonic
speeds.

Supersonic speeds are not new. The 1919

model 16-inch gun fired a projectile weigh-
ing 2,340 pounds at an initial speed of 2,700
ft/sec corresponding to a Mach number of
2.4. Until very recently, however, these
problems were in the domain of a separate
science—ballistics. Now ballistics and aero-
dynamics are fusing into a single science as
aircraft travel faster and missiles sprout
wings. In addition to this mating of inter-
ests new vitality has been introduced into
high-speed aerodynamics by the many
physicists and mathematicians who have
been brought into contact with its prob-
lems during the war. One of the physicists
‘remarked to me that he had been surprised
to find that all the problems in fluid me-
chanics had not been solved in the 1880’s
as he had supposed; in fact, the subject had
proved to be so interesting and the problems
‘so challenging that he had decided to re-
main in the new field.

The increasing number of mathemati-
cians and physicists working in the field has
led to steady progress in developing the
fundamental mathematical theory of the
transsonic and supersonic flow of a non-
viscous compressible fluid, the foundations
for which were laid by P. Molenbrock and
S. A. Chaplygin nearly 50 years ago. Some
of the landmarks in the development before
the war were the Prandtl-Glauert linearized
equations for subsonic two-dimensional
flow, the Karm4n-Tsien relation between
incompressible and compressible subsonic

155

flows, the Prandtl-Busemann graphical
methods for solving problems in supersonic
flow, and Ackeret’s linearized treatment
and Busemann’s second order theory of
supersonic flows. There were of course many
other contributions familiar to workers in
the field.

During the war much attention was given
to the theory of subsonic and transsonic
flow of compressible fluids and somewhat
less attention until recently to supersonic
flow. In this country the work was spon-
sored by the National Advisory Committee
for Aeronautics; the Bureau of Ordnance,
Navy Department; the Ordnance Depart-
ment of the Army; the Bureau of Aeronau-
tics, Navy Department; the Army Air
Forces; and the Office of Scientific Research
and Development. Much of the theoretical
work is in process of declassification and
should soon be generally available.

Here it must suffice to mention only a few
items as illustrative of the character of the
work, 1.e., the development of the theory of
supersonic conical flows and their applica-
tion to a linearized theory of the three di-
mensional flow about thin airfoils, the ap-
plication of relaxation methods and the in- »
creasing interest in enlisting the aid of the
newly developed electronic computing
machines in the computation of exact solu-
tions for particular cases.

The theory of transsonic and supersonic
flow is complicated by the occurrence of
shock waves, representing discontinuities in
the flow. The study of this field received
tremendous impetus during the war from
investigations of flow through tubes and
nozzles and blast effect of explosives. The
aeronautical group also encountered shock
wavesas aircraftattained transsonic speeds.
A large amount of theoretical and experi-
mental work has been done on the condi-
tions for the appearance of shock waves and
the interaction of shock waves with each
other and with a solid or free boundary.

Important experimental investigations
have been made of the interaction of shock
waves and boundary layers on wing sec-
tions by J. Ackeret at the Zurich Aero-
nautical Institute and by H. W. Liepmann
at the California Institute of Technology.
The shock-wave pattern depends markedly

156

on whether the flow in the boundary layer
is laminar or turbulent and the shock wave
does not always cause the flow to separate
from the surface, although a characteristic
feature of high speed flow as described for
example by John Stack of the NACA in the
Eighth Wright Brothers Lecture of the In-
stitute of the Aeronautical Sciences is the
early separation of the flow from the surface
of the airfoil and the accompanying promi-
nent shock wave. The interpretation of
these results is that the effects of Reynolds
number, i.e., scale, are not independent of
the effects of Mach number and vice versa.
Knowledge of the state of flow in the bound-

fe)
i@ O

Poras coere] | |) TT ot
Sie ee ame

Sea

Dae
ee
Sait

ReaG ts Sessa

=

S| Nal Se Se es
Restrepo

MACH NUMBER

Fig. 9.—Effect of sweep on drag at high
speeds: Mach Number = ratio of speed to speed of
sound.

ary layer is essential to the correct inter-
pretation of model experiments at high
Mach numbers.

The investigators who were sent into
Germany at the end of the war to study the
accomplishments of German research found
many models and a few full-scale aircraft
with sharply swept-back wings. The re-
search laboratories had produced many re-
ports on the Pfeilfliigel or arrow-wing. This
plan form was first suggested for supersonic

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACEDEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

flight by A. Busemann at a scientific con-
gress in Rome in 1935. At that time, how-
ever, no one was seriously interested in

achieving supersonic flight, and the idea

received little attention. Some time during
the war A. Betz, of Gottingen, saw that the
use of this plan form would increase the
critical Mach number at transsonic speeds,
1.e., the Mach number at which the drag in-
creased very rapidly because of compres-
sibility effects. He patented the idea and
with other German scientists promoted its
application to high speed aircraft. Fig. 9 il-
lustrates the general nature of the benefit
to be obtained.

R. T. Jones, of the NACA Langley Labo-
ratory, independently realized the advan-
tages of sweepback, developed a theory, and
had made some tests before the German in-
formation was available in this country.
The theory shows that the flow around a
wing of constant section moving through a
still fluid is determined solely by the nor-
mal component of the velocity of the solid
boundaries. Hence if the wing is swept back
so that the component of the velocity nor-
mal to the span is less than the critical
speed for the wing section the flow will
have the characteristics of subsonic flow.
These advantages of sweepback are offset
by some disadvantages which require fur-
ther study, but this development is con-
sidered to constitute an important advance.

Such are some of the recent advances in
aerodynamics in its more fundamental and
basic phases. Apologies are made to any
scientist in the field who may find his ac-
complishments overlooked in this brief
sketch. It is hoped that the declassification
of fundamental scientific work and the
freer exchange of such information with our
fellow workers abroad may permit a more
adequate review at some later date.

I have tried to bring to you a little of the
fascination of scientific research carried out
for the purpose of comprehending physical
phenomena and to outline some of the prob-
lems in the field of aerodynamics. I think
that research carried out in this spirit in all
fields of science is essential to progress.

May 15, 1947

ARCHEOLOGY.—WNote on some potsherds from northeastern Wyoming.
R. WEDEL, U. S. National Museum.

The handful of pottery fragments on
which the following remarks are largely
based was collected by George Howes, of
Beulah, Wyo., and came to the writer’s at-
tention through Dr. F. H. H. Roberts, Jr.,
of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
They are said to have been found by Mr.
Howes while he was plowing at his farm on
Sundance Creek about 10 miles east of the
town of Sundance, in Crook County. The
locality is approximately 25 miles east
southeast of Devils Tower National Monu-
ment and 10 or 12 miles from the South
Dakota boundary. Sundance Creek flows
northeast across the flank of the Black Hills
uplift to drain eventually into the Belle
Fourche River just below Belle Fourche,
S. Dak. ,

Twenty-six sherds comprise the sample.
In size, none exceeds 14% inches (32 mm) in
greatest dimension, and about half are un-
der 20 mm in diameter. This fact imposes
obvious limitations on any inferences that
may be drawn, but inasmuch as the type of
ware seems not to have been illustrated and
described in any detail heretofore it is be-
lieved the present series is worthy of record.

When received the sherds were coated
with a very tenacious fine red dirt. Their
_ color as revealed after washing was a very
dark gray to nearly black, with inner sur-
faces generally lighter in tone. One bears a
thin light reddish exterior layer that resists
washing and appears to be a true slip. The
others are unslipped, but several have a
polished or lustrous outer surface. Temper-
ing consists of small angular bits of sand,
used very sparingly. Tiny flecks of mica
may be detected in the dark paste. Twenty-
four of the sherds are between 3.5 and 5 mm
thick, and none exceeds 7 mm.

Included in the series are five rimsherds
(Fig. 1, a-d, h), each of which extends 17
to 28 mm below the lip of the original vessel.
The lip in each case bears small diagonal in-
cisions averaging 5 to 7 per inch. Incidental
to their application the soft clay was pressed

* Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received February
27, 1947.

WEDEL: SOME POTSHERDS FROM NORTHEASTERN WYOMING

157

WALDO

outward so that the lip slightly exceeds in
width the thickness of the vessel wall im-
mediately below. Other than this there is
no indication of a thickening or reinforcing
of the rim which may be regarded as inten-
tional. Paralleling the lip on the exterior
surface of three fragments (Fig. 1, a—c) are
incised lines which may have encircled the
vessel. The largest sherd has six of these.
There are no lines or other decoration on
the two remaining rim pieces other than the
ticked lips.

Of the remaining (body) sherds nine bear
incising in grouped parallel lines, but owing
to the small size of the individual pieces the
pattern of which they once formed a part
is conjectural. Two of those illustrated (Fig.
1, f, g) show a series of apparently hori-
zontal lines ending against others running
obliquely; the latter may have been either
paired diagonals or else the edge of a larger
decorative area wherein the hachuring was
at an angle to the horizontal. Adhering to
the inner surface of the larger is a l-mm
layer of carbonized organic- matter. The
lines vary from deeply cut narrow incisions
to broad round-bottomed grooves. On one
small sherd there are shallow indistinct im-
pressions alternating with ridges suggestive
of the tooled or paddle-marked surface seen
on much of the pottery produced in his-
toric times by the Mandan and Pawnee
(Holmes, 1903, pl. 175; Will and Spinden,
1906, pls. 37, 41; Wedel, 1938, pl. 6, 7).
Others have a slightly scratched or brushed
appearance, though this may have been un-
intentionally produced. Six exhibit only
plain smoothed exteriors.

Little regarding the associated artifact
types and nothing as to the probable form
of habitation is known. The ubiquitous
“snubnose” or end scraper of the Plains is
said to be present as are small projectile
points with or without a single pair of lat-
eral. notches and leaf-shaped knives or
spearheads.

To the best of my knowledge sherds
definitely of the type just described have
not yet been reported from Nebraska or
South Dakota, the States nearest Wyoming

158

where archeological fieldwork has to date
given true time perspective. However, on
leafing through one of my old notebooks
containing incidental observations made
during a hunting trip in Cherry County,
northern Nebraska, I find the following
entry under date of November 1, 1931:
‘‘Drove to a very interesting site on the
right (south) bank of Snake River, at the
bridge leading to the forest reserve, about
2 or 3 miles above the falls. Removal of the
sand by wind has exposed a rather firmer
black surface, perhaps 3 acres or so in ex-
tent. Numerous sherds, all very badly
broken up and small, are to be picked up—
are characteristically dark gray with a red
core, sand or grit tempered, with thin
non-collared rims decorated by parallel in-
cised lines which encircled the vessel, and

“a Z

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

nearly always with tiny diagonal incisions
cut into the lip. ... Arrowpoints are pre-
dominantly small and triangular, un-
notched, of white or gray chert, etc. Broken
animal bones are present, but few if any
traces of hearths and none of lodge sites. Is
about 50 yards from the Snake River, in a
well sheltered location. There are said to be
similar sites about 2 miles up Boardmans
Creek, which joins the Snake some 2 miles
above this site.” .
The locality referred to is in the central
part of the county, approximately 25 miles.
southwest of Valentine and 8 miles south of
Burge Post Office. About one-third of a
small full-bodied pot with loop handles,
decorated with alternate groups of parallel

incised lines and triangular areas filled with

minute punctate marks, is said to have been

O Pp

Fig. 1.—Potsherds from Sundance Creek, northeastern Wyoming.

May 15, 1947 BLACKWELDER: GEOLOGY OF HAT ISLAND, GREAT SALT LAKE

found on this site. If memory spurred by the
above note is to be trusted, the sherds did
not vary significantly from those from Sun-
dance Creek.

The Sundance potsherds are reminiscent
also of others I have seen from Brown
County on the Niobrara, from Antelope and
Madison Counties on the middle Elkhorn,
and of some described to me but not ac-
tually seen from the vicinity of Callaway
on the South Loup River. Perhaps the pot-
tery deseribed by Buker (1937, p. 80) from
Edgemont, 8S. Dak., as having ‘“‘vertical
lines interrupted by diagonal sets of parallel
lines” is also related. The Elkhorn Valley
sherds occurred with small triangular un-
notched arrowpoints, grooved mauls,
quartzite anvil stones, and, I believe, disk
pipe fragments. The decoration on all this
pottery somewhat suggests certain proto-
historic types in eastern Nebraska, espe-
cially Oneota and Lower Loup Focus
(Pawnee) wares—or at any rate it ap-
proaches these more closely than it does
anything yet described for the prehistoric
period (Hill and Wedel, 1936, pls. 3-6;
Dunlevy, 1936, pls. 4-6; Wedel, 1938, pls.
4A, 5; ef. Will and Spinden, 1906, pl. 38).
Vessel shapes are unknown, but from the
thinness of the sherds generally it is likely
the pots were mostly small. Affiliations
seem eastern (Missouri Valley) rather than
western; the time period indicated is prob-
ably late prehistoric or early protohistoric.

GEOLOGY.—Geology of Hat Island, Great Salt Lake, Utah.

WELDER, Stanford University.

Although the islands in Great Salt Lake,
Utah, were visited and surveyed by Cap-
tain Stansbury in 1849, little more is
known about their geology today than the
brief notes in his report.” In fact, none of the
islands have ever been adequately studied
by geologists. One of the most inaccessible
of them is a low rocky island known as Hat
Island or Bird Island.* It is situated in the

1 Received February 10, 1947.

2 StansBury, H. Exploration and survey of the
valley of the Great Salt Lake of Utah, etc. U. S. 32d
Congr. Spec. Sess., Sen. Ex. Doc. 3, 1853.

’ Although Hat Island is the original name, the
locality is more commonly called Bird Island by

159

Until this particular ware is definitely al-
located to a specific archeological complex,
its. relationships will remain nebulous.
Nevertheless, the Pawnee can be safely
ruled out as its bearers, since their pottery
is on the whole readily distinguishable. It
may be significant that the Elkhorn in early
historic times was claimed by the Omaha,
the Niobrara by the Ponca. Still farther
west at various times were the Comanche,
Kiowa, and finally the Dakota. Whether
one or more of these, or perhaps some en-
tirely different tribe, is to be credited with
dispersion of the ware herein described is
for the future to disclose.

LITERATURE CITED

BuxkeEr, L. W. Archaeology of the southern Black
Hilis. Amer. Antiquity 3(1): 79-80. 1937.

Dunuevy, M. L. A comparison of the cultural
manifestations of the Burkett (Nance Coun-
ty) and the Gray-Wolfe (Colfax County)
sites. Chapt. Nebraska Arch. 1(2). 1936.

Hin, A. T., and WepEL, W. R. Excavations at
the Leary Indian village and burial site,
Richardson County, Nebraska. Nebraska
Hist. Mag. 17(1). 1936.

Hoimss, W. H. Aboriginal pottery of the eastern
United States. 20th Ann. Rept. Bur. Amer.
Ethnol. 19038. |

WeEDEL, Wautpo R. The dtrect-historical ap-
proach in Pawnee archeology. Smithsonian
Mise. Coll. 97(7). 1938.

Wit, G. F., and SpInDEN, H. J. The Mandans.
Pap. Peabody Mus. Amer. Archeol. and
Ethnol., Harvard Univ. 1906.

Eviot BLAcK-

central part of the lake about 4 miles north
of Carrington Island and 12 miles southwest
of Promontory Point. In connection with
the Salt Lake meeting of the American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science,
the writer took advantage of the oppor-
tunity afforded by a zoological excursion to
visit the island on June 16, 1933.

As seen from the east, the island looks

the people who live in the Salt Lake Basin. The
latter name seems undesirable because not dis-
tinctive, in view of the fact that sea birds nest in
abundance on several other islands in the lake. It
is therefore to be hoped that the name given by
Stansbury will be preserved.

160

like a low-crowned black hat resting upon
the water. The rocky part is only a few
acres in extent and rises about 50 feet above
the water level of 1933, which was near
zero on the government gauge at Black
Point. The island is surrounded by a sub-
merged platform averaging perhaps a
thousand feet in breadth. This is thickly
encrusted with uneven calcareous tufa,
which is apparently being built at the pres-
ent time. Slimy masses of algae impart to
the rounded crusts, or bioherms, a mottled
greenish-brown color and are believed to be
the causal agents in the formation of the
tufa. Spaces between the bioherms are filled
with light gray odlitic sand similar in com-
position to the crusts.* At the 1933 stage of
the lake the platform was covered with
about 3 feet of water, but near the shore of
the island was a moatlike depression about
6 feet deep and 100 to 200 feet wide, for
which no satisfactory explanation has been
suggested. In more normal years the water
is 10 to 15 feet deeper. The circumstance re-
minds one of a coral reef enclosing a lagoon.

Trailing off to the southeast of the island
is an embankment of sand and gravel, which
was formed as a broad shoal when the lake
level stood higher. It consists of wave-worn
fragments of hard rock and tufa, mingled
with the prevailing odlitic sand.

The rocky part of Hat Island is composed
almost wholly of a tilloid conglomerate
identical in character with that exposed in
Little Mountain, west of Ogden.® As in that

4 Similar deposits and bottom conditions have
been well described by A. J. EARDLEY, as he found
them on other parts of the Salt Lake shore. (Sed7-
ments of Great Salt Lake, Utah. Bull. Amer. Assoc.
Petr. Geol. 22: 1305-1411. 1938.)

5 BLACKWELDER, Exior. An ancient glacial for-
mation in Utah. Journ. Geol. 40: 291. 1932.

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/

VOL. 37, NO. 5

locality, the rock is typically a massive
dark gray argillite, well sprinkled with peb-
bles and boulders, among which white and
gray metaquartzites and pinkish gneiss pre-
dominate. The matrix has a rude but evi-
dent cleavage, which would warrant calling
it a bouldery slate, but the boulders are un-
deformed. For reasons that have already
been sufficiently set forth in the writer’s
earlier paper, the rock is regarded as prob-
ably glacial and is therefore here called
tallite.

The massive and otherwise structureless
tillite is interrupted by two or three beds,
or lenses, of stratified graywacke and fine
conglomerate 2 to 4 feet thick. These beds
were almost certainly comprised of sand and
gravel that were sorted and deposited by
streams of water, seemingly similar to de-
posits commonly associated with till in
Pleistocene moraines.

On Hat Island neither the bottom nor
the top of the tillite is exposed, but the
visible thickness is roughly estimated as
about 200 feet. The banded or varved slates,
which form a significant member of the
sequence at the south end of Little Moun-
tain, were not observed on Hat Island.

The beds of graywacke strike N. 20° W.
and dip eastward about 30°, whereas in
Little Mountain the dip is westward. These
relations suggest that the tillite of Hat
Island may be the same formation as that
in Little Mountain but reappearing on the
western side of a broad syncline.

Nothing on Hat Island indicates the age
of the tillite, but its similarity to other oc-
currences in the Salt Lake district suggests
that the formation is late pre-Cambrian or
possibly Lower Cambrian in age.

ZOOLOGY .—Disoma franciscanum, a new marine annelid from California.’ OLGA

HartTmMan, University of Southern California.

L. SCHMITT. )

Numerous collections of an unknown
member of the Disomidae, dredged by the
U. S. Fisheries steamer Albatross during
1912 and 1913, form the basis of this report.
The family is a small one, known through

1 Received February 18, 1947. The illustrations
for this paper were made by Anker Petersen.

(Communicated by WaLpo

only scattered references from widely
spaced geographic regions. Occurrence of
its representatives, even in large collections,
is extremely rare. The family is known for
only eight (or not over ten) species. The
genera, Disoma Oersted and Poecilochaetus
Claparéde, are usually the only ones recog-

May 15, 1947

nized, but the status of some other names
remains enigmatical.

The family name, Disomidae, was erected
by Mesnil (1897). It includes Disomididae
Chamberlin (1919, p. 370) and Disominae
Séderstrém (1920, p. 271). Disoma Oersted
(1844) is the oldest genus; it was later
named T'rochochaetus Levinsen (1882) based
on a posterior fragment of what later proved
to be the genotype of Dzsoma. A later addi-
tion, Nevaya whiteavest McIntosh (1911, p.
149) was first placed among the Scalibreg-
midae, but later shown to be another spe-
cies of Disoma (Fauvel, 1916, p. 3). Dzso-
mides Chamberlin (1919, p. 370) was pro-
posed to replace Disoma Oersted, since the
latter was thought to be preoccupied; the
family name was thus changed to Disom-

ididae Chamberlin. This change was not re-

quired.

Another name, Thaumasioma Webster
and Benedict (1884), was also referred to
Disoma by Mesnil (1897, p. 94), but to me
this view seems in error. The original and
only known description is either incorrect
on characters that have major importance
or else the individual on which the genus
was based departs so widely from all known
members of the family that it is hardly in-
elusive in this group. It was erected for a
single species, 7. singulare Webster and
Benedict (1884, pp. 737-739), from Massa-
chusetts. A single injured specimen meas-
ured 16 mm long for 22 segments (hence
only an anterior fragment). Identity with
Disoma multisetosum (Oersted) has been
suggested (Mesnil, 1897), but this view
may have been prompted by the presence
of serrated parapodial lobes.

The following characters, based on the
description, are at variance with those of
Disoma: (1) Ventral setae of the first two
segments were stated to be in two series,
the one capillary, the other stout spines. In
species of Disoma only the second neuro-
podium may have spines in addition to
setae. (2) The first segment was said to
have a median cirrus. (3) The second seg-
ment has notopodia provided with a fan of
capillary setae, while in front is a thin pro-
jecting plate divided into six unequal lobes.
When a serrated membrane is present, it is
typically postsetal, not presetal, in position.

HARTMAN: A NEW MARINE ANNELID FROM CALIFORNIA

hey

(4) Behind the second segment all setae are
capillary; no mention is made of modified
acicular spines. (5) In the third segment a
digitate plate is said to extend down the
side of the body, presetal in position. If the
author confused presetal with postsetal
positions, in the instances mentioned above,
the relations to: Disoma are clearer, but
there are other discrepancies that are not
to be explained. Since the only known
specimen on which the description was
based is not known to exist, it seems ad-
visible to regard Thawmastoma singulare as
an indeterminable genus and species.

The only other genus of the family,
Poecilochaetus Claparéde (1875) was erected
for an aberrant larva for which the seden-
tary stages were later found. Levinsen (1882,
p. 104) recognized the affinities of Disoma
and Poectlochaetus, based on a study of the
larval stages of their respective species, but
it was not until later that the family Diso-
midae was recognized and its members sepa-
rated from those of the family Spionidae
(Mesnil, 1897).

The generic name Poecilochaetus, like
that of Disoma, is also obscured by sys-
tematic complexities. Much earlier, Cher-
usca nitens Miller (1858, p. 217) from
Brazil, was described. Both the genus and
species remain enigmatical and unknown
except through a brief, original record.
However, two characters ally it to Poe-
cilochaetus; they are (1) the structure of
parapodia, in having foliaceous dorsal and
ventral lobes, and (2) the prostomial carun-
cle which has a branched, median antenna.
In other respects the account of Cherusca
is very sketchy and obscure.

The conclusions regarding the family
Disomidae may be summarized as follows:
Two genera, Disoma and Poecilochaetus are
recognized. The first includes T'rochochaetus
Levinsen, Nevaya McIntosh, and Disomides
Chamberlin; the second includes question-
ably Cherusca Miller; Thawmastoma Web-
ster and Benedict is indeterminable.

Poecilochaetus Claparéde is known from
the Americas through a single species, P.
johnsont Hartman (1939, p. 164) from Cali-
fornia. Disoma Oersted is known from the
Western Hemisphere through two species,
both from deep water off eastern Canada:

_

162

D. carica Birula, recorded as Nevaya whit-
eavest McIntosh (see Fauvel, 1932, p.24),and
D. watsont Fauvel (1932, p. 28). A third
species, D. franciscanum, is described be-
low.

The known species of Disoma may be ap-
proximately divided into two groups. In one
the anterior, postsetal lobes are serrated. To
this group belong the genotype, D. multi-
setosum Oersted (1844) known from north-
western Europe, and D. franciscanum. In the
second group the postsetal lobes are entire.
To it belong D. carica Birula from northern
Europe and eastern Canada, D. orissae
Fauvel (1932, p. 174) from India, and D.
watsont Fauvel (1916, p. 3). The last three
named are not clearly distinguishable from
one another (Fauvel, 1932, p. 174), since
the last two are known through only short,
imperfect, anterior fragments.

Key to Species or Disoma OERSTED

Is Postsetal lobesentine: 4 sve ure tir See eeu e
ys Oks Ce eyo carica Birula, orissae Fauvel,

and watson Fauvel

Postsetal lobes serrated in anterior segments. 2

2, Third parapodium with a long cirrus........
SBtl. ce PA VE 2 multisetosum Oersted
Third parapodium without a long cirrus.....

iia TAGES OyeES ACA Wage franciscanum, 0. sp.

Disoma franciscanum, n. sp.
Figs. 1-3

Collections —San Francisco Bay, Calif,
dredged by the Albatross during 1912 and 19138,
from the following dredging stations (consult
dredging and hydrographic records of the
Albatross, 1911-1920: Appendix 3 to Rep.
U.S. Comm. Fish. for 1920, Bur. Fish. Doe.
No. 897, Washington, 1911, for more complete
date) peDordsy .(Z)e 1) 0G "(2)) ano) Cl)
D5729,(2), D5744 (1), D5754 (1), D5772 (1),
D5828 (1), D5830 (18), D5831 (2), D5838
(many, with tubes). Depths range from 1 to 16
fathoms, bottom of mud and sand to shale.

Description—Among the numerous indi-
viduals listed above, none is complete, but one
may estimate the total, probable length from
larger fragments. A longer piece, including
anterior and median portions measures 60 mm
long for 73 segments. Another piece, consisting
of only posterior, biramous parapodia meas-
ures nearly as long. The total length (preserved)
may thus approximate 150 to 200 mm. One of
the collections (D5838) contains many tube

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

fragments, some with individuals. Most tubes
are flaccid and depressed to cylindrical in cross
section; some of the larger ones are about 100
mm long and 6 mm wide. Since the tubes are
fragile and easily broken, the total length is
probably considerably more than 10 cm.

The body is depressed to cylindrical in cross
section. An anterior region of 20 to 25 segments _
is more or less sharply set off from segments
farther back; its rings are both shorter and
wider, and its parapodia more fully developed
than those farther back. Most individuals
have lost the long, paired palpi but some re-
tain longer or shorter portions of these struc-
tures, in their normal attachment, at the sides
of the prostomial caruncle (Fig. 1, a).

The body consists of three regions, (1) an
anterior one of about 20 to 25 segments in
which parapodia are biramous (except the
second segment which is uniramous), (2) a
median region of 70 or more segments in which
parapodia are uniramous, and (3) a posterior
region of 90 or fewer segments in which they
are again biramous. The change from anterior
to median regions, is transitional in that noto-
podia come to be gradually smaller and disap-
pear as small papillae. The change from
median to posterior regions is also gradual;
notopodia again appear gradually, although
they never come to be as large. The total
number of segments may thus be 150 to 200,
consisting of 20 to 25 anterior, 70 or more
median, and 90 or fewer posterior, ones. An
accurate count is not possible because it is
difficult to estimate exact levels where speci-
mens are broken.

The presence of a third body region for
species of Disoma was first recorded by Levin-
sen (1882, p. 129), for which he erected Tro-
chochaeta sarsi; Michaelsen (1897, p. 41)
showed it to be the posterior end of Disoma
multisetosum Oersted.

The prostomium is an elongate, flat ridge,
narrowed and rounded at its anterior margin
when the proboscis is retracted, or somewhat
weakly trilobed when the proboscis is everted.
It widens just in front of the palpal attachentm
but narrows again farther back and is continued
behind the palpal bases as a narrow caruncle,
such as characterizes species of Poecilochaetus
Claparéde. Normally the prostomium is di-
rected downward at its anterior end; thus it is
seen with difficulty in dorsal view, and fully

May 15, 1947

only in frontal view. There are three or four
inconspicuous eye spots at the sides of the
prostomium, between the palpal bases. They
are small in size, more or less deeply em-
bedded and easily overlooked.

The palpi are probably long in life and ca-

HARTMAN: A NEW MARINE ANNELID FROM CALIFORNIA

163

pable of great extension. Preserved, they are
greatly shrunken and fallen from most indi-
viduals. As in members of the family Spionidae,
they are nearly cylindrical processes and have
a deep, longitudinal groove along one side,
facing the mouth; they have dark pigment

Fig. 1.—Disoma franciscanum, n. sp.: a, Anterior end including first four segments, with proboscis
partly everted, in dorsal view, X50; b, anterior end including first three segments, distal ends of palpi
not shown, in ventral view, X50; c, posterior end including pygidium and last three segments, in
dorsal view, 110; d, two segments from posterior region of body, in ventral view, X46; e, ovum from
body cavity, seen in optical section through the long axis, 600.

164

along the sides of the groove. When fallen
away, they leave a long, oval scar of attach-
ment at the sides of the prostomial ridge.

The mouth is a large, triangular area on the
ventral side of the first segment. When the
proboscis is retracted, the anterior and pos-
terior edges of the mouth are strongly ridged
(Fig. 1, 6) and indicate capability of great
extension. When the proboscis is extended, the
mouth is widely open to permit protrusion of a
large proboscis.

The proboscis is a voluminous, thin-walled,
much-branched sac, approximately divisible
into right and left halves; each half is again
divided into short, digitate lobes, the branch-
ing largely dichotomous so that each side
comes to have 16 to 20-short lobes. When
everted, the proboscis covers the lower side of
the anterior end of the body. When retracted,
it occupies most of the body space in the first
four segments. Thereafter, the alimentary
tract is slender through 17 segments, except for
paired diverticula in each segment; these
paired pouches number one set to each segment
and are ventrolateral in attachment.

The first segment is biramous and larger in its
postsetal lobes than those farther back. It is
directed forward so that its setae extend far in
front of the prostomium. The notopodial,
postsetal portion is a long lobe that is entire,
bifid or even trifid at its free end (this char-
acter seems to have no significance since those
of a single individual frequently differ from
each other as shown in Fig. 1, a). The neuro-
podial, postsetal portion is similarly variable or
asymmetrical, but usually entire. The setal
lobes are short and papillar; they lie immedi-
ately in front of the proximal bases of the
postsetal lobes. The notosetal fascicle is much
smaller than the neurosetal one and its setae
shorter and fewer. All setae in the first segment
are long, pointed and straight; each fascicle is
supported by a single, slender aciculum that is
completely embedded.

The second segment (Fig. 2, b) is uniramous
and its setae are also directed forward but not
nearly so far as those of the first one. It is
provided with an elongate, triangular, noto-
podial, postsetal lobe; this may be entire or
slightly serrated to form two or three shorter
lobes. There is considerable irregularity and
asymmetry in this respect, just as for the
postsetal lobes of the first segment. There is no

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

notopodial fascicle or papilla (or even noto-
aciculum). The setigerous lobe is an elongated
ridge and provided with four or five projecting,
dark-yellow spines (actually the emergent
acicula), alternating witb, but in front of, five
slender, longer, pointed setae. In addition,
there are two or three partly developed, dusky
embedded acicula at the superior edge of its
respective fascicle. This parapodium is some-
what ventral in position as compared with
those in front and behind. The heavy spines of
this and the next parapodium are probably
homologous with the penicillate acicula farther
back, and with the single, projecting acicula
in parapodia of median and posterior body
regions, although they resemble setae in their
distal extension. The second and third neuro-
podia have no other embedded structure.

_ The third segment (Fig. 2, c) is at once dis-
tinguishable because of the heavy, dark brown,
projecting neuroacicular spines. Parapodia are
biramous and project laterally. The noto-
podium consists of a broad, serrated postsetal
lamella in which the upper portion is usually
the largest; its setal fascicle consists of 20 to
25 slender, pointed notosetae that resemble
those farther back. The neuropodium is much
larger and glandular; it has a broad postsetal
membrane that is crenulate to serrate at its
distal edge. The neurosetal fascicle consists of
four or five heavy, dark brown, slightly curved
acicula (spines) in a vertical series, anterior to,
and alternating with, a similar number of
delicate, slender, pointed setae. In addition,
there are two dark, partly developed acicula
at the superior edge of the series (to be seen
only by dissection). The arrangement and gen-
eral appearance of these bristles is like that for
the neuropodium of the second segment, but
the acicula are heavier and darker and the setae
slenderer and smaller. The inferiormost acicula
are anterior to those going progressively up-
ward; the uppermost is therefore posteriormost
and the small, embedded, partially developed
ones are deeply embedded in the fleshy part of
the parapodium. Below the ventral edge of the
third parapodium there is a low, thick, glandu-
lar pad somewhat resembling a ventral cirrus in
its position; it is continued posteriorly on seg-
ments 4, 7, 8, and farther back as a diminish-
ing papilla. There is no long cirrus on the third
segment, such as is present in Disoma multise-
tosum Oersted.

May 15, 1947

The fourth segment (Fig. 2, ¢) is character-
ized for its greatly expanded, serrated, post-
setal lobes in both notopodia and neuropodia;
they are largest and longest above. The noto-
podial one has about 13 short distal serrations
(or several accessory ones); the neuropodial
one has about eight similar, or slightly smaller

HARTMAN: A NEW MARINE ANNELID FROM CALIFORNIA

165

serrations of which the inferiormost are slightly
the larger. The notopodium is armed with 16
to 18 slender, pointed setae supported by a
single, slender embedded aciculum. The neuro-
podium has about 16 similar setae and a single
aciculum. The setae resemble those farther

back.

Fig. 2.—Disoma franciscanum, n. sp.: a, First parapodium in anterior view, X88; b, second para-
podium in anterior view, X112; c, third parapodium in anterior view, X112; d, fourth parapodium
in anterior view, 125; e, seventeenth parapodium in anterior view, 112; f, right half of three far
posterior segments in dorsal view, X56.

166

The fifth segment resembles the fourth one
but tends to have fewer serrations in its post-
setal lobes. There are about nine in the noto-
podium (or up to six additional, weakly de-
veloped ones at the inferior end). Notopodial
and neuropodial postsetal lobes are less un-
equal to each other than those in the fourth
segment. The sixth and seventh segments re-
semble the fifth one but the postsetal lobes
have about nine or ten serrations each. By the
eighth segment there are only about seven
serrations; the ninth and tenth segments have
about six serrations in each lobe, the eleventh
and twelfth parapodia may have only three or
four serrations in each, and between segments
13 to 20 (Fig. 2, e) there may be only two to
three lobes, or a single one.

Thereafter (i.e., from segment 20 to 25) the
notopodium is absent; only neuropodia are de-
veloped through a long, median region.
Through the anterior region, after the fifth seg-
ment, neuropodial postsetal lobes gradually
come to exceed the diminishing notopodial,
postsetal ones. They come to be deep, fleshy
lobes, with both presetal and postsetal ridges
well developed, but the latter are the larger
and project collar-like behind the setal fascicle.
Thus, at a segment near the end of the anterior
region, the notopodial postsetal lobe is a nar-
row, compressed membrane behind the low,
papillar, setal fascicle; the neuropodium is a
deep, fleshy lobe with an entire, or weakly
serrated, postsetal membrane and a short,
entire, presetal membrane. Notosetae gradually
diminish in size and number to their dis-
appearance. Neurosetae come to form char-
acteristic fascicles; there is a vertical series of
preacicular and postacicular pointed setae;
these are separated from one another by a
similar vertical series of ten to 15 penicillate
acicula (Fig. 3, 6). 3

Distinct dorsal and ventral cirri are absent.
What has been called dorsal cirrus is here inter-
preted as the postsetal, notopodial lobe, since
its position is not dorsal to, but behind, the
setal fascicle. The thick pads below the neuro-
podia in anterior segments are also construed
to be glandular rather than ventral cirri. Thev
may participate in secretion of fibers for tube
construction, as has been suggested by Thulin
(1921, p. 12).

Long, pointed simple setae are present in all
notopodia and neuropodia, but those in the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5.

second neuropodium are greatly reduced.
Acicula are present in all parapodia and some
are modified for special uses. Those in the first
segment are slender and embedded as are also
those in notopodia farther back. Those in the
second and third neuropodia are greatly devel-
oped and emergent; those in neuropodia of seg-
ments farther back come to be penicillate and
emergent, functioning probably in tube-con-
struction. The notopodial armature of the pos-
terior region is also acicular, but probably
functions for grasping.

The middle region of the body is character-
ized for lacking notopodia; its segments come
to be longer than those in front. The neuro-
podium consists of a simple, conical papilla;
this is armed with a single, heavy, projecting
aciculum and a slender tuft of long, pointed
setae that resemble those in front. This arrange-
ment is continued through 70 or more seg-
ments. A podal membrane is gradually de-
veloped; it has its origin immediately behind
the neuropodium and extends horizontally back
so that it comes to occupy much of the space to ~
the next septum. It comes to be thin and ex-
panded, with frilled margins. These segmental
membranes are a conspicuous feature through
long median and posterior (Fig. 2, f) regions
and are continued posteriorly to the end of the
body. They recall the parapodial pouches of
Laonice among the Spionidae, and are similarly
found in the region where ova occur.

The transition from middle, uniramous, to
posterior, biramous regions of the body is
gradual, and marked only by the appearance
of small, papillar notopodia, located a short
distance above, and within, the neuropodia.
Notopodia are low mounds, armed with a close
fascicle of four to seven yellow acicula; when
retracted they are completely embedded and
invisible except for their distal tips. When the
notopodium is extended, the acicula are pushed
up and out so that they form stellate structures
(Fig. 1, c); they are not accompanied by setae.

- These notopodial spines may function for trac-

tion. Neuropodia in this region resemble those
in the middle region of the body but are succes-
sively smaller. |
On the ventral side of the body, at about
segment 40 to 44, minute, paired ventral papil-
lae make their appearance, immediately within
the line forming the proximal portion of the
neuropodia. They gradually develop to form

May 15, 1947

slender, short filaments and come to be most
conspicuous in the posterior region (Fig. 1, d)
where they consist of one to three filaments on
a side; they arise from a low mound. These
structures were first described by Levinsen

(1882) and called branchiae. Michaelsen
i UVa WANN
nia { i Hi
SANNA MAAR
yh
N\A

Beas
Kg

TEL

ttt, Z A

Za

4 ge Sm
hha

CL0¢

HARTMAN: A NEW MARINE ANNELID FROM CALIFORNIA

167

(1897, p. 41) showed that they are retractile;
he recorded their presence for D. multisetosum
Oersted from about the twentieth segment.
Eisig (1914, p. 536) concluded that, morpho-
logically, they are not branchiae since they
have their origin away from the notopodium,

<r

OA ee On ae
BN elon tad aa ore
phen aN

~
SSS

Mf

a\ i y)
\Y

aA DO!

Fic. 3.—Disoma franciscanum, n. sp.: a, Embedded series of penicillate acicula from seventeenth
thoracic neuropodium, showing successive stages in development, 940; b, distal end of developed
penicillate aciculum, 1160; c, distal end of emerged penicillate aciculum, with brush partly worn
away, 780; d, worn penicillate aciculum from inferior part of fascicle, X658; e, thoracic neuroseta

showing fringe at distal end, X940.

168

but that they more nearly resemble the lymph
branchiae of some capitellids and glycerids.
From their position and structure, however, it
might be suggested that they function in
sensory reception, since parapodia of their re-
spective segments are unusually simple and
have few or no lobes for this purpose.

Setae are entirely simple and differ little
among themselves except for relative thickness,
length and amount of pubescence, if any. Those
in the first segment are long, slender, smooth,
and nearly straight (Fig. 1, 6). Farther back
they are shorter though still slender and
straight. From about the fourth segment they
come to be somewhat geniculate and the distal
end is covered with a delicate, long pubescence
that is irregularly dispersed (Fig. 3, e). This
hairiness is particularly marked on neurosetae

in anterior segments beginning from the fifth :

one.

Acicula are variously modified. Those of the
first segment are slender and embedded. In the
second and third neuropodia they are increas-
ingly heavier though still smooth; they are
distally somewhat curved and project a con-
siderable distance from the fleshy part of the
podium. From the fifth segment the acicula are
penicillate (Fig. 3, a-d). They are arranged in a
vertical series between the setae, with the
distal and proximal portions covered with an
outer, pubescent sheath. When fully formed,
the distal end with its hairs resembles, in shape,
the flame of a candle; the subdistal portion of
the shaft is slightly rectangular in cross sec-
tion, with longitudinal rows of spines at the
angles, and the proximal portion is covered
with pubescence. As the aciculum emerges
from the lobe, the distal brush is spread apart,
the smooth rod emerges and the pubescence is
gradually lost. Various stages (Fig. 3, a) of these
developing acicula can be found in the su-
periormost part of the neuropodium, in all
segments of the anterior body region, from
the fifth one. The embedded fascicle is spiralled
and may contain 20 chestnut-colored acicula
in various stages of development. Thulin
(1921, p. 12) called these acicula ‘‘lanzen-
formige Pinselborsten’”’ and suggested that
they function in tube construction.

The body tapers abruptly toward the pos-
terior end and terminates in a thick, collar-
like pygidium (Fig. 1, c) with a large, circular
anal aperture; the ventral edge of the collar is

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

incised and provided with a pair of subspheri-
cal, tiny processes which lie proximal to each
other, in a transverse direction.

In some individuals ova are present in great
number, in the hinder median and posterior
segments of the body; in some instances they
are believed to be nearly mature. They are flat,
lens-shaped, circular or nearly so. The surface
is smooth and covered with a thick membrane;
beneath the surface there is a circlet of flask-
shaped vesicles, numbering 21 to 29 in each
ovum; these vesicles are clear and have their
narrowed end directed toward the egg mem-
brane (Fig. 1, e). Near the center there is a
large germinal vesicle or nucleus. The entire
structure resembles that of Poecilochaetus ser-
pens Allen (1904, pl. 12, fig. 64) and some
spionids (Hartman, 1941, pl. 46, fig. 19).

Segmental organs (nephridia) are perhaps
present on most segments but they have not
been definitely distinguished on anterior seg-
ments. They are clearly visible on median and
posterior segments as small, paired papillae,
each located near the anterodorsal edge of
neuropodia (Fig. 2, f); they are only slightly
visible in ventral view. In the anterior part of
the third body region, they resemble the grad-
ually developing notopodia, but their position
is in front of, not above, the neuropodium.

The alimentary tract is a straight tube and
has few modifications. The mouth leads into
the large, voluminous proboscis; this occupies
most of the space in the first four segments
(when retracted). This is followed by a long,
slender, cylindrical esophagus that extends
distally through the next eleven segments; it
has paired, thin walled, ventrolateral pouches,
one pair to each segment. The esophagus gives
rise to the gradually widening thin walled in-
testine farther back. The intestine is usually
filled with fine, granular materials, perhaps
sand, shell and other inert materials, from
which the organic foods may be sifted.

The tube of Disoma franciscanum is long and
cylindrical to somewhat flattened. It tapers
slightly to a constricted aperture at the for-
ward end. Its walls consist of finely compacted,
rust-colored mud; its inner walls are smooth
but there is no membranous lining. The tubes
are easily broken lengthwise or crosswise.
There is no indication of anastomosing which
Thulin (1921, p. 11) described for D. multi-
setosum Oersted.

May 15, 1947

_ According to Thulin (loc. cit.) the tube mate-
rials are held together by longitudinally ar-
ranged fibrils that are secreted from spinning
glands, probably located in an anterior portion
of the body. This author suggests that the
process may be likened to that in some species
of Panthalis (family Polyodontidae) described
by Watson, where the fibrils are formed by
certain spinning glands and spread out with
the aid of penicillate bristles which carry the
fibrils out to the walls of the tube, aided by
the movement of other setae.

D. franciscanum resembles D. multisetosum
Oersted in some respects, especially in having
serrated postsetal lobes in anterior parapodia.
It differs sharply, however, in that there is no
long cirrus on the third parapodium. The
former is provided with heavy projecting acic-
ula in both the second and third parapodia but
those of the third are by far the heavier. Seg-
ments of the middle body region are uniramous.
Neuropodia of middle and posterior body re-
gions are provided with a horizontal, lamellar
membrane that comes to be pouchlike. Ventral
papillae are present from about the fortieth
segment and continued posteriorly to the end;
they number usually one or two filaments to a
segment, on each side.

Holotype.—U.S.N.M. no. 20912.

Type locality—San Francisco Bay, Calif.

Distribution—San Francisco Bay, Calif., in
1 to 16 fathoms, associated with sand, mud,

and shale.

LITERATURE CITED

Auten, E. J. The anatomy of Poecilochaetus:
Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 48: 79-151, 6 pls.
1 fig. 1904.

‘CHAMBERLIN, R. V. The Annelida Polychaeta.
Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 48: 1-514, 80

i pls. 1919.

CLAPAREDE, E. Jn Ehlers: a. Bericht iiber die
auf der Lightning-Expedition gesammelten
Wirmer. b. Bericht iiber die auf der Por-
cupine-Expedition gesammelten Wirmer.

_ Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool. 25: 2-15. 1875.

Kista, H. Zur Systematik, Anatomie und
Morphologie der Ariciiden, nebst Beitrdgen
zur generellen Systematik. Mitt. Zool. Stat.
Neapel 21: 153-600, 23 figs., pls. 10-27.
1914.

HARTMAN: A NEW MARINE ANNELID FROM CALIFORNIA

169

FauvEL, P. Deux polychetes nouvelles (Disoma
watsoni, n. sp., et Hyalinoecia brementi,
n. sp.). Bull. Inst. Oceanogr. Monaco, no.
316: 1-10, 3 figs. 1916.

. Annelides polychetes provenant des cam-
pagnes de lHirondelle II (1911-1915).
Res. Camp. Sci. Monaco, no. 85: 1-50, 1 pl.
1932.

Hartman, Ouca. New species of polychaetous
annelids from southern California. Hancock
Pacific Exped. 7: 157-172, 2 pls. 1939.

. Some contributions to the biology and
life history of Spionidae from Calrfornia.
Hancock Pacific Exped. 7: 289-324, 4 pls.
1941.

LEvINSEN, G. M. R. Systematisk-geografisk Over-
sigt over de nordiske Annulata, Gephyrea,
Chaetognathi og Balanoglossi. Vid. Meddel.
Naturh. Foren. Kjobenhavn, 1882, pt. 2:
92-350, pls. 2,3. 1883.

McIntrosu, W. C. On Nevaya whiteavesi, a
form with certain relationships to Scler-
ocheilus Grube, from Canada. Ann. Mag.
Nat. Hist. (ser. 8) 7: 145-173, 3 pls. 1911.

MesniL, F. Htudes de morphologie externe chez
les Annelides. II. Remarques complemen-
taires sur les Spronidiens. La famille nou-
velle des Disomidiens. Bull. Sci. France et
Belgique 30: 83-100, 1 pl. 1897.

MicuaEtsen, W. Die Polychaetenfauna der
deutschen Meer, erinschliesslich der benach-
barten und verbindenden Gebiete. Wiss.
Meeresuntersuch Deutschen Meere (Kiel
und Leipzig), new ser., 2(1): 1-216, 1 pl.
1897.

Muuter, F. Einiges iiber die Anneliden. Fauna
der Insel St. Catharina an der brasilian-
ischen Kiiste. Arch. Naturg. Berlin 24 (1):
211-220, 2 pls. 1858.

OxrrsTeD, A. S. Zur Classification der Annula-
ten mit Beschreibung einiger neuer oder
unzulénglich bekannter Gattungen und Ar-
ten. Arch. Naturg. Berlin 10(1): 99-112, 2
pls. 1844.

SépERSTROM, A. Studien iiber die Polychaeten-
familie Spionidae. Dissertation, 286 pp., 1
pl., 174 figs. Uppsala, Almquist, and
Wicksells, 1920.

Tuuuin, G. Brologisch-faunistische Untersuch-

' ungen aus dem Oresund. Uber Cossura
longocirrata Webster and Benedict und tiber
die Réhren von Disoma multisetosum
Oersted. Lunds Univ. Arsskr., new ser.,
17(10): 1-14, 17 figs. 1921.

Wesster, H. E., and Benepict, J. E. The An-
nelida Chaetopoda from Provincetown and
Wellfleet, Mass. Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish.
for 1881: 699-747, 8 pls. 1884.

170

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL, 37, NO. 5

ZOOLOGY.—A new harpacticoid copepod from Bornean crabs... ARTHUR G.

Hvumss, University of Connecticut.

A new copepod species from the gill
chambers of various marsh crabs was col-
lected at Tarakan, Borneo. The copepods
were stained lightly with acid fuchsin,
cleared in cedarwood oil, and mounted in
clarite, either whole or in segmental dis-
sections to show the appendages. The
mouth parts and body segments with their
appendages were separated using sharply
pointed minuten nadeln.

Identifications of the Bornean crabs were
made by Dr. Fenner A. Chace, Jr., of the
U. 8. National Museum. Paratypes and
other specimens of the Japanese species
were lent for study by the same museum.
Service with the U. S. Navy in Borneo af-
forded opportunity for the collection of the
new material.

Family CANTHOCAMPTIDAE
Pholetiscus, n. gen.

Generic characters.—General body shape re-
sembling that of Cancrincola Wilson. Female
abdomen 3-segmented; male abdomen 4-seg-
mented. Caudal rami moderately short, both
bearing terminally a seta two-thirds as long as
the body and a shorter seta about one-fourth
the length of the other. No anal operculum. An-
terior antennae of female with six or eight
podomeres; those of the male highly modified
for clasping with three to eight podomeres diff-
cult to distinguish. Posterior antennae short,
with two or three podomeres, the exopodite
minute or apparently absent. Mouth parts in
general plan similar to those of Cancrincola,
but differing in details. Swimming legs all bi-
ramous, first pair modified for clasping; in fe-
male exopodites 1-4 with three podomeres,
endopodites 1—4 with two podomeres; in male
rami are similar except for the third endopo-
dite which has three podomeres. Fifth legs in fe-
male lamellar, with two podomeres, the basal
one indistinctly separated from the body seg-
ment and expanded on the inner side; the dis-
tal podomere bearing two setae. Fifth leg in
male reduced to a low ridge bearing three or
four setae. A single ovisac.

Fenotype.—Pholetiscus wilsonr
Cancrincola wilsont Pearse, 1930.

1 Received February 3, 1947.

(Pearse) =

(Communicated by Waxpo L. ScHMITT.)

Remarks.—This new genus may be easily

separated from the genus Cancrincola on the

basis of the several distinctions mentioned be-
low. It includes the new species, Pholetiscus
orientalis, herein described, and the species
originally described by Pearse (1930) as Can-
crincola wilsont.

Pholetiscus wilsoni (Pearse, 1930)

This species was first described from the gill
chambers of two marsh crabs, Sesarma haemato-
cheir (de Haan) and Sesarma pictum (de Haan),
at Aburatsubo, Japan. An examination of
Pearse’s specimens, U.S.N.M. no. 62836, from
S. pictum, apparently paratypic though not so
labeled, shows several features not mentioned
in the original description. The sixth thoracic
segment (genital) has a weak transverse divi-
sion dorsally, not seen on the ventral side. The
female abdomen is 3-segmented, while that of
the male is 4-segmented.

The anterior antennae of the male have more
than three podomeres. The joints are difficult
to interpret but the podomeres are similar to
those of P. orientalis to be described below.
Podomeres 3 and 4 are very poorly delimited,
and are indicated only by slight differences in
the thickness of the chitin to be seen in optical
section. Podomere 5 is swollen at the outer
proximal angle. Fifth and sixth podomeres bear
rough protuberances on their inner margins.
Seventh and eighth podomeres are indistinctly
separated and curved back toward the fifth to
form a prehensile organ. The anterior antennae
of the female have six podomeres, the sixth
perhaps representing the fusion of two or more
podomeres. The relative lengths of the podo-
meres beginning basally are 9:8:5:5:3:7.

Whether the low protuberance at the base of
each posterior antenna should be regarded as
a distinct podomere is a matter for interpreta-
tion. Including this protuberance, the posterior
antennae apparently have three podomeres.

The first four pairs of legs resemble in general
those of P. orientalis described below. Since
various setae were omitted in. the original de-
scription, certain legs will be redescribed here.
In the first leg of the female (Fig. 1) the prox-
imal podomere of the endopodite bears a long,
slender seta and two minute ones on the distal

May 15, 1947 HUMES: A NEW COPEPOD FROM BORNEAN CRABS 17?

Fies. 1-5.—Pholetiscus wilsoni (Pearse): 1, First leg (female); 2, third leg (female); 3, fourth leg
(female); 4, third leg (male); 5, caudal ramus (male).

Figs. 19-24.—Pholetiscus orientalis, n. sp.: 19, Body segments (male); 20, anterior antenna (male);
21, third leg (male); 22, fifth leg (male); 23, spermatophore; 24, asymmetrical third leg (female).

All figures drawn with the aid of a camera lucida. The shorter of the two seales applies to Figs. 1-5;
the longer only to Figs. 6 and 19.

172

third of the inner margin. The second podomere
of the exopodite bears a seta on the inner side.
The second pair of legs was completely figured
in the original description. The third pair of
legs (Fig. 2) resembles that of P. orientalis be-
low except for the absence of a seta on the inner
distal angle of the proximal podomere of the
endopodite. The fourth pair of legs (Fig. 3) dif-
fers from P. orientalis below in the absence of
setae on the proximal podomere of the endopo-
dite and presence of.a long seta on the inner dis-
tal region of the second podomere of the exop-
odite.

In the male the first and second legs are like
those of the female. The third pair of legs (Fig.
4) has an endopodite of three podomeres in-
stead of two as given in the original descrip-
tion. The first endopodite podomere is without
setae; the second bears a prominent, deeply
staining, falciform projection at the inner dis-
tal angle and a single small seta on the outer
margin; the third is slightly smaller than the
preceding two and bears terminally two
sparsely plumose setae about 3 times as long
as the endopodite itself. The exopodite resem-
bles that of P. orientalis to be described. The
fourth pair of legs is like that of the female.

In both sexes between the bases of the two
rami on the second, third, and fourth legs
there is a small projection which stains bril-
liantly with acid fuchsin.

The arrangement of setae and spines (exclud-
ing the groups of variable small setae) on the

first four pairs of legs is expressed numerically

in Table 1.
The caudal rami (Fig. 5), alike in both sexes,

TABLE 1.—ARRANGEMENT OF SPINES AND SETAE ON
SwIMMING LEGcs 1—4 or PHOLETISCUS WILSONI

(PEARSE)

Swimming leg Female Male
ee airs CXOPOdite Boece re TOvegl tee 1-0 gee 4
pi \endopodite......... Ones Ont
agen aire XOPOdite gE ND iss Ons eats one Or metslere
e \endopodite....... G0" 3 0,0 3
Pelexopodite -.22. 2.40 1kOm aeteees! (at) Ole teiaans
HAHSS OE ele alas tae awe 00 5 Wom Oat

. fexopodite........ 1-0) ) Teliee ote | "1.0)" (oleae
pou Ea endopodite. a) O0n4 0,0 4

Numbers to the left of the comma refer to the number of large
spines or setae on the outer edge, those to the right to the
number on the inner edge. Single numbers refer to terminal
armature. Minute spines or setae are not considered because of
their relatively wide variation in number. Scheme adapted
from that of Kiefer (1928).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

‘VOL. 37, NO. 5

resemble those of the Bornean species to be de-
scribed, but differ in the two long terminal
setae having separate bases. The shorter of the
two terminal setae is about one-fourth the
length of the longer (which in one female meas-
ured 350y).

Pholetiscus orientalis, n. sp.

Type material, consisting of more than 70
individuals representing both sexes, from the
gill chambers of three species of brachyurans,
Sesarma eumolpe de Man, Sesarma taeniola-
tum White, and Sesarma palawanense Rathbun —
(the specific determination of the last-named
being somewhat uncertain), collected on Au-
gust 6, 1945, at Tarakan, Dutch Borneo.
Holotype, female, U.S.N.M. no. 82266; allo-
type, U.S.N.M. no. 82268; 30 paratypes in-
cluding both sexes, U.S.N.M. nos. 82267 and
82269-82293; the remaining paratypes in the
author’s collection.

Female——Body moderately slender. Length
about seven times the greatest width. Meta-
some slightly shorter than urosome, both some-
what cylindrical but tapering posteriorly.
Cephalic and first thoracic segments approxi-
mately equal to the length of the second, third,
and fourth thoracic segments combined, well
developed laterally, without setae. Rostrum
minute, rounded anteriorly and unarmed.

First segment of the 6-segmented thorax
usually only indistinctly separated from the
head, the dorsum being shorter than that of
any of the succeeding thoracic segments. Sec- °
ond, third, and fourth thoracic segments sim-
ilar to each other in size and shape. Fifth seg-
ment with dorsum somewhat shorter than that
of the fourth, not telescoped with adjacent
dorsa (Fig. 6). Sixth segment of the thorax
(genital), bearing a single ovisac at the mid-
ventral anterior margin, longer than any of
the first five segments and having dorsally a
weak transverse division. First four thoracic
segments without setae; segment 5 with a ver-
tical row of 6 minute setae (forming a cte-
nidium) near the posterior lateral margin; seg-
ment 6 with a vertical row of four ctenidia each
composed of five or six setae on both sides.

Abdomen 3-segmented, third segment
slightly shorter than the second and first but
all shorter than the sixth thoracic. First ab-
dominal segment with five ctenidia on both
sides; second segment with four ctenidia, lack-

May 15, 1947 HUMES: A NEW COPEPOD FROM BORNEAN CRABS 173

Fies. 6-18.—Pholetiscus orientalis, n. sp., female: 6, Body segments; 7, caudal rami; 8, anterior an-
tenna; 9, posterior antenna; 10, mandible; 11, first maxilla; 12, second maxilla; 13, maxilliped; 14, first
leg; 15, second leg; 16, third leg; 17, fourth leg; 18, fifth leg.

All figures drawn with the aid of a camera lucida. The shorter of the two scales applies only to Fig.
7; the longer to Figs. 8-18 and 20-24.

174

ing the dorsal one; third segment with three
etenidia, lacking both dorsal and dorsolateral
groups, and deeply incised in the anal region.
Caudal rami (Fig. 7) shorter than the anal
segment, armed on the outer side with two
small equal setae and on the inner distal region
with two setae, the proximal one of which being
four times the length of the distal one and set
upon a 2-jointed pedicel. On the posterior end
of both caudal rami an elongated portion
nearly twice the length of the caudal ramus;
bearing at a point slightly less than halfway
to the distal end on the outer margin a long
seta, four times the length of the caudal ramus
and having seven equidistant hairlike projec-
tions along its outer edge beginning at a point
nearly one-half the distance from its base;
bearing terminally a much longer, slightly
curved seta about two-thirds of the body length

and finely plumose along the distal two-thirds..

Anterior antennae (Fig. 8) with eight podo-
meres, the joint between 7 and 8 weakly chitin-
ized or indicated only by a thin area in the
chitin. With numerous setae ventrally on
podomeres 2-8. On the first podomere a distal,
ventrolateral row of about eight setae; distal
ventral area of podomere 3 slightly projected
and bearing three setae; the same area of podo-
mere 4 strongly projected, bearing two unequal
setae, the ventral one long and slender, the
dorsal one of nearly equal length but swollen
along the distal third and in stained specimens
‘showing a lightly chitinized ring at its mid-
region; seventh podomere with two dorsal
setae; eighth indistinctly separated from the
seventh and bearing two setae dorsally and
two longer ones terminally.

Posterior antennae (Fig. 9) shorter than the
anterior pair, with apparently three podomeres
and a monomerous exopodite. Basal podomere
very short and wide, consisting of a low pro-
tuberance upon which the antenna is set. Sec-
ond podomere cylindrical, bearing near the
center of the outer margin an exopodite con-
sisting of a minute cylindrical piece with a
single terminal seta, and having basally on the
inner margin three minute setae. Distal podo-
mere with a row of three strong setae near the
base, a row of four weaker setae on the surface
of the distal half, and an arched row of 12
smaller setae along the distal margin; termi-
nally a row of four strongly developed, pecti-
nate setae and laterally at both ends of the row

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

a short seta; on the inner side of the distal podo-
mere two short, stout, pectinate setae.

Mandibles (Fig. 10) minute, slender, about
30u in length, with a group of seven teeth
distally and on the outer side near the base
three setae arising from an indistinct oval
area, perhaps representing an exopodite.

First maxillae (Fig. 11) approximately the
same size as the mandibles, consisting of an
elongated basal portion having a terminal,
flabelliform projection finely dentate distally
and two small adjacent setae, and bearing:
laterally an outer cylindrical piece with three
terminal and two lateral setae.

Second maxillae (Fig. 12) slightly larger
than the preceding pair, consisting of an
elongated recurved basal part provided termi-
nally with a long, slightly curved claw and on
the inner side two cylindrical projections bear-
ing two and three setae, respectively, and hav-
ing a group of three small setae on the outer
side near the base of the claw.

Maxillipeds (Fig. 13) with two podomeres —
and a terminal claw, prehensile (with three
podomeres if the claw is regarded as a true
podomere); proximal podomere short with
three minute setae at the inner distal angle;
distal podomere elongated with three groups of
setae on the inner edge and two groups on the
outer margin, bearing terminally a slender,
curved claw nearly as long as the podomere it-
self and pectinate along its concave distal two-
thirds.

First four pairs of swimming legs biramous,
the first pair adapted for clasping, the following
three for swimming; endopodites with two
podomeres, exopodites with three. The fifth
pair of legs highly modified. First pair of legs
(Fig. 14) with a dimerous basipodite, its ante-
rior surface bearing short spines in rows; the
proximal part armed with a transverse row of
10 spines along its outer angle; the distal part
with a similarly placed row of 13 spines, an
oblique row of about 30 minute spines extend-
ing from the midbasal region to the inner angle,
and a large stout seta at the inner distal angle.
Exopodite of three similar podomeres, un-
armed medially, each armed with a stout pec-
tinate seta at the outer distal angle; the first
podomere with two rows of five and eight setae
respectively distally and two isolated setae
proximally along its outer margin; the second
and third podomeres with three setae along

May 15, 1947

the outer margin; terminally on the third podo-
mere a row of three prominent setae, the inner
two longer than the exopodite itself and pec-
tinate medially, the outer one half as long,
stouter, and pectinate. Endopodite nearly one
and one-half times the length of the exopodite,
with two podomeres; the proximal podomere
three times the length of the distal one, armed
on the outer side with two longitudinal rows of
five setae and on the inner margin with a cen-
tral row of eight setae and a single larger seta
near the inner distal angle; the distal podomere
with a row of six spiniform setae on the outer
margin, two smaller setae at the distal end of
the row, and terminally three setae, the outer
one stout and pectinate, the middle one as long
as the endopodite itself, slender and pectinate
along its midlength, the inner one slender and
much shorter.

Second pair of legs (Fig. 15) with a dimerous
basipodite having a row of spines at the outer
distal angles of the two parts and a third row
near the base of the endopodite; between the
bases of the rami a small projection which
stains brilliantly with acid fuchsin. Exopodite
with three similar podomeres, each armed with
a stout pectinate seta on the outer distal angle;
the first podomere with a row of three setae on
the outer margin and a group of seven spini-
form setae on the outer distal angle; the second
with similar setae, and in addition a long,
slender seta arising from the center of the inner
margin; the third with two setae on the outer
margin and three long terminal setae, the
outer one pectinate, the other two slender,
longer than the exopodite itself and feathered,
the inner of the two more sparsely so. Endop-
odite with two similar podomeres, the prox-
imal one slightly shorter; both bearing a long
seta at the inner distal angle; the distal podo-
mere with two small setae on the outer margin,
a pectinate seta at the distal outer angle, and
terminally two long setae which are plumose
in the distal half.

Third pair of legs (Fig. 16) similar in most
respects to the second. Exopodite with three
similar podomeres, the setal arrangement like
that of the second exopodite, but with varia-
tions in the number of small setae and with the
addition of a seta at the inner distal angle of
the third podomere. Endopodite with two
podomeres, similar to those of the second en-
‘ dopodite but with the addition of a long seta

HUMES: A NEW COPEPOD FROM BORNEAN CRABS

175

between the inner terminal seta and the seta at
the inner distal angle.

Fourth pair of legs (Fig. 17) resembling the
second. Exopodite with three equal podomeres,
the setal arrangement similar to that of the
third exopodite, but with variations in the
number and with the deletion of the inner seta
on the second podomere. Endopodite with two
podomeres, similar to those of the third endop-
odite.

The setal arrangement of swimming legs 1—4
is expressed numerically in Table 2.

Fifth legs (Fig. 18) uniramous, lamellar,
with two podomeres, the basal one with a sin-
gle seta on the outer corner and expanded on
the inner side into a broad lamina bearing
terminally a row of six setae, the outermost
and the third from the midline being distinctly
shorter than the others which are nearly twice
as long as the lamina; distal podomere oval
with two unequal setae terminally, the inner
one more than three times the length of the
lamina and plumose on its distal half.

A single ovisac containing 7-11 eggs, each
approximately 50u in diameter, in a single
layer.

Measurements based upon 10 females are as
follows: Total length exclusive of setae, 0.637
mm (0.588-0.705 mm); greatest width (at first
thoracic segment), 0.094 mm (0.080-—0.110
mm); length of caudal setae, 0.431 mm (0.426—
0.514 mm). |

Color in living specimens transparent to
opaque white. !

Male.—General body form similar to that of
the female, but slightly smaller in size (Fig.
19). Sixth thoracic segment not distinctly
longer than adjacent segments. Fifth thoracic
segment with a posterior dorsolateral group of
minute setae on both sides. Sixth thoracic seg-
ment with two linear groups of such setae. Ab-
domen 4-segmented, the sides of the first and
second segments with five linear groups of
minute setae, the third with four and the
fourth with two such groups. Caudal rami as in
the female.

Anterior antenna (Fig. 20) highly modified
for clasping, with eight podomeres (the num-
ber being difficult to distinguish) with their
joints strongly chitinized; first podomere with-
out setae; second with four spiniform setae
arising from the outer side, and four slender
setae situated on a slight projection on the

176

inner side; third and fourth podomeres very
short with several setae on the inner margins;
fifth very large and swollen along the outer
proximal angle with several setae on the inner
margin, some on conical projections; sixth con-
cave on inner margin from which arise two pairs
of long setae and one or more stout knoblike
ridges; seventh with inner surface half the
length of the outer edge and bearing at the
distal angle a group of filamentous setae;
eighth podomere terminally pointed and claw-
hike, with six setae arising from its convex
outer edge; the whole arranged so that the tip
of the eighth podomere may be brought in con-
tact with the inner distal angle of the fifth.

Second antennae, mouth parts, and first and
second legs similar to those of the female. Third
pair of legs (Fig. 21) with basipodite and exop-
odite like those in the female, but endopodite
with three podomeres instead of two; the first
armed with a long seta at the inner distal angle;
the second slightly longer, bearing three short,
stout setae near the middle of its outer margin
and a falciform projection (its articulation
difficult to distinguish) at the inner distal angle;
the third podomere distinctly smaller, about
half the length of the first, the joint separating
it from the second often not strongly chitinized,
and bearing terminally two long setae which
are sparsely plumose distally.

Fourth pair of legs like that of the female but
usually lacking the two inner distal setae,
rarely only one, on the second podomere of the
endopodite.

The setal arrangement of swimming legs 1-4
is shown in Table 2.

TABLE 2.—ARRANGEMENT OF SPINES AND SETAE ON SWIMMING
Leics 1-4 or PHOLETISCUS ORIENTALIS, N. SP.

Swimming leg Female Male
ae a exopodite.......... 10) OW. 4a Ocoee.
P \ endopodite Fe atinateice y's 0,1 3 0,1 3
Second aie exopodite........ 1G Irae Olean

endopodite....... 0,1 4 0,1 4
: ; Gite erent. IOS mabaibay Sysiteal Oy oats sok

h {exopo , ) y ’
Wugelsaers ‘endopodite SAE M 0,1 5 OM Noa 32
F Gitekaas sc ees LO One bit SO ele OmS

Pes, Boeylexope OK aly Oneal

oh Pair) endopodite Wis aisaate OF io On 3

See Table 1 for explanation of numbers.

Fifth legs of the male (Fig. 22) very much
smaller than in the female, reduced to a low
lamellar ridge with three setae, the outermost
the longest and set upon a cylindrical base, the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

innermost the shortest. The two internal setae
are borne upon a low projection separated by a
groove from the base of the external seta.
Medially to the three setae a slightly projecting
area which usually is nude, but which in two
specimens bore a single seta. :

Spermatophore (Fig. 23) elongate, oval, at-
tenuated, and recurved at the anterior end.

Measurements of 10 males: Total length
exclusive of setae, 0.592 mm (0.514—0.646 mm);
greatest width (first thoracic segment), 0.092
mm. (0.088-0.102 mm); length of caudal setae,
0.444 mm (0.411-0.480 mm). -

Color in living specimens like that of the
female.

Remarks.—Pholetiscus orientalis differs from
the only other known species of the genus, P.
wilsont (Pearse), in the following respects:

FEMALE:

Anterior antennae with eight podomeres in-
stead of six.

' Presence of an exopodite on posterior an-
tennae.

Differences in setal arrangement on swim-
ming legs 1-4 (compare the numerical tab-
ulations in Tables 1 and 2).

Two long terminal setae on caudal rami arise
from common base instead of separately
(compare Figs. 5 and 7).

MALE:

Differences in armature of the endopodite of
the third swimming leg (compare Figs. 4
and 21).

One female copepod was found in which all
rami of the swimming legs were normal except
the exopodite of the left third leg (Fig. 24)
which had only two podomeres instead of three,
with the setal arrangement 0, 0, and 5.

The number of small setae in groups on the
thoracic legs is subject to variation, and for
that reason it is doubted whether giving for-
mulas of all setae, large and small, is particu-
larly useful. Such variation exists, for example,
in the number of setae along the inner margin
of the first thoracic endopodite, which was
found to vary from six to nine with the usual
number of eight.

When the copepods were placed in a watch
elass of sea water, they swam about actively,
often in pairs, a male clasping the terminal
setae of the caudal rami of a female by means
of its anterior antennae.

The food of P. orientalis consists partly at

May 15, 1947

HUMES: A NEW COPEPOD FROM BORNEAN CRABS

Lg,

TABLE 3.—INCIDENCE OF PHOLETISCUS ORIENTALIS IN Host CrABs AT TARAKAN, DUTCH BORNEO

Number of = Largest number | Average number
: Number Number :
Host crab specimens Baas ee eee found in any of copepods per
examined - aA . individual crab positive crab
Sesarma eumolpe de Man:
Lgitng | GS 2 eae ee aaa eee are 24 20 4 27 5.4
iutpiles 2 eds See eee 24 15 9 34 6.7
IHD a 2) aa Ae a ee 48 35 13 6.0
Sesarma taeniolatum White:*
LDEIPGSS A Gis Gita eee eee 11 6 z 5.0
WWictlcsees bears he. a.c5.s Fes 13 8 7 3.4
THOUS SN DSB Oe ees ones macarons 24 10 14 4.2
SeranG totale os). veh fos cee oes 72 45 27 5.0

* Included in this category are a few individuals of Sesarma palawanense Rathbun, not distinguished from taeniolatum at the

time of collection.

least of diatoms of the Pinnularia type and
blue-green algae, both of which were frequently
observed in the alimentary tract of mounted
specimens.

The incidence of P. orientalis in host crabs
at Tarakan is shown in Table 3.

The crabs were collected in a marshy area a
quarter of a mile west of the town of Tarakan,
located on Tarakan Island in the delta region
formed by the Sungei Sesayap. The marsh is
periodically flooded by tidal water from
Batagau Strait. Some crabs were found in
water-filled depressions, others were running
about on moist ground under debris of wooden
shingles and rotting palm fronds.

In all three species of host crabs and in both
sexes unidentified nematodes and diperous lar-

vae were frequently found in the gill chambers
along with the copepods.

DISCUSSION

The genus Pholetiscus mihi is related to
Cancrincola Wilson, 1913, and both may be in-
cluded in the family Canthocamptidae sensu
lato. However, if the family is used in the re-
stricted sense, as in Monard’s synoptic work on
the harpacticoids (1927), then it properly
would include only Pholetiscus, Cancrincola be-
ing removed to the Ameiridae.

The two genera are well defined, both
morphologically and geographically, Canerin-
cola being found in the Caribbean and Gulf of
Mexico area, and Pholetiscus in Borneo and
Japan. It seems probable that future investiga-

TABLE 4.— DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS SEPARATING THE GENERA CANCRINCOLA AND PHOLETISCUS

Character Cancrincola Pholetiscus
Ramisofilersrl—4 iisn (ot Bee Endopodite of first with 2 podomeres; | Endopodites with 2 podomeres; ex-
all others with 3. opodites with 3.
. Number of abdominal segments..... 4 3
= Number of aesthetasks............. 1 or 2 None
S Distal podomere of fifth leg......... With 4 or 5 terminal setae. With 2 terminal setae.
cS Terminal setae on caudal ramus*.... | 1 long curved seta plus other small | 1 long curved seta, another ++ as
: ones. long, plus other smal! ones.
Wandibular'palpF iio) s22s2 |. ee. Cylindrical, tipped with about 4 slen- | Reduced to only 1-3 small setae.
der setae.
Number of abdominal segments..... 4 4
Anterior antennae................. With 8 podomeres, moderately pre- | With 3-8 podomeres, strongly pre-
ee hensile. hensile.
< Number of aesthetasks............. 1 None
= vam oflers-1—4 29) Fee ee ey Endopodite of first with 2 podomeres; | Endopodites of first, second, and
all others with 3. fourth with 2 podomeres; endopo-
dite of third with 3 podomeres; all
exopodites with 3.

* True of male also.

178

tions will greatly increase the geographical
range of these genera. Both genera occur in the
gill chambers of marsh crabs, especially those
of the genus Sesarma, commonly found in the
vicinity of river deltas.

The two genera are readily separated by
making the comparisons shown in Table 4.

The harpacticoid copepods at present known
to inhabit the gill chambers of crabs comprise
four species belonging to two distinct though
related genera, namely, Cancrincola jamaicensis
Wilson, 1913, C. plumipes Humes, 1941,
Pholetiscus wilsoni (Pearse, 1930), and P. or-
entalis mihi. The two species of Pholetiscus may
be distinguished from those of Cancrincola and
from each other by the following key:

TUBES 1 ER SW a cH VS rem piety et seam NOR a TGA ll ae teen radi gaa >

2. Endopodite of first leg with 2 podomeres, all
others with 3; distal podomere of fifth leg
with 4 or 5 terminal setae......Cancrincola

Endopodites all with 2 podomeres; distal podo-
mere of fifth leg with 2 terminal setae.....
Sha a SEA al PB eee cia on Se Pholetiscus. .. .3

3. With exopodite on posterior antennae; 2 long
terminal setae on caudal ramus arising from
COMMONNOASE. Ay eg ee Cn P. orientalis

Without exopodite on posterior antennae; 2

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

long terminal setae on caudal ramus arising
separately. oan sims eee P. wilsont

4, Endopodites of second, third, and fourth legs
with 3 podomeres............. Cancrincola
Endopodites of second and fourth legs with 2
podomeres, third with 3...Pholetiscus....5

5. Three stout spines near base of falciform pro-
jection on second podomere of third endop-
OGIGC.. iofoto ei ae ee P. orientalis

One minute spine near base of faleiform projec-
tion on second podomere of third endopodite

wae ei ele PO eke Se ee rr P. wilsoni

LITERATURE CITED

Humes, ARTHUR GROVER. A new harpacticoid
copepod from the gill chambers of a marsh
crab. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 90: 379-386.
1941. ©

Kierer, Frinpricu. Uber Morphologie und
Systematik der Stisswassercyclopiden. Zool.
Jahrb., Abt. Syst., 54: 495-556. 1928.

MonarpD, ALBERT. Synopsis universalis ge-
nerum Harpacticoidarum. Zool. Jahrb., Abt.
Syst. 54: 139-176. 1927.

PEARSE, ARTHUR SPERRY. Parasites of Japa-
nese Crustacea. Annot. Zool. Japon. 13:
1-8. 1930.

WILSON, CHARLES BRANCH. Crustacean para-
sites of West Indian fishes and land crabs,
with descriptions of new genera and species.
Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 44: 189-277. 1913.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

40STH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 408th meeting of the Board of Managers,
held in the Cosmos Club, April 14, 1947, was
called to order at 8 p.m. by the President, Dr.
Waupo L. Scumitt. Others present were: H. 8.
RAppLeyn, F. M. Serzuer, W. N. FEnTon,
H. B. Couuins, Jz., W. W. Dinut, J. 8. Wane,
L. E. Yocum, W. A. Dayton, M. A. Mason,
A. O. Fostir, C. L. GARNER, C. L. Gazin, and,
by invitation, G. P. WaLTon.

The President announced the appointment
of A. T. McPHERson and W. W. Rusry to the
Legislative Committee, authorized at the
March 17 meeting of the Board, with Dr. Mc-
PHERSON as Chairman. Additional appoint-
ments to this Committee are expected to be
made in the near future.

The Chairman of the Meetings Committee,
G. P. Wauron, announced that Prof. J. B:
SUMNER, biochemist of Cornell University, had
been scheduled to speak at the May meeting of
the AcapEmy on the work for which he was re-
cently awarded a Nobel Prize.

Ten persons were elected to membership in
the ACADEMY.

The Chairman of the Anniversary Commit-
tee, F. M. SeTzuer, reported an informal con-
sideration of plans for celebrating the 50th an-
niversary of the founding of the Acapmmy. The >
date for such a celebration was discussed, and
informal show of hands indicated a majority of
the Board in favor of February 18, 1948. The
desirability of holding a subscription dinner
was discussed as one of the ways in which the
anniversary might be observed.

The Treasurer, Mr. RappLeyb, announced
an increase in returns from investments in the
Washington Sanitary Improvement Co. He
also announced that 30 new subscriptions for
the JouRNAL had been obtained from Russian
sources, with a possibility of 5 more.

The Senior Editor, Dr. Funton, reported the
prospect of devoting one issue of the JoURNAL
to the three Academy Award winners for 1947.

The President presented his ideas on the de-
sirability of appointing a historian for the
ACADEMY, or a committee, to look into various
past activities and in particular to ferret out
any unconsummated actions indicated in the
Board’s past records.

|

May 15, 1947

The President also announced a Science Fair,
organized by the teachers of the District of Co-
lumbia secondary schools and sponsored by the
scientific societies of Washington, to be held
during the week May 19 through May 23 in the
Department of Commerce Building.

The meeting adjourned at 9:15 P.M,

NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY

There follows a list of persons elected to
membership in the Acaprmy, by vote of its
Board of Managers, since June, 1945, who have
since qualified as members in accordance with
the bylaws. The bases for election are stated
with the names of the new members.

RESIDENT
Elected October 15, 1945

WituiAM HaRLEN GILBERT, Jr., anthropolo-
gist, Library of Congress, in recognition of his
contributions to knowledge of social organiza-
tion in studies of the Cherokee Indians and of
the caste systems of India and Ceylon.

CHARLES LEWIs Gorpon, chemist, National
Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con-
tributions to methods of solution of refractory
materials, particularly at elevated temperature
and pressures, and to analytical procedures for
such materials.

FRANK WILBUR ScHWAB, chemist, National
Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con-
tributions to the chemistry of analytical re-
agents and pure substances, and to knowledge
of the properties of benzoic acid which makes it
possible to use the freezing temperature of this
substance as a fixed point for precision resist-
ance thermometry.

Elected November 9, 1945

Homer G. Barnett, anthropologist, Smith-
sonian Institution,! in recognition of his studies
of the processes of cultural change, and of the
ethnology of the Northwest Coast Indians.

Scorr E.uswortH Forsusu, physicist,
Navy Department, in recognition of his con-
tributions to geomagnetism, in particular for
his investigations of cosmic radiation and its
relation to geomagnetism.

Victor Hicks, physicist, Navy Department,
in recognition of his services in the field of ra-
diology; and his contributions during the war
to the research program of the Bureau of Ord-
nance, Navy Department.

Se Dr. Barnett has-since returned to the Univer-
sity of Oregon.

NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY 179

Elected January 14, 1946

CHARLES J. CLIFFORD, mathematician, U.S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, in recognition of
his work in the processing and analysis of geo-
detic-survey records particularly with reference
to precision leveling and the study of earth
movement as revealed by repeated levelings.

Rosert C. Duncan, physicist, Naval Ord-
nance Laboratory, in recognition of his contri-
butions to the development of under-water ord-
nance and naval warfare.

Elected February 18, 1946

Epwarp EK. Cuayton, botanist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, in recognition of his contributions in
the fields of vegetable diseases and tobacco dis-
eases, especially disease resistance.

FREDERICK J. HERMANN, botanist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, in recognition of his research work in
American botany, particularly in the taxonomy
and phytogeography of North American pha-
nerogams, and more especially in the difficult
genera Juncus, Carex, and Astragalus and in
the family Leguminosae.

Henry A. RUTHERFORD, chemist, Milton
Harris Associates, in recognition of his contri-
butions to the chemistry of fibers, in particular
his work on the oxidation of wool and cellulose.

RoseErT SimuHA, chemist, National Bureau of
Standards, in recognition of his contributions
to the physical chemistry of high polymers and
in particular his researches on the theories of
viscosity, elasticity, and flow and the kinetics
of polymerization.

BENNETT T. SimMs, veterinarian, Bureau of
Animal Industry, in recognition of his contribu-
tion to parasitology and infectious diseases of
domestic animals, especially his solution of the
problem of salmon poisoning of dogs in the Pa-
cific Northwest.

Brucst L. Wiuson, physicist, National Bu-
reau of Standards, in recognition of his work in
improving methods for the calibration of dy-
namometers, strain gages, and machines for
testing mechanical properties.

Elected May 13, 1946

Doris H. Buaxks, entomologist, in recogni-
tion of her work on the taxonomy of beetles,
particularly of the family Chrysomelidae.

Henry W. Hemp ie, geodesist, U. S. Coast
and Geodetic Survey, in recognition of his con-
tributions to the science of practical geodesy

180

and in particular for his improvements in in-
strumental methods and the development of
the horizontal survey nets of the United States.

Henry A. Jongs, botanist, Bureau of Plant
Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering,
in recognition of his contributions in the fields
of horticulture and genetics, in particular the
genetics of Allzwm cepa.

CLARENCE A. Re&eEp, botanist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, in recognition of his contributions to
horticulture, particularly his investigations in
hybridization of nut trees.

FREDERICK J. STEVENSON, botanist, Bureau
of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, in recognition of contributions in plant
genetics, in particular his studies on inheritance
of resistance to diseases in cereals and potatoes.

Elected December 16, 1946

BaliLtEY E. Brown, botanist, Summers Fer-
tilizer Co., Inc., Baltimore (resident of Wash-
ington), in recognition of his work on the fer-
tilizer requirements of different soil types and
especially on the fertilization of potatoes.

Epwakp U. Connon, physicist, National Bu-
reau of Standards, in recognition of his contri-
butions to theoretical physics, particularly
quantum mechanics.

RoMAN F. GELLER, ceramist, National Bu-
reau of Standards, in recognition of his work on
clays, pottery, insulators, and refractories.

ARTHUR E. Ruark, physicist, Applied Phys-
ics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, in
recognition of his outstanding contributions in
the field of physics.

Mer.e A. Tuve, physicist, Department of
Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of
Washington, in recognition of his outstanding
contributions in the field of physics.

Elected January 13, 1947

Myron 8S. ANDERSON, chemist, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi-
neering, in recognition of his contributions in
the field of soil chemistry, in particular of his
researches on soil colloids. !

J. F. Gates CLarkeE, entomologist, Bureau
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recog-
nition of his contributions on the taxonomy of
the Microlepidoptera.

HERBERT G. DrIGNAN, biologist, U. 8. Na-
tional Museum, in recognition of his contribu-
tions to knowledge of the ornithology of south-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5
eastern Asia, especially Siam, on which subject
he is the outstanding American authority. ’

JospPH A. Ewan, botanist, Bureau of Plant

Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, —

in recognition of his monographic studies of
Delphinium and other important genera of

vascular plants; his floristic investigation in —

California and Colorado with particular empha-
sis upon the correlation of the flora with geogra-

phy; his bibliographic and historical essays; —
and his broad background and deep interest in —

the whole field of biology.

Karu D. Fowtsr, botanist, Bureau of Plant |

Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering,

in recognition of his work in soil investigations, —

survey, and classification. \

GEORGE WASHINGTON IRVING, Jr., chemist,
Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chemis-
try, in recognition of his work on pituitary hor-
mones and extensive research on plant and ani-
mal enzymes and proteins.

RonaLtp Munro WILson, engineer, U. S.
Geological Survey, in recognition of his contri-
butions to the art of surveying and in particu-
lar for his development of the photoalidade in
plane table operations.

NONRESIDENT
Elected January 14, 1946

Epvuarpo C. CABALLERO, entomologist, In-

stituto de Biologia, Casa del Lago, Chapulte-—

pec, Mexico, in recognition of his contributions
to knowledge of the helminth fauna of Mexico.

Elected February 18, 1946

FREDERICK K. Sparrow, botanist, Univer-
sity of Michigan, in recognition of his contribu-
tions on aquatic phycomycetes.

Elected January 13, 1947

Norman C, Fassnrt, botanist, Harvard Uni-
versity, in recognition of his contributions to
the knowledge of the flora of Wisconsin, his
phylogeographic studies of the North American
flora, especially of aquatic species, and his suc-
cessful advocacy of the importance of mass col-
lection in taxonomic researches.

Lewis B. Kntuum, geologist, University of
Michigan, in recognition of his contributions to
the stratigraphy and structure of Mexico.

ALEXANDER HancHETT SmiTuH, botanist,
University Museums, University of Michigan,
in recognition of his contributions to the
taxonomy and cytology of the Agaricales.

C. L. Gaztn, Secretary.

7”

cates

—

—

os

4

ArcHEoLocy.—Note on some potsherds fed nortl

ming. WaALDpDo R. WEDEL.....- +... eee

Bd

Guouoey. —Geology of Hat ilar Great Salt Lake,

nia. " OLea HARTMAN. .

eee G. Humes. .

ProcrEepines: THe ACADEMY. .../...)....)5...4-

oc.

You. 37 o Teun te 10g Ue Na 6

+

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PPLE S Sis ot

JOURNAL

OF THE

-WASHINGTON ACADEMY
_-—sCOF' SCIENCES

ae . BOARD OF EDITORS

f Wiuuram N. Fenton JAMES I, HOFFMAN ALAN STONE
‘5 BUREAU OF AMBRICAN ETHNOLOGY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND
ui ; PLANT QUARANTINE
oy cae ASSOCIATE EDITORS
y Frank C, Kracrexk RicHarp E. BLACK WELDER
PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENFOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY
Ira B. HANSEN RaupH W. IMLAY
BIOLOGICAL SOCIBSTY GEOLOGIOAL SOCIETY
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BOTANICAL SOCIETY : ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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Exchanges.—The Academy does not exchange its publications for those of other
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:

.
.

and causation,

Joya

VoL. 37

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY .—The expansion of the scope of science.
tin A. WuiTE, University of Michigan.

“Anyone who is acquainted with the history of
science will admit that its progress bas, in all

ages, meant, and now more than ever means, the

extension of the province of what we call matter
and the concomitant gradual
banishment from all regions of human thought of

what we call spirit and spontaneity.”—T. H.

HUXLEY.
* * *

When we survey the history of science we
see at a glance that progress has not been
equal and uniform on all fronts. Advance
has been more rapid in some quarters than
in others. Greater progress has been made

in astronomy and physics than in biology;

physiology is more advanced, as a science,
than psychology; and psychology is older
and more mature than sociology. The birth
of each science can not be neatly marked

with a precise date, of course; there has

been overlapping, and growth has been
simultaneous among many, if not all, of
them. Nevertheless, it is clear that some
sciences are older and more mature than
others. Since there is a close correspondence
between the age of a science and its degree
of development, we may treat these two

factors as one. We may thus arrange the

sciences stratigraphically in the order of
their respective ages and degrees of ma-
turity:

*Social”’

| Cultural anthropology
sciences Sociology
Social psychology
Biological — Psychology
sciences Physiology
Anatomy
Chemistry
Physical sciences Physics
Astronomy

181

JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

June 15, 1947

No. 6

LzEs-
(Communicated by G. R. WILLEY.)

Generalizing broadly, we may say that
the physical sciences appeared éarlier and
have developed farther than the biological
sciences; the biological sciences took form
earlier and have developed farther than the
social sciences. The question naturally
arises, Why has this been so? Why do we
find this order, both with regard to time
and to degree of development, in the history
of science?

One of the most noteworthy attempts to
answer this question is that of Auguste
Comte. In his Posztive philosophy? Comte
sets forth and explains the “hierarchy of
the sciences.”’ His arrangement is essentially
the same as ours. He distinguishes, in order,
“Five fundamental Sciences... Astrono-
my, Physics, Chemistry, Physiology, and
finally Social Physies [i.e., Sociology]” (p.
46). But, instead of grouping the sciences
into three categories, as we have done, he
divides them into two: ‘inorganic physics,”
which includes astronomy, physics, and
chemistry; and ‘“‘organic physics,” which
embraces physiology and sociology (pp. 44—
45). Although he does not distinguish “‘psy-
chology” from ‘‘physiology,” Comte deals
with psychological phenomena in Book V:
Biology.

Herbert Spencer, also, concerned himself
with the development of science and with

1 Received March 14, 1947. The epigraph is
from a lecture by T. H. Huxley entitled ‘‘The
Physical Basis of Life,’’ delivered in Edinburgh
in 1868; quoted from a reprinting in New Haven,
Conn., 1870, pp. 30-81.

2 This great work was published serially in
Paris during the years 1830-1842. Our page refer-
ences are to Harriet Martineau’s translation, one-
volume edition, Peter Eckler, Publisher, New
York (no date),

AA,

st,

SY,
& J ‘

ae

|
|
, |

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 6
|
It would probably be unfair to say that '

Spencer’s opposition to Comte’s hierarchy §

the classification, or order, of the sciences.
In 1854, in an essay “On the Genesis of

Science,’’ he attacked Comte’s theory of the
sequence of the sciences. Spencer declares
that “throughout the whole course of their
evolution there has been a continuous con-
sensus of the sciences.’ He says:

The conception of a serzal arrangement of the
sciences is a vicious one... the sciences cannot
be rightly placed in any linear order whatever... .

There is no ‘“‘true filzation of the sciences.’ The
whole hypothesis is fundamentally false.‘

I am not sure that I fully understand
Spencer’s argument. Throughout this essay
he exhibits science as the accumulating
product of a many-sided psychological
process. But with the possible exception of
an allusion to ‘‘social science’ in ancient
times, he does not show, nor does he at-
tempt to show, that the physical sciences
have not matured earlier than the biological
sciences, and these in turn earlier than the
social sciences.

A decade later in ‘The Classification of
the Sciences” (1864), Spencer again returns
to the subject and again opposes Comte’s
hierarchy. But he ends up with an order
essentially like Comte’s. Lester F. Ward
noted the similarity of Comte and Spencer
at this point in his Dynamic sociology.
When, however, he repeated the observa-
tion in “The Place of Sociology among the
Sciences,’’® he received a sharp letter from
Spencer who again insists upon his distinct-
ness from Comte. Ward made effective re-
ply to Spencer and published both letters in

Pure sociology.’ Ward again points out that

despite his vigorous opposition to Comte,
Spencer adopts the Comtean order of the
sciences. In “‘The Filiation of the Sciences,”
a paper before the Philosophical Society of
Washington in 1896, Ward exhibited the
two systems, Comte’s and Spencer’s, in
parallel columns for comparison.® They are
fundamentally alike.

3 “On the Genesis of Science,” p. 143 (Hssays:
Scientific, political, and speculative, vol. I; Lon-
don, 1868).

4 [bid., p. 144; see also the conclusion of the
essay, pp. 190-193.

5 New York, 1883.

6 Amer. Journ. Sociol. 1: 16-27. 1895.

7 Pp. 66-69; New York, 1903.

8 A rather full account of Ward’s paper, pre-
pared by W. C. Wrntock, secretary of the Philo-

was due wholly to a jealous claim to inde- J
pendence and originality on Spencer’s part,
although it is difficult to escape the conclu-
sion that jealousy played a part in the con-
troversy. It does appear that Spencer
viewed the problem from a somewhat dif-
ferent angle than Comte, that he started §
from a slightly different premise. But
nevertheless he ends up with much the same
conclusion, and it is hard not to believe
that it was willful stubbornness on Spen-:
cer’s part that kept him from recognizing §
his similarity to Comte as well as pointing
out such differences as did exist.

We find, then, that both Comte and §
Spencer present the sciences in essentially
the same order, the physical sciences com-
ing first, the biological sciences next, and
finally the social sciences. Spencer points
out that physical phenomena must precede
biological phenomena—that there must be
atoms and molecules before we can have
living cells and organisms—and that social
systems must rest upon a biological basis.
But he does not explain why scientific
interpretation of physical phenomena should
precede interpretation of biological events,
or why interpretation of biological forms
should come before interpretation of social
phenomena. Auguste Comte, however, does
precisely this. He explains the order of de-
velopment of the sciences. Let us turn now
to his theory. -

Comte’s conception of the hierarchy of
the sciences differs somewhat from ours. He
does not begin with the events of history,
with dates and sequences, and with varying
degrees of development among the sci-
ences, and then proceed to consider what
interpretation might be given to these
facts. Rather, he begins with the nature of
the sciences, as he conceives it, and with
what he assumes to be their necessary logi-
cal relationships one to another. The
“hierarchy” of the sciences is arrived at by
deduction. It is a “‘rational order” to Comte
(p. 43). He observes, however, that his
“classification agrees in the main with the

sophical Society, was published in Science 3: §
292-294. Feb. 21, 1896.

JUNE 15, 1947

history of science; the more general and
simple sciences actually occurring first and
advancing best in human history, and being
followed by the more complex and re-
stricted” (p. 48). Thus, the general picture
of the development of the sciences as seen
by Comte is essentially the same as ours;
the physical sciences appeared earlier and
haye developed farther than the biological
sciences, as the latter have developed ear-
lier and progressed farther than the social
sciences.

Comte explains this chronological order
and these varying degrees of development in
this way: The physical sciences deal with
simpler and more universal phenomena
than the biological sciences; the biological
sciences deal with more universal and sim-
pler phenomena than the social sciences.
Since biological phenomena are made up
of chemical and physical events, a science
of biology can not come into being until
the sciences of chemistry and physics have
been developed. Similarly, since social phe-
nomena consist of, or are the expressions
of, psychological responses, and these in
turn rest upon physiological processes, a
science of sociology can not be achieved
until the underlying sciences of psychology
and physiology have been developed. He
Says:

...€very science is [rooted] in the one which
precedes it... (p. 398)...no science can be
effectually pursued without the preparation of a
competent knowledge of the anterior sciences on
which it depends (p. 48). We must begin then with
the study of the most general or simple phe-
nomena, going on successively to the more par-
ticular or complex. This must be the most
methodical way, for this order of generality or
_ simplicity fixes the degree of facility in the study
of phenomena, while it determines the necessary

connection of the sciences by the successive de-
pendence of their phenomena (p. 44).

We seem to have here three closely re-
lated propositions: first, that sciences
higher in the hierarchy deal with more
“complex”? phenomena than sciences lower
in the scale; secondly, that differences in
degree of complexity have determined the
order of emergence and degree of maturity
of the sciences; and thirdly, that one can
not “effectually pursue”’ a science “without
the preparation of a competent knowledge

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

183

of the anterior sciences on which it de-
pends.” We believe that these propositions
are either unsound or definitely misleading.
Let us examine them in turn.

In one sense, psychological phenomena
may be regarded as more complex than
those of physiology, as physiological events,
in turn, may be considered more complex —
than chemical and physical events. By
“complex”? in these contexts we would
mean ‘‘possessing more classes, or kinds, of
factors.”’ Thus, a psychological event, such
as perceiving, approaching, and grasping
food, can, by logical analysis, be reduced to
physiological, chemical, and_ physical
processes: smelling or seeing the food and
the various physiological responses which
find overt expression in approaching and
seizing it; and the physiological processes
may be broken down into chemical reac-
tions and physical events. In this sense, the
phenomena of one science may be said to
be more ‘‘complex’”’ than those of another.
And in this sense, also, one may say that
one science “‘rests upon’’ another.

While the foregoing is perfectly true
logically and philosophically, it is beside
the point scientifically. From the stand-
point of the scientist, there is only one
class of phenomena to be considered in any
given situation. Even in biochemistry,
which might appear to include two classes

of phenomena, we really have only one

class; the possibility of referring biochemi-
cal events to chemistry on the one hand
and to biology on the other in no way ne-
gates the integrity of biochemical events as
biochemical phenomena. Let us illustrate
the distinctness of levels of phenomena and
the integrity of the class of events cor-
responding to each level with an example:

I give my broker an order to buy 100
shares of stock. He telegraphs the order to
the exchange in New York, a seller is found,
and the transaction completed. We may
distinguish many classes of phenomena in-
volved in this transaction taken-as a whole
and in its entire extent and depth. First
there are the psychological motives for
buying and selling: desire, anticipation of
gain, fear of loss, excitement of risk-taking,
etc. Underneath are physiological processes:
the condition of my thyroid, my digestion,

184

etc. And we can analyze the physiological
processes into chemical reactions. Atomic
motion, electrical tensions, and discharges
in my nervous system, and so on, give us a
class of physical factors. But, for an under-
standing of the transfer of the stock as an
event of buying-and-selling, as a_ social
event, the scientist need not and does not
concern himself with all these kinds, or
levels, of processes at all. The scientist
never grapples with all the interrelated phe-
nomena that confront him in a given situa-
tion. To do so would be to embrace the
cosmos every time a sparrow falls. This is
undesirable as well as impossible. The scien-
tist must always abstract a certain segment
of reality, a certain class of phenomena,
from all others, and deal with it as af it ex-
isted by itself independent of the rest.°

Similarly the physiologist abstracts cer-
tain processes from the totality of reality
and regards them as a closed system. Thus,
the argument that the sciences higher in
the hierarchy are more complex—i.e., con-
sist of more classes of phenomena—than
those on lower levels, is irrelevant from the
standpoint of science, since the scientist
deals with only one class at a time anyway.
Socio-psychological phenomena, such as the
purchase-and-sale of stock, may be treated
as a single, homogeneous class of events
despite the fact that physiological, chemi-
eal, electrical, and physical processes un-
derlie it. In this respect psychology does
not differ from physics.

Sociologists and cultural anthropologists
are accustomed to account for the meager-
ness of their accomplishments, as compared
with physicists or physiologists, by declar-
ing that the phenomena with which they
deal are so much more complex than the
phenomena confronting the physicist or
biologist.1° They seldom explain what they

9“In all scientific procedure we begin by
marking out a certain region or subject as the
field of our investigations. To this we must con-
fine our attention, leaving the rest of the universe
out of account till we have completed the investi-
gation in which we are engaged.”—J. CLERK
ison Matter and motion, p. 11 (New York,

10 “The facts of society are far more complex
than those of physics, hence no laws have
hitherto been discovered.”’—R. H. Lowi, Jn-

troduction to cultural anthropology, p. 384 (New
York, 1940).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

-We understand symbol behavior (e.g., ar-

VOL. 37, NO. 68

mean by ‘‘complexity,’”’ and more rarely dof
they attempt to prove that complexity of §
phenomena must mean meagerness of sci-§
entific achievement. They merely assume, in§§
the first place, that everyone knows wher
is meant by complexity, and, in the second |
place, they assume without creament that
complexity means difficulty. We regard
their reasoning as unsound. Social phe-§
nomena are no more complex in the sense
of ‘‘difficult to treat scientifically” than
physical or physiological phenomena. The
social scientist’s plea of “complexity” is
usually an attempt, unconscious no doubt,
to conceal his helplessness. The difference
lies not in complexity of phenomena but in
knowing what your problem is and how to
attack it. The physicist knows what his§j
problem is and how to go about solving§
it; the social scientist does not. And the§
reason for this is that the point of view
and the techniques of science have been
growing-and maturing in the physical do-
main for centuries, whereas they were in-
troduced into the social realm only yester-
day. A science cannot be built in a year
like a skyscraper. Indeed, it can not be
built at all; it must grow, and this requires
time.

We have already seen that the purchase-
and-sale of stock is a very simple affair; it
is no more complex than an apple falling
to the ground. And, what is more, we prob-
ably know more about stock markets than
we do about gravitation. A war between
two nations is really a very simple thing at
bottom: two nations, A and B, want the
same thing—a fertile river valley, an oil-
field, a foreign market, a seaport—and both
are determined to have it. This is no more
complex than the rusting of iron or the
freezing of water. As a matter of fact, it
may be simpler than the formation of ice
or a snowflake. And it appears to be much
simpler—simple in the sense of ease of
scientific explanation—than matricide,
masochism, or dementia praecox, events
upon a lower level (psychological) than a
war between nations (sociological level).

ticulate speech) much better on the psycho-
logical level than upon the lower level of |
neurology. We know more about the psy-

June 15, 1947

chology of jealousy than its physiology. We
understand the physiology of intoxication
better than its chemistry, and the chemis-
try of glands better than their physics."
As a matter of fact, one could make a
good case for the exact opposite of the
proposition that social scientists sometimes
use to rationalize their shortcomings, and
say that the complexity of phenomena and
the difficulty of scientific interpretation in-
erease rather than decrease as we descend
the scale of the sciences. What is simpler
than the purchase-and-sale of a share of
‘stock? And what is more complex than a
ray of light? Two hundred and twenty years
have passed since the great Newton died
and we do not yet know how to describe
light. One might well argue that as we ap-
proach ‘‘ultimate reality” in physics the
complexity of phenomena increases and the
difficulties of scientific explanation become
greater.

Complexity is a qualzty of a phenomenon, 7

not a measure of its size. An atom is as com-
plex as a molecule, a cell as complex as a
cow. Nor is complexity a function of the
level on which the phenomena are found ex-
cept in the sense of resolving a class of events
into subclasses as we have already noted.
Complexity and simplicity obtain on all
levels alike. So much for the concept of
“complexity.”

The third proposition, namely, Comte’s
contention that one can not ‘‘effectually
pursue a science’’ until he has a “‘competent
knowledge of the anterior sciences,’ has
been taken care of fairly well in our treat-
ment of the first two propositions. Who
would wish to argue that one can not ex-
plain a transaction on the stock exchange
until he had mastered physics and chem-
istry—or even the rudiments of those sci-
ences? As we have previously pointed out,
we often understand a phenomenon better
on a higher level than upon a lower.
Doris is jealous of Jane; Tom hates his
father. We understand these events quite
well psychologically; we know almost
nothing about them on the physiological

1 Cf., Wuirt, Lesiiz A., ‘‘The Symbol: the
Origin and Basis of Human Behavior,” Philoso-
phy of Science 7: 451-463. Oct. 1940); reprinted

in ETC, a Review of General Semantics 1: 229—
237. 1944,

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

185

level. And, so far as we can see, anything
that the physiologist might tell us would
add little if anything to our understanding.
And is the ‘‘chemistry,” or ‘“physics,”’ of
jealousy more than a metaphor?

We would reject, therefore, Comte’s con-
tention that preparation in sciences lower
in the hierarchy must precede effective work
in sciences higher in the scale. Since we
have rejected Comte’s premise that varying
degrees of complexity have determined the
order of filiation of the sciences, and since
we admit differences in complexity only in

so far as this term refers to the number of

kinds of phenomena into which a situation
can be analyzed, we have, in effect, re-
jected Comte’s rationalization of his hier-
archy almost in toto. In place of Comte’s
explanation of the order in which the vari-
ous sciences have emerged and matured,
we venture to propose the following theory:

Every living organism strives to evaluate
the various items in its environment, to dis-
cover which are beneficial, which injurious,
so that advantage may be derived from the
one and injury from the latter avoided. In
addition to the sensory means employed
in this evaluating process by other animals,
man employs verbal symbols. He not only
translates the evaluations of his senses into
words—“‘fire is hot,” ‘‘thorns are sharp’’—
but he posits relational values between one
thing and another. Thus he declares that
the hoot of the owl presages death, a falling
star means good luck, etc. In this manner,
man creates a philosophy, a body of ideas
and beliefs expressed in verbal form, which
he employs as a means of adjustment to the
world he lives in.”

From our standpoint of analysis and
classification, there have been, and logically
can be, only two major types of philosophy:
one in which the external world is inter-
preted in terms of the human ego; the other
in which it is explained in terms of 2ztself.
In the first type, man unconsciously pro-
jects himself into the external world, de-
scribing and interpreting it in terms of his
own psychic processes. The whole world is
thus made alive and peopled with spirits
who feel and behave as men do. They have

122 Cf., WHITE, LESLIE A., “The Symbol: The
Origin and Basis of Human Behavior.”

186

desires like men, show preferences for cer-
tain foods and drink; they are susceptible
to jealousy and flattery; they fight and
make love. One spirit makes the earth,
another brings rain, a third sends game or
brings forth crops. The gods favor or oppose
certain types of economic and _ political
systems, and aid the armies of their chosen
nations. Thus man creates the world in his
own image. This is the philosophy of super-
naturalism: of animism and _ anthropo-
morphism.

In the second type of philosophy, the
phenomena of nature are explained in terms
of themselves, in terms of the events of na-
ture. Thus, rain falls because other me-
teorologic phenomena precede and accom-
pany rainfall; a fossil is merely a link in a
chain of paleontologic events. Explanation
in this type of philosophy consists of a
recitation of relevant events; scientific ex-
planation is thus condensed description.
This is the philosophy of naturalism.

Between these two major types, in the
process of development of philosophy, lies
an intermediate, or transitional type, which
Comte has called ‘‘metaphysical.” This may
be illustrated by such statements as “fossils
were produced by stone-making forces’’;
‘opium puts one to sleep because of_ its
dormative powers’’; ‘“‘cattle graze together
because of a gregarious instinct.’ This
kind of interpretation partakes of both of
the major types of philosophy. It eschews
animism and points to the external world
for its explanations. Thus it says that fos-
sils are produced by stone-making forces—
1.e., by natural phenomena that exist and
function in the realm of nature—not by
gods with minds like ours. But, the explana-
tory device, ‘‘stone-making forces,’ is
merely a part of our selves, a verbal formula

13 We occasionally find this kind of explanatory
device used in cultural anthropology even today.
Thus, R. H. Lowie says that ‘‘owing to the
separatism of the natives, no large population
was ever anciently brought under a common
head”? in Polynesia (Introduction to cultural
anthropology, p. 293; New York, 1940). Radcliffe-
Brown says that certain institutions ‘‘are the
results of the action of sociological principles”
(“The Social Organization of Australian Tribes,”
Oceania 1 (4): 429). Franz Boas finds certain cul-
tural phenomena “due to a classificatory tend-
ency” (‘“‘The Origin of Totemism,”’ p. 3238, in
Race, language and culture,-New York, 1940).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 6

created ad hoc, and projected into the ex-
ternal world. Functionally, it is like the
concept “‘spirit,’’ and hence has affinity
with the anthropomorphic philosophy of
animism.

In the beginning of human history man’s
philosophies were wholly animistic; he dif-
fused his psyche throughout the cosmos; §
he confused the self with the not-self at_
almost every point. As culture advanced
philosophy grew and matured. Little by
little the animistic philosophy was out-
grown and the naturalistic philosophy de-
veloped. But progress in philosophic inter-
pretation was not uniform in all fields of
experience; 1t was greater in some sectors
than others. The distinction between the
self and the not-self—i.e., explanation of
natural phenomena in terms of natural
events rather than in terms of the human
ego disguised as gods and spirits—was made
first in the realm of celestial phenomena.
This was followed by the distinction in the
field of terrestrial physical phenomena.
Then it was made in the biological field—
in anatomical, physiological, and psycho-
logical phenomena, and in that order. The
distinction between the self and the not-
self was achieved in astronomy and physics
before it was made in physiology and psy-
chology because it was easzer of accomplish-
ment in the former than in the latter. And

it was easier because the phenomena of as-

tronomy and physics are more remote and less
significant as determinants of human be-
havior than are the processes of physiology
and psychology.

Man gradually learned, through ages of
observation and experience, that all things
do not affect his life equally. Some things
are immediate and exert a powerful influ-
ence upon him; others are remote and affect
his life but little. It is significant to note
that systematic observation of the stars was

4 “To the Omaha nothing is without life: the
rock lives, so do the cloud, the tree, the animal.
He projects his own consciousness upon all
things, and ascribes to them experiences and
characteristics with which he is familiar; there is
to him something in common between all crea-
tures and all natural forms, .. . this something
he conceives of as akin to his own conscious
being.”’—Auicr C. FLETcHER, ‘‘Wakonda,”’ in
Handbook of American Indians, Part 2 (Bur.
Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30. Washington, 1910).

JUNE 15, 1947

begun under the belief that they exert a
powerful influence upon man’s daily life.
Vestiges of this belief are still preserved in
the names of the days of the week: Sun’s
day, Saturn’s day, etc. And enough of this
ancient belief still flourishes to make
astrology a profitable business enterprise
even today. .

But as mankind accumulated experience
and compared one thing with another, he
discovered that stars exert less influence
upon his life than such terrestrial phe-
nomena as those of climate, topography,
flora, and fauna. At the same time, sys-
tematic observation of planets and stars
revealed regularities and an order that fos-
tered description in terms of natural law
rather than divine caprice. Thus astronomy
was lost to animism, won for naturalism.'®

As observation was continued and experi-
ence accumulated, it was discovered that,
intimate as man is with his habitat, and in-
fluential as it is upon his life, there is yet
another class of determinants of behavior
even more immediate and significant: the
human body. The man, the ox, the snake,
and the bird all dwell in the same environ-
mental setting, but they behave very differ-
ently. The deer is swift, the squirrel climbs
trees, the bird flies, because they have
different kinds of bodily structure. An ap-
preciation of this fact was the dawn of the
science of anatomy.

Anatomy developed before physiology,
not because the structure of the body is
“simpler” than its functioning, but be-
cause it is easier to distinguish between
one’s self (one’s ego) and one’s arms and legs
than between one’s self and one’s glandular
processes. The body, unsophisticated man
feels, is but a shell, the house in which the
true self dwells. The ego and the body, he
feels, are two different things.!’ The self

BS Fe siding to Time magazine for March 25,
1946, p. 23, there were 25,000 practicing astrol-
ogers in the United States at that time; the five
leading astrological periodicals had a ‘combined
circulation of nearly 1,000,000; and one of the
leading astrological manuals sold at least
1,000,000 copies of its 1945 issue for $1 a copy.

16 See Henri Poincaré’s fine essay on astronomy,
the mother of science, in The value of science,
chapter 6.

17 It is not merely “‘unsophisticated man’? who
is sure that ‘‘mind”’ and “‘body” are two different

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

187

that he regards in “‘self-respect’’ is in no way
affected by the amputation of a limb. One
may lose both legs, his teeth, and even his
eyes, but his “‘self?’ remains untouched and
unscathed.'* But when glands flow hot in
anger or in love, naive man does not dis-
tinguish them from his ego; he identifies
the process with himself.

Similarly, the science of physiology ma-
tured before psychology: it is easier to dis-
tinguish between the self and the not-self
when dealing with physiological processes
than with mental phenomena. We observe
that a hungry man behaves one way, a
well-filled man another. The effects of work
and rest are obvious. Disposition is influ-
enced by digestion. Profound changes in
behavior can be effected by drugs and al-
cohol. But, unsophisticated man feels, there
is a point beyond which outside forces can
not go, boundaries which they can not cross.
Deep within him, naive man believes, is -
a citadel that is impregnable, a sanctuary
inviolable. Here he lives—his real self, his
essential character, his very soul. The
“human spirit’? or Will is free, he thinks,
subject to no laws natural or physical. He
sees himself as subject only; he is unable to
regard the self as an object, as an event in the
world of nature. The distinction between
self and not-self at this point lies beyond his
grasp and comprehension.

It was a great day for science when man
became able to look upon mental processes
as so many events in a world of nature,

’ when, to use William James’s fine phrase,

minds could be studied ‘“‘as objects, in a
world of other objects.’’!® The distinction
between subject and object was made. But
the fight for naturalism has not been wholly
won yet. Mental life is still called ‘‘the
human spirit” in many circles, and the soul
and mind still walk hand in hand in psy-

things. Descartes, certainly one of the greatest
minds of modern times, maintains that “it is
certain that I [that is, “my mind, by which Iam
what I am’’| is entirely and truly distinct from
py body, and may exist without it,’ Medztatzons,
7

ue ie ...and although the whole mind seems
to be united to the whole body, yet, when a foot,
an arm, or any other part is cut off, I am con-
scious that nothing has been taken from my
mind,” 7dem.

19 Principles of psychology, vol. 1, Chapter 7.

188

chologies, sociologies, and anthropologies
- even today.

Thus we find the reason for the order in
which the sciences have made their appear-
ance and the extent to which they have
matured to consist, not in varying degrees
of universality or complexity, but in the
varying ability of mankind to distinguish
between the self and the not-self in various
sectors of experience. This distinction is
made most easily when one deals with phe-
nomena which play an insignificant role as
determinants of human behavior. Con-
versely, it is difficult to distinguish between
the self and the not-self where phenomena
are intimate and powerful determinants.
The human race has discovered which are
the powerful determinants and which the
insignificant through experience; there was
no a priort way of knowing.

The heavenly bodies being more remote
and less significant as determinants of
human behavior than the winds, rain,
frost, and terrain, the science of astronomy
appears earlier and matures faster than ter-
restrial physics, geology, and geography.
Anatomical determinants being more re-
‘mote and less influential than physiological
processes, the science of anatomy precedes
physiology. Physiology comes before psy-
chology for the sameyreason. We may con-
clude our argument by formulating the
following law of development: Science
emerges first and matures fastest in fields
where the determinants of human behavior
are weakest and most remote; conversely,
science appears latest and matures slowest in
those portions of our experience where the
most intimate and powerful determinants of
our behavior are found.

Auguste Comte recognizes this law when
he observes:

It is worthy of remark in this place that the
most general and simple phenomena are the fur-
thest removed from Man’s ordinary sphere, and
must [it would be better to say ‘“‘can,’’ L.A.W.]
thereby be studied in a calmer and more rational
frame of mind than those in which he is more
nearly implicated; and this constitutes a new
ground for the corresponding sciences being de-
veloped more rapidly (p. 44).

In explaining the “hierarchy of the sci-
ences,’ however, Comte speaks of this
“new ground” merely incidentally and in

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL. 37, NO. 6

ag
passing, while the argument based upon
“the universal and the simple as opposed to _
the special and complex” is emphasized §
again and again. But in other portions of §
Positive philosophy, Comte takes pains to
point out repeatedly that the obstacles that
oppose the growth of social science are the
theological and metaphysical philosophies,
which must be driven from the field of §
social phenomena before a genuine social &
science can be achieved. Although we reject
Comte’s own explanation of the order of
filiation of the sciences, we could, and
indeed have, applied his theory of the three
stages in the development of philosophy to
the solution of this problem. What we have —
done, in effect, is to show that the ‘‘theo-
logical’? (supernaturalistic) philosophy has_
been dislodged and driven first, and to the
greatest extent, from interpretations of
physical phenomena, next from biological
studies, and last and to the least extent
from explanations of human behavior. And, ©
with the rejection of the theological philoso-—
phy and the decline of the metaphysical, —
there has been a growth and spread, pari
passu, of the naturalistic, scientific philoso-—
phy. Thus, what we observe is a trend in-
philosophy from the theological through the
metaphysical to the positivistic—from the
supernaturalistic to the naturalistic, or
scientific—sweeping across the field of ex-
perience from the physical through the
biological to the social. Comte had all the
materials for this explanation of his hier-—
archy, and indeed, it is implicit in the
Positive philosophy. But so concerned is he
with another rationalization that the true
solution is all but obscured entirely.

We may illustrate the development and
the sequence of the sciences in the accom-
panying diagram. In the center of the circle —
is man, surrounded by events which influ-
ence his behavior in varying degrees, some
intimate, some remote. From this point of
view, the advance of science has been more
in the nature of expansion’ of scope than of
growth or development. The cosmos lies
everywhere about man. Science, a particu-
lar way of dealing with experience, appeared
first in interpretations of a particular por-
tion of our field of experience, namely, in
astronomy, where phenomena are most re-

JUNE 15, 1947

ASTRONOM,
PHYSICS
CHEMIST py

CULTUROLOGY

=

BIOLOGICAL Sci@NCES

mote and insignificant as determinants of
human behavior. From there its techniques
have spread and extended to other segments
of experience. As science advances and ex-
pands, the anthropomorphic philosophy of
animism recedes and contracts; as the con-
cepts of natural law and determinism gain
ground, the philosophy of free will retreats.
The logical conclusion is, of course, to have
the whole field of human experience em-
braced by the philosophy of science rather
than that of animism. It is interesting, in
this connection, to recall the words of the
eminent Polish sociologist Ludwig Gumplo-
wicz, written many years ago:?°

Modern natural science has successfully demon-
strated that even the “human mind”’ is subject
to physical laws. ... But in the domain of social
phenomena unchangeable natural laws have not
been completely demonstrated. Between ‘“‘mental”’
phenomena subject to the laws of matter and the
social world strode the conception of human free-
dom to distract and confuse. It seemed to order
and control social relations according to its own
choice. In the domain of mental phenomena...
monistic natural science has in part demonstrated
the unconditioned sway of natural laws....
Dualism [i.e., law vs. free will], driven from this
domain, has retired to the domain of social phenom-
ena, whence rt must be dislodged’’ (emphasis ours).

We find the same view expressed by the
great French social scientist, Emile Durk-
heim :?!

Since the law of causality has been verified in

20 Outlines of sociology, p. 74 (English transla-

tion, Philadelphia, 1899).
1 The rules of sociological method (Chicago, 1938).

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

189

the other realms of nature, and since it has pro-
gressively extended its authority from the
physicochemical world to the biological, and from
the latter to the psychological, we are justified
in claiming that it is equally true of the social
world; and it is possible to add today that the
researches undertaken on the basis of this
postulate tend to confirm it (p. 141). There was a
time when sentiments relating to the things of the
physical world opposed with equal energy the
establishment of the physical sciences, because
they, too, had a religious or moral character.
We believe, therefore, that this prejudice, pur-
sued from one science to the next, will finally dis-
appear also from its last retreat, sociology, leaving
a free field for the true scientific endeavor (p. 34).

According to Comte, Spencer, and others
since their day, sociology is the last link in
the logical chain of science, the final stage
of its development. In terms of our theory,
this would mean that when astronomical,
geological, physical, chemical, anatomical,
physiological, and psychological deter-
minants of human behavior had been dealt
with there would remain but one more class
of determinants: the sociological. But are
we willing to accept this conclusion? Is this
classification adequate and final? We do
not believe it is. On the contrary, we find
it inadequate and immature. There is still
another class of determinants of human
behavior, which lie outside and beyond the
scope of psychology and, for the most part,
sociology. These are the traditional cus-
toms, institutions, tools, philosophies, lan-
guages, etc., which we eall, collectively,
culture. Cultural phenomena are super-,
or supra-, psychological determinants of
human behavior. They are super-psycho-
logical in the sense that it is beyond the
scope of psychology to account for them.
Psychology can not explain, e.g., why one
people has clans (behaves ‘‘clanwise’’)
while another does not; why one people eats
with knives and forks, another with chop-
sticks; why a people prohibits marriage be-
tween parallel cousins but requires marriage
between cross cousins; why a tribe practices
polyandry, observes the mother-in-law
taboo, forms plurals by affixation, uses
money, ete. Culture as culture can be ex-
plained only in terms of culture. But let us
return to the history of science and observe
its expansion beyond the horizons of indi-
vidual psychology.

190

For a long time, and until recent decades,
psychology was individual psychology. The
anatomical and physiological psychologists
had, of necessity, to take the individual as
their province. The same was true of the
introspectionists and associationists. In the
early years, the subject matter of psychol-
ogy was ‘‘mind,”’ and the mind was some-
thing that “went on” in the individual
organism. It was to be studied in terms of
anatomical structure and_ physiological
processes and by direct observation through
introspection. In any event, psychology
was the study of mind, and the mind was an
individualistic phenomenon.

But as the scientific study of man’s be-
havior advanced it came to be recognized
that there are important determinants of
behavior lying outside and beyond the in-
dividual which, however, profoundly influ-
ence his conduct. With the appreciation of
this fact, science undertook to grapple with
these superindividual determinants and to
bring them within the scope of scientific
interpretation.

Professional psychologists were, however,
slow to appreciate the significance of super-
individual determinants of human _ be-
havior. Consequently science organized its
forces under another banner, so to speak,
to undertake this necessary task. This new
movement was Sociology.?? Sociology came
into being as an organized attempt of sci-
ence to deal with superindividual deter-
minants of behavior. These determinants
were social in nature. Consequently, soci-
ology became the science of society. Early
sociologists distinguished their science from
psychology on the ground that the latter
was limited to the individual whereas theirs
was devoted to the group. As F. H. Gid-
dings put it:?8

... psychology [is] the study of the... indi-

vidual mind... ; sociology ...the investiga-
tion of the more special and complex phenomena

2 “Precisely because the currents of thought
ran too exclusively to analysis and explanation in
terms of the single human being, Sociology arose
as a discipline for the study of the collective life of
man. In the early years it was considered as prop-
erly beginning at the point where Psychology
left off.’”—E. E. Eusanx, The concepts of sociol-
ogy, p. 90 (1932).

23 The principles of sociology, pp. 24, 25 (New
York, 1896; 1921 printing).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of minds in association with one another. ...

Psychology is the science of the association of —

ideas. Sociology is the science of the association
of minds.

Psychology bestirred itself meanwhile
and gradually extended its scope to include
superindividual determinants. William
James displayed a fine appreciation of
social factors in behavior in the chapter
‘The Consciousness of Self”? in his Princiz-
ples of psychology (1890). In 1904, at the
Congress of Arts and Sciences at St. Louis,

James McKeen Cattell stated that he was :

‘not convinced that psychology should be
limited to the study of consciousness as

such.’’*4 Andi at the same Congress, J. M. ~

Baldwin predicted that “the psychology of
the future will be social to the core.’
In 1908 William McDougall published his
Social psychology. This was the first work
bearing this title written by a psychologist.
It so happened that E. A. Ross’s Soczal
psychology, the first work bearing this title
by a sociologist, was published in the same
year.

Although psychology was able to expand
its horizons sufficiently to take cognizance
of group factors in behavior, it still re-
mained anchored to the individual as the
object of its studies. Thus G. F. Stout and
C. A. Mace, in their article ‘““Psychology”’
in the Encyclopedia Britannica (14th ed.),
declare that psychology is the “science of
individual experience.’?’ And other psy-
chologists even maintain that soczal

- psychology is after all a study of the

individual. Thus F. H. Allport defines social
psychology as ‘‘the science which studies
the behavior of the individual” in so far as
his behavior is related to that of other
individuals. ‘‘Psychology in all
branches,’ he argues, “‘is a science of the
individual.’ Similarly, Prof. Margaret
Floy Washburn declares that “‘all psychology
deals with individuals.”’ Social psychology,

she says, is “that branch of psychology —

which deals with the mind as it is affected
by and manifested in relations with other

24 “Conceptions and Methods of Psychology,”
p. 597 (Proceedings of the Congress, vol. 5,
Boston, 1906).

25 “The History of Psychology,’’ p. 621 (Pro-
ceedings of the Congress, vol. 5).

* Social psychology, pp. 12, 4 (1924).

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‘June 15, 1947

minds.’’?’ Thus psychology was able to
reach out and at least take cognizance of

soeial factors in behavior. But it was so

firmly anchored to the individual as its ob-
ject of study that it was unable to free
itself and envisage a psychological system
- composed of many individuals instead of
only one, a social organism as well as a bio-
logical one. This field was left therefore
pretty much to the sociologists.

Sociology embarked upon its career with
high hopes and enthusiasm. Psychology
had long devoted itself to the individual
aspect of human behavior. Now sociology
was to deal with the group aspect. Give
sociology time to mature, many thought,
and the science of human behavior would
be complete, for with the individual and
collective aspects of behavior taken care of
what else was there? To many sociologists
of the late 1890’s and early 1900’s it ap-
peared, as it had to Comte many decades
earlier, that at last the “‘hierarchy”’ of the
sciences was complete, that sociology was
to be the crown or capstone of the great
edifice that was science. But these hopes and
aspirations have not been realized. Sociol-
ogy has not become the head of an impres-
sive hierarchy of sciences. On the contrary,
many scholars, both within sociology and
outside, raise the question, Is sociology a
science at all? Whatever accomplishments
sociology does have to its credit, it certainly
has failed to fulfill the hopes and expecta-
tions of Comte and subsequent generations
-of sociologists. The reasons, we believe, are
as follows:

Beyond the horizon of individual psy-
chology lie not only superindividual psy-
chological determinants of behavior, but
superpsychological determinants as well.
Sociology devoted itself to the interpreta-
tion of superindividual (i.e., social) psycho-
logical determinants of behavior, and in so
doing became social psychology. But, with
few and relatively insignificant exceptions,
it failed to distinguish and to recognize
superpsychological (i.e., cultural) deter-
minants, and thus failed to complete the
science of human behavior by becoming a
science of culture (i.e., culturology). In

7 “Social Psychology,” in Encyclopedia Ameri-
cana.

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

191

short, sociology merely rounded out the
science of psychology by making it the
study of the collective aspect of behavior
as well as of the individual aspect. But it
failed to create or become a science of cul-
ture and thus left the science of human be-
havior incomplete. Another science beyond
the horizon of sociology still remained to be
realized, namely the science of culture (cul-
turology). Before proceeding further let us
see precisely what this class of superpsy-
chological (cultural) determinants of be-
havior consists of, and what the nature and
scope of a science of culture would be.

We may illustrate with the following ex-
ample: a number of Navaho Indians were
spending the night in a large house near
their reservation when a party of other
Navahos approached. Word of their ap-
proach was passed through the house
whereupon a number of men quickly left
by the back door and windows: their
mothers-in-law were in the approaching
group and they must not meet them face
to face. How is their behavior to be ex-

plained?

Clearly there is a psychological reason
for their behavior, and there are both indi-
vidual and social aspects to their response.
Each individual was influenced by his own
organism and the experiences that it had

_undergone. And each individual was influ-

enced by his fellow Navahos. The psycholo-
gist can properly deal with both aspects, the
individual and the social, of this phenome-
non. He can inquire into their feelings,
ideas, and so on, and throw much light upon
the matter. But there is a point beyond
which the psychologist can not go: He can
not explain why the Navahos observe the
mother-in-law taboo whereas their close
neighbors, the Hopi, do not. No amount of
psychologizing will explain why one tribe
has this custom while another does not. The
psychologist does not always realize this.
Sometimes he declares that the institution
exists because the people think and feel and
act in a certain way; that the institution is
merely the crystallization of certain psycho-
logical processes. He fails to realize that 1t 1s
the other way around: the people feel,
think, and act the way they do because
they possess—or, more accurately, are pos-

192

sessed by—a certain custom.?® Manifestly,
the psychologist can not explain why the
Indian organism in the Navaho tribe be-
haves in such a way as to produce the
mother-in-law taboo while the Indian or-
ganism in the Hopi tribe does not behave in
that manner.’?

If, therefore, psychology can not explain
why one tribe has a certain custom while
another people does not, what science can?
The answer is, the Science of Culture. A
custom or institution is the product of the
action and interaction of other customs and
institutions. The mother-in-law taboo
would have to be explained in terms of
other customs—those of marriage, residence,
sexual division of labor, mode of sub-
sistence, and so on. Customs and institu-
tions—culture traits in general—constitute
a distinct class of phenomena. As such, it
may be treated as a closed system. Culture
is a thing sui generis; culture as culture
can be explained only in terms of culture.*°
Let us illustrate with a few other examples.

Psychology can not explain why the
language of one people is agglutinative
while that of another is inflective. This lin-
guistic difference must be explained in terms
of language, not in terms of mental
processes or emotional states. Likewise, the
psychologist can not explain why a people

practices polygyny rather than polyandry.

or monogamy; why it resorts to legal trial
rather than to ordeals or covert black
magic in the case of personal injury; or
why it fights over money and debts instead
of practicing communism. ~

Thus we see that over and above the
individual and social psychological factor
in human behavior, there is another factor

28 Tf “‘we see in the organization of the family
the logically necessary expression of human senti-
ments inherent in every conscience [mind], we are
reversing the true order of facts. On the contrary,
it js the social organization of the relationships
of kinship which has determined the respective
sentiments of parents and children... .’’—
DurRxKHEIM, The division of labor in soctety, p.
349 (English translation; 1933).

29 “EHvery time that a social [cultural] phe-
nomenon is directly explained by a_psycho-
logical phenomenon, we may be sure that the
explanation is false.’’—DUuRKHEIM, The rules of
sociological method, p. 104 (Chicago, 1938).

30 “Culture is a thing suz generis which can be
explained only in terms of itself.””,—R. H. Lowi,
Culture and ethnology, p. 66 (New York, 1917).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

a

VOL. 37, NO. 6

that is not psychological at all. It is super-
psychological or cultural. In addition to the
individual organic component in human

behavior and over and above the social

factor that comes from the interaction of
individuals, there is the influence of the
traditional customs, institutions, tools,
philosophies, etc. These things,*! these cuk
ture traits, have an existence prior to the
birth of any person living. They exist out-
side the human organism; they act upon
him from the outside as meteorologic forces
do. Culture can be transferred freely,
without migration, from one people to an-
other. The culture of any people at any
given time is the product of antecedent
cultural forces, and consequently is to be
explained only in cultural terms. The
English language of New England in 1947
is to be explained in terms of antecedent
linguistic processes and events, just as the
automobile, paper currency, courts of law,
Mormonism, relativity, and jazz music are
to be explained in terms of their respective
cultural antecedents.

We see, then, that in addition to the
psychological factor, individual and social,
in human behavior there is an important
suprapsychological factor. The importance
of this factor has only recently come to be
recognized and appreciated. Everything
that we do as human beings, individually
and collectively, is profoundly influenced
by our culture. Our food habits, marital
customs, ideas of right and wrong, canons
of beauty, mortuary practices, our philoso- —
phies and religions, in short, the whole
gamut of our lives, is culturally determined.
And, far from explaining our culture in
terms of the way we think, feel, and act,
we can explain much of our thought, feel-
ings, and behavior in terms of our culture.

This is not to say that there is no further
function for psychology in the modern

31 DURKHEIM calls ‘‘social facts’’ (i.e., culture
traits) things (choses). ‘‘The proposition which
states that social facts are to be treated as
things,’’ he says, lies ‘‘at the very basis of our
method” (The rules of sociological method, p.
Sa) ee

82 “Collective tendencies [i.e., culture traits]
have an existence of their own; they are forces as
real as cosmic forces... they also act upon the
individual from the outside. ...’’ —Translated
from DURKHEIM, Le suicide, p. 348 (Paris, 1897).

JuNE 15, 1947

science of human behavior. It will be noted
above that we have said that ‘‘much,”’ not
‘‘all,”’-of our behavior can be explained cul-
turally. There is still a place for psychology,
of course. But its scope is not so extensive as
was formerly supposed. The day of facile
psychological explanations of customs and
institutions is done. In the future, culture
will have to be explained culturologically.
But within any given cultural situation the
operation of the psychological factors will
still have to be observed and interpreted.
For example, given Navaho culture, how
will Indian organisms behave? In short,
we can hold the cultural factor constant
while we study the variable psychological
factor.

Returning again to the history of science,
we note that sociology was the new form
taken by science in the extension of its
scope to embrace superindividual deter-
minants of behavior. Sociology became, for
the most part, social psychology, and
social psychology is of course psychology,
just as ripe plums are plums, or honest men,
men. But in going beyond the scope of in-
dividual determinants, sociology encoun-
tered superpsychological (cultural) deter-

minants as well as superindividual psycho-

logical factors. But instead of dealing with
cultural determinants upon their own level,
i.e., culturologically, sociology brought
_ them down to the sociopsychological level

and attempted to interpret them in terms of
“social process,”’ or “‘interaction.’’ Sociolo-
gists failed for the most part to realize that
there is no such thing as social interaction
among human beings as human beings (i.e.,
as organisms behaving in terms of symbols)
that is not culturally determined. To say
that social interaction produces matrilineal
clans here, patrilineal clans there does not
make sense. To say that one kind of process
of interaction produces matrilineal, another
kind of process patrilineal, clans is to put
the cart before the horse. It is the type of
clan, the culture trait, that determines the
form of social interaction; matrilineal clans
will produce one type of interaction, patri-
lineal clans another. And clans, as culture
traits, can not be accounted for in terms of
individual psychological processes—hopes,
desires, fears, etec.—or in terms of an ab-

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

193

stract process of social interaction but in
terms of other culture traits, such as cus-
tomary division of labor between the sexes
which in turn is closely related to the mode
of subsistence and the circumstances and

means of defense against enemies; such as

rules of marriage, place of residence of the
married couple, and so on. And so it is with
social interaction everywhere in human
society. Whether it be in the family, clan,
or lineage, household or neighborhood,

guild, lodge, church, market place, or what

not, the concrete processes of interaction
that actually obtain in any given case have
been determined, i.e., given form and con-
tent, by the culture that possesses the
people, the culture that existed before they
were born and into which they were intro-
duced at birth, and which has given form
and content to their behavior since that
time. The attempt of sociologists to explain
culture in terms of “‘social process” or “‘in-
teraction” failed as of course it must. A
sociological interpretation of culture does
not and can not give a scientific account of
the origin and function of customs and in-
stitutions; it merely conceals their supra-
psychological, suprasociological, nature.
Thus we see that when science created so-
ciology in its march of expansion, it
rounded out the science of psychology but
failed to achieve a science of culture. Let us
examine more fully the preceding proposi-
tions in turn. 3

The behavior of every living organism
presents two aspects: inner and outer.*®
There are processes and relationships that
take place within the organism; these we
may call intraorganismal. Then there are
reactions and relationships between the
organism and the external world; these may
be designated extraorganismal. We may de-
fine physiology as the scientific observation
and interpretation of intraorganismal
processes and relationships; psychology, as
the study of the extraorganismal aspect of

33 ‘* AJ] relations or actions between one part of

. [a material system] and another are called
Internal relations or actions. Those between the
whole or any part of the system, and bodies not
included in the system, are called External rela-
tions or actions.”—J. CLERK MAxweE.uu, Matter
and motion, pp. 11-12 (New York, 1892).

194

behavior.** Now extraorganismal behavior
presents two aspects, individual and col-
lective, and consequently can be studied
from these two standpoints. In other words,
we can have individual psychology and
social psychology. But both are, of course,
psychology—the scientific observation and
interpretation of extraorganismal reactions.
There is no such thing as an individual
apart from the group, and no collectivity
independent of individuals. Individual and
society are but two poles of the same phe-
nomenon: extraorganismal reactions of bi-
ological organisms.

When sociology took form as a distinct
discipline it was dedicated, as we have seen,
to the study of the collective aspect of be-
havior. It thus became social psychology.
Because the psychology of that day was
individualistic in character and outlook, the
infant sociology took pains-to distinguish
itself from that science. It protested, for
example, against being classed with the
‘‘mental sciences’ in the program of the
St. Louis Congress of Arts and Sciences.*
Notwithstanding all this, numerous sociol-
ogists have testified that the subject matter
of sociology is “mental phenomena”’ and
that sociology is, for the most part, social
psychology. Thus Lester Ward speaks of
“that collective psychology which consti-
tutes so nearly the whole of sociology.’
Giddings declares that “‘society [is to be
regarded] as a mode of mental activity ...
social life . . . is a phenomenon of the mind

Commons memtal eacuivihy sess.) c=
cordingly, he regards sociology as ‘‘a psy-
chological science.’’*® Hobhouse says that
“fundamentally society is a psychological
structure.’’*? American sociologists came to
recognize that ‘“‘social life 1s essentially psy-
chical,”’ according to Gottfried Salomon.*°

34 Herbert Spencer, too, distinguished physi-
ology from psychology in terms of ‘internal rela-
tions” and “external relations,” ‘‘The Classifica-
tion of the Sciences,” Table 3.

35 See the remarks of Prof. F. W. Blackmar as
chairman of the session on Sociology (Proceedings
of the Congress, vol. 5, p. 786).

36 Pure sociology, p. 59 (New York, 1903).

37 “The Concepts and Methods of Sociology,”
Proc. Congr. Arts and Sci. St. Louis 5: 788, 794.

38 Preface to Principles of sociology, written 1896.

39 Soczal development, p. 130 (London, 1924).

40 “Social Organism,”’ in Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 6

At the St. Louis Congress of Arts and Sci-
ences, C. A. Ellwood speaks of social psy-
chology as “this most important part of
sociology.’ Albion W. Small once defined
sociology as “the science of the social
process,’ but he also states that the inter-
pretation of the social process is ‘‘social
psychology.” Thus, sociology and social
psychology appear to be one and the same.
To Giddings “societal psychology is sub-
stantially the same thing as sociology.’’”
And quite recently L. L. Bernard has de-
clared that ‘modern sociology becomes
largely social psychology.’”4

Thus sociology turns out to be social
psychology, and social psychology is psy-
chology, according to the testimony of
sociologists as well as by our own defini-
tions. E. A. Ross, the first sociologist to
write a book entitled Social psychology, de-
fined social psychology as a subdivision of
“general psychology.’’* And more recently
R. M. Maclver observes that “‘social psy-
chology is a branch of psychology.’’** We
note therefore that in so far as sociology is
the study of social interaction, social
process, etc., it is merely a psychological
science. But what of the study of super-
psychological determinants of behavior?
Where does sociology stand with reference
to interpretation of cultural phenomena?

Sociology was a quarter of a century old,
if not more, before the concept of culture
entered into its thinking to any appreciable
extent. By degrees, however, the concept of
culture—or, at least, the term—has become
more common, and even popular. But, with
few and relatively insignificant exceptions,
sociologists have not been able to rise to a
culturological point of view; they have not
been able to envisage a science of culture
as distinct from a science of society.

41 Remarks as chairman of the section on social
psychology, Proceedings 5: 859.

42 General sociology, pp. 35, 622 (Chicago, 1905).

43 Civilization and society, p. 402 (New York,
1932).

44 “Sociology and Psychology,” p. 348, in The
Social Sciences and their Interrelations, Wm. F.
OGBURN and ALEX. GOLDENWEISER, editors (New
Viork, 927).

45‘“'The Present Problems of Social _ Psy-
chology,” Proc. Congr. Arts and Sci. St. Louis,
5: 869.

46 Society: A texlbook of sociology, p. vii (New
York, 1937

ff

JUNE 15, 1947

To most sociologists culture is merely

behavior, a particular kind of behavior,
perhaps, but the reactions and interactions
of human organisms, nevertheless. Thus
Kimball Young says that ‘‘culture consists
of ...learned behavior patterns.’’47 To
Read Bain, “‘culture is all behavior medi-
ated by social symbols... all culture pat-
terns are resident in the organisms of per-
sons.’”’48 Ogburn and Nimkoff say that cul-
ture is. “behavior transmitted -by learn-
ing.’’#? Ellwood defines culture as ‘behavior
patterns socially acquired and_ socially
transmitted by means of symbols.’’*°

There is also a tendency among sociolo-
gists to regard culture as merely a by-
product of social interaction. Thus, E. R.
Groves states that “culture is a product of
human association.’”*! Kimball Young
thinks of culture as ‘‘a precipitate of man’s
social life.’’®? ;

To many sociologists, “cultural” has be-
come merely another word for ‘‘social.”’
Robert S. Lynd, for example, speaks of
“the individual in our culture,” “leaders of
the culture,’ etc? As Jessie Bernard
shrewdly observed many years ago, ‘ ‘cul-
ture’ bids well to supersede ‘society’ and

‘cultural,’ ‘social,’ in the sociologist’s vo- -

cabulary.’’*4 3

The inability of sociologists to conceive
of culture as a suprapsychological order, dis-
tinct from the process of ‘“‘social interac-
tion,” is well exemplified 'by the eminent
German sociologist Georg Simmel. When
one considers, he says, ‘‘the development

47 An introduction to sociology, p. 19 (19384).

48 “A Definition of Culture,’ p. 87 (Sociology
and Social Res. 27: 87—94. 1942), and ‘‘Trends in
American Sociological Theory,’ p. 110 (in
Trends in American sociology, G. A. LUNDBERG,
et al., editors; New York, 1929).

49 Wn. F. OcBuRN and MEeEyYeER F. NIMKoFrr,
Sociology, p. 63 (1940).

50 “Culture and Human Society,’’ p. 6 (Social
Forces 23: 6-15. Oct. 1944).

51 Introduction to sociology, p. 23 (1928). See
also E. R. Groves and H. E. Moors, Introduc-
tzon to sociology, pp. 13-14 (1940), for a similar
expression.

52 Sociology, a study of society and culture, p. 36
(1942).

53 Knowledge for what?, pp. 72, 186, and else-
where (Princeton, 1939).

54 “History and Prospects of Sociology,’’ p. 68,
in Trends in American sociology, G. A. LuND-
BERG et al., editors (1929).

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

195

and character of language, morals, church,
law, political and social organization,”’ the
conception that they constitute ‘‘a structure
of independent reality, which leads its life
after peculiar laws and by virtue of peculiar
forces, independent of all its individual com-
ponents’ seems “‘inevitable.’’ Simmel is
here face to face with culture. Its inde-
pendence of individuals is so plain that it
compels recognition by itself. That culture |
has an existence of its own which is deter-
mined by its own laws, is also so plain as
to make the conception ‘‘inevitable.” Yet,
so mired in individualistic psychology is
Simmel, and so blinded by an obsolete met-
aphysics, that he cannot accept the con-
clusion to which his observations and
reasoning “inevitably”’ lead him. ‘‘It is cer-
tain,’ he stubbornly maintains, ‘‘that in the
last analysis only individuals exist.”°* Even

‘society exists only ‘in mental attitudes or

psychological occurrences within the minds
of individuals.’’®’ And culture, apart from
material things, consists of ‘‘spiritual struc-
tures ... [which] have their existence only
in personal minds. Every attempt to think
of them outside of persons is a mys-
ICHISIOOu cea nh eS

The conception of a science of culture
held by many American sociologists is ex-
pressed by Dorothy P. Gary in her essay
“The Developing Study of Culture’’:>® ‘A
science of culture will be built up only when
the analysis of culture is approached from
the standpoint that culture itself is a social
process growing out of and consisting of col-
lective human behavior.” In other words,
a science of culture will be realized only
when it becomes a science of social process,
of collective behavior, rather than a science
of culture. Th. Abel considers the question
of a science of culture in his essay, “Is a
Cultural Sociology Possible?’’®* and comes
to the conclusion that it is not. To Abel,
sociology is the study of “interhuman be-

55 “The Persistence of Social Groups,” p. 665
(Amer. Journ. Sociol. 3).

56 Tdem.

57 N. J. SpyKMAN, The social theory of Georg
Simmel, p. 27 (Chicago, 1925).

58 ““The Persistence of Social Groups,” p. 665.

59 In Trends in American sociology, G. A. Lund-
berg et al., editors, p. 182 (1929).

60 Amer. Journ. Sociol. 35: 739-52. 1929.

196

havior’ of which culture is but an aspect.

There have been, to be sure, sociologists
who have a fine appreciation of the role of
culture in human behavior. Prof. C. A. EIl-
wood, for example, declares that ‘it is im-
possible to understand human society
without understanding human culture; for
the social behavior of man . . . is dominated
by the culture of his group.’’® But he, too,
thinks of culture as human (organic) be-
havior rather than as a class of supra-
psychologic, superorganic, phenomena. To
Ellwood, ‘“‘all culture is a product of the
human mind [which means that] back of‘all
historical interpretation, therefore, must
be the method of psychological analysis. . .
the development of culture is essentially a
learning process.’ William F. Ogburn took
a culturological point of view, to a certain
extent at least, in his Soczal change. But, as
we have just seen, he and his collaborator,
Nimkoff, think of culture as human be-
havior. Malcolm M. Willey is another
sociologist who has done much to bring
his science to an appreciation of culture.
He has gone so far as to declare that ‘“‘the
study of culture—the processes of its origin
and its growth, its spread and its perpetua-

tion—constitutes the study of sociology.’’® -

But in an earlier article written by Willey
and Melville J. Herskovits (an anthropolo-
gist), we are told that “it must not be as-
sumed, of course, that culture is a meta-
physical entity which operates of itself. It
is, rather, a generic term that covers an
amazing number of types of behavior.’
Thus we see that sociologists think of cul-
ture as behavior, as social process or inter-
action, as a factor in human behavior, or
as a by-product of human behavior. But
they seldom, if ever, rise to the level of
viewing culture as a distinct and separate
class of suprapsychological, suprasocial
phenomena; as a process suz generis with its
own laws. In short, they can not rise above
a science of ‘society and envisage a science

of culture. This is not, however, surprising.

61 ‘Culture and Human Society,’ p. 6 (Social
Forces 23: 6-15. Oct. 1944).

62 Tbid., pp. 14, 13.

63 “The Validity of the Culture Concept,” p.
208 (Amer. Journ. Sociol. 35: 1929).

64 “The Cultural Approach to Sociology,” p. 191
(Amer. Journ. Sociol. 29: 188-199. Sept. 1923).

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VoL. 37, NO. 6

Being sociologists, they are by definition
and tradition devoted to the study of soci-
ety, of social interaction. It isnot surprising,
therefore, to find that when they are con-
fronted with culture they translate it into
the only language they know: the idiom of
social interaction. There is not a single
sociologist that we know of (Durkheim ex-
cepted) who has a clear conception of what
a science of culture would be and who has
devoted himself to the advancement of such
a science.

A few sociologists have, however, been
sufficiently exposed to the culturological
point of view to be disturbed by it. Prof.
R. M. Maclver is concerned with the “‘dis-
turbing effect”? which “the impact of an-
thropology”’ has had upon sociology; the
“cultural approach,” he says, “leaves soci-
ology without a focus.”’® Prof. Robert S.
Lynd® issues a clear warning against the
error of ‘‘viewing culture as a self-contained
force, operating by inner laws of its own.”
He lists ‘‘four distinct advantages’? which
may be gained from treating culture as
human behavior instead of as culture
(‘‘basically impersonal things’). Culture, he
argues, does not “enamel its fingernails, or
vote, or believe in capitalism, but people
do.” L. L. Bernard,® too, argues against a
science of culture, denying that culture is a
thing sui generis. He likewise thinks of cul-
ture as ‘“‘the impact of an intelligent organ-
ism... upon its environment,” in other
words, as the reactions of the human or-
ganism.

Thus, among sociologists we find a recog-
nition of cultural phenomena and an appre-
ciation of the role of culture in human be-
havior. But we find virtually no conception
of a science of culture among them, no ap-
preciation of the fact that cultural phe-
homena constitute a separate and distinct
order; that cultural elements act and react
upon each other according to laws of their
own; that culture as such can be explained
only in terms of culture; that culture not
only can be studied apart from the psycho-

6 The Trend to Internationalism,” p. 181,
and “Sociology,” p. 243, both in Encyclopedia of
the Social Sierocd:

66 Knowledge for what?, pp. 22,

27.
87 Introduction to sociology, p. "800 (New York,
1942).

JuNE 15, 1947

logical reactions of human organisms, apart

from ‘‘social interaction,” but that it must

be so studied; in fine, that a special science
is required to study and interpret this spe-
cial class of phenomena, and that this
science is not a science of psychology, indi-
vidual or social, or a science of society or
“social interaction,”’ but a suprapsychologi-
eal science of culture: culturology.

With the creation of Sociology the
boundaries of science were extended to em-
brace superindividual determinants of be-
havior. But, being but a science of group
behavior, of collective psychological deter-
minants, Sociology was unable to grasp and
interpret superpsychological determinants.
Science was, therefore, obliged once again
to advance its frontiers by creating a new
science. This time it was Culturology.

It was the anthropologists who, as Prof.
A. L. Kroeber*®® has observed, ‘discovered
culture,’ and it has been within the

province of anthropology that the science

of culture has had most of its growth. The
eminent British anthropologist Edward
Burnett Tylor was the first person, so far as

-we know, to formulate in an explicit and

self-conscious manner the point of view, the
purpose, principles, and scope, of a science
of culture. He was the first, too, so far as
we know, to use the phrase “‘science of cul-
ture’’: it was the title of chapter 1 of his

Primitive culture (1871). We do not mean

to assert that Tylor was the first to take a
eulturological point of view or. to produce a
culturological work; there were, of course,
others before Tylor who did this to a greater
or lesser extent. But so far as we are aware,
Tylor was the first to define and describe
the new science.

To begin with, Tylor gave us what has
probably been the most satisfactory defini-
tion of culture that we have ever had until
recently. ‘‘Culture,” he says in the opening
words of Primitive culture, “is that complex
whole which includes knowledge, belief,
art, morals, law, custom, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as
a member of society.” Secondly, Tylor
makes it clear that this new science will take

68 “So-Called Social Science,’ pp. 331, 333
(Journ. Social Philos. 1: 317-340. July 1936).

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

Lz

as its object of study, not human behavior,
nor social process or interaction, but culture
traits themselves as a separate and distinct
class of phenomena. The study “not of
tribes and nations, but the condition of
knowledge, religion, art, custom, and the
like among them’’® is the task he sets for
his science. He proposes first to classify cul-
ture traits into categories such as weapons,
myths, rites, social customs, etc., and then
to ‘‘make out their distribution in geogra-
phy and history and the relations which
exist among them.’’’° It is the relations be-
tween culture trazts, relations historic, geo-
graphic, and functional, that Tylor is
concerned with, not relations between hu-
man beings (i.e., ‘‘social interaction’’).

The next noteworthy attempt to estab-
lish a science of culture was that of Emile
Durkheim.” In a great deal of his work, but
especially in The rules of sociological method
—above all in the preface to the second
edition of this work—Durkheim endeavored
to formulate the premises and principles of
culturology. His phraseology was unfor-
tunate, however, since it rather effectively
concealed his true thought.” In the first
place he calls his science “‘sociology”’ rather
than a “science of culture’? as Tylor did,
and he lacks the terminology to distinguish
between the social and the cultural. He
designates the class of traditional super-
psychologic symbolic phenomena which we
eall ‘culture’? by such terms as “‘collective
consciousness,” which has not only ob-
scured his thought but has brought upon
him the charge of mysticism. But to one
who can reach his thought and meaning
through the fagade of inappropriate ter-
minology, it will be quite apparent that

69 Primitive culture, vol. 1, p. 5.

70 [bid., p. 8.

7 Having previously stated that the found-
ing of the science of culture was primarily the
work of anthropology the question arises, Was
not Durkheim a sociologist? It is, of course, a fact
that Durkheim called his science “‘sociology.”’ But
it is also true that its nature and content were
very different from the works of most sociologists.
As Bernard has put it, “the Durkheim school
generally has been closer to anthropology than to
sociology” (article ‘Social Psychology,” p. 154,
in Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences).

72 See the opening words of Durkheim’s preface
to the second edition of The rules for his own

statement about how he was misunderstood by
his colleagues.

198

Durkheim is talking about culture rather
than ‘‘society” or “‘social interaction,’’ and
that he is trying to establish a science of
culture.

Durkheim is speaking of culture when he
says:

. collective ways of acting or thinking have a
reality outside the individuals who, at every
moment of time, conform to it. These ways of
thinking and acting exist in their own right.”
Collective representations are the result of an
immense co-operation, which stretches out not
only into space but into time as well; to make
them, a multitude of minds have associated,
united and combined their ideas-and sentiments;
for them, long generations have accumulated
their experience and knowledge.”

Durkheim leaves no doubt that he is
concerned with what anthropologists such
as Tylor, Kroeber, and Lowie have called
culture even though he uses the term
“society.” “It is not true,’ he says,” “‘that
society 1s composed of individuals only; it
also includes material objects which play an
essential role in the common life’ (empha-
sis ours). Among these material objects he
lists “‘houses, buildings of all kinds which,
once constructed, become autonomous real-
ities, independent of individuals... lines
of communication and transportation, .. .
instruments and machines used in in-
CHUSiiyene ccs

That Durkheim is interested in the be-
havior of culture traits rather than the be-
havior of human organisms (‘‘social inter-
action’’) is made clear by the following:

We need to investigate, by comparison of
mythical themes, popular legends, traditions,
and language, the manner in which social repre-
sentations [i.e., culture traits] adhere to and repel
one another, how they fuse or separate from one
another. ”®

Since culture is to be studied with refer-
ence to the ways in which traits act and
react upon one another—“‘adhere to and
repel one another’’—it follows that culture
is to be explained in terms of culture:

7 The rules of sociological method, p. \vi (Chi-
cago, 1938).

™ The elementary forms of the religious life, p.
16 (London, 1912).

%® Translated from Le suicide, p. 354 (Paris,
1897).

i Feules, p. li:

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VOL. 37, NO. 6

Society [i.e., culture] is a reality suz generis;
it has its own peculiar characteristics. ... The
determining cause of a social fact [culture trait] —
should be sought among the social facts [culture
traits] preceding it.... We must seek the ex-
planation of social life [culture] in the nature of
society [culture] itself.77

A few sociologists have been able to see
that Durkheim is talking about*culture

traits and their behavior rather than human

organisms and their interactions, but most
of his successors have either tried to reduce
his culturology to the social psychology of
interaction or have dismissed it as ‘‘mys-
ticism.’”’ Despite misunderstanding, how-
ever, Durkheim’s influence has been con-
siderable, and he will eventually come to be
recognized as one of the founders of the
science of culture.

In the works of Tylor and Durkheim the
science of culture got off to a good start in
the nineteenth century. But progress in this
field has been rather meager in recent
decades. A considerable amount of work of a —
culturological nature has been produced by
American and European anthropologists.
But little advance in the development of the
theory of such a science has been made.
There has, in fact, been considerable oppo-
sition to the culturological point of view,
and numerous signs point to regression —
from the level attained by Tylor and
Durkheim.

Prof. A. L. Kroeber has undertaken to
formulate the philosophy of a science of
culture on several occasions, notably in the
following essays: ‘‘The Superorganic,’’”®
“The Possibility of a Social Psychology,’’”
“On the Principle of Order in Civilization
as Exemplified by Changes in Fashion,’’®°
“Sub-Human Cultural Beginnings,’’®! ‘“So-
Called Social Science,’’® and, finally in his
recent huge work, Configurations of culture
growth.® Like Comte, Kroeber is concerned
with the “hierarchy of the sciences.’ He
distinguishes cultural phenomena from

xd The elementary forms, p. 16; Rules, pp. 110,
102.

78 Amer. Anthrop. 19: 163-213. 1917.

77 Amer. Journ. Sociol. 23: 633-650. 1918.

80 Amer. Anthrop. 21: 235-263. 1919.

81 Quart. Rev. Biol. 3: 325-342. 1928.

8 Journ. Social Philos. 1: 317-340. 1936.

83 Berkeley, Calif., 1944. See my review of this
work in Amer. Anthrop. 48: 78-93. 1946.

JUNE 15, 1947.

psychological phenomena. ‘‘Civilization,”’
he says, “‘is not mental action but a body or
stream of mental exercise.’’’* He dis-
tinguishes the psychological from the cul-
tural in the instance of Darwin’s formula-
tion of the theory of natural selection: the
‘“yeactions in Darwin’s nervous system at
the moment when the thought of natural
selection flashed upon him,” are contrasted
with ‘‘the relation of doctrines such as that
of natural selection to other concepts and
social [cultural] phenomena.’’® In short,
Kroeber envisages a science that would
concern itself, not with psychological
events, but with the actions and reactions of
superorganic (cultural) phenomena. In
speaking of the reaction of one concept on
another, Kroeber is thinking as Durkheim
was when he spoke of the way in which
“social representations [culture traits] ad-
here to and repel one another, how they
fuse or separate from one another.”

Culture, as a class of suprapsychic—or
_superorganic, to use Kroeber’s term—phe-
nomena constitutes a distinct order of
reality, in Kroeber’s conception. ‘The
superorganic or superpsychic ... that we
call civilization [culture] appears to have
an existence, an order, and a causality as
objective and as determinable as those of
the sub-psychic or inorganic,” he says.%6
He also thinks of culture as a ‘‘closed sys-
tem of phenomena,” which means that “‘the
first explanation of cultural phenomena
must be in cultural terms.’’®”

Professor Kroeber is not able to hold con-
sistently to the culturological point of
view, however. He appears to think that
culturological explanations can be only his-
torical ;** generalizations dealing with non-
temporal aspects of cultural phenomena
would, he reasons, belong to psychology, as
is indicated by the title of one of his essays,
“The Possibility of a Social Psychology.”
He is not quite able to conceive of scientific
laws of culture itself. Instead, he speaks of

st “The Superorganic,”’ p. 192.

So ovd. pp. 206.

86 Idem, p. 263.

87 “Sub-Human Cultural Beginnings,” p. 325.
88 “Anthropology belongs in the group of the
historical sciences,’’ Anthropology, p. 325 (New
York, 1923).

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

199

laws which underle culture, and these are
“the laws of psychology.’’®®

Kroeber has pointed out “‘the fatal de-
fect’ of the term ‘‘sociology’’: its failure to
distinguish the cultural from the social.%
But he does little to remedy this shortcom-
ing, since in the same essay where the defect
of ‘‘sociology”’ is exposed, he suggests that
the science of culture be called ‘cultural
mechanics,” “social psychology,’ and even
“‘sociology.’’*! If only he could have crystal-
lized his thought in a new term: ‘“‘culturol-
ogy!’’*? In a later essay,** he does use the

S2eoc: (cut.

90 “The Possibility of a Social Psychology,” p.
641.

% Tbid., p. 640.

2 | hasten to say that I am not the first to use
this term in print. Read Bain, a sociologist, speaks
of ‘‘culturology” in “Trends in American Socio-
logical Theory” (Gn Trends in American sociology,
G. A. Lundberg et al., editors, New~ York,
1929). Dr. Cheng Che-Yu published Oriental
and Occidental cultures contrasted: An introduc-
tion to ‘‘culturology,”’ in 1943 (Berkeley, Calif.).
He has written me that he has used ‘“‘cultur-
osophy”’ as well as “culturology”’ in earlier pub-
lications in China. I first used “‘culturology”’ in
print in 1939, I believe (‘A Problem in Kinship
Terminology,’ Amer. Anthrop. 41: 566-573),
but I employed it regularly in lectures for some
years prior to that date.

“‘Culturology” may, from its novelty, sound
affected or pretentious today. But we recall that
friends of Herbert Spencer condemned the word
“sociology” as a “‘barbarism’’ (Preface to vol. 1,
Principles of sociology). ‘‘Culturology”’ also will
become familiar with the maturity. of ‘“‘social’’
science and will eventually be accepted as a
matter of course. If the scientific study and inter-
pretation of mammals is “mammalogy,’’ the
science of minerals ‘‘mineralogy,’’ of music,
“musicology,’ why should not the science of
culture be called ‘‘culturology’’? The importance
of new words for new conceptions is well expressed
by Henri Poincaré: “. . . the true discoverer will
not be the workman who has patiently built up
some of these combinations, but the man who has
brought out their relation. ... The invention of a
new word will often be sufficient to bring out the
relation, and the word will be creative’? (emphasis
ours), “Science and Method,” p. 28 Gn Founda-
tions of science, New York and Garrison, 1913).

If Durkheim could only have used ‘‘culture’’
and ‘‘culturology” instead of ‘‘society,’’ ‘‘collec-
tive consciousness,” ‘‘collective representations,”’
and “sociology,” he would have spared himself
misunderstanding that has persisted even to the
present time. His failure to do so is remarkable
in view of his realization of the necessity of new
concepts and new terms as science advances:
“We need...to formulate entirely new con-
cepts, appropriate to the requirements of science
and expressed in an appropriate terminology”
(p. 37, The rules).

93 “So-Called Social Science,’’ p. 238,

200

phrase “‘science of culture,” however. And
he displays a keen understanding of the
direction that science is taking when he ob-
serves: ‘‘It does look as if the future science

would be more concerned with culture than

with society.’’*

Prof. Robert H. Lowie (an anthropolo-
gist) gives us a clear expression of the cul-
turological point of view in his various
writings. To him, culture constitutes a dis-
tinct class of suprapsychological phenomena

which requires a special science for its inter- -

pretation. ‘‘During the last hundred years,”
he writes, ‘‘it has become increasingly clear
that culture ...represents...a distinct
domain.®> We have [in culture] a thing swz
generis that demands for its investigation a
distinct science.’’°* This distinct science is
to be a “science of culture,” as he calls it
in a recent essay.*’ The science of culture is
to be distinguished sharply from a science
of mental phenomena: ‘‘We cannot reduce
cultural to psychological phenomena. . . .°°
Culture . . . can be explained only in terms
of itself.’”’°? Like Durkheim and Kroeber,
Lowie sees that culture traits as such act
and react upon each other: ‘‘culture thus
appears as a closed system.’”! It is therefore
the business of the ethnologist [culturolo-
gist] to show how one cultural element is
determined by,.or influences, other culture
traits. He shows, for example, how a type
of kinship terminology is determined by
~ rules of marriage and descent.

Clark Wissler, likewise an anthropolo-
gist, takes the culturological point of view
in much of his work. He regards the “‘cul-
ture concept [as] one of the most recent and
important achievements in anthropological
research.’’? He distinguishes psychology,
the scientific explanation of the way people
behave, from anthropology, the study of
the way culture traits, or cultures, behave.
In fact, he advocates the study of ‘‘culture

4 Tbid., p. 337.

% “Cultural Anthropology: A Science,” p. 301 °

(Amer. Journ. Sociol. 42(3). Nov. 1936).

9% Cullure and ethnology, p. 17.

97 “Cultural Anthropology: A Science,” p. 307.

98 Culture and ethnology, p. 17.

OS bids: p00:

Elden, p. 95.

2 “Recent Developments in Anthropology,” p.
75, in Recent developments in the social sciences,

E. C. Hayss, editor (Philadelphia, 1927).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

~

vou. 37, No. 6

as independent of human beings.’’* Like
Tylor, Wissler states that the task of the
anthropologist is to ‘‘describe and classify
these inventions [culture traits], to study
their distribution over the earth, and above
all the gross outlines of their history.’’4
Wissler is interested in the evolution of cul-
ture, the history of specific traits and com-
plexes, and in relationships obtaining be- ~
tween traits. ‘“‘All cultures,’ he maintains,
“follow out their careers according to dis-
coverable laws,’’® and it is the anthropolo-
gist’s business to discover and to formulate
these laws. .

Wissler does not, however, fully appre-
ciate the extent to which the culturological
point of view can be applied. Instead of
trying to explain such traits as the couvade
and incest prohibitions in terms of the inter-
action of other culture traits, he turns them
over to the psychologist.6 He would thus
restrict the science of culture to an unwar-
ranted and unfortunate degree and deprive
it of much opportunity for achievements.
But this blind spot does not lessen the merit
of his culturological work in other areas of
interpretation.

Wissler’s insight and understanding con-
cerning the expansion of the scope of science
and of the direction which this expansion is
taking is shown in the following passage:’

Thus, it was an easy step from the realization
of the individual to the conception of society. ...
Such a consciousness of ourselves functioning as a
group is coincident with the rise of sociology ...
and whereas a century or more ago men were
thinking in terms of the individual, they came
during the last half century to see themselves in
society. It is then a curious fact that for a long |
time man was so intent upon his individualism,
he failed to sense the existence of society, and
that to such a thing as culture was totally blind.
But we have seen how our people are just becom-
ing conscious of the existence of culture... . So
while we have attained social consciousness .. .
into culture consciousness we are just now groping
our way.

Prof. G. P. Murdock has a fine exposition
of the culturological point of view in his

3 Man and culture, p. 99 (New York, 1923).
a ‘Recent Developments in Anthropology,” p.
87.
5 Man and culture, p. 247; also p. 3638.
6 “Recent Developments in Anthropology,”’ pp.
62-63, 73, 84.
7 Man and culture, pp. 333-334.

JuNE 15, 1947

essay ‘‘The Science of Culture.’ Dr. Bern-
hard J. Stern, also, touches upon it in an
Uluminating manner in his article ‘“‘Con-
cerning the Distinction between the Social
and the Cultural.’’® It would be interesting
to note expressions of the culturological
point of view in the works of other men if
sufficient space were at our disposal. But
we have cited enough to show that some
progress in the direction of a science of cul-
ture has. been made since the days of Tylor
and Durkheim.

But the new science has encountered con-
siderable opposition as well as support. The
extension of the point of view of science to
the realm of human institutions has aroused
the opposition and resentment of champions
of the older philosophy of free will. As
Durkheim has expressed it:!°

The same antagenism breaks out each time a
new science is founded...on more than one
point, the natural sciences themselves found an
obstacle in faith. But it is especially when man
became an object of science that the resistance
became fierce. The believer, indeed, cannot but
find repugnant the idea that man is to be studied
as a natural being, analogous to others, and moral
facts as facts of nature. It is well known how
these collective sentiments, under the different
forms they have taken, have hindered the de-
velopment of psychology and sociology [cul-
turology].

Opposition to a science of culture is not
confined to nonscientists, however. We
have already noted the opposition of cer-
tain sociologists, and there is considerable
opposition to culturology among anthro-
pologists themselves.

Kroeber’s early attempt, in ‘““The Super-
organic” (1917), to formulate the culturo-
logical point of view and to advocate a
science of culture was met with speedy and
spirited opposition. Edward Sapir, in a
skillfully argued essay entitled ‘Do We
Need a Superorganic?” tried to show that
no such concept, and consequently no spe-
cial science, was needed." Alexander Gold-
enweiser, also in a reply to Kroeber’s
essay “The Super-Organic,” likewise op-

§ Amer. Anthrop. 34: 200-215. 1932.

® Social Forces 8: 264-271. 1929.

10 The division of labor in society, pp. 285-286.
4 Amer. Anthrop. 19: 441-447. 1917.

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

201

posed a superpsychological science of cul-
ture.” “The life of culture,” he argues else-
where, “‘belongs to the psychological level.
It is in the minds of men in society. .. . The
historian, the anthropologist, are students
of life. Life is psychology.’’®

It seems likely that Franz Boas had
Kroeber in mind when he wrote, ‘“‘It seems
hardly necessary to consider culture a
mystic entity that exists outside the society
of its individual carriers and that moves by
its own force.’’* Like Lynd, Boas would
insist that ‘‘cultures do not enamel their
finger nails but that people do.’ Ruth
Benedict, too, can see nothing but mysti-
cism in Kroeber’s attempt to formulate a
science of culture as a class of phenomena
sui generis. She speaks of those who ‘‘have
often expressed themselves in mystical
phraseology ... like Kroeber they have
called in a force he calls the superorganic
to account for the cultural process.’’%
Being unable to understand or to appreciate
a science of suprapsychological phenomena
Boas and Benedict simply brand the idea
‘mystical’ and reject it.

The reaction against the culturological
point of view in American anthropology in
recent years has gone so far as to receive
the following summary expression in the
words of David Bidney": “The tendency to
hypostasize culture and to conceive it as a
transcendental, super-organic, or super-
psychic force... the assumption that cul-
ture is a force that may make and develop
itself”’ is one of the major ‘“‘cultural falla-
cies” of our day. It is the ‘‘culturalistic fal-
lacy,’’ to be specific, he tells us. Dr. Bidney
fails to appreciate the direction that science
has been taking for more than a century,
that.it has been moving upward from the
individual psychologic level to the social
psychologic, and from there to the super-
psychologic, or culturologic, level. He feels

12“The Autonomy of the Social,’? Amer.
Anthrop. 19: 447-449. 1917.

13 “Anthropology and Psychology,’’ pp. 85-86
(in The social sciences and their interrelations,
Wm. F. OapuRN and A. GOLDENWEISER, editors,
New York, 1927).

144 Anthropology and modern life, p. 235 (1928).

15 Patterns of culture, p. 231 (1934).

16 “On the Concept of Culture and Some Cul-
tural Fallacies,’ Amer. Anthrop. 46: 30—44. 1944.

202

only the impact of the current reaction
against this trend and consequently does
no more than serve as the passive medium
of its expression.

Many anthropologists are still unable to
rise above the level of a sociological, or
sociopsychological, conception of human
behavior. Thus Radcliffe-Brown ridicules
the notion that two cultures can react upon
each other, or that a culture can exert an
influence, or produce an effect, upon an
individual human being. Culture, to Rad-
cliffe-Brown, is merely ‘‘an abstraction,”
and he finds it ‘‘fantastic to imagine...
two abstractions coming into contact and
by an act of generation producing a third
abstraction.’’!” The idea that a culture can
“act upon an individual” is, to Radcliffe-
Brown, ‘‘as absurd as to hold a quadratic
equation capable of committing a mur-
der.’ In theoretical outlook Radcliffe-
Brown is a sociologist; he is incapable of en-
visaging a science of culture.’® He asks:
“Ts a science of culture possible? Boas says
it is not. I agree. You cannot have a science
of culture.’ But, he says, a science of
societies is possible, and this is the proper
goal of the social anthropologist.

Radcliffe-Brown confuses the issue very
effectively by calling culture an abstraction.
Words are culture traits. Why call them
abstractions any more than the bark of a
dog or the quack of a duck? The fact that
words have a symbolic significance as well
as auditory and physical properties does
not make them “abstractions,” any more
than the sexual significance of the mating
call of frogs makes this an abstraction. Po-
lygynous households are culture traits.

17 “On Social Structure,’ pp. 10-11 (Journ.
Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland
70 (pt. 1). 1940).

18 “The Nature of a Theoretical Natural Sci-
ence of Society,’ p. 21 (mimeographed notes, re-
corded stenographically, from a seminar at the
University of Chicago, 1937).

19 Tt is an interesting and noteworthy fact,
however, that although Radcliffe-Brown has not
been able to appreciate the concept of a science of
culture and hence has repudiated and rejected
such a concept, he has employed it effectively in
some of his work. His ‘Social Organization of
Australian Tribes” (Oceania 1 (1-4). 1930-31) is
a good example of a culturological interpretation
of superpsycholtogical phenomena.

20 “The Nature of a Theoretical Natural Sci-
ence of Society,’’ p. 71.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 6

But why call one husband and three wives
an abstraction any more than one atomic
nucleus and three electrons? Why should
social or ceremonial forms be called ab-
stractions any more than cellular or molec-
ular forms? A wild horse is not an abstrac-
tion. Why call a domesticated horse (a cul-
ture trait) one? Culture traits are very real
things: objects, acts, forms, sentiments and
ideas which can be and are experienced as
real things. There 1s no more reason for
calling them abstractions than anything
else in our experience. :

As for culture’s ability to “act upon an
individual,’’ it is remarkable to find a man
who is so often identified with Durkheim
arguing this question in the negative. It was
one of Durkheim’s chief theses that culture
traits have an existence prior to and inde-
pendent of the individual human organism, ~
and that these traits impinge upon man
from the outside and profoundly affect his
behavior. And it is, of course, obvious that
this is the case. From birth—and even be-
fore—culture traits in the form of ideas,
sentiments, acts, and material objects act
upon the human organism and cause it to
behave in this way and that. And it is not so
“absurd” as Radcliffe-Brown would have
us think to “hold a quadratic equation
fi.e., an idea or set of ideas] capable of
committing a murder.’ A culture trait in
the form of an idea may so stimulate the
human organism-as to cause it to kill an-
other human being. This is in fact a very
common thing in cases of witchcraft, the
killing of one or both of twins at birth, and
many other cultural situations. A culture
trait in the form of a sentiment-charged
idea will cause a Japanese general to dis-
embowel himself in atonement for disgrace
or failure, or an Occidental officer to blow
out his brains with a pistol. It would of
course be silly to argue that it was the per-
son, the human organism, that actually
does the killing in the examples just cited.
Of course it was the human being. But—
and this is the point at issue in a scientific
analysis of behavior—it was the culture

21 Recall Durkheim’s emphasis upon the prop-
osition that social facts are things (choses). This
proposition was “‘at the very basis of ... [his]
method” (The rules, p. xlii). -

—

JUNE 15, 1947

trait, not the human being, that was the
determinant of the behavior, and hence was
the cause, scientifically speaking, of the
homicides. The human organism does not
kill witches or commit hara-kiri because of
any inherent property or tendency. As a
‘matter of fact, self-destruction runs counter
to powerful and deep-seated organic tend-
encies. But, under the powerful stimulation
of cultural traits, acting upon the organism
from the outside, the human being can be
brought to homicide or hara-kiri. These
acts are the organic responses to cultural
stimuli, and in scientific phraseology, it
is quite proper to say that the culture traits
are the causes, the killings the results. If
different cultural stimuli are applied, dif-
ferent results will be forthcoming. Thus, we
see that far from being absurd to think of a
“quadratic equation, 1.e., a culture trait in
the form of an idea-sentiment, committing
a murder,” or a suicide, it is realistic and
scientifically valid to think in precisely this
way.”

Prof. A. Irving Hallowell, too, emphasizes
a point of view which would rule out a
suprapsychologic science of culture. After
quoting with approval Bidney’s characteri-
zation of the culturological point of view
as a fallacy, he says:

Although anthropologists often speak of the
“movements” of culture or the ‘‘meeting” of
cultural traits or complexes, this manner of speak-
ing must be understood as an economical mode of
abstract speech. In a literal sense cultures never
have met nor will ever meet. What is meant is
that peoples meet and that, as a result of the

22, We do not assert that the culturological
point of view is nowhere implicit in Radcliffe-
Brown’s work. It is. As we have already noted, it
permeates his fine study, ‘‘The Social Organiza-
tion of Australian Tribes.’’ When he distinguishes
“social anthropology”’ from psychology in ‘‘The
Methods of Ethnology and Social Anthropology,”
p. 133 (South African Journ. Sci. 20: 124-147.
Oct. 1923), he gives expression to the culturo-
logical point of view. What we have claimed here
is that Radcliffe-Brown has explicitly and specif-
ically opposed the theory of a science of culture.
This is demonstrated by his own utterances.
The fact that he not infrequently does culturology
in no way invalidates this charge. Even scientists
sometimes fail to square their behavior with their
articulate theory.

23 “Sociopsychological Aspects of Accultura-
tion,’ pp. 175, 174 (in The science of man in the
world crisis, RaupH LinTON, editor, New York,
1945).

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

203

processes of social interaction, acculturation—
modifications in the mode of life of one or both
peoples—may take place. Individuals are the
dynamic centers of this process of interaction...
it is hard to see how culture—an abstract summa-
tion of the mode of life of a people—can exert an
influence except as it is a definable constituent of
the activities of human individuals in interaction
with each other. In the last analysis it is indi-
viduals who respond to and influence one another
(emphases ours).

We see here only the social psychologist,
with, however, a marked individualistic
bias. Hallowell thinks of culture only as the
reactions of biological organisms. The inter-
action of culture traits as such seems utterly
unrealistic to him. Hence he resolutely
turns his back upon a science of culture.

Of course culture traits could do nothing
were it not for human beings; they could
not even exist. And who, we might ask, has
ever thought otherwise? Certainly not
Tylor, Durkheim, Kroeber, Lowie, Wissler,
or any other culturologist that we know of.
But it is a false realism to argue that culture
traits do not react upon each other imme-
diately and directly. A hoe is a culture trait.
It acts directly upon and influences other
culture traits such as division of labor be-
tween the sexes, customs of residence, food
habits, religious beliefs and ceremonies,
and so on. The introduction of the automo-
bile in modern American culture directly
affected many other culture traits: harness
and carriage manufacture, the steel and
rubber industries, road-building, urban de-
velopment, roadhouses and tourist camps,
consolidated schools, etc. To be sure, these
cultural events could not have taken place
had it not been for human organisms. But is
our account of the influence of the automo-
bile upon other culture traits made any
more realistic by introducing these organ-
isms into it? Not one whit. The develop-
ment of the symphony or non-Euclidean
geometry could not have taken place with-
out the respiratory and digestive processes
of composers and mathematicians. But to
inject these physiologic processes into a
scientific explanation of these cultural proc-
esses would not add a single thing to our
understanding of them. On the contrary,
it would only confuse because of their ir-
relevance. Thus we see that, although cul-

204

ture traits have no existence, and hence
can do nothing, without the agency of hu-
man beings, we can treat them scientifically
as if they had an independent existence. In
fact, as we have shown, the problem of the
direct and immediate influence of one trait
upon another can be solved most effectively
by ‘eliminating the human organism from
our consideration entirely. Far from being
unrealistic—or fantastic or absurd, in the
words of Radcliffe-Brown—it is a common
procedure in science. The physicist may
treat falling bodies as if they fell in a per-
fect vacuum; or imagine an airplane pass-
ing without friction through the atmos-
phere. But no physicist 1s so naive as to
protest that such things simply don’t
occur; it goes without saying that they do
not. Every physicist knows that the most
effective—if not the only—way to arrive at
the formulas and propositions necessary to
explain physical phenomena is to substitute
ideal situations for real ones.** The only
way, for example, to arrive at a law of fall-
ing bodies is to imagine them falling through
a perfect vacuum—a situation that does
not and can not exist on this earth.
Similarly the culturologist knows full
well that culture traits do not go walking
about like disembodied souls interacting
with each other. But he realizes that he can
explain cultural phenomena as cultural
phenomena only when he treats them as if
they had a life of their own, quite apart
from the glands, nerves, muscles, etc., of
human organisms. The remarkable thing
about this argument is not that it is revolu-
tionary, but that it should be necessary to
defend it. It is neither revolutionary nor
novel. As a matter of fact, scholars in many
fields have been making culturological
studies for decades. We have had studies of
Indo-European and other languages on a
purely linguistic, 1.e., nonbiological, level.

24 Physics, says the distinguished physicist,
Max Planck, ‘‘substitutes a new world in place
of that given to us by the senses. ... The other
world is the so-called physical world image; it is
merely an intellectual structure. To a certain
extent it is arbitrary. It is a kind of model or
idealization created in order to avoid the inac-
curacy inherent in every measurement and to
facilitate exact definition,’ The philosophy of
physics, p. 53 (New York, 1936).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 5

We have had studies of the evolution of
currency; the effect of telescopes upon theo-
logical beliefs; the influence of the indus-
trial revolution upon political institutions;
the development of Greek tragedy, non-
Euclidean geometry, Gothic architecture, —
and parliamentary government; the rela-
tionship between taxi dance halls and pros-
titution, delicatessens and the divorce rate;
money spent on medical schools and death
rates for contagious diseases, etc., etc. All
these are culturological problems and their
solutions are culturological. Need one insist
that none of these situations could exist
were it not for human organisms? It is ob-
vious, of course, that they could not. But it
is equally obvious that the introduction of
human organisms into a consideration of
these problems is not only not necessary, it
is irrelevant and confusing. It is only the
traditional habit of thinking anthropo-
morphically which still clings to ‘‘social
science’”’ that keeps one from seeing that in —
the man-culture system, it is the cultural,
rather than the organic, factor that is the
determinant of events within this system.
We see then that the culturological point
of view, procedure, and objective are not
new. Actually, scholars in philology, musi-
cology, philosophy, mathematics, political
science, economics, literature, and art have
been making culturological studies for years.
Our argument‘in support of a science of
culture is necessary now only because the
theoretical position taken today by many
psychologists, sociologists, and anthropolo-
gists opposes this new science so vigorously.
The reaction against the culturological
point of view has gone even farther than
has been indicated above. Proceeding from
the view that culture is ‘‘an abstraction,”
some anthropologists have argued that it is
intangible and imperceptible and end up by
questioning the very existence and reality
of culture itself. Thus Linton observes:
Any investigator of culture is at once con-
fronted with the problem of its reality. Do cul-
tures actually exist... ? Culture...is intang-
ible and cannot be directly apprehended even by

individuals who participate in it....”* If it
[culture] can be said to exist at all... . 76

25 The study of man, pp. 288-289.
26 [bid., p. 363-

JUNE 15, 1947

Herskovits regards culture as “intangi-
ble,” but grants to culture patterns “the
reality of any abstraction,’’ whatever this
may mean.”’ Thus culture is made virtually
to disappear. And obviously if culture does
not exist there can be no science of cul-
ture.

Vigorous opposition to a science of cul-
ture comes from Earnest Albert Hooton.
Whereas anthropologists like Boas, Golden-
weiser, Sapir, and-others have essentially a
psychological point of view, Professor
Hooton’s outlook is on a still lower level:
the biological. To him the study of culture is
but a branch of biology.?® ‘Since man’s be-
havior,” he argues, ‘‘is a function of his or-
ganism .. .it is within the province of the
physical anthropologist to survey also the
cultural and psychological symptoms of the
well-being or ill-being of the human ani-
mal.’’2° Just as Lynd deplores the ‘‘artifi-
cial”’ separation of culture from people, so
does Hooton bewail the attempt to disjoint
culture from the blood, bone, and muscle of
the human organism. ‘“‘My only quarrel
with the ethnologist and with the social
anthropologist,” he says, ‘‘is that they will-
fully abstract social phenomena and di-
vorce man’s activities as a social animal
from man himself. [He deplores] the old
way of considering social institutions com-
pletely apart from the human animals

which produce them, as if the former lived,

died, propagated and evolved independ-
ently, like parasites upon their human
hosts.’”° Professor Hooton can see what
culturologists are trying to do, but being
unable to appreciate anything beyond the
horizon of biology, he regards their objec-
tive as a great mistake. ‘‘We have been mis-
led,” he bemoans, “into the imbecilic as-
sumption that culture, an inanimate thing
consisting of humanly manipulated matter
and disembodied ideas, evolves by itself
ever onward and upward, and that all man
27 “The “Processes of Cultural Change,’ pp.
150, 158 (in The sczence of man in the world crisis,
RawupH LINTON, editor, New York, 1945.)

28 Prof. Carleton S. Coon, a student and col-
league of Hooton, thinks of sociology as a ‘‘sub-
division of biology,’’ The races of Europe, p. 251
(New York, 1989).

29 Apes, men and morons, p. 272 (New York,

1937).
» 80 Jbid., p. 223.

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

205

has to do is to grease the wheels and ride.’’*!
Hooton has even gone so far, in his anti-
culturological attitude, as to suggest that
‘St 1s possibly more profitable for the sociol-
ogist and the social anthropologist to study
monkeys [who are, of course, cultureless,
L.A.W.] than savages.’

Prof. C. W. M. Hart, too, deplores the
separation of the cultural (or the social, for
that matter) from the biological.**

Thus we see that although some progress
has been made in the direction of realizing a
science of culture in recent decades, there is
also considerable opposition to it. Some,
like Boas, are simply not able to grasp the
concept of a special. science devoted to a
distinct and independent class of super-
psychological determinants of behavior. |
Others, like Lynd and Hooton, see what
culturologists are trying to do, but are con-
vineced that they are on the wrong—a
dangerously wrong—track.

As a matter of fact, anthropology has
actually regressed in recent years from the
levels attained by Tylor and Durkheim in
the nineteenth century. We have, of course,
an objective criterion and measure of ad-
vance and regression in the expansion of
the scope of science. We may view the
stages of this expansion as a series of strata,
one laid upon another, the older strata on
the bottom, the newer on top. Thus at one
time we see the science of the behavior of
man on the anatomical and physiological
level. Subsequently science has advanced
to the individual psychological level, then
to the sociopsychological, and finally to the
culturological, level. Thus by referring the
point of view and objectives of anthropol-
ogy at any given time to this developmental
series, we can gauge its condition of ad-
vancement or regression.

Measured by this yardstick, anthropol-
ogy has regressed considerably, especially
since 1930.** Science attained the culturo-

31 Crime and the man, p. 370 (Cambridge, 1939).

32 HOOTON, A., ‘‘Why we study apes and
monkeys,”’ p. 5 (Fauna 5(1). 1943).

83 “Social Evolution and Modern Anthropol-

ogy,’ in Essays tn political economy, in honor of
E. J. Urwick; H. A. Innis, editor (Toronto,
1938).

34 Cf. ‘Recent Trends in American Ethnology,”’
by Berry J. Meraaers, especially pp. 195-197
(Amer. Anthrop. 48: 176-214. 1946).

206

logical level in anthropology. This is an-
thropology’s distinctive achievement and
mission: to formulate and develop a science
of culture. Tylor and Durkheim formulated
such a science. Kroeber, Lowie, Wissler,
and others have carried it forward. But
many students bearing the professional
label of ‘‘anthropologist”’ have been unable
to ascend to the culturological level and to
grasp the concept of a suprapsychological
science of cultural phenomena. Being un-
able to do this, they have opposed the cul-
turological point of view. We have already
seen how Boas, Sapir, Goldenweiser, and
Benedict opposed it. Culture, Goldenweiser
argues, “‘belongs to the psychological level.
It isin the minds of men.” Sapir, apart from
linguistics, was primarily a psychologist.
We get some notion of how far the anthro-
pology of today is from the culturological
position of former years from the following
statement by one of our younger anthropol-
ogists, Dr. John Gillin:

One of the greatest recent advances [in anthro-
pological theory] is the realization by anthropolo-
gists that culture is a psychological phenomenon,

It is rather ironical that the article in
which this observation appears should have
been entitled ‘““SSome Unfinished Business of
Cultural Anthropology.”® The ‘unfinished

business”’ is, of course, the development of a.

science of culture. The realization that cul-
ture is a “psychological phenomenon”’ is not
an advance but a regression to a lower level
in the development of science.

More recently Prof. M. J. Herskovits
tells us that ‘‘the ultimate reality of culture
is psychological.’’%6

Not only has anthropology regressed to
the psychological level; it has tended to go
even below the collective psychological level
and come to rest upon the level of zndivid-
ual psychology. ‘‘An analysis of culture,”
Goldenweiser argues, “if fully carried out,
leads back to the individual mind.’’*’ To

35 In Ohio Arch. and Hist. Quart. 48: 45. 1939.

36 “‘The Processes of Cultural Change,” p. 163.
Why one should locate the ‘ultimate reality” of
culture in psychological processes is not clear. If
one reduces culture to the psychological level
why not reduce psychological events to the
physiological level, and these to the anatomical
and these in turn to the chemical and physical

levels—if one is concerned with ultimates.
37 ““Psychology-and Culture,” p. 59.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 6

individuals who respond to and influence

Boas the ‘‘working of culture’? meant ‘‘the
life of the individual as controlled by culture
and the effect of the individual upon cul-
ture.*8 The causal conditions of cultural
happenings lie always in the interaction be-
tween individual and society.’®? “It is
always the individual that really thinks
and acts and dreams and revolts,” Sapir
maintained.4® Sapir’s “approach to the
problem was always through the individ-
ual,” according to Ruth Benedict.*! Hallo-
well asserts that ‘‘in the last analysis it is

one another.’’*” Linton takes the position
than “culture ... exists only in the minds
of the individuals who compose a society.
It derives all its qualities from their person-
alities and the interaction of these person-
alities.’’48

In line with this emphasis upon the indi-
vidual, we note that the most popular trend
in American anthropology today is the
study of personality. ‘““Depth psychology,”’
inkblot tests, psychiatry, etc., are now al-
most de rigueur these days for the up-to-
date anthropologist. Thus we see that much
of anthropology today has regressed to a
level even below that of most sociologists
and some social psychologists. And in some
of Hooton’s work, anthropological theory
has regressed even lower and has reached
the biological level. His interpretation of
social disorders in terms of inferior germ
plasm and his advocacy of social reform
through biological purges, are expressions
of this point of view.*4

In a recent work Kroeber has once again
given expression to the culturological point
of view :* “Tam convinced that, the phenom-
enon being cultural, the explanation must

38 “History and Science in Anthropology, A
Reply,” p. 137 (Amer. Anthrop. 38: 137-141.
1936).

39 “Aims of Anthropological Research,’’ p. 612
(Science 76: 605-613. 1932).

40 “‘T)o We Need a Superorganic?”’ p. 442
(Amer. Anthrop. 19: 441-447. 1917).

41 ‘“Hdward Sapir,’”’ p. 467 (Amer. Anthrop.
41: 465-468. 1939).

42 “Sociopsychological Aspects of Accultura-
tion,” p. 174.

43 The study of man, p. 464.

44 See, particularly, the essays in Apes, men and
morons (New York, 1937), pp. 16, 154, 269-270,
294-295.

4 Configurations of culture growth, pp. vii, 763.

JUNE 15, 1947

first of all be made in cultural terms...
psychological explanations have not got
anyone very far in reducing the phenomena
of history to order, and I shall not fall ba¢k
on them.”’ But in these days of personality
studies and inkblot tests, Kroeber stands
almost alone. How is anthropology’s re-
gression from culturology to psychology
and psychiatry to be explained?

Long ago Tylor remarked upon the re-
pugnance with which otherwise enlightened
persons will regard a science of culture. ‘To
many educated minds,” he wrote, ‘‘there
seems something presumptuous and repul-
sive in the view that the history of mankind
is part and parcel of the history of nature,
that our thoughts, wills, and actions accord
with laws as definite as those which govern
the motion of waves, the combination of
acids and bases, and the growth of plants
and animals.’

Durkheim, too, noted that the old an-
thropocentric philosophy of free will, which
still dominates our thinking about man and
his behavior, generates vigorous opposition
to a science of culture. He wrote:*”

Numerous survivals of the anthropocentric
bias still remain and... here as elsewhere, they
bar the way to science. It displeases man to
renounce the unlimited power over the social
order he has so long attributed to himself; and
on the other hand, it seems to him that, if col-
lective forces really exist, he is necessarily obliged
to submit to them without being able to modify
them. This makes him inclined to deny their
existence. In vain have repeated experiences
taught him that this omnipotence, the illusion of
which he complacently entertains, has always
been a cause of weakness in him; that his power
over things really began only when he recognized
that they have a nature of their own, and resigned
himself to learning this nature from them. Re-
jected by all other sciences, this deplorable preju-
dice stubbornly maintains itself in sociology
[culturology]. Nothing is more urgent than to
liberate our science from it, and this is the prin-
cipal purpose of our efforts.

And more recently A. L. Kroeber has ob-
served that a science of culture will have to
win its way against the older philosophy of
human free will:*8

46 Primitive culture, vol. 1, p. 2.

47 The rules of sociological method, p.
Preface to ed. 2 (Chicago, 1938).

48 “On the Principle of Order in Civilization as
Exemplified by Changes of Fashion’? (Amer.
Anthrop. 21: 263. 1919).

Iviii,

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

207

Our minds instinctively resist the first shock of
the recognition of a thing {cultural determinism]
so intimately woven into us and yet so far above
and so utterly uncontrollable by our wills. We
feel driven to deny its reality, to deny even the
validity of dealing with it as an entity; just as
men at large have long and bitterly resented
admitting the existence of purely automatic
forces and system in the realm that underlies
and carries and makes possible the existence of
our personalities: the realm of nature.

These quotations do not merely distin-
guish between ‘‘social’’ science and ‘‘nat-
ural” science. They also distinguish between
the philosophy of determinism and the
philosophy of free will that still permeates
much of the thinking of today.*® Social
science had won its way to the philosophy
of determinism in the anthropology of the
1880’s and 1890’s: “‘If law is anywhere it is
everywhere,” said Tylor.

We find that anthropology has regressed
at this point, too. We have exponents of
free will in anthropology today, and this
philosophy seems to be growing in strength
and adherents. Dr. Margaret Mead _ be-
lieves that “man should democratically
take control of his own destiny and build
himself a world that is fit to live in.’’®® Dr.
John R. Swanton closes his essay ‘‘Are
Wars Inevitable?’’® with the assurance that
“all that is needed [to terminate warfare]
is the will to do so.’”’ Ralph Linton espouses
the philosophy of free will and the theory
of social change through education in his
lecture to teachers entitled ‘‘Potential Con-
tributions of Cultural Anthropology to

49 On this point Alfred North Whitehead makes
the following penetrating observations: “A sci-
entific realism, based on mechanism, is conjoined
with an unwavering belief in the world of men
and of the higher animals as being composed of
self-determining organisms. This radical incon-
sistency at the basis of modern thought accounts
for much that is half-hearted and wavering in our
civilization. It would be going too far to say that
it distracts thought. It enfeebles it, by reason of
the inconsistency lurking in the background,” p
94, Science and the modern world, emphasis ours
(Cambridge, 1933).

Much of anthropological thought is enfeebled—
not to say crippled—today by a belief in man as a
‘“‘self-determining organism”’ as the following quo-
tations will show.

50 Introduction to Is Germany incurable? by
R. M. Brickner, p. 13 (New York, 1943). Mead’s
book, And keep your powder dry, is permeated
with the philosophy of Free Will.

51 Smithsonian War Background Studies, No.
12. Smithsonian Institution, May 11, 1943.

208

Teacher Education.” “‘T believe,” he says,
“that there are none of our current prob-
lems which cannot be solved if people will
put their minds to them and it is the edu-
cator’s task to make them willing and able
to do this (p. 9)....If the educator can
establish a particular value system in his
pupils he can control the future of his
society, not in detail but in gross. By the
feeling which he establishes toward war, or
toward unlimited accumulation of wealth,
or toward social justice he can deflect cul-
ture change in desirable or undesirable
directions (p. 16) ...A society that gen-
uinely believes in social justice can get
social justice and the educator can do more
than anyone else to establish this belief
ely esr,

Professor Linton makes the control of
culture change seem very simple. Teachers,
guided of course by a little coaching from
the cultural anthropologist, will direct the
course of social change as they please, ‘‘in
desirable or undesirable directions,’’ simply
by establishing the proper “‘value systems”
in their pupils and insuring the proper
“feeling” toward.social problems so that
when they grow up they will be “‘willing and
able to put their minds to these problems”
and by so doing solve them.*®? This view is
faintly reminiscent of what the clergy have
been telling us for centuries: “If we will but
purpose in our hearts. ...” Or, as politi-
cians, columnists, and rhetoricians put it:
“Tf the democracies (peace-loving nations,
the churches, the women, etc., etc.) of the
world would only take a firm stand against
war... o' which one might*add? “Ii
New England had a subtropical climate
they could grow grapefruit,’ or ‘If frogs
grew fur the world might be made safe for
~ chinchillas.”’

But the crassest expression of the doc-
trine of Free Will that we have seen recently
is to be found in an article in the American
Anthropologist: ‘“The Concept of Cultural

62 Published in Culture and personality, a
pamphlet issued by the American Council on
Education (Washington, D. C., 1941).

53 For a fine statement on the control of culture
change by education, see the quotations from
Wissler and Durkheim in Wuitr, LESLIE A.,
“HWducation: America’s Magic’’ (School and
Society 61: 353-354. 1945).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 6

Crisis.””’ Here we are told by Dr. David
Bidney that ‘“‘man, under God, controls his
own cultural destiny and is free to choose
artd realize the ends he would achieve.’

We have, however, merely exhibited the
opposition to a science of culture and dem-
onstrated the occurrence of regression; we
have not explained it. To undertake such
an explanation would require another ar-
ticle, but we might suggest here that the
regression we are witnessing in social sci-
ence in general and in cultural anthropology
in particular is but one aspect of a reaction-
ary tendency that pervades Western Civil-
ization today. The nineteenth century was
one of expansion and growth of our social
system as well as our technology; it was an
era of progress. With the end of the period
of colonization of backward lands and peo-
ples in Asia and Africa, and the disappear-
ance of the frontier in America, our social
system reached the limits of its capacity
for growth. Mass unemployment, overpro-
duction, and glutted markets, relieved only
by periodic world wars, are the indexes of
this condition. An obsolete social system is
striving to maintain itself against techno-
logical imperatives for change. Although
there have been some gains—the destruc-
tion of the feudal houses of Romanoff,
Hapsburg, and Hohenzollern—the status
quo has had, on the whole, the better of it
in the struggle. The powers victorious in the
war just ended are dedicated to the status
quo ante bellum, to the preservation of the
old system of capitalism, empire and im-
perialism. Our whole life is pervaded,
therefore, by reactionary purposes and
ideals and to a great extent dominated by
them. The victors of World War II will
probably effect a continuation of this polit-
ical and philosophic atmosphere for some
time to come.

It is therefore not surprising to discover
reactionary and regressive tendencies in
present-day anthropology. It is both anti-
evolutionist and anticulturological. The

544 Amer. Anthrop. 48: 541. 1946. Although this
article was published in ‘‘the official organ of the
American Anthropological Association,” Dr.
Bidney is not an anthropologist. He is a student of
philosophy who has recently undertaken the
task of putting anthropology’s philosophical house
in order.

JUNE 15, 1947

outlook for the immediate future is not
bright. But all science is still young and
eulturology is the youngest member of the
family. Nor has social evolution reached
the end of its rope. Culture is but a million
years old and we have some twenty million
years ahead of us—unless, of course, the
techniques of destruction develop to the
point of extermination. The way of life that
“we fought to maintain”’ will eventually be
discarded and forgotten. And with the ad-
vance of cultural and social evolution will go
advance in philosophy and science. A
science of culture will come eventually.
Meanwhile, those who know what course
the evolution of culture has taken in the
past will know how best to serve the cause
of science in the future.®

SUMMARY

Man is an animal, and like all other living
beings he strives to live: to adapt himself
to his habitat, to exercise some control
over his environment so that life can be
made secure and his kind perpetuated. Man
has the same means of adjustment and con-
trol that other animals have: neuro-sensory-
muscular-glandular, etc. But in addition to
these purely-animal means, he has a tech-
nique that is peculiarly human: articulate
speech. With language man_ constructs
philosophies in which the whole cosmos is
evaluated and interpreted. In terms of
these philosophies, man effects his adjust-
ment to and control over his environment.
The function of philosophy is at bottom a
biological one.

The first philosophies of mankind were
animistic, supernaturalistic, and anthro-

pomorphic. The external world was ex- -

plained, not in terms of its own properties
but in terms of human psychological forces,
in terms of spiritual beings with minds like
our own. This primitive type of philosophy
although emotionally satisfying, was, of
course, ineffective practically, as a means
of understanding and controlling the ex-
ternal world.

°° “The knowledge of man’s course of life, from
the remote past to the present, will not only
help us to forecast the future, but may guide us
in our duty of leaving the world better than we

found it.”—-E. B. Tytor, the closing words of
Anthropology (1881).

WHITE: THE EXPANSION OF THE SCOPE OF SCIENCE

209

Gradually, after hundreds of thousands of
years, a new type of philosophy was de-
veloped. It interpreted the external world
in terms of its own properties instead of
terms of wish and will projected from the
human mind. Free will and caprice gave
way to determinism and natural law. But
this transition in point of view was not
effected throughout the whole range of
philosophy at once. On the contrary it be-
gan in certain areas of experience and
spread from there to others. It got a foot-
hold first in the study of the heavens and
spread from there to other physical phe-
nomena. Then it invaded the realm of bio-
logical phenomena, conquering first the an-
atomical, next the physiological, and finally
the psychological levels. From the psychol-
ogy of the individual, the new interpreta-
tion was extended to the psychology of
society. And always, as the new naturalistic
philosophy of science advanced, it pushed
out and displaced the old philosophy of free
will.

The order in which the various realms of
nature were invaded and subdued by the
new philosophy was determined by the fol-
lowing law: Sczentzfic interpretation will ap-
pear first and grow fastest in those areas
where the determinants of human behavior are
the weakest and least significant. Since the
primitive philosophy rested upon a projec-
tion of the human psyche into the external
world, upon a confusion of the self with the
not-self, the new philosophy would begin
first and flourish best where the identifica-
tion of the self with the external world was
weakest, namely, in relation to the heavenly
bodies and other inanimate objects. Biolog-
ical phenomena were next brought within
the scope of the new interpretation, and
eventually social behavior.

But sociology, the science of society, was
not the end of the road of science as Comte
and many others supposed. There was one
more class of determinants of human be-
havior to be dealt with, the most intimate
and powerful of all: culture. Just as psy-
chologists found it difficult to envisage a
collective psychology beyond an individual-
istic one, so have sociologists found it hard
to envisage a science of culture beyond the
horizon of “‘social interaction.’ But science

210

can not and will not stop in its onward
march, in its movement of expansion, until
it has fulfilled its potentialities to the ut-
most, and this means until it has embraced
and subdued the whole realm of human
experience.

The science of culture is the next item of
business on the agenda of science. Many of
our ‘‘best minds” still talk as if the fate of
civilization lay in the hands of man, to be
wrecked or saved as he chooses of his own
free will. Many are still prattling about
how ‘‘we’’ are going to construct the post-
war world, nursing, in Durkheim’s phrase,
the illusion of omnipotence. There is, as
Tylor, Durkheim, Kroeber, and a few others
have pointed out, a powerful and sometimes
bitter antagonism to the view that it is
not ‘‘we’’ who control our culture but that
our culture controls us.. And our culture
grows and changes according to its own
laws. As we outgrow our primitive and in-
fantile notion of mastery and set about to

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 6

learn the nature of the culture in which we
live, we will have a less flattering concep-
tion of ourselves, perhaps, but a greater
capacity for rational and effective living.

And so today, we witness one of the most
critical and dramatic episodes in the long
and exciting history of science. Advancing
over the charred bones of hapless astrono-
mers, put to death in a frantic attempt to
stem the tide of the new philosophy, science
has gone on to new conquests. After a bitter
battle over Darwinism, science has _ se-
curely held the field of biology. Psychology
has at last made it possible to regard
‘minds’ as objects, and Sociology has
illuminated the laws of social interaction.
It now remains to discover the principles
of a million years of culture growth and to
formulate the laws of this development.
When this has been done, science will have
captured the last remaining stronghold of
the old philosophy; it will have reached its
final boundary.

BOTANY.—Variations of accessory vascularization in four species of Citrus and

their possible application as new taxonomic characters.)
(Communicated by Water T. SWINGLE.)

University of Miami.

The floral vascular anatomy of higher
plants has long been under surveillance by
botanists, and the differences in vascular
pattern of flowers and fruits are often be-
lieved to contain keys to the phylogenetic
relationships between plants, as well as to
provide additional characters for more ac-
curate determination of a particular plant’s
taxonomic position among closely related
species. In general, such studies have been
chiefly concerned with the patterns formed
by the vascular tissue supplying the various
floral parts after its divergence from the
floral stele. The occurrence of accessory
vascularization in the floral pedicels and
receptacles has been frequently overlooked,
although in some plant groups, such as the
Ochinaceae and Dipterocarpaceae (1), it is
common.

1 Grateful acknowledgement is made to Dr.
W. T. Swingle for his suggestions in the prepa-
ration of this paper. The work was conducted
under the sponsorship of the Science Research
Council of the University of Miami. Received
March 12, 1947.

FRANK D. VENNING,

A homologous type of accessory vascular-
ization has been described for young vegeta-
tive stems, in which there often exists a
system of vascular strands in the cortex
which have no connection with the main
vascular system. Haberlandt (2) mentioned
that an independent cortical system of leaf-
traces is formed in stems of the Calycan-
thaceae and many Melistomaceae; Hein-
richer (3) described such independent corti-
cal strands for many species of Centaurea,
which he concluded were, in all probability,
genuine cauline bundles, i.e., bundles grow-
ing acropetally with the stem, but having
no direct connection with other bundles of
the vascular system. The ontogeny of such
bundles in certain Ronalian stems was stud-
ied by Worsdell (4), who found that they
originated independently in the cortex, and
later on became connected with the petiole
strands of the leaves, by the latter differ-
entiating across the cortex to the cauline
bundles.

Tillson and Bamford (4) studied the

5

June 15, 1947

floral vascular anatomy of 94 species of the
Aurantioideae, but like most recent Ameri-
ean anatomists their study dealt entirely
with the main vascular patterns; no men-
tion was made of the histology of the vascu-
lar elements or of accessory vascular bun-
dles. A study of the floral anatomy of the
Eureka Lemon, Citrus limon, by Ford (6)
mentioned but gave no detailed account of
the accessory vascular bundles in the re-
ceptacles; and a similar type of bundle was
described for Ceylon curry, Murraya koe-
nigit, by Venning (7).

In the course of a recent survey of the
anatomy of flowers of the orange subfamily,
it was noted that many species had exten-
sive accessory vascular systems. Consider-
able variation was found between species in
the type of accessory vascularization pres-
ent, but the type present in any one spe-
cies was fairly consistant in nature, thus
possibly affording a character of taxonomic
significance. This paper is presented in
order to describe the types of accessory
vascularization in several species of Citrus,
and to point out the significant differences
in such bundles between the species.

Flower buds, flowers, and young fruits
included in this study were secured from
trees growing in the field. Those-of Eureka
Lemon, Citrus limon, were obtained from
the University of California’s Experiment
Station at Riverside, Calif.; Lime, Cztrus
aurantifolia, Sour Orange, Citrus aurantium,
and Sweet Orange, Cvrirus sinensis, were

gathered from the private collection in Dr.’

David Fairchild’s Kampong at Coconut
Grove, Fla. The specimens were fixed in
formalin-aceto-alcohol, dehydrated with a
tertiary butyl alcohol series, and embedded
in paraffin. Both cross and longitudinal
serial sections were cut 10 microns in thick-
ness, stained with a safranine fast-green
‘staining combination, and are permanently
filed in the University of Miami Tropical
Botany Histological Research Collection of
slides.

Citrus limon (Linn.) Burm.: Eureka Lemon

Floral pedicels in this species present a uni-
form pattern at the level where accessory vas-
cularization appears. The main vascular bun-
dles, around seven in number, are fused lat-

VENNING: ACCESSORY VASCULARIZATION IN CITRUS

211

erally into a cylindrical stele inclosing the large
parenchyma cells of the pith (Fig. 1A). The
arrangement of these bundles is always col-
lateral, with well-differentiated xylem elements
to the inside, and phloem parenchyma to the
outside. The cortical parenchyma cells are
large, isodiametric, and highly vacuolate, with
large intercellular spaces. In the receptacle,
the first bundles to diverge from the stele are
the sepal midrib lateral petal bundles, which
are fused when they leave the stele, but which
separate near the sepal bases. Here the sepal
midrib portion of the bundle branches several
times; the branches enter the sepal base to
either side of the midrib proper and form the
lateral sepal bundles. The other two branches
of the sepal midrib fuse with the: lateral bun-
dles of adjacent petals (Tillson and Bamford
(5), Ford (6)). The lateral sepal bundles, in
turn, are fused to branches of the petal midribs

of adjacent petals. Considerable variation can

and often does exist in this basic pattern of
bundle arrangement in the calyx, as was noted
by Ford (6); but essentially it is as described
above. It should be noted that all these bundles
in the pedicel, receptacle, and sepal bases re-
tain a collateral orientation of their elements.

Accessory vascular bundles first appear in
in the cortex of the floral pedicels about 3 mm
below the base of the sepals, and below the level
of divergence of the sepal midribs. Their lower
termination is marked by several large xylem
elements embedded in the cortical parenchyma,
but only 10 or 20 microns above this point they
usually consist of rather large masses of xylem,
accompanied by numerous elongated thin-
walled elements strongly resembling the pro-
tophloem and phloem parenchyma of the
regular vascular system. These thin-walled ele-
ments do not show differentiation into sieve
tubes and companion cells, and careful study
reveals a nucleus in each of the cells. Many of
them do show denser cytoplasm which has a
greater affinity for fast green than the xylem
parenchyma and surrounding cells of the cor-
tex; a generally recognized characteristic of
most phloem parenchyma. |

The xylem elements which are first differen-
tiated resemble in size and character those of
the stele and consist of annular and spiral ves-
sels, quickly followed by scalariform and
reticulated tracheids. The provascular elements
of these strands appear as early in the ontogeny

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 6

of the flower as those of the regular vascular main vascular system, the orientation of the
supply, as was noted by Ford (6). They are elements in the accessory bundles follows no
originated from primary tissues deposited by set pattern. Many types of arrangement are
the floral meristem. Unlike the bundles of the found within any given flower. A few approach

= PH = a
2&2

Figs. 1—4.—Diagrams of the pedicels and receptacles of the four species of Citrus discussed, showing
the relative differences of accessory vascular bundle pattern between the species: 1, Citrus limon, ac-
cessory vascular bundles on one side of the pedicel indicated in black; 2, Citrus aurantifolia, showing
the relatively short length of the accessory bundles; 3, Cztrus aurantium, accessory bundles in black are
free at their lower ends, stippled bundles are attached near or at their lower ends to sepal midrib
xylem from the stele (a, attached accessory bundle which terminates in the cortical parenchyma; b,
attached accessory bundle which connects near its upper end with a loose accessory bundle); 4, Crtrus
sinensis, showing relative differences between this and Citrus auranttum; 1A—4A, cross-section dia-
grams of the main vascular bundles in the pedicels of the four species. Note that Citrus limon (Fig. 1A)
differs from all the others by forming a closed stele.

JUNE 15, 1947

a collateral arrangement, others are bicollat-
eral, concerftric, or seemingly without any
-pattern of organization, the xylem and the
thin-walled elements being intermingled at
random (Figs. 5-10). The pericycle of the main
bundles of most aurantioid flowers is at best
poorly defined from the cortical parenchyma,
and no lignification of pericycle occurs until
the young fruit has begun development. No
pericycle is distinguishable from other thin-
walled elongated cells in the accessory bundles
of flowers, but the pedicels of young fruits oc-
easionally show pericyclic fibers in connection
with the accessory vascular bundles.

As the flower bud approaches maturity, some
of the large vacuolate cortical parenchyma
cells lying next to the accessory xylem, and
usually laterally to it, differertiate into tra-
cheids with highly lignified reticulate thicken-
ings, forming an irregular column extending
most of the length of the bundle. The on-
togeny of these cortical tracheids is vastly
different from that of the original accessory
bundle. Such tracheids are not restricted
merely to the accessory bundles, but occur in
conjunction with the main vascular bundles
as well.?

Not all the accessory bundles have the same
lower limits; rather, they appear at random as
one progresses upward from section to section
in the pedicel and receptacle. They may fuse or
anastamose with one another, or branch to
form several bundles, forming a complex pat-
tern in the cortex. Often individual bundles are
connected with one another by long chains of
the cortical tracheids previously described, or
they may be extended by such tracheids after
the termination of the elements which diverge
from the floral meristem.

Ultimately, most of the accessory bundles in
lemon become attached to branches of the sepal
or lateral petal bundles, which curve down
into the receptacle and connect with them.
That they are not merely downward exten-
sions of these bundles seems borne out by the

2 As stated above, cortical tracheids are derived
from highly vacuolate parenchyma of the cortex.
The individual tracheids retain the approximate
isodiametric shape of the original parenchyma
cell, but develop lignified walls, after which the
protoplasm disintegrates. They are of widespread
occurrence under many circumstances in the
Aurantioideae and have been described in detail
in a separate paper by the-present author (8).

VENNING: ACCESSORY VASCULARIZATION IN CITRUS

213

fact that they are often much larger near the
middle of their length, containing many more
elements than at the point of connection with
the sepal bundles; that the elements of: the
sepal bundles are arranged collaterally whereas
in the majority of cases the accessory bundles
are not; and, most important, there remain
those accessory bundles which are always
cauline, and which do not connect at either end
with any of the main vascular system, nor with
any other accessory bundle (Fig. 1). All the
lemon flowers show the lower ends of the ac-
cessory bundles to be free, terminating in the
cortex about halfway between the epidermis
and the outer elements of the stele. No appre-
ciable differences were noted in the arrange-
ment of accessory vascularization between
male and perfect flowers of the lemon, both
kinds of flowers containing around 40 accessory
bundles in all. Maximum growth of the acces-
sory bundles is attained by the time the
flowers open; sections of the pedicels and re-
ceptacles of fruits show them no larger in size
and with no further differentiation of ele-
ments, with the exception of occasional peri-
cyclic fibers as previously mentioned.

Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swing.:
Key Lime

Histologically, the tissues in the pedicel and
receptacle of the lime are of very similar charac-
ter to those in the lemon. Arrangement of the
main vascular system is also similar, and
shows the fusion of the sepal midrib-lateral
petal bundles, together with the fusion of the
lateral sepal bundles with the petal midrib, as
described for the lemon. The most striking dif-
ference between the main vascular systems of
these two species is in the lower portion of the
pedicels, for in the lime these bundles are not
fused laterally into a stele, but are more or less
separate (Fig. 2A). This is particularly true of
the sepal midrib-lateral petal bundles, which

3'The method of determining the number of
accessory. bundles in a particular flower is neces-
sarily somewhat arbitrary, because of the fusing,
branching, and anastamosing between the ac-
cessory bundles. For this study, all free lower
ends of the bundles were considered as individual
bundles; if several of these were united above
they were considered to be bundles which had
fused together. If a bundle: having a single
lower strand split at a higher level into two or
more bundles, these were considered as branches
of a single bundle.

214 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 6 ~

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a

ie

CAT

AT

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y Ot

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—~
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—— —=_
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i—
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Figs. 5-8.—Types of arrangement of the elements in the accessory bundles of Citrus limon (cross
sections): 5, Accessory bundle with a collateral arrangement of elements; 6, bicollateral accessory
bundle; 7, accessory bundle approaching a concentric orientation of vascular elements; 8, intermediate
arrangement of accessory bundle elements.

Fig. 9.—Longitudinal view of a portion of an accessory bundle in Citrus limon.

Fie. 10.—Accessory bundle from Citrus limon (cross section), accompanied by a column of large
cortical tracheids derived from the cortical parenchyma. End view of tracheids shows the reticulate
nature of the wall.

JUNE 15, 1947 VENNING: ACCESSORY VASCULARIZATION IN CITRUS 215

exist as distinct bundles from the base of the Accessory vascular bundles are slightly less
pedicel. than one-third as long, and appear much

gees

Fic. 11.—Loose accessory bundle in Citrus aurantium (cross section), showing extreme develop-
ment of tracheids from the cortical parenchyma, forming a sheath around much of the original bundle.

Fic. 12.—Accessory vascular bundles in the cortex of Citrus aurantifolia.

Fie. 13.—Accessory bundle in Citrus sinensis which lacks elongated thin-walled elements; xylem is
scattered between cortical parenchyma cells. (Cross section.)

Fig. 14.—Citrus sinensis, cross section of an accessory bundle from pedicel of a young fruit, showing
pericyclic fibers. (Figs. 5-14, 302 diameters.)

216

higher in the receptacle of lime than in lemon,
usually not over 1 mm below the sepal bases.
From this point upward they occur at random
in the cortex, and most of them connect at the
upper end with branches of either the sepal
midrib-lateral petal bundles, or the petal
midrib-lateral sepal bundles. Their lower ends,
as with the lemon, are always free, and some
few of the accessories also terminate in the
sepal base without contacting any other portion
of the vascular supply. The tissues composing
these bundles are the same as described for
lemon, and the same irregular arrangement of
vascular elements was noted. The surrounding
cortical parenchyma cells occasionally differen-
tiate into cortical tracheids, but are not en-
countered with as great a frequency in this
species (Fig. 12). There are only about three-
fourths as many accessory bundles in flowers
of the lime as in the lemon, usually around 30.
They show considerable branching and anas-
tamosing, but to a slightly lesser extent than
in the lemon (Fig. 2).

Citrus aurantium (Linn.): Sour Orange

Like the lime, the bundles of the main vas-
cular system do not form a closely fused stele
in Sour Orange, but are more or less distinct,
especially the sepal midrib-lateral petal bun-
dles. The vascular bundles supplying the vari-
ous floral parts have a similar pattern to those
of lemon and lime, with fusion of the petal
midrib-lateral sepal bundles. The nature and
appearance of the tissues in the lower portions
of the flowers is almost identical with that
found in the lime.

There are two kinds of accessory bundles in
this species. The first and longest bundles ex-
tend to 8 mm below the bases of the sepals.
These lower bundles, usually 4 or 5 per flower,
may have the lower termination free, but 40
or 50 microns above this point they are met
with a small branch from a sepal midrib-lateral
petal bundle; or the lower end of the accessory
bundle may be directly attached to a sepal
midrib-lateral petal bundle (Fig. 3). Such at-
tached accessory bundles extend upward in the
center portion of the cortex for approximately
13 mm, often put forth several short branches,
and then either terminate in the cortex of the
pedicel below the sepal base, or connect by a
branch to one of the loose accessory bundles
which appear higher up in the pedicel.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 6:

Loose accessory bundles, 1.e., accessory bun-
dles unattached below as were described for
lemon and lime, first appear in the cortex about
1% mm below the sepal bases, or Just before the
ultimate termination of the attached accessory
bundles. From this point upward they appear
frequently, numbering about 35 in all. These
bundles branch, fuse, and anastamose as do
those of lemon and lime, but they always con-
nect at the upper end with an extension of a
sepal or petal bundle; none have been observed
to terminate unattached in the cortex or sepal
bases, although branches of these bundles do
often so terminate. .

The xylem and phloem parenchyma tissues
closely resemble that of lemon and lime, and
show the same heterogenous arrangement of
the elements in relation to one another in both
loose and attached accessory bundles.

There is an excessive number of cortical tra-
cheids in conjunction with both loose and
attached accessory bundles, in many cases al-
most forming a sheath around an accessory —
bundle (Fig. 11). It should be mentioned, how-
ever, that these peculiar tracheids are also of:
regular occurrence adjoining the sepal bundles
of the regular vascular system in the sepals. No
appreciable differences in accessory vasculari-
zation were noted between male and perfect
flowers in this species.

Citrus sinensis (Linn.) Osbeck: Sweet
Orange

The tissues of the pedicel and receptacle, to-
gether with the main bundle pattern, show no
appreciable differences from Sour Orange, but
the accessory bundles again show distinct dif-
ferences (Fig. 4). ;

In Sweet Orange no accessory bundles were
found with the lower ends attached to the sepal-
midrib-lateral petal bundle, as was described
for Sour Orange. Instead, the accessory bun-
dles first appear about 1$ mm below the base
of the sepals, as did the loose accessory bundles
in Sour Orange. They number about 30, show
much branching and anastamosing, and the
great majority then terminate in the paren-
chyma of the sepal base without any connec-
tions with any portion of the main vascular
system. A few in each flower finally connect at
the upper end with a branch of a lateral sepal
bundle, but these are the exception.

Histologically, these accessory bundles are

JUNE 15, 1947 PROCEEDINGS

similar to those described for the preceding
species. They differ in having fewer and some-
times no thin-walled elements (Fig. 13) and
also fewer cortical tracheids than were found
in Sour Orange. As in the other species, acces-
sory bundles attain maximum size at the time
of flowering, but develop some pericyclic fibers
after the fruit begins to enlarge (Fig. 14).

DISCUSSION

No satisfactory explanation can at pres-
ent be made to account for the presence or
abundance of accessory vascular bundles in
flowers of Czirws. An ingenious experiment
on the bundles in living herbaceous stems
by Caldwell (9), in which a dye was in-
jected into the main vascular tissues, dis-
closed rapid and complete penetration of
the dye throughout the entire main vas-
cular system, but left all cauline bundles
unstained. If cauline bundles in stems are
homologous with the accessory bundles in
flowers, this would tend to disprove their
function as water-conductive tissue. The
individual elements, however, do not in any
way differ from those of the main vascular
system. That they are “residual” bundles,
remnants from a reduction in the number of
floral parts, would not account for the ir-
regular arrangement of the bundle elements.
They may serve in a water-storing capacity;
this explanation would possibly account
for the large reticulate cortical tracheids
adjoining them.

As can be seen in Figs. 1—4, the pattern of
accessory vascularization between closely
related species shows significant differences,
although the pattern of the main vascular
system does not. Thus they present a char-
acter which can be used taxonomically to
distinguish between these species.

>: THE ACADEMY

217
SUMMARY

Floral accessory vascular bundles are
described for four species of Citrus. The
histology of their elements, and their rela-
tion to the main vascular system is dis-
cussed. Differences in the kinds and ar-
rangement of accessory bundles between
the species are pointed out. It is suggested
that these differences constitute characters
that would be useful taxonomically in dis-
tinguishing between closely related species.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Vustrau, P. A. The significance of compara-
tive anatomy in establishing the relation-
ship of the Hypericaceae to the Guttiferae
and their allies. Philippine Journ. Sci.
64 (3): 199-256, 3 figs., 9 pls. (54 figs.).
1928.

(2) HABERLANDT, G. Physiological plant anat-
omy (transl. 4th German ed.): 381-382.
London, 1928.

(3) HeInrIcHER, in HABERLANDT, G., Physi-
ological plant anatomy (transl. 4th Ger-
man ed.): 381. London, 1928.

(4) WorspELL, W. C. A study of the vascular
system in certain orders of the Ranales.
Ann. Bot. 22: 651-682. 4 figs., pls. 32,
33 (52 figs.). 1908.

(5) Tittson, A. H., and Bamrorp, R. The

floral anatomy of the Aurantiordeae.
Amer. Journ. Bot. 25 (10): 780-798, 69
figs. 1988.

(6) Forp, E. 8. Anatomy and histology of the
Eureka lemon. Bot. Gaz. 104 (2): 288—
305, 47 figs. 1942.

(7) Vennine, F. D. Accessory vascular bundles
am Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng.
(Rutaceae: Aurantioideae). Journ. Wash.
Acad. Sci. 35 (11): 352-356, 12 figs. 1945.

Cortical tracheids: a new vascular
element in the orange subfamily (Ruta-
ceae: Aurantioideae). Quart. Journ.
Florida Acad. Sci. 9. (In press.)

(9) CALDWELL, J. On a method of starning the
vascular bundles in the lwing plant.
Ann. Bot. 39: 212-213, 2 figs. 1925.

(8)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

409TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 409th meeting of the Board of Managers,
held in the Cosmos Club, May 12, 1947, was
called to order at 8 p.m. by the President, Dr.
Wautpo L. Scumirr. Others present were:
F. M. Srerztur, W. W. Dorut, F. G. Bricx-
WEDDE, F. L. Mouter, J. S. Wapz, W. W.
Rusry, W. A. Dayton, C. A. Berts, M. A.

Mason, O. B. Frencu, C. L. Gazin, and, by
invitation, G. P. WauTon and A. T. McPumr-
SON.

The Chairman of the Committee on Mem-
bership, Dr. Dreut, presented four nominations,
for resident membership in the AcapEMY and
one for nonresident membership.

The Chairman of the Committee on Legisla-

218

tion, Dr. McPuerson, presented an oral report
on current legislation pertaining to science. He
called attention to the Smith bill (S. 526) for
the establishment of a National Science Foun-
dation, pointing out some of its provisions and
omissions, and to a bill (S. 1131) introduced by
Senators Pepper and Murray that would au-
thorize $80,000,000 for scholarships in the fiscal
year 1948 and larger amounts in subsequent
years, together with a revolving loan fund of
$250,000,000. Dr. McPuErson directed atten-
tion also to Bulletin 35 of the Office of Scien-
tific Personnel of the National Research Coun-
cil, which describes the far-reaching possibili-
ties of Public Law 584 (Fulbright bill) enacted
by the 79th Congress. This law authorizes pro-
ceeds from the sale of surplus property abroad
to be used for financing studies, research, and
other educational activities both for Americans
abroad and for foreign nationals in the United
States, the act to be administered by a Board of
Foreign Scholarships to be appointed by the

@bituaries

ALBERT CLAYTON HuntTsErR, for 24 years a
resident member of the AcADEMY, died sud-
denly of a heart attack on April 13, 1946, at
his home in Hillendale, Md. Dr. Hunter was
born in East Providence, R. I., on February
23, 1893. He was educated in New England,
earning his bachelor’s degree at Rhode Island
State College and his master’s and doctor’s
degrees at Brown University.

While yet a graduate student he held a posi-
tion as bacteriologist with the Narragansett Bay
Oyster Co. This experience and the influence
of his professors at Brown University, eminent
in the field of sanitary science, doubtless served
to interest him in the field of food science and
control. At any rate, following the completion
of his doctorate work in 1918 he entered the
service of the United States Government as a
bacteriologist in the Bureau of Chemistry, De-
partment of Agriculture, and when later, in
1927, the Food and Drug Administration was
established he became a leading figure in that
agency of Government service.

At the time of his death Dr. Hunter was
chief of the Food and Drug Administration’s
Division of Microbiology and was an authority
on food and drug microbiology, food infection
and intoxication, food industry sanitation, pub-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 6

President. There was discussion of the types
and scope of scientific work that might be done
under Public 584, and it was decided that the
Committee on Legislation should inquire into
the means by which scientific interests might
be given more prominence in the administra-
tion of the law. The President of the AcapEMyY
suggested that copies of Bulletin 35 as well as of
Public 584 be obtained for members of the
Board of Managers. Dr. BricKWEDDE volun-
teered to procure them.

The Secretary reported receipt of a _ letter
from K. E. Louman, of the Geological Society
of Washington, announcing the joint purchase,
by seven Washington scientific societies in-
cluding the AcapEMy, of a Spencer Delinea-
scope, Model GK, to be used by the societies for
their meetings held in the assembly hall of the
Cosmos Club.

The meeting was adjourned at 8:55 P.M.

C. L. Gazin, Secretary.

lic health, and the legal and law enforcement
aspects of these subjects. Among other afhla-
tions he was a member of the Society of Ameri-
can Bacteriologists, a fellow of the American
Public Health Association, a member of the
Institute of Food Technologists, the Washing-
ton Academy of Sciences, and Sigma Xi.

Dr. Hunter’s capacity for leadership, his
ability to direct and lead associates, and his
personal charm were conspicuous. He analyzed
situations clearly and spoke well and to the
point. His death was a distinct loss to science,
for his achievements amounted to a real con-
tribution to the microbiology and scientific
control of food and drugs, and his career fully
measured up to the calibre of a ‘distinguished
Government scientist and administrator.”

Dr. Hunter is survived by his wife, Mrs.
Elizabeth H. Hunter, and by two brothers and
a niece.

LELAND W. Parr.

GIFFoRD PrncHoT.—As time rolls on it takes
with it the great men who have done much to
improve conditions in our world, added mate-
rially to our knowledge, or helped to brighten
our lives. So it was with Gifford Pinchot, who
passed away in New York City on October 4,

JUNE 15, 1947

1946, after a long and distinguished and useful
life. He was born on August 11, 1865, at Sims-
bury, Conn., where his people had an attractive
home, and it was amid these New England
surroundings that the lure of the forest must
first have impressed itself on his youthful mind
—an impression that later broadened and
made him a tireless crusader for the creation
of national forests. He was graduated from
Yale University in 1889, later receiving honor-
ary degrees from Yale, Princeton, Michigan
Agricultural College, Pennsylvania Military
College, and McGill and Temple Universities.
In 1914 he married Cornelia Elizabeth Bryce.
Dr. Gifford Bryce Pinchot, of New Haven, is
their only child.

In January 1892, Pinchot started his Ameri-
can systematic forestry work at Biltmore,
N. C., becoming the first professional American
forester. To prepare for this work he had built
up a substantial background by studying for-
estry problems in France, Germany, Switzer-
land, and Austria. After he completed his work
at Biltmore in 1896, he became a member of
the National Forest Commission, and two years
later he was appointed forester and chief of the
Forestry Division of the U. 8. Department of
Agriculture, which developed into a bureau
and later into the Forest Service as we know it
today. This office he held until 1910. It was
very fortunate that during this period Theo-
dore Roosevelt, a true American, who always
was eager to improve conditions in his coun-
try, was President. Roosevelt was in full accord
with Pinchot’s forestry policies and was ever
ready to proclaim national forests as soon as
the projects were carefully: worked out and
completed. The result of this fine cooperation
was that great areas of forest growth were pre-
served that otherwise would have been de-
stroyed by wanton or selfish exploitation.

During the period between 1902 and 1910
Pinchot was very active in national projects
relating to forestry, conservation, waterways,
and country life. He was president of the Na-
tional Conservation Association, 1910-1925,
and professor of forestry at Yale, 1903-1936.
He was a member of the following organiza-
tions: Society of American Foresters, American
Forestry Association, Washington Academy of
Sciences, American Ornithologists’ Union (life
associate), Washington Biologists’ Field Club,
Royal English Arboricultural Society, Boone
and Crockett Club, Cosmos Club (president,

OBITUARIES

219

1908), Century Club, and Explorers Club. At
one time the monthly meetings of the Society
of American Foresters were usually held at
Pinchot’s Washington home. They were popu-
lar and well-attended occasions, and often at
the close members enjoyed a repast of molasses
cake and milk. He also was keenly interested in
the Washington Biologists’ Field Club, and
when attending meetings and social occasions
at its field headquarters at Plummer Island,
Md., he was in high spirits.

In 1902 he inspected the forests of the Philip-
pines and later recommended a forest policy for
the islands.

During his political career Pinchot was twice
elected governor of the Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania, 1923-1927 and 1931-1935.

He was the author of many publications on
forestry subjects, conservation, fishing, and
kindred topics. Those interested should be
thankful that he completed the manuscript of
his history of the Forest Service before his
death, for this posthumous work will contain a
very complete story of the organization and
development of that agency, which should
prove of great interest to the public.

Pinchot was a gracious host, a devoted friend,
and a charming companion. Although militant
and aggressive in controversies, he was always
fair and recognized that when both parties were
sincere each had a right to its opinion. As an
illustration of this trait: when he was organiz-
ing and stabilizing the Forest Service, and im-
portant details were being criticised that he
considered essential, he would make special
effort to visit the critic, and on two occasions
at least he was elated when he succeeded in
inducing his adversary to come to Washington
and join him in forest work.

Not far from his attractive and substantial
Milford, Pa., home he owned 1,500 acres of
forestland, through which flowed a stream well
stocked with trout. As an ardent and skilled
angler, when time could be spared from duty,
he keenly enjoyed fishing for this attractive
and elusive species. Fishing was his pet avoca-
tion, and great must have been the number of
species of fish that he brought to net or gaff
during his many years of extensive travel.

During the 50 years that Pinchot and the
writer were closely associated, he often spoke
of the South Sea Islands with keen interest and
eager expectations. In 1914 he was planning
what might have been a honeymoon trip to the

220

South Seas if World War I and his subsequent
duties in Belgium had not put a stop to it. But
the old saying that “everything comes to him
who waits” proved true for him, for in 1929 he
was able to make the long- and well-planned
expedition to the South Seas. The trip, on the
yacht Mary Pinchot, was a notable one, and
although there were unfortunate delays at
Panama and at the Galdpagos Islands he had
the pleasure and experience of seeing a con-
siderable number of the attractive islands of
the Marquesas, Tuamotus, and Society groups.
Whenever there was an opportunity during the
voyage Pinchot was eager to have natural-
history specimens collected in the various
islands. The National Museum benefited by a
considerable number of specimens representing
many kinds of birds, fishes, insects, and other
forms, and a number of species new to science
were honored by his name. His volume on this
expedition, Z’o the South Seas (1930), gives a
good account of the daily happenings, with
pictures to illustrate them.

But those who knew Gifford Pinchot long
and intimately feel that the period of his life
that gave him the greatest thrill and most
lasting satisfaction was the dozen years he de-
voted to the founding of the Forest Service.
They are, indeed, a monument that never will
fail him.

A. K. FISHER.

CHARLES ALBERT BROWNE was born in
North Adams, Mass., on August 12, 1870, and
died in Washington, D. C., February 3, 1947.
He was a descendant of the Rev. Chad Browne
who succeeded -Roger Williams as pastor of
the first Baptist Church in America. His father,
Charles Albert Browne, Sr., was a chemist
who lost his eyesight as a result of an explosion
in a laboratory. This calamity actually led to
Dr. Browne’s career-in chemistry, for as a boy
he had to read chemical literature to his father
and thereby became so interested in the subject
that he gave up plans to become a professor of
Greek.

Dr. Browne was graduated from Williams
College in 1892. He received his master’s and
doctor of philosophy degrees from the Uni-
versity of G6ttingen, Germany. Later he re-
ceived honorary degrees from Williams College
and the Stevens Institute of Technology.

Before coming to the U. 8. Department of
Agriculture in 1923 as chief of the Bureau of
Chemistry, Dr. Browne served as an instructor

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 6

in chemistry at Pennsylvania State College,
1895-96; as assistant chemist of the Penn-
sylvania Experimental Station from 1896 to
1902; as research chemist at the Louisiana
Sugar Experimental Station in New Orleans,
1902 to 1906; as chief of the sugar laboratory,
U.S. Bureau of Chemistry, 1906-1907; and as
chemist in charge of the New York Sugar
Trade Laboratory, Inc., from 1907 to 1923.

His Federal Government positions in succes-
sion were: Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry,
1923-1927; acting chief of the Bureau of
Chemistry and Soils, 1927; chief of chemical
and technological research, 1927-1935, super-
visor of chemical research, 1935-1940. At the
time of his retirement in 1940, Dr. Browne
was supervisor of research for the Department
of Agriculture’s Bureau of Agricultural and
Industrial Chemistry. From 1940 until his
death he served as a collaborator with the
Bureau. :

In 1906 he served as United States delegate —
to the International Congress of Applied
Chemistry in Rome, and in 1935 to the meeting —
of the International Society of Sugarcane
Technologists in Brisbane.

An outstanding author on chemistry, Dr.
Browne’s book on Sugar analysis is used as a
standard in sugar laboratories all over the
world. He wrote more than 300 papers, books,
and pamphlets, including Sourcebook of agri-
cultural chemistry, Origin of agricultural chem-
istry as a science, and Thomas Jefferson and
the scientific trends of his time.

He won gold and silver medals for agricul-
tural chemical exhibits at the St Louis
World’s Fair in 1904, an award for work on food
from the Association of Grocery Manufacturers
of America in 1935, and the Nicholas Appert
Medal for work in food technology in 1944

He was a member of the Association of Of-
ficial Agricultural Chemists, serving as its
president in 1925, of Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma
Xi, the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, the American Chemical
Society, the Washington Academy of Sciences,
the International Society of Sugarcane Tech-
nologists, and the Cosmos Club of Washington.
He held office in many of these organizations.

Dr. Browne was active in the enforcement
of Federal and State food and drug laws. He
was writing a history of the American Chemical
Society at the time of his death.

Curtis J. HUMPHREYS.

CONTENTS

CuLTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY.—The expansion of the scope of science.
Lesiin A. WHITE

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Botany.—Variations of accessory vascularization in four species of

Citrus and their possible application as new taxonomic characters,
FRANK D. VENNING

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217

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 37

PHYSICS.—Aigh centrifugal fields.

JuLy 15, 1947

No. 7

J. W. Beams, University of Virginia.

(Communicated by Karu F. HERZFELD.)

Gravitational and centrifugal forces no
doubt were recognized by man very early in
his development. The gravitational pull of
the earth and the centrifugal force on his
body whenever he moved about in a curved
path certainly were ever present. It will be
recalled from studies of mechanics that the
gravitational force between any two bodies
is proportional to the product of their gravi-
tational. masses divided by the square of
their distance apart, while the centrifugal
force is equal to the inertial mass of a mov-
ing body multiplied by the square of its
velocity divided by the radius of curvature
of its path. Also it will be recalled that the
gravitational and inertial masses of any
given body are proportional. Consequently,
the action of a gravitational field and a
centrifugal field on matter, for most pur-
poses at least, may be considered to be
essentially equivalent (1). In view of this
equivalence we usually express centrifugal
acceleration in terms of the standard ac-
celeration of gravity at the surface of the
earth since this is one of our most familiar
concepts.

The intimate contact with centrifugal
force in our every-day life undoubtedly ac-
counts for its wide use in a multitude of our
activities. One of its important uses, which
we shall now attempt to discuss, is the pro-
duction and application of high centrifugal
fields to a few problems in physics, chem-
istry, biology, and medicine. Space does not
permit a complete review of this rapidly
growing use of centrifugal fields, so a large
amount of important work necessarily will
have to be passed over. Emphasis will be

1 The sixteenth Joseph Henry Lecture of the
Philosophical Society of Washington, delivered at

the meeting of the Society on February 15, 1947.
Received March 5, 1947.

placed upon certain problems not because
they are thought to be more important than
others but rather because my colleagues and
I happen to have had more firsthand experi-
ence with them in our laboratory at the
University of Virginia.

One important use of centrifugal fields is
in the purification or separation of different
substances and in the determination of
particle or molecular weights, sizes, and
shapes. It is, of course, common knowledge
that larger particles settle out of a liquid or
a gas faster than smaller ones. Just one
hundred years ago Stokes (2) showed that
the velocity of fall v of a spherical particle
of density p, and radius a in a liquid of
density pag and coefficient of viscosity 7, in a
gravitational or centrifugal field F,, is given
by the relation

Ds
=” = pa) ak,

It will be observed from this relation that
the rate of settling in either a gravitational
or centrifugal field increases with density
and with size of particle and hence may be
used for separating particles of different
sizes and different densities. However, from
the above equation of Stokes alone, all un-
charged particles or molecules in a convec-
tion-free suspension or solution might be
expected to settle out after a sufficient time
has elapsed. This, of course, is contrary to
observation since, for example, an unsat-
urated solution of sugar or salt may be left
to stand or centrifuged in a low-speed
centrifuge as long as desired without ap-
preciable sedimentation. This apparent ab-
sence of sedimentation is due to the fact
that diffusion always opposes sedimenta-
tion. Diffusion arises from the thermal agi-

v=

(1)

221

J

UL 2.11947

222

tation or Brownian motion of the particles
and molecules and tends to produce a trans-
port of the particles or molecules from
regions of high concentration to regions of
low concentration. If the particles are large
enough, their velocity of sedimentation in
the gravitational field or low-speed centri-
fuge is much larger than their back diffu-
sion, and so they are precipitated. However,
as the size of the particle decreases the
magnitude of the centrifugal force must
correspondingly be increased in order to
overcome the increased back diffusion.
When the particle reaches molecular dimen-
sions the centrifugal field required for ap-
preciable sedimentation becomes quite large,
but with the centrifuging technique now
available appreciable sedimentation of al-
most any molecules or atoms can be
obtained.

Unfortunately, the general theory of
sedimentation in real liquids has never been
worked out completely, but a good theory
does exist for sedimentation in ideal incom-
pressible liquids. Mason and Weaver (3)
solved this problem for sedimentation in a
uniform gravitational field in 1924, and
Archibald solved it for sedimentation in a
centrifuge in 1938 (4). According to Lamm
(5) the differential equation for sedimen-
tation of uncharged particles or molecules
in an ideal, dilute, incompressible solution
enclosed in a sector shaped centrifuge cell
rotating with an angular velocity w is given

by

Led Oc | Oc ;
ose = {(o= = virSe) rate (2)

TOT

where r is the distance of the material from
the axis of rotation, c is the concentration,
t the time, D the diffusion constant, and S
the Svedberg sedimentation constant or the
velocity of settling of the solute or particles
in unit centrifugal field. Faxen (6) and
Soyten (7) each have given approximate
solutions to this equation, and Archibald
has given the general solution. Recently
Archibald has greatly simplified the calcu-
lations necessary in applying the theory to
experimental results (8). Many years ago
Svedberg (9) derived the equations for
sedimentation in a sector-shaped centrifuge

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 7

cell (equation 2 above) for two most impor-
tant special cases. In the first case he as-
sumed that if the centrifuging process is
continued long enough, diffusion will ex-
actly balance the sedimentation and equi-
librium will be established, |i.e., dc/dt=0,
and the change in free energy throughout
the centrifuge vanishes. This gives —

2 vege ln C1/ Co

M, = — =) ee
(1 — Vp)w?(ry? — 12?)

and
Ds RT ln C1/ Ce
Nea Pal@eie etee)

where M, is the particle or molecular
weight, V, is the volume of the particle or
molecule, c; and cz are the concentrations
at distances 7; and rz from the axis of ro-
tation, respectively, p, pp», and pa are the
densities of the solution, particle and solvent
respectively, V is the partial specific volume
of the substance, R is the gas constant, NV
ig the Avogadro number, and T' is the ab-
solute temperature. It will be observed that
equation (3) is merely the statement of the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution in the
centrifugal field. It subsequently has been
derived from thermodynamic reasoning by
Svedberg and Tiselius. If the solution is an
electrolyte which dissociates into m n-
valent cations and n m-valent anions,
where the numbers n and m contain no
whole number factor,

2(m + n) RT in efit /cofo*
M, = —____—___—__, 6
(1 =. Vip)o? Gn amie .

where fit and fot are the activity coeffi-
cients (10). In most cases where the molec-
ular weight is comparatively large and the
solutions are not at the isoelectric point, or
where the particles are charged, the electro-
static effects of the ions can be repressed by
the addition of a low molecular weight
electrolyte such as NaCl and the simpler
equations (3) and (4) may be used instead
of (5). Electrical charges on the sedimenting
particles always reduce the velocity of
sedimentation. In case the solute is ionized
the sedimentation of the heavier ion is de-
creased and that of the lighter ion is in-

Ve =

, (4)

JuLy 15, 1947

creased since the heavier ion drags the
lighter ion along with it. When the centrif-
ugal field is first applied to a solution
containing ions an electrical potential
appears between the axis and periphery.
This electrical potential decreases as the
sedimentation continues and vanishes when
equilibrium occurs (11, 12).

In applying the above equations the con-
centrations and temperature are measured
under equilibrium conditions, and hence to
a first approximation the values of M, are
independent of particle or molecular shape.
The partial specific volume V is usually
measured outside the centrifuge and does
not take account of hydration or solvation
effects. However, Lamm (10), Kraemer
(10), Pickels (13), and their collaborators
have shown how to correct for these effects
and have found that, in most practical
eases, the correction is comparatively
small, although there are exceptions. In
cases where the centrifuge cell contains a
solution with a number of different solutes
equation (3) gives the concentration of each
substance independently of the others as a
function of the radius provided the solution
is sufficiently dilute. Consequently by
measuring the concentration in the centri-
fuge cell at a number of different radii, it is
possible to determine the distribution of
particle weights in the solution.
Although the above equilibrium method

of equations (3), (4), and (5) gives most
reliable values for M, and V,., the centri-
fuging time required for equilibrium to be
established is very long when the molecular
weight 1, is large. In fact, for many of the
biologically important substances which
have large molecular weights, this equilib-
rium time is of the order of several days or
weeks.

In order to avoid this long centrifuging
time Svedberg (9, 20) devised the rate of
sedimentation method which is especially
applicable to the measurement of the molec-
ular weights and sizes of large molecular
weight substances. In this rate of sedimen-
tation method both the molecular weight
and centrifugal field must be large enough
to produce a sedimentation velocity that
can be measured directly. If the particles
or molecules are uncharged and the solution

BEAMS: HIGH CENTRIFUGAL FIELDS

225

is ideal and dilute and if the experimental
conditions are such that molecular or parti-
cle reflection from the ends of the sediment-
ing column can be neglected, then the
sedimentation force per mole may be
equated to the frictional force per mole

dr
M,(1 — Vp)w?r = Lae (6)

The frictional foree f=RT/D where D is
the diffusion constant. This gives for the
molecular weight /,

Feule dr/dt
M, = ———————
DO Vio)a ss atr
RT
re ree (7)
D(1 — pV)

where S is the velocity of sedimentation in
a unit field, and is usually expressed in
Svedberg units, i.e., in units of centimeters
per second per unit field of force multiplied
by 101%. Actually most of the values given
for S have been reduced to the equivalent
velocity of sedimentation Seo in water at
20°C by the relation

Le V ips

IL == Woman.

In this method each molecular species gives
rise to an easily distinguishable boundary
between the solvent and the sedimenting
column so that dr/dt and hence S can be
quite accurately measured. As the time of
centrifuging increases, this sedimenting
boundary becomes progressively blurred be-
cause of diffusion. However, for a compara-
tively large molecular weight substance,
this blurring is small, and furthermore
diffusion theory shows that the position
which the boundary would have occupied
had there been no diffusion is the place
where the concentration is one half that in
the unaffected sedimenting column ad-
jacent to the boundary. The concentration
in the column of sedimenting material de-
creases slowly as the centrifuging progresses
since the particles move out along the radius
and hence diverge. Also the centrifugal
field increases toward the periphery which

224
in turn increases the rate of sedimentation
and hence reduces the concentration in the
sedimenting column. If c, is the original
concentration and ¢; is the concentration at
any time, t, then Svedberg and Rinde (9,
10) have shown that
fea

Cio. Conse (8)

2

where r, is the radius of the meniscus and
r, is the radius of the boundary at the time
t. When the solution contains several sedi-
menting substances, each forms its charac-
teristic sedimenting boundary so that a
molecular weight analysis of the solution is
automatically obtained. Also if the solution
contains a distribution of molecular weights
and sizes rather than a homogeneous molec-
ular species, the rate of sedimentation
method can give this distribution.

It will be observed from equation (7)

that in order to get the molecular weight
M, the diffusion coefficient D must be
measured. This may be carried out either
during the centrifuging process or in sepa-
rate experiments. Both methods give essen-
tially the same results so the latter method
is often used. If the particles or molecules
are known to be spherical and hydration
effects can be neglected, the frictional
constant. f, can be calculated from the
following equation of Stokes:

BMV \u8
io = Gen Fee ), (9)

which when substituted intc equation (6)
gives the molecular weight M. The ratio of
the measured frictional constant f of equa-
tion (6) to the calculated value f, [equation
(9)| is always equal to or greater than one.
If the amount of hydration is known the
approximate shape of the molecules or
particles can be estimated.

The equilibrium method [equation (3)],
which has its greatest application in the
smaller molecular weight range, and the rate
of sedimentation method [equation (7)],
which is adapted principally to the larger
molecular weight range, recently have been
supplemented by a method made possible
by the solution of equation (2) by Archibald.
Archibald (8) has put the results of his

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 7

mathematical solution in a convenient form
for use, and it is hoped that it will provide
increased reliability for the results es-
pecially in the large molecular weight range.

Although the above outline of the theory
is very brief and incomplete, it does show
that a sufficiently powerful centrifuge may
be used as an analytical tool for the deter-
mination of particle or molecular weights,
sizes, and shapes or that it may be utilized
for the purification of materials or the sepa-
ration of a mixture into its various pure
components. The value of this tool in
biological, and medical research is enhanced
by the fortunate fact that most of the
biological compounds in solution are not
deactivated by high centrifugal fields so
that the measurements obtained are for this
material in its natural state.

For analytical work the centrifuge must
produce a centrifugal field sufficiently in-
tense to give an appreciable sedimentation
and the solution being centrifuged must be
convection free. It can be shown that in
order to meet the latter requirement the §
centrifuge cell should be sector shaped so
that the sedimenting particles can all move
freely in the direction of the centrifugal
field and that the centrifuge cell should be
at as nearly uniform temperature as
possible.

SVEDBERG ULTRACENTRIFUGES

Svedberg and his associates not only pio-
neered in the use of the convection free
centrifuge for analytical work, but they
have provided us with a major portion of
the molecular weight data obtained so far §
by the centrifuge method (10). No attempt
will be made here to discuss the Svedberg
ultracentrifuges, since they are described in
detail in a book by Svedberg and Peder-
son (10), except to mention that they con-
sist of two principal types. The first type
develops comparatively low centrifugal
fields (500 to 15,000 g). It is driven by an
electrical motor and supported in ball
bearings. The rotor spins in hydrogen and
carries a sector-shaped cell with quartz
windows which contains the material to be
centrifuged. The sedimentation is viewed
optically through the quartz windows. This
type of ultracentrifuge is used principally

JuLy 15, 1947

for sedimentation equilibrium measure-
ments. The second type of ultracentrifuge
develops much higher centrifugal fields
(15,000 to 750,000 g) and is driven by twin
oil turbines. The material being centrifuged
also is contained in a sector-shaped cell,
which has quartz windows so that the
sedimentation can be recorded by optical
methods. The rotor is surrounded by hydro-
gen at about 20 mm pressure which con-
ducts the heat generated by the friction in
the bearings, by gaseous friction on the
rotor, and by oil impinging on the turbines,
to the casing. This type of ultracentrifuge
has been used primarily for rate of sedimen-
tation measurements.

AIR-DRIVEN VACUUM-TYPE
ULTRACENTRIFUGE

The vacuum-type air-driven ultracentri-
fuge originally was developed to avoid the
troublesome effects of air or gaseous friction
on high-speed rotors or centrifuges (14, 15,
16) This gaseous friction at high rotor
speeds not only consumes a large amount of
power but also it heats the centrifuge rotor.
This heating of the centrifuge rotor is
greater on the periphery than on the axis,
and thermal gradients in the rotor are set
up which cause convection in the centri-
fuge cell. Since the forces that produce this
convection increase with the centrifugal
field thermal gradients necessarily should be
as small as possible if the data are to be
reliable. Essentially this machine consists of
a large centrifuge rotor located inside a
vacuum-tight chamber, a small air-driven
air-supported turbine situated above or
below the chamber, and a thin flexible shaft
which fastens them together and which is
coaxial with their common axis of rotation.
Several variations in the design of these
convection-free vacuum-type ultracentri-
fuges are in use by different workers (16),
but Fig. 1 gives a diagram of a machine used
at Virginia for analytical work which will
serve to illustrate the principles of the
apparatus (17). The rotating members con-
sist of the flexible steel shafts A (0.1 inch)
and A’(0.1 inch), the driving turbine 7, the
centrifuge rotor RA, and amagnet WM. The
shafts are vertical and coaxial and turn in
the hard babbitt bearings Gi, Go, G3 and a

BEAMS: HIGH CENTRIFUGAL FIELDS

225

very loose (15-mil clearance) sliding guide
SB. Gi, G2, and Gs; are mounted in flexible
round neoprene rings and are oil sealed.
G3 is lubricated and sealed with a low vapor
pressure oil so that a good vacuum can be
maintained in the steel vacuum chamber V.
The guide bearing SB serves to prevent
“swinging” of the rotor at low rotational
speed. At running speed the shaft A’ runs
free without touching in the 15-mil clear-
ance. The rotating members are supported
by an air-thrust bearing formed between the
Bakelite collar B and the turbine 7. This
collar is fastened to a flexible neoprene
support D. The centrifuge rotor RA is a
Duralumin analytical rotor with the cell C,
which contains the solution to be centri-
fuged 65 mm from the axis of rotation. Fig.
2 shows a picture of this rotor and the cell.
The rotor is made oval shaped to increase
its strength, and the cell is sector shaped
with crystal quartz windows cut perpen-
dicular to the optic axis for observing the
sedimentation optically. The permanent
magnet M together with the field FC pro-
vides a speed control for the ultracentrifuge.
M is a magnetized, hardened steel rectang-
ular bar 14 inches long, 4 inch wide, and
9/16 inch high. It has a hole in the center
for the shaft A, to which it is rigidly at-
tached by set screws or a steel clutch. The
field coils FC consist of a large number of
turns of well-insulated copper wire wound
on a laminated field core. The laminations
were (0.02 to 0.0075 inch thick) silicon steel
laminations to give a total thickness of
9/16 inch. The copper wire was no. 21
enameled, and sufficient turns were used to
give an inductance greater than 30 milli-
henrys for the coils connected in series.
To operate the centrifuge the vacuum
chamber V and rotor RA are first thermo-
stated to the desired running temperature.
The material to be centrifuged is then
placed in the vacuum-tight centrifuge cell
which is tightly sealed and placed in RA.
Electrical condensers are next connected in
series with the field coils FC, which possess
the proper capacity to make the circuit
resonate at a frequency slightly above the
desired running speed. Oil is next forced in-
to Gi, Ge, and G3 and the vacuum chamber V
evacuated to less than 10-° mm Hg through

226

P. Compressed air then is applied through
SI to the air support at a pressure (10 to
15 lbs/in?), which allows the rotating mem-
bers to turn freely. The driving air is next
admitted through DI to the turbine 7, and
the centrifuge starts spinning. The centri-
fuge will continue to accelerate until electri-
cal resonance starts in the circuit. The
rotating magnet M induces an e.m.f. in the
field coils with a frequency equal to its
frequency of rotation, but the current in the
circuit is negligible until the circuit starts
resonating. When resonance starts the cur-
rent in the circuit increases abruptly and
the reaction is such as to brake the magnet.
If now the air pressure to the turbine is set
a few lbs/in? above that necessary to main-
tain this speed of the centrifuge, the reso-
nant circuit will absorb the surplus energy,
and the rotor speed will be maintained
A

Fic. 1.—Air-driven air-supported vacuum-type ultracentrifuge with speed control.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ele

PA’
TMT NS
i
H

! EY,
ww 7
aig

EK

LLG ;

“INCHES 4

SS ee oe

VOL. 37, NO. 7

constant. In practice, with: an ordinary
alr-pressure regulator in the air line, the
speed of the centrifuge automatically re-
mains constant to less than 0.1 per cent as
long as desired. Also, if no changes are made
in the driving air pressure or circuit, the
rotor speeds will check to about 0.1 per cent
on successive runs. An idea of the critical
braking action of this speed control can be
obtained from the fact that, in our experi-f
ments, doubling the driving air pressure
increased the rotor speed (at about 1,000
r.p.s.) by less than 1.5 per cent. Also our air
turbines are not able to drive the centri-
fuge through resonance with six times the
normal driving air pressure, which was all
we had available on our pressure line. It
will be observed that no over-heating occurs
when energy is absorbed in the control due
to the fanning action of the magnet M.

Gi

WU
i)

AY»

JuLy 15, 1947

Also any heat from the control is isolated
from the vacuum chamber by the air pass-
ing through the air turbine below it. It
should be pointed out that the only factor
that limits the maximum centrifuge rotor
speed is the mechanical strength of the
rotor. Clearly the running speed can be set
anywhere below this value. Since the centri-
fuge rotor spins in a good vacuum, no ap-
preciable heat is developed and hence no
temperature gradients are formed in the
centrifuge cell. In some experiments hydro-
gen at a pressure of a few mm of Hg has
been used to surround the rotor. In these
experiments it was desirable to have a good
thermal connection between the vacuum
chamber walls V and the rotor. The low
viscosity and hence low resultant rotor
friction of hydrogen together with its com-
paratively large heat conductivity make it
the best gas to use for this purpose. If the
pressure of the hydrogen in V is not over a
few mm Hg, convection-free sedimentation
is obtained.

Several methods are available for measur-
ing the concentration or sedimentation in
the centrifuge ceil optically. Most of these
methods make use of the fact that the solute
has a different absorption spectrum than
the solvent or they employ the gradient of
the refractive index in the cell. For many
proteins, in order to get sufficient differen-
tial absorption, ultraviolet light must be
used. This requires quartz optical parts

Fig. 2.—Analytical ultracentrifuge rotor.

BEAMS: HIGH CENTRIFUGAL FIELDS

227

throughout and hence is rather expensive.
However, for the refractive index gradient
methods, glass is used. Except in certain
special cases the refractive index methods
are preferable and a number of modifica-
tions of it are in use. Lamm (18, 10) devel-
oped a method in which a scale is photo-
graphed through the centrifuge cell. From
the distortions in the images of this scale
the refractive index gradient is determined.
Philpot (19), Svensson (20), Anderson (27),
Pickels (13), Williams (22), and others have
used methods based upon the Toepler
schlieren idea. Special tests carried out by
Pickels showed that deviations of the light
beam produced at any level of the centri-
fuge cell (at least up to 0.02 radian) can be
determined photographically with a pre-
cision of less than 1 per cent and that the
image positions of every radial distance in
the cell can be produced with an accuracy
of less than 1 per cent of the total centrifuge
cell height. In our laboratory at Virginia,
I. Foster is using a Jamin interferometer
method for measuring the sedimentation
in very dilute solutions. It is obvious, of
course, that other than optical methods
may be used for measuring sedimentation
such as the radioactive radiations from
atoms tagged to the sedimenting mole-
cules, etc. It will be recalled that the pres-
ent theory of sedimentation holds only for
dilute solutions, therefore it is important in
some cases at least to use a method of re-
cording the sedimentation in as dilute solu-
tions as possible. There is indeed a genuine
need for better methods of recording sedi-
mentation in very dilute solutions than are
in use at present.

ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN MAGNETICALLY
SUPPORTED VACUUM-TYPE
ULTRACENTRIFUGE

The air-driven air-supported vacuum-
type ultracentrifuge just described pos-
sesses practically all of the desirable
features of an ideal centrifuge. However,
it requires a supply of compressed air,
which is not always readily available. Also
a noisy air compressor is sometimes a nui-
sance to be avoided. Because of this we (23,
24, 16) developed at Virginia before the
war the electrically driven magnetically

228

supported vacuum-type ultracentrifuge
shown in Fig. 3. The rotating components
consist of the steel motor armature D, the
steel magnetic support core R, the flexible
shaft A, and the centrifuge rotor C. The
shaft is hollow from G3 to Gz, through which
cooling water passes. The rotor C, flexible
shaft A, vacuum chamber JV, and oil
glands Gi and Ge are the same as in the
air-driven vacuum-type centrifuge described
previously. The only differences are that an
electrical motor is substituted for the air
drive and a magnetic support is used in-
stead of an air support. The small remaining
weight is carried by a small thrust bearing
consisting of the upper babbitt surface of
G3 and a small collar on the shaft. This small
oil thrust bearing is designed to support the
total weight of the rotating system in case
the power supply of the lifting solenoid
should fail. This type of magnetic support
is almost friction free. The four field coils F
of the motor are supplied with a high-fre-
quency 2-phase alternating current in such
a way that the field rotates with the same
frequency as the alternating current. This
rotating field induces currents in the steel
armature D and causes it to rotate. This
type of induction motor is well suited to
this problem because a comparatively
large starting and. accelerating torque
exists. Several ways may be used to pro-
duce the alternating power required. At
Virginia an electronic generator is used with
which the rotational speed of the centrifuge
remains constant to 0.1 per cent as long as
one desires. Fig. 4 shows a couple of rotor
speed versus time curves taken on suc-
cessive days. The entire apparatus operates
from the 110-volt AC lines and is auto-
matic. With the 6-inch Duralumin rotor of
Fig. 3 weighing about 9 pounds, 1 kilowatt
input to the motor at a frequency of 1,180
cycles per second accelerated the rotor to
1,000 r.p.s. in a little over 15 minutes,
which compares favorably with the air
drive. The power input to the motor re-
quired to maintain the speed constant at
1,000 r.p.s. was less than 500 watts.

The precision with which molecular
weights can be measured with the air-
drive (Fig. 1) and electrically driven (Fig.
3) centrifuges is about the same. In most

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the actual solution. The three centrifuge

VOL. 37, NO. 7

experiments the rotational speed can be
measured to 0.1 per cent, the temperature
to about 0.1°C, and the rate of sedimenta-
tion to at least 1 per cent. In the equi-
librium method the ratio of the concentra-
tions at the various radial distances of the
cell can be measured to less than 1 per cent
and the temperature and rotor speed held
constant for the run to at least 0.1 per cent.
The most uncertain element in the molec-
ular weight determination of ultracen-
trifugation is in finding the true value for
the partial specific volume V. As pointed
out before this arises from the uncertain
knowledge as to the amount of hydration
or solvation present. There is urgent need
for a reliable method of determining V in

methods, including the equilibrium, the rate
of sedimentation, and the new method
which makes use of Archibald’s solution of
equation 2, provide comparatively good
molecular-weight data over a range in

ca

a
g
%

wee ee Y

‘efe | ‘ope

= Rd NA

eo. DS

Ss ‘oe
MhiMhlddd.

i

qumsmess QO === BD

N
= Bic me OIL

INCHES

SS \N
WLLL

Fig. 3.—Electrically driven magnetically sup-
ported vacuum-type ultracentrifuge.

Juxy 15, 1947

molecular weights from the lightest to the
heaviest molecules known. The first equi-
librium method (equations 3, 4, and 5) is
used primarily for molecular weights below
about 10,000, while the latter two methods
are best suited for molecular weights above
10,000.

From the standpoint of biophysics, one
of the most interesting facts that have come
out of the molecular-weight data is the
apparent existence in nature of very high
molecular weight homogeneous compounds.
Some of these compounds have molecular
weights that exceed 10’ molecular-weight
units. These compounds are quite stable
and, in some cases as far as can be deter-
mined, are composed of a single molecular
species in which each molecule has exactly
the same mass. Not all of these naturally
occurring substances such as_ keratin,
fibroin, and myosin are composed of homo-
geneous molecular species, but most of the
easily soluble proteins have definite molec-
ular weights. In some cases such as the
respiratory proteins, which have been ex-
tensively studied in the analytical ultra-
centrifuge, the molecules dissociate into
submultiples. For example, when a solution
of haemoglobin is made very dilute, the
molecules split into halves. In the case of a
haemocyanin (Helix pomatia) solution at
the isoelectric point, whole molecules exist
alone with molecular weight of 8.9x10®
provided the salt concentration is not too
high. When the solution is made weakly

BEAMS: HIGH CENTRIFUGAL FIELDS

229

acid, half molecules appear. If it is made
alkaline, half molecules appear first fol-
lowed by molecules one-eighth the original |
molecular weight, etc. Within the region of
oH 4 to pH 9 the dissociation is reversible
and the whole molecules will be reformed at
the isoelectric point. In the case of some
proteins Svedberg and, more recently,
Pedersen (10) have interpreted their molec-
ular-weight data as indicating that certain
proteins they have studied have molecular
weights that are integral multiples of
17,600. In other words, the building
blocks of these proteins have a mass of
17,600 molecular-weight units. These con-
clusions have been questioned by a number
of workers (25, 26) on the ground that the
molecular-weight data are not good enough
definitely to prove that the 17,600 unit ex-
ists. Whatever may be the answer to this
most interesting and important suggestion
of Svedberg, all workers in the field will
agree that it would be highly desirable to
obtain more precise data if it is possible. For
example, an error of +1 per cent in a molec-
ular weight of 10’7is +10° molecular units.
Just before the war some experiments (27)
were started at Virginia with the hope of
examining more closely the homogeneity
of some of these proteins, but these have
been interrupted until the past few months.

Several alternate methods were consid-
ered including the electron microscope. This
beautiful method, while giving the shape of
the largest molecules, has its precision

sae B Centrifuge Speed ; ayes oy 1027.00 CPS.
aocor: | | EIR pen ca ne OO a Oe
900 . a ee LL Cae ” _wiiee a == =
hates
q 700F rt 7OaS.00 RES.
600
fs
we
Ene |
eee
.o)
> 200 F
& j00
o §
rs) N 2 3 4 Ss 6 7 7} =} 10

Time in Hours

Fie. 4.—Rotor speed versus time curves on successive days for the electrically driven magnetically
supported ultracentrifuge.

230

limited by a resolving power of from 10 to
20 Angstroms (28). It also may deactivate
the molecules under study. Therefore it
seemed necessary to reexamine the cen-
trifuge method, especially since the electron
microscope technique was being vigorously
pursued elsewhere.

In the rate of sedimentation method the
resolving power or ability of the centrifuge
to resolve two molecular species is approxi-
mately proportional to w’rh where w?r is
the centrifugal field and h is the height of
the cell. The strength of a centrifuge rotor
is roughly proportional to w?r? where w is
the angular velocity and r is the radius of
the rotor. In practice w?rh is very roughly
proportional to w?r?, and so the resolving
power is proportional to the bursting
strength of the centrifuge rotor. Therefore,
since, in the present centrifuges, the rotor
speed is limited only by the strength of the
rotor, there does not seem to be much
promise of increasing the resolving power
by increasing the rotor strength at least

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

until better rotor material is available.

However, if we let 7 be the time that the

sedimenting boundary remains in the field |
of view of the centrifuge cell, the resolving |
power becomes (w?r)?S7T or directly pro- |
portional to 7. Now it is possible to in- |
crease the time 7 by flowing the solvent |
through the centrifuge cell at approxi- ©
mately the same speed with which the ma- |
terial settles out. This makes it possible to |
keep the sedimenting boundary in the field !
of view for long periods of time, thus |
greatly increasing the resolving power of the |

machine. Fig. 5 shows a schematic diagram

of the arrangement in which the straight |

schlieren method is used for observing the
sedimenting boundary. The solvent is in-

jected at a controllable rate through the °
axis of -the spinning centrifuge and flows |
through the centrifuge cell from the periph- |
ery toward the axis where it is collected in |
a large cavity in the rotor. If there is any |
nonhomogeneity in the substance being "
centrifuged, or if it consists of two or more |

Fria. 5.—Schematic diagram of high-resolving-power ultracentrifuge.

VOL. 37, NO. 7 |

|
|
|

Juuty 15, 1947

molecular species, the sedimenting bound-
ary will blur or split up into two or more
sedimenting boundaries respectively. In

some preliminary experiments haemoglobin

was apparently homogeneous to at least 50

' molecular-weight units. The ultimate limit-

ing factor with the method seems to be a
gradual dilution produced by the effect

| described in equation (8), but, with better

optical methods of measuring sedimentation

| in dilute solutions, the method has promise

of precision much greater than any yet ob-

| tained.

A second method of testing the homo-
geneity of large molecular weight. sub-

_ stances also is being developed at Virginia.
| In this method the sedimentation in the cell

is balanced by electrophoresis. Electrodes
are placed in the centrifuge cell in such a
way that. a current can be passed through

| the cell along the radius. The solution con-

taining the materials to be centrifuged is
brought to a pH value not on the isoelectric
| ° e e

point. The centrifuge is then spun to full

| sed and sedimentation allowed to take

|place until the sedimenting boundary

moves to the middle of the cell. The elec-
trical current is then passed through the

cell in such a direction that this boundary
remains stationary. Under these conditions,
if the solute that forms the sedimenting

boundary is either nonhomogeneous or

——_—

composed of different molecular species,
| the sedimenting boundary will no longer
' remain sharp. Also, if the molecules or ions
| in the sedimenting columns have different
| electrical charges, the sedimenting bound-
ary will split up or become blurred. It
|| may be noted that the moleoule or ion in

the sedimenting boundary under observa-

|) tion remains stationary with respect to the
| centrifuge cell and therefore the hydration
| or solvation of the ion is ineffective. Ex-
|| periments with haemoglobin have indicated
| that the boundary will remain sharp for
|) considerable periods of time. The liquid
_column in the cell may be stabilized to a

considerable extent by the fact that the
heat generated by the electrical current
through the cell is less near the periphery

| than near the axis because of the sector
| shape of the centrifuge cell.

The high-speed centrifuge not only may

BEAMS: HIGH CENTRIFUGAL FIELDS

231

be employed as an analytical tool as dis-
cussed above but also it may be used as a
means of purifying or separating substances
that have different rates of sedimentation
or different densities..As a matter of fact,
this latter function is perhaps more impor-
tant than the former. A great many sub-
stances of utmost importance in biology
and medicine exist in nature in very dilute
solution and in mixtures. In order properly
to study these substances, it is usually nec-
essary to purify and concentrate them by
some means which does not destroy their
biological activity. Often comparatively
small changes in pH or temperature will de-
stroy them so that the usual chemical means
of concentration cannot be used. However,
as mentioned previously, a high centrifugal
field does not seem to deactivate them in
any way; also the temperature and pH in
the vacuum type ultracentrifuge can be ac-
curately adjusted to any desired value
within the working range. In most cases it
is desirable to centrifuge comparatively
large amounts of the natural solution in
order to obtain a sufficient quantity of the
purified substance to carry out the desired
experiments.

The vacuum-type high-speed ultracen-
trifuges described in Figs. 1 and 3 may be
used for the purification or concentration
of substances instead of as an analytical
centrifuge by simply removing the analyti-
cal centrifuge rotor from the shaft and
placing a so-called angle ‘‘quantity type”’
or “preparation type’ centrifuge in its
place. Several types of angle ‘“‘quantity
type’ rotors have been used successfully
by a number of different workers, and
Wyckoff (30), Pickels (31), Rosenfeld,
Masket (32), and others (16) have studied
the process by which the sedimentation
takes place. Fig. 6 shows a cross section of
an angle “quantity type’ centrifuge rotor
developed by Masket (32), at Virginia,
which has proved highly efficient and easy
to construct. These rotors are usually made
of a solid block of Duralumin ST 14. The
tubes 7’, which contain the material to be
centrifuged, are bored at an angle of about
12° with the vertical and are drawn to
scale in Fig. 6. A Lusteroid tube which fits
snugly into 7 is completely filled with the

232

INCHES

Tate.
1

P77 777242
e
ODIO ITLL Ea,

Fia.6.—Preparative or ‘‘quantity”’ type
ultracentrifuge rotor.

solution or suspension to be centrifuged. A
leak-tight plug P is forced into T and the
screw S tightened until a leak-tight seal is
made. The tubes 7 are accurately spaced so
that the rotor is in good dynamical balance
when either full or empty. The rotor shown
in Fig. 6 holds about 100 cc when all the
tubes are filled, and the maximum cen-
trifugal field in the cell is about 300,000
gravity. With the apparatus of Figs. 1 and
3, the strength of the rotor Fig. 6 is the only
factor that limits the rotor speed and cen-
trifugal field. The strength of a homogene-
ous centrifuge rotor depends not on its
absolute strength directly, but upon this
divided by the density of the rotor material.
This is not quite true for the rotor of Fig. 6,
which carried 100 cc of solution, but it is
roughly correct. Duralumin ST 14, there-
fore, is almost as good as steel and possesses
the added advantage of being machinable
after heat treatment. Also it is considerably
lighter, which allows it to be accelerated
rapidly and lessens the damage done if an
accidental explosion occurs. On the other
hand, for the substances of lower molecular

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

weights, high strength steel no doubt could |
be used to a considerable advantage. The |

sedimentation that takes place in the tubes

T is not completely convection free as in |
the case of the analytical rotors, but what. |

convection exists aids the separation instead
of hindering it. The material settles out

almost to the outer wall and thus increases ©
the density in this outer region. The force |

on this concentrated solution is then such

as to cause is to move down to the bottom of |
the tube where it settles out. Several of the |
viruses actually crystallize out in the bot- |
tom of the tube. After the sedimentation is |
completed, the centrifuge rotor is allowed |
to decelerate to zero. The rotor may be |
decelerated rather rapidly down to about —
300 r.p.s. and then move slowly on down ,

z

L

Fia. 7.—Schematic diagram of tubular
centrifuge rotor.

VOL. 37, No: 7 |

JuLy 15, 1947

to rest. The deceleration must be smooth
in order to avoid remixing. The Lusteroid
tubes which contain the material to be
centrifuged are carefully removed from the
rotor and placed in a vertical holder. The
lighter fractions are then drawn off through
a hypodermic needle or other arrangement
which does not stir or remix the contents of
the tube. Sometimes, when no material is
actually deposited on the bottom of the
tube, a- method of displacement with a
heavier nonmixable liquid may be used to
separate the lighter from the heavier frac-
tions. Pickels (31), Masket (32), and others
have shown that a fairly precise analysis
of the molecular weights of the substances
being centrifuged can be obtained if this
procedure is carried out with care. This
analytical technique is most useful in many
cases where the substance being concen-
trated is a very dilute active agent whose
absorption spectrum or other optical prop-
erties are unknown.

In many cases it is desirable to process a
very large volume of material, and then the
above “‘quantity type’’ of high-speed cen-
trifuge becomes impracticable. About 10
years ago at Virginia we attacked this
problem by means of a continuous-flow
tubular high-speed centrifuge (16). This
work was dropped in 1940 because of the
war and has not as yet been taken up again,
although the results showed that the

“method was strikingly successful.

Fig. 7 shows a schematic diagram of the
tubular centrifuge rotor used. This rotor
consists of two concentric steel cylinders
with radii R; and R2 and length L. The inner
cylinder is solid steel. The material to be
centrifuged enters at J and then flows ver-
tically down the annular space between the
two cylinders where sedimentation takes
place. The light fraction emerges through LZ
and the heavy fraction through H. If the
inner wall of the outer cylinder is accurately
cylindrical some of the heavy material set-
tles out on the wall, but if it is slightly
cone shaped with the apex of the cone
toward the top, the concentrated material
will move down along the wall and if the
exits are properly made will emerge
through H, provided of course the concen-
tration is not allowed to become so great

BEAMS: HIGH CENTRIGUFAL FIELDS

233

that it clogs the outlets. However, in most
practical cases, the sedimented material is
in dilute solution and it is desirable to have
the concentrated material deposited on the
wall. In practice, H is plugged and this
material is deposited in a smooth film or
coating on the inside of the outer cylinder
and does not interfere with the sedimenta-
tion until it becomes too thick. At this
stage the centrifuge rotor is stopped and
the film may be ripped or scraped off of the
wall and the rotor again put into operation.
If the solution contains two materials
which are sedimented out, the deposit on
the top of the cylinder contains a larger
percentage of the heaviest of these mate-
rials while the deposit on the bottom part
of the cylindrical surface contains mostly
the lighter component. Consequently by
proper adjustments, the various com-
ponents can be purified. Also from an analy-
sis of this deposit as a function of the dis-
tance from the top of the cylinder an es-
timate of the sedimentation constants S,
and S» and hence the molecular weights M,
and Mz, of the two substances respectively
can be obtained. If the solution contains an
uncharged homogeneous molecular species
as a solute with a sedimentation constant S,
and if all this solute is deposited on the
inner cylindrical wall of radius Re, then the
amount of solution /, in which the cen-
trifuge can completely remove all of the
solute per second, is approximately (16):

tlw 2

From this it can be seen that with the
tubular centrifuges we described about 10
years ago, when we were working on this
problem, one tubular centrifuge was equiv-
alent to about 40 machines of the ‘‘quanti-
tative type” of Fig. 6. Therefore this type
of tubular centrifuge should be used when
large quantities of material are to be
processed.

If only very small quantities of solution
are available the tubes 7 in Fig. 6 should be
reduced in size so that they are always
filled. Whenever possible, the vacuum-type
centrifuge should be used because of the
absence of thermal gradients. However, if

(10)

234.

the material has a sedimentation constant
above about 4 to 5 Svedberg units and only
a very small amount of solution is available
a rotor similar to Fig. 6 may be mounted on
a small air-driven turbine shown in Fig. 8.
Such apparatus is easy to make and costs
only a few dollars (16). However, extreme
care must be taken in stopping the rotor to
prevent remixing. Also we have found that
an artificial radial temperature gradient
(decreasing from axis to periphery) intro-
duced by focusing a hot-pointed heater on
the region near the axis of the rotor tends
to stabilize the sedimentation. Such thermal
gradients also may be introduced by elec-
trical means into the vacuum-type cen-
trifuge rotors if desired, but if the pressure is
below 10-' mm Hg or if hydrogen at a pres-
sure of less than a millimeter of Hg sur-
rounds the rotor it is unnecessary. Also the
vacuum-type ultracentrifuge can easily be
operated between 4°C and 0°C, over which
range in aqueous solution an increase of
temperature increases the density, so the
periphery may be made warmer than the
axis of the rotor.

Fig. 8.—Small air-driven air-supported
centrifuge.

In equation (6) it will be observed that if
Vp=1 then dr/dt=0 and the sedimentation
stops. In other words, no* sedimentation
takes place if the density of the solvent
pa and the density p, of the solute are
exactly the same. Consequently, if a radial
density gradient exists in a centrifuge cell
over a range of densities which would in-
clude the density p, of the solute, then the
solute will seek a radial level in the cen-
trifuge where the density of the solution p
coincides with p,. Clearly the sharpness of
this radial level gives a measure of the
homogeneity of the material being cen-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 7

trifuged. Also the density p=1/V can be
determined directly. The value of the
partial specific volume V obtained in this
way clearly may not be the same as the
value of V in dilute solution due to possible
changes in hydration brought about by
the material added to the solution to in-
crease its density. In the case of proteins,
the value of p, in the unsolvated state is
about 1.3 gm/cc although values from 1.1
to 1.5 gm/cc have been reported. Hence in
order to carry out experiments with pro-
teins, a comparatively low molecular weight
inactive material must be added to the
water solvent such as pure sugar.

The radial stratification of substances of
different densities can be carried out very
conveniently with the vacuum-type cen-
trifuges of Fig. 1 where the process can be
observed. The smallest density gradient is
set by the compressibilities of the solvent
and solute where a pure liquid solvent is
used, but where other low molecular weight
substances are added, the major portion of
the density gradient can be calculated by
equation (3), since equilibrium must exist
before a stable density gradient is estab-
lished. With the vacuum type of centrifuge
rotor of Fig. 1, the radial density gradient
in the centrifuge cell which contains pure
water is approximately 1 per cent per cm
with a rotor speed of 1,000 r.p.s. E. N. and
E. B. Harvey, H. W. Beams, and others
have discussed the possibility that this
density gradient centrifuge method might
be used for the separation of the chromo-
somes and other cell components. Recently
EK. N. Harvey (33) has calculated the
density gradients necessary to separate cer-
tain X and Y chromosomes in man and in
some animals and has concluded that they
might be separated in the vacuum-type
ultracentrifuge similar to that in Fig. 1.
The high resolving power ultracentrifuge
of Fig. 6 also would seem to be well suited
to this problem of the separation and col-
lection of the chromosomes or other cell
components.

The relative displacement of the various
components of the biological cell in cen-
trifugal fields has been studied by a number
of different workers with most interesting
and important results. No attempt can be

—_—_—_—

JuLY 15, 1947 BEAMS: HIGH CENTRIFUGAL FIELDS 235

MrcroscoPeE i) Fiz nie
1
1

FILAMENT

etm em

Soret ac Petes

IIICROSCOPE Ax/s

Fig. 9.—Schematic diagram of methods of viewing or photographing objects in a centrifuge by means
of a microscope.

AXTS

Fig. 10.—Schematic diagram of an optical method for viewing double refraction in an ultracentrifuge.

236

made here to describe the results of these
experiments, but it might be noted that
E. N. and E. B. Harvey (34) have found
that practically all egg cells contain par-
ticles which separate into zones according
to their densities. H. W. Beams (35, 36)
and his collaborators find that when Para-
maecium, Euglena, and other flagellates and
various tissue cells are placed in high cen-
trifugal fields, Nissl bodies (or nerve cells)
plastids, chromosomes, and mitochondria
are heavier, while the oil, vacuoles, Golgi
apparatus, and resting nucleus are lighter
than the fluid of the cell. In the nucleus the
sap is lightest followed by chromatin and
reticulum, nucleolus in order of increasing
density. Some cells can be centrifuged for
long times in centrifugal fields of several
hundred thousand times gravity and still
recover while others are killed.

In carrying out the above studies it is
sometimes desirable to watch the separation
taking place in the ultracentrifuge. E. N.
Harvey (34) has used a scheme shown in
Fig. 9, a, E. G. Pickels (37) used the scheme
in Fig. 9, b, while Fig. 9, c, shows the older
method. In Fig. 9, a and 6, a magnification
of about 100 times can be used while in
9, c, the possible magnification depends
upon the shortness of the spark light source.

In some sedimentation problems it is
desirable to find out if the molecules have a
preferential orientation. This is especially
true for the case of threadlike molecules
where anomalous sedimentation is some-
times observed (10, 16, 38, 39). It is well
known that molecules with anisotropic op-
tical properties, when aligned, produce
double refraction of a light beam. However,
double refraction produced by the contents
of a standard centrifuge cell, Fig. 1, is prac-
tically impossible to observe because of the
much larger double refraction produced by
the centrifugally induced strains in the cell
windows. In order to overcome this diffi-
culty of induced window strains, the scheme
of Fig. 10 has been used successfully at Vir-
ginia. Two matched quartz-crystal double-
image prisms of the Cotton type are used as
windows of the cell C. They are cut so that
one of their right-angle faces is parallel and
the other perpendicular to the optic axis.
If light falls upon P; it emerges into the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

;

£ell C in two beams plane-polarized per-

pendicular to each other. If now no double
refraction exists in the cell C the light
emerges from P, in two beams J; and Ip.
However, if double refraction exists in the
cell C the light emerges from P2 in three
beams, J, J2, and J3. From the relative
intensity of the central beams to each of
the others, the amount of double refraction
can be determined. The method is quite
sensitive and not difficult to use. The cross
section of P; and P. (shown in the plane of
the paper) may be oriented, with respect to
a plane passing through the axis and radius,
to determine the sign of the double refrac-
tion. No double refraction has as yet been
observed with several pure solvents such
as water, CCli, CSe, and nitrobenzine, show-
ing that orientation in these pure liquids is
not appreciable. However, a critical exam-
ination of the sedimenting threadlike mole-
cules has not yet been made.
Sedimentation can be obtained in gases
or vapors as well as in liquid solutions with
the vacuum-type ultracentrifuge. Because of
the rapid diffusion in gases, equilibrium

between sedimentation and diffusion takes {

place very quickly. If p is the pressure and
p the density of the gas or vapor at any
radius r, then dp=pw?rdr where w is the
angular speed. From the _ well-known
equation of state of a gas or vapor

MF pt og ce
meraceany de! 5°
d BY pt
Mommy lgae apse

where M is the molecular weight of the
gas, Tis the absolute temperature, and B,
C, etc., are known constants for each gas.
Therefore

(12)

where p, is the density at the periphery and
pe is the density at the axis. Everything
in equation (12) can be measured in a cen-

VOL. 37, NO. 7 y

—————

Juny 15, 1947

trifuging experiment except M so that the
molecular weight of the gas can be ob-
tained. In some gases, at ordinary tempera-
ture and at atmospheric pressure and be-
low, and in many vapors at low pressure,
all the terms on the right hand side of
equation (12) become negligibly small in
comparison to the first term; i.e., Boyle’s
law is obeyed. When this occurs,

Mw?*r?

and the density increases exponentially
with radius. If the centrifuge contains a
mixture of gases, the density of each gas
independently of the others is given by equa-
tion (12). It will be observed that this ap-
proximate exponential relation between
density and centrifuge radius is the same
type of relation as that existing between
the density and height in the atmosphere
due to the gravitational field of the earth.
As a consequence we can produce suchan
atmospheric gradient in the laboratory for

study if desired. Recently, it has been found

that, with some care, the molecular weight
of a gas can be measured with a precision
of the order of 0.1 per cent by the above
centrifuging method. The experiment con-
sists in spinning the gas in a short cylindri-
eal rotor with a hollow shaft so that the
density at the axis can be accurately meas-
ured, with the rotor at rest and at various
speeds. From a series of these measure-
ments the molecular weight of the gas is
obtained. In the case of a radioactive gas
the amount of radioactivity is proportional
to the density of the gas. Consequently, this
method may be used for the direct deter-
mination of the molecular weights of radio-
active gases. For such experiments only
extremely minute quantities of the radio-
active gas should be required (much less
than for the mass spectrometer), which of
course is a considerable advantage since
many of these gases are quite rare. Since
the density gradient of any gas or vapor in
a centrifuge depends upon its molecular
weight in the exponent of e, the high speed
centrifuge can be used for the separation of
gases or the isotopes in gas or vapor. A con-
siderable amount of work has been carried

BEAMS: HIGH CENTRIFUGAL FIELDS

237

out on this latter problem (16), but no at-
tempt can be made to discuss it here.

When substances are placed in a cen-
trifuge two general types of phenomena
may occur. The first type depends upon
wr? or the square of the peripheral velocity
while the second type depends upon wr
or the intensity of the centrifugal field.
Examples of these twotypes are described by
equation (3) and equation (7) respectively.
As mentioned before the maximum stress
produced in a homogeneous elastic rotor is
proportional to w?r? or the square of the
peripheral velocity. That is, similarly shaped
rotors made of the same material but of dif-
ferent sizes will explode when their periph-
eral speeds are approximately equal. There-
fore, in order to increase w?r? appreciably
over that obtained with the vacuum type
ultracentrifuges of Figs. 1 and 3 new mate-
rials with greater strength to density ratios
must be developed. This follows from the
fact that the only limiting factor to the
speed of the vacuum-type ultracentrifuge is
the mechanical strength of the centrifuge
rotor. However, wr or the centrifugal field
can be greatly increased by reducing the
size of the rotor. A method (40, 41, 42, 43)
for doing this is shown schematically in
Fig. 11. The steel rotor & is suspended in

j TOVACUUM PUMP

CM SCALE

Fig. 11. Diagram of small-rotor apparatus,

238 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL. 37, NO. 7

the axial magnetic field of the solenoid S_ tical position of the steel (or other ferro-
and is spun by a 2-phase rotating magnetic magnetic) rotor is maintained by an auto-
field in the two pairs of coils D. The ver- matic regulation of the current through the

4500,

2K

25K

SUPPORTING ¢ 210V
SOLENOID

R.F.C.25MH.

T { .003

ane
CS),

75K

6L6

L,

ener

Fig. 13.—Driving circuit.

JuuLy 15, 1947

solenoid S while its horizontal position is
maintained by the symmetrically diverging
magnetic field of the solenoid. The small
“nick up” coil L; is in the grid circuit of a
tuned-grid tuned-plate radio-frequency os-
cillator, which regulates the current through
S (Fig. 12). This circuit is so arranged that
when the rotor Ff rises the current through
S decreases. These current changes are such
as to position accurately the rotor without

observable hunting. It will be observed

from Fig. 12 that this is accomplished by
introducing a derivative or ‘“‘anti-hunt’”’
signal along with the signal from the pick-
up coil Z;. An idea of the stability of the
rotor can be obtained from the fact that no
vertical motion could be observed with a 30-
power microscope focused on the markings
of the rotor. A small iron wire H mounted
in a glass tube filled with a liquid assists in
damping any horizontal motion of the rotor.
The glass chamber V surrounding the
rotor R was evacuated by the usual cold
trap, diffusion pump, and fore pump com-
bination. The pressures surrounding the
rotor were measured by an ionization gauge.
Fig. 18 shows a diagram of the driving cir-
cuit which produces the rotating magnetic
field in the coils D. The output of the tran-
sition oscillator is passed through a volume
control and then a phase-splitting bridge.
Each of the phases is amplified and applied
to the coils so that the current in the coils

D are approximately 90° out of phase, The

frequency was varied up to 750,000
cycles/sec, which was used for accelerating
a 0.521-mm rotor. The rotor speed is
measured by the arrangement schematically
shown in Fig. 14. One-half of the rotor is
polished and the other half darkened by
dipping in dilute H2SO., which had been
in contact with metallic antimony. The
dark layer is very thin and adheres to the
rotor until the centrifugal field reaches the
order of 4108 gravity. Light from an in-
candescent lamp A is focused on the rotor
R and the resulting scattered light focused
on the electron multiplier photocell P. The
variable output from the photocell, owing
to the spin of the rotor, is amplified and fed
to one pair of plates of a cathode ray oscillo-

scope. The frequency of the rotor is then.

compared with the sweep frequency applied

BEAMS: HIGH CENTRIFUGAL FIELDS

239

to the other pair of plates of the oscillo-
scope. This sweep frequency is calibrated
by a standard frequency oscillator (accurate
from 0.1 to 0.01 per cent) up to 50,000
cycles/sec. Above this frequency multiples
of the calibrated frequencies are used (48).

It is well known that, for rotors made of a
given elastic material, the highest periph-
eral speed should be obtainable when the
shape is such that the radial and tangential
stresses are of constant value throughout
the rotor. In practice small hardened steel
rotors are difficult to grind to the shape
required by the above conditions so hard-
spherical steel rotors (from ball bearings) .
were used. Each spherical rotor had a small
flat (about 1 mil) ground off of it in order
to determine its axis of rotation. Table 1
gives some of the results obtained just be-
fore the rotors explode. It will be observed
that the maximum peripheral speed for all
of the rotors is roughly 10° cm/sec, which
is in agreement with the theory. In the fifth
column are tabulated the maximum stresses
in the rotors calculated by the method of
Chree (44), assuming the rotors are per-
fectly elastic. These stresses reach a maxi-
mum at the center of the rotor and fall off
toward the surface. The calculated values
may be somewhat larger than those actually
existing because the steel is known to be
plastic. This would give rise to plastic flow
in small regions around the center and hence
would relieve the stresses.

TABLE 1
Di- Hee. Penahel Centrifugal Maximum
ameter ireed Sod acceleration calculated
rotor Xgravity stress

mm r.p.s. cm/sec 1b. /in.?
3.97 77,000 9.60 X10! 4.71 X10? 410,000
2.38 123 ,500 9.25 X10! 7.20 X107 385 , 000
1.59 211,00C 1.05 X105 1.43 X108 498 ,000
.795 | 386,000 9.65 X104 2.40 X108 420,000
.521 | 633,000 1.04 X105 4.28 X108 488 ,000

It will be observed that the magnetic
field that supports the rotor is symmetrical
with respect to the axis of rotation. As a
result no eddy currents are produced in the
rotor that tend to damp its rotation; Le.,
there should be no electromagnetic drag.
With a 1/16-inch or 1.59-mm rotor spinning

240

at 100,000 r.p.s., the driving current in the
coils D was turned off and the rotor al-
lowed to coast while the deceleration was
measured. It was found that it required
about 1 hour to lose 0.1 per cent of its
speed. The air pressure surrounding the
rotor during these experiments was ap-
proximately 2<10-§ mm of Hg. The drag
on the rotor due to air friction can be cal-
culated from the relation (42)

Chae ae
Ne ig NORE ;

where AN, is the number of r.p.s. at the
time t., N is the number of r.p.s. at time é,
» is the pressure in bars, d is the density
of the steel (7.8 gms/cm'), T is the absolute
temperature, M is the molecular weight
of the gas, and ris the radius of the spherical
rotor. Substituting into this equation, it is
found that practically all the observed drag
can be accounted for by air friction alone,
although there may be a very small residual
drag due to inhomogeneities. Clearly this
spinning rotor arrangement should serve as
an excellent absolute pressure manometer
for measuring low gas pressures.

The very small observed drag on the
rotor suggested that the rotor would con-
tinue to accelerate until it reached the driv-
ing frequency. That is, during the accelera-
tion period the rotor would operate in a
way similar to that of an armature of an
induction motor, but as soon as it ap-
proached closely enough to the frequency
of the rotating field in the driving coils D
(Fig. 11) it would shift over and run as a
synchronous motor. This would be ex-
pected from the fact that the rotor is steel
and should become magnetized when the
rotor speed and driving frequency become
nearly equal. Experiment showed that the
rotor actually reaches the speed of the driv-
ing frequency and then “locks into” this
frequency. It is well known that the fre-
quency of a piezoelectric crystal will remain
extremely constant if it is cut properly and
connected into the proper circuit and if its
temperature is held constant. The driving
oscillator in the circuit of Fig. 13 was re-

loge

placed by such a piezoelectric crystal oscil- .

lator with a frequency of 100,000 cycles/sec.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 7

A 1.59 mm rotor surrounded by a gas pres-
sure of 2X10-* mm Hg or less was allowed
to accelerate up to the frequency of the
piezoelectric crystal and ‘‘lock in” with it.
In order to determine when this “locking
in”’ takes place a signal from the piezoelec-
tric crystal driving circuit was applied to
one pair of plates of a cathode-ray oscillo-
scope while the signal from the electron
multiplier photoelectric cell (Fig. 14) was
applied to the other pair of plates of the
same oscilloscope. The two signals were
made to give approximately the same de-
flection so that when the rotor speed reached
exactly the driving frequency the Lissajous
figure became a stationary circle on the
screen. It is interesting to note that when the
rotor speed first reaches the driving fre-
quency, a slight hunting occurs. However,

this hunting damps out and as far as can be |

determined, completely vanishes in a few |
minutes. This damping of the hunting is ap-_ |
parently electromagnetic. Therefore, the
speed of these rotors can be made as con-
stant as the frequency of a piezoelectric
crystal circuit. |

The temperature of the spinning rotor |
has not been measured directly but an
upper limit for it can be obtained by meas- |
uring the temperature of the rotor at rest —
in the vacuum chamber with the full power |
applied to the driving coils D. This was ac-_ |

AMPLIFIER. OSCILLOSCOPE

Fie, 14.—Schematic arrangement for measuring
rotor speed,

JuLy 15, 1947

complished by fastening a thermocouple
made of fine wires to the rotor, then evacu-
ating the vacuum chamber surrounding the
rotor and applying the power to the coils
D. The maximum increase in temperature
was between 5° and 6°C. Therefore the
rise in temperature of the spinning rotor is
less than 6°C. Small mirrors have been
ground on these magnetically suspended
rotors without introducing. appreciable
added friction. Consequently rotating mir-
rors are available whose rotor speed not
only is very high but extremely constant,
and it should be possible to obtain greater
precision for example in such determina-
tions as the velocity of light. Obviously
this technique of producing both very high
centrifugal fieldstand very high and con-
stant rotor speeds opens many new ave-
nues for interesting investigations.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Eppineron. Mathematical theory of rel-
ativity. Cambridge, 1924.

(2) Stoxns. Cambridge Phil. Trans. 8: 287.
1847

(3) Mason and Weaver. Phys. Rev. 23:
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WEAVER. Phys. Rev. 27: 499. 1926.
(4) ARCHIBALD. Phys. Rev. 53: 746. 1938;
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(5) Lamm. Ark. Mat. Astr. Fys. 21B (2).
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1929.
(6) Faxen. Ark. Mat. Astr. Fys. 21B (2).
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| (7) SoyTEN. Proc. Phys.-Math. Soc. Japan

(3) 18:9. 1936.
Oxa, Proc. Phys.-Math. Soc. Japan (38)

19: 1094. 1987.
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(8) ARCHIBALD.
1946

(9) SvepBERG. Colloid chemistry. Chemi-
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(10) SvEDBERG and PEDERSEN.
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(11) Totman. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 33:

2 OTT.
(12) MacInnges. Ann. New York Acad. Sci.
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43; 243.
(13) Pickmts. Chem. Rev. 30: 341. 1942.

(14) Picknts and Beams, J. W. Science 81:

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(16) Beams, J. W. Journ. Appl. Phys. 8:

BEAMS: HIGH CENTRIFUGAL FIELDS

241

795. 1937; Rev. Mod. Phys. 10: 245.
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(17) Beams, J. W., Linke, and Sommer.
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(18) Lamm. Nova. Acta. Reg. Soc. Sci. Up-
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(19) Puinpot. Nature 141: 283. 1938.

(20) Svensson. Kolloid—Z, 87: 181. 1939.

(21) ANDERSSON. Nature 143: 720. 19389.

(22) BripGMaN and Wriutams. Ann. New
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(23) SkaRsTRON and Brams, J. W. Rev. Sci.
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(24) Beams, J. W. Ann. New York Acad.
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(25) Rortuen. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 43:
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(26) Buti. Physical biochemistry. Wiley,
1943

(27) Beams, J. W. Science in Progress (2) 9:
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(28) Zworkin, Morton, RamBurG, HILuinr,
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(29) Beams, J. W. Phys. Rev. 69: 546A.
1946

(30) Wycxorr. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 77:

455. 1937; Journ. Biol. Chem. 121:
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(31) Pickets. Journ. Gen. Physiol. 26: 341.
1943

Instr 123277.

JOutM.leredsesvcai lL.

(82) Masxnr. Rev. Sci.
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(33) Harvey, i. N.
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(34) Harvey. Journ. Franklin Inst. 214: 1.
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1943. (See for other references.)

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(38) STANLEY and LAurrmerR. Science 89:
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(2). 1945.
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(45) SHaprro and Burt. Rev. Sci. Inst. 8: 34.
1937.

242

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 7

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new Schematiza on Cordia in Trinidad (Coleoptera: Chryso-

melidae).}

A third request for specific identification
of a galerucine beetle destructive to Cordia
macrostachya in Trinidad requires proposal
of a new specific name. The two previous
samples received in 1944 and 1945 were
compared with old samples of Schematiza
lateralis presented to the National Museum
by Godman and Salvin from the “Biologia’”’
collection and were found distinct as herein
noted; but parallel samples sent for identi-
fication from Trinidad to England were
reported under the name of that Central
American species, which displays rather
distinctive characters. This tropical genus
may be as complex, and the species as
difficult to distinguish, as is our closely re-
lated genus Galerucella, in which similar
forms or species seem more easily recog-
nized by their host associations than by any
characters visible in preserved specimens.
Such data for tropical forms however, are,
rarely available.

The genonym Schematiza was proposed
by Chevrolat, 1837 (Catalt. Coleopt. Coll.
Dejean, 3d ed., p. 401; p. 377 of the “11833”
edition), including one previously described
species, Lycus laevigatus Fabricius, 1801,
and nomina nuda for five other species. Its
citation as a nomen nudum by Sherborn,
1930 (Index Animalium, p. 5789), and by
Neave, 1930 (Nomenclator Zoologicus 4:
130), seems misleading. Guérin, 1844 (Icon.
Régne Animal, Ins., p. 303), adopted the
name from the Dejean catalogue but stated
his uncertainty as to generic relationship of
the five species he named as new, with the
species in the Dejean collection. Chevrolat,
1845 (in D’Orbigny, Dict. Hist. Nat. 6: 5),
cites C. marginata Fabricius as type of
Schematiza, but as this name was not orig-
inally included and no such species seems
traceable in recent catalogues, it must have
been a lapsus. Blanchard, 1845 (Hist. Ins.
2: 190), offers a description of Schematiza
Chevrolat without mention of any species.
Chevrolat, 1848 (77 D’Orbigny, Dict. Hist.
Nat. 11: 413), again treats the genus with
Lycus laevigatus Fabricius and the five

1 Received March 28, 1947.

H. S. Barser, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

nomina nuda as originally listed. The num-
ber of described species grew to 19 listed by
Gemminger and Harold, 1876, in the
Munich catalogue and 32 listed by Weise,
1924, in the Junk catalogue, the former
ascribing the genus to Blanchard, 1845, and
the latter to Guérin, 1844, with lycoides
Guérin, 1844, cited as genotype. Under the
Code, Schematiza Chevrolat is valid in
Dejean, 1837, and Lycus laevigatus Fa-
bricius, 1801, the only described species there
available and automatically its genotype, is
now designated type of the genus.

Schematiza laevigata (Fabricius)

Lycus laevigatus Fabricius, Syst. El. 2: 117. 1801.

Homalisus laevigatus Schoenherr, Syn. Ins. 1 (pt.
3) dd eololere

Schematiza axillaris Dejean, Cat. Coleopt. Coll.
Dejean, 3d ed.: 402. 1837.

?Schematiza axillaris Guérin, Icon. Régne. Animal,
Insects: 304. 1844.

This species seems to be lost from recent
catalogues. It was described as black with
thoracic margin and a basal elytral line rusty,
the elytra smooth, the body small, the anten-
nae compressed and wholly black, and the
habitat data as “in America meridionalis. D.
Smidt. Mus. D. Lund.” The name laevigatus
Fabricius, 1801, is listed in Homalisus by
Schoenherr, 1817, and by Sturm, 1826 (Catal.
meiner Ins. Sammlung, p. 153), the latter
changing its habitat to Brazil. I have failed to
trace the name beyond 1837 where azillaris
Dejean attained nomenclatorial status by its
publication as a new name for laevigatus
Fabricius, and 1844, where Guérin suggested
that his “new species” axillaris from Cayenne
might be conspecific with laevigatus F. as now
again seems probable. A specimen from the
Wickham collection labeled “Bartica, Dem-
erara, R. J. Crew’ agrees with the descriptions
of both laevigatus and axillaris. Mequignon,

1934 (Bull. Soc. Ent. France 39: 171-172), ex-

plains that Smidt resided in the Danish West
Indian island of St. Thomas and assumes this to
be the type locality of two problematic species
of Chelonarium, but in similar problems in-
volving types from Smidt the ports made en
route to and from his objective must be con-
sidered. Delay in these ports might have per-

Jury 15, 1947

mitted him to collect there for the museums of
Messrs. Lund and Sehestedt.

Schematiza lateralis Jacoby

Jacoby, 1887 (Biol. Centr.-Amer., Coleopt.,
6 (pt. 1): 498), adopts Schematiza (Chevrolat)
Blanchard, 1845, with comments on included
forms so similar to Galerucella as to suggest
assignment there. Among his eight new species
S. lateralis is described (p. 499) from ‘‘Mexico,
Oaxaca -(Salle), and Panama, Volcén de
Chiriqui, Bugaba (Champion),” mentioning
many specimens but designating no type local-
ity or holotype. Four of the specimens col-
lected by Champion on the Volcan de Chiriqui
were presented to the United States National
Museum. One of these specimens does not
agree with Jacoby’s description and is ob-
viously specifically distinct from the other
three. Lest the Oaxaca cotype be also found
specifically distinct, the type locality of lateralis
is now designated as the Volc4n de Chiriqui.
In these three cotypes a rather strong costa,
prominent. enough above the submarginal
sulcus to obscure the marginal costa in direct
dorsal aspect, runs almost straight from
humerus to apical fifth of elytra where it curves
strongly inward ending near middle of apex.
This costa, the pale submarginal elytral vitta,
the shape of the pronotum, the black median
pronotal vitta and the narrower, more parallel
form are peculiarities of lateralis not found in

ENTOMOLOGY.—New North American
Chionodes (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae).

tomology and Plant Quarantine.

The purpose of this paper is to assign
certain species of North American gele-
chiids, the generic position of which was not
determined by Busck, and to describe some
of a large number of hitherto unnamed spe-
cies in this family that have been accumu-
lating at the United States National Mu-
seum. In Busck’s paper? he did not recog-
nize some of Annette F. Braun’s and E.
Meyrick’s species and therefore did not as-
sign them to their proper genera. I have
examined some of these and will assign

1 Received February 4, 1947.

2 Buscx, A., Restriction of the genus Gelechia
(Lepidoptera: Gelechtidae), with descriptions of new
species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 86: 574. 1939.

CLARKE: NEW NORTH AMERICAN CHIONODES

243

the species from Trinidad which has been mis-
identified as lateralis but which may be known
as follows:

Schematiza cordiae, n. sp.

Opaque, fuscous, depressed, elongate oval,
sides arcuate, length 6-7.5 mm, width 3-3.6
mm.

Pronotum twice as wide as long, sides ex-
panded and strongly arcuate, surface broadly
impressed at lateral fourths and narrowly over
occiput. Elytra smooth, evenly convex from
within the prominent marginal costa to the
elevated sutural costa, showing no vestige of
submarginal costa characteristic of lateralis;
sculpture and vestiture fine and dense. An-
tennae slightly thickened near middle, tapering
apically, not flattened. Sexes extremely similar.

Described from ‘16 specimens labeled ‘‘on
black sage, St. Augustine, Trinidad, B. W. I.
May 2, 1944. A. M. Adamson, collector,
4070.”

Host plant—Cordia macrostachya.

Holotype male and 12 paratypes, U.S.N.M.
no. 58362.

Three paratypes returned to F. J. Simmonds
in Trinidad. A similar sample now referred to
this species consists of 31 specimens labeled ‘‘on
Cordia cylindrostachya, Caracas, D. F., Vene-
zuela, Oct. 4, 1939, C. H. Ballou, No. 934.”
Kight specimens from St. Vincent seem to
represent a very closely related species.

species and new assignments in the genus
iJ. ¥F.Gatres CLarke, Bureau of En-

them to the appropriate genera in this and
subsequent papers.

Genus Chionodes Hiibner
Chionodes nigrobarbata (Braun), n. comb.

Gelechia nigrobarbata Braun, Can. Ent. 57:125.
1925.
Chionodes occlusa (Braun), n. comb.
Gelechia occlusa Braun, Can. Ent. 57: 126. 1925.

Chionodes permacta (Braun), n. comb.
Gelechia permacta Braun, Can. Ent. 57: 126. 1925.
Chionodes asema, n. sp.

Figs. 6—6c, 15

Labial palpus with second segment ocherous

244

white inwardly, blackish fuscous exteriorly and
in the brush; third segment mixed blackish
fuscous and ocherous-white; tip ocherous-
white. Antenna blackish fuscous annulated
with pale ocherous. Head and thorax pale yel-
lowish brown, mixed with a few scattered black
and fuscous scales; base of tegula blackish fus-
cous. Forewing ground color sordid white, so
heavily overlaid with pale yellow-brown and
blackish-fuscous markings as to be obscured
except in some specimens in which the ground
color is pronounced along costa; at basal fourth
an outwardly oblique, blackish-fuscous fascia
extends almost to dorsum at basal third; a spur
of this fascia branches off and extends almost
to middle of cell; from the end of cell to tornus
is another outwardly oblique, blackish-fuscous
fascia; from costa, at apical third a narrow, S-
shaped, pale line extends completely across
wing; preceding the pale line is a fuscous spot
on costa; beyond this line is a blackish-fuscous
shading; cilia pale yellowish brown. Hind wing
light gray basally shading to blackish fuscous
at apex; cilia fuscous, first and second legs
ocherous white inwardly, banded with blackish
fuscous outwardly. Abdomen fuscous above,
buff beneath, shaded with fuscous.

Male genitalia.—Harpes asymmetrical. Right
harpe slender and, with its terminal setae,
nearly attaining apex of uncus; at base is a
strong angulate process and near distal end is
a small, sharp ventrolateral tooth; left harpe
long, slender, curved, terminating in a sharp
point. Gnathos strong, angulate. Aedeagus
slightly more than twice as long as right harpe,
the stalk half as long as the stout distal por-
tion; from side, near terminal end, a strong
sclerotized process divided at its outer end.

Female genitalia.-—Ostium wide. Ductus
bursae broad, sclerotized for nearly its entire
length. Inception of ductus seminalis at poste-
rior end of bursa copulatrix; in posterior part of
bursa are numerous small scobinations; signum
a subquadrate plate with several sharp teeth
at the anterior and posterior ends.

Alar expanse, 12-16 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58234.

Type locality—Putnam County, Ill.

Remarks.—Described from the @ type and
five o and two @ paratypes as follows: &@
type, and 10° paratype, Putnam County, III.
(29-VI and 15-VII-1941, Murray O. Glenn);
27%,22¢, Oak Station, Allegheny County,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 7

Pa. (29-VII-1911, 4-VII-1909, 5-VII-1908,
Fred Marloff); 3%, Pittsourgh, Pa. (2-30-
VII-1906, Henry Engel).

Paratypes in the United States National
Museum, the British Museum, and the Murray
O. Glenn collection.

This species is strikingly similar to C. negun-
della (Heinrich), but can be distinguished from
it by the large basal process and small terminal
spur of the right harpe, and by the signum,
which is twice as large in asema and lacks the
toothed edge of the signum of negundella.

Chionodes iridescens, n. sp.
Figs. I-la, 12

Labial palpus with second segment ocherous-
white shading to ocherous in the brush; the en-
tire length of second segment overlaid with
black scaling above; third segment black ex-
cept base and a few scattered scales, which are
pale ocherous. Antenna black, annulated with
sordid whitish. Face buff. Head, thorax, and
forewing black with a strong purple iridescence;
at apical third of forewing is a conspicuous, but
small, buff spot; cilia gray. Hind wing grayish
fuscous, darker toward margins; cilia gray.
Underside of fore and hind wings sooty. First
and second legs black with a few scattered buff
scales; tarsi annulated with buff; third leg
black exteriorly, buff inwardly; tarsi buff and
black. Abdomen shining fuscous above, iri-
descent black beneath.

Male genitalia—Harpes nearly symmetrical,
about as long as the uncus, slender, curved.
Gnathos long, slender, curved. Uncus large,
hood-shaped, as broad as long. Aedeagus as
long as the uncus, tegumen, and vinculum
combined; slender stalk of aedeagus slightly
longer than the enlarged distal part; from side,
near end of aedeagus, a large winglike, bifid
structure.

Female genitalia—Ostium broad, opening
into the broad, flattened sclerotized ductus
bursae, which narrows as it joins the bursa
copulatrix; inception of ductus seminalis from
an evagination on the posterior left side of the
bursa; signum a large irregular plate with two
small thornlike processes from anterior and pos-
terior ends.

Alar expanse, 16-17 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58235.

Type locality —American Lake, Pierce Coun-
ty, Wash.

JuLy 15, 1947 CLARKE: NEW NORTH AMERICAN CHIONODES 245

Au

Tee eles
gery tts

3,

stat ATE

= a F
Be he
{ : = oe
H ser el aee
| =)
| ec
| BSE yc
| ¥ ak
| : . Bee aN,
| SS

\

la Z.tessa

eet: ZG. = gee 4
l. iridescens 3.johnstoni

Figs. 1-1a.—Chionodes iridescens, n. sp.: 1, Lateral view of aedeagus; 1a, left harpe, lateral aspect.

pies: 2—2¢.—Chionodes tessa, n. sp.: 2, Lateral view of aedeagus; 2a, left harpe; 2b, right harpe; 2c,
gnathos.

Fias. 3-3b.—Chionodes johnston, n. sp.: 3, Lateral view of aedeagus; 3a, left harpe; 3b, right harpe.

246

Food plant.—Arctostaphylos uva ursi (1L.).

Remarks.—Described trom the & type and
three 9 paratypes, all from the same locality,
reared from larvae collected by the author.
Paratypes in the United States National Mu-
seum and the British Museum.

Mature larva—Length 9-13 mm. Head,
thoracic shield, and anal plate shining black;
shield edged anteriorly by luteous. Second and
third thoracic, and abdominal segments light
red brown mottled with light yellowish brown;
there are five indistinct pale longitudinal
stripes, the lateral broader than the dorsal and
subdorsal stripes; tubercles black, edged with
whitish; setae yellowish. Thoracic legs shining
black.

The larvae were collected May 6, 1946. They
were found tying the terminal leaves and form-
ing a web about 1 inch below the tip. Pupation
began May 12, and the first adult, a female,
emerged June 3, 1946. The last moth of the
series emerged on June 8.

Pupation may occur in the terminal leaves
or in dead leaves and refuse at the base of the
plant.

Chionodes johnstoni, n. sp.
Figs. 3—3b, 11

Labial palpus with second segment yellowish
white heavily overlaid with blackish fuscous;
apex narrowly banded yellowish white; third
segment blackish fuscous except tip, which is
white. Antenna blackish fuscous except tip of
basal segment, which is yellowish white. Head,
thorax, and forewing fuscous; face yellowish
white; on the forewing are four small blackish-
fuscous spots preceded and followed by pale-
yellow scales; two of the spots are on vein 1b
and two in the cell; on base of costa is a small
blackish-fuscous shade mixed with pale-yellow
scales; on costa at apical fourth a prominent
pale-yellow spot extends across the wing form-
ing an ill-defined fascia; along termen are two
or three small pale-yellow spots; cilia yellowish
fuscous speckled with fuscous. Hind wing gray-
ish fuscous, darker at margins; cilia yellowish
fuscous. Legs yellowish white overlaid and
banded with fuscous. Abdomen fuscous.

Male genitalia —Harpes asymmetrical. Right
harpe slightly curved, sharply pointed, exceed-
ing tegumen; basal process slightly more than
two-thirds the length of harpe; left harpe about
one-third longer than right harpe, slightly
curved, bluntly pointed. Gnathos a strong,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 7

curved hook. Aedeagus slightly longer than
remainder of genitalia, the slender stalk con-
stituting about three-fifths of its length; at
distal end is a broad 3-pointed process.

Female genitalia.—Ostium funnel-shaped,
lightly sclerotized. Ductus bursae very short,
membranous. Signum subtriangular with den-
tate edge anteriorly; inception of ductus sem-
inalis at posterior edge of bursa copulatrix.

Alar expanse, 11-16 mm.

Type.—U.8.N.M. no. 58236.

Type locality —Petaluma, Sonoma County,
Calif.

Remarks.—Described from the & type, six
o and five ¢ paratypes all from the type lo-
cality, collected by E. C. Johnston on June ann
July dates (type, 10-VII-35).

Paratypes in the United States National
Museum, the British Museum, the Los Angeles
Museum, and the E. C. Johnston collection.

Chionodes tessa, n. sp.
Figs. 2—2c, 13

Labial palpus white; second segment partly
overlaid with black scales exteriorly and with
a few black scales near tip interiorly; third seg-
ment strongly overlaid with black but tip al-
ways white. Antenna annulated sordid white
and black. Head creamy white. Thorax black-
ish fuscous to black. Forewing white, more or
less overlaid and marked with blackish fuscous
to black; from costa at basal fourth an out-
wardly oblique white fascia extends to dorsum,
continues along dorsum to join an irregular
white area, the latter originating broadly on
costa at middle; at apical third an irregular
white fascia extends to tornus; from apex,
along termen are two or three white spots; in
the cell there is one small black spot; cilia light

fuscous irrorate with blackish fuscous. Hind ~

wing grayish fuscous; cilia light fuscous; hair
pencil absent from underside. Legs creamy
white broadly banded with blackish fuscous.
Abdomen dark fuscous lightly marked with
creamy white beneath.

Male genitalia—Asymmetrical. Left harpe
very long, slender, compressed distally, ex-
tending to middle of uncus; right harpe two-
fifths the length of the left harpe, sharply
curved ventrad. Gnathos nearly as long as un-
cus, sharply curved basally then nearly
straight. Aedeagus as long as uncus and tegu-
men combined; proximal end bifid; distal end
and a lateral extension, spoon-shaped.

JuLY 15, 1947 CLARKE: NEW NORTH AMERICAN CHIONODES 247

5. canofusella

Fies. 4—4c.—Chionodes grandis, n. sp.: 4, Lateral view of aedeagus; 4a, right harpe; 4b, gnathos; 4c,
ventrolateral aspect of uncus, in outline, to show caudal hook.

Fias. 5—5b.—Chionodes canofusella, n. sp.: 5, Lateral view of aedeagus; 5a, left harpe; 5b, gnathos.

Fics. 6-—6c.—Chionodes asema, n. sp.: 6, Lateral view of aedeagus; 6a, left harpe; 66, right harpe;
6c, gnathos.

Fies. 7-7a.—Chionodes acanthocarpae, n. sp.: 7, Lateral view of aedeagus; 7a, left harpe.

248

Female genitalia—Ostium broad. Ductus
bursae not distinguishable from posterior end
of bursa copulatrix. Ductus seminalis from pos-
terior end of bursa copulatrix; signum a mod-
erately sclerotized, irregular plate with a short,
spatulate process, directed dorsad, from the
posterior edge.

Alar expanse, 12-18 mm.

Type.—U.8.N.M. no. 58237.

Type locality—Petaluma, Sonoma County,
Calif.

Remarks.—Described from the @ type, five
od and seven ¢@ paratypes from the type local-
ity. All were collected by E. C. Johnston (5-V
to 1-VII-1937-1938).

Paratypes in the United States National
Museum, the British Museum, the Los Angeles
Museum, and Mr. Johnston’s collection.

Chionodes acanthocarpae, n. sp.
Figs. 7—7a

Labial palpus cream colored except for a
fuscous spot at base of second segment ex-
teriorly and a few scattered scales of the
same color on the third segment. Antenna
blackish fuscous. Head ocherous shading to
cream on face. Thorax, except tegula and dor-
sal two-thirds of forewing, light brownish
ocherous; tegula and costal third of forewing
blackish fuscous; at apical fourth of wing a
buff outwardly oblique fascia extends to mid-
dle, then is inwardly oblique to dorsal edge; at
basal third and at middle the dark costal shade
extends as a convex extension about one-half
the distance to dorsal edge; at middle of wing
is a conspicuous black spot followed at apical
third by another similar spot; cilia light yellow-
ish fuscous. Hind wing gray; cilia yellowish
fuscous; hair pencil on underside absent. Legs
ocherous-white suffused and banded . with
fuscous.

Male genitalia—Symmetrical. Harpe blade-
like, dorsal edge convex. Uncus slender, sickle-
shaped. Aedeagus as long as main body of
genitalia; distal third enlarged, stalk slender.

Alar expanse, 18-19 mm.

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 58238.

Type locality —Eagle Pass, Tex.

Food plant—Atriplex acanthocarpa (Torr.)
Wats.

Remarks.—Described from the & type (18-
V-1938, L. F. Hitchcock) and one @ paratype
from San Diego, Calif. (12-IX-1919, Karl R.
Coolidge).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 37, No. 7

This species is closely related to C. coticola
(Busck) and resembles it in pattern and geni-
talia. The line of demarcation between the dark
and light areas of the forewing is straighter in
coticola than in acanthocarpae, the harpe of the
former is nearly twice as long as that of the
latter, and the left harpe lacks the broad
median expansion.

Chionodes canofusella, n. sp.
Figs. 5-5b, 16

Labial palpus with second segment white
except basal third, which is blackish fuscous
exteriorly; third segment pale ocherous at
base, a blackish fuscous band interiorly and
apical half entirely blackish fuscous. Antenna
blackish fuscous. Head and thorax ocherous
white overlaid with ocherous in some speci-
mens; tegula blackish fuscous, apex tipped with
brown; forewing blackish fuscous the whole
length of wing in costal area, from about two-
thirds the width of the wing at base obliquely,
to approximately one-third the width of the
wing at apex; remainder of wing ocherous
white overlaid in apical half with ocherous and
with a narrow, irregular, longitudinal brown
line between the light dorsal portion and dark
costal portion of the wing; around termen to
and including tornus is a row of small, black-
ish-fuscous spots; at apical third on costa, a
narrow, brown, transverse dash extends to the
light area of the wing; cilia ocherous to light
brown irrorate with blackish fuscous. Hind
wing shining gray basally shading to dark
fuscous at apex; cilia fuscous, lighter at anal
angle; on the upper surface, in the male, from
base of cubitus is a short yellowish fuscous
pecten and from base of anal vein a strong hair
pencil, yellowish fuscous at base shading to
dark fuscous at its outer end. Legs creamy
white overlaid and banded with blackish fus-
cous. Abdomen fuscous with creamy white be-
neath; anal tuft white.

Male genitalia—Symmetrical. Dorsal lobe
of harpe scarcely larger than the uncus; ventral
lobe about half as long as the dorsal lobe, weak,
fleshy. Aedeagus slightly longer than tegumen
with the slender stalk constituting about one-
third its length; from left side, near distal end,
is a slender, reverse S-shaped process and from
apex a short spur, curved cephalad. Uncus a
strongly curved hook. |

Female genitalia—Ostium broad, funnel-
shaped, narrowing to the short, membranous

Juuy 15, 1947 CLARKE: NEW NORTH AMERICAN CHIONODES 249

19 bicotce

Figs. 8-8b.—Chioncdes pereyra, n. sp.: 8, Lateral view of aedeagus; 8a, left harpe; 86, right harpe.
Figs. 9-9e.—Chionedes petalumensis, n. sp.: 9, Lateral view of aedeagus; 9a, left harpe; 9b, right

| harpe; 9c, gnathos.

Frias. 10-10b.—Chionodes bicolor, n. sp.: 10, Lateral view of aedeagus ; 10a, right harpe; 10b, gnathos,

250

ductus bursae; inception of ductus seminalis
from posteroventral surface of bursa copulatrix.
Bursa copulatrix without signum; in posterior
portion partly sclerotized and studded with
closely set, small, spinous processes.

Alar expanse, 14-16 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58239.

Type locality —Encantada, Brooks County,
Tex. | |

Food plant.—Abutilon pedunculare HBK.

Remarks.—Described from the <&@ type, two
&, and three ¢ paratypes from the type
locality. All specimens bear the date November
28, 1940, and were collected by Hunt and Mc-
Garr. The type material was received through
the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran-
tine. Paratypes in the United States National
Museum and the British Museum.

This species resembles closely C. hibiscella
(Busck) and, like hibiscella, feeds on a malva-
ceous plant. The two can be distinguished as
follows: Males of canofusella have a hair pencil
from the hind wing and a dark terminal half
of the third segment of the palpus; both are
lacking in hibiscella. In genitalia the differences
are striking; the aedeagus of hibiscella has a
large, recurved apical process with serrate
edge and the female possesses a signum. Both
of these features are absent in canofusella.

Chionodes bicolor, n. sp.
Figs. 10-10b

Labial palpus ocherous-white; second seg-
ment heavily overlaid exteriorly with fuscous;
third segment dusted with fuscous; apex ocher-
ous-white. Antenna fuscous with narrow, in-
distinct lighter annulations. Head, thorax, and
the area of the fold to dorsal margin, from base
to tornus, fawn color; anterior edge of thorax,
base of tegula, and remainder of forewing (ex-
cept as indicated below) dark purplish fuscous;
from cell to costa, in basal half of wing an
elongate, sometimes ill-defined blotch of fawn;
at apical third a minute light spot; cilia yel-
lowish fuscous mixed with dark purplish fus-
cous. Hind wing grayish fuscous, somewhat
darker at apex; cilia yellowish fuscous; hair
pencil from underside of costa in male, absent.
Legs ocherous-white overlaid and annulated
with fuscous. Abdomen fuscous except dorsal
surface of first three segments, which is sordid
yellow.

Male genitalia—Symmetrical. Dorsal arm
of harpe slender, sharply pointed, four-fifths

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 7

the length of tegumen. Aedeagus as long as
main portion of genitalia; slender stalk not
quite as long as the thickened distal end; from
apex, on right side is a long, sclerotized, pointed
process directed basad. Gnathos very large,
somewhat longer than harpe, sickle-shaped.

Alar expanse, 16-17 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58240.

Type locality—Petaluma, Sonoma County,
Calif.

Remarks.—Described from the @ type and
three o& paratypes from the type locality. All
were collected (5-9-IX-1936) by E. C. Johns-
ton. Paratypes in the United States National
Museum and Mr. Johnston’s collection.

I have not seen a female of this species.

Chionodes petalumensis, n. sp.
Figs. 9-9c, 17

Labial palpus sordid whitish; brush of second
segment suffused and irrorate with fuscous; ex-
teriorly a broad, but poorly defined, subapical
dark fuscous band; third segment strongly
overlaid with dark fuscous. Antenna dark fus-
cous with light annulations. Head, thorax, and
ground color of forewing lutescent variously
marked with blackish fuscous and black; base
of tegula and extreme base of costa black; on
costa three dark spots, the one at basal fourth
the largest of the three, black; on fold an elon-
gate blackish-fuscous spot at basal third; be-
yond this, in cell, an outwardly oblique, short,
black dash and at the end of cell a similarly
colored spot; between the two an oblique, tear-
shaped, whitish dash; beyond the outer discal
spot and contiguous with it the wing is black-
ish fuscous bisected by a transverse line of the
ground color at about apical fourth; around
apex and termen is a series of small blackish
fuscous spots; along costa, in the cell and
around termen a few scattered white scales;
along fold and in cell a few ocherous irrorations;
cilia lutescent irrorate with blackish fuscous.
Hind wing gray basally, shading to dark fus-
cous at apex; cilia fuscous; from a narrow,
longitudinal, oblique pocket in the cell, on the
underside in the male, a strong whitish hair
pencil. Legs sordid whitish overlaid and annu-
lated with dark fuscous. Abdomen sordid whit-
ish suffused and irrorate with fuscous.

Male genitalia—Asymmetrical. Left harpe
broad with the ventrodistal corner produced
into a long, slender process sharply curved
dorsad; right harpe as long as tegumen, stout

JuLy 15, 1947

basally, and produced into a long attenuated
process. Aedeagus as long as main body of
genitalia; stalk comprising basal two-fifths;
near distal end a pronounced constriction form-
ing a knoblike apex. Gnathos a thick, strong
hook.

Female genitalia—Ventral plate of ostium
produced caudad into a spatulate process.
Ductus bursae membranous for most of its

1]. johnstoni

CLARKE: NEW NORTH AMERICAN CHIONODES

251

length, broadened and sclerotized posteriorly;
inception of ductus seminalis near posterior end
of membranous part of ductus bursae. Signum
a small sclerotized plate with two transverse
ridges.

Alar expanse, 17-19 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58241.

Type locality—Petaluma, Sonoma County,
Calif.

13. tessa

12. iridescens

Fig. 11.—Chionodes johnston, n. sp.: Female genitalia, ventral aspect.
Fie. 12.—Chionodes tridescens, n. sp.: Female genitalia, ventral aspect.
Fig. 13.—Chionodes tessa, n. sp.: Female genitalia, ventral aspect.

252 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 7

I'S) Seon

14. pereyra.

y

7, petalumensis

Fic. 14.—Chionodes pereyra, n. sp.: Female genitalia, ventral aspect, showing deeply excavated
posteroventral edge of last abdominal segment.

Fie. 15.—Chionodes asema, n. sp.: Female genitalia, ventral aspect, showing deeply excavated
posteroventral edge of last abdominal segment.

Fig. 16.—Chionodes canofusella, n. sp.: Female genitalia, ventral aspect.

Fig. 17.—Chionodes petalumensis, n. sp.: Female genitalia, ventral aspect.

Juuy 15, 1947

Remarks.—Described from the ¢ type, eight
o and two @ paratypes as follows: Petaluma,
67%, 2 (29-VIII-1939, E. C. Johnston); Vic-
toria, British Columbia, #, 29 9 (2-IV-21,
E. H. Blackmore; 20-VII-21, 15-VII-22, W. R.
Carter). Paratypes in the United States Na-
tional Museum, the British Museum, and in
Mr. Johnston’s collection.

This species might be confused with C.
bicostomaculella (Chambers) but is at once dis-
tinguishable from that species by the whitish
dash in the cell. The asymmetrical male geni-
talia and the spatulate process in the female of
petalumensis are further distinguishing char-
acters.

Chionodes pereyra, n. sp.
Figs. 8-8b, 14

Labial palpus pale luteous suffused with
light brown in the brush; second segment ir-
rorate with blackish fuscous exteriorly; third
segment almost wholly overlaid with blackish
fuscous, but the apex always of the ground
color. Head ocherous-white to sordid white, the
scales brown to fuscous-tipped. Antenna black-
ish fuscous with light-brown annulations.
Ground color of thorax and forewing luteous;
most of the scales are tipped with light brown
presenting the appearance, with the exception
of the contrasting dark markings, of a light-
brown wing; on costa at basal third is a con-
spicuous, moderately large, blackish-fuscous
spot; on fold, slightly before middle, and in the
center of the cell are elongate blackish-fuscous
spots; at the end of cell is a spot of the same
color; apical third of wing fuscous bisected by
a pale transverse fascia at apical fourth, which
is outwardly angulate to vein 6, then inwardly
angulate to tornus; in some specimens is con-
siderable fuscous shading dorsally, largely ob-
scuring the lighter ground color; cilia light yel-
lowish fuscous mixed with fuscous. Hind wing
pale gray basally shading to dark fuscous api-
cally and with a golden sheen; cilia fuscous,
those around apex and outer margin narrowly
white-tipped; hair pencil from hind wing of
male absent. Legs ocherous-white suffused and
banded with fuscous. Abdomen light fuscous
above, the posterior edges of the segments nar-
rowly bordered with ocherous-white to sordid
white; underside ocherous-white suffused with
fuscous posteriorly.

Male genitalia—Asymmetrical. Left harpe

CLARKE: NEW NORTH AMERICAN CHIONODES

253

broad basally tapering to a sharply pointed
curved tip; right harpe slender, slightly longer
than tegumen and produced into a fine fleshy
point. Aedeagus nearly twice as long as tegu-
men, slender, the stalk comprising about basal
third. Distal end constricted just before apex,
the latter dilated. Gnathos a moderately weak
hook.

Female genitalia.—Ostium broad, opening at
the edge of the deep median excavation on the
posterior edge of the last abdominal segment.
Ductus bursae broad and flattened in the pos-
terior half and sclerotized, inception of ductus
seminalis near the posterior end of the mem-
branous portion of the ductus bursae. Bursa
copulatrix small; signum a small round plate
with serrate processes from the anterior and
posterior sides.

Alar expanse, 16-18 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58248.

Type locality—vVero Beach, Fla.

Remarks.—Described from the @ type, one
o and seven @ paratypes all from the type
locality. All were collected by John R. Malloch
and bear April and May dates, 1941. Paratypes
in the United States National Museum and the
British Museum.

In pattern this species resembles petalumen-
sts and is closely related to it as will be seen by
a comparison of the genitalia. The male of
pereyra lacks the sharply curved process of the
harpe found in petalumensis, and the female of
the latter species lacks the deeply excavated
posterior edge of the terminal segment of
pereyra.

Chionodes grandis, n. sp.
Figs. 4—4¢

Labial palpus pale brownish gray, suffused,
and irrorate with light fuscous. Antenna fus-
cous with indistinct, narrow, pale annulations.
Head fuscous. Thorax and forewing dark pur-
plish fuscous; on fold, at basal fourth, in the
center of the cell and at the end of cell, ill-de-
fined blackish-fuscous spots; at apical third on
costa a small, indistinct, pale spot; cilia yel-
lowish fuscous irrorate with blackish fuscous.
Hind wing shining grayish fuscous; cilia yel-
lowish fuscous basally, darker distally; hair
pencil absent on underside of male. Legs shin-
ing fuscous; at bases of spurs and at ends of
tarsal segments, small patches of ocherous-
white. Abdomen shining fuscous with viola-

254

ceous cast; first three segments, dorsally, sordid
yellow.

Male genitalia—Symmetrical. Dorsal arm of
harpe as long as tegumen and uncus combined,
curved, slender, sharply pointed; ventral arm
about one-third the length of the dorsal arm,
filamentous. Aedeagus slender, about twice as
long as dorsal arm of harpe; the slender stalk
constituting about one-third the total length;
apex enlarged and with two moderately scler-
otized elongate plates directed away from apex.
Gnathos a moderate sized hook.

Alar expanse, 25-28 mm.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 7

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 58242.

Type locality —Silverton, Colo.

Remarks.—Described from the & type and
one o& paratype, both in the United States
National Museum. The specimens were col- —
lected in July.

This is the largest species of the genus so far
described. It resembles C. permacta (Braun) in
wing shape and general appearance, but can be
distinguished from that species by its larger
size and the short, median, hooklike process of —
the uncus, which is about one-third the length “7
of the median process of permacta.

ORNITHOLOGY.—The races of the minivet Pericrocotus peregrinus (Linnaeus) in |

southeastern Asia?

The extraordinary contradictions of
Stuart Baker’s successive treatments of this
unfortunate minivet have been reviewed by
Whistler and Kinnear (Journ. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc. 36: 3438. 1933), who have at the
same place set forth a sensible arrangement
of the Indian races. It is now necessary
that a similar revision be made of the
- forms occurring farther east.

Baker described vividus (see below) on
characters of the male only, and gave its
range as ‘‘Assam, Eastern Bengal, Manipur,
Burma, Andamans, Siam, Cochin China.”’
A series of 77 adults, chiefly from Siam, ly-
ing before me indicate that several distinct
races, some of them with characters most
evident in the females, have been hitherto
embraced under this name. Owing to my
complete lack of material from eastern
Bengal, Assam, and most parts of Burma,
a thorough study of ‘‘vzv7dus’’ can not yet be
presented; since, however, the type locality
for the name lies on the frontiers of Siam,
Siamese specimens are the ones of critical
importance, and these are available in some
abundance.

For the loan of their series of these birds,
my thanks are due the authorities of the
American Museum of Natural History and
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution. Received March 20,
1947.

H. G. Detanan, U.S. National Museum.

I now recognize the following south- !
eastern Asiatic races:

1. Pericrocotus peregrinus thai, n. subsp.

Type.—Adult female, U.S.N.M. no. 336383,
collected at Amphoe Chom Thong=Ban |
Luang (lat. 18°25’ N., long. 98°40’ F.), Chiang |
Mai Province, northwestern Siam, on February |
9, 1937, by H. G. Deignan (original number |
2315).

Diagnosis——The adult female differs from |
those of peregrinus and vividus (in the restricted
sense of this paper) by having the flanks and |
abdomen strongly washed with rich yellow or |
orange, rather than lightly washed with a less |
vivid yellow.

Baker’s original description of ‘‘viwdus’’
covers the characters of the adult male of thai.
This reads:
peregrinus; the throat generally rather blacker;

the crimson | =flame-orange] breast brighter }
and extending lower on to the flanks and often |

on to the abdomen, remainder of the lower }
parts bright yellow with no, or practically no, | !
white on the abdomen. Red on tail distinctly })
darker and more crimson [ =orange].” :}

Range-—Burma (Thayetmyo

Ubon Ratcha Thani).
2. Pericrocotus peregrinus vividus
Stuart Baker

Perecrocotus [sic] peregrinus vividus Stuart Baker,
Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 40: 114. Apr. 30, 1920

“Darker above than typical |

District) ; i
Southern Shan States; Siam (north and east, })
south along the Mae Khong to the province of |

-

Juuy 15, 1947

(“Attaran River,’’ Amherst District, Tenas-
serim Division, Burma; type locality here re-
stricted to Pabyouk, ‘‘a village near a group
of isolated limestone rocks on the right bank of
the Attaran R. about 22 miles in a direct line
S.E. of Moulmein,” fide Hume and Davison,
Stray Feathers 6: 523. 1878).

Diagnosis.—The adult male is as described
by Baker (see under P. p. that), but in long
series has the underparts perbaps a little less
vivid, with a slight reduction of red and an in-
erease of yellow, to approximate the race de-
scribed next below.

The adult female differs from that of that by
having the flanks (and sometimes the ab-
domen) lightly washed with yellow.

In either sex the bill is slightly longer and
heavier than that of thai, thus again showing
approach to the following form.

Range—Burma (Amherst District); Siam
(southwest, reaching east to Bangkok). |

Remarks—The type locality for this race
could scarcely have been more unwisely
chosen! A line drawn from Moulmein in

_ Tenasserim to Ban Rahaeng in western Siam

represents the normal boundary between races
of birds that vary between northwestern and
southwestern Siam. The locality ‘Attaran
River,’ as used by Davison, collector of the
type specimen, means ‘‘between the old town
of Attaran, distant about 34 miles S.E. of
Movulmein and this latter’ (fide Hume and
Davison, loc. cit. supra, p. 522). The type thus

"came from some point on or just south of the

7
|

!
|

_ dividing line and might well belong to a popula-

tion exactly intermediate between that and
viwidus as here understood. Inasmuch as a few
poor specimens from Ban Rahaeng seem to
belong to the more southern race, it is probable
that those of Moulmein will also, but to im-
prove the chances of the name vividus’s being
properly employed for the population of south-
western Siam, I have now restricted the type
locality to the most southern point on the
Attaran River permissible by Hume and
Davison’s list of proveniences of the species
(loc. cit., p. 212). The type itself, as a male, is
certain to be subspecifically unidentifiable, un-
less it possesses an exceptionally large bill, and
the final disposition of the names that and
vividus must hang upon the characters of topo-
typical females, which are probably not yet

DEIGNAN: RACES OF PERICROCOTUS PEREGRINUS

255

represented in any museum. If, contrary to my
expectation, that must eventually be united
with vividus, it is believed that the unnecessary
name will not unduly burden a future reviser,
since the population of Ban Luang, while
clearly showing the characters of the race, come
from a locality at no great distance from the
Amherst District. In this event, vividus, as here
understood, will require a new name.

3. Pericrocotus peregrinus sacerdos Riley

Pericrocotus peregrinus sacerdos Riley, Proc. Biol.
Soc. Washington 53: 131. Nov. 8, 1940 (Sam-
bor, Kompong Thom Province, Cambodia).

Diagnosis—The adult male differs from
those of that and vividus by having the breast
and rump rather more red, less orange, and the
tips of the outer tail feathers more deeply
colored.

The only adult female seen is inseparable
from that of vividus.

Range.—Cambodia; Annam
chinchine?

Remarks.—Only five males of sacerdos have
been available, but these seem to show that
Riley’s race may be recognized.

(south); Co-

4. Pericrocotus peregrinus separatus,
n. subsp.

Type—Adult male, U.S.N.M. no. 173102,
collected at Tanjong Badak, Mergui District,
Tenasserim Division, Burma, on January 8,
1900, by W. L. Abbott.

Diagnosis —The adult male differs from that
of vividus (and so much the more from that of
thai) by its decidedly longer and heavier bill,
and from both by having the color of the
underparts less vivid, the red being almost
restricted to the upper breast, with the yellow
accordingly of greater extent.

No adult female has been seen.

Range——Burma (coasts and islands of the
Mergui District); Siam (coasts and islands of
the western side of the Peninsula from the Pak
Chan Estuary to the Takua Pa Inlet).

Remarks—This race, apparently confined to
the mangroves of a limited part of the eastern
shore of the Andaman Sea, is quite isolated from
its relatives: vividus ranges southward in
Tenasserim only to lat. 16°15’ N., and in south-
western Siam to lat. 11°40’ N., while saturatus

256

is restricted to the Greater Sundas, reaching
Sumatra, but not the Malay Peninsula.

The large bill of separatus has already been
commented upon by Robinson and Boden
Kloss (Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam 5: 251.
1924).

It will be a matter of some interest to learn
whether the female has the color characters of
vividus or of saturatus; it may be expected to
resemble the latter.

5. Pericrocotus peregrinus subsp.

Baron R. Snouckaert van Schauburg
(Treubia 11: 311-312. 1930), with a single
female before him, gave reasons for considering
the birds of the Andaman Islands a distinct
race. I have unfortunately but two adult males
and one immature female from these islands.
The males have the underparts as highly
colored as the reddest examples of that and the
bill equal to that of vividus in size. Snouckaert
van Schauburg’s female had the underparts
“wholly white, with a faint tinge of yellow on
the flanks,” thus evidently resembling the
female of saturatus (and perhaps the still un-
known female of separatus). Despite Whistler
and Kinnear’s dictum (Journ. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc. 36: 344. 1933) that a series from the
Andamans can not be separated from ‘‘vividus,”’
it appears that the Andaman population can not
be combined with any one of the several forms
now recognized, and, were a name available, I
should gladly accept it. I am not willing, how-
ever, to set up a new subspecies without having
seen more material, and especially females.

Snouckaert van Schauburg has suggested
that ‘in case it might be found that a local
subspecies could indeed be established, I should
like proposing to name it after Mr. B. B.
OSMASTON who collected my bird.” His
“type,” an adult female taken at Port Blair,
South Andaman Island, on April 3, 1905, was

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. Ff

in his private collection; its present where-
abouts is unknown.

6. Pericrocotus peregrinus saturatus
Stuart Baker
Pericrocotus peregrinus saturatus Stuart Baker,

Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 40: 115. Apr. 30, 1920
(West Java).

Diagnosis—The adult male is inseparable |
from that of vividus.

The adult female has the flanks (and some-
times the abdomen) very lightly washed with
pale yellow or cream and differs from that of |
vividus in the same degree as the female of |
vividus differs from that of that. .

Range.—Sumatra; Java; Bali.

Remarks.—Baker’s setting up of the race |
saturatus throws an interesting light on his |
ornithological methods. In this particular revi- |
sion he lists consecutively subspecies from (1) |
the Punjab, (2) Tenasserim, (3) the Malabar ||
coast, (4) Sind, and (5) Java. No. 2 is discussed |}
only in relation to no. 1, no. 3 only in relation |}
to no. 2, and so on; in the end, the Javanese | |
bird, no. 5, is distinguished, not from the geo- ||
graphically nearest form, but from the bird of |}
Sind! Since the author considered the males of
vividus and saturatus diagnostic (as is shown by — |
his failure even to mention the females), it is ||
certain that he could not have named the |}
Javanese race at all, had he bothered to com- ||
pare it with vividus; his “exceptionally dark }}
birds above” has meaning only with reference }|
to pallidus!

In any event, the population of Java, in ||
which the male is like vividus and the female
like ceylonensis, is a recognizable race, and —
Baker’s name, however useless his type speci- —
men, may properly be used for it. }

I have seen no material from Sumatra and }|
have simply followed other writers in including ©
this island in the range of saturatus. i}

CONTENTS
Puysics.—High centrifugal fields. J. W. Brams............... A

Re as —A new 7 Sehendies on Cordia in Trinidad (Coleoptera: "
Chrysomelidae)., HS, BARBER. 2. 000 Co a he Ge an “ih

EnromMoLocy.—New North American species and new assignments in —

He

the genus Chionodes (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). J. F. GatzEs

CLARKE) en. i FO Oh tebe ia) ce ORL © NS a ety:

ORNITHOLOGY.—The races of the minivet Pericrocotus peregrinus (Lin-

naeus) in southeastern Asia. H.G. DEIGNAN......... Beak a"

\ This Journslis indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 37

Avuaeust 15, 1947

No. 8

ETHNOLOGY.—Arikara glassworking.' Marrunw W. STIRLING, Bureau of

American Ethnology.

A unique industry among American
Indians, that of glassworking, was de-
veloped among the sedentary tribes of the
Upper Missouri in the latter part of the

eighteenth century and was carried on for

perhaps a century. Although practiced
among a number of different tribes, it is
evident that the art was highly secret, and
knowledge of it was confined to only a few
individuals. Probably because of this fact
satisfactory descriptions of the process are
lacking, although it is mentioned by many
early writers who visited the region and
were impressed by the fact of its existence.

Joseph Garreau, who had lived for many
years previously among the Upper Mis-
souri tribes and who had an Arikara wife,
explained the process of manufacturing
glass ornaments to Lewis and Clark in
1804. As recorded by these American ex-
plorers the description is none too clear, but
it gives nevertheless the general principles
_of the techniques:

Mr. Garrow a Frenchman who has lived many
years with the Ricares & Mandans shewed us
the process used by those Indians to make beads.
the discovery of this art these nations are said to
have derived from the Snake Indians who have
been taken prisoners by the Ricaras. the art is
kept a secret by the Indians among themselves
and is yet known to but few of them. the Process
is as follows.—Take glass of as many different
colours as you think proper, then pound it as
fine as possible, putting each colour in a separate
vessel. wash the pounded Glass in several waters
throwing off the water at each washing, continue
this opperation as long as the pounded glass
stains or colours the water which is poured off
and the residuum is then prepared for use. you
then provide an earthen pot of convenient size
say of three gallons which will stand the fire; a
platter also of the same material sufficiently small
to be admitted in the mouth of the pot or jar.

1 Received April 22, 1947.

257

the pot has a nitch in it’s edge through which to
watch the beads when in blast. You then provide
some well seasoned clay with a proportion of
sand sufficient to prevent it’s becoming very hard
when exposed to the heat. this clay must be
tempered with water until it is about the con-
sistency of common doe. of this clay you then
prepare, a sufficient number of little sticks of the
size you wish the hole through the bead, which you
do by roling the clay on the palm of the hand
with your finger. this done put those sticks of
clay on the platter and expose them to red heat
for a few minutes when you take them off and
suffer them to cool. the pot is also heated to cles
[cleanse] it perfectly of any filth it may contain.
small balls of clay are also mad[e] of about an
ounce weight which serve as a pedestal for a bead.
these while soft ar destributed over the face of the
platter at su[c]h distance from each other as to
prevent the beads from touching. some little
wooden paddles are now provided from three to
four inches in length sharpened or brought to a
point at the extremity of the handle. With this
paddle you place in the palm of the hand as
much of the wet pounded glass as is necessary to
make the bead of the size you wish it. it is then
arranged with the paddle in an oblong from
[form], laying one of those little stick of clay cross-
wise over it; the pounded glass by means of the
paddle is then roped in cilindrical form arround
the stick of clay and gently roled by motion of
the hand backwards an forwards untill you get it
as regular and smooth as you conveniently can.
if you wish to introduce any other colour you now
purforate the surface of the bead with the pointed
end of your little paddle and fill up the cavity
with other pounded glass of the colour you wish
forming the whole as regular as you can. a hole is
now made in the center of the little pedestals of
clay with the handle of your shovel sufficiently
large to admit the end of the stick of clay around
which the bead is formed. the beads are then ar-
ranged perpendicularly on their pedestals and
little distance above them supported by the little
sticks of clay to which they are attached in the
manner before mentioned. thus arranged the
platter is deposited on burning coals or hot em-
bers and the pot reversed with the apparture in
its edge turned towards covers the whole. dry
wood pretty much doated [doughted] is then

AUG 18 1947

258

plased arron [around] the pot in sush manner as
compleatly to cover it. [It] is then set on fire and
the opperator must shortly after begin to watch
his beads through the apparture of the pot le|[s]t
they should be distroyed by being over heated.
he suffers the beads to acquire a deepred heat
from which when it passes in a small degree to a
pailer or whitish red, or he discovers that the
beads begin to become pointed at their extremities
he removes the fire from about the pot and suffers
the whole to cool gradually. the pot is then re-
moved and the beads taken out. the clay which
tills the hollow of the beads is picked out with an
awl or nedle. the beads is then fit for uce. the
Indians are extreemly fond of the large beads
formed by this process. they use them as pendants
to their years, or hair and sometimes wear them
about their necks.?

This description apparently refers only to
the manufacture of beads and not to the
flatwork in which a greater amount of
originality was displayed.

Washington Matthews, who was sta-
tioned at military posts on the Upper
Missouri from 1865 to 1872, states that the
art was still practiced occasionally at that
time. He said that he had heard the process
described by Indians essentially as given
by Lewis and Clark. He added that
formerly the articles manufactured con-
sisted chiefly of two kinds—large globular
or ellipsoidal beads; and flat, irregularly
triangular plates or pendants, glazed only
on one side and having a hole in the apex.
In his time the art was mostly confined to
the making of the flat, triangular pendants.
Referring to the description given by

Garreau to Lewis and Clark, Matthews

Says:

From this quotation however, which is in part
ambiguous, the inference might be drawn that the
ornaments, when completed, consist entirely of
glass. Such is not the case in those I have seen;
on the contrary, they consist of a core of baked
earth covered with a thin shell of glass; and they
have the appearance of having been perforated
before heat was applied. But, in the matter of
making the holes, the process may have been
changed, or there may have been two ways of
doing it.’

As will appear later, both Matthews and
Garreau were correct, since there is clear
evidence that the process did change.

2 Lewis and Clark, 1904, vol. 1, pp. 272-274.
3 Matthews, 1877, pp. 19-28.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 8

George Catlin, writing of the Mandan in
1837, says:

In addition to this [potter’s] art which I am
sure belongs to no other tribe on the continent,
these people have also, as a secret with themselves,
the extraordinary art of manufacturing a very
beautiful and lasting kind of blue glass beads,
which they wear on their necks in great quantities
and decidedly value above all others that are
brought among them by the fur traders. This
secret is not only one that the traders did not in-
troduce among them, but one which they cannot
learn from them; and at the same time, beyond a
doubt an art that has been introduced among
them by some civilized people, as it is yet un-
known to other Indian tribes in that vicinity or
elsewhere. Of this interesting fact, Lewis and
Clarke gave an account thirty-three years ago, at
a time when no traders or other white people had
been among the Mandans to have taught them so
curious an art.*

Catlin used this as one of his arguments to
support his pet theory of the Welsh origin
of the Mandans. In reference to his state-
ment Matthews sagely remarks:

It is surprising that Mr. Catlin, after reading
the passages from Lewis and Clarke (and he
leaves us to infer that he has read them) could
state that the art of making these beads was
confined to the Mandans: that it was unknown to
the traders; that it was beyond doubt introduced
by civilized people; and that no traders or other
whites had been among these Indians before the -
time of Lewis and Clarke’s visit.®

Maximilian, referring to his visit to the
Upper Missouri in 1833, says:

Among the Mandans, Minitaries and Arik-
karas the women as Lewis and Clarke relate,
manufacture beads from coloured glass. They
powder those which they have obtained from the
traders and mould them into different shapes. The
custom is, however, no longer common.$

Hayden briefly mentioned the art among
the Arikara, whom he visited in 1854:

They also possess the art of melting beads of
different colors, and casting them in moulds of
clay for ornaments, some of which are very hand-
some.”

Denig who was engaged in the fur trade
on the Missouri from 1833 to 1854 reported:

They (the Arikara) also have the art of melting
beads of different colors and casting them in

4 Catlin, 1848, vol. 2, p. 201.
5 Matthews, 1877, p. 22.

6 Maximilian, 1848, p. 348.

7 Hayden, 1862, p. 354.

Aue. 15, 1947

molds of clay for ear and other ornaments of
various shapes, some of which are very ingeni-
ously done. We have seen some in shape and size
as drawn in plate 65, the ground-work blue, the
figure white, the whole about § inch thick and
presenting a uniform glazed surface.®

Denig’s illustration shows one of the
triangular pendants with the inlaid figure
of a woman, simply drawn.

George Bird Grinnell refers to the art as
practiced by the Cheyenne:

Long, long ago, we are told, the Cheyennes
manufactured for themselves what might be
called beads, but perhaps were small charms made
of some vitrified substance—perhaps of pulverized
glass—after the white people were met. Such
beads are said to have been made within two or
three generations. Many of them were fashioned
in the shape of a lizard; that is, a four-legged ob-
ject with a long tail and a small head. The cere-
mony connected with making such objects was
secret, and he who wished to possess one was
obliged to go to some person who himself had been
taught the ceremony, and to ask that person to
teach him how to make one. A payment was made

for the service. It is believed that in old times,

long before the whites came, these beads were
made from the quartz sand found on ant-hills, and
that this was melted in an earthen pot. The
secret of making them now seems to be lost.

In later times they melted the glass, with which
to make the beads, in the ladles used in melting
lead for their bullets. These ornaments or charms
were made in various shapes, often in the form of
a lizard, as said, or flat on one side and round on
the other. Sometimes they had a perforation
through which a string might be passed; at other
times merely a constriction between two ends
about which a string was tied. The mold was

“made of clay.

The first European beads possessed by the
Cheyennes were white, coarse, and imperfect in
finish, but were highly valued. Few of these are
now in existence.°

In another place he states:

On the gently rising land to the west of the
Porcupine village, the Cheyenne are said to have
planted their corn... the village site now stands
onthe farm of Yellow Lodge, a Yankton Sioux
who had been told by the old people that this was
a Cheyenne village. In plowing he often turned up
pottery....He had turned up also glass beads,
which he described as like the charms or beads
which we know the Cheyennes used to manufac-
ture—in later times perhaps from pounded glass
like those said to have been made by the Man-
dan.!° ;

8 Denig, 1930, p. 413 and pl. 65.
® Grinnell, 1924, vol. 1, p. 223.
10 Grinnell, 1918, p. 369.

STIRLING: ARIKARA GLASSWORKING

259

In the early collections of the U. S. Na-
tional Museum there is one of the triangular
pendants, bleached apparently from ex-
posure, bearing the label ‘Sioux stone
charm” (Fig. 1, f). It may well be a speci-
men discovered in this manner by the Sioux.

James Mooney, referring to the period at
the close of the nineteenth century, says in
reference to the Cheyenne:

At least one man among them still understands
the art of making beads and figures from pounded
glass as formerly practised by the Mandan."

As late as 1923, Melvin Gilmore obtained
a brief account of glassworking from two old
Arikara women. He also obtained from
them a stone mortar said to have been used
for the pulverizing of glass for reworking.
When the informants were asked why the
Arikara formerly went to the trouble of
destroying the trader’s beads in order to
make them over, one of the women replied:

The traders of that time brought our people
very large beads, as large as plums, and our people
did not like them. For that reason they pulverized
them, and worked them over into beads no larger
than chokecherries, and also into pendants and
other decorative forms.”

Regarding the process of manufacture
these informants told Gilmore that—

the trader’s beads were first pulverized, the dif-
ferent colored beads separately. Then they pre-
pared a firing pan from the brass rim or binding of
an old musket on which was laid a bed of sand.
The powdered glass was moistened with water;
then with a fine wooden tool this glass paste was
shaped into the forms desired on the prepared
bed of sand. The firing pan was carefully placed
in a hot fire of dry elm wood, this wood being
used because it would burn quietly without
snapping or crackling. When heated to the proper
temperature the glass paste became fused. Per-
forations were kept open by insertion of sand.
When quite cooled after fusing, the beads or other
objects were taken from the sand bed, and the
sand was shaken out of the perforations.“

This account indicates that a reasonably
accurate memory of the art was retained at
a date at least 125 years after its adoption.
The explanation that the trade beads were
too large for the taste of the Indians is prob-
ably incorrect, since the early accounts in-
dicate that the reverse was true.

11 Mooney, 1907, article ‘‘Cheyenne.”’
12 Gilmore, 1924, p. 20.
13 Gilmore, 1924, p. 21.

260

The earliest reference to this subject
known to the writer is that by Pierre
Tabeau, who lived among the Arikara in
1802. Although brief it is of considerable
importance. He says, after discussing the
duties and occupations of women:

A Spanish prisoner taught them how to melt
our glass beads and to mould them into a shape
that pleases them. This art which is as yet un-
known to them is practised only secretly and still
passes for a supernatural talent.

There were three theories (not counting
Catlin’s Welsh theory) of the origin of the
art. Of these, Tabeau’s early statement that
it was learned by the Indians from a Spanish
prisoner seems the most probable. Garreau’s
statement that it came from the Shoshone
seems improbable unless the above-men-
tioned _Spanish*prisoner came among these
Indians from the Pacific coast.

Washington Matthews conjectured that
the art was very old; that it was, in fact, an
aboriginal invention discovered before the
coming of the whites. He based this theory
on the fact that it was highly improbable
that any of the French traders who had
been among the Indians would have had
any knowledge of glassworking, and on
Indian tradition that the art was very old.
He states that the Indians had told him
“with uncertainty” that in former times
they found glass in the hills and pounded it
for their beads.

The Indians might have had reference to
obsidian or more likely the substance Cul-
bertson refers to in his journal on the bad-
lands of Dakota:

I was much surprised to see, running through
different parts of the clay surface, vertical strata
of a singular looking substance something like
melted glass and almost transparent; the strata
are about one-fourth of an inch in thickness and
do not lie in a series of strata, but between each
stratum there are several inches of the clay...
while in many places the surface is covered with
small pieces... . 1°

Another reason Matthews gives for his
theory of the antiquity of the practice is
that—

they used the triangular pendants, not as orna-
ments only, but as evidence of betrothal, as long

4 Abel, 1939, p. 149.
146 Culbertson, 1851, p. 95.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 8

ago as the oldest men can remember. When a

girl was promised in marriage in her infancy by .-

her parents, as was not infrequently done, one of
these pendants was tied to her forelock so as to
hang down over her forehead. When the promise
was fulfilled, the husband removed the pendant
and threw it away.}@

The glasslike substance referred to by
Culbertson was probably calcite. It seems
quite certain that the firing method used by
the Indians would not produce tempera-
tures sufficiently high to fuse calcite,
obsidian, or any other mineral substance
occurring naturally in the region. It would
appear therefore that any aboriginal prac-
tice of glassworking was beyond the
capacities of the Indians.

In the summer of 1923 the writer con-
ducted archeological investigations at the
site of the Arikara village visited in 1804 by
Lewis and Clark. During excavations in the
cemetery of this village a considerable num-
ber of examples of this native glasswork
were recovered. These consisted of beads
of various sizes and flatwork ornaments.
The majority of the beads were of solid,
translucent, turquoise-blue glass, the few
exceptions being either cloudy white or
black. None of these contained inlay decora-
tions. The smaller beads are of an oval
shape with the perforations dispropor-
tionally large and having sharp, rough
edges. Some of these are of excellent work-
manship, while others are very inferior,
being porous and full of impurities. The
latter are dull in color and easily broken.
These beads were all of the same blue color
as the flatwork.

The large beads are of two shapes, el-
lipsoidal and roughly globular. The former
have comparatively small perforations; the
latter, large. The edges of the perforations
are generally filled with bubbles, a charac-
teristic seen also in the flatwork. In the
burials these beads occurred sometimes in
the form of necklaces, sometimes by the
head, as if worn in the hair, and occasionally
they were loose in leather or woven hair
pouches.

The technique employed in the flat
ornaments is exhibited in two shapes,
triangular with rounded points, and circular.

14 Matthews, 1877, p. 21.

= ~ —— ~
SO — —

Se

a a

ee

NS RRR ia OR aL

Aue. 15, 1947 STIRLING: ARIKARA GLASSWORKING 261

The former have a hole at the apex, the the base color is blue and the applied design
latter in the center. The majority are of a is white. The usual design was for the base
solid blue color. Where two colors were used of the triangles to be decorated with hori-

Fic. 2.—Glass beads and ornaments of Indian manufacture: a—f, Flatwork ornaments; 9, h, turquoise-
blue beads; i, 7, black spherical beads; k, 1, white spherical beads. Three-fourths natural size.

262

zontally placed bars and dots (Fig. 1, a,
b, f); the disks with concentric circles (Fig.
1, c). One example of this glass was ground
to an oblong shape. It was unperforated and
gives the impression of imitation turquoise.
All the flatwork is convex on the upper sur-
face and typically has a glossy finish, while
the under surface is dull and perfectly flat.

In one grave a single disk was found by
the head of the burial, and two triangular
ornaments were in position as ear pendants.
In another grave 17 disks and 4 triangles
were found attacbed as ornaments on a
woven buffalo hair bag. These were fastened
in a novel manner. A white bead, small
enough to fit into the hole but large enough
not to pass through, was used as a stay or
key. The bead was threaded through the
hole in the flat piece and thus held tightly
against the woven surface or skin to which
it was attached.

It might be added that quantities of
small trade beads of the same shade of blue
were found with many of the burials and
presumably this was the type of bead
ground up for reworking.

Matthews said:

I had two of the triangular pendants made to
order in 1870, by an Arickaree woman, to whom
I furnished the blue glass necessary. When I gave
instructions to have the articles made, I was

invited to witness the process, but circumstances
prevented me from doing so. One of these

pendants was sent to the Smithsonian Institu- |

tion.!?

The writer located this example in the
collections of the Division of Ethnology in
the U. 8. National Museum, and it is here
figured (Fig. 1, e). Another specimen was
also discovered in the collections labeled as a
“Sioux stone charm.” This has already been
commented upon. These two specimens
differ from the archeological examples in
one important respect. They consist of a
clay core, enameled with glass, whereas the
older examples are of pure glass and are
translucent.

While the ornaments themselves are in-
ferior to the early examples, the workman-
ship in one respect shows an advance. The
use of a clay core results in a considerable
saving of material and also greatly facili-

17 Matthews, 1877, p. 21.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. a7 NO. 8

tates the process of manufacture. Aside
from these two examples, no others except
those found in the above-mentioned ar-
cheological excavations are known to the
writer.

The ornament made for Matthews is a
darker shade of blue than the other ex-
amples. This is probably because the beads
he furnished for the purpose were of a
darker shade than the earlier trade beads
and also because of the opaque nature of the
subject.

The method described by Garreau is what
would be called by modern glassworkers a
Sintering or Fritting process, and it is a
highly skilled craft, especially where the
paraphernalia used is so crude. For the
process to be successful the grading of the
powdered glass must be properly done and
exactly the right amount of moisture added
to the powdered mixture. If too much water
is present, bubbles form or the object falls
apart on heating. Determining the critical
point in the firing as described by Garreau
is the crucial point in the whole process. The
application of heat must be stopped at
precisely the proper moment. If it proceeds
only a brief moment beyond, the object
melts down. If it is stopped too soon the
firing is incomplete. Even modern glaziers
with instruments and temperature controls
to aid them are considered highly skilled
when they can perform this operation suc-
cessfully. :

One essential stage in the process has
been omitted by Garreau. The objects can
not be modeled and fused by the addition of
water alone. Some other binding agency
must be used. Modern glassworkers use gum
arabic or some similar substance, but saliva
will serve the purpose, and it might well be
that this was the method employed by the
Indians.'8 \

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ApgeL, A. H. (editor). Tabeau’s narrative of
Lotsel’s expedition to the Upper Missouri.
Norman, Okla., 1939.

CaTLIN, GeorGE. Illustrations of the manners,
customs and condition of the Nerth Ameri-
can Indians 2. London, 1848.

18 Information furnished by L. B. Clark, Divi-
sion of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian
Institution.

EE

Aue. 15, 1947

CuLBERTSON, T. A. Journal of an expedition
to the Mauvaises Terres and Upper Mis-
sourtin 1850. 5th Ann. Rep. Smithsonian
Institution. 1851.

Denic, E. T. Indian tribes of the Upper Mis-
sourt. 46th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Eth-
nol. 1930.

GitmorE, M. R. Glass bead making by the
Artkara. Indian Notes (Mus. Amer.
Indian, Heye Foundation) 1 (1). 1924.

GRINNELL, GroRGE Birp. Early Cheyenne
villages. Amer. Anthrop., n. s., 20 (A).
1918.

The Cheyenne Indians 1.
1924.

HaypEn, F. V. On the ethnography and phi-
lology of the Indian tribes of the Missouri
Valley. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n. s.,
12 Q). 1862.

New Haven,

CLARKE: AMERICAN MOTHS OF THE GENUS FILATIMA

263

Lewis and CiarK. Original journals. New
York, 1904.

MatTHEws, WASHINGTON. Ethnography and

philology of the Hidatsa Indians. U. S.
Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Mise. Publ. 7.
1877.

MAXIMILIAN, PRINCE OF WIED.
the interior of North America.
1843.

Mooney, Jamus. [Article on Cheyenne.]| In
Handbook of American Indians north of
Mexico. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 30, pt.
ie) 1907.

OrcHAaRD, W. C. Beads and beadwork of the
American Indians. Contr. Mus. Amer.
Indian, Heye Foundation, 11. 1929.

Stiruinc, M. W. Archeological investigations
in South Dakota. Smithsonian Mise. Coll.
76 (10). 1924.

Travels in
London,

ENTOMOLOGY.—Notes on, and new species of, American moths of the genus’

Filatima Busck (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera).

J. F. Gates CiarKkeg, U. 8.

Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.

In this paper I have assigned three spe-
cies, previously unrecognized by Busck? and
not placed in his paper on the restriction of
Gelechia, to Filatuma. A fourth species, re-
ferred to Filatima, is herein transferred, and
12 new species are described.

The drawings for this paper were made
by the author.

Filatima procedes, n. sp.
Figs. 1-1b, 14

Labial palpus shining whitish buff; brush of
second segment suffused with drab and irro-

_rate with fuscous; third segment irrorate with

blackish fuscous. Antenna whitish buff with
blackish-fuscous annulations. Ground color of
head, thorax, and forewing whitish buff, the
scales tipped with cinnamon-buff and some-
what suffused with fuscous, this combination
of color producing a general drab appearance;
in the fold, at basal third, an ill-defined cinna-

_mon-buff spot; discal spots, if present, small

and blackish fuscous; cilia sordid whitish buff
speckled with, blackish fuscous; underside witb
rather conspicuous blackish-fuscous scaling.
Hind wing shining whitish basally shading to
fuscous apically; cilia yellowish fuscous; cur-
tain scaling from underside of costa present in

1 Received February 4, 1947.

* Buscxk, A., Restriction of the genus Gelechia
(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), with descriptions of
new species. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 86: 563-593.
pls. 58-71. 1939.

male. Legs whitish buff irrorate with blackish
fuscous; tibial spurs blackish fuscous out-
wardly. Abdomen with first three segments
yellowish above, remainder fuscous, edged with
whitish buff; beneath whitish buff, irrorate
with blackish fuscous.

Male genitalia——Asymmetrical. Ventral lobe
of left harpe stout with a large, conspicuous,
strongly sclerotized tooth on the inner surface
just before apex, several smaller teeth on the
inner surface, and a large one at the junction of
the ventral and dorsal lobes; dorsal lobe slen-
der, fleshy. Right harpe with ventral lobe
rather slender, smooth; dorsal lobe slender,
fleshy. Gnathos a small hook with a few teeth
on the posteroventral edge. Uncus narrow,
weak. Aedeagus with a large, sharp tooth,
directed forward, on left side, and a thornlike
process posteriorly from the right side.

Female genitalia.—See Fig. 14.

Alar expanse, 18-20 mm.

Type —vU.S.N.M. no. 58257.

Type locality—Presidio, Tex.

Food plant.—Salix exigua Nutt.

Remarks.—Described from the male type,
three male and one female paratypes, all from
the same locality. The moths emerged 22-X-
1943 from larvae collected 17—-IX-1943 by
J. H. Russell. Paratypes in the U. 8. National
Museum and the British Museum.

This species is closely related to F. sali-
ciphaga (Keifer) but averages lighter in color

264

and smaller in size. In the male genitalia of
salicuphaga there is a pronounced ‘‘shoulder”’
from the ventral edge of the ventral lobe of each
harpe which is entirely lacking in procedes, and
the toothlke processes of the aedeagus are
nearly twice as large in saliciphaga as they are
in procedes.

Filatima betulae, n. sp.
Figs. 2—2b, 15
Labial palpus sordid white suffused and
heavily overlaid with fuscous; third segment
almost wholly dark fuscous with a sprinkling
of sordid white scales. Antenna dark fuscous
annulated with gray. Head grayish fuscous, the

scales broadly tipped with dark fuscous.

Thorax and ground color of forewing brown;
narrowly along costa, indistinctly on the veins
and broadly on dorsum overlaid with dark
fuscous-tipped grayish-fuscous scales; at apical
fourth and at tornus an indistinct sordid white
spot faintly indicating a transverse line; cilia
light yellowish fuscous irrorate with blackish
fuscous. Hind wing gray shading to fuscous
around margins; cilia yellowish fuscous with
darker shading at middle; curtain scaling pres-
ent in male. Legs sordid white suffused and
banded with, blackish fuscous.

Male genitalia— Asymmetrical. Ventral lobe
of left harpe half as broad as long, terminating
in three widely separated points; ventral lobe
of right harpe ending in a single point. Gnathos
a short hook with serrate ventroposterior edge.
Aedeagus with prominent lateral point and
one stout, pointed cornutus.

Female genitalia—Ostium broad. Ductus
bursae sclerotized for almost its entire length.
Signum a large 2-pointed plate.

Alar expanse, 19-21 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58250.

Type locality — Melrose Highlands, Mass.

Food plant.—Betula populifolia Marsh.

Remarks.—Described from the male type
and one female paratype (5-VI and 15-VI-
1931). Paratype in the U.S. National Museum.

In genitalia this species is nearest F. roceli-
ella Clarke, but differs from it as follows: Both
harpes of roceliella are nearly symmetrical while
those of betulae are strongly asymmetrical as
shown in the figure.

Filatima golovina, n. sp.
Figs. 3—-3b, 21

Labial palpus white inwardly on second seg-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 8

ment, pale ocherous in the brush and irrorate
with blackish fuscous; third segment white ir-
rorate with blackish fuscous. Antenna blackish
fuscous with indistinct narrow annulations.
Head sordid white, the tips of the scales nar-
rowly edged with fuscous. Tegula fuscous
basally shading to sordid white apically.
Thorax and forewing sordid white, the ground
color nearly obliterated by fuscous and other
markings; from base, inside costa, to and in-
cluding apex, ocherous scaling gradually broad-
ening to include nearly the whole apical third
of wing; a white spot on costa and another on
tornus indicate an obsolete transverse fascia;
discal spots generally ill-defined or absent, but
when present four in number and fuscous (the
females are more conspicuously marked than
the males): cilia gray to grayish fuscous, ir-
rorate with fuscous. Hind wing shining grayish
fuscous basally shading to fuscous around mar-
gins; cilia yellowish fuscous; curtain scaling
from underside of costa present in male. Legs
white, irrorate and banded with blackish
fuscous. Abdomen light fuscous above, the seg-
ments edged with white posteriorly, except
the first three segments which are yellowish;
beneath white broadly edged with fuscous ven-
trolaterally.

Male genitalia — Asymmetrical. Ventral lobe
of left harpe strongly curved and studded with
small teeth on its inner surface and outer edge.
Ventral lobe of right harpe deeply emarginate
on ventral edge. Gnathos a short, stout hook
with three or four teeth on ventroposterior
edge. Aedeagus with a large pointed process
from the left side and a small thornlike cornu-
tus on the right.

Female genitalia—The signum, though of
the usual type for this genus, is unusually small
in this species.

Alar expanse, 18-20 mm.

Type —vU.S.N.M. no. 58258.

Type locality—Palm Springs, Calif.

Remarks.—Described from the male type,
two male and four female paratypes from Cali-
fornia as follows: Palm Springs, type male (2-
V-1921, Karl R. Coolidge) and female (6-V-
1921, Karl R. Coolidge); Dixieland, Imperial
County, two males and three females (15-IV
to 15-V-1922, O. C. Poling). Paratypes in the
U. 8. National Museum and the British
Museum.

The pattern of this species is similar to that
of sperryt, but golovina is much lighter in colora-

|
Aue. 15, 1947 CLARKE: AMERICAN MOTHS OF THE GENUS FILATIMA 265

3.golovina
| Ma.ue GENITALIA

Fies. 1-1b.—Filatima procedes, n. sp.: 1, Ventral view of aedeagus; la, inner surface of left harpe;
|| 1b, outer surface of right harpe.
| Fres. 2-2b.—Filatima betulae, n. sp.: 2, Ventral view of aedeagus; 2a, inner surface of left harpe;
2b, outer surface of right harpe.
| Fies. 3-3b.—Filatima golovina, n. sp.: 3, Lateral view of aedeagus to show spinous process; 3a, in-
_ ner surface of left harpe; 3b, outer surface of right harpe.

266

tion. The two can be distinguished easily by
their genitalia.

Filatima tridentata, n. sp.
Figs. 9-9b, 19

Labial palpus ocherous-white suffused and
overlaid with fuscous; third segment lightly
and finely irrorate with fuscous but lacking
annuli. Antenna fuscous with ill-defined lighter
annulations. Head, thorax, and forewing yel-
lowish brown; many of the scales of the head
and thorax, and a few of the forewing, narrowly
tipped with fuscous; basal angle with a con-
spicuous, oblique black dash; at the end of cell
a poorly defined blackish fuscous spot with a
scattering of yellowish scales irregularly placed
around it; in cell, at basal two-fifths a smaller,
similarly colored spot; at apical fourth on costa,
a narrow, but distinct, pale spot indicating
the position of an obsolete transverse fascia;
around apex and termen an indistinct row of
small blackish fuscous spots; cilia pale yellow-
ish fuscous irrorate with fuscous. Hind wing
grayish fuscous basally shading to dark fuscous
around the margins; cilia pale yellowish fuscous
with a faint, narrow, fuscous subbasal band;
curtain scaling present from underside of costa
of male. Legs ocherous-white marked and an-
nulated with blackish fuscous. Abdomen light
yellowish fuscous overlaid with black beneath.

Male genitalia——Almost symmetrical. Ven-
tral lobe of the left harpe slightly broader than
the corresponding lobe of the right harpe;
dorsal and ventral lobes of both harpes of about
equal length, approximately one-half the length
of the tegumen. Aedeagus with a long, narrow
three-pointed plate on right side and a spinous
process, turned dorsad, near base on left side.
Gnathos a short hook with serrate ventropos-
terior edge.

Female genitalia.—Ostium broad, opening
into the wide ductus bursae; ductus bursae
sclerotized for about half its length posteriorly
and studded with numerous fine spines and
minute scobinations. Bursa copulatrix with a
very wide two-pointed signum; ductus semi-
nalis from a small posteroventral evagination
of the bursa copulatrix.

Alar expanse, 20-23 mm.

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 58249.

Type locality —Snow Creek, Riverside Coun-
ty, Calif.

Food plant‘ Willow.”

Remarks.—Described from the male type

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VOL. 37, No. 8

and two female paratypes, all reared by
Commander C. M. Dammers. The emergence
dates are: Male type, 21-X, and female, 21-X-
1933 (Snow Creek), and female, 26-IX-1938
(Riverside). Paratypes in the U. S. National
Museum.

This species belongs in the serotinella-abac-
tella group and probably is more nearly re-
lated to abactella. The yellowish-brown fore-
wing will distinguish tridentata from the other
species of the group.

Filatima shastella (Gaede), n. comb.

Gelechia albifemorella Clarke (not Hoffmann),
Can. Ent. 64: 65, pl. 2, fig. 6, pl. 3, fig. 5. 1932.
—McDunnough, Check list of the Lepidoptera
of Canada and the United States of America
(part 2, Microlepidoptera). No. 8123. 1939.

Gelechia shastella Gaede, in Bryk, Lepidopterorum
Catalogus, pt. 79: 212. 1937.

Filatuma clarkella Busck, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus.
86: 576. 1939. (New synonymy.)

When I described this species I was unaware
of the previous use of the name albifemorella by
Hoffmann (Ent. Zeit. Stettin 28: 204. 1867),
and thus created a primary homonym. Busck
brought this to my attention several years later,
proposed the new name clarkella, and assigned
the species to Filatuma where it belongs. At
that time (1939) Busck had not seen part 79 of
the Lepidopterorum Catalogus in which Gaede
proposed the name shastella for albifemorella
Clarke. Thus Busck’s name falls as a synonym
of shastella.

Filatima prognosticata (Braun), n. comb.

Gelechia prognosticata Braun, Trans. Amer. Ent.
Soe. 51: 195. 1925.—_Busek,) Proewets) 5 Nat:
Mus. 86: 589. 1939.—McDunnough, Check
list of the Lepidoptera of Canada and the
United States of America (part 2, Micro-
lepidoptera), No. 8119. 1939.

Dr. Annette F. Braun has compared the type _
of her species with vaniae (described below)
and confirmed the close relationship of the two.
I hereby assign prognosticata to Filatuma.

Filatima vaniae, n. sp.
Figs. 4-4b, 17
Labial palpus white inwardly, suffused and
irrorate with fuscous in brush and exteriorly
on second segment; third segment almost en-
tirely overlaid with blackish fuscous. Antenna
fuscous with poorly defined lighter annulations.
Head pale gray, the scales tipped with fuscous.
Thorax and forewing very pale gray to whitish,

Ava. 15, 1947 CLARKE: AMERICAN MOTHS OF THE GENUS FILATIMA 267

6. sperryi

MALE GENITALIA

Fies. 4—4b.—Filatima vaniae, n. sp.: 4, Ventral view of aedeagus; 4a, inner surface of left harpe;
Ab, outer surface of right harpe.

Fies. 5-5b.—Filatima perpensa, n. sp.: 5, Ventral view of aedeagus; 5a, inner surface of left harpe;
5b, outer surface of right harpe.

Fies. 6—6c.—Filatima sperryi, n. sp.: 6, Ventral view of aedeagus; 6a, inner surface of left harpe;
6b, outer surface of right harpe; 6c, ventrolateral aspect of uncus showing lateral rods.

268

the scales tipped with fuscous; from base to
apex, in the costal third, is an ochraceous-

tawny shade, the extent of which varies indi- —

vidually; at apical fourth is an ill-defined
whitish transverse fascia; in the fold a dark
fuscous, elongate dash is edged with tawny
scales; discal spot at end of cell fuscous, small;
remaining spots obsolete, or when present in-
distinct, fuscous; cilia pale fuscous irrorate with
darker fuscous. Hind wing light grayish fuscous
narrowly edged with dark fuscous; cilia pale
fuscous; curtain scaling from the underside of
costa present in male. Legs white, densely
dusted and banded with blackish fuscous. Ab-
domen with first three segments yellowish
above, remainder light fuscous edged poste-
riorly with sordid white; beneath white dusted
and suffused with dark fuscous.

Male genitalia—Asymmetrical. Left harpe
with ventral lobe nearly twice the size of the
corresponding member of the right harpe.
Gnathos a long curved hook. Aedeagus with a
serrate carinate process on the left side and an
elongate plate with two small thornlike teeth
on the right side.

Female genitalia.—See Fig. 17.

Alar expanse, 15-18 mm.

Type-—U.S.N.M. no. 58255.

Type locality — Murray, Utah.

Food plant.—Ribes sp.

Remarks.—Described from the male type,
one male and five female paratypes all from the
type locality. The moths were reared from lar-
vae on Ribes collected by P. H. Timberlake.
The emergence dates are from July 1 to July 12,
1913. Paratypes in the U.S. National Museum,
the British Museum, and in the collection of
Dr. Annette F. Braun, Cincinnati, Ohio.

This species is close to prognosticata Braun,
and the larvae feed on the same food plant. Dr.
Braun has been kind enough to compare
vaniae with her species and has written me as
follows: “In prognosticata the scales dorsad of
the fringe on the lower side of the hind wing of
the male, are much longer than in your speci-
men, with the scales overlapping; this differ-
ence is most noticeable between veins lc and 2.
Your specimen has these scales short and not
overlapping. Otherwise the specimens, as to
wing markings and palpi, are identical, except
that yours are smaller and paler. The scaling
of the hind wing of yours is more like that of
canthuris Meyrick than it is like prognosticata.

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VOL. 37, NO. 8

It would appear that they are distinct, in spite
of the same food plant.”

F, prognosticata averages considerably larger
than vaniae, the largest specimen of the latter
just attaining the size of the smallest specimen
of the former.

Filatima perpensa, n. sp.
Figs. 5—5b

Labial palpus sordid white, mottled, and
overlaid with blackish fuscous. Antenna black-
ish fuscous. Head varying from grayish to light
fuscous, the scales tipped with dark fuscous.
Thorax and forewing fuscous, streaked and
overlaid with brownish-ocherous scales; tegula ~
tipped with brownish ocherous; basal angle
marked with a black dash, but this obsolete
in some specimens; on anal vein at basal third,
slightly above this in cell and at end of cell,
small blackish fuscous spots; the one at the
end of cell frequently in the form of a short,
outwardly oblique, broad dash and all of the
spots obsolete in some specimens; at apical
fourth an ill-defined pale costal spot indicates
an obsolete transverse line; cilia pale fuscous
irrorate with fuscous. Hind wing dark fuscous;
cilia pale fuscous; curtain scaling on underside
present in male. Legs blackish fuscous annu-
lated and banded with pale yellowish fuscous.
Abdomen blackish fuscous with a broad, sordid
ocherous white, longitudinal median area.

Male genitalia—Asymmetrical. Ventral lobe
of left harpe broader than the corresponding
member of the right harpe and studded with
short, sharp teeth on its inner surface. Aedea-
gus with a serrate carinate process on the left
side and two strong thornlike cornuti on the
right side.

Alar expanse, 18-22 mm.

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 58248.

Type locality—The Geysers, Sonoma Coun-
ty @alit. 3

Remarks.—Described from the male type
(21-VI-1938) and 14 male paratypes from |
California as follows: Male, The Geysers,
Sonoma County (21-VI-1938); 7 males, Pin-
nacles, San Benito County (May and June
dates); male, Beaumont (21-VII-1935); 2
males, Las Lomas Ranch, Sonoma County
(30-V-1936); male, Hawthorne (13-VI-1937);
male, Palm Springs (10-VI-1937); male, Glen
Ellen (10-VII-36). All were collected by E. C.
Jobnston.

Auge. 15, 1947 CLARKE: AMERICAN MOTHS OF THE GENUS FILATIMA 269

SR ‘

=
Ze
aa

8. platyoch ra

A

tata

9. tride

Mae GENITALIA
Figs. 7-7b.—Filatima obidenna, n. sp.: 7, ventral view of aedeagus; 7a, inner surface of left harpe;
7b, outer surface of right harpe.

Fies. 8-8b.—Filatima platyochra, n. sp.: 8, Ventral view of aedeagus; 8a, inner surface of left
harpe; 8b, outer surface of right harpe.

Figs. 9-9b.—Filatima tridentata, n. sp.: 9, Ventral view of aedeagus; 9a, inner surface of left harpe;
9b, outer surface of right harpe.

270

Paratypes in the U. S. National Museum,
the British Museum, and the E. C. Johnston
collection.

The variability of this species tte it dif-
ficult to separate on superficial characters, but
the spinose inner surface of the left harpe dis-
tinguishes it from any other described Filatuma
except golovina. A comparison of Figs. 3 and 5
shows clearly the differences between golovina
and perpensa.

The nearest relatives are F. serotinella
(Busck) and F. gilvomaculella (Clem.), but the
ventral edge of the ventral lobe of the left
harpe of these two is serrate, a character not
found in perpensa.

Filatima sperryi, n. sp.
Figs. 6—6¢

Labial palpus sordid white so heavily over-
laid with dull black as to obscure the ground
color; apex of second segment narrowly edged
with sordid white. Antenna blackish fuscous
with indistinct, narrow, lighter annulations.
Head and thorax cinerous, the scales broadly
tipped with dark fuscous; face sordid white.
Forewing with extreme costal edge, a narrow
line around apex and termen and a broad,
elongate area from base of wing to tornus,
blackish fuscous; remainder of wing buckthorn
brown; on costa and tornus a small whitish
spot indicating the position of an obsolete
transverse fascia; discal spots absent; in some
specimens is a dusting of dark fuscous scaling
in the light apical portion of the wing; cilia
grayish fuscous with blackish fuscous irrora-
tions. Hind wing pale fuscous basally shading
to fuscous apically; cilia pale fuscous with ill-
defined, darker, narrow bands; curtain scaling
from underside of costa present in male. Legs
shining creamy white overlaid and banded with
blackish fuscous. Abdomen fuscous above, the
segments edged with whitish posteriorly;
creamy white below with fuscous laterally.

Male genitalia—Asymmetrical. Left harpe
with a very broad ventral lobe, the ventral edge
of which is rugose; dorsal lobe slender, weak,
dilated distally. Right harpe with ventral lobe
triangular and with a carinate process from
base; dorsal lobe slender, weak. Gnathos a long,
slender hook. Uncus with narrow, flattened,
lateral, sclerotized processes projecting beyond
distal end. Aedeagus with long sawlike process
on left side and an elongate, narrow sclerotized

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VOL. 37, NO. 8

plate with two teeth (occasionally one by ob-
solescence), one at each end.

Alar expanse, 18-21 mm.

Type—U.S.N.M. no. 58251.

Type locality — Barton Flats,? Calif.

Remorks.—Described from the male type
and three male paratypes as follows: Califor-
nia: Barton Flats (4-VIII-1945, A. L. Me-
lander); Nevada: White Mountains (10-VIII-
1937, A. Little); Utah: Eureka (16-VII-1911
and 28-VII-1911, Tom Spalding). Paratypes
in the U. 8. National Museum, the British
Museum, and in the collection of John L. and
Grace H. Sperry (Nevada specimen) of River-
side, Calif.

I take pleasure in naming this species for my
friend John L. Sperry, from whom the type
and the Nevada specimen were received. Mr.
Sperry has contributed consistently and greatly
to our knowledge of western Lepidoptera.

Filatima vaccinil, n. sp.
Figs. 12—12b, 20

Labial palpus white inwardly on second seg-
ment, suffused and heavily overlaid with dark
gray and blackish fuscous in the brush and out-
wardly; third segment with only a fine line of
white visible on the inner side. Antenna fuscous
with pale grayish annulations. Head, thorax,
and forewing gray, each scale tipped with
fuscous, the moth appearing gray; four small
spots on fold and in the cell fuscous if present,
but only faintly indicated in one specimen; at
apical fourth, from costa to tornus, an ill-de-
fined narrow, outwardly convex transverse
fascia; cilia gray irrorate with fuscous. Hind
wing fuscous with a brassy hue, darker apically
than basally; cilia light fuscous; curtain scaling
from underside of costa present in male. Legs
shining white, overlaid, and banded with
blackish fuscous.

Male genitalia—Asymmetrical. Left harpe
with large concavity on inner surface near
junction of ventral and dorsal lobes. Ventral
lobe of right harpe narrow, triangular, smooth.
Gnathos a large hook, abruptly curved distally.
Aedeagus with dentate carinate process on left
side and elongate, sclerotized plate with one
thornlike process distally on right side.

Female genitalia—sSee Fig. 20.

3 The exact location of Barton Flats is not clear,
but presumably it refers to the locality in Fresno
County, near Fresno.

Ava. 15, 1947 CLARKE: AMERICAN MOTHS OF THE GENUS FILATIMA 271

\\
10.virgea

12. vaccinii 15. betulae

MALE AND FEMALE GENITALIA

Fires. 10-10b.—Filatima virgea, n. sp.: 10, Ventral view of aedeagus; 10a, inner surface of left harpe;
10b, outer surface of right harpe.

Fies. 11-11b.—Filatima spinigera, n. sp.: 11, Ventral view of aedeagus; lla, inner surface of left
harpe; 11b, outer surface of right harpe.

Fies. 12-12b.—Filatima vaccinit, n. sp.: 12, Ventral view of aedeagus; 12a, inner surface of left
harpe; 12b, outer surface of right harpe.

Fig. 13.—Filatima virgea, n. sp.: Female genitalia, ventral view.

Fig. 14.—Filatima precedes, n. sp.: Female genitalia, ventral view.

Fig. 15.—Filatima betulae, n. sp.: Female genitalia, ventral view.

272

Alar expanse, 16-18 mm.

Type—vU.S.N.M. no. 58254.

Type locality —Toms River, N. J.

Food plant-—Vaccinium vacillans Solander.

Remarks.—Described from the male type,
one male and one female paratypes all from the
same locality. The moths emerged 30-VI-1923
from larvae collected by H. B. Scammell. Para-
types in the U. 8. National Museum.

Filatima platyochra, n. sp.
Figs. 8-8b, 16

Labial palpus white with slight fuscous dust-
ing exteriorly on the second segment and more
profuse dusting on the third segment. Antenna
fuscous with paler annulations. Head, thorax,
and ground color of forewing sordid white
heavily overlaid with drab; face, and a spot
on each side of the thorax posterolaterally,
white; on costa and tornus white spots indicate
an obsolete transverse line at apical fourth; a
dash in fold, about middle, and discal spots at
center and end of cell, sepia, broadly edged with
white; along costa and following veins some
brownish ocherous scales; cilia gray to pale
fuscous irrorate with fuscous. Hind wing pale
shining gray basally shading to fuscous around
the margins; cilia pale fuscous with two darker
bands faintly indicated; curtain scaling from
underside of costa present in male. Legs white
lightly dusted with fuscous; tarsi banded with
fuscous. Abdomen white except for dorsal sur-
faces of first three segments, which are yellow-
ish, and narrow fuscous shading ventrolat-
erally the entire length of the abdomen.

Male genitalia—Asymmetrical. Left harpe
divided into three fingerlike parts. Right
harpe divided into three parts, the ventral one
of which is the shorter and the dorsal arm the
longer. Gnathos a short stout hook with serrate
posteroventral edge. Aedeagus with a serrate
edge, bearing three teeth, on the left and a
sclerotized plate on the right having a thornlike
tooth distally and broad, divided process proxi-
mally.

Female genitalia—See Fig. 16.

Alar expanse, 17-18 mm.

Type.-—U.S.N.M. no. 58256.

Type locality —Dixieland, Imperial County,
Calif.

Remarks.—Described from the male type
and two female paratypes, all from the type
locality. These were collected April 15-30, 1922

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VOL. 37, NO. 8

(type and one paratype), and May 1-15, 1922
(one paratype), by O. C. Poling. Paratypes in
the U. S. National Museum.

I know of no other described Filatima with
male genitalia comparable to those of platy-
ochra.

Filatima frugalis (Braun), n. comb.

Gelechia frugalis Braun, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. |
51: 194. 1925.-—Busck, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.
86: 589. 1939.—McDunnough, Check list of
the Lepidoptera of Canada and the United
States of America (part 2, Microlepidoptera),
No. 8118. 1939.

Busck did not assign this species to its proper
genus when he restricted the use of Gelechia.
Dr. Braun has written, “The ‘curtain scaling’
is presentin frugalis . .. ,” and for this reason I
assign it to Filatuma. I have not studied the
genitalia of frugalis and, therefore, cannot place
it in its proper relationship to other members of
the genus.

Filatima virgea, n. sp.
Figs. 10-10b, 13

Labial palpus gray inwardly on the second
segment, sooty black in the brush and ex-
teriorly; apex of the second segment white;
third segment cinereous heavily overlaid with
sooty black. Antenna blackish fuscous with in-
distinct gray annulations. Head, thorax, and
forewing cinereous, the scales tipped with dark
gray; along costa are scattered white scales;
at apical fourth an ill-defined white fascia ex-
tends to tornus; in the cell, from middle of the
wing to the end of cell, a conspicuous black
dash turns at the end of cell and extends
broadly, but less distinctly to tornus just inside
the termination of the white fascia; from the
outer end of the black dash an elongate patch
of hght sayal brown extends across the white
transverse. fascia; along costa and in fold are
narrow, indistinct streaks of sayal brown; apex
of wing purplish fuscous; cilia dark cinereous,
irrorate with black. Hind wing gray basally
shading to dark fuscous apically; cilia light
fuscous; curtain scaling from the underside of |
costa, present in male. Legs creamy white
strongly overlaid with sooty black. Abdomen
above with first three segments sordid yellow-
ish, remainder light fuscous; beneath creamy
white irrorate and edged laterally with sooty
black.

Male genitalia.—Almost symmetrical. Harpes

Aue. 15, 1947 CLARKE: AMERICAN MOTHS OF THE GENUS FILATIMA 273

17. vaniae

19. tridentata 20. vaccinii 21. golovina

Figs. 16—-21.—Female genitalia, ventral aspect, of: 16, Filatima platyochra, n. sp.; 17, Filatima vaniae,
n. sp.; 18, Filatema obidenna, n. sp.; 19, Filatima tridentata, n. sp.; 20, Filatema vaccinii, n. sp.; 21.
Filatima golovina, n. sp.

274

broad basally abruptly narrowed into a slender
ventral lobe and a tenuis dorsal member. Un-
cus dilated posterodorsally and with a thin
hood extending well forward over the tegumen.
Gnathos a moderately stout hook with a few
small teeth on the posteroventral edge.
Aedeagus rather atypical with a peculiar slen-
der extension from right side near middle (see
Figs. 10-10b).

Female genitalia——Normal for group except
the signum has only one long curved, thornlike
process instead of two.

Alar expanse, 15-18 mm.

Type—U.S.N.M. no. 58258.

Type locality.—Presidio, Tex.

Food plant—Acacia vernicosa Standl.

Remarks.—Described from the male type,
one male and five female paratypes all from the
type locality. All specimens bear the date 8-XI-
1944 (emergence date ?) and were reared from
larvae collected by J. H. Russell. Paratypes in
the U. 8. National Museum and the British
Museum.

Filatima spinigera, n. sp.
Figs. 11-11b

Labial palpus creamy white; second segment
narrowly pale fuscous exteriorly at base; third
segment lightly and minutely irrorate with pale
fuscous. Antenna fuscous. Head creamy white.
Thorax and forewing sordid white to cinereous
variously irrorate and marked with fuscous;
costa, to apical third rather strongly, but nar-
rowly, overlaid with fuscous; at apical third a
poorly defined white spot is preceded by a
small, fuscous blotch; around apex and along
termen a row of indistinct, small fuscous spots
is terminated, slightly before tornus, by an ill-
defined, fuscous, outwardly oblique dash con-
fluent with the discal spot at end of cell; in
center of cell a small fuscous spot; both discal
cell spots preceded and followed by light yellow-
ish brown scales; cilia light yellowish fuscous
irrorate with fuscous. Hind wing shining silvery
white; cilia light yellowish fuscous; curtain
scaling from underside of costa of male absent.
Legs creamy white overlaid with fuscous. Ab-
domen sordid white lightly marked with fus-
cous beneath; anal tuft shining white.

Male genitalia—Symmetrical. Dorsal lobe
of harpe slender, short, tapering to a point and
scarcely exceeding in length the thick fleshy
ventral lobe. Aedeagus consisting of four

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VOL. 37, NO. 8

stout, thornlike processes arising from a com-
mon base. Gnathos a short stout hook.

Alar expanse, 20-22 mm.

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 58247.

Type locality—Mojave Desert, near Llano,
Calif.

- Remarks.—Described from the male type
and seven male paratypes from California as
follows: Three paratypes from the type locality
(4-IV-1938, Dr. John A. Comstock); one, La
Puerta Valley (March 1); one, Dixieland, Im-
perial County (March 1-15, 1922, O. C.
Poling); one, Essex (12-IV-1938) and one,
Riverside (8-III-1934). The last two were col-
lected by Grace H. and John L. Sperry.

Paratypes in the U. 8. National Museum,
the Los Angeles Museum, the British Museum,
and in the collection of Grace H. and John L.
Sperry, Riverside, Calif.

In the species group of the genus, to which
spinigera belongs, are two other species,
namely, fF. natalis (Heinrich) and F. ingu-
linella (Busck). F. spinigera is nearest to
natalis but can be distinguished from it by the
short slender dorsal lobe of the harpe.

Filatima obidenna, n. sp.
Figs. 7—7b, 18

Labial palpus chalky white with blackish
fuscous in the brush and completely overlaid
with the same color exteriorly; third segment
profusely irrorate with blackish fuscous. Head
and thorax cinereous, the scales tipped with
fuscous; face sordid white. Ground color of fore-
wing dark fuscous; costal fourth of wing, from
base to apical fourth, white with fuscous ir-
rorations; extreme base of costa and two or
three small spots within the white area near
base, black; at basal fifth and middle the
white costal color projects obliquely and
transversely as incomplete fasciae to or slight-
ly beyond fold; at apical fourth the white
color extends across the wing totornus as
an ill-defined transverse fascia; along the inner
margin of the white costal area is irregular
longitudinal olivaceous scaling; cilia pale
fuscous with fuscous irrorations. Hind wing
pale shining grayish fuscous basally shading
to fuscous apically; cilia pale fuscous, darker
apically; curtain scaling from underside
of costa absent. Legs creamy white overlaid
and banded with fuscous. Abdomen with first
three segments yellowish above, remainder sor-

Aue. 15, 1947 GINSBURG: AMERICAN SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF BATHYGOBIUS

did whitish somewhat infuscated; beneath
fuscous with a narrow irregular white central
area.

Male genitalia—Almost symmetrical. Ven-
tral lobes of both harpes greatly reduced, dor-
sal members slender, pointed. Gnathos a long,
slender curved process. Uncus slender, divided
apically. Aedeagus with strongly sclerotized,
spinous processes on the left side, and one
thornlike process on the right side.

Female genitalia—Signum with a single long

dentate process.

Alar expanse, 17-20 mm.

Type.—vU.S.N.M. no. 58252.

Type locality—Paradise, Cochise County,
Ariz.

Remarks.—Described from the male type,
three male and four female paratypes from
Arizona as follows: Paradise, Cochise County,

275

four males, two females (April 1-7; no year or
collector); Redington, two females (no further
data). Paratypes in the U.S. National Museum
and the British Museum.

Of the species described in this paper obiden-
na is nearest to virgea, but is probably more
nearly related to albicostella Clarke.

Fascista bimaculella (Chambers), n. comb.

Gelechia bimaculella Chambers, Can. Ent. 4:
108. 1872.

Gelechia (? Lita) ternariella Zeller, Verh. zool.-
bot. Ges. Wien 23: 264. 1873.

Gelechia sylvaecolella Chambers, U. 8S. Geol.
Geogr. Surv. Terr. Bull. 4: 86. 1878.

Filatuma bimaculella (Chambers) Busck, Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 86: 576. 1939.

Busck referred this species to Filatima, but
a study of the genitalia reveals that bimaculella
should be assigned to Fascista.

ICHTHYOLOGY .—American species and subspecies of Bathygobius, with a

demonstration of a suggested modified system of nomenclature.'

Isaac GINs-

BURG, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. (Communicated by EuMrer Hiaerns.)

The chief aim of this paper is to charac-
terize briefly the American species and sub-
species of fishes belonging to the genus
Bathygobius and formally establish the
names for these categories. The conclusions
here epitomized are based on a detailed
study of samples of the American popula-
tions? comprising, in the aggregate, over
800 specimens. The data have been tabu-
lated, and of the characters studied the
main ones of those that have proved perti-
nent to a taxonomic division of the popula-
tions are here employed. Some of the most
important characters here used were, either
altogether or partly, not taken into ac-
count by previous authors. Characters de-
termined in this study which proved to be
of secondary importance, and size and sex
differences in proportional measurements
(which are sometimes considerable), are
generally omitted in this preliminary, con-
densed account. The populations of Bathy-
gobius are here classified in accordance with

1 Received February 14, 1947.

* The term “population” is used throughout
this paper in the sense previously defined by me
(Copeia 1937 (3): 185). That is, it is a general

convenient term used to cover any natural group
of individuals of species rank or lower.

what seems to be the proper interpretation
of the totality of my voluminous data. The
names of the taxonomic categories here es-
tablished will prove to be of much help in
the further study of the populations, by the
proper labeling of the considerable amount
of permanently preserved museum material
that has been studied, and their use in dis-
cussion and correspondence.

Bathygobius is in an early stage of specia-
tion at the present time level. The diver-
gence of the species is of a low degree of
magnitude in general. The divergence of
some of the closely related and immediately
contrasting populations is near the border-
line between species and subspecies, and
they may be designated either as full species
or as subspecies, depending on a subjective
estimate made by a given author. Further-
more, the species and subspecies are more
or less heterogeneous, sometimes markedly
so. Every minor local population shows its
distinctive frequency distribution in one or
more characters. The divergences of the
local populations are of different degrees of
magnitude and it is difficult to draw a line
between the subspecies and the next lower
categories. As a consequence, the proper

276

taxonomic treatment of Bathygobius, the
distinction of the populations and their
division into species and the minor intra-
specific categories, is difficult. On the other
hand, an intensive study of progressive
stages in the differentiation and ramifica-
tion of natural populations, which Bathy-
gobius affords, from the almost initial to
moderately advanced stages, should be of
help in throwing light on the species prob-
lem and in the speculative contemplation
of evolution, more so than the study of
speciation in genera in which the species are
easily distinguishable.

Bathygobius does not differ from other
genera of gobies in showing any special kind
of speciation. In other genera, also, it is
often found that a section containing two
or more species is in an early stage of specia-
tion, and such species, like the species of
Bathygobius, are difficult to distinguish.
Bathygobius is exceptional in that all the
. species, at least the American species, are
in an early stage of speciation.

The taxonomic treatment of Bathygobius
hitherto presented by authors is inadequate,
evidently because of the state of speciation
existing in this genus and the difficulty of
distinguishing the species. The usual de-
scriptive methods used in taxonomic rou-
tine are of but little avail for an under-
standing of the state of speciation in Bathy-
gobius. A proper study of variability, by the
determination and constructive marshaling
of mass numerical data, is indispensable.

There is no general agreement among
taxonomists in the treatment of the genus.
Without going into a detailed review of the
literature, I may state that recently most
authors recognize two species on the At-
lantic and Pacific coasts of North and
South America, including the West Indies,
namely, one species, curagao, confined to
the western Atlantic and comparatively
not common, and another species, soporator,
common to abundant, and widely distrib-
uted on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.
However, curacao is not recognized by all
authors. Furthermore, some authors treat
the common American populations which
are designated soporator by most other
authors, as belonging to one supposedly
circumglobal species, Bathygobius fuscus.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 8

My detailed study of the genus shows that
existing published ideas regarding species
distinction in Bathygobius are either unten-
able or represent only a small part of the
story, as the following pages will unfold.

As a result of this study four names that
have generally been placed in the synonymy
because the original authors failed to elab-
orate the real distinguishing characters of
their species, namely, arundeliz, catulus,
lineatus, and andrei, are resurrected and
applied to their respective populations.

In this preliminary paper it is possible
to give only a very sketchy, skeletonized.
outline of the richness and diversity of dif-
ferentiation among the American popula-
tions of Bathygobius. Moreover, a complete
study of the genus should include also the
numerous populations from Oceania, the
eastern Atlantic, the Red Sea, etc. But sam-
ples of these extralimital populations are
not well represented in American museums.

The given length of specimens refers to
the total length, including the caudal fin.
Figures for measurements refer to percent-
ages of the standard length. They are ab-
stracted from my manuscript tables and
are given to the nearest whole or half num-
ber as in those tables. Except as otherwise
indicated, measurements, including the
mode where stated, are based on the com-
bined data, irrespective of size and sex.
When the measurements are segregated by
size and sex (as in the manuscript tables),
the averages, the ranges or the modes differ
by these groupings in most cases; but these
details are omitted for the present.

Incidental to the chief aim, as stated
above, a secondary object of this paper is to
demonstrate the use of a modification in the
conventional system of zoological nomen-
clature, for species and their subdivisions,
where such subdivision is taken cognizance
of by the formal establishment of scientific
names. This modification has been proposed
by me in a previous publication (Zoologica
23: 282-284. 1938). The present paper dem-
onstrates how the proposed modification
works in actual practice. The main headings |
for the subspecies are trinomials in compli-
ance with the international code. The pro-
posed modification is used as subheadings
and in the discussions.

Aua. 15, 1947 GINSBURG: AMERICAN SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF BATHYGOBIUS

Discontent with the conventional system
of nomenclature, or widespread current
usage, especially for categories below that of
species, has been evinced by biologists. This
discontent rests on a more fundamental
basis than the mere desire for change. Ideas
referring to the basic species concept have
been undergoing developmental changes,
which have been especially rapid in recent

years. The inevitable next step then, in dis-

cussing species, was to seek for a modifica-
tion in zoological nomenclature which, in
part, constitutes the language that expresses
our ideas of the species concept. That is to
say, there is a desire for a change in lan-
guage in order to express more nearly our
changed ideas.

Another cause of dissatisfaction is the use
of quadrinomials, which in itself is a modifi-
cation or extension of the existing interna-
tional code. Quadrinomials smack too much
of the pre-Linnaean polynomial system, in
form though not in theory. Moreover, nat-
ural populations of species rank and lower,
form, in miniature, a hierarchy of categories
with a gradually decreasing magnitude of
divergence, and there is no inherent reason
to stop at quadrinomials. Some authors
might propose to use quinquenomials or
even sexinomials.

Still another urge for change is motivated
by the desire for simplicity in nomenclature.

It is not my aim to give a comprehensive

review and discussion of the various pro-

posals that have been made for the modifi-
cation of zoological nomenclature. A view
that seems to have a considerable number
of adherents has been expressed by Profes-
sor Needham (Science 71: 26-28. 1930),
namely, that if a population has reached a
sufficient degree of divergence, as compared
with immediately related populations, to be
worth naming at all a binomial designation
is enough. Reference to this proposition is
also made by Professor Cole (Science 93:
317. 1941). According to this view a name
is primarily a handle, a convenient tool for
its use in research and discussion of a given
entity, which, after all, is the chief function
of aname. Asa tool, simplicity in nomencla-
ture is desirable.

An argument often introduced for the use
of trinomials and quadrinomials is that they

277

also show relationship. However, it is not

the function of nomenclature to show rela-
tionship. The system of nomenclature now
in use does not show relationship at the
species level and above (except in showing
the generic affiliation of the species); it is
not possible to devise a simple system that
will do so. Moreover, the indication of rela-
tionship by a trinomial is limited; it does
not show the relationship of the subspecies,
of any one species, to one another. This ar-
gument also is not altogether applicable to
borderline populations. A given borderline
population may be treated by one author as
a subspecies with the use of a trinomial and
an indication, in a limited way, of relation-
ship; while another author may treat the
same population as a full species with the
use of a binomial and no indication of re-
lationship. Yet both hypothetical authors
treat of the same entity. (It is safe to pre-
dict that the number of borderline cases
will increase as taxonomists determine
more and more the variability and morpho-
logic ranges of the species they now recog-
nize.) Also, suppose two of the intraspecific
populations of a given species are near the
borderline between subspecies and the next
lower category (which I proposed to call
‘“‘race’”’ in the 1938 paper cited above). One
author then may treat them as subspecies
and use a trinomial without an indication of
their near relationship, as compared with
the other coordinate subspecies; while an-
other author may treat them as races and
use quadrinomials which would show their
close relationship. (Theoretically, the same
reasoning applies to quadrinomials and the
next lower step in the hierarchy.) Finally,
ideas of relationship change with increased
knowledge, while nomenclature, to fulfill
efficiently its chief function as a tool, should
be fixed. To tie up nomenclature with ideas
of relationship current for a time, as it is
done by the use of trinomials, will lead,
perhaps often, to changes of combinations
of names.

The modification proposed by me and
here demonstrated constitutes a sort of a
synthesis of the method in current use and
the view stated above which holds that all
names should be binomial. The names used
in my modification are universally binomial,

278

and when a species is formally split up into
subspecies, a numeral subscript is added to
indicate the taxonomic category of the pop-
ulation named. It is reasonable to expect
that some changes in the prevailing system
of zoological nomenclature will be gradually
evolved and generally adopted some day.
My suggested modification is here intro-
duced, because Bathygobius constitutes a
favorable example to demonstrate it. The
suggested modification is presented for the
consideration of biologists and to obtain
their reaction. Perhaps it will form a basis
for discussion. It is hoped that at least it
will be found useful as supplementary to the
conventional system for the sake of brevity
in discussion.

Bathygobius curacao (Metzlaar),
sensu lato

Bathygobius curacao, (Metzlaar)

Scales 31-36, present or absent on side of
head. Pectoral rays usually 16-17, infrequently
15 or 18; upper 3 or 4 rays modified, their
branching very sparse, nearly always forking
once. Maxillary 11.5-13.5.

This species is synpatric® with soporator, (ex-
cept catuluse) and mystaciwm. It differs from
soporator, chiefly in having a smaller number of
scales and pectoral rays and fewer modified
rays. From mystaciwm it differs mainly in hav-
ing fewer pectoral rays and a longer maxillary.
The samples examined by me are divisible into
two subspecies as follows:

Bathygobius curacao lepidopoma, n. subsp.
Bathygobius lepidopoma, n. subsp.

Opercle with a patch of 1-8 scales at upper
anterior corner; a patch of scales on cheek in
the majority of specimens (in about two-
thirds). Pectoral 23-26.

3 This apt term, effectively used by Mayr in a
recent book, Taxonomy and the origin of species,
which treats mainly of some aspects of tendencies
and trends in ornithologic taxonomy, should
prove useful! for brevity and in clarifying taxo-
nomic discussions in general, and deserves a wider
application. Two populations are synpatric when
their geographic ranges coincide or overlap; they
are allopatric when they occupy separate terri-
tories. It so happens that closely related popula-
tions of a lower rank than full species are, as a
rule, allopatric. This is a universal fact of biology
and applies to fishes as well as to birds and other
groups. Bearing this in mind should help to
preclude fallacious interpretation of taxonomic
data in ichthyology as well.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 8

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 57452. Newfound
Bay, Fla.; male 55 mm. |

A composite sample of 10 other specimens
31-55 mm examined from Newfound Harbor,
Broad Creek, Boca Chica, and Key West; all
localities in southern Florida.

This subspecies differs from cura¢ao:z chiefly
in the scalation on the side of the head. They
differ in a lesser degree in some proportional
measurements. Typical specimens have a dis-
tinctive physiognomy. On the whole, the differ-
ence between curacao. and lepidopomay ‘is
greater than the usual difference between two
coordinate subspecies. It is rather near the
borderline between species and subspecies, and
it would not be far fetched to treat them as
two allopatric species. B. lepidopoma, evidently
hasa very restricted distribution, being confined
to Key West and the very closely adjacent keys
where it replaces curacaos, Samples from
Tortugas agree more nearly with curacao, from
the West Indies and Panama and are grouped
with that subspecies.

Bathygobius curacao curacao (Metzlaar)
Bathygobius curacao, (Metzlaar)
Gobius curacao Metzlaar, Rap. Vissch. Kolonie

Curacao, edit. by J. Boeke, 2: 136. 1919 (Cu-

racao; Bonaire).

Opercle usually without scales, variants
sometimes having one or two scales; infre-
quently 2-3 scales on cheek. Pectoral 25-28.

A composite sample of 25 specimens 23-62
mm examined from Tortugas, Florida; Ber-
muda; Haiti; St. Thomas, Virgin Islands;
Curacao; Colon and Porto Bello, Panama.

Bathygobius mystacium, n. sp.

Scales 34-36, none on side of head. Pectoral
rays 19-20; upper 4 or 5 modified, their
branching sparse, usually forking once. Maxil-
lary 9.5-11.5.

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 119895. Nassau,
Bahamas; male 57 mm.

A composite sample of 8 other specimens 31—
57 mm examined from Nassau,* Bahamas;
Cuba; Old Providence Island; Colon, Panama.

This species is synpatric with cura¢aon,
soporators, and longiceps:. Some specimens were |
found mixed in the same containers with
soporators, and they evidently occur together.
It differs from soporator, in having fewer scales
and from curacao, in having more pectoral

Aue. 15, 1947 GINSBURG: AMERICAN SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF BATHYGOBIUS

rays. It differs from both in having a shorter
maxillary. It intergrades slightly with curacao,
in the latter character, but not with soporator,
when the data are segregated by size.

Bathygobius arundelii (Garman)

Gobius arundelit Garman, Proc. New England
Zool. Club 1: 63. 1899 (Clipperton Island).

Scales 37; present on opercle in a small

patch; a few also present on cheek. Pectoral.

rays 19 (probably only upper 3 modified and
forking only once, the fin partly broken in the
single specimen examined). Caudal 34 (the
combined range of several hundred specimens
of all other American species 23-33).

Only the type specimen of this species was
examined. It is difficult to discuss the relation-
ship of any one species of Bathygobius on the
basis of a single specimen, because all the spe-
cles are so near one another morphologically.
For instance, the scale count of this specimen
is at the borderline of the separation of two
groups of species, and to have an adequate pic-
ture of the position of arundelii it is necessary
to determine the frequency distribution of its
scale count. However, after determining the
morphological ranges of the other species on the
basis of more or less adequate samples, it be-
comes clear that the single type specimen repre-
sents a species, arundelit, which is different
than all other American species. It differs from
mystacvum, soporator,, ramosus,, and lineatus,
in having scales on the side of the head. It
differs from cura¢ao; in having more, and from

andrei, in having fewer pectoral rays. It appar-

ently differs further from andrei, in having
fewer modified rays. It seems to differ from all
American species in having a longer caudal. It
is quite likely an insular species confined to
Clipperton Island.

Bathygobius soporator (Cuvier and
Valenciennes), sensu lato

Bathygobius soporator, (Cuvier and
Valenciennes)

Scales 37-42, absent on side of head. Pectoral
rays 17-22; upper 4-6 rays modified, their ex-
tent of branching moderate, the upper three
usually forking but once. Ventral (measure-
ment of longest rays from their point of articu-
lation) 20-26 in 91 per cent of specimens, lower
limit of range 18. Posterior dorsal rays of large
male prolonged, reaching end of hypural or a
little beyond. Color pattern very variable and

279

its norm differing also with the local popula-
tion; a rather diffuse, incomplete and irregular
cross-banded pattern; or superimposed on
cross-banded pattern, partly or almost wholly
replacing it, a 2-rowed spotted pattern on lower
half of body, two longitudinal rows of spots,
one row of about 9 spots running full length of
body directly below the midline, and a shorter
row under anterior part of upper row. Maxil-
lary 11.5-16.5.

This species is nearest morphologically to
mystaciwm, lineatus,, and ramosus; and the dif-
ferences between soporator, and those three
species are discussed briefly under their ac-
counts.

This species is markedly heterogeneous.
Moreover, morphologic divergence of the dif-
ferent populations is correlated with geographic
distribution only in a very general way; the
two do not always coincide. Hence, it is difficult
to draw a line between the subspecies and the
next lower category or race. On the basis of the
samples examined, considering morphology as
the primary and geography as a secondary
factor in reaching conclusions, the species is
divided into four subspecies. As here consti-
tuted, catulus, and soporator, are more hetero-
geneous than the other two, soporator. es-
pecially so. Some of the populations grouped
under soporator,, perhaps also some placed
under catulus2, might be raised to subspecies
rank after a study of more extensive samples.

Bathygobius soporator catulus (Girard)
Bathygobius catulus, (Girard)

Gobius catulus Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-
delphia 1858: 169 (St. Joseph Island, Tex.).
Head modally 31, varying 29-33. Caudal 25—

28 in 90 per cent of specimens, varying 24-30.

Eye 6.5-8.0 in specimen 61—80 mm. Postor-

bital 15-18. Pectoral rays 17-20; the number

of modified rays usually 4. Color pattern of the
cross-banded phase; on lower half of body pig-
ment sometimes diffusely separated, presenting

a rather faint suggestion of the two-rowed

spotted pattern, especially in small specimens.
A composite sample of 70 specimens 20-126

mm, examined from the East and Gulf coasts

of the United States ranging from Pilot Town

to New Smyrna, Fla., and from Indian Key

(at Ten Thousand Islands), Fla., to Corpus

Christi Pass, Tex. A small composite sample

from the southernmost Florida Keys is tenta-

tively included below under soporators.

280

This subspecies is characterized by averaging
a short caudal, small eye and a low pectoral
count, besides other differences, as compared
with the other populations of soporator,.

Bathygobius soporator soporator (Cuvier
and Valenciennes)

Bathygobius soporator, (Cuvier and
Valenciennes)

Gobius soporator Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist.
Nat. Poiss. 12: 56. 1837 (Martinique; Cuba).
Head usually 30-32, varying 28-34. Caudal

26-30 in 90 per cent of specimens, varying 25-
33. Eye 6.5—9.5 in specimens 61-80 mm. Post-
orbital 15-18. Antedorsal 34-42. Maxillary
modally 13.5 or 14.5, depending on the popu-
lation. Pectoral rays 18-21 with the mode at
19 or 20 depending on the population; number
of modified rays usually 5; fourth modified ray
(from top) forking more than once in about 50
per cent of specimens of most populations. The
2-rowed, spotted pattern rather well-defined
in most populations; while in some others the
cross-banded or an intermediate pattern is com-
mon.

A composite sample of 200 specimens 14-122
mm examined. Composite samples of 12 spec-
imens or more were examined from the
Bahamas, Cuba, Santo Domingo, Puerto Rico
and Brazil. Smaller samples examined from
Martinique (one of the type localities) and
Cozumel Island, Mexico, are grouped with this
subspecies. Samples of 1-6 specimens examined
from localities in between those mentioned are
also included, except a large sample from
Panama, which is next described as a distinct
subspecies. A small composite sample of 16
specimens 39-112 mm from the southernmost
Florida Keys, namely, Lower Matecumbe
Key, Key West, and Tortugas, is not decisive,
but is perhaps slightly nearer soporator, than
catulus, and is tentatively grouped with this
subspecies.

Bathygobius soporator longiceps, n. subsp.
Bathygobius longiceps., n. subsp.

Head modally 32, varying 29-34. Caudal 26-
29 in 90 per cent of specimens, varying 25-30.
Eye 7—9 in specimens 61-80 mm. Postorbital
15-20. Antedorsal 36-43. Maxillary modally
14.5. Pectoral rays 18-21 with the mode at 19;
the number of modified rays usually 5; the
fourth modified ray forking once in about 80
per cent of specimens. Color pattern variable;

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 8

cross-banded, two-row spotted, or intermedi-
ate.

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 119896. Porto pay
Panama; male 108 mm.

A comanecite sample of 90 other specimens

17-88 mm examined from various localities on
the Atlantic coast of Panama and the Canal
Zone. ;
The Panama population is separated as a dis-
tinct subspecies from the other populations of
seporator. largely on the basis of a combination
of characters. It has a comparatively long head,
postorbital, antedorsal and maxillary, a com-
paratively low pectoral count and sparse ex-
tent of branching of the modified pectoral rays.
These characters are nearly duplicated in one
or another of the populations of the hetero-
geneous soporator.; but in the Panama popula-
tion they occur together, and for this reason it
is deemed appropriate to set it aside as a dis-
tinct subspecies, longicepso.

Bathygobius sporator sextaneus, n. subsp.
Bathygobius sextaneus, n. subsp.

Head 28-32. Caudal 26-32. Eye 7-9 in
specimens 65-80 mm. Postorbital 14-16. Ante-
dorsal 35-38. Maxillary 12.5-14.5. Pectoral
rays 19-22 with the mode at 20; the number of
modified rays usually 6. Two-rowed, spotted
color pattern usually rather well defined.

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 21231. Bermuda;
female 103 mm.

A composite sample of 18 other specimens
44-113 mm examined from Bermuda.

This subspecies differs from the others in
usually baving 6 modified rays and averaging
a higher pectoral count. The sixth ray of sez-
taneus, resembles in structure the fifth ray (or
the fourth) of the other subspecies. The post-
orbital part of the head especially, and also
the head, antedorsal distance and maxillary
are short. |

Bathygobius lineatus (Jenyns), sensu lato
Bathygobius lineatus, (Jenyns)

Scales 38-42, none on side of head. Pectoral
rays 19-22; usually upper 5 rays modified, their
extent of branching rather sparse, the upper 3
usually forking once. Large male with the pos-
terior dorsal rays not notably prolonged, not
reaching end of hypural.

This species is divisible into two subspecies,
lineatus, in the Galdpagos Islands and lupinus2

SS

Aue. 15, 1947 GINSBURG: AMERICAN SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF BATHYGOBIUS

from Lobos de Afuera Island, off the coast of
Peru.

B. lineatus; is another borderline population
morphologically. It is very close to soporator,,
and its two subspecies might within reason be
placed as subspecies of soporator. It differs
from soporator, chiefly in the relative length of
the posterior dorsal rays of the large male.
But even this character is not pronounced, and
moreover, it differs to a moderate extent also
intraspecifically with the local populations.
However; because of the absolute geographic
separation of lineatus; and soporator, and for
convenience, it is deemed best to treat them as
two full species based on this one rather slight
and variable difference. As the species of
Bathygobius, in general, have not yet di-
verged to a high degree, this small difference
perhaps takes on added significance.

Bathygobius lineatus lineatus (Jenyns)
Bathygobius lineatus, (Jenyns)
Gobius lineatus Jenyns, Zool. Voy. Beagle 4: 95,
pl. 19, fig. 2. 1842 (Galapagos).

Depth of caudal peduncle 11.5-14.5. Head
29-34. Postorbital 14-18. Antedorsal 35-41.
Maxillary 12.5-15.5 in specimens 56-94 mm.
Pectoral rays 19-22, with the mode at 20.

Of this subspecies 70 specimens 17-94 mm
were examined from James, Chatham, Charles,
Bartholomieu, and Narborough Islands. It is
evidently an insular subspecies of the Gald-
pagos Archipelago.

Bathygobius lineatus lupinus, n. subsp.
Bathygobius lupinus,, n. subsp.

Depth of caudal peduncle 14.5-15.5. Head
29-30. Postorbital 14-15. Antedorsal 35-37.
Maxillary 12.5-14.5 in specimens 66-123 mm.
Pectoral rays 19-20.

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 77510. Lobos de
Afuera, Peru; male 123 mm.

Two other males 66-85 mm examined from
the same place.

This subspecies differs from l¢neatus2 in aver-
aging a deeper peduncle and a shorter head,
postorbital, antedorsal and maxillary. It at-
tains to a larger size. While ordinarily it is a
risky business to establish a new subspecies on
the basis of only 3 specimens, yet, after com-
paring the measurements of these specimens
with the frequency distribution of lineatuss,
and other species and subspecies of Bathy-
gobius, I am confident that an examination of

281

an adequate sample from Peru will confirm the
conclusion that that population is subspecifi-
cally distinct from that of the Galapagos.

Bathygobius ramosus, n. sp., sensu lato
Bathygobius ramosus,, n. sp.
Scales 36-48, none on side of head. Pectoral
rays 17-21; usually the upper 5 modified, pro-
fusely branched, the second and third (from

~ top) usually forking twice or three times. Ven-

tral 15-19 in 88 per cent of the specimens, the
upper limit of the range 22. Usually a single
longitudinal row of about 9 spots nearly median
in position; the spots, or a variable number of
them, usually partly or almost wholly split up—
into 2 or 3 parts, presenting gross appearance
of a series of more numerous and smaller spots
than in seporator,; cross-banded pattern absent
or present on upper half of side only.

This is the commonest and most widespread
species of Bathygobius on the Pacific coast of
the American continents. All authors combined
ramosus; with the common Atlantic soporator,
under one heading. However, ramosus, differs
from soporator; in having a shorter ventral,
the modified pectoral rays branch more pro-
fusely and the color pattern is usually distine-
tive. Having examined in detail over 600 speci-
mens of both species, I can safely make the
statement that after one becomes familiar with
their distinguishing characters and then at-
tempts to identify single specimens, from the
opposite coasts of Panama, without a knowl-
edge of the locality of capture, he should make
a correct identification in 95 or more trials out
of 100. The large majority of specimens of
ramosus; may be placed at a glance by dis-
tinctive color alone. This is about as good or
better than is possible to do with many other
closely related species which are generally rec-
ognized by authors.

The extent of branching of the modified pec-
toral rays varies greatly with the individual
and each ray varies independently and in this
preliminary paper the statements in the diag-
noses of the two species give only a part of the
picture of this difference.

The samples examined of ramosus; indicate
that it is divisible in at least 4 subspecies, as
follows:

Bathygobius ramosus curticeps, n. subsp.
Bathygobius curticeps:, n. subsp.

Pectoral rays modally 20, varying 19-21.

282

Scales modally 39, varying 38-42 (infrequently
42). Head usually 29-30, varying 28-82.
Caudal 25-31. Eye 7.5-9.0 in specimens 46—
60 mm.

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 30739. Cape San
Lucas, Mexico; male 98 mm.

A composite sample of 50 other specimens
23-92 mm examined from Cape San Lucas,
Mazatlan, and Tres Marias Islands, all locali-
ties on the Pacific coast of Mexico. A small
composite sample of 16 specimens 19-86 mm
from Ecuador and Colombia agrees most nearly
with curticeps. and is tentatively grouped with
Tes

This subspecies differs from ramosus2 chiefly
in having a shorter head and also in having a
shorter postorbital, antedorsal and maxillary,
and a somewhat less profuse branching of the
modified pectoral rays.

Bathygobius ramosus ramosus, n. subsp.
Bathygobius ramosus,, n. subsp.

Pectoral rays modally 20, varying 18-21
(infrequently 18). Scales modally 39, nearly
always 37-41, rarely 36 or 42. Head usually
31-32, varying 29-33. Caudal 24-30. Eye 7.0—
10.0 in specimens 46-60 mm.

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 119897. Balboa,
Panama; male 87 mm.

A composite sample of 150 other specimens
21-101 mm examined in detail from various
localities on the Pacific coast of Panama and
the Canal Zone.

This subspecies is probably nearest curticepse
and their differences are stated above.

Bathygobius ramosus micromma, n. subsp.
Bathygobius micromma,, n. subsp.

Pectoral rays usually 20, often 19. Scales
40-43. Head modally 29, varying 28-30.
Caudal 26-28. Eye 6.5—7.5 in specimens 50—60
mm.

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 53504. Paita, Peru;
male 61 mm.

Other 10 specimens 50-72 mm from same
locality examined.

This subspecies averages the smallest eye
and the highest scale count as compared with
all other three subspecies. The head length is
nearest to that of curticeps. (averaging some-
what shorter than in that subspecies even), and
on the whole, it is nearest morphologically to
CUrticepSs>.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 8

Bathygobius ramosus longipinnis, n. subsp.
Bathygobius longipinnis,, n. subsp.

Pectoral rays modally 19, varying 17-20.
Scales 38-41. Head modally 30, varying 28-32.

Caudal 27-33. Eye 7.5-9.5 in specimens 46-56

mm.

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 119898. Socorro Is-
land, Revillagigedo Archipelago; male 78 mm.

A composite sample of 25 other specimens
15-90 mm examined from same island.

This is evidently an insular subspecies in-
habiting Socorro Island (perhaps also the other
islands in the Revillagigedo Archipelago). It
differs from the other three subspecies in having
a lower pectoral count and a longer caudal. The
other fins also average somewhat longer but
the divergence is not as marked. On the whole,
longipinnis, diverges from the three mainland
species to a greater extent than the latter di-
verge from one another. Its divergence is not
far from the borderline of species and sub-
species. .

Bathygobius andrei (Sauvage), sensu lato -
Bathygobius andrei, (Sauvage)

Scales 37-42, present or absent on side of
head. Pectoral rays usually 21-22, varying 20-
23; usually upper 5 rays modified, moderately
branched, the upper three usually forking
once. An incomplete and diffuse cross-banded
color pattern.

This species is divisible into two synpatric
subspecies, the distributional basis of their
separation probably being water depth as indi-
cated below, that is, they are apparently two
synpatric ecological subspecies.

One subspecies, andrets, is readily separated
from ramosus;, soporatorn, and lineatus, by hav-
ing scales on the side of the head; but this does
not always hold for the other subspecies. This
species is further separable from ramosus, with
which it is synpatric, by the extent of branch-
ing of the modified pectoral rays and the color
pattern. The frequency distribution of the pec-
toral count is decidedly different in andrey
than in all other American species, but there is
some overlapping in that character.

There is a shade of doubt in my mind
whether the name andrei, which has been gen-
erally relegated to the synonymy, is properly
applicable to the species here distinguished.
Sauvage’s original description is largely generic.

Ava. 15, 1947 GINSBURG: AMERICAN SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF BATHYGOBIUS

Moreover, that author states “‘téte entiérement
nue,” which does not apply to the main
character that distinguishes our andret.. My
reliance for the present use of the name andrei
is based on the locality (Ecuador) and size
(160 mm) given in the original description. Ac-
cording to my rather extensive samples that
size is applicable only to that American popu-

lation here designated andret:. I assume that .
Sauvage overlooked the patch of scales on the

opercle. —

‘Bathygobius andrei andrei (Sauvage)
Bathygobius andrei, (Sauvage)

Gobius andrei Sauvage, Bull. Soc. Philomatique
(7) 4: 44. 1880 (Guayas, Ecuador; in brackish
water).

Scales 37-41; a rather large or moderate
patch of scales on opercle; scales on cheek
present or absent. Pectoral 22-29. Caudal 25-
32. Head 30-35. Depth of peduncle 12.5-15.5.

A composite sample of 45 specimens 21-198
mm examined from the Pacific coast, ranging
from Barranca, Costa Rica, to Guayaquil,
Ecuador, and including Panama.

This is apparently a typical tide-pool popu-
lation. It occurs together with ramosus: and
some of the constituent samples examined were
separated from containers which included a
mixture of both that is readily separable into
their proper species. B. andret2 constitutes a
morphologically compact population rather
easily separable (in a comparative way) from

all American species and subspecies of Bathy-

gobius, except heteropomaz. The latter intro-
duces a rather discordant element in the easy
and orderly taxonomic placement of andreto.
The proper distinction of andrei. from the other
species is discussed above under andrei, and

283

from heteropoma, under that subspecies below,

Bathygobius andrei heteropoma, n. subsp.
Bathygobius heteropoma,, n. subsp.

Scales 40-42; absent on side of head, or when
present, varying from a single scale to a small
patch on opercle (smaller than in andret2).
Pectoral 20-23. Caudal 23-28. Head 30-32.
Depth of peduncle 14.5-15.5.

Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 119894. Chame
Point, Panama; male 101 mm; Robert Tweed-
lie.

A composite sample of 8 other specimens 47—
115 mm examined from the same locality by
the same collector.

Robert Tweedlie’s collecting methods have
been described by Meek and Hildebrand
(Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. 15 (1): 6. 1923),
and it seems very probable that the specimens
examined belong to a population that lives at a
moderate distance offshore, while andret2 is a
typical shore and tide-pool subspecies.

This subspecies differs from andre, in lack-
ing scales on side of the head, or when present
they are in sparser numbers. (One is tempted to
say that heteropemaz is on the way to losing the
scalation on the side of the head because of its
changed habitat.) The frequency distribution
of the scale count will perhaps prove to differ
in the two subspecies on further sampling. The
caudal, head, postorbital, and antedorsal of
heteropomaz seem to average shorter and the
peduncle deeper than in andrei». The pectoral
averages considerably shorter in heteropoma,
than in andrei: and all other American species
and subspecies of Bathygobius. Considering all
differences, it may perhaps be stated that
heteropoma, is not far from the borderline be-
tween species and subspecies.

KEY TO THE AMERICAN SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF BATHYGOBIUS!

a. Seales 31-36. Western Atlantic.

Deeeectoral rays 15ohS) ee. ee a Ve a

Be a a ene nN SROs Ae OC eae curacao,

c. A patch of scales present on opercle. Key West and very closely adjacent keys... .lepidopoma:

ec. Scales usually absent on opercle. Tortugas, Florida; West Indies; Panama............ CUraCA0r
femeectoral rays-19—20. West Indies; Panama... (2): . fo. 205. 2 Si ie ce mystactum
aa. Scales 36-43.
d. Pectoral rays 17—22, the mode at 18, 19, and 20, depending on the population.
e. Scales present on side of head; caudal 34. Clipperton Island...................... arundelir

ee. Scales absent on side of head; caudal 23-33.

f. Upper three modified pectoral rays usually forking once; ventral 18-26.
g. Posterior dorsal rays of large male more or less prolonged, reaching end of hypural or a

little beyond. Western Atlantic...
h. Modified pectoral rays usually 4 or 5.

4 Footnote 4 at end of key (p. 284).

Side ee aos RRA ene ee en: a eta he Me soporator,

284

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 8

7. Caudal short and eye small. Florida to Texas, except southernmost Florida Keys.

71. Caudal longer and eye larger.

catulus,

j. Head, postorbital, antedorsal, and maxillary long; pectoral count comparatively
low; branching of modified rays sparse. Panama.................... longicepse
jj. Characters differing with the local population, but not occurring in preceding com-
bination. Southernmost Florida keys to Brazil and the West Indies, excepting

we agld in febacley lyons ie oes tain, ices o tnaie ag eh ee soporator,

hh. Modified pectoral. rays usually 6, Bermuda..*.-.+.-..-.2 ..62 eee sextaneuse
gg. Posterior dorsal rays of large male not markedly prolonged, not reaching end of hypural.

Hasternn cite: erent eee ae

e (6 leristie « ¢

weakness lineatus,

k. Depth of caudal peduncle 11.5-14.5; maximum length 94 mm. Galdpagos Archipelago.

lineatus

kk. Depth of caudal peduncle 14.5-15.5; maximum length 123 mm. Lobos de Afuera Island,

Pe Ce NURI rd Ski. oo we nc lupinuse

ff. Second and third modified pectoral rays usually forking more than once; ventral 15-22.

Bastern Pacifie. 2. tae eos eae nee ed ee ee ramosus,
l. Pectoral rays modally 20.
m. Eye not small; scales 36-42.
n. Head usually 29-30. Coasts of Mexico, Colombia, and Ecuador........... curticepse
mn. ineag usually.) 32... Panamace 22 o0e) ss ei ec ie it: Ss naan TaMOSuUse
mm. Kye small scales 40—43:: Paita, Peru... 350055 a) micrommar
ll: Pectoral rays modally 19: Socorre Island? 2.5 )) 8.2 25 a2 2 longipinnise
dd. Pectoral rays usually 21-22, varying 20-23. Eastern Pacific......................... andrety

o. Scales on opercle in a rather large or medium sized patch; pectoral 22—29. Costa Rica to

Ecuador, including Panama, inshore....

Puts we icc eas OO ag a ar rrr andretz

oo. Scales on opercle in a small patch or absent; pectoral 20-23. Panama, offshore..... heteropoma,

41 present this key here, in conjunction with
the present short résumé, with some measure of
reluctance, rather in deference to the opinion of
many taxonomists who seem to regard a key as
indispensable. In general, a key is, of course, a
useful tool in taxonomic practice, when based on
carefully tested data instead of being merely
compiled from the literature. Even so, there are
many exceptions, where the brief and categorical
statements used in a key, without numerous
qualifying phrases, and without reference to the
full data in the text on which conclusions are

based, may be somewhat misleading, and Bathy-
gobius is such an exception. In such cases the key
best finds its place in a publication presenting the
full details of the study, reenforced by tables,
instead of in a short, condensed, skeletonized,
preliminary paper, such as this one. While this
key gives a bird’s-eye general view of the char-
acters that separate, and the relationship between,
the species and subspecies, the student should
not assume that it constitutes an easy shortcut
to enable him always to “‘run down” specimens
correctly.

ZOOLOGY .—Notes on some Mexican urocoptid mollusks, with the description of

new species.}

The U. 8S. National Museum recently re-
ceived several sendings of mollusks from
Mexico from that indefatigable collector,
Miss Marie E. Bourgeois. Among other
things these include fine lots of members
belonging to the family Urocoptidae. Some
of them have required considerable research
to untangle the confused nomenclature,
while others prove to belong to undescribed
species. It is hoped that this little paper will
prove helpful and stimulate our Mexican
friends to further efforts in this field.

Genus Anisospira Strebel
Anisospira? martensii (Strebel)

1865. Cylindrella (Urocoptis) truncata von Mar-
tens, Malakoz. Blatt. 12: 138-14, in part.

1 Received March 5, 1947.

Paut Bartscu, U. 8. National Museum.

1880. Hucalodium martensi Strebel, Beitr. Kenntn.
Fauna Mex. Land- und Stisswasser
Conch. 4: 73-74, in part; pl. 13, fig. 13;
pl. 11, figs: 8; 14; \ple 12 fiers:

1897. Eucalodium truncatum von Martens, Biolo-
gia Centrali-Americana: 264, in part.

Shell decollated, turrited, solid, dusky oliva-
ceous, somewhat paler at the suture; whorls re-
maining 7, scarcely convex, increasing regularly
arcuately striate, with 3 or 4 slightly elevated,
irregular spiral lines. Last whorl not solute,
rounded, with an obsolete basal carina. Aper-
ture subdiagonal, subcircular, posterior angle
rounded, separated a little from the penul-
timate whorl. Columellar fold obsolete. Peri-
stome somewhat thickened and slightly ex-
panded. Length, 29.5 mm; diameter, 10 mm;
aperture length, 7 mm; diameter, 6 mm.

Ava. 15, 1947

The above is a translation of von Martens’s
Latin description of a specimen in the Berlin
Museum collected by H. Uhde in Mexico. No
specific locality was known for it.

Strebel (loc. cit.) redescribes this specimen as
follows: The shell is solid and possesses the
characters of Eucalodium as well as their form,
coloration, and gloss. Its color is yellowish

brown shading to paler and almost straw yel- |

low in the suture. The sculpture consists of very
inconspicuous, fine ribs, which are quite
regularly but not closely spaced. In addition,
one finds in places on the lower half of the
whorls near the suture a short, irregular fold-
ing, which passes obliquely forward, and 2 to 4
fine, in places interrupted, weak, tumid, spiral
lines, which are of the same strength and eleva-
tion as the axial ribs. It is difficult to say
whether these features are individual or
specific variations, but probably they are
specific. The 74 remaining whorls are well
rounded, appressed at the summit, and
slightly tumid at the suture, so that this ap-
pears slightly channeled. The last whorl in the
beginning is weakly keeled below, then pro-

| vided with a weak tumid area, which extends to

the aperture. The specimen appears to be not
quite adult, for the last portion seems to be on
the point of becoming solute and the white
peristome is only slightly expanded and not
completely separated, although united by a
columellar callus. The inside of the aperture is
white with a faint violet tinge. The columella is

simple, apparently hollow as in Eucalodium and

twisted in each whorl about the axis. The col-
umellar fold is slight and evenly placed. Height,
29.2 mm; diameter at tip, 6.4 mm; greatest
diameter 9.8 mm; below 9.2 mm. Aperture
height 7.7 mm; diameter, 6.5 mm.

This description is followed by a description
of the dried soft parts, which von Martens
found in the shell, which he figures on plate 11,
figure 8 (radula), figure 14 (jaw), plate 12,
figure 3 (reproductive system).

From Strebel’s description I am led to believe
that this shell belongs to the genus Antsospira.

Attempting to discover its possible home by
tracing Uhde’s peregrinations in Mexico, one
finds the following information in Dr. Eduard
von Martens’s paper, ‘“‘Ueber die mexikanischen
Binnen Conchylien aus den Sammlungen von
Deppe und Uhde in Berliner Museum.’ Von

* Malakoz. Blatt. 12: 1-78. 1865.

BARTSCH: SOME MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS

285

Martens states that Uhde was a member of the
Prussian Embassy staff in Mexico. Von
Martens, under each species, lists the shells
collected by Uhde. Many of these bear only
‘““Mexico”’ as locality designation. A great num-
ber, however, give more specific locality data,
showing that Uhde collected in the states of
Veracruz, Puebla, Mexico, Oaxaca, and Micho-
acan. Since Oaxaca is the center of Anisospira
distribution, it seems indicated that we should
look for the home of this species in that state.
Oaxaca is the home of Anzsospira dalli von
Martens, lebmanni Pfeiffer, strebeli Pfeiffer,
verdensis Dall, and orcuttt Dall. According to
von Martens, Uhde collected “Glandina turris
Pfeiffer” in Oaxaca near the west coast, at an
elevation of 10,000 feet; also ‘‘Helix bicincta
Pfeiffer” in the southern interior of Oaxaca and
“Bulimulus (Ltostracus) mexicanus gracilior
Pfeiffer” in Oaxaca.

Genus Oligostylus Dall
Oligostylus mariae, n. sp.
1892. EHucalodium martensi (Strebel)
Man. Conch. 15: 18-19, in part.
1897. EHucalodium truncatum (Pfeiffer) von Mar-
tens, Biologia Centrali-Americana: 256,
264, ?pl. 16, figs. 3-9.

Shell cylindroconic, chestnut-brown, with
the peristome white with a brownish flush, in-
terior of the aperture brownish. The early
whorls are decollated. Even the young speci-
mens bear the sculpture of the adult and have
practically the same rotundity of the whorls.
The adult shell has the whorls moderately
rounded and separated by a well-impressed
suture. They are crossed by numerous retrac-
tively slanting axial riblets, which are sepa-
rated by spaces about as wide or a trifle wider
than the riblets. Of these riblets, 96 are present
on the last whorl, where they become more
crowded immediately behind the peristome;
87 of them are present on the penultimate
whorl. Periphery of the last whorl well rounded,
with the merest indication of an angulation.
Base short, well rounded, with a narrow umbili-
cal chink and marked by the continuation of
the axial ribs, which extend slightly enfeebled
to the umbilical chink. The last whorl is slightly
solute. Aperture broadly ovate, almost sub-
circular, and slightly oblique. Peristome slightly
expanded, slightly reflected, and somewhat
thickened. The columella shows an oblique fold
deep within the aperture. The columella is

Ese al
Pilsbry,

286

slender with the merest indication of a twist
and without fold.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 543582, was col-
lected by Miss Bourgeois at Omiltemi, Guer-
rero. It has 7 whorls remaining and measures:
Length, 26.3 mm; greatest diameter, 8.9 mm.
U.S.N.M. no. 543583 and U.S.N.M. no.
543584 contain 21 young and adult topotypes
from the same source. Five additional speci-
mens have been returned to Miss Bourgeois.
These bear the collector’s numbers 990 and 991.

The species is probably most nearly related
to EHucalodium neglectum Crosse and Fischer,
described from Oaxaca, Mexico. This, how-
ever, 1s much larger with quite different
sculpture.

Von Martens states, on page 264 under the
much confused concept of Hucalodium trunca-
tum, that he has received several specimens
from H. H. Smith collected at “Omilteme,”’
Guerrero, which enables him to give a new
description and figure of it. Apparently there
must have been an error in his citation,
for his explanation of figures on plate 16,
figures 3 to 9, are all credited to Angangueo
(Michoacan). They were probably based on the
Omiltemi specimens.

Oligostylus? hegewischi, n. name

1841. Bulimus truncatus Pfeiffer, Symb. hist.
Helic.: 48-44, not Bulimus truncatus
Bruguiére, Encycl. Method.: 319, 1792.

Bulimus truncatus Pfeiffer, Philippi Abbild.
Beschr. Conch.: 55, pl. 1, figs. 8a, b, ec.

Bulimus truncatus Pfeiffer, Monogr. Helic.
Viv. 2: 154.

Bulimus truncatus Reeve, Conch. Icon.: pl.
70, fig. 498.

Cylindrella (Urocoptis) truncata von Mar-
tens, Malakoz. Blatt. 12: 18-14, in part.

Eucalodium truncatum Fischer and Crosse,
Miss. Scient. Mex., Mollusca, 1: 392-
394, in part.

Eucalodium martensit Strebel, Beitr.
Kenntn. Fauna Mex. Land- und Siisswas-
ser Conch. 4: 73-74, in part.

Eucalodium truncatum von Martens, Bi-
ologia Centrali-Americana: 265, in part.

Eucalodium martensit Pilsbry, Man. Conch.
15: 18-19, in part.

1843.
1848.
1849.
1865.

1873.

1836.

1897.

1902.

Shell subcylindric, apex decollated, solid,
epidermis greenish horn-colored, obliquely
striate; suture impressed, pale; whorls 8, con-
vex, the last angulated at base; aperture sub-
orbicular, soiled white within; peristome al-
most simple, almost covering the slight um-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

“you. 37, NO. 8

bilicus rimation with its expanded columellar
edge. Length, 14 lines [30.5 mm]; diameter, 44
lines [9.4 mm].

Near Angangueo, Michoacan, Mexico, col-
lected by Hegewisch under leaves of American
agaves.

The above is a translation of Pfeiffer’s Latin
description to which he adds, in Philippi, page
59, that he had in addition to the adult speci-
men, some young individuals one of which is
also figured in c. He states here that the whole
shell is quite regularly obliquely striated,
brownish, tending toward olive-green, with
every turn much paler toward the suture.

Pfeiffer states in a footnote in von Martens’s
paper (Malakoz. Blatt. 12: 14) that he had
to return to Hegewisch the adult specimen and
that it is unknown what has become of this.
All of which means that the proper systematic
position of Bulimus truncatus Pfeiffer, which I
am here rechristening Oligostylus hegewischi,
will have to await the securing of specimens
from the type locality.

It is to be hoped that Miss Bourgeois will re-
discover it at Angangueo.

Gerus Coelocentrum Crosse and Fischer
Coelocentrum huertai, n. sp.
Fig. 5

Shell cylindroconic, chestnut-brown (some-
times white), with the aperture brown or in the
albinos white. The nuclear whorls are decol-
lated in all our specimens. Young shells minus
the extreme nuclear tip show that the shell in-
creases quite regularly in size, but the outlines
thereof are slightly concave until the last de-
collated stage is reached. From there they
increase slightly in size to the middle of the
spire and then again slightly decrease toward
the last whorl. The whorls are slightly rounded
and separated by a well-impressed suture. They
are crossed by numerous very fine, hairlike,
closely spaced, retractively curved axial riblets,
which are about as wide as the spaces that
separate them. Of these riblets, 193 are present
on the penultimate whorl of the type. Periphery
of the last whorl marked by a weak cord. Base
short, slightly rimate, well rounded, and
marked by the continuation of the axial riblets.
The last whorl is solute for about one-twentieth
of a turn. Aperture irregularly broadly oval.
Peristome moderately expanded and reflected.
Columella in the last whorl broad, hollow, and

Ava. 15, 1947

marked by weak, retractively curved bair lines.
On the last whorl it becomes a little more
slender and has a slight twist.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 543585, was col-
lected by Miss Bourgeois at Omiltemi, Guer-
rero, in the Sierra Madre Mountains. It has 8.3
whorls remaining and measures: Length, 24.5
mm; greatest diameter, 7.7 mm. U.S.N.M. no.
543586, collector’s no. 992, U.S.N.M. no.
543587, collector’s no. 993, and U.S.N.M. no.
543588, collector’s no. 983, contain 13 topo-
types from the same source. Four more speci-
mens are in Miss Bourgeois’s collection.

This species in size appears to resemble most
closely Coelocentrum dispar Pilsbry, from
Guatemala, from which, however, its much
finer sculpture will distinguish it.

Genus Holospira von Martens
Holospira rehderi, n. sp.
Fig. ‘2

Shell small, cylindroconic, thin, semi-trans-
lucent, grayish white, with the peristome and
interior of the aperture white. The nucleus con-
sists of a little more than 2.5 whorls, which are
well rounded and minutely granulose. The post-
nuclear whorls increase regularly in size, reach-
ing their maximum diameter on the tenth
whorl, beyond which they again decrease
gradually in size. They are well rounded on the
early turns but become flattened on the later
whorls. The early postnuclear whorls have de-
cidedly retractively slanting riblets, which are
most numerous on the first turn where they are

1 2

BARTSCH: SOME MEXICAN UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS

287
about one-third as wide as the spaces that
separate them. Anterior to the middle of the
spire the ribs are strengthened at the summit,
becoming almost nodulose here. They weaken
on the middle of the turns and again become
strengthened near the suture, thus giving one

the impression of slight obsoleteness on the
middle of the whorls and granulation at the

summit. Twenty-four ribs are present on the

tenth whorl. Behind the aperture of the last
turn the ribs become closely crowded, while on
the middle of the turns they are separated by
spaces about three or four times as wide as the
ribs. Suture strongly constricted. Periphery of
the last whorl well rounded. Base somewhat
attenuated, well rounded, with a deep umbilical
chink. Last whorl solute for about one-tenth of
a turn. Aperture broadly pear-shaped. Peri-
stome expanded and reflected. The columella is
slender with a very slight twist. The columella
bears a strong median fold in the penultimate
whorl, which is about one-fourth as wide as the
turn. In the antepenultimate whorl this fold
becomes a little slenderer and a little wider. In
this turn the parietal wall has pendent from
its middle a broad lamella, which is concave
above and which approximates the medial basal
lamella, which is concave on its anterior side,
the two leaving a mere slit between them into
which the columellar fold points. The fold on
the outer lip is slender and threadlike and also
points toward the slit between the major
lamellae. Posterior to the penultimate turn the
lamellation disappears.

3 4 5

Fias. 1-5.—New species of Mexican urocoptids: 1, Oligostylus mariae; 2, Holospira rehdert;
3, Haplocion wilmott; 4, Holospira morelosensis; 5, Coelocentrum hueriat.

288

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 543589, was col-
lected by Miss Bourgeois at Chietla, Puebla,
under stones. It has 14 whorls and measures:
Length, 14 mm; greatest diameter, 3.9 mm.
U.S.N.M. no. 548590 contains 24 topotypes
from the same source. Ten additional speci-
mens are in Miss Bourgeois’s collection.

This species recalls Holospira albertot Bartsch
from Petlalcingo, Puebla, in the distant spacing
of the axial ribs, but differs completely from
that in general shape, which here is more
pupoid, and also in the weakening of the ribs on
the middle of the turns.

Holospira morelosensis, n. sp.
Fig. 4

Shell small, elongate-pupoid, thin, yellowish
horn-colored, with the peristome and aperture
white. Nuclear whorls about 2, strongly
rounded and minutely granulose. The post-
nuclear whorls increase gradually in size up to
the eighth whorl and again become slightly
narrower toward the last turn. They are well
rounded on the early turns and almost flattened
on the broad portion of the spire, curving, how-
ever, even here toward the summit. Suture
strongly constricted. The whorls are marked by
strong, sublamellose axial ribs, which are a
little weaker on the expanding spire than on the
broader portion of the shell where they are
about half as wide as the spaces that separate
them. These ribs become slightly thickened at
the summit which renders them almost crenu-
lated. They are retractively slanting except on
the last turn where they are vertical. Of these
ribs, 51 are present on the penultimate turn.
Periphery well rounded. Base slightly pro-
duced, well rounded, deeply rimate, and
marked by the continuation of the axial ribs.
The last whorl is solute for about one-tenth of a
turn, and the solute portion is rendered carinate
at the posterior angle. Aperture subcircular.
Peristome expanded and reflected with a slight
nodular thickening on the parietal wall near the
posterior angle. The columella is twisted on the
last turn and slightly twisted in the early
whorls. In the penultimate whorl a median fold,
rounded at the free edge and extending over
almost half the width of the*turn, is present.
A broad parietal fold, concave on the outside,
extends almost halfway across the turns, while

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 8

on the basal area a fold half as wide projects
toward the edge of the parietal fold. The labial
fold is submedian and consists of a mere thread.
All these folds are confined to the penultimate
turn.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 548591, was col-
lected by Miss Bourgeois at Tlaquiltenango,
Morelos. It has 12.5 whorls and measures:
Length, 12.1 mm; greatest diameter, 3.5 mm.
U.S.N.M. no. 5438592 contains 10 topotypes
from the same source, collector’s no. 941. Five
additional specimens are in Miss Bourgeois’s
collection.

This species does not closely resemble any of
the known forms, and therefore it would be
futile to attempt to compare it with them.

Genus Haplocion Pilsbry

Haplocion wilmoti, n. sp. Fig. 3

Shell moderately large, cylindroconic, white.
Nuclear whorls 2.3, well rounded, microscopi-
cally granulose. The postnuclear whorls in-
crease gradually in size until the sixth post-
nuclear turn. From there on the shell becomes
cylindric, being slightly constricted on the base
of the last whorl. All the whorls except the last
one are marked by retractively curved lines of
growth, which almost in places simulate ob-
solete riblets. On the last turn the base and the
anterior half of the turn are marked by axial
ribs, which extend into the umbilicus. Suture
moderately constricted. Base well rounded,
with an umbilical chink. Last whorl slightly
solute. Aperture almost subcircular, broadly
expanded and reflected. The columella is hol-
low and rather narrow, with an extremely weak
fold in the penultimate turn.

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 543595, was col-
lected by George Wilmot under large rocks in
the mountain near the City of Chihuahua. It
has 12.5 whorls and measures: Length, 30 mm;
greatest diameter, 10 mm. U.S.N.M. no.
543596 contains a topotype from the same
source, and still another is in the collection of
Miss Bourgeois.

This species most nearly resembles Haplocion
semisculpta Stearns, which also comes from
Chihuahua. It differs from it in being much
larger and in having the axial ribs limited to the
last turn. In semisculpta they extend poste-
riorly for three or more turns.

— = ae

ig

Keyqeomante Sens

se Pakinn BO Oe ee ee meee

Isaac Ginspure. PO ;
Zootogy.—Notes on some Mexican ‘urocaptid mollusks, with
scription of new species. Paun BartscH.............

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 37

SEPTEMBER 15, 1947

No. 9

ENGINEERING.—Beach intelligence.1 Martin A. Mason, Beach Erosion Board,

War Department.

In the first confusing and busy days of
the war we at the Beach Erosion Board set
out to find the part it could play in the all-
out endeavor. Although its main role, in
time, became that of a contributor to beach
intelligence, this part was not clearly de-
fined in the early days. Of course, at that
time, even the idea of the need for such in-
telligence was new, so for some months the
Board’s work was limited to special prob-
lems concerning beach characteristics.

In the early stages little was known about
the requirements for beach intelligence, nor
were specific instructions included in the
requests for intelligence. As a result, there
was developed a series of approaches that

| gradually resulted in satisfactory intelli-
|| gence as actual landing operations showed
|. the need for specific types of information.
!! Moreover, it developed that two broad
| types of reports were needed: a brief graphic
} report for strategic planning, and a fully
| detailed report for operations.

_ The strategic planning reports were pre-

| | pared usually on order of the Joint Chiefs of

1 Received April 9, 1947. This paper, and the

Hj one following by George W. Irving, Jr., are sum-
}| Mmaries of research for which the Awards for Sci-

entific Achievement for 1946 were made by the
WasHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES on March
20, 1947. Dr. Mason was given the award repre-
senting the Engineering Sciences in recognition of
his service in erosion studies leading to successful
beach invasions by Allied Armed Forces during
the War. Dr. Irving received the Award for the
Physical Sciences for his work in biochemistry,
especially for his researches on antibiotics in
tomato plants. The Award for the Biological
Sciences was granted to Dr. Waldo R. Wedel,
archeologist of the U. S. National Museum, in
recognition of his contributions to the prehistory
of human ecology in the Central Great Plains. In-
asmuch as reports upon Dr. Wedel’s work have
been published in full by the Smithsonian Insti-

j, tution, it is not further summarized here.—

EpItor.

Staff. This type of report was intended to
give, in as concise form as possible, the
physical characteristics of a fairly large area,
usually an island, peninsula, or other major
area, and to indicate where men and equip-
ment could or could not be landed. An at-
tempt was made to present the material on
a single sheet, usually a hydrographic chart,
to facilitate reading, and to keep the report
unencumbered with detail. Often because of
the briefness of the report, it was necessary
to emphasize only the most important or
hazardous physical features of the area.
Such general information was called for as
the extent and width of the fringing coral
reef and the general characteristics of a coral
beach. Brief coastal descriptions gave more
specific information on each outlined area.
For the operational type report, the de-
scription of a beach area was undertaken in
four sections and was accompanied by
maps, charts, and aerial and ground photo-
graphs. The following data were usually
furnished:
I. Location anD EXTENT:
A. Geographic coordinates of beach
limits and length of beach.
B. Importance of beach.
1. With respect to physical
characteristics.
2. With respect to nearness of
objectives.
C. Description of local landmarks.
II. NEaR SHORE (includes area from 30-foot
depth to low water line):
A. Location of depth contours, usually
6-, 12-, 18-, and 30-foot depths.
B. Location and depths over shoals,
bars, etc.
C. Location and description of anchor-
age areas.
D. Description of bottom materials.
E. Tidal information.
1. Tidal range.
2. Local peculiarities.

289

290

3. Direction and strength of
tidal currents.
F. Winds.
1. Direction and occurrence.
2. Effect on tides and currents.
G. Waves and surf.
1. Direction of approach.
2. Characteristics.
III. CuaractTeristics oF Bracu (the beach is
defined as an area of unconsolidated ma-
terial between the low water line and the

upper limit of wave wash): ’

A. Length and width, at high and low
water.

B. Composition, slope, and relative
firmness (above and below high
water).

C. Interruptions in beach.

1. Location.

2. Variations in beach char-
acteristics along interrup-
tions.

D. Direction of shore drift.

KE. Local use of beach.

F. Location of any beach structures.

IV. TERRAIN IMMEDIATELY BEHIND AND ApD-
JACENT TO BEACH:

A. Topography.

B. Exits from beach proper.

C. Access to utilities and communica-
tion lines.

Fig. 1 shows one of the maps from a fairly
early report. It is an enlargement to
1:50,000 of the Narbonne sheet of the
French 1:80,000 series. On it, the beaches
have been noted, numbered, and described
briefly. The 6-, 12-, 18-, and 30-foot con-
tours are shown and bottom gradients to
the 12-foot depth are given at intervals. At
the right, the shore line has been revised
from aerial photographs.

The following pages of the report in-
cluded the descriptive text and charts and
photographs which illustrated these beach
areas.

The preceding discussion has shown that
a wide variety of information is required in
preparing beach intelligence reports. Data
for the Board’s reports came from varied
and widespread sources. All published
literature was used as far as was possible. In
it were included engineering, geological,
geographic, and oceanographic journals;
travel books; and sometimes even nature
books on such subjects as bird life. Beach
information was often found under very odd
titles. All available publications of other
Governmental agencies were used as were

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9

all available maps and charts published by
United States agencies and by foreign
powers. Recent aerial photographs were
most valuable, and when available, lessened
the importance of the widespread and some-
times rather vague literature sources.

Proper interpretation of such source data —

together with a knowledge of beach proc-
esses and the interrelationships between
beach characteristics produced intelligence
reports. The nature of the source data and
the amount of interpretation required gov-
erned the reliability rating which could be
given to the report of any particular beach
area. The importance of the specialized
knowledge, however, can not be over-
emphasized, even though some of this
knowledge is not yet concrete or set down
experimentally in quantitative terms.
Broadly speaking, interpreting and corre-
lating known beach data into a complete
descriptive picture, required some know]l-
edge of the following items:

1. The characteristics of waves, currents, and
tides; and the effect of meteorological conditions
on these phenomena.

2. The probable relationship between the na-
ture of source deposits and the composition,
width, and surface features of the beach.

3. The relationship of beach slope to such
factors as composition, surf, and exposure.

4. The relationship of near-shore bottom
gradients to surf intensity and characteristics.

5. The relationship between predominant shore
currents and beach configuration.

6. The relationship of beach firmness to such
items as composition, season, or exposure of the
beach.

7. The relationship between such _ special
beach features as beach cusps, and composition,
season, or surf.

8. The interpretation of beach and under-
water features and the determination of under-
water depths from aerial photographs.

For an insight into these relationships, it
was necessary to draw on wide experience
in studying beaches along our own coast
and on data which verified some of the

trends of these relationships. For example,

beach slopes are of major importance in
some landing operations and yet specific in-
formation on slopes was often lacking. It
was, however, often possible to predict the
order of magnitude of the slope from knowl-
edge of particle size, exposure of the beach
and other factors.

Sepr. 15, 1947 MASON: BEACH INTELLIGENCE 291

€tx ee
z + x $ Rett
: 3

sibs eZ
's shits af bPaes LSS <
Cee

ok

ethod of reporting beach and near-shore information.

Boake 1:50,000 or 1 Inch to 0-79 Miles —

ih? ie!

=,

) yi :

Note revision of shore line at right of picture from aerial photographs.

Fie. 1.—Typical map from early study showing m

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES — VOL, 37, NO. 9

Fira. 2.— Model of sunken Liberty ship aligned as incorporated in artificial harbor. View
prior to test under storm-wave forces.

Fig. 3.—Model of sunken Liberty ship after test under storm-wave forces. Note displace-
ment of model and erosion under bow.

plant-disease

Sept. 15, 1947

This brief description of the work in-
volved in preparing beach intelligence has
indicated some of the problems that had to
be overcome. The problems, of course,
varied in degree with the amount and the
reliability of the source data available.
Beach intelligence, when prepared at a
point far removed from operations, is still
to some extent an art and not a science.

In addition to preparing beach intelli- |

gence reports, there was conducted labora-
tory experimental work which had direct
bearing on the war effort. These experi-
ments covered such items as the determina-
tion of depths over offshore bars or other
bottom discontinuities and the character-
istics of waves approaching a beach.

IRVING: TOMATIN IN PLANT AND ANIMAL DISEASE

293

Other agencies were aided by wave tank
experiments to determine the effects of
storms and wave forces on pontoons or
sunken ships designed as artificial harbors.
Figs. 2 and 3 show before and after views of
one of the test runs of storm waves on
sunken model Liberty ships. In these ex-
periments, an attempt was made to deter-
mine the best method of aligning the sunken
ships to withstand wave forces. These tests
were confirmed by experience during the
Normandy invasion.

Acknowledgment is made of the great aid
of Dr. W. C. Krumbein, Jay V. Hall, and
Mrs. Clara Edmunds, my colleagues in this
work.

BIOCHEMISTRY.—The significance of tomatin in plant and animal disease.!
Grorce W. I[Rvina, JR., U. S. Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chem-

istry.

The elucidation of the biochemical na-
ture of disease resistance in plants is a sub-
ject of challenging interest and one that is
engaging the attention of this and other
laboratories. Nearly all plants are prey to
certain bacterial, fungal, or virus diseases.
In many cases such diseases are responsible
for major crop failures, which result in eco-
nomic losses to the farmer, reduction in the
supply of farm produce, and, ultimately, in
increased costs to the consumer. For these

reasons, plant-disease control has long been

a problem of paramount importance to the
agricultural scientist. Great progress in
control has been made
through the development and application
of bactericidal and fungicidal chemicals and
through improvements in general farm
practice. High in importance in minimizing
the inroads of disease in plants has been the
development, through intensive plant-
breeding experiments, of varieties of eco-
nomically important plants that are highly
resistant to specific disease-causing organ-
isms. By such means it has been possible to

develop, in the case of many plants, va-

rieties that will grow and produce in spite
of infection (/, 2). As a result of these ex-

1 Received April 24, 1947. See footnote 1 of pre-
ceding article.

periments the plant geneticist can now
provide plant-disease investigators with, for
example, two tomato plants that will appear
almost identical as to foliage and as to
quality and size of fruit when grown in clean
soil. However, when these plants are grown
side by side in soil that is infested with the
fungus Fusarzum oxysporum f. lycopersict,
one will wilt and die while the other will re-
main vigorous and produce fruit. One of
these tomato plants is able to resist infec-
tion by Fusarvum and survive, while the
other is not able to resist the infection and
succumbs. What is it then, in the chemical
make-up of the plant that survives infection
that is responsible for its resistance to wilt
disease? This is the question for which it is
hoped a reasonable answer can be found. It
is believed that a full understanding of the
chemical factors involved in conferring re-

sistance upon a specific plant (the tomato)

toward a specific disease organism (Fusar-

zum) may provide clues upon which new

and perhaps better methods for controlling

disease in the tomato plant can be based. It

is possible, further, that the knowledge

gained in the biochemical study of disease

resistance in the tomato plant may reveal

factors of general significance to aid in the

elucidation of the disease resistance mech-

anism of other plants to other pathogens.

294

Investigations were initiated in this labo-
ratory on the basis of a simple working hy-
pothesis, namely, that certain tomato va-
rieties are resistant to Fusarium wilt be-
cause they are able to produce an antibiotic
agent or agents in sufficient quantity to in-
hibit the growth of the invading fungus.
Early in the work partial substantiation of
this hypothesis was obtained (3). It was
found that the resistant tomato plant does
elaborate a substance that markedly in-
hibits the growth of Fusarium in vitro, that
the substance could be concentrated by
suitable fractionation procedures, and that
it satisfied the prerequisites of an antibiotic
agent. This antibiotic agent from the
tomato plant is now designated tomatin.?

During the past two years intensive ef-
forts have been made to explore as fully as
possible the many interesting lines of in-
vestigation that the discovery of tomatin
has suggested. Research has been directed
with four main objectives in view: (a) to
isolate tomatin in the pure state and, once
this is accomplished, to characterize it
chemically; (b) to determine the antibiotic
spectrum of tomatin, that is, to determine
which microorganisms it inhibits and which
it does not; (c) to ascertain the role, if any,
played by tomatin in protecting tomato

* The difficulty that has been experienced in
selecting a suitable, unique name for this anti-
biotic agent demonstrates the pitfalls that con-
front those who would attempt to coin distinctive
names for unidentified substances of biological
origin. The substance was first named ‘‘lyco-
persicin,’’ a term derived from Lycopersicon, the
genus to which the tomato plant belongs. It was
soon learned, however, that the term lycopersicin
had been used previously to designate the red
pigment of the tomato (4), and, although the
use of the term in this sense was abandoned im-
mediately owing to the more general acceptance
of the term lycopene, it was considered wise, never-
theless, to abandon its use as a designation for the
antibiotic agent from the tomato plant in order
to avoid any possible confusion. After much de-
liberation the antibiotic was renamed ‘‘tomatin,”’
derived simply from the name tomato. Very
recently it has been learned that the term tomatin
has also been used previously to designate an al-
coholic beverage of foreign manufacture. In this
instance, however, there seems to be little likeli-
hood of confusion, and it is anticipated that the
term tomatin will be retained to designate the
antibiotic agent until its eventual isolation and
identification may make it preferable to rename it
in accordance with accepted chemical nomencla-
ture.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9

plants against Fusarvwm wilt; (d) to in-
vestigate the possible occurrence of tomatin
or tomatin-like substances in other plants.
Much of this program still remains to be
accomplished, but substantial progress has
been made toward the achievement of each
of the four objectives. It is known that
tomatin is a water and alcohol soluble, re-
markably heat stable, organic compound of |
relatively low molecular weight (3, 5); that
it inhibits many other organisms besides
Fusarvum, among them bacteria, other
fungi and yeastlike forms (4, 6); that to-
matin or similar substances occur in plants
like the potato, sweet potato, cabbage, and
pepper but are absent from a majority of
the other plants that have been examined
(5); and finally that tomatin occurs in wilt-
susceptible as well as in wilt-resistant to-
mato plants but probably to a greater ex-
tent in the latter (3, 7).

The discovery that tomatin is present
in wilt-susceptible tomato plants was some-
what disappointing since, obviously, it
would have been most attractive to be
able to explain the susceptibility of certain
tomato plants to wilt on the basis of the
complete absence of tomatin from such
susceptible varieties. Since this is not the
case, attention was turned to the investi-
gation of the effect of infection by Fusarium
on the tomatin level in resistant and sus-
ceptible tomato plants. In these experi-
ments it was found on the one hand, that a
high level of tomatin is maintained in
resistant tomato plants able to survive even
though they are badly infected; on the
other hand, it was found that tomatin
gradually disappears from susceptible
plants as invasion by Fusarium proceeds
and that tomatin is completely absent
from wilted and dying plants.

From these results it has been concluded
tentatively that wilt-resistance or wilt-
susceptibility in the tomato plant does not
necessarily depend upon the presence or
absence of tomatin, but rather upon the
rate at which the plant is able to elaborate
tomatin as the need for this protective
substance arises. If the metabolic processes
of a given tomato variety are capable of
producing tomatin at a rate sufficient to

Sepr. 15, 1947 .

maintain a protective level in the plant,
then that variety will be resistant to wilt;
if an adequate rate of tomatin production
can not be maintained, the variety will be
susceptible to wilt. While this conclusion is
plausible in the light of the data, conclusive
proof of its validity has not yet been ob-
tained. It is known that wilting is accom-
panied by a disappearance of tomatin, but
it can not be ascertained on the basis of the
information now available whether tomatin
disappears because the plant wilts or the
plant wilts because tomatin disappears.
The answer to this question, and an in-
vestigation of the mechanism whereby
tomatin is produced by the plant, are
among the more interesting problems for
future investigation.

As has been mentioned, the antibiotic
effectiveness of tomatin is not confined to
the fungus Fusariwm. It does, in fact,
inhibit much more strongly cultures of
certain of the fungi that cause disease in
humans; among the organisms inhibited are
those responsible for the dermatophytic
infections such as ringworm and athlete’s
foot, and the more serious, often systemic
infections such as blastomycosis, coccidioi-
domycosis, and histoplasmosis (4, 6)
(Tables 1 and 2). To many this is perhaps
the most interesting aspect of the work on
tomatin, since a fungistatic agent suitable
for parenteral use in humans is sorely
needed by the medical profession. This is
understandable, since no successful therapy
exists at present for either the mild local
infections or the serious systemic fungus
infections in man. Tomatin is by no means
the only antibiotic agent that possesses
marked fungistatic properties, but those
that have been tested heretofore are of
limited clinical usefulness because of their
toxicity (8). Accordingly, vigorous efforts
are being made to ascertain the poten-
tialities of tomatin for the treatment of
fungus diseases in humans. The knowledge
that tomatin inhibits these pathogenic
fungi in culture represents only the first
step in such an investigation. To be useful
for-human therapy tomatin must be shown
to be of sufficiently low toxicity to permit
safe administration or application in man

IRVING: TOMATIN IN PLANT AND ANIMAL. DISEASE 295

and to be effective against these same fungi
in man. Whether tomatin possesses desir-
able properties in this regard is now being
determined in cooperative experiments with
the Duke University School of Medicine.
These experiments have not yet progressed
to the point where definite conclusions
regarding the toxicity or 7m vivo effective-
ness of tomatin can be drawn.

All the lines of research mentioned earlier
in this report are being prosecuted as ac-
tively as possible. However, in all this work,
and in plans for the future extension of
these investigations, the isolation of to-
matin in the pure state and its identification
are of first importance. It is for this reason
that the major current effort is being ex-
pended in this direction. Once tomatin has
been obtained pure and its chemical nature
are known it 1s probable that many of the
present uncertainties regarding its possible
role in the disease resistance mechanism of
tomato plants and its possible effect upon
the human organism can be clarified in
direct, uncomplicated experiments.

The author takes pleasure in expressing
his appreciation and indebtedness to his
friends and associates Dr. Thomas D. Fon-
taine, Dr. S. P. Doolittle, Dr. Roberta M.
Ma, and Mrs. Janet B. Poole, whose enthu-
siastic efforts have been largely responsible
for the results presented in this report.

TaBLE 1.—ORGANISMS WHOSE GROWTH IS COMPLETELY
INHIBITED BY THE PRESENCE OF 1 UniT TOMATIN PER
ML. OF CULTURE MEDIUM

Organism Disease and remarks

Moniliasis (thrush, broncho-
mycosis).

Cryptococcus neoformans\ B35 Cryptococcosis (European

Debaryomyces histolytica blastomycosis, torulesis).

Candida (Monilia) albicans...

Trichophyton mentagrophytes|
Trichophyton interdigitale
Trichophyton rubrum
Trichophyton gypseum
Epidermophyton floccosum
Microsporum audouint |
Achorion gypseum |
Achorion schoenleini j

_| The dermatomycoses_ (ring-
worm, athlete’s foot, etc.).

Blastomyces dermatitidis...... North American blastomy-
cosis.

Coccidioides immitis..........| Coecidioidomycosis.

Histoplasma capsulatum...... Histoplasmosis.

296

TABLE 2.—ORGANISMS WHOSE GROWTH IS PARTIALLY INHIB-
ITED BY THE PRESENCE OF 1 Unit TOMATIN PER ML.
or CuLTURE MEDIUM

Organism Disease and remarks

Fusarium oxysporum f.lycopersici. .| Tomato wilt.
Fusarium oxysporum f.pisi........| Pea wilt.
Fusarium oxysporum f. conglutinans| Cabbage yellows.
Fusarium oxysporumf.lini........ Flax wilt. ‘

Actinomyces scabies. .......:..... Potato scab.

Sporotrichum schenckii............| Sporotrichosis.

Maduromycosis (Madura
foot, mycetoma)

Monosporium apiospermum........

Aspergillus niger )
Aspergillus clavatus ;...........-..
Penicillium notatum

Rarely pathogenic.

Gram positive.
Gram positive.
Gram positive.
Gram positive.
Gram negative.

Staphylococcus aureus............
IER CURGUIS 5 bio pienso fee © OL OLd A
Bacillus mycoides. eyes een
BGCULESESUDLUIS ere ere
IISA NCRIO WIOh COA 4 ok ode oedeue suo

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Portr, W. S., and Wetiman, F. L. De-
velopment of interspecific tomato hybrids
of horticultural value and highly resistant
to Fusarium wilt. U. 8. Dept. Agr.
Cire. 584. 1941.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 9

(2) Ports, W. 8., and Waker, H. B. The
Pan America tomato, a new red variety
highly resistant to Fusarium wilt. U. 8.
Dept. Agr. Cire. 611. 1941.

(3) Irvine, G. W., Jr., Fontaine, T. D., and
Doouttie, 8. P. Lycopersicin, a fungi-
static agent from the tomato plant.
Science 102: 9-11. 1945.

(4) Ducear, B. M. Lycopersicin, the red pig-
ment of the tomato, and the effects of condi-
tions upon its development. Washington
Univ. Studies 1: 22-45. 1913.

(5) Fonrarne, T. D., Irvine, G. W., Jr., and
DoourTtLz, 8. P. Partial purification
and properties of tomatin, an antibiotic
agent from the tomato plant. Arch.
Biochem. 12: 395-404. 1947.

(6) Irvine, G. W., Jr., Fonrarne, T. D., and
DooutrrLn, 8. P. Partial antibiotic
spectrum of tomatin, an antibiotic agent
from the tomato plant. Journ. Bact. 52:
601-607. 1946.

(7) Irvine, G. W., JR., Fonrartne, T. D., and
DoouitTiE, 8. P. The possible role of
naturally-occurring antibiotic agents in the
disease resistance of plants. Presented
before the Washington Section, Ameri-
can Chemical Society, October 10, 1946.
(To be published.)

(8) Reruy, H. C., ScHatz, A., and WAKSMAN,

A. Antifungal properties of anti-
biotic substances. Journ. Bact. 49: 585—
594. 1945.

BIOPHYSICS.—Harmony among vital substances.! Luis FELIPE VEGAS, Ministry
of Public Works, Caracas, Venezuela. (Communicated by ALEXANDER WET-

MORE.)

As vital substances we here consider
those, such as water, blood, etc., which are
indispensable to the existence of man and
the majority of living things. We have also
placed under this heading those substances
which are produced by a living organism,
such as the aqueous and vitreous humors
of the eye, or those of significance in the
digestive process as saliva and hydrochloric
acid. Finally, we have included those which
are important in the conservation of species,
as milk, ete.

From the chemical point of view, it is
very difficult to establish a relationship of
sunilarity between these substances. This
is clearly seen in the case of hydrochloric

1 Revised from the author’s article La armonia
entre las sustancias vitales, Bol. Soc. Venezolana
Cienc. Nat. 9 (59): 163-166. 1944. Translated

from the Spanish by Pedro J. Bald6é and Armando
Lazzari. Received February 5, 1946.

acid and albumen, in that the simplicity of
the former (HCl) is in striking contrast to
the complex form of the latter, which,
according to A. Gautier, is: C59 H#°? N®
Oens?.

If we take into consideration the physical
properties of these substances, we notice
that they have certain similarities, since
many are liquid at ordinary temperature,
and all, in conformity with the latest theo-
ries, may have similar electronic arrange-
ments. However, the similarity we shall
discuss is a new aspect of the close re-
lationship that exists between these sub-
stances. In 1937, we published a paper
entitled A study of the relations which exist
between specific inductive capacity, the index
of refraction of light, and density.? In that

2 Revista Colegio Ingenieros Venezuela 14
(123): 133-144. 1937.

Supt. 15, 1947

paper we pointed out the relationship
existing between the indices of refraction of
groups of substances and their respective
densities. This relation, with which we are
now concerned, came under the caption of
“Second Law,” which reads: ‘“There exists
in a given substance a constant relation
between the index of refraction raised to the
nth power and its density. J being the index
of refraction, and D the density, we have:
IY/D=a constant. For each value of N
there are an undetermined number of group-
forming substances. To these groups we
may give, as a characteristic, the same num-
ber which expresses the value of N. Thus,
group 2 will be formed by all substances
where NV =2, and group 3 by those where
N =8, ete.”

Group 3
Refrac- Density
tive D [3
3 3 ==
paar index - (relative D
ace to air)
IWeEte ier sede nots s,s 1.3330 .3686 772.026 | (3.06)1073
Human blood....| 1.3540 -4823 815.921 | (8.04) “
Albumen........ 1.3510 .4658 804.331 | (8.06) “
Blood serum..... 1.3483 4511 794.277 | (3.08) “
Wreaer a eeee co 1.4840 .2680 |1,032.482 | (8.16) “
Succinic acid..... 1.5338 -6082 |1,201.856 | (8.00)

Vitreous humor. .| 1.3400 .4061 777 .262 | (3.09)

WWNNNNNNHNNWWNH NY WD WY
is
()
(2)
J

«

«

Aqueous humor..!| 1.3400 -4061 Aides 2O2 a (er OO)
Salitwawt sce owe 1.3390 777.958 | (3.08) “
Hydrochloric acidt| 1.4100 . 8032 920.340 | (8.04) “
Woman’s milk...| 1.3484 .4516 798.662 | (3.07) “
Cow’s milk. ~-...| 1.3500 .4604 798.298 | (3.08) “
(dl) Lactie acid. .| 1.4414 .9947 965.970 | (3.10) “
Wrineseyaec. a 1.3400 .4061 (Sled 16> | (S05) ee"
(1—a@) Arabinose.| 1.5670 .8477 |1,225.831 | (3.14) “
1—Xylose....... 1.5440 E680 Callao nae anly (Sae eae
Average of the quotients (Baw)

* The indices of refraction which appear in both tables are
referred to sodium light.

+ Concentrated aqueous solution. However, pure hydro-
chloric acid (liquefied hydrochloric gas) also belongs to group 3.
From liquefied hydrochloric gas at a temperature of 16°C we get:
I =1.252; [3 =1.9625; D =645.785; I3/D =(8.04)10-3.

If we now try to find out to which of the
groups the vital substances belong, we shall
see that the few of them which we have been
able to investigate come under groups
3 and 2, as they are listed herewith in tabu-
lar form.

In both tables, opposite the name of
every substance, we find: first, its index of
refraction relative to air; second, the same
index raised to the nth power; third, its

VEGAS: HARMONY AMONG VITAL SUBSTANCES

297

density relative to air?; and fourth, the
ratio I/D.

It is interesting to note that the sub-
stances such as urea, succinic acid, arabi-
nose, and xylose, the quotients of which
greatly differ from the average, are all
anisotropic. That is, their physical prop-
erties differ for every direction about a
point and, in a general way, they do not
obey the Snellius-Descartes laws of refrac-
tion.

In the case of urea, which is uniaxial, the
ordinary index was used, and the inter-
mediate index for the other three, which are
biaxial.

The inclusion of hydrochloric acid and
water in the table of group 3 does not per-
mit applying the term “organic substances”
to this group. A different denomination
being necessary, the denomination “vital
substances’’ was adopted.

Group 2
Refrac- Density
Substance ive [2 z : zd
index (relative D
I to air)
Sardine oil...:5.:: 1.4802 | 2.1909 | 717.246 | (3.05)1073
Flerringvoil: .s.<7: 1.4780 | 2.1845 | 711.678 | (8.07) “
Menhaden oil..... 1.4800 | 2.1904 | 716.937 | (3.05) *
Cod-liver oil...... LAGOS 284s | lonOvOnma(asOg)h
Shark-liver oil..... VATA SE Poe SON CUSED (3 02)a.-
Dolphin oil....... APAGSSu le 2a a gdeal evel LOOula(Se Othman
pealoil seer tees W ATEN, | 2-17 29_) (AL OVE, | 1(37-04)_ ©
Spermaceti....... 1.5030 | 2.2590 | 730.858 | (83.09) “
Mardgeoiles ace. ae 1.4686 | 2.1568 | 705.491 | (8.06) “
Sheep’s-foot oil....| 1.4680 | 2.1550 | 709.590 | (3.04) “
Neat’s-foot oil. ...| 1.4730 | 2.1697 | 707.656 | (3.06) “
Horse’s-foot oil....| 1.4680 | 2.1550 | 706.109 | (3.05) “
Average of the quotients (SED) ee

It may interest physiologists to know
that acetone belongs to group 2, in which
the fats are grouped. From acetone we get:
T= 135939718477 DP 61 155; 2p
(3.02) 10-3

Although we have said that [Y/D is a
constant, we find small differences in the
lists of quotients. This is probably due to
the fact that (besides what has already been
said about anisotropic substances) the
same sample was not always used in meas-

3 To obtain the densities referred to air, multi-
ply the density referred to water by 773.395.

298

uring the index of refraction and the den-
sity of the substances. It could also be
explained by the fact that the temperature
was not the same at the times when the
index of refraction and density were being
measured. It may also be the result of both
causes acting simultaneously. Nevertheless,
in the case of water, the index of refraction
(1.33299) and the density (0.99823 or
772.026 relative to the air) were very care-
fully measured at a fixed temperature of
20° C. This determination allows us an
accurate value for the term I/D and
an approximate value could also be ob-
tained by computing the average of all the
values for this term in both groups. Doing
so, we find that the average value obtained
is almost identical to the one corresponding
to water, differing, only by 11 in the seventh
decimal place.

Quotient 2/7) tor water. es 5 ee 0.0030679
Average of all the quotients.......... 0.0030668
CONCLUSION

The relation shown in the tables between ~

the index of refraction and density reveals
the existence of a similar internal arrange-
ment among the substances belonging to

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9

the same group. As the constant [%/D=
(3.0679) 10-° is the same for both groups it
is quite possible that this indicates the
existence of some equilibrium or arrange-
ment between both groups.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The values for the indices of refraction and
the density can be found in many books on
physics, chemistry, and physiology, in addition
to many tables. The following were consulted
in connection with this study:

Evnrett, J. D. Unités et constantes physiques.

GAUTHIER-VILLARS. Fecueitl de constantes
physiques. Société Francaise de Physique,
Paris, 1913.

Gury, E. Physiologie. Paris.

Hari, P. Quimica fisiolégica. Editorial Labor,
Madrid, 1935.

Hopaman, Cu. D. Handbook of chemistry and
physics, ed. 22. 19387-1938.

NaTIONAL RESHARCH CounciL. International
critical tables of numerical data, physics,
chemistry and technology. 19323.

TyorpPez, Sir EK. Encyclopedia of industrial
chemistry. University Society, Inc., New
York.

Vueas, L. F. Estudio sobre las relaciones entre
el poder wnductcr especifico, el indice de
refraccion de laluz y ladensidad. Rev. Col.
Ingen. Venezuela 14 (123). 1937.

ETHNOLOGY .—Further light on the Delaware Indians as women.’ C. A. WEs-

LAGER, Wilmington, Del.

The author’s first essay relating to the
feminization of the Delaware Indians by
the Five Nations Iroquois reopened an old
subject which aroused several correspond-
ents to concur and dissent with the views
expressed and stimulated other papers on
the same theme.” In view of the divergence
of opinion the present essay is subjoined to
the first as a means of clarifying the writer’s
position and of introducing new data in
support of the following premises:

1 Received May 26, 1947.

7 WESLAGER, C. A. The Delaware Indians as
women, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 34: 381—
387. 1944.

Speck, FRANK G. The Delaware Indians as
women, Pennsylvania Mag. Hist. and Biogr. Oct.
1946: 377-389. In addition, a manuscript has been
submitted to the Pennsylvania Archaeologist by
Anthony Wallace entitled The status of the Dela-
ware Indians in the Iroquois Confederacy. The
writer had the privilege of reading this essay,
which at this writing has not yet been published.

1. The Five Nations in effect conquered the
Delaware prior to 1712, forcing them to pay
tribute. Either as a direct result of the conquest or
through some subsequent act on the part of the
Delaware, they were ‘‘feminized”’ by the Iroquois.

2. In the position of ‘‘women” the Delaware
were deprived of certain masculine prerogatives
and remained in the status of partial vassalage
until 1756, when, under the leadership of the
chief Tedyuskung, they were emancipated.

3. During the period when they were recog-
nized as ‘‘women,”’ not only by the Iroquois but
also by themselves and other Indian tribes, the
Delaware were not accorded treatment as honored
matrons. In fact, they were often humiliated and
treated contemptuously.

4. Other tribes during the same period dif-
ferentiated between the status of warrior
“men’’ and noncombatants allegorically termed
“women.’’ However, the position of women in
tribal society differed areally, and females were
not recessarily considered as inferiors.

The data offered in the original paper and
the material herein presented must be

Sepr. 15, 1947

accepted solely as accounts found in State
records, lacking in ethnographic detail and
leaving many questions unanswered. Nev-
ertheless, the colonial records stand among

few contemporary accounts accessible to-

day and must be given full credence. The
writer does not agree that these records are
of questionable value because they were

written by white scribes untrained in eth- |

nic observation. Actually, the Indian
speeches were interpreted by men thor-
oughly familiar with native institutions and
dialect, and in some cases the interpreters
themselves were of Indian descent. Indian
relations prior to 1800, especially in Penn-
sylvania, were of great moment, and after
carefully perusing the provincial records
it is my opinion that native ideology was
preserved as nearly as possible. In negotia-
tions between whites and Indians, the
Indian custom of exchanging wampum
belts predominated; the figurative language
employed was in accordance with native
expression as was the method of protracted
deliberation during negotiations.

Apart from the colonial records informa-
tion derives from other accounts which
epitomizes the relations between whites and
Indians. For example, the practice of the
Five Nations in demanding tribute from
subjugated tribes is succinctly described by
a contemporary author and observer who
wrote: ‘All the Nations round them have
for many Years intirely submitted to them

and pay a yearly tribute to them in Wam-

pum; they dare neither make War nor
peace without the consent of the Mohawks
fi.e., Five Nations]. Two old Men commonly
go about every Year or two to receive this
Tribute; and I have often had the Oppor-
tunity to observe what Anxiety the poor
Indians were under while these two old
Men remained in that part of the country
where I was.’”8

In aseparate volume, now in preparation,
I have discussed the bead tribute paid the
Five Nations by the Conoy and Nanticoke.!
Of the Conestoga (Susquehannah-Minquas)

3 COLDEN, CADWALLADER. The history of the
Five Nations of Canada 1: xviii. Reprinted A. S.
Barnes, New York, 1904.

4 An early history of the Nanticoke Indians,

shortly to be published by the Pennsylvania His-
torical Commission.

WESLAGER: THE DELAWARE INDIANS AS WOMEN

299

it was recorded that they ‘‘actually pay
tribute to the Five Nations, and either from
natural affection or Fear are ever under
their influence.°

Of the Delawares, it was written in 1698:
“That the Delaware Indians live at Min-
guannan about nine miles from the head of
Elke River «& fifteen miles from Christeen
& Thirty miles from Susquahanah & are
about Three hundred red men & are tribu-
tary to the Senecars [Seneca] and Susque-
hannahs fifty of them living at Minguhanan
& the rest upon Brandywine and Upland
Creeks.’’ |

This deposition specifically refers to the
Unami, and the area described is in north-
ern Delaware and southeastern Pennsyl-
vania. However, Munsi and/or Mahicanni
are referred to as the vanquished in the
following statement made by the Dutch
navigator De Vries, based on his observa-
tions made prior to 1650 in the Hudson
River region: ‘This tribe of Indians [Munsi
or Mahicanni] was formerly a powerful
nation, but they are brought into subjec-
tion, and made tributaries by the Maquas
[Mohawk].’’?

Again he writes: ‘‘The Maquas, as before
mentioned, and who hold most of the others
along the river to Fort Amsterdam under
tribute.’’®

The most significant recorded payment
of bead tribute by the tributary Delaware
took place at a Council at White Marsh,
May 19, 1712, in which the principal parti-
cipants were Governor Gookin, the sachems
Sasoonan, Scollitchy, Ealochelan, and
eleven other Indians. Scollitchy’s remarks,
with my italic, appear in full below?:

That many years ago being made Tributaries to
the Mingoes or 5 Nations & being now about to

5 Minutes of the Provincial Council of Pennsyl-
vania 3: 204. This work published by the State,
1851-52, was issued in 16 volumes. The first three
volumes were printed by Jo. Severns & Co., Phila-
delphia, the remainder by Theo. Fenn & Co., Har-
risburg. Hereafter reference will be made to this
source as ‘‘Minutes.”

6 Maryland archives 16: 520. Published by His-
torical Society of Maryland.

7 De Vries, Davip Prererson, Voyages from
Holland to America, trans. H. C. Murphy. New
York. 1853. Typed copy in possession of Wilming-
ton Institute Free Library, 92.

Op. cit:, VO3.

9 Minutes 2: 546-547.

300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

visit them, they thought fitt first to wait on the
Govr. & Council to lay before them the Collecon
they had made of their tribute to offer and to
have a conference with the Govr. upon it, they
therefore laid on the floor 32 belts of Wampum of
various figures, and a long Indian pipe called the
Calamet with a stone head, a wooden or cane
shaft & feathers fixt to it like wings with other
ornaments.

This pipe they said, upon making their sub-
missions to the five Nations, who had subdued
them & obliged them to be their tributaries, those
nations had given to these Indians to be kept by
them, that at all times thereafter, upon shewing
this pipe where they Came, they might be known
to be the friend & subjects of the five Nations, and
be received by them when they Came amongst
them.!° ;

Then they proceeded to open their Belts &
Declared for what purpose & with what intentions
each of them particularly was sent.

The first belt they said was sent by one, who at
that time of their agreemt. or submission was an

Infant & Orphan, the son of a Considerable man -

amongst them.

The second Belt was presented by one who was
also the son of one then Deceased, but Desired to
be taken in & accounted as one of the children
to those of the five nations, that he might have
clear & free passage amongst them.

The third belt is presented by another Orphan
who desires the same.

The fourth by a son of one then living & sends
it so large to Express his respect, as that it shall
Cover the Pipe or Calamet.

The fifth is to Inform that tho’ the principal of
the family that sends it be dead, Yet they Con-
tinue their Obedience & shew their Intention by
this present.

The Sixth sent by another who desires to be
regarded as a Child of the 5 Nations.

The seventh by a woman who Desires to be
Considered according to her sex; desires peace
that she may eat & Drink in Quiet & is always
willing to pay tribute.

The Eighth by a woman to the same purpose,
desires she may make & keep fires in quiet.

The Ninth by a woman to the same purpose
that she may plant & reap in quiet.

The tenth by a woman, desires peace & ease
from ye rising of the sun to his going down.

The Eleventh by a woman, Desiring they may
always have fair weather & sunshine with ye 5
nations.

The Twelfth by a woman, that a long time
ago they made a peace & Desired that it may
always be kept strong and firm.

The thirteenth by a woman that formerly the
five Nations lived amongst us, that tho’ now they

10 The Five Nations gave the Nanticokes a belt
of white wampum, containing three hands
wrought in black beads as a pledge of peace when
they made them tributary. It served the same
purpose as the pipe did for the Delawares.
Minutes 2: 246.

VOL. 37, NO. 9

are at a Distance they may live Quiet.

The fourteenth by a woman Desiring their
Houses may be the same.

The fifteenth by a woman, that they are glad
they can enjoy peace so quietly to bed and rise
in the same manner.

The sixteenth, That formerly some french
Inhabited among the five Nations, but a War
breaking out, the five nations had Destroyed
them, they pray that they may always do ye same.

The Seventeenth that they shall always keep
an Open & Clean House for the 5 Nations & be
ready to receive them.

The Eighteenth That as they have had Houses
among the 5 nations, they Desire they may al-
ways have the same privilege.

The nineteenth That they may build their
houses firm, as to continue there long, and not be
obliged to make them slight, as if they were on
all occasions to fly.

The twentieth to the same purpose.

The twenty-first that they build Houses &
keep fires without molestation.

The twenty second that they have built Houses,
rest securely in them & do not Doubt but they
shall have the same liberty.

The Twenty third, That formerly one of the Chiefs
of those Nations came down & Dwelt among ym.,
that they Regarded him always as their superior &
one of them. ’

The twenty fourth That when they arrive, they
would fully hear & understand them; and that
they may have Liberty to pass & repass in all
places.

The twenty-fifth that they may make Racoon ~

& other Blankets to cloathe them & sett Down
in them in peace.

The twenty sixth that they are sorry the french
should Destroy any of them, for that they take
the Loss of any of them to be the Loss of them-
selves.

The twenty seventh That having heard that in
their Warrs they had obtained a victory over the
french, they were Glad & Congratulated them
upon it.

The Twenty Eight that they are glad their
young men have the Privilege of going far from
their own habitacons to hunt abroad in peace &
that they can return home & Hat & Drink & En-
joy themselves.

The Twenty Ninth that they are Glad they
can go in peace to hunt far abroad, that they may
return home & Eat quietly meat to make them
strong.

The Thirtieth they are Glad they can hunt &
bring home relief to their poor relacons.

The Thirty first They are sorry that their
Children as well as theirs die; that their Eyes
have been shutt up by it, that they could not see
the Sun; Desire they may be opened & that all
may be cheerful.

The Thirty second They hope they will be
pleased with the presents now offered, and that
their children will have it in Everlasting Re-
membrance; these last 24 were all sent by women

Smpt. 15, 1947

the Indians reckoning the paying of Tribute be-
comes none but women & children.

From the tone and content of the mes-
sages accompanying each string of wam-
pum, it appears that the tribute paid by
the Delaware also served as gifts to confirm
certain understanding previously agreed
upon by the two tribal groups. This entire
institution of bead tribute is characterized
with undertones and nuances that are lost
upon us today, and in view of the scant
information, the writers prefer to defer
offering further interpretation except to
emphasize the references to ‘‘submission”
in the quotation just cited. There can be
little doubt that a conquest occurred, al-
though all writers have not accepted this
as fact. For example, Heckewelder wrote:
“Tt is admitted by the Lenape themselves
that they and their allies were made women
by the Iroquois. But how did this happen?
Not surely by conquest or the fate of bat-
tle.’’!! Certainly the admission by the Dela-
ware chiefs: Scollitchy (in the above quota-
tion), Sassoonan, Tedyuskung, and Beaver,
whose statements were previously quoted”?
as well as the depositions herein cited, leaves
no doubt that a conquest took place. |

Additional evidence can be added from
the Five Nations. An Iroquois sachem
called The Belt, addressing Governor
Robert Morris at a Council held at Carlisle,
January 16, 1756—interpreted by Conrad
Weiser who understood Mohawk—referred
to “the Delawares who were a tribe con-
quered by and entirely dependent upon
them.’’8 The next year at Lancaster, Little
Abraham, a Five Nations speaker de-
claimed: ‘‘We must inform you that in for-
mer times our Forefathers conquered the
Delawares and put petticoats on them.’’4

11 HECKEWELDER, JOHN. Customs, manners etc.:
xxvil, Philadelphia, 1876.

12 Weslager, op. cit.

13 Minutes 7: 3.

14 Minutes 1: 540. An admission by the Dela-
ware made to Sir William Johnson, July 1756,
explains why they were so easily led astray by the
French in attacking the English. ‘‘We are looked
upon as Women, and therefore when the French
came amongst us, is it to be wondered they are
able to seduce us?’ Documents relative to the
colonial history of the State of New York, ed. E. B.
O’Callaghan, 7: 157. Albany, 1856.

Gideon Hawley, Dec. 27, 1755, quoted the
Delaware as follows to Sir William Johnson: ‘‘We

WESLAGER: THE DELAWARE INDIANS AS WOMEN

301

The question that has long perplexed
students is why the Five Nations singled
out the Delawares and reduced them to
womanhood whereas other subjugated
tribes merely paid wampum tribute without
sacrificing honor or status.

L. H. Morgan, who made the first and
classic analysis of Iroquois society, offers a
traditional explanation not lacking in plaus-
ibility:

After they [the Delawares] had been subdued
and had acknowledged their dependence by
sending tributary wampum, they made an inroad
upon a western nation under the protection of the
Iroquois, notwithstanding their knowledge of
the treaty and a prohibition against its infringe-
ment. A deputation of Iroquois chiefs went im-
mediately to the country of the Delawares and
having assembled the people in council they de-
graded them from the rank of even a tributary
nation. Having reproved them for their want of
faith, they forbade them from ever after going out
to war, divested them of all civil power, and de-
clared that they should henceforth be as women.
This degradation they signified in the figurative
way of putting upon them the Gi-ki-ah, or skirt
of the female, and placing in their hands a corn
pounder thus showing that their business ever
after should be that of women.

This statement, if true, would change
somewhat the sequence of events in relation
to the feminization. It could mean in effect
that after their defeat the Delawares, like
the other subjugated tribes, merely paid the
Iroquois wampum tribute. But, unlike the
other tributary nations, they performed a
warlike act without the consent of their
overlords, and for this breach of contract,
they were degraded to the ignominious
position of women, their independence for-
feited.

It must not be overlooked that Delaware
liberation from their position as womenfolk
was a product of an era in which white
pressures were being exerted on Indian
society as part of political intrigue. The
Five Nations yielded to English influences,
especially through the offices of Sir William
Johnson, who was appointed by the Crown
to supervise Indian affairs in the Northern

are women, our uncle must say what we must do,
he has the Hatchett and we must do as he says,
tis true Brother We have not the hatchet. We are
poor Women and have got out of temper.” Op.
cit. 48.

16 Morean, Lewis H. League of the... Iro-
quots: 328. New York, 1922.

302

Department. The Shawnee, Delaware, and
a number of western tribes remained within
the French sphere of influence. The out-
break of hostilities following Braddock’s
defeat demonstrated to the English that the
Indians held the balance of power, and
ultimate victory would come to the army
controlling the most powerful Indian allies.
Sir William, shrewd in politics and well-
versed in Indian affairs, realized that the
way to win over the Delaware lay not only
through presents, flattery, and settlements
of land disputes, but chiefly by according
them recognition as a nation of warrior
“men.” This meant removing their skirts
at least in the name of the Crown, hoping
that his action would influence the Five
Nations to do likewise. Accordingly, on
April 17, 1756, in a letter to the Lords of
Trade in London after a meeting with
Delaware representatives, he wrote: “I
concluded this Treaty by Taking off the
Petticoat, or that invidious name of Women
from the Delaware Nation which hath been
imposed on them by the 6 Nations from the
time they conquered them.’’!

Sir William’s actual speech to the Dela-
ware was as follows: “I do in the name of
the Great King of England your. father
declare that henceforward you are to be
considered as Men by all your Brethren the
English and no longer as Women, and I
hope that your Brethren of the 6 Nations
will take it into consideration follow my
example and remove this invidious distinc-
tion which I shall reeommend to them.’’”

As has already been pointed out, the
Iroquois eventually extended certain rights
of manhood to the. Delaware, but only after
Tedyuskung, with Quaker support, forced
their hand.

Turning for a moment to the Indian
concept of the “‘man” warrior opposed to
the ‘“woman”’ nonwarrior, one must remem-
ber that the status of the female differed
areally. Among certain tribes her position
appears to have been no better than chattel.
Elsewhere, she enjoyed a position of in-
fluence; for example, ‘“‘queens’’ were known

16 Documents relating to the colonial history of
New York, op. cit. 7: 119.
a7 Tbid.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9
to have in several Eastern
tribes.18

In negotiations with colonial authorities,
Indian women were frequently allowed a
voice, as, for instance, during a meeting
with the Shawnee, June 30, 1707. Address-
ing Governor Evans, “‘an Indian spoke in
behalf of the women: We are concluded in
the alliance before spoken of, as well as our
men, so we ask the Govrs. Protection and
desire the Govr. will accept this present of
skins which freely we make him as a Tes-
timony of our kindness.’’ To which the
governor replied that he would treat them
as friends and sisters.’’!®

On June 16, 1710, during a meeting be-
tween the Pennsylvania authorities and
Tuscarora chiefs, it was recorded: ‘‘They
signified to us By a Belt of Wampum which
was sent from their old Women, that those
Implored their friendship of the Christians
& Indians of this Govmt. that without
danger or trouble they. might fetch wood &
water,’’?°

Several quotations serve to illustrate the
high regard for ‘‘men’’ in the guise of war-
rlors.

On July 2, 1754, the famous Mohawk
speaker Hendrick addressed Governor
James Delacey, urging him to take up arms
against the French and saying: “Look at
the French, they are Men; they are fortify-
ing everywhere. But we are ashamed to say
it. You are all ike women, bare and open
and without any Fortification.’”!

In 1756 the Iroquois chief Scarroyady
urged Governor Morris to declare war on
the renegade Delaware and said: ‘Stand up
with your hatchet in your hand, and use it

“reigned”

18 Conrad Weiser wrote that he dined at an
Indian town ‘‘where an old Seneka Woman reigns
with great authority.’”? Minutes 5: 349. Indian
‘‘Queens’’ were recorded for the Conestoga; also
for the Choptank and Assateague on the Eastern
Shore, see WinitiAmM B. Marys, Indian towns of
the southeastern part of Sussex County, Del., Ar-
chaeological Society of Delaware, 1940; also The
Choptank Indians, op. cit. 2: 5. 1937.

In this connection, it is well known that women
enjoyed considerable prestige among the Five
Nations. Matrons controlled the succession of
chiefs, and, although unskilled in war, their in-
fluence was manifest on warriors and chiefs.

19 Minutes 2: 388.

20 Tbid.

21 Minutes 7: 79.

Sept. 15, 1947

mantfully. Your enemies have got great
advantage by your Inactivity. Show them
you are Men.’’”

In the relations between Delaware and
Five Nations, there constantly appear
references to the ‘‘man”’ warrior versus the
woman nonwarrior and the superiority of
the former. Canyase, a Mohawk chief, ex-
pressed it this way: ‘‘We, the Mohocks are

Men; we are made so from above, but the

Delawares are Women, and under our
protection, and of too low a kind to be Men.’’*

The Delaware chief Tedyuskung usually
referred to the Five Nations as Uncles, and
once said, using the singular form: “He is
a Man and often told us he ought to see
Things first and Consider what is to be
done.’’4

Accompanying the concept of woman as
a nonwarrior was the notion of chastisement
as a form of punishment contrasted with

the challenge for battle that one would —

extend to a warrior opponent. Scarroyady
reported in 1756 what had passed at Onon-
daga between the Five Nations Council and
two Delaware deputies. He said: ‘‘The Six
Nations in their Reply expressed great
Resentment at the Delawares; they threat-
ened to shake them by the head, saying
they were drunk and out of their senses, and
assured them if they did not perform what
they promised, they would be severely
chastized.’’?® |

Even the white leaders became conscious
of the use of the term, and in 1755 Maj.
Gen. William Shirley, commander of the
English forces in North America, told the
Six Nations the following: ‘“‘The Delaware
and Shawnese have always lived under
your direction. They looked upon you as
their Masters, and you looked upon them
as Women who wore Petticoats. They never
dared to do anything of importance without
your leave, for they knew if they did you
would chastise them; yet those People now
have dared to make war upon your antient
Friends.’’?6

The concluding reference is of the utmost
significance; it appears in the documentary

22 Minutes 7: 297.
23 Minutes 7: 297.
24 Minutes 8: 200.
25 Minutes 7: 71.
2 Minutes 7: 22.

WESLAGER: THE DELAWARE INDIANS AS WOMEN

303

accounts of the intercourse between the
Five Nations and Catawba, emphasizing
both the concept of the warrior ‘‘man’’ and
the recognition of emasculation as the figu-
rative method of degrading a warrior to the
status of noncombatant female. So bitter
was the state of warfare that obtained
between the Iroquois and Catawba that in
1744 the whites exerted every effort to
bring about peace. At a treaty council held
in Lancaster June 30, commissioners from
Virginia and Maryland met deputies of the
Six Nations, and the following account was
prepared by Conrad Weiser for the records.
Weiser’s familiarity with Iroquois idiom
and philosophy served him in good stead in
interpreting the speaker.

Gachadow, the speaker addressed the whites
saying, ‘“‘“You charge us with not acting agreable
to our Peace with the Catawbas, and we will re-
peat truly to you what was done:

“The Governor of New York at Albany in be-
half of Assaraquoa [meaning Big Knife, the
name applied by the Mohawk to the Governor of
Virginia] gave us several belts from the Cherickees
and Catawbas and we agreed to a Peace if those
Nations would send some of their Great Men to
Us to confirm it face to face, and that they would
Trade with us, and desired that they would ap-
point a time to meet at Albany for this purpose,
but they never came. —

‘‘We then desired a Letter might be sent to the
Catawabas and Cherikees to desire them to come
and confirm the Peace. It was long before an
Answer came, but we met the Cherikees and
Confirmed the Peace, and sent some of Our People
to take care of them untill they returned to their
own country.

“The Catawbas refused to come, and sent us
word that we were but women, that they were men
and double men for they had two P s; that they
would make Women of Us, and would be always
at War with us. They are a deceitful People. Our
Brother Assaraquoa is deceived by them; we
don’t blame him for it, but we are sorry he is so
deceived.’’27

So bitter, in fact, was the feeling between
them that “‘the Catawbas had declared to
the Tutulows and Cherakees that they
would never sue for Peace with the Six
United Nations, but that they would fight
them whilst there was one of them alive,
and after their death their very Bones
shall fight the Six Nations.’’*®

The writer submits that the citations

27 Minutes 4: 721.
28 Minutes 5: 4738.

304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

offered in the foregoing discussion, ap-
pended to those presented in the previous
paper, constitute overwhelming evidence
in support of the premises enumerated at
the beginning of this essay.

VOL. 37, No. 9

The writer acknowledges the assistance of
Dr. Frank G. Speck and Dr. William N.
Fenton in the preparation of the manu-
script of this paper but in no way commits
them to the ideas herein expressed.

ETHNOLOGY.—Notes on a Cherokee migration story... JoHN WiTtHoFT, Uni-

versity of Michigan.

A Cherokee tradition of migration from
the Ohio Valley, mentioned by Adair and
Haywood,? would suggest a recent separa-
tion of the Cherokee from the northern
Iroquois and possible identification of the
Cherokee with specific archeological com-
plexes in the Ohio area. Cherokee ethno-
graphic data indicate, however, that
Cherokee culture is essentially Southeastern,
not a recent importation; available data on
Cherokee archeology suggests that the
Cherokee have been long resident in their
present area. Cherokee culture seems to
show closest relationship to Creek. Thus it
would be extremely desirable to evaluate
Haywood’s and Adair’s suggestion and
gather further data relating to Cherokee
traditions of tribal origin and movement,
especially in view of the Delaware tradi-
tions about the Talligewi.

While engaged in field work among the
Eastern Cherokee of Qualla Reservation,
North Carolina, at several periods during
the past two years, J attempted to gather
some data relating to this question. I could
find no vestiges of any such migration
legend or of any consciousness of Cherokee
relations to the northward. Traditional
material relating to the Iroquois was sparse,
and all pertained to the period of the
Iroquois-Cherokee wars. The Iroquois are
known as ani‘ sunaka (Seneca People), prob-
ably because the Seneca were the Iroquois
group best known to the Cherokee. Cherokee
informants who had met Iroquois were con-
scious of lexical cognates in the language,
but had little sense of the language relation-
ship.

1 Received March 17, 1947.

2 ADAIR, JAMES, The history of the North America
Indians: 227. London, 1775. Haywoopn, Joun,
Natural and aboriginal history of Tennessee: 226.
Nashville, 1823.

(Communicated by W. N. Frnron.)

The Cayuga form of the general Iroquois
name for the Cherokee, as given by
Deskaheh (Alex General), of Six Nations
Reserve, Ontario, Canada, is wiya’take-
hona, ‘‘people in the hollow or valley.”
(Compare Mohawk Oyata’ge‘ronno”’,
Onondaga Oyata’ge‘he’no™”, Seneca Oya-

_da’ge‘o’ino”—“‘cave or burrow dwelling

people,” etc. J. N. B. Hewrrr, The name
Cherokee and tts derivation, Amer. Anthrop.,
n.s., 2: 591-593. 1900.—W.N.F.)

Work with two of the older and more con-
servative informants, Will West Long and
Mollie Sequoyah, gradually brought out the
fragments of a migration tale that they had
heard in their childhood. According to this
tradition, the Cherokee had come into their
present area from a southwestern direction.
Mollie thought that there might still be
Cherokee back there somewhere—perhaps
in South America. The immigrating Cher-
okee destroyed and displaced a race of
giants, called, according to Will, tcikamoka.
These giants were the people who used as
tips for their arrows the large projectile
points found by archeologists in this area.
Will recognized two basic groups of Chero-
kee: the original group, from which his
people split off before migration, called
anig‘a‘du'‘wagi’’, ‘“‘confederated people’’;
and the Cherokee who came to the Hast,
onda'se'lagi®’, ‘“‘they separated from the
bunch.’’ The second group preceded the
first into the East, and the two divisions
seem to represent the middle and Western
Cherokee dialect groups.

The name tcikamoka is apparently not a
Cherokee word, and is doubtless a garbled
reference to the eighteenth-century Chero-
kee-Creek-Shawnee renegade towns on the
lower Tennessee River, known as Chick-
amauga or Nickajack. Indians from these
towns came to the Qualla area in the early

Smpr. 15, 1947

nineteenth century, and some Qualla Cher-
okee still carry Nickajack as part of a
personal name (Nickajack George, for ex-
ample). Se sia

When questioned about the other names,
Will said that Kadu‘wa‘’ was an old name
for the Cherokee and noted that the large
fertile bottom at Governors Island, N. C.,
about 8 miles east of the present reserva-
tion, is still known as kadu‘wa?hi’, “‘place
of confederated people.” This bottom con-
tains several large archeological sites. Will
also noted that this word was related to
gadu‘ei’’, the name of the Cherokee mutual
aid and work society. Speck and Schaeffer
have done a thorough study of this society,
and considered it as a survival of a basic
Cherokee-Iroquois institution?; I should
suggest that it represents the surviving
structure of a Cherokee town, its political
function usurped by an introduced council
and constitutional government. We may
note that kadu‘wa’ is the name by which
the Cherokee were known to many of their
northern neighbors, especially the Dela-
ware, Shawnee, and _ other Algonkian
peoples.*

Will’s second Cherokee group name sup-
plies us with another possible etymology for
the name Cherokee, a form that requires
further checking but that seems to permit
analysis without distortion of the Cherokee
elements. Another, and perhaps the most
convincing interpretation for this name, is
not Cherokee at all and would derive the
name from the Creek, Celok‘okalke, ‘‘people
of another language” (celokalki, ‘“‘Chero-
kees’’).6 This idea has already been sug-
gested by Swanton‘ and would indicate that

3 SpEcK, FRANK G., and SCHAEFFER, CLAUDE
E., The Mutual-ard and volunteer company of the
eastern Cherokee: as recorded 1n a book of minutes
in the Sequoyah syllabary, compared with mutual-
aid societies of the northern Iroquois. Journ.
Washington Acad. Sci. 35: 169-179. 1945.

4 Dr. Frank G. Speck informs me that the
Delaware cognate, Kadu’ha, means cold, shiver-
ing.

5 LoUGHRIDGE, R. M., and Hopezr, D. M.,
Muskogee dictionary: St. Louis, 1890. The Yuchi
is tsala’‘ki, plural tsala’‘kiha (Frank G. Speck).
The Cherokee equivalent is tsala‘ki’, plural
ani’tsala‘ki’.

6 SwANTON, JOHN R., The Indians of the South-
eastern United States. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull.

WITTHOFT: A CHEROKEE MIGRATION STORY

305

the Creek name by which the Cherokee were
first known to Europeans became the gen-
eral name for them in the Southeast, and
was soon accepted even by the Cherokee
themselves; names for other tribal groups
have come into existence after a similar
fashion.

Quite possibly our two early references to
Cherokee migration from the Ohio Valley
pertain to Cherokee expeditions into that
area during the Colonial Period. The re-
cently collected tale is apparently a much
abbreviated version of the Creek migration
legend, and appears to be the story which
motivated Sequoyah to journey into Mexico
in search of a Cherokee group in the legend-
ary homeland, to die in San Fernando,
Tamaulipas, in 1843. Such an association
would indicate that it is not a recent ac-
cretion to Cherokee folklore brought to
Qualla Reservation by Creek stragglers
drawn to a refuge area. Sequoyah’s early
biographer, George Foster, tells us:

One bright morning, in the year 1840, there
started out in the Arkansas Cherokee Nation,
one of the most peculiar expeditions in search of
knowledge that the world has ever known. First
and foremost in the company we recognize our
friend, Se-quo-yah. He had heard the ancient
tradition, that a part of his people were in New
Mexico, having been separated from them, some
time before the advent of the white race, and
somewhere there, he expected to find a missing
link in the linguistic chain. And for this purpose,
he started westward.’

Gabriel refers to the same tale in his ac-
count of Sequoyah’s death:

But still that strange discontent within him was
not quieted. It became a yearning to achieve the
unattainable. It robbed his declining years of
peace. An old, half-forgotten tradition of the
Cherokees told of a band which in antiquity had
wandered into the distant land of Mexico and had
never been heard of since. Death caught up with
Sequoyah in the little Mexican settlement of the
long lost Cherokees—still striving to make dreams
come true.®

137: 217.1946. Swanton, in Webb, Wm.58., An
archaeological survey of the Norris Basin, in east-
ern Tennessee. Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 118:
204-205. 1938.

7 FostER, GEorGE E., Se-quo-yah: 155. Phila-
delphia, 1885.

8 GABRIEL, RALPH Henry, Elias Boudinot and
his America: 105. Norman, Okla., 1941.

306

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9

BOTANY .—The ecology of the wild kidney bean Phaseolus polvelachigs (L.) BSP.

H. A. Atuarp, Arlington, Va.

In view of the great value of beans as a
human food crop all over the world, and the
increasing interest in the genetics of the
various members of the group in problems
of breeding for disease resistance and insect
tolerance, and increased productivity and
climatic adaptation, it seems advisable to
bring together all our knowledge of the
wild bean of the eastern United States so
far as possible.

According to Small (1913) three species
of Phaseolus occur in the eastern United
States, P. senuatus Nutt., P. smilacifolius
Pollard, and P. polystachios (L.) BSP. The
first two species are Florida or Gulf coast
species, occurring in dry pinelands and
hammocks. P. polystachios extends from
Florida northward to Canada and Min-
nesota and westward into Louisiana and
Nebraska. I know nothing of the behaviors
and relationships of P. sinuatus or P.
smilacifolius, whether the cotyledons are
epigean as in the case of the beans of P.
vulgaris, or hypogean as is the behavior of
P. polystachios, as established by Harry A.
and Howard F. Allard (1940). This would
be a very interesting point to consider,
however, in determining the relationships
of these southern species.

Following are the distinguishing botani-
cal characters of Phaseolus polystachios:

A twining, finely pubescent, herbaceous per-
ennial with tuberous root; leaves 3-foliolate, the
leaflets roundish-ovate; flowers in numerous
peduncled, loosely flowered racemes, 4 to 10 inches
long or more, purplish-blue, small, showy, pro-
duced from midsummer till fall; sinlls bearded
lengthwise on the upper surface; keel spirally
coiled; pods somewhat curved, drooping, 2.5—
5.0 cm long, 5-8 mm wide; beans 4 or 5, round
reniform, 3-5 mm long, dark brown, finely
speckled with black; cotyledons hypogean. A
plant of thickets and woodlands on the Coastal
Plain and in the Piedmont area.

HABITAT RELATIONS OF PHASEOLUS
POLYSTACHIOS

Phaseolus polystachios is a thicket and
woodland plant in its natural habitat and
can not compete with grassland or the

1 Received April 14, 1947.

broomsedge ‘alehiant of open fields and pas-
tures. Even if it were adapted to such open
conditions, the trampling and browsing of
stock would probably lead to its ultimate
extermination here, for it is a delicate
climbing plant. In northeastern Virginia, I
have found it scattered over the steep
rocky slopes of Bull Run Mountain, but it
is far from common here. In truth I have
never found it common anywhere in its
range. In the Bull Run area it is usually
found on the warmer more protected east
slopes. It is much more common on the
wooded slopes of the granitic knobs of Big
Cobbler, Rattlesnake, and Oventop, all
outliers of the Blue Ridge Province. I
have never found it on the higher ridges of
the Blue Ridge or the Alleghenies.
According to Small and Carter (1913) it
occurs on sandstones, shales, and schists in
Lancaster County, Pa. In the Bull Run area
it occurs on the drier ridges of the Cambrian
quartzites, which in weathering produce a
sterile, porous, sandy type of soil. I have
never quite understood the restricted dis-
tribution of this plant on the Bull Run
ridges and its strong predilection for the
upper slopes Just below the outcropping,
steeply tilted sandstone ledges. This rela-
tion holds throughout the length of these
north-south ridges. One ecological relation-
ship is very pronounced, however: this bean
does not tolerate anywhere heavy, wet
soils or heavy shade. The soils of the upper
slopes of the ridges are not only drier,
thinner, and always thoroughly drained,
but the character of the forest is more open
here, and better illumination obtains from
the fact that it is dominated by a less
vigorous stand of chestnut oaks. This com-
bination of favorable factors may be re-
sponsible for the establishment of the wild
bean in this particular zone. In favorable
woodland situations there is a noticeable
tendency for the plants to occur in colonies.
This is due to the fact that when a perennial
rootstock has become established the seeds
produced tend to fall near the parent plant,
and the germination of these year after
year favors the development of colonies.

Smet. 15, 1947

These colonies gradually enlarge as the
seeds from the twining, scrambling aerial
stems of the peripheral plants reach more
outlying areas.

Although in Gray’s Manual (1908) the
characterization of the genus Phaseolus
states that the fleshy cotyledons rise out of
the ground nearly unchanged in germina-
tion, L. H. Bailey (1935, p. 458) says that
the bean differs from the pea in being
epigeal in germination that is pushing the
cotyledons above the ground. I have found
that this is not true for the wild kidney
bean. As previously stated the cotyledons
have an hypogean existence, as in the case
of the cultivated Scarlet Runner bean
Phaseolus multiflorus Willd.

Under favorable woodland conditions
where there is an abundant, protective,
loose, forest litter and a layer of rich leaf
mold, the wild bean becomes perennial, and
develops a large, tough rootstock very
deeply rooted in the loose, porous soil. This
rootstock may become an inch or more in
diameter at the crown and produces here
many buds at the leaf-mold level. Some of
these rootstocks appear to have survived
for many years, and thick fleshy roots have
penetrated the soil for 15 to 18 inches. The
wild bean grows vigorously in well-drained
garden soil, but owing to the wet, soggy
condition of such soil in winter, the root-
stocks do not well survive the winter here.

The wild bean is a tuber-producing plant,
storing up an abundance of reserve ma-
terial in good-sized spindle-shaped tubers,
only a portion of which is used in the annual
formation of the slender aerial stems. I did
not realize that tuber formation was such a
pronounced characteristic of this species
until I had occasion to dig up some root-
stocks in the spring of 1947 in the Bull Run
Mountain area. In this respect, as in the
hypogean behavior of the cotyledons, the
wild bean shows closer affinities with the
Scarlet Runner assemblage, Phaseolus
multiflorus, than with the common field and
snap beans Phaseolus vulgaris L.

LENGTH-OF-DAY BEHAVIOR

I have studied the length-of-day be-
havior of the wild bean rather fully, both in
localization experiments and on various

ALLARD: ECOLOGY OF WILD KIDNEY BEAN 307

lengths of day (Allard, 1938). In the lo-
calization tests one stem of a rootstock was
kept under short-day conditions of 10
hours (from 6:00 a.m. to 4:00 P.M.) each
day, while another stem from the same
plant was exposed to the full day of Wash-
ington, D. C. The average:-length of day
from March 21 to September 21, through
the longest days of the summer solstice
(near 15 hours from sunrise to sunset), is
about 13 hours, and from April 15 to Sep-
tember 2 the length of day exceeds 13 hours.
The stem given only 10 hours of light each
day grew but little beyond the original
height, 5 inches, when the tests began, and
finally died late in summer without bud-
ding. The outside stem experiencing the
full day grew very vigorously as a climber,
attaining a height of 3-4 feet; buds appeared
on July 21 and flowers August 2. This
portion of the plant was very floriferous
and produced many pods (Allard, 1938a,
ieee)

Further photoperiodic studies were made
subjecting the entire plant to constant
lengths of day with a series of lengths of
day arranged as follows: 10, 12, 123, 13,
134, 14, 145 hours, and full day. These
tests demonstrated that flowering was most
prolific on intermediate lengths of day from
134 hours through 14 hours, 143 hours, and
the full length of day.

Plants receiving only 10 hours of day-
light each day never flowered. One flower
only appeared on the plants afforded 12
hours of daylight. Flowering was more
vigorous with 13 hours of daylight each day,
but some of the blossoms even here were
cleistogamous.

The twining habit did not develop until
the plants were afforded 133 hours of day-
light but remained low, bushy, and dark
green. On lengths of day shorter than 123
hours the plants showed the dwarfed,
sterile, winter behavior, with thickish, dark-
green, rugose leaves and short thickened
stems. These plants barely survived the
summer and remained practically in a state
of vegetative dormancy for many months.

The normal twining habit of the wild
bean is entirely dependent upon length of
day, and this response does not become
evident until a length of day between 133

308

and 14 hours is experienced. Until a vigor-
ous twining habit has developed the plants
produce few flowers. Vigorous flowering is
not strictly correlated with the twining
habit, however, since an excessively long
day of 16-18 hours, obtained by artificial
light, again tends to inhibit flowering, al-
though a vigorous twining behavior is
maintained. These relations are clearly
shown by Allard (1938a, fig. 5). In figure 6
(Allard, 1938a) the growth of plants is
shown under 12 hours and 1235 hours of
light daily. The 12-hour plants never flow-
ered, but one plant of the 123-hour group
flowered on July 27. The plants in both
groups were low and bushy, with the ex-
ception of one plant experiencing 123 hours
of light daily, which produced a short
runner. As a matter of fact the plants were
exceptionally bushy in habit of growth
under these shorter-day lengths. The pods
and seeds on the 123 hour plants were ex-
ceptionally large for the species, however,
some of the pods measuring 5.8 cm in
length from the tip of the beak to the calyx,
with a maximum width of 11 mm.

It is evident that the wild bean is a long-
day type of plant, 1.e., it flowers on a length-
ening day. Lengths of day below 123 hours
not only inhibit twining, so that the plants
become low and bushy, but also prevent
flowering. Such plants behave as if they
were in a more or less quiescent or dormant
condition. This short-day behavior limiting
flowering and seed production would ex-
clude this bean from the Tropics and adapt
it to more northern latitudes, until cold and
perhaps excessively long days became the
limiting factors governing its survival.

This bean is probably a northern deriva-
tive of the more southern bean assemblage,
for in its present form it could not have
originated in the Tropics, nor could it
survive there with its present characteristics
of behavior.

Stem elongation or twining behavior is
an interesting growth response in relation
to length of day, and whether induced by
long or by short photoperiods, depends
entirely upon the species. The wild bean
P. polystachios becomes bushy as the days
are shortened. The Jack bean, Canavalia
ensiformis (L.)DC., becomes a pronounced

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9

twiner on the same short days that produce
dwarfed plants in the wild bean. The wild
bean becomes a climber on an increasing ~
length of day, while the Jack bean be-
comes bushy on a lengthening day. The
common garden beans, P. vulgaris, and
Stizolobium deeringianum Bort., as in the.
case of the wild bean, completely reverse
these length-of-day relations of Canavalia,
but greenness of the leaves is not noticeably
changed. (Allard and Zaumeyer, 1944.)

Allard and Garner (1940) have shown
that the Medellin bean, F. P. I. No. 46145
Phaseolus coccineus L. (P. multiflorus),
flowered best on short days, with a remark-
able enlargment of roots to produce tubers
when the plants experienced photoperiods
of 10 hours. This flowering behavior shows
that this particular bean is eminently
adapted to the short tropical days.

Some strains and varieties of tropical
beans are not only short-day plants in
their flowering responses but show marked
tendencies to produce pronounced under-
ground tubers under short-day conditions.
This behavior was shown in the case of a
tropical South American bean (Phaseolus
multiflorus). Plants exposed to 10 hours of
daylight throughout the summer, and to
the shorter winter days in the warm green-
house, became strongly tuberized (Garner
and Allard, 1923, p. 8938, pl. 6). Other plants
of this bean exposed to the full day of
summer, and to electric light during the
winter in the greenhouse to extend the
length of the natural day, never flowered
and never produced tubers. Twelve hours
of light in summer and the natural winter
length of day produced less tendency to
tuberize than the 10-hour plants. Tuberiza-
tion of these tropical beans appears to be a
response to the short days, just as in the
case of the wild bean. In the latter, tuberi-
zation appears to take place on the shorten-
ing days of late summer and autumn.

CHROMOSOME NUMBER OF PHASEOLUS
POLYSTACHIOS

Eleven species of beans of the genus
Phaseolus are known to be more or less
generally grown in various parts of the
world. As reported by J. Kamakami (1930),
all these have 22 chromosomes as the 2n

Sept. 15, 1947

number. Among these are Phaseolus acutt-
folius, P. angularis, P. aureus, P. coccineus,
P. lunatus, and P. mungo. Dolichos lablab
has 22 (2n) chromosomes.

The chromosome number of the wild
bean was determined by Howard F. Allard
(1940), and the » number of the pollen
mother cells was found to be 11; the somatic
(2n) number, then, is 22, as in all other
species of Phaseolus reported upon. These

. chromosomes are of small size in the wild

bean. It would appear that from the con-
staney of chromosome number in the
genus Phaseolus, the genus is rather stable
in this respect, or perhaps of more recent
evolution. The genus as a whole appears to
be of tropical and warm climate origin,
since the center of distribution is within the
Tropics. Such species and varieties as are
now grown in higher extratropical latitudes
are either day-neutral sorts or those with
high critical limitations with respect to
length of day which favors flowering in high
latitudes.

ENEMIES

The wild bean may flower profusely, but
often very few pods are found on the
flowering panicles. In the green state a tiny
native weevil rather freely parasitizes the
pods. In my garden it seemed to me that the
Mexican bean beetles were less inclined to
attack this bean, but much more study is

needed to establish this relationship fully.

As a food plant the beans are too small to
be of any value to human beings, and there
is no evidence that even the eastern Indians
ever made use of this bean, owing to its
scarcity. The weight of 100 mature beans
harvested in the Bull Run Mountain area
was only 6.8 grams.

I am informed by Dr. Volney H. Jones,
of the Museum of Anthropology of the
University of Michigan, that beans of some
race of this species have been found fairly
numerous in bluff shelters in the Ozark

ALLARD: ECOLOGY OF WILD KIDNEY BEAN

309

region of northwestern Arkansas and south-
ern Missouri, and were apparently used for
food by the early aborigines. These beans
appear to be a larger-seeded race than those
of our eastern assemblage, according to
Dr. Jones.

It would appear that out wild bean is a
plant of considerable interest in many
respects—in its various photoperiodic re-
sponses, in its taxonomic relationships, and
in the possibilities of useful genetic com-
binations in crosses with some of our useful
varieties and species of cultivated beans.

LITERATURE CITED

AuLARD, H. A. Complete or partial inhibition
of flowering in certain plants when days are
too short or too long. Journ. Agr. Res. 57:
775-789. 19388a.

. The kidney bean (Phaseolus poly-
stachyus (L.) B. S. P.) Claytonia 5: 17-18.
1938b.

ALLARD, H. A., and ALLARD, Howarp F. The
wild bean Phaseolus polystachios (L.)
B.S. P., tts chromosome number. Journ.
Washington Acad. Sci. 30: 335-337.
1940.

ALLARD, H. A., and Garner, W. W. Further
observations of the responses of various
species of plants to length of day. U. S.
Dept. Agr. Techn. Bull. 727, 64 pp., 1 pl.,
26 figs. 1940.

AuLaRD, H. A., and ZaAumMrysER, W. J. Re-
sponses of beans (Phaseolus) and_ other
legumes to length of day. U.S. Dept. Agr.
Techn. Bull. 867, 24 pp., 7 figs. 1944.

Battey, L. H. The standard cyclopedia of
horticulture. 1. 1935.

GARNER, W. W., and AuuArD, H. A. Further
studies in photoperiodism, the response of
the plant to relative length of day and night.
Journ. Agr. Res. 23: 871-920, 19 pls.
1923.

New manual of botany, ed. 7.

KAMAKAMI, J. Chromosome numbers in Legu-
minosae. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 44: 319-329.
1930.

SMALL, J. K. Flora of the southeastern United
States, ed. 2. 1918.

SMALL, J. K., and Carter, JOEL JACKSON.
Flora of Lancaster County (Pennsylvania).
1913.

310

ENTOMOLOGY.—WNew eumolpid beetles from the West Indies.!

Arlington, Va.

Described herein are three new species of
beetles of the genus Metachroma Dejean
(Coleoptera: Eumolpidae) from Puerto
Rico that have come to light in the collec-
tion of Stuart T. Danforth recently acquired
by the Museum of Comparative Zoology;
three new species of Metachroma collected
by P. J. Darlington in Oriente Province,
Cuba; and two new species of Alethaxius
Lefévre, one from Isle Tortue off Haiti, col-
lected by Mr. and Mrs. E. C. Leonard, and
the other collected by J. Acufia at Moa,
Oriente Province, Cuba.

Metachroma ensiforme, n. sp.
Fig. 1

About 3 mm in length, oblong-oval, shining
pale yellow with reddish-brown markings on
thorax and elytra; thorax finely and densely
punctate except on the sides; elytra with only
vestiges of striate punctation except for the
strong punctures below the basal callosity and
in the intrahumeral sulcus. Aedeagus unusually
long and slender.

Head with interocular space less than half
its width. Occiput and vertex with a faint
obsolete punctation tending to give a wrinkled
appearance; a deep groove about base of an-
tennal sockets and connecting across lower
front. Antennae pale with the outer joints
slightly deeper in color and thicker, extending
below the humeri. Prothorax not twice as broad
as long, with arcuate sides and a small acute
tooth at each corner; an indented line running
along basal margin and behind the eyes an-
teriorly; a slight depression over the head; sur-
face thickly punctate except about the edges;
yellowish brown with a deeper reddish-brown
median area. Elytron with deep intrahumeral
sulcus and an indented line across the base and
down along the suture; punctation indistinct
except in intrahumeral sulcus and below the
basal callosity; yellow-brown with two short
reddish-brown vittae extending over the basal
callosity and a diagonal stripe from about the
middle of the side down to the suture, forming
on the combined elytra a wide open V; in
poorly marked specimens only traces of these

1 Received March 21, 1947.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Doris H. BLAKE,

markings. Body beneath and legs pale yellow
brown, shining, femora not toothed, claws with

a long basal tooth. Length 2.7-3.1 mm; width |

1.4-1.6 mm.

Type male and 4 paratypes, M. C. Z. no.
27677; 2 paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 58356.

Type locality—Pico Turquino, south side,
1,000—-5,000 feet elevation, Oriente Province,
Cuba, collected in June 1936 by P. J. Darling-
ton.

Remarks——The long, sword-shaped (al-
though curved) aedeagus is unlike any that I
have seen in this or related groups.

Metachroma imitans, n. sp.
Fig. 2

Length approximately 2.5 mm, ovate, shin-
ing deep reddish brown with paler legs and
antennae; head and prothorax distinetly punc-
tate; elytral punctation not very distinct over
basal callosities and in apical half.

Head with interocular space nearly half as

-wide as head; shining and lightly punctate

above, more coarsely and densely so between
the eyes and in lower half; frontal tubercles
indistinctly marked; no groove between the
eyes. Labrum paler but jaws edged with
deep brown. Antennae pale; second joint nearly
twice as long as third; distal joints a little
thicker and deeper in coloring; extending well
below the humeri. Prothorax not twice as wide
as long, with arcuate sides and a small acute
tooth at each corner and an indented line along
base and extending from the sides up behind
the eyes on the anterior margin; surface shining
deep reddish brown but not quite so dark over
the head and moderately closely and distinctly
punctate; a slight depression behind the head.
Elytra very shiny deep brown; humeri well
marked; a depression behind the basal callosity;
an indented line of punctures along basal mar-
gin and down along the suture to the apex,
otherwise lines of punctures not very distinct
their entire length, nearly vanishing over the
basal callosities and behind the middle; the
punctures large in the intrahumeral sulcus and
in depression below the basal callosities. Body
beneath and legs paler, shining; femora with-
out toothing; claws toothed. Length 2.3-2.5
mm; width 1.2 mm.

VOL. 37, NO. 9 |

Sept. 15, 1947

Type male and 1 paratype (female), M. C. Z.
no. 27678.

Type locality —Aguadores, Oriente Province,
Cuba, collected June 6, 1936, by P. J. Darling-
ton.

Remarks.—This is very close to a species in
the National Museum collected at Cayamas,
Santa Clara Province, Cuba, by KE. A. Schwarz
and labeled by him as M. puncticollis Suffrian,
a name later changed in the Junk Catalogue to
M. cubaecola Clavareau. The punctation is not
quite so dense or distinct on the thorax and is
less marked on the elytra. The aedeagus of the
Cayamas species is peculiar in being forked like
a claw at the tip, in this respect resembling at
least one other species of Metachroma from
North America. The aedeagus of M. imitans,
in contrast, is of the ordinary sort, broad with
an acute tip.

Metachroma metrium, n. sp.
Fig. 3

About 4 mm in length, broadly oblong-oval
shining yellow-brown with dark markings on
the occiput, thorax, and elytra; on each elytron
a spot on the basal callosity, three placed trans-
versely below the basal callosity and two or
three paler ones slightly below the middle of the
elytron, one on the edge and the other on the
side; punctation of elytra indistinct in apical
half.

Head with interocular space not half width
of head; eyes large; occiput and front obsoletely
punctate and somewhat wrinkled, yellowish
with a broad dark band extending down front,
faint indication of frontal tubercles and a slight
depression between the eyes. Antennae extend-
ing to the middle of the elytra, the six distal
joints deeper in color and thicker. Prothorax
not quite twice as broad as long, with an acute
tooth at each corner and slightly arcuate sides;
surface mirror smooth, impunctate, yellow-
brown with dark brown or piceous irregular
markings on each side. Elytra ,with small
humeri, a short intrahumeral depression, and
not pronounced basal callosities; striate puncta-
tion rather fine except below the basal cal-
losities and indistinct in apical half; shining
yellow-brown with a dark streak in the middle
of the base, three small spots across below this,
the outer one on the edge, and two or three
larger, less distinct spots, slightly below the
middle. Body beneath and legs pale, the femora

BLAKE: NEW EUMOLPID BEETLES FROM WEST INDIES

311

with a darker spot at the apical constriction and
darker along the sides of the tibiae. No indica-
tion of toothing on femora; a short basal tooth
on claws. Length 4.1-4.83 mm; width 2.2—2.4
mm.

Type male and 1 paratype, M. C. Z. no.
27679; 1 paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 58358.

Type locality—Villalba, Puerto Rico, col-
lected June 21-28, 1934, by C. M. Matos
(Stuart T. Danforth Collection).

Remarks—In shape and markings this
species resembles somewhat M. cinctipes Blake,
from the Dominican Republic, but that species
has a larger prothorax and the elytral puncta-
tion is more distinct.

Metachroma xanthacrum, n. sp.
Fig. 4

Length 4.5 mm, oblong-oval, shining piceous
with antennae, legs, margin and apex of elytra,
and apex of abdomen pale; head and prothorax
very finely and sparsely punctate; elytra with
only the sutural striae entire, the short rows
of punctures below basal callosity becoming
progressively shorter toward the sides.

Head with interocular space less than half
its width; eyes large; occiput and front with
obsolete punctation producing a_ wrinkled
appearance; frontal tubercles faintly outlined;
no groove between the eyes, lower front deep
reddish brown, also a pale spot near eye on
vertex. Antennae pale, extending below humeri;
second joint longer than third; five distal joints
thicker and hairier than basal joints. Prothorax
not twice as wide as long, with rounded sides;
a tooth at each corner and an indented line
along basal margin and behind the eyes ante-
riorly; surface very smooth and shining, a few
indistinct scattered punctures; piceous except
a light reddish-brown area along anterior
margin. Elytra with small humeri and a basal
callosity with a depression below, in which
there are short rows of coarse punctures; the
sutural striae alone reaching apex and the
other striae becoming progressively shorter
toward the side; dark piceous except along pale
sides and broadly pale apex; two reddish spots
on each side of scutellum at base. Body be-
neath deep reddish brown with paler apical
segments of abdomen; legs pale except at the
constriction near the apex of femora and along
sides of tibiae at base. All femora weakly
toothed; claws with long basal tooth. Length
4.5 mm; width 2.4 mm.

312

Type female, M. C. Z. no. 27680.

Type locality —Loma del Gato, Cobre Range,
Oriente Province, Cuba, at about 3,000 feet
elevation; collected July 3-7, 1936, by P. J.
Darlington.

Remarks—This species lies between M.
adustum Suffrian from Cuba and M. wolcotti
Bryant from Haiti. It resembles the former
in general coloration, having a pale apex to the
elytra, but lacks the distinct elytral puncta-
tion in which the rows of punctures are entire.
In this respect it resembles the Haitian species
M. wolcotti, which is entirely dark, with dark
legs and elytra. M. terminale, described by
Horn from Florida, is identica] in outward ap-
pearance with M. adustum and was considered
the same by E. A. Schwarz, and I synonymized
the two at an earlier date. Dissection shows a
slight difference in the aedeagus. Whether this
indicates specific differentiation is a question
only to be decided by breeding. The aedeagus of
M. wolcotti is very similar to these two and
drawings are here given of all three (Fig. 8).
Unfortunately the only specimen known of
M. xanthacrum is a female. These species are all
very closely related and show the effects of
isolation in the development of their small
differences.

Metachroma fenestratum, n. sp.
Fig. 5

About 3 mm in length, oblong, lustrous
yellowish or reddish brown with a dark vitta on
each side of the thorax and a broad dark mark-
ing on the basal callosity of the elytron and
below along the suture, and a fainter band
running from about the middle of the side
diagonally across to the suture; head and
thorax indistinctly punctate; elytra with large
striate punctures for a short distance below the
basal callosities and in the intrahumeral sulci.

Head with interocular space about half its
width, smooth, in some specimens indistinct
wrinkles as of obsolete punctures, the groove
between the eyes and about antennal sockets
deep. Antennae extending to the middle of the
elytra; second joint longer than third and five
distal joints heavier and with dark apex. Pro-
thorax rather narrow, considerably less than
twice as broad as long, with curved sides and a
sharp tooth at each corner; an indented line
along basal margin and anteriorly behind the
eyes; surface very shiny, only indistinctly and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9

sparsely punctured; deep reddish brown with a
dark stripe on either side. Elytra with small
humeri and basal callosities and a deep intra-
humeral sulcus; a line of indented punctures
along base and down suture, and short rows of
large punctures below the basal callosities and
in the intrahumeral grooves, these rows be-
coming indistinct before the middle; surface
very smooth and shiny; pale yellowish brown
with dark markings in the middle of the base
and below for a short distance along the suture,
a darker band starting from the side at the
middle and extending diagonally across to the
suture, but becoming paler. Body beneath
shining yellowish or reddish brown. Femora not
toothed; claws with a long basal tooth. Length
2.8-3 mm, width 1.4 mm.

Type male and 1 paratype, M. C. Z. no.
27681; 1 paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 58357.

Type locality—Yauco, Puerto Rico,. col-
lected June 15, 1934, by C. M. Matos (Stuart
T. Danforth Collection).

Remarks.—This is an unusually narrowspecies
with markings similar to Metachroma ensiforme.
The aedeagus, though not so narrow and
sword-shaped, has a long acute tip but is much
broader and shorter behind the tip.

Metachroma amplicolle, n. sp.
Fig. 6

Abovt 3 mm in length, oblong, shining,
yellow or reddish brown with a dark spot on
the .occiput, a broad irregular band across
pronotum, and a smal! spot at base of the
basal callosity and below in the depression and
on the edge, and in some specimens two spots
at the middle, one on the side and the other on
the edge; pronotum almost impunctate; elytra
with striate punctation entire only in the two
rows next to the suture. Thorax almost as
broad as elytra.

Head with interocular space less than half
its width; eyes large; occiput and front dis-
tinctly but finely punctate, more coarsely in
lower front; a median line between the tubercles
and a groove about antennal sockets, a slight
depression between the eyes; yellow-brown
with a broad dark band down front. Antennae
pale, extending to the middle of the elytra, the
five distal joints heavier. Prothorax large and
about as wide as elytra, not twice as broad as
long, the sides arcuate; an indented line across
the base and almost across the anterior margin,

|
| Sept. 15, 1947 BLAKE: NEW EUMOLPID BEETLES FROM WEST INDIES 313

ZA

)

cs
%

4,.Metachroma xanthacrum

=

ae

M Terminale

yes

M. adustum

SSS)
M wolcottt

7. Alethaxius Torfuensis 8. Metachroma spp. 9. Alethaxius acunai

| Fias. 1-9.—New species of West Indian eumolpid beetles

314 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

a sharp tooth at each corner; surface very
smooth and often impunctate, in some speci-
mens a very fine punctation; reddish brown
with a large transverse dark band, in paler
specimens this band broken into two large
spots. Elytra with small humeri and short in-
trahumeral sulci, a slight depression below
basal callosities; punctation not very coarse
and only the two lines next to the suture entire,
the other rows of striate punctures becoming
indistinct toward the apex; yellowish or red-
dish brown with piceous markings over the bas-
al callosity and below humerous on the edge of
the elytron, in darker specimens a spot on the
side and one on the margin halfway down the
elytra. Body beneath and legs pale and shining.
No teeth on femora; in darker specimens a dark
ring about constriction of femora near the
apex; claws toothed. Length 2.7—3.4 mm; width
1.4—1.6 mm.

Type male and 3 paratypes, M. C. Z. no.
27682; 1 paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 58359.

Type locality—Guanica, Puerto Rico, col-
lected June 25, 1934, by C. M. Matos (Stuart
T. Danforth Collection).

Remarks.—In its unusually heavy prothorax
this species resembles M. cinctipes Blake from
the Dominican Republic. It is a considerably
smaller species with less distinct punctation.

Alethaxius tortuensis, n. sp.
Fig. 7

Length 4 mm, broadly oblong, shining,
densely punctate, deep bronzy dark green with
a bluish luster over the prothorax; legs and
antennae and undersurface reddish brown.
Thorax with two undulating teeth on the sides;
all femora toothed; female without noticeable
elytral rugosities, the punctation on the sides
somewhat coarser and with a slight tendency
toward costation in apical half.

Head with fine wrinkles radiating from the
vertex and on back of head becoming striate
punctation; lower front coarsely and not very
densely punctate; deep shining greenish black,
the mouth parts brown. Antennae reaching
well below the humeri, the five distal joints
thickened and with the apical half dark. Pro-
thorax not twice as broad as: long, with a
prominent tooth at apical angle, two rounded
teeth on the margin, and a small tooth at basal
angle; basal margin sinuate; surface shining,
densely punctate in basal half, the punctures in

VOL. 37, NO. 9

apical half becoming striate and less dense, with
the smooth intervals between them a little
raised; except for these costae and somewhat
larger lateral punctures, little trace of other
rugosities. Body beneath deep reddish brown,
lightly pubescent. Legs with all the femora
sharply toothed. Length 4 mm; width 2 mm.

Type female, U.S.N.M. no. 58360.

Type locality—Bassin Bleu, Isle Tortue,
north of Haiti, collected in April 1929 by E. C.
and G. M. Leonard.

Remarks.—This is the broadest species yet
examined from the West Indies, and unlike the
females of the other species it has little trace
of the elytral rugosities usually present along
the sides. Other individuals may show more as
there is often considerable variation.

Alethaxius acumfiai, n. sp.
Fig. 9

About 3 mm in length, oblong, densely
punctate, shining, deep reddish brown with a
faint aeneous lustre more marked on the pro-
thorax; hind femora with a prominent tooth;
margin of prothorax entire; elytra in female
with nodulation below the humeri and along
the sides, in both sexes the apical half some-
what costate.

Head shining, without depressions, with
scattered punctures more densely placed on
lower front. Antennae brownish, extending well
below the humeri, the five distal joints wider

and with darker tips. Prothorax about a third

wider than long, with rounded, entire sides, a
tooth at basal and apical angles; surface densely
and moderate coarsely punctate. Elytra in both
sexes densely punctate in basal half, in apical
balf the punctures becoming striate and less
dense with the interspaces becoming a little
costate; in the female, the lateral costae more
developed and irregular, in some specimens
with nodules down the sides below the humeri.
Body beneath shining reddish brown, the legs
and abdomen a little paler, lightly pubescent;
the hind femora with a distinct tooth, the two
anterior pairs of femora with vestiges of tooth-
ing. Length 2.8—-3.6 mm; widtb 1.4-1.7 mm.

Type male and 2 paratypes (female),
U.S.N.M. no. 58361; 1 paratype in M.C.Z.

Type locality—Moa, Oriente Province,
Cuba, collected November 3-16, 1945, by J.
Acuna.

Remarks.—This is the second species to be

Sept. 15, 1947

described from Cuba and the second West
Indian species with entire and not angulate or
toothed sides to the prothorax. There is a sug-
gestion of angularity in some of the specimens,
and it is possible that it may be developed still
further in some individuals. The toothing on
the hind femora is distinct, but only faint on

KNIGHT: PACIFIC AEDES (MUCIDUS) MOSQUITOES

315

the other femora. Like most of the species of
the genus, the female shows irregular nodula-
tion on the sides of the elytra. Compared with
A. turquinensis, A. acufai is smaller and paler
and has less distinctly toothed femora and a
quite differently shaped aedeagus.

ENTOMOLOGY .—The Aedes (Mucidus) mosquitoes of the Pacific (Diptera:

Culicidae) .

The subgenus Mucidus is distinguished
by the following characters: Wing mem-
brane surrounding the cross veins clouded;
palpi of male longer than proboscis, seg-
ments IV—V declined, tip of III and all of
IV with many very long ventrolateral hairs,
V with hairs but these sparser and shorter;
male mesosome simple, not divided into
lateral plates; claspettes present, with dis-
tinct articulated appendages; ppn bristles
numerous (10-30); lower mesepimeral

‘bristles present; eighth segment of female

abdomen completely retractile, cerci long
and narrow; larval mouth parts modified for
predacity, the mouth brushes forming
matted tufts of serrate-tipped rods, the
mandibular teeth very large and strong;
and larval ventral brush extending the
complete length of the anal segment. Mem-
bers of the subgenus occur in the Tropics of

the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australasian

Regions.

The subgenus has been divided by Ed-
wards (1932) into two groups: Group A
(Mucidus) and Group B (Pardomyta) (see
keys for separation points). Group B does
not occur in the Ethiopian Region. The
subgenus contains the following species and
subspecies: Group A: alternans (Westwood),
grahami (Theobald), kermorganti (Laveran),

1 This is the seventh paper of a series prepared
in part on collections made in the Philippine
Islands under the auspices of U.S. Naval Medical
Research Unit No. 2. The work was done in space
furnished by the Division of Insects, U. S. Na-
tional Museum. Additional specimens were made
available from the U. 8. National Museum by
Dr. Alan Stone, and from the Academy of
Natural Science of Philadelphia by Dr. H. R.
Roberts. N. D. Riley and H. Oldroyd made it
possible to examine types in the British Museum.
Received April 23, 1947.

KENNETH L. Knicut, Lt. Commander, H(S), U.S.N.R.
municated by R. E. BLACKWELDER.)

(Com-

laniger (Wiedemann), mucidus (Karsch),
nigerrimus (Theobald), and scatophagoides
(Theobald). In addition, a new species from
the Philippines is described in this paper.
Group B: aurantius aurantius (Theobald),
a. chrysogaster (Taylor), a. nigrescens (Ed-
wards), and quadripunctis (Ludlow).

In the species’ synonymic tables that fol-
low, all additional references containing
important descriptive, biological, or dis-
tributional data are cited.

KEY TO ADULTS

1. Palpi of female over one-half as long as pro-
boscis; scutum with twisted tufts of erect
long white scales; about 20-30 ppn bristles,
some along dorsal margin of ppn; general
coloration white, yellow, and brown....
(Group eA NEM WCvd US) ete ee ete en rots ot eo 2

Palpi of female barely one-fourth length of
proboscis; scutal scales normal; about 10-—
16 ppn bristles, few or none along dorsal
margin of ppn; general coloration golden,
dark brown, and black.\.... (Group B.
PLGTAOMAUG) PAHO Ses: EIN yao 9

2. Tibia with the distal white band subapical;
Australasian’: eres hint Pee re Raa 3

Tibia with the distal white band apical;
EthiopiantandtOrrentals. Mas. is. 4

3. Leg scales decumbent and appressed; New
Caledontanoaee kermorganit (Laveran)

Leg scales long and erected; Australasian...
SSE ete CI alternans (Westwood)

4, Fore and mid tibiae with a well-developed
median white band (fore tibia with apical
white band not occupying more than 0.25
omlenz- thor Segment)... Sees ee 5

Fore and mid tibiae without a median white
band (occasionally a few pale scales present
INO WEVEID) eae ete US 6

5. Tarsal segment I with distinct basal and
median white bands; fore and mid tarsal
segments JI-III (and often IV—V) with
basal white bands; Ethiopian and Oriental
SpAkyC ls ea eeeha ae a: scatophagoides (Theobald)

Tarsal segment I with only a narrow basal

316

white band; tarsal segments II-V_ un-
banded; Philippines....... ferinus, n. sp.

6. Second hind tarsal segment brown, sometimes
a few scattered white scales along its
length (hind tarsal segments III-V all
white except narrowly at apex); Oriental

SARL SS Ain aE AL laniger (Wiedemann)
Second hind tarsal segment with at least a
distinct basal white band; Ethiopian... .7

7. Second and third hind tarsal segments only

rather narrowly white at base; costa
lareeliy yellow. sce oe mucidus (Karsch)?
Third hind tarsal segment white except at tip;
Costa denies ee eaten RRL, NS: 8

8. Second hind tarsal segment less than half
VINO Ler whee ie AN aan nigerrimus (Theobald)
Second hind tarsal segment all white except
21ST) Oye Rees eek BOAR BW ss grahami (Theobald)

9. Scutum entirely golden scaled (may be a few
dark scales scattered about); Philippines. .

RENN hintaan quadripunctis (Ludlow)
Scutum with considerable areas of dark scal-
DIS SEEN A OL SL SA Ra A 10

10. Scutum with a moderately broad median
transverse band of golden scales extending

right across the scutum, reaching this but

not passing it is a broad stripe of golden
scales: Australias te. I EE een
Hage ....-aurantius chrysogaster (Taylor)
Scutum not marked as described above...11

11. Terminal abdominal tergites (V—VIII)
broadly yellow; Australasian and Oriental

sche A Acetate a. aurantius (Theobald)
Terminal abdominal tergites with yellow scal-

ing largely confined to mediodorsal area

(this is not so true of the males, which are

not readily separable from a. aurantius);
Solomon Islands. .a. nigrescens (Edwards)

KEY TO LARVAE?

1. Siphon hair tuft attached between the two
distal pecten teeth (Fig. 5), which are more
widely spaced, occasionally inserted just
beyond apical pecten tooth; (siphon hair
tuft inserted beyond middle)... . (Group
Bt Rar domyaa)i iy: fies xd» HELO eR ee 2

Siphon hair tuft inserted distinctly beyond
last pecten tooth (Fig. 4).... (Group A.
VE QECLELS Wee On ibis Atay PORN Nine 3

2. Siphon hair tuft with about 6 branches; comb
patch consisting of about 20-26 scales;
pentad hair 2 single; Oriental and Aus-
tralasian. .aurantius aurantius (Theobald)

Siphon hair tuft with 11-15 prominently
plumose hairs (Fig. 5); comb patch con-

2 'This section of the key, which relates to the
purely African species, has been taken from
Edwards (1941, p. 110).

3 No specimens were seen. The key character
here is taken from the type description.

4'The larvae of grahami, kermorganti, laniger,
and chrysogaster are unknown. The larvae of a.
aurantius, scatophagoides, mucidus, and niger-
ramus have not been seen by me.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9

sisting of about 50-65 scales; pentad hair

2 double: Philippines! (2 \ot eee

Re A A a BLE Ay CE quadripunctis (Ludlow)
Solomon Islands. . .a. nigrescens (Edwards)

3. Pecten teeth with 2—5 ventral denticles (head
hair 5 extending forward well beyond the
base; of 3); Australasian: cnet. fs

Ae EAL er oh esi alternans (Westwood)
Pecten teeth with 1—2 ventral denticles (Fig.

4. Comb scales fewer than 50; Ethiopian and
Onentalec 3) see scatophagoides (Theobald)
Comb scales’more than 502 02)5 250 95-... 5

5. Siphon scarcely tapering; siphon hair tuft
inserted just beyond middle; last 3 pecten
teeth more widely spaced than the others

and simple; African .nigerrimus (Theobald)
Siphon tapering at least on distal third;
siphon hair tuft inserted before middle; the

last pecten teeth not more widely spaced,

nor simple’ (Fig. s4ye a) a ee eee eee 6

6. Pecten consisting of 25-27 teeth; African...
BRAN OEE Cn Menge 8 UI 8 mucidus (Karsch)
Pecten consisting of 12-16 teeth; Philippines

oH ahaa begat OLLe Sea ana ee ferinus, n. sp.

Aedes (Mucidus) ferinus, n. sp.
Figs. 2, 3, 4, 6, 8

ADULT. Male. Wing approximately 5.5
mm in length. Head: Proboscis largely yellow-
scaled, the scales on the basal three-fifths
somewhat outstanding and many of them with
dark tips or particolored (particularly ven-
trally), an inconspicuous narrow white band
just beyond middle, some white scales at apex;
entire proboscis with numerous short hairs.
Palpus longer than the proboscis by about the
length of the last segment; clothed with yellow,
white, and particolored brown scales, many of
which are partially erect, segments II-V with
basal white bands. Torus and first flagellar seg-
ment with broad white scales mesally. Vertex
with narrow-curved white scales dorsally, these
most numerous medially; elongate spatulate
white scales scattered in this area; forked
upright scales cream colored, scattered over
posterior two-thirds of dorsum; broad white
scales laterally, and along the eye margins
part way to dorsal midline.

Thorax: Scutal integument grayish, marked
with a lateral brown area before the scutal angle
and one on the prescutellar area; clothed
sparsely with narrow and narrow-curved white
scales, several twisted tufts of erect long white
scales present. Scutellum with many erect
twisted elongate white scales on all lobes.
Apn and ppn (about 24 anterior and posterior

|

Sept. 15, 1947 KNIGHT: PACIFIC AEDES (MUCIDUS) MOSQUITOES 317

—

\.
h ANS
y

i}

4

ferinus

>
»”
>
>
>

4
«4
«
<it
<*

s
euse™
a

5 ani nigrescens
quadripunctis 5 =
ae 9
ferinus scatophagoides

Fics. 1-8. Aedes mosquitoes of subgenus Mucidus (in each case the general geographical locality is
given for the specimen from which the drawing was made): 1 (Guadalcanal) and 2 (Mindanao), Inner
tergal aspect, of basistyle of male genitalia; 3 (Mindanao), larval head, left half ventral, right half
dorsal; 4 (Luzon), lateral aspects of larval terminal segments; 5 (Leyte), lateral aspects of larval
siphon; 6 (Luzon) and 7 (Guadalcanal), lateral aspect of dissected claspette; 8 (Luzon) and 9 (Senegal,
Africa), tergal aspect of mesosome.

318

dark hairs present) covered with broad white
scales, some erect twisted scales also present.
Following pleural areas each with a patch of
mixed flat broad and erect twisted white scales:
proepisternum, postspiracular (only a_ very
few), subspiracular, paratergite, prealar (very
few on knob, those below knob connecting with
those on upper sternoplueron), upper sterno-
pleural; ventroposterior sternopleural, medio-
anterior sternopleural (this sometimes joining
the other two sternopleural scale patches);
upper three-fifths (except extreme dorsum) of
mesepimeral (dorsal mesepimeral hair tuft
with about 7-9 hairs; 3-5 lower mesepimeral
hairs present in scale patch). Pleural sclerites
with pronounced integumental pale areas at the
scale patches. Coxae and trochanters white
scaled, some particolored brown scales on fore
coxa. Femora, tibiae, and first two hind tarsal
segments with many erect white and _ parti-
colored brown scales. Femora clothed with
particolored brown scales; each marked by
narrow basal and apical white bands and by a
narrow band at basal one-fourth and at apical
three-fourths. Tibiae the same, each marked
with a basal, median, and apical band (the
apical band of the fore tibia is 0.20—0.25 as long
as the whole tibia). Fore tarsi yellow (may be a
few basal white scales on I); mid yellow, a nar-
row basal band on I; hind with narrow basal
white bands on I (has a few erect white scales
scattered along medially also) and II, III-V
white with narrow yellow apices. Fore and mid
tarsal claws unequal, the larger bidentate, the
smaller unidentate; hind claws equal, uniden-
tate. Wings clothed with small broad inter-
mixed brown, yellow, and white scales; fringe
with alternating dark and light areas; base of
posterior fork cell slightly more basal than that
of the anterior (this cell shorter than its stem).
Halters white scaled.

Abdomen: Tergite I with white scales medi-
ally and laterally; II-VII with a baso-lateral
patch of erect twisted white scales; II-IV
white scaled medially, brown and yellow scaled
laterally; V-VII white scaled, with an apico-
lateral patch of brownish-yellow scales; side-
pieces white scaled basally, dark apically.
Sternites II-VI brownish yellow with white
basal bands, VII-VIII all white. Genitalia
(Figs. 2, 6, 8): Inner tergal surface of basistyle
with distinctive setal pattern; large basal lobe
present bearing two broad spines and numerous
hairs. Claspette blade rather widened medially.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9

Mesosome evenly rounded apically and without
beak or flange. Ninth tergite lobes each with
3-8 broadened setae. Eighth tergite -and
sternite with several large broad swordlike
setae apically.

Female: Wing approximately 6.0-7.0 mm in
length. Proboscis with a broad median white
scaled area. Palpus approximately two-thirds
to three-fourths as long as the proboscis,
clothed with white and particolored brown
scales intermixed. Vertex with forked upright
scales brown. Some of the scutal scales have a
very pale yellowish tint. Only middle one-third
of mesepimeron scaled, the dorsal hair tuft
consisting of about 20-24 hairs. First hind
tarsal segment approximately 0.8 as long as the
tibia. Tarsal claws equal, each unidentate.

LARVA. Head (Fig. 3): Antenna with a few
very small spicules; antennal hair tuft in-
serted at apical one-fourth, with 2 branches.
Hairs 3 (slender), 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 single; 9
with 1 or 2 branches; 12 single; 13 double; 14
and 15 with 1-3; 17, 18, and 20 single. Hair 5
not extending beyond the base of 6. Mentum
with 6 or 7 teeth on each side. Mouth brushes
forming matted tufts of serrate-tipped rods.

Thorax: Prothoracic hair 0 with 5 or 6
branches; 1, Z, and 3 single (3 once double).
Mesothoracic hair 9 with 3-6 branches; 10
and 12 single (11 not seen). Metathoracic hair
9, 10, and 12 single (11 not seen).

Abdomen (Fig. 4): Dorsolateral hair of seg-
ments I-II single. Lateral hair of I with 6-8
branches; of II with 8-11; of III-VI single.
Pentad hair 1 with 17-20 branches; 2 and 4
single; 3 with 6-8; 5 with 5-7; hairs 1, 3, and 5
stellate in type. Comb consisting of a patch of
about 50-65 broad apically fringed scales.
Siphon pale; index 2.7—4.4; acus present; hair
tuft inserted just before middle and distinctly
distad to the last pecten tooth, with 5-7 short
branches; 12-16 pecten teeth, each with a sharp
subbasal denticle. Anal plate incomplete ven-
trally, with transverse striations, some poste-
rior spines present dorsally; /h single; isc single.
Ventral brush, which extends the whole length
of anal segment, consists of 30-32 tufts, those
along the posterior half arising from a barred
area, each tuft with 7—9 branches. Anal gills
lanceolate, with the ventral pair slightly longer
than the dorsal pair and about 0.7 as long as
the anal plate.

Holotype.—Male, with associated larval and
pupal skins (U.S.N.M. no. 58363), San

Sept. 15, 1947

Ramon (Penal Farm), City of Zamboanga
Province, Mindanao, Philippines, October 2,
1945 (J. L. Laffoon and K. L. Knight), reared
from a grassy ground pool.

Paratypes—One male with associated larval
and pupal skins, same data as for holotype;
15 males, 3 females, Zamboanga, Mindanao,
September 12, 1945 (J. L. Laffoon, D. R.

Johnson, K. L. Knight), from a light trap; 1-

male, 1 female, 2 sets of associated larval and
pupal skins, Olongapo (Subie Bay), Zambales
Province, Luzon, July 21, 1945 (L. E. Roze-
boom, E. 8. Zolik), reared from a grassy area
inundated by rains; 2 females, Dulag, Leyte,
November 25, 1944 (H. R. Roberts), reared
from a marshy pool. Paratypes deposited in
U.S. National Museum, British Museum, and
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

Remarks.—This species is most closely re-
lated to laniger Wiedemann but differs in hav-
ing only about the apical 0.20—0.25 of the fore
tibia white-scaled, in possessing sharp median
white bands on the fore and mid tibia, and in
haying a distinct basal band on the second
hind tarsal segment.

Aedes (Mucidus) scatophagoides (Theobald)
Fig. 9

1901. Mucidus scataphagoides Theobald, Mon.
Cul. 1: 277 (female). TypE-Loc.: Burma.
Myingyan (Watson). India. Morabad,
~N.-W. P. (Close). Typr: 2 females (co-
types) in Brit. Mus. Theobald, 1910: 126.
Barraud, 1929: 1053. Christophers, 1906:
i

1908. Mucidus sudanensis Theobald, 3d Rep.
Welle. Lab., p. 252 (female). TyPE-Loc.:
Africa. Upper White Nile (King). TypE:
Female in Brit. Mus. Theobald, 1910: 129.

1911. M. scatophagoides, Theobald. Edwards,
p. 246. Name emended, but without com-
ment. Synonym of sudanensis Theo-
bald. Edwards, 1911: 246; 1922a: 450.

1932. A. (M.) scatophagoides Theobald. Edwards,
p. 135. Barraud, 1934: 138. Edwards,
1941: 110. Hopkins, 1936: 99.

ADULT. Thisspecies differs distinctly from
ferinus in tarsal markings and male genitalia.
Fore and mid tarsi with distinct basal and
median white bands on I, basal white bands on
II and III, segments IV and V usually all yel-
low but may also bear basal bands; hind tarsi
with basal and median white bands on I, basal
white bands on II-V, the band on II occupying
about one-third of the segment, those on
III-V about one-half. Abdominal tergites

KNIGHT: PACIFIC AEDES (MUCIDUS) MOSQUITOES

319

II-III tend to have the median white scales
confined to the base with the remainder of the
median area yellow-scaled. The mesosome of
the male genitalia is distinct in possessing a
remarkable apical flange or beaklike process
(Fig. 9). Also apically on the mesal margin
of the inner tergal surface of the basistyle there
are a few hairs which are longer than the sur-
rounding ones.

In the material examined, African specimens
were distinct from the Oriental ones in having
the proboscis all yellow-scaled (many brown
scales on proximai half). The female of the
Oriental material has the median portion of the
proboscis with a variable amount of white
scaling and the male has a small indefinite
median band of white scales. It would seem
possible on the basis of this color distinction to
regard the African material as sufficiently dis-
tinct to constitute a geographical subspecies
(in which case Theobald’s name sudanensis
would be available), but considerable material
would necessarily have to be examined first. A
difference also possibly occurs in the distribu-
tion of setae on the inner tergal surface of the
basistyle.

LARVA. Notseen. Although closely similar
to that of ferznus, its possession of only 30-40
comb scales and 20-30 pecten teeth (each with
1, rarely 2, ventral denticles) may constitute a
significant difference. Also, Hopkins (1936,
Fig. 45) figures head hair 5 extending cephalad
beyond the base of hair 3, and hair 6 extending
one-half of its length beyond the anterior mar-
gin of the head. :

Habitat—The larvae, which are predatory
on other mosquito larvae, are found in all types
of temporary open natural pools. Hopkins
(1936) believes that the eggs may be laid on a
dry surface and that they may need to undergo
a period of drying before a flooding will batch
them.

The type females were captured while biting
patients in a hospital and one of them de-
posited separated eggs when placed in a slanted
test tube over water.

Distribution — SPECIMENS EXAMINED: U.S.
N.M. (3 males, 3 females): India (S. R.
Christophers). Amritsar (S. R. C.); Calcutta,
Bengal (D. E. Hardy, G. F. Johnstone). Also
1 male and 3 females from Africa. British
Museum (1 male, 1 female): Jndia. Behar:
Pusa (F. M. Hewlett). N. Canara: Karwar (H.
Cogill).

320

ADDITIONAL RECORDS FROM THE LITERATURE:
Throughout tropical Africa. Widely distributed
in the Oriental Region from Rajputana to
Burma, and through Central Provinces and
Madras to Ceylon (Barraud, 1934). China.
Kwangtung: Hongkong (Feng, 1938).

Aedes (Mucidus) laniger (Wiedemann)

1821. Culex laniger Wiedemann, Dipt. Exot., p.
9 (female). TYPE-LOC.: Java. TYPE: Fe-
male in Copenhagen Mus.

1901. Muczdus laniger. Wiedemann. Theobald, p.
269.

1908. Mucidus mucidus.—Theobald. Leicester, p.
69.

1913. Mucidus laniger (Wied.). Edwards, p. 224.
Synonymy of mucidus Leicester, 1908.
Edwards, 1922a: 451. Barraud, 1929:
1053;

1932. A. (M.) laniger Wiedemann. Edwards, p.
134. Barraud, 1934: 147. Bohart, 1945: 55.

ADULT. No mention is made in the litera-
ture of whether Wiedemann’s type has ever
been reexamined; and since no one has re-
described material from the type locality, the
exact determination of laniger remains some-
what in doubt. This uncertainty is largely due
to the incompleteness of Wiedemann’s descrip-
tion and to the discrepancies existing between
it and the material assigned to this species by
various authors.

I have examined a female specimen from
Deli, Sumatra, in the collection of the British
Museum, which I am at present considering to
be laniger, largely because of the nearness of its
collection locality to that of the type. This
specimen resembled ferinus except as follows:
proboscis brownish yellow with a few white
scales about the middle and at the extreme
apex; apices of tibiae appearing more broadly
banded; fore and mid tibiae with only basal and
apical white bands, hind tibia also with a
median band; segment I of hind tarsi with a
basal white area and with some white scales
scattered along the rest of the segment, II
brown with a few white scales scattered over
length, III and IV all white except for a narrow
apical brown band, V largely white.

The only descriptive notes found in the
literature on this species (in addition to the
original description) are by Macquart (1888,
p. 176) from a female from Coromandel (prob-
ably Madras, India); Leicester (1908, p. 69)
from Kuala Lumpur, Malaya; Edwards (1918,
p. 224; 1922a, p. 451); and Barraud (1984, p.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 9

147) from Ceylon and possibly Assam material.
Edwards’s notes check with the specimen de-
scribed above. He states that the first hind
tarsal segment is nearly as long as the hind

tibia, which is a character I did not check onthe |

Sumatran specimen. Barraud’s description is
similar.

Leicester’s specimens were examined by me
in the British Museum and did-not appear to
differ from the Sumatran specimen. However,
in his description he states that the hind tarsi
have a narrow basal white band on I, with the
rest all white scaled. This is probably an error
due to not seeing the separation point between
segments I and II. He describes the smaller fore
tarsal claw and both hind claws of the male as
being simple. Unfortunately I did not check
this statement, but if true it constitutes 2 rather —
striking difference between laniger and ferinus.

Wiedemann has several points in his de-
scription that do not check either with the
Sumatran specimen or with the descriptions
mentioned above. According to Theobald’s
(1901, p. 269) translation, Wiedemann de-
scribed the proboscis as being yellow with a
white band at apex, and the hind tarsi as having
white apices. These are the main discrepancies
existing in his description and could both easily
be errors in observation of color versus struc-
ture.

Macquart’s notes on a specimen from
Coromandel mention that all the tarsi have
white basal bands on each segment. This seems
very much as if he had a specimen of scato-
phagovrdes.

I have examined a female from Ceylon in the
British Museum that checked with the Suma-
tran specimen except for the minor points of
having a few median white scales on the fore
and mid tibiae and having the fore and mid
tarsi all dark.

In the U. 8S. National Museum collection
there are two Philippine females of this species
that check well with the Sumatran specimen.
In these specimens the apical 0.31-0.33 of the
fore tibia is white scaled. The specimens differ
from laniger as described by Edwards and
Barraud, however, in having the first hind
tarsal segment only 0.81—0.89 as long as the
hind tibia. There is also an unassociated male
genitalic slide in the U.S.N.M. that is labeled
“Mucidus laniger Wied.’ It is very similar to
ferinus except that the large spines on the basal

Sepr. 15, 1947

lobe of the basistyle are noticeably slenderer.

LARVA. Undescribed.

Distribution——SPECIMENS EXAMINED: U. §
N.M. (2 females, 1 male genitalic slide):
Philippines. Mindanao: Ludlow Barracks,
Parang; Pettit Barracks, Zamboanga (F.
Visaya). British Museum (3 females, 1 male):
Malaya. Kuala Lumpur (G. F. Leicester).
Ceylon. Trincomali (C. F. 8. Baker). Sumatra.
Deli (A. F. Stanton).

ADDITIONAL RECORDS FROM THE LITERATURE:
Assam (?) (Barraud, 1934). Sumatra. Atchin:
Tjane. Djambi: Moeara Tebo. Lampong dis-
tricts: Semangka Plain (Brug and Edwards,
1931). Philippines. Luzon: Manila (Banks,
1906). Mindoro: Calapan (Edwards, 1929).

Aedes (Mucidus) alternans (Westwood)

1835. Culex alternans Westwood, Ann. Soc. Ent.
France 4: 681 (female). TYPE-LOC.
Nova Hollandia (Australia). TYPE: Fe-
male originally in Hope Coll., Oxford;
now in Brit. Mus. Westwood, 1881: 384.
Skuse, 1889: 1726.

1856. Culex commovens Walker, Insecta Saun-
dersiana 1: 432 (females). TYPE-LOC.:
New Holland (Australia) (Saunders).
type: female (holotype) in Brit. Mus.
(identified as type by E. A. Waterhouse).

1889. Culex hispidosus Skuse, Proc. Linn. Soc.
New South Wales 3 (n.s.): 1726 (males,
females). TypE-Loc.: Hexham Swamp,
near Newcastle and Richmond, New
~South Wales (Skuse); Mount Kembla,
Illawarra, New South Wales (Hamilton);

Breakfast Creek, Brisbane, Queensland

(Tryon). TYPE: Location unknown to me.

1901. Mucidus alternans. Westwood. Theobald, p.
269. Synonymy of commovens and hispi-
dosus. Hamlyn-Harris, 1933: 230. Cool-
ing, 1924: 17. Edwards, 1924: 367; 1922a:
450. Theobald, 1903: 134; 1907: 162;
1910: 125. Felt, 1905: 473.

1932. A. (M.) alternans Westwood. Edwards, p
134. Lee, 1944: 48, 50.

ADULT. Resembling ferinus but differing
chiefly as follows: Male. Proboscis without a
median white scaled area. Scutum white
sealed, marked with distinct areas of yellow
scaling. Postspiracular area with many broad
white scales; all of mesepimeron scaled except
ventral margin; pleuron rather uniformly
brown colored. Femora with apical white
scaling much reduced, sometimes even lacking
on fore femur; fore femur with the subbasal
white band usually absent; hind femur some-
times with whole basal one-half white. Tibiae

KNIGHT: PACIFIC AEDES (MUCIDUS) MOSQUITOES

321

each with basal, median, and subapical white
bands. Fore and mid tarsi with basal and
medium white bands on I (in Australian mate-
rial, these two bands tend to coalesce), II and
III with basal three-fifths white; hind tarsi
with a basal and median band on J, II and III
with about basal one-half white, IV and V with
about basal three-fourths white. Tergites II-
III largely yellow dorsally, a few median white
scales; IV—VII with broad white basal areas,
the white extending posteriorly on the mid-
line. Genitalia essentially as in ferznus except
that there are 1-2 stouter, more elongate setae
apically on the inner margin of the inner tergal
surface of the basistyle (figured by Felt, 1905,
lense

Female. Vertex with the scales along the eye
margins and on the midline white, narrow yel-
low scales subdorsally, broad yellow scales
laterally, some broad white scales at extreme
lateral margins. Scutum brownish-yellow scaled,
several tufts of erect twisted white scales.
Tergites largely yellow dorsally, basal white
bands on V-—VII, a basomedian white spot
extending posteriorly on midline of [V—VII.

LARVA (1 larva, from New Caledonia).
Closely similar to that of ferinus, but possibly
differing as follows: head hairs 5 and 6 notice-
ably longer, 5 extending cephalad beyond the
base of 3 and 6 extending about one-third of its
length beyond the anterior margin of the head.
(Meso- and metathoracic pleural tufts missing.)
Pecten teeth 20-21 in number, most of them
with 2—4 ventral denticles.

Habitat—The predatory larva is commonly
found in high-tide marshy pools, but during the
seasons of low tides is often taken in inland
fresh-water ground pools.

The adult is a vicious biter, even entering
homes to do so, and bites mainly at sundown.
It commonly migrates a considerable distance
inland from the coast. The eggs are deposited
singly on the water.

Remarks—The types of alternans and of
commovens have been examined by me. That of
alternans is in such poor condition as to be
almost completely unrecognizable.

The adult of this species is well distinct from
either scatophagoides, laniger, or ferinus on the
basis of the subapical white tibial band. The
larva is apparently distinct in having pecten
teeth with 2—4 denticles each.

Disiribution.—_SPECIMENS EXAMINED: U.S.

O22

N.M. (16 males, 23 females, 1 larva): New Cale-
donia. (A. R. Gaufin); Ducas Penin. (K. L.
Knight); Noumea (Dunlop): Baie Chambey-
ron, La Foa (Platsch and Remington). Austra-
lia. Queensland: Normantown and Townsville
(G. F. Hill); Rockhampton and Townsville
(F. H. Taylor); Burpengary (T. L. Bancroft);
Eidsvold (C. F. Baker); Brisbane (Hamlyn-
Harris); Cairns.

ADDITIONAL RECORDS FROM THE LITERATURE:
Australia. Victoria. New South Wales. North-
ern Territory. New Guinea. Papua (Edwards,
1924).

Aedes (Mucidus) kermorganti (Laveran)

1901. Culex kermorgantt Laveran, C. R. Soe.
Biol. 53: 568 (2 females). TYPE-LOC.:
New Caledonia. Noumea. TyPE: Female
(holotype), dissected and mounted on 2
slides, Pasteur Institute, Paris.

1922. Mucidus kermorgants (Laveran). Edwards,
1922a, p. 99. Edwards, 1922b: 450; 1924:
367.

1932. A. (M.) kermorganti Laveran. Edwards, p.
134.

ADULT. Apparently indistinguishable
from alternans except that the scales of the
abdomen and legs are very small and all closely
appressed.

This species is still known only from the type
series. According to Edwards (1922a), there were
two females (apparently the type series) of this
species in the Paris Museum. Of these, one
specimen, from Calama, 1869 (Delacour), was
presented to the British Museum where I ex-
amined it in 1946. The other specimen, judged
from Edwards’s (1922a) account, should still
be in the Paris Museum.

However, J. A. Reid, who kindly searched
for Laveran’s types for me in the collections of
the Paris Museum in October 1946, was unable
to find the kermorganti type there. But in the
collections of the Pasteur Institute, Paris,
along with other Laveran types, he did find a
dissected, slide-mounted female of this species.
This I am considering to be the type for the
species.

Aedes (Mucidus) quadripunctis (Ludlow)
Fig. 5

1910. Pardomyia quadripunctis Ludlow, in Theo-
bald, Mon. Cul. 5: 608 (female). TyPE-
Loc.: Philippines. Parang. Mindanao.
TYPE: female (holotype) in U.S.N.M.
Edwards, 1922b: 4651.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

' scales at the apices of each segment, V with the |

tex with narrow golden scales dorsally, thickest |

VOL. 37, NO. 9

|

1932. A. (M.) aurantius var. quadripunctis Lud-
low. Edward, p. 135.

1945. Aedes (Mucidus) quadripunctis (Ludlow). |
Bohart, p. 55. !

ADULT. Male. Wing approximately 4.2—4.7
mm in length. Head: Proboscis yellow-scaled, |
some black scales basally on ventral and lateral |
aspects, may be a few apical dark scales also.
Palpus equal to proboscis in length, or some- ,
what longer; yellow-scaled with sparse black |

apical one-half dark. Torus orange, bare. Ver- |

along eye margins; brownish-yellow forked up-
right scales over whole dorsum; broadened |
yellow scales laterally. :

Thorax: Scutal integument brownish gray, —
with areas of dark brown; sparsely clothed with |
narrow yellow scales (some scattered brown
scales may also be present). Scutellum with
narrow yellow scales on each lobe. Apn, ppn |
(about 10-13 posterior bristles) and pro- |
episternum sparsely covered with narrow and
narrow-curved yellow scales. A small patch of
broadened elongate yellow scales on each of the
following areas: paratergite, prealar (below the
knob), upper sternopleural, ventroposterior
sternopleurs! and middle mesepimeral. Coxae
yellow-scaled, fore may also have a median
patch of black scales. Trochanters with mixed
dark and yellow scaling. Femora and fore and
mid tibiae yellow, with a variable amount of
spotted black scaling, these dark markings
reduced posteriorly ; hind tibia black, marked
with a small basal yellow band and some yellow
mottling. Fore and mid tarsi yellow, the apical
half of II and all of III and IV may show a
dusky sheen; hind tarsus black, I-III with
narrow basal yellow bands (that on III may be
absent), V completely creamy-white scaled.
Fore and mid tarsal claws unequal, each with a
single tooth; hind claws equal, simple. Wings
with costa and vein 1 covered with very small
yellow and black scales, remainder of veins
with such small scales as to appear virtually
unsealed; both forkcells considerably shorter
than their stems, the second fork cell beginning
more basally than the first. Halter pale, knob
dark and pale scaled.

Abdomen: Tergites golden-scaled, usually
some scattered dark scales on one or more of the
segments. Sternites golden scaled, some dark
scales on II-III. Genitalia: Apparently not dis-

as follows:

Sepr. 15, 1947

tinct from that of a. nigrescens (see Figs. 1 and 7).

Female. Wing approximately 5.0-5.7 mm. in
length. Palpus approximately one-fourth the
length of the proboscis; golden, with apices
dark. Torus mesally with a patch of golden
scales. Tarsal claws equal, each unidentate.
In general, the legs of the female have more ex-
tensive dark scaling than they do in the males.
The fore and mid tarsi may be largely dark
with basal pale bands on I and II. The abdomi-
nal tergites may also have more scattered black
scales than described for the male.

LARVA (description based on _5 adult-
associated skins from Leyte). Closely similar
to that of ferinus but differing most noticeably
Antennal hair tuft with 3-5
branches. Head hair 3 located on the line of the
suture, broad basally and tapered acutely (not
a normal slender hair as in ferinus); hair 5

| extending beyond the base of hair 6 nearly to
_ the anterior margin of head; hair 20 double.

Mesothoracic hair 9 with 6 or 7 branches.
Metathoracic hair 9 with 8 or 9 branches.
Lateral hair of abdominal segments III-IV
double; of V—VI single. Pentad hair 1 with 11—
15 branches, 2 double, 5 with 9-14. Siphon
hair tuft (Fig. 5) inserted just beyond the
middle of the siphon and between the last two
pecten teeth, the base of the tuft strongly fan-
shaped, with 11-15 prominently plumose
branches. Pecten teeth 17-22 in number,
sharply pointed and with 2—4 ventral denticles;
the last two teeth more widely separated than
the others, simple or with only 1 or 2 very small
denticles. Anal plate with posterior margin
smooth. Ventral brush consisting of 22-26
tufts, the basal 6 or 7 not arising from the
barred area, each tuft with 7-11 branches.

Habitat—The larvae, which are obviously
predacious, were collected from rain-filled
temporary puddles.

Remarks.—Closely similar to a. aurantius
(see under that species for differences). The
type has been examined, and all the scutellar
scales were found to be yellow instead of partly

| brown as described by Ludlow.

The larva has not previously been described.
Distribution SPECIMENS EXAMINED: Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia (4 males, 5 females, 5
sets of adult-associated larval and pupal skins):

| Philippines. Leyte: Tacloban and Dulag (H. R.

Roberts). U.S.N.M. (1 female): Philippines
(R. C. McGregor).

KNIGHT: PACIFIC AEDES (MUCIDUS) MOSQUITOES

323

Aedes (Mucidus) aurantius aurantius
(Theobald)

1907. Pardomyia aurantia Theobald, Mon. Cul.
4: 280 (female). TyPpE-Loc.: Borneo.
Kuching, Sarawak (Barker). TypE: Fe-
male (holotype) in Brit. Mus.

1908. EHkrinomyia aureostriata Leicester, Cul.
Malaya, p. 71 (males, females). TYPE-
Loc.: Malaya. Klang, Kuala Lumpur
(Leicester). TyPE: 3 females, 3 males
(cotypes), in Brit. Mus.; 1 female (co-
type) in U.S.N.M.

1913. Pardomyia aurantia, Theo. Edwards, p.
224. Synonymy of aureostriata Leicester.
Edwards, 1922b: 451. Paine and Ed-
wards, 1929: 305.

1931. M. (Pardomyia) aurantius Theo. Brug and
Edwards, p. 257.

1932. A. (M.) aurantius Theobald. Edwards, p.
Bay

1944. Aedes (Mucidus) aurantius aurantius (Theo-
bald). Knight, Bohart, and Bohart, p.
oor

ADULT (described from Theobald’s and
Leicester’s type material). Closely similar to
quadripunctis but chiefly distinct in having the
scutum dark scaled except for a prominent
anterior transverse area of narrow yellow scales
(also a few yellow scales around the prescutellar
space and over the wing base).

Also: Proboscis may possess considerable
black scaling. Forked upright vertex scales vary
from golden to brownish in color. A few dark
hairlike scales usually present on the sub-
spiracular area along the dorsal-anterior margin
of the sternopleuron. Wing fork cells nearly as
long as their stems. In the female, tergites I-III
are largely dark scaled; I with a narrow yellow
band laterally, II-III with a divided median
yellow patch, remainder of the tergites yellow
except for occasional scattered dark scales.
The tergites of the male marked approxi-
mately the same, except usually there are some-
what fewer dark scales. Male genitalia similar to
that of a. nigrescens (see Figs. 1 and 7).

Leicester (1908) described the hind female
claws as being simple, but actually they each
have a very small tooth.

LARVA. Not seen. Described and figured
however, by Edwards and Givens (1928,
Singapore specimens) and by Lee (1944, speci-
mens from Milne Bay, New Guinea). Dorsal
characters of the head similar to those of
guadripunctis except that Lee figures head hair
5 as not extending cephalad beyond the base of
hair 6. Thoracic hairs not specifically described.

324

Dorsolateral hair of abdominal segment I
single; lateral hair of I with 6 branches, of II
witb 10, of III-VII double. Comb patch of
about 20-26 bluntly rounded and apically
fringed teeth. Pentad hair (as fig. by Lee, 1944)
1 and 5 with 8 branches, 2 single. Siphon index
about 2; acus well-developed; pecten composed
of about 20 rather close-set teeth, each with 2—5
denticles, the line of teeth extending to just
beyond the middle of siphon, the two distal
teeth more widely separated than the others;
siphon hair tuft with about 6 branches, inserted
between the two distal pecten teeth. Anal seg-
ment as in quadripunctis.

PUPA. Partially figured and described by
Edwards and Givens (1928).

Habitat—The predacious larva has been
reported from pig wallows, small clear marshy
pools, a pot-hole in a mangrove swamp, and
grass-grown pools in swamps.

Remarks.—All the type specimens of a.
aurantius and aureostriata have been examined.
This species is distinct in the adult from
quadripunctis on the color of the scutal and
abdominal tergal scales, and in the larva (pos-
sibly) on the length of head hair 5, on the
number of comb scales, and on the number of
branches of the siphon hair tuft and of pentad
hair 2.

Distribution — SPECIMENS EXAMINED: U.S.
N.M. (8 males, 3 females): New Guinea. Papua:
Gilli Gili. Dutch New Guinea: Toem (long.
139°, lat. 1° 59’) (E. S. Ross).

ADDITIONAL RECORDS FROM THE LITERATURE:
Sumatra. Lampong districts: Moeara Tebo.
Riouw Archipel: Doerian (Brug and Edwards,
1931). New Guinea. Papua: Milne Bay (Lee,
1944).

Aedes (Mucidus) aurantius nigrescens

(Edwards)
igs. La
1929. Pardomyia aurantia var. nigrescens Hd-
wards, in Paine and Edwards, Bull. Ent.
Res. 20: 314 (female, larva). TYPE-LOC.:
Solomon Islands. Lady Lever Plantation,
Kulambangra (Paine). TYPE: female
(holotype) in Brit. Mus.
1932. A.(M.) aurantius var. nigrescens Paine and
Edwards. Edwards, p. 135.
1944. Aedes (Mucidus) aurantius nigrescens Ed-
wards. Knight, Bohart, and Bohart, p.
50.

ADULT. Very similar to a. aurantius but
differing chiefly in the color of the abdominal

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 37, No. 9

tergite scaling. In the female, tergites II-IV
black marked with a narrow basal yellow line
and a median pair of. yellow spots, and some-
times with a few scattered yellow scales; V-VII
black, each broadly marked by a median patch
of yellow scales that reaches the posterior
margin of the segment. The male tergites how-
ever, are colored practically as in a. aurantius,
except that there are rather more scattered
black seales laterally on IV—VII. Male genitalia
(Figs. 1 and 7) similar to that of guadripunctis
and a. aurantius.
LARVA. (2 larval skins from Solomon
Islands). Apparently not separable from that
of quadripunctts. In the type description,
Edwards states that the larva differs from that
of a. aurantius only in having the antenna
shghtly longer and the siphon distinctly longer
(index about 2.7). However, the specimens in
the U. S. National Museum differ from a.
aurantius on the same characters that quadrt-
punctis differs from it. |
Habitat.—The predacious larva occurs in all
types of rain-filled temporary puddles and pools,
either in the open or in swamps or woodlands.
Remarks——I have examined the type. As
Kdwards indicates, a. nigrescens appears to be
only a geographical subspecies based essentially
on female color characters. The larva is not
distinct from that of quadripunctis.
Distribution SPECIMENS EXAMINED. U.S.-
N.M. (5 males, 15 females, 4 sets of adult-
associated larval and pupal skins, 2 larvae, 1
larval skin, 2 pupal skins): Solomon Islands.
Guadalcanal: Lunga district (J. N. Belkin,
A. B. Gurney, L. E. Rozeboom, J. L. Laffoon).
New Georgia group: Banika Island (W. G.
Downs). Bougainville: Torokina area (A. B.
Gurney).

Aedes (Mucidus) aurantius chrysogaster
(Taylor)

1927. Mucidus chrysogaster Taylor, Bull. Ent.
Res. 18: 67 (female). TypE-Loc.: Aus-
tralia. Berner’ Creek, near Innisfail,
Queensland (Taylor). Type: 2 females
(holotype and paratype), in Australian
Inst. Trop. Med., Townsville, Queens-
land.

1944. Aedes (Mucidus) aurantius chrysogaster
Taylor. Knight, Bohart, and Bohart, p.
50.

Since the type description, there have been
no additional published notes on this species;

Serr. 15, 1947 PEARSE: BARNACLES AND ISOPODS FROM BEAUFORT, N. C.

nor have I seen the types. However, from a
careful consideration of the type description,

_it appears to have no significant differences

from a. nigrescens except in scutal markings.
Taylor describes the scutum as_ follows:
“Scutum chocolate-coloured, covered with
mixed golden and chocolate-brown, narrow-
curved scales; there is a moderately broad
median transverse band of golden scales reach-
ing right across the scutum, reaching this but
not passing it is a broad (about a quarter the
width of the scutum) stripe of golden scales,
the golden scales are very pronounced on the
anterior margin of the scutum.”

The larvae were found in a shallow rock pool
containing a large quantity of decaying
vegetable matter.

LITERATURE CITED
Banks, C. 8. Philippine Journ. Sci. 1: 977-

1005. 1906.
BarrRaup, P. J. Indian Journ. Med. Res. 16:
1052-1064. 1929.

. Fauna of British India, Diptera, 5:
463 pp. London, 1934.

Bonwart, R. M. A synopsis of the Philippine
mosquitoes. U.S. NavMed. 580: 88 pp.
Washington, 1945.

Brue, 8. L., and Epwarps, F. W. Tijdschr.
Ent. 74: 251-261. 1931.

CHRISTOPHERS, S. R. Sci. Mem. Med. and
San. Depts. India 25 (n. s.): 1-18. 1906.

Coouine, L. E. Commonwealth of Australia
Dept. Health, Serv. Publ. (Trop. Div.)
No. 8:40 pp. Melbourne, 1924.

eee F. W. Bull. Ent. Res. 2: 241-268
1911.

. Bull. Ent. Res. 4: 221-242.

. Bull. Ent. Res. 13: 75-102.

1913.
1922a.

329

. Indian Journ. Med. Res. 10: 430-475.
1922b.

. Bull. Ent. Res. 14: 351-401.
. Notulae Ent. 9: 1-14. 1929.
. Genera insectorum: Family Culicidae,
fase. 194: 285 pp. Brussels, 1932.

. Mosquitoes of the Ethiopian Region 3:
499 pp. British Museum, 1941.

and Givens, D. H.C. Bull. Ent. Res.

1924.

USasal—aote O28.

Fret, E. P. New York State Mus. Bull. 97:_
442-497. 1905.

Frenc, L.-Cu. Peking Nat. Hist. Bull. 12:
285-318. 1988.

HaMiyn-Harpris, R. Bull. Ent. Res. 24: 229—
Date NOS:

Hopkins, G. H. E. Mosquitoes of the Ethi-
opian Region 1:250 pp. British Museum,
1936.

Knicut, K. L., Bouart, R. M., and Bowarr,
G. E. Keys to the mosquitoes of the
Australasian Region: 71 pp. National Re-
search Council, Div. Med. Sci.: Washing-
ton, 1944.

Lez, D. J. Atlas of mosquito larvae of Aus-
tralasian Region. Headquarters Austral-
ian Military Forces Publ.: 119 pp.
Melbourne, 1944.

Leicester, G. F. The Culrcidae of Malaya.
Studies Inst. Med. Res. Federated Malay
States 3: 18-261. 1908.

Macquart, J. Dipteres exotiques 1: 5-207.
Paris, 1839 (1838).

PartngE, R. W., and Epwarps, F. W. Bull.
Ent. Res. 20: 303-320. 1929.

Sxuss, F. A. A. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South
Wales 3 (ser. 2): 1717-1764. 1889.
THEOBALD, F. V. <A monograph of the Culicidae
or mosquitoes 1: 424 pp. British Mu-

seum, 1901.

. Ibid. 3: 359 pp. 1903.
. Ibid. 4: 639 pp. 1907.
. Ibid. 5: 646 pp. 1910.

Westwoop, J. O. Trans. Ent. Soc. London
1881: 363-385. 1881.

ZOOLOGY .—Observations on the occurrence of certain barnacles and isopods at
Beaufort, N. CA. S. Pearsg, Duke University.

During the summer of 1946 collections
were made of certain crustacean parasites
that occurred on marine mollusks, crabs,
shrimps, king crabs, and fishes at Beaufort,
N.C. The results for copepods have already
been published (1947). The present report
deals with barnacles and isopods. Thanks
are due to L. B. Hayes, David Busby, and
Glen E. Mathisen who helped with the

1 Received March 31, 1947.

routine examinations. A new isopod is de-
scribed. Specimens of this and other crus-
taceans have been deposited in the United
States National Museum.

Order CIRRIPEDIA
Division LEPADOMORPHA
Octolasmis mulleri (Coker)

Coker (1902) wrote an excellent paper on the
occurrence and development of this barnacle
from studies he made at Beaufort. He examined

326

180 blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus Rathbun)
and found 128 (71 percent) infested with
these parasitic barnacles. The females more
often carried barnacles in their gill chambers
(89 percent) than males (56 percent). The
number in crabs ranged from ‘“‘one to as many
as can be crowded into the branchial chambers
—500 to 1,000, or perhaps more.”’ Coker also
at times found the barnacles in the branchial
chambers of stone crabs (Menippe mercenaria
Stimson) and spider crabs (Labinia caniliculata
Say).

During the summer of 1946 (June 8-28)
the writer examined 93 Callinectes sapirdus
and 22 (23.7 percent) contained from 1 to 84
barnacles. These numbers are below those re-
ported by Coker, but he says that infestation
was heavier in the latter part of the summer.
The writer found a total of 554 barnacles, an
average of almost six per crab. :

Division BALANOMORPHA
Chelonibia patula (Ranzani)

Ninety-three blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus
Rathbun) examined during June 1946 bore
1,592 of these barnacles on the carapace, legs,
and abdomen; an average of 17 per individual.
Those from deeper water had more than those
from shallow shores; 7 taken in a trawl at a
depth of 40 feet bore 485; one individual, 120.
Of the 93 hosts examined, 57 bore Chelonibias
(61 percent).

Four king crabs (Limulus polyphemus Lin-
naeus), examined on June 27, bore 198 barna-
cles; some of these were of this species, some of
Balanus amphitrite nweus Darwin, and some
too small to be placed specifically.

Order IsopopAa
Tribe CyMoTHOIDA
Nerocila acuminata Schioedte
and Meinert

On June 11 two fishes (banded croaker, Lari-
mus fasciatus Holbrook; weakfish, Cynoscion
regalis Bloch and Schneider), were found float-
ing in the channel in front of the Duke Uni-
versity Marine Laboratory. Both of these had a
female Nerocila in the mouth. On June 24 five
harvestfishes, Peprilus alepidotus (Linnaeus),
contained three more, and on June 26 three of
the same fishes bore another one. On June 28
ten sea-robins, Prionotus carolinus (Linnaeus),
had one in the mouth of one individual. On

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9

July 31 five spadefish, Chaetodipterus faber
(Broussonet), furnished another in a branchial
chamber. On August 21 a pinfish, Lagodoen
rhomboides (Linnaeus), had one in its mouth.
All the hosts mentioned are spiny-rayed fishes
(Acanthopteri), but Richardson (1905) reports
this isopod from the sawfish, Pristis pectinatus
Latham.

Tribe BopyroipEA
Probopyrus alphei Richardson

From the branchial chamber of a snapping
shrimp, Crangon heterochaelis (Say), a female
and her attached dwarf male were taken on
July 29.

Probopyrus pandalicola (Packard)

From the branchial chambers of about 500
Palaemonetes carolinus Stimpson, taken at
Mortons Mill Pond on July 2, 52 females were
taken and 50 of these bore dwarf males.

Leidya distorta (Leidy)

Between May 28 and July 10, 435 fiddler
crabs (Uca pugilator (Bose)) were examined.
In the branchial cavities of some of these 7
female and 5 male Leidyas were found. During
August Dr. Martin Burkenroad brought in four
fiddlers that he picked up after dark, as he ob-
served that they were sluggish and appeared to
be “‘sick.’”? Three of these also contained —
Leidyas.

Pseudione upogebiae Hay

May 30 to August, 89 Upogebia affinis (Say)
were examined and vielded 9 female and 7 male
Pseudiones, 6 nematode worms; and in their
burrows were also found 3 polyclad worms and
4 Pinnixa cristata Rathbun.

Pseudione panopei n. sp.

Between June 9 and July 26, 506 individuals
of Panopeus herbstii Milne-Edwards were ex-
amined and no parasites of this species were
found but on August 22, 2 large females, 3
small females, and two males were taken from
the branchial cavities of 25 crabs. The holotype
female (U.S.N.M. no. 82669), allotype male
(U.S.N.M. no. 82670), and a paratype female
(U.S.N.M. no. 82671) have been deposited in
the U.S. National Museum.

Female-——Body, somewhat asymmetrical,
longer than wide (13.5X8 mm; 12.5 K 8 mm);

SepT. 15,1947 PEARSE: BARNACLES AND ISOPODS FROM BEAUFORT, N. C. 327

Figs. 1-11.—Pseudione panopet, n.sp.: 1, Antenna of female; 2, antennule of female; 3, head
and first leg of female; 4, posterior portion of abdomen of male; 5, posterior portion of abdomen of
female; 6, first leg of male; 7, telson and uropods of male; 8, first plate from incubatory pouch of
female; 9, fifth leg of male; 10, antennule of male; 11, antenna of male.

328

flat; unpigmented. Head in a ventral view is a
little longer than wide (2.21.8; 3X2.8 mm),
slightly arched in front and deeply rounded be-
hind; without eyes. Antennules (Fig. 2) 3-
segmented and antennae (Fig. 1) 6-segmented;
segments progressively narrower distally. Tho-
rax with all segments separate; epimera on all,
narrow. Abdominal segments (Fig. 5) separate;
epimera flat, posterolateral angles somewhat
produced into toothlike processes. The seven
pairs of legs are prehensile and bear blunt teeth
on the surface that meets the terminal claw.
The terminal claws on the legs are progressively
shorter and more robust posteriorly. The pleo-
pods are elongate, tapering, leaf like, biramous;
their lateral margins bear single rows of about
9 blunt processes on their lateral margins and
are rough on their median margins. The uro-
pods are uniramous and project one-third of
their length beyond the bifid telson. Incubatory
pouch enclosed by five pairs of plates, the first
is 2-segmented and bears a rounded lobe
(Fig. 8).

Male.—Body slender, a little less than 34
times as long as wide (3.3 mm X1.0 mm);
bilaterally symmetrical. Head nearly twice as
wide as long, rounded anteriorly and posteri-
orly, with a median anterior depression. Tho-
racic segments all separate; with flat, rounded
epimera which are setose on the lateral margins.
Abdominal segments (Fig. 4) gradually di-
minish posteriorly; the first is four times as
wide as long and the sixth is twice as wide as
long; the telson is about as wide as long, bears
a median posterior lobe; uropods, a little longer
than wide, setose at tips (Figs. 4, 7). Anten-
nules 3-segmented, setose on median margin
(Fig. 10), second segment is longest. Antennae
(Fig. 11) 6-segmented; segments decrease in
diameter distally and the terminal segment is
minute; second and third segments longest; five
terminal segments setose on median distal
margin. Thoracic legs grow gradually smaller
and more robust posteriorly (Figs. 6, 9);
terminal hook on front leg bears 4 spines on
inner margin and about 7 teeth on the penulti-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 9

mate segment opposite the hook; the posterior
legs have short hooks and lack spines and teeth
but are setose.

The pleopods somewhat resemble those of
Pseudione upogebsrae Hay, 1917, but the present
species differs from that one in the number of
segments in the antennae, the character and
armature of the thoracic legs, the first plate of
the incubatory pouch, and the telson of the
male.

Cancrion carolinus Pearse
and Walker

From the bodies of 506 mud crabs, Panopeus
herbsti1 Milne-Edwards, 17 Cancrions were
taken between June 9 and July 26. Thus 3.4
percent were infested. All these parasites were
females. On July 8 four Cancrions (2 large, 2
small) were found in one crab, and on July 29
two occurred in another crab. No males were
observed. Several of the females were im-
mature.

REFERENCES

Coxsr, R. E. Notes on a species of barnacle
(Dichelaspis) parasitic on the gills of edible
crabs. U.S. Fish Comm. Bull. for 1901:
399-412. 1902.

Hay, W.P. A new genus and three new species
of parasitic wsopod crustaceans. Proc.
U. 8. Nat. Mus. 51: 569-574. 1917.

Prarss, A. 8. Parasitic copepods from Beau-
fort, North Carolina. Journ. Elisha Mitch-
ell Sci. Soc. 63: 1-16. 1947.

Pearse, A. 8., and WauLkEer, H. A. Two new
parasitic tsopods from the Atlantic coast of
North America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.
87: 19-23. 1989.

Piusspry, H. A. The barnacles (Cirripedia)
contained in the collections of the U. S.
National Museum. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull.
60: 122 pp. 1907.

The sessile barnacles (Cuirripedia)

contained in the collections of the U. S.

National Museum; including a monograph

of the American species. U.S. Nat. Mus.
Bull. 93: 366 pp. 1916.
RICHARDSON, HARRIET. A monograph on the

isopods of North America. U. 8S. Nat.
Mus. Bull. 54: lii+727 pp. 1905.

CONTENTS

ENGINEERING.—Beach intelligence. Martin A. MASON....... Pon

BrocuEemMistry.—The significance of tomatin in plant and animal dis-

ease. GrorGE W. IRVING, JR............ pe oS ah A

Briopuysics.—Harmony among vital substances. Luis FELIPE VEGAS

Erunoiocy.—Further light on the Delaware Indians as women.
CO AOW ESEAGER intra. Umi \ Re cree ne

Botany.—The ecology of the wild kidney bean Phaseolus polystachios
(LO BSP, Voy AU ALBARDY 1300} COLT OL Zoe ee

EntromoLocy.—New eumolpid beetles from the West Indies. Doris
HY Bra RR oe See ee ge

EntomoLtocy.—The Aedes (Mucidus) mosquitoes of the Pacifie (Dip-
tera: Culict@e). Kenneta i. KiGar 3 Po ee

ZooLoGy.—Observations on the occurrence of certain barnacles and
isopods at: Beaufort, N: '‘C.° ACS, PRARSE)0. 0.7.27 eee

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Vou. 37

OcToBER 15, 1947.

No. 10

ETHNOLOGY.—Wind River Shoshone literary forms: An introduction. D. B.
SHIMKIN, Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, N. J.

This paper sketches the main forms of
unwritten literature among the Wind River
Shoshone of Wyoming: the myth (in its two
forms of heroic novelette and incidental
story or personality sketch), the anecdote,
the poetic song, the public prayer, minor
invocations, and the jokes of daily life.
These materials illustrate the inherent and
distinctive artistry, the breadth of indi-
vidual variability, and the depth of emo-
tional expressiveness which may exist
among a simple folk. My illustrations are
limited by a paucity of materials and
warped by incomplete knowledge of the
language. They can but hint at the full
richness and vitality of Shoshonean tradi-
tions, both at Wind River and elsewhere.

Other subsidiary goals exist within the
framework of this essay. One is the typo-
logical delineation of the principal Shoshone
literary forms in regard to structure, con-
tent, and style.* Another is the characteri-
zation of the relations between mythology
and the rest of culture: the social setting
and social functions of storytelling, the
nature and variations of attitudes toward
mythology, and the reflections of archaic
and modern culture in the myth. A third
is the indication of interactions between
narrators and the tales they tell; how each
narrator tends to pattern myth-stuff ac-
cording to his mood, and how, in doing so,
ke reveals much of his basic personality.’

1 Received May 5, 1947.

* Taylor has indicated the need for such types
of study. (Cf. A. TayLtor: Some trends and prob-
lems in studies of the folk-tale, Studies in Philology
37: 1-25. 1940: p. 18).

3 Technically, this is the ‘‘projective’ tech-
nique of modern clinical psychology. Helpful ref-
erences in regard to this method are H. Rors-
cHacH: Psychodiagnostik, Bern, 1921 (1st ed.);
H. PrinzHorn: Bildneret der Geisteskranken,

Berlin, 1923; H. A. Murray: Explorations in
personality, Cambridge, 1938.

MYTH AND CULTURE

The relations between myth and culture
among the Shoshone are varied and com-
plex. Partly, they are functions of the set-
ting in which the. tales are told, and of the
purposes—magical, pedagogical, and psy-
chological—which impel narration. To some
degree, they result from the infiltration of
mythological concepts into the fields of
philosophy and religion, and the ensuing
interaction. Finally they reflect the impacts
of constant cultural change upon habits of
thought, impacts that have yielded quaint
anachronisms and conscious archaisms
among these people.

On cold winter nights, old people, us-
ually men, tell tales for the edification of
young and old. Although good storytellers
are generally well known and in demand, no
private rights to particular stories exist, nor
is there any special etiquette involving
audience and narrator* or calling for a
round robin of tales.> The only requirement
is that a tale, once started, must be told to
completion. My informant, Tassitsie, told
me:

My father, Coyote’s Tail, used to tell stories.
In those days, two or three young fellows would
come to bis tipi in the evening, in winter, give
him a smoke, and ask him to tell tales. This was
not for amusement but for instruction.

The myths relate happenings in the days when
animals and birds were people. They did various
things. In time, one of the animals became old,
and started telling stories; he died, another

started. It is in this manner that narrators
have descended.

4 As among the Crow. Polly Shoyo, who had
visited that tribe, mentioned, however, that
audiences were required to say ‘‘Yes’”’ every so
often to indicate that they were awake. Other
informants denied this. (See R. H. LowiE: The
Crow Indians, New York, 1935.)

5G. W. Jones: Fox texts. Publ. Amer. Ethnol.
Socr is 3. 1907

329

OCT 22 1947

330

Tassitsie himself, for example, told no
tales while his father was alive. On the other
hand, all the old people, men and women
alike, can tell stories. There is neither pri-
vate ownership—he knows Pivo’s (another
informant’s) repertory—nor any correct or
traditional pattern of narration.

Magical control of weather is intimately
connected with the narration of myths.
‘One should not tell stories in the daytime,
lest it storm. Summer-born people alone

skin tied
| in bunch

Fie. 1.—Buckskin mask.

should tell tales. If winter-born people do,
it gets very cold. Tales must be told to the
formal ending, and not beyond, lest it
storm. The ending itself is a statement ob-
scurely hinting at melting snow, which re-
sults from properly told tales.

Even today a great part of the education
of virtually all Shoshone children is through
hearing mythology. No matter that some
scoff at tales as idle old men’s chatter:
storytelling is for many the only evening
diversion. In consequence, the Shoshone
have become immersed in the examples and
precepts set forth by mythical characters.
It takes but a tiny child to recognize the
word “izhapingén” (acting like Coyote),
as an expression of deceit.

The purposes which once maintained
mythology as a formal instrument of in-
struction have largely vanished. Few any
longer take very seriously the etiological
explanations occurring in myths. Nor do

6 For a more extended discussion see D. B.
SHiMKIN: Childhood and development among the
Wind River Shoshone. Univ. California Anthrop.
Rec. (in press).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 10

many retain painstaking descriptions of
technological processes in their stories for
reasons other than conservatism or feelings
of artistry. Only one very old woman, Polly
Shoyo, remembered the link between my-
thology and formal discipline. She related
that masked men would imitate the Ghost
Beings in order to scare bad and disobedient
children.

I saw this when I was young. In winter, in the
evenings, two men would walk into the tents, all
over the camp. They never rode horses. They
would wear masks of buckskin; or buffalo heads,
with long beards. Their bodies were cloaked in a
hide with the bair on it: that of a two-year buffalo,
tail and all.

Around their feet were wrappings to make them
large. They held nothing in their hands.

These men were called 30’a8z¢ (Ghost-Being).
They would just walk around, without singing,
without talking, scaring kids—‘‘they’re going to
eat the bad and disobedient ones.”’ All watched
them silently as they would walk around the
camp.

Sometimes such persons would dress like old
men. In fall and winter, they’d go around the
camp somehow, with white hair and masks. They
might be the same ones as the others: no one
knows who they are. People fed the ‘‘old men”’
although not the ghost-maskers. Spectators did
nothing, except laugh at them.

It may be mentioned in passing that such
masked impersonators of cannibals are
found widely throughout North America.
A recent study by Verne Ray’ traces the
distribution of this cultural complex from
the Iroquois through the Northern Plains to
the Basin Shoshoneans. Further diffusion
of these impersonators from the Basin to
the Pueblo tribes of the Southwest may
also be noted. For example, among the
Tewa, ‘‘tsabijc,” an impersonator who goes
about. on certain occasions whipping the
children of the village,®? represents an un-
mistakable loan from Shoshonean *30’a{i¢.

In contrast to the anecdote—on which,
more later—the myth is not a recognized
vehicle for wishful fantasy. True enough,
mythology does relate some instances of
exaggerated sexual prowess, as well as one
tale of incest, that of the lecherous father.

7 VERNE F. Ray: The contrary behavior pattern
in American Indian ceremonialism. Southwestern
Journ. Anthrop. 1: 75-113. 1945; pp. 105-110.

8 J. P. Harrineton: Tewa relationship terms.
Amer. Anthrop. 14: 472-498. 1912; p. 480. Cf.

also E. C. Parsons, The Zuni Adoshle and Suuke.
Amer. Anthrop. 18: 338-347. 1916; p. 339.

Oct. 15, 1947
It does idealize certain familial relations,
such as that between brothers. And individ-
uals, of course, do add particular twists
and contribute special emphases to stories
in consonance with their psychological
needs. But Shoshone mythology is pre-
eminently realistic. Cinderellas, male or
female, do not occur in it. Its heroes are not
models of human perfection; its villains

often have redeeming qualities. The happy

ending is not de rigueur.

Individuals vary greatly in the degree to
which they believe myths relate real
happenings of the far past or in the extent
to which they integrate mythological char-
acters into their daily religious lives. Some
of my Shoshone informants, like Tom
Wesaw, are skeptical of ‘‘just stories.’ But
old people usually accept myths as true.

Thus, Polly Shoyo constantly used brief

tales to illustrate her general ethnographic
discussions. Yet such acceptance of the
historical truth of mythology has not pre-
cluded the simultaneous existence of con-
tradictory ideas, and even of contradictory

philosophies. Within mythology itself some

of these contradictions occur. Several per-
sonages— Wolf, Coyote, Bat, Weasel—act
as culture-heroes. Often several explana-
tions exist for the origin of the same phe-
nomenon. In one story Coyote originates
death when he causes Wolf to die; in an-
other he clubs his own children to death in
bungling imitation of magician Beaver.
But more important than such inner incon-
sistencies are the clashes with beliefs of
nonmythological origin.

The central figure in the worship of all
Wind River Shoshone cults—Ghost Dance,
Sun Dance, Peyote Cult, etc..—is damé’-
ap:é (Our Father), a vague, anthropomor-

phic, somewhat Christianized being whom

all informants now identify with the white
man’s God. Whether the concept is com-
pletely a loan from Christianity or whether
it actually contains aboriginal elements re-
mains a moot point. Direct Wind River
Shoshone contacts with white culture began
in 1805, with active religious proselyting

* For a full discussion of these cults see D. B.
SHIMKIN: Some interactions of culture, needs and
personalities among the Wind River Shoshone.

oes thesis, University of California Library,

SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS

dol

dating from 1834.1° But it must also be rec-
ognized that Basin Shoshone and Comanche
alike show the concept of a heavenly
Father.4! He appears only in a few tales,
drawn in great part either directly, or
through the Arapaho, from the Bible. A
quotation from George Guina illustrates
Our Father’s position in the philosophy of
several individuals:

After death, an Indian goes to heaven. God
makes him take a bath in a willow basket. The
spirit now turns into a person and then goes to a
camp, where he ghost-dances. While he dances,
he feels good, and God says, ‘‘When they have a
dance, they will be glad when they dance.”

Unfortunately, the same informant told
that Wolf, after reviving from death, de-
parted, telling Coyote, ‘““‘When people die,
they’re going to me.”’ Is Wolf ‘‘Our Father”’
then? Most persons deny such a theory
vehemently. But reconciliation of these
fundamental conflicts is beyond their inter-
ests or abilities. One lonely individual has
rejected all current religious ideas and
built up his own system of belief in Coyote
as Creator and God. Others, when con-
fronted with ultimate metaphysical prob-
lems, merely say, ‘‘I don’t know.”

Beliefs concerning guardian spirits are
virtually inchoate. A basic reason for such
confusion seems to be the fact (which holds
for western North America generally) that
the primary religious experience is an audi-
tory hallucination, commonly that of hear-
ing a song. Visual imagery may be extremely
undefined—“‘a sort of an eye,’’ according to
the experience of one of my informants—
or even be completely lacking. Certain of
the most powerful tutelaries, such as the
Doyaratuwara plant and the ghosts of dead
shamans, recelve no mythological mention.
But various animals, as well as monsters,
occur both in vision and tale. Are such
beings the mythological animals living on
from the dim past or their ghosts? Are they .

10See W. Irvine: The adventures of Captain
Bonneville, New York, 1848; P. J. pE Ser:
Letters and sketches, in R. G. Thwaites (ed.),
Early western travels 1748-1846, 27: 129-411. 1906;
Pot Gee W. P. Cuarx: The Indian sign language,
p. 121, Philadelphia, 1885; R. Linton, The Co-
manche Sun Dance, Amer. Anthrop. 37: 420—428.
1935; L. Spier, The Prophet Dance of the North-

west and its derivatives, General Series in Anthrop.
No.1. 1935:

dod2

individual beasts or representatives of their
entire species? Evidence is absolutely con-
tradictory. Thus, Water-Ghost-Being is
sometimes a specific hairy monster.’? At
other times, people affirm the existence of
an entire race of such beings, male and fe-
male, young and old. Water-Ghost-Being
is commonly averred to have been killed
when the Union Pacific Railroad came
through. Yet, in recent years, John Trehero
received from him supernatural power to
cure epilepsy (which the monster himself
causes).

Modern Shoshone life is a hodgepodge of
early and recent elements of culture. The
word ‘‘dish-vessel’’ (di’so-na-ha’’u) sym-
bolizes such anachronisms well. It is formed
from the English ‘“‘dish,’”’ a genitive suffix,
and an old Uto-Aztecan term for cup or
vessel.'8

The same admixture found in everyday
life exists also in mythology. In general,
the scene of the myths seems to be that of
the Wind River-Teton intermountain zone.
The cultural era is the protohistoric period,
when horses are just.coming in (about
1750).4 But details reflecting very different
historical periods may be found even in the
same myth. For example, the story of the
Split Boys describes an archaic type of
club, whose use in actuality had been for-
gotten even by my oldest informants:

Boy is asking it from bis mother: ‘‘What wood
is hard?” He is asking it. Old Woman said it:
“‘Mountain mahogany,” said it. Boy is running
there. He has cut it down, and is returning. [It is
quite short: the bark peels off.] He is putting a

good edge on one side of it, is making its handle
good. At night he is drying it.

The same story tells, a little later, of such
a modern act as getting dishes from White
people for a feast.

122 Qne old woman identified plate 4 of the
Rorschach Test as Water-Ghost-Being.

13Cf. Papago ha’u (gourd cup, jicara). J.
_ Dowores: Papago nominal stems, Univ. Cali-

fornia Publ. Amer. Arch. and Ethnol. 20: 22-31.
1923; p. 28.

44D). B. Surmxin: Shoshone-Comanche origins
and migrations, Proc. 6th Pacific Sci. Congr. 4:
17—25. 1939.

15 (By Pivo Brown.) This is a careful translation
of a text. The principal liberty taken has been to
rearrange the order of subjects and objects in ac-
cordance with English usage.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 10

Now, in the morning, Boy: is running toward
them: toward that place where he goes to hunt,
toward White men’s houses. He arrived, then said
to them: “We will have a big feast in your homes.”
“We will have nothing to eat,” they told him.
‘“‘No, when your table is set with dish-vessels,
the food for which you will ask (will be) coming
by means of winged creatures from afar.”’

THE MYTH: PLOTS

Wind River Shoshone myths deal with
anthropomorphic animals or monsters, and
with human beings. They group themselves
into two main classes, heroic novelettes and

incidental stories or personality sketches.

Two subdivisions exist in the heroic tales,
those with elaborated and those with simple
plots. Thus, out of the 21 myths from major
narrators which I recorded at Wind River,

» 12 are heroic novelettes, 4 are incidental

tales, 3 are in novelette form but special-
ized in content (for example, Coyote,
Grease, and Bobcat) and 2 are unclassified
(Cottontail Shoots the Sun, the Theft of
Pine-nuts). .

The elaborate herovc novelettes are compli-
cated and often very long (up to 10,000
words) with plots patterned upon one
basic plan. This plan includes, consecutively,
an introductory phrase, the statement of
a cause for starting travel, and the prepara-
tion of equipment for the trip. Then follow
the trip itself and adventures en route, ad-
ventures which develop steadily in diffi-
culty and danger up to a thrilling climax.
This development forms the core of the
Shoshone myth. After the crisis has passed,
reasons for a second cycle of adventure
emerge. Often a new, more serious purpose
induces a change in the character of the
once-imperfect hero. Travel, adventure,
and climactic struggle come once more, but
are followed now by a final victory. An
explanatory element, an anticlimax, and a
fixed ending wind up the tale.

The introductory phrase is stereotyped:
the hero or heroes live at a given place.

They, the noxious insects, live there all together.'®

The reason for travel soon arises, e.g.,

_the wish to hunt for food, raid the enemy,

or search for a new husband. Now the hero
or heroes generally prepare special weapons

146 From Tassitsie’s ‘‘Mosquito Kills Cannibal.”

Ocr. 15, 1947

or magical devices. For example, Weasel’s
elder brother makes bows for the pair of
them.

At this time, at night, Elder Brother did it,
the front of this he did. Well he did it. He keeps
on scraping it off all over. Having finished scrap-

ing it off all over, now he notched it. Having
finished drying it, now he strings that bowstring.!”

Travel begins, but in a leisurely fashion.

The two now, in the morning, went: in the day,
kept going along. That night they arrived. In
the morning, having arisen by daylight, at this
time, they went—8

Soon, the heroes meet adventure. Suc-
cessively, they must combat greater and
greater but always similar difficulties.
These result either from faults (mischiev-
ousness or lechery) in their characters or
more rarely, from deliberate choice.

Owl’s widow is so contrary as to insist
on visiting Skunk’s home, and on looking
over the hill at the source of strange noises.
As a result of both indiscretions she and her
little son are killed and have to be revived
each time by magician Badger, at the price
of sexual intercourse. In another myth Blue-
jay’s trickiness leads to reprisals and war.

Finally the crisis comes. In one tale, the
magical elk hberated by Coyote turn into
hostile Indians, and make war upon him
and Wolf. In another, the Weasel brothers
at last reach their destination at the
‘“Water-Buffalo’s” lair. Now ensues tense

action that keeps ever increasing in emo-

tional stress up to the dramatic climax.
For example, Weasel’s elder brother is pre-
paring to capture the Water-Buffalo from
beneath the surface of the lake. He tells his
brother not to fear or run away, no matter
what may happen.

At this time, the elder brother is coiling that
rope, at this time now comes into the water.
Then the younger brother has just looked at that
elder brother of bis. At this time, the elder
brother is a walker-away in water. At this time,
the elder brother, he who is up to his knees, comes
into the water. At this time, the younger brother,
as he keeps looking at him, now once to that
elder brother said it: ‘My Elder Brother,
enough! My Elder Brother’s knee level already
appears on the water!”

Then, he, the younger brother, again to that

17 From Pivo’s ‘‘Weasel’s Adventures.’
18 Jbed.

SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS

33d

elder brother of his once said it: ‘‘My Elder

Brother, enough! His waist already appears—”’

Then he, the younger brother, yet again is
looking toward him. Then he, the younger
brother, even then to that elder brother once
said it: ‘‘My Elder Brother, enough! Your neck
barely sits on the water!”

Then he, the younger brother, once: ‘‘My elder
brother’s head appears but a little bit!’

At this time he, the younger brother, to that
elder brother, once said it: ‘““My elder brother
appears no more!”’

Then he, the younger brother, looked toward it,
that elder brother’s disappearance. Then that
which is that younger brother’s elder brother’s
disappearance place—(lo!)—beyond it is a water-
spout! Then he, the younger brother, he Weasel,
once: “‘Something indeed has eaten my elder
brother.”’

Then he, Younger Brother Weasel, shot with his
own arrows. At this time, he, the younger brother,
consumed all his arrows shooting. Then he,
Younger Brother Weasel, at this time is a weeper:
“What could it possibly be that will, may be,
keep on swallowing my elder brother?”

He now, Weasel, at this time is a weeper.!®

As strife ends, the new situation crystal-
lizes. Coyote’s evil thoughts have led to the
death of his beloved elder brother, Wolf.
Coyote must recover his hide from the
enemy to restore him to life. The Split-
Boys, resurrected from one youth cut in
half by his maternal grandmother, propose
to rescue their captive mother from a can-
nibal giant. Often the personalities of the
characters change completely as _ well.
Coyote, once childishly jealous of his
brother, frantically attempts to right his
own wrong doing. Weasel, finally chastened
by the grievous effects of his mischief, be-
comes an obedient boy, and a benefactor.
Young Mourning Dove, having found his
mother, is turned by her into a small child
again, to facilitate their flight from Water
Ghost Woman.

The second adventure parallels the first,
but on a grander scale. Again there is travel,
with gradual, repetitive development of
incidents and events. In certain stories
such repetition achieves a truly poetic bal-
ance of beauty and style. Notable indeed is
an account of the Old Woman who has
helped Weasel to escape from Monster
Owl’s island on a boat. She watches the fire
which he builds in it every night as he floats
away into the distance.

19) 1 b2d:

334

Then she, Old Woman, is looking for it; in the
night is looking for it, his red fire-making:

At this time, sees it. Then she, Old Woman, does
not look for it in the day.

Then it is dusk. Now Old Woman again is look-
ing for it, his red fire-making. Far away a
tiny, red fire burns.

“Far away indeed it has become,”
Woman thinks.

Now again she sees it; then, in the day, does not
look for it.

It is now twilight, and then evening.

It now, a twice as tiny, red fire burns. She, Old
Woman, is looking for it.

She then, Old Woman, once thinks,

“Tt probably right now far distant has become,”
she, Old Woman, thinks.

Then in the day, she does not look for it.

Then it is again twilight, again evening.

She now, Old Woman, once is a looker for that
wood fire.

Once?—thenceforth impossible to see it.

Then it once, may be, a red- BEDE barely has again
become.

Red fire burns invisibly.

She now, Old Woman once,

“Right now, indeed far away, it has become,”’ she,
Old Woman, thinks... . 2°

The heroes meet obstacles once again.
Not infrequently now such difficulties are
enough to require aid from magically pow-
erful patrons. Fleeing, Mourning Dove and
her baby son find shelter in Uncle Vulture’s
nose, and cross a river on Uncle Crane’s leg.
Uncle Bat finally disposes of the pursuing
Water Ghost Woman. Again, four adopted
paternal grandfathers tow Weasel’s boat to
land, rescue the youngster from malicious
dwarfs, and finally advise him how to return
safely to his brother. In still another case,
a friendly rattlesnake kills Cannibal’s
sentry to help Coyote and the Split-Boys
win their cause.

At last the heroes come to their final and
greatest resistance. Now begins the final,
cyclopean struggle. Illustrative is Coyote’s
and the Split-Boy’s encounter with Canni-
bal after the boys’ mother, the monster’s
captive, has succeeded in throwing his bow
in the fire.

Then he, Cannibal, stands there purposefully.
His bow is no more. Then he Cannibal, ‘‘Double-
Vulva, where is my bow standing?” said it.

She, their mother, ‘‘In the fire!’’ said it.

He, Cannibal, at that fireplace is looking pur-
posefully. That little piece of his bow lying in

the fire, that he takes purposefully. Toward it he
keeps spitting, stretching it out. Then Cannibal,

20 Tbid.

she, Old

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

having stretched it just like that, just like a bow
he tries to stretch it. Then, with his arrow,. he
alls.

They, the two boys, broke that peRespe a

moment before he shot.
Then he again keeps spitting on it, making good
that which they had kept on almost breaking.

Coyote said to them, “I myself, I will take a,

shot at you. You, for my arrow, would youstoop?”’
Cannibal stoops. It, the anus, is a big hole; there
he shoots.

Cannibal, “In no way can anything be done.
Let’s all of us wrestle!’ said it. .

He, Cannibal, drags them; knives against him
did nothing at all. He, one of them, ‘‘Let’s make
a fire,’ said to them. It, the fire, blazes. That
Cannibal’s flesh, cut off, they were throwing on
the fire. It kept jumping back on the very same
way, would stick back on. Then they, from whose

work he felt tired, they opened his breast—his

heart beats—then cut out his heart on the fire.

Back it would return from the fire, back they
would throw it. It, the heart, gradually goes
slower. Cannibal gradually goes slower. Then it,
the heart, cooked because of it. He, Cannibal,
then did not move.”

After the successful termination of the
struggle, an explanatory element often
enters. Water Ghost Woman’s broken re-
mains are the obsidian flakes that people use
nowadays. Coyote’s daughters, who were
pulled into the sky by an arrow shot by
their brother after they had committed
incest with their father, become the Pleia-
des. Not infrequently, anticlimax follows
and serves to throw a final gleam of light
upon the participants. For example, when

Coyote and Bobcat have ended their feud — |

and transformed each other into their
present-day selves, Coyote espies his young-

er brother once more. He is eating luscious ~

wild carrots which he pulls out of the stream
with his tail. Coyote, envious, pleads with
him, then cajoles him into revealing his
secret. However, Coyote’s greediness soon
leads him to grief, for his tail catches just
when he tries to bring up too many wild
carrots. Bobcat, from a distance, hears his
piteous appeals and finally releases him

magically. A mishap likewise befalls Weasel, |

despite his own adroitness in trickery, his
heroism in fighting monsters. Coyote’s
bluster frightens him into relinquishing the
wondrous prize of his adventures, Monster
Owl’s down-feather, which, donned on
one’s head, looks like “a mist floating.”

21 From Pivo’s “‘The Split-Boys.”’

| VOL. 37, No. 10 —

Ocr. 15, 1947

And thus he comes home empty-handed.

The ending of all mythological tales is a
prescribed magical formula, izap:e ti na
(or a:’Bi) pa:’sagai da’zakwagin. The
meaning of this is somewhat obscure, most
likely, ‘‘Coyote way out there is tracking
through slush.”’

The szmple form of heroic tale includes
but a single cycle of adventure. For example,
a young man comes to Coyote’s camp, de-
claring that the noxious insects have killed
his people and are threatening the very
existence of mankind. Coyote cooks up a
scheme to combat this menace and gets the
birds to help him. Then he and his followers
meet the pests and destroy them, except
for a few who escape in the smoke to form
mosquitoes, flies, etc. The entire account is
bare in comparison with the richly embroid-
ered novelette; intentional repetitiveness
for artistic effect is far less frequent. Yet
the structure is almost identical: introduc-
tion, preparation of weapons, travel, fight,
victory, and, often, explanatory element
and anticlimax follow each other in regular
succession.

In contrast to both types of heroic tale,
the incidental story or personality sketch
emphasizes the character of the central
figure, usually Coyote, rather than any
exciting event. The form is not rigid (ex-
cept, of course, for the prescribed ending) ;
the plot is humorous. For instance, Coyote
races Dragging Hair’s people. As stakes he
puts up sticks, which are miraculously
transformed into horses. As long as he
keeps on winning, he can continue his sub-
terfuge and afford to eat the real horses
that he wins. Finally, Frog and his brothers
beat him through a trick of organizing a
relay of identical runners against him.
Coyote must now yield his magic horses,

|| which soon resume their wooden forms.

But he learns the reason for his defeat from

| his anus adviser, and is soon eager to race
| once more. Dragging Hair’s people, how-
ever, refuse to have more to do with the

cheat. At times the incidental story grows

} in length. Thus, the tale of the Bungling.
_ Host consists of a number of incidents.

But they are coordinate, show little unity,

_ and there is no attempt to create a climax

with a single artistic effect. The one unify-

SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS

335

ing thread is the consistent representation
of the principal character as trickster, dupe,
lecher, or any combination of the three.

THE MYTH: CHARACTERS

Characterization comprises one of the
most intricate aspects of Wind River Sho-
shone mythology. Such high development
of this phase of story telling contrasts
markedly with the rudimentary type of
characterization found in the tales of many
American Indian peoples. The automatons
moving monotonously through the rigid
pattern of Tsimshian tales,” the incredible
Crow heroes? saved only by the tiniest of
fears from impossible perfection, the weak,
colorless individuals overwhelmed by the
grandness of Zufi cosmology**—none of
these have a place in Wind River Shoshone
tales. Instead, the people pictured are a
complex human mixture of good and bad:
rakes and saviors, cowards and heroes.”

The stories deal with three types of char-
acters: anthropomorphic animals—Coyote,
Bat, the Weasel Brothers, and Bobcat;
monsters— Water Ghost Woman, Buttocks-
Bouncer, and Cannibal; and various human
beings, some named (e.g., Dragging-Hair)
and others anonymous (e.g., the old woman
who helps Weasel escape from Monster
Owl’s island). The animal characters,
especially Coyote, are the most prominent.
Their adventures, their jokes, their quarrels
form the essential themes of Shoshone myth-
ology. The monsters provide a constant
foil of stupid villainy. The human beings
are but minor actors, whose deeds may
serve as prologues to the grand artistry of
Coyote and his kind or, at times, fill a brief
tale.

The Shoshone narrator employs distinct
artistic techniques for depicting each of the
three types of actors. The same animals
appear time and again in various tales.
The exigencies of plot necessarily demand

22 F, Boas: Tsimshian mythology. Bur. Amer.
Ethnol. Ann. Rep. 31. 1910

23 LOWIE, op. cit. p. 151.

24 R. BUNZEL: Zufi origin myths. Bur. Amer.
Ethnol. Ann. Rep. 47: 545-609. 1930.

25 These qualities also exist in Coeur d’Alene
mythological character; cf. G. ReicHarp, The
style of Coeur d’ Alene mythology. 24th Internat.
Congr. Americanists, 243-253. 1930.

336

many varying qualities and circumstances
in their existence. Yet a definite core of be-
havior remains in every instance to mark
the distinctive peculiarities of each animal
actor. In contrast to the variations of ani-
mals’ roles, the monsters fill the same role
in every plot. Skillful variation of their
personalities, however, serves to differen-
tiate one ogre from the next. Human beings
of all sorts enter the scene from time to
time. Their characters and actions are not
predetermined in the same way as those. of
the animals or monsters. Consequently,
the narrator describes their emotions and
their deeds quite fully in order to bring
their characters into bold relief.

An examination of Coyote’s personality
illustrates the Shoshone treatment of ani-
mal characters excellently. On first impres-
sion he seems to change completely from
tale to tale. In some myths he is the chief
of the animals. In others he is the chief’s
younger brother dependent on him for help.
In still others he lives alone, a person with-
out prestige. His magical and personal
powers are likewise quite variable. At times
he is cunning and endowed with super-
natural power; at others, a hopeless dupe,
a weakling. His occasional bravery alter-
nates with abject cowardice. His occasional
solicitude for his kin alternates with vilely
incestuous lust and childish jealousy. But
further viewing of this maze of inconsisten-
cies reveals coherence in Coyote’s tempera-
ment nevertheless. Whether he is chief or
outcast, it matters not, he is always ready
with suggestions and orders, good or bad,
heeded or unheeded. Whether he has ex-
ceptional powers or lacks them, Coyote
must try to excel the rest at any cost what-
ever. Coyote’s bravery is greatest when
danger wanes; indignant refusals to perform
anything more than puny deeds may inci-
dentally save his hide. Prudence is a gentle
term for his recurrent cowardice. Coyote’s
fondness for a younger brother does not
preclude rough grumbling over a woman’s
ridiculous preference for that fellow instead
of him. Coyote’s lust is sadly transient. At
one time, a moment of confusion led him to
the tragic error of eating his penis, which
he had left for safety’s sake under his bed-
ding. On looking further, we see the quali-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 10

ties which are the very essence of Coyoti-
cism, if I may coin a portmanteau word of
Coyote and witticism. Coyote is loathsome;
filth and perversion are his delights. Coyote
is merciless; boundless rage, ruthless mur-
der, cynical cannibalism are his tools.
Coyote is extravagant; the most senseless
imitation, the most stupid negativism, and
the most voracious greed and lust are his
principles. Nevertheless, Coyote is a philo-
sopher whose spirit is unbroken in the
worst of adversity; heroic and idiotic, and
yet superb.

To exemplify the various aspects of
Coyote’s character with any fullness would
be to recapitulate Wind River Shoshone
mythology. Therefore, a few bare references
must serve our purpose. When Coyote’s

wife hears of the perversions the mysterious |

suitor practices upon her daughters, she
knows he can be none other than Coyote.
At another time Coyote promises to restore
to good health the dancer who has been
shot by some unknown person, but instead
he eats him. Again, disobeying Wolf’s sound
advice, Coyote deliberately mistreats Rock,
who chases the rascal nearly to death. In
another tale, Coyote tries desperately to
jump up to his daughters in the sky. His
failure daunts him not at all; his sorrows
fade in the hunt for something to eat.

The characterizations of other animals
follow the same pattern of adjustment to
specific plots and maintenance of constant
traits as in the case of Coyote, but in a
simpler fashion. For instance, sexual prow-
ess is Bat’s principal quality. In one story
he is a very disagreeable young man. He
amuses himself on a hunting trip by brutally
raping an inoffensive young girl. On another
occasion, he puts his ability to better use.
The size of his penis fascinates a Water
Ghost Woman who has been relentlessly
pursuing Bat’s sister and her little son (the
monster’s erstwhile husband). She demands
coitus, but —alas!—-Bat’s vigor kills her.
Bat’s powers now result in the rescue of
mother and son, and the bequeathing to
mankind of the obsidian flakes into which
Water Ghost Woman’s body breaks.

Shoshone monsters are physically power-
ful, magically endowed, and invariably
hostile to man and human animals. They

Ocr. 15, 1947

are fast runners and vicious fighters. True
enough, they are stupid and easily distract-
ed from their designs, but their innate sus-
piciousness and the magical talents which
they or their assistants possess make them
ever dangerous. Their chief concerns are
food—preferably human flesh—and sexual
intercourse; but, rarely, they may indulge
in playing and wrestling among themselves.
Yet even they have merits. Their habits
are orderly, and their manners toward their
intended victims are usually most polite.

Differences of personality exist even
among monsters. One Water Ghost Woman
is brutal, nay, sadistic. Sardonically, she
calls her baby victim ‘‘my dear little daugh-
ter’s child,’ before she tortures him by
burning. Then she tears off his head. Later,
she murders a woman by beating on her
breasts with a green switch until death
quiets the agony of her prey. Another
Water Ghost Woman is a much gentler
soul. When she gets her chance to steal a
baby boy, Mourning Dove’s son, she does
not kill him savagely. On the contrary, she
takes him home to raise as a husband, a
procedure which, true enough, takes but
little time. She merely stretches his penis
to proper size—and presto!—he’s a young
man.

Soon this young man must hunt food for

his monster wife. While hunting, he meets

his uncle Eagle, who teils him the facts

about his abduction and his mother’s un-

ceasing longing for his return. Eagle also
gives the youth instructions and magical
implements to help his escape from Water
Ghost Woman. Following this advice,
young Mourning Dove eludes his jealous
mate’s close surveillance and flees to his
mother. Soon, Water Ghost Woman is in
hot pursuit. At first she wishes to punish
only the mother:

“Darned old Mourning Dove is stealing my
husband away from me. I’ll club the female!”
says she, Water Ghost Woman.?6

She suffers many mishaps in her chase,
and endures many hardships. Only the
defecation of her trusty anus, which at other
times merrily keeps breaking wind as she
tuns, ‘“X~! Xw! X~!,” can overcome the

26 From Tassitsie’s ‘‘Mourning Dove Rescues
her Child.’’

SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS

337

magic barriers which she encounters. Her
temper grows ever worse. Slowly, she real-
izes that she is being scorned: old passions
inflame her rage. Slowly she realizes she is
being tricked: new injuries increase her fury.
As a consequence, the next time she sees
Mourning Dove and her son, she shakes her
club and yells at them from a distance.

“Tll really do right by you! We were the best
of married couples—! You two probably believe
yourselves about to be safe, while actually, I
myself, will keep on hitting you thus!’ she,
Water Ghost Woman said.

After a long and eventful flight, Mourn-
ing Dove and her son take refuge with Bat,
her brother. The latter lays a trap for the
pursuing ogre. When Water Ghost Woman
has tracked the couple to Bat’s house and
is interrogating him concerning their where-
abouts, he pretends ignorance. As he talks,
he calmly proceeds to pound his penis with
a hot rock. The sight of such unbelievable
potency banishes all thoughts of her old
lover from Water Ghost Woman. A new,
burning passion arises within her. ‘‘Maybe
you will copulate with me?” she, Water
Ghost Woman, said it. But Bat refuses. He
copulates with no one; a hole in a hot rock
nearby serves as his wife. Now Water
Ghost Woman becomes frantically eager
indeed, ‘“‘Yes, all right, copulate with me
just a wee bit!’ The tragic results we al-
ready know: pleasure, utmost satisfaction,
pain, death, destruction. This is the reason
that obsidian flakes rather than amorous
female monsters are now found in the
mountains.

‘The characterization of human beings
proceeds in two typical ways: the develop-
ment and illustration of personal traits by
the unfolding of a plot, and vignettes of
human emotion. The story of a man’s
feud with a Water Ghost Woman illumi-
nates the first method:

A man, his wife, and their child camp out by
themselves in a country infested with monsters.
They have little to eat, so that, when night falls,
their child keeps crying from hunger. The parents
try to still it, but fail. Then they abandon the
infant in the center of the tent, and hide in a far
corner. Soon a cannibal comes, tortures the child,
murders it, and then carries it off.

This atrocious act spurs the child’s father to
action. The next day he goes scouting for the
monster’s lair. But fear conquers his desire for

338

revenge, and he returns without achieving his
purpose. When he comes home, he finds that his
wife, too, has been Water Ghost Woman’s
victim.

The second tragedy surpasses human forbear-
ance. The erstwhile coward now braves all
dangers in his frenzied grief, and finally succeeds
in avenging himself on the cannibal.?’

A vivid description of human reactions
occurs when Split-Boy directs his paternal
grandmother to kill him (so that, unknown
to her, he may be resurrected as a pair of
twins). She protests violently but finally
does the deed.

Then (he) said it to that Old Woman: ‘That
with which you will club me is this. You, then,
right after having clubbed me, will cover me
well.’ He said that; now he hands it over. “Old
Woman, all right, hit me!” said it.

Old Woman holds it up. “To kill him with
whom I stay, my grandson,—” having thought
(this), (she) refrained. “I might kill him with
whom I bave my home,” she thought, still re-
fraining.

Her grandson thinks: ‘‘She didn’t hit me in any
way at all—”

Then his grandmother hit him, killed him. Then
Old Woman covers him, that boy, well. Old
Woman faints in horror. Old Woman in the night
awakes crying, falls asleep in horror.?8

But when the old grandmother, early in
the morning, sees that two live Split-Boys
have formed out of her dead grandchild,
she becomes deliriously happy. They ask
her to tell Coyote of their plan to rescue
their mother, but not to tell him they are
now two. And so she goes on her way.
along ‘‘da—da—da—,”’
(humming and singing in

Old Woman _ goes
‘‘ean—dan—da—”’
her joy).

Coyote hears her and suspects something.
When she speaks to him she stutters, and
her tongue slips into a tell-tale plural rather
than the dual.

Nive mia sonuss child is: sayineow 1te-"bell
Coyote, let’s, all of .-. . —us two, try to go after
my father’s killer right away.”

THE MYTH: LITERARY DEVICES

Artifices of sound and of meaning are
employed by narrators to enhance the
beauty and dramatic vividness of their
tales. They flow from six main sources: play

27 From Tassitsie’s ‘“The Feud with the Canni-

bal.”
28 From Pivo’s ‘‘The Split-Boys.”’

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 10

on sounds, play on sequential devices, vari-
ations of expression, visual imagery, ap-
peals to emotions, and special devices of
mythical significance.

The play on sounds involves two phases

of artistic endeavor, the patterning of the

normal speech-sounds and the use of special
sound effects to add particular vividness.
The patterning of speech-sounds is inti-
mately connected with the phonetic pecu-
liarities of the Shoshone language. The con-
sonants are simple: spluttering velar, lateral
or glottalized sounds do not occur. Further-
more, consonants can not combine into
clusters. Tonguetwisters of the typical
Crow sort are therefore absent.” The con-
stant alternation of consonants and vowels,
the phonemic differentiation of two vocalic
lengths, and the regular patterning of three
distinct degrees of stress infuse Shoshone

. with a distinct rhythmical swing.

In general, the initial vowel of each verbal
stem in a word is stressed, with secondary

stresses on succeeding odd vowels. This, of

course, follows the old Uto-Aztecan pat-
tern,®° which is noticeable in its most rigid
form in Southern Paiute.*! In Shoshone,
many true and apparent exceptions are to
be found to this rule, so that regularity
does not crystallize into monotony. For
example:

suré mba’/hani wi‘ uza’wagaru'in' gé’tank’//

pénuréza’waSaru’in' sur wupi’x//

(They, the father’s sisters now are swinging
him hard; he whom they are swinging leaps off.)*?

Speakers of the language clearly ap-
preciate its melody, for the rules of good
elocution, in myth-telling and oratory
alike, demand a smooth, continuous flow
of words elided into one another. They
demand a flow that pulsates in waves of
ever-rising pitch, and is broken by the
metronome of stress. They permit no stop-
pages or changes in that flow, or, in fact,

29 Cf. Lowie, op. cit.

30 B, L. WHorr: Amer. Anthrop. 37: 600-608.
LQ 355

3. KE. Sapir: Southern Paiute, A Shoshonean
language. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sei. 65: 1—
296. 1930; p. 39 ff.

22 From Pivo’s ‘‘Weasel’s Adventures.’’ The
orthography follows strict Americanist usage.

33 In normal Shoshone speech final consonants
followed by initial vowels in the succeeding word
are treated like intervocalic consonants, being
subjected to various elisions.

|

Ocr. 15, 1947

phonetic contrasts of any sort, as media of
artistic expression.
~ The small number of initial consonantal
phonemes and the paucity of basic stems
result in constant alliteration in Shoshone.
Quite typical is the following phrase:
su’ni sur yi’gwinid yi:k dé’a kwid//surewi’‘
ukwidak sit so’gup3a’nak’//su’khwent surédé’a
uréna’yanuk uréna’yanu’kiar.

(When it has become evening, again she de-
fecates. As she was defecating, it was the earth

that mended. From there, she again is tracking
them, is their tracker.)*

On the other hand, various phonetic
rules in regard to the sonancy, spirantiza-
tion, and other alterations of intervocalic
consonants save the tongue from monoton-
ous cacophony. This is an especially danger-
ous potentiality in Shoshone, which uses
reduplication as a normal grammatical
mechanism. Thus it is that theoretical
“mi’mian” and ‘‘do’do’in?” become ‘mi’-
wian’”’ (they went) and ‘do’ro’in?”’ (they
are climbing).

The combination of rhythmical and
alliterative qualities in the language makes
the narrator’s emphasis upon rhyme wholly
natural. Most descriptions, even by one so
artless as Charley Nipwater, are in rhymed
prose.® An illustration will make the point
clear.
pa:’rhi du:’parhi mu’zambia so’guria 3uk” hu’-
kaBagia na’yigwit

(Elk, moose, mountain sheep, mule deer, Vir-
ginia deer, in the willows may they be!)*

The special sound effects are either for-
mal jugglings of words or imitations of
natural noises. In the former category are
such nonsense words as ‘‘e:’81mo’moguso,”’
Coyote’s magic name (an English approxi-
mation of this might be clay-nose-ose), as
well as puns and similar plays on words.
Puns, however, are typical of every-day

i! joking but not of myths. An instance of

mythological punning occurs, nevertheless,
on the occasion of Blind Coyote’s finding

that his two female companions were named
| Waving Person and Sage-Brush Girl.

34 From Tassitsie’s ‘‘Mourning Dove Rescues

| her Child.”

35 As in the constant rhymed prose (es-Saj‘) of
descriptions in classical Arabic belles-lettres.
36 From Charley Nipwater’s ‘‘Coyote Liberates

) . the Animals.’

SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS

339

“Strange,” he said, ‘‘some people call me
Waving Pretty-Boy, and others Sage-
Brush Pretty-Boy. So we should be to-
gether, for our names are the same.’

The imitations of natural noises are an
integral part of the Shoshone language but
to a small degree. Outside of interjections,
onomatopoeia has originated only a few
verbs, e.g. wo’wo-, to bark, and nouns, e.g.,
su/akwakwa, robin. Most other onomato-
poeic words, e.g., hi:’to, meadowlark, are
really remnants of a Plateau Shoshonean
past.3® On the other hand, unformalized
imitations abound. An example of stutter-
ing has been noted on a previous page. Baby
talk also occurs to give coy effects.
ik ba:’bawuci dé’as uyu’yuhuci ém_ ba’bawidi
be:’kapuci

(Here’s an ’ittle bit of water and some itsy-
bitsy fat from your buddy’s ’ittle kill.)

The Shoshone teller of tales does not even
disclaim to imitate plain noises. He mimics
the sounds of beasts, monsters, and particu-
larly birds: Mourning Dove as she sorrows
for her lost son, and pipsqueak Meadow-
Lark*®? as he gives aid to the enemy. He
strains the capabilities of the human voice
to give the sound of a knife as it slits a
throat or of an anus as it breaks wind.

The ordinary sequential devices of Sho-
shone myths are four in number: parallel
development to a climax, simple reiteration
or repetition, sharp contrast, and paren-
thetical incorporation. As has been shown
before, parallel development is the principal
characteristic of plots, although reiteration
is used in at least two ways. Characters re-
late adventures zn extenso to others, either
before or after their occurrence. Also, the
plots of the longer incidental stories are
largely repetitive. The anticlimaxes so
common in tales exemplify contrast. Since
virtually all details contribute directly to
the development of the total plot the paren-
thetical incorporation of incidents is less
usual than the other devices. Exceptions in
a certain sense are the unessential elabora-

37 From George Guina’s ‘‘Blind Coyote.”

38 Cf. E. Sapir: Southern Paiute dictionary
Proc:, Amer: Acad. Arts and Sei. 65: 537-730.
1931; p. 557.

39 From Pivo’s ‘‘Weasel’s Adventures.”’

40 Hxact ornithological identifications are not
available.

340

tions of the emotions of minor human actors
and the somewhat similar lavish descrip-
tions of tools.

The structures of incidents within plots
abundantly illustrate all four types of se-
quential devices. Parallel development is
ubiquitous; the main form in which it oc-
curs is the description of a series of actions
in time. The Shoshone language makes such
temporal seriation particularly tempting by
offering the narrator his choice of many
slightly differing suffixes of tense and aspect.
Consequently, constancy in the stems used
and variation in the suffixes easily and con-
cisely create parallelisms. A textual ex-
ample illustrates the superiority of Sho-
shone to English in this respect: Weasel’s
adoptive grandfathers start, in turn, to tow
his boat.
su@e sur pa:’n3ux ba:’gar witi’gwax sum tu:’/nkunt
gé’karix//uge’yagunatk” (1) suBe sur sa:k gunai’kv
(2)// suBe uge’yagunai'gant (3)//suge_ sur
ba:'rukaigunaigin (4) sur sa:k ba:”aBaigunaigin
(5)//sur pa:’nzux sufe gwa’yax (6) suse sur
gwa'yapit (7) //bitus su’Ba sa:’kiwa ma/rtoro’in!

(Then he, Mink, hits the water with rope in
mouth. He sped chasing it (1); then it, the boat,
sped (2). Then he is in the state of speeding in
chase of it (3). Then he is speeding under water
(4); then it, the boat, 7s speeding on the water
(5). Then he: Mink, tzres (6); then he zs one who
1s made tired (7). [eatin he is hoisting himself
up on the boat.)

Parallelism in logical or causal sequences
occurs with less frequency. Typical, how-
ever, is the following instance:

It is he, Coyote, who is not eating; through not
eating he starves.*?

Repetition is also a very important arti-
fice. It forms, of course, an essential part of
the parallelisms and is also relished for its
own sake. Most activities and phrases must
be repeated four or five or ten times, accord-
ing to individual taste. Repetition in the
form of enumeration is popular. Thus, a
frightened man has run to tell Coyote:

“They now—they who are mosquito-fly, big-

fly, gray-fly, black-fly, yellow-fly, all dangerous—
are arriving at my people’s home.’’4%

41 From Pivo’s ‘‘Weasel’s Adventures.’ Sho-
shone and English parallelisms are underscored
and similarly numbered.

42 From Tassitsie’s ‘‘Coyote, Grease and Bob-
eat.”’

43 From Tassitsie’s ‘‘War with the Mosquitoes.”

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 10

Furthermore, the narrator often stresses
important facts before and after their re-
sults. This happens when Water Ghost
Woman has bullied Uncle Vulture into
revealing the whereabouts of Mourning
Dove and her son.

He now, having felt fear of her, is relating it:
‘‘Already I, myself, in this way, blowing my nose,
have snorted them far away.”’ This is that which
he is relating, having felt fear of her.*4

Contrast forms a part of several descrip-
tions of actions. Coyote, for instance, runs
up the mountains chasing mountain sheep,
then down again; then up again, and so on
until he is exhausted. Only one type of
contrast, however, seems to be an integral
part of Shoshone style: antithetical orders,
with the negative preceding the positive in-
junction. Weasel’s Elder Brother furnishes
an illustration as he directs the poeUe ye,
preparing for their trip.

“You, having gone—that obsidian over there is
worthless; two buttes beyond it, there now it’s
all good—from there you will now fetch much,
all you can carry.’’®

Similarly, Weasel’s adoptive grandfathers
tell him.

“You will in no possible case whatsoever sleep
in a straight burrow,” (they) told him, ‘‘and you
will sleep in a crooked burrow.”

The incorporation of parenthetical ideas
is characteristic of many passages. Here, as
in the case of parallelism, the Shoshone
language is largely responsible. Polysyn-
thesis combines many elements into a single
word, which the speaker can readily analyze
e.g., u-gé-ri-ka-'ma-xwa-c, equivalent to ten
long English words, “having just finished
destroying something (or someone) invisible
by eating with teeth.’’ Syntax also permits
the loose joining of such catch-all words to
the substance of the sentence by prefixed
personal pronouns. It matters little :that
the logical connection must often remain
obscure. One may translate ‘‘urémi’wiak—
wi‘ du:’wunaix”’ by ‘‘as they are walking—
because they are walking—, in their walk-
ing—, a black spot appears.’ Syntax like-
wise permits demonstratives to assume rela-
tive functions; a single, compound demon-

44 From Tassitsie’s ‘‘Mourning Dove Rescues

her Child.”’
45 From Pivo’s ‘‘Weasel’s Adventures.”’

Ocr. 15, 1947

strative may tie two or three independent
clauses. For example, Coyote directs:

Ke gémbu”it ke dé’as wé’ségindar! su’kura
bu”iha dé’as wé’ségindai gu’tido! _

(Don’t be lookers or peekers either! At him

whosoever might either look or peek someone will
shoot!)*6

Finally, even completely disjointed flows of
thought are but extensions of good Sho-
shone usage. Thus, when Coyote has started
his Cirele Dance, he watches the partici-
pants,

“Tt is he now—as they are dancing the fore-

most one of them appears fat—he is now looking
at that fat one.’’47

The principal mechanisms for achieving
variety of expression are synonyms, meta-
phors, similes, and special phonetic and
syntactic alterations. Only the first of these
mechanisms will be discussed here. A later
section on visual imagery will take up meta-
phors and similes. Among the Shoshone the
non-functional phonetic and syntactic al-
terations are devices of poetry and not of
prose. Consequently, the section on poetic
songs will deal with them.

Synonyms of slightly differing meaning
abound in Shoshone. They may have en-
tirely different stems as in some nouns, e.g.,
“na:r’ (ridge), “do’ya’ (mountain), and
innumerable verbs, e.g., pi’dz (to arrive),
gim (to come), ga’’2 (to return), ya 72 (to

enter), do ’z (to enter or go out). They may

simply vary suffixes. For instance, many

- interchangeable verbal suffixes express con-

tinuous action, e.g., mz’ ano: (he keeps on
going), m2 ‘axant (he is in the state of going),
mt’ agwai (he is gone, and will be gone in-
definitely). Nouns, pronouns, adverbs, and
adjectives may also receive modal suffixes
for emphasis or depreciation, e.g., ni’3a (I,
indeed), nu:’né (I, perhaps). They may
change from independent words to ad-
verbial or adjectival prefixes of the same
stem. Semantic differences often accom-
pany such changes. The word ‘‘na/riand”’
(dangerous), for example, combines with

the verb meaning ‘‘to fall,’ and yields a

compound na’ria’ant- (to faint in horror);
but it also combines with the verb meaning

46 From Tassitsie’s ‘‘The Hoodwinked Danc-

SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS

341

“to cause to think,” and yields a compound
na'riasu’ang- (to esteem). Finally, they may
form completely different grammatical
structures. Thus, emphasis may be ex-
pressed by suffixes of many sorts added to
the words stressed, or by the use of the
negative particle and the unreal mood. An
illustration of the last method is the follow-
ing: nt’3a ke ha’gap éngar”iwait (It is im-
possible that I shall not be a stayer with
you, 1.e., I will remain with you at all costs.)

The Shoshone narrator and his audience
are extremely interested in words as such,
and extremely appreciative of good usage
and accurate shading. They demand both
idiomatic and exact expressions. For ex-
ample, Guy Robertson, an older and more
conservative man, scornfully rejected Lynn
St. Clair’s anglicized description tom’boni-
watkt Gn a circle) as an innovation for the
correct gu’na ho’ tg (around the fire). Both
narrator and audience quickly grasp the
delicate nuances of thought expressed by
slightly differing synonyms. Almost every
expression, every word, indeed, may have
its peculiar connotation, unique, yet lucid.
In short, variety of expression, especially
when coupled with parallelism, is a main
artifice of the Shoshone litterateur. It is an
artifice, however, which no outsider can
truly appreciate; translation grasps its
shadow, not its substance.

Visual imagery accentuates important
aspects of the action or background of a
myth by making them especially vivid and
picturesque. The Shoshone narrator uses
three types of such imagery: direct descrip-
tions, metaphors, and similes; pantomime
is an occasional accompaniment of anec-
dotes. Descriptions of emotional scenes and
of tool-making are very common, as pre-
ceding pages have shown, but other de-
scriptions are exceedingly rare. Thus, there
is only one representation of a landscape in
all my material. Its simple beauty makes
quotation worth while. When Weasel and
his brother approach the ‘‘Water-Buffalo’s”’
lair, the narrator describes the scene thus:

Here is water
Here is the Water Buffalo’s lair,

Here is blue-edged water
Here many trees are standing.*®

48 From Pivo’s ‘‘Weasel’s Adventures.”’

342 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Simple metaphors abound in Shoshone
myths. Most of the animal characters are
called both by their ordinary names and by
descriptive terms, some of them derogatory.
For example, Beaver is sometimes known as
Big-Tail Owner; Bat, as Tobacco-Black-
Mouthed One; Coyote, as Daylight Anus.
Actions also may be metaphorically de-
picted. For instance, when Bat runs fast, he
‘“‘becomes a white streak.’’ Similes occur less
frequently than metaphors. Some of them
are unimaginative: When Weasel’s Elder
Brother reproaches the youngster for hav-
ing disguised himself in Cannibal’s skin, he
says, ‘“‘Even if I be like a woman (because
he had become panic-stricken and shot at
the supposed monster), it is one who might
kill someone.’’*® Other similes, however, are
exceedingly picturesque, e.g., hospitable
Owl’s piercing of his eye causes nutritive
liquid to “flow from it like egg yolk.”

It is hard to know what emotions myths
arouse in Shoshone audiences. Only direct
observation can tell us. The emotzonal sig-
nificance of a given incident may be very
different to them and to us. Elsewhere, I
have told how two of my informants found
great amusement in a very grim account of
a murder.®? Where most of us would only
have seen horror, they saw ridiculousness.
Because of these differences in reactions, I
will discuss here only those manifestations
which I have actually seen.

Humor is an important characteristic of
Shoshone tales. To achieve it, the narrator
most often establishes ridiculous situations,
relates pranks, tells obscenities, or plays on
sounds. A rarer technique is irony, which
may be illustrated by Weasel’s conversation
with Monster Owl. The boy is gorging him-
self at a forbidden hour, while she watches
him silently. He offers her some meat, then
taunts her for not taking it:

“Why, are you going to become sick, hav-
ing come to me.on purpose?’’*! She claws at
him suddenly, but he avoids her, and scoffs,
“You're clawing as though for a husband!’

Most listeners find the battle scenes of
the tales tense and exciting. They are sym-
pathetic toward such mothers as Mourning

SB eLDTG.

50 SHIMKIN, ‘‘Psychological Studies, etc.”’
51 From Pivo’s ‘‘Weasel’s Adventures.”

~

voL. 3/7, No. 10

Dove, who yearns for her lost child, or such
brothers as Weasel, who fears for his
brother’s safety. Coyote’s perversions and
vilenesses arouse revulsion in some.

Few special devices of mythical. signifi-
cance are found in Shoshone tales in com-
parison with those of many other peoples.
The recitatives of the Southern Paiute” and
Eskimo*® have no parallels among the Sho-
shone, nor do the special voices and into-
nations peculiar to Nez Perce myth.** The
mythological era is not emphasized as dis-
tinctive by the use of any special, indefinite
mythological verbal aspect, or the habitual
use of a quotative—“‘it is said’”—** or by
specific reference, e.g., “already only a
short time away the human race comes.’”>’
No special mythical sentence structure
exists.°®

To be sure, Shoshone myths do have some
artifices of this type. There are special
mythical names for some animals. Weasel is
called ‘“pé’péranz ugupé”’ (which I cannot
analyze) rather than the usual pa:’6737.
Various fantastic beings likewise have un-
analyzable names, e.g., gip, a ‘‘water-
buffalo,” and honowikhono, a “‘buttocks-
bouncer.” Some, like the Water-Ghost-
Beings, make characteristic noises, e.g.,
wt:ho! In addition to the peculiarities of
name-giving, the myths have a stock of
stereotyped actions and situations. Illustra-
tive of a whole series of awakenings from
death is the following incident. Bat has
restored Coyote from death by frightening
him with his magical arrows. The latter does
not appreciate the true situation, and
grumbles:

“Darned Bat, Tobacco-Black-Mouthed One!

When I had been sleeping well, he woke me up,”
Coyote said it.

2 Sapir, ‘‘Texts, etc.,” p. 414 ff.

53K. RasMussEN: Jglulik and Caribou Eskimo
texts. Rep. 5th Thule Expedition, 1921—24, 7: (3).
1930; p. 36ff.

54 A, PHINNEY: Nez Perce texts. Columbia Univ.
Contr. Anthrop. 25: 1934; p. 10 ff.

55 M. LeENHARDT: Le temps et la personalité
chez les Canaques de la Nouvelle-Calédonie. Rev.
Philosophique 62: 43-58. 1937.

66H}. Derxtoria: Dakota texts. Publ.
Ethnol. Soc..14: 1932, p. 1, n. 2.

57 PHINNEY, op. cit., p. 26.

58 Z. Harris and C. F. Voraeuin: Hidatsa
texts collected by Robert H. Lowie. Prehistory Re-
search Series 1: 173-239. 1939; pp. 231-232.

Amer.

Sa

Ocr. 15, 1947

“No. You were not sleeping. You were killed.
Look at your hide,”’ (they) said it. Then as he
looked at his own scabby hide, he felt badly.*®

Other stereotyped actions are reviving a
comrade from death by rasping a wild rose
branch® vigorously in his mouth or anus,
killing a monster by shooting him in the
anus with a firedrill, fooling a monster with
flies in a pot which buzz like human voices,
or taking refuge from him by shrinking
magically and hiding in a friendly relative’s
nose. A final device of mythological impor-
tance is the persistence of some animal
characteristics in the personalities of the
main actors. Thus, Badger can burrow
underground and Kingfisher can fly.

THH NARRATOR AND THE MYTH

An understanding of the relation between
narrators and the myths they tell demands
study of the nature and degree of changes
introduced in tales by different tellers, and
the extent of correlation between such
changes and various personal idiosyncrasies.
Ideally, research into this relation should
include, on one hand, a wide sampling of
tales collected in text, with numerous fully
comparable variants, especially from key
individuals; and, on the other hand, thor-
oughly documented sociological and psy-
chological data concerning the tellers and
their places in the community.® Our ma-
terials fail lamentably to achieve this ideal.

Asa matter of fact, the comparable variants

included in them were taken, unfortunately,
in two different languages, Shoshone and
English. Truly accurate stylistic compari-
sons were thereby made impossible. Seven
informants on mythology out of a popula-
tion of eleven hundred souls represent only
a minute sample. Furthermore, none of the
collections from these informants is by any

59 From Pivo’s ‘Bat Hunts Mountain Sheep.”’
Compare this stereotyped situation with that
found in Wintu myths, ef. D. DEMETRACOPOULOU
and Cora Du Bots: A study of Wintu mythology.
Journ. Amer. Folk-Lore 45: 373-500, 1932; p. 380.

60 This plant was formerly placed on the chests
of the deceased when they were interred.

6t Such studies have long been a basic objective
of the Russian Folkloristic school. For brief dis-
cussion of their methods and results see M.
ASADOWSKIJ: Eine sibirische Médrchenerzéhlerin.
“F F Communications,’ No. 58, Helsinki, 1926,
pp. 5-23; J. M. Soxouov: Sovetskii Fol’klor,
Moscow, 1938, esp. pp. 34-123.

SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS

343

means exhaustive. Finally, while the
sociological and psychological data con-
cerning the informants are relatively abun-
dant, they are largely incomparable from
individual to individual, and are often im-
pressionistic. In short, only the importance
of the subject justifies the following com-
pletely tentative presentation.

Variations in the stories follow one
principal line of cleavage according to the
status of the narrators. The sections of this
paper have been based upon the works of
my major narrators, George Guina, Moses
Tassitsie, and Pivo Brown. The stories of
such minor narrators as Polly Shoyo, Pan-
dora Pogue, John McAdams, and Charley
Nipwater are but simplified and abbrevi-
ated reflections of the better and fuller
versions. They differ from the better ver-
sions in reducing plots to one or two inci-
dents, in simplifying characterizations into
such single, absolute qualities as malice or
greed, and in avoiding stylistic elaborations
other than repetitions of actions and de-
scriptions by enumerating details. They
may even omit the magical formula for
warm weather.

A comparison of two versions of Blind
Coyote shows clearly the attrition which
tales suffer at the hands of a minor teller.
The version of major narrator ‘‘A”’ is as fol-
lows :°?

Coyote learns from some chickadees the art of
throwing his eyes at trees to fetch luscious wild-
carrot roots. Unfortunately, he forgets the direc-
tions that the birds have given, and throws his
eyes at a fir tree, where they stick henceforth.
Blind Coyote now wanders helplessly on the
prairie until, by accident, he runs into two girls.
He strikes up an acquaintance, and goes with
them. The girls see some buffalo and ask him to
shoot them. He, not wishing to let them know
he is blind, says, ‘‘Yes. When you see me far
away, you can drive the buffalo toward me.”
Then, when they are far away, he starts shooting
everywhere and anywhere, pretending he can see.
By chance he kills one beast.

The girls return and see the arrows sticking in
the ground all around him. They pul! them out,
give the arrows to him, and ask him what he has

62 Further data on all these individuals will be
found in SHIMKIN, Psychological studies, etc. in
his Wind River Shoshone Sun Dance (Ms.) and in
his Dynamics of Wind River Shoshone history.
Amer. Anthrop. 44: 451-462, 1942.

63 Arbitrary letters have been substituted for
personal names.

344

been doing. ‘“‘Counting my arrows,”’ says Coyote.
Then they notice the dead buffalo, and tell him
of it. ‘‘Well, didn’t I promise to shoot one for
you?” responds Coyote nonchalantly.

Similarly, Coyote fumbles his attempt to
butcher the buffalo and to build a hut. Each
time he covers his error by a wisecrack. Finally,
Coyote asks one of the girls to louse his head;
while she does so he falls asleep. Soon the girls,
curious to find the cause of his quaint antics,
raise the band on his forehead. Worms are crawl-
ing in his purulent eye-sockets. The girls flee from
this horrible sight.

When Coyote awakes he follows the girls in all
haste. But one of them throws her rattling orna-
ments over a cliff. Coyote follows the noise, falls
off the cliff and breaks his leg. From the top of the
cliff the girls watch him and mock, ‘‘Look at
Coyote, he’s broken his leg.”’ Indignantly, Coyote
replies, ‘What are you girls talking about? I’m
just eating mountain-sheep meat.”

After a while, a chickadee helps blind and crip-
pled Coyote by making him a new, wooden leg.
Coyote now travels in search of his older brother,
Chief Eagle, whom he eventually finds. Eagle
soon discovers Coyote’s trouble and puts a
mountain-sheep’s eyes in the empty sockets,
thus restoring the sight. The recovery makes
Coyote so happy that he starts howling in joy,
as coyotes have done ever since.

The variant of minor narrator ‘‘B”’ shares
with this the introductory incident, the
travel with the girls, their flight, and
Coyote’s chase and fall over the cliff. But
it fails to develop the humorous possibilities
of blind Coyote’s doings, to introduce
smoothly the discovery of his blindness or
to explain plausibly the girls’ cruelty to-
ward him. Furthermore, it ends abruptly,
leaving Coyote at the bottom of the cliff,
failing to explain how he recovers his health.
The tale is neither finished nor humorous,
lacking artistic and etiological point.

As Coyote is going in the brush, he hears a
noise: ‘‘EKyes! eyes!’ He peers and sees Porcupine.
He asks the latter what he is doing, and Porcu-
pine answers: “‘I throw my eyes at the red-willow
tree, and they return, bringing me wild carrots.
That’s how I get my living.”

So Coyote imitates him and lives very well for
a while. Eventually he forgets Porcupine’s in-
structions and throws bis eyes at a yellow willow.
They stick to it (there they are yet).

Coyote finds two girls as he is traveling hiding
his blindness with a rawhide cap over his eyes.
He lifts the cap and asks the girls what is wrong
with his eyes. The girls see worms, are horrified,
and want to leave him. He insists on following
them, saying, ‘‘You just rattle the bells on your
blanket.”

“Yes,” they reply, and throw the blanket over

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

a cliff. He follows the sound, falls over, and

breaks his leg. He gets a stick, rams it into his

leg to get at bis own marrow, which he proceeds

to suck. He says, ‘‘Look at what I am eating.”
But the girls continue on their way.

In general, the minor versions are but

poor editions, without originality or art-—

istry. They may be attenuated to the point
of retaining but one detail out of a long nar-
rative. For instance, minor narrator ‘‘C’’
isolated the encounter of Grease and Coyote
from the entire elaborate story of Coyote,
Grease and Bobcat. Such extreme attenua-
tion may also result in a secondary, jumpy
recombination of the fragments, as in nar-
rator “‘D’’’s jumbled miscellany of four
myths (The Hoodwinked Dancers, Blind
Coyote, Wolf and Coyote, and Porcupine
crosses the River).

Coyote starts the Ghost Dance. When Coyote
begins it, they dance for a week. All of a sudden,
he goes blind, having thrown his eyes at some
trees, which have warts to this day. He goes
around with a buckskin over his eyes. Finally,
his wife says, ‘‘What’s wrong with you? You go
around feeling everything.’’ When he falls asleep,
she lifts the bandage and sees worms in the
sockets. So she says, ‘‘No wonder you’re blind.
What happened to your eyes?”’

Coyote awakes and replies that he threw them
in the brush. .

Eagle, Coyote’s mother’s brother, ponders:
“That boy can’t see. I’ll try to rustle him a pair
of eyes.’’ So he flies away to kill a mountain-
sheep and take out its eyes. These he puts in
Coyote (that’s why coyotes have eyes like those
of mountain sheep).

After his: sight is restored, Coyote gathers all
the animals in one place. He gets up and an-
nounces, ‘‘What will each of us be? Everyone
name what he will be.”

Porcupine decides to be a porcupine and kill
with his quills. He kills buffalo by crawling inside
them and piercing their bellies. Then he eats
them.

Lesser differences occur within the two
basic groups of major and minor variants 1n
the tales. Those existing in the stories told
by major narrators are worth analysis.

All the major narrators are perfectly cog-
nizant of the structural requirements of
properly told tales, the outstanding traits of
the principal characters, the significant
happenings of mythological times, and the
most popular literary devices. These factors
they hold surprisingly constant. They feel
free, however, to vary their combinations,

vou. 37, No. 10°

—Ocr. 15, 1947

SHIMKIN:

to embroider the basic patterns in various
ways. Through such variations, apparently
minor, arise considerable differences in the
artistic unity and effectiveness in the total
emotional and ethical flavor and in the
rounded psychological pictures of the ac-
tors. For example, narrators “E”’ and ‘‘A”’
recounted the basic elements of the story of
Owl’s Widow identically. .

Because her husband, Owl, is stingy with food,
she kills kim by planting a poisoned rabbit bone
on which he steps. Before his death, he implores
her, on their little son’s behalf, not to marry his
brothers Skunk, Badger or Coyote, all of whose
children are mean and would kill the boy, but to
marry youngest brother Sparrow Hawk, a
bachelor. After she buries her husband, Owl’s
Widow goes on her travels. Immediately, how-
ever, she disobeys her deceased spouse’s injunc-
tions by visiting Skunk’s home. However,
Skunk’s mother warns her to leave at once,
which she does. Unfortunately, she drops a piece
of her shawl which Skunk notices on coming
home. He becomes infuriated that Owl’s Widow
has dared leave him, and pursues her and her son,
but cannot reach them on the slippery ice. Just
as they are escaping he kills them with his stench.

In some way, magician Badger learns of Owl’s
Widow’s death and goes in search of her. After
finding her, he restores the woman and her child
to life. Then he gives her good advice. She pays
him for his services and goes on to Sparrow
Hawk’s home. Having arrived there, she is
greeted by Sparrow Hawk’s mother. Soon Spar-
row Hawk himself comes home with but one
little rabbit. Once he has brought his game, he
flies away to his nesting place on the cliff.

Meanwhile, Owl’s Widow doubts the wisdom of
her choice, for Sparrow Hawk seems to be a
poor provider. Coyote, coming by, scornfully re-
inforces her doubts. She, however, finally puts
the rabbit in the ashes to cook. Behold! the single
rabbit has quadrupled. All eat, and still there is
much left over.

This wonderful feat reassures Owl’s Widow,
who now follows her new mother-in-law’s instruc-
tions. When night has come, she climbs up to
Sparrow Hawk’s nest, and embraces him. He yells
mightily, so that Coyote, running up toward the
source of the noise, starts shooting arrows at the
intruder. However, Owl’s Widow smears mucus
on her mate’s face, which immediately quiets
him. Coyote, coming within sight, sees what they
are doing, shrugs his shoulders, and goes home.

Narrator ‘“‘A”’ added several details to his
version. Badger’s fee for his services is
sexual intercourse. Owl’s Widow disobeys
instructions again, is killed again, and re-
vived again for the same fee. In addition,
Narrator ‘‘A”’ does not introduce Coyote’s

‘ WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS 345

insulting remarks about Sparrow Hawk’s
hunting ability until after the successful
mating. The insult leads to a quarrel, in
which Sparrow Hawk shoots a fire-drill into
the ground, setting the earth on fire. Coyote
burns and Sparrow Hawk relents. This ends
the story. Narrator ‘‘A”’ ’s additions under-
score Owl’s Widow’s obstinacy and stu-
pidity. They allow more elaboration of
erotic detail. His transposition, however,
materially weakens the story, which shunts
aside its main theme and main actor to end
disjointedly in an anticlimax.

Narrators ‘‘E”’ and “A” told the story of
the Bungling Host in a very similar fashion.
But the former’s version allows Coyote the
return of one of his children from death, and
ends the tale, not with a fight between
Coyote and Mountain Sheep, but with
Waxwings telling Coyote’s wife that the fool
would return with four little waxwings after
his guest’s departure. These two changes
give “E”’’s tale a kindly and humorous
rather than a sardonic cast.

Finally, ‘‘F”’s and ‘‘A”’’s renditions of
Weasel’s Adventures provide strong con-
trasts in the development of the plot, the
flavor of the story and the character of the
hero. The principal theme, of course, is the
same.

Weasel and his Elder Brother go hunting the
Water-Buffalo. On the way, despite his brother’s
objections, Weasel encounters and kills several
monsters, pushing one off a cliff, defeating another
in a wrestling match, and destroying a family of
them by throwing them off a swing. Finally the
pair gets to the Water-Buffalo’s lair. The elder
brother swims under water after the beast.
Weasel, watching from shore, becomes hysterical
from anxiety and flees into the sand hills, where
he dies of thirst. When the elder brother returns
with the slain beast, Weasel is no more. However,
two grandfathers, who are passing by, come to
the rescue, find Weasel and restore him to life.
Before leaving, they warn the two brothers
against building a fire in the locality at night,
lest Monster Owl see it. Nevertheless, hungry

Weasel does so that night, and is kidnapped by
Monster Owl for his pains.

In “F’’s version, however, Weasel’s
trickster character is made far more explicit
than in ‘‘A’’’s by introducing such esca-
pades on the hero’s part as pricking the
testicles of an unsuspecting grandfather
with sharp-pointed grass. In ‘‘F’”’ ’s version,
likewise, the encounter with Monster Owl is

346

heroic, with Weasel killing the bird by a
stratagem; in ‘“‘A”’ ’s, it is mock-heroic. Two
mouse-grandfathers drive Monster Owl
from his perch, kill him with smoke, and
then extract Weasel from his belly. After
that, they revive the bird by rasping his
throat vigorously with a wild-rose branch.
He awakes, and grumbles that he has been
roused from an excellent sleep. Then, all

the characters part amicably. Finally,.

Weasel’s transformation of character after
leaving Monster Owl’s island occurs only
in “‘F”’ ’s tale. “‘A”’ has no parallel to “F”’ ’s
account of Weasel’s new obedience, new
benevolence and new timidity, nor of the
reconciliation with his brother.

In brief, ‘““F’’ ’s manner of narration is far
more mature than ‘‘A’’’s. It stresses the
development of the hero’s character and his
gradual chastening by experience. It is well
integrated and dramatic at the same time.
It utilizes a great range of incidents and
artistic devices. In contrast to this, ‘A’’ ’s
version emphasizes events rather than
characters. It has no moral implications; in
fact, its tone is rather flippant. It uses the
same tricks and the same buffoonery time
and again. Artistically it is incomparably
less mature.

What individual differences of environ-
ment or temperament lie behind differences
in story-telling ability? My limited data
suggest three categories of concomitant
variations: correlates of marked educational
(acculturative), intellectual, and tempera-
mental differences.

The poverty of ‘‘B” ’s tales seems prima-
rily to reflect his limited knowledge of Sho-
shone traditions and artistic standards. He
is half white; he has received some school
training, and has worked for the Agency and
other white employers at various times. He
has traveled extensively. Consequently,
though he has retained many typical Sho-
shone beliefs, he has also assimilated ideas
from other sources. For example, he inter-
larded an intelligent and authentic account
of various Shoshone ceremonies with a de-
scription of the Hopi Snake dance. In like
manner he often confuses various facts of
Shoshone culture. Thus, in construction and
style his mythological tales are almost in-
distinguishable from his versions of the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 37, No. 10

fantastic, often pointless, boastings and
stories of wonder which comprise the Sho-
shone anecdote.

“DPD” and “A” furnish a contrast espe-
cially in intelligence. In their responses to
the Rorschach Test they manifest a few like-
nesses and many differences. On one hand,
they share a synthesizing but pragmatic ap-
proach t6 experience; neither of them at-
tempts an escape from reality by yielding to
excessive concern over minutiae or by nega-
tivism. Furthermore, inner drives, conscious
or unconscious, appear to activate them but
feebly. These narrators are both genuine
extroverts who find their significant stimuli
in other persons or in their environment,
not in themselves. Neither is sharply an-
alytical or critical in outlook, and conse-
quently, both are somewhat over-expansive
and over-impulsive. On the other hand, “D”’
is, in comparison with ‘A’, far less active,
far less responsive to stimuli of all sorts and
much more set in her ways. (Her age, one
must remember, is over eighty; ‘‘A”’ ’s ap-
proximately half as great). She is mentally
stereotyped and unimaginative. Possibly,
she would persevere in her narrative and
imaginative habits even more doggedly —
than she does, had she greater energy. He is
mentally more alert. His responses are
varied and, within the limits of ordinary
ability, rather imaginative and original. She
is emotionally rigid; her emotions come in
outbursts. He is emotionally pliable, his
modes of expression run the gamut of
friendliness, sensuality, and sheer, uncon-
trollable passion or rage. Finally, she shows
few signs of anxiety. He, however, has many
worries, some of which he seems to have
solved rationally. Others are still active,
and appear to give rise to moderate hypo-
chondria. In short, both D7) ameds es: axe
ordinary, normal human beings. But ‘‘ D”’ is
inactive, stolid and dull; ‘“‘A”’ active, sensi-
tive and original, but of smaller mental
stature than either “FE” or ‘E’’. The dif-
ferences in the story-telling ability of these
two persons appear largely to arise from
differences in their intellectual ability.

The differences between ‘‘C”’ and “F’”’ are
of a complicated nature. Both are highly
intelligent people who can express them-
selves very well indeed. ‘“‘C”’ excels in her

Oct. 15, 1947

ethnographical narratives and her anecdotal
stories, such as the one concerning the
Weakling and the Female Bear, which are
as fully descriptive, vivid and elaborate as
the best mythological tales. ““F’”’ related an
absorbingly interesting autobiography as
well as the best versions of the myths. How
is it, then, that the two differ so greatly in
the quality of their myths?

To the best of my knowledge, the differ-
ence reflects that between their basic per-
sonalities. ‘‘F”’ has led a satisfied and happy
life; he has achieved love, honor, and power.
In his old age he is quiet, relaxed, and wise
in the ways of the world. He has mastered
discipline and tradition; he has learned the
tales to perfection. Now, as an adept, he
can mold them at his will, infuse them with
his wisdom and with the warmth of his
personality. So he points out morals, de-
lineates truly living characters, and softens
the brutal harshness of the myths. But since

he has had many outlets to his energies

throughout his life, he does not seize the
myth as a means of emotional expression.
He detaches himself from its context;
calmly he polishes his tale to balanced,
clearcut beauty. It is a beauty of age and
warmth and kindness; it is not a beauty of
stark, searing-hot emotion.

“C”’, on the other hand, has led a life of
extremes, of great happiness and complete
gloom. She was loved and protected by her
grandmother; she was abused and beaten
by her husbands. Her children died young.

Discipline has passed her by, and outlets of.

achievement and satisfaction have been
denied her. Consequently, her emotions
control her, drive her. She talks restlessly,
incessantly; she has little use for formal
rules of storytelling. Quickly her keen mind
recalls the point of an obscure tale crucially
bearing on her argument or her complaint.
Instantly she tells it, stripped naked of all
dross. She cares not at all that others fret at
the invitation to stormy weather she has
thus introduced. Or she may pause, de-
scribe with great fidelity, with infinite care,
the tiny details of daily life impressed upon
her very soul by years of arduous toil; or
dwell on tender memories of dauntless war-
riors who stirred the heart, of beauteous
fops who stormed yet other parts—then, in

SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS 347

an instant, drop it all, grumble about the
damned world’s worries and then be off
once more. In just the same way, she alter-
nates joyful, hopeful tales of marvelous aid
to the unfortunate with sardonic, gloating
anecdotes of suffering and death. She swings
from uncritical, naive belief to hard-boiled
cynicism. Is it any wonder that the strict
formalism of Shoshone mythological tales
has failed to catch her restless spirit?

ANECDOTES

In addition to the myths proper, the
Shoshone relate a mass of inchoate tales
that may best be classed as anecdotes. Es-
sentially they are realistic stories believed
to be true and concerned with human be-
ings. In contrast to the myths they are
often precisely loealized. The wondrous
happenings which occur in them are all
within the ken of Shoshone reality: anthro-
pomorphic animals are rarely mentioned.
Anecdotes have no recognized literary
form (as verified by versions in text).

Such tales are the especial delight of
young men. Many of them are personal ad-
ventures, often picturesque ‘“‘whopping”’ lies
not meant to be believed. Braggadocio is
frequently evident, especially in tales of
great erotic feats which resemble in content
and psychological role the lmericks of
modern American culture. Attitudes to-
ward these tales vary. Most men relish
them, but some, especially those who have
been most imbued with White moral teach-
ings, are embarrassed to hear them. Rarely,
a more serious motive enters. Lynn St. Clair
told me how one man defended himself
when accused of murder. He had gone
through the dry country near Owl Creek
with his friend, but only he had returned.
He gave the following story.®

They had been hungry and thirsty. Finally,
they came upon a big rattlesnake. His friend
killed it and thought that they might eat it. The
first man refused and walked ahead, reaching a
spring.

The other followed, still holding the snake.

When he got to the spring he cut off the snake’s
head. He skinned the snake and cooked the

64 W. LaBarre: The psychopathology of drink-
ing songs. Psychiatry, 2: 203-212. 1939.

65 This is a widely spread Plains story in at-
tenuated form.

348

meat. It was nice looking, so he offered some to
his companion (the narrator) who refused.

When they went to bed, after one had finished
his snake, the other slept apart because he was
afraid. After a while he heard a rattling from
where his friend was, so he moved farther away.
This happened several times. In the morning he
looked, but his friend was nowhere to be seen; he
had turned into a rattler.

No one believed this story, however, and
he was accused of murder. Yet no action
was taken. Many years later some Bannocks
saw an enormous rattlesnake at the very
spot of his story. The accused seemed
vindicated. ,

In general, the boundary between belief
and disbelief in regard to anecdotes 1s vague
and shifting. To illustrate this fact, an ex-
amination of one narrator’s attitudes is
helpful. He told this in all seriousness.

My wife, my boy and I went out camping’
hunting elk. In the night I dreamed I couldn’t
kill an elk. Just. couldn’t get him. The next day
I shot all my cartridges at a spike buck. He
stood still, but I couldn’t hit him. I asked my
boy for an ax, and finally got (killed) him. I
dreamed about a woodchuck the same way. Now
I won’t go hunting.

He told this as a joke:

One fellow told me, ‘My friend, you know what
I did once? I was sweating in the mountains. I
saw a creek, took off my clothes, then crawled
into the water, leaving my clothes behind.
Finally I heard a little noise. There was a bear,
with all my clothes on. He had a gun in his
hand, and was pointing it at me. I said, ‘Partner,
you ought not to do that. Better take your
clothes off.’’ So he stripped and I dressed again.
I told him, ‘‘You wait.”’ I gét a bridle, put it on
him, and rode him until I reached my house!

But this again was serious fact:

One of my uncles was a bear charmer. One time
my uncles got to chasing a bear which got away
from them. They talked brave. “Bring that bear
out by the ear,’”’ said my uncle. None would do it.
He, Ed Bazil, then went into the brush, and found
the bear lying down. He told it, “‘I’ll take you to
the people.”’ And he led him out by the ear. He
wouldn’t kill it and the people were afraid to.
So they let it go.

In terms of origin thesé anecdotes may
be grouped as follows: narratives of the
work-a-day world, tales of supernaturally
endowed persons and supernaturally dan-
gerous localities (based on current religious
and superstitious concepts), myths from the
Plains, and modified European fairy stories.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 37, No. 10

A good illustration of the first class is the
story Tassitsie volunteered after we had
been discussing smoking customs for some
time:

One time we were moving away from Owl Creek
along Big Wind River, among the big cotton-
woods. We young fellows would all go in a bunch
and surround rabbits, shooting them down with
arrows. It happened this time that another fellow
and I killed none.

We rode some distance, then came upon four
old men sitting down, facing the east. They were
He-cries-in-the-night, Na/Sawiki, Dear-little-big
penis, and Horse’s- Mother’s-Father. They asked
us 1f we had killed any rabbits; we said ‘‘No.”

We lingered a little. Then one of these men
wanted to smoke. He said, ‘‘Someone fill a pipe
for us and let us smoke.” He-cries-in-the-night
had a pipe, strange, rough and unfinished, but
quite large. He filled it up.

Dear-little-big-penis took off his moccasins.
There was some grass there. He pulled it out to
make the ground smooth. He drew a ring and dug
a hollow in the middle. Then he asked for a
match, but none of the men had one. So he
reached down in the quiver and drew out a fire
drill hearth: on its edge were three or four round
holes, blackened. He took a drill out of the
quiver.

They coaxed one another to make the fire. Two
fellows held the hearth finally, while Big-penis
twirled. He took some tinder—where from I did
not notice. Then he tore some off another large
piece. About the fourth time, they said, ‘‘Now the
fire has dropped on to the tinder.” Dear-little-
big-penis picked it up, started blowing. He lit the
pipe and started smoking. Then he handed the
pipe toward his right to He-cries-in-the-night.

The men had been sitting on a bank of hardened
snow above a gulch. Now He-cries-in-the-night
smoked for quite a while. He started wobbling.
The next man snatched the pipe away, but
He-cries-in-the-night fell over the ledge to the
bottom.

They kept on smoking; paid no attention to
this. After they were through, Dear-tittle-big-
penis took the pipe and dumped the ashes into his
ring. He worked them in until they disappeared.
They now told Na/sawiki, ‘‘What happened to
our friend? You go and see.’’ They then cast the
work on to each other for quite a while. Finally,
after Dear-little-big-penis had put on his mocca-
sins, he got up to see what happened.

They saw a puddle of blood. He-cries-in-the-
night had fallen on his hooked nose, and skinned
it badly. He had fainted. Dear-little-big-penis
picked him up and tore the skin off his nose. The
others stood around joking. He-cries-in-the-night
came to, then washed his wound in a warm spring
fifty yards away.

Afterwards his nose turned black.

Tales of supernaturally powerful persons
tell of their acquisition of power, of their

Oct. 15, 1947

relations with their patrons, or of the
miracles such persons can perform. For in-
stance, the great chief Washakie received

power from the dwarf ninimb: after rescuing

him from attack by an eagle. This incident
is one of John McAdams’ favorite anec-
dotes. Again, Tassitsie was much impressed
by his friend Gun-Owner, a snake charmer.

The two were going on foot by North Fork.
Suddenly Gun-Owner said, ‘‘Friend, I have left
my dog here. I don’t know if he’s still there.’”’ He
stopped by a rock pile, where Tassitsie saw a
rattler, and ran away. A little later Gun-Owner
caught up with him, and once more the two
walked on. When they had gone a little way, a
rattlesnake’s head suddenly peeked from _ be-
neath Gun-Owner’s blanket. The snake saw
Tassitsie and began rattling, but Gun-Owner
held on to it calmly. Then the two crossed South
Fork, and ended their walk. Now Gun-Owner
grasped both jaws of the snake and stepped on its
tail; now he handled its fangs, showing them to
Tassitsie. These were easily pulled out, he re-

marked. Having pulled the fangs, he let the

snake go.

Finally, Polly Shoyo told a remarkable
incident:

This is a true story. I knew a man named
Sticky-Hair. Once, he took off his moccasins,
stirred the ashes of the fire place, placed his
moccasins in it, and covered them with ashes.
Then he lay down to sleep. A little later he asked
his wife to look at the moccasins. They had turned
to buffalo tongues!

Of all sacred places, Bull Lake, ‘‘Water
Buffalo’s Crying,’”’? was the most feared.
Many lost their lives here to the monster in
the lake. Well known, in many variants, is
the following account:

Two friends came to Bull Lake. They saw a
bull come out of the water; they killed it. They
made a fire, cooked some of the meat on it, and
started eating. One man ate only a little, and
slowly. The other kept on cooking the meat and
eating it.

They were sitting back to back, one facing the
lake; the other, the mountains. The former let out
a bellow like a bull. The latter, frightened, ran
up the hill. Soon the former arose and walked into
the lake, right into the water. That was the last
ever seen of him. (Polly Shoyo)

Typical Plains myths involving human
characters seem but elaborations of these
Shoshone beliefs concerning supernaturally
powerful persons and supernaturally dan-
gerous localities. Representative of the

SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS

349

Plains myths found at Wind River is the
story of the woman and the buffalo bull.
Well known from other tribes, it need not
be repeated here.®

European fairy stories are not at all un-
common among these people. Unfortu-
nately my records of them are fragmentary
and haphazard. The adjustment of fairy
stories to Shoshone tastes and habits can
only be hinted at. Thus, John McAdams
identified the story of John the Bear,*
which he had heard in New Mexico, with
the local tale of the Weakling and the Fe-
male Bear. He had pruned away all in-
congruous elements.

Bears in hibernation store choke cherries and
all kinds of roots, just like pack rats. People have
seen this. One Shoshone came as a lone survivor
from a war party, freezing and starving, into a
bear’s den. He saw somettling like lights (these
were the bear’s eyes) and he heard growling, but
he laid himself down beside the bear, and she
liked it. So he wintered there.

In the spring, however, she continued to keep
him prisoner, blocking the entrance of the cave
with a big rock whenever she would leave. Once
she was careless, and he was able to squeeze out
and escape.

After running for a long while he came to some
of his fellow tribesmen who would have nothing
to do with him until he washed and cleaned him-
self with mud, for he stank like a bear. Just then
the bear came, pursuing him. The man’s !ife was
saved by the war chiefs, who surrounded the bear,
and killed her.

Dick Washakie knows the Indian.

I heard the same story from New Mexico with
the difference that it was a male bear who im-
pregnated a girl. Finally, she escaped when her
son, at ten years, had grown large enough to
handle the rock barring the entrance of the cave.
The bear, trailing her, was killed by the Mexicans,
who ambushed him. The little cub was just like a
human being, but stout. He’s still living.

I’ve never heard of animals other than bears
having intercourse with people.

6 H.g., R. H. Lowie: The Assiniboine. Amer.
Mus. Nat. Hist. Anthrop. Pap. 4: 1909; p. 213.

67 The principal sources on John the Bear are
S. THomerson, Huropean tales among the North
American Indians, Colorado College Publ.,
Language Ser., 2: 319-471. 1919; zdem, Motif-in-
dex of folk-literature 1 (F F Communications No.
106, 1982); J. M. Espinosa, Spanish folk-tales
from New Mexico, Mem. Amer. Folk-Lore Soc.
30: 31-49, 1937; and R. F. BENEDIcT, Zuni
mythology, Columbia Univ. Contr. Anthrop. 21,
pt. 2: 32-35. 1935. The basic Plains story of the
weakling and the female bear is also given in
R. H. Lowie: The Assiniboine, Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist. Anthrop. Pap. 4: 1-275. 1910; idem,
Chipewyan tales, 1bid. 10: 194-5. 1912.

POETIC SONGS

So far as I know, true poetry occurs
among the Wind River Shoshone only in
songs.*® Most of these are meaningless
vocalizations, as in the Sun Dance, war
songs, and Peyote songs, but some have in-
telligible verses. To this latter class belong
Ghost Dance, mocking and gambling songs,
as well as songs with popular American
tunes but Shoshone words. Unfortunately,
I have examples of only the Ghost Dance
and mocking songs from the second class.

Elsewhere, I have discussed Sun Dance
songs in some detail;®* war songs are much
like them. A brief text will illustrate the
typical vocalizations of Peyote songs. They
are sung during the ceremony with the ac-
companiment of a gourd rattle shaken about
one hundred and sixty times a minute. They

are sung in a distinctly falsetto voice; ac--

cented phrases rise sharply in_ pitch,
whispered ones drop:"°

o/haninini o’/haninini

9’haneni yana o’haneni yana

o/haneni

yanawe:’ yanawe:’

ra’‘ra yuwanuyana, hininu®

The Ghost Dance, which the Shoshone
call “Shuffling”’ (Na’/rayar) is a simple
ceremony performed during the winter
months at full moon, and two or three
nights thereafter. Its purpose is to shake
away illness. Other, closely related dances,
such as the Warm Dance and the Father
Dance, have such functions’ as improving
the weather and averting disaster.

As evening comes a fire is built. Often a
pine tree is set up close to it. A leader
stands by the fire and sings without ac-
companiment. Another replaces him when
the first tires. Around the fire and the
leader is a ring of dancers, men and women
alternately. The dancers dance clockwise,
dragging their feet sidewise, holding hands
with intertwined fingers. Their only special
article of dress is a blanket with which they

68 Shoshone poetry is very simple compared to
such sophisticated types as those of the Navajo.
Cf. E.L. Warton: Navajo song patterning, Journ.
Amer. Folk-Lore 43: 105-118. 1930.

69 SHIMKIN, Wind River Shoshone Sun Dance
eee studies of Winnebago and Kiowa
Peyote songs by Frances Densmore and Jane
Richardson Hanks, respectively, exist in manu-
script form.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 10

shake away illness. This shaking and a

ritual pounding of breasts normally con-
clude the rite. Periodically, however, and
even in recent years, fainting, messianic
frenzies, and prophecies have taken place
during the performances.

The singers are shamans who dream or
or compose their songs. The music is a mere
alternation of two themes of simple struc-
ture and narrow tonal range sung slowly in
a high-pitched, nasal voice. The texts are
cryptic descriptions of visions, fully under-
stood only by their authors.” These texts
are built up of units of single lines which
rhyme through simple, final repetition,
through alliteration or assonance, or
through true rhyme.
Ghost Dance texts exist, one, which simply
repeats each line, and another, more com-
plicated in structure, which repeats each
verse. Some examples follow.

Yellow willow is waving
Yellow willow is waving
Grass, big grass is waving
Grass, big grass is waving
Alder is waving
Alder is waving, etc.
Again:
Sage-brush goose’s son
Sage-brush goose’s son, etc.

Representative of the second group is

White-rock rivers
All kinds of rivers
Warm rivers (Repeat whole verse)

A final example shows some interesting
peculiarities. This is a song dreamt by a
powerful shaman now deceased, Frank
Perry.

pa:/ruti’mbi
pa:/ruziga:”yu
pa:’Soni pe’ngwinux
pa:’ngé mai’

Water-black rock,
Water-black shining;
Two water-grass fishes
On the water’s edge.

In this instance meter and stress are well
balanced. The lines are of five, seven, seven,

1 Compare the shamanistic songs given by
Kelly and Natches for the Southern and North-
ern Paiute. Cf. I. T. Kertuy: Southern Paiute
Shamanism, Univ. California Anthrop. Rec. 2:
151-167. 1939, p. 159, and G. Natrcues: Northern
Paiute verbs, Univ. California Publ. Amer. Arch.
Ethnol. 20: 243-259. 1923; p. 259.

Two varieties of -

Ocr. 15, 1947

and five morae, respectively. The stresses
are on the second and fourth, second and
sixth, second and fifth, and second and fifth
morae. But such balance is accomplished
only through poetic license. In normal Sho-
shone the adjective precedes the modified
noun; the suffix a’yw is short and unac-
cented; intervocalic m becomes a nasalized
w; and so on.

In function and structure the mocking
songs differ profoundly from the Ghost
Dance songs. The former were composed
and sung by gangs of young warriors in de-
risive serenades of fops who neither worked
nor fought in battle, who indulged in ex-
travagances of adornment such as the arti-
ficial lengthening of hair with horse hair
glued on with pitch, and who—worst of all
—could entice all women. The young men
would go as quietly as possible in front of
the fop’s door. Then, suddenly, they would
start drumming and singing at the tops of
their voices. The music resembles that of the
war songs but, unfortunately, I have re-
corded none of it. The text of one mocking
song sung by Tassitsie is as follows:

én ynga’nhi ty’iwidi

mak né hu:’awaini

ke én o’ar ndo’/iwaix”
mak né hu:’awain?

én nga’nhi tu/iwidi

mak né hu:’awaini

ke 6n o’ar ndo’iwaix”
mak né hu:’awaini

a’ya hanz ditir gwé’kant
nan mawi:’yahant
do’yawant no:’mia’¥"
keha né:’cidéi

éngwé’ gwé’pain! né wiza wén’
du’ko8: utuwek’

You(’re) at home, Pretty Youth,

While I a-foresting go

Nowhere to did you go out,

While I a-foresting go.

You(re) at home, Pretty Youth,

While I a-foresting go.

Nowhere to did you go out

While I a-foresting go.

Oh Friend! Bad husband!

Just as well to keep her tied,

Among the mountains (you) keep on moving:
Won’t you be ill?

(With) your wife for a wife I would stand,
A black face, bringing it.

The structure of this poem is quite regu-
lar, the odd lines having seven morae; the
even, six. The even lines, furthermore, are,

SHIMKIN: WIND RIVER SHOSHONE LITERARY FORMS ool

with the exception of the last, uniformly ac-
cented on the third (double) mora. Actually
there are three verses here, the first two
having the same refrain. The ninth and
tenth lines rhyme, while the other pairs of
lines share an identical final accentuation.

The term tu‘iwiG, basically “youth,” has
a connotation of foppishness and excessive
elegance in direct address and in proper
names (cf. pu’huty’iwid, ‘‘Sage-brush-
pretty-youth”’). The word gwé’kant, liter-
ally ‘‘wife-owner,”’ is poetic license for
gu:’xapé (husband). The ‘‘black face’’ re-
fers to the facial paint of a warrior who
returns from combat after having achieved
a battle honor or coup.

THE PUBLIC PRAYER

Public prayer comprises the most serious
and majestic phase of Shoshone oratory. It
takes place especially in the Sun Dance and
the Peyote ritual. It is for the public good,
to achieve the release of someone or of
everyone from illness, to give them long life,
or to accomplish successfully some ritual
act, such as cutting down the tree for the
Sun Dance outer pole.

Stylistically these prayers (which are not
fixed in form) maintain a similar pattern.
They begin with an invocation: “All right,
my Father, having looked down on us from
above...” Then follows a statement of
the suppliants’ condition: they are about to
kill the sacred buffalo, to chop down the
tree for the outer pole or they are here with
a sick man. After this passage the prayer
itself, e.g., “May you make him well.”
Often a prayer for spectators or the popu-
lace at large follows, with its statement of
condition and its hope. Finally, comes “‘it is
ended.”

The prayers of some individuals differ.
Quitan Quay is curt and omits the invoca-
tion. The prayer which Dick Washakie
thought he might give was marked by its
highly personal character.

Inasmuch as several of the texts appear
elsewhere,” a single illustration will suffice
for the Sun Dance prayers:

All right, My Father, having looked down
toward me from above, by means of you I achieve

a benediction. I make a supplication. Here is
now a sick man, may you make him well! My

72 SHIMKIN, Wind River Shoshone Sun Dance.

352 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 10

prayer to you also Our Elder Brother Jesus: save
him! The person whom you bless, for him your
blessing is great. All right, I supplicate. That is all.

The Peyote prayers are peculiar enough
to deserve more extended quotation. Gil-
bert Day prays in this manner on entering
the tipi at the beginning of the ceremony :”

Our Father, looking toward us, and Our Elder
Brother, ‘lower spirits,’’ all together having
looked toward us, may they pity us!

The first person plural here (‘‘exclusive,”’
i.e. “they and I’’) seems, as in other prayers,
to have a general meaning, ‘‘everyone.”’
The concept of ‘lower spirits” is peculiar; I
know nothing more concerning it.

After midnight a recess takes place in
the ceremony, and the paraphernalia are
cleaned at this time. A water-bearer brings
in a bucket from which all drink. Then, fol-
lowing some other ritual acts, the equip-
ment is returned to its place, and the leader
of the meeting goes outside to blow his
whistle to the cardinal directions. He may
also pray. Gilbert Day gives a sample text.
After an introduction similar to that above,
he says:

Eastward steadily, its breeze keeps blowing
Southward, its breeze keeps blowing
Westward, its breeze keeps blowing
Northward, its breeze keeps blowing

All well, here inside let them become!
Finished.

MINOR FORMS

Even every-day life is by no means lack-
ing in little formulas, plays on words, and
other elements of unwritten literature. A
few examples will give some idea of their
use.

When one wishes help from a noted
shaman he must address him in a fixed way.
With Moguca, Lynn St. Clair tells me, one
must say

Prayer-Boy,™ I have just come for (you);
pray for one of us right away!

Then one hands him three dollars and he
accepts the case.

Or again, when a child loses a deciduous
tooth, he goes to a wildrose bush, digs a hole

73 J have presented the elements of the Wind
River Shoshone Peyote Cult in pp. 104-121 of
O. C. Srpwart: Washo-Northern Paiute Peyotism,
Univ. California Publ. Amer. Arch. and Ethnol.
40: 63-136. 1944.

74 This is an unusual term for shaman. The
ordinary word (bo’xagant) means ‘owner of
supernatural power.”

under it, and drops in the tooth. Then he
mutters the following formula:

Wild Rose, you thrived well; in just this way
my tooth should grow.

Finally, clever remarks may arise on any
social occasion. When I was giving some
Rorschach tests, a young man, Meyers
Coopooie, cracked this pun on seeing the
first plate:

hiniwié u—s ho’nowié
What is it—’tis Bat!

Members of the household roared with

laughter.

CONCLUSIONS

1. The folk literature of a simple culture
may be surprisingly rich, varied, and de-
veloped. Consequently, in assessing the total
achievements of cultural groups with scanty

material culture and loose social organization, —

considerable attention should be paid to their
mythology and allied forms of artistic and
philosophical expression.

2. The richness of Wind River Shoshone
literary forms indicates that comparable de-
velopments may exist among the other Plateau
Shoshoneans. The meager records available for
those groups are no proof to the contrary, since
they have been collected largely in English, and
often with poor interpreters.’* Steward’s tales
imply original mythological forms of consider-
able length and complexity. Sapir’s main in-
formant was a schoolboy, who admitted imper-
fect knowledge; St. Clair’s and Marsden’s
materials are incomplete and poorly translated.
Obviously, a great deal more exploration of this
potentially rich field should be undertaken.

3. Among the Wind River Shoshone, the
myth, the poetic song, and the public prayer
comprise the finest forms of verbal expression.
The primary function of the myth is the edifica-
tion of the audience, while poetic songs are
either social, or mystical in character, as in the
case of the Ghost Dance songs.

4. On the basis even of incomplete and im-
perfect materials, it is clear that significant
correlations exist between the styles of nar-
rators and their individual personalities.

7% See J. H. Srewarp: Myths of the Owens
Valley Paiute, Univ. of California Publ. Amer.
Arch. and Ethnol. 34: 355-440. 1936; E. Sapir:
Texts of the Kaibab Paiutes and Uintah Utes,
Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences 65: 299-535.

1930; H. H. Sr. Crarr, MS. in Bureau of Amer-
ican Ethnology, etc.

Oct. 15, 1947

FASSETT: VERONICA CONNATA RAFINESQUE

308

BOTAN Y.—Veronica ane Rafinesque.: Norman C. Fassett, University of

Wisconsin.

In his Scrophulariaceae of eastern tempe-
rate North America,” Dr. F. W. Pennell took
up the name Veronica connata Raf.’ for the
plant that he had previously described as
V. catenata Pennell.* This species, he wrote,
is the only member of the group in western
Kentucky, where Rafinesque had stated
that V: connata was found, and the de-

scription is excellent except for specifying

connate and entire leaves, whereas the
plant to which Dr. Pennell applies the name
has clasping and slightly crenate-serrate
leaves.

Prof. M. L. Fernald® rejected Rafines-
que’s name as “‘very incorrectly or errone-
ously described and wholly doubtful...
which was assigned perfoliate and entire
leaves such as are not found in our plant.”’
He concluded that the earliest valid name for

__ the species was V. salina Schur.®

Unfortunately these opinions are more or
less subjective. Dr. Pennell emphasizes the
parts of Rafinesque’s description that apply
well, and minimizes those that do not, while
Dr. Fernald dwells upon the mention of
perfoliate and entire leaves. The question
seems to resolve itself into whether Rafi-
nesque might have called the leaves of the
plant in question connate and entire.

That the leaves clasp the stem with their
bases in contact but not connate is clear
from plates 582 and 583 of Professor Fer-
nald’s paper, provided only that one has
previously examined actual plants under a
lens. The writer submitted these plates to
several of his colleagues, who are not fa-
miliar with the plants, asking, ‘‘Are they
connate or only clasping?”’ All agreed that
it was hard to tell; several thought that
some were connate, especially those of
figure 1 on plate 582. Had Rafinesque had
such an individual perhaps he would have
been justified in calling the leaves connate.

Examination of figure 1 on plate 582

1 Received May 19, 1947.
pee cnt Nat. Sci. Philadelphia Mon. 1: 365.
3 Med. Fl. 2: 110. 1830; emended in Atl. Journ.
1: 150. 1832, and New FI. N. Am. 4: 37. 1838.
peecnodorda, 23+ o7. 1921.
5 Rhodora 41: 566-568. 1939. °*
6 Knum. Pl. Transsyl. 492. 1866.

suggests that Rafinesque might well have
called the leaves entire. Some of the mar-
gins are undulate, but there is scarcely a
bona fide tooth shown. On the same plate he
might have seen at least four unmistakable
teeth just above and to the right of the
“2.” From a study of plate 583 he would
probably have decided that the leaf-mar-
gins were toothed. These plates represent
very well what one finds in examination of
actual specimens: the margins of the leaves
range from definitely toothed to weakly
undulate and practically entire.

If, as Dr. Pennell believes and Dr. Fer-
nald does not, Rafinesque was describing
the plant in question and erred in calling
the leaf-margins entire, his error was in-
dependently repeated by many subsequent
botanists with more enviable reputations
for accuracy. Robinson and Fernald in
edition 7 of Gray’s Manual of botany de-
scribe the leaves of Veronica anagalts-aqua-
tica (including the species here under con-
sideration) as ‘‘serrate or entire’; Wiegand
& Eames, in the Flora of the Cayuga Lake
Basin, key V. Anagalis-aquatica var. gland-
ulosa (cited by Pennell as a synonym of
V. connata) under “leaves entire, or ob-
scurely crenate-serrate’; Rydberg, in the
Flora of the prairies and plains, describes the
leaves of V. catenata (the name later thrown
by its author into synonymy with V. con-
nata) as ‘‘finely serrate or entire’; Steyer-
mark, in the Spring flora of Mzssourz,
specifies for V. connata, ‘‘leaves . . . smooth-
edged or short-toothed’’; and Dr. Pennell’s
original description of V. catenata reads
“crenate to nearly entire.”’ |

As Dr. Fernald notes, this species occurs
in a glabrous western phase and a glandular
eastern phase. Dr. Pennell’s map shows
this clearly; the two phases intermingle in
those two problem regions, the Ozarks and
the Driftless Area. It is somewhat surpris-
ing, then, to see Dr. Fernald treat these
two phases as forms rather than varieties.
The present writer, perhaps because he
received his botanical training from Profes-
sor Fernald, has held to the principle that
intraspecific variations showing geographic
segregation are best treated as varieties,

j04

and those of sporadic occurrence as forms.
The glabrous Ranunculus abortiwus is pre-
dominently southern, the pilose var. acro-
lasius is northern.’ Typical Sphenopholis
obtusata, with leaves glabrous or scabrous,
is irregularly dispersed over the eastern
half of the United States, but is largely
replaced by the pilose-leaved var. pubescens
on the Coastal Plain and outer Piedmont.®
On the other hand, Alnus rugosa var. typica,
with essentially glabrous leaves, ranges
from Nova Scotia to Michigan, south to
New England, Pennsylvania, and Indiana;

7 FERNALD, Rhodora 40: 417—420. 1988.
8 FERNALD, Rhodora 43: 533. 1941.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 10

forma emersoniana, with leaves perma-
nently pilose-tomentulose on the lower
surface, is “of essentially the same range
but forming individual and constant large
colonies.’’? Veronica connata and its var.
glaberrema seem much more comparable to
the examples cited as varieties than to that
treated as a form.

Conclusion: the name Veronica connata
Raf. is probably valid for the species de-
scribed by Pennellas V. catenata and treated
by Fernald as V. salina Schur; the eastern
glandular phase and the western glabrous
phase are better treated as geographic
varieties than as forms.

* FERNALD, Rhodora 47: 345-850. 1945.

ENTOMOLOGY .—Revision of the genus Nysius in the United States and Canada

(Hemiptera Heteroptera: Lygaeidae).'

municated by P. W. Oman.)

The genus Nyszus? was described by
Dallas in 1852 with 11 included species.
Since that time several of these species have
been transferred to other genera, but so
many have been added that it has become
a very large aggregation. Because of their
general similarity and the wide dispersal of
certain species considerable synonymy has
resulted in the literature.

Stal, 1874, Horvath, 1890, Baker, 1906,
and Usinger, .1942, have published com-
plete or partial revisions of the genus;
however, only that of Baker is restricted to
the western world. Horvath’s synopsis in-
dicated some important characters, in addi-
tion to those mentioned by Stal for dis-
tinguishing the Palearctic species. In con-
sequence, while the European species have
been clearly recognized, some confusion has
existed with reference to the application of
certain specific names for forms occurring
in the United States.

Both Uhler and Baker contributed to
this confusion by failure to recognize the

1 Received May 6, 1947.

2 It has been demonstrated by W. E. Cuina,
The generic names of British insects, p. 243, 1943,
and also by R. L. UsINGER and R. I. Saruer,
Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 46: 260, 1944, that
this generic name will have to be changed unless
conserved by action of the International Com-
mission on Zoological Nomenclature.

H. G. Barper, Roselle, N. J. (Com-

true identity of several previously described
species. Whatever may have been his
earlier views Uhler, in his Check list of
Hemiptera Heteroptera of North America,
1886, apparently expressed his latest ideas
in regard to the valid specific names. He
erroneously cited erzcae Schilling as a syno-
nym of thymi Wolff and listed both rapha-
nus Howard and destructor Riley as syno-
nyms of his angustatus. In his Observations
upon heteropterous Hemiptera of Lower
California, 1894, he redescribed Wilham
Howard’s raphanus as strigosus and a year

_later in the Preliminary list of the Hemiptera

of Colorado, 1895, he again described the
same species as minutus. The synonymy of
this species should be stated as follows:
N. raphanus Howard, 1862 =destructor
Riley, 1863 =strigosus Uhler, 1894 =minu-
tus Uhler, 1895.

Baker, in his Notes on the Nysius and
Ortholomus of America, 1906, made several
glaring errors through failure to recognize
the identity of the Uhler species and
through omission of any mention of either
raphanus or ericae. His angustatus is evi-
dently a mixed species, containing both
Uhler’s true angustatus and ericae. Having
failed to recognize Uhler’s species he re-
described it as coloradensis. Also mistaking
the nature of Uhler’s s’rzgosus he synony-

Oct. 15, 1947

mized it with the European senecionis
(Schilling). The strzgosus of Baker, not
being the species Uhler described from
Lower California, must be given a new
name.

Baker described a number of varieties,
two of which can be validated either as
distinct species or subspecies: coloradensis
grandis seems to be specifically distinct;
californicus alabamensis is a good geograph-
ical race or subspecies, as it is confined to a
definite area in the Eastern States. How-
ever, californicus var. providus (not Uhler)
is basalis Dallas (inaequalis Uhler), and
angustatus var. niger is merely a dark form
of erzcae scarcely worthy of subspecific
status.

The foregoing conclusions in regard to
synonymy in the genus are arrived at not
only from study of the authors’ written
descriptions but are confirmed by authen-
tically labeled specimens in both the Uhler
and Baker collections now in the United
States National Museum. A single male
specimen from “‘Col.,’’ labeled Nyszus an-
gustatus by Uhler, and another from “N.
R. R.”’ (Northern Railroad), were probably
from the series which the author had before
him when he drew up the original descrip-
tion written in 1872. Three carded speci-
mens, a male and two females, are labeled
“mistaken for the chinch bug, W. R.
Howard,” and although the specific name

is not added there is no doubt that these

represent his raphanus. Four carded speci-
mens from ‘‘MO.” bear the label ‘‘Type,”’
written by C. V. Riley; although the name
label has become detached there can be
little doubt that this is his destructor. Riley
admits, in his Fifth Missouri Report of
1875, that this is the same species described
earlier by Wm. Howard as raphanus, who
upon request agreed to suppress his name
in favor of that of Riley’s. A specimen from
“Cheyenne, June 69,” and another ‘‘Colo.”’
both from the Baker collection and labeled
N. minutus in Uhler’s well-known writing,
prove to be the same as raphanus. Dr. R.
L. Usinger some time ago informed me that
the type (No. 548) of strigosus Uhler, 1894,
from Lower California, contained in the
collection of the California Academy of

/ Sciences, is the same species which Uhler

BARBER: REVISION OF THE GENUS NYSIUS 355

later described as minutus. He kindly sent
the cotype for confirmation. Other cotypes
from the same series in the Uhler collection
likewise confirm this synonymy. Thus, if it
is conceded that minutus and strigosus are
the same species and both synonymous
with raphanus, it leaves strigosus of Baker,
Horvath, Van Duzee, and others without
a name. It should be mentioned here that
some changes in synonymy are necessary
in the Van Duzee Catalogue in order to
conform to the foregoing opinions.

Another specific name of Uhler’s will
have to be placed in synonymy, as W. E.
China, of the British Museum, has informed
me by letter that znaequalis Uhler, 1894,
from Grenada, West Indies, is the same as
basalis Dallas, 1852, from Jamaica.

R. L. Usinger, who has examined the col-
lection of Nyszus deposited by Baker at Po-
mona College and has sent to me his notes
on it, informs me that Baker attached red
labels to certain specimens of his species, as
follows: californicus alabamensis, coloraden-
sis, and grandis. It was evidently his inten-
tion to consider these particular specimens
as types of his species, but unfortunately this
information remained unpublished and the
specimens have no more than cotype value.
It seems fitting to select these red-labeled
specimens as lectotypes, as it was at Po-
mona College that Baker carried on his
investigations in preparation for his Notes
on the Nysitus and Ortholomus of America.
Many cotypes were also deposited in the
United States National Museum which are
noted later in the body of this article.

The writer received much information
concerning the more important characters
to be used in differentiating the species of
Nysius from the very excellent treatment
of the genus by R. L. Usinger, The genus
Nysius and its allies in the Hawaiian Is-
lands (Bernice P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 173,
167 pp., 1942).

Certain of the species are so closely re-
lated that use must frequently be made of
relative rather than positive characters.
Relative dimensions of body parts are uti-
lized to a considerable extent. All such
measurements were made with the small
Zeiss binocular microscope, using the No.
4 ocular and Aa objective. Body propor-

356

tions are expressed in units equal to 0.0222
mm each.

Both in the discussion of the respective
species and in the key only male specimens
are referred to.

Thanks are due to Drs. E. A. Chapin and
R. I. Sailer for the loan of many specimens
from the U.S. National Museum collection,
and again to the latter for much detailed
information concerning the fixation of types
for certain species; to W. E. China, of the
British Museum, for comparison of speci-
mens and for valuable information; and to
Dr. R. L. Usinger, of the University of
California, for reviewing this manuscript
and for many helpful suggestions which
have added to‘its value. The writer is in-
debted to Dr. G. Stuart Walley, Dominion
Agricultural Department, Ottawa; to
George A. Moore, of Montreal; and to J.
F. Brimley, of Wellington, Ontario, for
sending many specimens from various parts
of Canada.

Nysius californicus Stal

Nysius californicus Stal, 1860, Freg. Eugenies
Resa, p. 242; 1874, Enum. Hem. 4, p. 120.—
Baker, 1906, Invert. Pacif. 1, pp. 1384, 1385.—
Van Duzee, 1917, Cat. Hem. N. Amer., p.
158.—Usinger, 1941, Brooklyn Ent. Soc. Bull.
36, Ds lol:

Nysius major Berg, 1878, Anal. Soc. Cient. Argen-
tina, p. 225; 1879, Hem. Argen., p. 101. (New
synonymy.)

Cicatrices Scutellum »Commissure
Pronotum Clavus / pCorium ,Membrane

tama

if IU" a

©:

ge
Propleurum
Rostrum

a

Bucculae

Fre. 1.—Diagrammatic lateral view showing essential parts used in descriptions.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 37, No. 10

Nyswus californicus is the largest species of
the genus occurring in the United States,
5.50-7 mm long, reaching its maximum size in
California and decreasing in size in its more
easterly range through Texas, Kansas, Ne-
braska, and Missouri. It may be distinguished
from all the other species except basalis by
the much shorter bucculae which scarcely ex-
tend behind middle of the gular region of head.
The costal margin of corium is distinctly con-
tracted for a short distance at base, not: more
than a third the length of scutellum, thence
very nearly straight to apex of corium. Length
of head is very nearly equal to that of the pro- |
notum. Lengths of the antennal segments are |
as follows: 0.4050, 0.7875, 0.6750, and 0.7875
mm, respectively. Genital segment of male is
black, broadly margined with pale yellow.

Distribution: Western Canada and the entire
western United States, Mexico, Central Amer-
ica, and South America south to Argentina.

Nysius californicus alabamensis Baker

Nysius californicus alabamensis Baker, 1906,
Invert. Pacif. 1, pp. 135, 137.—Van Duzee,
1917, Cat. Hem. N. Amer., p. 158.

This evidently should be maintained as a
subspecies occupying a rather definite region
in the eastern United States. Having an aver-
age body length of 4.75 mm (male), it averages
smaller than the typical subspecies and also
shows a somewhat darker shade of cinereous,

Metapleurum
esopleurum .

Venter of
abdomen.

|
t

Oct. 15, 1947

The antennae are considerably shorter; the re-
spective lengths of the segments are as follows:
0.315, 0.5625, 0.5175, and 0.675 mm.

Lectotype female: Auburn, Ala., VII-10-96
(C. F. Baker No. 2298), in the collection at
Pomona College. Cotypes: Auburn, Ala., V-5-
97 (C. F. Baker No. 2267), and Opelousas, La.,
IV-97 (C. F. Baker No. 2265), in the United
States National Museum.

Distribution: From Ontario, Canada, on the

north, through the New England States and
eastern half of the United States to Florida and
the Gulf States.

Dr. Harold Morrison collected this form in
the Dominican Republic in 1917, and Dr.S. C.
Bruner has a single specimen collected by J.
Acuna in the province of Oriente, Cuba.

Nysius basalis Dallas

Nystus basalis Dallas, 1852, List Hem. Brit. Mus.
1, p. 553.—Barber, 1923, Amer. Mus. Nov. 75,
p. 12.—Blatchley, 1926, Heter. East. N. Amer.,
pp. 351, 352.

Nysius (?) ementitus Distant, 1893, Biol. Centr.-
Amer., Rhynch., 1, Suppl., p. 385, tab. 34, fig. 9.

Nystus tnaequalis Uhler, 1894, Proc. Zool. Soc.
London, p. 183.—Van Duzee, 1917, Cat. Hem.
N. Amer., p. 158 (exclude Baker).—Barber,
1939, Sci. Surv. Porto Rico 14, pp. 340, 341.

Nysius californicus providus, Baker? (not Uhler),
1906, Invert. Pacif. 1, p. 137.

Nysius basalis is about the size of alabamensis
Baker. The color yellow-testaceous rather than
cinereous, with the fuscous markings less evi-
dent, often more or less effaced. It agrees with

| californicus in having short bucculae, but the

costal margin of the corium is scarcely if at all
contracted at base and the entire outer costal
margin is gently arcuate rather than straight.
Posterior disk of the pronotum with a distinct,
short, smooth, longitudinal callosity on either
side of middle. Pronotal cicatrices are either
concolorous or frequently reduced to four short
fuscous marks. Most frequently in the darker
forms a narrow, smooth, pale line extends from
the middle of the vertex of head through the
middle of the pronotum and scutellum. Veins
of the corium sometimes only faintly spotted.
The membrane is clear, transparent, occasion-
ally with a faint, fuscous, apical streak. Genital
segment of the male is either entirely pale yel-

3 In my copy of Baker’s reprint the author has
written, ‘‘The specific names providus and in-
aequalis should be interchanged wherever they
occur.”

BARBER: REVISION OF THE GENUS NYSIUS

357

low or sometimes with a slight fuscous area at
base. Antennae are either entirely pale or the
basal and terminal segments, as well as the
bases of the second and third, lightly infus-
cated. Length, male, 4.70 mm.

Distribution: Dallas described this species
from Jamaica and Brazil. Uhler described the
same species as inaequalis from Grenada, West
Indies, nine cotypes of which are in the collec-
tion of the United States National Museum;
the type series is in the British Museum. Other
specimens have been examined from the follow-
ing localities: Jamaica, Dominican Republic,
Haiti, Puerto Rico, St. Thomas, Cuba, An-
tigua, Guadeloupe, all in the West Indies;
Mexico, Costa Rica, Honduras, Guatemala,
Colombia, Trinidad, and northern Brazil. In
the United States this species, from the evi-
dence at hand, is restricted to Florida and the
Gulf States.

W. E. China, of the British Museum, has
kindly sent me a paratype of Distant’s ementt-
tus from Guatemala, labeled B. C. A., Cerro
Zunil, 4000-5000 feet (Champion). A com-
parison of this with a coty pe of inaequalis from
Grenada shows that the names are synony-
mous.

In addition to the synonymy indicated above
there is the possibility that NV. callifer Stal from
Colombia may have to be added to the list.

Nysius adjunctor, n. sp.

Color darkened cinereous, ‘marked with
fuscous as follows: Head broadly on either
side of a narrow, pale, longitudinal, median
fascia, cicatrices and punctures of the prono-
tum, scutellum, except the extreme apex,
apices of the clavi, rather obscure maculae on
the veins and along the posterior margin of the
corium, spots on the femora and the bases of
the tibiae.

Head nearly one-fifth wider than long (42:
34); bucculae short, scarcely exceeding anterior
margins of eyes. Antennae 1.86 mm long;
second segment nearly one-third longer than
basal, second and fourth subequal, each a
fifth longer than third segment. Pronotum
about one-third wider than long; cicatrices
wide, conspicuous, connected in the middle;
dorsum coarsely punctate. Scutellum nearly
one-fourth wider than long (32:25), coarsely
punctate at base and along the sides. Corium
coated with fine, inclined hairs; basal costal

308

margin not noticeably contracted but densely
pilose; the outer margin gently rounded from
base to apex. Membrane well extended beyond
apex of the abdomen, hyaline, faintly smudged
with fuscous along the middle; that portion
which is beyond the apices of the coria is
distinctly longer than the basal portion.
Length, male 4, female 5 mm.

Type male: Chisos Mountains, Texas, VII-
17-46 (collected by D. J. and J. N. Knull).
Paratype female: Same data as type. Both in
the collection of the Department of Zoology
and Entomology, Ohio State University.
Paratypes male and female: Guadalajara,
Jalisco, Mexico, September 1903 (writer’s col-
lection).

This species with the short bucculae is rather
closely related to basalis. I have been informed
by Mr. China, of the British Museum, that
W. L. Distant had this particular species mixed
with his series of ementitus which I have made a
synonym of basalis. Besides a difference in colo-
ration it is somewhat smaller and narrower
than basalis, with little evidence of longitudinal
callouses on the disk of the pronotum.

Nysius angustatus Uhler

Nysius angustatus Uhler, 1872, 5th Ann. Rep.
Geol. Surv. Terr. for 1871 (Hayden’s Survey),
p. 406; 1886, Check List Hem. Het., p. 13 (ex-
clude synonyms).

Nysius coloradensis Baker, 1906, Invert. Pacif. 1,
p. 136.

Nysius ericae Van Duzee, 1917, Cat. Hem. N.
Amer., p. 159 (part).—Blatchley, 1926, Heter.
East. N. Amer., p. 353 (part).

Color cinereous, marked with fuscous much
as in ericae. The following parts more or less
strongly marked with fuscous: Ocellar region of
the head, pronotal cicatrices, scutellum along
the middle region, spots on veins of the corium
and also two conspicuous fascia on the posterior
margin. Genital segment of male black nar-
rowly margined with pale yellow. Membrane
clear with ill-defined faint markings on the
disk. Antennae testaceous, with the basal and
apices of the second and terminal segments
darker.

Head about one-fourth wider than long
(45:32), lightly convex transversely. Antennae
2.03 mm long; basal segment somewhat in-
crassate, extended beyond apex of head by
about one-fourth of its length; second segment
about twice as long as basal; third segment
one-fourth shorter than second and terminal

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 10

subequal to second. Bucculae strongly elevated,
gradually narrowing to end abruptly at base of
head. Basal segment of rostrum not quite
attaining apices of the bucculae. Pronotum
about as long as the head (32:32), much wider
than long (45:32); lateral margins lightly con-
cave; cicatrices sharply defined, narrowly |
black. Scutellum about one-fifth wider than
long (28:20). Costal margin of corium con-
tracted at base for a distance equal to about
two-thirds the length of the scutellum thence
distinctly expanded and gently rounded to
apex. Length, male, 4.25-4.50 mm.

Lectotype male: “Col.,” labeled Nysius
angustatus by Uhler. Cotype: “N. R. R.”
(Northern Railroad). Both from the Uhler
collection in the United States National Mu-
seum.

Distribution: Across entire Dominion of
Canada from Quebec to British Colombia;
northern United States from Maine to Oregon
and Washington. Not yet seen from California,
but it should occur in the northern part of that
state. Its southern limits seem to be in northern
Kansas.

Lectotype of coloradensis Baker, female:
Foothills, 5 miles west of Fort Collins, Colo.,
VIII-4-95 (C. F. Baker No. 1593), in the Baker
collection at Pomona College.

Cotypes, males and females: Foothills west
of Fort Collins, .Colo., VIII-11-96 (no. 887);
Steamboat Springs, Colo. VII (1329); foothills
west of Fort Collins, Colo., VII (1370, 1371) |
and VII-10-96 (2325); Fort Collins, Colo., V- —
16-95 (1524); VI-13-95 (1563); VIII-20-95
(1604): VIII-8-96 (2622); VIII-27-96 (2084);
VI-16-96 (2170); Camptons, Colo., VII-21-95
(1580): Morris Ranch, Laramie County, -
Colo., VII-11-96 (2009); mouth of Big South,
Laramie County, Colo., VII-12-96 (2011);
Grizzly Creek, Laramie County, Colo., VII-
19-96 (2012); Forresters, Laramie County,
Colo., VIII-3-96 (2013, 2020); Rabbit Ears
Pass, VII-2-96 (2019); Spicers, North Park,
Colo., VII-18-96 (2024); Chambers Lake,
Colo., VIII-1-96 (2033) and VII-13-96 (2253) ;
Cameron Pass, Colo., VII-31-96 (2037) and
VII-30-96 (2150); Hardys Ranch, North Park,
Colo., I-29-96 (2061); Elkhart, Ind., VIII-29-
96 (2087); Toronto, Canada, IX-30-96 (2038)
and V-25-96 (2142). All cotypes in the collection
of the United States National Museum.

Two of Baker’s cotypes of coloradensis are
from Toronto, Canada, showing that he recog-

Ocr. 15, 1947

nized these as the same as his Colorado form,
from whence most of his material came. The
writer has received many specimens of angus-
tatus Uhler (= coloradensis Baker) from Quebec,
Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Alberta,
and British Columbia in Canada. It has often
been confused with both ericae and thymz.

Nysius grandis Baker

Nysius coloradensis grandis Baker, 1906, Invert.
Pacif. 1, p. 136.—Van Duzee, 1917, Cat. Hem.
N. Amer., p. 160.

Although closely related to angustatus dif-
ferences in coloration as well as in relative
size and shape of parts indicate that grandis
should be given specific rank. In this species
the differences are for the most part relative
rather than positive.

Color darker than angustatus, often rusty
fuliginous, the fuscous markings more conspicu-
ous. Other noticeable differences are: Fuscous
cicatrices of the pronotum are broader, more
conspicuous and less sharply defined; pronotum
posteriorly more coarsely punctate; scutellum
black, devoid of a pale area on either side of
the middle; veins of corium and the posterior
margin more heavily splotched with fuscous;
membrane less clear, faintly tinged with
brown and the fuscous spots more evident;

_ femora more profusely spotted.

Compared to angustatus the head is wider
(50:35), the vertex flatter, the eyes appearing

a little larger; the bucculae are similar, but the

basal segment of the rostrum usually extends
to the apices of the bucculae; the antennae are
definitely longer; the pronotum is flatter and
not so noticeably depressed anteriorly, also
appearing more quadrate (38:38:60); the
costal margin is a little more flaring posteriorly.
Length, male, 4.80—5.00 mm.

Lectotype male: Rabbit Ears Pass, Colo.,
VIII-4-95 (Baker No. 2019), in the Baker
collection at Pomona College. Cotypes, males
and females: Chambers Lake, Colo., VII-18-95
(No. 1582) and VIII-1-96 (2033); Fort Collins,
Colo. (1733); Morris Ranch, Laramie County,
Colo., VII-11-96 (2009); mouth of Big South,
Laramie County, Colo., VII-12-96 (2011);
Rabbit Ears Pass, Colo., VII-21-96 (2019) and
VII-20-96 (2270); Four Mile Hill near Steam-
boat Springs, Colo., VII-21-96 (2030); 5 miles
west Cameron Pass., Colo., VII-29-96 (2041).
All cotypes are in the Baker collection at the
United States National Museum.

BARBER: REVISION OF THE GENUS NYSIUS

309

Distribution: Because of lack of sufficient
evidence the exact limits of the range are un-
certain. So far as the writer’s records go this
species is confined to the higher altitudes with
an extended range from Churchill, Manitoba,
on the north to Arizona in the United States
and through Mexico to Panama. A single
female specimen from the Biologia Centrali-
Americana material in the United States Na-
tional Museum is labeled Volean de Chiriqui
(Panama), 4,000 to 6,000 feet.

Nysius thymi (Wolff)

Lygaeus thymit Wolff, 1804, Icon. Cim. 4, p. 149,
tab. 15, fig. 142; 1804, Abblg. Wanz. 4, p. 147,
bab. dos hes kA 3.

Nysius thymt Horvath, 1890, Rev. d’Ent. 9: p.
188.—Van Duzee, 1917, Cat. Hem. N. Amer.
(part).

Nysius angustatus, grandis, and thymi con-
stitute a group of closely related species re-
sembling each other superficially and not always
easy to separate through reference to structure
alone. As expressed elsewhere distinctions are
often more relative than positive.

In general, thymi will average smaller than
angustatus and is darker, being more rusty
cinereous in color. The preocular part of the
head is only slightly longer than an eye (16:14),
while in angustatus this is about 17:13; the
antennae are equal in length to those of angus-
tatus but definitely shorter than in grandis; the
bucculae are distinctive, being rather high
anteriorly and narrowing posteriorly to end a
little before base of head, not at base as in
angustatus. Scutellum, except at extreme apex,
black. Although somewhat variable the con-
tracted basal part of the costal margin is usu-
ally a little longer in relation to the length of
scutellum. Membrane faintly infumed with
brown, splotched along the middle with fus-
cous. Length 3.60—4.00 mm.

Distribution: As a very limited number of
specimens of this species have been seen by the
author, the delimitation of its range in North
America will have to wait for more evidence.
Specimens are at hand from Wanakena, Cran-
berry Lake (C. J. Drake), and from’ near
Sabael, Indian Lake, in the Adirondack Moun-
tains, Keene Valley in Essex County, and
Mountain View in Franklin County, all in
New York State. Through Dr. G. Stuart
Walley, of Ottawa, specimens have been re-
ceived from Thunder River and Natashquan in
Quebec, Canada, near the mouth of the St.

360

Lawrence River. Anse au Griffon, Quebec (J.
M. Aldrich).

N. thymi is a Palearctic species occurring
across northern Europe and Siberia. From the
evidence at hand it reached the North Ameri-
can continent by way of the northeast rather
than the northwest from Siberia.

Nysius ericae (Schilling)

Heterogaster ericae Schilling, 1829, Beitr. Ent. 1,
pas6, ple 7,118. 10,

Nyswus thymi, Uhler, 1886, Check List Hem. Het.,
p: 13 (part).

Nysius ericae, Horvath, 1890, Rev. d’Ent. 9,
p. 186.—Van Duzee, 1917, Cat. Hem. N. Amer.,
p. 159 (part).—Blatchley, 1926, Heter. East. N.
Amer., pp. 351, 353, fig. 14 (excl. syns.).

Nysius angustatus, Baker (not Uhler),
Invert. Pacif. 1, p. 135 (part),

Nysius angustatus niger Baker, 1906, Invert.
Pacif. 1, pp. 135, 136. (New synonymy.)

1906,

Color cinereous. Punctations and fuscous
markings similar to angustatus, the punctures
on the pronotum often arranged in five irregu-
lar, longitudinal series; scutellum except ex-
treme apex, black, occasionally with a vague,
pale spot on either side of middle; corium
having fine, appressed pubescence, nearly
devoid of erect hairs; veins very lightly spotted;
membrane clear, very faintly if at all spotted.
Genital segment of the male entirely black or
more rarely with a very narrow pale margin.

Head about one-third wider than long
(42:26); eyes less projecting than in angus-
tatus. Antenna with the short basal segment
scarcely exceeding apex of head; second seg-
ment about twice as long as basal, third a little
shorter than second and the terminal either
subequal to or a little longer than the third
segment (12:25:20:25). Bucculae less ele-
vated than in angustatus, gradually narrowing
in height to terminate at a point before base of
head. Pronotum nearly one-third wider than
long (50:30), subequal to or a little longer than
head; across posterior margin one-fifth wider
than head across eyes. Scutellum much wider
than long (33:23). Corium rather opaque.
Costal margin contracted at base for a distance
equal to two-thirds the length of scutellum,
thence very little expanded and gently rounded
to apex. Costal margin at base sparsely pilose;
the general surface usually devoid of erect
hairs. Membrane only slightly surpassing apex
of abdomen in the male, more extended in the
female, but less so in both sexes than in rapha-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 10

nus. Basal part of membrane between com-
missure and apices of coria subequal to the
apical part behind apices of coria.

Distribution: N. ericae is a Holarctic species
with a very wide range in Europe, northern
Africa and parts at least of central Asia. In
North America it occurs in the entire Dominion |
of Canada from New Brunswick to British
Columbia and in the United States across all .
the northern States from Maine to Washing-
ton, Oregon, and northern California. In the
region of Kansas it overlaps the range of rapha-
nus which replaces the above species through
the southern states.

As stated above in the synonymy of the spe-
cies it has been much confused with angustatus.
It differs from angustatus, besides being smaller,
in having less elevated bucculae which do not
terminate so abruptly but taper off to end at a
point before base of head. It is more closely
related to raphanus; however, the latter has a
shorter pronotum and longer hemelytra, with
the membrane more extended beyond the end
of the abdomen. Length, male, 3.25-3.70 mm.

It should be recorded here that the lectotype
of angustatus niger Baker, a synonym of ericae,
is a female labeled ‘‘Wash. No. 2508” in the
Baker collection at Pomona College. Four
cotype females, with the same data, are in the
Baker collection in the United States National
Museum.

Nysius raphanus Howard

Nysius raphanus Howard, 1872, Southern Farmer
6, p. 273%1872, Can. Ent. 4, p. 219.

Nysius destructor Riley, 1873, 5th Rep. Insects
Missouri, p. 113.

Nystus strigosus Ubler, 1894, Proc. California
Acad. Sci. (2) 4, p. 238. (New synonymy.)

Nysius minutus Uhler, 1895, Hem. Colorado, p.
22.—Van Duzee, 1917, Cat. Hem. N. Amer.,
p. 160. (New synonymy.)

Nystus angustatus minutus, Baker, 1906, Invert.
Pacif. 1, p. 137 (listed).

Nysius ericae, Milliken (not Schilling), 1918,
Journ. Agr. Res. 13, pp. 571-578, pls. 60, 61.

Coloration and facies resemble erzcae very
closely. Head is about one-third wider than
long (30:20). The antennae are shorter than in
ericae, basal segment barely exceeds apex of
head, lengths of the segments are 10:22:18:26.
Bucculae lightly elevated, gradually narrowing
posteriorly to end in a point before base of
head, much as in ericae but not so abruptly -
terminating as in angustatus. Pronotum is

Oct. 15, 1947

noticeably short, often nearly twice as wide as
long, in the male (45:23), little longer than
head. Scutellum, except at extreme apex, is
usually black, much wider than long (23:15).
Costal margins of coria are very nearly straight
in the male and parallel to each other, less

- expanded, even in the female, than in ericae.

Membrane clear, appearing longer than in
ericae as it extends farther beyond the tip of the
abdomen. The apical part of the membrane is
distinctly longer from the apices of the coria
than the basal part of membrane before these.
Genital segment of male usually entirely black.
Smaller than erzcae, 3.10—4.00 long.

Lectotype male: From Wm. Howard’s set of
three (carded), labeled ‘‘mistaken for the
chinch bug.” United States National Museum.

Lectotype destructor Riley: Male from C. V.
Riley’s set of four (carded), labeled “Type,”

United States National Museum.

Lectotype minutus Uhler: Male, ‘Colo. No.
1684,” labeled Nysius minutus by Uhler,
United States National Museum.

Type and cotypes of strigosus Uhler are in
the collection of the California Academy of

_ Sciences. Cotypes in the United States Na-

tional Museum.

Distribution: Throughout all the southern
states from Virginia south to Florida, and west
across the United States to southern California,
with some extension into Mexico. In its north-
ern limits it overlaps the more northern ericae.

Through a misidentification Uhler labeled a

specimen from Cheyenne, Wyo., June 1869, as

angustatus Uhler. This specimen was errone-
ously selected as the type of that species under
catalogue No. 693 in the United States Na-
tional Museum. Since no Wyoming locality is
mentioned in the original description it is clear
that the specimen is not part of the cotype
series of angustatus.

Nysius monticola Distant

Nysius (?) monticola Distant, 1893, Biol. Centr.-
Amer., Rhynch. 1, Suppl., p. 385, tab. 36, fig. 8.
Color dark cinereous, with ground color of

head and pronotum brownish red, heavily

marked with fuscous on either side of head, and
anteriorly on the pronotum. Corium opaque,
the surface having a dense coating of short,
appressed silvery hairs, interspersed with some
scattered longer, erect hairs, the costal margin
of corium appearing clearer in contrast; veins

BARBER: REVISION OF THE GENUS NYSIUS

361

much spotted with fuscous. Scutellum, except
at extreme apex, black. Ventral segments of
abdomen of male as well as the genital segment,
black, with slight indications of testaceous
maculations. Membrane spotted with fuscous.

Head one-fourth wider than long. Pronotum
two-fifths wider than long and subequalto length
of the head. Scutellum one-third wider than long.
Antennae with second segment twice as long as
basal, second and fourth segments subequal.
Contracted basal part of corium equal to length

of the scutellum. Basal part of membrane from

apex of commissure to apices of coria is but
little shorter than the apical part of membrane
behind these apices. Length, male, 3.80 mm.

More closely related to ericae than to other
species of Nysius but is much darker and more
pubescent than that species.

A specimen from Bright Angel Camp, Ariz.,
elevation 6,900 feet, collected by Wickham, was
sent to W. E. China, of the British Museum,
for comparison with the type. He writes that
while this specimen strongly resembles Dis-
tant’s type the relation of the width of the head
to its length does not agree. I have since made
measurements of a number of Mexican and
Arizona specimens and find that the range of
variability in this respect is considerable.

Distribution: Guatemala (Distant): Temes-
caltepec and Cuajimalpa, Mexico (R. L.
Usinger); Chiricahua Mountains, Peach
Springs, and Springerville, Ariz.; Belen N.
Mex.; Brewster County, Tex., in the collection
of fhe California Academy of Sciences; Hua-
chuca Mountains, Ariz.; Palmer Lake and
Trinidad, Colo. (writer’s collection) ; specimens
from Avizcvia and Colorado in the collection of
the United States National Museum.

Nysius tenellus, n. sp.

Nystius senecionis, Baker, 1906, Invert. Pacif. 1,
pp. 135, 136, 137 (not Schilling).

Nystus strigosus, Horvath (not Uhler), 1908, Ann.
Mus. Nat. Hungarici 6, p. 558.—Van -Duzee,
1917, Cat. Hem. N. Amer., p. 160.—Barber,
1939, Sci. Surv. Porto Rico 6, pp. 340, 342.

Typical pale form: Color pale yellow testa-
ceous; punctations for the most part concolor-
ous. The following parts fuscous: Head on each
side with an abbreviated fascia extending
anteriorly from base of head to a short distance
before the ocelli, cicatrices of pronotum, de-
pressed base of the scutellum, four rather in-
conspicuous spots on the posterior margin of

362

corium; ventrally with an irregular spot on
both the pro- and mesopleura, the meso- and
metasternum, and the basal half of the venter.
Legs vaguely, if at all, spotted.

Head much wider than long (35:25); eyes
less projecting than in ericae. Bucculae rather
strongly elevated throughout, the lower edges
very nearly straight, ending abruptly at base of
head. Antennae about as long as head, prono-
tum, and scutellum united, basal segment short,
scarcely surpassing apex of head; second seg-
ment twice as long as basal, third somewhat
shorter than second and terminal subequal to
the second segment (10:23:20:23). Pronotum
finely, closely punctate, nearly one-third wider
than long (46:30), a little longer than the head
and about one-third wider across humeri than
head across eyes (46:35), seen from the side
distinctly depressed in the region of the cica-
trices which are narrow and disconnected
in the middle. Scutellum nearly one-third
wider than long (28:20), apical carina dis-
tinctly elevated. Corium hyaline, glabrous;
veins plainly elevated and immaculate; costal
margins contracted at base and parallel to each
other for a distance equal to the length of the
scutellum thence slightly flaring and gently
rounding to apices; contracted part devoid of
fine pile or hairs. Membrane hyaline, immacu-
late. The basal part of the membrane from the
apex of the commissure to apices of the coria
is distinctly shorter than the apical part be-
yond the apices of coria. Length 3.60—4.00 mm.

Atypical dark form: In some parts of the
range of the typical form there occurs a darker
variety, possibly a seasonal form, in which the
punctations and fuscous markings are very
much more pronounced, causing it to resemble
ericae very closely in general appearance. How-
ever this variety can very readily be dis-
tinguished from ericae by the same structural
differences as shown in the typical form.
Specimens of this dark variety have been seen
from California, Washington, and Utah.

Distribution: In western North America it
ranges from British Columbia south through all
of the Rocky Mountain States and west to
California. In the southern United States it
occurs in western Texas, Arizona, New Mexico,
and Florida, and south through Mexico and
Central America. In the West Indies it is found
at least in Haiti and Puerto Rico.

Type male and allotype: Santa Clara
County, Calif., Baker (U. S. Nat. Mus.).

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 10

Paratypes, males and females: Arizona: 1,
Chiricahua Mountains, VIII-10-07 (Webb);
1, Stone Cabin Canyon, Santa Rita Mountains,
VITI-25-13 (Pierce), on pink Sphaeralcea; 9,
Tucson, VIII-11-14 (Coad), on peach; 5, Tuc-
son, V-6 (Hubbard); 5, Tucson, XIJ-20 (Hub-
bard) ; 37, Sabino Canyon, IV-23-40 (Oman); 5,
Patagonia, VITI-23-37 (Andre); 20, Chiricahua
Mountains, VI-9-33 (Oman); 3, Yarnell
Heights, VI-29-33 (Oman); 4, Phoenix, V-27-38
(Christenson); 2, Mesa, IX-10-38 (Christen-
son); 1, Glendale, VIII-5-38 (Christenson); 1,
Nogales, Santa Cruz County, IX-20-06 (Nu-
nenmacher); 1, Tucson, 6-16-33 (Oman); 2,
Tucson, V-27-1896 (Kunze); 4, Tucson, 4-30-
1896 (Kunze); 9, Prescott, V-15-1896 (Kunze);
2, Tucson, V-27-1896 (Kunze); 1, Tucson,
V-20-1896 (Kunze); 3, Arizona (Uhler collec-
tion); 8, Monte Vista, altitude 9,000 ft.,
Chiricahua Mountains, VII-10-19 (Whetmore);
6, Sasabe, X-17-37 (Oman); 10 Mount Lem-
mon, VIII-23-37 (Andre); 3, Williams, VIII-
13-87 (Andre); 11, Oak Creek Canyon, VIII-
6-38 (Christenson); 1, Flagstaff, V-31-35
(Oman); 2, Granite Dells, V-30-37 (Oman); 9,
Yarnell Heights, V-31-35 (Oman); 1, Oak
Creek Canyon, IV-8-40 (Christenson); 3,
Congress Jct., VI-28-33 (Oman); 1, Tuc-
son, VI-18-33 (Oman); 1, Fort Huachuca, VI-
10-33 (Oman); 1, Tubac, VI-24-33 (Oman);
2, Tucson (Webb); 1, Santa Rita Mountains,
TV-25-40 (Oman; 1, Santa Cruz River near
Tubac, X-23-37 (Oman); 3, Williams, VII-
24-05 (Barber & Schwarz); 1, Williams, V-27-
05 (Barber & Schwarz); 1, Wiliams, VII-1-05
(Barber & Schwarz); 1, Williams, VI-3-05

(Barber & Schwarz); 1, Bright Angel, Colorado

Canyon, V-5-05 (Barber); 1, Palo Verde,
VI-11-19 (Whetmore); 1, Littlefield, II-15-32,
Chrysothamnus speciosus (Davis); 1, Williams,
VII-11-18 (Whetmore); 1, Mount Graham,
V-3-14 (Holt).

Mexico: 1, Mexico City, VI-21-1897 (Bar-
rett); 1, Judrez, VII-3-1897 (Morse); 1, Sacra-
mento, X-1896; 2, Mexico, intercepted at
Brownsville, IV-22-36, on Shasta daisies; 2,
Mexico, intercepted at Brownsville, LV-24-36,
in lilies; 2 Mexico, intercepted at Brownsville,
X-29-36, on chrysanthemums; 2, Mexico, in-
tercepted at Brownsville, V-8-37, on Shasta
daisy; 1, Mexico, intercepted at Brownsville,
V-1-36, in lilies; 2, Mexico, intercepted at
Laredo, Tex., II-18-34, on feverfew; 1, Mexico,
intercepted at Brownsville, X-30-38, chrysan-

-Ocr. 15, 1947

themums; 1, Mexico, intercepted at El Paso,
Tex., XI-12-40, med. herbs; 2, Mexico, inter-
cepted at El Paso, Tex., X-31-40, chrysanthe-
mums; 2, Mexico, intercepted at Brownsville,
III-25-40, Manzanilla; 1, Nogales, Sonora,
intercepted at Nogales, Ariz., VI-5-41, cut
flowers; 1, Nogales, Sonora, intercepted at
Nogales, Ariz., VI-21-41, cut flowers; 1, Vic-
toria, IIT-16-22 (Holloway & T. C. Barber); 2,
Cuernavaca, Mcr., II-1945 (Krauss), on flowers
of Eupatorium adenophorum; Tamasopa, 1, VII-
4-09 (Bishopp); 1, San José de Guaymas,
IV-10 (L. O. Howard).

Honpvuras: 1, La Ceiba, 1X-11-16 (Dyer).

Hartt: 5, Haiti (W. A. Hoffman).

PurrTo Rico: 2, Santurce, V-19-34, on
Pluchea purpurascens.

All in the collection of the United States
National Museum.

CauirorniA: 11, Taylorville, VITI-11-37; 22,
Pasadena, II-20-28; Palo Alto, IV-30-28 (H. G.
Barber); Inyo Mountains, VII-7/11 (Wick-
ham); San Diego County, IV-7-13 (Van
Duzee); San Antonio Canyon, Ontario, VII-27-
07; Santa Clara County, V-1902. Arizona:
Huachuca Mountains, VII-8/15-05 (H. G.
Barber); Sabino Canyon, Santa Catalina
Mountains (Knight); Phoenix, IX-25-02, and
Prescott, VII-15-1898 (Palm). In the collection
of the writer.

All the following additional material is in the
collection of the National Museum:

UrauH: 1, Provo, X-22-38 (Christenson); 1,

Logan Canyon, IV-21-41 (Knowlton & Nye);

1, Promontory, X-6-14 (Whetmore); 1, Provo,
VIII-23-36 (Christenson); 1, Lehi, IX-1905
(Hooker); 1, Spanish Fork, VITI-21-38 (Hardy)
2, Moab, X-25-38 (Christenson); 1, American
Fork Canyon, VI-23-1891; 2, Alta, 10,000 ft.,
V1-30-1891 (Uhler collection); 1, Willard, X-5
(Whetmore).

Cotorapo: 1, Steamboat Springs,
(Baker); 1, Elk River, July (Baker).

WasHINGTON: 1, Wenatchee Mountains,
VII-9-30 (Rolfs); 1, Mount Rainier, VII-17-37
(Benmion); 1, Yakima (Uhler collection); 7,
Orville, X-9-40 (Christenson); 5, East Wenat-
chee, X-5-46 (Christenson); 2, Cheney, X-1-32
(Rodock), B. tectorum; 5, Clarkston, XI-23-32
(Rodock), rabbit brush Chrysothamnus; 4,
Pullman, VIJ-23-08 (Mann); 1, Hunts Junction,
IX-13-04 (Titus); 2, Pasco, [X-11-04 (Titus).

OREGON: 1, north of Bend, VII-2 (Oman); 1,
Corvallis, VIII-8-31; 1, Echo, VII-15-04

July

BARBER: REVISION OF THE GENUS NYSIUS

363

(Titus); 11, Hood River, IX-21-07 (Morse).

Ipauno: 2, Twin Falls, VII-2-28, Beta vulgaris;
1, Blackfoot, VI-22-04 (Titus).

British Coxtumpia: 1, Kaslo, VII-16
(Caudell); 1, Vancouver Island (Uhler collec-
tion).

WESTERN TERRITORIES: 6 (Uhler collection).

CALIFORNIA: 6, Santa Cruz Mountains; 1,
California (Uhler collection); 4, Taylorville,
Marin County, VIII-11-37 (H. G. Barber);
4, Los Angeles County, July; 15, Calipatria,
X-28-21 (Kalmbach); 3, Mojave, XI-11-14
(Whetmore); 1, Tulare County, VI-6-09
(Davidson), Helianthus; 1, Cajon, VIII-9-37
(Harris); 2, Spreckels, [X-20-04 (Titus), sugar
beets; 1, Ontario (Osborn); 2, Claremont
(Baker); 1, Holtville (Wildmuth); 2, Hemet,
VIII-15-39 (Christenson), Erigeron canadensis ;
7, Three Rivers, VI-9-35 (Oman); 3, Field-
brook, V-29-03 (H. 8. Barber); 1, Los Angeles,
April (S. O. Howard); 1, Cajon Pass, V-6-35
(Oman); 3, near Tehachapi, VI-8-35 (Oman);
2, east of Jacumba, VI-I-35 (Oman); 6,
Sequoia National Forest, Hospital Rock, VI-
11-35 (Oman); 4, Tehachapi, VIII-2-1897
(Morse); 5, Los Angeles, VII-29-1897 (Morse):
5, Los Angeles, VII-21-1897 (Morse); 2, San
Bernardino, VII-18-1897 (Morse); 1, Yosemite
Valley, VIII-10-1897 (Morse); 1, Berkeley,
VIII-20-1897 (Morse); 1, Lancaster, VII-31-
1897 (Morse); 1, Baden, VITI-24-1897 (Morse) ;
9, Santa Clara County (Baker); 5, Garden
Grove, XII-28; 1, Laguna Mountains, San
Diego County, VIII-21-19 (Pierce), Artemisia
tridentata; 2, Tamalpais, 2,500 ft., XI-15-1899
(L. O. Howard); 9, Yucaipa, VI-7-38 (Christen-
son); 2, Echo Lake, VII-23-33 (Zimmermann) ;
7, Banning, II-14-39 (Christenson); 1, Mather,
VII-4-32 (Zimmermann); 1, head of Virginia
Canyon, Yosemite Park, 10,000 ft., VIII-5-39,
ex Poa leibergu (Usinger); 2, Salinas, VIII-26-
42, (Lange), Parthenium argentatum Gray; 1,
Scotia, V-5 (H. 8. Barber).

Nevapba: 6, Ormsby County, July (Baker).

New Mexico: 10, Mesilla Park, V-25-09
(Ainslie); 2, Organ, VI-8-33 (Oman); 1, Las
Cruces, VII-1903 (Cockerell), on alfalfa; 1,
Clouderoft, VI-7-33 (Oman).

Texas: 3, Bangs, X-17-39 (Christenson); 1,
Brownsville, V-17-39, intercepted on feverfew;
1, Brewster County, Chisos Mountains, VI-
10-08 (Mitchell & Cushman); 2, Brownsville,
V-31-33 (Oman); 2, Sanderson, VI-5-33
(Oman); 2, Bexar County, XI-28-38 (Turner).

364

Nysius insoletus, n. sp.

Color pale yellow-testaceous with the fol-
lowing fuscous markings: A rather wide longi-
tudinal fascia on each side of the head extend-
ing from the base to the apex of the anten-
niferous tubercles, a spot behind eyes, terminal
segment of antenna, cicatrices of pronotum,
lateral angles and median longitudinal fascia
of the scutellum, very obscure spots on the
veins and along the posterior margin of the
corilum; beneath, with the head vaguely on
each side of the bucculae, a large median spot
on the propleurum and a narrow longitudinal
line above this, center of the mesopleurum, a
narrow longitudinal line above the evaporating
surface of the metapleurum and the meso- and
metasternum, broad base of the venter in the
male and frequently a lateral longitudinal
fascia extending from the base to the genital
segment; faint spots on the femora.

Head nearly one-third wider across eyes than
long (57:38); eyes strongly protruding beyond
the anterior angles of the pronotum; vertex
two and three-fourths times wider than an eye
(83:12); bucculae very greatly elevated
throughout, ending abruptly at base of head,
the lower edges straight. Antenna with the
basal segment extending beyond apex of head
by nearly one-half of its length, second segment
just over twice as long as basal, third and
fourth segments nearly equal in length, each
about one-third shorter than second, relative
lengths are as 20:44:30:32. Pronotum just
over one and one-half times wider than long
(68:40), coarsely punctate, much wider across
humeri than head across eyes (68:57); lateral
margins distinctly, concavely arcuated op-
posite the cicatrices which are clean-cut, dis-
connected in the middle and not quite reach-
ing the lateral margins on each side. Scutellum
nearly one-fourth wider than long (40:30),
coarsely punctate, strongly depressed at base;
apical carina distinct. Corium opaque; very
sparsely covered with fine recurved hairs;
veins strongly elevated; R-+M _ distinctly
forked before base of the membrane; costal
margins contracted at base and there parallel
to each other for a distance equal to the length
of scutellum, thence strongly flaring and gently
rounding to apices of the corium; this con-
tracted part with a few fine hairs, frequently
abraded. Membrane hyaline, extending but
little beyond apex of abdomen, its outer mar-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, No. 10

gin a little less than half as long as the costal
margin. Length 5.00—5.75 mm.

Type males: Plain City, Utah, VIII-5-03.
Six paratypes, males and females, as follows:
Four with the same data as the type; one,
mouth Bear River, Utah, XI-30-14 (A. Wet-
more); one, Chambers’ Lake, Larimer County,
Colo., VII-13-1896 (Baker). All in U.S.N.M.

Distribution: Only the specimens mentioned
above have been seen. Its complete range will
be made known by further collecting.

This species is most closely related to angus-
tatus from which it can best be distinguished by
difference in color, size, more elevated bucculae,
longer antennae, and more distinctly elevated
veins of the corium.

Nysius groenlandicus (Zetterstedt)

Lygaeus groenlandicus Zetterstedt, 1840, Ins.

Lapon., p. 262.

Nysius groenlandicus, Stal, 1874, Enum. Hemip.
4, p. 121.—Van Duzee, 1917, Cat. Hem. N.
Amer., p. 159.—Lindberg, 1935, Skrifter om
Svalbard og Ishavet No. 65, pp. 11-17 (sy-
nonymy, life history, distribution, etc.)

Nystus ericae obscuratus Horvath, 1890, Rev.
d’Ent. 9: p. 188 (teste Lindberg, 19385).
General color cinereous, in part heavily

marked with fuscous as follows: Head, broadly,

on either side of the middle testaceous portion,
cicatrices broadly, and punctures of pronotum,
the scutellum, corium with outer edge, veins,
and posterior margin, conspicuously, venter of
abdomen except for a few vague testaceous
spots posteriorly, and spots on the femora
which often merge to form a uniform color.
Head about one-third wider than long; buc-
culae, as in ertcae, higher in front, gradually
tapering posteriorly, ending at a point just a
little before base of head. Antennae with second
segment twice as long and the third nearly one-
third longer than basal, terminal subequal to
second segment. Pronotum nearly one-third
and the scutellum about one-fifth wider than
long. Corium contracted at base for a distance
equal to two-thirds the length of scutellum,
contracted part densely pilose; surface densely
coated with fine, appressed hairs, usually
devoid of longer erect hairs; maculae of veins
often merge to form continuous lines. Mem-
brane clear, faintly marked with fuscous along
middle of disk: basal part from apex of commis-
sure to apices of coria shorter than remainder
of membrane beyond coria. Length, male, 4.10:
female, 4.30—4.50 mm.

SSS aaa 0 ee a SS a ea =

Oct. 15, 1947

It is rather surprising that Lindberg fol-
lowed Zetterstedt in relating this species to
thymi rather than to ericae inasmuch as Hor-
vath in 1890 recognized it as related to ericae.
Horvath erected in ericae the variety obscura-
tus which Lindberg has cited as a synonym of
groenlandicus. In fact, it is very closely related
to ericae, having the general facies of larger,
more pilose, darker specimens of that species.

Lindberg gives the distribution of groen-
landicus as: Greenland, Hudson Bay Territory,
Labrador (from Van Duzee), northern Norway,
northern Sweden, northern Finland, northern
Russia, Siberia, northern China, Turkestan,
and northern India.

Recently received specimens from Dr. G. 8.
Walley, of Ottawa, extend the range of this
species in Canada as follows: Churchill, Mani-
toba; Bradore Bay at the extreme eastern end
of Quebec; and Prince Edward Island in the
Gulf of St. Lawrence.

LIST OF SPECIES OF NYSIUS
WITH SYNONYMY

1. californicus Stal, 1860
major Berg, 1878
2. californicus alabamensis Baker, 1906
3. basalis Dallas, 1852
?callifer Stal, 1874
ementitus Distant, 1893
tnaequalis Uhler, 1894
californicus providus Baker, 1906 (not
Uhler) :
4. adjunctor, n. sp.
5. angustatus Uhler, 1877
coloradensis Baker, 1906
6. grandis Baker, 1906
7. thymi (Wolff, 1804)
8. ericae (Schilling), 1829
niger Baker, 1906
angustatus of authors (not Uhler)
9. raphanus Howard, 1872
destructor Riley, 1873
strigosus Uhler, 1894
minutus Uhler, 1895

10. monticola Distant, 1893

11. tenellus, n. sp.
strigosus of authors (not Ubler)
~ senecionis Baker (not Schilling)
12. znsoletus, n. sp.
13. groenlandicus (Zetterstedt, 1840)
ericae obscuratus Horvath, 1890

KEY TO SPECIES (MALES)

1. Buecculae very short, not extended beyond
middle of gular region of head; basal seg-
ment of rostrum extended nearly to base of
IGE Legg al ak ol ae Nee eee Se a 9 ene: 2

Bucculae much longer, well extended beyond
middle of gular region, often reaching base

BARBER: REVISION OF THE GENUS NYSIUS

365

of head, not at all or very little longer than
basal segment of rostrum.............. 5

2. Pronotum distinctly, longitudinally calloused
on each side of middle line; veins of corium

very faintly, if at all, spotted; color pale
Uestaceoust sy es es se basalis Dallas
Pronotum not distinctly longitudinally cal-
loused; veins more or less heavily spotted
with fuscous; color cinereous to fuscous. .3

3. Costal margin of corium very slightly, if at
all contracted at base; length 4.00 mm

Sr RT as Brain hin NE hee toh, Se adjunctor, n. sp.
Costal margin of corium contracted at base for

a distance equal to about one-third the
length of scutellum. Length 4.75 mm or

4. Length 5.50-7.00 mm; distribution, western
North America, Mexico, Central America,
and South America as far south as Argen-
GID ARM Seal sos ate ee californicus Stal

Length 4.75 mm; distribution, eastern North
America, Dominican Republic, and Cuba;
darker, with shorter antennae...........
ae californicus subsp. alabamensis Baker

5. Bucculae high in front, slightly narrowing
posteriorly, ending abruptly a little before
(in thymz) or at base of head; scutellum
and genital segment of male either entirely
black or bicolored........... ee oee a tee 6

Bucculae low, gradually fading out to end at
a point before base of head; scute!lum and
genital segment of male usually entirely
lack te 2 oe Ce Fe ee ER 10

6. Pronotum, viewed laterally, distinctly de-
pressed before cicatrices; contracted basal
part of costal margin devoid of fine hairs;
membrane clear; basal part between apex
of commissure and apices of coria distinctly
shorter than apical part of membrane
beyond apices of coria; color typically
pale yellow testaceous, with inconspicuous
pilosity; length 3.60—4.00 mm...........
ls eee Ce 4 ee gee a RD ee a tenellus, n. sp.

Pronotum, viewed laterally, not depressed
anteriorly; contracted basal part of costal
margin with fine hairs, often abraded; basal
part of membrane between apex of com-
missure and apices of coria longer than
apical part beyond apices of coria....... of

7. Large species, over 5 mm long; bucculae
more strongly raised than in angustatus,
their length is to the first segment of
antenna as 28:20; pronotum wide, in rela-
tion to length it is as 70:45; color typically
pale yellow testaceous witb slight indica-
tions of maculae on the prominent veins;
corium with very fine, short, appressed
hairs; scutellum broadly pale on either side
of middle; length 5.0—5.75. mm.........
Mati seeding cy OH bie oy ee insoletus, n. sp.

Size usually smaller; relative proportions of
pronotum and scutellum otherwise; buccu-
lae shorter and less raised; color cinereous
with more conspicuous fuscous punctations
anGemaculaes <. 22.6.4. A. 4 ce ee eet oe 8

366

8. Form more robust; width of head across eyes
is to the greatest width of pronotum as
50:60. Head and pronotum appearing
more flattened; antennae longer, 2.80 mm;
corium darker, somewhat rusty cinereous;
scutellum entirely black; length 4.80—5.00
(Aey JOM adeee m tbat iad Arar ARE Mi Ren grandis Baker

Form less robust; width of head across eyes is
to the greatest width of pronotum as 45:52;
head and pronotum less flattened; an-
tennae shorter, 2.12 mm; scutellum either
entirely black or bicolored; size averages
smaller, 4.00—-4.30 mm long. . Ae ne

9. @onmacted part of costal marein of corium
usually shorter in relation to length of
scutellum, about as 15:23, and in relation
to the expanded part of costal margin, as
15:75; first segment of rostrum a little
shorter than bucculae; scutellum bicolored;
length, 4.25-4.50 mm... .angustatus Baker

Contracted part of costal margin usually
longer in relation to length of scutellum,
about as 20:24 and in relation to the ex-
panded part of costal margin, as 20:65;
first segment of rostrum equal to or a little
longer than bucculae; scutellum entirely
shining black; length 3.60—4.00 mm......
STREP SASL E Scat ASN RM Ye et ony thymi (Wolff)

10. Pronotum short, nearly twice as wide as long
(40:22) and subequal to length of head,
costal margins of corium usually subparal-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 3/7, No. 10

lel to each other, very little if at all ex-
panded posteriorly; basal part of mem-
brane from apex of commissure to apices
of coria much shorter than apical part be-
yond apices of coria; smaller species 3.10—
4.00 mm long.......... raphanus Howard
Pronotum longer, much less than twice as
wide as long (45:28) and usually a little
longer than head; costal margins of corium
not parallel to each other, parallel only at

base, thence expanded posteriorly; basal_

part of membrane from apex of commis-
sure to apices of coria more nearly equal to
apical part beyond apices of coria; larger
species 3.25—4.50 mmlong............. 11
11. Corium with erect hairs as well as dense coat-
ing of short appressed pubescence; length

3. 802m: a ee monticola Distant
Corium with appressed pubescence, usually
without erect bainsy 2. sss eee 12

12. Corium and membrane more or less broadly
infuseate; contracted basal part of corium
rather densely pilose; length, male, 4.10
mm; female, 4.30—4.50 mm..............
Ae Sa a ee, ee groenlandicus (Zetterstedt)

Corium and membrane pale, with fuscous
markings usually restricted to corial veins;
contracted basal part of corium sparsely
pilose; length 325-3770) miata ses see
fn oo i Vi ee ertcae (Schilling)

ZOOLOGY .—WNotes on mytasis of the toad, Bufo boreas boreas Baird and Girard.
Maurice T. James, Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, and T. Pau.

Masuin, Colorado A. & M. College.

On July 19, 1946, on a collecting expedi-
-tion into Jackson County, Colo., the au-
thors observed a case of myiasis of the moun-
tain toad, Bufo boreas boreas Baird and
Girard. The specimen was collected at an
altitude of 9,500 feet in a small swampy
meadow near the Columbine Camp Ground,
Routt National Forest, U. 8. Highway
No. 40. When first sighted the toad lay
extended on its side in the sun in a small
semicleared area. Two large lesions were
visible on the exposed flank. After the toad
was captured, it was observed that these
lesions were clean with smooth raised
edges, each one measuring approximately
8 mm in diameter and containing a mass
of small maggots. These were not counted,
but it was estimated that there were ap-
proximately 30 in each lesion. The closely
packed maggots were so oriented that their

1 Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station
Scientific Journal Series No. 241. Received April
24, 1947.

posterior extremities formed a granular
pavementlike surface in the opening of the
lesion. In addition to these two a third
lesion was found on the dorsal surface of the
tibia; though smaller, it included about
one-half of the tibial gland. One or two
maggots were extracted and examined.
This disturbance caused the rest of the
maggots to move about restlessly and to
work deeper into the lesions. The maggots
were not all of the same size; they varied
from approximately 3 to 4 mm in length.
The toad, active and apparently normal in
every respect, was placed in a damp bag
with three other toads of the same species
and brought to Fort Collins, Colo.

On July 20 the bag was opened and the
specimens examined. The infected toad was
less active than the other three, and its
lesions, as well as the maggots within them,
were appreciably larger. The flank lesions
could be moved freely with the skin over
the undamaged body wall beneath; but the

Ocr. 15, 1947 JAMES AND MASLIN

tibial lesion was seen to involve the under-

_ lying muscles.

On July 22 the specimens were again
examined. The three uninfected toads ap-
peared perfectly normal, but the infected
one was dead. The maggots were much
larger and showed definite indications of
being negatively phototropic and positively
thigmotropic. When left undisturbed they
worked in the exposed lesions, but move-
ments of the carcass caused them to retreat
to the lower surfaces beneath the mass. The

maggots now retained no definite orienta-

tion within the extensive lesions but worked
independently under the adjacent areas in
the cutaneous lymph sinuses or deeper into
the abdominal cavity and muscles. As the
maggots had still shown no indication of
abandoning the carcass, it was transferred
from the bag and placed on damp sand in
a wide-mouthed jar. This was closed by
taping the mouth of a second jar, partly
filled with damp mud and sand, to its open
end.

On July 23 it was noted that most of the
maggots were still feeding and had grown
appreciably. The toad was rapidly disinte-
erating through putrefaction and the action
of the maggots. A few maggots had aban-
doned the carcass and the glass was marked
with their tracks. There were also indica-
tions in the sand that some of the maggots
were seeking retreats to pupate.

During the following three days the sub-
stance of the carcass rapidly disappeared
and more and more maggots left the carcass
for the sand; but a large number still re-
mained in the putrefactive fluid in the sand
around the now exposed bones.

Observations were discontinued until
July 29. By this time a number of flies had
emerged. Though the flies were dead and
most of them in a disintegrated condition,
a positive determination of Bufolucilia elon-
gata (Shannon) was made. No more adults
were recovered, but the determination was
further confirmed through the examination
of dead imagines within the puparia. A
total of 76 puparia, either empty or con-
taining dead imagines was obtained, in
addition to ten larvae which had been ex-
tracted from the lesions on July 23.

On August 2 adults of Muscina stabulans

: MYIASIS OF THE TOAD

367

(Fallen) began to appear, and on August 5
one adult of Sarcophaga_ sarracenioides
Aldrich was obtained. These two species
continued to emerge until August 10, by
which time 70 individuals of the former and
9 of the latter species had been obtained. On
August 19 the disintegrated substrate was
torn apart and examined for pupal cases.
During this process, five larvae of Fannia
canicularis (Linnaeus) were obtained; two
of these were reared for purposes of con-
firming the identifications.

All larvae extracted from the lesions on
July 23 were B. elongata. This fact, together
with the lapse of time before the emergence
of the other species, indicates with fair
certainty that this was the only species
involved in the original parasitism. How the
subsequent infestation occurred could not

Fig. 1.—Bufolucilia elongata (Shannon)
Pharyngeal sclerite

be determined. The Fannza larvae were un-
doubtedly scavengers; two of them, indeed,
were taken within the eaten-out puparia of
B. elongata. The Muscina larvae, which are
notoriously carnivorous in their last instar,
may have been responsible for the destruc-
tion of the B. elongata adults.

The immature stages of B. elongata have
not been described. The larval material at
hand is too scant to permit a detailed
description, but enough cephalopharyngeai
skeletons were studied by the senior author
to permit separation of the third instar, on
this basis, from the only other known
species of the genus, B. sylvarwm (Meigen).
The characters used are constant for the
series studied, which includes cleared ma-
terial obtained from the puparia, material
in situ in the puparia, and a cleared speci-
men of a larva newly moulted into the third
instar.

The larva of B. sylvuaruwm was described

368

and illustrated by Knipling.? In B. elongata
the oral hooks and hypostomal sclerite seem
to show no significant differentiating char-
acters. The pharyngeal sclerite (Fig. 1),
however, is more robust; the dorsal cornu
is more evenly convex and does not bend

2 KNIPLING, EpwarpD F. Iowa State College
Journ. Sci. 10: (3): 275-293. 1936.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, No. 10

so strongly ventrad at its apex; and the
ventral cornu at its apex does not approach
the dorsal cornu so closely. Seemingly the
most important differentiating character is
the extent of sclerotization, the dorsal cornu
being heavily sclerotized along its entire
ventral margin, with a prominent expanded
area at the apex.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
634TH MEETING

The 634th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, January 9, 1946, president
W. H. Brapury presiding. A memorial to C.
W. Gilmore was read by C. Lewis Gazin.

Informal communication. —Hucu D. Miser
presented statistics on American Association
of Petroleum Geologists.

Program.—Puitip W. Guitp and D. E.
Fiint: Chromite deposits of Camagiiey Province,
Cuba. The chromite-bearing ultramafic com-
plex near Camagiiey, Cuba, mapped as a part
of the program of mineral investigations of the
U. 8. Geological Survey, consists chiefly of
serpentinized peridotite (harzburgite) and du-
nite, with minor amounts of the feldspathic
rocks: gabbro, troctolite, and anorthosite. This
complex and the overlying Cretaceous tuffs
and limestones were severaly deformed in an
orogeny which culminated in extensive thrust
faulting, probably in late middle Eocene time.
The sedimentary rocks now occur in two syn-
clinal ares extending across the district parallel
to the trace of the thrust. The feldspathic
rocks of the complex flank the tuffs along the
limbs of the syncline, indicating that they were
concentrated in the upper part of the complex.

The chromite occurs as tabular or lenticular
bodies of massive, coarse-grained, or occasion-
ally fine-grained disseminated ore. Virtually
all the known deposits are near the base of the
feldspathic zone, but with an irregular lateral
distribution which distinguishes them from the
layered chromitites of the Bushveld-Stillwater
type. Two possible modes of origin are dis-
cussed: (1) segregation of the deposits near the
feldspar-peridotite boundary after emplace-
ment of the magma through some process of
gravity separation and magmatic flow; (2)
differentiation of chromite at great depth be-

fore intrusion and transportation of the ore
bodies as solid masses to their present position.
The grouping into clusters, as though near
feeders, and the massive texture and sharp
contacts of many of the deposits suggest that
the latter hypothesis is more probable.

A practical aspect of the study has been to
suggest improvements in the pattern of future
geophysical surveys.

Jarvis B. Hapuny: Corundum deposits in
Buck Creek peridotite, North Carolina.

G. D. Ropinson: The 1945 eruption in Tultk
Caldera, Umnak Island, Alaska. The Alaska
Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands comprise
one of the more active but least known of the
series of volcanic ares which border the Pacific

Ocean. The Aleutian volcanic are includes.

about 80 large volcanic mountains, of which
about 40 are known to have been active, some
many times, since 1760, the earliest year of
record. In 1945 a spectacular eruption on
Umnak Island, third largest of the Aleutians,
aroused much attention because it occurred
only 9 miles from Fort Glenn, a large Army
airbase. The writer observed the eruption at
its explosive climax (June 6—June 10), but Lt.
Ray E. Wilcox made most of the observations
presented.

One of the world’s largest calderas, formed
by the decapitation of a peak once 7,000 to
10,000 feet high, dominates the northeastern
part of Umnak Island. The caldera is 63 to

3 miles wide; its rim lies at altitudes of 2,900
to 3,900 feet; its walls drop abruptly 1,000 to
2,000 feet to the caldera floor. Disposed about
the floor are nine large volcanic cones and many
small ones.

A large cone near the southwestern edge of
the caldera floor erupted violently in 1945. The
eruption, preceded by a few mild earthquakes
late in May, seems to have begun about June
4: on June 6 a dense ash cloud rising to 9,000

Ocr. 15, 1947

feet could be seen by fliers, but bad weather

- prevented detailed observation until June 10.

On that date, steam rushed steadily from the
crater at about 2,500 feet altitude, sending a
white cloud to altitudes of nearly 5,000 feet.
An explosion about every 10 seconds threw
orange-hot bombs and lapilli, and black ash, as
much as 1,500 feet above the vent. A stream of
olivine basalt lava about 50 feet wide was
flowing eastward from the southwest base of
the cone at a rate of 30 to 40 feet per minute
and was about 3,000 feet long; another, shorter
ribbon of lava was flowing west into a shallow
depression. Explosive activity diminished after
June 10 and by July 22 the crater vent was
discharging only a small steam condensation
cloud; the main lava tongue had practically
stopped flowing after reaching a length of 4
miles and a maximum width of 600 yards.
A slight renewal of activity occurred in Decem-
ber 1945, when a little lava flowed from the
northwest base of the cone and a large ash
cloud rose above it for a few days.

This eruption, though far from being an
outstanding voleanic event, has served to focus
attention on the vulnerability of military es-
tablishments in the Aleutian Islands—Alaska
Peninsula area to destructive volcanism, as
well as to emphasize the searcity of information
about this great volcanic region. Largely in
consequence of this eruption, long-needed funds
have been made available to the Geological

Survey for beginning a program of volcano
‘investigations in Alaska.

(Author’s note: The name Tulik caldera—for
Mount Tulik, a prominent parasitic cone on
the southeast flank of the decapitated volcano
—seemed appropriate when the paper was
given. It has since been learned that the
native name for the decapitated volcano is
Okmok and the caldera is therefore more
properly called Okmok caldera.)

635TH MEETING

The 635th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, January 23, 1946, Vice-
president Joun C. REED presiding.

Informal communication —Marcus I. Goup-
MAN discussed an outfit for carrying acid in the
field.

Program.—Joun A. SrraczEK: Manganese
deposits in eastern Cuba. Manganese deposits
of eastern Cuba occur in a thick series of vol-

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

369

canic and sedimentary rocks of middle Eocene
age which crop out in the Sierra Maestra and
its northern foothills and in the southern foot-
hills of the Sierra de Nipe. Water laid tuffs and
agglomerates of andesitic character, inter-
bedded with lenses of limestones, compose the
bulk of the rocks of the formation although
some flows and many small intrusives are pres-
ent. These rocks are gently folded and are
broken by many faults. Although manganese
deposits occur throughout the section of pyro-
clastic and sedimentary rocks the bulk of the
economically important deposits are localized
in the upper part of the formation.

The manganese deposits may be grouped
into three main divisions: bedded, nonbedded
or irregular, and residual. The bedded deposits
are economically and quantitatively most im-
portant. They are tabular bodies in tuff or
limestone that do not appear to be associated
with faults, The nonbedded deposits are irregu-
lar crosscutting bodies, commonly in limestone,
that in some cases appear to be localized along
faults or fractures. Residual deposits are sur-
ficial accumulations of manganese oxides
formed by the weathering of primary irregular
or bedded deposits.

Primary psilomelane-type manganese oxides
form the chief manganese mineral of the de-
posits and pyrolusite, manganite, and braunite
are common. Other manganese minerals in-
clude several varieties of manganese silicates.
Gangue minerals include jasper, clay minerals
of the montmorillonite group, calcite, zeolite,
and celadonite(?).

Accumulated evidence supports the thesis
that the bulk of the deposits are syngenetic
and that structural control did not play an
important part in their localization. General
concordance of the deposits, the fact that in-
traformational conglomerates consisting of
angular fragments of psilomelane-type man-
ganese oxides cemented by limestone or tuff
overlie many of the ore beds, and the fact that
clastic dikes of foraminiferal limestone or of
tuff crosscut many of the beds strongly sup-
ports a syngenetic origin. Yet these same de-
posits exhibit features which show that both
limestone and tuff have been replaced by man-
ganese oxides and locally transgress the bed-
ding of the enclosing rocks. Warm hydrother-
mal solutions associated with centers of vol-
canic activity are believed to have risen along

370

conduits and to have deposited their loads at
or near the tops of of pyroclastic and hmy beds
where the manganese oxides and associated
elements were precipitated in the presence of
sea water; some oxides were discharged directly
_ on the sea floor but some replaced tuffs and
limestones at or near the surface of deposition.
These solutions altered tuffs to clay and other
minerals and deposited jasper. The fact that
many of the manganese deposits are associated
with limestone is believed fortuitous; condi-
tions favorable for the deposition of manganese
and associated elements were also favorable for
the deposition of limestone, both limestone and
manganese deposits having been formed during
temporary lulls between periods of more violent
voleanic activity. The irregular deposits are
believed to have been formed along faults and
fractures formed during the long period of
vulcanism and sedimentation.

As very little research has been done on the
mineralogy of the deposits no theory can yet
be advanced for the chemistry of deposition of
the ores.

GEORGE O. Gatss: Recent exploration for orl
an Naval petroleum reserve No. 4, Alaska.

V. EK. McKetvey and J. Bausutey: Distribu-
tion of black sands along part of the south Atlan-
tic Coast as mapped from an airplane. Black
sand beach concentrates are more widely dis-
tributed along the beaches of North Carolina,
South Carolina, and Georgia than has been
recorded heretofore, as shown by a map pre-
pared by airplane reconnaissance. The map
shows also that the black sands diminish in
abundance northward, that their distribution
is in part related to the configuration of the
shoreline, and that they are found only on
beaches along the open sea.

636TH MEETING

The 636th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, February 13, 1946, Presi-
dent W. H. BrapDLey, presiding.

Informal communications —MIcHAEL FLEI-
SCHER called attention to the publication
Chemical Abstracts, where references to liter-
ature on Chemical Geology may be found.

S. E. CuaspaueH discussed the Spiral Con-

centrator used by Humphreys Gold Operators

on the black sands in Florida.
R. H. Jauns discussed the program of mus-
covite testing during 1945.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 10

Program.—W. T. Pecora, M. R. Kueppsr,
and D. M. LarrasnE: Mica-bearing pegma-
tutes 1n Minas Gerais, Brazil. In the period
1900-45 about 8,500 metric tons of processed
muscovite mica were exported from Brazil, and
of this amount about 60 percent has been
exported since 1940. The total mine production
since 1900 is estimated to have been about
90,000 tons of crude mica. Prior to 19438, almost
all the production was derived by hand mining.
In the period 1943-45, some 30 mines em-
ployed earth-moving equipment in open pit
operations and some 20 used air-compressor for
underground rock drilling. As a result of the
stimulated war production a number of mines
have seriously depleted indicated reserves but
others have developed even greater reserves.

More than 85 percent of the mica mines and
prospects are located in the eastern part of the
state of Minas Gerais and about 95 percent of
Brazilian production has come from this state.
Other mica-producing states are Rio de Ja-
neiro, Sao Paulo, Espirito Santo, Bahia, and
Goaiz.

In size, the mica-bearing pegmatites range
up to hundreds of meters in length and up to
tens of meters in thickness. In form they are
tabular, lenticular, irregular, and ramiform.
They occur in a wide variety of igneous and
metamorphic rocks that are assigned by Bra-
alian geologists to ages ranging from the
Archaean to upper Algonkian. Pegmatites in
quartzite, gneiss and igneous rocks are com-
monly discordant, well-formed, tabular or
lenticular masses; whereas those in mica schist
are concordant, quasiconcordant, and dis-
cordant and include a wide variety of forms.

An internal zoning based on mineral asso-
ciation and texture has been recognized for a
great number of mica-bearing pegmatites The
zoning is simple or multiple, symmetric or
asymmetric. The bulk of the Brazilian mica
production has come from zoned pegmatites.
In general, a more complex mineral assemblage
occurs in the pegmatites of northeastern Minas
Gerais.

Local exceptional concentrations of musco-
vite mica, related to external or internal struc-
tural features, are termed mica shoots. A single
pegmatite may have more than one mica shoot.
The percentage of mine-crude mica ranges up
to 20 percent in the shoots, and the quantity of
mine-crude ranges up to a few thousand tons.

Ocr. 15, 1947

Beryl, tantalo-columbite, gem stones, and
kaolin have been recovered from a number of
pegmatites containing mica. Lithia minerals
occur in several pegmatites but have received
no commercial attention. The indicated re-
serves of mica and associated industrial min-
erals in northeastern Minas Gerais are greater
than those in the more accessible southeastern
part of the state. The mica industry as a whole
and many mica mines in particular are more
firmly established for postwar production than
they were in pre-war years.

G. Epwarp Lewis: Tertiary geology of north-
eastern Wind River Basin. Recent work by
the United States Geological Survey has ampli-
fied considerably our knowledge of the geology
of the northeastern Wind River Basin. A
lithologic unit which contains a fossil verte-
brate fauna intermediate between those of the
Uinta and Chadron formations has been recog-
nized in the area for the first time, and is cor-
related with the Duchesne River formation.

FRANK A. Swenson: Geologic work for mili-
tary forces on Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and in Korea.
As a member of the Engineering Terrain In-
telligence Team of the U.S. Geological Survey
the writer helped make detailed plans for the
Iwo Jima and Okinawa operations and took
part in them as a geological consultant.

One month, from March 10 to April 10, was
spent on Iwo Jima. This island consists of two
voleanic cones, the younger, Mount Suri-
bachi is at the southern end, and the older

makes up the northern bulge of the island.

Between them there is a thick deposit of loose
black voleanic cinder derived from Mount

Suribachi. No surface water or springs are

present. Japanese obtained water from shallow
wells dug in beach area, by distillation of sea
water, by storage of runoff from airfields and

from small prepared catchments, and by con- -

densation of steam from numerous fumeroles.
American forces obtained fresh water by drill-
ing wells to sea level in volcanic cinder plain
between volcanic cones. Fresh-water lens
stands from 7 to 15 feet above sea level in
wells drilled. Wells have high specific capacities
and it is estimated that at least one million
gallons per day may be developed. Water
ranges in temperature from 100° to 180° F.
and is somewhat mineralized but is entirely
potable. Rock for surfacing of airfields was
obtained by crushing andesite cobbles from a

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

atl

raised beach. Boulders were derived mainly
from wave erosion of the andesite plug under-
lying Mount Suribachi.

After Iwo Jima, five months were spent on
Okinawa obtaining water supplies, locating
soft coral pits and hard limestone quarries and
giving advice on engineering geology problems
of airfield drainage and construction. The
chief water-bearing bed was the coralline lime-
stone. Numerous springs, some of large size,
issued from the base of this limestone. Wells
drilled in the limestone obtained good supplies
in most cases. In places it was necessary to
construct infiltration galleries to skim fresh
water from beach deposits. Numerous soft
coral deposits were located and pits were
opened in them to provide the great quantities
of coral needed for airfield and road construc-
tion. Hard limestone quarries were opened to
furnish crushed rock for airfield and road sur-
facing.

After VJ day John Wiese, 8. Neuschel, and
the writer accompanied the XIV Army Corps
to Korea. Work there consisted mainly of
visiting and investigating all mining properties
in the American occupied zone. Anthracite,
molybdenum, and tungsten mines were most
prominent, but mines producing gold, silver,
zine, copper, lead, cobalt, nickel and corundum
were visited.

637TH MEETING

The 637th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, February 27, 1946, Presi-
dent W. H. Brap ey presiding.

Informal communications —S. E. CLABAUGH
exhibited the Mineral Resources maps of the
Missouri River Basin, recently released.

L. G. Hsnpest discussed Permian chert
cobbles from the gravel beds of Eocene age in
the Ozarks.

Program.—EstTHER W. Cuarry: Spectro-
chemical analysis of rocks and minerals.
Spectrochemical methods used in the U. S.
Geological Survey laboratory are adjusted to
the problems of rock and mineral analysis.
About 70 chemical elements are determined—
major constituents qualitatively, minor con-
stituents quantitatively. The finely powdered
sample, weighing 20 mg or less is burned in a
carbon anode, using the direct current arc.
Because of the small size of the sample and the
inherent sensitivity of the method sampling

312

errors must be minimized. Where traces of Cu,
Sn, and Pb are in question soldered copper
sieves cannot be employed during sample
preparation. Specially purified electrodes are
used where contamination from Cu, V, B,
Ag, Mg, or Pb is undesirable.

A medium-sized quartz spectrograph records
the entire spectral range 2200A-8600A on a
single plate. For greater dispersion a large
Littrow quartz spectrograph or a grating spec-
trograph is used. The spectrograms are compli-
eated by background lines from carbon and
from silicon monoxide and cyanogen bands.
Sensitive lines of 45 of the 70 determinable
elements are located in the ultraviolet region
comparatively free from such interferences.
For ordinary work results are accurate to one
significant figure. Two significant figures can
be attained for special problems.

Comparison standards are generally pre-
pared by incorporating the desired element,
preferably as the natural mineral, into a syn-
thetic rocklike mixture of feldspar, quartz, and
iron oxide. Intensity of spectral lines of an
element is influenced by its state of chemical
combination and the nature of the matrix. For
accurate results standards must closely ap-
proximate the “unknown” sample in chemical
and mineralogical composition. Tin is pecul-
larly sensitive, a silicate base causing an appre-
cilable and nonuniform deviation in line inten-
sity as compared with a ludwigite mineral base.
Sensitivity of detection varies with the ele-
ments. Alkaline earths, Li, Na, Ni, Cu, Ag, and
Ti, can be detected at 0.001 percent. Sb, As,
and many rare earths can not now be detected
below 0.01 percent. Use of special techniques
sometimes extends the lower limits. Among the
limiting factors may be inherently weak spec-
tral lines, extreme volatility, extreme refrac-
toriness, and interference by lines of other
elements present.

RosBert E. Wauuace: Notes on permafrost
unvestigations 1n Alaska. Permafrost is peren-
nially frozen ground in which ice or freezing
temperatures exist the year around. Approxi-
mately one-fifth of the land surface of the world
is underlain by permafrost. Some of the eco-
nomic aspects of permafrost include its effect on
construction and maintenance of roads, build-
ings, water supply and disposal facilities, air-
fields, and in the development of agriculture.

Certain basic aspects of the problem can
best be attacked by men trained in geology

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 3/7, No. 10

because permafrost is essentially a geologic
phenomenon. Some of these geologic problems
are: the relationship and effect of permafrost
on ground and surface water, relationship of
soil types to the nature and distribution of
permafrost, and the effect of permafrost on
physiography. For example, one prineipal prob-
lem in choosing the site for the installation of a
road, airfield or building is to determine which
areas of ground will be subject to slumping
upon thawing of permafrost-and which areas
will remain stable. As might be expected, this
unstable type of ground has its manifestations
in the physiography of the area. One out-
standing physiographic expression of this con-
dition is the “cave-in lake” or “thermokarst
lake.”’ A study was made of cave-in lakes in
Alaska in connection with the Geological Sur-
vey’s permafrost project which is being con-
ducted in cooperation with the office of Chief
of Engineers. This study revealed some of the
characteristics of cave-in lakes, making it
possible in many cases to identify them with
considerable certainty in aerial photographs as
well as by ground examination and thus to be
forewarned of ‘“‘dangerous”’ permafrost ground.

In the lower parts of the Nabesna and Chi-
sana River Valleys stages of a cave-in lake
cycle were observed. The pattern of an in-
cipient cave-in lake is typically circular. As
thawing proceeds and the banks retreat away
from the centers of the lakes, individual lakes
are joined to other lakes and aggregates of
lakes result. Eventually groups of lakes are
integrated and drainage takes place through
them. Many of the lakes observed in the Na-
besna and Chisana flood plains were at ap-
proximately river level. Once a group of lakes
in such a position become joined to the river —
they are alternately flooded and drained as the
river level rises and falls. This flooding and
draining causes natural levees to be formed
along the drainage channels which cross the —
lake basins. In time the natural levees separate
the lakes basins into parts, and in the old age
stages of the cycle constitute the principal land
areas, the rest being principally areas which
have caved and formed lake basins.

Davin A. ANDREWS: Significance of stylo-
lites in sandstone. Diamond drill cores of
formations of Pennsylvanian age in western
Maryland and northeastern Alabama contain
stylolites in the sandstones of all the forma-
tions encountered. The stylolites are sparse in —

Ocr. 15, 1947

some sandstones but are rather abundant in the
quartzitic sandstones. They have the charac-
teristic jagged or hackled form of stylolites in
limestone and they have amplitudes of up to
2 inches. As they show slickensides, they were
formed after consolidation of the sandstone.
Thin sections indicate solution of nearly all
quartz grains in contact with the stylolites
ranging from slight to almost complete oblitera-
tion of individual grains. Residual clay and
carbonaceous materials are present in most
places along the stylolite seams.

Though references in geologic literature to
stylolites in sandstone are rare, their abun-
dance in these two localities, 600 miles apart
along the eastern margin of the Appalachian
Plateau Province, leads one to question wheth-
er they are not more abundant than here-
tofore observed or recognized.

The Appalachian Plateau Province is not a
mineralized belt, and there is no evidence of
hydrothermal action in these two areas unless
the presence of dickite associated with the
stylolites in Maryland is regarded as indicative
of a temperature of 100° C. for the solutions
that deposited the dickite and interstitial
quartz. The maximum cover in western Mary-
land probably did not exceed 3,000 feet. There
probably was an increase in thermal gradient
during folding of the Appalachian Mountains.

These data lead to significant but unsolved
questions: (1) May the solution of quartz have
been more extensive than is indicated by the
-stylolites? (2) Was this fairly extensive solution
of quartz accomplished by normal ground
waters?

638TH MEETING

The 638th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, March 13, 1946, Presi-
dent W. H. Braptey presiding.

New business— W. G. ScuuEcut offered a
resolution urging the adoption of the original
McMahon bill for control of atomic energy.

Informal communication—H. SHELTON ex-
hibited a new type of topographic map with
which the Geological Survey is experimenting.

Program.— Luoyp G. Hensest: The Mor-
row group of northwest Arkansas. The type
sections of the Morrow group and its subdivi-
sions are located in Washington County, Ark.
The Morrow group occupies a key position in
the classification of the Lower Pennsylvanian.
Though the Morrow group has been the sub-
ject of considerable study, certain misconcep-

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

373

tions on its stratigraphy are being perpetuated.
The Hale formation, instead of being an ir-
regular complex of crossbedded sediments, is
divisible into two units that are rather widely
distributed and have distinctive features. The
lower unit is locally misidentified as belonging
to the Fayetteville shale, and part of the upper
unit is very generally misidentified asthe Brent-
wood limestone member of the Bloyd shale. In
at least one instance the upper unit has beén
confused with the Pitkin limestone, Missis-
sippian. Of the outstanding residual Missis-
sipplan elements in the Morrow fauna Pentre-
miles is obviously indigenous and Archimedes
evidently redeposited from the Pitkin lime-
stone. Millerella, which is widely characteristic
of marine sediments of Morrow age, is present
also in the Pitkin fauna of late Mississippian
age. This is the earliest stratigraphic record so
far authenticated for a member of the family
Fusulinidae.

K. J. Murata and Rogerr L. Smiru: Red
fluorescing halite from California and Idaho.
The bright red fluorescence of halite from
California dry lake deposits and from a salt
spring in Idaho is due to coactivation by mi-
nute amounts of manganese and lead. Neither
manganese nor lead alone activates the red
fluorescence. Chemical, spectrographic, and
synthetic experiments, which identify man-
ganese and lead as coactivators and throw
light on the mode of coprecipitation of these
elements by growing halite crystals, are de-
scribed. The marked preferential coprecipitation
of lead by growing halite crystals results in
zoning of fluorescence in crystals and restric-
tion of fluorescence to the first crops of crystals,
when the supply of lead is limited.

JoHn G. Capy: Application of soil science in
geology.

639TH MEETING

The 639th meeting of the Society was held at
the Cosmos Club, March 27, 1946, President
W. H. Brap.ey presiding.

Informal communication.—GERALD FITz-
GERALD discussed the Geological Survey’s ex-
periments with relief models.

Program.—O. E. Mertnzmr: General princi-
ples of artificial ground-water recharge. Paper
published in Economic Geology 41: 191-201.
1946.

HERBERT E. Hawkss, Jr.: Magnetic ex-
ploration for Adirondack iron ore. In June
1945, the Geological Survey completed a

374

magnetic reconnaissance of an area of approxi-
mately 3,170 square miles in the Adirondacks
of northern New York in an effort to locate
hitherto unknown deposits of magnetic iron
ore. The reconnaissance work was done with
the Magnetic Airborne Detector originally
developed for antisubmarine detection by the
Armed Services, and adapted for geophysical
work by the Geological Survey.

In general, nontitaniferous magnetite is
found where the younger granite intrudes
metasedimentary rocks of the Grenville series,
and such areas were selected for reconnaissance.
Aerial traverse lines were spaced at quarter-
mile intervals, and lines were flown at an aver-
age elevation above the ground surface of 1,000
feet. Following the reconnaissance work, dip-
needle surveys were run on about 50 of the
more promising magnetic anomalies. Of these,
10 proved to be relatively strong anomalies,
whereas the remaining 40 turned out to be
broad zones of low magnetic intensity of little
commercial interest.

The country is heavily glaciated, and out-
crops in general are scarce. In the area sur-
veyed, it is reasonable to assume that all the
important magnetite deposits, whether drift
covered or not, with a strike length of more
than 1,000 feet have been indicated by the
airborne magnetometer. From an analysis of
these data, it is concluded that at least in St.
Lawrence County the number and aggregate
extent of magnetite deposits obscured by gla-
cial cover is at least as great as that of the de-
posits which were found by their outcroppings.

RaupH L. Miuimr: Structure of the Cumber-
land overthrust block in southwest Virginia.
The Cumberland overthrust block covers an
area, approximately 125 miles long and 25
miles wide, in southwest Virginia and adjoining
Kentucky and Tennessee. The overthrust
plane, along which the block has moved to the
northwest, has been named the Pine Mountain
overthrust from its outcrop along the base of
Pine Mountain in Kentucky. Tear faults at the
northeast and southwest ends of the Cumber-
land block separate it from the relatively un-
deformed sediments of the Appalachian Pla-
teau. To the southeast the block is cut off from
the folded and faulted rocks of the Appalachian
Valley by two thrust faults, which dip to the
southeast at moderate angles. Within the
overthrust block are two broad gentle folds,
the Middlesboro syncline, which occupies the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 10

northwest half of the block, and the Powell
Valley anticline occupying the southeast half.
Erosion along the crest of the Powell Valley
anticline in Lee County, Va. has exposed the
rocks beneath the Pine Mountain overthrust
in six fensters, which are for the most part

confined to valley bottoms. Excellent expo- -

sures in the fenster region, and the drilling for
oil both inside and outside the fensters has
made it possible to work out the history and
phenomena of the overthrusting in great detail.

In the fenster area the rocks of the under-
lying stationary block dip to the northwest in
the southern and western fensters but are
nearly flat-lying in the northeastern fensters.
The formations in this block that are exposed
in the fensters range in age from Lower Ordo-
vician to Upper Silurian, and they are enclosed
and overlain by limestones and dolomites of
Upper Cambrian age.

In much of the fenster region, the Pine
Mountain overthrust fault is dual, with slices

of much deformed and brecciated rock lying

between the two fault planes. Two major slices
have been mapped and their limits are accu-
rately known, except where they are entirely
concealed by the Cumberland overthrust
block. In addition numerous small slivers
which have been torn loose from the top of the
stationary block, have been dragged along the
fault plane and are now exposed around the
rims of the fensters. The slivers have moved
forward distances varying from a few tenths
of a mile up to 2 miles. The total forward
movement of the overthrust block in this area
is calculated to be 5.8 miles.

The Pine Mountain fault plane developed
numerous irregularities during the period of
overthrusting as shown by the fact that it now
has prominent changes of attitude that are not
reflected in the overlying rocks. The arching of
the Powell Valley anticline began before over-
thrusting was completed.

640TH MEETING

The 640th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, April 10, 1946, President
W. H. Brap.bey presiding. |

Informal communication.—RuTH SCHMIDT
discussed the present status of the Atomic
Energy Committee.

Leona BoarRpDMAN announced the compila-
tion of geologic mapping in the United States.

T. W. VauGcuaAN called attention to a report

Ocr. 15, 1947

on 8,000 gravity stations in Burma published

in a recent volume of the Proceedings of the

Geologic Society of London.
~ Program.—G. A. Coorrr: The role of fossils
in stratigraphy.

Ernst Cxioos: A preliminary report on the
geology of Montgomery County, Maryland, and
the District of Columbia.

641ST MEETING

The 641st meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, April 24, 1946, Vice-
President J. C. RwED presiding.

Program.—T. S. Lovertne: Some chemical
aspects of hydrothermal alteration in the Tintic
district, Utah.

Tuomas P. TuHayer: Late stages of erosion
cycle in tropical rain forests. ‘

642D MEETING

The 642d meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, October 23, 1946, Presi-
dent W. H. Brap ey presiding.

Program.—Josuua I. Tracny, Jr.: Reefs and
Islands of the Marshall group.

RoGerR REVELLE: Some scientific dividends of
the atem bomb tests. A movie of the Bikini
tests was shown.

643D MEETING

The 643d meeting of the Society was held at
the Cosmos Club November 13, 1946, Presi-
dent W. H. Brap.ey presiding.

Informal communication—N. H. Darton
discussed the basis of map projections.

Program.—CuyveE P. Ross: Structure of the
front of the Bitterroot Range, Montana. Con-
cepts as to the structure of that portion of the
east front of the Bitterroot Range that bounds

_ the Bitterroot Valley were among the byprod-

ucts of field work in the summer of 1946 done
in connection with the compilation of the
western half of a proposed new geologic map of
Montana. Lindgren postulated that the gneiss
of this mountain front resulted from a normal
faulting of low dip, movement on which began
soon after the Idaho batholith was emplaced.
He emphasized his opinion that ‘‘the rocks
along it bear evidence of molecular and molar
movement.’’ He also presented evidence of
steeper normal faulting some of which took
place as recently as 1898, the year before he
did his field work. Langton, whose field work
began in 1932, agreed that the gneiss resulted

PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

Sao)

from normal faulting and, in addition, postu-
lated a thrust fault of easterly dip earlier than
the intrusion of the batholith. He supposed
this fault to be contemporaneous with the
steep thrusts that Clapp inferred to bound the
linear ranges of northwestern Montana. Both
Lindgren’s concepts and those of Langton are
difficult to reconcile with the idea now held by
several geologists that the Idaho batholith
made way for itself, at least in part, by exerting
pressure on its walls.

The writer’s concept is that the gneissic
border zone along the front of the Bitterroot
Range in this area is a product of impregnation
and replacement of sedimentary rocks of the
Belt series (pre-Cambrian) by igneous material
from the same source as the Idaho batholith.
The gneiss is part of an incomplete border zone
composed of metamorphosed sedimentary
rocks and intrusive bodies that partially sur-
round the Idaho batholith. Normal faults of
undetermined magnitude probably exist along
the mountain front but are independent of the
gneissic border zone and of the roughly trian-
gular mountain spur ends carved from the
gneiss by differential erosion.

OuaF HoirepanHL: The west Scandinavian
(Caledonian) Mountain Range.

Herpert E. Hawkxss, Jr.: The Geological
Survey’s geochemical prospecting unit. The
Geological Survey has undertaken a program
of research on new methods of prospecting for
mineral deposits, based on studies of the geo-
chemical dispersal of minor elements derived
by the leaching of buried mineral deposits.
Particular emphasis is being placed on the
content of zine, copper, and lead in soil, vege-
tation, and natural water, and its relation to
known or suspected bodies of ore.

Considerable data on the distribution of
these elements in surface materials have al-
ready been collected by agricultural scientists
in their studies of inorganic plant poisons and
fertilizers. Their work gives the geologist a
broad background of analytical techniques and
preliminary geochemical information which
can be applied with little modification or re-.
interpretation to prospecting problems.

Several geochemical field studies are cur-
rently in progress, and preliminary results are
believed to be sufficiently encouraging to war-
rant further and more intensive study. The
ultimate goal of the Geological Survey’s pro-
gram is the development of a routine method

SYA0)

by which a relatively untrained field party will
be able to prospect for hidden mineral deposits
by tracing the distribution of minor elements
in surface materials.

644TH MEETING

The 644th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, November 27, 1946,
President W. H. BRADLEY presiding.

Informal communication—FERNAND AL-
BERT J. BLONDEL, Chief Geologist of French
Territories, discussed recent developments in
North Africa.

Program.—WENDELL P. Wooprine: Marine
terrace deposits of mountainous coasts. The
deposits on emerged marine terraces of moun-
tainous coasts are of two classes: marine de-
posits, generally thin, resting directly on the
terrace platform; and nonmarine deposits,
invariably thicker, overlying the marine de-
posits, or in their absence, lying on the terrace
platform. The nonmarine deposits, which ac-
cumulated after emergence and were derived
from the cliff backing a terrace and the high-
land farther inland, are designated the non-
marine terrace cover. A thick nonmarine cover
may extend seaward over the next lower ter-
race, or still lower terraces, with a smoothly
graded profile, completely concealing the sea
cliff between successive terraces. A nonmarine
cover of that character is designated a mul-
tiple cover, as contrasted with a single cover.

Interpretations of the origin of chromite-
bearing sands, ‘“‘associated with” marine ter-
races along the coast of southern Oregon, fail
to account for nonmarine covers, and one in-
terpretation fails also to account for marine
deposits.

Watson H. Monron: Recent changes in the
stratigraphy of the Gulf Coast Cretaceous.

Wiiu1aM D. Jounston, Jr.: The Geological
Survey in Latin America. Geologic studies in
Latin America were begun by the U. 8. Geolog-
ical Survey in 1940, under the auspices of the
Interdepartmental Committee on Scientific
and Cultural Cooperation of the Department
of State. Since 1940, about 40 geologists of the
Geological Survey have worked on that pro-
gram in various countries of Central and South
America and in Mexico. Results of some of
these investigations have been published, in
English, in Bulletins 985 and 946 of the Geo-

logical Survey entitled “Investigations in the

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 10°

American Republics”; in Spanish in the Bole-
tins of the Comité Directivo para la Investi-
gacién de los Recursos Minerales de Mexico;
and in Portuguese, in the Boletins and Avulsos
of the Diviséo de Fomento da Produgaéo Mi-
neral of the Departamento Nacional da Pro-—
ducao Mineral of Brazil.

During the war years, the Latin American
program was focused on the immediate pro-
duction of strategic minerals. With peace has
come a reorientation of the program wherein
the focus has been shifted to other mineral
deposits, such as iron, lead, zinc, and copper, in
which the United States faces serious depletion
in its own reserves within the next two dec-
ades. This shift in emphasis has been accom-
plished after frank discussion with responsible
officials in various Latin American countries
of our respective interests as buyers and sellers.
of mineral raw materials.

Although approximately 90 percent of the
annual budget of the geological program in
Latin America is spent on problems in eco-
nomic geology, some purely scientific studies are
maintained. As examples of the latter type
might be mentioned the maintenance of an
observer at the volcano Paricutin in Mexico
and stratigraphic studies in southern Brazil.

645TH MEETING

The 645th meeting of the Society was held
at the Cosmos Club, December 11, 1946,
Vice-president JoHN C. Ruep presiding.

Program.—Presidential address by WiLMor
H. Brapigy: Limnology and the Eocene lakes
of the Rocky Mountain region.

54TH ANNUAL MEETING

The 54th annual meeting was held immedi-
ately following the 645th regular meeting. The
reports of the Secretaries, Treasurer, and
Auditing Committee were read and approved.
Officers for the year 1947 were then elected:

_ President: WrNDELL P. WoopRiNnG

Vice-Presidents: Ernst Cioos, Wiuiiam D.
JOHNSTON, Jr.

Secretary: GEoRGE T. Faust (for two years).

Treasurer: M. K. Carron 7

Council: Paut Averitt, Gorpon Davis,
Ropert E. Fettows, Marsorte HooKker, WIL-
LIAM G. SCHLECHT.

The Society nominated W. W. Rusxy to be ~
a Vice-President of the Washington Academy
of Sciences for the year 1947.

SA pret pee oe

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ol ei R * Oey P y A
RL y REY 4 ,
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Vou. 37

=

OxrHSER, Smithsonian Institution.

|. The year 1846 has been called ‘‘the year
| of decision,’ and indeed it is surprising to
| see how many important events in the
| history of our country revolve around that
_ date. It was an exciting period. Things were
_ happening at an appalling rate—appalling
' at least to a fledgling republic just barely
three score and ten years of age.

| Most important perhaps was the fact

) that as a nation we were suffering growth:
I

| pains, and they were causing us a lot of
grief. We were expanding toward the
| Pacific, treading on the toes of other ter-
) ritorial claimants. In 1846, after several
|| years of heated contest, our argument with
| Great Britain over the Oregon boundary
|| was settled by treaty, adding to our terri-
|| tory what is now Washington, Oregon,
|| Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. On our
|| southern border we engaged in another
} squabble, and in 1846 a 2-year war with
} with Mexico broke out, from which we
|| gained the area now included in California,
)| Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico. In Con-
i gress the Wilmot Proviso was being argued

| and was causing agitation throughout the
country with the possibility that “neither
slavery nor involuntary servitude should
| ver exist in any part of territory acquired
) from Mexico.” John C. Frémont had com-
|| pieted his explorations and conquests be-
|| yond the Mississippi, and the year before
| (1845) the Senate had published his reports
| full of descriptions of the new country and
| its possibilities. One of his thousands of

|| + This article, here published in commemora-
}, tion of the 150th anniversary of the birth of
||. Joseph Henry, will form a chapter in the author’s
|. book on the history of the Smithsonian Institu-
_ tion to be published by Henry Schuman, Inc.
New York, in the Life of Science Library. Re-
| ceived August 20, 1947. ee Ae ote |

NOVEMBER 15, 1947

3vd

JOURNAL

; OF THE

) WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

No. 11

HISTORY OF SCIENCE.—Joseph Henry builds an institution. Pauut H.

(Communicated by JoHN E. GRAF.)

readers, we are told, was Brigham Young,
who thereby was inspired to lead his
zealous band of Mormons westward in 1847
into the ‘‘Promised Land,’ the Great Salt
Lake country.

The boundaries of knowledge, too, were
expanding. In 1846 William T. G. Morton,
a Boston dentist, demonstrated the suc-
cessful use of anesthesia in surgery, of
which the British medical journal Lancet
said, ‘‘Next to the discovery of Franklin,
it is the second and greatest contribution
of the New World to science.’’ Two years
earlier, Samuel F. B. Morse, applying the
electromagnetic discoveries of Faraday and
Henry, demonstrated the practicability of
the telegraph, which was soon to revolu-
tionize commercial communication. Only a
few years later both anesthesia and telegra-
phy were to prove their humanitarian use-
fulness in the tragic War between the
States. The year 1846, too, was the time of
two other important American inventions:
the sewing machine of Elias Howe and the
rotary printing press of Richard Marsh
Hoe.

These were remarkably spectacular dis-
coveries, changing the trend of men’s lives
and occupations, setting their eyes toward
new horizons There were also other im-
portant but less sensational scientific events
taking place. John James Audubon, the
indefatigable ornithologist and artist, had
just completed and seen through the press
his last great work, ‘‘The Viviparous
Quadrupeds of North America,” in col-
laboration with his friend the Rev. John
Bachman. In Boston there arrived from
Switzerland in 1846 the learned Louis
Agassiz, who became America’s most popu-
lar scientist and most memorable teacher
DEC a 194/

378

and who wielded an influence in the
natural sciences that was not to pass for
several generations. Exploration was re-
ceiving great impetus. The United States
Exploring Expedition, under the command
of Capt. Charles Wilkes, had returned in
1842 after four years in the South Seas and
Antarctic regions with great things to tell.
It had brought back large collections of
zoological and geological specimens from
many parts of the world, and these were
to furnish scientific stimuli for many years.
The expeditions of John C. Frémont, al-
ready mentioned, to the Rocky Mountains
and beyond, were also fruitful. The intrepid
Frémont, with a handful of picked men,
explored the South Pass to California, and
defined the geography, botany, geology,
astronomy, and meteorology of that re-
gion.

Such were the men and events that set
the stage for Joseph Henry, the first Secre-
tary and “‘architect’’ of the Smithsonian
Institution.

“Joseph Henry,” wrote the astronomer
Simon Newcomb, ‘‘was the first American
after Franklin to reach high eminence as an
original investigator in physical science.”’
Though only 49 years old when chosen to
head the Smithsonian, he had already
made his reputation as a physicist through
his great discoveries in electromagnetism,
and at that time he was perhaps America’s
most distinguished scientist. This choice
proved to be an incredibly wise one, when
it is considered how frequently unwise ap-
pointments of public officials are made.
The Smithsonian Board of Regents, how-
ever, had set their mark high. They wanted,
they resolved, a man possessing weight
of character as well as a high grade of
talent. He must possess ‘eminent scien-
tific and general requirements.’’ He must
be capable of ‘“‘advancing science and pro-
moting letters by original research and
effort, well qualified to act as a respected
channel of communication between the In-
stitution and scientific and literary in-
dividuals and societies in this and foreign
countries.”’ Furthermore, he must have
efficiency as an executive officer and a
knowledge of the world. Henry was their
agi

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 11

When the call came for him to take over
the direction of the newborn institution,
Henry was serving as professor of natural
philosophy in the College of New Jersey
(now Princeton University). He had been at
Princeton since the fall of 1832, and here
he was happily situated, since he was able
to carry on his researches which he had be-
gun while associated with the Albany
Academy. Furthermore, he enjoyed teach-
ing, was well liked at Princeton, and had
little reason for desiring achange.

_ Descended from Scotch Puritans who had
settled in eastern New York State about
the time of the American Revolution,
Joseph Henry grew up around Albany,
N. Y., where he was born on December 17,
1797. That same year Franz Schubert was
born in Vienna and Heinrich Heine in
Diisseldorf. Although Henry was to become
so eminent a scientist, his first leanings were
not toward science at all, but toward litera-
ture.” Early in life he developed a fondness
for the theatre and might well have become
a distinguished actor. As a youngster he
seemed not particularly studious, and for a

2 Mary A. Henry, in her unpublished Diary
[in the Smithsonian Archives] covering the years
1858 to 1868, recounts an amusing anecdote of
her father that. shows him to have been a Loy
possessing normal juvenile ambitions but with
perhaps an unusual degree of inventiveness. On
May 26, 1865, Miss Henry wrote: ‘At night
Father gave us a little incident of his boyhood
which interested us. He said that a certain man
in the village where he lived with his grand-
mother—it was a shoemaker I believe—annoyed
him greatly by passing his hand roughly over his ~
face, bending up his nose in the process and
causing him considerable pain. He was a slight,
delicate boy but determined to discover some
means of self-defence. He at length hit upon the
following expedient—his first experiment as he
says in practical mechanics. At the approach of
his tormentor he threw himself upon the ground
and as the man stooped over him to seize him he
caught hold of [his] ankles and placing his feet
in his stomach with one dexterous kick sent him
over backwards. He tried the same experiment
several times upon some young men who were
in the habit of teasing him, and greatly to the
amusement and admiration of the bystanders.
He mentioned during the conversation that his
first ambition was to be a chimney sweeper. He
had watched a certain individual somewhat his
senior ascend his grandmother’s chimney and
was inspired with the greatest admiration for the
calling. There was a small space between his
grandmother’s house and that of the next neigh-
bor and his clothes suffered greatly in conse-
quence of his efforts to [crawl] between the two
walls chimney-sweep fashion.”

Nov. 15, 1947

while was apprenticed to a watchmaker to
supplement the family’s meager income.
When he was about 16, however, his atten-
tion was accidentally directed to a book con-
taining ‘‘Lectures on Experimental Phil-
osophy, Astronomy, and Chemistry, In-
tended Chiefly for the Use of Young
People,’ by an English clergyman, the
Rev. George Gregory. His interest was so
seriously and strongly aroused that he
determined to make the pursuit of these
matters of ‘‘natural philosophy” the great
object of his life. He began to study, first
at a night school and then at the Albany
Academy, earning his way by teaching a
country school and later tutoring to the
family of Gen. Stephen Van Rensselaer, of
patroon fame. Next he participated in a
road-surveying expedition across the cen-
tral part of New York from West Point to
Lake Erie, gaining some valuable experi-
ence and fortifying his somewhat precari-
ous health. When he returned he was en-
gaged as a teacher at Albany Academy, and
in 1828, at the age of 31, he was appointed
professor of mathematics. In May 1830 he
was married to his cousin Harriet L.
Alexander, of Schenectady. Two years later
he was called to Princeton.

The next ten years were fruitful ones—
both for Joseph Henry and for American
science. In addition to his courses and lec;
tures in physics and mathematics, chem-
istry, mineralogy, and geology, he was able
to conduct his own experiments that were
to prove epochal. Let us summarize briefly
Henry’s scientific researches up to the time
that he went to Washington. Conveniently,
such a summary is provided by Henry him-
self in a letter dated December 4, 1876, and
addressed to the Rev. 8. B. Dod. He divides
his account into 16 parts, which are here
somewhat condensed but given essentially
in Henry’s own phrasing:

1. Previous to leaving Albany, he says,
he made a series of experiments on electro-
magnetism in which he developed the
principles of the electromagnet and applied
the magnetic power produced in the in-
vention of the first electromagnetic ma-
chine; that is, a mechanical contrivance by
| which electromagnetism was applied as a
}) motive power. Also, while in Albany, he

OEHSER: JOSEPH HENRY BUILDS AN INSTITUTION

319

applied the results of his experiments to the
first electromagnetic telegraph, in which
signals were transmitted by exciting an
electromagnet at a distance, whereby bells
were struck in succession.

At Princeton he continued his experi-
ments and constructed a still more powerful
electromagnet—one that would lift over
3,000 pounds—and with it illustrated to his
students how, by means of a relay-magnet,
a large amount of such power might be
called into operation at a distance of many
miles.

Just before leaving on a trip to England
in 1837 he again turned his attention to the
telegraph. The first actual line of telegraph
using the earth as a conductor, he says,
was made in the beginning of 1836. A wire
was stretched across the front campus of
the college grounds, from the upper story
of the library to the hall opposite, the ends
terminating in two wells. Through this wire
signals were sent from his house to his
laboratory. [Here Henry interpolates a
short account of the history of the inven-
tion of the telegraph, claiming that the
electromagnetic telegraph was first in-
vented by him in Albany in 1830, two years,
he says, before Morse conceived the idea
and seven years before he attempted to
carry his idea into practice, and stating that
the reason he did not take out a patent on
his invention, as he was urged to do, was
that he did not consider it compatible with
the dignity of science to confine the benefits
that might be derived from it to the ex-
clusive use of any individual. He reiterates
that he was the first to bring the electro-
magnet into the condition necessary to its
use in telegraphy and to point out its ap-
plication to the telegraph. He gives Morse
great credit, however, for his alphabet and
for his perseverance in bringing the tele-
graph into practical use. The fact remains,
however, that Morse was issued a patent
for the invention of the telegraph on June
20, 1840. Just how much credit is due
Joseph Henry will perhaps never be fully
settled.]

2. His next experiment concerned what
he called ‘“electrodynamic induction.” In
1831 Michael Faraday had discovered that
when a current of electricity was passed

380

through a wire from a battery, a current in
an opposite direction was induced in a wire
arranged parallel to this conductor. Henry
discovered that induction of a similar kind
took place in the primary conducting wire
itself, so that although a current in passing
through a short wire conductor would pro-
duce no sparks or shocks, if the wire were
long enough both of these effects would be
produced. By using as a conductor a flat
ribbon, covered with silk, rolled into a spiral
form, he found that brilliant sparks and
other electrical effects of high intensity
could be produced from a battery of low
intensity.

3. Afterward he made a series of ine
vestigations that resulted in producing in-
ductive currents of different orders, of
different directions, and made up of waves
alternately in opposite directions. He found
also that a metal plate of any kind, placed
between two conductors, neutralized this
induction, and that this effect was due to a
current in the plate itself. He found that a
current of quantity was capable of produc-
ing a current of intensity, and vice versa.

4. He also demonstrated that electro-
dynamic induction with ordinary electricity
could be produced at a remarkable distance.
If a current were sent through a wire on the
outside of a building, electrical effects were
produced in a parallel wire inside the build-
ing. He found also that the induced current
appeared to change its direction with the
distance of the two wires and that the dis-
charge of electricity from a Leyden jar is
of an oscillatory character.

5. His next experiments related to ‘“‘at-
mospheric induction,’’ reminiscent of Ben-
jamin Franklin’s experiment in drawing
lightning from the clouds. In this he used
two large kites, the lower end of the string
of one being attached to the upper surface
of the other, the end of the whole being
coiled around an insulated drum, the
“‘string’’ consisting of fine wire. When the
sky was perfectly clear the kites were flown,
and sparks were drawn, said Henry, of
“surprising intensity and pungency, the
electricity being supplied from the air, and
the intensity being attributed to the in-
duction of the long wire on itself.”

6. A related experiment was made on in-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

periments with lightning rods which con- |

-

vou. 37, No. 11

duction from thunder clouds. Using his tin
roof as an induction plate, he soldered a
wire to the edge of the roof, passed it into
his study and out again through holes in
the window sash, and fastened the other
end to a metal plate in a deep well in front
of his house. By breaking the circuit of that
part of the wire in the study and inserting in
the opening a magnetized spiral, needles
placed in this were magnetized by a flash
of lightning so far away that the thunder
could scarcely be heard. He found also |
that the electrical disturbance thus pro-
duced was oscillatory in character—the dis-
charge first passing through the wire from
the roof to the well, then another in the
opposite direction, and so on until equilib-_
rium was restored. |
7. This experiment led to a series of ex-

tributed greatly to our understanding of the
nature of electricity. It was shown, among
other phenomena, that when a pou
electrical charge such as lightning is trans-
mitted through a portion of air, the air
along the path of the discharge is ‘““endowed
for a moment with an intense repulsive
energy. ...It is to this repulsive energy,
or tendency in air to expand at right angles
to the path of a stroke of lightning, that the
mechanical effects which accompany the |
latter are generally to be attributed.” | |

8. Another series of Henry’s investiga- |
tions pertained to ‘“‘the phosphorogenic¢ }
emanation from the sun,” in which he ex-
tended the list of known eabeiomee “which ]
possess the capability of exhibiting phos- |
phorescence”’ when exposed to electric |
discharge. |

9. A new method of determining the

|
i}
|
|
|
!

velocity of projectiles was the subject of |
his next inquiry. The principle involved in”
this was “the instantaneous transmission |
of electrical action to determine the time |
of the passage of a ball between two screens, |
placed at a short distance from each other |
in the path of the projectile. ... The ob- |
server is provided with a revolving cylinder |
moving by clock-work at a uniform rate, |
and of which the convex surface is divided |
into equal parts indicating a fractional part |

of a second. The passage of the ball through | |
the screen breaks a galvanic circuit, the

ian Institution.

ithson

tary of the Sm

first Secre

1878),

JOSEPH HENRY (1797-—

Nov. 15, 1947

time of which is indicated on the revolving
eylinder by the terminal spark produced in a
Wire surrounding a bundle of iron wires.’’

10. In collaboration with his brother-in-
law, Stephen Alexander, Princeton profes-
sor of astronomy, Henry experimented to
determine the relative heat of different parts

of the sun’s disk. It was shown that the sun-

spots radiated less heat than the adjacent
parts and that all parts of the sun’s surface
did not radiate an equal amount of heat.

11. Another experiment was made with

what was called a thermal telescope, which

consisted of a long hollow cone of paste-
board, lined with silver leaf and painted out-
side with lampblack. The angle at the cone’s
apex was such as to cause all the parallel
rays from a distant object entering the
larger end to be reflected onto the end of a
thermopile, which was connected with a
galvanometer. When the axis of the conical
reflector was directed toward a distant ob-
ject of greater or less temperature than the
surrounding bodies, such as a horse, the
difference was immediately indicated by
the needle of the galvanometer. When the
instrument was directed toward the sky, to
different clouds, and to the moon, various
conclusions as to radiant heat could be
drawn.

12. Further studies of radiant heat were
made ‘‘to examine the nature of the fact
mentioned by Count Rumford that balls of

clay introduced into a fire under some con-

ditions increase the heat given off into an
apartment.” He concluded that the ‘“‘in-
crease in the radiant heat, which would
facilitate the roasting of an article before
the fire, would be at the expense of the boil-
ing of a liquid in a vessel suspended directly
over the point of combustion.”

13. In another investigation, pertaining
to the diffusion of metals, he demonstrated
that mercury could be siphoned up through
a 3-foot piece of thick lead wire and proved
that solid silver would dissolve in solid
copper.

14. He investigated the constitution of
matter with reference to its ‘‘liquidity”’ and
“solidity,” concluding that ‘“‘rigidity differs
from liquidity more in a polarity which pre-
vents slipping of the molecules than in a
difference of the attractive force with which

OEHSER: JOSEPH HENRY BUILDS AN INSTITUTION

o8l

the molecules are held together.’”’ Heating a
liquid, he said, does not neutralize the at-
traction of the molecules but rather neu-
tralizes the polarity of the molecules soas
to give them ‘‘perfect freedom of motion
around any imaginable axis.’’ He explained
that the reason that the tenacity or cohesion
of pure water is greater than that of soap
and water is that the mingling of the soap
and water interferes with the perfect mobil-
ity of the molecules and diminishes the at-
traction.

15. He further investigated the cohesion
of liquids, measuring the tenacity of soap-
water films by placing on them pellets of
cotton until they burst. It was concluded
that the attractive force of the molecules
of water for those of water (several hundred
pounds per square inch) is approximately
equal to that of the molecules of ice for
those of ice. He explained why oil spreads
over water by the fact that ‘‘the attraction
of water for water is greater than that of oil
for oil, while the attraction of the molecules
of oil for each other is less than the attrac-
tion of the same molecules for water.’’ These
experiments in molecular physics were
pioneering.

16. Finally, in his letter to the Reverend
Mr. Dod, Henry described at some length
his contribution to science in “‘the origin of
mechanical power and the nature of the
vital force.’ He defined and classified me-
chanical power as opposed to “vitality.”
Mechanical power, he said, is that which is
capable of overcoming resistance, or that
which is employed to do work; vitality is
that mysterious principle which deter-
mines the form and arranges the atoms of
organized matter. This ‘‘doctrine,”’ as he
termed it, was first presented in December
1844 tothe American Philosophical Society.

This, then, was the stature of the man
who came down from Princeton to head the
Smithsonian Institution, a man at the very
peak of a brilliant scientific career, with
many fundamental discoveries to his credit.
And we must always admire Henry for the
high regard in which he held pure scientific
research. To expand the boundaries of
knowledge he believed to be his special
forte, and he left to perhaps less imagina-
tive and more enterprising men the task of

(JU)
Ou»
NDB

applying this new knowledge to the uses of
mankind. He did not even take out patents
on his discoveries that might have made
him a fortune, and in some instances he
failed to Bubren his studies promptly, with
the result that he can not be given full
credit for some of them; for example,

honors for the discovery of shotomecneti

induction he must share with Faraday.*® His
natural modesty in claiming priority de-
terred him. He was more interested in hav-
ing the approval of his scientific equals than
in the applause of the multitude. He saw
clearly the value of abstract science and
was eloquent in its defense. ‘‘He who loves
truth for its own sake,’’ he wrote, ‘“‘feels
that its highest claims are lowered and its
moral influence marred by being continu-
ally summoned to the bar of immediate and
palpable utility.”

One of the first jobs confronting the new
Smithsonian Secretary was to supervise the
construction of a suitable building to be the
home of the Institution. Congress already,
in the Act of Establishment, had placed on
the Board of Regents the responsibility for
the choice of a site’ and the erection of the
building. It should be constructed of
‘plain and durable materials and structure,

3 Credit for the diseovery of the electrical
principle of self-induction is now generally con-
ceded as belonging to Henry, and this was off-
cially recognized by the International Congress
of Electricians in 1893, when the name henry
was given to the standard of inductive resistance.

4 President Polk himself helped the Regents in
the selection of the site, but the final decision
apparently followed the recommendation of Re-
gent William W. Seaton, mayor of Washington.
Polk wrote in his diary: ‘‘At nine o’clock this
morning |[Wednesday, Sept. 9, 1846]...I rode
out in my carriage to meet the regents of the
Smithsonian Institute [sic] on the public grounds
lying west of the Capitol and south of the Presi-
dent’s House, with a view to locate the site of
that institution. I met the regents on the ground,
and spent nearly an hour with them on foot in
examining the grounds. Opinions were freely ex-
pressed. The most elevated ground, and, as I
think, the most eligible site, lies between 12th and
14th Streets containing sbout 32 acres. ... Most
of the regents expressed a preference for this
location. Mr. W. W. Seaton... earnestly urged
that the location should be made west [obviously
he meant to say east] of 12th street and between
that street and the Capitol. This is a lower situa-
tion than that west of it, and in no sense, as it
strikes me, so eligible.” The actual location—
‘upon the center of Tenth Street’’—was deter-
mined on March 20, 1847, by a resolution of the
building committee.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 11

without unnecessary ornament, and of
sufficient size, and with suitable rooms or
halls for the reception and arrangement,
upon a liberal scale, of objects of natural
history, including ‘a geological and min-
eralogical cabinet; also, a chemical labora-
tory, a library, a baller of art, and the
necessary lecture rooms.”

There was little delay in getting the
building under way, and the cornerstone
was laid on the first day of May 1847, with
impressive ceremonies attended by a large
procession that included President Polk
and his Cabinet. Accounts of the occasion
tell us that the same gavel was used as that
employed by George Washington when he
laid the first cornerstone of the United
States Capitol. They do not tell us, how-
ever, exactly which stone is the cornerstone
except to infer that it is on the south side of
the building. Either by weathering off of the
inscription or by subsequent landscaping
and filling in around the building, this
architectural detail has been lost to us. An
address fitting to the occasion was made by
the Chancellor of the Institution, Vice
President George M. Dallas, in which he
described the building to be. “‘Its exterior,”
he said, ‘“‘will present a specimen of the style
of architecture that prevailed some seven
centuries ago, chiefly in Germany, Nor-
mandy, and southern Europe, which pre-
ceded the Gothic, and continues to recom-
mend itself, for structures like this, to the
most enlightened judgment. It is known as
the Norman, or, more strictly speaking, the
Lombard style. It harmonizes alike with
the extent, the grave uses, and the massive
strength of the edifice; it exacts a certain
variety in the form of its parts; and it
authorizes any additions that convenience
may require, no matter how seemingly ir-
regular they may be.’

The building was the first of this Roman-
esque twelfth-century style ever to be
erected in this country for non-ecclesiastical
uses. The architect was James Renwick,
Jr., of New York, who also designed Grace
Church and St. Patrick’s Cathedral in New
York City. The stone for the building, a
lilac-gray freestone, was quarried from the
banks of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal,
near Seneca Creek, Maryland, and only 23

-Nov. 15, 1947

miles from the site. The length of the build-
ing from east to west measures 447 feet, and
its greatest width is 160 feet. The building
has nine towers of various shapes and rang-
ing from 60 to 145 feet in height.

By April 1849, the east wing of the build-

ing was completed to the point where it
_ could be occupied by the Secretary and his

staff. Before the end of the year the west

-wing was finished. The entire building, in-

terior and exterior, was not completed im-
mediately, however, and some construction
was still going on in 1857, although the
main edifice seems to have been finished in
December 1854.

On January 24, 1865, in spite of the fact
that precautions had been taken to make
the Smithsonian Building fireproof, a fire
broke out in the main portion, destroying
the roof, the interior of the upper story, and
the interior of the two large north towers
and the large south tower. Although the
losses were not considered to be severe,
many records, publications, and manu-
scripts were destroyed, as well as apparatus
and a large stock of tools and instruments.
Perhaps the most serious loss was the col-
lection of the personal effects of James
Smithson, including numerous manuscripts
written by him. Another unfortunate loss
was a valuable series of Indian portraits and
scenes (in all about 150 canvases) which
had been temporarily deposited by the
artist, J. M. Stanley, in 1852; all but seven
of these pictures were destroyed. The
building was repaired at a cost of about
$150,000.° :

By the time of the fire, the Institution
had been in operation nearly 20 years.
During this period Professor Henry had

5 One account of the fire says: ‘‘A series of cases
intended for ethnological specimens had been
constructed in the gallery on the second floor,
Which made it necessary to rearrange the Indian

paintings. The day was extremely cold, and with
a view to their comfort in hanging the pictures

_ the workmen brought a stove into the room and

inadequately inserted the pipe in a ventilating

| flue which opened under the roof. The conflagra-

tion which ensued burnt out the entire upper
story of the main building, as well as the central

| main towers on both the north and south sides. ...
_ The contents of the upper gallery were almost
entirely destroyed. These...

consisted mainly
of the Indian paintings of J. M. Stanley, Charles
B. King and others, probably other paintings,

}) and the marble copy of the Dying Gladiator.”

OEHSER: JOSEPH HENRY BUILDS AN INSTITUTION

383

successfully put into effect a plan of or-
ganization which was thereafter to guide its
course.

Even before he left Princeton, Henry was
requested by the Board of Regents to study
the will of James Smithson and present a
plan of organization, so that when he ar-
rived in Washington he had already given
considerable thought to the problem of
what the proper functions of the Institution
should be. He laid down a few basic prin-
ciples on which he thought the organization
should operate. Gne was that the Institu-
tion should undertake nothing that could be
done adequately by other agencies of the
country. Another was that the Smithson
bequest was intended for the benefit of man-
kind, and that, therefore, ‘‘all unnecessary
expenditure on local objects would be a
perversion of the trust.’ The United States
Government would act as trustee to carry
out the will of Smithson. The Institution,
however, would not be a national establish-
ment in the usual sense, but rather the
establishment of an individual, to bear and
perpetuate his name. The objectives of the
Institution were clear—first, to increase,
and second, to diffuse, knowledge among
men. Inasmuch as the will did not define or
restrict in any way the particular kind of
knowledge to be diffused and augmented, no
branch of knowledge could rightly be ex-
cluded from its share of attention. Said
Henry, “Smithson was well aware that
knowledge should not be viewed as existing
in isolated parts, but as a whole, each por-
tion of which throws light on all the other,
and that the tendency of all is to improve
the human mind, and to give it new sources
of power and enjoyment.”’

With these liberal principles in mind,
Henry proposed that the Institution, in
order to zncrease knowledge, should (1)
stimulate men of talent to make original
researches, by offering suitable rewards for
memoirs containing new truths, these mem-
oirs to be published in a series of quarto
volumes called “Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge’; and (2) appropriate an-
nually a portion of the income for particu-
lar researches, under the direction of suit-
able persons. To diffuse knowledge he pro-
posed (1) to publish a series of periodical

384

reports on the progress of the different
branches of knowledge; and (2) to publish
occasionally separate treatises on subjects
of general interest. At the meeting of the
Board of Regents on December 8, 1847,
Henry presented the details of this general
plan for the Board’s consideration and ap-
proval. Furthermore, the plan was submit-
ted to a number of literary and scientific
societies, and it must have been gratifying
to the new Secretary to have his work
widely approved. “In every case,” he re-
ported, the program ‘“‘received their un-
qualified approbation.”’

On December 13 the plan was officially
adopted. The stage was now set. The work
of, as well as an edifice for, the Smithsonian
Institution could now start.

As a matter of fact, it had already started.
In May 1847, Professor Henry had received
a letter from two archeologists of Chilli-
cothe, Ohio—E. George Squier, A.M., and
EK. H. Davis, M.D.—who had been in-
vestigating the ancient Mound Builders of
the Mississippi Valley region. They had
prepared an elaborate manuscript based on
a study of over 200 of the Indian mounds,
comprising, they said, the results of exten-
sive original surveys and explorations, and
they wished to submit it for publication by
the Smithsonian Institution. This, it ap-
peared, promised to be what Henry was
looking for to start the new series ‘“‘Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge.’’ He
received the manuscript and, after sub-
mitting it for critical examination to several
competent scholars, accepted it for publi-
cation. It was published on December 1,
1848, under the title ‘‘Ancient Monuments
of the Mississippi Valley,” illustrated by
48 lithograph plates and 207 wood engrav-
ings. Uncopyrighted, a copy was sent to
every principal library of the world, though
the edition was small. It was the first
scientific publication to be issued by the
Institution.

It should be remembered that in 1848
there were very few outlets for the publi-
cation of such monographs as that by
Squier and Davis. The American Philo-
sophical Society at Philadelphia and the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences at
Boston issued publications, and there was

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 11

an increasing number of scientific journals
springing up, many of them organs of
scientific societies. But for the most part
authors had to pay for the publication of
their work, especially if it was anything as
pretentious and costly as “‘Ancient Monu-
ments of the Mississippi Valley.”’ Learned
societies then did not have much money to
spend on quarto volumes and expensive
illustrations. It can be readily appreci-
ated what this new Smithsonian publi-
cation plan meant to the scientists of
America. They now had a new and digni-
fied medium for the publication of their
researches and could be assured of world-
wide distribution of their papers. Henry
knew, though he had himself been dilatory
in the prompt publication of some of his
own electromagnetic discoveries, that sci-
ence is valueless unless given to the world
to be put to whatever use the human race
desires cr is capable of. Said Henry, “‘The
real workingmen in the line of original
research hail this part of the plan as a new
era in the history of American science.”

The Contributions soon became widely
known among scholars, and in the ensuing
years many important monographs ap-
peared in the series. The only requirement
was that each paper should constitute a
positive addition to knowledge based on
original research. The series ran for 68 years,
being discontinued in 1916. A few of the
well-known papers in this series are:
‘““Memoir on Mechanical Flight,” by Lang-
ley and Manly; Coffin’s ‘‘The Winds of the
Globe’”’; Shaler’s ‘Comparison of Earth and
Moon’’; Morely’s ‘‘On the Densities of Oxy-
gen and Hydrogen, and the Ratio of Their
Atomic Weights’? and Morgan’s “Systems
of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human
Family.”

The original act of Congress establishing
the Smithsonian made specific provisicn for
a library, and it was therefore incumbent
upon the new Secretary to begin its forma-
tion at once. On January 26, 1847, Charles
Coffin Jewett, a young professor of modern
languages and literature at Brown Univer-
sity, was appointed Assistant Secretary of
the Institution to serve as librarian. The
initial purpose of the library was to procure
‘a, complete collection of the memoirs and

ee a eeeEEeeEE"

Nov. 15, 1947

transactions of learned societies throughout
the world and an entire series of the most
important scientific and literary periodi-
cals,’ and it was agreed that a special
library of this kind could be a means both
of increasing and diffusing knowledge. Pro-

fessor Jewett was an energetic man with

ideas and was far in advance of his time
in library planning and technique. He be-
came recognized as one of the most active
librarians and bibliographers of his day, and
under his direction the Smithsonian collec-
tion grew, in six years, to 32,000 volumes.
It was fast becoming, under his tutelage, a
national reference and bibliographic center.
One of Jewett’s original ideas was a plan
whereby, instead of the expensive printing
of catalogues of American libraries, sep-
arate stereotyped titles would be made

- available to librarians. In this way a general

catalogue of the public libraries of the
United States could be constructed. This
was a genuine contribution to library
science and was later developed by the Li-
brary of Congress.

Jewett performed fine work in laying the
foundation for the Smithsonian Library.
If anything, however, he was overambitious
in plans for the future in view of the Insti-
tution’s limited funds, which had to be
spread over an increasing variety of activ-
ities. Jewett felt that he should spend on
the library all that the law allowed. In

1855 a difference of opinion arose between

Henry and Jewett over the library admin-
istration and authority, chiefly over the
matter of expenditures and as to whether
the library should be developed along
predominantly scientific or literary lines.
Science and Henry prevailed, and Professor
Jewett was retired from office after eight
years’ service. Thereafter he became Super-
intendent of the Boston Public Library
and there rendered notable service for a
number of years.

This library question, to be sure, was an
animated one; and Jewett’s release started
a Congressional investigation and caused
the resignation of the Hon. Rufus Choate
from the Board of Regents. In general,
however, Secretary Henry’s policy was
upheld, namely, that the library should not
be developed at the expense of the other

OEHSER: JOSEPH HENRY BUILDS AN INSTITUTION

3895

activities of the organization. The indorse-
ment of the Secretary’s policy by Congress
definitely cleared up the question as to
whether the creation of a great library
should be one of the Institution’s main
objects. Henry felt strongly that the Smith-
sonian should not engage in any way in
competition with other organizations and
that although a modest library of scientific
literature was needed for the use of its own
staff, it was not the function of the Smith-
sonian to build up a large national library
In competition with the Library of Congress
and other institutions. Rather, let the
Smithsonian Library work in cooperation
with other libraries, but avoid needless
duplication of functions and materials.

An example of this duplication was the
matter of copyright. For nearly 13 years
after the founding of the Institution, it was
required by law that anyone wishing to
secure copyright of a book must deposit one
copy with the librarian of the Smithsonian
Institution and another copy with the
librarian of Congress. This dual require-
ment, it seemed to Henry, was unnecessary
and promised to be a burdensome one; and
in 1857 he succeeded in having section 10
of the original Smithsonian Act of 1846
repealed, and the Library of Congress be-
came the sole copyright depository.

A few years later, in 1866, another
“merger”? was effected, when the Smith-
sonian Library by Congressional authority
turned over to the Library of Congress about
40,000 volumes of scientific works, to form
the basis of what has since been known as
the “Smithsonian Deposit.” ‘‘The object
of this transfer,’’? wrote Henry, “‘is not, of
course, to separate this unique and highly
prized collection of books from its relations
to the Smithsonian Institution, for it must
still bear its name and be subject to its
control, but merely to deposit it where its
preservation will be more certain [think-
ing probably of the fire in the Smith-
sonian Building] and its usefulness more
extended.”’ In the eighty-odd years that
have passed since the original ‘Smith-
sonian Deposit,” almost a million volumes
and parts have been added to it, to make it
one of the largest collections of scientific
literature in the world. It is especially com-

386

plete in the transactions and proceedings
of scientific societies.

The removal of these books not only re-
lieved the space problem in the Smith-
sonian Building but also eased the financial
strain by putting upon the shoulders of
Congress the responsibility for the upkeep
of this collection. Furthermore, it was in
harmony with Joseph MHenry’s general
policy of trying to keep the organization of
the Institution from becoming too cumber-
some and from outgrowing its income. Be-
sides a library, the Smithsonian Act had
directed that a museum, an art gallery, and
courses of lectures should be under the
aegis of the Smithsonian. Henry, however,
though not openly opposed to these, be-
lieved that they should be projects only
temporarily undertaken by the Institution,
to be turned over to other agencies when
possible. In this way, he felt, the Smith-
sonian could concentrate its activities on
matters of benefit to all mankind rather
than on those of local and restricted inter-
est.

So far as the museum was concerned,
however, this was destined to remain under
the direction of the Smithsonian and to
grow into a large and important organiza-
tion supported by Government funds. Like
the library, the museum flourished inor-
dinately, until in 1866 't was stated that the
collections, ‘‘taken as a whole, constitute
the largest and best series of the minerals,
fossils, rocks, animals, and plants of the
entire continent of North America, in the
world.’”’ Of the large North American and
European mammals it had the best collec-
tion in the United States; of birds, its col-
lection ranked second only to that of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
delphia; and of fishes only Louis Agassiz
had a larger collection. So, even though
Secretary Henry would like to have seen
the museum subordinated or even divorced
from the Institution, Congress ruled other-
wise, and the museum continued to develop
and occupied generous quarters in the new
building. On July 5, 1850, Spencer Fullerton
Baird, biologist, was made Assistant Secre-
tary of the Institution to take charge of the
museum and to aid in the publication pro-
eram. Baird as Assistant Secretary, and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 37, NO. 11

later as Secretary, was destined to play a
signal role in the development of the mu-
seum and in the affairs of the Institution.

Another principle laid down by Joseph
Henry that guided the Smithsonian’s
course of action from the very beginning
was cooperation. He early realized that if
the Institution was to fulfill its high pur-
poses 1t must extend its activities and in-
fluence beyond that directly covered by its
limited income. To do this meant to fit into
the scientific life of America in the give-
and-take spirit. It was well enough to
spend large sums in aid of research and in
publishing and distributing Contributions
to Knowledge by scientific investigators
who had no other channel by which to
make known the results of their researches,
but it was necessary also for other institu-
tions and individuals in turn to contribute
to the work of the Smithsonian. Something
of this kind was absolutely necessary, for
the Smithsonian simply did not have the
funds or the staff to carry on all the activi-
ties it was called upon to perform. In re-
turn, it would lend its prestige, publish re-
sults, and correlate.

In his second annual report (for the year
1848) Henry outlined a project that was to
furnish a notable example of this coopera-
tion. It was an experiment in the science of
meteorology. His plan was to obtain
weather reports from a great network of
voluntary observers scattered over the
country. He was especially interested in-
assembling long-range data on climate and
weather from stations in every region, and
in this way furnishing a sound foundation
upon which the science of meteorology
could build. We know today how far this
science has advanced, how much we depend
on weather forecasts and the daily weather
report. We remember what an important
part meteorology played in World War II.
But in Henry’s day it was new; Henry was
a pioneer, and he and the Smithsonian
must have credit for initiating the work
that finally culminated in the United States
Weather Bureau.

After persuading the Regents of the
Institution to support his project, he went
ahead. There would be, he said, three
classes of observers: ‘‘One class, without

Nov. 15, 1947

instruments, to observe the face of the sky
as to its clearness, the extent of cloud, the
direction and force of wind, the beginning
and end of rain, snow, ete. A second class,
furnished with thermometers, who besides
making the observations above mentioned,
will record variations of temperature. The
third class, furnished with full sets of in-
struments, to observe all the elements at
present deemed important in the science of
meteorology.”

This proved to be a cooperative enter-

_ prise of the highest degree. First there were

the individual voluntary observers distrib-
uted over the entire continent, and by
1852 these numbered about 200, reporting
directly to the Smithsonian. Then the
States of New York and Massachusetts
cooperated by setting up weather stations
with instruments at various academies;
these had State support but were directed
by the Institution. Further observations
were made at a hundred or so military posts
of the United States, under the direction
of the Surgeon General of the Army. Sep-
arate series of observations were made by
exploring and surveying parties and re-
ported back to the Institution. In Canada,
or British America as it was then called,
observations were made at the various
posts of the Hudson’s Bay Company.
Stations reached to Nova Scotia, Panama,
and Bermuda, and there was one observer

at Ascencién, Paraguay. The work had the

active support of such eminent meteorolo-
gists as Arnold Guyot, James P. Espy,
Elias Loomis, James H. Coffin, and William

_ Ferrell. Professor Guyot, the Swiss scien-

tist who had just come to the United
States, was entrusted with the selecting
and ordering of the improved instruments
required and with the job of preparing a
set of ‘Directions for Meteorological Ob-
servations” to serve as a guide for the ob-
servers.

Another paragraph in Henry’s second
annual report was epoch-making. “As a
part of the system of meteorology,” he
said, “it is proposed to employ, as far as
our funds permit, the magnetic telegraph
in the investigation of atmospheric phenom-
ena. By this means, not only notice of the
approach of a storm may be given to distant

OEHSER: JOSEPH HENRY BUILDS AN INSTITUTION 387

observers, but also attention may be di-
rected to particular phenomena, which can
only be properly studied by the simultane-
ous observations of persons widely sep-
arated from each other. For example, the
several phases presented by a thunder-
storm, or by the aurora borealis, may be
telegraphed to a distance, and the syn-
chronous appearances compared and re-
corded in stations far removed from each
other. Also, by the same means, a single
observatory ...may give notice to all per-
sons along the telegraph lines, of the oc-
currence of interesting phenomena.... ”’
Knowledge of an approaching storm, he
thought, could be of great advantage to
agriculture and commerce, and this, he
concluded, ‘‘is a subject deserving the at-
tention of the general government.”’

Henry, then, must be given credit for
first utilizing the electric telegraph in this
way, although it may have been suggested
by others. As Cleveland Abbe wrote in
1871 in the American Journal of Science.
“The Smithsonian Institution first in the
world organized a comprehensive system
of telegraphic meteorology.” By 1857,
there was a series of weather reports coming
in via the National Telegraph line from
New Orleans to New York and as far west
as Cincinnati. The Washington Evening
Star was the very first newspaper to publish
them. Naturally they exited much interest
and were soon extended farther north and
westward. The next year a daily weather
map, compiled from telegraphic reports
received at 10 o’clock every morning, was
exhibited in the Smithsonian Building.

All this combined in a practical way the
telegraph and the work of the weather ob-
servers throughout the country. The fast-
accumulating weather data were soon put,
however, to strictly scientific uses. Volumi-
nous reports, maps, tables, and charts were
prepared and published on all phases of the
work—rainfall, snowfall, temperatures, bar-
ometric pressure, storms, meteors, auroras,
ete. Between 1852 and 1884 four editions
of ‘‘A Collection of Meteorological Tables”’
(later expanded into the Smithsonian
Meteorological Tables), compiled by pro-
fessor Guyot, were issued; and there were
many more important scientific fruits of the

388

work. Although the Civil War, and also the
disastrous Smithsonian fire, interrupted the
work in many ways, it did not end the
cooperative spirit that the enterprise
seemed to engender. In 1864 the North
American Telegraphic Association, covering
the entire United States and Canada, gave
the free use of all its lines for the scientific
objects of the Institution. In the meantime,
however, there began agitation in favor of
‘“‘a meteorological department under one
comprehensive system with an adequate
appropriation of funds.’’ Henry, too, was in
favor of such a plan, and in 1869 Congress
passed a resolution establishing the Weath-
er Bureau of the United States Signal
Service. Consequently, the Smithsonian’s
great system of meteorological reports was
turned over to the new bureau. Few new
agencies of the Federal Government have
ever had so generous a birthright and so
solid a foundation. It represents perhaps
the greatest experiment in cooperation that
the Smithsonian ever attempted, but its
unqualified success was an inspiration and
pattern for many less pretentious under-
takings.

Always uppermost in Joseph Henry’s
mind was the great purpose that James
Smithson prescribed for his Institution—
the “‘increase and diffusion of knowledge
among men.’ This must outweigh all other
considerations, and it became the Institu-
tion’s motto.® “The worth and importance
of the Institution,’ wrote Henry in 1852,
“are not to be estimated by what it ac-
cumulates within the walls of its building,
but by what it sends forth to the world.”

Henry was referring here not only to the
distribution of the Institution’s own publi-
cations but also to another effective scheme
of diffusing knowledge that had been in-
augurated in 1849 designed to facilitate the
distribution and exchange of literary and
scientific publications between this and
other countries. It was a happy idea, and
today after a hundred years it is still one
of the continuing functions of the Smith-

6The seal of the Smithsonian Institution
adopted in 1847 carried a left-facing likeness of
the founder, James Smithson. The new seal,
designed by Augustus St. Gaudens and adopted
in 1898, carries the words ‘‘For the increase and
diffusion of knowledge among men—per orbem.”’

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, No. 11

sonian, although the financial support of
the Exchange Service has long since (1881)
been shouldered by Congressional appro-
priations. Henry left much of the organiza-
tion of the Exchange Service to Assistant
Secretary Baird and put him in charge of it.
This is how the plan originated:

With the appearance in 1848 of its first
publication, “Ancient Monuments of the
Mississippi Valley,” the Institution was
confronted with a problem of how best to
distribute copies where they would be the
most useful and accessible. In addition to
the American distribution, a few hundred
copies were sent to scientific and other
learned institutions abroad, with the re-
quest that they exchange publications. At
first the number of responses to the pro-
posal was small, but by 1852 Professor
Henry reported that 4,744 articles were
received. To continue this desirable ex-
change of intelligence with other nations,
Henry appointed agents in a number of
foreign countries. Especially cooperative
was the Royal Society of London. Gradu-
ally the system expanded until Henry was
able to offer other learned societies of the
United States the facilities set up at the
Institution in distributing their publica-
tions abroad. The Exchange Service be-
came a clearing house for the receipt and
distribution of scientific literature. Incom-
ing packages of exchange publications were
admitted free of duty and were allowed to
pass the customs without the delay of an
examination. Many of the great transporta-
tion companies and steamship lines ex-
tended to the Exchange Service the priv-
ilege of free freight.

From the beginning the United States
Government departments made use of the
Exchange Service in obtaining official docu-
ments of other governments in exchange
for their own. In 1867 Congress passed an
act systematizing this governmental inter-
change, but it was not until 1881 that any
Congressional financial support was given
the system. By that time the Exchange
Service was costing so much, in spite of
generous free freight and other concessions,
that something had to be done, and Con-
gress assumed part of its support by ap-
propriating $3,000. This support was con-

Nov. 15, 1947

tinued and increased, until just before
World War II the annual appropriation for
the Service reached approximately $50,000.
For about 40 years the International
Exchanges operated unofficially, so to
speak, from the standpoint of international
law. Beginning in 1875 international con-
ferences were held in Paris and Brussels,
which discussed the exchange between
countries not only of governmental docu-
ments-but also of scientific and literary
publications, and in 1886 a formal agree-
ment was reached. Hight nations ratified
the convention—‘‘International Exchange
of Official Documents, Scientific and Lit-
erary Publications’—and it was officially
proclaimed by the President of the United
States on January 15, 1889. Other nations
“came in” later, and with those countries
that did not ratify special arrangements
were made for exchanges. The Smithsonian
Institution was recognized as the official
exchange agency of the United States.
Briefly, this is how the Exchange System,
inaugurated by Joseph Henry, works at the
present time: Libraries, scientific societies,
educational institutions, and individuals
in this country who wish to distribute their
publications abroad as gifts or exchanges
send the separate addressed packages to the
Smithsonian Instititution, carriage cost
prepaid. There they are sorted by countries
and forwarded with similar shipments from

1 ~ other organizations to the exchange agen-

cies in other parts of the world, where they
are distributed to the addressees. Similarly,
shipments of publications from exchange
agencies abroad to the Smithsonian are
distributed free to addressees in the United
States.

The Smithsonian International Exchange
Service—originating, as we have seen, in
Professor Henry’s efforts to distribute
Smithsonian publications most effectively
—has now been in operation for a full cen-
tury, with but two major interruptions,
these occasioned by World Wars I and II.
Even throughout the years of World War
II exchanges were continued with all coun-
tries of the Western Hemisphere and with a
few in other parts of the world. The Ex-
change Service has demonstrated itself as
a very tangible expression of the Smith-

OEHSER: JOSEPH HENRY BUILDS AN INSTITUTION

389

sonian Institution’s part in “‘the diffusion
of knowledge.” It, again, is an instance of
that cooperative kind of enterprise en-
visioned by Joseph Henry as the most
effective means for the Smithsonian to ful-
fill its destiny.

There was still another means of ‘‘diffus-
ing knowledge,” especially among the resi-
dents of the National Capital, that was
initiated as soon as the new Smithsonian
Building became available. This was a
series of free lectures. Professor Henry never
was in full favor of these lectures for he felt
that, being local, they were ‘‘too limited in
their influence to meet a proper interpreta-
tion of the will of Smithson.’’ However,
they had been ordered by Congress, and
Henry could not do otherwise than to
provide them. He sought to maintain the
lectures on a high plane, “‘to improve the
public taste rather than to elicit popular
applause.’”’ The lecturers, many of whom
were invited from a distance, were paid for
their services in accordance with the modest
appropriations made for the purpose, but it
is evident in noting some of their names
that Professor Henry was able to obtain
the best to be had.

It was—the mid-nineteenth century—
the heyday of the popular lecture. Long
before the days of the radio and motion-
picture and other modern forms of mass
entertainment, the average man seemed
hungry for knowledge and willing to put
forth effort to improve his education, and a
series of a dozen lectures on geology, astron-
omy, history, or literature would be taken
in stride. Every city of any size had its
lecture courses (this was before the days of
the Chautauqua when every village also
had them), usually sponsored by the intel-
lectual associations, such as the Lowell
Institute of Boston, the Athenaeum of Rich-
mond, and the Cooper Union of New York;
and in many cases the lecturer’s remunera-
tion was liberal enough to attract men of
reputation. The great Emerson traveled a
lyceum circuit that took him as far west as
St. Louis and Milwaukee. Dr. Oliver
Wendell Holmes went as far as Cincinnati
and Louisville. ‘‘Public lectures,’ wrote
Henry in the report for 1852, ‘“‘have become
one of the characteristics of the day, and

390

next to the press tend, more than any other
means of diffusing knowledge, to impress
the public mind.”’

The Smithsonian lectures were given
chiefly while Congress was in session. The
first lectures under the auspices of the
Institution were a series delivered, begin-
ning on February 25, 1847, in Washington’s
Odd Fellows Hall, by William Scoresby, the
English Arctic explorer, on ‘The Construc-
tion and Use of the Rosse Telescope.’’ The
next ones were a course of four on ‘‘ Modern
Athens” delivered by Professor Koeppen
of Denmark in Carusi’s Hall, beginning
on April 6, 1849. A course of six on ‘‘Ge-
ology” followed, beginning on April 30,
1849, by Dr. Edward Hitchcock, president
of Amherst College—the first to be given
in the Smithsonian Building. As facilities
improved the program was expanded; in
1850, during the last session of Congress,
lecturers appeared and delivered one to
several lectures apiece, ranging from a
single lecture on “Holland,” by the Rev.
Dr. George W. Bethune, to a course on
“The Unity of the Plan of the Animal Crea-
tion,” by Prof. Louis Agassiz, of Cam-
bridge, Mass. ‘‘Whatever may have been
the effect of these lectures in the way of
diffusing knowledge,’ commented Henry,
‘St is evident, from the character of the
men by whom they were delivered, that
they presented truths intended to elevate
and improve the moral and intellectual
condition of the hearers.’’ In the roster of
lecturers for the next few years we find
such names as Dr. Benjamin Silliman, of
Yale College; Prof. Benjamin Silliman, Jr.;
Pres. Mark Hopkins, of Williams College;
Dr. B. A. Gould, Jr., of Cambridge; Prof.
Louis Agassiz, who in 1863 became a
Regent of the Institution; Prof. Stephen
Alexander, of the College of New Jersey;
Prof. A. Guyot; and Hon. Henry Barnard,
educational reformer. As the years went by,
however, the lecture phase began to wane
somewhat, no doubt aided by MHenry’s
reservations as to the Smithsonian’s proper
interest in such lectures, valuable as they
might be. Today, except for an occasional
one, usually by a member of the staff, and
the annual Arthur Lecture on some phase
of solar research, the ‘‘SSmithsonian lecture”’

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 11

is but a memory. In late years the lingering
lecture needs of the general populace of the
City of Washington seem to have been sup-
plied chiefly by the National Geographic
Society in its popular winter series. The
lecture was an influential phase of American
life that is largely past, and it is probable
that modern educational and entertainment
methods have permanently supplanted it.
But it was good while it lasted, and the
Smithsonian played an active and dignified
part in the half century or so of its greatest
popularity. The Lecture Room in the
Smithsonian Building was entirely burned
out by the fire of 1865, and it was never re- -
constructed as such.

Professor Henry’s own researches during
this period suffered by reason of his admin-
istrative duties, but by no means did his
scientific work entirely cease, and his con-
tributions to science at Washington were
numerous. He was active in support of the
American Association for the Advancement
cf Science, which in 1848 he had helped to
organize. During the Civil War he was a
trusted friend of President Lincoln and was
called upon many times for advice in scien-
tific matters. He assisted Lincoln in plan-
ning the National Academy of Sciences and
was one of its original members. In 1864 he
wrote, ‘“‘A large share of my time has been
devoted for the last four years to investiga-
tions required by the public exigencies.”
This part played by Henry and the Insti-
tution in the Civil War and the services he
rendered to the various Executive Depart-
ments in scientific matters can never fully
be told, however, as the official records and
correspondence were lost in the fire. While
serving on the U. 8. Lighthouse Board, of
which he was made chairman in 1871,
Henry conducted a series of experiments
that led to the substitution of lard oil for
sperm oil for use in the extensive system of
lighthouse beacons, before kerosene became
an abundant fuel. This, it has been esti-
mated, saved the Government as much as
$100,000 a year. Based on his studies of the
laws of sound, he also devised a siren fog-
signaling system, which was later adopted
by the Government.

In 1854 he conducted a series of experi-
ments on the strength of different kinds of

Nov. 15, 1947

building stones offered for the extension of
the United States Capitol. He experimented
in the field of acoustics. He constructed a
large sulphuric-acid barometer, which was
in successful use for many years, and had
its readings constantly recorded. Other im-
portant experiments of Henry’s might be
mentioned to show the variety of his inter-
ests and abilities. Yet he was so scrupulous
that he allowed none of his own researches
to be published by the Institution. As one
account puts it, ‘‘Many of his most valu-
able papers must be searched for in unsug-
gestive volumes of Agricultural or Light-
House Board Reports.”

Busy as he was with Smithsonian affairs,
he somehow found time for all these activi-
ties. He was called upon to make many
public addresses; and his position required
that he keep in close contact with scientific
men and work throughout the country. In
1868 he was chosen President of the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences and held that
position until his death. Meetings cf the
Academy were held in the Smithsonian
Building. In 1871 he was active in organiz-
ing the Philosophical Society of Wash-
ington and served as its president as long
as he lived. In 1870 the Board of Regents
granted him a leave of absence (plus ex-
penses) that he might take a trip to Europe
“for the interests of the Institution in the
promotion -of science ...and to consult
with savants and societies of Great Britain
and the continent.”’ This trip proved to be
a most profitable one, one of his accomplish-
ments being to testify before an English
Government Scientific Commission regard-
ing the methods and aims of the Institu-
tion. After an absence of four and a half
months he returned much improved in
health and with impressions as to science
and education in the Old World that were
to prove of value to him in directing the
affairs of the Institution.

Visitors to the Smithsonian today are
sometimes told that in the early days some
members of the staff resided in the Smith-

-sonian Building. Professor Henry and his

family lived in the east wing for 23 years—
from 1855 until his death. The Henrys were

_ a family of the old school, close-knit, loyal,

and devoted to one another, deriving their

OEHSER: JOSEPH HENRY BUILDS AN INSTITUTION 391

greatest pleasure in each other’s company.
There were four children—the three daugh-
ters, Mary, Caroline, and Helen, and the
son, William Alexander Henry, who died
in 1862 in early manhood. Two others had
died in infancy. The family’s residence in
the Smithsonian Building spanned the en-
tire period of the Civil War. From here they
watched the Confederate flag flying over
Alexandria six miles away; saw the regi-
ments passing through the city; followed
the daily news of battles; looked upon the
prisoners and the wounded being brought
in; waited for news of peace; lived anxiously
through the sad event of Lincoln’s assassi-
nation; wondered, even with the Union
saved, what was to happen to the nation.
Through it all their home was a bright
spot. It was more than a home. It was a
center of intellectual life in Washington;
and always welcome were visiting scientists,
professors, writers, lecturers, officers, and
other distinguished men who came to the
city. Some of the cheerful fireplaces of the
Henrys’ living quarters are still in use in
the east-wing executive offices in the Smith-
sonian Building—impressing one now as a
rather refreshing anachronism among the
modern Government office buildings on
Washington’s Mall.

Joseph Henry had been reared in the
stern atmosphere of Scotch Presbyterian-
ism. He was a practicing Christian and
brought up his family accordingly. His
science never destroyed his religious faith,
nor did he ever see any basic conflict be-
tween science and religion. With Lincoln,
the family attended the New York Avenue
Presbyterian Church, and they were active
in church affairs.

In December 1877 Henry was stricken
with nephritis and died the following May
13, in his eighty-first year. In his death
American science lost its most distinguished
leader and the Smithsonian Institution its
great “‘architect”’ and chief. He was buried
in Oak Hill Cemetery in Georgetown, D. C.
Tributes and eulogies were paid him by
statesmen and scientists, memorial services
were held in the United States Capitol, and
a bronze statue was erected to his memory
on the grounds of the Smithsonian.

John Quincy Adams said of the Smith-

~

392 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES’ VOL. 37, NO. 11

sonian, “Of all the foundations or estab-
lishments for pious or charitable uses which
ever signalized the spirit of the age or the
comprehensive beneficence of the founder,
none can be named more deserving the ap-
probation of mankind.” Joseph Henry,

more than any other person, made that
statement true, and that is his eternal mon-
ument. On May 17, 1878, four days after
Henry’s death, Assistant Secretary Spencer
Fullerton Baird, of Carlisle, Pa., was
elected the new Secretary.

BOTANY.—A revision of Chorisepalum, an endemic genus of Venezuelan Gen-
tianaceae.' JOSEPH Ewan, U.S. Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricul-

tural Engineering.

First discovered on Mount Duida, Vene-
zuela, in November 1928, and up to the
year 1944 known only from the single
original species, Chorisepalum is known
today to be a genus of four remarkably
distinct species living on the table moun-
tains or cerros of Venezuela, including
Roraima. The original species, Chorisepa-
lum ovatum Gleason, was described from
the unicate collection, G. H. H. Tate 462,
as a straggling shrub 8 feet tall, with large
green tubular flowers, growing at the ‘‘bot-
tom of slope of Ridge 25” on the summit of
Mount Duida, at 5,200 feet elevation. It
has not been re-collected. No illustration
accompanied the original publication of the
monotypic genus and since no duplicates
were available for distribution it remained
a nearly forgotten genus. When, therefore,
I received for naming an excellent series of
Gentianaceae from Dr. Julian A. Steyer-
mark, of the Chicago Natural History
Museum, I was first quite puzzled by the
three collections here described as three
new species of Chorisepalum. I had indeed
designated them as species of a probable
new genus when I became aware that I had
bypassed the publication of the new genus
established in 1931 by Gleason and Wode-
house in the account of the Tyler-Duida
Expedition although I had consulted that
report repeatedly. Thereupon my suspicion
that what I had earmarked as a new genus
would prove to be Chorisepalum was borne
out at once when I examined the type of
C. ovatum kindly lent by the New York Bo-
tanical Garden. It seems appropriate,there-
fore, to bring together at this time all our
present information on the genus, with

1 Received May 14, 1947.

illustrations, since the genus has not hereto-
fore been illustrated in botanical literature.

It is real pleasure to take this oppor-
tunity to thank Dr. J. A. Steyermark for
his kindness in entrusting this material to
me for study, along with the entire series of
his Ecuadorian and Venezuelan Gentiana-
ceae. Seldom, indeed, have botanists been
able to work with such well-prepared ma-
terial in such quantity, accompanied by
such full field notes as has been possible
from Steyermark’s most recent South
American explorations. As one who has had
an introduction to plant collecting in the
American tropics, I can especially appreci-
ate his accomplishments and I congratulate
him.

In the citation of specimens the following
abbreviations are employed: F, Chicago
Natural History Museum, Chicago, Ill; —
US, U.S. National Herbarium, Washing- |
ton, D. C.; and USNA, U. 8S. National —
Arboretum Herbarium, Bureau of Plant
Industry Station, Beltsville, Md.

GENERIC RELATIONSHIPS

At the time Gleason and Wodehouse
described the genus Chorisepalum they
suggested its affinities with Zygostigma in
its separate sepals, and with Rusbyanthus,
in the completely 2-celled ovary, believing
the latter to be its nearest relative. In my
opinion Chorisepalum is most closely re-
lated through C. psychotrioides and C.
rotundifolium to Macrocarpaea, especially
with M. calophylla of the Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta of Colombia. Indeed, Macro-
carpaea calophylla, material of which has
not been available to me for study, may
prove to be a species of Chorisepalum. Gilg
described the calyx-lobes of Macrocarpaea

Novy. 15, 1947

calophylla as being distinct nearly to the
base, the fundamental character of Chorise-
palum. Gleason and Wodehouse considered
Macrocarpaea as a possible relative of
Chorisepalum, but decided against such a
relationship since Macrocarpaea generally
has a “‘prominent calyx-tube with usually
short and rounded lobes,” and an invari-
ably 1-celled ovary. Moreover, no species
of that genus of Andean shrubs have
aristate petals.

Wodehouse provided a detailed descrip-
tion of the pollen-grains of Chorisepalum
ovatum at the time the genus was first
described, and gave a line drawing of a
grain. No affinity with other genera of the
family was suggested for Chorisepalum on
the basis of its pollen-grain morphology.

Finally it may be said that certainly the
deeply divided calyx in Chorisepalum (cf.
Fig. 1,B) sets the genus apart taxonomically
from other American Gentianaceae, yet
even so fundamental a character as chori-
sepaly vs. gamosepaly must be considered
along with other morphological characters
and not alone, lest undue emphasis be
attached to it. It is possible, however, that
chorisepaly in this genus is indicative of
primitiveness among the Gentianaceae.
The geographic distribution of these four
species, occupying as they do geologically
old land masses in South America, is per-
haps pertinent in this connection.

TAXONOMY

Chorisepalum Gleason & Wodehouse, Bull.
Torrey Bot. Club 58: 452. 1931.

Simple-stemmed shrubs or subshrubs, now
erect and recalling Psychotria, now recalling a
liana with long decumbent or pendent stems,
these terete or quadrangular, often nodose,
leafy up to the inflorescence; leaves varying
from short-ovate or lance-ovate to orbicular,
entire, plane or sometimes a little undulate,
now thick and with only the midrib evident,
now thinner and with the veins evident on the
upper surface when raised beneath, always
more or less firm-coriaceous, acute or less often
obtuse, all petiolate; flowers single and terminal
or 3-5 in a terminal and at times dichasial
cyme, green or greenish, evidently rather early
withering but somewhat marcescent; calyx
tending to be ovoid, the lobes distinct to the

EWAN: A REVISION OF CHORISEPALUM

393

base, lance-acuminate, or narrowly oblong,
obtuse, acute or contracted to a subulate tip,
subequal or two calyx-lobes somewhat longer
than the other three; corolla tubular or narrow-
campanulate, 14-12 times as long as the calyx,
the lobes 5 (or “actually 6’’), elliptic, aristate
or less often rounded; stamens attached near
the base of the corolla-tube and slightly ex-
ceeding it; anthers linear; ovary linear, com-
pletely 2-celled by the intrusion of the placen-
tae; style slender, equaling the stamens; stigma
bifid, its lobes narrowly elliptic; capsule split-
ting into 3-5 nearly distinct cartilaginous por-
tions, each more or less spreading in age and
tending to separate, rather long-persistent on
the shrub. Type species: C. ovatum Gleason.

KEY TO THE SPECIES

Flowers solitary and terminal, large (6-7 cm
long), more or less showy; leaves smooth
above, the midrib evident beneath, the
secondaries obscure on both surfaces.

Calyx-lobes obtuse; corolla-lobes erect; stems
nodose, more or less quadrilateral; leaves
DCUGE see ee anc Sagas Bees 1. C. ovatum

Calyx-lobes contracted to acuminate tips;
corolla-lobes reflexed; stems not at all
nodose, terete; leaves obtuse or barely
RCUGC re ee cece a oe 2. C. carnosum

Flowers several, in cymes, smaller (2-3 cm long),
not at all showy; leaves impressed-nerved
above, both midrib and secondaries raised

beneath.
Corolla-lobes rounded; calyx 22-24 mm long;
leaves ovate......... 3. C. psychotriordes
Corolla-lobes aristate; calyx 16-20 mm long;
leaves orbicular...... 4A. C. rotundifolium

1. Chorisepalum ovatum Gleason, Bull. Torrey
Bot. Club 58: 452. 1931.

Straggling shrub about 3 m high; leaves oval,
4.5-7 ecm long, 3-4 cm wide, abruptly nar-
rowed to a small triangular obtuse apex,
rounded at the base, the midrib impressed
above, elevated beneath, the lateral veins ob-
scure; flowers large, tubular, green; calyx-
lobes narrowly oblong, obtuse, 30 mm long;
corolla-tube 40 mm long, its lobes 25 mm long,
15 mm wide, acute and aristate, the arista 5
mm long; filaments slender 30 mm long, in-
serted 15 mm above the base of the corolla-
tube; anthers 7 mm long; style slender, 30 mm
long, the lobes of the stigma obtuse, 5 mm long;
ovary narrowly linear, 12 mm long; mature
fruit unknown.

Type collected at the ‘‘base of the slope of
Ridge 25, 5200 feet,’ Cerro Duida, Venezuela,

|

394 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 11

November 26—December 16, 1928, by G. H. H.
Tate 462 (type, NY; photo of type, USNA).
The type bore but a single flower, which was
removed and placed in a vial but the vial has
not been located. The type sheet carries a
drawing of the flower, laid open.

Chorisepalum ovatum is most closely related
to C. carnosum of Carrao-tepuf, the two species
occurring at comparable elevations on the two
cerros. Chorisepalum ovatum has much thinner
leaves than C. carnosum, recalling those of
Gardenia or Citrus. But most striking are the
very apparent differences in habit between the
two species, Chorisepalum ovatum, as scantily
known from the single sheet, having slender
coarsely fissured branchlets with short inter-
nodes, C. carnosum, on the other hand, having
elongated, almost smooth cordlike branchlets
with the internodes about as long as the leaf-
blades. Both species are more or less “‘straggling
shrubs”’ but evidently Chorisepalum carnosum
is much more of a climber than C. ovatum.

2. Chorisepalum carnosum Ewan, sp. nov.
Bigs lel

Semiclimber or subepiphyte, the stems single,
erect, 2-3.5 m high, scandent or nearly so,
finely fissured, glabrous throughout; leaves
oval, thick-coriaceous and subsucculent, nar-
rowly revolute-margined, only the midrib evi-
dent, dark green above, pale green beneath,
5-7.5 em long, 4.0—4.5 em wide, barely acute or
rounded, all short-petiolate, the petioles stout,
7-10 mm long; flowers solitary and terminal,
large, showy, with a slight odor of musk; calyx
campanulate, 5 cm long, narrowed to an acute
base, the lobes triangular-lanceolate, cuspidate;
corolla about 14 times as long as the calyx, 6.5
em long, the lobes ‘‘dull green” on back, “dull
greenish” within, reflexed, the tube “‘bronze-
lavender’’ within; capsule oblong-ovate, ca. 2.5
cm long, deflexed in age.

Suffrutex subscandens vel subepiphyticus
2-3.5 m altus caulibus erectis vel scandentibus
procumbentisve, totis glabris et fissuratis;
foliis omnibus breviter petiolatis, petiolis firmis
7-10 mm longis, laminis foliorum superiorum
paulum reductis, omnibus ovalibus, vix acutis
vel saepe obtusis, crasso-coriaceis et subsuc-
culentis, margine anguste revolutis, supra
lucidis saturate viridibus, subtus pallidioribus,
venis secondariis utrinque obscuris, 5-7.5 cm
longis, 4.0-4.5 em latis; floribus solitariis et

terminalibus, magnis et speciosis; calyce cam-
panulato, 5 em longo ad basim acutem con-
tracto, lobis triangulari-lanceolatis, cuspidatis;
corolla 6.5 cm longa, tubo intus pallide aeneo-
purpurascenti, lobis utrimque opaco-viridibus,
retroflexis; capsula oblongo-ovata, ca. 2.5 em
longa, post maturitatem deflexa.

Type collected on the southeastern portion
of the base of Carrao-tepuf, altitude 1,460-
1,615 meters, State of Bolfvar, Venezuela,
December 4-5, 1944, by Julian A. Steyermark
60852 (type, F; photo of type, USNA; isotype,
US).

Chorisepalum carnosum is very evidently
most closely related to C. ovatum of Mount
Duida; both plants known from a single collec-
tion but amply distinct. Together they com-
prise a most striking species-pair, comparable
to the situation in some other endemic genera
of the Venezuelan cerros.

The thick-coriaceous leaves of Chorisepalum
carnosum recall to some persons certain species
of the genus Clusia and to others the genus
Hoya. In any event, the leaves are highly
diagnostic among the tropical American Gen-
tianaceae and the characters are at once evi-
dent from the photograph (Fig. 1, A). The
flower of the type specimen chosen for the il-
lustration was mistakenly mounted with the
shoot on the left, although it is evident from the
point of attachment of the pedicel that it be-
longed on the shoot mounted on the right.
Indeed, Chorisepalum carnosum and C. ovatum
are almost unique among species of the lisian-
thoid genera of the New World in having a
solitary terminal flower.

Steyermark remarks on the label that the
species ‘“‘was seen above ‘Misia Kathy’ camp
[on the mesa between Ptari-tepui and Sororo-
pan-tepuf] as a dominant ground cover or
understory, but at that time was seen only
sterile and not collected.”

3. Chorisepalum psychotrioides Ewan, sp. nov.
Hires BGs

Simple-stemmed shrub or subshrub 2.5-4 m
high, glabrous throughout, a little glandular
about the uppermost nodes, the upper inter-
nodes short, the branchlets evidently leafy;
leaves ovate, mostly abruptly acute or again
barely acute at tips, acute to cuneate at the
base, “‘subcoriaceous-chartaceous,”’ impressed-
nerved and dull olive-green above and more

Nov. 15, 1947 EWAN: A REVISION OF CHORISEPALUM 395

396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

yellowish beneath, the veins percurrent and
anastomosing along the margin, prominently
raised, 8-14 cm long, 5-6 cm wide, the petioles
rather stout, 1-2 cm long; flowers 2-5 in
terminal and dichasial cymes, the pedicels
strongly flattened; calyx ovoid, 22-24 mm long,
the sepals lance-acuminate, hyaline-margined
below, the tips long, acicular, involute; corolla
after anthesis a little longer than the calyx,
evidently green when fresh, the lobes rounded;
capsule oblong, the body 15 mm long, the
beak 8 mm long, the fruit persistent after de-
hiscence.

Frutex vel suffrutez 2.5-4 m altus, caulibus
simplicibus, totis glabris, supra paulo glandu-
laribus foliosis, internodiis superioris brevibus;
foliis ovatis, saepe apice breviter acutis vel vix
acutis, basi acutis vel cuneatis, subcoriaceo-
chartaceis, opaco-olivaceis, subtus subflavis,
supra impresso-nervis, venis percurrentibus et
ad marginem anastomosantibus, subtus promi-
nentibus, 8-14 cm longis, 5-6 cm latis, petiolis
erassis, 1-2 cm longis; floribus 2—5, terminali-
bus et cymosis, pedicellis valde compressis;
calyce ovoideo, 22—24 mm longo, lobis lanceo-
lato-acuminatis, ad basim hyalino-marginatis,
apice longo, aciculari involuto; corolla post
anthesin paulo longiore quam calyce, viridi
(?), lobis obtusis; capsula oblonga, persistenti,
15 mm longa rostro 8 mm longo excepto.

Type collected in forested southwest-facing
quebrada near Rondén Camp, Mount Roraima,
State of Bolivar, Venezuela, alt. 2,040 meters
elevation, September 25, 1944, by Julian A.
Steyermark 58668 (F no. 1183945; photo,
USNA).

Another collection:

VENEZUELA: Bolivar: Ptari-tepui, forested
sandstone south-facing slopes between plateau
portion and ‘‘Cave Camp,” 1,700—1,800 meters,
Steyermark 59707 (F.).

Chorisepalum psychotriotides resembles C.
rotundifolium most closely of the known species.
From the latter it may be distinguished by the
non-punctate leaves (cf. Fig. 1, B) as well as by
their ovate, not orbicular, shape. On Ptari-
tepui, where both species occur, Chorisepalum
psychotrioides occupies a lower altitudinal posi-
tion than C. rotundifolium, with a hiatus of 200
meters between their areas. Chorisepalum psy-
chotrioides is the only species known from
Roraima,

vou. 37, No. 11

4, Chorisepalum rotundifolium Ewan, sp.nov.

Shrub 1.5-3.0 m high, glabrous or subglab-
rous throughout, the upper internodes short,
densely leafy up to the inflorescence; leaves
orbicular, 3-6 cm long, the largest blades of
sterile shoots short-ovate, rounded, much
larger, 18 cm long, 8-10 cm wide, thick-
coriaceous, impressed-nerved above, dull and
punctate on both surfaces, sometimes a little
puberulent beneath near the base, all short-
petiolate, the petioles 2-8 mm long; flowers
usually 3-5 in terminal cymes, also axillary in
the uppermost axils, the pedicels terete; calyx
narrowly ovoid, 16-20 mm long, the sepals
lance-acuminate, scarcely if at all hyaline-
margined below, the involute portion of calyx-
lobes short; corolla much exceeding the calyx,
green, the lobes narrowly lanceolate, about 1
em long, acuminate to a hairlike tip; capsule
oblong, the body 14 mm long, the beak (per-
sistent style) 4 mm long.

Frutex 1.5-3 m altus, omnino glaber vel sub-
glaber, internodiis superioribus brevibus, ad
cymam dense foliosis; foliis orbicularibus, 3-6
cm longis vel laminis foliorum sterilium 13 em
longis et 8-10 latis, breviter ovatis, supra im-
presso-nervis, crasso-coriaceis, subtus paulo
puberulentibus prope basim, utrinque opacis et
punctatis, breviter petiolatis, petiolis 2-8 mm
longis; floribus saepe 3-5, cymosis terminalibus
et axillaribus, pedicellis teretibus; calyce —
anguste ovoideo, 16-20 mm longo, lobis lanceo-
lato-acuminatis, basi vix hyalino-marginatis,
apice involuto loborum brevi; corolla valde
exserta, viridi, lobis anguste lanceolatis, ca. 1
em longis, aristatis; capsula oblonga, 14 mm
longa, rostro 4 mm longo excepto.

Type collected in Bonnetva roravmae forest on
southwest-facing shoulder, Ptari-tepui, State
of Bolivar, Venezuela, altitude 2,000—2,200
meters, November 2, 1944, by Julian A.
Steyermark 59730 (type, US; isotype, F).

VENEZUELA: Bolivar: Sororopan-tepuf, crest
of cerro between east and west end, alt. 2,255 |
meters, Nov. 14, 1944, Steyermark 60139 (F).

Chorisepalum rotundifolium is certainly most
closely related to C. psychotriotdes of Roraima
and Ptari-tepuf. In addition to the dzfferentiae
given in the key, the two species may be
readily identified even in sterile condition by
the punctate character of the leaves of C.
rotundifolium.

Nov. 15, 1947 LATTA ET AL.: WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENTS WITH DDT AEROSOLS 397

ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY .—The effect of particle size and velocity of move-

ment of DDT aerosols in a wind tunnel on the mortality of mosquitoes.

RAN-

DALL Latta, LauREN D. ANpERsoN, and E. E. Rogmrs, U. S. Bureau of
Entomology and Plant Quarantine, and V. K. LaMemr, S. Hocuseire, H.
LAUTERBACH, and |. JoHNson, Columbia University. (Communicated by

C. F. W. MuESEBECK. )

This paper reports a continuation of the
cooperative work between the Bureau of
Entomology and Plant Quarantine and the
Central Aerosol Laboratory of Columbia
University on the influence of the size of
uniform particle size oil aerosols of DDT
upon mosquitoes. In the first paper? the
mosquitoes and the aerosols were main-
tained in chambers so that an essentially
static atmosphere prevailed. In the present
paper this restriction is removed by sub-
jecting the test insects to an aerosol moving
in a wind tunnel at carefully defined speeds
of motion.

It was recognized that aerosols applied
in the open as large clouds, and drifted

across an area to be treated, might be

governed by somewhat different factors
than were those applied in confined atmos-
pheres. In the open, movement by drifting
would far exceed gravitational fall. Fur-
thermore, in drifting by wind movement,
all particles could be assumed to have the
same velocity regardless of size, within the
range of sizes capable of remaining air-

_ borne for any length of time.

The apparatus for the generation of these
homogeneous aerosols and the optical in-
struments and methods of measuring their

1 This work was conducted under transfers of
funds, recommended (1) by the Committee on
Medical Research, from the Office of Scientific
Research and Development to the Bureau of
Entomology and Plant Quarantine, and (2) by the
National Defense Research Committee, from the
Office of Scientific Research and Development to
Columbia University under Contract OE Msr 1388.
It is based upon Report No. 5566 of the O.S.R.D.
dated July 30, 1945. This report is on file with the
Insect Control Committee of the National Re-
search Council and is available for reference upon
application to that agency. Received June 2, 1947.

2 LaMemr, K., 8S. Hocuperg, et al. The in-
fluence of the particle size of homogeneous insecti-
cidal aerosols on the mortality of mosquitoes in
confined atmospheres. (In press.) This paper is
based upon O.8S.R.D. Report No. 4447, to which
the reader is referred for more details of execution

and of history of subject.

particle size which had been developed by
LaMer, Sinclair, Hochberg, and others in
the Central Aerosol Laboratory in previous
studies relating to various types of smokes
were utilized in this study. A detailed de-
scription is given in O.8.R.D. Reports Nos.
119 and 1668, and N.D.R.C. Div. B Report
No: 57.

In the previous work on confined at-
mospheres, exposures of 10 to 30 minutes
in aerosol concentrations of around 100
micrograms per liter, of oil containing 8 per-
cent of DDT were necessary to cause high
mortalities when particles of 1 micron or
less in diameter were used. On the other
hand, exposures of 4 to 2 minutes in aerosol
concentrations of around 25 micrograms
per liter produced high mortality when
particles were 5 to 16 microns in diameter.
When Cé (concentration X time of exposure)
values which produced 59 per cent mortality
of females were plotted against particle size,
the toxicity was shown to be increased
250-fold when the diameter of the particle
was increased from 0.33 to 11 microns. It
was shown also that this curve corresponds
to a curve in which the time necessary for
an aerosol to settle out of 1 cc is plotted
against particle size, as calculated according
to Stokes’s law. This finding indicated that
the mortality of resting insects caused by
aerosols in confined atmospheres resulted
from deposition of the particles on the in-
sects as a result of gravitational settling,
and could be directly correlated with
Stokes’s law; 1.e., the toxicity was propor-
tional to the square of the diameter of the
particle up to about 16 microns diameter,
the concentration of DDT and the exposure
time being held constant.

Shortly after the completion of the work
on confined atmospheres, a _ theoretical
treatment of the extent of deposition of
wind-borne aerosols upon objects of various

ENTRANCE

Po

398

geometrical shapes by Winsche*® based
upon Sell’s* original studies became avail-
able. This study indicated to us that the
deposition upon insects, and hence the
toxicity of a moving mass of aerosol, might
likewise be expected to be dependent upon
the square of the radius (or diameter) of the
particle and in addition upon the first
power of the velocity of the wind propelling
the aerosol.

The series of experiments reported in
this communication were therefore under-
taken to test this conclusion by direct meas-
urements in a wind tunnel. This study was
performed at the Bureau _ laboratories,
Agricultural Research Center, Beltsville,
Md., between January 10 and May 2,
1945. The Central Aerosol Laboratcry at
Columbia University was responsible for
all the physical and chemical phases of the
program and the Bureau for all biological

3 WINSCHE, WARREN E. The deposition of non-
volatile aerosol clouds in open and forested areas.
N.D.R.C. Report No. 10.4—55. 1944.

4 Seu, W. [Spray precipitation in an uncom-
bined body and in an air filter.| Ver. Deutsche
Ingen. Forschungsarb., V.D.I Verlag, 347. Berlin,
1931.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 11

phases, as well as quarters and all perma-
nent installations. Evaluation of results
was done jointly.

TECHNIQUE

Aerosols uniform in particle diameter
were introduced into the mouth of a small
wind tunnel (Fig. 1) in which a known air
flow was maintained. Adult mosquitoes in
cages were exposed in the tunnel to meas-
ured quantities of the aerosol and observed
for mortality. .

The wind tunnel was constructed of com-
position board and was 1 foot square in
cross section by 32 feet in length. The air
movement was provided by a suction
blower attached to the end of the tunnel.
The air flow was adjusted by a slide damper
placed just ahead of the blower and meas-
ured by determining the pressure drop
across an orifice placed in the tunnel
ahead of the damper. The pressure drop
was read by means of an inclined manom-
eter. This arrangement allowed air flows
ranging from | to 16 m.p.h. to be deter-
mined with accuracy. The calibrations of
the velocity of air flow in respect to the

SIDE VIEW

Kg"
CAGEHOLDER

WLLAGLASS

TOP VIEW

> ORIFICE

BLOWER

|
io ag le os eS eee

Fig. 1.—Diagram of wind tunnel used in these experiments.

i _

NN ————eeeeeE—eEE————E——

|

Nov. 15, 1947 LATTA ET AL.: WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENTS WITH DDT AEROSOLS

radial distribution of flow in the tunnel, as
well as adjustments of the orifice diameter
and pressure, were performed by K. C.
Hodges and J. C. Rowell, of the Central
Aerosol Laboratory. Their findings, which
proved to be in good agreement with the
predictions of air flow theory, are fully
discussed in O.S.R.D. Report No. 5566.
This report should be consulted by those
interested in the details of constructing
wind -tunnels.

At a point 17 feet from the mouth of the
tunnel, a cage holder (Fig. 2) into which a

Fig. 2.—Square frame placed across the wind
tunnel to hold the insect exposure cage in the
exact center. The cage is in place.

cage holding mosquitoes could be inserted,
was placed in the tunnel. The cages were
cylindrical, 6 inches in diameter and 6
inches long, with both ends removable. The
side walls of the cages were lined with 20-
mesh wire cloth. The covers were made of
16-mesh wire cloth. The holder, which
occupied the entire cross section of the
tunnel, was covered front and back with
16-mesh wire cloth in order to equalize
resistance across the tunnel. Glass windows
were inserted on all sides of the tunnel at
the location of the cage, so that observa-
tions could be made during treatment.
Access to the tunnel was through a re-
movable panel in the top.

The mouth of the tunnel was equipped
with a flared metal collar and a mixing

399

baffle. The distance from the mouth to the
position of the cage was sufficient to allow
the aerosol to be distributed uniformly
across the tunnel. The uniformity of dis-
tribution of the aerosol in the cylindrical
cage was confirmed by observing, through
the windows, the flow of a screening smoke.

The aerosols were prepared in a LaMer-
Sinclair homogeneous aerosol generator,
similar to the one used in the previous
studies relative to aerosols in confined at-
mospheres except for some modifications
for preparing more homogeneous aerosols
in the large particle range. In this gener-
ator DDT, dissolved in an oil having a
narrow boiling-point range and a vapor
pressure comparable to that of DDT, was
vaporized in glass vessels, and mixed with
known amounts of air and with a control-
lable number of nuclei. The diluted vapor
was allowed to cool and condense upon
these nuclei under carefully regulated con-
ditions. The particle size was controlled by
regulating the vapor pressure by adjusting
the temperature and the number of nuclei.
The nuclei were produced by heating so-
dium chloride deposited upon electrically
heated nichrome wire.

Two methods were used to determine the
average particle diameter of an aerosol,
rate of settling and impingement on a
waved slide. In the first method the average
time for 10 particles to settle 0.56 cm in
quiet air was determined, and the particle
diameter calculated from this figure. In the
second method a slide was waved in the
aerosol stream at the mouth of the tunnel,
and a sample of at least 200 particles meas-
ured. The average diameter of the particles
was calculated on the basis that the proba-
bility that a particle in the aerosol will ad-
here to the slide is in proportion to the
square of its diameter. The aerosols were
uniform in size. Generally 90 percent of the
mass would fall in a range +10 percent
from the average.

The output of the generator was con-
stant, once it was properly adjusted for a
desired particle size. Prior to a series of
treatments the aerosol was drawn through
a weighed glass-wool filter for a measured
period of about 10 minutes. The filter was
reweighed and the amount of aerosol gen-

400

erated per minute computed. The aerosol
deposited on the filter was analyzed for
DDT content. The content of DDT in the
aerosol was usually somewhat different
from the content in the unvaporized oil,
owing to an unavoidable slight difference in
vapor pressure. Different dosages of aerosol
could be applied by varying the time during
which the aerosol was introduced into the
tunnel. The rate of generation was usually
between 5 and 15 mg of oil-DDT aerosol
per minute. The generator was placed
above the mouth of the tunnel, with the
outlet in the center of the tunnel opening.

Adult Aedes aegyptt mosquitoes® ranging
4 to 7 days old were used in all tests. The
mosquitoes were kept in a small insectary
well removed from the wind tunnel. For
individual tests mosquitoes were transferred
from stock cages into one of the cylindrical
cages used in the wind tunnel. The test
cage was then transported to the tunnel in
a closed fibreboard box and immediately
placed in position in the tunnel. At the end
of the treatment the cage was transported
back to the insectary in the same manner,
and the mosquitoes were immediately emp-
tied into a clean cage for observation of
mortality. Adequate control samples were
handled in the same manner as treated ones,
except for exposure to the aerosol.

In each series one control sample was
exposed to air flow in the tunnel for a period
equal tc or greater than the most rigorous
exposure in the treated series. When there
was no wind the mosquitoes flew about the
cage, but once air flow was started through
the tunnel there was little or no activity.
At low velocities they tended to congregate
on the front screen of the cage, but at 16
m.p.h. they were blown against the rear
screen and held there by the air flow. The
control experiments showed that mosqui-
toes were not injured by air speeds of 16
m.p.h.

Mortality counts were made the day
following treatment. The mortality of
males was invariably greater than that of
females, but only data on female mortality

5 The mosquitoes were supplied by Abby Ca-
sanges and associatesin the Bureau of Entomology
and Plant Quarantine.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 11

were used in the final evaluation of the
results.

Every precaution was taken to prevent
contamination of the cages and the insec-
tary with DDT. The test cages were washed
with acetone, and the holding cages thor-
oughly scrubbed with water after each
using.

RESULTS

Fifteen series of tests were made with
homogeneous aerosols. The particle diam-
eter of these aerosols ranged from 1.12
to 20.4 microns. Since the particle size and
the rate of generation remained constant
once the generator was properly adjusted,
all tests with a given particle size were
made as a group when possible. A group
usually consisted of four exposures each at
velocities of 2, 4, 8, and 16 m.p.h.

The mortality produced by each par-
ticle size is given in table 1. The amount of
aerosol is in terms of the total amount ad-
mitted to the tunnel. Since it all passed the
point where the cage of insects was ex-
posed, it represents the amount per square
foot, as the cross section of the tunnel was
1 square foot.

DISCUSSION

For each particle diameter a set of curves
was drawn, one for each wind velocity, re-
lating the percent mortality of females to
the number of milligrams of aerosol passed
through the tunnel. From each curve a
figure for the amount of aerosol required to
kill 50 percent of the females was obtained
by interpolation. Since the DDT content
was determined for each run, the amount of
DDT for 50 percent mortality of females
can be derived from these figures. Such data
for 14 particle sizes are given in table 2.

The curves fall into three types. Small
particles yield curves similar to Fig. 3,
large particles curves similar to Fig. 4, and
intermediate sizes curves similar to Fig. 5.
In the first case the amount of aerosol re-
quired to pass through the tunnel to kill
any given fraction of the females is inversely
proportional to the wind velocity; in the
second case it 1s independent of the wind
velocity, and in the third case it is inversely

proportional to the wind velocity for low

Nov. 15, 1947 LATTA ET AL.: WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENTS WITH DDT AEROSOLS

100

ico)
(©)

80

MORTALITY OF FEMALES (PERCENT )
on
O

So a

eased
Seo ee
_ JAS SARs ie eal
BEE Sh 2a 8 7A A
ee ee

~ 401

1,000

O

lO

MG. OF AEROSOL

Fia@, 3.—Dosage-mortality curves for a homogeneous aerosol of 2.5 microns particle
diameter, moving at velocities of 2,4,8, and 16 m.p.h.

@ 16 MPH
S© 8 MPH
@ 4MPH
O 2 MPH

MORTALITY OF FEMALES (PERCENT)

SUC Saas ai
fon
si BE ie ae

af
Bees See fee

2 aaa Sea eal
eae iy eee | |
ees ee eh
series SE Se |
Bee Baa ee th

100

MG. OF AEROSOL

Fig. 4.—Dosage-mortality curve for a homogeneous aerosol of -20.4 microns particle
diameter, moving at velocities of 2, 4, 8, and 16 m.p.h.

wind velocities and independent of wind
velocity for high wind velocities.

The differences in mortality produced by
aerosols with different particle size at a
constant rate of motion, or by different
rates of motion with an aerosol of constant
size, were ascribed to differences in the rate
of deposition of the particles on the insects
induced by the above variations. In other
words, the differences were due to a change
in the percentage of particles which ad-
hered to the insects in their paths, as a

result of a change in size or velocity of the
particle. It is easily observed that a reduc-
tion in particle size tends to reduce deposi-
tion. Smoke or fog, consisting of very fine
particles, tends to follow the air stream-
lines around a body, and only a small
fraction actually strikes the body. On the
other hand, larger particles, as illustrated
by rain, practically all strike bodies in their
paths. It has been demonstrated also that
an increase in the velocity of particles also
increases the rate of deposition. In fact, it

MORTALITY OF FEMALES (PERCENT)

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. Wit

MG. OF AEROSOL

Fie. 5.—Dosage-mortality curves for a homogeneous aerosol of 5 microns particle
diameter, moving at velocities of 2, 4, 8, and 16 m.p.h.

1,000

100

1%,

1‘

.

Sia

t+ —|—} San as a Bee Sea ‘eee

MG. ODT/SQ. FT. TO KILL 50 PERCENT OF FEMALES

ee 0 eee Be) eee ee Ee eS ee Sees

fn [es ia [ees em et | Ammer | eee || er] oh] [As] rm] ee) [| | (0

a
.
i
S
=
L
Hitt

IN TT eer

| Ve! ss OSS
ee Ee

1,000 10,000

PRODUCT oF 02 TIMES V

Fig. 6.—The effect of the product of D’v on the amount of DDT required to
produce 50 percent mortality of females.

is possible to remove practically all the
particles of an aerosol by impingement
against a surface with sufficient velocity.

In the range of the smaller particle
sizes that were tested, the mortality with a
given amount of DDT was dependent upon
the particle size and velocity, i1.e., propor-
tional to the square of the diameter and the

first power of the velocity. In the range of
the largest particle sizes that were tested,
the mortality with a given amount of DDT
was not affected by a change in particle
size or velocity. This condition was con-
sidered to be above the point where the
maximum rate of deposition occurred. The
influence of particle size and velocity upon

a — LI e e

ee Oe

Noy. 15, 1947 LATTA ET AL.: WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENTS WITH DDT AEROSOLS

mortality decreased as the maximum rate
of deposition was approached. In the range
where particle size and velocity exerted
their greatest effect on mortality, the amount
of DDT required for 50 percent mortality
was inversely proportional to the velocity;
in other words, the rate of deposition was
doubled when the velocity was doubled.

Since Winsche (1944) indicated that the
deposition on an insect might be dependent
upon the square of the diameter of the
particle and the first power of the velocity,
the amount of DDT in milligrams is plotted
against the product of D’v (D is measured
in microns and v in miles per hour) for each
particle size, in Fig. 6. At the lower values
of Dv, a single line plotted through these
values has a slope of —1, which gradually
changes to a slope of 0 at the higher values.
This signifies that further changes in veloc-
ity or particle size do not affect the mor-
tality.

After a certain value of Dv is reached,
the amount of insecticide required becomes
independent of the velocity and diameter,
but it is evident from statistical considera-
tions® that eventually a point will be
reached in particle size where a decrease
in effectiveness will begin to occur. This is
a consequence of the laws of probability,
which come into prominence when a point
is reached where a small number of par-
ticles are sufficient to kill an insect. When

large numbers of particles are necessary

each insect receives substantially the same
number of particles and only the suscep-
tibility of the insect determines the median
lethal dose. On the other hand, when the
particle number is small a small variation
in number of particles represents a large
percentage variation in toxic dosage. This
effect, superimposed upon the susceptibility
of the insect, tends to increase the median
lethal dose.

Aside from the statistical considerations,
it is evident that if a particle contains more
than a lethal dose all the excess DDT in
each particle is wasted. This factor will
increase the apparent median lethal dose
as determined experimentally and can be-
come very significant.

6 RopEBuSH, W. H. Statistical considerations in
the use of DDT aerosols. O.S.R.D. Report No.
4757.

403

The optimum particle size for aerosols
dispersed from the ground depends on at
least two factors—(1) the most effective
size in relation to deposit on the insect
when the particle reaches it, and (2) the
loss of aerosol by deposit on foliage and
settling on its way to the insect. In these
studies only the first factor was deter-
mined. However, certain known effects of
particle size on the travel of aerosol clouds
through vegetation permit an estimate to
be made of the limits of particle size within
which economical operation is feasible. If
the aerosol cloud is to travel any distance
at all, the particle size must be held down
to one which will carry this distance. For
maximum effect it must be held up to a
size that will give the maximum rate of
deposit on the insect. For Aedes aegyptt the
upper limits can be indicated by reference
to Fig. 6. These limits would be at a point
where Dv is 300 to 1,000 (for example, 13
micron diameter at 5 m.p.h., or 10 micron
diameter at 8 m.p.h., etc.). particles larger
than this would not increase the efficiency
of the aerosol when it reaches the insect, as
a smaller percentage of such particles
would carry to the insect.

Since the amount of DDT introduced
into the tunnel was known, an approximate
toxic dose of 0.03 microgram for a female of
median susceptibility could be calculated
from the data. For this purpose the area of
a mosquito was assumed to be 0.03 cm?,
and the quantity of DDT to be 0.8 mg per
square foot for large particles and high
velocities where practically all particles
would impinge on the insect. This quantity
is contained in a single spherical particle of
pure DDT (density 1.4) of a volume of
2.14X10-® cm’ or of a diameter of 34.4
microns. With a 10 percent solution of
DDT, a 30X10-5 cm? droplet is required,
which would be contained in a particle 83
microns in diameter.

The mortality curves obtained in these
tests showed the amount of DDT causing
95 percent mortality to be between two and
four times that for 50 percent mortality.
Therefore, the approximate dose for 95
percent mortality would be between
6X<10— and 12X10~ mg; i.e., 0.06 to 0.12
microgram per insect. This would be a
maximum amount, because in these cal-

404

culations the deposition of aerosol on the
wire screen of the insect cage and the
amounts deposited on the walls of the tun-
nel have not been considered. Neither of
these quantities was measured. That de-
posited on the walls of the tunnel was
minimized by the elimination of depressions
and rough areas. It is estimated from
Stokes’s law that the error due to settling
would be greatest with the largest particles
and lowest wind velocities and would
amount to less than 20 percent at 2 m.p.h.
or less than 3 percent at 16 m.p.h. Deposi-
tion on the wire screen would be less than
30 percent, since the wires of the mesh
occupy approximately 35 percent of the
area of the screen.

The median lethal doses, as given in
table 2, fall within a range of 0.5 to 2
times the central tendency as shown in
Fig. 6. It is therefore considered that the
total experimental error, including the
variation in susceptibility of the mosquitoes
from day to day, is within these limits.

CONCLUSIONS AND ANALYSIS

The following conclusions on the effect
of particle size and the speed of motion
were reached by comparing the mortalities
produced by particles varying between 1.12
and 20.4 microns in diameter, under various
speeds between 2 and 16 m.p.h. The first
four conclusions are associated exclusively
with physical factors, and would apply to
any insect and any insecticide. |

1. The rate of deposition of an aerosol
upon an insect, as evidenced by the mor-
tality, is affected by the particle diameter
and the velocity.

2. Under conditions where only a small
fraction of the particles deposit on insects
in their path (small particles and low wind
velocity), the amount of aerosol required
is Inversely proportional to the product of
the square of the diameter and the wind
velocity.

3. The increase in effectiveness with in-
crease in particle size and velocity con-
tinues until practically all particles are
deposited on an insect in their path. There-
after, further increase in particle size or
velocity is ineffective.

4. The mortalities caused by different

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vou. 37, No. I1

velocities, or different particle sizes, depend
on the product of the velocity and the
square of the particle diameter. Doubling
the particle diameter has the same effect
on mortality as quadrupling the velocity.

5. Total deposition of the aerosol on
Aedes aegypti females is approached when
D*y (D is measured in microns and v in
miles per hour) exceeds 1,000. However,
there is little difference in doses for D?v
values of 300 to 1,000. (For instance, where
D=1 micron and v=5 m.p.h., D’v=5 and
incomplete deposition resulted. Where
D=25 microns and v=2 m.p.h., D?v=1,250
and practically complete deposition re-
sulted, as evidenced by the mortality ob-
tained.) |

6. The approximate amount of DDT
that should be deposited on an Aedes

aegyptt female of median susceptibility to —

cause mortality was determined to be 0.03
microgram. This quantity is contained in a
droplet of 10 percent DDT solution 83
microns in diameter.

SUMMARY

In order to determine the influence of
wind velocity and particle size on the toxic-
ity of an oil aerosol bearing DDT to adult
insects, cages of Aedes aegyptt mosquitoes
were exposed, in a wind tunnel, to aerosols
of uniform and known particle size at wind
speeds of 2, 4, 8, and 16 m.p.h. The diam-
eter of the aerosol droplets ranged from
1.12 to 20.4 microns.

The quantity of DDT which must pass
through a given cross-sectional area of the
tunnel to kill 50 percent of the females is a
simple function of D*v, the product of the
square of the diameter D of the droplets and
the wind velocity. For small values of
D*v the quantity required is inversely pro-
portional to Dv; for large values it is
independent of D?v.

The results are analyzed on the basis
that differences in mortality are produced
by differences in rates of deposition of the
aerosol, and on this basis a figure was ob-
tained for the median lethal dose for fe-
males of 3X10-° mg of DDT. This is con-
tained in a single particle of a 10 percent
solution 83 microns in diameter, or of 100
percent DDT 34 microns in diameter.

ne ee I a A EE CT

Noy. 15, 1947 LATTA ET AL.: WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENTS WITH DDT AEROSOLS

405

TABLE 1.—MorTALiry CAUSED BY PARTICLE SizEsS OF AEROSOL RANGING IN DIAMETER FROM 1.12
To 20.4 Microns, AT VELOCITIES OF 2, 4, 8, AND 16 M.p.H.

Particle

diameter} locity

Microns | M.p.h.

ete

fo Content | Amount | Female
amount Mor-
of of mos- ;
eel Tate ee -\cquitocsl on”
aerosol
Mg. Per- Mg Num- | Per-
cent ber cent
48.2 LESS 5.6 24 8
96.4 ich 55 Titel 70 27
114 10.42 11.9 64 8
193 ESD BD) 8 74 60
223 12.4 27.6 72 92
386 ILLS BS 44.6 127 95
193 Tei St5y9 Pape) 33 12 0
223 TA: 27.6 65 5
386 too 44.6 103 9
698 10.78 75.2 53 25
750 10.42 78.2 121 19
223 12.4 27.6 82 2
386 ee 55 44.6 117 2
750 10.42 78.2 141 5
771 155 89.0 10 10
1308 ORS =| IATA 56 39
223 12.4 27.6 60 0
386 55 44.6 55 11
750 10.42 78.2 129 100
771 25 86.7 60 60
1308 10.78 | 141.0 52 100
None — — 94 0
81 0
41 0
6.5 1b 3153 .72 62 0
13 TS 1.45 54 24
14.6 12.55 1.83 73 25
19.2 10.1 1.94 119 63
26 TIES 2.9 47 62
29.2 12.55 3.66 124 60
58.4 12.55 33 110 78
116.8 Ze 55 14.66 97 98
P4833} <9 1) 5 55) 29.27 75 100
13 11.15 1.45 102 4
BS 9.25 els 33 36
26 AAS 2.9 40 20
46.4 9.25 4.29 79 41
52 TS 5.8 30 63
60 10.1 6.06 53 57
91.8 9.25 8.49 59 73
104 TERS Gs 11.60 54 67
208 fe5 23.19 37 100
De, 9.25 2 Rpley 107 0
46.4 9.25 4.29 54 0
91.8 9.25 8.49 115 10
185.6 9.25 11/572 47 64
192 NOG 19.39 58 31
BLLZ 9.25 34.34 58 97
96.0 10.1 9.7 62 2
197.2 9.25 18.24 17 0
288 10.1 29.09 52 oe
ial? 9.25 34.34 23 61
720 10.1 UPA 0 91 97
None _— — 48 0
111 0
132 0

Ve-

16

16

|

Microns | M.p.h.

5.0 16

Total
Particle | Ve- | amount
diameter! locity of

aerosol

3.72 16 92.8

16 None

6.0 16 8

Content
of
DDT

Per-
cent
2.42

5.8

9:22

Amount

of

DDT

a
.

CO em

RN We

75

Female
mos-
quitoes

Num-
ber
114

42
60

75
49
84
36

20

140

113

124

Mor-
tality

Per-
cent
48
86

100

406 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 11

‘

TABLE 1.—(conlinued) ~

Total Total
Dee edlavie® aleaane Content | Amount | Female Nor Particle | Ve- | 2mount Content | Amount | Female Rig
diameter| locity of of pe eee tality diameter] locity @ oF O eee Pil aeaiee
Aah DDT DDT | quitoes aerosol | DDT DDT | quitoes y
Microns|M.p.h.| Mg. Per- Mg. Num- | Per- Microns | M.p.h Mg. Per- Mog. Num- | Per-
cent ber cent cent ber cent
BD nO) 2.54 44 84
4 8 .74 43 0 66.64 5.08 73 96
16 1.48 35 29
32 .95 47 53 8 4.16 Boe 76 0.
64 5.9 7 71 8.33 .63 34 29:
16.66 1.27 lpante. eit
2 8 .74 47 0 33.32 2.54 71 78
16 1.48 49 6 66.64 5.08 80 92
32 2.95 31 48
64 5.9 8 75 4 4.16 ao) so (0
8.33 .63 40 12
None 33 0 16.66 | 27 29 45
aes ee 33.32 Deb: 20 75
7.0 16 8.1 7.64 .62 Bil 13 66 .64 5.08 68 100
16.2 1.24 47 43
32.4 2.47 21 72 2 4.16 5a 60 0
64.8 4.95 38 79 8.33 .63 Wr 11
16.66 il Ba 36 44
8 8.1 .62 58 0 BS) oy 2.54 45 71
16.2 1.24 40 20 66 .64 5.08 122 90
32.4 2.47 56 50
64.8 4.95 46 80 None 80 0
4 8.1 .62 65 @) 10.0 16 9.6 5.0 .48 74 31 j
16.2 1.24 57 12 19.3 .96 93 85
32.4 2.47 79 66 38.5 1.92 62 94
64.8 4.95 25 72
8 9.6 .48 54 22
2 8.1 .62 72 0 19.3 96 64 69
16.2 1.24 75 1 38.5 1.92 38 92
32.4 2.47 58 29
64.8 4.95 91 81 4 9.6 .48 157 0
19.3 .96 104 16
None 87 0 38.5 1.92 82. 89
oll 16 .45 9.5 .04 30 0 2 9.6 .48 110 0
91 .09 66 0 19.3 .96 130 11
1.81 ell? 114 1 38.5 1.92 130 63
3.63 .o4 90 1
7.26 .69 91 7 None 102 0
8 .91 .09 41 0 11.4 16 10.1 6.67 .67 80 0
1.81 a7 31 0 . 20.2 1.35 50 66
3.63 .34 88 0 40.5 2.70 68 69
7.26 .69 93 9 60.8 4.06 48 81
14.51 1.38 83 42 60.8 4.06 50 82
4 3.63 .34 52 0 8 10.1 .67 97 0
7.26 .69 92 1 20.2 1.35 96 27
14.51 1.38 102 54 40.5 2.70 70 60
29.02 .76 75 61 60.8 4.06 53 42
58.04 5) Bil Oe 78
4 10.1 .67 103 0
2 7.26 .69 30 0 20.2 1.35 235 4
14.51 1.38 45 33 40.5 2.70 WAY 54
29.02 2.76 196 62 60.8 4.06 59 46
58.04 5.51 10 10
116.08 TOS 141 87 2 10.1 67 115 1
20.2 bays) 114 (0)
None 27 0 40.5 270 100 0
— — — ae | 60.8 4.06 69 80
8.0 16 4.16 1262 aoe 84 0
8.33 .63 99 47 None 97 0 |
16.66 i ey 80 50 |
||

Nov. 15, 1947 LATTA ET AL.: WIND-TUNNEL EXPERIMENTS WITH DDT AEROSOLS 407

TABLE 1.—(continued)

| ;
Total Total
Particle | Ve- | amount Come | avanorins | Jeeaalfe Mor- Particle | Ve- | amount Suminom ) Acmaitinys | Lslanaile Mor-
é 3 of of mos- i § : of of mos- ;
diameter] locity of DDT INR el qaitoes tality diameter | locity of DDT DIDI lantoes tality
aerosol aerosol
Microns|M.p.h.| Mog. Per- Mg. Num- | Per- Microns |\M.p.h.| Mog. Per- Mg. Num- | Per-
cent ber cent cent ber cent
11.9 16 13.8 4.8 .66 127 | 54 17.8 16 12.6 3.45 43 21 24
19.3 .93 107 75 25.3 87 117 54
Pe Ik 1.06 222 79 50.5 1.74 72 72
8 50) .26 99 23 8 12.6 .43 51 0
eal 1.06 125 82 25.3 .87 46 l?/
50.5 sce 48 56
4 55) -26 65 3
13.8 .66 148 33 4 12.6 -43 68 il
27.6 132 141 93 ORS .87 45 4
50.5 1.74 42 67
2 5.5 .26 112 1
13.8 .66 198 70 2 12.6 .43 51 0
eal 1.06 152 89 2063 . 87 39 38
: f 50.5 1.74 34 88
None 87 2
— —_ None 38 5
13.0 16 Heil 3. alt 80 0 == — |= |
10.2 soll 65 17 20.4 16 3.9 5.8 5283 68 0
20.4 61 58 47 7.8 45 20 5
40.8 22 78 64 15.6 .90 42 74
Sle? 1.81 29 79
8 Doll Balls 67 3 :
10.2 Bl 65 23 8 3.9 B23, 49 0
20.4 61 52 58 7.8 45 58 16
| 40.8 1.22 41 76 15.6 .90 83 66
Bil 2 1.81 41 98
| 4 5.1 pe dol )
j 10.2 Sie 8s liees 4 3.9 e23u\e 730" || 480
\{ 20.4 61 69 35 7.8 .45 32 6
\) 40.8 tie 22, 42 57 15.6 .90 18 44
i Bil | 1.81 42 100
| 2 Holl 5 1s) 45 0
10.2 aa 62 2 2 3.9 23 12%, 1
| 20.4 61 71 | 46 7.8 45 31 6
W 40.8 122, 86 91 16.9 .98 67 78
| Bie? 1.81 28 93
| None 84 1
| | None 45 0

TaBLE 2.—Miuiicrams oF DDT Propvucine 50 PERceNT Mortauiry or FEMALE MosaquitTorEs
AS DETERMINED BY Morrauity CURVES PLOTTED FROM PERCENTAGES GIVEN IN TABLE 1

Milligrams of DDT required at speeds of

Particle
teal enim sivien he | Minh: | eo veoh:
Microns
1 18.4 126.0 184.0 80.5
4 = XO) QE35 5.90 14.2 32.0
Src, 2.4 5.03 = ——
4.48 1G it 1.29 3.45 10.3
5.0 1.45 1.74 3.24 6.38
6.0 1 LS 2.30 2.67 3.13
oO 1.44 Qe2, 1.9 3.49
Coll — — 1.50 1.80
8.0 .836 912 1.44 1.6
10.0 59 70 ie 0 7)
11.4 1.44 1.94 2.48 2.08
11.9 .62 E62 .62 .62
13.0 .705 .705 .705 .705
= 17.8 .83 1.41 iL S31 .99
20.4 87 .87 .87 87

408

ZOOLOGY .—Notes on Mexican amphibians and reptiles.
(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

University of Illinois.

Recent acquisitions by the U.S. National
Museum include a number of amphibians
and reptiles of special interest from Mexico.
Most of them were secured, incidental to
archeological labors, by Dr. Matthew W.
Stirling. The remainder were collected by
Dr. W. F. Foshag. Included are two state
records (of Lepidophyma f. flavomaculatum
from Veracruz and Oxybelzs aeneus auratus
from Morelos), a few rarities such as
Syrrhophus verruculatus, and one subspecies
(Ficimia publia taylort, n. subsp.) hitherto
overlooked and unnamed.

Localities and dates of capture are re-
corded in detail in the accounts of each
form, with the exception of San Lorenzo,
where a large proportion was taken by Dr.
Stirling between February and April, 1946.
This small town is on the Rio Chiquito, in
the southern part of the state of Veracruz,
municipality of Acayuc4n, about 17 air
miles directly southeast of the city of Aca-
yucan (see map in On the trail of La Venta
man, by Matthew W. Stirling, Nat. Geogr.
Mag. 91 (2): 187-172, illus. 1947).

Rhinophrynus dorsalis Duméril and Bibron

Two adult specimens (nos. 123542-3) are
from San Lorenzo, Veracruz. The single female
has small eggs in the ovaries.

Bufo cristatus Wiegmann

Five half-grown specimens (nos. 123516—20)
are from San Lorenzo, Veracruz. The species
differs from B. valliceps, which it closely re-
sembles, in having an occipital (parietal) crest
as high as the supraorbital and which termi-
nates abruptly posteriorly instead of declining
gradually; B. cristatus also possesses a more
oval (instead of triangular) parotoid.

Leptodactylus labialis (Cope)

Two adult specimens (nos. 123528-9) are
from San Lorenzo, Veracruz.

Leptodactylus melanonotus (Hallowell)

Six specimens (nos. 123521-7) are from San
Lorenzo, Veracruz. The largest female meas-

1 Received May 5, 1947

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 11

Hopart M. Smiru,

ures 43 mm from snout to vent; largest male
39 mm. No horny excrescences are present.

Microbatrachylus hobartsmithi (Taylor)

Two specimens (nos. 122054—-5) are from
Rio Chapaneal near Aquiapan (west of Zacual-
pan), México, collected February 28, 1943, by
Dr. W. F. Foshag. They were found in spring
seepage, under moss. One (no. 122055) is very
small (12.5 mm snout to vent), the other an
adult (19 mm snout to vent). The latter pos-
sesses vestiges of vomerine teeth.

Syrrhophus verruculatus (Peters)

A single specimen, 19 mm snout to vent, from
San Lorenzo, Veracruz (no. 123530), is referred
to this small species. It is a male measuring 19
mm snout to vent, and has been somewhat
crushed; the belly skin has slipped to the rear
exposing the internal organs.

If correctly allocated, this specimen is the
only one known from the state of Veracruz,
exclusive of the type from Huatusco. The only
other species known which might be involved
are S. leprus and S. verrucipes. S. cystvg-
nathoides, which occurs in the same general
area, is easily eliminated on the basis of
coloration; the present specimen is dark with
very extensive light areas on the back. S.
leprus is eliminated on the basis of belly colora-
tion (it lacks all markings, while the San
Lorenzo specimen is rather heavily stippled
with dark below) and on the width of the digits
(outer two fingers 14 times as wide as digits in
the present specimen, scarcely enlarged in S.
leprus). S. verrucipes is eliminated on the basis
of its large tympanum (two-thirds diameter of
orbit, while only one-half in the San Lorenzo
specimen).

Other characters agree well with available
descriptions of S. verruculatus. The belly skin
is smooth, the back feebly granular. The
choanae are small.

Smilisca baudini baudini (Duméril and Bibron)

Seven specimens, of which five (nos. 123508—
12) are from San Lorenzo, Veracruz, and two
(nos. 118635-6) are from Rio de las Playas, on
the boundary of the states of Veracruz and
Tabasco, taken March 1-8, 1944, by M. W.

Noy. 15, 1947 smITH: NOTES ON MEXICAN AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

Stirling. All those from San Lorenzo are sub-
adults of approximately equal size, while those
from Rio de las Playas are large adults. One of
the latter is a male with extruded vocal pouches
the other a female with well-developed ovarian

eggs.
Hyla arenicolor Cope

A single specimen (no. 122051) is from San
Juan del Rio, Guerrero, collected February 20,
1942, by W. F. Foshag. This small hamlet is
about 10 miles east of Taxco and 2 miles south
of Acamixtla on the banks of the Campuzo
River.

Ayla rickardsi Taylor

Three specimens (nos. 123513-5) are from
San Lorenzo, Veracruz, and provide a record
for a fourth locality at which the species is
known. Two are adult (40 mm and 35 mm snout
to vent) females with fairly well developed eggs
in the abdomen. Their dorsal coloration is a
reddish gray-brown; indistinct, small, scat-
tered dark flecks are present on the back, and a
dark, V-shaped interorbital bar is feebly in-
_ dicated. The juvenile (25.5 mm) is similarly
colored, except there is a vague darker area
covering much of the middle of the back; the

_- interorbital dark bar is very distinct; the limbs

are distinctly banded, and a very conspicuous
short, narrow white transverse bar, preceded
and followed by an equally narrow dark bar, is
present immediately in front of the anus. The
latter mark is visible although less well defined
in one of the adults, and is absent in the other.

Rana pipiens austricola (Cope)

Ten juvenile specimens (nos. 123531—40) are
from San Lorenzo, Veracruz. The largest
measures 39 mm, the smallest 35 mm snout to
vent. In dorsal pattern, snout length, and
presence of dermal plicae they closely resemble
Texan specimens of R. p. berlandieri, but they
differ in the possession of dark mottling at
least on the lips and posteroventral surface of
the thighs; the mottling in some covers the
entire throat and under side of the legs.

This race is envisioned as an Atlantic coastal
form extending from northern Mexico (where
it meets R. p. berlandiert) southward probably
into Guatemala.

Use of this name requires explanation. Kel-
logg in 1932 (U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 160:207)

409

pointed out that Cope, in 1886 (Proc. Amer.
Philos. Soc. 23: 517) proposed the name by
remarking that the ‘‘Mexican specimens re-
ferred to in these citations [i.e., in the synon-
ymy for ‘Rana halecina Daudin (Kalm)’] con-
stitute a subspecies, which I call R. h. aus-
tricola.’’ Kellogg observes that only 3 of the 11
citations mentioned refer to Mexican speci-
mens. He restricts the name to the form
represented by a figure published by Brocchi
(Miss. Sci. Mex., Batr.: pl. 4, fig. 1, 1881),
which the latter author (op. cit., p. 14) states
occurs in “Vera Cruz, Mexico. M. Bocourt a
recueilli de nombreux échantillons de cette
espéce 4 Salom4 et 4 Tactu (Terres chaudes).”’
It appears, however, that the localities cited by
Brocchi are misprints for Salam4 and Tactic,
both in Vera Paz (Baja and Alta, respectively),
Guatemala. Both localities are indicated on
Bocourt’s route on the map in livraison 16
(1908) of the Mission Scientifique (opposite
p. xi). The “‘Vera Cruz” is apparently a mis-
interpretation of ‘‘Vera Paz.’ Accordingly
Kellogg’s restriction of the type and type
locality cannot stand, as the specimen in-
dicated is not actually from Mexico. Therefore
the name R. h. austricola Cope is hereby re-
stricted to one of the other citations given by
Cope (Giinther, Cat. Batr. Sal. Brit. Mus.,
1859: 15-16), and to the specimen d cited
therein on p. 16 as follows: “‘d. Halfgrown: not
good state. Mexico. From M. Salle’s collection.
Belly black-spotted.’”’ The type locality is
furthermore restricted to Veracruz, Veracruz
which Sallé undoubtedly visited in his travels
in Mexico, as indicated by the apparently
Veracruzian origin of many of the species he
discovered.

That R. p. austricola may occur as far east as
Guatemala is indicated by Brocchi’s plate
(loc. cit.), which illustrates an animal very
much like the Veracruz specimens. That the
species occurs in the Salam4 area is verified by
Schmidt and Stuart (Publ. Field Mus. Nat.
Hist., Zool. Ser., 24: 241-242. 1941) who ‘‘em-
ploy the name pipiens with reservation, since
some geographic division of this form may
prove recognizable with further study.”’

Rana pipiens trilobata Mocquard

A single, small, somewhat emaciated speci-
men (no. 122056) is from Temisco (south of
Cuernavaca), Morelos. It was found in a road-

410 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

side ditch April 12, 1943, by W. F. Foshag. It
possesses a broader head, apparently shorter
snout, and less plicate skin than the specimens
of R. p. austricola. Kellogg (op. cit.: 209)
similarly describes the type of Rana trilobata
(type locality Guadalajara, Jalisco). The race
is envisioned as the one occupying the major
portion of the Mexican plateau. No earlier
name appears to be applicable.

Microhyla usta usta (Cope)

A single specimen (no. 123541) is from San
Lorenzo, Veracruz. It contains large numbers
of ants in the stomach.

Coleonyx elegans elegans Gray

A single subadult specimen (no. 123498) is
from San Lorenzo, Veracruz. The prenasals are
in contact.

Anolis sericeus Hallowell

Six adult specimens (nos. 123499-504) are
from San Lorenzo, Veracruz. The character-
istic central blue dot is present on the gular
fan of males, and the supraorbital semicircles
are in all separated from each other by a
minimum of one row of scales.

Anolis tropidonotus Peters

A single specimen (no. 118637) is from Rfo
de las Playas, on the boundary of the states of
Veracruz and Tabasco, taken March 1-8, 1944,
by M. W. Stirling. It is an adult female.

Sceloporus aeneus aeneus Wiegmann

One adult female (no. 122052) was collected
by W. F. Foshag on a hill by the trout hatchery
near the summit of the Toluca highway, not
far from Salazar, México. The canthal is
single; dorsal scales 39; femoral pores 16-18,
the two series in contact medially.

Sceloporus grammicus microlepidotus
Wiegmann
A single juvenile specimen (no. 122057) was
collected June 1, 1948, by W. F. Foshag, at a
locality between Zurumbeneo and_ Cerro
Carnica, Michoacan. It possesses 78 dorsals
from occiput to base of tail.

Lepidophyma flavomaculatum
flavomaculatum Duméril

A single specimen (no. 118638) is from Rfo

VOL. 3/7, No. 11

de las Playas, on the border of the states of
Veracruz and Tabasco, collected March 1-8,
1944, by M. W. Stirling. The femoral pores
number 17-17, and most of the whorls of the
tail (all but 4) are separated dorsally by 4 rows
of scales.

Eumeces copei Taylor

One juvenile (no. 122053) was collected by
W. F. Foshag on a hill by the trout hatchery
near the summit of the Toluca highway, not
far from Salazar, México. Pattern and scutella-
tion are typical. 3

Ameiva undulata amphigramma
Smith and Laufe

Three half-grown and juvenile specimens
(nos. 123505-7) are from San Lorenzo, Vera-
cruz. One (a male, the smallest) shows very
little evidence of the dorsolateral dark stripe,
while it is more distinct though variable in in-
tensity (spotted) in the others (females, the
largest measuring 68 mm snout to vent). The
largest female shows faintly the upper lateral
light line, but in the others it is not at all evi-
dent. Respectively (as numbered above) the
femoral pores are 17-18 9, 19-19 2, 18-192;
lamellae on 4th toe 26-27, 28-28, 26—28; rows ©
of gulars 5 (one divided), 6 (two divided) and 4
(none divided).

Ficimia publia Cope

Twenty-two specimens have been reported of
this species. Two others are available in the
present collection, both from the state of Vera-
cruz. Of prime interest is the fact that each of
the latter has only 1-1 postoculars and 0-0
internasals.

F. publia is known to range from southern
Veracruz to Honduras (including the Yucatan
peninsula) on the Atlantic coast, and from
Guerrero to western Guatemala on the Pacific.
As indicated by Smith and Taylor (Journ.
Washington Acad. Sci. 31: 364. 1941) the
specimens available exhibit certain variations
in pattern that indicate the probability of a
geographic segregation of recognizably differ-
ent forms. No indication of geographic segrega-
tion of variations in scutellation was then ap-
parent. The recent acquisitions from Veracruz
indicate, however, that the population in that
area is recognizably different in at least twa
characters of head scales.

Nov. 15, 1947

It has been observed previously that the
number of postoculars varies in F. publia from
1 to 2, although most specimens (17 out of 18)
have two on one or both sides (2-2, 13; 1-2, 4).
The only one recorded with 1-1 postoculars
is the single specimen known from the state of
Veracruz (Minatitlan). With the present pair,
we now have 3 specimens from that state; all
have 1-1 postoculars, while all others have 1-2
or 2-2. It is noteworthy that at least 2 of the
non-Veracruzian specimens with 1 postocular
have reduced the number through obvious
fusion of the upper with the supraocular, while
in the Veracruz specimens the reduction in
number is due apparently to fusion together of
the two scales.

Furthermore, all Veracruzian specimens
lack the internasals completely. Only one other
(from Yucatdn) of the 20 known from else-
where lacks them on both sides; one (Honduras)
lacks the scale on one side, and one other
(Petén) has it partially fused with the pre-
frontals on one side. Accordingly the inter-
nasals are absent in 100 percent of the known
Veracruz specimens, but in only 5 percent of
the remainder is it completely absent. Con-
sidering the two sides separately, only 10 per-
cent of the individual internasals of non-
Veracruzian specimens are either wholly or
partially fused with the prefrontal.

These differences between the Veracruz and
other populations may be summarized as fol-

lows:

Elsewhere
postoculars 2-2 (13)
1-2 (4)
internasals 0-0 (1)
0-1 (1)
2-1 (1)
1-1 (17)

Veracruz
postoculars 1-1 (38 spec.)

internasals 0-0 (3 spec.)

Since the Veracruz specimens inhabit an area
well known to be distinctive faunistically from
adjacent areas, it is reasonable to suppose that

_the largely distinctive characters observed in

the 3 specimens available hold with reasonable
constancy throughout that area. The maxi-
mum geographic range of the race is not ap-
parent. It may be limited to the coastal plain
from the Isthmus northwestward, or, as is here
considered more probable, may extend east-
ward to the base of the Yucatan peninsula. No
other specimens are known from this entire
area.

That Veracruz specimens might well prove

SMITH: NOTES ON MEXICAN AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

411

to be different from others of F. publia was first
indicated by Taylor (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing-
ton 49: 54. 1936) who allocated one individual
—the first recorded from the state—with F.
variegata (which likewise normally lacks the
internasals) rather than with F. publia (which
he regarded as always having internasals). As
a tribute to his discernment I suggest the race
be called—

Ficimia publia taylori, n. subsp.

Types —Ho.otyrpn: U.S. N. M. no. 123491,
an adult male from San Lorenzo, Veracruz,
collected in the period from February to April
1946 by Matthew W. Stirling. ParatryPs:
U.S. N. M. no. 123492, a young male with the
same data as the type. Hypoparatyre: The
specimen originally described by Taylor (loc.
cit.) from Minatitlin, Veracruz, at that time
in the private collection of John A. Rickards of
Mexico City. Present location unknown.

Diagnosis.—Allied to Ficimia publia publia,
having a reduced number (about 30) of large
blotches as wide as the interspaces on the back;
differing from that race usually in lacking
internasals and having only one postocular on
each side. 7

Description of holotype.—Rostral much longer
than wide, 4.0 mm in length (to cutting edge),
2.9 in width (dorsal portion only); frontal ex-
actly as long as rostral; rostrofrontal suture
1.5 mm in width; supralabials and infralabials
7-7; preoculars and postoculars 1-1, the latter
normal in size and shape; internasals 0-0;
scale rows 17-16; ventrals 147; tail tip missing,
the caudals 39+; total length 362 mm, tail 59
mm.

Dorsum medium brown; 30 irregularly light-
edged, dark brown blotches on back, 10 on
tail; blotches 2 to 3 scale lengths in extent,
about as long as interspaces, reaching laterally
to the 4th scale row; numerous small, irregular
lateral blotches, in 1 to 3 series, alternating
and/or coinciding in position with the dorsal
blotches; belly unmarked except at extreme
ends of ventrals, onto which some lateral spots -
extend.

Variation.—In the paratype, the rostral
measures 2.4 mm in length, 1.9 mm in width;
frontal 3.2 mm in length; rostrofrontal suture
0.8 mm in width; ventrals 148; caudals 42;
total length 218 mm, tail 38 mm; other char-
acters of scutellation as in the holotype. Dorsal

412

spots 30, reaching only to 5th scale row; tail
spots 11; lateral spots less fused, in aout 4
rows, he very irregular.

Remarks.—At present only the character of
the postoculars and internasals is known to
suffice in distinguishing the races of F. publia.
Relative proportions of the frontal and rostral
do not appear to be consistently different.

Rhadinaea hesperia hesperia Bailey

A single small specimen (no. 122060) was
taken by W. F. Foshag June 25, 1945, at
Huautla, Morelos. It is a female, with 178
ventrals and 118 caudals. The pattern agrees
perfectly with the diagnosis given by Smith
(Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 55: 185. 1942).

Tantilla becourti bocourti (Giinther)

One small male specimen (no. 122058) was
taken by W. F. Foshag at Taxco, Guerrero. It
measures 147 mm in total length, the tail 24
mm. Tne ventrals number 180, the caudals 49.
A faint middorsal dark line is present, as well
as rather extensive light marks on top of the
head. The secondary temporal is no longer than
broad.

Coniophanes imperialis clavatus (Peters)

Two specimens are available (nos. 123493-—4)
from San Lorenzo, Veracruz. They have a pat-
tern like that of C. 7. cope (the sides distinctly
darker above than below, the middorsal dark
stripe narrow and continuous), but the scale
counts are those of C. 2. clavatus (respectively

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 37, No. 11

the ventrals 128, 116, the caudals incomplete
(2) and 81 (). The specimens resemble those -
described by Smith (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 93:
405. 1943) which are stated to lack a separate -
nape spot. The temporal stripe is long and
reaches to the end of the temporal scales in one,
but fails to do so in another.

Imantodes cenchoa leucomelas (Cope)

One specimen (no. 118639) is from Rio de
las Playas, on the border of the states of Vera-
cruz and Tabasco, taken March 1-8, 1944, by
M. W. Stirling. Ventas 23); anal divided,
caudals 155.

Oxybelis aeneus auratus (Bell)

Two specimens are available, one (no.
122059) from Huautla, Morelos (June 25,
1945; W. F. Foshag), the other (no. 123495)
from San Lorenzo, Veracruz. This is appar-
ently the first record of the species from the
state of Morelos. The ventrals are 192 and 194,
the caudals 183 and 166 respectively. Neither
has an extra preocular.

Bothrops atrox asper (Garman)

Two juvenile specimens (nos. 123496-7) are
from San Lorenzo, Veracruz. The ventrals are
216 and 222, the caudals 71 and 72, respec-
tively. One of them (629 mm in total length)
contained two Leptodactylus labialis in nearly
perfect condition, and the hind feet of a tree
frog, probably Smilisca b. baudinit.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

410TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 410th meeting of the Board of Mana-
gers, held in the Cosmos Club, October 6, 1947,
was called to order at 8:10 p.m. by the Presi-
dent, Dr. Watpo L. Scumirr. Others present
were: N. R. Smiru, F. M. Snrzutur, W. N. Fren-
ton, W. W. Disut, F. L. Mouser, J. 8.
Wanbs, A. Wermorg, F. C. Con, W. A. Dayton,
CAP Baris, sk2 BB. SilsBEE. oN eA: MASON;
A. O. Fostrer, H. G. Dorsey, C. L. Gazin, and,
by invitation, G. P. Watton, J. I. Horrman,
and E. A. CHAPIN.

The President introduced the following let-
ter from RicHarp C. DARNELL, chairman of a
Special Committee of the District of Columbia
Council of Engineering and Architectural So-
cieties:

“The District of Columbia Council of Engi-
neering and Architectural Societies, at its last
meeting, gave considerable attention to the prob-
lem of securing more effective newspaper an-
nouncement of the meetings of its affihated so-
cieties. It was the consensus of opinion that the
most desirable immediate step would be to pub-
lish a calendar of the various societies’ meetings
for the forthcoming week in the Sunday news-
papers.

‘““A committee was appointed to work out the
details of such a calendar and to secure the co-
operation of the local newspapers in publishing it.
This committee considers that such a calendar, if
inaugurated, should, most ideally, list not only
the meetings of affiliated societies of the D. C.
Council, but should list the meetings of all scien-
tific and technical groups of Metropolitan Wash-
ington. It should make announcements also of
any special meetings or exhibits of scientific
and technical interest which may be separate

Nov. 15, 1947 PROCEEDINGS

from local scientific and technical societies.
“That the interests of all local scientific and tech-
nical societies may be more adequately repre-
sented in this effort, it is the pleasure of our
committee to invite the Washington Academy of
Sciences to cooperate. If the Academy concurs
in the desirability of such an effort and wishes to
join in it, it is suggested that a representative or
representatives be designated to work with us.”’

The President was authorized to appoint a
representative to work with the committee
from the D. C. Council of Engineering and
Architectural Societies on the calendar of so-
cieties’ meetings and in securing newspaper co-
operation in its publication. The President ap-
pointed Dr. Franx THoNE to be the Academy
representative.

Four persons were elected to resident mem-
bership in the Academy and one to nonresident.

The President requested that in view of the
purpose for which the meeting was called,
namely to consider the matter of publishing an
anniversary volume of the ‘‘Red Book,” that
the regular order of business be set aside so that
the greater part of the meeting might be di-
rected to a discussion of this undertaking.

He first, however, brought up the matter of
a 31 per cent increase in cost of publishing the
JOURNAL, which had been brought to his atten-
tion by the Senior Editor, Dr. W. N. Fenton.
The Board voted to refer the matter of neces-
sary changes in the JouRNAL budget to the
Executive Committee for consideration and
recommendations.

The President then brought up the question
of an anniversary volume of the ‘‘Red Book’”’
and discussed the results of a questionnaire he
had earlier circulated among the members with
respect to including in this volume the photo-
graphs of members of the Academy. Considera-
ble discussion followed both for and against.
The motion was made that an anniversary vol-
ume of the ‘‘Red Book” be published, including
reproductions of photographs of the Academy
members. The cost of such an undertaking was
estimated at $3,000. The motion was carried
with the understanding that the cost would be
kept below $3,000. Further consideration of
unexpected charges, such as for proofreading,
etc., prompted the Board to vote a leeway of
$600 from the $3,000 estimate.

The President was authorized to appoint a
committee to compile such a ‘‘Red Book.” The
committee appointed by the President at the

>: THE ACADEMY 413

407th meeting to prepare a ‘‘White Book,” or
Academy directory, was ordered by the Board
to furnish its compiled directory material to
this ‘‘Red Book’ committee.

The Secretary communicated a request of
the Bacteriological Society, received from its
Secretary-Treasurer, Dr. C. W. Bournmr, that
Dr. Harry W. ScHOENING, of the Bureau of
Animal Industry, replace Dr. CHrsTER W.
Emmons as Vice President of the Academy rep-
resenting the Bacteriological Society for the
current year, inasmuch as Dr. Emmons was
unable to carry on the duties of this office. The
replacement was approved by the Board of
Managers.

The meeting adjourned at 9:55 p.m.

411th MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS

The 411th meeting of the Board of Mana-
gers, held in the Cosmos Club, October 20,1947,
was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the Presi-
dent, Dr. Waupo L. Scumirr. Others present
were: N. R. Smiru, F. M. Serzuur, W. N. FEn- -
TON, H. B. Coutins, Jr., W. W. Dient, F. L.
Mouter, J. S. Wapz, W. W. Rusry, L. E.
Yocum, W. A. Dayron, C. A. Betts, A. O.
Foster, C. L. Garner, H. G. Dorsny, C. L.
Gazin, and, by invitation, J. I. HorrmMan and
K. A. CHAPIN. .

The following appointments were announced
by the President:
Committee on Academy Awards for 1947: C. E.
CHAMBLISS, General Chairman, and,

Subcommittee for the Biological Sciences: C.
E. CHamBuiss, Chairman, H. B. Couuins,
Jr., F. L: Lewton, G. Steiner, 8S. E.
HILDEBRAND, L. E. Yocum, and F. O. Coe.
Subcommittee for the Engineering Sciences: H.
L. WHITTEMORE, Chairman, L. V. BERKNER,
Paseo mirH, ca Cf DickINSON, shew ME
DeranporF, 8S. H. McCrory, and H. C.
DoRSEY.

Subcommittee for the Physical Sciences: F. G.
Rossini, Chairman, H. Diamonp, J. J.
Fauery, K. F. Herzrevp, F. C. Kracex, M-
X. SULLIVAN, and L. D. FELTON.

Committee of Tellers: A. EK. JENKINS, Chairman
M. L. Bomuarp, and R. FLANNERY.

The following letter from FRANK M. SETz-
LER, Custodian and Subscription Manager of
Publications, was introduced:

‘‘Due to the prospect of my leaving this country

soon after January 1, 1948, for an extended field
trip, I hereby wish to tender my resignation as

414

Custodian of Publications and Subscription
Manager.

“T am submitting this resignation at this time
so as to assist whomever you may appoint, for
my unexpired term, in learning the various pro-
cedures.

“T would also like to express my gratitude to
you and past Boards for the whole-hearted co-
operation extended to me.”

The President announced the appointment
of Dr. H. A. RexpER as Custodian and Sub-
scription Manager of Publications to fill the
vacancy created by Mr. Setzler’s resignation.

The following minutes of the Executive Com-
mittee were read:

‘‘The Executive Committee met in the Cosmos
Club at 8:05 p.m. on October 13, 1947. The Presi-
dent, Dr. Waupo L. Scumipt, presided. Others
present were: H. 8. Rappirye, F. L. Mouuer,
N. R. Smiru C. L. Gazin, and by invitation, W.
N. FENTON.

“This meeting was called to consider revision
of the JoURNAL budget for the year 1947 necessi-
tated by increases in basic charges for printing of
the JOURNAL, a matter referred to the Committee
by the Board of Managers at its 410th meeting.

‘“‘The Senior Editor, Dr. W. N. FENTON, re-
ported that the new contract which the George
Banta Publishing Co. submitted would increase
the cost of the JouRNAL about 31 per cent, or
$1,240 per year. The printer’s proposal that the
changes become effective for the November issue
indicated an increase in cost for the present year
of one-sixth of the annual difference, or about
$207. The Executive Committee voted favorably
to recommend to the Board of Managers that the
1947 budget for the JoURNAL be increased by
$225 to-cover the increase in its cost of publica-
tion.

“The Committee discussed at length the matter
of the illustrated ‘Red Book,’ including its cost to
the Academy invested funds, its composition and
format. No specific reeommendations were made.

“The meeting adjourned at 10:10 p.m.”

The Senior Editor, Dr. W. N. Fenton, pre-
sented information on certain economies that
had been suggested by the printer, such as
changing to a bimonthly or quarterly schedule.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VoL. 37, No. 11

However, since these matters were under con-
sideration by the Committee appointed to con-
sider the JoURNAL and its improvement, there
was no further discussion. The Board of Mana-
gers voted favorably to increase the JouRNAL
budget $225 to meet the increase in cost of pub-
lication for the current year. The Board also
authorized Dr. Fenton to sign the new printing
contract on behalf of the Academy.

The President announced, in the absence of
the Chairman of the Committee on Meetings,
that Prof. I. I. Rani, of Columbia University,
would speak at the November meeting of the
Academy.

The Chairman of the Committee on Mono-
graphs, Dr. E. A. CHaprn, announced that a
manuscript entitled ‘““The Parasitic Birds of
Africa,’ by Dr. HERBERT FRIEDMANN, Was un-
der consideration and that it held promise of
sale to the extent of repaying cost of publica-
tion. No specific recommendation was made to
the Board of Managers pending the securing of
further details as to estimated cost of publica-
tion.

The Chairman of the committee appointed
to make recommendations for observance of
the 50th Anniversary of the Academy, F. M.
SETZLER, commented on the advisability of a
dinner, brought up in the questionnaire re-
cently circulated by the President. The results
of the questionnaire showed a large majority of
those responding in favor of such a dinner, but
only half were willing to pay as much as $5.

The Secretary reported the death of Prof.
W. P. Hay, retired member and former Vice-
President of the Academy (1916), on May 26,
1947; and of Dr. Rupotr W. Guaszr, formerly
with the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Re-
search, on September 4, 1947.

Francois . Matrrues was transferred to
the list of retired members effective December
31, 1947.

The meeting adjourned at 9:30 P.M.

C. L. Gazin, Secretary.

@bituartes

Wiuuis Linn Jepson lived to become the
foremost systematic botanist of the Western
United States. A native of California, where he
was born on August 19, 1867, he delighted to
think of himself as an argonaut of botany in
the West. His love of California grew from his

ranch-home days as a lad in the Vaca Valley of
Solano County, and he determined from the
day that he met Albert Kellogg in the rooms of
the California Academy of Sciences on old
Market Street in San Francisco that hence-
forth he would devote his life to California

Nov. 15, 1947

botany. From his student days at the University
of California at Berkeley, where he edited the
campus literary magazine, and came to know
intimately Prof. E. L. Greene, of the Depart-
ment of Botany, to his last decade as emeritus
professor of botany, he was constantly asso-
ciated with that University. As an assistant in
botany, 1891-94, then as instructor, 1895-98,
assistant professor, 1899-1918, and full pro-
fessor, 1918-1937, Jepson distinguished himself
as the titular head of systematic botany. He
was selected as one of the leading 100 botanists
of the United States by Cattell in his first survey
of scientific personnel in 1906. Many honors,
both domestic and foreign, came to him, in-
cluding his election to the Washington Acad-
emy of Sciences as a nonresident member in
1915.

Fired by a compelling desire to provide a
working handbook of the native plants of
California, supported by a fuller monographic
account, he bent his efforts continually to that
end, and religiously held to his self-set stint of
preparing some copy every day of the year
toward that work. He believed that it was only
in this way that a scientist could realize the
completion of the task that he had set himself.
His credo was that a scientist carried a high
duty to the Commonweal and must bow his
personal desires to its good. Jepson inten-
tionally walled out society to his evident
detriment, but not, too, without some evident
satisfaction. His laboratory was an “inner

sanctum” whether it were in the old Hearst

Mining Building or the newer Life Sciences
Building. Within its locked (and often bolted!)
doors he quietly worked away: day in and day
out, while cheering football crowds passed
beneath his windows and students hurried
from one college class to another. This man
knew intimately nearly every corner of the
state. He had crossed the Sierras at every pass,
climbed Telescope Peak, breakfasted with men
in the Eel River logging camps, queried ‘‘desert
rats’ on how they had survived a waterless
trek across the Amargosa, and their philosophy
and food habits, and he returned with plant
collections from all these journeys. Nor were
the collections hurriedly made. On his field
trips he was exasperating for his habit of mak-
ing the fullest painstaking notes to accompany
the specimens; these field notes run to nearly
sixty compactly written notebooks, all metic-
ulously indexed. It was these data that went

OBITUARIES

415

into the several books he authored: Silva of
California, Flora of western middle California’,
Trees of California, and a High school Flora for
California—most of the titles in two or more
editions—but the best known book is certainly
his Manual of the flowering plants of California.
This was the first handbook of the California
flora, describing 4,019 species. His discussion of
the endemism areas of California, the revegeta-
tion of the chaparral, and even the proper
method of preparing a manual, were notable.
Less well known is Jepson’s larger definitive
Flora of California, upon the completion of
which he was engaged for the last 25 years of
his life. This Flora amounts to a monograph,
with full bibliographic references, citation of
collections, and ecological notes made in the
field. Here is Jepson the taxonomist at his best.
His botanical library is perhaps the finest
private collection in the West. His special prize
was a copy of the Botany of the Beechey Voyage
bought in San Francisco in the nineties for
$6.50!

Jepson was not without an international
view, but in this he fell far behind his faculty
colleague, William Albert Setchell, and, in-
deed, the two may be said to be most strikingly
contrasted for their work in this light. As one
botanist has so well said, Jepson worked as a
master craftsman bent over the precise details
of the flora of California. Setchell, the muralist,
was engaged on a great diorama picturing the
relationships of the world’s floras. Yet Jepson
was twice selected a delegate to the Interna-
tional Botanical Congress, first at Cambridge,
and later at Amsterdam, serving on the im-
portant Committee of Nomenclature. Jepson’s
part as teacher narrowed from early days when
he taught the freshman botany classes in the
old ‘Botany Building” to his later years when
his time was devoted exclusively to upper
division and graduate classes in taxonomy.
Students relished the eagerness that he put
into his instruction, along with his anecdote
and quizzical retort. His historical writings
include a considerable series published in
Madrofno, a periodical which he founded, en-
titled ‘Botanical Explorers of California,”
and several biographies of naturalists prepared

1 His doctorate thesis (Ph.D., University of
California, 1899); the stock of the printed copies
of the first edition destroyed in the 1906 San
Francisco fire. Jepson considered this his most
finished piece of werk.

416

for the Dictionary of American Biography.
He was constantly on the lookout for fresh
biographical materials and amassed an as-

tounding fund of memorabilia of J. G. Lemmon,

E. L. Greene, and many others.

In writing of other men’s lives Jepson in-
sisted that it was dishonest to remove what he
called the “‘thorns” from the account. Jepson’s
“‘thorns”’ grew mostly from his desire for recog-
nition from the University and the public in
general and his ambition to be unrivaled, and
partly to some actual injustices meted out to
him in his years at the University. These re-
sulted in an almost pathologic isolation and a
neurosis practically amounting to a martyr
complex. It became increasingly impossible for
him to forgive those who had wronged him, the
wrong often amounting to a “breach of loyal-
ty.”’ And at times he made excruciating de-
mands on the loyalty of his friends. Plagued by
ill health for his last 30 years, his bitterness was
deepened by his awareness that he could not
possibly survive to finish the Flora—his chief
goal in life. Too often Jepson absorbed the
careful work of his student assistants or other
botanists as his own. It was his view that the
work of salaried assistants belonged to him and
that no responsibility for individual credit re-
mained. His close friends—men and women in
chemistry, geology, zoology, history, and fi-
nance—inside and outside the University, prized
his luncheon invitations for it was then that the
wit and rapier of his meristematic mind came
to the fore. Happiest in the open fields of
California, he companioned democratically
with professor and typesetter, bank president
and ferryboat stevedore. Jepson died in Berke-
ley on November 7, 1946. His services to
botanical science and to all those who seek to
know more about the native flora of California
were such that his name can never be disso-
ciated from it and what men shall write about
it.

JOSEPH EWAN

Howarp SHREVE RopeErts, physicist at the
Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie In-
stitution of Washington, died at Presbyterian
Hospital, New York City, on January 30,
1947, following an operation. He was born in
Philadelphia, Pa. on December 12, 1890. He
attended the University of Pennsylvania and

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 11

Drexel Institute and received degrees in elec-
trical engineering from these institutions in
1912 and 1913, respectively. Subsequently, he
was employed as a chemist with the Wirt Co.
of Philadelphia; and in 1917 he joined the staff
of the Geophysical Laboratory, where he re-
mained until his death.

Mr. Roberts made valuable contributions in
a variety of fields. His first research at the
Geophysical Laboratory was on the stability
relations of the oxides of iron and copper.
Later he turned his attention to crystal de-
termination by X-ray techniques; and, fol-
lowing that, to calorimetry, particularly the
measurements of heats of melting and other
transformations in silicates. His ingenuity with
electrical devices not only facilitated his own
researches but was freely made available to his
colleagues. Particularly important in this con-
nection was his development of a simple and
effective temperature regulator that is regu-
larly used in the extensive investigations of
silicate equilibria at the Geophysical Labora-
tory. Indeed, in view of the fact that practica-
ble thermostats for high-temperature furnaces
were not generally available until relatively
recently, it may be doubted whether certain
long series of measurements would have been
carried out had it not been for the Roberts
regulator.

During World War I, Mr. Roberts worked
with the group that was charged with the re-
sponsibility for quickly developing an ade-
quate supply of optical glass, a material which
prior to that time had not been produced in
usable quality in this country. In World War
II, he took an important part in the investiga-
tion of ordnance matters under the supervision
of the Office of Scientific Research and De-
velopment. Here again his ingenuity and skill
in the design and development of apparatus,
especially those involving electric circuits, were
of very great value.

Mr. Roberts was a member of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science,
American Chemical Society, the Philosophical
Society of Washington, and the Washington
Academy of Sciences. He was a tireless worker,
a congenial companion with unfailing tolerance
and good humor in his dealings with other
persons. His untimely death will be mourned
by all who knew him.

ibe H, ADAMS

eR eee eee ee SS Oe SS ee ee eee

——

CONTENTS

History OF ScIENCE.—Joseph Henry builds an institution. Pau H.
OBRSER YC Soe ws aes Pu ate Cea eas Ge eae se ok aR

Botany.—A revision of Chorisepalum, an endemic genus of Venezuelan
Gentianaceae. JOSEPH EWAN........... Fe CWE oie See ;

Economic EnromoLtocy.—tThe effect of particle size and velocity of
movement of DDT aerosols in a wind tunnel on the mortality of
mosquitoes. RanpatL Latta, LAurEN D. ANprrson, E. E.
Rocers, V. K. LaMsr, 8. Hocuserc, H. LAvurersBacn, and

Ts SORNGON 1 Ue Ok a AUER Ri OO Sacre ese wc ole ee ae
ZooLtocy.—Notes on Mexican amphibians and reptiles. Hosart M.

SMITE Oe ee a ee tae Ue
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 202.0000. 0.40 6 alg a
OxrruaRiEs: Willis Linn Jepson; Howard Shreve Roberts............

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Decemper 15, 1947 | No. 12

>a

OF THE

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

Witiram N . FENTON JAMES I, HOFFMAN : ALAN STONE

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY y ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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JouN A. STEVENSON Watpo R. WEDEL
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Irt C. SCHOONOVER

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou o7

ETHNOLOGY.—tThe Motilones:
northwestern South America.!

The term Moitlon has little demon-
strable ethnological significance. It evi-
dently derives from the Spanish verb
motilar and refers to the cropped head hair
of some of these Indians. The name appears
early in the Spanish historical accounts
(Jahn, 1927, p. 45; Nicolas de la Rosa,
1945, pp. 202, 258, 275), where it had much
the same usage it has today, namely, as a
generic term referring to the Indians in-
habiting the Sierra de Perij4. In this paper
we shall not go into the rather literary com-
plexities that have resulted from attempts
to give names to the various hypothesized
subunits of the Motilones. The actual ex-
istence of these smaller divisions is specula-
tive until further ethnographic data are
available. For a discussion of the confusing
question of Motilon “‘tribal’’ names the
reader is referred to Jahn, Reichel-Dolma-
toff, and the Motilon article by Métraux

and Kirchhoff in the forthcoming Handbook

of South American Indians. For our pur-
poses two general ecological divisions,
Highland Motilones and Valley Bottom
Motilones, will suffice, reducing the whole
problem of nomenclature to its simplest
terms. We shall consider de Booy’s Tucucu
and Macoa, Bolinder’s Motilones, Jahn’s
Chake, and Reichel-Dolmatoff’s Yuko to be
in the category Highland Motilones. Jahn’s
Mape and Reichel-Dolmatoff’s Kunagua-
sazva are included in our designation Valley
Bottom Motilones. When it becomes neces-
sary to suggest further subdivision geo-
graphical designations will be used.

The Motilones are an enclave of tropical

1 Read before the Anthropological Society of
ee EtOR, March 18, 1947. Received May 8,
1947.

DeEcEMBER 15, 1947

No. 12

Some untouched tropical forest peoples in
Preston HouperR, University of Buffalo.
(Communicated by W. N. FENTON.)

rain-forest Indians inhabiting the jungles of
the Sierra de Perij4 in northeastern Colom-
bia and northwestern Venezuela. Their
territory includes the two distinctive en-
vironments that form the basis for the
classification made above. Although it has
been possible for at least 20 years to visit
or study the Motilones who live in the
Sierra de Perij4 above an elevation of 2,000
feet, the Motilones who dwell lower down
along such rivers as the Catatumbo, de
Oro, and Santa Ana have remained isolated
from any outside contacts except those of
a violently aggressive nature. These un-
friendly, unknown, and isolated Valley
Bottom Motilones were our subject of
major interest during an ethnographic
field trip that we made for the Department
of Anthropology of the American Museum of
Natural History from March to December
1946.

The Sierra de Perij& is a northern exten-
sion of the main Andean Chain and serves
to divide the great Maracaibo Basin on the
east from the Magdalena Basin to the west.
The mountains are composed of extremely
tilted sedimentary beds, which exhibit
considerable dissection (Notestein, 1944).
The thrusts involved in the tectonic move-
ments seem to have come from the east
and resulted in a rather gently sloping and
much-contorted eastern face rising from the
Maracaibo Basin flats to heights of over
6,000 feet at such central peaks as the
Cerros Bobali. From these crests the west-
ern slopes plunge almost vertically into the
Magdalena River bottoms.

The prevailing winds of the region pour
southeastward from the Caribbean across
Lake Maracaibo. The warm, thoroughly

417

418

saturated air masses flow upward along the
eastern face of the Perij& to deposit their
constituent tons of water content in the
form of almost continual torrential down-
pours as they encounter cooler air strata.
Although there are roughly two semian-
nual peaks of rainfall incidence interrupted
by so-called dry seasons during the periods
from January to March, and July to Sep-
tember, the country never really dries out.
Rainfall records from areas near the con-
fluence of the Rios de Oro and Catatumbo
show an annual average precipitation of
190 inches (Notestein, 1944, p. 1169). These
figures represent conditions on the eastern
periphery only; rainfall in the heart of the
upper drainage systems of the rivers is
considerably heavier.

Two results of these conditions are ap-
parent from even the most cursory air-
examination of the Perij4. In the first
place, the whole eastern slope is blanketed
with a dense, unbroken cover of tropical
jungle. A second consequence, while not so
obvious, is of even greater significance for
the ecological adjustments which the In-
dians have made and contributes materially
to their isolation. The already contorted
surfaces of the eastern slopes have been
_further dissected by heavy water run-off
and now exhibit a dendritic complex of
tortuous streams flowing through narrow,
steep-sided valleys of considerable gradient,
depositing alluvial fans wherever their flow
is impeded by frequent rapids and shoals.
All these factors make the intermontane
areas difficult of access. To the east of the
outlying foothills the streams become large
navigable rivers, which meander slowly
across the level alluvial plains of the
Maracaibo Basin. The peripheral sections
are, therefore, easily accessible by water
transportation from Lake Maracaibo. Once
the hill country is entered, however, the
only feasible means of travel is by shallow-
draft launch during the high-water periods.

The eastern rim of outlying foothills,
where the character of the streams and the
country changes abruptly, is precisely the
eastern limit of Motilon occupation. As we
shall see, their location is principally at-
tributable to the fact that these higher
streams have easily defensible spurs and an

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 12

abundance of arable alluvial basins ideally
suited for the type of horticulture practised
by the riverine Motilones. To the north and
west in the mountain areas above 2,000
feet the Motilones have made another
ecological adjustment. Thus the whole
mountain mass of the Perij& from the line
Codazzi-Machiques on the north to the
South American Gulf Oil Co. pipeline and
service road on the south is effectively held
by the Motilones alone.

It is fairly certain that these peoples have
opposed penetration by outside groups from
the earliest times. Certainly the Conquis-
tador Alfinger left the Motilones strictly
alone when he made his great raiding trip
in 1530 from Maracaibo northwest around
the tip of the Perij4, then south through
Valledupar and Tamalameque to La Gloria,
where he turned southeast toward Pam-
plona, only to be killed by Indians some-
where in the neighborhood of Chinacota.?
Uprisings of Motilones along the Rio Zulia
occurred as early as 1588 (Vazquez de
Espinosa, p. 324). In an account dating
from the early seventeenth century, Sim6én
describes an encounter between the Moti-
lones and Alonso Pérez de Tolosa in the
Valley of Cicuta, which differs little from
conditions applying today in regions only
100 miles to the northwest (Jahn, 1927,
pp. 59-60; Oviedo y Bajfios, 1885, vol. 1
p. 209).

There are references to attempts to
missionize the Motilones throughout the
succeeding centuries (Jahn, 1927, pp. 62-72;
Salas, pp. 282-233; Nicolas de la Rosa,
1945, p. 275 ff.), and recently a Catholic
Mission near Machiques, Venezuela, and
the Protestant Evangelical Union of South
America at Santa Marta, Colombia, report
that they have established contact with
Highland Motilones. While all the details
of these efforts are far from clear, it is
fairly certain that they have mostly been
unsuccessful.

The reasons behind resistance to missions
are probably those underlying Motilon
resistance to acculturation of any sort.
De la Rosa’s summary from the early

? Castellanos, parte 11, elegia i, canto 4, 207-208.
See also translation in Hakluyt Society, No. 28:
Vi-Vii.

Dec. 15, 1947 HOLDER: THE MOTILONES 419

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
OF THE MOTILON INDIANS

Wut Catal 16

Fig. 1.—Distribution of the Motilon Indians.

420

eighteenth century suggests that diseases
introduced among the Motilones as a result
of mission contacts may have promoted
hostility to outsiders at an early date, at
least in the general region of Ocana, Colom-
bia. The very titles of ecclesiastical and
administrative reports catalogued in the
Colombian National Archives and the text
of a recently published letter dating from
the 18th century (Flotas y Sepulveda,
1944) indicate that from a very early period
the colonial policy was rather punitive and
consisted largely of a series of attempts to
“pacify the Motilones.”’

A glance at the founding dates of the
settlements along the southern periphery
of Motilon territory certainly demonstrates
that Spanish expansion to the north of the
line Pamplona-Salazar-Ocanha was held
back for some centuries, while the country
to the north of the line Cticuta—Hacari—
Convencién remained virtually unexplored
until the construction of the oil pipeline in
the late 1930’s.° Along the western periph-
ery there have been rather recent raids
by Motilones against such settlements as
Tamalameque, Beccerril, and Codazzi, a
situation that has evidently existed for
some centuries. Similar trouble is reported
from the eastern border of Motilon terri-
tory. The small village of El Pilar on the
lower reaches of the Catatumbo was aban-
doned late in the nineteenth century under
pressure of Motilon attacks after it had
been occupied for about a hundred years
(Jahn, 1927, p. 82). Individuals who have
tried to ascend the affluents of the Rio
Santa Ana have met with considerable
hostility above the forks of the Rios Lora
and Ariguaisa and in some instances have
been forced to abandon attempts to go
higher up the rivers. Even today geological
survey parties pass through this country
with considerable caution, although authen-
ticated instances of deaths at the hands of
the Motilones are rare. Conditions ap-
parently are not so severe along the nor-
thern and northeastern reaches of Motilon
territory, particularly in the neighborhood
of Machiques.

_ 3 Pamplona, 1549; Salazar, 1553; Ocafia, 1570;
Cucuta, 1733; Hacari, 1780; Convencién, 1829.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 12

The basic pattern of Spanish colonization
undoubtedly has much to do with the un-
developed condition of the Motilon coun-
try. Throughout this section of South
America the settlers who followed the
original Conquistadores tended to settle
in those areas having ecological conditions
similar to the Iberian Peninsula. Expansion
outward into the less desirable lands was so
slow that today in towns like Convencién
on the very doorstep of the great Cata-
tumbo jungles there are few inhabitants
who have firsthand knowledge of country
no more than 50 miles away.

Nevertheless there has been a slow, con-
tinuous penetration of Motilon territory
from the south and east, increasing in
tempo in the past 50 years, particularly
along the Rio Catatumbo and its affluents.
During the nineteenth century and earlier
there were desultory efforts to exploit the
timber, fur, hide, and other natural re-
sources of the jungle. Today small entre-
preneurs still push up the navigable streams
leading westward out of Lake Maracaibo;
they seldom penetrate the hill country, and
since their activities are sporadic and
brief the Motilones are not disturbed and
the intruders are able to come and go with
little actual danger.

The first true penetration of Motilon
country apparently came toward the close
of the nineteenth century when a cattle
trail was opened to the north and west of
Cticuta. It went northwest past the present-
day Colombian Petroleum Co. installations
at Tibu, westward across the Catatumbo,
near the so-called Riocito San Miguelito,
and on to the Rio de Oro following that
river to its high sources crossing the Cerros
Bobali at Bolan’s Pass and descending
to Tamalameque by way of the west-
ward-draining streams of the Perijé slopes.
From 1895 to about 1907 drovers used this
trail, passing herds of cattle straight
through the heart of Motilon country
without undue losses: Gradually the pres-
sure of Indian raids and ambushes forced
the abandonment of the project, and the
trail is used today only by the Indians.
When Wilcox (1921) crossed the Perij& by
way of the Cerros Bobali in 1920 he found
portions of the trail still usable, and 10 or

O MOTILONES

Dec. 15, 1947

15 years later geological parties were able
to use portions of it in exploring the sand-
stone hills 50 miles to the southeast be-
tween the Catatumbo and Tibu Rivers.*

The first thoroughgoing penetration of
eastern Motilon territory was the ultimate

4 See also Febres Cordero, 1918.

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HOLDER: THE MOTILONES

421

result of the discovery and exploitation of
oil seeps along the southwestern rim of the
Maracaibo Basin. By 1905 Virgilio Barco
had set up a small plant to exploit oil seeps
in the neighborhood of the modern oil
camp of Petrolea, and the Colombian
Government had granted the famous Barco
Concession. It was found that the surface

PUERT
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Fic. 2.—Distribution of Motilon villages.

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indications represented a subsurface re-
serve of approximately 100,000,000 barrels
of fine crude oil.> By the second decade of
the present century a serious exploration of
the oil potentials of the entire eastern
Perij4 foothills was under way.

Prior to this time the rather vague linea.
tives of the original treaties had served to
determine the frontier of the Republics of
Venezuela and Colombia. It now became
necessary for these countries to establish
accurately their international boundary
from the region of Cucuta to the Goajiro
Peninsula. For that purpose government
surveyors and accompanying troops were
sent out far in advance of the temporary
oil outposts. In about six years during the
1930’s the surveyors reached such remote
areas as the headwaters of the Rio Moti-
lones, and even penetrated the unbroken
jungle along the high eastern slopes of the
Cerros Bobali. Unfortunately, no ethno-
graphic data were forthcoming from the
work, and the type of contacts made were
probably not conducive to scientific obser-
vation of the Motilones.

Meanwhile, permanent oil installations
were being established along the whole
southeastern flank of the area controlled
by the Motilones. In the face of a really
serious and stable penetration of their lands
the Indians were powerless. During the
past 40 years they have been in a constant
process of retreat, abandoning village after
village, and drawing back toward the west
and the north. They continue desultory
raids against all settlements within easy
striking distance, but they no longer con-
stitute a real threat: Today Motilones
control an area limited on the southeast by
the line of sandstone foothills separating the
Upper Rio Catatumbo from the drainage of
the Rio Tarra, and on the south by the
pipeline we have mentioned.

As the country becomes safer and lines
of communication with city markets open
up, the settlers move in along all the ave-
nues of penetration. The possibility of any
Indian resurgence is lessened as the coun-
try is cleared and the encroaching popula-

5 See Fortune Mag., March 1940: 76-83. Also
Notestein, 1944.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 3/7, No. 12

tion intensifies. Displaced Motilones are
forced to withdraw farther and farther into
territory already occupied by other Motilon
villages. Of the 12 or more houses visible
from the air on the Catatumbo and Rio
de Oro drainages it is reported that at
least 6 have appeared within the past
20 years. These houses, or villages, must
represent groups who lost their land in

areas to the east and are undoubtedly ~

looked upon as intruders by the people of
the previously established houses.

European penetration along the affluents
of the Rfo Santa Ana in Venezuela has not
been so extensive, although settlers have
now pushed south below Machiques as far
as the Rio Negro affluents. The whole
northeastern area may soon be opened up
to settlement, forcing a westward with-
drawal of the Motilones, if the Venezuelan
Government completes its plan to construct
a highway from Machiques to Encontrados
following the line of the eastern foothills of
the Perija.

If the penetration of their country con- |

tinues at the present rate, within the next
50 years the Motilones are apt to find
themselves not only hemmed in on all
sides, as at present, but also faced with the
graver problem of insufficient land to con-
tinue their basic subsistence. It seems likely
that the way of life of the surviving Moti-
lones will be quite different from that in the
still integrated and vigorous villages of the
Catatumbo, Rio de Oro, and Santa Ana
drainages. Whether the disintegration will
mean total extinction of the Motilones as a
people, or whether the large village units
will be broken up into small family units
such as we visited along the headwaters of
the Rio Tibu, can not be predicted. At any
rate, it is evident that despite a long history
of rather admirable resistance to penetra-
tion of their native land these people can-
not withstand the full force of modern
colonial expansion.

Despite, or because of, more than four
centuries of outside pressure the Motilones
have managed to maintain complete auton-
omy and isolation at every point except
in the highlands along the northerly and
northeasterly reaches of their territory.

During the past 35 years at least four —

Dec. 15, 1947

outsiders have managed to penetrate the
highland country and in some instances
have established fairly peaceful contact
with the Highland Motilones.’ Since we
could not visit these people the following
general and necessarily incomplete sum-
mary of their culture is based on the above
sources with additional personal communi-
cations from Reichel-Dolmatoff.

The Highland Motilones occupy the
mountainous areas of the Sierra de Perija
north and west of the Catatumbo-de Oro
drainage system above 2,000 feet. Many
of the apparent cultural differences between
them and the Valley Bottom Motilones
seem to stem directly out of the differing
ecological adjustments in the two areas of
occupation. At these higher altitudes the
lush jungle of the lower rivers changes its
character, and game, never abundant in the
lower country, is extremely scarce. The
rugged terrain limits the amount of land
available for horticulture, and the problem
of food becomes a matter of constant con-
cern and anxiety. The ruggedness of the
country impedes free mobility, and in the
absence of sophisticated agricultural tech-
niques the size of the constituent popula-
tion nuclei is restricted to the simple bio-
logical family unit, or at most a group of
three or four such units clustered together
in neighboring dwellings. The total popula-
tion of any village seldom exceeds 15.

The ‘“‘communal”’ house so characteristic
of the valley bottom people has never been
reported from the highlands. Instead, high-
land villages are composed of one to four
small houses, each of which maybe pali-
saded. All the villages are located with an
eye for defense, generally on some high
spur or level parkland of the mountains.
There is an effort to conceal the villages by
making no more of a clearing than is im-
mediately necessary for the construction of
a house.

It is impossible to obtain a complete

6 Bolinder, 1917 et seq.; de Booy, 1918; Reichel-
Dolmatoff, 1945; Battista Venturello, an itinerant

1}, photographer, took a series of photographs in

northern Highland Motilon country around 1942
which has not been published but is for sale in
curio shops in Bogota. A partial series is on file
at the Department of Anthropology, American

7), Museum of Natural History.

HOLDER: THE MOTILONES

423

picture of Highland Motilon social organi-
zation on the basis of extant descriptions.
All sources concur, however, in emphasing a
basic pattern of hostility between villages
which exists in spite of rules of village ex-
ogamy. One observer (Reichel-Dolmatoff,
1945, p. 69) postulates that these very
rules give rise to much of the continual
vendetta that is found in the hills. Raiding
for wives is evidently a common practice.
If other means of arranging marriages are
employed they apparently do not result in
intervillage alliances of any strength or
duration.

According to Reichel-Dolmatoff the
Highland Motilones are very inefficient
horticulturists. Although they have a
majority of the domesticated plants found
among the Valley Bottom Motilones, they
make no effort to utilize the rich, alluvial
flats so important in the land-utilization
patterns in the valleys. The gardens are
scattered in random windfall areas, and
there is little attempt to prepare and main-
tain large clearings. Even the considerable
weaving technology depends upon the
gathering of wild cotton (zbid., pp. 29, 33).
On the other hand, Bolinder’s evidence
gathered during 1914-15 indicates that
some type of large communal fields were
cleared in the stream beds.

The culture of these people may well be
more complex than available documents
suggest. Certainly they possess such fea-
tures as the vertical loom, the coca com-
plex, ponchos, a snake cult, pseudo-mum-
mification and handling of the dead, har-
vest ceremonies, and religious activities
correlated with the phases of the moon. It
is impossible to arrive at any accurate re-
construction of the total culture of the
Highland Motilones. All reports, however,
definitely convey the impression that the
Highland Motilones are a marginal subsis-
tence group, living under considerable
economic stress, in small scattered units
having little inner social cohesiveness and
no strong social or political ties with one
another. If this is the situation among the
Highland Motilones it is not surprising that
they seem to have such a confusing and
poorly integrated conglomeration of culture
elements which occur elsewhere to the

424

northwest and the southeast in somewhat
more meaningful contexts. Although they
share some traits with the more technologi-
cally advanced peoples of the Caribbean
littoral, we should conclude on this basis
that the Highland Motilones are a pe-
ripheral variant of the Valley Bottom
Motilones, a marginal enclave of a more
widely spread culture pattern which pre-
vails in the Amazon Basin.

Just as the ecological conditions of many
portions of the Amazon Basin to the south-
east are comparable to those in the inter-
montane drainage systems of the Rios
Catatumbo, de Oro, and Santa Ana, so too
the basic economy and the village life of
the Valley Bottom Motilones appear to
approximate those of the Amazonian
riverine horticulturists. The population
nucleus here is a group of 40 to 80 persons
living together in a permanent village,
which consists of a single, large, pole-and-
thatch communal house 50 to 80 feet long,
with its associated fields. The typical house
is located in the center of a 300-foot clearing
on the top of an easily defended spur rising
50 to 100 feet above the alluvial flats at its
base. Along the river bottom a mile or so
from the house are three or four garden
clearings, generally 300 to 400 feet in diam-
eter. The house itself is set back from the
river to give its occupants a controlling
view of it for some miles in either direction,
and the approaches to the house are beset
with ambush points. The house clearing is
a garden as well as a very effective barrier
against invaders armed with bows and ar-
rows.

The villages are spaced at intervals of
about 10 miles along the courses of the
rivers and their tributary creeks. The 10-
mile circle thus indicated probably repre-
sents a hunting range large enough to
supply the game necessary to supplement
the basic food crops of the villages. Women
apparently provide the mainstay of village
life by horticultural work. The men are
responsible for clearing, hunting, and the
protection of the village from aggressors.

In an appended trait list we have listed
the food crops. These are carefully tended,
and the gardens show evidence of con-
siderable labor. The defects of the slash-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 12

and-burn type of farming as practiced by
tropical horticulturists are well known;
fields are exhausted after no more than
five or six years, and new clearings must be
made in the jungle. Acquisition of steel
cutting tools by the Motilones on their
raids against encroaching settlers has made
the task of clearing somewhat less arduous,
but it still calls for a tremendous expendi-
ture of time and labor.’

Conditions of life are not easy. Construct-

ing fish weirs and traps and hunting with
bow and arrow the never-abundant game—
tapirs, sloths, wildcats, turkeys, bush hens,
monkeys, and small rodents—must occupy
a considerable portion of the men’s time.

In addition, there is the ever-present
problem of warfare. Motilon territory be-
comes progressively smaller as the Motilon
settlements move inward. A constantly
diminishing area of arable land and hunting
territory is available. In the face of in-
creasing outside pressure, if there were any
social foundation upon which confederacies
or even temporary military alliances could
be made we should expect them to appear
as they did under similar conditions among

the Iroquois, Dakota Sioux, Sahaptins, and

other groups in North America; some of
whom had even less political organization
upon which to base cooperative efforts.
Evidence from Amazonian horticulturists
and the data from Highland Motilones
suggest that the primary factor preventing
the development of confederacies is a basic
and thoroughgoing pattern of outgroup
aggression, which isolates the Valley Bot-
tom villages one from the other.®

Among the constituent villages of the
Valley Bottom Motilones intercourse may
be further complicated by considerable
linguistic diversity. The isolation of these
Motilones is so complete that no zone
of acculturation of any sort exists along the
southern and southeastern boundaries of
the Motilon territory. No outsider knows

7 We were able to estimate the time necessary
to clear a house circle and construct a house—
something under two months—with steel cutting
tools and probably using the labor of the entire
village.

8 An idea of the temporal depth to this picture
will be given in a forthcoming paper on the ar-
cheology of the area.

ea — =

Dec. 15, 1947

a word of Valley Bottom Motilon language.
We are, therefore, rather dubious of Rivet’s
sweeping inclusion of all Motilones in the
Carib linguistic stock. In our field work we
were able to make a few brief contacts with
small family units of Motilones in the hill
country around the headwaters of the Rio
Tibu. A word list obtained from them
showed a phonetic pattern unique for this
part of South America. Rather garbled
statements from a Motilon boy who was
captured more than seven years ago when
he was five years old indicate that dialecti-
cal variations exist between neighboring
Valley Bottom villages in the Rio de Oro
region.

Wartare is an important activity among
the Valley Bottom groups. Retaliation
against encroaching Europeans takes place
during the annual dry season hunts when
complete villages move far downstream on
balsa timber rafts to hunt alligator eggs
before they return overland to the village
sites and resume agricultural activities.
Sporadic attrition raids by smaller groups
plague oil installations on the eastern
border of the Valley Bottom territory.

All this warfare follows a consistent
pattern that not only reflects a sub-Neoli-
thic technological level but derives out of
the intense interest of the men in hunting.
Men do the fighting even when women ac-
company war parties. Their only weapons
are klack palm bows and cane arrows with
3- to 4-foot-long black palm points.’ The
manufacture and possession of arrows are
almost an obsession among all Motilones.
Raids conducted against Motilon villages

net upwards of 300 arrows and 40 or 50

bows from the ‘‘arsenal”’ of a single house.
Motilon tactics are those employed in
jungle warfare the world over: raid, ambush,
attrition, avoidance of pitched hand to
hand battle. Motilon raiding and ambush
parties are normally small and extremely
mobile, seldom numbering more than 20
individuals, often as few as 6. These groups

® Reichel-Dolmatoff notes a prevalence of fore-
shafted iron arrows of distinctive form among
the Highland Motilones. These are rare in col-
lections from the valley bottoms, and in both areas
are probably for hunting rather than war although
on at least one occasion a man was hit with an
arrow of this type in the Catatumbo region.

HOLDER. THE MOTILONES

425

exhibit a loose over-all coordination. The
constituent groups of three to four appear
free to operate in a particularistic fashion,
suggesting that the kinship ties of individ-
ual or constitutent families have greater
importance in the village than any control
imposed by the large, extended family.

From comparative data in the surround-
ing areas it is safe to assume that if rules of
village exogamy do exist among the Valley
Bottom groups they may have little perma-
nent effect on inter-village hostility pat-
terns. It is doubtful that even integrative
ceremonies for planting, harvest, or rites
of passage operated on an _ intervillage
level.

That the whole Motilon group should
have remained relatively unchanged during
the past 400 years is little short of amazing.
Certainly, their attitude toward outsiders is
one to discourage acculturation. Such a
situation is unique enough to command the
attention of modern anthropology. The
problems to be studied are obvious. The
whole question of cultural stability can be
examined here, in particular, the ability
of such technologically ‘‘poor’’ groups to
withstand outside aggression and influences
even when they are torn by severe inner
conflicts. Here is an exceptional opportu-
nity to study the functioning of a so-called
primitive group as it exists without in-
numerable “foreign”? elements. The under-
lying motives and processes of acculturation
might well be further illuminated and in
this instance it may be possible to witness
the transition of a group from conditions of
isolation and relative self-determination to
disintegration, extinction, or new orienta-
tion. The end result for the Motilones will
depend not only upon the factors at work
in the present situation but upon whether
modern social science can have construc-
tive application in a situation of severe
social conflict.

The severity of the Motilon ‘‘problem”’
from the standpoint of the encroaching
groups is certainly sufficient to encourage
other than punitive action on the part of
the various interests involved. It is con-
ceivable that the two Republics which
govern the territory will recognize the
value of assigning adequately trained resi-

426 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 12

SELECTED List oF CULTURE ELEMENTS

dent ethnographers to analyze the situation
§ enol y Founp AMONG THE MoTILONES

and make a practical application of their

: “ys x Presence demonstrated.
findings to actual field conditions. The NR RE ARIE ae
recent investigations by the Instituto (?) Presence probable, but not demonstrated.
Etnolégico Nacional of Colombia carried _ * Presence doubtful.

Valley Bottom Highland
x (Catatumbo) x

out by Reichel-Dolmatoff may be a step in — pjattorm beds............

this direction. More complete ethnographic Hammocks.............. x (Rio de Oro) =
studies of these Highland Motilones*would =u*Pensiom bridzes:>-: 8x) (sodaO1
i ; ‘ Communal dwellings...... x —
bennvaluable: Itsy however, the crucially, jee es ee 0)
situated Valley Bottom Motilones who Balsa timber rafts........ x =
constitute the only “untouched” group and pao ase iigict is ‘
who furnish the major problem in aggres- Face and body painting... (2) :
sion against outsiders. ee ae Sod eae a sta6 x x
Ourada contaliners......... x x

Thus far the only effort made to carry Tel Co eee eee ey
out a consistent and scientific study of the per Tibu)
Valley Bottom Motilones has been made ae (women)... ig x

e e MOM Gccobodbacndoaecs x x
possible through the cooperation of @ famine cannibalism...... ? s
private North American concern. The Col- Snake cult............... x (Riode Oro) x
ombian~ Petroleum’ Co., in sponsonme! the | 72 ne a5 tea - :
American Museum of Natural History’s Verticalloom............ (2) é
expedition, showed unusual foresight and Spindle at SITE
set a precedent for a manner in which these 37005 (men). se :
problems may be approached to avoid a Gape(women)..... 7.1! a x
repetition of the tragic failure of the ‘‘In- aes apron aectieS v x "e

° : : ubic apron (women)..... x x

dian policy” pursued by thes Wired) Seates: | aegn aeeesy ‘ 3

up to a fairly recent period. Mutseeas. Ace. eee ne x x
?

Although the results of the Museum’s seats arin Reh ane ick ie i
expedition were fundamentally negative Feather fire fan.......... (2) Neriber
from a classical ethnographic point of view, Tibu)
they did suggest the possibility of making oven Deadbands.------- A :
contact with these people along the lines Gatscradle.............. (2) b
followed by Curt Nimuendaju with the Ritual bullroarer......... (2) x

esips : : Double end stickcomb.... (?) x
Parantintin of Brazil (Baldus, 1946). Itis 3.4 te Oe [
hoped that applied anthropology has now Bamboo quivers.......--- x A
advanced far enough to command the sear SUC E Aas x :
° ° Inlature Dird arrows..... aa
authority necessary to prevent ASSTESSIOMS: |) Gaye eg es ees i ss
by the encroaching groups if ‘‘peace” could “Harpoon” arrows........ x x
be established with the Motilones. Other- = NE Ser Read z: z
wise there might well be a repetition of the fron triangular points... . s a
Parantintin tragedy. ak eel Hiei Se : ;

The primary diticulty invany programot (2. sees heh é z |
making contact with the Valley Bottom “ax” fute............... (2) :
Motilones is, of course, that there is no Pamvipes............-.. (2) x
hi i Seas Thy Motil AMwowleyeththise pace aa coo (?) X

trade language’’ in the otilon area. pottery vessels... 3 i
Furthermore the language of the Valley Tobacco pipes............ (2) x
Bottom Motilones is unrecorded and un- Lake BB 35 Phe ‘
known. The language of the Highland Moti- potatoes... @) i
lones may’ prove to be intelligible to the Corn.................... (2) x
Vall Bottom groups. Once an opening of Sweet Manmloea... . .e aetoe x x

a ¥ pe pS. Bananas and plantains.... x x
this sort 1s found, the way can be’open tora “peanet, ot es (2) <
scientific study of some 1,000 to 1,500 Suearcane............... x x

: pee Pineapplene joe ee x x
completely untouched American aborig- peed edo Rae meee - %

ines. Peppers cikaeenve chs see x x

JAHN, ALFREDO.

Dec. 15, 1947

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anonymous. The incredible Barco. Fortune
Mag. 21 (38): 76-83. 1940.

Baupus, HprBerT. Curt Nimuendaju. Amer.
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BoLinDER, Gustav. LHinzges iiber die Motilon-
Indianer der Swerra Perid. Zeitschr. fiir
Ethnol. 49: 21-51. 1917.

. De Codazzi a Maracaibo. Informe al

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1937.

. Over Anderna till Manastera pa in-
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CASTELLANOS, JUAN DE. Elegias de varones
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Espafioles, Madrid, 1850.

De Booy, T. The people of the mist. Mus.
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Ernst, A. Motilonen-Schddel aus Venezuela.
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. Die Sprache der Motilonen. Zeitschr.
fir Ethnol. 19: 376-378. 1887.

Frsres CorpDERO, Luis. Del antiguo Ciucuta.
Citicuta, Colombia, 1918.

FLotTas Y SEPULVEDA, B. DE. [Letter headed]
Sobre la... conquista...de las tterras
hostiizadas por los indios ... metilones
desde... Santa Marta hasta... Caracas.
Rey. Arch. Nac. 6 (61, 62): 1438-164.
Bogota, 1944.

Isaacs, J. LHstudio sobre las tribus indigenas
del Magdalena. Anal. Instr. Publica Co-
lombia 3. 1884.

IzikowiTz, Karu Gustav. Musical and other
sound instruments ef the South American
Indians; a comparatwe ethnographical
study. G6teborgs Kungl. Vet.- och Vitt.-
Samh. Handl., 5th foljden, ser. A, Band 5,
No. 1. 1935.

Los aborigenes del occidente
de Venezuela.... Caracas, 1927.

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Mfrraux, ALFRED, and KIRCHHOFF, PAUL.
The northeastern extension of Andean cul-
ture. In Handbook of South American
Indians, Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 1438,
4: 349-368. (In press.)

Nicouas DE LA Rosa, Josk. Floresta de la
Santa Iglesia Catedral della ciudad y
y provincia de Santa Marta. Biblioteca de
Escritores Costefios 1. Barranquilla, 1945.

NoteEstTeIn, F.G., rT au. Geology of the Barco
Concession. Republic of Colombia, South
America. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 55: 1165-—
1216. 1944.

OvinEpo y Banos, Josk bE. Historia de la
conquista y poblacién de la provincia de.
Venezuela, pt. 1. Madrid, 1885. (Other

editions: Caracas, 1932, 1935, 1941;
Madrid, 1732, .1824)
REICHEL-DotmMatTorrF, G. Los Indios Mo-

tilones. Rev. Inst. Etnol. Nac. 2 (1).
Bogota, 1945.

SaLtas, JuLtio C. Etnologia e historia de
Tierra-Firme (Venezuela y Colombia).
Madrid, 191(?).

Simon, PepRo. Noticias historiales de la con-
quistas de Tierra Firme en las Indias Occi-
dentales, 5 vols. Bogotd, 1882-92. (See
also translations of portions in Hakluyt
Society, No. 28, ‘‘The Expedition of Pedro
de Ursua and Lope de Aguirre in Search
of El Dorado and Omaqua, 1560-61.”

VAZQUEZ DE Espinosa, ANTONIO. Compen-
dium and descrintion of the West Indies.
(Translated by Charles Upson Clark.)
Smithsonian Mise. Coll. 102: xii +862 pp.
1942.

Witcox, H. C. An exploration of the Rio de
Oro, Colombia-Venezuela. Geogr. Rev. 21:
372-383. 1921.

Yepres, A. F. Anotaciones sobre los Indios
Rionegros de .Perijdé, Venezuela. Acta
Americana 3 (1, 2): 64-70. 1945.

BOTAN Y.—Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera, I: A Synopsis of Wil-
lardia.* FREDERICK J. HERMANN, U. 8. Department of Agriculture.

The relationship of the leguminous genus
Willardia, of the tribe Galegeae, charac-
terized by the possession of dehiscent pods,
with Lonchocarpus, of the tribe Dalber-
gieae, Which have indehiscent fruits, would
not appear to be very close. The resem-
blance of the two groups is so great, how-
ever, particularly in the flowering or in the
merely vegetative condition, that an ob-
server as astute as Bentham (2) erroneously
referred to Lonchocarpus two species which,
when subsequently collected in the fruiting

1 Received June 17, 1947.

stage, proved to belong to Willardia; and no
less than five additional arborescent le-
gumes from Mexico and Central America
described by other authors as Lonchoearpi
now appear to be logically assigned to
Wullardia. A brief synopsis of Willardia,
heretofore supposed to comprise but three
species, may consequently be useful.

The genus Willardia was established by
J.N. Rose (2) in 1891, its basis being Sereno
Watson’s Coursetia mexicana, which had
been described from fruiting material alone.
Rose pointed out that additional speci-
mens in flower showed the plant to be

428

amply distinct from Coursetva in its “trun-
cate” calyx and glabrous style. In 1905
Rose (3) added a second species to the
genus, Willardia parviflora. Standley (4),
in his T'rees and shrubs of Mexico (1922),
transferred Bentham’s Lonchocarpus erio-
phyllus to Willardia and provided a key to
the three species of the genus then known.
The most recent account of the group ap-
peared in North American Flora in 1924,
wherein Rydberg (4) presented a compre-
hensive treatment of the three species.

In current studies of the Mexican and
central American material of Lonchocarpus
from the U. 8. National Herbarium and the
Chicago Natural History Museum by the
writer it was noted that an excellent series
of collections by Hinton of Lonchocarpus
obovatus Benth. included several specimens
bearing pods that had a decidedly uncon-
ventional aspect for Lonchocarpus. In con-
trast with fruits characteristic of this genus,
highly variable though they are, these pods
were almost marginless with the epidermis
conspicuously marked by elongated resin
ducts. Both of these features are possessed
by the legumes of Waullardia, and closer
inspection revealed the fact that several of
the oldest pods showed the beginning of
dehiscence. From comparison of the floral
and vegetative morphology with that of the
latter genus the Hinton collections were
found to fall well within its limits, while
their comparison with a fragment (consist-
ing of a flower and a leaflet) of the type in
the U. 8. National Herbarium and with a
photograph of the complete type specimen
of Lonchocarpus obovatus showed them to
be an excellent match with it.

The tardily dehiscent pods of species of
Willardia leads to their frequent confusion,
even during most of the fruiting stage, with
Lonchocarpus. A second instance of such
misidentification appears in the case of
Harms’s Lonchocarpus argyrotrichus. Col-
lections by Hinton again proved to be the
solution here. His flowering specimen, 8059
(distributed as Willardia ertophylla), agrees
in all essential points with the type collec-
tion of Lonchocarpus argyrotrichus, but
mature pods collected seven months earlier
from the same plant are plainly dehiscent.

Such differences as could be found be-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 12

tween Lonchocarpus lindsayi Standl., re-
cently described from Panama, and L.
calderont Standl., of El Salvador, appear to
be wholly quantitative, so that L. lindsayi
seems better regarded as a geographic
variety of the latter. L. calderoni, however,
is apparently identical with L. salvinii
Harms, described from Guatemala, which,
in turn, differs in no essential character
from the Mexican Robinia schiedeana
Schlecht. Schlechtendal’s species was
transferred to Lonchocarpus by Harms at
the same time that he proposed L. salviniz,
from which he believed it differed ‘durch
etwas kleinere Kelche und zartere meist
einbliitige, selten zwerbliitige Peduncult.”’
Measurements of a large series of calyces,
however, fail to substantiate any difference
in size, and the slenderer, mostly 1-flow-
ered, seldom 2-flowered, peduncles of the
type of Robinia schiedeana are to be as-
eribed to the greater maturity of the speci-
men: fruiting material of L. salvinia displays
conspicuously elongated peduncles upon
which more than one pod is only rarely
developed. In none of the material de-
scribed under the above names are the wing
petals adherent to the keel, as they are in
Lonchocarpus: the distinctly cyathiform
caleyces would be another anomaly in that
genus; and although the fruiting specimens
do not have pods old enough for dehiscence
to have begun, they are characteristically
those of Willardia, the resin ducts being
quite conspicuous.

The transfer to Waillardia of the three
species considered to be distinct in the
above discussion results in doubling the
number of species so far known in this
genus.

TAXONOMIC TREATMENT

Willardia Rose, Contr. U. 8. Nat. Herb. 1: 97.
1891. Type species: Coursetia mexicana
S. Wats.

KEY

Corolla 6-15 mm long, glabrous or glabrate; ma-
ture leaflets glabrous to sparsely pilose; pods
glabrous to puberulent or sericeous.

Pods narrow (9-12 mm wide), the margins
plainly thickened.
Corolla 6-7 mm long; leaflets 11-21, very |
small (8-16 mm long); pods glabrous

Fae RR err ih (R.A ce tn 1. W. parviflora

Dec. 15, 1947

Corolla 10-15 mm long (in W. schtedeana var.
lindsayi 8.5—9.5 mm); leaflets 5-12 (15),
larger, 20-45 mm long (sometimes only
10 mm in W. schiedeana var. lindsay);
pods glabrous to silky-strigose.

Pods glabrous, abruptly contracted into a
stipe; corolla 8.5-11 mm long.......
eT en ee a ene 2. W. schiedeana

Pods sericeous, long-tapering at the base;
corolla 12-15 mm long.3. W. mexicana

Pods broader (138-18 mm wide), the margins
scarcely evident........... 4. W. obovata
Corolla 20-23 mm long, at least the banner
densely pubescent; mature leaflets silky-
strigose to velutinous; pods velutinous.
Leaflets 11-23, relatively small (15-85 by 8-10

mm); pubescence of calyx and corolla

tomentose to velutinous; pods 9-13 by 1.3

em, thin, velutinous......5. W. errophylla

Leaflets 7-9, larger (80-75 by 15-30 mm);
pubescence of calyx and corolla sericeous;
pods 8-13.5 by 1.7—2.3 em., thick and rigid,
densely velutinous to lanate............
5S, 6 ess ee ea 6. W. argyrotricha

1. Willardia parviflora Rose, Contr. U. S.
Nat. Herb. 8: 313. 1905.

Type locality: Yautepec, State of Morelos,
Mexico, Pringle 8470.

Distribution: Lava fields and dry, sunny
fields, Yautepec, and between Cuernavaca
and Alpuyeca, Morelos.

Representatives: I. K. Langman 3516;

Pringle 8470, 11347; Rose & Painter 6576.

2. Willardia schiedeana (Harms) Hermann,
comb. nov. Robinia schiedeana Schlecht.,
Linnaea 12: 306. 1838. Lonchocarpus schiedea-
- nus Harms, Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov. 17: 324.
1921. Lonchocarpus salvinii Harms, l.c. 323
(type: Voledn de Fuego, Guatemala, Salvin in
1873-74). | Lonchocarpus calderont Standl.,
Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 15: 476. 1925
(type: Cerro de Guayabal, El Salvador, S.
Calderén 22022).

Type locality: Between Veracruz and Santa
Fé, Mexico Schiede 621 (Field Mus. photo no.
18406).

Distribution: Forests and clearings, State
of Veracruz, Mexico, Guatemala and ° El
Salvador.

Representatives: Calderén 1979, 2022; Salvin
in 1873-74; Standley 58059, 64752, 64872.

2a. Willardia schiedeana var. lindsayi
(Standl.) Hermann, comb. nov. Lonchocarpus
lindsayt Standl., Field Mus. Publ. Bot. 17 (2):
195. 1937.

HERMANN: SYNOPSIS OF WILLARDIA

429

Type locality: Bejuco, Canal Zone, Panama,

W. L. Lindsay 446. :

Distribution: Known only from the type
locality.

Representatives: W. L. Lindsay 399, 446.

Differs from the typical form in its smaller
leaflets (10-25 by 7-13 mm), slightly smaller
corolla (8.5—-9.5, rather than 10-11, mm long),
and particularly in its short pods (3-5.5,
rather than 5.5—-8, cm in length).

3. Willardia mexicana (8S. Wats.) Rose,
Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 1: 98. 1891: Coursetia
(2?) mexicana 8. Wats., Proc. Amer. Acad. 21:
424. 1886.

Type locality: Hacienda San Miguel, Chi-
huahua, Mexico, LE. Palmer ‘‘C”’.

Distribution: Forested slopes, southeastern
Chihuahua, Sonora and Sinaloa, Mexico.

Representatives: Gentry 1446, 2205; Ortega
4556, 6217, 5602; Palmer “‘C’’, 332, 717.

4, Willardia obovata (Benth.) Hermann,
comb. nov. Lonchocarpus obovatus Benth.,
Journ. Linn. Soc. 4: Suppl. 92. 1860.

Type locality: Chilla, Puebla,
Andrieux 440.

Distribution: Dry hills, barraneas, and llanos
States of Michoacén and Mexico to Puebla and
Guerrero, Mexico.

Representatives: Andrieux 440; Hinton 3742,
5523, 5937, 5942, 5946, 6290, 6958, 6959, 7041.

The leaflets in this species (5 to 9 in number)
are extremely variable in outline and vesture.
Ranging from 1.6—-4.5 cm by 0.9-2.5 em in
size, they are commonly ovate-elliptic with
tapering base and obtuse apex, but in Hinton
6290, for example, they are predominately
orbicular-ovate to broadly ovate (the terminal
generally obovate) with emarginate apices,
whereas in Hinton 6959 they are elliptic to
oblanceolate with acute apices. These varia-
tions do not appear to be correlated with the
season, as does the vesture. Very young leaflets
are usually densely sericeous, especially be-
neath, but at maturity they become completely
glabrous. The pods (6-15 em by 1.3-1.8 em)
are elliptic to oblong, long-tapering at both
ends, thin, very flat, and at first finely ap-
pressed-sericeous with a marked silvery sheen
but becoming glabrate and tawny-brown.

Mexico,

5. Willardia eriophylla (Benth.) Standl.,
Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 23: 483. 1922. Loncho-

430

carpus errophyllus Benth., Journ. Linn. Soe. 4:
Suppl. 94. 1860.

Type locality: Chilla,
Mexico, Andrieuxz 439. —

Distribution: Lava fields and rocky gulches,
States of Puebla, Morelos, and Guerrero,
Mexico.

Representatives:
8987, 11848.

State of Puebla,

Langlassé 236; Pringle

6. Willardia argyrotricha (Harms) Hermann,
comb. nov. Lonchocarpus argyrotrichus Harms,
Fedde Rep. Spec. Nov. 17: 320. 1921.

Type locality: Near Tlaxmalac, District of
Hidalgo, State of Guerrero, Mexico, Seler 4276

Distribution: Hills, States of Mexico and
Guerrero, Mexico.

Representatives: Hinton 7085, 8059; E. W.
Nelson 2043; Seler 4276.

In addition to the characters given in the
foregoing key for the hitherto undescribed
pods. represented in Hinton 7085, it may be
mentioned that they are approximately oblong

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 12

in outline, thick-margined, especially the
vexillar suture, deep tan in color, and 1-3-
seeded (seed 13 by 9 mm, semilunate, dark
mahogany-red). The blades of the leaflets,
borne on petiolules 6-8 mm long, are strigose
above and somewhat appressed-pilose be-
neath; in Hinton 7085 (in fruit) they are ob-
lanceolate, tapering at the base, with an
abruptly acuminate apex (45-63 mm by 18-22
mm), whereas in Hinton 8059 (same tree in
flower) they are oval-elliptic, rounded at the
base, and obtuse at the apex (75 by 30 mm).

LITERATURE CITED

1. BentHAM, GrorGE. Journ. Linn. Soe. 4:

Suppl. 1-138. 1860.

2. Rose, J..N; Contr: US. Naetesaeroe i:
97. 1891.

3. Rosz, J. N.> Contre-U.as. Nai erosas)
313. 1905.

4, Stanpitey, P. C. Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb.
23: 483. 1922. |

5. Rypsperc, P. A. North American Flora 24
(4): 2384-235. 1924.

ENTOMOLOGY.—A new species of Pristoceuthophilus from Oregon, and remarks
on certain special glands of Orthoptera (Gryllacrididae; Rhaphidophorinae) .:
ASHLEY B. Gurney, U. S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.
(Communicated by R. E. BLACKWELDER.)

The genus Pristoceuthophilus occurs in
Mexico and the western parts of the United
States and Canada. The species superfi-
cially resemble those of the well-known
genus Ceuthophilus but differ conspicuously
in that males of most species bear large
spines, tubercles, or other distinctive struc-
tures on the dorsum of the abdomen. There
are additional differences between the two
genera, such as the crenulations of the
ovipositor of Pristoceuthophilus, rather than
distinct teeth which rarely are absent in
Ceuthophilus, and the absence in Ceutho-
philus of a basal, ventral, sensory seta on
each tarsal claw. My friend Borys Malkin,
of the University of Oregon, has recently
sent to the National Museum specimens of
a new species of Pristoceuthophilus, which
has the dorsum of the male abdomen
specialized in a very ornate and remarkable
manner. The only previously described
species which approaches the new one in

1 Received May 22, 1947.

dorsal specialization is gaigec Hubbell, 1925,
described from the Olympic Mountains,
Mason County, Wash. Although there is no
definite information concerning the benefits
which these insects may derive from the
specialized abdominal structures, glandular
activity may be involved, and a discussion
of such functions in related Orthoptera is
included to point out the nature of this
possibility.

My appreciation is extended to Mr.
Malkin for making this interesting species
available for study; also to my colleague
Arthur D. Cushman, for preparing the
illustrations.

Pristoceuthophilus sargentae, n. sp.
Figs. 1-5

Male (holotype).—General size about av-
erage for genus. Head with fastigium extending
in front of eyes, moderately less elongate and
acute than in celatus (Sc.). Antenna delicate,
slender, with about 130 segments (plus a few
lost apical ones). .

—

fin dri me

| Dec. 15, 1947 GURNEY: A NEW SPECIES OF PRISTOCEUTHOPHILUS 431

WEF

YS)

——_

WU PY,
OO

RI

me SOAS wi

Ns

a
a
BZ
Z

Fies. 1-5.—Pristoceuthophilus sargentae, n. sp.: 1, Holotype, lateral view (left hind leg missing);
2, same, externolateral view of right hind leg; 3, same, posterior view of Hubbell’s organ; 4, same,

dorsal view (legs and antennae not shown); 5, allotype, lateral view of ovipositor. (Drawings by
Arthur D. Cushman.)

432

Thorax as figured; metanotum with about 12
tubercles, varying from low to indistinct, on
ventroposterior portion of each side. Front
femur unarmed. Front tibia with 3 small spurs
on each ventral margin, distal one scarcely
more than half the length of 2 basal ones; 2
apical spurs on each side, dorsal one two-thirds
the length of ventral one, ventral apical spur
slightly longer and stouter than basal spur of
ventral tibial margin. Middle femur with 2
(right femur) or 3 (left) spurs, varying from
minute to small, on each ventral margin;
genicular lobe of posterior surface with a single
spur. Middle tibia with 2 (right) or 3 (left)
staggered dorsal spurs and 3 pairs of ventral
spurs; 2 apical spurs on each side, dorsal one
about three-fourths the length of ventral one.
Hind femur with short, acute tooth at apex of
each ventral carina, preceded by 6 (anterior)
or 9 (posterior) serrations which decrease in
size toward base of femur; genicular lobe un-
armed. (Left hind leg lost.) Hind tibia straight,
with 5 pairs of dorsal spurs, interspersed with
numerous serrations; apex armed on each side
with 2 small ventral spurs, a medium sized one
at extreme apex and a dorsal one twice the
length of apical one, posterior dorsal spur
slightly longer than anterior one and three-
fifths dorsal length of basal tarsal segment.

Abdomen with terga I-VIII armed with
blunt tubercles and long, conical spines as
figured; basic arrangement of spines and tu-
bercles 2 rows per tergum, a partial third row
on tergum I, anterior row lacking on terga VII
and VIII, development on median portion of
terga obsolete; posterior row of tubercles de-
veloped nearly to ventral margin on terga I-III,
extending decreasingly short of ventral margin
on succeeding terga; armature of tergum VIII
reduced to 1 small and 2 obsolete posterior
tubercles each side of median line. Tergum IV
bears a large median structure with a subovate
anterior portion covering entire median portion
of III and posterior margin of II; a posterior
development of this organ vertical, shelflike,
covering median portion of V and anterior
margin of VI; this organ well sclerotized (with
exception of region of median constriction,
shown pale in illustrations), anterior half
smooth and shining, posterior half minutely
roughened, traces of what may be secretory
pores at point of maximum constriction. Cercus
with basal two-thirds unsegmented, this por-

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 12

tion terminated medially by a densely pubes-
cent, hemispherical knob, apical third compris-

ing 5 segments. Supra-anal plate triangular, —

longitudinally grooved. Ventral aedeagal lobe

membranous, covered medially with short,

stout spinules. Subgenital plate simple, broadly
emarginate apically, each lateral posterior
angle bearing a short, simple style.

Coloration: Pattern of dorsal surface as in
Fig. 4, with dark areas of black grading on
lateral portions of nota into russet and, at
ventral extremities of nota, into gray mottled
with dark spots; pale areas of vertex and nota
amber yellow; fastigium black with a pale gray
transverse band midway of its length; spines
and tubercles of terga mustard yellow, a few
dark brown at base, some short ones, partic-
ularly on tergum I, entirely dark; special organ
of IV cinnamon-buff; antennae ochraceous-
orange in basal third, annulate with occasional
pale brown segments, the latter more numerous
apically, giving a predominantly brown color,
with pale annulations at intervals. Ground
color of legs predominantly dark purplish gray,
spotted and streaked with lighter color varying
from amber yellow to straw yellow; tarsi
mainly amber yellow.

Measurements (length in millimeters) : Body,
11.5; antenna, approximately 28; pronotum,
3.3; front femur, 4.5; hind femur, 9.4; hind
tibia, 10.5; cercus, 2.8.

Female (allotype).—General form as in male;
somewhat larger and more robust (though body
is Shorter due to different position) ; differing as
follows: Front femur with small subapical spur
on ventroanterior margin; middle femur with
minute subapical spur on ventroposterior mar-
gin, otherwise unarmed except for posterior
genicular spur (right middle leg lost); hind
femur without apical teeth on ventral carinae,
about 6 (anterior) and 9 (posterior) serrations
on apical third of carinae; posterior dorsal
spur of apical group on hind tibia seven-eighths
dorsal length of basal tarsal segment. Thorax
and abdomen simple, normal for females of
genus. Cercus unspecialized, obsolete segmenta-
tion indicated on apical half. Subgenital plate
simple, the apex broadly and evenly rounded.
Ovipositor smooth, shining; lower valve with 9
ventral crenulations on apical fifth (Fig. 5).

Coloration: Nota with a median, longitudinal
pencil stripe of ivory yellow; pale areas not
confluent as in male, consisting of general

Dec. 15, 1947

sprinkling of amber-yellow spots on dark back-
ground. Terga spotted as on nota. Ovipositor
empire yellow, basal fourth somewhat paler.
Antennae darker than in male. Coloration
otherwise essentially as in male.

Measurements (length in millimeters): Body,
11.0; pronotum, 3.6; front femur, 4.9; hind
femur, 10.0; hind tibia, 11.6; cercus, 3.0; ovi-
positor, 6.0. 5

Nymphs.—There are 2 male and 5 female
nymphs, varying in body length from 7 to 10
mm (hind femur, 6-7 mm). Males show traces
of dorsal tubercles, no sign of organ on tergum
IV. Dorsal color pattern essentially as in male
type, in one female varying toward that of allo-
type. Antennae brown, with pale annulations
at intervals.

Type locality— Oregon Skyline Trail, Three
Sisters Primitive Area, Lane County, Oreg.
(elevation 5,700—6,000 feet).

Type.—Male, U.S.N.M. no. 58319.

The male type, female allotype, and seven
immature specimens were collected August 18,
1946, on the Oregon Skyline Trail about 3 miles
from Frog Camp. (Collectors: Samuel Sargent,
Mrs. Sargent, Borys Malkin.) This part of the
trail is sometimes called Obsidian Trail. Mr.

Malkin writes that more than 20 specimens
were seen, scattered from 1 to 6 feet above
ground, all under the loose bark of a single
standing tree. Only the specimens here reported
were captured. The tree was believed by him
to be the mountain hemlock (T'suga merten-
- stana (Bong) Sarg.), of which there is a large
stand in the vicinity, or possibly the silver (or
lovely) fir (Abies amabilis (Dougl.) Forbes).
The tree is located at a point on the trail just
before the latter turns and follows the first
lava flow from the Middle Sister. (The Three
Sisters are the remnants of extinct volcanoes,
each said to have been originally more than
10,000 feet high.)

The species is named in honor of Mrs.
Samuel Sargent, whose enthusiasm for collect-
ing, together with that of her husband, con-
tributed significantly to the discovery of this
unusual camel-cricket.

This species is most closely related to gazger,
from which it differs noticeably in the shape
of the dorsal organ of tergum IV. This organ
in gaiger does not overlap III anteriorly, and
only slightly over V posteriorly. The median
posterior spines of terga V—VII of gaigez are

GURNEY: A NEW SPECIES OF PRISTOCEUTHOPHILUS

433

distinct, much larger than the obsolete ones of
sargentae. The latter is a somewhat larger
species than gazgei. The cerci do not differ from
those of cercalis Caudell but are more slender
than those of tuberculatus Caudell. With the
exception of gaiger and tuberculatus, the
straight hind tibia of sargentae separates it from
most species of Pristoceuthophilus. P. tubercula-
tus differs in the specialization of the terga, as
well as in the more robust cerci.

Since the original description in 1903,
Pristoceuthophilus has been compared with
Ceuthophilus and related genera by Caudell
(1916) and Hubbell (1936). Only arizonae
Hebard (1935) and gaigei have been described
since 1916. The former differs from most other
species in the smooth dorsum of the male ab-
domen. Karny (1937) published a list of species,
but it appears fairly certain that several of the
11 species he recognized are synonyms. Hub-
bell (1932) has pointed out that the unique
type of rhoadst Rehn, the Mexican genotype, is
immature, so it is possible that the other
species now included in Pristoceuthophilus will
eventually be found to represent a distinct
genus.

The dorsal abdominal organ of the adult
males of gaigei and sargentae is of a type unique
in gryllacridids, so far as I am aware, and it
establishes these species as two of the truly
remarkable Nearctic Orthoptera. I propose to
call this special organ Hubbell’s organ? in recog-
nition of the searching, comprehensive studies
on Orthoptera conducted by ‘T. H. Hubbell,
who first described this structure in gazgev.
Until further studies are made, we can only
speculate concerning the function, if any, of
Hubbell’s organ. Perhaps it is the result of an
evolutionary development which did not in-
volve function, merely bizarre shape. It seems
more likely, however, that glandular activity is
associated with the organ, or that such has at
one time been the case in the evolution of these
insects, though only the functionless structure
may now remain.

An unusual type of tergal specialization was

2 Uvarov (1943) has applied the name Krauss’s
organ to a specialized structure of unknown func-
tion, though suspected of being sensory, found in
both sexes of most grasshoppers of the subfamily
Pamphaginae. The organ consists of a shallow
chamber, covered by a sclerotized plate bearing
tubercles or ridges, located on each side of the
body in the ventro-anterior part of tergum II.

434

described by Hebard (1939) in Salishella
mirabilis, a then new genus and species of
Rhaphidophorinae from Pierce, Idaho. The
male has two conspicuous transverse ridges on
each of the basal 7 terga, one ridge median,
the other at the posterior margin. It is barely
possible that the origin of these ridges is akin
to that of the specialization of Pristoceutho-
philus, though the appearance of the two
genera is quite different. Because of the likeli-
hood that function may be associated with
Hubbell’s organ, the following information on
the specialized physiology of certain Orthop-
tera is given with the hope that it will stimu-
late future students to make anatomical or
life-history studies of Pristoceuthophilus.

NOTES ON THE SPECIAL GLANDS
OF CERTAIN ORTHOPTERA

With the possible exception of mantids,
all major families of Orthoptera contain
certain species that possess specialized
glands, usually on the thorax or abdomen,
which serve either to attract the female at
time of mating or to protect the insect from
enemies by virtue of repugnatorial qualities.
Among the best-known examples are the
metanotal glands (glands of Hancock) of
Oecanthus males (tree crickets) and the
tergal glands of Blattella males (German
cockroach and relatives), which attract
females, and the prothoracic glands of
Anisomorpha which enable this large walk-
ingstick to eject a milky fluid that is ex-
tremely painful to the human eye (see
Stewart, 1937, Maynard, 1889). A good
general treatment of these glands, as found
in Orthoptera, is that of Chopard (1938),
who includes references to the more impor-
tant of the fairly numerous papers dealing
with special glands of Gryllacrididae and
Tettigoniidae, as well as those of other
families. Packard (1898) has discussed de-
fensive glands of insects as a whole.

Males of at least two genera of Gryllacri-
didae (Troglophilus, Hadenoecus) have
glands, ordinarily concealed beneath the
body wall, which occasionally are everted
and extruded between certain of the terga.
In other genera (Dolichopoda, Tachycines)
glands have been reported which are located
in the region of intersegmental membranes
of the terga and are attractive to females,

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, NO. 12

though extrusion may not occur. Hancock
(1905) reported an eversible gland which
he found protruded between terga III and
IV of the male of Oecanthus.

Seven or more genera of Tettigoniidae
emit fluid from special openings in the body
wall or from intersegmental membranes of
the body or legs. Frequently the fluid is
merely the blood of the insect, but in other
cases glands secrete special fluids, though
in either type defense appears to be the
primary function in the majority of species.
An example of what may be a combination
of defense and sexual attraction is furnished
by Bradyporus multituberculatus Fisch.-
Waldh., a clumsy inhabitant of the un-—
cultivated Russian steppes which some-
what resembles the Mormon cricket, Ana-
brus, in general habitus. Boldyrev (1928)
has studied this species in detail. In both
sexes there are slits borne on raised longi-
tudinal ridges on the pronotum, metanotum
and terga I-IX. Blood from within the body
is ejected from these slits, sometimes to a
distance of about 5 inches, but the ejection
is definitely associated with the application
of pressure to the sides of the body. This
occurs when the insect is seized, and from
males when females climb upon them dur-
ing mating. While mating, the female often
bites pieces from the hind margin of the
pronotum, and, as the pressure starts the
flow of blood, drinks it greedily.

The male of a Palearctic phaneropterine
katydid, Isophya acuminata Brunn., has a
specialized heart-shaped area in the middle
of tergum I which bears short glandular
hairs arranged in two broad longitudinal
rows. The remaining surface of the tergum
is smooth. Engelhardt (1915) has described
the histology of this organ, which he be-
lieves is comparable to the metanotal glands
of male Oecanthus, though of a much simp-
ler structure. He says the female of acumz-
nata applies her mouth to the glandular
hairs during mating. The hairs are associ-
ated with secretory cells located in the body
wall. There is no special reservoir for the
fluid, which simply gathers among the
hairs when glandular activity is stimulated.

So far as I know, no New World tetti-
goniid has been shown to have special
glands or adaptations for emitting fluid

Dec. 15, 1947

either as a means of defense or an attraction
for the opposite sex. The products of sec-
ondary sexual glands in the perianal region
or those of regurgitation are in another
category.

It is the habit of many female Orthoptera
to eat the spermatophore after it has been

| attached to her body by the male. Boldyrev
| (1914) has stressed the importance of

protecting the spermatophore of Gryllidae
and Tettigoniidae after mating until the
spermatozoa have passed into the female’s
body. Substances produced by the male
which are attractive to the female fre-
quently serve to prevent her from con-
suming the spermatophore quickly. It is
probable that in the long course of evolution
an important impetus toward the success-
ful development and survival of certain
species has been supplied by the functions
of the specialized male glands discussed in
the foregoing paragraphs.

LITERATURE CITED

(References to subject matter of present
paper annotated where pertinent)

BoutpyREv, B. T. Contributions a l’étude de la
structure des spermatophores et des particu-
lariés de la copulation chez Lecustodea et
Gryllodea. Horae Soc..Ent. Rossicae 41 (6):
1-245, illus. 1914. (In Russian, with
French summary.)

. Biological studies on Bradyporus

multituberculatus F. W. (Orth., Tettig.).

Kos 4: 138-56, illus. 1928.

Caupewt, A. N. The genera of the tettigoniid

insects of the subfamily Rhapidophorinae
found in America north of Mexico. Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 49: 655-690, illus. 1916.
(Synopsis of Pristoceuthophilus included.)
CuHoparp, L. La biologie des _ orthopteres.
Encyclopédie Entomologique 20: 541 pp.,

illus. Paris, 1938. (Glands of Hancock
discussed, pp. 145-151; defensive glands,
pp. 354-363.)

ENGELHARDT, V. On the structure of the

alluring gland of Isophya acuminata
~Br.-W. Bull. Soc. Ent. Moscou 1: 58-63,
illus. 1915. (In Russian.)

Hancock, J. L. The habits of the striped
meadow cricket (Oecanthus fasciatus Fitch).

GURNEY: A NEW SPECIES OF PRISTOCEUTHOPHILUS

435

Amer. Nat. 49 (457): 1-11, illus. 1905.
(Metanotal organ of male discussed and,
pp. 9-10, the eversible gland between
terga III and IV.)

HesparpD, Morcan. Studves in the Orthoptera
of Arizona. Part 1: New genera, species and
geographic races. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soe.
61: 111-158, illus. 1935. (P. arizonae
described.)

Studies in Orthoptera which occur in

North America north of the Mexican bound-

ary. XI. New genera and species of and

critical notes on previously known Gryl-

lacrididae. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 65:
183-191, illus. 1939. (Salzshella de-
scribed.)

Husspewut, T. H. A new species of Pristo-
ceuthophilus from the Olympic Mountains,
Wash. Pan-Pacific Ent. 2: 39-42, fig.
1925. (Description of P. gaigei.)

. [Rhaphidophorinae], pp. 344-353. In

Hebard, Morgan, 1932, New species and

records of Mexican Orthoptera. Trans.

Amer. Ent. Soc. 58: 201-371, illus. 19382.

(Note on P. rhoadst.)

. A monographic revision of the genus

Ceuthophilus (Orthoptera, Gryllacrididae,

Rhaphidophorinae). Florida Univ. Publ.,
Biol’ Ser. 2) (1): 1-551, allus. 1936.
(Pristoceuthophilus defined in key to

rhaphidophorine genera; several species
originally described in Ceuthophilus by
Scudder referred to Pristoceuthophilus,

p. 37.)

Karny, H. H. 19387. Orthoptera, Fam. Gryl-
lacrididae. Genera insectorum, fase. 206:
317 pp. illus. (Key to Pristoceuthophilus
and related genera; list of species of
Pristoceuthophilus; references to genera
with dorsal abdominal glands, p. 12; dorsal
specialization of Pristoceuthophilus, p. 28.)

Maynarp, C. J. The defensive glands of a
species of Phasma, Anisomorpha bupre-
stoides from Florida. Contrib. Sci. 1 (1):
31-35, illus. 1889.

PackarpD, A. 8. A text-book of entomology,
729 pp., illus. New York, 1898. (De-
fensive or repugnatorial scent glands dis-
cussed, pp. 368-390.)

STEWART, M.A. Phasmid injury to the human
eye. Can. Ent. 69: 84-86. 1937.

Uvarov, B. P. The tribe Thrinchini of the
subfamily Pamphaginae, and the interrela-
tions of the acridid subfamilies (Orthoptera).
Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc., London, 93: 1-72,
illus. 1943. (Krauss’s organ discussed,
joo. Jails)

436

ZOOLOGY.—The southernmost Natrix.!
(Communicated by HERBERT FRIEDMANN.)

Michigan.

Dr. L. C. Stuart recently turned over to
me for study two snakes of the genus Na-
trix from the U. 8. National Museum col-
lection, bearing the following data—Tene-
dores, Guatemala, Dr. Newton Miller, 1905.
As this locality, if valid, would constitute
the southernmost record on the continent
for the genus, and as it is not far away from
Dr. Hobart M. Smith’s Mexican record
(Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. :93: 454. 1943) for
Natriz rhombifera rhombifera from Emiliano
Zapata, Tabasco, these snakes were exam-
ined carefully. Their distinctness from
rhombifera was immediately apparent. Clos-
er study reveals that they are probably
intergrades between Natrix stpedon sipedon
and N. s. pleuralis. Scale counts are as fol-
lows:

U.S.N.M. no. Dorsals Ventrals Caudals
48963 23-23-17 140 tail broken
48964 23-25-19 138 73

The belly of no. 48963 has semilunar
blotches, these becoming darker and break-
ing into speckles posteriorly. No. 48964 is
spotted and speckled below, increasingly so
posteriorly. Both snakes have 26 cross
bands on the body. They thus seem to fall
within the category of Mississippi Valley

1 Received August 7, 1947.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 12

Ropeers D. Hamitron, University of

intergrades of s¢pedon and pleuralis as de-
scribed by Clay (Copeia 1938: 173-182).

The possibilities are two. These snakes
either were carried somehow to Guatemala
and established themselves there, or some
mishap has occurred in handling and label-
ing. Dr. Miller’s reptiles were collected in-
cidentally, while he was engaged in taking
fishes, and the specimens were sent first to
the University of Indiana and from there
transshipped to the National Museum. The
University, at Bloomington, Ind., is in the
intergrading area of N.s. stpedon and N. s.
pleuralis (Minton, Amer. Midl. Nat. 32:
438-477. 1944), and might be expected to
have had specimens of this type in its col-

lections. It seems very likely, therefore,

that some sort of accident occurred at the

University, resulting in the inclusion of —

these snakes in the National Museum ship-
ment, and that this accounts for the other-
wise astonishing occurrence of this animal
so far south of its hitherto known range.
Although it is not improbable that Naitrix
will be found in Guatemala, I believe that
these snakes must be withheld from the
faunal list of that country and that when
and if Naérzx is found to occur there it will
not be of this species. Dr. Hobart Smith’s
record therefore remains as the southern-
most record for the genus on this continent.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

AOTH ANNUAL MEETING

The 49th annual meeting of the Academy,
held in the Auditorium of the Cosmos Club,
January 16, 1947, after the 346th meeting of
the Academy, was called to order at 9:45 P.M.
by the President, HucH L. Drypxrn, with 32
persons in attendance.

The minutes of the 48th annual meeting were
approved as published in the JouRNAL 36:
170-176. 1946.

The reports of several officers and of the
Committees of Auditors and Tellers were read
and accepted. These reports are recorded at the
end of the minutes.

After the acceptance of the report of the
Committee of Tellers, the President declared
the following duly elected to the given offices.

Waupo L. Scumirt, President,

C. Lewis Gazin, Secretary,

Howarp 8S. RAppueye, Treasurer,

Witiram W. Dien and F. G. BrickwEpDpD®,
Board of Managers to January 1950.

The Secretary presented for the Affihated
Societies their nominations for Vice-Presidents
of the Academy as follows:

Philosophical Society of Washington—FRep L.

MOHLER

Anthropological Society of
FRANK M. SETZLER

Washington—

—

Dec. 15, 1947 PROCEEDINGS

Biological Society of Washington—JoseEpH §.
WADE

Chemical Society of Washington—IrL C.
ScHOONOVER

Entomological Society of Washington—CarL
F. W. MvUESEBECK

National Geographic Society—ALEXANDER
WETMORE

Geological Society of Washington—WILLIAM
W. RuBEY :

Medical Society of the District of Columbia—
FREDERICK O. COE

Columbia Historical Society ——-GILBERT GROS-
VENOR

Botanical Society of Washington—L. Epwin
Yocum

-Washington Section of the Society of American
Foresters—WILLIAM A. DayTON

Washington Society of Engineers—CLIFFORD
A. BETTS

Washington Section of the American Institute
of Electrical Engineers—FRANcIs B. SILSBEE

Washington Section of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers—Martin A. Mason

Helminthological Society of Washington—
AUREL QO. FosTER

Washington Branch of the Society of American
Bacteriologists—CHESTER W. EMMONS

Washington Post of the Society of American
Military Engineers—CLEMENT L. GARNER

Washington Section of the Institute of Radio
Engineers—HERBERT GROVE DORSEY

Washington Section of the American Society of
Civil Engineers—OwEN B. FRENCH

The Secretary was instructed by the mem-
bers present to cast a unanimous ballot for
these nominees.

The President, HucH L. DRYDEN, announced
the recipients of the Academy’s Awards for
Scientific Achievement for 1946 as follows:

In the Biological Sciences, Watvo RupDOLPH
WEDEL, United States National Museum, in
recognition of his distinguished service in con-
tributing to the knowledge of the prehistory
of human ecology in the central Great Plains.

In the Engineering Sciences, Martin ALEX-
ANDER Mason, Beach Erosion Board, in recog-
nition of his distinguished service in erosion
studies leading to successful beach invasions
by allied armed forces during the war.

In the Physical Sciences, GEORGE WASHING-
TON Irvine, JR., Bureau of Agricultural and
Industrial Chemistry, in recognition of his
distinguished service in biochemistry and es-
pecially for work on antibiotics in tomato
plants.

The Retiring President, HucH L. Drypsn,
appointed Past Presidents Harvey L. Curtis

: THE ACADEMY

437

and JoHn E. Grar to escort the incoming
President, Wautpo L. ScumirtT, to the chair.
Dr. ScHMITT adjourned the meeting at 10:30
P.M.

The following reports were presented at the
meeting:

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY

During the Academy year, January 18, 1946,
to January 16, 1947, 36 persons were elected to
membership, 29 resident and 7 nonresident.
Of these, 11 resident and 1 nonresident quali-
fied for membership, and 6 resident accepted
membership but have not yet qualified by
payment of dues. Seventeen persons, 11 resi-
dent and 6 nonresident, elected to membership
on January 138, 1947, have not yet been noti-
fied of their election. Eight resident members
and one nonresident member elected to mem-
bership in the preceding Academy year quali-
fied during the present Academy year just
ending. The new members who qualified in the
Academy year 1946 were distributed among the
various sciences as follows: 6 in botany, 4 each
in chemistry and physics, 2 each in anthro-
pology and entomology, and 1 each in geology,
mathematics, and medicine.
Six resident and 5 nonresident members,
having retired from the remunerative practice
of their professions, were placed on the retired
list of members to enjoy all the privileges of
active membership without further payment
of dues. Two resident and two nonresident
members resigned in good standing. One non-
resident member was dropped for nonpayment
of dues.
The deaths of the following members were
reported to the Secretary:
FRANK LEEcH, Washington, D. C., in February
1942.

CuHarRiES W. DasBNeEy, Cincinnati, Ohio, on
June 15, 1945.

GLENN L. ParKErR, Washington, D. C., on
February 12, 1946.

ALBERT C. HuntTER, Washington, D. C., on
April 13, 1946.

GiFFORD PincHot, Milford, Pa., on October 4,
1946.

GERALD F. LougHuin, Washington, D. C., on
October 22, 1946.

Mr. Pincuot was the last surviving patron
of the Academy.

On January 16, 1947, the status of member-
ship was as follows:

438
Re- Hon-
Regular tired orary Patron Total
| Resident... o+- 449 39 2 0 490
Nonresident... 152 28 16 0 196
otal cee. 601 67 18 0 686

The net changes in membership during the
past year are as follows:

Re- Hon-
Regular tired orary Patron Total
Resident...... +17 +2 0) 0 19
Nonresident... — 4 +2 0 —1 — 3
kotalran cree +13 +4 —1 +16

During the Academy year 1946 the Board
of Managers held 6 meetings, with an average
attendance of 20 persons. The following: im-
portant matters were considered by the Board:

1. The first A.A.A.S. grants-in-aid to be
awarded by the Washington Academy of Sci-
ences.—These first grants were made to ANGUS
MaclIvor GRIFFIN, associate professor in the
Department of Bacteriology, Hygiene, and
Preventive Medicine, George Washington
School of Medicine, and to R. M. Tatum,
U. 8. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. The
grant of $429 to Dr. GRIFFIN was for the pur-
chase of equipment needed in making phase
microscopy observations of entozoic Protozoa
to further his researches in the borderline be-
tween the intestinal Protozoa and bacteria.
The grant of $50 to Mr. Tatum was to aid in
completing a comprehensive survey of Indian
petroglyphs throughout the United States.
The Board of Managers requested Dr. GRIFFIN
and Mr. Tatum to submit to the Academy
reports on their work in the form of papers
suitable for consideration by the Editors for
publication in the JOURNAL OF THE WASHING-
TON ACADEMY OF ScIENcES. The Board feels
some notice of work supported by the grants-
in-aid should be taken by the JouRNAL even
if it is only an abstract.

2. The increase in dues of resident members
from $5 to $6—The George Banta Publishing
Co., printer of the JOURNAL OF THE WASHING-
TON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, acting within its
rights, canceled, effective June 1, 1946, its
contract with the Academy in force since Janu-
ary 2, 1942, for the printing and mailing of the
JouRNAL. Thereupon, the George Banta Pub-
lishing Co. proffered the Academy a new con-
tract with increased costs to the Academy. This
was presumably the result of increased costs for

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 12

labor and materials. The Senior Editor of the
JOURNAL after consulting the Board of Mana-
gers accepted the new contract, inasmuch as
it appeared impossible to obtain better prices
from any other company for the same quality
of material and work.

The cost of printing and mailing the Jour-
NAL under the new contract is about 25 per-
cent, or $800 per annum, greater than under
the old contract. The total cost to the Acad-
emy of publishing the JouRNAL on the basis
of the new contract, maintaining former
standards of size and quality, is about $4,000
per annum. This does not include direct
charges to authors. The total income of the
Academy in 1945 exclusive of charges to au-
thors was $4,901.16, of which $2,776.25 was
derived as dues from members, $1,099.25 from
returns on invested funds of the Academy,
$925.54 from non-member subscriptions to the
JOURNAL, $100.12 from sale of miscellaneous
back numbers of the JouRNAL.

The Board of Managers, at the meeting on
May 13, 1946, voted the following measures to
increase the income of the Academy:

1. To raise the price of annual nonmember sub-
scriptions of the JouRNAL from $6 to $7.50. In
May the JourNAL had 185 nonmember subscrip-
tions.

2. To raise the price of back numbers of the
JOURNAL from $6 per volume to $10 per volume
for volumes 1 to 15, $8 per volume for volumes
16 to 22 and $7.50 per volume for volumes 23 to
the current issue. The costs of separate numbers
are increased in proportion. At present the Acad-
emy has only 3 complete sets of the JOURNAL for
sale. In addition to these there are only 11 other
sets complete from volume 11 to the current
issue. leckst

3. To submit to the members of the Academy
an amendment to the bylaws of the Academy
raising the annual dues of resident members from
$5 to $6. Academy members voted 157 to 38 for
adoption of this amendment.

During the Academy year, eight meetings
of the Academy were held as follows, beginning
with the 339th meeting and ending with the
346th meeting:

On February 21, 1946, Jonn E. Grar, as
retiring president presented an address en-
titled National responsibility for research (pub-
lished in this JouRNAL 36: 101-110. 1946).

On March 21, 1946, the 1945 Academy
Awards for Scientific Achievement were pre-
sented to Henry K. Townes, Bureau of En-

Dec. 15, 1947 PROCEEDINGS
tomology and Plant Quarantine, for work in
the biological sciences; to KENNETH L. SHER-
MAN, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,
for work in the engineering sciences; and to
RoseErtT SimuHa, National Bureau of Standards,
for work in the physical sciences.

On April 18, 1946, V. K. Zworyxtn, director
of the Electronic Research Laboratory, Radio
Corporation of America, Princeton, N. J.,
addressed the Academy on Recent developments
in television.

On May 16, 1946, Icor I. Stxorsky, en-
gineering manager of Sikorsky Aircraft Divi-
sion, United Aircraft Corporation, addressed
the Academy on The helicopter and its place in
modern transportation.

On October 17, 1946, Dran B. Cowin, De-
partment of Terrestrial Magnetism, addressed

: THE ACADEMY 439
the Academy on Radioactive tracer studies in
medicine and biology.

On November 21, 1946, Capt. CHARLES
Birtincer, U.S.N.R., addressed the Academy
on Camouflage, 1917-1918 and 1941-1945.

On December 19, 1946, LEonarp P. ScHULTz
and J. P. E. Morrison, United States National
Museum, addressed the Academy on Biology
of Bikini and of adjoining atolls.

On January 16, 1947, Watpo R. WEDEL,
United States National Museum, addressed the
Academy on Archeology and the Missouri River
Basin development program.

The April and May meetings were held in
the Auditorium of the United States National
Museum. All other meetings were held in the
Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club.

F. G. BRICKWEDDE, Secretary.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER

RECEIPTS

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For Exchange’ onvPuerto Rican cheek? Wis 0.22) eee 0.35
Kor Exchange on Canadianecheck..34 ees, . tone ee 0.61
‘otal Disbursements io. tu. 8 Seka nl peee eeeee $548.90 $4,769.49
CasheBalance,Dec.io4.- 1940 ves oe eas he cet nae eee cee an eae
PO tale 6. O00 deh Sac PRES oR Br eee
RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE
Balance.aseper cash hooky Dee, 3il .UO4G7 eae te Oe eee eee
Balance as per Amer. Sec. & Trust Co.
Statement-ol-Deey 318946 ie ee ye ie Si BARN etek tn PEN aay $4,341.71
Receipts: not.deposited sek eects ee See en Yi de eee 577 .82
MG Ga aes Tae ee elas apes tent Pegs owe ele ISN eb ane ae ear eae eae $4,919.53
Checks outstanding, not cashed
INO FR MODS cctereel Ws ae are te Raa Oey aN va ARM tes 9 Ona sean ote a es $ 5.41
DN aya OE Oe eee ene mean cS Al aber tae plate Some MN alae Ta fly 5.00
NO tds SRC ae os cree set Meme eae 85.87 |
UN Ce Pig 0 15 er i crm ei PRAHA RN, MOM gy ORE SIR RM Le aa LE - 39.00 135.28

INVESTMENTS

Washington Sanitary Improvement Co. (stock)

Certificate No, 434——“10Oi'shares at $10. 22s 23 Ps es re ee $1 ,000 .00
Certificate No; 435—100 shares:at $10.5. s25¢ 6) A559 242 ee 1 ,000 .00
Certificate Now 527——~ Stsharesvat, $1028 -. aes hoe a eee 80 .00
Certificates Not 539——. a share catyplOncm aan ots ee ee a ee 10.00
Certificate No. 582-200 sharestat GUO mies. eee ce ele Cone mami 2 ,000 .00
Potomac Electric Power Co.
Z0sshares* 6; uprelerred, svock——COStmi: eer ces eee eee
City of New York—3% (Transit Unification) (Due—June 1, 1980)
Certificate (No. Dr 2OUSOW ey cai ieee ee tk RESIS, ba Da a ee eT 500 .00
Certificate No CeClOS Ss 2 xk it Re eae eee Wa eo ota Se Le ae 100 .00
Certificates No: (Gr 71039 oe eee Rr ne Nth MSL U9 ee ee an 100 .00
Certificate Nos C271 0405 eee 8 ee Se hs SG Sieiperg yee ine 100 .00

Chicago Railways
Bond No. 1027—5% Registered for $1,000.00

Due Keb. 927——$250.00- paid Balk 70 os es es ee ee
First Federal Savings & Loan Assn.
GertificatevNo ml AO 1a re a oad A RS rere Aur Ge Lae eee eee $4 ,000 .00
Centincate Nod O68 oy tee kW ce aera oot ecrc lors. 2 eal len en eee ee 1,000.00
Northwestern Fed. Savings & Loan Assn.
GertincaterNo.el SSO wo. eas 3 aks, seen vegan a aye ee RCE UELE eee OE ee $4 ,500 .00
Cerntieates NOs TAA reine eco. roles circu ade mene ne. eRe ae tere” ya rera se aaa 500 .00
United States Government
Series G Bonds—No. M 332990 G (Jan. 1942)...................... $1 ,000 .00
MB 32991 (Gis( Janel O4D ee oe aie seh ae ee 1 ,000 .00
M33 2992) Ge Siam, MOLD) ieee ye eet ance nen ere 1 ,000 .00
MP3329937).G; (Jan, 1OL2) ee Ree ane 1 ,000 .00
MeVSO8 74 GROet) WO4SNE Baas ae a en aie a 1 ,000 .00
NM 2226088 (Gu(Peb O44) te Sida eens so ae 1 ,000 .00
Mi29827481G (OctelO44)\ oie ae Wie) eae 1 ,000 .00

$ 5,318.39
4,784.25

$10,102.64

$ 4,784.25

$ 4,784.25

$ 4,090.00

2,247 .50

800 .00

750 .00

5,000 .00

5,000 .00

NA T26040 'G (Oct G45) ie ete cere ok een 1,000.00 $ 8,000.00

Dec. 15, 1947

American Security & Trust Co.

SEEM NC COMUNE. Wl ets. Seashnd Salo! SHER

Minidtienssets Mec. 31, 1945.00 22.00.56 ee wee
Moariessers ec. Sly 1946.25 02 5 bee eine wage ed’

ULIPEDSS. 5) ootyael Shia ee ee ee eer

PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY

4410

ORE RON GATS 0580 46 .87
Nee a eae er $25 934.37
Mee) nme ce 4,784.25
Ulster: veering st $30 ,718.62
te rae $29 397.15
Os cir AEN RS UA 30,718.62
We nti ete ease a $ 1,321.47

At the time this report was written (not as of December 31, 1946) there were:

19 members in arrears for 1946
14 members in arrears for 1945 and 1946

2 members in arrears for 1944, 1945 and 1946

6 members in arrears for 1943, 1944, 1945 and 1946
1 member in arrears for 1942, 1943, 1944, 1945 and 1946

42

REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE

The accounts of the Treasurer of the Wash-
ington Academy of Sciences for the year 1946
were examined by your auditing committee on
January 14, 1947.

The Treasurer’s report was checked and
found to be in agreement with the records.
All disbursements had been previously au-
thorized and are supported by vouchers or
canceled checks. The securities of the Society
were inspected and found to be in agreement
with the list given in the report and to have all
coupons attached that are not yet due.

The Treasurer deserves the highest com-
mendation for the neat, orderly, and consci-
entious manner in which he has continued to

Number of
Sciences papers
1946

OLOGICAL PE restr estes Crate aa res seein el eae 40
PN ySiGal pate eal cs ek oe eh ee Sao Pave aes Hie ees 8
AMPHROPO!OeT Calls <i eet dee eg See. ests 2 12
(Seolloraiealll ig Se ake ae A ee Oe ee ee ee 4
OTHer ee ere oye cee rate Seo dias, Bishi 2k aye, toe oe 1
Obituaries, Proceedings, Notices..................
Via LESR 2 a Bich epee 8 ead BREN NEE ON oer noe eee iene

“TROLS: Bes a onesies Sk Ne Me hao ae ak ca 65

Howarp 8. RappLeEyeE, J'reasurer.

keep and preserve the financial records of the
Academy.
H. E. McComs, Chairman.
Je ALOR:
SAMUEL LEvy.

REPORT OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS

Volume 36 of the JouRNAL shows a continua-
tion of the climb back to the size enjoyed dur-
ing prewar years. Its 12 issues contained 432
pages, 24 pages more than last year, and the
largest since volume 31 (1941), which had 528
pages.

In other ways, too, last year’s volume
showed a continuing trend toward improve-
ment. Its 65 papers were divided among the
various categories as follows:

Number of Percentages Number of Percentages
pages by pages pages by pages
1946 1946 1945 1945
178.8 41.4 218.0 53.4
78.5 18.2 Asal doll
114.0 26.4 97.3 23.8
24.2 5.6 22.0 5.4
9.5 BP? 3583 0.8
23.0 D238 34.7 8.5
4.0 0.9 4.0 1.0
432.0 100.0 408.0 100.0

442 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 37, NO. 12

These figures show a better balance between
the various categories than in the last three
years. An increase in papers in the physical
sciences is notable, but there still is, however,
a noticeable lack of papers in the physical, and
especially in the geological sciences, which it
is hoped will be at least partly remedied next
year.

Two papers in the physical sciences were
published in the French language by scien-
tists at the University of Liége, Belgium. We
hope that more papers from foreign authors
will be forthcoming, not only from Europe but
also from the countries of Latin America.

This volume contains the addresses of the
retiring presidents of the Academy, the Chemi-
cal Society, and the Philosophical Society, 1943
and 19465.

In one aspect a decline was shown in this
volume. Of the 65 papers published in the
JOURNAL, only 26, or 40 percent, were sub-
mitted by members of the Academy, the lowest
percentage in many years. This is not a healthy
condition, and it is sincerely to be hoped that
more members will make an earnest effort to
send in worthwhile papers to the JouRNAL.

No significant changes in the numbers of
papers published and illustrations used were
noted.

The outstanding event in the affairs of the
JOURNAL was the notification by the printer of
an increase of 25 percent in the cost of the
printing, commencing with the June number.
Considerable thought was given to the matter,
and a meeting was held of the Board of Editors
with the Executive Committee. As the rise in
cost of materials and. labor was undoubtedly
felt equally throughout the industry, it was
decided that an attempt to seek a more ad-
vantageous contract with another establish-
ment would be fruitless. For this reason, and
also in view of our long and cordial relationship
with the George Banta Publishing Co., it was
decided to accept the new contract.

To meet this increase, the Board of Managers
authorized an additional appropriation equal
to 25% of 7/12 of the annual appropriation
for the year (to cover the increased cost of the
issues from June to December, inclusive).

The Board of Managers appropriated to the
editors for printing, illustrating, and mailing
the JournaAL last year $3,666.67 ($3,200 on

original appropriation and $666.67 additional
appropriation); for clerical assistance $240;
and for postage and incidentals $50.00, a
total of $3,956.67. Of this, the $240 for clerical
assistance was expended in full, and the postage
and incidentals cost $39.96. The total cost of
the printing bills was $4,339.27. From this is
to be subtracted $781.83, the amount charged
to authors for reprints, excess illustrations, and
excess typesetting charges. This brings the net
cost to the Academy of printing the JouRNAL
to $3,557.44, leaving a balance of about $100
to be turned back to the Treasurer. Of the
appropriation for postage and _ incidentals,
$10.14 was unexpended.

The editors feel that in the coming years the
JOURNAL should attempt gradually to regain
its former size of over 500 pages. We feel that
for the present this is more important than
reducing the present charges to authors for re-
prints and for excess illustrations, tabular
material, and the like. To reach this goal, how-
ever, more first-class papers are needed, and in
this the JouRNAL must have the whole-hearted
support of all the members of the Academy,
especially from those academicians in the
physical and geological sciences. An ultimate
return to a policy of allowing a modest num ber
of free reprints to authors would attract more
good papers, and, in the opinion of the editors,
seems a crucial policy for a general journal.

It is felt that little saving would be realized
by publishing only six issues a year and dou-
bling the size of each number. The JouRNAL is
one scientific medium that can promise fairly
prompt publication of papers, and such a move
would be a step backward from our outstanding
position among scientists.

For the coming year we therefore recommend
that for printing, illustrating, and mailing the
JOURNAL the minimum sum of $4,000 be ap-
propriated; this is equal to last year’s ap-
propriation plus the 25 percent increase in
costs. We also recommend that the appropria-
tion for clerical assistance be increased from
$240 to $300. This rise is consistent with the
present economic situation, and during recent
years the editorial assistant, Mr. Paun H.
OnuseR, has devoted more and more time to
the JoURNAL, enabling the Board of Editors to
concentrate on selection and revision of papers
and on careful proofreading. His willing co-

Dec. 15, 1947 PROCEEDINGS
operation in giving the JourNAL the benefit of
his experience in editorial work has been in-
dispensable.

The Editors also acknowledge with thanks
the assistance of the Associate Editors, and all
others who have assisted them in any way. We
wish also to mention our gratitude to Mr.
Irwin H. WENsINK, the local representative of

the George Banta Publishing Co., whose ever-

ready willingness to assist the Editors in iron-
ing out- occasional problems is gratefully ap-
preciated.
Haraup A. REHDER.
WILLIAM N. FENTON.
JAMES I. HoFFMAN.

REPORT OF THE CUSTODIAN AND SUBSCRIPTION
MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS

SUBSCRIPTIONS:
Nonmember subscriptions in the United States....... 119
Nonmember subscriptions in foreign countries........ 66
Subscriptions at reduced rates:
Geological Society of Washingion at $1.50......... 22
OE NETS CUED EROO LE Vetta Cs ces Giche Spel ays Shea lS hes SR 2
SMO yl PE ER esa co ee Sheek A a raya. oo) eicee' ey eelie 6 13) Sivue ohcie 209

INVENTORY OF STocks as oF Dec. 31, 1946:

Reserve Sets of the JOURNAL:
Bound Volumes 1-29 and vnbound Volumes

Snes GEREN ote ee iicl o Atevar ss aie. dernier ees cues 1 set
UnboundeVolumes 1=S6i te. 2h. A. on Pk 2 sets
Unboundeviolumes TI=S36E.%. oo .6 cc We Nt 6 sets
UnboundsVolumes 16—36..0 055445 6. oe be eee ee 11 sets

Miscellaneous numbers of the JouRNAL... 19,222
Total numbers in the Reserve Sets....... 7,842
Grand total of back numbers......... 27 ,064
Proceedings of the Washington Academy of Sciences:
Volumes 1-13, inclusive (1899-1911)........... 50 sets

During the year several important changes
were made by the Board of Managers concern-
ing the office of the Custodian of Publications:

At its 401st meeting, April 15, 1946, the
Board voted to reconsider previous instruc-
tions in regard to the sale of complete sets of
the JourNnat. The Board voted to instruct the
Custodian and Subscription Manager of Pub-
lications to sell complete sets of the JouRNAL
only to libraries accessible to the public. This
restriction was immediately put into effect by
a printed statement on the back of the front
cover of the March 15 issue of the JouRNAL.

At its 402d meeting, May 138, 1946, the Board
voted to raise the sale price of back numbers of
the JouRNAL from Vol. 1 through Vol. 15 to
$10 per volume; Vol. 16 through Vol. 22, $8 per

: THE ACADEMY

443

volume; and Vol. 23 to current issues, $7.50 per
volume; with changes in the prices of separate
numbers in line with the increases in the prices
of the complete volumes, the changes in prices
to take effect as soon as the revised schedule of
prices could be printed on the back of the cover
page of the JourNnaL. These changes were
printed in the June 15, 1946 (Vol. 36, No. 6)
issue of the JouRNAL, together with the corre-
sponding change of prices for the individual
numbers. It was also voted to remove all
volumes and numbers of Vol. 1 through Vol.
10 from sale in order to preserve these early
volumes for the making of additional complete
sets.

At the 402d meeting it was also voted to raise
the price of annual subscription from $6 to
$7.50, effective January 1, 1947. All subscribers
have been notified, and this action has been
put into effect.

The price of individual back numbers has
been increased to correspond with the prices
per volume as voted by the Board. Instead of a
flat rate of 50 cents per number, the following
prices are quoted:

Vol. 1 to Vol. 10, incl—not available except in complete sets.

Vol. 11 to Vol. 15, inel. (21 numbers per volume)—$0.70
per no.

Vol. 16 to Vol. 22, incl. (21 numbers per volume)—$0.60
per no.

Vol. 23 to current vol. (12 numbers per volume)—$0.90
per no.

Complete sets, to libraries only (Vol. 1 to Vol. 36, incl.),
$311.

Upon receipt of the semi-annual inventory
of volumes and numbers stored at Menasha,
Wis., we were amazed to learn that owing toe an
increase in our memberships and subscriptions
and shortage of paper we had exhausted all
copies of No. 1 of Vol. 36 of the JouRNAL, and
were below a safe margin of Nos. 2-7, inclusive.
Such a shortage could prevent the sale of a
complete set, especially since all volumes after
Vol. 16 had been held at 20 complete sets. This
matter was brought to the attention of the
Board of Managers, who authorized the Cus-
todian to appeal to the members not wishing to
retain copies of these numbers of Vol. 36 to
donate them to the Academy. Several members
quickly responded, giving us 30 copies of the
missing No. 1 of Vol. 36 and a comparable
amount of the other numbers. The Editors in
turn have increased the number of copies to be
printed.

sod

SALES AND EXPENDITURES:

During January 1946 one complete set of the
JOURNAL (Vol. 1—Vol. 35) was sold to the
Library of the Denver Art Museum, Denver,
Colo. Throughout the year a considerable in-
crease in the sales of back numbers was realized.
Approximately 550 numbers were sold as com-
pared to 200 the previous year.

Sales
MMRVEGSEIVEN SEU ia ccioc here icp oie gen mene Ree ae $200.50
Net sales of miscellaneous numbers............... 387 .70
PPO LAIISA OSA Rhee ac, eee ee ee eRe A ee es $588 .20
Expenditures
Express charges for shipment of Reserve Set to
Den VErM@ oOlo see CoN ee eee a aise Mes | ON BR UNM ipa $ 10.44
Postage and ofiice expenses... 42.24.2102 62 see see 14.74
Motalvexpenses racic Shes ccs he ee Oe IE Ne $ 25.18
1946:Budgetaryallotment. cee eae oe eee $100.00

412TH MEETING OF

The 412th meeting of the Board of Man-
agers, held in the Cosmos Club, November 24,
1947, was called to order at 8 p.m. by the
President, Dr. W. L. Scumirr. Others present
were: H. S. Rappinyn, N. R. Suiru, H. B.
Coins, Jr., W. W. Dirnu, F. L. Mouunr,
FP. M. Serzter, W. W. Rupry, L. E. Yocum,
H. G. Dorsry, C. L. Gazin, and, by invitation,
G. P. Watton, A. Stons, F. THons, and H. E.
McComs.

The President announced the appointment of
an Auditing Committee: F. D. Rossin1, Chair-
man, A. H. Cuark, and H. E. McComs.

The Chairman of the Committee on Meet-
ings, G. P. Watton discussed the manner of
introducing the recipients of Academy Awards
for Scientific Achievement and suggested that
three conditions be imposed: (1) The recipient
shall be introduced by an intimate professional
associate, the introduction to be limited to 5
minutes. (2) The recipient shall be given 20
minutes to explain the work for which the
award was given. (3) If a recipient cannot be
present to receive his award, the sponsor for
his candidacy shall be invited to accept it for
him. The Board voted that these suggestions
be complied with.

The Chairman of the Committee on Mem-
bership, W. W. DinuHu, presented 18 nomina-
tions for resident membership and 2 for non-
resident membership. The Board recommended
that the names of all Nobel prize winners who
have spoken before the Academy be considered

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. 37, No. 12

/}xpenditures forml946... 022.0) oo. en ae eee ee 25.18

Balances. ose. see iho Si ne ee ee eee

Netieainiior thesyearn! 94 Gases erie ee

F. M. Serzuer, Custodian and
Subscription Manager of Publications.

-REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TELLERS

A total of 262 envelopes were delivered to the
Secretary. The count of valid ballots showed
the following officers elected:

President, Waupo L. ScumirTt,

Secretary, C. LEwis Gazin,

Treasurer, Howarp 8S. RAPPLEYE

Board of Managers to January 1950, WiLLIAM
W. Drenu and F. G. BricKWEDDE.

K. L. SHERMAN, Chairman.
RAYMOND DaAvIs.
FRANK NEUMANN.

Submitted by F. G. BRicKWEDDE, Secretary.

BOARD OF MANAGERS

individually by the membership committee for
honorary membership.

The Chairman of the Nominating Commit-
tee, F. L. Moutmr, reported that the following
had been nominated for the offices to be filled
by balloting by members in December: For
President, F. D. Rossin1; for Secretary, C. L.
Gazin; for Treasurer, H. S. Rappers; for the
Board of Managers to serve from January 1948
to January 1951, E. W. Pricn, W. N. FENTon,
F. C. Kracexk, F. M. DEFANDORF.

On his recommendation, the Treasurer, H. S.
RAPPLEYE, was authorized to present for re-
demption a $1,000 Chicago City Railways Co.
bond which was being called.

The President reported on the progress of
the illustrated ‘‘Red Book” in preparation for
printing.

The Academy’s representative on the Joint
Committee on Press Relations (with the D.C.
Council of Engineering and Architectural Soci-
eties), Dr. THonz, reported the success of the
Committee in obtaining the cooperation of four
Washington newspaper editors in publishing a
weekly calendar of scientific and technical
meetings. He urged that information regarding
the open meetings be submitted to the Com-
mittee on cards provided and that these be in
the hands of the Committee by noon Wednes-
day of the week preceding the meeting.

The meeting adjourned at 9:45 p.m.

C. L. Gazin, Secretary.

INDEX TO VOLUME 37

An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

Anthropological Society of Washington. 106.
Geological Society of Washington. 368.
Philosophical Society of Washington. 26.

Washington Academy of Sciences.

105, 142, 178, 217, 412, 436.

AUTHOR INDEX

Apams, L. H. Howard Shreve Roberts (obitu-
ary). 416.

ALLARD, H. A. The ecology of the wild kidney
bean Phaseolus polystachios (L.) BSP. 306.

ANDERSON, LAUREN D. See Latta, RANDALL. 397.

ANDREWS, Davip A. *Significance of stylolites
in sandstone. 372.

Astin, A. V. *The development of the radio
proximity fuze for bombs and rockets. 28.

BaustEy, J. See McKetvey, V- E. 370.

BaRBER, H. G. Revision of the genus Nyszus in
the United States and Canada (Hemiptera
Heteroptera: Lygaeidae). 354.

BaRBER, H. 8S. A new Schematiza on Cordia in
Trinidad (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). 242.

BartscH, Paut. Notes on some Mexican uro-
coptid mollusks, with the description of
new species. 284.

Some Mexican urocoptid mollusks. 141.

BaRTUNEK, Paut F. *The significance of the
symbols of physics. 27.

Beams, J. W. High centrifugal fields. 221.

BENNETT, R. D. *The future of science under
government. 29.

BLACKWELDER, Evior. Geology of Hat Island,
Great Salt Lake, Utah. 159.

BuakeE, Doris H. A new genus of flea beetles
from the West Indies. 92.

. New eumolpid beetles from the West
Indies. 310.

Brapy, F. J. *Radioactive antimony in medi-
eine: vols

Bucuanan, L. L. A correction and two new
races in Graphognathus (white-fringed
beetles) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). 19.

CuaFFy, EstHER W. *Spectrochemical analysis
of rocks and minerals. 371.

CLARKE, J. F. Gates. New North American
species and new assignments in the genus
Chionodes (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). 243.

Notes on, and new species of, American

-moths of the genus Filatima Busck (Gelechi-

idae: Lepidoptera). 263.

Notes on Oecophoridae, with descrip-
tions of new species. 2.

Currier, L. W. Granitization and its signifi-
cance as a regional metamorphic process in
New England. 75.

and Wiuuiams, J. S.
Loughlin (obituary). 107.

Curtis, H. L. *Interior ballistics measurements:
Method of recording. 32.

Deienan, H. G. The races of the minivet Peri-
crocotus peregrinus (Linnaeus) in southeast-
ern Asia. 254.

Gerald Francis

The southernmost race of the white-

browed rufous piculet. 25.

Two new babblers (Timaliidae) from
southeastern Asia. 104.

DrypEN, HueH L. Exploring the fundamentals
of aerodynamics. 145.

Ewan, JosepH. A revision of Chorisepalum, an
endemic genus of Venezuelan Gentianaceae.
392.

Willis Linn Jepson (obituary). 414.

Fassett, Norman C. Veronica connata Rafin-
esque. 353.

FisHER, A. K. Gifford Pinchot (obituary).

Frnt, D. E. See Guiutp, PuHitiep W. 368.

Fosuac, W. F. *The Paricutin voleano’s first
year. 32.

GaRDNER, I. C. ‘*Scientific and technical de-
velopment of the German optical industry
during the war. 30.

GILLIAM, CHARLES Ep@ar. Powhatan Algon-
kian bird names: The Aushouetta (Topsell)
or the Ahshowcutters (Strachey): Richmon-
dena cardinalis. 1.

GinspurRG, Isaac. American species and sub-
species of Bathygobius, with a demonstration
of a suggested modified system of nomen-
clature. 275.

Guass, Bryan P. See Smitu, Hopart M. 22.

GuiILp, Puiitie W., and Furnt, D. E. *Chromite
deposits of Camagiiey Province, Cuba. 368.

GuRNEY, AsHLEY B. A new species of Pristo-
ceuthophilus from Oregon, and remarks on
certain special glands of Orthoptera (Grylla-
crididae; Rhapidophorinae). 430.

Harstap, L. R. *The development of the radio
proximity fuze for shells. 28.

HamILToN, Ropeers D. The
Natrizx. 436.

HARRINGTON, JoHN P. The word for seal (Pinni-
pedia) in various languages. 109.

HarTMAN, Onea. Disoma franciscanum, a new
marine annelid from California. 160.

Hawkes, Hersert E., Jr. *Magnetic explora-
tion for Adirondack iron ore. 373.

*The Geological Survey’s geochemical
prospecting unit. 375.

HenseEst, Luoyp G. *The Morrow group of
northwest Arkansas. 373.

HERMANN, FREDERICK J. Studies in Loncho-
carpus and related genera, I: A synopsis of
Willardia. 427.

The Amazonian varieties of Loncho-
carpus nicou, a rotenone-yielding plant. 111.

HocuBere, 8S. See Latta, RANDALL. 397.

218.

southernmost

445

446

Horrman, JAmeEs I.
(obituary). 148.

HoupER, Preston. The Motilones: Some un-
touched tropical forest peoples in northwest-
ern South America. 417.

Hoogstraat, Harry. See Kine, WILLARD V. 1138.

Hsrao, Tsai-yu, and Samer, Reece I. The
orchid bugs of the genus Tenthecoris Scott
(Hemiptera: Miridae). 64.

Humes, AktHURG. A new harpacticoid copepod
from Bornean.crabs. 170.

HumpuHreys, Curtis J. Charles Albert Browne
(obituary). 220.

Humpureys, W. J. *The Philosophical Society
in its youth. 30.

Irvine, GeorcE W., Jr. The significance of
tomatin in plant and animal disease. 293.

JAMES, Maurice T., and Masuin, T. Pav.
Notes on myiasis of the toad, Bufo boreas
boreas Baird and Girard. 366.

JENKINS, ANNA E. A new species of Elsinoé on
capulin cherry (Prunus capulz). 86.

Jounson, I. See Latta, RANDALL. 397.

JOHNSTON, Earn S. An establishment was
established. 37.

JOHNSTON, Witiiam D., Jr. *The Geological
Survey in Latin America. 376.

Kine, Wituarp V., and HooestraaL, Harry.
New Guinea species of mosquitoes of the
genus Aedes, subgenus Aedes. 113.

Kurprer, M. R. See Pecora, W. T. 370.

Knieut, KennetH L. The Aedes (Mucidus)
mosquitoes of the Pacific (Diptera: Culi-
cidae). 315.

Kracex, F. C. *Interior ballistics measure-
ments: Measurement of gas temperature. 33.

KRaNTZ, JOHN. *The mechanism of action of
antibacterial drugs. 27.

LARRABEE, D. M. See Pecora, W. T. 370.

LaMemr, V. K. See Latta, RANDALL. 397.

Latta, RANDALL; ANDERSON, LaAvuREN D.,;
Rogers, E. E.; LAMER, V. K.; HocuBere,
S.; Laurersacu, H.; and Jounson, I. The
effect of particle size and velocity of move-
ment of DDT aerosols in a wind tunnel on
the mortality of mosquitoes. 397.

LAUTERBACH, H. See Latta, RanpDALL. 397.

Lewis, G. Epwarp. *Tertiary geology of north-
eastern Wind River Basin. 371.

MARSHALL, WADE H. *The dynamics of the
central nervous system. with special reference
to vision. 26.

Mason, Martin A. Beach intelligence. 289.

Mayr, Ernst. Notes on tailorbirds (Orthotomus)
from the Philippine Islands. 140.

McKetvey, V. E., and Bausuey, J. *Distribu-
tion of black sands along part of the south
Atlantic coast as mapped from an airplane.
370.

MituER, Rautepw L. *Structure of the Cumber-
land overthrust block in southwest Va. 374.

Moon, C. *Interior ballistics measurements:
Measurement of pressure. 32.

Morata, K. J.,,.and SmirH, R. L. *Red fluo-
rescing halite from California and Idaho. 373.

James Hopwood Jeans

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

OEHSER, Paut H. Joseph Henry builds an in-
stitution. 377.

Parr, Letanp W. Albert Clayton Hunter (obit-
uary). 218.
PreaRSE, A. S. Observations on the occurrence
of certain barnacles and isopods at Beaufort,

IN. (Cae25:

Precora, W. T., Kurnpper, M. R., and Larra-
BEE, D. M. *Mica-bearing pegmatites in
Minas Gerais, Brazil. 370.

PENN, GEORGE Henry. See STONE, ALAN. 89.

PiyLeR, E. K. *Applications of infra-red spec-
trometry to chemical analyses and molecu-
lar problems. 31.

RAppLEYE, Howarp §S. Henry Godfrey Avers
(obituary). 1483.

Riptey, 8. Ditton. A report on the birds col-
lected by Logan J. Bennett on Nissan Island
and the Admiralty Islands. 95.

Roserts, H. 8. *Interior ballistics measure-
ments: Motion of projectile. 33.

Roxsinson, G. D. *The 1945 eruption in Tulik
Caldera, Umnak Island, Alaska. 368.

Rogers, E. E. See Latta, RANDALL. 397.

Ross, CuypE P. *Structure of the front of the
Bitterroot Range, Montana. 375.

Ruark, ArtHuR E. *A _ plan for scientific
progress in pure physics. 26. .

SAILER, ReEcE J. See Hstao, Tsai-yu. 64.

SHIMKIN, D. B. Wind River Shoshone literary
forms: An introduction. 329.

SHOEMAKER, CLARENCE R. Further notes on

the amphipod genus Corophium from the east |

coast of America. 47.
SmitH, Hopart M. Notes on Mexican amphib-
ians and reptiles. 408.
and Guass, Bryan P. A new musk tur-
tle from Southeastern United States. 22.
SmiTtH, Ropert L. See Murata, K. J. 373.
STANDLEY, Paut C. Elmer Ottis Wooton (obitu-
ary). 34.
Strruine, M. W. Arikara glassworking. 257.
STONE, ALAN, and PENN, GEorGE Hrenry. A
new species of Culex from New Guinea (Dip-

tera, Culicidae). 89.
STRACZEK, JOHN A. *Manganese deposits in
eastern Cuba. 369.

SWENSON, FranK A. *Geologic work for mili-
tary forces on Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and in
Korea. 371.

TRAUB, ROBERT.
genus Opisodasys from Mexico. 134.

Vegas, Luis Fretipk, Harmony among vital
substances. 296.

VENNING, FRANK D. Variations of accessory
vascularization in four species of Citrus and
their possible application as new taxonomic
characters. 210.

Wauuact, Ropert EK. *Notes on permafrost in-
vestigations in Alaska. 372.

WEDEL, WaLpo R. Note on some potsherds from
northeastern Wyoming. 157.

WesiaGcer, C. A. Further light on the Delaware ~

Indians as women. 298.

WETMORE, ALEXANDER.

103.

VOL. 37, NO. 12 ©

A new species of flea of the ;

The races of the violet- —
crowned hummingbird, Amazilia violiceps.

Desc. 15, 1947

Wuitk, Leste A. The expansion of the scope
of science. 181.

WiLLEY, GorDON R. A Middle Period cemetery
in the Virt Valley, northern Peru. 41.
107.

WittHorr, JoHn. An early Cherokee ethno-
botanical note. 73.

WiuuiaMs, J. 8. See L. W. CurriEr.

INDEX

447

Notes on a Cherokee migration story.
304.

WoopRING, WENDELL P.
posits of mountainous coasts.

Wyrckorr, RaupH W. G.
micrographs. 27.

Youne, STANLEY P. Edward Alphonso Gold-
man (obituary). 365.

*Marine terrace de-
STAG
*Shadowed electron

: SUBJECT INDEX

Archeology. A Middle Period cemetery in the
Virti Valley, northern Peru. Gorpon R.
Winiry. 41.

Note on some potsherds from northeastern
Wyoming. Waupo R. WEDEL. 157.

Biophysics. *Shadowed electron micrographs.
RaupeH W. G. Wyckorr. 27.

Harmony among vital substances.
FELIPE VeGcas. 296.

Biochemistry. The significance of tomatin in
plant and animal disease. GEORGE W.
IrvinG, JR. 298.

Botany. A new species of Elsinoé on capulin
cherry (Prunus capult). ANNA E. JEN-
KINS. 86.

A revision of Chorisepalum, an endemic genus
of Venezuelan Gentianaceae. JOSEPH
Ewan. 392.

Studies in Lonchocarpus and related genera,
I: A synopsis of Willardia. FREDERICK J.
HERMANN. 427.

The Amazonian varieties of Lonchocarpus
nicou, a rotenone-yielding plant. FRED-
ERICK J. HERMANN. 111.

The ecology of the wild kidney bean Phase-
olus polystachios (L.) BSP. H. A. At-
LARD. 306.

Variations of accessory vascularization in
four species of Citrus and their possible
application as new taxonomic characters
FRANK D. VENNING. 210.

Luis

Veronica connata Rafinesque. Norman C.,
Fassett. 353.
Chemistry. *Red fluorescing halite from Cali-

fornia and Idaho. K..J. Murata and
Ropert L. Smiru. 373.
*Spectrochemical analysis of rocks and min-
erals. EstTHER W. Cuarry. 371.
Cultural anthropology. The expansion of the
scope of science. Luisi~iz A. WHITE. 181.
Economic entomology. The effect of particle size
and velocity of movement of DDT aerosols
in a wind tunnel on the mortality of mos-

quitoes. Ranpauu Larta et al.
Engineering. Beach intelligence. Martin A.
Mason. 289.
Entomology. A correction and two new races in

Graphognathus (white-fringed beetles)
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae). L. L. Bucu-
ANAN. 19.

A new genus of flea beetles from the West
Indies. Doris H. Buaxe. 92.

A new Schematiza on Cordia in Trinidad
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae).
242.

H.S. Bar-
BER.

A new species of Culex from New Guinea
(Diptera, Culicidae). ALAN STONE and
GEORGE HENRY PENN. 89.

A new species of flea of the genus Opisodasys
from Mexico. Rosperr Travus. 134.

A new species of Pristoceuthophilus from
Oregon, and remarks on certain special

glands of Orthoptera (Gryllacrididae;
Rhaphidophorinae). ASHLEY B. GURNEY.
430.

New eumolpid beetles from the West Indies.
Doris H. BuaKe. 310.

New Guinea species of mosquitoes of the
genus Aedes, subgenus Aedes. WILLARD
V. Kine and Harry Hooestraan. 113.

New North American species and new as-
signments in the genus Chionodes (Lepi-
doptera: Gelechiidae). J. F. GatTEs
CLARKE, 248.

Notes on, and new species of, American
moths of the genus Filatima Busck (Gel-
echiidae: Lepidoptera). J. F. Garters
CLARKE. 263.

Notes on Oecophoridae, with descriptions of
new species. J. F. GATES CLARKE. 2.
Revision of the genus Nyszus in the United

States and Canada (Hemiptera Heterop-
tera: Lygaeidae). H. G. BARBER. 354.
The Aedes (Mucidus) mosquitoes of the

Pacific (Diptera: Culicidae). KENNETH
L. Knienr. 315.

The orchid bugs of the genus Tenthecoris
Scott (Hemiptera: Miridae). Tsa1-yu

Hsrtao and REEcE I. Satter. 64.
Ethnology. An early Cherokee ethnobotanical
note. JOHN WiTTHOFT. 73.

Arikara glassworking. MatTrHew W. StT1R-
LING. 2057.

Further light on the Delaware Indians as
women. C. A. WESLAGER. 298.

Notes on a Cherokee migration story. JOHN
WitrHorT. 304.

Powhatan Algonkian bird names: The
Aushouetta (Topsell) or the Ahshowcutters
(Strachey): Richmondena cardinalis.
CHARLES EpGar Ginuiam. 1.

The Motilones: Some untouched tropical peo-
ples in northwestern South America.
PRESTON HoLpER. 417.

Wind River Shoshone literary forms: An in-
troduction. D. B. SuHimxin. 329.
General science. *The future of science under
government. R. D. BENNETT. 29.
Geology. *Chromite deposits of Camagiiey Prov-
ince, Cuba. Puitip W. Guitp and D. E.
Erinr, 7368) .

448

*Distribution of black sands along part of the
south Atlantic coast as mapped from an
airplane. V. E. McKetvrey and J.
Baustey. 370.

*Geologic work for military forces on Iwo
Jima, Okinawa, and in Korea. FRanxK A.
SwENson. 371.

Geology of Hat Island, Great Salt Lake,
Utah. Exnror BLaAcCKWELDER. 159.

Granitization and its significance as a re-
gional metamorphic process in New Eng-
land. L. W. CurRIER. 75.

*Magnetic exploration for Adirondack iron

HERBERT E. HAwkKEs, JR. 373.

*Manganese deposits in eastern Cuba.
JoHN A. STRACZEK. 369.

*Marine terrace deposits of mountainous
coasts. WENDELL P. WooprRine. 376.

*Mica-bearing pegmatites in Minas Gerais,
Brazil. W. T. Pecora, M. R. KiLEepper,
and D. M. LarrasBEee. 370.

*Notes on permafrost investigations in
Alaska. Roprert EK. Wauuace. 372.

*Significance of stylolites in sandstone.
Davin A. ANDREWS. 372.

*Structure of the Cumberland overthrust
block in southwest Virginia. Raupu L.
MILLER. 374.

*Structure of the front of the Bitterroot
Range, Montana. CuypE P. Ross. 375.

*Tertiary geology of northeastern Wind
River Basin. G. Epwarp Lewis. 371.

*The Geological Survey in Latin America.
Wiuu1AM D. JOHNSTON, JR. 376.

*The Geological Survey’s geochemical pros-
pecting unit. H. E. Hawxss, JR. 375.

*The Morrow group of northwest Arkansas.
Luoyp G. HEenBEstT. 378.

*The 1945 eruption in Tulik Caldera, Umnak
Island, Alaska. G. D. Rosinson. 368.

*The Paricutin voleano’s first year. W. F.
FosHaGc. 32.

Herpetology. -A new musk turtle from South-
eastern United States. Hopartr M. Smiru
and Bryan P. Guass. 22.

History of science. An establishment was estab-
lished. Earu 8. JOHNSTON. 37.

Joseph Henry builds an institution.
H. OEHSER. 377.

*The Philosophical Society in its youth.
W. J. Humpureys. 30.

Ichthyology. American species and subspecies of
Bathygobius, with a demonstration of a
suggested modified system of nomencla-
ture. Isaac GINSBURG. 275.

Linguistics. The word for seal (Pinnipedia) in
various languages. J.P. Harrineron.109.

Medicine. *Radioactive antimony in medicine.
fy BRADY a coils

Obituaries.

AvERS, HENRY GODFREY. 143. BROWNE,

CHARLES ALBERT. 220. GoLpMAN, EpwaRD

ALPHONSO. 35. HUNTER, ALBERT CULAY-

TON. 218. JEANS, JAMES Hopwoop. 143.

Jepson, Wiuurs Linn. 414. LOovGHLIN,

GERALD FRANCIS. 107. PINcHOT, GIFFORD.

218. Roperts, Howarp SHREVE. 416.

Wooton, ELMER Ortis. 34.

ore.

PavuL

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOL. a7. No. 12

Ornithology. A report on the birds collected by
Logan J. Bennett on Nissan Island and the
Admiralty Islands. 8. Ditton Ripuey. 95.

Notes on tailorbirds (Orthotomus) from the

Philippine Islands. Ernst Mayr. 140.
The races of the minivet Pericrocotus peregrin-
us (Linnaeus) in southeastern Asia. H. G.
DEIGNAN. 254.
The races of the violet-crowned humming-
bird, Amazlia violiceps. ALEXANDER
WETMORE. 103.

The southernmost race of the white-browed
rufous piculet. H.G. Drrenan. 25.

Two new babblers (Timaliidae) from south-
eastern Asia. H. G. Dreianan. 104.

Pharmacology. *The mechanism of action of |
antibacterial drugs. JOHN Krantz. 27.

Physics. *A plan for scientific progress in pure
physics. ArTHuR EK. Ruarxk. 26.

*Applications of infra-red spectrometry to
chemical analyses and molecular prob-
lems. E. K. Puyuer. 31. 3

Exploring the fundamentals of aerodynam-
ics. Huen L. Drypen. 145. :

High centrifugal fields. J. W. Beams. 221.

*Interior ballistics measurements: Measure-
ment of gas temperature. F. C. KRacek. 33.

*Interior ballistics measurements: Measure-
ment of pressure. C. Moon. 32.

*Interior ballistics measurements: Method of
recording. H. L. Curtis. 32.

*Interior ballistics measurements: Motion of
projectile. H.S. Roperts. 33.

*Scientific and technical development of the
German optical industry during the war.
I. C. GARDNER. 30.

*The development of the radio proximity
fuze for bombs and rockets. A. V. Astin. 28.

*The development of the radio proximity
fuze for shells. L. R. Harstap. 28.

*The significance of the symbols of physics.
Pau F. BarRTuNEK. 27.

Physiology. *The dynamics of the central nerv-
ous system with species reference to vision.
WavrE H. MarsHALu. 206.

Zoology. A new harpacticoid copepod from
Bornean crabs. ARTHUR G. Humes. 170.

Disoma franciscanum, a new marine annelid
from California. OLGA HartTMAN. 160.

Further notes on the amphipod genus Coro-
phium from the east coast of America.
CLARENCE R. SHOEMAKER. 47.

Notes on Mexican amphibians and reptiles.
Hosart M. Smitru. 408.

Notes on myiasis of the toad, Bufo boreas
boreas Baird and Girard. Maurice T.
JAMES and T. Paut Masuin. 366.

Notes on some Mexican urocoptid mollusks,
with the description of new species. PauL
BartTscH. 284. :

Observations on the occurrence of certain
barnacles and isopods at Beaufort, N. C.

A. 8S. PEarRsE. 325.

Some Mexican urocoptid mollusks. Pau
BartscH. 141.

The southernmost Natriz. Roperrs D.
HAMILTON. 436.

»
ih
ee

Pins

ae

a

es

in A Ce South ne) : ‘Preston Howie,

‘ As Botany.—Studies in Lonchocarpus a related genera, ne A syn ye
ae is he ee. FREDERICK Ap HERMANN. . Cs ee

fe

Wage, Aes Uecnrks on certain ot sre of Orthopiars (Grylaeri de
ee Rhaphidophorinae). ASHLEY B. ‘GURNEY. Bese Ceanehs ala ae iek 28 :

ZOOLOGY. ~The southernmost N die |

PROCEEDINGS: ‘THE AcapEmy. . i ae

INDEX TO VOLUME BP) CO Ca

This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals

Sey SS

Higa

3 9088 01303 190